Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/englishgrammarinOOsamurich ENGLISH GMMMAB, IN FAMILIAR LECTURES; ACCOM PAWIKD BT A COMPENDIUM, BMBRACI50 A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTUATION, EXEBCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, AND A SYSTEM OP PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, Of NOTESt TO WHICH ARC ADDBD, AN APPENDIX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES, DBSIOBBD TOR THE U8E OP SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. BT SAMUEL KIRKHAM BTBKBOTYPB E D I T I O If . NEW YORK: ROBERT B. COLLINS, «54 PBARL STREET. Sottthem ZHstrid of Ne»-York, tt, BE IT REMEMBERED, lliat on die 22d day of Aa|UBt, A. D. 1899, In tfie L. S. 54th year of the Independence of the United States of America, Samuel Klrk- ham, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, the fight whereof he claims as author, in the words following, to wit : " English Grammar in famihar Lectures, accompanied by a Compendium, embracing a new systematic order of Parsing, a new system of Pimctuation, exercises in false Syntax, and a System of Philosophical Grammar in notes : to wtiich are added an Appendix, and a Key to the Exercises : designed for the use of Schools and Private Learners. By Samuel Kirkham. Eleventh Edition, enlarged and improved." In con- formity to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled " an act for the encour- agement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned." And also to an act entitled " an act supplementary to an act entitled an act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and pro- prietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." OG FRED. J. BETTS, <3 \ Clerk of the Southern District of NeuhYork, i^^ /-^ AN ESSAY ON ELOCUTION, DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS^- J BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM. "^ This work is mainly designed as a Reading-Book for Schools. In the first part of i \ It, the principles of reading are developKjd and explained in a scientific and practieai-^^ manner, and so familiarly illustrated in their appUcation to practical examples as to enable even the juvenile mind very readily to comprehend their nature and character, their design and use, and thus to acquire that high degree of excellence, both in read- ing and speaking, which all desire, but to which few attain. The last part of the work, contains Selections from the greatest master-pieces of rhetorical and poetical composition, both ancient and modem. Many of these selec- rions are taken from the most elegant and classical American authors — writers whos* noble productions have already shed an unfading lustre, and stamped inmiortaUty, upon tiie literature of our country. — In the select part of the work, rtietorical mark* are also employed to point out the appUcation of the principles laid down in the first part — The very favorable reception of the work by the pubhc, and its astonishinely rapid introduction into schools, since its first publication in 1833, excites in the authioi the most sanguine hopes in regard to its future success. NOTICES. After a careful perusal of this work, we are decidedly of opinion, that it is the only successful attempt of the kind. The rules are copious, and the author's explanations and illustrations are happily adapted to the comprehension of learners. No school should be without this book, and it ought to find a place in the hbrary of every gentleman who values the attaiimient of a just and forcible elocution. — Pittsburgh Mer. April, 1834. Mr. Kirkham has given rules for inflections and emphasis, and has followed them by Illustrative examples, and these by remarks upon the Inflection which he has adopted, and the reasons for his preference of one inflection to another — a- rk which n-MU inoro ou ito wiittsn iMttmontoto, tfaaa on to intrinaie mir rt, HMc>rts no clitiiiu to pemiRiienl patrunKt;c. But r*'ouuiinondatioiia wi ui<- muriu of a work, an. I ■ ■ ^ .uturt's iij ii . ; ara calculattid to « t«-ni rccorntii' -to- riooa, the atUhur ^mt in tliin v( tul- lowing are aoae ut'tL< ■t hr haa roceiTod, m>\ tor which ho lendera bto graterul n. urnry gondemcn to wliose liberality audpoliteooaaheiaitKi' .n tU kunJnd oOten prt^-nUni to tiio autbior, and many of wliicb «ro cquiiJly Uutttruig with thoae. h« haa not room to insert TTie following notice of thia work U extracted firom the " Weatem Rorlcw," Thla journal ia al>ly condacted by the Ucr. Timothy Flint, author of *• Frnnrla Bcrrian," " Iliatory and Gvugruphy of the Miaa. Valley," and many otiicr popular and valuable worka. We had not, at that time, ae«'n Mr. Kirklnun's " Cirnminur in fnmiliar I.ecturea," but hare ainoe given it a curaory plligible ¥ oae which have been long oatabliahed, and to fumiah additional faciUtiea to an accural and thoroof^ knowledge of onr language. In thia we think lie haa liocn auccos.xful. It to to be expected that a modeat unaaauming writr-r, on prcaentin? himself before the public tribunal aa an author, will, aa fur aa ia consititent with hia plan, avail himaelf of the authority of aach aa have written well on the aubject l>efore him. Mr. Kirkham haa accordingly followed Mr. Murray in tlie old beaten track of Ent^Iiah writera on grammar, in tKe general principlea of hia acionce ; endeavoring, at the aamo time, to •void whatever appeared to be erroncoua or abaurd in tlic writini^a ol that autlior, and adopting an entirely new arrangement llio moat uacful rantter contained in the troaSiae of Mr. Murray, to embraced in thia ; but in the definition!) and rulea, it ia aim- C'ified, and rendered much more intelligible. Though our nutlior follows Mr. Murray, the general principlea ofhia work, he haa, in numerous Instjmcea, dirtered from him, porroing a courau tliat appears to bo hia own, and introducing somo valuable improve- Among ttieae may be mentioned aome additional mica and explanatory notca in syn- tax, dte arrangement of the parta of apeech, the mode of explaining them, manner of paraing, noanncr of explaining acme of the pronouns, and tlic uac of a aynopaia which preaenta the esacntiala of the aciencc at one view, and to well calculated to&fford aaaist- ance to leamera. In hia arranc'-r-— • *■ •' - - '" ~rh, Mr. Klrkhara accma to have endeavored to follow lAc ord, t able to ace how he could have done better. The noun and v : <>rtnnt parta of pp«>ech, arc first explained, and aftcrwarda t....- < .... .1 in a secondary and subordinate character. By foDowing thia oni divi the abi^urdity so common amoni; authora, of defining the minor ytuv. r prinpenl<>a of the aekmee mn timfiUed, mmd ren -ly cafy of ramprihcnsion, wnrh/-r. fKxtriul frnni thi> " Nnrinmil <'ri.Mi«.") rit it to with pcntliar pleaaura 1 "-Ir. P. Kirkham iin)}>o»efl to d^ In. ..), ... ("....I i.,»..i,..t.-,! ;,, n.'iiulr- hu- , . ■.'>w 4 RECOMMENDATIONS. presented which ougfit not to be neglected. Having myself witnessed, In several In* Btanoea, within the last ten months, the practical results of Mr. Kirkham's plan, I am enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merit*. The extensive knowledge acquired is one course by his class in Pittsburgh, and the great proficiency evinced by his classe* elsewhere, are a demonstration of the utiUty and superiority of his method of teach- ing, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow. Tlie principles on which Mr. Kirkham's " New system of Grammar" is predicated, are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed ; but tlie great merit of his work consists in the lucid illustrations accompanying the principles, and the simple and gradual manner in which it conducts the learner along from step to step through the successive stages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, are addressed to the imderstanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar, that they cannot fail to excite in him a deep interest ; and whatever system is calculated to bring into requisition the mental powers, must, I conceive, be productive of goo4 results. In my humble opinion, the system of teaching introduced into thia work, will enable a dili- gent pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of grammar, in lest taan one-fourth part of the time usually devoted. My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly .jgiven, with the greater plear sure, on account of the literary empiricisms which have been so extensively practised in many parts of the western country. Cindnnati, April 26, 1826. From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa , Mr. Kirkham, — It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of youth, and, during this period, I have not only consulted all, but have used many of the differ- ent systems of English grammar that have fallen in my way ; and, sir, I do assure you, without the least wish to flatter, that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen. Yoxa" arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent ; and expe- rience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last twelve or thirteen months,) that a scholar will learn more of the nature and principles of our language in 01U quarter, from your system, than in a whole year from any other I had previously used. I do, tlierefore, most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the pubUc at large, and especially to those who, anxious to acquii'e a knowledge of our language, are destitute of the advantages of an instnfcter. Yours, very respectfuUy, SAMUEL BLOOD. Chambersbmrgh Academy, Feb. 12, 1825. From Mr. N. R. Smith, editor of a valuable literary journal, styled " The Hesperua.* Mr. Kirkham, Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree of minute ness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of the work as a grammati cal system. . The engaging manner in which you have explained the elements of gram ma^and accommodated them to the capacities of youth, is an ample illustration of the utility of your plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an analytical development of grammatical principles, while it is calculated to encourage tiie perseverance of young students in die march of improvement, is sufficient, also, to employ the researches of the literary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compila- tion will be speedily introduced into schools and academies. With respect, yours, N. K. SMITH, A. M. ntUburgh, March 22, 1825. From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran Academy : — Extract Having carefully examined Mr. S. Ku-kham's new system of "English Grammar !» femiliar Lectures,'' I am satisfied that the pre-eminent advantages it possesses over our common systems, will soon convince the public, that it is not one of those feeble efforts of quackery which have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided tupe riority over all other systems, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the capacity of the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of communicating it to his mind in a manner so clear and simple, that he can easily comprehend thfe nature and the applica- tion of every principle that comes before him. In short, all the Intricacies of the science are elucidated to clearly, I am confident that even a privHte learner, of common docility, can, by perusing this system attentively, •cquire a belter practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in thre4 months, than ist ordinarily obtained in one year. Frederick, Md Sept. 17, 1824. JOHN E. JUNGMANN. 4 ESC0Ni1t£NDATI0NS. O CztTAct: from Do Witt Clinton, lato Got. of Nfw-Yorlt. Uhj Compendium of Eni^liAh Onunraiir, by Sim: eneoamgcmcnt, and well cnlculatud to facilitate tli<' I AlbMij. Sept 35, 1824. 8. gjrtt*'*'*'. Esq. — I hare examined vour Grammar with atteatioii, and vrith a piurti- cular view to benorit the Institution under my charge. I am ftiUy aadAAcd. tliat it is the htatform in which Murray'* priodplea hare been given to the public 'llic Icctumi •re ample, and lovi-ti in su tamiliw asd eaay language, •■ to be readily understood, even bT a tyro in grammar. I feel tt &m to you to aay. that I conwDeoren ^ ttmng mr^mdiet a^intl k, in eooaeoiWBee ol ' whioo BM pnbUc boii Ix-cn inun, ' meat* on Murray, in" liiile grammar has ren- dered gnunmatir . are tite rerralt of im tm H fmti»». . 1 w Krr,iH-cttuily, i;i .' 7 :" \TON. Pr. ofM -ty SchooL With the opinion of Mr. Whcaton rcapccting Mr. K i vi ( Jrammar, wa heartily concur. a, I'r. Acad. Newburgh, Aug. 4, 1829. (U- , From the Rct. C. P. Mcllvaine, and others. So fur IL4 I Iinvi' ox.iinined the plan of granunatical Instruction by Samuel Kirkham* 1 ani ' mtett the wants of elementary schools in tliis brunch, and do- sorv. CHARLES 1'. McILVAlNE. Br>. , , ■, 1829. Wo ftilhr concur in tiie aboTe. ANBRK W HAOEMAN, E. M. JOHNSON. xxmaoT. From the partial examination which I have given Mr. 8. Kirklium's F.n2;lJ8h Griim- mar, I do not hesitate to recommend it to the public as the best of the dose I have ewr asam, and as filling up an important and almost impassable chasm in works on gram- matieal science. D. L. CARROLL. Brooklyn, L. 1. Juno 29, 1829. We folly concur In the foregoing recommendation. B. B. HALLOCK, E. KINGSLEY, T. S. MAYBON. From A. W. Dodgo, Esq. New-York, July 15, 1829. The eraerience of every one at all acquainted with the business of instruction, must nave taught him that the shHy of cmmmHr, important as It is to every class of loam- ' '?t invariably ii .' ' ' • •iii; study to young beginners, and for the . 1 reason, that r; J use in the schools, are far hetfond the on of yoiiUi. .'ir years. Hence it is, that their lessons .11 I 'm"' •' ' rin.i:;, -u . v . ,ii.-iiw.i .Tii OS Ui»k», and if committed ataQ, commit- ted t cnlighuning their understandings; so that many a pupil who hao ' idh ^ainmar, is totally unacquamtcd with the nature even of the 1. Ti nar, is well calculated to remedy tlieso evils, and •upi I lonsr and so seriously felt in the imperfect edu- im:. wl.-ilr'!' (if their iiwii IniuaKici'. IJv h simple, bctore rofMr. • triciite I'-.ts to iivinco I is not ir>,-ju(lic« to o'.il ru!< s Mn^l furiiis, thul it will ini-«>t tlu' wnntJ4 of tlie com- ALLEN W. DODGE. RECOMMENDATIONS. Philadelphia, Aug. 10, 1829. Having, fbr several years, been engaged hi lecturing on the science of grammar, and, during this period, having thoroughly tested the merits of Mr. S. Kirkham's i-ystem of " English Grammar in FamiUar Lectures" by using it as a text-book for my classed, 1 take pleasure in giving this testimonial of my cordial approbation of the work. Mr. Kirkham has attempted to improve upon tliis branch of science, chiefly by unfolding and explaining the principles of grammar in a manner so clear and simple, as to adapt them completely to the understanding of the young learner, and by adopting a new arrangement, which enables the pupil to commit the principles by a simultaneous ap- pUcation of tiiem to practical examples. The public may rest assured, that he has been successful in his attempt in a pre-eminent degree. I make this assertion \mder a fiill conviction that it will be corroborated by every candid judge of the science who becomes acquainted with the practical advantages of this manual. The explicit brevity and accuracy of the rules and definitions, the novel, the striking, the lucid, and critical illustrations accompanying them, the peculiar and advantageotis arrangement of the various parts of the subject the facilities proffered by the "system atic mode of parsing" adopted, the convenient and judicious introduction and adapta- tion of the exercises introduced, and the deep researches and critical investigations dis- played in the " Philosophical Notes," render this system of grammar so decidedly supe- rior to all others extant, that, to receive general patronage, it needs but to be known. My knowledge of this system from experience in teaching it, and witnessing its effects In the hands of private learners, warrants me in saying, that a learner will, by studying this book four months withovX a teacher, obtain a more clear conception of fiio nature and proper construction of words and phrases, than is ordinarily obtained in common schools and academies, in five times four months. It is highly gratifying to know, that wherever this system has been circulated, it is very rapidly supplanting those works of dulness which have so long paralyzed the energies of the youth of our country. I think the specimens of verbal criticism, additional corrections in orthography and ortheopy, the leading principles of rhetoric, and the improvements in the illustrations generally, which Mr. K. is about introducing into his kleventh edition, will render It quite on itnprovemerU on the former editions of this work. H. WINCHESTER. From the Aev. S. Center, Principal of a Classical Academy. I have examined the last edition of Kirkham's Grammar with peculiar satisfaction The improvements which appear in it, do, in my estimation, give it a decided preference to any other system now in use. To point out the peculiar qualities which secure to it claims of which no other system can boast, would be, if required, perfectly easy. At present it is sufficient to remark, that it imbodies all that is essentially excellent and ttBeiiil in other systems ; while it is entirely free from that tediousness of method and prolixity of definition which so much perplex and embarrass the learner. The peculiar excellence of Mr. Kirkham's grammar is, the simplicity of its method, and t?ie plainness of its illustrations. Being conducted by familiar lectures, the teacher and pupil are necessarily brought into agreeable contact by each lesson. Both are im« proved by the same task, without the sUghtest suspicion, on the part of the pupil, that there is anything hard, difficult, or obscure in the subject : a conviction, this, which must inevitably precede all efforts, or no proficiency will be made. In a word, the treatise I am recommending, is a practical one ; and for that reason, if there were no others to be urged, it ought to be introduced into all our schools and academies. From actual experiment I can attest to the practicability of the plan which tho author has adopted. Of this fact any one may be convinced who will take the p«!ns to make the experiment SAMUEL CENTEB. Albany, July 10, 1829. From a communication addressed to S. Kirkham, by the Rev. J. Stockton, author the "Western Calculator" and "Western Spelling-Book." Dear Sir. — I am much pleased with both the plan and aceciuion of your " English Grammar in Familiar Lectures." In giving a systematic made of parsing, calculated alike to exercise the understanding and memory of Uie pupil, and also free tlie teacher from the drudgery of continued interrogation, you have made your grammar what every tlemtntary school book ought to be — plain, systematic, and easy to be understood. This, with the copious definitions in every part of the work, and other improvements •o judiciously introduced, gives it o decisive superiority over the Imperfect grammar oi Murray, now so generally used. JOSEPH STOCKTON, A M. AUegheny-Town, (near Pittsburgh,) March 18, 1825 ASVERTIflBJIlENT TO THE ELBVENTH EDITION. The author is free to acknowledge, that sbce this treatise first yentared on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which have waftod it al«nij^, hiive been far naoro favorable than he had reason to anlicipato. Ha«l luiy (»no, on its first appearance, predicttxl, that the demand for it would call forth twtnty-two thousand copies during the past year, the au« thor would have considered the prediction extravagant and chimerical. In grutitude, therefore, to tluit public which has smiled so propitiously on his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning, he has endeavored, by tmremitting attention to the imjjrovement of his work, to render it as useful and as unexceptionable as hts time and talents would permit. It is believed that the tenth and eleventh editions have been greatly im- proved ; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet as accQ- rate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, tlie disadvantages of lingering under a on^ken constitution, and of being able to devote to this subject only a small portion of his time, snatched from the active pur- suits of a business life, {aetive as far as his imperfect health permits him to be,) are any apology for its defects, he hopes that tho candid will set down the apology to his credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with the additional hope, that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which may be aimed at him, and render less pointed and poisonous those that may fall upon him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen critics and reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want of self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be willing to avow. It would, moreover, bo prejudicial to his interest ; for he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the advanta- ges of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production, that may ap- pear, and, two or three years hence, revise his work, and present to the public another and a better edition. The improvements in the tenth edition, consisted mainly in the addition of many important principles ; in rendering the illustrations more critical, extensive, accurate, and lucid ; in coimecting more closely with tho genius and philosophy of our language, the general principles adopted ; and in adding a bnef view of philosophical grammar interspersed in notes. The introduction into the elkventh edition, of many verbal criticisms, of ad- ditional corrections in orthogmnhy and orthoepy, of tho leading nrinciplos of rhetoric, and of general additions and improvements in vanous parts of the work, render this edition, it is believed, far preferable to any of the former editions of the work. Perhaps some will regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition of pedantry. If so, the author's only apology is, that some investigations of this nature seemed to bo called for by a portion of tho commimity whose minds, of late, appear to be under the influence of a kind of philo' Bophical nuinia ; and to such these notes are respectfully submitted for just what they may deem their real value. The author's own opinion on this point, is, thut they pn)ffer no material advantages to common learn- ers ; but that they may pn)fitably engage the attention of the curious, and perhaps impart a degree of interest to the literary connoisaeur* N^^^ork. August 22, 1829. €OI¥TC]VTI$. PAGE. FAGK Address to the learner 14 Nouns 30 A, an, one 65, 124 Gender of 34 And 124 Person of 37 Adjectives 37, 69 Number of 39 Adverbs 83 Case of 41, 54, 123 Agreement of words 52 Orthography 19, 199 Anomalies 162 Rules of 23 Articles 64 Parsing 49 Because . 125 Participles 78 But, than, as 116,124,165 Poetry transposed 166 Case 41 Prepositions 91 Nominative 43, 157 Pronouns 95 Possessive 48 Personal 97 Objective 54, 93 Compound personal 100 Nominative case indepen- Adjective Relative 105 dent 38, 129, 164, 177 108 Nominative case absolute 130, 177 Pronunciation 201 Apposition of cases 130, 178 Prosody 208 Nominative and objective Provincialisms 205 after the verb to be 186 Punctuation 209 Active, passive, and neuter Rhetoric 219 nominatives 157 Rules of syntax 175 Conjunctions 118 Conjugation of regular verbs 142 Derivation (all the philosoph- ical notes treat of de- rivation) 27, 37, 171 Etymology 26 Exercises in false syntax 177 In punctuation 210 Figures of speech 222 Gender 34 Government 52 Grammar, general division of 17 Philosophical 18 Have 143, 155 Idioms 162 Interjections 126 It 104 If 122 Key to the exercises 225 Letters, sounds of 21 Like 75 Manner of meaning of words 28, 73 Moods 134 Signs of 141 Subjunctivo 135, 145, 155 Sentences, definitions of sim- ple and compound 119 Transposition of 124, 166 Standard of grammatical ac'- curacy 17, 75 Syntax 26 To 51 Tenses 138, 193 Signs of the 141 The 64, 65 That 65, 110 Termmations 20, 37, 49, 78, 136 Verbs 42,47 Active-transitive 54, 56 Active-intransitive 55 Passive 157 Neuter 43 Defective 159 Auxiliary 140, 153 Regular 143 Irregular 148 Compound 95, 187 Versification 218 Worth 75, 163 What, which, who lOSWlH, J 14 You 99 PREFACJC. There apjwars to bo Bomething assuming in ihe-act of writnig, mid thrust- ing into pubHc notice, a now work on a subject which has already em- C loved many able pens ; for who would presume to do this, unloBS- he ehevetl his nnxluction to bo, in some respects, superior to every one of the kind which had pi-ecetled it ? Hence, ni presenting to the public thia •ystem of Knglish Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will bo f-w,lr,.,i ♦",,r. und that tho arguments on which that apology is grounded, itably undergo a rigid scrutiny. Apprehensive, however, that it<>r>- ertort, on his l>art, would shield him from tho imputation vl ;i; lo. MiK .• I)y sik li fis are blinded by self-interest, or by those who are \v.'.icii-.l t.i ihi- (lot trines an«l opinions of his predecessfirs, with them ho will not altiiapt h compromise, being, m a great measure, indiilereut either to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is \\'illing to ne- gotiate an amicable treaty, knowing tlmt they are always retuly to enter mto it on honorable tenus. In this negotiation he asks nothing more than merely to rest tho merits of his work on its practicjd utility, believing that, if it prove uncommonly successfiil in facilitating the progress of youth in the march of mental improvement, thai will be its best apology. When we bring into considenition the numerous productions of those learned philologists who have labored so lon°f, and, as many suppose, so successfully, in establishuig the principles of our language; and, more ©specially, when we view the labors of some of our modern compilers, who have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to ar- range tlioso principles in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy medium of mental conference ; it does, indeed, appear a little liko pr^ sumption for a young man to enter tipon a subject which has so frequently engiiged tho attention and tafenLs of men distinguished fijr tlieir enidition. The author ventures forward, however, under the conviction, that most of his predecessors are very deficient, at least, in manner, if not in matter; and this conviction, ho believes, will be corroborated by a majority of tho best judges in commimity. It is admitted, that many valuable improve- ments have been made by some of our late writers, who liave endeavor- ed to simplify and render this subject intelligible to the young learner, but they have all overlooked what the aiithor considers a veiy inijK>rlaut ob Ject, ■aaxneX'^, a ty$tematic order of parsinp ; and nearly all have neg- lected to develop and explain the principles in such a manner as to enable the learner, witliout great tlilKculty, to comprehend their nature and use By some this system will, no doubt, be discarth'd on account of its «m- flrfiW/y ; while to others its simplicity will prove its principal recommen- aalion. Its design is an humble one. It protfers no great advantages to llie recondite grammarian ; it professes not to instruct tho litei-nry con- n«'isseur; it presents no attractive graces of style to chann, no tlaring Bights to asUinish, no deep researches to gratify him ; but in tho humblest simplicity of diction, it attempts to accelerate tho march of the juvenile mind in its advances in the |)ath of science, by dispersing tlios*; clouds that •o oi\en bewilder it, and removing those obstacles that rroiirrally retard its pro g ress. In tliis w^ay it endeavors to render i' lruf«^eligh^ fill a stady which has hitherto been considered teiii imm-nl, in which ^easore is blended with the labors of tho learner, and which is calcn- bted to excite in him a spirit of inquiry, that shall call forth into vigorous and usefiil exercise, every latent energy of his mind ; and thus enable him soon to become thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the princ plos, and with their praetical utility and application 10 PREFACE. Content lo be useful , instead of being brilliant, the writer of these pages has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have been to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he lias aimed not so much at origi- naUty as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors whoso labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his opinion, furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in the pub- lic mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contained in Mr. Murray's grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from motives of pohcy, but &om choice, to select his principles chiefly from that work ; and, more- over, to adopt, as far as consistent with his own views, the language of that eminent philologist. In no instance has he varied from him, unless ho conceived that, m so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so frequently and so justly awarded to those unfortunate innovators who have not scrupled to alter, mutilate, and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an itching propensity to figure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral popularity by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another. The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to origi- nality ; for, although hia principles are chiefly selected, (and who would presume to make new ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, and applying them, is principally his own. Let no one, therefore, if he hap- pen to find in other works, ideas and illustrations similar to some contain- ed in the following lectures, too hastily accuse him of plagiarism. It is well known that similar investigations and pursuits often elicit correspond ing ideas in different minds : and hence it is not imcommon for the same thought to be strictly original with many writers. The author is not here attempting to manufacture a garment to shield him from rebuke, should he unjustly claim the property of another ; but he wishes it to be under- stood, that a long -course of teaching and investigation, has often produced in his mind ideas and arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or nearly corresponding with those which he afterwards found, had, luider similar circumstances, been produced in the minds of others. He liopes, therefore, to be pardoned by the critic, even though he should not bo willing to reject a good idea of his ottm, merely because some one else has, at some time or other, been blessed with the same thought. As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of or- dinary grammars, the writer could not, without makmg his work mirea- sonably voluminous, treat some topics as extensively as was desirable. Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important principles of the •cience, but also exorcises in parsing, false syntax, and punctuation, suffi- ciently extensive for all ordinary, practical purposes, and a key to the ex- ercises, and, moreover, a series of illustrations so full and intelligible, as completely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learners. Whether this design has been jsuccessfully or tmsuccessfiilly executed, is left for the public to decide. The general adoption of the work into schools, wherever it has become known, and the ready sale of forty thoji- tand copies, (though without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary profit,) are favorable omens. In the selection and arrangement of principles for his work, the author has endeavored to pursue a course between the extremes, of taking blindly on trust whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the authority of venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, which sets at de- fiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all former systems, and con- vince the world that all true knowledge and science are wrapped up in t crude system of vagaries of its own invention. Notwithstandmg the author is awaro that public prejudice is powerfid, and that ho who venturer HINTS TO TEACHERS. iJ miH'h hy wiiy of iuuoviition, will !>« liable to defeat hia own txirpofte by falU ■ t ; yet ht; hiu) taken the liberty te thiuk for luuiwlf, to mvi.-iv t critically and (liH{)aii.si(>imtely, and totulontsiitli principled .... .. ..-. ... uied llio lejMt obiectioiiablc, tiud bent calculated to etfect tlio object he had in view. But what his Bystem clniras as iraprovementu on othem, consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in the imrthod adopted of communicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the Uamer. Tbit the work is del'ective, the author is fully sensible : and he is free t<« n<>V"<ni his own want of jud- -kill. But there is another and a more serious cause of theiM. I lie anomalies and imi>erfections with which the language abounds. 'I'liis latter circumstance is alwj the cause of the existence of so widely different opinions on many important [xtitits ; and, moreorer, the reason that the grammatical principles of our language can never be indis- putably Bettled. But principles ought not to be rejected because they admit of exceptions. — He who is thoroughly acquainted with the genius and Btmcturo of our language, can duly appreciate the truth of these remarks. •,• Should iMirents object to the Com[)endiinn, fearing it will soon be destroyed by tlieir children, they are informed that the pupil will nothavo occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which it ac- companies: and l)esides, if it be destroyed, be will find all the defmitioua and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the teiies of Lectures III9T8 TO TEACHERS AIVD PRIVATE I^EARIVEBfl. As this work proposes a new mode of parsing, and pursues an arrange- ment essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not oe deemed improjHjr for the author to give some directions to those who may bo disix>8ed to use it. Perhaps they who take.only a slight view of the order of parsing, will not consider it new, but blend it with those long since adopted. Some writers liave, indeed, attempted plans somewhat similar ; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author considers a regular $ystemalic order. The metlu^ts which they have generally suggested, require the teacher to inlerro^nte the pupil as he -proceeds ; or else ho is permitted to parse without gi^nng any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner ought to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no systematic arrangement of ([uestions as his guide. The systematic order laiu down in this work, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply every definition and every rule that appertains to each word lie parses, without having a question put to him by the teacher; and, in so tloing, he explains every word fully as he goes along. This course enables the learner to proceed iiidei>enilently ; and proves, at the same time, a great relief to the instnic- ter. The convenience and ativantage of this methoil, are far greater than can Ije (easily conceivetl by one who is unacquainteil with it. The author is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice, wherever it has Iwen e^t-il>li^hed, of causing learners to commit and recite definitions and rules A my simultaneous application of them to practical examples, imme- "•lished. This system obviates the necessity of pursuing such a ., . . . :;r»o of drudgery; for the young beginner who pursues it, will hiivr, ill 11 fow weeks, all the most important definitions and rules perfectly rotiiniit»<-(l. simply by applying them in iwrsing. 1 1 ' '•' once aaopted, it is confi«lently iM^lieved that every teacher wlj. to consult, either his own c«»nvenieiice, or the advantage of his i-.,^...-. .. ... readily pursue it in preference to any fonner method. This 12 HINTS TO TEACHERS. belief is founded on the advantages which the author himself has experi enced from it in the course of several years, devoted to the instruction of youth and adults. By pursuing this system, he can, with less labor, Eidvance a pupil farther in a practical knowledge of this abstruse science, in two months, than he could in one year when he taught in the " old way.'* It is presumed that no instructer, who once gives this system a fair trial, will doubt the truth of this assertion. Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the transpo- sition of many pai'ts ; but whoever examines it attentively, will find that, although the author has not followed the common " artificial and unnatural arrangement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he has endeavored to pursue a more judicious one, namely, " the order of the understanding." The learner should commence, not by committing and rehearsing, but by reading attentively the first two lectures several times over. He ought then to parse, according to the systematic order, the examples given for that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an opportunity of committing all the definitions and rules belonging to the parts of speech included in the examples. Tjie Compendium, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed but comprehensive view of the whole science, may be properly considered an " Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, tlie yoimg student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very connnencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem ratht^r tedious ; but it must appear obvious to every person of discernment, that a pupil vdll learn more by parsing ^tje words critically, and explaining them fully, than he would by jiBxsin^ fifty words superficially, and without understanding their various properties. The teacher v^ho puimies this plah, is not imder the necessity of hearing his pupils recite a single lesson of definitions committed to memory, for he has a fair opportunity of discov- ering their knowledge of these as they evince it in parsing. All other direc- tions necessary for the learner in school, as well as for the private learner, will be given in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble efforts prove a saving of much time and expense to those young persona who may be disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them easily to-acqxiire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important and desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized ; but should his work fall into the hands of any who are expecting, by the acqui- sition, to become grammarians, and yet, have not sufficient ambition and perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its contente, it is hoped, that the blame for their nonimprovement, will not be thrown upon him. To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to lectnrc on this plan, the author takes the hberty to offer a few hints by way of encouragement. Any judicious instructer of grammar, if he take the trouble to make himself familiar with the contents of tho following pages, will find it an easy matter to pursue this sys- tem. One remark only to the lecturer, is sufficient Instead of causing his pupils to acquire a knowledge of the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let him communicate it verbally ; that is, let him first take up one part of speech, and, in an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties, not only by adopting the illustra- tions given in the book, but also by giving others that may occur to his mind as he pro- ceeds. After a part of speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interroga- ted on it, and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the rules that apply to it In the same manner he may proceed with the other parts of speech, observing, however, to recapitulate occasionally, until the learners become thoroughly acquainted with whatever principles may have been presented. If this plan be faith- fully pursued, rapid progress, on the part of the learner, will be the inevitablie result ; and that teacher who pursues It, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an enviable popularity in his profession. ' S. RIRKHAM. FAMILIAR LECTURES ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR LECTURE I. DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.— ORTHOGRAPHY. TO THB YOUNG LEARNER. You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when rightly pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the wholo circle of science. If, however, you, like many a misguided youth, are under the impression that the study of grammar is dry and irksome, and a matter of little consequence, I trust I shall succeed in removing from your mind, all such false notions and ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to convince you, be- fore I close these lectures, that this is not only a pleasing study, but one of real and substantial utility ; a study that directly tends to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the condition of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and of elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual existence;^ — of that learning which lifts the soul from e>arth, and enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing any and every other path of science, you will discover the truth of these remarks, and feel its force ; for you will find, that, as grammar opens the door to every department of learning, a knowl- edge of it is indispensable : and should you not aspire at distinc- tion in the republic of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being serviceable to you, even if you are destined to pass through the humblest walks of life. I think it is clear, that, in one point of view, grammatical knowledge possesses a decisive advantage over every other branch of learning. Penmanship, arithmetic, geog- raphy, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are highly use- ful in their respective places; but not one of them is so univer- «ally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every situa- tion, under all circumstances, on all occasions ; — when you speak, 2 14 .tNGUSK GRAMMAE. read, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essentia, utility. Doubtless you have heard some persons assert, that they could detect and correct any error in language by the ear, and speak and write accurately without a knowledge of grammar. Now your own observation will soon convince you, that this assertion is incorrect. A man of refined taste, may, by perusing good au- thors, and conversing with the learned, acquire that knowledge of language which will enable him to avoid those glaring errors that offend the ear; but there are other errors equally gross, which have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be de- tected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Be- lieve me, therefore, when I say, that without the knowledge and application of grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, speak, read, or write with accuracy. From a want of such knowledge, many often express their ideas in a manner so im- proper and obscure as to render it impossible for any one to un- derstand them : their language frequently amounts, not only to had sense, but Tion-sense. In other instances several different meanings may be affixed to the words they employ ; and what is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so constructed, as to convey a meaning quite the reverse of that which they intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy of your attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowl- edge. The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the way smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns inter- spersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted ; or, in simple lan- guage, you will find, in the pursuit of this science, many intri- cacies which it is rather difficult for the juvenile mmd completely to unravel. I shall, therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain language, and endeavor to illustrate every principle in a man- ner so clear and simple, that you will be able, if you exercise your mind, to understand its nature, and apply it to practice as you go along ; for I would rather give you one useful idea, than fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you would pro- bably be unable to comprc'hend. Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of a word, or the sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, but persevere, either by studying my explanations, or by asking some person competent to inform you, till you obtain a clear con- ception of it, and till all doubts are removed. By carefully ex- amining, and frequently reviewing, the following lectures, you will soon be able to discern the grammatical construction of our EN(iLl:$lI UUAMMAR. 16 /anguago, and fix in your mind the principles by which it is gov emed. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and distinct knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing ; and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with any branch of learning which requires much time and attention to be understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, to be discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner must expect to meet ; and the best means that you can adopt, in order to enable you to overcome the difficulties that arise in the incipient stage of your studies, is to cultivate the habit of think- ing meihodically and soundly on all subjects of importance which may engage your attention. Nothing will be more effectual in enabling you to think, as well as to speak and write, correctly, than the study of English grammar, according to the method of pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This system is designed, and, I trust, well calculated, to expand and strengthen the intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a process by which the mind is addressed, and a knowledge of grammar com- municated in an interesting and familiar manner. You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of light and knowledge ; — an age in which science and the arts are marching onward with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land of liberty ; — a land on which the smiles of Heaven beam with uncommon refulgence. The trump of the warrior and the clang- or of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or in our valleys ; "the garments dyed in blood have passed away ;" the mighty strug- gle for independence is over ; and you live to enjoy the rich boon of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood of our fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever be so unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to yourself, and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel in ignorance. Remember that " knowledge is power ; " that an enlightened and a virtuous people can never be enslaved ; and that, on the intelligence of our youth, rest the future liberty, the 1>rosperity, the happiness, the grandeur, and the glory of our be oved country. Goon, then, with a laudable ambition, and an un- yielding perseverance, in the path which leads to honor and re- nown. Press for\*'ard. Go, and gather laurels on the hill of sci- ence ; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep'* of her crystal fountain ; and then join in " the march of fame. " Bo- tome learned and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God t(id srrvr. liiin ni\i\ v.)u 'lill !»»> happy. 16 ' LANGUAGE. ^ J Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by j which men and brutes communicatfe to each other their thoughts, ! affections, and desires. i Language may be ' Fonr of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids, because ^they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, into their ' sounds. i A diphthong is the union of itvo vowels, pro- i nounced by a single impulse of the voice ; as oi in I voice, ou in sound. i A triphthong is the union of three vowels pro- | nounced in like manner; as, caw in beau, ieiv in view, i A proper diphthong has both the vowels sounded ; as, ou in oimce. Au ^ improper diphUiong has only one of the vowels sounded ; as, oa in boat. II. Syllables. A Syllable is a distinct sound, ut- \ tered by a single impulse of the voice ; as, a, an, ant. | A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable ; j a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable ; a word of three i syllables, a Trisyllable ; a word of four or more sylla- . bles, a Polysyllable. ; III. Words. Words are articulate sounds, used \ by common consent, as signs of our ideas. ' Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. \ A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced • to a simpler word in the language ; as, maji, good, \ A derivative word is that which may be reduced '■ to a simpler word ; as, manful, goodness. j There is little or no difference between derivative and compound words, i The terminations or added syllables, such as ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, cnce, j ent, dom, hood, ly, ous,ful, ness, and the like, were, originally, distinct and \ separate words, which, by long use, have been conti-acted, and made to J coalesce with otiier words. I SOUNDS OF TBB LETTEBS. 31 OP THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. K.—A has four (>ounds; the long; as m namc.lasin; tlio broad; aa in cali, wall: tbo lihort; as iu/agot, glau ; and tbo flat, Italian sound; as in bar ^■■"■- I I diphlhouc, aa, has the short sound of a in Balaam, Canaan, bai '• long sound of a in Baal, Goal, Aaron. Ttui Latin diphthong, ee, has the long sound of « in tmigma, Catar, and some other words. But many authors reject this useless excrescence of antiquity, and write, enigma, Cesar. The diphthong, at, has the long sound of a; as in pail, $aU; except in plaid, taid, again, raillery , fountain, Britain, and some others. Au \ji sounded like broad a in taught, like flat a in aunt, like long o in koMiboy, and like short o in laurel. Aw has always the sound of broad a; as in hawl, crawl. Ay has the long sound of a; as in pay, delay. B.—B has only one sound ; as in baker, number, chub. B is silent when it follows m in the same syllable ; as in lamb. Sue. except in accumb, rhomb, and succumb. It is also silent before t in the same sylla- ble ; as in doubt, debtor, subtle, Su:. C. — C sounds like k before a, o, u, r, I, t, and at the end of syllables ; as in cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, flaccid. It has the sound of s before e, i, and y ; as in centre, cigar, mercy. C has the somid of sh when followed by a diphthong, and is preceded by the accent, either primary or secondary ; as in social, pronunciation, &c. ; and of z in discern, sacrifice, tiee, suffice. It is mute in arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle. Ch IS commonly sounded like tsh; as in church, chin; but in words de- rived from the ancient languages, it has the soimd of il; as hi chemist, chorus; and likewise in foreign names, as in Achish, Enoch. In words from tlio French, ch sounds like sh; as in chaise, chevalier; and also like sh when preceded by / or n; as in milch, bench, clinch, &c. Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like ir; as in arch-angel, except in arched, archery, archer, archenemy ; but before a consonant, it sounds like tsh ; as in archbishop. Ch is silent in schedule, schism, yacht, drachm. D. — D has one uniform sound ; as in death, bandage. It sounds like dj or j when followed by long « preceded by the accent ; as in educate, verdure. It also soimds like^' in grandeur, soldier. The termination, ed, m adjectives and participial adjectives, retains its dis- tinct sound ; as, a reiek-ed man, a leam-ed man, bless-ed are tlio meek ; but in Terbs the e is generally dropped; aa, passed, toalked, flashed, aimed, rolled^ 4bc which are pronounced, past, valkt,flashi, aimd, rold. E. — E has a long sound ; as in scheme, severe ; a short sound ; as in men, tent; and somedineM the sound of flat a; as in sergeant; and of short i ; as in yes, pretty, England, and generally in the imaccentcd terminations, es, et, en. F. — F has one unvaried sound ; as in fancy, muffin ; except in of, which, wlien uncompounded, is pronounced ov. A wive's. portion, a calve's head, •re improp«»r. They should be, vife^s portion, ealfs head. Q. — G has two sounds. It is hard before a, o, u, I, and r, and at the end of a word ; a* in gay, go, gun, glory; bag, snug. It is soft before e, i, and f; aa in genius, ginger, Egypt. Exceptions; get, getcgaw, gimlet, and some oth«»rB. G is sileDt before n ; as in gnash. } I . — H has an artiealale sound ; as in hat, kortt, kn/L It is silent after r; ns in rhrJorie. rkmbarb. 2M •OUNDS OF THB LETTERS. I. — /has a long sound ; as in fine ; and a short one; as 'mjin. Before r it Is often sounded like « short; as in Jlrst, third; and in other words, like short e; as m birth, virtue. In some words it has the sound of long c ; as in machine, profile. J. — J has the sound of soft g; except in haUelujak, in which it is pro- nounced like y. K. — K has the sound of e hard, and is used before e, i, and y, where e would be soft ; as kept, skirt, murky. It is silent before n ; as in knife, knell, knocker. L. — L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, biUoto, It is often silent; as in half, talk, almond. M. — M has always the same sound ; as in murmur, monumenlal; except in comptroller, which is pronounced controller. N. — N has two somids; the one pure; as in man, net, noble; the other a compound sound; as in ankle, banquet, distinct, &c., pronounced angkl, bangkwet. N final is silent when preceded by w; as in hymn, autumn. O. — O has a long sound ; as in note, over; and a short one ; as in not, got. It has the sound of u short ; as in son, attorney, doth, does ; and generally in the terminations, op, ot, or, on, am, ol, od. Sue. P. — P has but one uniform sound; as in pin, slipper; except in cupboard, clapboard, where it has the sound of b. It is mute in psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, empty, corps, rasj^erry, and receipt. Ph has the sound of / in philosophy, Philip ; and of v in nephew, Stephen. Q. — Q is sounded like k, and is always followed by u pronounced like w; as in quadrant, queen, conquest. R. — R has a rough soimd; as in Rome, river, rage; and a smooth one; as in bard, card, regard. In the unaccented termination re, the r is sounded after the c; as in fibre, centre. S. — iSf has a flat sound like z ; as in besom, nasal; and, at the beginning of words, a sharp, hissing sound ; as in saiTit, sister, sample. It has the sound of sh when preceded by the accent and another » or a liquid, and followed by a diphthong or long u ; as in expulsion, censure. S sounds like zh when preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long u; as in brasier, usual. It is mute in isle, corps, demesne, viscount. T. — T is sounded m take, temper. T before u, when the accent precedes, and generally before eou. sounds like tsh ; as, nature, virtue, righteous, are pronoimced natshure, virtshue, richeus. Ti before a vowel, precetled by the accent, has the sound of sh; as in salvation, negotiation ; except in such words as tierce, tiara, Sz^c. and unless an s goes before ; as, question ; and excepting also derivatives from words ending m ty ; as in mighty, mightier. Th, at the beginning, middle, and end of words, is sharp; as in thick, pom- ther, breath. Exceptions ; then, booth, worthy, &c. U. — U has three sounds; a long; as in mule, eubie ; a short; as in di$U^ custard; and an obtuse soimd ; asm full, bushel. It is pronounced like short e in bury ; and like short t in busy, business. V. — Y has uniformly the sound of flat/; as in vanity, love. Yf.—W, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in iro, hevare. Wis silent before r ; ' as in wry, wrap, wrinkle ; and also in antwer, sword, &c. Before h it is pronounced as if written after the h; as in why, wAew, what ; — hwy, hwen, hwat. When heard as a voweP, it takes the sound of i» ; as in draw, crew, now. X. — X has a sharp sound, like ks, when it ends a syllable witii tke accent on it ; as, exit, exercise ; or when it precedes an accented syCabJe which begins with any consonant except h; as, excuse, extent; but v^hjeu. the fc^- lowing accented syllable begins with a vowel or h, it bap^ generally, a ft < RTTLBS FOR 8PELLIIV9. 29 •ound, like ffxf BM\n i ' ^rt. X has the Bound of Z at tho b*.gmning of proper names of ( i :;il ; as in Xanthut, Xenophon, Xerxet. y. — y, when a emu :, ...tj iu pro|>er sound; as m youth, York, yea, new-year. Wh(*n y \a einptoyed as a vowel, it has exactly tho sound thati would have in the saine situation; as iu rhyme, system, parly, pyramid. Z. — Z baa tho soaiui of flat « ; a* in freeze, brazen, RULES FOR SPELLING. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters. The following rules are deemed important in practice, al- though they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by studying the spelling-book and dictionary, and by strict atten> tion in reading. Rule i. Monosyllables ending iny, /, or *, double the final or ending consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel ; as^sUift mill, pass. Exceptions ; o/*, ifj is, aSy has, wds, yes, his, this, us, and Uius. ^aUe Orthography for the learner to correct. — Bo thou like the gale that moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid. — The aged hero comes forth on his staf ; his pray hair glitters in the beam. — Shal mortal num he more just than God ? — Few know the value of healtli til they lose it. — Our muuners sliould be neither gros, nor excessively refined. And that is not the lark, whoso notes do beat .. Tho vanity heaven so high above our heads: I have more care to stay, than wil to go. Rule ii. Monosyllables ending in any consonant l>ut f, t, or 8, never double the final consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel ; as, man, hat. E.xceptions ; add, ehh, bull, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. False Chih/)graphy. — None ever went smld from Fingal. — He rejoicetl over his sonn. — Clonar lies bleeding oiythe bodd of death. — Many a trapp is set to insnare tlie feet of yoiiUi. The weary simn has made a golden sett, And, by the bright track of his golden carr. Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. Rule hi. Words ending in y, form the plural of nouns, the persons of verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i, when the y is preceded by a conscmaiU ; as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriesi, he carries ; eatrier, carried ; happy, hajtpier, happiest. The present participle in ing, retains the y that i may not bf doubled ; as, carry, carrying. SJi OETHOGRAPHY. | 1 But when y is preceded by a vowel^ in such instances as the ' above, it is not changed into i ; as, hoy, hoys ; I clay, he cloys ; \ except in the words lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed | laid, paid, and said; and their compounds, unpaid, unsaid, &c. ] False Orthography. — Our fancys should be governed by reason. — Thou * wearyest thyself m vain. — He denyed hhnself all sinful pleasures. '> Win straiing souls with modesty and love ; Cast none aw^ay. The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. Ere fresh morning streak the east, we most be risen to reform yonder allies gi-een. Rule iv. When words ending in y, assume an additional syl- ; lable beginning with a consonant, the y, if it is preceded by a con- { sonant, is commonly changed to i; as, happy, happily, happiness. '< But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very \ rarely changed to i ; as, coy, coyless ; boy, boyish ; boyhood ; joy, \ joyless, joyful. False Orthography. — His mind is uninfluenced by faiicyful humors. — The vessel w^as heaN^yly laden. — When we act against conscience, we become the , destroiers of our own peace. --• Christiana, mayden of heroic mien ! \ Star of the north ! of noi-them stars the queen ! ' Rule v. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last sylla- i ble, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single | vowel, double that consonant when they assume another syllable \ that begins with a vowel ; as, wit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an \ abetter. But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last ; syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer, I an offering; maid, maiden. \ False Orthography. — The business of to-day, should not be defered till to- ] morrow. — That law is annuled. — When we have outstriped our errors we i have won the race. — By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sor- < rows. — The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things which the hea ' then philosophers allowed. j At summer eve, when heaven's aerial bow Spans with bright arch the glitterring hills below, — I Thus moximed the hapless man ; a thimderring sound Rolled round the shudderring walls .and shook the ground. Rule vi. Words ending in double /, in taking ness, less, ly, or ; ful, after them, generally omit one I; as, fulness, skUless, fully, \ skilful. j But words ending in any double letter but I, and taking ness, \ less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harmles.^- , nf^s carelessne.9s carelessly/, stiff y, successful. j BULBS FOR SPBLLINO. 89 Fal^e brtkography.—X cbillneM generally precedes a fever. — He is wed to dulIneM. The silent stranger stockl amazed to Boe Contempt of wealth and wilUiU poverty BestleaneM of mind imimirs our peace. — The road to the blisful regions, is M open to the peasiant as to the king. — The arrows of calumny fall harmleb ly at the ieet of virtue. RuLB vii. NesSf less, Ir/t or /u7, added to words ending in silent e, does not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peace- ful : except in a few words j as, duly, truly, awful. False Orthography. — Sedatness is becoming. AU these with ceasless praise his works behold. Stars rush : and final ruin fiercly drives ller ploughshare o'er creation ! — Natnre made a pause, 4n aweful pause ! prophetic of her end ! Rule viii. When words ending in silent e, assume the termi- liation, ment, the e should not be cut off; as, abatement, chastise- mcjit. Ment, like other terminations, changes y into i when the y ia preceded by a consonant ; as, accompany y accompaniment/ merry, merrir/unt. Falae Orthosrmphy. — A judicious arrangment of stndies facilitates improv- DQent — Eiicournginent is greatest when we least need it. To saun allurmcnts is not hard, To mindb rtsolv'd, forwam'd, and well prepar'd. Rule ix. When words ending in silent e, assume tne termi- nation, able or ihle, the e should generally be cut off; Ks,blame, blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible. But if c or ^ soft comes before e in the original word, the e is preserved in words com- foundod with able ; as, peace, peaceable ; change, changeable. Fahe Ortho^rnphrj. — Knowledge is jlesireahle. — Misconduct is uiexcus^ able. — Our nalur.il defects are not clmrgable upon us. — We are made to be i*?rvicable to others as well us to ourselves. Rule x. When ing or ish is added to words ending in silent ;, the e is ahnost always omitted; as, place, placing; lodge^ lodging ; slave, slavish ; prude , prudish. Fnhf Orthotrrnpht/. — Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit— An ohiigeing and humble disposition, is totally luconnected with a servile And cringein^ humor. Conscience anticipatemg time, Already rues th' unacted crime. One self-approveing hour, whole years out weighs Of stupiil starnrs, and of loud hu7.zas. RuLB zi. Compound words are generally spelled in the name 8 20 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. manner as the simple words of whicli they are compounded , as, glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter. Many words ending in double I, are exceptions to this rule ; as, already, welfare, wilful, fulfil; and also the words, wherever, Christmas, lammas, (^c. False Orthography. — The Jew's pasover was instituted in A. M. 2513. — They salute one another by touching their forheaiis. — That which is some- times expedient, is not allways so. Then, in the scale of reas'ning life 'tis plain, There must be, somwhere, such a rank as man. Till hymen brotight his lov-delighted hour. There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. The head reclined, the loosened hair, The limbs relaxed, the mournful air :— See, he looks up ; a wofuU smile Lightens his wo- worn cheek awhile. You may now answer the following QUESTIONS. What is language ? — How is language divided ?— ^-What is natu- ral language ? — What are the elements of natural language in man ? — Wherein consists the language of brutes ? — What is ar- tificial language ?^-What is an idea ? — What are words ? — What is grammar ? — What does Universal grammar explain ?— ^Where- in does Particular grammar differ from universal 1 — What is the standard of grammatical accuracy ?— What is Philosophical gram- mar? — What is Practical grammar ?-i— What is a principle of gram- mar ? — A definition ?— A rule ? — What is English grammar ? — Into how many parts is grammar divided ? — What does Orthog- raphy teach ? ^ ETYHOIiOCJY AND SYNTAX. LECTURE II. . OF NOUNS AND VERBS. Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their derivation. Syntax treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their proper arrangement in a sen- tence. The word Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words, Syn, a prefix from the Greek, signifies together. Syn-tax, means placing together ; or, as applied in grammar, sentence making. BTYMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. 27 The rules of syntax, whicli direct to the proper choice of words, and thi'ir judicious arrangement in a sentence, and thereby enable us to correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on principles unfolded and explained by Ktymolojjy. Etymologi- cal knowledge, then, is a prerequisite to the study of Syntax ; but, in parsing, under the head of Etymology, you are required to apply the rules of Syntax. It becomes necessary, therefore, in a prac- tical work of this sort, to treat these two parts of grammar in connexion. Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would com- prehend the exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, in short, their whole history, including their application to things in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought, and the caprice of those who apply them ; but to follow up the current of language to its various sources, and analyze the springs from which it flows, would involve a process altogether too arduous and extensive for an elementary work. It would lead to the study of all those languages from which ours is immediately derived, and even compel us to trace many words through those lan- guages to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of re- search would become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be traced out by one man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the following, limited views of this part of grammar. 1. Etymology treats of the classification of words. 2. Etymology explains the accidents or properties peculiar to each class or sort of words, and their present modifications. By modifications, I mean the changes produced on their endings, in consequence jof their assuming different relations in respect to one another. These changes, such as fruit, fruit;?, fruit'* ; he, his, him; write, writes^, write/A, writes, wrote, written, v^' riving, writer; a, an; ample, amply, and' the like, will be explained in their appropriate places. 3. Etymology treats of the derivation of words; that is, it teaches you Jiow one word comes from, or grows out of another. For example; from the word speak, come the words speakr*/, 8peakf//i, speaks, speak/»j^, spoke, spoken, speaker, speaker's, speakers. These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, and all, except the last three, express the same kind of action. They differ from each other only in the termination. These changes in tennination are produced on the word in order to make it corresj)ond with the various persons who speak, the num- ber of persons, or the time of speaking; as, /^ speak, l/iou spea- 'st, the man spoaketh, or speaks, the men speak, / spoke ; The peaker speaks another speaker's speecA. 26 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected wifh the second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV. and in the Philosophical notes ; but I shall not treat largely of that branch of derivation wliich consists in tracing words to for- eign languages. This is the province of the lexicographer, rather than of the philologist. It is not the business of him who writes a practical, English grammar, to trace words to the Saxon, nor to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the Mexican, nor the Per. sian ; rior is it his province to explain their meaning in Latin, French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but it is hia duty to explain their properties, their powers, their connexions, relations, dependancies, and bearings, not at the period in which the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and Zillah, but at the particular 'period in which he writes. His words are already derived, formed, established, and furnished to his hand, and he is bound to take them and explain them as he find? them in his day, without any regard to their ancient construction and application. CLASSIFICATION. In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be the legiti- mate object of the practical grammarian, to consult practical convenience. The true principle of classification seems to be, not a reference to essential differences in the primitive mean- ing of words, nor to their original combinations, but to the maU' ner in which they are at present employed. In the early and rude state of society, mankind are quite limited in their"* knowledge, and having but few ideas to communicate, a small number of words answers their purpose in the transmission of thought. This leads them to express their ideas in short, detached sentences, requiring few or none of those connectives, or words of transition, which are afterwards introduced into language by refinement, and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and elegance. The argumejU appears to be conclusive, then, that every lan- guage must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined, tnan m its barbarous state. The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained not by the original signification of that word, but by its jircsent manner of meaning, or, rather, the office which it performs in a sentence. The various ways in \vhich a word is applied to the idea which it represents, are called its manner of meaning. Thus, The CLAS81F1CATJON. painter dips his paint brush in paint, to paint the carnage. Here, iho word paint, is first employed to describe the brusii which the painter uses ; in this situation it is, tliereforc, an adjective ; sec- ondly, to name the mixture employed ; for which reason it is a noun ; and, lastly, to express the action performed ; it therefore, becomes a verb ; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same in all these applications. This meaning, however, is applied in dilFerent ways; and thus the same word becomes dilferent parts of s|>cech. Richard took vnUer from the water pot, to water the plants. y ETYMOLOGY. Etymology treats, first, of the classification of words. The English Language is derived chiefly from the Saxon, Danish, Celtic, and Gothic ; but in the progressive stages of its refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from the Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages. The number of words in our language, after deducting proper names, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, and adjectives, may be estimated at about forty thousarul. There are ten sorts of words, called parts of speech, namely, the noun or substantive, verb, article, ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRO- NOUN, CONJUNCTION, and interjection. Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language are included in these ten classes : and what you have to do in acfjuiring a knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become acquainted with these ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syn- tax that apply to them. The Noun and Verb are the most im- portant and leading parts of speech ; therefore they are first pre- sented : all the rest (except the interjection) are either appenda- ges or connectives of these two. As you proceed, you will find that it will require more time, and cost you more labor, to get a knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to become familiar with all the minor parts of speech. The principal use of words is, to name things, compare them with each other, and express their actions. Nouns, which are the names of entities or things, adjectives^ which denote the comparisons and relations of things by describ. ing them, and expressing their qualities, and verbs, which express the actions and being of things, are the only classes of words 3* 30 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of grammar. Bui in a treatise which consults, mainly, the practical ad\ antages ol the learner, it is believed, that no classification will be found more convenient or accurate than the foregoing, which divides words into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in this place, that nothing would be gained by adopting either a less or a greater number of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the subject. 1 shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this arrangement in preference to any other, as the different sorts of words are re- specti /ely presented to you, for then you will be better prepared to appreciate my arguments. ^ OF NOUNS. ■" A NOUN is the name of any person, place, or thing ; as, man, Charleston, knowledge. Nouns are often improperly called suhstantives. A substan- tive is the name of a substance only ; but a noun is the name either of a substance or a quality. Noun, derived from the Latin word nomen, signifies name. The name of any thing* that exists, whether animate or inani- * The word iking, from the Saxon verb ihingian, to think, is almost un- limited in its meaning. It may be applied to every animal and creature in the universe. By the term creature, I mean that which has been created ; as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also frequently applied to actions ; as. " To get drunk is a beastly thing." In this phrase, it signifies neither animal nor creature ; but it denotes merely an action ; therefore this action is the thing. NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. Perhaps no subjeci has, in this age, elicited more patient research, and critical investigation of original, constituent principles, formations, and com- binations, than the English language. The legitimate province of philology, however, as I humbly conceive, has, in some instances, been made to yield to that of philosophy, so far as to divert the attention from the combinations of our language which refinement has intj-oduced, to i-adical elements and •associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or the essential .use for which language was intended. W^re this retrogressive mode of in- Ivestigating and applying principles, to o})tain, among philologists, the ascend- ency over that which accommodates the use of language to progressnve re- finement, it is easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would, in a short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call the ])hilosophy of language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of philology as it ap plies to the preseut, progressive and refined state of English literature, the great object contemplated by the learned, in all ages, namely, the approxi- mation of language, in common with every thing else, to that point of perfec- tion at which it is the object of correct ]>hilology to an'ive, would be fnistrated. •The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and vis- ionaries who absurdly endeavor to teacli modern English, by rejecting the NOimS.— COMMON AND PROPEB. 5l mate, or which we can sco, hear, feci, taste, gmell, or think of, is a noun. Animal, bird, creature, paper , pen, apple, field, howse, modesty, virtue, danger, are all nouns. In order that you may easily distinguish this part of speech from others, I will give you a sign, whicSi will be useful to you when you cannot tell it by the sense. Anv word that will make sense with the before it, is a noun. Try the following words by this sign, and see if tliey are nouns : tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, understand- ing. The tree, the mountrfin, the soul, and so on. You perceive, that they will make sense with the prefixed ; therefore you know tlioy are nouns. Tliere are, however, exceptions to this rule, for some nouns will not make sense with the prefixed. These you will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their making sense of Uiemselves ; as, goodness, sobriety, hope, immortality. Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, as well as its reality ; as, nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence, invisibility. Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, ac- cording to their manner of meaning ; and nouns are sometimes used as adjectives, and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will be explained in the concluding part of this lecture, where you will be better prepared to comprehend it. authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting the learner back to the oriu'iii.'il ooinbiiiafions, and the detached, disjointed, and barbarous construc- ti'uis <»f our proLTonitor*, both pnidence and reason, aa well as a due regard fur cornvt i)hiltiloffy, impel me to slum. Those modcHt writers who, by lninL:iii ,' to tneir aicl a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wliolesalo trattic iu tlie swelling' phrases, " philosophy, reason, and common sense," attempt to overthrow the wiwlom ot fonner ajjes, and show that the result of all the luhyrs of those distiiig^uishecl philolo^sLs who had previously occupied tl»e field of grammatical science, is notlnng but error and folly, will doubtless meet the ne^'lect and contempt justly merited by such consummiito vanity r ' ' ' ' ; - :'.>dantr)'. Fortimatoly ior those who employ ' • - ' - 'o • mental conference, custom will not yield t" i- ' • I H> >-isionary. If it would, improvement iiiKi. i- ture w<»uld soou be at au end, and we should be tamely cuuducied back to Jio Vandalic aire. r ■ 1 . - .'. ■ ^ :!ie iullucy ot «u va^ue a criluriou. All r*»H»onin? and iiiventigation which dep«*nd on the philosophy of Ian* gii:«i''- ■" ' n'*tilt, must ' ''■■■! Tire, ac- cnr.l moile of tr rige to it.H ot ; , irposo of
  • at the primitive meaning ui ^J6 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper. A Common noun is the name of a sort or species of things; as, man, tree, river, A Proper noun is the name of an individual ; as, Charles, Ithaca, Ganges, , A noun signifying many, is called a collective noun, r noun of multitude ; as, the people, the artny. The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very obvious. For example ; boy is a common noun, because it is a name applied to all boys ; but Charles is a proper noun, because it is the name of an individual boy. Although many boys may have the same name, yet you know it is not a common noun, for the name Charles is not given to all boys. Mississippi is a prop- er noun, because it is the name of an individual river ; but river is a common noun, because it is the name of a species of things, and the name river is common to all rivers. Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings or things, are always common ; as, tree, the genus ; oak, ash, chestnut, poplar, different species ; and red oak, white oak, black oaJc, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quan- tity of dirt, is a common noun ,• but when it denotes the planet we inhabit, it is a proper noun. The words person,, place, river, words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has paid critical attention to the subject, will contend, that the original import of single words, has any relation to the syntactical dependances and cormexions of words in gene- ral ; — to gain a knowledge of which, is the leading object of the student iu grammar. And, furthermore, I challenge those who have indulged in such useless vagaries, to show by what process, with their own systems, they can communicate a practical knowledge of grammar. I venture to predict, that, if they make the attempt, they will find their systems more splendid m the- ory, than useful in practice. Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning has any efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the power of association, custom has assigned to many words ; — a signification essejitially different frori the original import. Were this the case, and were the language now to be taught and understood in compliance with the original import of words, it would have to undergo a thorough change ; to be analyzed, divided, and sub- divided, almost ad infinitum. Indeed, there is the same propriety in assert- ing, that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our language. ight to be pronomiced sepai-ately, to enable us to understand our vernacular tongue, that there is in contending, that their primitive meaning has an as^ cendency over the influence of the principle of association in changing, and the power of custom in detei'minihg, the import of words. Many of our wQids are derived from the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages; and the only use we c; 'nake of their originals, is U render them subservient to the force of c- ' An in cases in whieU general NOUlfS. COMMON AND PROPSB. 33 mountain, lake, &c. are common rtouns, because they are the nan)cs of whole gpecies, or classes of things containing many sorLs ; but the names of persons, places, rivers, mountains, lakes, d:c. are proper nouns, because they denote individuals; as, Au- gustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron. Physician, lawyer, mcrcliant, and shoemaker, are common nouns, because these names are common to classes of men. God and Lord, when applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper ; but 'lit n employed to denote heathen or false gods, or temporal lords^ they are common. The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor importance, demand your attentive and careful perusal. NOTES. « 1. When proper nouns liave an article annexed to them, they are used nftot the iimnner of common uouus; as, " Bolivar is styled the Washiugton of South. Anierira," 2. Common nouns are sometimes used to ^gnify indivi duals, when articles or pronouns are prefixed to them, as, *' The boy is studious; That g^irl is discreet." In sucn instances, they are nearly equivalent to proper noiin^. 3. Common nouns are sometimes sululivided into the foUowiug classes : Sonn* of MuttUude ; as, The i»e»)ple, the parliament : Verbal or participial nouns: as. The beginning, reatling, writing; and Abstract nouns, or tJie names of qualities abstracted from their 8ubst;mces; as, knowledge, virtue, gcMHlness. Lest the student be led to blend tlie idea of abstract tiouns with that of adjectives, both of which denote qualities, a ferther illustration ap- pears to be necessary, in order to mark the distinction between these two partii of sjieech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered apart (that IS, abstracted) /rom the substance or beuig to which it belongs; but an ad- jective denotes a qu&Wty joined (adjected) to the substance or being to which It l)ehingB Thus, whiteness and tchtte both denote the same quality ; but we usjiire has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let the nd- vix-ales of a mere philosophical investigation of the langiiaL'e, extend tlieir systenx as far as a radical auiUysis will warrant them, and, with Home Tooke, not only coaaider adverbs, preixisitions, conjunctions, and interjections, as ablireviations of noims and verbs, but, on ibeir own responsibility, apply til. Ill, in teaching the language, in compliance icith their radical import, and wlcit would such a course avail them against the p)wer of custom, anil the influence of association and refinement 7 Let them show me on* gramma- rian, pnxluced by such a course of mstniction, and they will exhibit a ** philo- sophical" miraclu They might as well unihcrtake to teach architecture, by having recounwj to its origin, as represented by booths and tents. In add! tion to this, when wo consider the great number of obsolete words, from whi«h many now in use are derived, the original meaning of which cannot W Jts«ertained. and, also, the multitude w1h»m> f^iirnlfirnfion has been changed iy tlio principle of ass > " ' '., that a mere philo- 64*pliical niixle t)f inverttigatiii;,' uiid tciuhing tin - the one by which if, V •■)■!, :ii>ear to be the only languages which observe, in the distinction of sex, th(? natural division of nouns. — The gen- ders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther explanation of them is unnecessary, except what is given in the following NOTES. 1 . The same noun is sometimes masculine and feminine, and sometimes masculine or feminine. The noun parents is of the masculine and feminine gLMider. The nouns paretU, asxociaU, neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, Jish, Src. if doubtful, are of the nuusciiline or femhiine gender. 2. Some mnuis natundlv neuter, are, when used figuratively, or personified, converte*! into the masculine or feminine gender. Those nouns are gcuenilly rendennl masculine, which are conspicuous for tlie attributes of impailing or coininunicating, and which are by nature strong and efficacious; as, the sun, time, death, sleep, winter, J!^-c. Those, again, are geiiorally femiuiuo, which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing or bringing forth, or which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable ; as, the earth, moon, church, boat, vf»»rl, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, virtue, hope, spring, peace, SfC. This principle for designating the sex of a personified object, which is quite rational, is generally adhered to in the English language ; but^ in some in- stances, tlie poet applies the sex according to his fancy. The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways : 1. By difcrenl icords ; as, Ifaseuline. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine Bachelor maid Boy girl Hoar BOW Brother sister and there dive to the bottom of the fountain for knowledge. Such labor ought not to be required of liim. His object is to become, not a philosophi- cal antiquarian, but a practical gramnlarian. If I comprehend the design (if they have any) of our modem philosophical writers on this stibject, it is t .' : iinmarians by inculcating a few genenil principles, arising out of ■ f the language, and llie nature of things, which the learner, by !; >(• of his reasoning powers, must reduce to practice. His own jiidgineul, independent of grammar rules, is to be his guide in speaking and writing correctly. Hence, many of them exclinle from their systems, all exercises in whjit is calleliih ►logical dictators ap|M?ar to have o\ ■ i* important consideration, that the great mass of mankind, and i , , it" boys and girls yj common schools, can never become philoxophers ; antl, consequently, can never comprehend BTtfl rfNliicp to pmrticf* tlieir niPtnpliYsicnl and obscure systems of grammar. I ■ lugs. But there should be a I to iimti-uot children as if they \'. . - .. . . . .-.. lans. To deni' ; enlorre iho necessity, of exercising the lenmer in ' . I nee«l no other ririrunient th;m tlie mter- e*ting and i it .Mr. .Mu: : 's department, have etlt'cted a I a iti the ! in point of verba. accunu\v. \. ..... Uuow, that li.. . . .....;... of this day, are not guilty of OK^ gmmma*V4i( iitHccnriM^, where those authors who wrote before 86 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Back doe Lord lady BaU cow Man woman Cock hen Master mistress Dog bitch Milter spawnei Drake duck Nephew niece Earl countess Ram ewe Father mother Singer •" songstress or Friar nun singer Gander goose Sloven slut Hart roe Son daughter Hoi'se mare Stag Husband wife Uncle aunt King queen Wizard witch Lad lass Sir madam 2. By a difference in termination ; as, Abbot abbess Elector electress Actor actress Embassador embassadres* Administrator administi-atrix Emperor emperess Adulterer adulteress Enchanter enchantress Ambassador ambassadress Executor executrix Arbiter arbiti'ess Fornicator fornicatress Auditor auditress God goddess Author authoress Governor govemesi Baron baroness Heir heiress Benefactor benefactress Hero heroine Bridegroom bride Host hostess Canon canoness Hunter huntress Caterer cateress Inheritor inheritress oj Chante. chan tress inheritrix Conductor conductress Instructor instructress Count countess Jew Jewess Czar czarina Lion lioness Deacon deaconess Marquis marchioness Detracter deti-actress Mayor mayoress Director directress Pati-on patroness Duke dutchess Peer peeress Mr. Murray flourished, are guilty o^ jive ? And what has produced this ini portant change for the better 1 Ask the hundreds of thousands who have studied " Mr. Murray's exercises in False Syntax." If, then, this view of the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater portion of our philosophical gi-arnmars, are far more worthy the attention of literary connoisseurs, than of the great mass of learners. Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars, exists in the minds of some teachers of this science, T have thought proper, for tho gratification of such, to interspersie through the pages of this work, under the head of " Philosophical Notes," an entire system of grammatical princi- ples as deduced from what appears to me to be the most rational and consist- ent philosophical investigations. They who prefer this theory to that exhib- ited in the body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it. In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will be found to accord tcith the practical theory embraced in the body of this icork. Wherever such aereemnd exists, the system, contained in these Notks iHll be deficient, and this deficiency mrii»tor proprietrea* T: .'■.lor protectTMS rd shepherdeM '••r •ongitroM > >ir.«rer ■orceroM •suiter ■aitroM Sultan Tiger Testator Traitor Tutor Tyrant Victor Viscount Votary Widower •ultaneM or sultana tigress testatrix traitress tutoress tyranues* victress viscountess votaress widow 3. By prefixing another leord ; as. ) A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow A mau-servaat A maid-servant A he-goat A she-soat A he-bear A she-bear A male-child A female-child Male^iescendants Female-descendants PERSON. Person is a property of the noun and pronoun vhich varies the verb. The first person denotes the speaker, u J\»^-- ' The second person denotes the person or thing spoken to ; as, " Listen, earth !" The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, " The earth thirsts." Nouns have but two persons, the second and third. When a man speaks, the pronoun I or we is always used ; therefore nouns can never be in the first person. In examples like the following, OF THE PUlLOSOrUICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WO^a According to tlie method in which philoHophical investigations of language have generally been conducted, all our words should" be reduced to two cla-Hses : for it can bo easily shown, tliat from the noun and verb, all the other parts of speech huve sprung. Nay, more. They may even be retluced to on«'. V«'rl)s do not, in reality, ezprest actions; but they are intrinsically the m» rt- n'nn>:t of actions. The idea of action or being communicate'd by them, a-H \vv\\ :i.-. th»» meaning^ of wonls hi general, is merely inferential. The princi- ple (if reasoning assumed by the cdehmted Home Tooke, if carried t<» \Xa full extent, would result, it is believed, in proving that we have but one |)urt of spe.'i-h. , Aluoutu or adjective$ were originally noims. Sweet, red, while, are the namtt of t|uulitie8. as well as twectnest, rednesM, mhiteness. The former differ from the latter t ii. I name, or. that this quality is to be nUrihuled to some other name, we '■II times atlix to it the termination en, cd, or y ; which signifies "ire, idd, or join. When we emnloy the words wooden, woollen, wcalthv, gra.'^s^/, the termiuatioas en and jr, uy their own intiiusic meaning, give notice that wo 4 38 F,TVMOi.(KTY AiND SY.Vrj^X. some philologists suppose the noun to be in the^r^i person : — " This may certify, that I, Jonas Taylor , do hereby give and grant," &c. But it is evident, that the speaker or writer, in introducing his own name, speaks of himoelf ; consequently the noun is of the third person. If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober thought is requisite ; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be removed. If I say, my soil, have you seen the young man ? you perceive that the noun son is of the second person, because 1 ad- dress myself to him ; that is, he is spoken to ; but the noun man is of the third person, because he is spoken of. Again, if I say. young man, have you seen my son ? man is of the second person, and son is of the third. " Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, goldefi-haired sun of the sky ? " " Father, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friend- ship between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep in his wig-wam behind the western waters. " " Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies ! Sink down, ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise ! " " Eternal Hope, thy glittering wings explore Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore." In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, mountains, valleys, and hope, ^re of the second person, and, as you will hereaft-? • /earn, in the nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky Spiri-, chain, friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, wings, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the third person. intend to give, add, or join, the names of some other substances in which are found the properties or qualities of wood, wool, wealth, or grass. Pronnnns are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent their dis- agi'eeable repetition. Particijiles are certain forms of the verb. Articles, interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are contractions of ab- breviations of nouns and verbs. An (a, ane, or one) comes from anannd, to add, to heap. The and that, from the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, to get, as- sume. Lo is the imperative of look ; fy, ofjian, to hate ; and welcome means, it i.s well that you are come. In comes fi-om the Gothic noun irtna, the inte- rior of the body ; and ahoiU, from boda, the first outward boundary. Through liv thorough is the Teutonic noun thvnth, meaning passage, gate, door. From is the Anglo-Saxon noun frnm, beginning, source, author. He came from (teginning) Batavia. //" (formerly written gif, give, gin) is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. I will remain if (give or grant that fact) he will (remain.) Bid comes from the Saxon verb beon-utan, to be out. I informed no one but (be-out, leave-out) my brother. This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the manner \it which, according to Hor'ne Tooke's prhiciples, the ten parts of speech are reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed to concede, that this is the true principle of classification ; nor tliat it is any more philosophical or ra I NOUNS. NUMBER. 39 NUMBER. Number is the distinction of objects, as one or more. Nouns are of two numbers, the singular and the pkiral. Tlie singular number implies but one ; as, a book. The plural number implies more than one; as, books NOTES. 1. Some nonns are used only in the singular form ; as, hemp, flax, barley, wheat, pitch, gold, cloth, pride, honesty, meekness, compassiun, &c. ; others only in the plural form ; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, suuflers,. tongs, thanks, wages, embers, idea, pains, vespers, &c. 2. Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine ; and, also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 3. The plural number of nouns is cenerally formed by adding s to the sin- gular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; but sometimeti we add e» in the plural : as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, hisben ; cargo, cargoes. 4. Nouns enduig in/or/e, are rendered plural by a change of that termi- nation into ves ; as, half, halves ; wife, wives ; except grief, relief, reprtK)f, ami several others, which form their plurals by the addition of s. Those ending in^, have the regular plural ; as, ruft', ruffs ; except staff, staves. 5. Nouns euduig in y m the singular, with no other vowel in the same s>l- Jable, change it hito ies in the plural ; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But the y i> — ^ ■ V - ' - there is another vowel in tlie syllable; an, \&y, keys ; < . uttornt^ys ; valley, valleys ; chimney, chinin-N h. 6. M , ^ -s, poliUcs, optics, ethics, pneumatict, hydraulics. ^. are construed either au singular or plural nouns. ^ 7. The word neies is always smgnlar. The nouns meant, alm», and amend*, iiough pi u ml in form, may be either singular or plural in signification. An- lional than one which allows a more practical division and arrangement of weinls. What has been generally received as "philosophical gnmimar," appears to possess no stronger claims to that imiHismg apjwllation than our ct>uunon, practical grammars, ^uery. Is not Mr. Murray's fjctiivo gram mar more worthy the dignified title of a "Philosophical Grammar' vhan Home Tooke's " Diversions of Pinley," or William S. Cardell's treatises on laimuai:*' 7 What constiAtes n. philntophical treatise, on this, or on^ny other suUirct ? Wherein is there a display of philosophy in a speculativ^t. etymo- l ' '"trinance, which attempts to develop and explain the elements ii •• meaning of woitls by tracing them to their origin, svperior to ti ;'!iy employed in the development and illustration of the princi- pl«*.-» l»y which we are governed in applying those wonls to their legitimate ptirposp. namely, tnat of fonning a correct and convenient me%Nui li.'i >;.^:liict and diversified purposes o( naming objects, a$*trti%g 40 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. tipodes, credenda, literati, and minutisB, are always plural. Bandit is now used as the singular of Banditti. 8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any general rule ; thus, man, men ; woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice ; brother, brothers or brethren ; cow, cows or kine ; penny, pence, or pennies when the coin is meant; die, dice for play, dies /or coining ; p?a and fish, pease and fish when the species is meant, but peas amd Jishes when we refer to the number ; as, six peas, Xen fishes. 9. The following compounds form thejr plurals thus: handful, handfuls ; cupful, cupfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls: — brother-in-law, brothers-in-law; court- martial, courts-martial. The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the lan- guages from which they are adopted. Singular. Antithesis Apex Appendix Arcanum Automaton Axis Basis Beau Calx Cherub Crisis Criterion Datum DiiHresis Desideratum Effluvium Ellipsis Emphasis Encomium Erratnm Plural. antitheses * apices ( appendixes or \ appendices arcana automata axes basf!8 bef.ux or beaus calces or calxes cherubim or cherubs crises criteria data diiereses desiderata effluvia ellipses emphases encomia or encomiums errata Singular. Genius Genus Hypothesis Ignis fatuus Index Lamina Magus Memorandum Matamorpbcsit Parenthesis Phenomenon Radius Stamen Seraph Stimulus Stratum Thesis Vertex Vortex Plural. genii* genera hypotheses ignes fatui indices or indexest laminie magi memoranda or iT'irt >randums metamorphoses parentheses phenomena radii or radiuses stamina seraphim or seraphs stimuli strata theses vertices 1' vortices or ortexes * Genii, imaginary spirits : geniuses, persons of great mental abilities, t Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, wh«su referring to algebraic quantities. * truths, pointing out and limiting objects, attributhig qualities to objects, con- necting objects, and so on ; and on Xhisfact is founded the true philosophical prificiple of the classification of words. Hence, an arrangement of wi>rds into classes according to this prhiciple, followed by a development and illus- tnition of the principles and rules that regulate us in the proper use and ap- plication of words in oral and written discourse, appears to approximate tts near to a tme definition of philosophical grammar, as any I am capable of giving. Noims, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless consti- tuted the original class of words ; (if I may be allowed to assume such a hy- pothesis as an orig^inal class of words;; but the ever-active principle of NOUIfS. — CASK. 41 CASE. • Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means the different state, situation, or position they have in relation to other words. Nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. ^ I deem the essential qualities of ca^e, in English, to consist, not ill the clianges or injlectioiis produced on nouns and pronouns, but ill the various otfice*? which they perform in a sentence, by as- suming: different positions in regard to other words. In accord- ance with this definition, these cases can be easily explained on isonini; principles, founded in the nature of things. Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to com- pit'hend what is meant by case. Its real character is extremely simple ; but in the different grammars it assumes as many mean- ings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been written on it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant by case 7 In speaking of a horse^ for instance, we say he is in a good casc^ when he is fat, and in a bad case^ when he is lean, and needs more oats ; and in this sense we apply the term case to denote the stale or condition of the horse. So, when we place a noun before a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the nominative case ; but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it has another case ; that is, it assumes a new position or situation in the sentence : and this we call the objective case. Thus, the boy gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as acting. He is, therefore, in the nominative case. But when I say, Jane struck the boy, I do not represent the boy as the actor^ but as the object of the action. He is, therefore, in a new case or condition. And when I say, This is the boy^s hat, I do not speak of the boy either as acting or as acted upon; but as possessing something: for which reason he is in the possessive case. Hence, it is clear, that n uns have three cases or positions. As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are insepa- )ciutiou, sorin Iniusformed nuims into verbs, by making tljom, when em- .>y«l in ft pnrtirnlftr mnnner, expressive of affimiation. This fimne princi- ple ttUn . '" iting names to the purpo^ of attribiilin'i (puU- UJeM l«) ' ; and in thi.s way was constitut*Hl the cl;i.ss of «<»rilji I ..... . .. .J- ..... i iJjute: By the same priuciplo were formed i the i»ther classes. In the followinfr expo«itio« of English prnmmnr on scientific principles, 1 ^itlo wonls into irrni cl.i»s«*s; Si'uiu or Xnmi'g, Verba, Adjertincf, ». or Attribuie$, Adverbs, PreposUians, Pronowu, and Conjunctions or ".. . .'ii?«r«. For an explaaution of the nonn, refer to the body of the work 4» 42 ErrMOLOGY and syntax. j f fably connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to under- j stand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this " part of speech. I will, therefore, now give you a partial descrip- tion of the verb in connexion with the noun ; which \vill enable me to illustrate the cases of the noun so clearly, that you may easily comprehend their nature. , j In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse with each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give names I to the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the | origin of the first part of speech, which we denominate the noun. "\ But merely to name the objects which they beheld or thought of, | was not sufficient for their purpose. They perceived that these ] objects existed, moved, acted, or caused some action to be done, j In looking at a man, for instance, they perceived that he lived, 1 walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so on. They perceived that j plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow. Hence the necessity.^ of another part of speech, whose office it should be to express these \ existences and actions. This second class of words we call \ _ _ VERBS. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or i to SUFFER ; as, I am ; 1 rule ; I am ruled. ' Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and , neuter. They are also divided into regular, irregular, j and' defective. , The term verh is derived from the Latin word verhum, whicli j signifies a ivord. This part of speech is called a verh or wordf j because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence : i and without a verb and nominative, either expressed or implied, ; no sentence can exist. The noun is the original and leading i part of speech ; the verb comes next in order, and is far more ', complex than the noun» These two are the most useful in the i language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. The .- other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these tw^ anrl as | you will hereafter learn, of minor importance. ; For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and divTsicti \ of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be j found as convenient as any other. 1 adopt them, therefore, to bo ; consistent with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of ^ this treatise, I shall not alter or reject any established definition, \ rule, or principle of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, some practical advantage to the learner is thereby gained. The ' following, some consider a good definition. . * A VERB Ls a word which ex])rc!i.ses qffirmahimi. j ■^ 1 VERBS. ACTIVB AND NEUTER. 48 An active verb expresses action ; and The nominative c^se is the actor, or subject of the A erb ; as, John writes. In this example, which is the verb ? You know it is the word writes, because tliis word signifies to do ; that is, it expresses ac- tion, therefore, according to the definition, it is an active verb. And you know, too, that the noun John is the actor, therefore John is in the nominative case to the verb writes. In the expres- sions, The man walks — The boy plays — Thunders roll — War- riors fight — you perceive that the words walks, plays, roll, and Hght, are active verbs ; and you cannot be at a loss to know, that the nouns man, boy, thunders, and warriors, are in the nominative case. As no action can be produced without some agent or moving cause, it follows, that every active verb must have some actor or agent. This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the nomina- tive. Nominative, from the Latin nomino, literally signifies to name; but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, it means the noun or pronoun which is the subject of affirmation. This subject or nominative may be active, passive, or venter, as hereafter exemplified. A neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion, but beivgy or a state of being ; as, John sits. Now, in this example, John is not represented as an actor, but, as the subject of the verb sits, therefore John is in the nominative case to the verb. And you know that the word sits does not ex- PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. riatisible arguments may be advanced, for rejecting neuter and passive verbs ; bnt they have been found to be so convenient in practice, that the the«»ry which recojruises them, has stood the test of ages. If j^ou tell the young learner, that, in the following expressions, The church resf» on its roundation; The book lies on the desk; Tlie boys remain (arc) idle, the nnutiii ehttrek, book, and boys, are repreaented as acting, and, therefore, the v«m'- ' ' 1, remain, and are, are active, he will not believe you, because til' !'in that is app;irent to his senses. And should you proceed fi- I >y a l.-ihorod and metaphysical investigation and development ilie laws of motion, attempt to prove to him tliat " every jMirtion of matter .•ifliif»iifed by «lifferent, active principles, tending to priMluiY? change," and, til' .' • • ■ .rsal naturr ' ' u-ling, it is not at all pr inre his tni . iu opposition to the «'i . Of what ;i iiers i.s a theory which V cannot coinpn^lirnd I \mong the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical gram- mar, the ingenious Honie Tooke stands pre-eminent ; but, tmfortimately, his priucipal speculatioas on the verb, have n^yer mej tho public eye. WUliam 44 ' ETYMOLOt^Y AND SYNTAX. i press apparent action, but a condition of being ; that is, it repre sents, John in a particular state of existence ; therefore sits is a neuter verb. In speaking of the neuter gender of nounsj I in-j formed you, that neuter nneans neither; from which it follows, that| neuter gender implies neither gender ; that is, neither masculinel^ nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, youl learn, that neuter, when applied to verbs, means neither of tlie^ other iwo classes ; Uiiat is, a neuter verb is one which is neitherj active nor passive. In these examples, The man stands — The^ lady lives — The child sleeps — The world exists — the words stands^} lives, sleeps, and exists, are iieuter verbs; and the nouns, manA lady, child, and icorld, are all in the nominative case, because each • is the subject of a verb. Thus you perceive, that when a noun ! is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the actor ; and j when it is nominative to a neuter verb, it is not an actor, but the subject of the verb. ; Some neuter verbs express being in general ; as. The man is ;>] Kingdoms exist. Others express being in some particular state ; '■ as, The man stands, sits, lies, or hangs. ; I will now give you two signs, which will enable you to dis- '• tinguish the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot \ tell it by its signification. Any word that will make sense withii to before it, is a verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, < to hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word ' that will conjugate, is a verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs ; \ I write, thou writest, he writes ; I smile, &c. But the words, ! hoy, lady, child, and world, will not make sense with to prefixed ' — to boy, to lady, to world, is nonsense. Neither will they con- ] S. CarJell has also i-eiulered himself conspicuous in the philological field, by ' taking a bolder stand than any of his predecessors. His view of the verb ia j novel, and ingeniously supported. The following is the substance of liis theoxy - OF THE VERB. | A VERB is a word which expresses action ; as, Man exists ; j Trees groio ; Waters Jloi/) ; Mountains 5/«7icZ ; lam. j All verbs are active, and have one ol)ject or more than one, expressed or ! implied. The pWlav stands ; that ia, it Jceeps iise/f hi an erect or standing i posture ; it upholds or snstaiiis ilaelf in that position. They are ; i. e. they \ air themselves, or breathe air ; they inxpirU, vivify, or uphold themselves by < inhaling air. , i Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a personal \ or verbal one implied. The clouds tnovi' ; i. e. move fhemaflvi'n along. The ^ troops marched twenty miles a day; i. e. marched thrmselves. The moon -* shines: — Tlie moon shines or shcd.s & shiniri^, sheen, lustre, ov brig^hfnesg. | The sparrow flies:— Jlies or takes 9. flight. Talkers talk or 8j)eiik word^ or i talk; Walkers walk tt'«/A/«o'« or w;a/is ; The rain rains ram; Sitters sit or \ hold sittings or sessions. ■ VSBBS. ^NUMBER AND FEQSOM. 46 jugate — I lady, thou ladiest, the boys walk. ) or walke^A. ; It is admitted that these verbs are here eraployecl in an active sense ; but it is certain, that they are not used according to their proper, literal meaning. When I tell a man, literaUy, to stand, sit, or lie, by movins: he would disobey me ; but when I say, " Stand out of my way," I employ the neuter verb stand, instead of the active verb move or gn, and in a correspondent sense. My meaning is. Move yourself out of my way; or take your stand some- where else. This, hovvever, does not prove that stand is properly used. If we choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we can, employ any word in tlie language as an active-transitive verb. Be, sit, and lie, may be explained in the same manner. 4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the man- ner o( art ion. They must, therefore, be considered active verbs. The child sleeps soundly ; He sits rreiiteelly ; They live contentedly and happily together. The class of verbs that are never emy)loyed us active, is small. By using adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some verbs are not active. It is hicorrect to say, I am happily ; They were peacefully; She re- mains quietly ; The fields apj^e^ir greenly. These verbs in their common acceptation, do not express action ; for which reason we say, I am happy ; Thev are veaceM • &c. But in the expressions. The child sleeps soundly : VKKBS. — NU.MllLR AND PBRSOI*. 4^ This display of the verb shows you, that whenever il ends in est, il is of the second person singular ; but when the verb ends in s, or eth, it is of the third person singular. Walkest, ridcsl^ standestj are of the second person singular ; and walks or waikethf ridfs or ridethy stands or standeth, are ofthe third person singular. 1 have told you, that when the nominative is singular number, the verb must be ; when the nonrtinative is plural, the verb must be ; and when the nominative is first, second, or third person, the verb must be of the same person. If you look again at the fore- going conjugation of walk, you will notice that the verb varies its endings in the singular, in order to agree in form with the first, second, and third person of its nominative ; but in the plu- ral it does not vary its endings from the first person singular. The verb, however, agrees in seiise with its nominative in the plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little mind, and you will perceive that agreement and government in language do not consist merely in tlje form of words. Now, is it not clear, that when I say, I walk, the verb walk is singular, because it ex- presses but one action ? And when I say. Two men tc^J. is it not equally apparent, that walk is plural, because it expreSes two actions? In the sentence, Ten men walk, the verb walk denotes ten actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, that there must be as many actions as there are actors ; and that the verb, when it has no form or ending to show it, is as strictly plu- ral, as when it has. So, in the phrase, We walk, the verb walk is frst person, because it expresses the actions performed by the speakers : Ye or you walk, the verb is second person, denoting She *iU» gracefully ; They live happily aiul contentedly ; we employ the verba tirep$, fits, aiul live, in nn active sense. When uo aciiun is iuteuded, we say, Thoy live happif and co:itented. li, on siieutitio principles, it can be proved that those verbs generally de- nominated neuter, originally expressed action, their present, accepted mean- ing will Htill opj>oM» thn theor)', lor the generality of mankind do not attach to til. ' ■ ' *■ TI nresrnt a brief but impartial abstract of the morf^rw tfieot) . _; it with the reatlcr to estimate it according to it» mlae. To »riv« « «»nti«fartory dffinitirm of the ▼«»rh, or wich a rmt* «« »>hnll b#* fotmd ■ ■ ■■ ' ■ "" 'i!-t hithertq 1^ " ' ' ' " ind 1 writers, i ili- ;:>ist in espn _ . . it :iuetl wArn a verb eTpret.ne* atfinnation. In Knglish, - '.vonls nppropriuted to exprrm dfllrmation, are often u>-'ii ; our idea of a Ifirmation, in such instances, being the ( V. T. /.,... ...,,1 ; ,^. ^xoto mornl actioriji/' the words re n'tme$ of actions. So, verb," tlie word i9r»<« is a 48 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX- the actions of the persons spoken to; third person, TAey walk 1 The verb, tlien, when correctly written, always agrees, in s^nscy with its nominative in number and person. At present you are learning two parts of speech, neither j of which can be understood without a, knowledge of the other, j It therefore becomes necessary to explain them both in the same i lecture. You have been already informed, that nouns have three \ cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. ^ Possessive Case. T\iQ possessive case denotes the • possessor of something ; as, This is John's horse, ! This expression implies, that John is the owner or possessor j of the horse ; and, that horse is the property which he posses<5es. j When I say, These are the men's, and those, the hoys^ hats, i the two words, " boys' hats," plainly convey the idea, if they \ have any meaning at all, that the boys own or possess the hats. 1 " Samuel Badger sells boys' hats." Who owns the hats ? Mr. j Badger. How is that fact ascertained ? Not by the words, | " boys' hats," which, taken by themselves, imply, not that they \ are Mr. Badger's hats, nor that* they are for boys, but that they j are hats of, or belonging to, or possessed by boys. But we iifer i from the words connected with the phrase, " boys' hats," that the \ boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in the actual ' possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated. ] In the phrases, fne hats, coarse hats, high-crowned hats, broad- \ brimmed hats, woollen, new, ten, some, these, many hats, the words \ in italics, 'are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or define \ the term hats ; but the term boys' does not describe or limit the | meaning of hats. Boys,' therefore, is not, as some suppose, an adjective. j " The slave'6 master." Does the slave possess the master ? . Yes. The slave has a master. If he has him, then, he possesses j ^ him ; — he sustains that relation to him which we call possession, i noun ; but when I say, " John, rente your copy," write is called a verb. *!! Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb in the 1 ^ other, when both consti-uctions, until you pass beyond the word write, are "" exactly alike ? If write does not express action in the forrner sentence, nei- ^ ther does it in the latter, for, in both, it is introduced in the same manner. | On scientific prijiciples, wHte must be considered a noun in the latter sen 1 tence, for it does not express action, or make an affirmation ; but it merely names the action which I wish Jolm to perform, and affirmation is the in/e- i rential meaning. j Tiie verb in tlie infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is divested t, of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it is always present- I ed in its noun-state. j If, after diimer, I say to a servant, " Wtne,^' he infers, that I wish hhn to ,; NOi;.xo ANi> Viii;il:>. — PAttBlNO. 4ft A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having an afiostropho, and generally an * after it; thus, Johns hat; llu; boys coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends in *, the apf)strophe is added, but no additional s ; as, '^ Boys* hats ; Eagles' wings." When a singular noun ends in ss, the apostropiie only is added; as, "For goodness' sake; for rig}U- eotisness* sake ;" except the word witness ; as, " The witness's tes- tinv>ny." Wlien a noun in the posscssiy,^ case ends in ence, the s is omitted, but the apostrophe is i-elaiuc^ ; as, " For con- science* Fake." Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding lecture iJiree times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, also, to remember, what you read. In reading, proceed thus : read one sentence over slowly, and then look olF tlie book, and ref»eat it two or three times over in your mind. After that, take another sentence and proceed in the same manner, and so on through the whole lecture. Do not presume to think, that these directions are of no real consequence to you ; for, unless you fol- low them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid progress. On the other hand, if you proceed according to my instructions, you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of grammar in a short time. — When you shall have complied with this requi- sition, you may commit the following order of parsing a noun, and the order of parsing a verb ; and then you will be prepared to parse or analyze the following examples. ANALYSIS, OR PARSING. Do you recollect the meaning of the word analysis ? If you do not, I will explain it : and first, I wish you to remjsmber, that analysis is the reverse of synthesis. Synthesis is the act of com- bming simples so as to form a whole or compound. Thus, in bring me wine; but all this is not said. If I say, Brinp some wine, he, in like manner, understands, that I wish him to brin? me wine; but all that is expressed, is the name of the action, and of the obj«?ct of the action. In fact, &8 much is done by inference, as by actual expression, in every branch ol language, for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by words. It is generally conceded, that the termination of our verbs, e$t, etk, n, ed, niu\, al*n. of th« other parts of speech, were originally separate words of dis- !' ' . nil that, although they have been contracted, and, by the ruage, have b«'cn miule to roalest^e with the words in oon- I li they are employed, yet, in their present character of ter- minations, they retain their primitive meaning and lorce. To denote that a o-rbnl n»»?ne was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing lus, tKe (to take, hnM) was the nouri-stiilo of the verb ; ami when • as a verb, they added tho termination an ; tluis, the^n. The ~i added, wa« a sign that ajf\rmnii„n w .* inr.n.l.d. The same 5 50 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. putting together letters so as to form syllables, syllables so as tc form words, words so as to form sentences, and sentences so as to form a discourse, the process is called synthetic. Analysis, on the contrary, is the act of decomposition ; that is, the act of sepa- rating any thing compounded into its simple parts, and thereby exhibiting its elementary principles. Etymology treats of the analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is to separate from one another and classify the different words of which it is composed ; and to analyze or parse a word, means to enumerate and describe all its various properties, and its grammatical rela- tions with respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through all its inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, appear to be of little importance ; but, if you persevere, you will hereafter find it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to detect, and correct, errors in composition. SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing a Noun, is — a noun, and why ? — common, proper, or collective, and why ? — gender, and why 1 — person, and 'why ? — number, and why ? — case, and why ? — Rule: — decline it. The order of parsing a Verb, is — a verb, and why ?- active, passive, or neuter, and why ? — if active — tran- sitive or intransitive, and why? — if passive — how is it formed? — regular, irregular, or defective, and why ? — mood, and why ? — tense, and why ? — person and num- ber, and why? — with what does it agree? — Rule: — conjugate it. I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so doing, by applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer al those questions given in tbe order. If you have jperfccuy com- {)rocedure has been adopted, and, in many instances, is still practisecl, in our angnai,'e. An, originally affixed to our verbs, in the progress of i-efinem«M)t, was chansed to en, and finally dropped. A few centiu-ies ago, the plcral uumber of our verbs v^'as denoted by the termir»ation &fi ; thus, they wci "u, they loven ; but, as these terminations do not supersede the necessity of ox pressing the sribjcct of affinnation, as is the case in the Latin and Greek verbs, they have been laid aside, as luinecessaiy excrescences. For the sfime rea- son, we r^ht, without any dis[>ai'agemeifl to the language, dispense with the terminations of onr verbs in the singular. In su]>j)ort of the position, that these tenniiiations were once separate words, we can trace many of tliem to their origin To denote the feiniiiino gender of some nouns, we affix ess; as, heir-^*, instructi'<»*.s. Kss is n con- traction of the Hebrew noun essa, a female. Of oar visrbs, the tenniiiatio:» NOU.NS AMD VERBS. PAUSING. .") 1 mtticd tlio order of parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed wiih me; l.ut, recollect, yon cannot parse a verb in full, until you sball have had a more complete explanation of it, John's hand trembles. John's is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person — proper, the name of an individual — masculine gender, it denotes a male — lliirfl person, spoken of — singular number, it implies but one — and in ihi po«*sessive case, it denotes possession — it is governed by the noun " hand," according to Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is gov- erned by the noun it possesses. Declined — Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural — nom. Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns. Hand is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name of a sort or species of things — neuter gender, it denotes a thing with- out sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies but one — and in the nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb " trembles," and governs it agreeably to Rule 3. The nominative case goi'cms the verb : — that is, the nominative determines the number and person of the verb. Declined — Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. nom. hands, poss. hands', obj. hands. Trembles is a verb, a word which signifies to do — active, it ex- presses action — third person, singular number, because the nom- inative " hand " is with which it agree?, according to Rule 4. Tlie xerb must agree with its nominative in number and person. You must not say that the verb is of the third person because it is spoken of. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third person, and singular or plural number, because its nominative is. Conjugated — First pers. sing. I tremble, *2 pers. ihqfUlremblest, 3. pers. he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. we irem- ble, 2 pers. ye or you tremble, 3 pers. tf ey or the hands tremble. fat i« u contmrtion of ^lofgf, cfh, of /ln,th j» nf doeit. Wo wiy, thou ilost or dor** love: or thou Vwcst; i.e. lov. \e-doctt. Some lielieve Uietsf- turiiiiiiHtioiiH to be contractions «>l rcth. tui*. We affix ff/, a ctm tnu-tion of dfde, to the pivsent tQiise oi verbs to deuote that the action nam clif.l hv pivfixin.ii one of lln's«» When I K»y, " I am gniu^ to walk" the verbal or aHirinative force is convey ed by the \\m> of to, meaning the same an do ; and walk is employed merely 62 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Government, in language, consists in the power which one word has over another, in causing that other word to be in some particular case, number, person, mood, or tense, ILLUSTRATION. Rule 3. The nominative case governs the verb. If you employ the pronoun I, which is of the Jirst person, sin- gular number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of the first pers. sing, thus, I sj?iile ; and when your nominative is second pers. sing, your verb must be ; as, thou smilesf. Why, in the latter instance, does the ending of the verb change to est ? Because the nominative changes, And if your nominative ia third person, the verb will vary again ; thus, he smiles, the man smiles. How clear it is, then, that the nominative governs the verb ; that is, the nominative has power to change the form and meaning of the verb, in respect to num. and person. Govern- ment, thus far, is evinced in the form of the words, as well as in the sense: Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. It is improper to say, thou hear, the men hears. Why im- proper ? Because hear is Jirst pers. and the nominative thou is second pers. hears is singular, and the nom. men is plural. Rule 4th says. The verb must agree with its nominative. The expres- sions should, therefore, be, thou hearer/, the men hear ; and then the verb would agree with its nominatives. But why must the verb agree with its nominative ? Why must we say, thou talk- est, the man talk^, men talk? Because the genius of our lan- guage, and the common consent of those who speak it, require such a construction : and this requisition amounts to a law or rule. This rule, then, is founded in the nature of things, and sanctioned by good usage. Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed by the nimn which it possesses. It is correct to say, The man eats, he eats ; but wo cannot say, the 7nan dog eats, he dog eats. Why not ? Because the man is as a verbal name ; tliat is, I assert that I shall do the act which I name by tlie word icalk, or the act of loalking. Pertraps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious than profitri-ble. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on scientific principles, whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by a verbalizing adjunct, it ia in the noun-sfate, and does not express affirmation, still this tlieory would be very inconvenient in practice. I shall resume tliis subject in Lecture XI. ' i.wi..,o AND VERBS. PARSIWO. 58 here rrprcscnlod as the possessory and d(^, ihc property, or thliiff pjssrsst'd ; and the genius of our language requires, that wlun we add to tfje passessor, the thing which he is represented as jxjs- sessing, the jx>ssessor shall take a particular form to show its caAr, or relation to the property ; thus, The mail's dog eats, hi3 dog eats. You perceive, then, that the added noun, denoting the thing po.s- sessed, has power to clunige the form of the noun or pronoun de- noting the pssessor, according to Rule 12. thus, by adding dog, in the preceding examples, man is changed to man^Sf and he, to his. Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner is quite familiar to you ; and then you will be prepared to ana- lyze correctly and systematically, the following exercises. When you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you ; and, if you have not already committed the definitions and rules, you may read them on that, as you apply them. This mode of pro- cedure w ill enable you to learn all the definitions and rules by applying them to practice. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Rain descends — Rains descend — Snow falls — Sn )ws fall — Thunder rolls — Thunders roll — Man's worlds decay — Men's la- bors cease — John's dog barks — Eliza's voice trembles — Julia's sister's child improves — Peter's cousin's horse limps. In the next place, I will parse a noun and a neuter verb, which verb, you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect. " Birds repose on the branches of trees. " Birds is a noun, the name of a thing or creature — common, the name of a genus or class — masculine and feminine gender, it denotes both males and females — third person, spoken of — plural number, it implies more than one — and in the nominative case, it is the subject of the verb " repose," and governs it according to Rule 3. The nomiiuitive case governs the verb. Declined — Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird. Plural, nom. birds, poss. birds', obj. birds. Brpose is a verb, a word tliat signifies to be — neuter, it express- fs neither action nor passion, but a state of being — third peison, plural number, l)ecause the nominative "birds" is with which it agrees, agreeably to R(;le 4. The verb must agree with its nomi- mitire in number and person. Declined — 1. pers sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposcst, 3. pers. he re|K3ses, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 2. pers. ye or you repose, 3. pers. they rejwse, or birds r«?}X)se. 54 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished by italics, in the following EXERCISES IN PARSING. The hook lies on the desk — The cloak hangs on the wall — Man^s days are few — CatJwior^s warriors shep in death — Caltho reposes in the narrow house — Jocund day stands tiptoe on the nriisty mountain tops. The sunbeams rest on the grave where her beauty sleeps. You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that foUow, Jive or six times over, if you please. OBJECTIVE CASE.— ACTIVE.TRANSITIVE VERBS. The objective case expresses the object of an action or of a relation. It generally follows a transitivp verb, a participle, or a preposition. A noun is in the objective case when it is the object of some- thing. At present I shall explain this case only as the object of an action ; but when we shall have advanced as far as to tho pri position, I will also illustrate it as the object of a relation. An active verb is transitive virhen the action passes over from the subject or nominative to an object ; as, Richard strikes John. Transitive means passing. In this sentence the action of the verb strikes is transitive, because ii passes over from the nomina- tive Richard to the object John ; and you know that the noun Jo.m is in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is very plain. For example : Gallileo invented the telescope. Now it is evident, that Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, without some object in view. In order to ascertain that object, put the question, Gallileo invented what ? The telescope. Telescope, then, is the real object of the action, denoted by the transitive verb invented ; and, therefore, telescope is in the objective case. If I say, The horse kicks the servant — Carpenters build houses — Ossian wrote poems — Columbus discovered America — you readily perceive, that the \erhs kicks, build, wrote, and discorrrcd, express transitive actions; and you cannot be at a loss to tell which nouns are in the objective case : — they are servant, houses, poems, and America. The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known by the following rule: the nominative does something; the ob- jective lias something done to ii. The nominative generally corae» VERBS. THANSITIVB AND IMTRANSITIVE. W l^efore the verb ; and the objective, after it. When I say, George struck the servant, George is in the nominative, and servant is in the objective case; but, when I say, Tito servant struck George, servatU is in the nominative case, and George is in the objective. Thus you perceive, that Case means the different state or situa- tion of nouns with regard to other words. It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I shall, therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to give you an explanation of llic participle and preposition. Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes n the nominative case indepemient^ s<^)metimos in the nominative case absolute, sometimes in ap[)osition in tlie same case, and sressing the actions produced by matter, denote physical actions ; as, The dog hears the bell ; Virgil wrote the jEnead ; Columbus discover- ed America ; — to see, to Jeel, to taste, to smell, to run, to talk, iojly, jQ strike. In the sentence, Charles resembles his father, the verb resembles does not appear to express any action at all ; yet the construction of the sentence, and the office Avhich the verb per- forms, are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an active-tran- sitive verb, governing the noun father in the objective case. This you may easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that the verb has a direct reference to its object. The following verbs are of this character : Have, own, retain ; as, I have a book. Active intransitive verbs are frequently made transitive. When I say. The birds fiy, the verb fly is intransitive ^ but when I say, The boy flies the kite, the verb fly is transitive, and governs the noun kite in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. The horse walks rapidly ; The boy nins swiftly ; My friend lives well ; The man died of a fever. In all these examples the verbs are mtransitive ; in the following they are transitive : The man walks his horse ; The boy rail a race ; My friend lives a holy life ; Let me die the death of the righteous. The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deem- ed sufficiently critical for practical purposes ; but if we dip a little deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities which do not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil which art has drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall find, that almost every verb has either a personal t»r a verbal ob- ject, expressed or implied. Verbal objects, which are the eflfects or productions resulting from the actions, being necessarily im- plied, are seldom expressed. The fire burns. If the fire burns, it must burn wood, coal, taJ. low, or some other combustible substance. The man laughs. liaughs what ? Laughs laughter or laugh. They walk ; thai is. They walk or take walks. Rivers flow (move or roll them- selves or their waters) into the ocean. " I sing the shady regions of the west." " And smile the wrinkles from the brow f»r age." The child wept itself sick ; and then, by taking (or sleeping) a snort nap, it slept itself quiet and well again. " lie will soon sleep his everlasting sleep ;" that is, " He will sleep the sleep of death." Thinkers think thoughts ; Talkers talk or employ words, talk. NOUKS AND VERBS. — PARSING. O. Of sjirrchfs ; Tlie rain rains rain. " Upon Sodom and Gomorrah the Lord ruined Jire and brimstone. ^^ "I must fio tlie whole Uniith.^^ " I shall soon go lJ»e way of all the earth." Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attenU ively ; after which you may parse, systematically, the following exercises containing nouns in the three cases, and active trim- •ilive verbs. The printer jtrints books. Prints is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it express- es action — transitive, the action passes over from the nominative "printer "to the object "books" — third pers. sing. numb, be- cause the nominative printer is with which it agrees. Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative case in number and person. Declined — 1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. pers. he prints, or the printer prints, and so on. Books is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name of a sort of things, — neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex — third pers. spoken of — plur. num. it implies more than one — and in the objective case, it is the object of the action, expressed by the ac- live-transitive verb " prints, " and is governed by it according to Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern tfie objective case. The noun books is thus declined — Sing. nom. bIS AltD VERBS. PARSlNa. 59 " Tlie divided multitude hastily disperse.^* Multitude is a noun, a name that denotes persons — a collective noun, or noun of multitude, it signifies many — masculine and feminine gender, it implies both sexes — third person, spoken of — singular number, it represents but one multitude, or collective body; (but in another sense, it is plural, as it conveys plurality of idea, and, also, implies more individuals than one ;)— and in the nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb " dis- perse," which it governs, according. to Rule 3. The noni. case governs the verb. — Declined. — Sing. nom. multitude, poss. multi- tude's, obj. multitude — ^Plur. nom. multitudes, poss. multitudes', obj. multitudes. Disperse is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex- presses action — intransitive, the action does^not terminate on an object — third person, plural number, because its nominative " mul- titude" conveys plurality of idea ; and it agrees with " multi- tude" agreeably to RirLR 11. A noun of multitude conveying plurality of idea, viust have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in Uie plural. Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear not to be based on the principles of the language ; and, therefore, it might, perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their application is quite limited. In many instances, they will not apply to nouns of multitude. The existence of such a thing as " unity or plurality of idea," as applicable to nouns of this class, is doubtful. It is just as correct to say, "The meeting teas di vided in its sentiments," as to say, " The meeting were divided in their sentiments." Both are equally supported by the genius of the language, and by the power of custom. It is correct to say, either that, "The fleet were dispersed ;'* " The council were unan- imous;" "The council were divided;" or that, " The /?er/ 7/?ago 43.) — Repeat «oinc of the arguments in favor of, and against, the principle which regards all verbs as active. — In what m^xnls are verbs u.sed in their noun-stale f (page 48.) — Give exam])les. — What is said of the terminations, tst, etkf t, and en, and of the wonls to and do ? REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS. Yon have already been infonned. that verbs are the most important part of speech in our language ; and to convince you of their importance, I now U'W you, that yoa canAot express a thought, or communicate an idea, withoat 6 52 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. makiivg use of a verb, either expressed or implied Verbs express, not only Ike state or manner of being, but, likewise, all the different actions and movC' ments of all creatures and things, whether animate or inanimate. As yet I havo given you only a partial descriptiun of this sort of words ; but when you are better prepared to comprehend the subject, I will explain all their properties, and show you the proper manner of usinir them A word that is generally a noun, sometimes becomes a verb ; and a verb is frequently used as a noun. These changes depend on the sense which the word conveys ; or, rather, on the office it performs in the sentence ; that is, the manner in*which it is applied to things. For instance ; glory is genei-ally a noun ; as, " The glory of God's throne." But if*l say, I glory in religion; or. He glories in wickedness, the word glo-ry becomes a verb. The love of man is inconstant. In this sentence, love is a noun ; in the next, it is a verb : They love virtue. He walks swiftly ; Scavengers sweep the streets ; The ship sails well. In these phrases, the words walks, sweep, and sails, are verbs ; in the following they are nouns : Those are pleasant walks ; He takes a broad sweep ; The ship lowered her sails. Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a grammarian without exercising your judgment. If you-have sufficient reso- lution to do this, you will, in a short time, perfectly understand the nature and office of the different parts of speech, their vari- ous properties and relations, and the rules of syntax that apply to them ; and, in a few weeks, be able to speak and write accu rately. But you must not take things for granted, without ex amining their propriety and correctness. No. You are not a mere automaton, or boy-machine ; but a rational being. You ought therefore, to think methodically, to reason soundly, and to investi gate every principle critically. Don't be afraid to think foi yourself. You know not the high destiny that awaits you. You know not the height to which you may soar in the scale of intel lectual existence. Go on, then, boldly, and with unyielding per severance ; and if you do not gain admittance into the temple of fame, strive, at all hazards, to drink of the fountain which gur- gles from its base. EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. Note 1, to Rule 12. A noun in the possessive case, should always be distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of elision ; as, The nation's glory. That girls book is cleaner than those boys books. Not correct, because the nouns girls and boys are both in the possessiv case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which they should be dis- tinguished; l\i\is, " girVs, boys', ^^ according to the preceding Note. [Re- peat tlie note.] Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. If the writer of this sentence meant one ancestor, he should have inserted the apostrophe after r, thus, "ancestor's;'' if more than one. after s, thus, NOtmS AND YBRBS. — PALSB SYNTAX. 68 " nneeMfon' virtue ;" but, by neglocling to place the apostro|)he, he ha^ left bi.H infunin;; nnibiguoiis, ami we caiiiiot uttcertain it. Thix, and a thousand other iniHtakes vou will often nn*et with, deniouatrate tlie truth of my d«>- claration, namely, that " without the knowledge and application of graminur rules, you will often speak and write in such a nnuuier aa not to be vnder- $tcod.' You may now turn l»ack and re-examine the " nluHiration" of Rules S, 4, and 12, on page 52, and then cori-ect the following examples aboutyfue times over. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's for mans advantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans inte- rest and happiness. They sutFer for conscience's sake. He is reading Cowpers poems. James bought Johnsons Dictionary. Rule 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number and person. Those boys improves rapidly. The men labors in the field. Nothing delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He dare not do it. Tiiey reads well. I know you can con-ect these sentencea without a nile, for they all have a harsh soimd, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt the habit of c«)rn?cthig errors by applying niles; for, by-and-by, you will meet with errors in c«>mposition which you cannot correct, if you are ignorant of the application of gnimmar rules. Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. R«»c"llprl, it applied to the verh, and not to the noun ; therefiire, in the cep.ionable. The truth is, after all which can be done to render the defini- ' tions and rules of gi'ammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still bo ^ found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less '' e:^oeptionable. These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable consequence of the imperfections of the language. Language, as well as every thing else of human invention, will always be imperfect. Consequent- ly, a perfect system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A perfect grammar will not be produced, until some perfect being writes it for a per- feci language ; and a perfect language will not be consti-ucted, until some tuper-hutnan agency is employed in its production. All grammatical princi- ples and systems which are not perfect, are exceptionable. \ NOTES. j 1. The article is omitted before nomis implying the different virtues, vices, j passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, " Modesty is becom- ! mg ; Falsehood is odious ; Grammar is useful," &c. ; 2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns ; as, Barron killed Decatnr; \ except by way of eminence, or for the sake of distinguishing a particular family, or when some noun is understood ; as, " He is not a Franklin ; He is j a Lee, or of the family oi the Lees; We sailed down the (river) Missouri." i 3. An adjective is freqiiently placed l^etween the article and the noun with j which the article agrees ; as, " A good boy ; an industrious man." Some- ' times the adjective precedes the article ; os, " As great a man as Alexander; ; Such a shame." \ 4. In referring to many individuals, when we wish to bring each separate- j ly under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes placed between • the adjective mnnv and a singular noun ; as, " Where many a rosebud rears j its blushing head ; ' " Full many ajlower is born to blush unseen." \ 5. The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the cornpara- \ tive or superlative degree ; as, " The more I examine it, the better I Uke it ; ' I like this the least of any." You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you , •hall have committed this \ SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING \ The order of parsing an Aiticle, is — an article, i and why ? — definite or indefinite, and why ? — with \ what noun does it agree ? — Rule. ! ARTICLES. FARSINO. 67 " He is /Ac son of a king." The is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its signifi- cation—definite, it limits the noun to a particular object — it be- lon«^s to the noun " son," according to RcLn 2. The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number only. A is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its signi- fication — indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no particular one — it agrees with "king," agreeably to Rule 1. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number. Note. By considering the original meaning of this article, the propriety of Rule 1, will appear. A or an, (formerly written ane,) being equivalent to onf, any one, or tome one, cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural number. There is, however, an exception to this rule. A is placed before a plural noun when any of the following adjectives come between the article and the noun : few, great, many, dozen, hundred, thousand, mUlion ; H&, a few men, a thousand houses, Jf-c. After having parsed these articles several times over, please to read this third lecture three times. Then turn back, and ?xam inc the second lecture critically, observing to parse every exam- ple according to the directions previou.sly given, which will pre- pare you to parse systematically, all the articles, nouns, and verbs in these subsequent EXERCISES IN PARSING. A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multi- tude pursue pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's griin. Farmers mow the grass. Farmers' boys spread the- hay. Tiie clerk sells the merchant's goods. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo invented the teles- cope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems.' Sir Fran- cis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Frank- lin invented the lightning-rod. Washington Irving wrote the Sketch-Book. I will now oflTer a few remarks on the misapplication of the articles, which, with the exercise of your own discriminating powers, will enable you to use them with propriety. But, before you proceed, jlease to ariswer the following QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. How many articles are there ? — In what sense is a noun takeji, when it has no article to limit it ? — Repeat the order of parsing an article. — What rule applies in parsing the definite article? — What rule in parsing tiio indefiniU i 68 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. QUESTIO?IS ON THE NOTES. Before what mmns is the article omitted ? — Is the article Ike ever a]>phed to adverbs? — Give examples. — What is the meaning uf a or ^/t ? — When ia a or UH placed before a plural nouu ? — From what are a, the, and that derived ? EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. Note to Rule 1. An is used before a vowel or silent h, and before a consonant or u long, and also before the word one. It is not only disagreeable to the ear, but, according to this note, improper lO say, a api)le, a humble suppliant, an hero, an university, because the word apple begins with a vowel, and k is not sounded in tha word humble, for which reasons a should be an in the first two examples ; but, as the h is sounded \\\hero,\xn(}iX\\eu\ii\ini^\nnnivcrsihj,a ought to be prefixed to these words : thus, an apple, an humble suppliant : a hero, a imiversity. You may correct the following EXAMPLES. A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an hor.se, an herald, an heart, an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. This is an hard saying. They met with an heavy loss. He would not give an hat for an horse. Note 1, to Rule 2. The articles are often properly omitted : when used they should be justly applied, according to tlieir dis- tinct character; as, " Gold is corrupting; The sea is grcew ; A lion is bold." It would be improper to say, The gold is corrupt- ing ; Sea is green ; Lion is bold. The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass is good for the liorses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well. Wheat is blighted. In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular kind of grass or wheat, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any particular crop or field of grass, or C|iiantity of wheat; but we are .^peaking of grass and wheat generally, therefore the article Ihr should bo omitted. In the se- cond sentence, we do not refer to any definite kind, quality, or number of horses or men; but to liorse.s and men generally; that is, the terms are here used to denote irhole species, therefore, the article should boomiued, and the sentence slioidd read thus, •* Grass is good for hoi-ses, and wheat for men." In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our meaning to the crops of grass and icheal- now on the ground, which, in contradistinction to the crops heretofore raised, are coiisidcrofl as, easy to detenniiie to which of these classes an adnoiin should Ih? referred. Words which exjiress simply the 7M^/i/t>« of nouns, aro ^jectives ; and such as denote tiieir tituaiion or number, are restrictive*. Adjoctivea were originally nouns or verlM. 70 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. tives, because each expresses a quality of the noun man. And, i if I 3ay, He is a tall man, a short man, a white man, a black man, 1 or a persecuted man, the words, tall, short, white, Uack, and per- ; secuted, are also adjectives, because they tell what kijid of a man j he is of whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some par- , ticular property. j Some adjectives restrict or limit the signification of the nouns ! to which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called j definitives ; as, one era, seven ages, the first man, the whole mass, . no trouble, those men, that book, all regions. j Other adjectives define or describe nouns, or do both ; as, fine { silk, blue paper, a heavy shower, pure water, green mountains, \ hland breezes, gurgling rills, glass window, window glass, beaver " hats, chip bonnets, blackberry ridge, Monroe garden, Juniata iron, j Cincinnati steam-mill. Some adjectives are secondary, and qualify other adjectives ; i as, pale red lining, ^ark blue silk, deep sea green sash, soft iron 1 blooms, red hot iron plate. j You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun ; \ as, "Those men are tall ; A lion is hold ; The weather is calm ; \ The tree is three feet thick.'' Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from ' the other parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to tell it. Any word that will make sense with the word thing added, or with any other noun following it, is an adjective ; as, a high thing, a low thing, a hot thing, a cold thing, an unfinished thing, a new-fashioned thing :— or, a pleasant prospect, a long-de- serted dwelling, an American soldier, a Greek Testament. Are these words adjectives, distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double- headed ? A distant object or thing, yonder hill, SfC. They are. They will make sense with a noun after them. — Adjectives some- Some consider the adjective, in its present application, exactly equivalent to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition, of a prepo- sition, or of a corresponding flexion. " A golden cup," say they, " is the sfime as a gold cup, or a cup of goldy But this principle appears to be excepticn- 'able. " A cup of gold,'''' may mean either a cnY>-full of gold, or a cup made of gold. " An oaken cask," signifies an oak cask, or a cask of oak ; i. e. a cLsk made of oak ; but a beer cask, and a cask of beer, are two different things. A virtuous son ; a son of virtue. The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to consist in its both naming a quality, and attributing that quality to some object The tenninations en, cd, and ig, (our modem y,) signifying give, add, join, denote that the names of qualities to which they are postfixed, are to be at- tributed to other nouus possessing such qualities . wood-e», wood-y. See page 37. Left is the past participle of the verb leave. Home Tooke defines right ADJECTIVES. -1 limos b«'cotnP udverbs. This matter will be explainrd in [noc- ture VI. In parsing;, you may generally knew an afljective by its qna/i ft/in IT a noun or pronoun. Most words ending in /w^ are present participles. These are Orquenlly used as adjectives ; therefore, most participles will make sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other noun, after them; as, a pleasing thing, a moving spectacle, moul- dering ruins. In the liatin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, have gender, number, and case ; but in the English language, they have neither gender, person, number, nor case. These properties belong to creatures and Uiings, and not to their quali- ties ; therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the pro- perties of nouiiSj and not of adjectives. Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees of comparison. They have three degrees of compari- son, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. The positive degree expresses the quality of an ob- ject without any increase or diminution; as, good, wise, great. The comparative degree increases or lessens the positive in signification; as, better, wiser, greater, less v:ise, Tlie superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- tive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, best, wisest, greatest, least wise. 1o be that which ia ordered or directed. The right hand is that which your purr?,' ' >Toni direct yon to use in preference to the other. And when v»»n it in preference, the other is the leaved, leaved, or Irff hand , 1 e. " /nrleft. "Theoneshallbetaken.andtheotherC/ffrtpe^Zj/^//." Orrn. Forniurly a man's oirn v/an what he worked for, ovm being a paal participle of a verb signifying to vrork. liiMfrirftKeg. Some restrictivea, in modem times, are applied only to sin- gilar nouns; such as a or nn, another, one, tki*, that, each, every, either thers, only to phtral nouns ; as, thene, thoxe, tiro, three, fete, several, all. But most restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and pltiral nouns : JirU, teeond, lant, fhe, former. laftfr. any. n^trh. name, some, which, what. Numerah. All nun " " " '!v |>erfnnned by the finders; for the numi ■ extent of its signifi- cation VVn is the pi. . , , ,: shut in. The hands tyned, lened, c\o»vn\, nr shut in, signitied ten; for there numeration closed. To deuote a number grettter than ten, we must begin aga*n, cen and ont, ten and two. «S:c. 72 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. I COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. ' More and most form the compai-ative and superlative degrees by increasing the positive ; and less and least, by diminishing it. Comparison by increasing the positive. i Pos. Comp. Sup. great, greater. greatest. wise, wiser, wisest. holy, more holy, most holy. frugal, more frugal. most frugal. Comparison by diminishing the positive. Pos. Comp. Sup. wise, less wise. least wise. holy. less holy. least holy. frugal, less frugal. least frugal. \ NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. ^\ Words used in counting, are called numeral adjec- tives of the cardinal kind ; as, one, two, three, four, twentji, fifty, &c. AVords used in numbering, are called numeral ad- jectives of the ordinal kind ; as, first, second, third _ fourth, tiventieth, fiftieth, &c. Note. The words many, few, and several, as they always refer to an in- definite number, may be properly ceJled numeral adjectives of the indefinite kind. NOTES. 1. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding r, or er; and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding st, or est, to the end of it; as, Pos. wise, Com. wiser. Sup. -wisest; rich, richer, richest; bold, bolder, boldest. The adverbs, more and most, less and least, when placed before the adjective, have the same effect ; as, Pos. wise. Com. more wise, Sup. most wise ; Pos. wise. Com. less wise. Sup. least wise. Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane, is a compound of two (twa, twae, twee, twi, two or dwo or duo) and one (ane, ain, an.) It signifies two units j'omed^ united, aned, or oned. Twenty (twa-ane-ten) signifies two tens aned, oned, or- united. Things sepa'-ated into parcels of twenty each, are called scores^ Score is the past participle of shear, to separate. \ The Ordinals are formed like abstract nouns in eth. Fifth, sixth, or tentk^<^ is the number which, fiv-eth, six-etk, ten-eth, or maik-eth up the number ^©«,i six, or ten. Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which' they were originally employed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet; often definable, associations which the gradual progress of language and in-i tellect has connected with words, are to be redticeJ to the standard of our\ ADJECTIVES. — PARSINO. 7S ^ entiuii; iii y ; as, happy, lovely ; aud iu U alter a luutc ; afl, able, aiupie ; and ditwy!(Tih!c5 nrrcnrrNi on tht* In-t syllnble ; r", fliscreot, jjolilo ; *ea«ily admit of Words of more than .., w. ., , c 1,) u Mingle vowel, the con. •II iij comparative and superLitlve degrees; a«, r»M r, hnffi\if. i. In ,,.;'-. ,.„(! „f them; most. .'. ' ^>......^ ..; >. 1 > . "-iuinon us i»ettrr ol'anaiogy,) tliat ore i-i, " (Jriod, betfer, best; bad, wofoe, wttrst; liale, lo«s, ifuil; much (;r many, more, most; near, neanir, neareKt or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, oldest or ' ' " ;" ' . '■ ■• ■"' -. I . and many others, are always in the super- la' . ineftsing a quality in the highest deforce, tuey carry in iluuiselvo* a tjupurialive signification : ekief, extreme, perfect, rigkif tcrt'uc^, honrxf. jnxt, true, eorrect, nnrrre, vatt, immente, ceaseless, injinile, end' Uss.uiir ' ' ■ ' '• •■ ' omnipotent, all-icise, eternal. 7. C 'ting qualifies arising from thefigiiij . , i; sy\c\\Vin, wfU'formed, frost bitten, round, square, oblong, circular, miadrangular, conical, Sf-c. 8. The ttTininatiou i«A added to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of qu "' '. the comparative ; as, black, blackish; salt, saltish. Fery, pre- fix mparative, expresses a degroe of quality, but not always a su- pci ,. jjiee. Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the Notes; aftrr which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, and, likewise, Hhe examples that follow. If you cannot repeat all the definitions and rules, spread the Compendium when you parse. But before you proceed, please to commit the SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing an Adjective, is — an adjec tive, and why ? — compare it — degree of comparison, and why ? — to what noun does it belong ? — Rule. forefafhers, Hftpew not to have sufficiently attended to tha changes vfhkh l},;^ oritwir.i.. Mf i.varwiit;,,!. 'I'-tually produces. As language is tmnsmittitants. Many a cheering ray brightens the good man'u pathway. Ni'Tr. Like, Worth. The adjective /tite is a contraction of the participle '.'■■ ■ ' 'Hilly has the preposition ti»t/o understood after it. " She is -ther;" " They ure unlike [/o] him." " The kingdom of li -. ^iLcned or made tike'] unto a householder." The unun worth has altogetlier dropped ita aMociated words. " The cloth i<» vorfh ten dollars a yard ;" that is, The cloth ha of the worth of ton dollars i. nr for a, one, or every yard. nent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellip- t.. worth, ere, but, except, and than, but consider them pre|x>8itions. Bee. Anomalies, in the latter part of this work. REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS. A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its nonu, should be parsed as an atljectire l)elouf.Hng to its noun understood ; as, " Tiio virtuous [pcr*oiM] anil the titiccre {^persona'l are always respected ;" ■' I'rovidtMice rewanls the good {^people,'] and pnnislies the bad {_people.y* *' The eni [^deed or deeds'] that men do, lives after them; " The good [^deed or deeds'] is oft interred with their bones." But sometimes the adjective, by its manner of meaning, becomes a noun, and hiis another adjective joined to it ; as, '* the chief good ;" " The vast im- mejise {immensity] of space." Various nouns placea before other nouns, assume the chamcter of adjec- tives, according to tlieir manner of meaning ; as, " Sea fish, iron mortar, wine vr»«M;l, gold watch, com field, meadow ground, mountain height." The principle whicli recognises custom as the standard of grammatical ac- c'iricy, mi^ht rest for itd support on the usage of only six wonls, and defy all till- subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsJiy it. If the genius and aii;ilo;n' of our language were the standard, it would be correct to observe tiix .iiim!<)i,'v. and say, " Oooil, good^r, goodest ; bad, badtii-r, hnddest ; little, liitl' r. hvArt! ; much, much*?r, innchest." " By this mean ;" " Whatar? the ri'-fr.t." But such a critorion l)etray8 only the weakness of those who at- tempt to establish it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philo- 8«jjihical umpire, Uie good sense of the people will cause them, in this in- stance, as well as in a thousand others, to yield to custom, and say, " Good, tnlhiiu. Vi' had none of the odium which i« now associated with tlie U'vn\ ; I si one who. under the feudal system, rented or held lands <>r :u»u. . .. ks, Henry the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant, "As you an* an accomplished villain, I onler that you receive £700 out of the fMdilic trea>«ur%'." The word villain, tljen, has given up its onginal Idea, and become the • 'ive of a new one, the word tenant havbig supplanted it. To pp" ' meaning of vvonls changes, a thouwuid examples c""'' ' - •• ' • with th<» iii»«-lli;,'eiit remler, proof is unuocesHary. 76 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. better, best; bad, worse, worst; little, Zess, least; much, mo?-e, mcsi;*' "By this means ;" " What is the news ?" With resard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care must be talcen, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or non- sense. Let the following general remark, which is better thtm a dozen nde«, put you on j'our guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your pen on paper to wnte, weigh well in your mind the meaning of the words which you are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the ideas which you wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid innumerable eiTors. In •peaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he is very wicked, or ex- ceedingly lavish, because the terms wicked and lavish are adjectives that ad- mit of comparison; but, if we take the words in their literal acceptation, there is a solecism in calling a man very honest, or exceedingly just, for the words honest Kudijust, literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a man is honest or dishonest, just or unjust: there can be no medium or excess hi this respect. Very correct, very incorrect, very right, very wrong, are common expressions; but they are not /j^era% proper. What is' not cor rect, must be incorrect ; arid that which is not incorrect, must be correct . -what is not right, must be wrong ; and that which is not wrong, must bo right. To avoid that circimilocution which must otherwise take place, our best speakers and writers, however, frequently compare adjectives which do not literally admit of comparison : " The most established practice ;" " The most uncertain method ;" " Irving, as a writer, is/ar more accurate than Addi son ;" " The metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars, are $till more incomprehensible to the learner." Comparisons like these, should genei-ally be avoided ; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, as to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with the principles of grammar, only by considering tliem as figurative. Comparative members of sentences, should be set in direct opposition to each other ; as, " Pope was rich, but Goldsmith was poor." The following sentences are inaccurate: "Solomon was ■fOTser than Cicero was eloquent." " The principles of the reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to be easily eradicated." This latter sentence contains no comparison at all ; neither does it literally convey any meaning. Again, if the Psalmist had said, " I am the wisest of my teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, because the phrase would imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in sajnng, " I am wiser than my teachers," he does not consider himself one of them, but places himself in contradistinction to them. Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective ? — * By what sign may an adjective be known ? — Are participles ever used as adjectives ? — Does gender, person, number, or case, be- long to adjectives? — How are they varied ?— Name the three degrees of comparison. — What effect have less and least m com- paring adjectives? — Repeat the order of parsing an adjective. — What rule applies in parsing an adjective ? — What rule in pars ing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying imity of idea ? — What Note should be applied in parsing an adjective which belongs to a pronoun ? — What Note in parsing numeral adjectives? IDJJXrriTEB. — PALSB SYNTAX. 77 Repent nil xhr \ < ^ o( oompariMH, men tinned ill tin- fii-st ) lives; ripe, frugal, mi»- ' ifvous, happy, tthlr, good, ItUit, mitck or many, near, late, old. — Narna iM»» iiilJHctivfR t)mt ar« alwuyn in the •iij)orljitive, ami never ctimfwired.— \ ou prove tli tiie stauiiani ol grainiiuitical accuracy / (.' ON Tin: riiir.osopiiiCAL notes '■ 'iie true character of an 'lit of the termiuatious, -^ tlio three ways in iaally performed? '- - iiiibersT — Wbntifl s.tiu i>i the ciiutigeA prutluued iu tht» uieauiiig id wuulit, by the principle of u.-v-ociaLiouT EXERCISES IN FALSE ^NTAX. Note 9, under Rlle 18. Double Comparatives and Swperla- ttves should be avoided ; such as, worser, lesser, more deeper, more wickeder, &c. : chief est, sitpremest, perfectest, tightest ; or more perfect, most perfect, most supreme, &c. Virtue confers the most supreme dignite on man, and it should be his chiefest desire. He made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night. Tiio Tiln:.«>^ " most RijMriMiKv" and "chiefest," in the first sentence, are ii /are in the superlative degree without } ..uled, which addition makes them dotiblo They t-iiould be v, nlten, " confers supreme dignity," and " his ly, one thing is le$a than another, or smaller iixan another, because s less and smaller aie in the conijiarative degix*e ; but the phniso it," ill the second sentence, is inaccurate. Lesser is a doublo roiii|>,ir.tti\f, which, acconling to the preceding Note, should bo avoide ;is incorrect as bacUler, gooder, tcorser. *' The smaller light," would 1. • less exceptionable. You can correct the following without my assistance. ( ontct thein/owr times over. The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of imagination or sense. The tongue is like a race-horse, which rt^s the faster the les- ser wrjcrht it carries. The nicrhtingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grovo. Tlio Most f liirhost hath created us for his glory. He was adiul ' '..• chiefest offices. The first wii a strong proof of the fact; the next a more stronger stiil ; i>ut the la.st witnes.s,the most stronger of all. He gave the fullest and the most sincere pnx)f of the truer friendship. 78 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. LECTURE V. OF PARTICIPLES. A Participle is a word derived from a verh, and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjec- tive. Verbs have three participles, the present or imper- fect, the perfect, and the compound. The present or imperfect participle denotes action or being continued, but not perfected. It always ends in ing ; as, ruling, being : " I am writing a let- ter." The perfect participle denotes action or being per- fected or finished. When derived from a regular verb, it ends in ed, and corresponds with the imper- fect tense ; as, ruled, smiled : " The letter is written.'' The compound participle implies action or being completed before the time referred to. It is formed by placing having before the perfect participle ; as, having ruled, having been ruled : " Having written the letter, he mailed it." The term Participle comes from the Latin word participio, which signifies to partake ; and this name is given to this part of speech, because it partakes of the nature of the verb and of the adjective. PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. Participles are formed by adding to the verb the termination ing, ed, or en. Ing signifies the same as the nmin being. When postfixed to the noun-state of the verb, the compound word thus formed, expresses a continued state of the verbal denotement. It implies that what is meant by the verb, is being continued. En is an alteration of an, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct ; ed is a contraction of dede ; and the terminations d and i, are a contraction of ed . Participles ending in ed or en, usually denote the dodo, dede, doed, did, done, or finished state of what is meant by the verb. The book is printed. It is a print-ed or print-done book, or such a one as the done act of printing has made it. The book is written ; i. e. it has received the done or finisk-cd act of writ-ing it. Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to nouns. They might, therefore, be styled verbal adjectives. But that theory which ranks them "with adnouns, appears to rest on a sandy foundation In classi FAltTlCU'LES. 79 Hy many writrrs, the participle Is classed with the vrih, and trpaied ns a j)art of it; but, an it has no nominative, partakes of the nature of an adjective, requires many syntactical rules which apply not to the verb, and, in some other respects, has properties peculiar to itsrlf, it is believed that its character is sufficiently distinct from the verb, to entitle it to the rank of a separate pan of speech. It is, in fact, the connecting link between, nqt only (he adjective and the verb, but also the noun and the verb. All participles are compound in their mining and office. Lik*> verbs, they express action and being, and denote time ; and, like adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they denote the action or being. In the sentences. The boatman is crnssfng the river ; I see a man laboring in the field ; Charles is standlug ; you perceive that the participles crossing and laboring express the actions of the boatman and the man, and standing the state of being of Charles. In these respects, then, tijcy partake of the nature of verbs. You also notice, that they dcscribeAhc: several nouns associated with them, like describing adjectives; and that, in this respect, they participate the properties of atljectivos. A nd, furthermore, you observe they denote actions whicii are still going on ; that is, incmnplete or unfaiixhed actions ; for which reasnii we call them imperfect participles. Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are denominated participial adjectives ; as, A loviiig companion ; The nppling stream ; Roaring winds ; A wilted leaf; An aacompli sited scholar. Here the words loving^ rippling, roaring, wilted, and ■iccomplished, describe or define the nouns with which they are associated. And where the participles are placed after tlieir noims, they have, also, this descriptive quality. If I say, I see f\ I'l.: words, we ought to be guided more hj tlieir manner of meaning, and '.li'-ii- inferrntial meaning, than hy their primitive, cRsential eignification. " I have a broken ])lHte ;" i. e. I have a plate — broken ; " I have broken a plati»." If thwre i» no difTerence in the ettential meaning of the word broken^ III."', it cannot be denied, that tliere is a wide differ- •'•rrr**ar9 ren«»onHhlo, that, in a practical gra»iiMi;ir, at 1<- 1^" !• • ■• •! A':' 'i • irs in ciMi.stnictions diflering so widely, may pro* p. lis (..(I-., a \v;Ui iiiii. i.nt parts of speech. This illustration likewit* ewtAblishos th^p«()rbty^ of rutaiuin^ what wo call the perftei iett of thv ▼•rb. 80 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. the moon rising ; The horse is running a race ; The dog is leai^n ; I describe the several objects, as a rising moon, a running horse, and a heaten dog, as well as when I place these paiticiples before the nouns. The same word is a participle or a participial adjec- tive, according to its manner of meaning. The preceding illus- tration, however, shows that this distinction is founded on a veiy light shade of difference in the meaning of the two. The fol- owing examples will enable you to distinguish the one from the other. Participles. Participial adjectives* See the sun setting. See the setting sun. See the moon rising. See the rising moon. The wind is roaring. Hear the roaring wind. The twig is broken. The broken twig fell. The vessel anchored in the The ancliored vessel spreads bay, lost her mast. her sail. The present or imperfect participle is known by its ending in ing ; as, fioati/i^, riding, heanw^, seeing. These are derived from the verbs, Jloat, ride, hear, and see. But some words ending in i7ig are not participles ; such as evening, inoming, hireling, sap- ling, uninteresting, unbelieving, uncontrolUng. When you parse a word ending in ing, you should always consider whether it comes from a verb or not. There is such a verb as interest, hence you know that the word interesting is a participle ; but there is no such verb as wwinterest, consequently, uninteresting can not be a participle : but it is an adjective ; as, an uninteresting story. You will be able very easily to distinguish the participle from the other parts of speech, when you shall have acquired a more extensive knowledge of the verb. Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, walk, shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, Telate, discover, over- rate, disengage. Thus, Pres. learning, Perf. learned, Comp. having learned. Pres. walking, Perf. walked, Compound, Imving walked, and so on. You may now commit the order of parsing a participle, and hen proceed with me. SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing a Participle, is — a partici- ple, and why ? — from what verb is it derived ? — speak the three — present, perfect, or compound, and why ? —to what does it refer or belong ? — Rule. PARTICIPLES. ^1 "I saw a vessel sailing.** Sailing is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and par- akcs of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective — it comes tVom the verb to sail — pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having sailed — it is a present or imperfect participle, because it denotes (he continuance of an unfinished action — and refers to the noun ' vessel " for its subject, according to Rule 27. The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun Ihiotmg the subject or actor. " Not a breath disturbs the sleeping billow." Sleeping is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to . xpri'ss its quality — it cannot, with propriety, be compared — it belonfjs to the noun " billow," agreeably to Ili.LE 18. Adjettivcs belong to^and qttalify, nouns expressed or VTiflrrsloofl. You will please to parse these two words several times over, and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th Rule. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to agree with a noun or pronoun, for, as it has no nominative, it has no agreement ; but it simply refers to an actor. Exampi6«: I see a vessel sailing ; or, I see three vessels sailui((. You p»?rc('ive that the participle sailing refers to a singul&x iirun in ihe iiTst example, and trra plural noun in the second; «nd yet lh« parti- ciple is in the same form in both examples. 'I ne noun •«**/ is in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb s^e. Rut when a verb follows a noun, the ending of tho "»:^ o^^ne- rally varies in order to agree with the noun which is ii» ».«j:ina- tive ; as, the vessel sail^ ; the vessels sail. In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule that relates to the participle. In the sentence, " The man is heat- ing his horse," the noun horse js in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive par- ticiple " beating," and it is governed by the participle beating, according to Ri I E 26. Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which ihey are derived. The principle uix)n which this rule is founded, is quite appa- rent. As a participle derived from a transitive verb, expre.s.ses the •viriin kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, (hat the irticiple must govern the same case as the verb from vvhich it s derived. When you shall have .studied this lecture attentively, you may proceed and parse the following exercises, containing five parts f speech. If, in analyzing these examples, you find any word* 83 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. which you cannot parse correctly and systematically by referring to your Compend for definitions and rules, you will please to turn back and read over again the whole Jive lectures. You must ex- ercise a little patience ; and, for your encouragement, permit me to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough knowledge of these five parts of speech, only jive more will remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough in your investigations. Give your reasoning powers ft-ee scope. By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire moro grammatical knowledge in three months, than is commonly obtained in two years. ♦ In the following examples, the words purling^ crusted, slumber- ing, and twinkling, are participial adjectives. There and its you may omit. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young ' dog barking. The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. Deep rivers float long rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's surface. The sun approaching, melts the crusted snow. The slumbering seas calmed the grave old hermit's mind. Pale Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds the twinkling stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the desert thistle bending there its lowly head. REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES. Participles frequently become nouns ; as, " A good understanding ; Excel- lent writing ; He made a good beginning, but a bad ending." Constructions like the following, have long been sanctioned by tke best aiitliorities : " The goods are selling ;" " The house is building ;" " The work irf n<;w publishing.^' A modem innovation, however, is likely to supersede this mode of expression : thus, " The goods are being sold;" " The house is being built ;" " The work is now being published." You may now answer these QUEvSTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. How many kinds of participles are there ? — What is the end- ing of a present participle ? — What does a perfect participle denote ? — With what does the perfect participle of a regular verb correspond ? — What is a compound participle ?— From what word is the term participle derived ? — Why is this part of speech thus named ? — Wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature of a verb ? — Do all participles participate the properties of ad- jectives ? — In what respect ? — When are participles called par- ticipial adjectives ? — Give examples. — How may a present parti- ciple be known ? — Repeat the order of parsing a participle. — What rule applies in parsing a present participle ? — What Rule in parsincr a participial adjective? — Do participles vary in ilioir OF ADVKRBS. 63. iprminalions in order to agxce with their subject or actor ? — What Rulo applies in parsing a noun in the objective casCy governed by a participle? — Do participles ever become nouns? — Give 'IONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. How irnetlT — What does the iin{)«rfect part expreMf— What d i)ie8 denote T LECTtTRE VI OF ADVERBS. An Adverb is_a word used to modify the sense of a verhy a, par^' ' ' a adjective, or another adverb. Recollect, an .. . ., .. ..over qualifies a vou7i. It qualifies any of the four parts of speech abovenanied, and none others. To modify OT qualify y you know, means to produce some change. The adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style excels Irving's, the proposition is affirmative, and the verb exceh expresses the affir- mation. But when I say, Wirt's style excels not Irving's, the assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies or changes the meaning of the verb excels ? You perceive that it is the little word not. This word has poWer to reverse the meaning of the sentence. Not^ then, is a modifier, qualifier, or negative adverb. When an adverb is used%) modify the sense of a verb or par- ticiple, it generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which the action is performed, or some accidental circumstance respect- ing it. In the phrases. The man rides gracefully, awhoardly, PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. Ah die happiness and incrcasinc prosperity of a people essentially depend on" ' ' '= ■ .1.1.. . 1..., 1 ;.. ..11 :., suh 111 •^•. it n... 'i snr- Ctfasivc i'ly to i)rt»}ii-ecK. iu Uiu loriuor, will uol bo uoglcctfiil of tlin • itinnient of the latter. The truth of thi^ remark is ni.. ' '" ' ' - ' " "- -" ' ' - ni' iu> Xu lurtii wbiit wu cull adverbs, distriljuliTe:), ct)i . ; for J presiuue it will bo readily cuucoded, 84 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, badly, swiftly, slowly, &c. ; or, I saw the man riding swiftly, sloivly^ leisurely, very fast, &c., you perceive that the words gracefully ^ awkwardly, very fast, &^o.f are adverbs, qualifying the verb rides, or the participle riding ^ because they express the manner in which the -action denoted by the verb and participle, is done. In the phrases, The man rides daily, weekly, seldom, frequenily^ often, sometimes, never ; or. The man rode yesterday j heretofore, long since, long ago, recently, lately, just now ; or. The man will nde soon, presently, directly, immediately, hy and by, to-day, here- after, you perceive that all these words in italics, are adverbs, qualifying the meaning of the verb rides, because they express the time of the action denoted by the verb. Again, if I say. The man lives here, near by, yonder, remote, far off, somewhere, notohere, everywhere, &c., the words in ital- ics are adverbs of place, because they tell where he lives. Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other ad- verbs ; as, fnore wise, most wise; or more wisely, most wisely. When an adverb is joined to an adjective or adverb, il;^generally expresses the degree of comparison ; for adverbs, like adjectives, have degrees of comparison. Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, you know the adjective skilful is in the positiye degree ; but, by placing the adverb more before the adjective, we increase the degree of quality denoted by the adjective to the comparative ; as, A more skilful artist : and m^st renders it superlative ; as, A most skilful artist. And if we place more and most before other adverbs, the effect is the same ; as, skilfully, m^e skilfully, most skilfully. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. Positive. Comparative* H) Superlative, soon, sooner. soonest. often, oftener, oftenest. much, more. most. well, better, best. far, farther. farthest. wisely, more wisely, most wisely. justly, more justly, most justly. justly, less justly. least justly. You will generally know an adverb at sight ; but sometimes that conciseness, as well as copiousness and perspicnity in language, is the offspring of refinement. That an immense amount of time and breath ia Baved by the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly demon- Rtrate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of expression that i? daily used by thirty millions, doubtless does much for their benefit. N'ost adverbs express in one word what would otherwise require t wo or or ADVERBS. 85 vni will find it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other part of speech in the English lani^tiage. I will, therefore, give /ou some sifpM which will assist you a little. Most words ending in hj are adverbs ; such as, poJitelt/, grace- fttUy^ jtidiciousJy. Any word or short phrase that will answer to any one of the questions, how ? how much ? when ? or where ? is an adverb ; as, The river flows rapidly ; He walks venf fast y He has gone far away ; but be w ill soon return ; She sings sweetly ; They learn none at all. How, or in what manner docs the river flow ? Rapidly. How does he walk ? Very fast. Where has he gone ? Far away. When will he return ? Soon, I low does she sing ? Sweetly. How much do they learn ? None at all. From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could not tell these adverbs by the sense, you would know them by their answering to the questions. However, your bettor way will be to distinguish adverbs by considering the ofllice they perform in the sentence ; q^i'^bv noticing their grammatical relation, or their situation, with respect to other words. To gain a thorough knowledge of their Wal character, is highly important. Rapidly, fast, far away, soon, sweetly, &c. are known to be adverbs by their qualifying the sense of verbs. " A very good pen writes extremely wcll.^' Well, in this sentence, is known to be an ad- verb by its qualifying the sense of the verb writes ; extremely^ by its ending in ly, or by its being joined to the adverb well to qualify it ; and very is known as an adverb by its joining the adjective good. Expressions like these, none at all, a great deal, a few days ago, long since, at length, in vain, when they are used to denote the manner or time of the action of verbs or participles, are gen- erally called adverbial phrases. inoro words ; as, " He did it here,** for, He did it in this plaee ; there, for, in thai fpfaee ; trhere, for, in ickat place ; note, for, a( this time. Why means /or wkal reason ; hotp — in frhai mind, mood, mode, or manner; exceedinsly — to a .great def^ree ; very — in an eminent degree; often and seldom signify many Umr$./rtr times. Tlio jirocedures by which wonls have been contracted, mo thing wkiU$ or wkref^ •• t ,^1, jr,// — {„ while. Per, Latin,— the ! Perhaps — i>er haps, per chance. These examples it ii are given with the view to invite the atten- tion i>f ih» intelligent pupil to the " Diversioni of Purley, by John Horn* Tooke." SS ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Rule 29. Adverbs qtialify verbs, participles, adjectives, ana other adverbs. Not is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an ad- verb — of negation, it makes the assertion negative ; that is, it changes the proposition from an affirmative to a negative — and it qualifies the adverb "very," agreeably to Rule 29. Adverbs qualify verbs, S^c. Very is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an ad- jective — of comparison, it compares the adjective " good," and qualifies it according to Rule 29. Adverbs qualify adjectives, S^-c. EXERCISES IN PARSING. . The traveller described a lofty castle decaying gradually. Very few literary men ever become distinguished poets. The great Milton excels not Homer. The Roman women once,vol- untarily contributed their most precious jewels to save the city. Many small streams uniting, form very large rivers. The river Funza fsiiUng perpendicularly, forms a vast cataract. Atten- tive servants always drive horses very carefully ; negligent ser- vants often drive horses very carelessly. Assiduous scholars lui^row Q very fast ; idle scholars learn none at all. Friendship often ends in love ; but love in friendship, nefner. Note. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you w^alked f Not yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far, and enough, qualify " have walked" understood ; perhaps qualifies not ; and quite qualifies far. Tho adverbs always and carefully both qualify the verb " drive :" the former ex- presses time, and the latter, manner. Once and voluntarily qualify the verb " contributed ;" the former expresses numhcr, and the latter, manner. The word their you need not parse. The active verb to save has no nominative. The nouns love and friendship, following t», are in the objective case, and governed by that preposition. REMARKS ON ADVERBS. When the v^ords therefore, consequently, accordingly, and 'A\<^ like, are used in connexion with other conjunctions, they are adverbs; but wli^n they ap- pear single, they are commonly considered co7ijnnctions. The words when and where, and all others of the Pame uftture, such as whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, hefove, othertoise, while, tchere- fore, &c. may be properly called adverbial conjunctions, because they partici- pate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions ; of adverbs, as they de- note the attributes either of time or place ; of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences. There are many w^ords that are sometimes used as adjectives, and some- times as adverbs ; as, " More men than women were there ; I am mf)re dili- gent than he." In the former sentence m^re is evidently an adjective, for it IS joined to a noun to qualify it ; in the latter it is an adverb, because it q^.ali- fies an adjective. There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, »nd sometimes as adverbs; as, ''to-day^s lesson is longer than yesferda>/s." Tu ♦^his example, to-day and yesterday are nours in the postiessive case ; hnt m ADVERBS. 80 khraaet like iho following, tUcy are geuerallv coiuiidered udverbn of time: " He cain6 [to hit'] home ycterday, aiul will set out again to-day." Her* Ihey are u«mnt», if we Hupply on before them. ♦' Whore mxrh [fcrnffh, talent, or ooiiietliiug else] is given, mvch \_increa*e, impi "ii'tl ; iVwfA money has 1 .led; ll'vunuch be! ." In the first two of ;ne8, mwcA is an Biij> lies a uouu; in tli<> — crb, because it qua r. In short, you mine to what part of •|K < its aetuCf or by t ihe manner in which A : lo distinguished from an abverb by this rule wli> T pronattn, it xa an adjective, but when i qua iae, or adverb, it is au atlverb. r : nuieously calleil adverbs, when their nouns an- •• He riJLS ubt/ul;" that is, about the toirn, coufUry, of stun " 8lie was near [the a^t or misfortune of] falling ;" ** But do 1: ■ 'niit time or evenl] lay tije blame on me." *' He came f/omt [the , . .Ill the hill ;" *' They lifted him up [the aacent] out of the pit." "Thf II !> ,i.'>ove;" — above «♦—" Above these lower A«aren#, to us invisi- ble, or diudy seen." Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false Syntax, you may answer these QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. Does an adverb ever qualify a noun ? — What parts of speech does it qualify ? — When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, what docs it express ? — When an adverb qualifies an adjective or adverb, what does it generally express ? — Compare some ad- verbs. — By what signs may an adverb be known ? — Give exam- ples. — Rej)eat some adverbial phrases. — Name the diflbrent classes of adverbs. — Repeat some of each class. — Repeat the order of parsing au adverb. — What rule do you apply in parsing an adverb ? QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. Repeat some adverbs that are formed by combining prepositions with ad- verbs of place. — Rejieat some that are composed of the article a and nouus. —What i>art of S(>eech are the words, therefore, consequently, S:c.l — ^Vhat woi-ds are slyleil oitverhial conjunctioM 7 — Why are they so called 7 — Is the •amowoiil ' '■ I tivo, and &' 1 '' ' '>?— Give exui ' ? — By wli lisb an ailiix;;\ . ^ -positions ev QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. Hmw does til.' use of adverbs contribute to the com iseuess of lanjjuase ?— Ulustrite the fart. — What is said of ly, like, and quick 7 — How are the fol- Jnwiuf,' wonls cuu»p<>-'"' -<'■'■""• /t/,,.,- .,r,>„ nUn7 — What is the meaning of tt'rr, nrccr, not, r ly, atcry 7 — Ttivo the sig- nification of n^<*laced before the nouns and pro- uouns w inch they goTern in the objective case. The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, which you may now commit to memory, and thus you uill be en- abled to distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever V ou see them in composition. « HE PREPOSITIONS. lietwixt beside athwart to wan U notwiihstaudiiig out of instead of over a;tcr." Of 111. smqiM^. s tm 1),- a fragment of the Gt)ih-_ _.. . - i. ; i;. -'-fiirfi, couhiv ■ 'llower. " Solomon, the son of (oJTrpring) David." Cf a acceptation, sijrnifitvH disjoined, vtndercd : A niece of '-, a piece disjoined, or tejutrated from the loaf. The fragrance » eatitt. " I write /or yoor satisfactifm ;" i. e. your satisfaction i> "•. By or be is the imperative bytk, of the Saxon beon, to be. H . uerative of witkan^ to join : or, when equivalent to by, ol wyt^ A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. of over at after to under near about hr through tip against bv above down unto wilh below before across hi between behind around failo Ixineath off amidst -vithln from on upon throughout :!hout beyond among underneath 92 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. men — who go — hill — hill — baskets, — which ihej put the eai-s. You perceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of con- nexion and meaning ; but let us fill up each vacancy with a preposition, and the sense will be clear. " When corn is ripe,?« October, it is gathered in the field hy men, who go frofii hill to hill 7vith baskets, i?ito which they put the ears." From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that our language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect the various words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, amount to nothing but nonsense. There is, however, another part of speech that performs this office, namely, the conjunction. This will be explained in Lecture IX. ; in which lecture you will learn, that the nature of a preposition, as a connective particle, is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the next place I will show you how prepositions express a relation between words. ♦ The boy's hat is under his arm. In this expression, what relation does the preposition under show ? You know that hat and arm are words used as signs of two objects, or ideas ; but under is not the sign of a thing you can think of: it is merely the sign of the relation existing between the two objects. Hence you may perceive, that since the word under is the sign of the relation existing between particular ideas, it also expresses a rela- tion existing between the words hat and arm, which words are the representatives of those ideas. The boy holds his hat in his hand. In this sentence the prcpo sition in shows the relation existing between hat and hand, or the situation, or relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, if I say. The boy's hat is on his head, you perceive that on shows the relation between hat and head. Again, in the expressions. The boy threw his hat up stairs — under the bed — behind the ta- ble — through the window — over the house — across the street — inlo the water — and so on, you perceive that the several prepositions ex- ihan, to be. " I will go with him." " I, join him, will go." In comes from the Gothic noun itma, the interior of the body ; a cave or cell. About, from boda, the first outward boimdary. Among is the past part, of gamaengan, to mingle. Through or thorough is the Gothic substantive dmiro, or the Teutonic thuruh.' It means psissage, gale, door. Before — be-fore, be-hind, be-low, beside, besides, be-neatk, are formed by combining the imperative be, with the nouns fore, hind, low, tide, ncath. Neath — Saxon neothan, neothe, has the same signification as nadir. Be-twecn, be-twixt — he and ijcain. A dual preposition. Be-yond — be-passed. Beyond a })lace, means, he passed that place. NotwilhstaTiding — noistand-ing-witk, not-withstanding. " Any order to the contrary not- withstanding" (this order;) 1. e. not effectually withstanding or opposing it. PREPOsmorcs. — parsing. W press the different relations existing between the hat and the other nouns, stnirsy bed, table f'lpindow, hoiisey street, and water. A preposition tells where a thing is : thus, " The pear is on the gr 1 ■ r the tree." r :s govern the objective case, but they do not express ftn iiciiuii dune to some object, as an active-transitive verb or par- ticiple does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it is in the objective case, because it is the object of the relation expressed by the preposition, and not the object of an action. I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the objec- tive case, than that which was given in a former lecture. I have already informed you, that the objective case expresses the object of an action or of a relation ; and, also, that there are three parts of speech which govern nouns and pronouns in the objective case, namely, active-transitive verbs, jmrticipfes derived from transitive verbs, and prepositions. A noun or pronoun in the ob- jective case, cannot be, at the same time, the object of an action and of a relation. It must be either the object of an action or of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember, that whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb or participle, it is the object of an action; as, The tutor instructs liis pupils ; or, The tutor is ijistrucLing his pupils ; but whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is- the object of a relation; as, Th#tutor gives good instruction to ''^ pupils. .cfore you pitxjeed to parse the following examples, please 1-, review this lecture, and then the whole seven in tlie manner previously recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and then look off your book and repeat them two or three limes over m your mind. This course will enable you to retain the most important ideas advanced. If you wish to proceed witii ease and advantage, you must have the subject-matter of the preceding lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an unpleasant task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have learned thus far, you will understand seven parts of speech ; and only three more will remain to be learned. If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may commit the following order, and then proceed in parsing. sysVematic order of parsing. The order of parsing a Preposition, is — a prepo- sition, and why '( — what docs it connect '? — " i'?.t rela- tion does it show ? y4 BTYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. " He saw an antelope in the wilderness.*' In is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and show the relation between them — it connects me words " ante- lope " and " wilderness " — and shows the relation between them. Wilderness is a noun, the name of a place — com. the name of a sort or species — neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex — third pers. spoken of — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the objective case, it is the object of a relation expressed by the pre position " in," and governed by it, according to Rule 31. Prepositions govern the objective case. The genius of our language will not allow us to say, Stana before he ; Hand the paper to they. Prepositions require the pro- noun following them to be in the objective form, position, or case ; and this requisition amounts to government. Hence we say, " Stand before him y" " Hand the paper to them.'' Every pre- position expresses a relation, and every relation must have an object : consequently, every preposition must be followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Tne all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, for the most excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading 'the client's cause, in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair 'Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Life's vary- ing schemes no more distract tne laboring mind of man. Septi- mius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of Egypt. A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly pious man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, like swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales. At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds full fast ; and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to church-yards. Love still pursues an ever devious race, True to the wincfing lineaments of grace. Note. — The words my and and yoa need not parse. The norm " meteors," following the adverb " like," is in the objective case, and governed by unto understood, according to Note 2, under Rule 32. The noun " home" is governed by to understood, according to Rule 32. REMARKS ON TREPOSITIONS AND VERBS. A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often govejtied by a preposl tion undeistood ; as, " Give him that book ;" that is, " Give that book to him ;" " Ortugrul was one day wandering," &c. that is, on one day. " Mer cy gives aj/liclion a grace ;" that is, Mercy gives a grace to affliction. See Note 1, under Rule 32. To bo able to make a proper use of prepositiohg, particular attention is requisite. Tliere is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of by and rsoNouirs. 9b wiAt M, " Ho w»Iki mttk a RUiff by mtKinlight ;" " lie was takcu by strata gem, aiiU killed with a swonl." Put tho one preiK>sitiun for tlio other, and «iy, " Ho walk« by a utafl'inM moonlight ;" •' He was taken wilh Htratncem, auJ killetl by a swonl ;" and it will aprx^ur, that the latter expreHsion^it ditl'cr from the former iu siguifkatiou, more tnau ooe, at lint view, would be apt to imagine. VerM are often compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to uphold, to «»/Astaiid, to oorrlook ; and this composition ^ives a new meaning to the verb; as, to undrmtami, to tn'Mdraw, to /wgive. But the prejxJBitiou is more fri.. ' VicL-d after tlie verb, aiul separately fn)m it, like an ad- verb ; ill iiliou it does not lean uH'ect the 8ens«? of the v«!rb, mui give it a 1 "g ; and in all instances, whether the prejM)8iLion is placed either before or after the verb, if it gives a new meaning U) the verb, it may be considered as a part of the verb. Thus, to east means to throv; but to east vp an account, signifies to compute it ; tlierefore u;? is a part of the verb The phni-ses, to fall on, to hear out, to give over, convey very different mean- ings fn»m what they would if the prepositions on, out, and over, were not oaed.' Verbs of this kuid are called compound verbs. You may now answer the following QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. From what words is the term preposition derived ? — Why is r thus named ? — Repeat the list of prcjKjsitions. — Name the three parts of s{>eech that govern noiuis and pronouns in the objective case. — When is a noun or pronoun in the objective case, the object of an action ? — When is it the object of a relation ? — Repeal the order of parsing a preposition. — What rule do you apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition ? — Does every pre|X)sition require an objective case after it ? — Is a noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition understood ? — Give examples. — What is said of verbs compounded of a verb •nd preposition ? — Give the origin and meaning of the prejwsi- lions explained in the Philosophical Notes. LECTURE Vm. OF PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and generally to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word. A pronoun is, likewise, sometimes a substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence. The word pronoun comes from the two Latin words, prOf which mransyar, or instead of, and nomen, a wame, or noun. Hence 96 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. you perceive, tliat pronoun means for a noun, or instead of a noun. In the sentence, '' Tlie man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is nseful ;" you perceive, that the word Ae is used instead of thn noun man; consequently he must be a pronoun. You observe, too, that, by making use of the pronoun he in this sentence, we. avoid the repetition of the noun man, for without the pronoun, the sentence Would be rendered thus, " The man is happy ; the man is benevolent ; the mafi is useful." By looking again at the definition," you will notice, that pro- nouns always stand for nouns, but they do not always avoid the repetition of nouns. Repetition means repeating or mentioning the same thing again. In the sentence, " I come to die for my country," the pronouns, J and my, stand for the name of the per- son who speaks ; but they do not avoid the repetition of that name, because the name or noun for which the pronouns are used, is j not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the third person, generally -^ avoid the repetition of the nouns for which they stand ; but pro- ^ nouns of the first and second person, sometimes avoid the repeti- ; tion of nouns, and sometimes they do not. > A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its \ importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehendea. \ 'f we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to 1 express ourselves in this manner : " A woman went to a man, and told the man that the man was in danger of being murdered ; by a gang of robbers ; as a gang of robbers had made prepara- j tions for attacking the man. The man thanked the woman for j the woman's kindness, and, as the man w^as unable to defend i the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to S ; neighbor's." \ This would be a laborious .style indeed ; but, by the help of ; pronouns, we can express the same ideas with far greater ease | and conciseness : " A woman went to a man, and told him, that ^ he was in great danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers, \ who had made preparations for attacking him. He thanked her for ^ her kindness, and, as lie was unable to defend himself he left his j house and went to a neighbor's." '\ If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be ■ at a loss to tell which words are pronouns ; and you will observe, -i too, that they all stand for nouns. 1 Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds> ^ the Personal, the Adjective, and the Relative pro- .- nouns. . They are all known by the lists. \ PERSONAL PEONOtTNS. HT 1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the relative, hy their denoting the person of the nouns for which they stand. There are five of them ; /, thou, he, she, it ; with their plurals, We, ye or you, they. To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and case. Gender. When we speak of a man, we say, lie, his, him ; when we speak of a woman, Wc say, she, hers, her ; and when we speak of a thing, we say /'/. Hence you perceive, that gender belongs to pronouns as well as to nouns. Example ; " The gen- eral, in gratitude to the lady, offered her his hand ; but she^ not knowing him, declined accepting it." The pronouns his and him, in this sentence, personate or represent the noun general ; they are, therefore, of the masculine gender : her and she per- sonate the lady ; therefore, they are feminine : and it represents hand ; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This illus- tration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gen- der as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to the variation of the pronouns to express the sex, Gender has respect only to the third person sin- gular of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is ma.sculine; she is feminine ; it is neuter. You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, as well as of the third. The reason is obvious. The first per- son, that is, the person speaking, and the second person, or the person spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of the dis- course, are supposed to be present ; from which, and other cir- cumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, therefore, the pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked by a distinction of gender; but the thircf person, that is, the person or thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, necessarily requires the pronoun that stands for it, to bo marked^ oy a distinction of gender. In j>arsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first and second persdn, and also to the plurai number of the third person ; but these have no peculiar form to denote their gender; thin fire they have no agreement, in this respect, with the nouna wWkU they reoresent. 98 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. Person. Pronouns have three persons in each number. /, is the first person ^ Thou, is the second person > Singular, He, she, or it, is the third person ) We, is the first person ^ Ye or you, is the second person > Plural. They, is the third person J This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you leflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of any discourse : first, the person who speaks, may speak of him- self; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addresses himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other person ; and as the speakers, the persons spoken to, and the persons spoken of, may be many, so each of these persons must have a plural number. Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree in per- son with the nouns they represent ; but pronouns of the first per- son, do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it represents a noun ; but nouns are never of the first person, there- fore these pronouns cannot agree in person with their nouns. Number. Pronouns, like nouns, have two num- bers, the singular and the plural ; as, /, thou, he ; we, ye or you, they. Case. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. In the next place I will present to you the declension of the personal pronouns, which declension you must commit to mem- ory before you proceed any farther. The advantages resulting from the committing of the follow, ing declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be too particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a noun from the objective, because these cases of nouns are not marked by a difference in termination ; but this difficulty is re- moved in regard to the personal . pronouns, for their cases are always known by their termination. By studying the declension you will learn, not only the cases of the pronour s, but, also, their genders, persons, and numbers. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 99 DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. Sing. Plur, Norn. I, ' we, Poss, my or mine, our or ours, Obj, me. us. SECOND PERSON. Sing, Plur, Norn, thou, ye or you, Poss. thy or thine, your or yours Obj, ' thee. you. THIRD PERSON. Mas. Sing, Plur. Norn, he, they, Poss. his, their or theirs 06/. him. them. THIRD PERSON. Fern. Sing. Plur. Nom. she, they, Poss. her or hers, their or theirs, Obj. her. them. THIRD PERSON. Neut. Sing, Plur. Nom. it, they, Poss. its, their or theirs, Obj. it. them. NOTES. J. When $el/ is added to the poFBonal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, themselvos, &c. thev are called compound personal pronontu, and are used in the nnm illative or objective case, but not in the possessive. 2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned by the freauent recurrence of the terminations est, edst, in the adaptation of our verbs to tlio nominative thou, a modem innovation which substitutes yon for thou, ill Ikmiliar style, has generally been adopted. This innovation contri- butes greatly to the harmony of our collojyiinl style. You was fiirmerly re- stricted Vj the plural number ; but now it is employed to represent either a singular or a plural noun. It ou^ht to be recollected, however, that when used as the representative of a smgular noun, this word retains its origbal plural form; aud, therefore, the verb connected with it, should always be 100 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. ])lural. Inattention to this peculiarity, ha« betrayed some writers into the enoneous conclusion, that, because you implies unity when it represents a singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a singular vem ; as, ** When toas you there ?" " How far vat you from the parties 7" Such a construction, however, is not supported by good usage, nor by analo- gy. It is an manifest a solecism as to say. We am, or we »*. Were it, in any case. mlnuKsiblc to connect a singular verb with you, tho ufs«» of mas would Blill be ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confmed to the tirst and third jx'rsons, and you is second person. Watt being second person, it would approximate nearer to correctness to say, you watt. We never use the sin- gtilar of the j>resent tense with you:— you art, you it; you walkest, yoji walks. Why, then, should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural and gratuitous as the connecting of ihe singular verb in the past tense with tliis pronoun t In every point of view, tlie construction, " When were you there 7" " How far were you from the {tarties 7" is preferable to the other. 3. The words my, thy, hit, her, our, your, their, are, by many, denominated potsessive adjective pronount; but they always ttandfor nouns ift the posses* sive case. They ought, therefore, to be classed with the personal pronouns. That nrinciple of classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, would also thniw all nouus in the possessive case among the adjectives. Example : ** The lady gave the gentleman her watch for his horse." In this sentence her personates, or stands for, the noun " lady," and his represents " sentlemau." This fact is clearly shown by rendering the sentence thus, " The lady gave the gentleman the lady't watch for the genileman's horse." If lady^t and gentiemarCt are noims, her and his must be personal pronouns. The same remarks apply to my, thy, our, your, with which they now coalesce, for all practical {mrposos, it iji hi lis to know, that, in the present a|)j)lic&lionof lhebc'iii«>- DonnM, ; lUly Ktand for, not only the j>ert>on j»os»e»«*ing, but, also llie thing {HiHMeittiol, which gives them a compound character. They may. thore- ft>re, be properly denominated Compound I'krsonal Pronouns; and, us they always {terfonn a double office in a sentence by representing two otlier worilrt, anil, conwHjuently, including two cjises, they should, like the compound relative whiit, be parsed a« two words. Thus, in the example, '•You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," theirs is a comjMjund per- sonal nruuoun, equivalent to their faith. Their is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun ; jx^rsfjual, it personates the jMirsons B]>oken of, understood ; thinl pers. plur. numb., &c. — and in the jKJSsessive case, and govei-ned by *' faith," acconling to Rule 12. Faith is a noun, the name of a thing, &c. Sic. — and in the nominative case to " was," and governs it ; Rule 3. Or, if we render the sentence thus, " You may imagnie what kind of fuith the faith of them* vf an," faith would be in the nominative cjise to " was," and them would be in the objective case, and gfjvemed by "of:" Rule 31. Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless bo preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after these words, and not represented by them. But this is assertion without proof; for, if a noun were understiHHl. it might be supplied. If the question be put, whose book T and the answer be, mine, our$, hers, or theirs, the word book is inclu- ded in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine book, ours book, hers book, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it would be giving a double answer: but when the question is answered by a noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but implied ; as, Whose book T John's, Richard's; that is, John's book; Richard's book. This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the compounds wkal, whoever, and others, is re8|)ectfully sul>mitted to the public ; believing, that those who ap|)rove of a critical analysis of words, will coincide with nie. Should any still be disiKtsed to treat these words so superficially as to rank tliem among the simple pronouns, let them answer the folio whig interroga- t*>ry: If what, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs f a. Aline and thine, instead of my and thy, are used in solemn style, before, a word beginning with a rowel or silent A; as, ** Blot out all mine miquilies;" and when thus used, they are not compound. 7/m always has the s^me form, whether simple or compound ; as, ** Give John his book ; That desk is Ai«." Her, when j>laced before a noun, is in the possessive case; a». Take &uuil verb, ^l/tci U u cuujuuciiun. The first t/« personates vale; the second its represents stream. 104 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. You may now parse the following examples thr, o times over. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. "Juliet, retain her paper, ar^ present yours.'' Yours is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to your j^c^per. Your is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal., it personates "Juliet" — second person, it represents the person spo- ken to — fern, gender, sing, number, (singular in sense, but plural in form,) because the noun Juliet is for which it stands : Rule 13. Pers. Pron. SfC. — Your is in the possessive case, it denotes possession, and is governed by " paper," according to Rule 12. A noun or pron. SfC. (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pro- noun.) Paper is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name of a sort of things — neuter gender, it denotes a thing with- out sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies but one — and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed by the transitive verb "present," and governed by it: Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the ohj. case. Note. Should it be objected, that yours does not mean your paper, any more than it means your book, your house, your any thing, let it be borne in mind, that pronouns have no definite meaning, like other words ; but their particular signification is always dej;ermined by the nouns they represent. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Julia injured her book, and soiled mine : hers is better than mine. My friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours : his deeds deserve reward; yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors are past ; thine are to come. We leave your forests of beasts for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin. NoTB. She understood, is nominative to soiled, in the first exanj]>le ; and the substantive part oi mine, after than, is nom. to is, understood : Rule 35. The verbs to secure and to come have no nominative. The pronouns mine, my, yours, thine, we, your, ours, my, and yours, personate nouns understood. REMARKS ON IT. For the want of a proper knowledge of this little pronoun it, many gram- marians have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to account for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictor)' characters. It is in great demand by wrriters of every description. They use it without ceremony ; either in the nomiuative or objective case ; either to represent one person or thing, or more than one. It is applied tfi noims in the masculine, femuiiue, or neuter gender, and, very frequently, it represents a member of a sentence, a whole sentence, or a number of sentences taken in a mass. A little attention to its true character, will, at once, strip it of all its mys- tery. It. formerly wTitten hit, according to H. Tooke, is the past paiticiple of the Moeso-Gothic verb haitan. It means, the said, a«d, therefore, like its. near relative that, meaning, the assumed, originally had no respect, in its ap- plication, to number, person, or gender. " /i is a wholesome law ;" i. e. the ▲DJSCTIYI PROMOUNS. llt't $md (Inw) iii a wlioleioine law ; or, tJkat (law) is a wholesome 1h\<^ -ifu ,.»• tumc '" 1 - ;i wholesome law. " /Jl in the man ; I believe ii t«» he them :" — //. li) is the man ; that (man) is the man : I h«4leve the said (pt^t Boa&) : .:.ciu; I believe thould never be applied to animals. The foUowiug appUcatioo ai it is erroneous : — " He is like a beatt of prey, kHo destroys without pity.** I ihuuld be, that destroys, &c. 10 110 t 'YMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 2. Wl/) should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say, Tue child whom we have just seen," &c. It should be, " The child that we have just seen." 3. Which may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one pei-- son of two, or a particular person among a number of others ; as, " JVhich of the two 1 Which of them is he ?" 4. That, in. preference to who or ichich, is applied to persons when they are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree, or by tlie pronominal adjective same ; as, " Charles XII., king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world ever saw ; — He is the same man that we saw before.'' 5. That is employed after the interrogative who, in cases like the follow- mg; *' Who that has any sense of religion, woul4 have argued thus ?" When the word ever or soever is annexed to a rela- tive pronoun, the combination is called a compound pronoun ; as, tvhoever or whosoever, whichever or which- soever, whatever or whatsoever. DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. SINGULAR AND PLURAL. Nom. who, Poss. whose, Ohj. whom. " whoever, " whosever, " whomever. " whosoever, *• whosesoever, " whomsoever. Which and tliat are indeclinable, except that whose is some- times used as the possessive case of which ; as, " Is there any other doctrine whose followers are punished ;" that is, the follow- ers of which are punished. The use of this license has obtained among our best writers ; but the construction is not to be recom- mended, for it is a departure from a plain principle of grammar, namely, who, whose, whom, in their applications, should be con- fined to rational beings. That may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunc- tion, depending on the ofHce which it performs in the sentence. That is a relative only when it can be changed to who or tohich without destroying the sense; as, "They that (who) reprove us, may be our best friends ; From every thing that (which) you see, derive instruction." That is a demonstrative adjective, when it belongs to, or points out, some particular noun, either expressed or implied ; as, " Return that Look ; That belcngs to me ; Give me t1iat.^^ When that is neither a relative nor an adjective pro- noun, it is a conjunction ; as, " Take care that every day be well employed." The word that, in this last sentence, cannot be changed to who or which without destroying the sense, therefore you know it is not a relative pronoun ; neither does it point out any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an ad- jective pronoun ; but it connects the sentence, therefore it ii3 a con'u'nb'ticJn. RBLATIVB PRONOUNS; 111 If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word thatj you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a rela- tive or an adjective pronoun, it may l>e known by the signs given ; tnd whenever these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a conjunction. Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will give you one example of affronted that, which may serve as a caution. The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that that that lady parsed, was not the that that that gentleman requested her to analyze. This sentence, though rendered inel- egant by a bad choice of words, is strictly grammatical. The first that is a noun ; the second, a conjunction ; the third, an ad- jective pronoun ; the fourth, a noun ; the fifth, a relative pro- noun ; the sixth, an adjective pronoun ; the seventh, a noun ; the eighth, a relative pronoun ; the ninth, an adjective pronoun. The meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus ; The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that which that lady parsed, was not the that which that gentleman requested her to analyze. WHAT. What is generally a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equiva- lent to that which ; as, " This is what I wanted ; " that is, that which, or, the thing which I wanted. IVhat is compounded of which that. These words have been contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of both being still retained : wliat — wh[ich — t]lMt ; {which-Lhat.) Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, tha qtia, qua tlia^ qu'tha, quthat, quliaty hwat, and finally, what. What may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an interjection. When it is equivalent to that which, the thirty which, or those things wluch, it is a compound relative, because it includes both the antecedent and the relative ; as, " I will try wliat (that which) can be found in female delicacy ; What you recollect with most pleasure, are the virtuous actions of your past life ;'* that is, those things which you recollect, &c. When what is a compound relative, you must always parse it as two words ; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a noun, and give it a case ; the relative part you may analyze like any other relative, giving it a case likewise. In the first of the preceding examples, that, the antecedent part of what, is in the obj. CABC, governed by the verb " will try ;" which, the relative 112 ETYMOLOGY AND SYISTAX. part, is in the nom. case to " can be found." " I have heard what (i. e. that which, or the thing which) has been alleged." W/ioever and whosoever are also compound relatives, and should be parsed like the compound what ; as, " TVIwever takes that oath, is bound to enforce the laws." In this sentence, whoever is equiv- alent to he wJio, or, tJie man who ; thus, " He who takes that oath, is bound," &c. WJio, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are called interrogative pronouns, or relatives* of the interrogative kind ; as, " Who is he ? T\^ich is the person ? What are you doing?" Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent ; but they relate to (he word or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their subsequent ; as, " Wliom did you see ? The preceptor. What have you done ? Nothing." Antecedent and subsequent are opposed to each other in signification. Antecedent means prece- ding, or going before ; and subsequent means following, or coming after. What, when used as an interrogative, is never compound. Wliat, which, and tliat, when joined to nouns, are specifying adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no case, but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative or indefinite kind ; as, " Unto which promise our twelve tribes hope to come ;" '■'■What misery the vicious endure! TFAaihavock hast thou made, foul monster, sin ! " What and which, when joined to nouns in asking questions, are denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives ; as, " What man is that ? Which road did he take ? " What, whatever, and whatsoever, which, whichever, and which- soever, in constructions like the following, are compound pro- nouns, but not compound relatives ; as, " In what character But- ler was admitted, is unknown ; Give him what name you choose ; Nature's care largely endows whatever happy man will deign to use her treasures ; Let him take which course, or, whichever course he will." These sentences may be rendered thus ; " That character, or, the character in which Butler was admitted, is un- known ; Give him that name, or, the name which you choose ; Nature's care endows that happy man who will deign, &;c. ; Let him take that course, or the course which he will." A compound relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. Those compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, the first part of each word being the article the, or the adjective pronoun, that; therefore they cannot properly be denominated compound relatives. — With regard to the wojd ever annexed to these pronouns, it is a singular fact, tliat, as soon as we analyze RJiLATIVS PUOMOUNS. PAESlNti. IIL the word to which it is subjoined, ever is entirely excluded fiotii the sentence. What is sometimes used as an interjection ; as, '' But to/uit ! is thy servant a dog, that ho should do this? What! rob us of our right of sutTrage, and then shut us up in dungeons ! " You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if I may so speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of gram- matical science ; but be not disheartened, for, if you can get safely over tliis, your future course will be interrupted wiili only here and there a gentle elevation. It will require close application, and a great deal of sober thinking, to gain a clear conception of the nature of the relative pronouns, particularly the compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very imj)ortant one, it Jbecomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five times over before you proceed to commit the following order. Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you, if you please. SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing a Relative Pronoun, is — a pronoun, and why ? — relative, and why ? — gender, person, and number, and why ? — Rule : — case, and why ? — Rule. — DecHne it. " This is the man whom we saw." Whom is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — relative, it relates to "man" for its antecedent — mas. gend. third pers. sing. num. because the antecedent " man " is with which it agrees, according to Rule 14. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in gen- derj persofij and number. Whom is in the objective case, the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb "saw," and governed by it, agreeably to Rule 16. When a nominative comes hetioeen the relative and the verby the relative is governed by the following verb, or some other word in its own member of the sentence. Whomy in the objective case, is placed before the verb that governs it, according to Note 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the Note, and decline who.) " From what is recorded, he appears," &c. What is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and the relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing which — Thingt the antecedent part of wliat, is a noun, the name of a in* 114 ETYMOLOGTC AND SYNTAX. thing — com. the name of a species — neuter gender, it has n'^ sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies but one— ^ and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by^ the prep. " from," and gov. by it : Rule 31. (Repeat the Rule^ and every other Rule to which I refer.) Which, the relative part of what, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — rela- tive, it relates to " thing " for its antecedent — neut. gender, thirci person, sing, number, because the antecedent " thing" is witht which it agrees, according to Rule 14. Rel. pron. &c. Which is ifi- the nom. case to the verb " is recorded," agreeably to Rule 15. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb. " What have you learned? Nothing." 2 What is a pron. a word used, &c. — relative of the interrog- ative kind, because it is used in asking a question — it refers to the word " nothing " for its subsequent, according to Rule 17. When the rel. pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its. subsequent, which subsequent must agree in case with the interroga- tive. Wlmt is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing, because the subsequent "nothing" is with which it agrees; Rule 14. Rel. pron. agree, &c. — It is in the obj. case, the object of the action, of the active-transitive verb "have learned," and gov. by i^ agreeably to Rule 16. When a nom. &c. See Note 1, under the Rule. '■ Note. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative wlieu the answer to the question is not expressed. WHO, WHICH, WHAT. i Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand in hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," is in accordance with the usual method of treating them ; but if they were unfolded according to their true character, they woulc^ be found to be very simple, and, doubtless, much labor and per- plexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved. j Of the words called " relatives," who, only, is a pronoun ; and this is strictly personal ; more so, indeed, if we except I and we^ than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted^ to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns.' /, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, you, and they, relate to antecedents, as| well as who. Which, that, and what, are always adjectives.; They never stand for, but always belong to nouns, either ex-* pressed or implied. They specify, like many other adjectives,^ and connect sentences. Who supplies the place of which or what and its personal RELATIVE PEONOUNS. PARSING. 115 noun. Who came ? i. e. tehat many what toomany what person ; — Ufhich man, woman, or person, camn ? " They heard what I said" — they heard that (tiling) wfiich (thin;^) I said. " Take what whichever) course you please ;" — take that course which (coursoy you please to take. " What have you done V i. e. lohai thing, act, or deed have you done? " Which thing I also did at Jeru- salom." " Which will you take ?" — which book, hat, or some, thing else ? " This is the tree which (tree) produces no fruit." " IT.' iJuit (man, or which man) acts wisely, deserves praise." who prefer this method of treating the " relatives," are ..: ...J ;Ly to adopt it, and parse accordingly. KXERCISES IN PARSING. , The man who instructs you, lal)ors faithfully. The boy whom I instruct, leanis well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows nriany charities. That modesty which highly adorns a woman, she possesses. He that acts wisely deserves praise. This is the tree which produces no fruit. I believe what he says. lie speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the heart, also foili- fies it. What docst* thou ? Nothing. What book have you ? A poem. Whose hat have you ? John's. Who docs that work ? Henry. Whom seest thou ? To whom gave you the present ? Which pen did he take ? Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare 1 unto you. I heard what he said. George, you may pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, take which- ever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this repub- lic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of the world, is the enemy of God. NoTK. The Doniinative case is frequently placed after the verb, and tlie objective case, before the verb that governs iL Whom, in every Huntence except one, house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him, tlie third ichat and which, the relative part of the first two vhats, are all in the objective case, and governed by tlie several verbs that follow thorn. See Rut.k 16, and Notk 1. Tree is Dom. after is, according to Rule 21. Thing, the antecedent part of teknterer, is nom. to " fortifies ;" which, the relative part, is noin. to " purilies." No- thing is governed by do, and poem, by have, nnderstrKxl. Henn/ is nomina live to does, understood. IV/iose and JohrCs are governed according to Rci.« 12. /, thou, you, him, &c. represent nouns understood. I[im, in the last sen> tence but five, is governed by declare, antl / is nominative to declare. Georpe aii.l r' - - "-• •• ...-.:...,.:... :.. I Jnnt : Rule 5. " Whatever •ci- -iuits your tnste ; — " which' eri' I best. Whoever in a cuiU' * The second |)enM)u singular of do, when used as a princi|Hil v6rb, it ■pelled with an e ; thus, " VVhat thou does/, do quickly ;" but when employ* M as an auxiliary, the e should be omitted ; as, " Dost thou not behold a rock with iu bead of beutb 1" 116 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. \ ^und relative ; ke, the autecedent part, is nominative to " will behold." ] Take agi'ees with you understood. Forsake is in the infinitive mood after j "see:" Rule 25. REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS. '. Which sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a whole sen- tence, for its antecedent : as, " We are required to fear God and keep his :; commandments, which is the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty | of man ? " To fear God and keep his commandments :" therefore, this i phrase is the antecedent to which. \ The conjunction as, when it follows such, many, or same, is frequently de- 1 nominated a relative pronoun ; as, " I am pleased with such as have a refined i taste ;" that is, with those who, or them who have, &c. " Let such as presuijie j to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;" that is, Let those, or them \ loho presume, &c. " As m^ny as were ordained to eternal life, believed ;" that i is, they, those, or all who were ordained, believed. " He exhibited the same • testimonials as were adduced on a former occasion ;" that is, those testimo- J nials which were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if we supply the \ ellipsis which a critical analysis requires us to do, as will be found to be a ' conjunction ; thus, " I am pleased with such persons, as those persons are who m have a refined taste ; Let such persons, as those persons are who presume," &c. I QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. : From what words is the term pronoun derived ? — Do pronouns 1 always avoid the repetition of nouns ? — Name the three kinds of j pronouns. — What distinguishes the personal from the relative - pronouns ? — How many personal pronouns are there ? — Repeat \ them. — What belong to pronouns ? — Is gender applied to all the * personal pronouns ? — To which of them is it applied ? — Which \ of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote ; their gender ? — How many persons have pronouns ? — Speak them i in their different persons. — How many numbers have pronouns ? — "; How many cases ? — What are they ? — Decline all the personal i pronouns. — When self is added to the personal pronouns, what i are they called, and how are they used ? — When is you singular \ in sense ? — Is it ever singular in form 1 — Why are the words, my, \ thy, his, her, our, your, their, called personal pronouns ? — Why i are the words, mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, denominated j compound pers. pron.? — How do you parse these compounds ? — - ^ What is said of others ? — Repeat the order of parsing a personal \ pronoun. — What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the : first person, and in the nom. case ? — What rule when the pro- i noun is in the possessive case ? — What Rules apply in parsing ; personal pronouns of the second and third person ? — What Rules \ in parsing the compounds, yours, ours, mine, &;c.? — What is saic' ; of the pronoun it ? ; Wliat are adjective pronouns ? — Name the three kinds. — What j does each relate to ? — To what does every relate ? — To what does j iiOier relate ? — What does neither import ? — To what do this and \ PBONOimS. FALSB SYNTAX. 117 these refer ? — Give examples. — To what do thai and those refer ? — Give examples. — Repeal all tlio adjective pronouns. — When adj. pronouns belong to nouns understood, how are they parsed ? — When they stand for, or represent nouns, what are they called ? — Give examples. — Repeat the order of parsing an adj. pronoun. — What Rule do you apply in parsing the indefinite adjective pro- nouns ? — What Notes, in parsing the distributives and demon- Blratives ? What are relative pronouns? — Repeat thom. — From what words is the term antecedent derived ? — What does antecedent mean ? — Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or number ? — To what are who and lohich applied ? — To what is tluil applied ? — Sliould who ever be applied to irrational beings or children ? — In what instances may which be applied to persons ? — Decline the rel. pronouns. — Can which and tlial be declined ? — Is that ever used as rtirce parts of speech ? — Give examples. — What part of speech is the word wfiat ? — Is what ever used as three kinds of a pronoun ? — Give examples. — What is said of whoever? — What words are used as interrogative pronouns? — Give examples. — When are the words, whut, which^ and thaty called adj. pron.? — When are they called interrogative pronom- inal adjectives ? — What is said of whatever and whichever? — Is what ever used as an interjection ? — Give examples. — Repeat tht3 order of parsing a rel. pron. — What Rules do you apply in pars- ing a relative ? — What Rules in parsing a compound relative ? — Wliat Rules in parsing an interrogative ? — Does the relative which ever relate to a sentence for its antecedent? — When does the conjunction as become a relative ? — Give examples. EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. Note 1, to Rule 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject of a verb, it must be in the nominative case. Who will go? Him and I. How does thee do ? Is thee well? " Him and I ;" not proper, because the pronoun Aim is the cnbject of the ▼erb trUi go understood, therefore him should be inUhe nominative case, he, •cconliug to the above Notk. (Repeat the Note.) Him and /arecouuect- e«Ti*on, and the nom. thon is second, for which reason the verbs should Im; ot the second person, dott do and nrt^ agreeably to RcLK 4. You may correct the other examples, /oi*r limes orer. FALSE SYNTAX. Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write as well 118 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. as me. This is the mafi whom was expected. Her and I de- ^ serve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than him. Whom, \ of all my acquaintances, do you think was there ? Whom, foi j the sake of his important services, had an office of honor bestowed ] upon him. Note 2, to Rule 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply ] the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same member : of the sentence with the noun which they represent. FALSE SYNTAX. | The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it ; is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble general j who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison, j Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually j doing evil. ' In each of tlie preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omitted, j according to Note 2. -^ Note 3, to Rule 13. A personal pronoun in the objective j case, should not be used instead of these and those, i FALSE SYNTAX. 1 Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. Give them men their discharge. Observe them three these, j Whicli of them two persons deserves most credit ? > In all these examples, those should be used in place of them. The use of i the personal, them, in such constructions, presents two objectives after one verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing ! an adjective pronoun in its stead. ] LECTURE IX. OF CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect sentences, joining two or more sim- ple sentences into one compound sentence : it some- times connects only words ; as, " Thou and he are liappy, because you are good." Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and variou dependances of human thought. They belong to language onl} in its refined state. i CONJUNCTIONS. 119 The term Conjunction comes from the two Latin words, con. which sijjfnifics together, and jungo, to join. A conjunction, then, is a word that conjoins, or joins tc^ether something. Before you can fully comprehend tlie nature and office of this sort of words, it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence, a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are hiefly used to connect sentences. A Sentence is an assemblage of words forming complete sense. A Simple Sentence contains but one subject, or nominative, and one verb which agrees with that nominative ; as, " Wheat grows in the field." You perceire that this sentence contains several words besides the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sen- tence containing many parts of speech ; but, if it has only one nominative and one Jinite verb, (that is, a verb not in the infini- tive mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many compound sentences. A Compound Sentence is composed of two or more simple sentences connected together; as, " Wheat grows in the field, and* mew reap it." This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple sentences joined together by the word and ; which word, on ac- count of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two simple sentences: thus, " Wheat grows in the field. Men reap it." The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illus- trated. After expressing one thought or sentiment, you know we frequently wish to add another, or several others, which are closely connected with it. We generally eflfect this addition by means of the conjunction : thus, " The Georgians cultivate rice an/f cotton;" that is, "They cultivate rice add cotton." This tentence is compound, and without the use of the conjunction, it would be written in two separate, simple sentences : thus, " The Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The con- junction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes connect* only words ; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the proposition ; as, " The sun and (add) the planets constitute the solar system." Id this, which is a simple sentence, and counect" two words. A few more examples will illustrate the naturp and exhibi- 120 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. I the ust, i*f this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fully ; to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members ' of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are con- : nected by conjunctions. He labors harder — more successfully — ' I do. That man is healthy — he is temperate. By filling up the ) vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the I importance of this sort of words : thus, He labors harder and [ more successfully than I do. That man is healthy because he is j temperate. ] Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Cop- ] ulative and Disjunctive. | I, The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect • and continue a sentence by joining on a member ! which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a ^ cause ; as, " Two and three are five ; I will go if -j he will accompany me ; You are happy because you ! are good." In the first of these examples, and joins on a word that ex- ' presses an addition ; in the second, if connects a member that ! implies a supposition or condition ; and in the third, because con- j nects a member that expresses a cause. I II. The Conjunction Disjunctive serves to connect \ and continue a sentence by joining on a member j that expresses opposition of meaning ; as, " They i came with her, but they went away without her." j But joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not i only something added, but, also, opposition of meaning. j The principal conjunctions may be known by the following ', lists, which you may now commi ^o memory. Some words in \ these lists, are, however, frequerui^ used as adverbs, and some- t times as prepositions ; but if you study well the nature of all the j difie rent sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of ] speech of any word in the language. i PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. I On scientific principles, our connectives, commonly denominated preposi-. ] tions and conjunctions, are but one part of speechj the distinction between ; them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and ] Bome prepositions connect pentences. They are dej-ived from nouns and : verbs ; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not ,i pei-form the office of connectives. ' ' " I wish you to believe, thai I would not wrtfully hurt a fly." Here, in tfao \ CU.NjuNuiiuNfl. 121 LISTS OK THE CONJUNCTIONS. Copulative^ And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, never- theless, except, whether, whereas, as well as. Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, so tliat, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter answers to the former; as, 1. TJuntgh—yet or nevertheless; as, *^ Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor." 2. Whether — or; as, " Whether he will go, or not, I cannot tell." It is improper to say, " Whether he will go or no." 3. Either — or; as, "I will either send it, or bring it myself." 4. Neither — nor ; as, " iVe///ier thou nor I can comprehend it." 6. As — as ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister." 6. As — so ; as, " As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 7. So — as ; as, " To see thy glory, so as I have seen tKee in the sanctuary." 8. So — that; as, " He became so vain, that every one disliked him." NOTES. 1 . Some conjunctions are used to connect simple senUneei only, and form them into compound senlenceg ; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others are employed to connect simple members only, so as to make them compound members ; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole sentences, or simple members. 2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences ; as, " Blessed is the man. vho feareth the Lord, and kcepeth his command' mentn." opinion of H. Tooke, our modem conjunction that, is merely a demonstrative ailjpctive, in a disguised form ; and he attempts to prove it by the following resolution : " I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I vnsh you to believe that [rt»««r<»on."] Now, if we aihnit, that that is an adjective in the latter con- fttniction, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former constniction. Instead of expressing our ideas in two detachefl this proye that such a mode of resolving sentences can be CONJUNCTIONS. PARSING. lV23 Governs is a verb, a word that signifies, dec— of the third per- son, singular number, agreeing with " wisdom or folly," acconU ing to Rule 9. Two or more nouns singular^ joined by disjunctiv<» cdnjuncUons, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing witk them in the singular. If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of the last two Rules presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and importance. For example; in the sentence, " Orlando and Tho- mas, who stiuly their lessons, make rapid progress," you notice that the two singular nouns, Orlando and Thomas, are connected by the copulalire conjunction and, therefore the verb make, which agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives or actors. And you observe, too, that ihe pronouns who and their, and the noun lessons, are plural, agroc- ing with the nouns Orlando and Thomas, according to Rule 8. The verb study is plural, agreeing with who, according to Ruut 4. ' But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunc- tion, and see how the sentence will read : " Orlando or Thomas, who studies his lesson, makes rapid progress." Now, you per- ceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter expression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, both study and make rapid progress ; but it asserts, that either the one or the other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verb males is singular, because it expresses the action of the one or the other of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronouns who and his, and the noun lesson, are likewise in the singular, agree- ing with Orlando or Thomas, agreeably to Rule 9. Studies is also singular, agreeing with who, according to Rule 4. advanta^eoufllT atlopted by learners in common schools T I presume it cnu not bo denied, that insteaid of teaching the learner to express himself cor- rectly in modem English, such a resolution is merely making him familiar with an ancient and barbarous construction which modem refinement b)i5 rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were goremed by those laws of ne- cessity which compel all nations in the early find rude state of their langun^e, tt> express themselves in short, detached sentences, empl<»yed t/ as a vfrb whru they used the following circumlocution : '• My son will reform. Give that fuel. I will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our l:uK gnage, by usin" t/as a conjunction, (for I maintain that it is one.) we expn*i«9 tlio same ihouglit more briefly ; and our modem mode of r— - - - -i has, too, a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in p»int <■■ . hut also in per8t)icuity and force. la Scotland and the north of i - >Tiie pen pie still make use of gin, a Ciintraction of ffiren : thus, " 1 will panlon mv ■ou, gin he reform." But who will contend, that th»»y speak pure English I But perhaps the advocatet of what they call a philosophical development of Wiguage, will ny, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely suiv 134 ETYMOLOOT AlfD SY1«TAX. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The sun, moon, and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. I respt'ct my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry and William, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henry or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and inte- rest : they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prospe- rity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions. NoTt. The verb J'orm w plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, con*iected by copulaUve coujunctious, accunliug to Rule 8. The rerb com- fort agrees with they for its nomiuative. It is connected to support by the conjunction and, agreeably to Rulk 34. Angel* is nom. to are understood, ana Great Britain is nom. to can boast understood, according to Rule 35. REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS. The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an ad> verb, or a preposition. ♦' I submitted, /or it was in Tain to resist ;" in this example, for is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governs victory in the objectiro CAse : " He contended for nctory only." In the first of the following sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb ; " Since we must part, let us do it peaceably ; I have not seen him since that time ; Our frienoship com- menced long since.** " He will repent before he dies ; Stand before mo ; Why did you not re- turn before" [that or this time ;] in the first of these three examples, brfore is an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects ; and in the second and thirtl, it is a preposition. As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a loss to perceive the eonneeUng jwwer of a preposition or conjunction, for every preposition and every sonjunction connects either words or phrases, sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a prepositioa or conjunction, its members are trausiwsed ; as, ** In me days of Joram, kin^ of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha ;" " Jf thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee ; but, if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever.** ply an ellipsis. If, by an elHpsis, they mean such a one as is necessary to the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In teach- ing grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes : — we ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a phrase, nor to put modem English to the blush, by adopting a mode of re- solving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language, and carry tiie learner back to the Tandalic age. But comes from the Saxon verb, beon-utan, to be-out. " All were well but (be-out, leave-out) the stranger.** " Man is but a reed, floating on the current of time." Resolution : " Man is a reed, floating on the current of time ; but {be-out this fact) he is not a stable being." And-^-aned, eu'd, and, is the pjist part, of ananad, to add, join. A, an, one. voifjtrwcTioNS. 126 •' When coldnesfl wraps this (nfTerin^ clay, " Ab, whither strays tne immortal muid T" That the words in, if, aud when, in these examplcH, connect the members «jf the respective sentcuces to which they are attached, will obviously appear if we restore these sentences to their n»laral order, and bring these particles hettccm the ni^ipbcrs which they connect: thus, " Eliaha tlie prophet flour- i«.hed t» the days of Joram, king of Israel ;" " The Lord will be found of lliee if thou seek him ; but he will cast thee off for ever if thou forsake him:'* " Ah, whither strays the immortal mind, *• IV hem coldness wraps this suffering clay T" As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. From what words is the term conjunction derired ? — What is a sentence ? — What is a simple sentence ? — What is a compound sentence? — Gire examples. — In what respect do conjunctions and prepositions agree in their nature ? — How many sorts of con- junctions are there 1 — Repeat the lists of conjunctions. — Repeat some conjunctions with their co/responding conjunctions. — Do relative pronouns ever connect sentences ? — Repeat the order of parsing a conjunction. — Do you apply any Rule in parsing a con- junction ? — What Rule should be applied in parsing a noun or pronoun connected with another ? — What Rule in parsing a verb agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copu- lative conjunction ? — What Rule when the nouns are connected by a disjunctive ? — In parsing a verb connected to another by a conjunction, what Rule do you apply ? — Is a conjunction ever used as other parts of speech t — Give examples. — What is said of the words fory since, and before f — What is said of the trao*- position of sentences ? or one, fn»m the same rerb, points out whatever is aned, oned, or made one. And also refers to tfa« thing that '\b joined to, added to, or made one with, soma other person or thing mentioned. •* Julius and Harriet will make a happy TMiir." Resolution : " Jnlins, Harriet joined, vuited, or mued, will make a tiajipy pair ;** i. e. Harriet made one with Julius, will make a happy jiair. For means eav»e. Bt-rause — be-caute, is a compound of the verb be, and the noun eante. It. rctniiis the meaning of both ; as, " I bcHeT© the maxim, /or I know it to b« true ;"— •< I believe tho maxtrn, he-taute I know it to bo true ;" i. e. the eans* of mv belief, be, or •«, I know it to bo tnie. Snr is a oontrnctioB of n» or. Ne is a contraction of not, and or, of other. Nor is, not o/Aef^•wi•e : •«/ in the other way or manner. F.fse is tho imperative of aleaan, wnlegt, of ontetan, and U$t, the past part. of IcMan, all signifying to dismiss, release, loossn, set free. " He will be nunii'hed. nnle$M he rei>eut ;" — " Unlets, release, give vp, (the fact) he rei)entii, no will l>« punished." Thoujph is the imperative of the Saxon verb tkafigan, to allow, and yet, of prtan, to get. Yet is simply, get ; ancient g is our modem jr. " Though be slay mo, yet will 1 trust In bfm : — Qrant or allow (tho fact) he slaj ms^ gelf or retain (tba op|x)«ita fiict) I will tiiist iu him." 120 ETYMOLOGY AND BYlfTAJC. QUESTIONS ON Tfffi PHILOSOPHICAL MOTES. From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjnnctions derived f— • What is Home Tooke's opinion of lliat 7 — P'rom what is each of the follow- ing words derived, tkalf if, but, €uuL, because, nor, eUe, unlets, lest, though, mild jfet t ZiECTIJRE X. OF INTERJECTIONS.— CASES OF NOUNS. Interjections are words which express the sud- den emotions of the speaker ; as, " Alas ! I fear for hie ;" " O death ! where is thy sting ?" Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feel- ing. Almost any word may be used as an interjection ; but when so employed, it is not the representative of a distinct idea. A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who wish to speak often, or rather, to make noises^ when they have no use- ful information to communicate, are apt to use words very freely in this way ; such as the following expressions, la, la me, myy O my J O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing, and the like. Interjections not included in the following list, are generally known by their taking an exclamation point after them. A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INXERJECTIONS. 1. Of earnestness or grief ; as, O! oh! ah! alas! 2. Contempt ; as, Pish ! tush ! 3. Wonder; as, Heigh ! really ! strange ! 4. Calling; as, Hem! ho! halloo! 5. Disgust or 'aversion ; as. Fob ! fy ! fudge ! away ! PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. The term Interjection is applied to those inarticulate sounds employed both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but emotions, pas- sions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human bein^rs in groaning, sighin":, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by the aog in barking, pr»>whnff, and whining, by the horse in snorting and neighing, by the sheep m bleating, by tlie cat in mewing, by the dove in cooing, by the duck iu quacking, and by the goose iu hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent by w^orus ; but, as vritten words are the ocular representatives of articidale sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote inarticulate or indistinct noises. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural language ; but they fall bolow the boimds of regiilated speech. Hence, real interjections are not a Dart of written lansxiase. INTERJECTIONf.— ^PARSING. 6. Attention; as, Lo! behold! hark! 7. Requesting silence ; as, Hush! hist! 8. Salutation ; as, Welcome ! hail ! all hail ! NoT«. W« frequently meet with what some call an inttrjective phrase ; w.rh as. Ungrateful wTetch ! impudenco of hope ! folly in the extreme • what ingratitude ! away witli Ijira ! As the intetjection is the least important part of speech in the English language, it will require but little attention. You may, however, make yourself well acquainted with what has been said respecting it, and then commit the SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. The order of parsing an Interjection, is — an interjection, and why ? " O virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " O is an interjection, a word used to express some passion or emotion of the speaker. The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and eluci- dated, although some of them have not been fully explained. Be- fore you proceed any farther, you will please to begin again at the first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observing to parse every example in the exercises systematically. You will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain all the parts of speech. If you study faithfully six hours in a day, and pursue the directions given, you may become, if not a critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in six iceeks ; but if you study only three hours in a day, it will take you nearly three months to acquire the same knowledge. . EXERCISES IN PARSING. True cheermlness makes a man happy in himself, and pro- motes the happiness of all around him. Modesty always appears graceful in youth : it double* the lus- tre of every virtue which it seems tG hide. The meaning of thntc words commonly called interjectioai, i* •aaily showw by tracing them to their root*. PUk and p»kaw are the Anglo-Saxon paee^ paeea ; and are •quivalent Xm tmmperjf ! u e. tromperie, from tromptr. Fy or Ae \% the impeiativc,/o«, the part teaae, Kodfok or /augk, the past port, of the Saxon yerb/«fi. to hate. /^ ia the imperative of look. Halt is die hnperatiTo of kealdtn, to hold. FarrtrtU—'fare'iteU, \m a compound of fa ran, to go, and llie adverb vffU. It Dieans, to ito well. Welcowu — veil-come, signifies, it is well that you are <-r>Mc. Adiem. ooaaea (rom the French « SHtu, to God ; meaning, I commend ynu to God» 128 BTTMOLOGT AND SYNTAX . He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him through the labyrinth of the most busy life. The king gave me a generous reward for committing that bar. barous act ; but, alas ! I fear the consequence. E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, I set me down a pensive hour to spend ; And, placed on high, above the storm 'a career, Look downward where a hundred realms appear : — Alas ! the joys that fortune brings, Are trifling, and -decay; And those who mind the paltry things, More trifling still than they. Note. In the second ■entence of the foregoing exercises, which is gov. emed by the verb to hid^, according to Rulk 16. He i« nom. to carries; who is nom. to plaiu. FoUotr* agrees with tcho nnderHtood, aiid is conuected to plant by and ; Rul« 34. What did the king give ? A reward to me. Then reward is in the of>j. c&se, gov. by gave; Rulk 20. Me is gov. by to understood; (^otk 1, Rule 32. The phrase, comntitting that barbarovt act, is gov. by for; Note 2, under Rulb 28. Hour is in uic ohj. case, gov. by totpend; Rolx 20. Look is connected to.$et hy and; Rule 34. Joys w nom. to are. That is gov. by brings; Rulk 16. Those is nom. to are imderstood. They is nom. to are understood ; Rulk 35. CASES OF NOUNS. In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive explanation of the cases of nouns ; and, as they are, in many situations, a little difficult to be ascertained, I will now oflTer some remarks on this subject. But before you proceed, 1 wish you to parse all the examples in the exercises just presented, observing to pay particular attention to the remarks in the subjoined Note. Those remarks will assist you much in analyzing. . A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines after the noun. You must exercise your judgment in this mat- ter. Look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning with, " He who, every morqing," &c. and see if you ean find the verb to which he is nominative. What does he do ? He carries on a thread, dec. iZe, then, is nominative to the verb carries. What does taJio do ? Who plans, and who foUmos, &c. Then w?io is nom. to plans, and who understood, is nominative to follcnos, " A soul without reflection, like a pile " *' Without inhabitant, to ruin runs." In order to find the verb to which the noun smd, in this sen- tence, is the nominative, put the question ; What does a soul irithout reflection do l Such a soul runs to ruin, like a pile with HOM. CAEB INDEPENDEirf, — ^ABSOLUTS. 129 out inhabitant. Thus you discover, that soul is nominative to rwis. When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their natural order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before the verb, and the objective, after it ; but when the words of a sentence are transposed ; that is, not arranged according to their natural order, it frequently happens, that the nominative comes ajlcry and the objective, ie/are the verb; especially in poetry, or when a question is asked : as, " Whence arises the misery of the present world ? " " What good tlung shall \ do to inherit eternal life?" Put these expressions in the declarative form, and the nominative will precede^ and the objective follow its verb : thus, ** The misery of the present world arises whence • I shall do what good thing to inherit eternal life." " Now came still evening on, and twilight gray " Had, in her sober livery, all things clad." " Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid lore "With patience many a year she bore." What did the evening do ? The evening came on. Gray twi- light had clad what ? Twilight had clad all things in her sober livery. Evenings then, is nom. to came^ and the noun things is in the objective case, and gov. by had clad : Rule 20. What did she bear? She bore thy rigid lore with paticnce,/or, or dwr- ingy many a year. Hence you find, that lore is in the objective case, and governed by bore, according to Rule 20. Year is gov. by during understood: Rule 32. A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in the objective, and governed by a verb understood ; as, " Lo, [there is\ the poor Indian ! whose untutoi'ed mind." " O, the pain \there is!\ tlie hliss [ihtrtis^ in dying!" "All were sunk, but the wakeful nigluingale [was not sunk"] " He thought as a sage [tJiinkSf] though he felt as a man [feels.'*] " His hopes, immor- thl, blow them by, as dust [is blown by."] Rule 35 applies to' those last three examples. In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and pronouns which have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes a noun or pronoun may be in the nominative case when it has no verb to agree with it. OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. Whenever a direct address is made, the person or thing spoken /o, is in the nommative case inde- pendent; as, ^* James, I desire you to study." 130 « ETYMOLOOr AND BTNTAI. You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to Jamet, tliat is, I speak to him ; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, either expressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative ; therefore you know that James is in the nom. case independent, according to Rule 5. Recollect, that whenever a noun is of the second person^ it is in the nom. case independent ; that is, inde- pendent of any verb ; as, Selmay thy halls are silent ; Love and meekness, my lord^ become a churchman, better than ambition ; () Jerusalem^ Jerusalem^ how often would I have gathered thy children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under her wings, but ye would not! — For a farther illustration of this case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax. NoTB. When a pronoun of the teeond person \b in apposition with a noun independent, it is in the same case; as, " Tkou traitor, I detest thee." OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, without any verb to agree with it, is in the nomi- native case absolute ; as, " The sun being risen, we pursued our journey." Sun is here placed before the participle " being risen," and has DO verb to agree with it ; therefore it is in the nominative case absolute, according to Rule 6. NoTi 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is al- ways of the second person ; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of the tktr.t person. 2. The case absolute is always nominative; the following sentence is tbeiofbre incorrect ; " Whose top shall tremble, kim descending," &c. ; it should be, he descending. OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION. Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the same person or thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case ; as, " Cicero, the great orator, philosopher, ant' statesman of Rome, was murdered by Antony." opposition, in a grammatical sense, means something added, or names added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the sense of the first name mentioned. You perceive that Cicero, in the preceding example, is merely the proper name of a man ; but when I give him the three' addi- tional appellations, and call him a great orator, philosopher, and s'xitesman, you understand what kind of a man he was ; that is, CASBS OF NOTJNS. — FARSITW. 131 by giving him these three additional names, his character and abilities as a man are more fully made known. And, surely, you cannot be at a loss to know that these four nouns must be in the same case, for they are all names given to the same person ; therefore, if Cicero was murdered, the orator was murdered, and the philosopher was murdered, and the statesmari'wtia murdered, because they all mean one and the same person. Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in apposition ; as. He struck Charles the student. Now it is obvi- ous, that, when he struck Charles, he struck the student, because Charles was the student, and the student was Charles ; therefore the noun student is in the objective case, governed by " struck," and put by apposition with Charles, according to Rule 7. Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and syste- matically. PARSING. ** Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore." Maid is a noun, the name of a person— com. the name of a sort — fem. gender, it denotes a female — second pers. spoken to — aing. num. it implies but one — and in the nominative case inde- pendent, because it is addressed, and has no verb to agree with it, according to RuLB 5. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun ad- dressed, is put in the nominative case independent. " The general being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to depart." General is a noun, the name, 6ic. (parse it in full :) — and in the nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle " being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to Rule 6. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative case absolute. " Thou man of God, flee to the land of Judah." Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it personates " man " — second pers. spoken to — mas. gender, sing, num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands ; Rule 13. (Repeat the Rule.) — Thou is in the nominative case independent, and put by apposition with man, because it signifies the same thing, according to Rule 7. Two or more nouns, or notms and pronouns, signify^ iMg the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same case. 182 ETYMOLOGT AND SYNTAX. Man is in the nominative case independent, according to Rulo 6. Flee agrees wiih thou understood. "Lo! Newton, priest of Nature, shines afar, "Scans the wide world, and numbers every star." Newton is a q^pun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case to " shines :" Rule 3. Priest is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is the actor and subject of the verb " shines," and put by apposition with " Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule.) EXERCISES IN PARSING. Turn from your evil ways, O house of Israel I Ye fields of lij^ht, celestial plains, yo scenes divinely fair! proclaim your Maker's wondrous power. O king! live forever. The murmur of thy streams, O Lora, brings back the memory of the past. The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath ? Three aged pines bend from its face ; green is the plain at its feet ; there the fiower of the mountain grows, and shakes its white bead in the breeze. The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce having thus got into the legislative body, privilege must be done away. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude being in that place. I being in great haste, he consented. The rain having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. The Son of God, while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the frailties and incon- veniences of human nature, sin excepted j (that is, sin being excepted.) In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha. Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. Come, peace of mind, delightful guest! and dwell with me. Friends, Romans, countrymen, lifid me your ears. Soul of the just, companion of the dead ! Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled ? Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour. There dwelt no joy iri Eden's rosy bower: — The world was sad, the garden was a wild, And. man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled. NoTt. Thoie verbs in Ualies, in the preceding examples, are all in the imperative mood, and second person, agreeing wnth thou, ye, or yon, under- stood. House of Israel is a noun of multitude. Was routed and must be done are passive verbs. Artjled is a neuter verb in a passive form. Ch*ked ]■ tt perfect participle- Till is an adverbial conjunction. MOOnS OV TBRBS. 133 When you shall hare analyzed, systematically, every word in the foregoing exercises, you may answer the following QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. Repeat the list of interjections. — Repeat some interjectJVe phrases. — Repeal the order of parsing an interjection. — In order to find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do you put ? — Give e.xamplcs. — Is the nominative case ever placed after the verb? — When? — Give examples. — Does the objective case ever come before the verb? — Give examples. — Is a noun ever nom. to a verb understood ? — Give examples. — When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent? — Give examples. — Are nouns of the second person always in the nom. case independent ?^ When a pronoun is put by apposition with a noun independent, in what case is it ? — When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case absolute ? — Give examples. — When are nouns or nouns and pro- nouns put, by apposition, in the same case ? — Give examples. — In parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what Rule should -be applied? — In parsing the nom. case absolute, what Rule ? — What Rule in parsing nouns or pronouns in appo- sition ? — Do real interjections belong to written language ? — (Fhil. Notes.) — From what are the following words derived, pishj fi/f lo, halty farewell^ welcome^ adieu / LECTURE XI. . OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an exten sive, knowledge of nine parts of speech ; but you know but little as yet, respecting the most important one of all ; I mean the Verb. I will, therefore, commence this lecture by giving you an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of verbs. Have the goodness, however, first to turn back and read over Lecture II., and rertocl well upon what is there said respccMng the verb ; after which 1 will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and ten.ses, and tlie conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding your- self involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely find an obstruction to impede vour progress. 12 1S4 BTTMOLOOr AWD BTWTAX. I. OF THE MOODS. The Mood or Mode of a verb means the manner in which its action, passion, or being, is represented. When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the declarative or indicatwe mode ; as. The nnan icalks ; but sometimes the action or occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I must not declare it positively, but I must adopt another mode of expression ; thus, iifthe man walk, he will refresh himself with the bland breezes. This second nxxle or manner of representing the action, is cailed the subjunctive or conditional mode. Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to declare a thing, nor to represent the action in a doubtful or con- ditional manner ; but we wish to command some one to act. We tlien use the imiperatioe or co m ma n ding mode, and say. Walk, sir. And when we do not wish to oomroand a man to act, we some- times allude to his power or obiBty to act. This fourth nwde of representing action, is called the potential mode ; as. He can walk ; He could walk. The iif\h and last mode^ called the v^initive or unlimited nKxie, we employ in expressing action in an unlimited manner ; that is, without confining it, in respect to num- ber and person, to any particular agent ; as, To walk, to ride. Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner of represent- ing the action, passion, or being of a verb, must vary according to the different intentions of the min(f. Were we to assign a particular name to every change in the mode or manner of representing action or being, the number of moods in our language would amount to many hundreds. But this principle of division and arrangement, if followed out in de- tail, would lead to great perplexity, without producing any ben- eficial result. The division of Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, is much more curious than instructive. He has fourteen moods ; his interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive, precnuHve, requisi- five, enunciatire, &c. But as far as philosophical accuracy and the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned, it is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. I am not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against it ; but what arrangement cannot be objected to ? There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the Subjunctive, the Imperative the Potential, and the Infinitive. The Indicative Mood simply indicates or de- MOODS OP ySRB9. 185 dares a thing ; as, " He writes ;" or it asks a que»- tion ; as, " Does he write ? Who wrote that ? " .The term indicativet comes from the Latin indico, to declare. Hencc,the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to declare things, whether positively or negatively ; thus, positively, He came with me ; negatively. He came not with me. But in order to avoid a multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and use the indicative mood in asking a question ; as, Who came with you? The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative in conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in order. This mood, however, differs materially from the indica- tive in sense ; therefore you ought to make yourself well ac- quainted with the nature of the indicative, before you commence with the subjunctive. The Subjunctive Mood expresses action, pas- sion, or being, in a doubtful or conditional manner : or, When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses a condition, doubt, motive, wish, or supposition, it is in the Subjunctive Mood ; as, " If he study, he will improve ; I will respect him, though he chide me ; He will not be pardoned, unless he repent ; Had he been there, he would have conquered f (that is, if he had been there.) The conjunctions if, though, unless, in the preceding examples, press condition, doubt, &c. ; therefore, the verbs study, ekide, repent, and had been, are in the subjunctive mood. Note 1. A verb in tliis mood is generally attended by anotlier rerb in ■ome other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the preceding example*, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the fiurth, a verb in the potential. 2. Whenever the conjunctions if, though, vnlrs$, except, vhether, lest, or any orhrn*. tlnnote contuigencv or doubt, the verbs that follow thi'in are in tliA ^ .• ni4Mid ; a». " If he ride out everv day, his health will proba- bly that is. if he shall or should ri«lo out hereafter. But whon llii tns do not imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follnw tli.>m ;ir.» in the or some other mcMnl ; as. " Though he r»e charitable." I could deceive, is in iho ]K>lfulial ; If I could deceive, is in the subjunctive mood. 2. The {X)teutiiil mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking a ques- tion ; as, " May I go f Could you underttand him T Must we die 7" The Infinitive Mood expresses action, passion, or being, in a general and unlimited manner, having, no nominative, consequently, neither person nor number ; as, " To speak, to walk.'^^ Infiniiive means uncon/ined, or unlimited. This mood is called the infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nom- inative. A verb in any other mood is limited ; that is, it must agree in number and person with its nominative ; but a verb in this mood has 7io nominative, therefore, it never changes its termi- nation, except to form thb perfect tense. Nonrs to •ettle down into the hacknoyed truism, that the passive verbs, annio langtmgea, are f<»nned by inflections, or i. either prefixed or postfized, and of other language*, by the ai>.^' . ii .. i auxiliary verba, which bavo not jet l>e«n contrscted and made to ooaleic* 188 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. to wnUj the infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) may be employed in the same manner. II. OF THE TENSES. Tense means time. Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future tenses. The Present Tense represents an action or event as taking place at the time in which it is men- tioned ; as, " I smile ; I see ; I am seenJ*^ NoTK 1. The prewnt tense is also ased in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermissions, to the present tune ; as, " He ride* out everj morning." 2. This tense is aometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long unce dead; at, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well ; An honest man is the noblest work of God." 3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, when, before, after, eu soon as, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the relatire time of a future action ; as, " When he arrives we shall hear the news." The Imperfect Tense denotes a past action or event, however distant ; or. The Imperfect Tense represents an action or event as past and finished, but witliout defining the precise time of its completion ; as, " I loved her for her modesty and virtue ; They were travelling post when he met them." In these examples, the verbs laced and met express past and flushed actions, and therefore constitute a perfect tense as strictly as any form of the verb in our language ; but, as they do not as terminations. The auxiliary, when contracted into a terminating syllable, retains its diatiuct and intrinsic meaning, as much as when associated with a verb by juxtapogition : consequently, an " auxiliary verb" may form a part of a mood or tens«, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a terminating syllable. They who contend for the ancient custom of keeping the auxilia- ries distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the same principle, bound to extend their dissecting-knife to every compound word in the language. Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of the theory which recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs, formed by the aid of auxiliaries. I shall now ofter one argument to show that this theory, and this only, will subserve tlie purposes of the practical grammarian. As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the exact meauin^ of single and separate words, as it is to teach the student to com- bine and employ them properly in framing sentences, and as those combina- tions which go by the name of compound tenses and passive verbs, are ne- cessary ia writing and discourse, it follows,- conclusively, that that theory TENSES. 139 define the precise time of the completion of these actions, their tense may properly be denominated an indefinite past. By de- fining the present participle in conjunction with the verb, we have an impejfect tense in the expression, were travelling. This course, however, would not be in accordance with the ordinary method of treating the participle. Hence it follows, that the terms im- perfect and perjecty as applied to this and the next succeeding tense, are not altogether significant of their true character ; but if you learn to apply these tenses correctly ^ the propriety or im- propriety of their names is not a consideration of very great moment. The Perfect Tense denotes past time, and also conveys an allusion to the present ; as, " I have fin- ished my letter." The verb Jiave finished^ in this example, signifies that the action, though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the pres- ent. Under this view of the subject, the term perfect may be properly applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the com- pletion of the action, but, also, alludes to the particular period of its accomplishment. The Pluperfect Tense represents a past action or event that transpired before some other past .time specified ; as, " I had finished my letter before my brother arrived." You observe that the verb had finished, in this example, repre- sents one past action, and the arrival of my brother, another past action ; therefore had finished is in the pluperfect tense, because which does not explain these rerbs in their combined ^tate, cannot teach the •tmlent the correct use and application of the Terbs of our language. By •uch an arrangement^.he cannot leani when it is proper to um> the phrases, ahaJl have walked, mighi have gone, have teen, instead of, $hall valk, might go, and $aw ; because this theory has nothing to do with the cnmhining of verbs. If it be alleged, that the speaker or writer's own good sense nrnst gnide him in combining these verbs, and, then^fore, that the directions of the grammarian are unnecessary, it must be recollected, that snrh an argument would bear, equally, airainst every principle of grammar whatever. In short, the t' ' *^ - - - 1 iTid tenses, and of the passive vorb. appears to he so f MIS of our language, and so pnictic-ally ini{x)rtapt to til " th<> engines of the paralogistic spcculutor, and the pltiUxMtphical i|ui i^ter it down. But the most plan- ii to the old theory it, that it is encumbered with much useless teciiniciwity and tedioiu prolixity, which are avoided by Cb« fimpts prooMi of exploding die peasive verb, and reducing the number of 146 ETYMOLOOT AWD BFNTAX. the action took place prior to the taking place of the other past action specified in the same sentence. The First Future Tense denotes a future action or event; as, "I will finish ; I shall 'finish my letter." The Second Future Tense represents a future action that will be fully accomplished, at or before the time of another future action or event ; as, " ] shall have finished my letter when my brothei arrives." This example clearly shows you the meaning and the propei use of the second future tense. The verb " shall have finished' implies a future action that will be completely finished, at oi before the time of the other future event denoted by the phrase " when my brother arrives.^* NoTK. What is mmetimes called tho Inceptive future, is expressed thus " I am pjjiug to vftite;*^ " I am about to write.'* Future time is also indi cated by pbiciug the iiifiuitive present immediately after the indicative prea ent of the verb to be ; thus, " I am to write ;" " Harrison is to be, or ough to be, commander in chief;" '* Harrison is to command the army." You may now read what is said respecting the moods and ten ses several times over, and then you may learn to eonjtigate t verb. But, before you proceed to the conjugation of verbs, yoi will please to commit the following paragraph on the Auxilian verbs, and, also, the stgiu of the moods and tenses ; and, in con jugating, you must pay particular attention to the manner ii which these signs are applied. OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. Auxiliary or Helping Verbs are those by the help of which the English verbs are principally con- the moods to three, and of the tenses to two. It is certain, however, that ij we reject the namet of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the name of the potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writin{ and. discourse we must still employ those verbal combinations which fom them ; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of employing sucl combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the old theory, which name them, as by the new, which gives them no name. On philosophical principles, we might, p>erhap8, dispense with the futnr tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately ; but, as illustratod oi page 79, the coml)ined words which form our perfect and pluperfect tense Lave an asxoriafed meaning, which is destroyed by analyzing each word sepa rately. That arrangement, therefore, which rejects these tenses, appears t« he, not only vnpMlosopkieal, but inconsistent and inaccurate. For the satisfaction of those toachers who prefer it, and for Iheir adop SIGNS OP THB HOODS AND TENSES. 141 jugaled. May, can, must, might, could, would, should, and shall, are always auxiliaries ; do, be, have, and will, are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes prin- cipal verbs. The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conju gation. SIGNS OF THE MOODS. The Indicative Mood is known by the sense, or by its having no sign, except in asking a question ; as, "Who /oi;c5 you?" The conjunctions if, though, unless, except, wheth- er, and lest, are generally signs of the Suojurictive ; 2LS, ^^ If I love; unless I /oi;c," &;c. A verb is generally known to be in the Impero' five Mood by its agreeing with thou, or ye or you, understood ; as, " Love virtue, Bud follow her steps ;" that ir, love thou, or love ye or you ; follow thou, &c. May, can, and must, might, could, would, and should, are signs of the Poteiitial Mood ; as, " I may love ; I mu^t love ; I should love," &c. To is the sign of the Infinitive ; as, " To love, to smile, to hate, to walk." SIGNS OF THE TENSES. The first form of the verb is the sign of the pre- sent tense ; as, love, smile, hate, walk, lion, too, a modernize*! phihsophieal theory of the moods and tenses is here prew«nted. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they need not hesitate to auopt it. It has the advantage of being nrw ; ana, moreover, it sounds Uirife, and will make the eommonalty stare. Let it be distinctly understiKKl, that you Xcach *^ vhilotophical f^ammar, founded on reason and common tente" and you will pass for a very learned man, and make all the gotxl houKewives wonder at the rapid uiarch of intellect, and the TMt impruvemcuts of tlie age. MOOD. VerlM have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly ia* eluded under the indicative, the gfihjunctive, and the potential,) the impera* tive, and the infiuitive.-— For definitions, refer to the body of the work. TKNSK OR TIME. Verbs have only two tenses, the present and tlie pa.tt. A verb expresMuig action commenced and not compIeteli::i ^ 13 146 ITYMOLOGT AlfD STIfTAX. junctive mood, a conjunction implying doubt, 6tc. \a prefixed to the verb. In the second future tense of this mood, the verb is conjugated thus: Second Future Tense. Singular. Plural. 1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 2. If thou shah have loved, 2. If you shall have loved, 3. If he shall have loved. 3. If tney shall have loved. Look at the same tense in the indicative mood*, and you will readily perceive the distinction between the two conjugations. Impeeatitb Mood. Singular. PInral. 2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, or thou love. do ye or you love. NoTB. We cannot command, exhort, ^. either in past or future time ; tierefore a verb in tliia mood is always iu the preseTtt teuae. Potential Mood. Present Tense. Singular. PhtraJ. 1. I may, can, or must love, 1. We may, can, or must love, 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or love, must love, S. He may, can, or must love. 3. They may, can, or must love. Imperfect Tense. Singular. Plural. 1, I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or should love, should love, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or shouldst love, would, or should love, 8. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, should love. or should love. Pel feet Tense. ' Singular. * Plural. 1. 1 may, can, or must have 1. We may, can, or must have loved, loved, 2. Thou mayst, canst, or must 2. Ye or you may, can, or have loved, must have loved, S He may, can, or roust 3. They may, can, or must have loveo. have loved. CONJUGATION Of VERBS, 147 Pluperfect Tense. Shigular. Plural. 1. I might, fcoulJ, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or should have luved, should have loved, 9. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, wouldst, or ahouldst would, or should have have loved, loved, 8. He might, could, would, 3. They might, ctJuld, would, or should have loved. or should have loved. By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through thiswiood, you vill find it very easy; thus, you will notice,that whenever any of the auxiliaries, may, canj or must, is placed before a verb, that verb is in the potential mood, present tense ; miglU, could, would, or should, fenders it in the potential mood, imperfect tense ; may, can, or must have, the perfect tense ; and might, could, would, or should have, the pluperfect tense. Infinitive Mood. Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved. Participles. Present or imperfect, Loving. Perfect or passive, Loved. Compound, Having loved. Note. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly with the imperfect tense ; yet the former may, at all times, be distinguished from the latter,* by the following nile : In composition, the imperfect tense of a ▼erb always has a numiuaUve, either expr«ssed or implied : the perfect par- ticiple nevtr has. For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when you shall have learned to conjugate the verb to love, you will be able to conjugate all the regular verbs in the English language, for they are all conjugated precisely in the same manner. By pursuing the following direction, you can, in a very short time, learn to conjugate any verb. Conjugate the verb love through all the moods and tenses, in the first person singular, with the pronoun / before it, and speak the Participles : thus. Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I love, imperf. tense, I loved • perf. tense, I have loved : and so on, through every mood ar. tense. Then conjugate it in the second pers. sing, with the pro- noun thou before it, through all the moods and tenses; thus. In die. mood, pres. tense, second pers. sing, thou lovest ; imporf. tense, thou lovedst : and so on, through the whole. After that conjugate it in the third pers. sing, with he before it ; and then in the first pers. plural, with we before it, in like manner through all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure mny 148 KTTMOLOOY UfD STITTAX. At first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseve- rance, induces me to recommend any course which I know will lend to facilitate your progress. When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may conjugate the following verbs in the same manner; wTiich will enable you, hereafter, to tell the mood and tense of any verb without hesiTation : walk, hate, smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate melt, shun, fail. LECTIJRI] XTT OF IRREGULAR VERBS. Irregular verbs are those that do not form their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the present tense ; as, Pret. Tente Imperf. Tetue Perf. or Past. Part. I write 1 wrote written I begin I began begun Igo I went gone The following is a list of the irregular verb*. Tho«e marked with an R ■re sometimea conjugated regularly Pre*. Terute. Imperf. Tente. Perf. or Past. Part. Abide abodr abode Am was ^been AriM arose arisen Awak« awoke, B awaked Bear, to hHng forth bars bom Bear, to carry bore borne Beat beat beaten, beat Begin Degan begun Bend bent bent Bereave bereft, R. bereft, R. Beseech besought bade,l)id besought Bid bidden, bid Bind bound bound Bite bit bitten, bit Bleed bled bled Blow - blew Mown Break broke broken Breed bred bred Brinff Build brought brought built built Burst burst, R. burst. R. Bny bought boii5jrht IRREGULAE VERBS. 140 Prt§. Ttm9§, Imperf. Tetue. Perf. or Pau, Pmri. C«M cast cast Catch caught, R. chid caught, R. chidden, chid Chide Chooae chose chosen CleaTe, to adhere clave, R. cleaved Cleave, to tplU cleft or clove cleft, cloven Cling Clothe clung clothed clung clad, R. Come came come Coat cost cost Crow crew,R. crowed Creep crept crept Cut cut cut Dare, to venture durst dared Dare, to challenge Reoumr Deal dealt, R. dealt, R. B? &«■ dug, R. done Draw drew drawn Drive drove driven Drink drank drunk, drank,* DweU dwelt, R. dwelt, R. l-:at eat, te eaten KaU fell fallen Feed fed fed Keel felt felt Fiuht fought foTight Find found found Flee fled flt-a Fling flung flung Fly flew flown Forget forgot forgotten Forsake forsook forsaken Freese froze frozen (iel got g"tt Gild gilt,R. gilt, R. Gird ghrt,R. girt, R. Give gave given, Go went gone Grave graved graven, R. Grind ground Grow Have Sd" ^r Hang hung, R. hung, R. ■ }le»r heanl heanl Hew hewed hewn, R. Hide hid hidden hid Hit hit hit Hold held held Hurt hart hurt Keep kept kept Knit knit^R. knit,R. * The men were dnmk ; i. e. inebriated. The toasts were drank. \ QoUaa k xuemAf obtdMU* It* compoimd forgotten, is still in good 150 «TVM0LO«r AKD STWTAX. PTt$. TtfUM Tmperf TVsM. Perf, or Pan. PaH. Know knew known Lado laded laden Uy laid laid T.nnd led led Leave left left Lend lent lent * Lot let let Lie. to tit down i«r lain Load loaded laden, R. LOM loat lost Make mMie made Meet met met Mow mowed mown. R. ray paid paid Put put pat Read {«ad read Keod reot rent Rid rid rid Ride rode rode.riddeB« Ring rung, rang, rung Riite rose risen Mro rived nven Run nn ran Saw aawed sawn,E. Say . «id ■aid See - WW •een Seek SeU sr sr Send •ent •ent Set ■et set Shake •hook shaken Shape •baped shaped, shapen Shave shaved shaven, R. Shear •heared shorn Shed abed shed Shine shone, R shone, R Show showed shown Shoe shod shod Shoot shot shot Shrink shnmk shrunk Shred shred shred Shut shut shut Sing sung, sang.f sunk, 8ank,t sung sunk Sit sat set Slay slew slain Sleep ff slept sliddem Slide Slin- Slink slung, Bhnik slang sltii^ Slit slit, R. 8lit,R • Ridden is nearly obsolete. t Sang and sank sQiouId not be used in familiar s^le. lEREGULAR YBKM. 161 Prtt. Tenae. Imperf. Tem»e. Perf. or PeDd Bj>eiit spent 8(Hll spilt, a. spilt, R. Spia spun spun 8pit spit, spat spit, spitten,* Split split split Spread spread spread Spring spruHg, sprang spnmg Stand stood stood Steal stole stolea Stick stuck stuck Stirij^ stung stunk stunff stunk Stink Stride strode, strid stridden Strike struck struck or stricken Striug •trung stnmg Strive «|6>e striven Strow or strew strewed or strewed < strown, strowed, I or sln»wed Sweat swet, B. swet, R. Swear swore sworn Swell •welled swollen, R. Swim swum, swam swum Swing swung swung Take took taken Teach taught taught Tear tore torn Tell told told Think thought thought Thrive throve, B. thriven Throw threw thrown • rhrurt tlirust thrust Tread trod trcnlden Wax waxed waxen, R. Wear wore worn Weave WOT0 woven Wet wet wet.R. YUr? wept wept Win won won Wind IKTOUnd wound W(,rk wrought, worked wrought, worked jj;'-!"? wrung wniiij^ Write wrote written. In faiiifliar wntuig and discourse, the following , and flonie otlier verbs, are often ita[ properly tenninat*Ht by t instead of ed ; a.\ "learnt, spelt, spilt. •topt, la'-chu" they should lie, " learned, spelled, spilled, stopjwd, latched." You may now colli ii^at«» tlio following irregular verbs, in a manner similar to the ccmju^ation of r epul ar verbs : arise, hegin^ bhtdf do, , go, grow, run, lend, teach, write. Thus, to arise — Indicative Spitten is nearly obsoleia. 163 ETYMOLOGT AlfD STNTIX. mood, pres. tense, first pcrson,sing. I arise ; imperf. tense, I arose ; perf. tense, I have arisen, and so on, through all the moods, and all the tenses o( each mood ; and then speak the participles : thus, pres. arising, perf. arisen, comp. having arisen. In the next place, conjugate the same verb in the second person sing, through all the mootls and tenses; and then in the third person sing, and uv the first pers. plural. After that, you may proceed in the Bame manner with the words begin, hind, &c. Now read the eleventh and twelfth lectures fmtr or Jive times over, and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be prepared to parse the following verbs in full ; and I presume, all the other parts of speech. Whenever you parse, you must refer to the Compendium for definitions and rules, if you cannot repeat them without. I will now parse a verb, and describe all its pro- perties by applying the definitions and rules according to the systematic onder. *' We could not accomplish the business." Covld accomplish is a verb, a word which signifies to do — active, it expresses action — transitive, the action passes over from the nom. " we" to the object "business" — regular, it will form its imperfect tense of the indie, mood and perf part, in ed — poten- tial mood, it implies possibility or power — imperfect tense, it de- notes past time however distant — first pers. plural, because the nom. " we " is with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule 4. A verb must agree, &c. Conjugated — Indie, mood, present tense, first pers. sing. I accomplish; imperfect tense, I accomplished; perfect, I have acconlplished ; pluperfect, I had accomplished; and so on. — Speak it in the person of each tense through all the moods, and conjugate, in the same manner, every verb you parse. EXERCISES IN PARSING. These e'xereiscs contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses. I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou Icarnest thy Icsswi badly. John, do you write a good hand ? Those ladies wrote a beautiful letter, but they did not despatch it. Have you seen the gentleman. to whom I gave the book ? He has gone. They had received the news before the messenger arrived. When will those persons return ? My friend shall receive his reward. He will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow. If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies he does not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished his work by midsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, obey my precepts, unless you wish to injure yourself. Remem- ber what is told you. The physician may administer the medi- AFXILIART VERBS. 153 cine, but Providence only can bless it. I told him that might go, but he would not. He might have gone last week, had he conducted himself properly ; (that is, if he had conducted, &c.) Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let me hear you repeat what you have learned. Study,diligently, whatever task may be allotted to you. To correct the spirit of discontent, let us consider how little we deserve. To die for one's country, i.s glorious. How can we become wise ? To seek God is wis- dom. What is true greatness ? Active benevolence. A good nidh is a great man. NoTK 1. Man, fulIowiDg great, and what, in tho last two examples, are n«»m. after w : Rulk 21. To seek Ood, and to die /or one's country, are mcm- heni of sentences, each put as the nom. ca^e to it respectively: Rule 24. Tbo verb to correct is the infinitive mood absolute : Note imder Role 23. May be allotted is a passive verb, agreeing with ickieh, the relative part of whatever. That, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoim, agreeing with f'isk; and taak is governed by study. Hear, following let, and repeat, follow- ing hear, are in the infinitive mood without the sign to, according to Rule 2.'i. To recite is govenied by prepare : Rule 23. /* told, is a passive verb, agreeing wiih which, the relative part of whatever; and you, following, ii govemetl by to understood : Note 1, mider Rule 32. 2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noim for which it stands iA not expreaaed, you must my it represents some person or thing miderstood. LECTURE XIII. OF THK AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. I. AUXILIARY VERBS. Before you attend to the following additional remarks on the Au.xiliary Verbs, you will do well to read again what is said respecting them in Lecture XI. page 140. The short account there given, and their application in conjugating verbs, have already made them quite familiar to you ; and you have undoubt- edly observed, that, without their help, we cannot conjugate any verb in any of the tenses, except the present and imperfect of the indicative and subjunctive moods, and the pre.sent of the imf)era- tivo and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses, they are brought into requisition. Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugation ; that is, they are used only in some of the moods and tenses ; and when unconnected with principal verbs, they are conjugated in the following manner: MAY. r'io«. ( Sittg. I may. thou maytt, he may Tvuse. I Plur. We may, yo or you may, tney may. IM KTTMOLOGY AND STNTAI. Imperf. Teuaei Pre*. TeoM. Imperf TODM. Pros 'I'""n*a ]iii[)erf Teaae. Pies. Teuse. Imfierfl Teuse. Pros. TCTISO. Imperf. Teu*e. Pre«. Tenae. Imperf. Teuse. { Sinff. I might, Uioa mightst, he might I Plur. W© might, ye or you might, they might CAN. Pres. Tense. Imperf. Tense. 5 l>ing. I can, thou canst, he Plur. J Sinff. \ Ptur. \ Sing. > Plur. lur. We can, ye or you can, they can. £^111^. I could, thou couldst, he could. We could, ye or you could, they could. WILL. I will, thou wilt, he wiU. We will, ye or you will, they wilL I would, thou wouldst, he would. We would, ye or you would, they would SHALL. < Sing. I shall, thou shalt, he shall. I Plur. We shall, ye or you shall, they shall. < Sing. I should, thou shouldst, he should. I Plur. We sliould, ye or you should, they should. TO DO. ( Sing. I do, thou dost or doest, he doth or does. I Plur. We do, ye or you do, they do. < Sing. I did, thou didst, he did. ( Plur. We did, ye or you did, they did. PariieipUt. Pros. dobg. Perf. done. TO BE. ( Sing. I am, thou art, he is. I Plur. We are, ye or you are, they are. ( Sing. I was, thou wast, he was. I Plur. We were, ye or you were, they were. • ParlieipUs. Pres. being. Perl. "been. TO HAVE. < Sing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has. I Plur. We hare, ye or you have, they have. ( Sing. T had, thou hadst, he had. ( Plur. We had, ye or you liad, they had. Participles. Pres. having. Perf. had. Do, hty ^ve, and will, are sometimes used as principal rerbs; and when employed as such, do, he, and have, may be conjugated, by the help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and tenses. Do. The different tenses of do, in the several moods, are thus formed : Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I do ; im- perfect tense, I did ; perf. I have done; pluperfect, I had done; first future, I shall or will do ; sec. fut. I shall have done. Sub- junctive mood, pres. tense, If I do ; imperf. if I did ; and so on. Imperative mood, do thou. Potential, pres. I may, can, or mus do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do; perf. to have done. Pai** AUXILIAIY VERBS. 155 Hays. Hate is in great demancL No verb can be conju- gated through all the moods and tenses without it. Have, when used as a principal verb, is doubled in some of the past tenses, and becomes an auxiliary to itself; thus, Indie, mood, pros, tense, first pcrs. sing, I have ; imperf. tense, I had ; perf. I have had ; pluperf. I had had; first fut. I shall or will have; sec. fut. I shall have had. Subjunctive, present, if I have ; imperf. if 1 had ; perf. if I have had ; pluperf. if I had had ; first fut. if I shall or will have ; sec. fut. if I shall have had. Imper. mood, have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have ; imperf. I might, could, would, or should have ; perf. I may, can, or must have had ; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should have had. Infinitive, present, to have ; perf. to have had. Participles, pres. having ; perf. had ; compound, having had. Be. In the ndxt place I will present to you the conjugation of the irregular, neuter verb. Be, which is an auxiliary whenever it is placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in every other situation, it is a principal verb. To Be. — Indicative Mood. Pres. ( Sinf. I am, thou art, he, she, or it \». Tense. ( Plur. We are, ye or you are, they are. Imperf. ( Sing. I waa, thou wast, he was. Tense. \ Plur. We were, ye or you were, they were. I'erf. ( Sing. I have been, thou hast been, he hath or has been. Tei\8e. \ Plur. We have been, ye or you have been, they have been. Plup. ( Sing. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been. Tense. \ Plur. We had been, ye or you had been, they had been. First < Sing^ I shall or will be, thou shalt or wilt be, he shall or will be. Fut. T. I Plur. We shall or will be, you shall or will be, they shall or will bo Second ( Sing. I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been. Fut. T. I Plur. We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been. SuaniNCTivB Mood. Pres. C Sing. If I be, if thou be, if he be. Tf>n»e. I Plur. If we be, if ye or you be, if they be. Imperf. ( Sing. If I were, if thou wert, if ho were. Tense. \ Plur. If we were, if ye or yoii were, if they werw. The neuter verb to he, and all passive verbs, have two forms in the imperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present ; therefore, the following rule may serve to direct you in the proper use of each form. When the sentence implies dOubt, supposi- tion, &c. and the neuter verb be, or the passive verb, is used with a reference to present or futui» time, and is either followed or |)receded by another verb in the imperfect of the potential mood, the conjunctive form of the imperfect tense must be employed ; JUS, " ijr he were here, we should rejoice together ; " " She mighi 160 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. go, leere she so disposed." But when there is no reference to present or future time, and the verb is neither followed nor pre- ceded by another in the potential imperfect, the indicative form of the imperfect tense^ must be used ; as, " If he was ill, he did not make it known ; *' " Whether ho loas absent or present, is a mat- ter of no consequence." The general rule for using the con- junctive form of the verb, is presented on page 145. See, also, page 135. The j>erfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjunctire mood, are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of the indica- tive. The second future is conjugated thus : Second ( Sing. If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall, &c. FuL T. ( Plur. If we shall have lieen, if you shall have been, if they, &c. Imperative Mood. Pres. < Sing. Be, or be thou, or do thou be. Tense. { Plur. Be, or be ye or you, or do ye or you be. PoTEIfTIAL MoOD. ( Sing. I noLf, can, or must be, thou mayst, canst, or must be, he Pres. J may, can, or must be. Tense. M Plur. We may, can. or must be, ye or you may, can, or must be, V, they may, can, or must be. Imperf. ( Sing. I might, could, would, or should be, thou mightst, &c. Tense. \ Plur. We might, could, would, or sliould be, you might, &c. Perf. ( Sing. I may, can, or must have been, thou ranyst, canst, fcc. Tense. \ Plur, We may, can, or must have been, you may, can, or mnsX. 8tM Pluper. < Sing. I might, could, would, or should have been, tliou, &c. Tense. \ Plur. We might, could, would, or should have been, you, &c. Infinitive Mood. Pres. Tense. To be. Perf. Tense. To have been. Participles. Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compound, Having been. This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by far the most important verb in our language, for it is more fre- quently used than any other ; many rules of syntax depend on constructions associated with it, and, without its aid, no passive verb can be conjugated. You ought, therefore, to make yourself perfectly familiar with all its changes, before you proceed any farther. II. PASSIVE VERBS. The cotes lof noiins are a fruitful theme for investigation and discussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has frequently engaged our attention ; and, now, in introducing to your notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both inte- resting and profitable to present one more view of the nominativo case. PASSIVB \rBRB8. • 157 Every sentence, you recollect, must have one finite verb, or more than one, and one notnmaiivey either expressed or implied, for, without thoni, no sentence can exist. ^^ The nominative is the actor or subject ^^^rning which the verb makes an atlirmation. There are three kinds of nomina- tives, active, passivcy and neuter. The nominative to an active verb, is active^ because it produces an action, and the nominative to a passive verb, is passive, be- cause it receives or endures the action expressed by the verb ; for, A Passive Verb denotes action received or en^ durcd by the person or thing which is the nomina- tive ; as, "The hoy is beaten by his father." You perceive, that the nominative boy, in this example, is not represented as the actor, but as the object of the action expressed by the verb is beaten ; that is, the boy receives or endures the action performed by his fath^ ; therefore boy is a passive nom- inative. And you observe, too, that the verb is beaten, denotes the action received or endured by the nominative j therefore is beaten is a passive verb. If I say, John kicked the horse, John is an active nominative, because he performed or produced the action ; but if I say, Johq was kicked by the horse, John is a passive nominative, because he received or endured the action. The nominative to a neuter verb, is neuter, because it does not Jroduce an action nor receive one ; as, John sits in the chair, ohn is here connected with the neuter verb sits, which expresses simply the state of being of its nominative, therefore John is a neuter nominative. I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives by a few examples. I. Of Active Nominatives; as, "The boy beats the dog; The lady sings; The'ball rolls; The man walks." II. Of Pas-sive Nominatives ; as, " The boy is beaten ; The lady is loved ; The ball is rolled ; The man was killed." III. Of Neuter Nominatives ; as, " The boy remains idle ; The lady is beautiful ; The ball lies on the ground ; The man lives in town." You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs. Passive Verbs are called rt^ular when they end in ed ; as, was loved ; was conquered. All Passive Verbs are formed by adding the oer- 14 158 • ETYWOTXKSY AND SYNTAX. feci participle of an active-transitive verb, to the neuter verb to be. If you place a^|Ci:;ct participle of an active-transitive verb after this neuter ^^ubcy in any mood or tense, you will have a passive verb in the same mood and tense that the verb be would be i|i if the participle were not used ; as, I am slighted; I was slighted; He will be slighted; If I be slighted; I may, can, or must be slighted, ^c. Hence you perceive, that when you shall have learned the conjugation of the verb ic, you will be able to conjugate any passive verb in the English language. The regular passive verb to he loved, which is formed by add- ing the perfect participle loved to the neuter verb to i«, is conju- gated in the following manner : To Be Loved. — Indicative Mood. Pre*. ( Sing. I am l«»%'ed, thou art loved, he is loved. Tense. \ Plnr. We are lovetl, ye or you are loved, they are loved. Imperf. ( Sing. I waa loved, thou waat loved, he was loved. Tense. \ Plur. We were loved, ye or you were loved, they were love#. Perfect ( Sing. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved. Tense. \ Plur. We have been loved, you have been loved, tliey have, &c. Pluper. ( Sing. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c. Tqnse. \ Plur. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, Sue. Yvn\ ( Sing. I shall or will Iw loved, thou shalt or wilt be loved, he, &c. F't ire. I Plur. We shall or will be loved, you shall or will be loved, Uiey, &c. Second < Sing. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been »oved, he, &c. Future. \ Plur. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c. SuBJiTNCTivE Mood. Pres. ( Sing. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved. Tense. \ Plur. If we be loved, if ye or you be loved, if they be loved. Imperf. < Sing. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved. Tense. \ Plur. If we were loved, if you were loved, if they were loved. This mood has six tenses : — See conjugation of the verb to be. Imperative Mood. Pres. < Sing. Be thou loved, or do thou be loveaten by that man, he will be punished. Young man, if you ^v ish to be respected, 5^ must be more assiduous. Being ridi- culed and despised, he lefl the institution. He is reading Homer. They are talking. He may be respected, if he become more mgenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honored for his bene- volent deeds. This ought ye to have done. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. All the most important principles of the science, together with many of the rules, have now been presented and illustrated. But before you proceed to analyze the following exercises, you may turn over a few pages, and you will find ail the rules pre- sonted in a body. Please to examine them critically, and parse the examples under each rule and note. The examples, you will notice, are given to illustrate the respective rules and notes under which they are placed ; hence, by paying particular attention to them, you will be enabled fully and clearly to comprehend the meaning and aonlicalion of all the rules and notes. VERBS. PARSING. 161 As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the deji- u.:iofiSy so that you can apply them with facility, you may omit them in parsing ; but you must always apply the rules of Syntax. When you parse without applying the definitions, you may pro- ceed in the following manner : " Mercy is the true badge of nobility.^' Mercy is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, ^uigular number, and in- the nominative case to "is:" Rule 3. The nominative case governs the verb. Is is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, third person, singular number, agreeing with " mercy," according to Rule 4. The verb must agree, &c. The is a definite article, belonging to " badge," in the sin- gular number : Rule 2. The definite article the, dec. True is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to the- noun " badge :" Rule 18. Adjectives belongy &c. Badge is a noun com. neuter gender, third person, singular number, and in the nominative case after "is," and put by appo- sition with " mercy," according to Rule 21. The verb to be may h€^^ the same case after it as before it. Of is a preposition, connecting " badge" and " nobility," and showing the relation between them. Nobility is a noun of multitude, mas. and fern, gender, third person, sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by "of:" Rule 81. Prepositions govern the objective case. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss. What I forfeit for myself is a trifle ; that my indiscretions should reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart. Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the duke of Northumberland. King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and peo- plo of Rome as proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia. Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts ; and from what is loft on record of his actions, he plainly appears to have proved, what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of vio- r nee, cruelty, and blood. M, Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits MOW. I le that formed the ear, can he not hear ? He that hath ears to hear, let him hear. Note 1. Leam, in the first of the precr»din;j f>XRmplos. is a transitive rcrb, becaitAe tho actiou pufwetf over from th« uom. you understood, to the rftt of tk« tenlenct for its objuct t SLvut Hi. In the ooxt example, tUat my indiur^ 14* 162 BTTMOLOOT AND SYTfTAX. tioiu ihmid reach my posterity, ii a part of a sentence pat as the nominati to the verb voundt, according to the same Rule. 2. The noun tacrifire, in liie third example, is nom. after the active-intn titive \crh fell : Rule 22. The noun proprirfort, in the next sentence, is the objective case, and put by apposition with $enaU and people : Rolk or governed by consider, understood, according to Rulk 35. 3. In the fifth example, tpkal, following proved, is a compound relati^ Thing, the antecedent part, is in the nom. case after to be, understood, a; put by apposition with he, according to Bdlx 21, and Notc. Which, t relatiTe part, is m the obj. case after U> be expressed, and put by appositi with Am, according to the same Rolk. Mam is in the obj. case, put by a podtion with which : Rolb 7. The Utter part of* the sentence may be ii rally rendered thus : He plainly appears to nave proved to be that base ehc acter which the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. a man of violence, cruell and blood. The antecedent part of the first what, in the next sentence, governed by hide* ; and which, the relative part, is governed by know nnd« stood. The antecedent part of the second what, is governed by hides undf •tood, and the reUtive part is governed by know expressed. 4. The first he, in the wventh example, is, in the opinion of some, noi to can hear nodentood ; but Mr. N. R. Smith, a distinguished and acu erammarian, soggests die propriety of rendering the sentence thus ; " \ that formed the e^, formed it to hear; can he not hear?" The first he, the last example, is redundant ; yet the construction is sometimes adraissibl for the expression u more forcible tlian it would be to say, " Let him he who hath ean to bear ;" and if we adopt the insenioos method of Mr. ^taM^ tiie sentenoa ia grammatical, and may be rendered thna ; " He tha^a ears, hath ears to hear ; let him hear. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Idioms^ anomaUeSf and intricacies, 1. "The wall is three feet high." 2. " His son is eight years old." 8. " My knife is worth a shilling." 4. " She is worth him and all his connexions,** 5. " He has been there three times" 6. " The hat cost ten dollars." 7. " The load weighs a ttin." 8. " The spar measures ninety feet.^ Rkxarks. — Anomaly is derived from the Greek, a, without, and omafe similar ; that is, without similarity. Some give its derivation thus ; anomal firora the Latin, ab, from, or out of, and norma, a nile, or law, means an on late; a mode of expression that departs from the rules, laws, or gencn oaages of the language ; a construction in language peciiliar to itself. Thu it is a general rule of the laniruage, that adjectives of one syllable are con pared by adding r, or er, and «/, or est, to the positive degree ; but good, be ter, best ; bad, worse, worst, are not compared according to the general rul< They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nouns is general! formed by adding s to the singular : man, men ; woman, women ; child, chi dren ; penny, pence, are anomalies. The use of neics, means, alms, an amends, in the singular, constitutes anomalies. Anomalous constructions ai correct according to custom ; but, as ihey are departures from general rule by them they cannot be analyzed. An idiom, Ijia^n idioma, a construction peculiar to a language, may be a INOMALIES. PARSmO. 168 annmalj, or it may not. An idiomatical expreasion which is not an anomalj, rati lie analyztnl. /Vr/ and ytars. in the l8t,and2(l examples, are nnt in the nominative aAer icconliii" to Rule 21, because they are not in api>o8itinn with the re8|)eo- iivf nouns that prccedo the verb; but the constructions are anoujulous ; and, therefore, no rulf can be applied to analyze them. The same ideas, how ever, can he c(»nvt«>ed by a k'"itiniate constniction which can l)e analyzi?d; thus, "Theheighliiixhe wall Ib three/iff/;" " TYxeage of my son is eight y^ar*.'* An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is eaitily disiiosed of; but some times it is very difficult to decide whether a conntniction is anomalous or not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are gencndly considennl anomalies; but if we supply, as we are, perliaps. warnujted in doing, the associated words which modem refinement has drojipetl, they will cease to Ihj anonuv* lies ; thus, " My knife is of the worth o/ a shilling ;" " — of the worth o/him," ''■ Tie has been there /or three times;" as we say, " I was unwell fo^ V 8, after I arrived;" or, " I was unwell three days." Thus it ap- . it by tracing back, /or a few centuries, what the merely motionable of the three. It ap{)eani to be multiplying ndes iKjj^ond the bounds of utility. The verbs, eo$t, ireiehg, and measures, in the Gth, 7ih, and 8th examples, may be considered as transitive. See remarks on resemble, havtf own, &c., page 56. EXAMPLES. 1. " And God said, * Let there be light,* and there was light." "Let us make man." "Let us bow before the Lord." "Let high-born seraphs tune the lyre." 2. " Be it enacted." " Be it remembered." " Blessed he he that blesseth thee ; and cursed be he that curseth thee." " My soul, turn from them u — turn we to survey," &;c. 3. " Methinks I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive him." " Mcthought I was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep." " I was there just thirty years ago." 4. "Their laws and their manners, generally speakings were extremely rude." " Considering their means, they have efTected much." 5. ".^h me ! nor hope nor life remains.** " Me misoral)!© • which way shall I fly t** 6. " O knppiness ! nur l>eing's end and aim! Ci'Kxl, pleasure, ease, content ! wliate'er thj name. That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh For which we hear to Ihre. or dare to die." — 164 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. The Terb Ut, in the idiomatic examples under number 1, has no nomi live specified, and is left applicable to a noniinutive of the fintt, w^ond, third person, and c*f ■' - ' Every aclion necessarilv <^ a^t or moving f ,, it follows, iliat the verb, in ^ tMMia, has a nomiiia: ,; but as that nominative is uu. j.., ..^w* foinUd out, tlie constnictiuiis may be considered anomalous. Instead of saving, " Let it [to] be enacted ;" or, " It ig or uhall be enactec: ** Let him [to] be blessed ;" or, " He $haU be blessed ;" " Let us turn to s Tcy," &c.; tlie verbs, be enacted, be blessed, tvm, &c. according to an idi( of <»ur language, or •' ''s license, are used in the imperative, agreei ^-ith a nominative ' or third p«rM»i. ^ The phrases, tnr' methoMgkt, are anomalies, in which tlie obj( live pronoun me, in the drst person, is used in place of a nominative, a takes a verb after it in tiio third penion. Him v^-as anciently used m t Mine maimer ; aa, ** Jkm tJkut. lu'ht." There was a period wfa tbeae oonatructioiui ware not :> : our language. Fonnerly, what ^ call the objective caaea of our i-iv...,,.....^. were eniploye. of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52, 57, and 94. The sai principle applies to the interjection. " Inteijections require the objective ct of a pronoim of the first person after them ; but the nominative of a noun pronoun of the second or third per8ed. Poverty, under numl>er 2, is governed by the preposition notwithstanding, Rtile 31. The adjectives wide, soft, white, and deep, under number 3, n«>t v express the quality of nouns, but also oualify verbs: Nolo 4, under 18. — IVhat, in the phrases " what though" and " what if," is an inter- : ^ itive in tlie objective case, and governed by the verb matters understooil, or by tome other verb ; thus, " What matters it — what dost thou fear, though thou see the swelling surse T" " What would you th'uik, if the foot, which is ordained to tread the dust, aspired to bo the Lead 7" In the following examples, the j-ame word is used as several pails of speech. But by exercising judgment sufficient to com- 160 ETYMOLOGT JLND SYNTAX. prehcnd the meaning, and by supplying what is understood, will be able to analyze them correctly. EXERCISES IN PARSING. I like what you dislike. Every creature loves its like. Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful. Charity, like the sun, brightens every object around it. Thought flies swifter than light. He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. Hail often proves destructive to vegetation. I was happy to hail him as my friend. Hail ! beauteous stranger of the wood. The more I examine the work, the better I like it. Johnson is a bett^ writer than Sterne. Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. We may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over'our sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. Much money has been expended. or him to whom much is given, much will be required. It is much belter to give than to receive. Still water runs deep. He labored to still the tumult. Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong. They wrong themselves as well as their friends. I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Par in poetry, as it brings into requisition a higher degree of me exertion than parsing in prose, will be found a more deligl and profitable exercise. In this kind of analysis, in orde come at the meaning of the author, you will find it necessar transpose his language, and supply what is understood ; «nd you will have the literal meaning in prose. EXERCISES IN PARSING. Apostrophe to Hope. — Campbell. Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime Pealed their first notes to sound the march of time, Thy joyous youth began : — but not to fade. — When all the sister planets have decayed ; When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow, And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below ; Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile. And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile! poetry transposed. ^fabsiivo. 167 Transposed. Eternal Hope ! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime [^ neres pealed their first notes to sound the march of time :-^ but it began not to fade. — Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over the ruins, when all the sister planets shall have decayed ; and ihou shalt light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile, when wrapt in flames, the realms of ether glow, and Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below. Address to Adversity. — Gray. Daughter of heaven, relentless power, Thou tamer of the human breast. Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour, The bad affright, afflict the best ! The gen'rous spark extinct revive ; Teach me to love and to forgive ; Exact my own defects to scan : What others are to feel ; and know myself a man. Transposed. Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the human breast, whose iron scourg# and torturing hour affright the bad, and afflict the best ! Revive thou in me the generous, extinct spark ; and teach thou me to love others, and to forgive them ; and teach thou me to scan my own defects exactly, or critically : and teach thou me that which others are to feel ; and make thou me to know myself to be a man. Address to the Almighty .-^Pope. What conscience dictates to bedone. Or warns me not to do, This teach me more than hell to shun, That more than heav'n pursue. Transposed. O Gofi, teach thou me to pursue that (the thing) which con- i''nce dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven ; i teach thou me to shun this (the thing) which conscienpe warns not to do, more cautiously than I would shun hell ^ Trials of Virtue. — Merrick. For see, ah ? see, while yet her ways With doubtful step I tread, A hostile world its terrors raise. Its snares delusive spread. O how shall I, with heart prepared. Those terrors learn to meet? How, from the thousand snares to guard My unexperienced feet ? 168 etymology and syntax. Transposed. For sec thou, ah ! see thou a hostile w/)rM to raise its terro and see thou a hostile world to spread its delusive snares, wh I yet tread her {virttie^s) ways with doubtful steps. O how shall I learn to meet those terrors with a prepar heart ? How shall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet fn the thousand snares of the world ? The Morning in Summer. — Thompson. Short is the doubtful empire of the night ; And soon, observant of approaching day, The meek-eyed mom appears, mother of dews, At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east. Till far o*er ether spreads the widening glow, And from before the lustre of her face White break the clouds away. Transposed. The doubtful empire of the night is short ; and the meek-ey mom, (which is the) mother of dews, observant of approachii day, soon appears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the dappled ea till the widening glow spreads far over ether, and the whi clouds break away from before the lustre of her face. Nature Bountiful. — Akenside. Nature's care, to all her children just. With richest treasures, and an ample state, Endows at large whatever happy man Will deign to use them. Transposed. Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely e dows, with richest treasures and an ample state, that happy mi who will deign to use them. NoTK. What, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The antecedt part is gov. by teach understood ; and the relative part by to feel express* To shun and to jnirsue, in Uie third example, are in the infinitive mood, g( by i^rtn, accord mg to a Note under Rule 23. Faint m\d from, \n the .^ example, are adverbs. An atlverb, in poetry, is often written in the forn^ an adjective. Whatever, in the last sentence, is a comi>ound pronoun, all equivalent to that and vho. That is an adj. pron. belonging to " man ;" w is uom. to " will deign ;*' and ever is excluded from the sentence in sen See page 113. Parse these examples as they are transposed, tuid youw find the analysis very easy. ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. Gold, not Genuine Wealth. Where, thy true treasure ? Gold says, " not in me ;" And, "not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor. pobtsy tbansposbd. 109 Transposed. Where is thy true treasure ? Gold says, " It is not in me ;** and the Diamond says, "It is not in me." Gold is poor Source of Friendship. — Dr. Young. Lorenzo, pride repress ; nor hope to find A friend, but what has found a friend in thee. Transposed. Lorenzo, repress thou pride ; nor hope thou to find a friend, only in him who has already found a friend in thee. True Greatness. — Pope. Who noble ends by noble means obtains, Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. Transposed. That man is great indeed, lei him to reign like unto good AiA-elius, or let him to bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble ends by noble means ; or that man is great indeed, who, failing to obtain noble ends by noble means, smiles in exile or in chaina. Invocation. — Pollok. Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom All things seem as they are, inspire my song ; My eye unscale : me what is substance teach ; And shadow what, while I of things to come. As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase Severely aifling out the whole idea, grant. Transposed. Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom all things seem to be as they really are, inspire thou my song ; and unscale thou my eyes : teach thou to me the thing which is substance ; and teach ihou to me the thing which is shadow, while I sing of things which are to come, as one sings of things which are past rehear- sing. Grant thou to me thought and phraseology which shall severely sifl out the whole idea. The Voyage of Life. How lew, favored by ev'ry element, With swelling sails make good the promised port, With all their wishes freighted ! Yet ev'n these, Freighted \»\lh all their wishes, soon complain. Free from misfortune, not from nature free. They ^ill are men ; and when is man secure ? As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years Beats down their strength ; their numberless escapes 15 170 ETmOLOOT AND SYNTAX. In ruin end : and, now, their proud success But plarts new terrors on the victor's brow. What pain, to quit the world just made their own? Their nests so deeply downed and built so high ! — Too low they build, who build beneath the stars. Transposed. How few persons, favored by every element, safely make the promised port with swelling sails, and with all their wishes freight- ed ! Yet even these few persons who do safely make the promised port with all their wishes freighted, soon complain. Though they are free from misfortunes, yet (, the strength rf these few ;) and their numberless escapes end in ruin : and then their proud success only plants new terrors on the vicfbr*s brow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they have made it to be their own world ; when their nests are built 80 high, and when they are downed so deeply ! — They who build beneath the stars, build too low for their own safety. Reflections on a Scitll. — Lord Byron. Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps. Is that a temple, where a God may dwell ? Why, ev*n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell ? Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall, Its chambers desolate, and portals foul ; Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall. The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, The gay recess of wisdom and of wit. And passion's host, that never brooked control. Can all, saint sage, or sophist ever writ. People this lonely tower, this tenement refit ? Transposed.* Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Is that a temple, where a God may dwell ? Why, even the worm at last disdains her shattered cell ! Look thou on its broken arch, and look thou on its ruined wall, and on its desolate cham- bers, and on its foul portals : — yes, this scull was once ambition's airy hall ; (it was) the dome of thought, the palace of the soul. Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, the gay recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion's host, which never DEBIVATION. 171 brooked control, Can all the works which saints, or sages, or sophists have ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they refi* this tenement ? For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces from the English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I have already hinted, that parsing in poetry, as it brings more immediately into requisition the reasoning faculties, than parsing in prose, will necessarily tend more rapidly to facilitate your progress: therefore it is advisable that your future exercises in this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis of poetry. Previous to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you ought always to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just presented ; and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose. Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false syntax, you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen lectures, unless you have the subject-matter already stored in your mind. LECTURE XIV. OF DERIVATION. At the commencement of Lecture II., I informed you that Etymology treats, 3dly, of derivation. This branch of Etymol- ogy, important as it is, cannot be very extensively treated in an elementary work on grammar. In the course of the preceding lectures, it has been frequently agitated ; and now I shall offer a few more remarks, which will doubtless be useful in illustrating some of the various methods in which one word is derived from another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn back and read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and in the Philosophical Notes. 1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and •ometimes from adverbs. 8. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes •* lover ;" from " to visit, visiter;" from " to survive, surviver." fro. In the following instances,. and in many others, it is diffioult to 172 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, to fear; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk ; ride, to ride; aci, to act," 2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs ; as, from the noun *«//, comes " to salt ;'' from the adjective tparm, "to warm;" and from the adverh forwardj "to forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; as, from " grass, to graze ;" sometimes by adding en; as, from "length, to lengthen ;" especially to ad. jectives ; as, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to brighten." 3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner : adjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y; as, from " Health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty," dec. Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are derived from nouns by adding tn ; as, from " Oak, oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, woollen," &c. Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by add- ing yW; as, from "Joy, joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful," (kc. Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are derived" from nouns by adding some; as, from " Light, light- some ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome," »a— tlirough ; as, dia-meler, line passing through a circle. Hyper — over ; as, kyper-criiical, over or too criucal. j^ypo — under, implying concealment or disguise; as, kypo-erite, one dis sembling his real character. Meta — denotes change or transmutation ; as, metormorphoee, to change the sha[)e. Para— ccmtraty or against; as, para-dox, a thing contrary to reoeired opinion. PeH —round about ; as, peri-phra*it, circumlocution. Syn, $yl, *yin— together ; as, tyn-tax, a placing together ; eyn-od, a meet mg or coming together; tyl-lable, that portion of a word which is taken to- gether; tyrn-pathy, fellow-feeling, or feeling together IT.) RULES OF SYNTAX, WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. The third part of Grammar is Syntax, whicli treats of the agreement and government of words, and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and Gov- emnienL Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gend-^.r, person, number, or case. For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 52, and 53. For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its words and members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167. The principal parts of a simple sentence are the nominative or subject, the verb or attribute, or word that makes the affirmation, and the object^ or thing affected by the action of the verb ; as, " A wise maji governs his passiorisJ*^ In this sentence, man is the subject; governs, the attribute; and passions tlie object. A phrase is two or more words rightly put to- gether, making sometimes a part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words, in order to avoid disagreeable and unnecessary repe- titions, and to express our ideas concisely, and with strength and elegance. In this recapitulation of the rules, Syntax is presented in a condensed form, many of the essential Notes being omitted. This is a necessary consequence of my general plan, in which Etymology and Syntax, you know are blended. Hence, to ac- quire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this work, you muH look over the whole. 178 RITLKS OF SYNTAX. You may now proceed and parse the following additional exei cises in false Syntax ; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct all the errors without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these examples, you should be at a loss in assigning the reasons why the constructions are erroneous, you can refer to the manner adopted in the foregoing pages. BI7E.B I. The article a or an agrees with nouns in the sin- gular number only,' individually or collectively ; as, " A star, an eagle, a score, a thousand." BVI^K II. The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular or plural number ; as, " The star, the stars ; the hat, the hats." NoTB 1. A nice distinction in the meuiine ia aometiiDM effected by the Tue or omiaaon of the articla a. If I say, " He beliaved with a little reve- rence,'* my meaning is podtire. But if I say, " He behaved with little reve- rence," my meaning is negative. By the former, I rather praise a person ; by the latter. I dispraise him. When I say, " There were few m"n with hmi," I speak diminutively, ax»d mean to represent them as inconsiderable ; whereas, when I saTt ** Tfaiare wen a few men with him," I evidently intend to make the most of them. 2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of everf or each; as, " They cost five shUlinn a doxen ;" that is, * every dozen.* " A man ne was to all the country dear, " And p ass in g rich with forty pounds a year !" ^lat is, * every year.' 3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various quali- ties of things individoally different, though alike in name, the article should be repeated ; but when the qualities all belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be repeated. " A black and a white calf," signifies, A black ealf, and a white em^; but " A black and white calf describes the two colors of one calf. RI7I.B ni. The nominative case governs the verb ; as, " 1 learn, thou learnest, he learns, they learn." R17E.K IT. The verb must agree with its nominative in num- ber and person ; as, " The bird sings^ the birds sing^ thou singesi,^'* NoTK 1 . Everv verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have a nomi- native, expressed or implied; as, " Awake, arise ;" that is. Awake ye ; arise ye. 2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which may be con- sidered as the subject of the aflRrraation, it must agree with that which is more naturallv its subject; as, " The wages of sin is death; His meat leeu ocusts and wild honey ;"" " His pavilion ttere dark waters aiid tliick clouds.** ROLES OF SYNTAX. 177 EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. Frequent comiru'ssion of sin harden men in it. Grrat pains has been taiten to reconcile the parties. So nnuv h both of ability and merit, are seldom found. Tiie sincere is always esteemed. Not one of them are happy. What avails the best sentiments, if peopJo do not live suitably to them ? Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of hope give consolation. The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the operations of nature, are without limit. A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do something to relieve him. In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. O thou, my voice inspire, Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. Note 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind. And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, tuid had great abilities to manage the business. Note 2. The crown of virtue is peace and honor. His chief occupation a'ld enjoyment were controversy; RIJL.E T. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun addressed, is put in the nominative case inclependent' as, " Phto, thou reasonest well ; " Do, Ti^m^ said my uncle Toby." Note 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to A|ree with it- 2. Interjection.i reqtiire the objective case of a pronoun of \hejirtt person after them, but the nominative of a nouu or pronoon of the aecond or tkird person : as, " Ah ! m« ; Oh ! Uiou ; O ! virtue." RIJL.E VI. A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, and being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the noniinativ*^ case absolute ; as, " Shanxe being lost, all virtue is lost ;" *' The sun being risen, we traveU led on." NoT«. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and independent, tfintild belong tu some verb expressed or understood ; aa, " To whom thus, Adam:*' that is. tpokt. iTfl RULBS OF SYNTAX. FALSE SYNTAX. Him Destroyed, Or won to what may work his u^ter loss, All this will follow soon. Note. — Two substantives, when they come together, and C3 noi signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are ««c constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine BriiB TII. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, sierity with humility, rendert iU possesMor truly amiable ;" " The General, also, in coi^unction with the oflli* cen, ka* appbed for redress." FALSE SYNTAX. Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies : it is exported in large quantities. Two siugular nouns coupled together, fonn a plural idea. The verb grow$ is improper, because it expresses tlie acttun of both it« nominatives, " coffee and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the copulative conjunc- tion, tmd : therefore the verb should be plural, gnno ; and then it would agree with coffee and sugar, according to Rule 8. (Repeat tlie Rule.) The pronoun it, as it represents both the nouns, '* coffee and sugar," ought also to De ploral, they, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be wntten thus, " Coffee and sugar grow in the West Indies : they are exported in largo quantities." Time and tide waits for no man. Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. Life and health is both uncertain. Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, affects the mind with sensations of astonishment. What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you think you have no need of assistance ? Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. Why is whiteness and coldness in snow ? Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy mother ; bind it continually upon thy heart. Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in th© eyes of the judicious. There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoe- pists, which shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect. EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE. Every man, woman, and child, were numbered. Not proper ; for, although and couples things together so as to present the whole at one view, yet every has a contrary effect : it distributes them, and brings each wparately and singly under consideration. Were nnmbercd is therefore improper. It should be, " too* numbered," in the singular, accord- ing to the Note. (Repeat it) When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every ifson and every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable BCIiB IX. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in the sing^dar number, connected by disjunctive con- ISO nVLBB OP SYNTAX. junctions, must nave verbs, nouns, and pronouns, agreeing with them in the singular; as, " Neitlier John nor James has learned his lesson." NoT£ 1. When singular pronoun*, or a noun and pronoun, of different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in |>er8on, with tiiat which i« placed nearest to it ; as, " Thou or I am in &ult ; I or thou art to blaroe : I, or thou, or he, w the author of it." But it would be better to •ay. '* Either I am to blame or thou art," &c. * 2. When * diqonctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a plttral one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which •hould ^eneraily be placed next to the verb ; as, " Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him ;" ** I or they were offended by it** Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided. FALSE SYNTAX. Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. The verb, hope cansed, in this sentence, is improperly used in the plural, because it expreaaea ttte action, not ofboth, but oteitiier the one or the otiier of its nominatiTea ; therefore it should be in the sinK'ular, has caused : and then it would agree with " ignorance or negligence, ' agreeably to Rule 9. (Repeat the Rule.) A circle or a square are the same in idea. Neither whiteness nor redness are in the poryn ». ry. Neither of them are remarkable for precision. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are moved. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the aincerity of friendship is proved. Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into his own hands. Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of life, for they may be thy own lot. The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy. A collective noun or noun of multitude, convey- ing unity of idea, generally has a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular; as, "The meeting was large, and it held three hours." NoTX Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page 59. FALSE SYNTAX. The nation are powerful. The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. The flock, afld not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects 1ULB3 OF SYNTAX. 161 That nation waa once powerful ; but now they are feeble. RIJT.K XI. A noun of multitude, conveying plurality of idea, must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural ; as, " The council were divided in their senti- ments." FALSE SYNTAX. My people doth not consider. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has refer, red the business to the general meeting. The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow, j RVE.B XII. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is gov- erned by the noun it possesses ; as, " MarCs happi- ness ;" ** Its value is great." NoTB 1. When the posaessor is described by a circumlocution, the po»- seMive sign should generally be applied to the last term only ; as, " The duke of Bridgevater'i canal ; The bixhop of Landaff^s excellent book ; The cap- tain of the fruard't house." This usage, however, ought generally to be 'Thati avoided. Tne words do not literally convey the ideas intended. What non- sense to say, " This is ike governor of Okio^s house !*' 2. When nouns in the posacasive caae are in apposition, and follow each tiie possessive sign is ee " only ; as, " For David my $eroarWa sake ; John the Baptist's head ; The canal other in quick succession, uie possessive sign is generally annexed to the last was built in consequence of De Witt Clinton the governor's advice." But when a pause is prtiper, and the governing noun not expressed, the sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and understooa to tlie rest; as, " I reside at Lord Stormonfs, my old patron and benefactor." 3. //*, the possessive case of it, is often improperly used for 'tis, or, it is ; as, " Its my book: Its his," &c.; instead of, "It is my book; or, 'Tis my book ; // is hi« ; or, ' Tis his." 4. Participle? frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case i as, " In case of his majesty's dying without issue, &c.; Upon Ood's kaving ended all his works. Sue. ; I remember Us being reckoned a great exploit ; At my coming in he said," &c. But in such instances, the participle with its adjuncts may be considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28 5. Phrases like these, " A work of Washington Irving's ; A bmther of Joseph's ; A fnend of mine ; A neighbor of yours" do not, as some have sup- posed, each contain a double po s eeaaire, or two poaseasive caaea, but they may be thus oonstruad ; " A work of (out of or, among the nmmber of) Wask tngton Irving's works ; that is. One of the works of Washington Irving ; One of the brother* o{ Joseph; One friend oi my friends; On© neighbor ai your neighbors." FALSE SYNTAX. Homers works are much admired. Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord. 16 182 RULES OF SYNTAX. James Hurt, his book, bought August the 19, 1829. Note 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer great calamities. This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation. Note 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production. The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haber- dasher's. Note 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently. Much depends on this rule being observed. The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting to lay it before the council. BVL.E XIII. Personal pronouns must agree with the nouus for which they stand, in gender and number; as "/oAn writes, and he will soon write well." NoTS. YoQ, thoagh frequently employed to repro«ent a smgalar noun, ia always plureU inform ; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural; as, '' My friend, you were mistaken." See pages d9 and 100. FALSE SYNTAX. Every man will be rewarded according to their works. Incorrect, because the pronoun their does not agree in gender or number with the noim " man," for which it stands; consequently Rule 13, is violated. Tkeir should be Am ; and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gen- ler, singular number, agreeing with man, according to Rule 13. (Repeat ite Rule.) An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their tudience. Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards hea- ven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. No one should incur censure for being tender of their repu- tation. Note. Horace, you was blamed ; and I think you was worthy of censure. Witness, where was you standing during the transaction ? How far was you from the defendant ? RUI^E XIT. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, m gender, person, and number; as, "Thou who lovesi wisdom ;" " I who speak from experience." Note. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecederits of dif ferent persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, but not without regard to the sense ; as, ^* I am the man vko command you ;" or RULES OF SYNTAX. 168 f I ftm thA mnn icho eommtmdt jou." The meaning of the firai of these ex* •mples will more obviooaly appear, if we render it thus : " I who command you. am ihe man." When the agreement of the relative has been 6xed with either of the pre* eeding anteceuenu, it mnat be preserved throughout the sentence ; aa, " I am the Lord, thai maketh all things ; that ttretchetK forth the heavena alone i that tpreadeth abroad the earth by myself," &c. FALSE SYNTAX. Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it. The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which have lost their lives by this means. Thou great First Cause, least understood! Who all my sense confined. NoUy 2d part. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abra- ham, and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees. BUIiB XT. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when no nominative comes between it and the verb : as, " The master who taught us, was eminent FALSE SYNTAX. If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to ad- monish him. This is the man whom, he informed me, was my benefactor. RVI.E XTI. When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative is governed by the follow- ing verb, or by some other word in its own member of the sentence ; as, " He whom I serve, is eternal." NoTK I. IVho, which, tehat, the relative that, and their compounds, tchort' ever, whomsoever, &c., though in the objective case, are always placed be- fore the Terb ; a«, " He whom ye $eek, has gone hence." 2. Kvery relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either ox> presswl or implier an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it should be in i itive degree; but when more than two are com- pared, the suj) ii:ht to be employed ; as, " Julia is the taller of the two; Her specimen is the best of the three." FALSE SYNTAX. Note 2. The boat carries thirty tun. The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fatliom in depth. ^ott 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece of furniture. My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land, Note 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incom- pre hens! ble. It is the most uncertain way that can be devised. This is a more perfect model than I ever saw before. Isoit 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest ? I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three. R171.K XIX. Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or understood ; as, " Any man, all men." NoTK 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number with their nouns ; as, " ThU book, ihete books ; thai sort, those sorts." 2. The pronominal ac^jectives, each, every, eiiher, neither, another, and one, ftgree with nouns in the singular number only ; as, " Each man, every per- son, another lesson ;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea : as, " Every six months.'* 3. Either is often improperly employed instead of e^h ; as, " The king of Israel, and Jeboshaphat the king of Jndah, sat either ci them on his throne." Each si^ifiea both taken separately ; either imnliea only the one or the other taken disJTmctively : — " sat each on hit throne." FALSE SYNTAX. Note 1. Those sort of favors do real injury. They have been playing this two hours. These kind of indulgences soAen and injure the mind. He saw one or more persons enter tl)c garden. Note 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 180 RULES OP SYNTAX. There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible. Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the laws of morality and religion. Note. 3. On either side of the river was the tr<*e of life. Nadab and Abihu took 'either of them his censer. Rri^E XX. Active- transitive verbs govern the objective case ; as, "Cesar conquered Pompei/ ;^^ "Columbus dis- covered America ;" " Truth ennobles Acr." FALSE SYNTAX. Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. Ye, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the ac- tion expressed by the transithre verb " hath quickened ;" auJ therefore it sho common iii colloquial style, an agent not liter r one, is employed as the nominative to a passive vrrh. whicli I to be followea by an objective case without tli- ' v of »Mt a preposition : thus, " Pitlicus was offered . by ". ^ , She was promised them (ihe jeveU) by her moi... . . I wa» asked a qnestion,^^ It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the idiom of our language, to say, " A large turn was offered to Pitlicu* ;" "Tkcy were promised (to) her;'* " A qucMtion was put to me.** 3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compotmd •ctive verbs. To tmi/e, to wonder, to dream, are intransitive verbs, for which reason they have no passive voice ; but, to smile on, to vonder at, to dream of, are compound acUve-transitive verbs, and. therefore, admit of a passive voice ; as, " Ho was tmiled on by fortmie ; The accident is not to be von- dercd at ;" " There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, " Than are dreamed of in your philosophy." BUI.E XXill. A verb in the infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun ; as, " Cease to do evil ;" " We all have our talent to be improved ;" " She is eager to learn ;" " They are preparing to go ;" " Let him do it" Illustratiom. The nipDoaed principle of government referred to in this mle, may Ikj tl""= •"■'-••^tf^. In the sentence, " C«a«e to do evil," the pe- caliar maum*r /<« is introduced, requires or compels us to put tho verb da m the ■■ ikmI ; and, according to the genius of our lan^uagv, we cannot expi-esji tlib act of dotnf , when thus connected with eease, m any •tber mood, unless we changa tha oooatnietion of tha lantanco. Hence wa t88 ^LKS OF SYNTAX. ■ay, that ecase goTerna the mood (>f the verb do. Similar remarkB may be applied Ui the words talent, iager, preparing, and him, in the respective ex- amples tiuder the rule. Many respectable fframmarians refer the gnvemment of this mood inva- riably to the preposition to prefixed, which word they do not. of course, con- aider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that this mood is not governed by any particular word. If we rfje<:t the idea of goveniment, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if sub- stituted for the foregobg, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes. RIJff«E. A verb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun or pronoun, as its subject or actor. Illustration of the examples uiider Rule XXIIl. " To do*' refers to ikou understood for its agent ; " to be improved" refers to taUnt ; " to learn,** to the : •• to go," to thry; and "to do." refers to him.** NoTK 1. The Uliiditive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of the sentence ; as, " To ronfe$M tlie truth, I was in fault." 2. The infinitive moot! is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs ; as, " An object so high ru to be invisible ;" " H© is wise enough to deceive;*' ** The army is about to march.*' bi:t.e XXIV. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is fre- quently put as the nominative case to a verb, or the object ot an active-transitive verb ; as, " To play is pleasant ;** " Boys love to play ;" " That warm cli- mates shorten life, is reasonable to suppose ;" " He does not consider how near he approaches to his end,'" Non. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omit- ted ; as, " I heard him tay it ;" instead of, " to $ay it" RrL.E XXV. The verbs which follow hid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, help, let, and their participles, are in the infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed ; as, " He bids me come ;" '*"! dare engage ;" " Let me go ;" "Help me do it;^ i. e. to come, to go, to do it, &c. " He is hearing me recite.^ FALSE SYNTAX. Bid him to come. * He durst not to do it without permission. Hear him to read his lesson. It is the difference in their conduct, which makes m to ap- prove the one, and to reject the other. It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal. I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. RULES OP 811CTAX. 189 Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which they are derived; as, "I saw the tutor instructing his pupils.''* NuTr. The preaent participle with the definite article the before it, be- comes a noun, and mtmt have the preposition of after it. The and of miint both be used, or both be omitte ▼wU iijwfciif ■ idle, imiiii af db> edtwbi *iaa adWtba iUacr, flcacr. mmlwk^me*, Klafelly mp iilj iba phea afj lo ba a inlaona in aaaployBW Fr^mwkmee it feflovra;^ '*H« eiin9 frmm O^met mttm mmfmrnf." Better, -wkenct il Mbrnv^ "Ha car iUme^r Tba fcihmiag ffceaw ere aho aagaytfawabia ; '^ Tha ikem wr fryf* "TbeaiawrvgHBaM/' "Adk bm a<«irr to oncb ^cmrjf* *«Cbarni baa<»€raa wcgoii1>M8 ftr Iwartf. Wkodid7«Mgovillit Hame^ and mmbs signifyuif JTiliuii time «iWi^ k9w J^r, ^c. are genmlly gOTtamed by a prepotM- tioD wMtnioMi; as> ^TWlmae ran a mile ;** ^ He came tmm last Jun^ ;* •* My fiieiHl Imxi four ftmwt at college ;^ that is» na ikrm^ ti U if Ni ci ^a mile ; or, nui oiYT c yet caUiil a mile ; la hia ' last June; Qh« [«»] mm %hmki Oat rfar] liiM •hmb^**^'* S. fWor— HKJ^ Wfw^iJI l a n « > —i w il l; M»o|to»«k[«M»)MiW«iNr{«biii«iiMk»(to)M^*» pawn il 192 tULBS OP SYNTAX. 3. Noun* sigtiifyin? extotiMOD, duration, qnantity, quality, or valae, ar« n«ed wi' ,' . lli|>rii!i, or oiuiMiou of some words, is freqtieDtly admitted, which tniist be Hupplietl iu the mind in order to parse gruiuiimiit-ally ; na, " Wo is me :" that is, to me ; " To sleep all uight;'' i. e. Ikrougk all the night; " He has gone a journey ;" i. e. oud to each other, and a regular and clear construction throughout should be carefully preserved. FALSE SYNTAX. They are much greater gainers than me. They know how to write as well as him ; but he is a better grammarian than them. They were all well but him. None were rewarded but him and me. Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray. REMARKS ON THE TENSES. 1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, in point of time., relate to each other, a due regard to that relation . should be observed. Instead of saying. " The Lord hath given, and the Lord heUk taken away;" we should say, " The Lord gave, and the Lonl {f.a(k taken away." Instead of, " I remem/ter the family more than twenty years ;" it should be, " I have remembered the family more thsm twenty years." 2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate to each other, is this very general one ; Observe what the sense necessarily requires. To say, " I have \'isited Washington last summer ; I have teen the work more than a month ago," is not good tenae. The constructions shoii" ' '. " I vinted Washini;fon, Sir.; I aaic the work, &c." " This mode of ■ sion has been formerly much admirtnl :" — "tea* formerly much adin.:-„. ♦* If I had have been there ;" " If I had have seen him ;" " Had yoa ikov* known him." are solecisms too gross to need correction. We can aav, I kav Im-<-ii, I ft.td hccti ; but what sort of a tenite is, had have been f To place had hfi'orv til." lirftrtive verb ought, is an error equally gross and illiterate : — ^*kad oii^iit. Kadni ouyht." This is as low a \'ulgarism as the use of tkeim, kern, uikI kizzen, tether, furder, baynt, this ere, I teed it, I teWd him. 3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of tha; time in which it took place ; remains, the imperfect tense should be used ; but if there is still remaining some portion of the time in which we declare that the thing has been done, the perfec 'ense should be employed. "fhnat we aay. " Philoaopbert made groat discoveries iu tha U«t oentnry ;* 17 194 SrNTlX OF THE TEPfSES. •• He was much afllicted last year ;" but when we refer to the present cen- tury, year, weelt. day, &•. we ought to use the perfect tense ; as, " Philoso- phers have made great discoveries in the present century ;" " He hat hem much attiictt'd this year ;" " I have read the president's message this week ; " We have heard important news this morning ;" because these events ocxu red in this centnry, this year, this wtfek. and to^lay, and still there remains A part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak. In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is con- nectetl with the pre.nent time, by the actual existence either c€ Ni tuthor of the work, though it mar have been performed many centuries ago ; but if neither the author nor toe work now remains, the perfect tense ought not to be employed. Speakmg of priests in general, we may say, •• They have, in all a^es, claimed great powers ;'* because the general order of the priest- hood still exists ; but we camiot properly ny, " The Druid priests hav claimed great fiowers ;" because that order is now extinct. We ought,*lher©. fore, to say, " The Druid priesU claimed ereat powers." Ttie following example* may serve still farther to illustrate the proper use and application of the tenses. " My brother lias recently been to Philadel- phia.'' It shoiiki be, " weu recently at Philadelphia ;" because the adverb recently refers to a time completely past, without any allusion to the present time. ** Charles is grown coosiderably since I have seen him the last time." Corrected, " Charles kma grown, since I $aw him," &c. ♦• Payment was at length made, but no reason asaiened for its beius so long postponed." Cor- rected, " for its A^ivtM^ been so long poAponed.' " Ttey were arrived an hour before we reached the city :" — •* They had arrived." ** The workmen w^ill complete the building at the lime I take possession of it" It should be, " will have eowtpUted the ouilding," &c. " This curious piece of workmanship was preaerved, mmI diown to stnngers for more than Wty years past :" — ^** hat been preserved, and been shown to strangers," &c. ** I had rather write than beg : — " I we preferable to might. " I feared that I should have lost the parcel, before I arrived :" — " that I should lose." ** It would have afforded me no satis&cdon, if I could perform it." It ought to be, " if I could have perform- ed it ;" or, " It would afford me no satis^tion, if I cotdd perform it." " This , dedicati m may serve f«»r almoi^t any book that has, is, or shall be published:* — " that has been, or trill be published.*^ 4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning of what we e.vpress. Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, ought to be followed by the present tense of the Infinitive mood. " Last week I intended to have written,''^ is improper. The intention of writing was then present with me ; and, therefore, the construction shoulJ be, " I intended to write." The following examples are also inaccurate ; '' \ foimd him better than I expected to have found him ;" " My purpose was after spendingr ten months more in commerce, to have vithdrawn my wealtlr to another country. They should be, "* expected to find him ;" ** to withdram my wealth." " This is a book which proves itself » " bt> written by the person wht>- PALSB SYNTAX. 10 name it }>ear»." It might to be " which nroves it«*lf to have btfH writtm," S:' " Ti) set! him would huve affordtnl me plea.sure all my life." CorrtH-tecl, " 7 < knre $een him ;" or. *• To $ee him would afford me pleasure," &c*. ** Tin.' arguments were sufficient to have witi.sfieti all who heard them :" — " weu^ BiiiTicieiit /(7 aatiaf^" ** Hist/>ry jwiinters wouhl have found it dithcult to have uiventetl such a apecies of beings :" — '* to invent such a sju'cies." 5. General and immutable trutiis ought to be expressed in the present tense. Instead of saying, " He did not know that eight and twenty vere eqnal to twenty and ei"ht;" "The preacher said very audibly, that whatever ua* useful, itna good ;" " My opponent would not believe, that virtue loat always advantageous;" The constructions should be, " are equal to twenty ;'* " whatever is useful, is goixi ;" ** virtue is always advantageous." EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANCiED. We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity. On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which exist among men. The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts. Is it me or him who you requested to go ? Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he sincerely acknowledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven. There were,; in the metropolis, much to amuse them. By exercising of our memories, they are improved. The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, were wholly consumed. Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but will not recommend us to the wise and good. The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. They that honor me, I will honor ; and them that despise me, shall be lightly esteemed. X^ I intended to have called last week, but could not. The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain. The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper. I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gren. Andrew Jackson, he who is now president. Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last. The Chinese wall is thirty foot high. It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely. I have saw him who you wrote to ; and he would have came back with me, if he could. Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand the nature of the religion which they reject. If thou studiest djligently, thou will become learned. Education is not attended to propo/ly in Spain. 198 PALSE SYNTAX. He know'd it was his duty ; and he ought, therefo;^, to do it. He has little more of the great man besides the title. Richard acted very independent on the occasion. We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived. His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw. Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow they will go out of themselves. Those two authors have each of them their merit. Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence. A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature ith wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest symmetry. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle. If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they would be too indolent to improve. It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow. Beauty and innocence should be never separated. Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where you will have much to fear and little to hope. Not one in fifty of our modem infidels are thoroughly versed in their knowledge of the Scriptures. Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences. An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek revenge, is the duty of a christian. The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all his pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him. There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, incline him to offend. This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection. They that honor me, them will I honor. Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves. Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athe- nians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical power in I^Athens. ^ Thou, Lord, who hath permitted aflliction to come upon us, shall deliver us from it in due time. That writer has given us an account of the manner in which christiapity has formerly been propagated among the heathens. FALSB SYNTAX. 197 Though the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your attention. In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithlen professions. After I visited Europe, I returned to America, I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have Deen again disappointed. Five and eight makes thirteen ; five from eight leaves three. If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that he has visited that renowned watering place. I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man. The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices. He would not believe, that honesty was the best policy. The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been. Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, &c. ? He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do it better. The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when they have looked 'round on the earth, and on the heavens, could not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible, designing cause, and felt a propensity to adore their Creator. CRITICAI^ NOTES AND OB8ERTATIONS. Obsirtatio!* 1. The fullowing absurd phraae* ao common in the sacred desk and el«ewliere, iihould be carefully avoided by all who rejrjinl common ■(•nse : — " Sing the litofimt and three last verses." Just as if there could be more than one first and one lasL There may be n first two, a second tiro. Sic. ; a fimt three, a second three, a lost three. " Withm the ttpo /aji/lnenturies ;'* " The second syllable of the three first wonls ;" " The three first of these onhoepisis have no rule by \vhi mate mfwle of Mipplving the ellipses in these constructions, will show their ^TOM iinprtjpriet^: tnoa, " He was more beloved om Cinthio ;" *' Richard ia more active a* his companion," Sue. 4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally subMtUutet fur t^o or more words belonging to other parts of speech. " Will you accompany me to Kurope next summer ?" *' y«»." " Do you believe that iho voyage will restore your health 7" " JVb." In these examples, the adverbs yet and no, are snbstitutcs for whole sentences, and, therefore, do not qualify any words understood. Yes, in this instance, literally means, " I trill accompany you to Europe next nmmer ;" and mo, ** I do not believe that the voyage will regtor« my keaUk." Manr other adverbs are oAen employed in a simiUr manner. " Firstly,** is often imprt>perly used instead of the adverb^r»i ; " a good deal** instead of, muck, or, a great deal. 5. A nice distinction should be observed m the use of t%et% and so. The former may bo employed in expreasiug quality ; the latter, in expressins: a degree of the qnality ; as, "Suck a temper is aeldom found;" ** So bad a temper is seldom found." In the following examples, to should be used in- stead of tuck : *' He is tuck an extravagant young man, that I cannot aaso* ciate with him ;" " I never before saw turk large trees." The affected tise of cardinal, instead of oniuud numbers, ought not to be imitated. "On page forty-Jive;** "Look at page nineteen;**-— forty-ffthj nineteenth. 6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard should be paid to their meaning as established by the idiom of our language and the best usage. " In my proceedings, I have been actuated from Uie conviction, that I waa supporting a righteous cause ;" " He should have profited fi-om those golden precepts;" "It is connected to John with the conjunction and;** " Aware that there is. in the minds of many, a strong predilection in "favor of established usages ;" " He was made much on at Argos ;" " The^ are resolved of going ;" " The rain has been falling of ^ long time ;" " It is a work deserving of encouragement." These examples may be corrected thus, " actuated by the con>'iction ;" " by tiiose golden precepts ;" " by the conjimction and ;" " predilection for;** " much of at Argos;" "r full sail. •* On© niay see how the. world goes with half an eye." One may tee with half an eye, how the world goes. ** A great stuae, that I hapi>eued to find, aAer a lonf search, by the seft «hore, served m»i fi >r an anchor." This arrangement of tne members and cir- cuniiitauc«« of this sentence, confines the 8{)eiiker's »earck to tlie tea shore; whereas, he meant, " A large stone, tchich, after a long search, I happened tojiud by the sea shore, served me for an anchor." " I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice omlf tiioiie called (lentonal pronouns. 10. Tautoloot. — Avoi«l words which add nothing to the sense ; such aa^ " Noic extant, /Vfc gratis, */ofrfno|>e, cold snow, a hot sun, tk.flotnng stream, ft duil bUH*khead, tcise sages." " I am just going to go there ;" I am about to go. 11. Absurditiks and Improprietiks. — "lean learn him many things.'* It ought to be, " I can teach him." To learn, is to acquire or receive iiubi> mat ion ; to teach, means to communicate it. " I don't think it is so." You do think, that it is m>/-80. Ever, alttays. " I have ever been of this mind." I have alftmya been. Ever and always are not synon^inous. Ever refers to one indefinite period of time ; aj«, " If he ever become rich :" alvays means at all times. Ejcchmc, pardon. The former signifies to relitase from an obligation which refers to the future ; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime that is past ** Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday :" pardon me. Remember, reeoUeet. We remember a thing which we retain in our mind; we recollect it, when, though having gone from the mind, we have power to call it back. Defect, deficiency. A thing which is incemplete in any of its parts, is i{#- feciive ; a total al>sence of the tiling, is a deficiency. This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work. CORRECTIOiVlS IN ORTHOGRAPHY. From among those words which are often erroneously spelled, the follow* ing are sclectra and corrected according to Johnson, and to Cobb's Dictionary. Ircorrsct. Abridgement abscision achievment adze agricidturalist ancle atti»miea baise bason bass bombazia boose bnult buccaneer bitrthea bye Correct. Incorrect. Correct. Abritlgment camblet camlet absctssioQ camptiire camphor achievement canvas canvass addice carcase carcass agriculturist centinel sentinel ankle chace chase attorneys chalibeate chalybeate baize chamelioa chameleon basin chiniict chemist base chimistry cheraistiy bombasin cholic colic bouse chuse chmwe bi.tt cimetar cinieter bucanier clench clinch burden cloke ChMlk by cobler cobbler chimnioft cfaimneja 200 CORHECTIOIfS lit ORTHOGRAriTT. l5CORR«CT. Correct. Incorrect. Correct. cbesuut • chestnut maneuver manoeu\Te clue clew merchandize merchandise connection connexion misprison mls^prisiua C()i>et curslet rafiuies moneys c\ j.Iht cipher nionied m«)neved cy[tliering ciphering negociate negotiate dactyl dact^kle ueg(x:iation negotiation d»'v«-loi>e develop noridatB novitiate di[>thong diphthong ooae ooze «ii.-.j»atch despatch opake opaque (Inat dote paroxian paroxysm finmth drought partisan eiiibiltcr imhitter patronize patronise emlnMly inilKMly phrenzy phrensy enquire inquire pinchers pincers eiuiairer inquirer plow plough fiupiiry inquiry poney pony ^ eiisnar© insnare potatoe potato tiiffTprize enterpriae qnere query rnilii'iil iiithrall recognize recomise rainueer nitreiich intrench reindeer entrenchment reinforce re-euforc« eiitnisl in trust restive restiff enwrap in wrap ribbon riband epinilette epaulet . rince rinse ,...,. .H,a ethereal smller saddler ■t feg«U sallad iaiad I faucet sceptic skeptic IcUun felon sceptical skeptical T-e fy scepticism skepticimi porm germe se^ ci^ C'KsHn gosling seizor seignior ■■]"'h]nt gimlet Serjeant sergeant . I3L shoar shore :i ■'■O sooth sooth Itighlh height hiuderance staunch stanch iiiiul ranee streight straight honied honeyed suitor suiter impale iucluse empale enclose svlhe scytiie tatler tattier inclosiire enclosure thresh thrash indict eudict thwak thwack indictment endictment tipler tippler indorse endorse tranquility tranquillity indorsement endorsement tripthong triphthong instructor instructer Irissyllable trisyllable insure ensure valice valise insurance ensurance vallies valleys judgement laquey judgment vise vice lackey vollies volleys laste last waggon wagon licence license warrantee w^arranty loth loath whoopingcough hoopingcough lothsomo loathsome woe wo **mloLUitenc malecontent yeast yeat CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. 201 CORBECTIONS ¥IV OBTIIOEPT. Tno following words beiu^ often erroneoUHly ^>roiiounced by polite people, as w»j11 as by ilie vulgar, their correction, in this place, agreeably to Cobb'$ Dictionary, it is presnmeil, will be useful to many. Some of the mispro* uuuciutions given are provincial. F4te, fir, fill, fit— UM \, mit— pine, p -^ii-fadm :n — nA, n3r , nAt, mftve- -tdbe, t&b, bau 1— //lin — THIS. ORTItOOIU- Improper. Pronoun- Orthogra- • Improper. Pronouk- PHY. ced. phy. CED. Agiiin l-glne' l-cin' Etlge Kither lie \VH6r Wjc Against Ally i-lnste' l-c^nst A'TH&r iriA ll-ll' English ftng'Itsh i'rl Ing'gltsh Are Ire Ir Era i'rl Azure A/.h'&r I'zhire Ere ^re ire Bade, h4de bid Fasten fls'tn fis'sn Beard bird biird Fearful f*r'f41 fWr'fill Been Wn or biin t bin Figure ftg'gftr f^nd fl«'ire Bleat blllt bl^^t Fiend f^ind Boil bile bill Firet f6st first Bonnrt ban'nftt bAn'nlt Foliage fatrije fA'l^-ije Bro*K:h britsh brMuh Fortune fflr'tshftn fAr'tsliAne Canal kl-nlwl' kl-nW Fortnight fArt'olt fArt'nIte Catch k^tsh k4tsh Fountain f5in'tn fAin'tln Cai:i'cway krAs'wl kiwz'wl . Fracture frlk'tshfir frlk'tshAie Chalice k&Hs tshil'ts Fragrance frlg'rlnse frA'jr rinse Chasten tshis'ln tshise'sn Futile fi'tile f4'itl Chiinrtey tshtm'bli tshlm'n^ Gather gftTH'ftr ciTH'Ar Chine tshhue tshlne Get gU P*t Choir kair kwJre Girth g6rt fi^r/A Clevy klivls kl4v\i Goal gMl gAle Clinch kl^nsh kllnsh Going jrAne/n-gA'l ngA'Inir Column kdrvftm k<)l'l&m Gold pfiflld gAld ConilMit kAm'bit k&m'blt Gum go5m be-{rrfttsh' gAtn Comma kdin'in^ kdin'ml Grudge prfidje Cmjuct kA-kw*t' kA-k*t' Gypsum gtp's&m ^VsA. CorpH klv^ir kAre Has Cover k&v'6r Have hive hiv Deaf dWf d*f Heard h^rd bird D»*ci«'ve di-8ls'lv d^-sl'slv Hearth h&rMorhlMhlr/A I).p.)t d^'pAt d^ixS' Hiss siss hiss DrputC (l*p'A-tlze di-,.Ate' Hoist hlste hAlst Deputed d4t)'6«t\zd d^-p&'t«d Homely hftm'bll hAmolA Dcsi^^n d*-zlne' d^ine' Hoof hftf hAAf Dint d^nt dint Hostler hlw8'l6r As'l&r Docile dA'slle dAs'sll Humble h&m'bl 6m'bl DiM d&rt d&«t LrLsuro I^zh'&r Wv'&r l^'zhAre Doth i\Uk d&/A Levcp U'vir Do.-^ dAAx d&z. Lid l«d lid Drain dfr^O drine Lilach ll'lAk aiik Drouj»bt ilr f^Jilk drdit Loam IMm lAine Drowned drA«\nd'^ drd&nd Loo 1& IM Ductile d&k'Ule d^'Ul Maintain mlne-tlne' mln-tlor 20Q CORRECTIONS IN ORTHOEPY. Orthoora- Improprr. Pronoun- PHY. Cr.D. Matron mlt'Hkn mi'trun Merniaid niire'mide m^r'tniJe Mountain mddnltn niAAn'tln Nature n4'uh&r ni'uh&re N*«ther nl'Tn6r ni'Tuftr Ot)lige ihbl^je' A-bUje' ObUque 6.bUAk' Al>-llke' Of Af 6v Oil lie All Only 6n']e or tnl^bne'lk Panther p4ne't6r p4n'/A6r Parent p4rlnt i>4'r*nl Partner plrtl'n&r pirt'n&r Pasture pi«'uh\r p4s'tsh&re Patron )i4t'r{kn p4'tr6n Pinoera ptnsh'6n pt n'sAn Pith jtkfJk pta Plait plMt {il4te Poem \t6vne pA'im Point plnte pAtnt Pother pArH'&r pQTn'&r Precept pr^'rtpt pri'rtpt Preface prA'flM prtfOa Prrlude pri'l&de pr^ldde Process - prA'sAs prAs'sis Product prA'd&kt pr4d'6kt Pro^TMS prA'grte prA^'iis Profile prA'flle prA-feil' Pumpion p&nskln p6mp'y&n Put pftt (verb) pcorous Irradiate Literati MaintenanoA Masculine* Mercantile Meliorate Molestation Museum National Nomenclatur* Nominative CMwtreperoiM Octavo Oratory Parentage PartiaHty Patronage PatriarcE Patriot Patriotism Philoloi^ Philosopbr PhDo9oj)bieal Pla^pansm Ikcorrect. k^n-nts-sAre' kArc'ti-fks k&v'6r-|ld kAd'&rd-lse d*-krtp1d dim'6n-8trite d^8ld4r-it'&m ' dl'mftnd d!s-krlp'in-»i dis fr&n'tshlze dts-An'tst d1>t-4r'd6r 4-l*k't&r-lze 4-ml'shite tkH-p4'8h4te iks-pVA-tA-ri (k8-t^m'i)&re f*m'^-nlne fr«k'w«nt-li jin'i-lnc glr-d^n' elm-n&s'ttk h&l-l^-l6'i4 Ms'ptt4l hJk'm&r-&8 l-d*' tg-nA-rlm'68 1n-d*k'A-rfi8 1r-rAd'*-lte Itt4r-4t1 tnine-tine'&nse m&s'kA-ltne niir'kln-tlle m6r- m6r- in*-irA-rite uiA-lis-ti'sh&n n4'8h6n-il n^m^n'kli-tare nAm'i-ilv 4U-8trAp'p&-|&s Ak-iI'vi Ar'A-tA-r* p4'rftnt-4ie plr-shAlt-U pi'tr6n-4je pAt'r^lrk p4t'r^&t pAt'r^-&t-tzin h-lAl'IA-jlst n-iAs'A-fi n-IA-sAf'lk-M plA'gi-rIzm « KO-iine r'k&n-tlle i r-kAn-tWr > r-k4n'ltl ) Pronottvced. kA-ii4s-sArc' kftrlsW-&s k&v'&r-l*t kAd'&rd-la di-kr*p'tt de-mAn'strilo d^-std4-ri't&m dl'i-m&nd dts'kri-p&nse dls-frin'tehlz dlz-An'*8t dlz-Ar'd&r *-l*k'tr4-rt ^•mi'sh^-lte 4k8-p4'8hi-4te tks'p^i-l&r-iA iks-l^m'pArrA f*m'i-nln fr^'kw«nt-Ii jin'A-ln pyir'di-ln ilm-nls'tik hil-lMAA'yl Asp^-til yA m6r-6s Ijr-nA-rl'mAs ln-(i^-kA'r&8 1r-r4'd^4te 11t4r4'tl min't^-ninse mis'kd-Itn m*r'k4n-tll in4'l^-A-r4te mAl4s-ti'sh&n mi -7^ 'Am n&8h'&n41 nAm4n-kli't8bAr« nAm'i-n4-tlv Alv8tr4p'4r-&s Ak-tA'vA Ar'4-lAr-r4 p4r4nt4je p4r-8h»4riA^A p4t'rAn-1je p4'tr*4rk p4tr^4t pA'ir*-At-tzm fi-lJl'lA-jlst f*-lAs'A-f4 fll-A-xAfA-kil pl4'j4-rtxm pAzzis' 204 CORRECTIONS IH ORTHOEFT. Ortrograpbt. Possessive Possession Preventive Pronunciation Pr«>|HTiatiun Pn)j>hery Pn>|)hei«y R.iiio Rational Sacrament Sacrifice Stereotype Stopendooa Synonyme Transparent Transparency Tremendona Verbatim Volcano Whiffleti«e Incorbrct. pAeHits'dT pAe^h'ftn pr*-v>nt'l-tlT prA-n&n-s^-i'sh&n prA-pls-^-iVhua prAv 4^-hl Tnoun) prSv'^sl (verb) ft'shA r4'sh6n-4l 84'kr&-n)int •A'kr^-flM or (fli) •t^'A-tlpe st&-p(n\l&-&8 ) stA-Dtn'j&s 5 lrina-fi4r'*nt tr4ns-|i4r'in-s^ tr^mtn'(I&-6s ) tr^niin'j&s ) v«r-b&tim vA|.kl'n6 hwlp'pl-trA PRONOU1CCB9). fjAz-zis'slv pAz-z^xh &n pri-vftnl't V pr6-n&n-8h^-i'8h6n prA-ptsI)-^-4'sh6n prAf^-s^ (noun) prAr*-sl (verb) ri'sW-A r&sh'6n-4I 84k'r&-m4nt ' ■ik'r^-flze st^'ri^tlpe •t&-pin'd&a sln'^nlm trlns-p&'r^nt tr4ns-p4'r(n-«i tr^mftn'd&s vtr-b4't1m v4l-k4'n6 h%vlf'fl-tr« NoTB 1. — AVhen the words learned, hles»ed, loved, J^e. are nsed aspaidcip ml adjectivea, the termination ed should generaOy be pronounced as a sepa- rate syllable ; aa, ** A leam-ed man ; The blesM-ed Redeemer ;" bat when they are employed as verba, the ed is contracte bles, is as incorrect and ridiculous as to pronoimce the words boil, toil, in two syllables; thns, bi-U. t^-tl. 4. Jl/y, tpind. When my is contrasted with thy, his, her, your, &c. it is prouoimced, ml : in all other situations, it is pronounced, me ; as, " My me'\ son, give ear to my [»p^] counsel." When trind ends a line in poetry, and is made to rhyme with mind, bind, kind, &c. it is pronouQped, wind i but, io other sitoationa, it is pronounced, wind. " Lo, the poor Indian ! whose untutored mind <' Se«P God in clouds, or hears him in the wind.** PBOYINCIALISMS. 205 PROTIIVCIAIilSIflS. CONTRACTIONS, VULGARISMS, AND OTHER IMPROPRIETIES. As each of the fulhiwing provincialisms and vulgarisms, has its locality in some one section or other of our country, it is hoped timt these corrections will be found useful in tlie districts to which the various phrases respectively belong. IMPROFER. CORRECT. Aint Are not haint have not taint 'tis not baint are not maint may not wont will not wcr'nt were not Haunt was not woodent would not xnussent must not izzent is not wazzent was not bezzent has not , QOOSXBnS does not' tizzent 'tis not whool who will don't can't i'll 'tiyhat ho meant, but 1 never let on. It is a long mile to town. Ah ! I tiiought 'twas unle a short mile. Irish. Not here the day; he went till Pituburg. Let us be after pairsing a wee bit. Where did you loss it T Md. Va. Kt. or Miss. Carry the horse to water. Tote the wood to the river. Have you focht the water T Fve made 200 bushels of com thi« year. He has run against a snag. Is that your plunder, stranger T He will soon come of tliat habit I war thar. and I aeen his boat was .cadend too heavy. Whar you gwine f Hese in cohoot with me. Did yoa get shet of your tobaoca f Who hoped yoa to sell itf CORRECT KD. not jetting about it ; bat, by ptrmitting me to give them my view of the tubjrrt^ thoy would oblige me. So, I peraever- ed, and pained my point. Indeed ! Are you from Berkshire f I am. ReaUif . am surprised. Are you from New Jertep? Yet. Theu I presume you know how to ten a tavern. CORIKCTED. I saw him. Have you seen him T , onee ; and that was before you saw him. I have done my task. Have yoa done yours T No, but I must. I shali be there ; or, I must be there. He knew me. Let me be, for I am afraid. • I never took notice of it : or, better thus, I never noticed it. I wish I had not done it : however, I disregard them. They cannot scare toe Give me those books. He ouffht to go, really. He ought not. Don't crowd me. I did not intend to do it. Is not that beantiful writing T What T I knew what he meant, but I kept thnt to myself. It is a little over a mile to town. Ah ! [ supposed it to be less than a mile. CORRECTED. He*is not here to-day. He went to Pittsburg. Let us parse a little. Where did you lose it T CORRECTED. Lead the horse to water; or, water the horse. Carry the wood to the river. Have you fetched, or brought^ the water T have raised 200 bushels of corn this year. He has got into diffienliy. Is that your baggage, sir t He will soon overcome, or gei rid of, that habit. I was there, and I saw that his boat was too heavily laden, or loaded. Where are you going T He is in partnership with roe. Did you get rid, or dispose is, however, gradual : all tlie points did not nppear at once. The colon, ^semicolon, and note of admiration, were produced some time after the others. The whole set. as they are now used, Decame established, when learning and refinement had made considerable progreM. As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the gram- matical construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, on the part of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although they admit of exceptions, and require a continual exercise of judgment and literary taste in applying them properly, they are of great utility, and justly merit our particular attention. The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, is established by the single fact, that the meaning of a sentence is often totally perverted hy the omission or misapplication of points. To illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous examples might be selected. The following border on the ridiculous: " Mr, Jared Hurton having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this church ;" " Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 29 18* ilO PUftCTUATION. years of age, has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short nose turned up about six feet high, -^ — Charity like the sun brightens all it« objects. Gentleness is Lfreat avenue to mutual enjoyment. You loo have your failinss. 11 .;i(l knpwledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance uncTer cu.s'^Iy uuiro. The best men often experience disappointments. Advice iliiuld be seasonably administered. No a^umed behavior can always hide Ihc i-eal character. RULE 4. The nominative case independent, and nouns in ap- position when accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished oy commas; as, "My soriy give me thy heart;" "Hear Sir, I write to express my gratitude for your many kindnesses;" "I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors;" ^^ Paul, the apostle jO^ ihc Gentiles, was eminent for hfs zeal and knowledge ;" ** The buUerJly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." But if two nouns in apposition are unattended with adjuncts, or if they form only a proper name, they should not be separated ; as, " Paul the apostle, suffered martyrdom ;" " The statesman Jefferson, wrote the declaration of Independence." Exerciset. — Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief stuily. Canst tliou expect thou betrayer of innocence to escape the band of vengeance 7 Death the king of tenTtrs chose a prime minister. Hope the balm of life sooths us ubdcr every misfortune. Confucius the great Chinese philosopher was emi- n«Mitly good as well as wise. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious example of true piety. RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood absolute with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved into a simple sentence, must be separated from the rest of the spntence by commas ; as, " His father dying, he succeeded to the estate ;" " To confess the truth, I was in fault ;" " The king, ap- proving the plan, put it in execution ;" " He, having finished hi^ academical course, has returned home, to prosecute his professional studies." Exereitea.—VeAce of mind beinjg; secured we may smile at misfortime. To enjov present pleasure be ncrinced his future ease and reputatiiHi. Mis taliMits fonned for great enterprises coiUd not fail of rendering him conspic- uous. The |«th of piety and virtue pursue«i)irit will assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family assem- bled under the eye of one common Father. RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple ones by placing commas between its members ; as, " The decay, the WLste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, and suggest a train of serious reflections." 212 PUNCTUATION. Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles^ or adverbs, connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be sep- arated by commas ; as, " The husband, wife,* and children,! suf- fered extremely ;*' " In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss;" " David was a brave, wise, and pious man ;* " A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator, lives for a noble purpose ;" " Success generally depends on acting prudently, stead- ily, and vigorously, in what we undertake." Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, occurring in the same construction, with their conjunctions under- stood, must be separated by commas ; as, " Reason, virtue, an- swer one great aim ;" " Virtue Supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity ;" " Plain, honest truth, needs no artificial covering;" " We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." £T«>rr»«««.—- W0 have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the in ' "* ' lid. Seuimality coutaminates the bodv depresses the t : s the moral feelings of the heart antl degrades man IV V — l:.)n. SeU-concfit ])resnm}>tion and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a youth. He is alteniati'Iy supfKirted by his father his uncle and his elder brother. The man of virtue and honor will be trusted relied u\x)u and esteemed. Con$icious guilt renders one mean-spirited timorous and base. An upright mind will never l>e at a loss to discern what is just and true level v honest and of good report. I^Iabita of reading writing and thinking are the indis- pensable (pialifirations of a goixi student. The great business of life is to be employe*! in doin^ justly loving mercy and walking liimibly \\-ith our Creator. To live stiberlv ngnteously and piously comprehends the whole of our duty. In our health life possessions couuexious pleasures tliere are causes of • The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so ob>'ious, as to render it not a little surprising, that any trriter, possessing the least degree of rhetorical taste, should reject it I am bold to affirm, that it is obser%ed by every correct reader and speaker ; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is generally violated by those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others who are influenced by their pernicious example ; thus, " The head, the heart and the hands, should he constantly and actively employed in doing o^ood." Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is understood ? It w^ould be doing no greater violence to the principles of elocution ; thns, ** The head the heart anil the hands, should be, &c." or thus, " The head the heart, ^ud the hands, should be employed," &c. Who does not perceive that the latter pause, where the conjimction is expressed, is as necessary at the former, where the conjunction is understood ? And, since tliis is the case, what fair objection can be made to the following method of punctua- tion f " The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and ac- dyely employed in doing good ;" " She is a woman, gentle, sensible, well- educated, and religious." t As a considerable pause in pronunciation is necessary between the last noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it ; but as no pause is allowable between the Jast adjective and the noun, or between the last adverb and the verb, the comma, in such instances, is properly omitted ; thus, •* David ^as a brave, wise, and pious man." PUNCTUATION. 213 decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An idle trifling nociety w near akin to such as is corniptin^. This lutlmppy per- son had been iteriuuitly aifectiunateiy aUmouibhed but in vain. RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, and sentences connected with relative pronouns the meaning of whose antecedents is restricted or limited to a particular sense, should not be separated by a comma ; as, " Wisdom is better than riches ;" " No preacher is so successful as time ;" " He accepted tchail had rejected;" "Self-denial is tlie sacrifice which virtue must make ;" " Subtract from many modern poets all that may be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain ;" " Give it to the man whom you most esteem." In this last example, the assertion is not of " man in general," but of " the man whom you most esteem." But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma is properly inserted before the relative ; as " Man, who is bom of a woman, is of few days and full of trouble ;" " There ^ no charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtu *' This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the relative is understood ; as, " Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" that is, " privileges which you enjoy." Exercises. — How much better it is to get wisdom than gold ! The friend* •hips of the world can exist no longer than interest cement^^ them. E^t what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur censure. A man who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most iiuiocent word« that can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion oar complaints of the world are wholly imaginary. The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in its^ust proiK)rtiou and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected civility which ■pnngs from a gentle mind there is an incomparable charm. The Lord whom I serve is eternal. This is the man we saw yesterday. RULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction expressed, they must not be separated ; as, " Liber- tines call religion, bigotry or superstition ;" " True worth is mod- est and retired;" "The study of natural history, expands and elevates the mind ;" " Some men sin deliberately and presumptu- ously." When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should be separated ; as, "There is a natural ditference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly ;" " Whether we eat or drink, labor or sleep, w« should be temperate." But if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they may be separated by a comma ; as, *' Romances mav be said to bio miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil." ExercUes. — Idleneas brings forward and nourishes many bad pasrions. Troe friendship will at all times aroid a rough or careless behavior. Health •ad peace • moderate fbrtnne and a few friends sum up all the undnnbted 814 PCWCTUATIOM. article* of temporal folicity. Truth is fair aud artless simple and sincera tmifonn and consistent Intemperance destroys the streugtn of our bodies and the vigor of our minds. RULE 9. Where the verb of a simple member is understood, a comma may, in some instances, be inserted ; as, " From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, know. ledge." But in others, it is better to omit the comma ; " No sta- tion is so high, no power so great, no character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of rashness, malice, and envy." ExereUet. — As a companion he was severe and satirical ; as a friend cap* tioiifi and dangerous. If the spring put forth no bloeisoms in summer there will be no beauty and in autunni no fmit. So if youth be trifled away with- out improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age miserable. RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a preceding verb, and its verb may be changed into the infinitive mood, the comma is generally omitted ; as, " I suppose he is ai rest;^^ changed, " I suppose him to he ai rest.** But wHn the verb to be is followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case to it, the verb to be is generally separated from the infinitive by a conmia ; as, " The most obvious remedy is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men ;" ** The first and most obvious remedy against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associations with bad men." Exereitet. — They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was the man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemned by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be con- deumerl by our own hearts. NOTES. 1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or menftber from the mem- ber to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to require a comma at each extremity ; as, " They set out early, and, before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place." This rule, however, is not generally followed by our best writers ; as, " If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of thee ; hut if thou forsake him, he will cast tliee off for ever ;" " But if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be inserted." 2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and ha\'ing a c^jmmon de{>endance, may be divided by commas ; as, " To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward the de- •ervmg, are humane aiid noble employments." 3. A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat in the form of a quotation, may- be properly marked with a comma ; as, " It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know ;" " Plutarch calls hnng, the vice of slaves." 4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with soma marked variety, they nmst be distinguished by a comma ; as, " Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not didl ; " Strong, without rage ; without o'erjlotoing, full." ** Gofxl men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only in union wilk, bu* in opposition to, the views aud conduct of each other." PUIICTUATION. 216 Sometimef when the word with which the la«t prepoMtion agree*, is sin- g1(>, the couiiiin iiiiiy l>e (imitted ; as, " Many states were in alliance with, and under the protection of Rnme." The same nile and restrictions apply, when two or more nouns refer to the ■ame pre|M)8iti«)n ; as, " He was comiMised both under the threatening, and at the approach, of a c-uel and lingering death ;" " He waa not only the king, but \)xe father of his people." 5. The words, " as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now, lastlv, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in shoiV' and all otlier words and phrases ol a similar kind, must generally be separa- ted from the context by a comma ; a$, " Remember thy best friend ; former' Iv, the supporter of thy infancy ; now, the guanlian of thy youth ;" " Ho feared want ; henee, he overvalued riches ;" " So, if youth be trifled away," 8iC. *' Again, we must, have food and clothing ;" " Finally, let us conclude." The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, to suggest to the learner, in all ordinary instances, the proper place for inserting the comma ; but in applying these rules, great regard must be paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and the proportion which they bear to one another. SEIfllCOI^ON. The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependant on each other, as those which are distinguished by a colon. RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding one, the semicolon is used ; as in the following examples : " As the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our spe- cies ; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly ;" "The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, when he gains the applause of those arounihim ;" " Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom." Exerei$e$. — The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of falsehood a nerplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friend.nhip hell jf fiercenew and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness which God per> ceives to be no other than disguised misery as there are worldly honors which in his estimation are reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which in his sight is fooliHhneas. But all sabsists by elemental strife And passions are the elements of life. RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a nile or proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction at; as in the following instance : Prepositions govern the object- ive caise ; (U, " She gave the book to him." 216 PUNCTUATION. Nock. Iu instances like the foreeoing^ many respectable punctuistsen ploy die colon, instead of the seniicolou. COI.OIV. The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more part less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon but not so independent as separate, disliiict sentences. RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itsell but followed by some supplemental remark, or farther illustratioi of the subject, tbe colon may be properly employed ; as, " Natun felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences o guilt: the gospel revealed the plan of divine interposition an( aid." " Great works are performed, not by strength, but by per severance : yonder palace was raised by aingle stonei ; yet yoi see its height and spaciousness." Exereiset. — The three great enemies to tranqoillity are vfac* snperstitioi and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passion •tinerstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness which loads it witl teaiousness and disgust. When we look forward into the year which is beginning what do we be hDld there T All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown pre •euts itself. RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the con necting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied ; as *' A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighi) governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and o indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the consid- erations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and check guilt." PERIOD. When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connected with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close ; as, " Fear God." " Honor the patriot." " Respecl virtue." In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of prac tice among our best writers and grammarians. Compound sen- tences connected by conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the period ; as, " Recreations, though they may be of an innocenl kind, require steady government to keep them within a due and limited province. Bui such as are of an irregular and vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from every well-regulated mind." The period should follow every abbreviated word ; as, "A. D. N. B. U. S. Va. Md. Viz. Col. Mr." PtmCTUATION. 217 DASH. The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incohfr. rent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence breaks olF abruptly ; where a significant pause is required ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment ; as, " If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degra- ded !" "If acting conformably to the will of our Creator; — if promoting the welfare of mankind around us; — if securing our own happiness ; — are objects of the highest moment : then we are loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue." A dasli following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater than if the stop were alone ; and when used by itself, requires a pause of such length as the sense only ^an determine. " Here lies the great — False marblft, where? "Nothing but sordid dust lies here." lIVTEBROOATORir POINT. The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative sentence ; as, " Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty ?" NoTK. The interrogative point shonld not be employed in cases where it is only Raid, that a question has been asked ; a.s, " The Cyprians asked me, why I wept." EXCIiAITIATORV POINT. The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c. and sometimes to invocations and addresses; as, " Mow much vanity in the pursuits of men!" " What is more amiable than virtue !" " My friend ! this conduct amazes me !" " Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great !" PAKENTnESIS. A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction; as, " To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters (for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." " Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 'Virtue alone is happiness below." [NOTx. lae uarenuens generauy denotes a moaeraia aepnMoon oi um voice ; and, as tne ',iarentlietical marks do not supply the place of a poinL the claiise should be accompanied wkh every stop which tne sense wookl require, if the parenthetical characters were not used. It ought to termi- oate with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes it , as, ** He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) who is not jealous when he bM partners of love." " Or why so long (in life if long can be^ ''Lent llear'n a parent to the poor and me f " 116 VEKSinCATIOW. Tftrendieses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, form u exception to this rule ; as, " If I grant his reqaest, (and who could refuse it f) I shall secare his esteem and attachment." APOSTROPHE AlVD QUOTATION. The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark the possessive case of a noun ; as, " '' nexion of a number of accented and unaccented syllables. IHXTOUO. 41« They are called ^ee, because it is by their aid that the voice, a« it were, steps along through the ver^ in a measured pace. All poetical feet coDstst either of two, or of three syllables ; and are r»- dttcible to eight kiuds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows DlSSTLLABLB. TriSTLLABLC. A Trochee - u A Dactyle - u « An Iambus u - An Amphibrach u - w A Spondee — An Anapaest w u - A Pyrrhic u u A Tribrach u u o A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unac- cented ; as, Hatefiil, pettish : Restlt3ss mort&ls toil f^r naught. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last ac- cented ; as, Betray, consist : The seas shill waste, th6 skies m smdke dSciy. A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented ; as, Labdrer, p6ssiblc : From th6 l6w pleasures 6f this filllen nitiire. An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and th« last accented ; as, Cdntrivcne, acquiesce : At thd close 6f the day when th5 hamlfit Is still. A Spondee ; as. The pale mdon : a Pyrrhic ; as, 6n the tall tree : an Amphibrach ; as. Delightful ; a Tribrach ; as, Nu- mgriblS. RHETORIC. Grammar instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly. Rhetoric teaches us to express them with force and elegance. The former is penerally confined to the correct applicaticm of words in con- ¥triirtin;r sin:ile sentences. The latter treats of the iirop Bite to the study of rhetoric and belles-lettres. C03IP0SITI0M. It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that good §ense is the foundation of all good writing. One who under, fltands a subjec' well, will scarcely write ill upon it. Rhetoric, or the art of pemiaiiion. requires in a writer, the union of good •ense, and a ItTely and chante tma^natiun. It is, then, her province to teach him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and appropriate language, vivid and an agreeable variety of expre«uon. It ought to be his aim, ** To mark the point where seoBe and dnlneM meet.** 118 TBKSinCATIOIf. 7arentbe8«8, bowerer, containing interrogationB or ezclamationB, form me ezcepdon to this rule ; as, " If I grant his request, (and who could refuse k 1) i sball secure his esteem and attachment." APOSTROPHK AND QUOTATION. The Apostrophe is used lo abbreviate a word, and also to mark the possessive case of a noun ; as, " 'eculiar advantage ; thus, " Such a man may fall a victim to power ; but truth, and reason, and liberty, would fall with him." 3. Dispose of the tapital word or words in that part of the sentence in vohieX they tPtU make the most striking impression. 4. Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their importance one above another. In a sentence of two members, the longer sbould generally be the concluding one. 5. Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any incon- siderable word, unless it be emphaiieal. 6. Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other, a resemr- blanee in the language and construction should be observed. FIGURES OF SPEECH. Figures of Speech may be described as that language which is prompted either by the imagination, or by the passions. Tlioy generally imply some departure from simplicity of expression ; and exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than could be done by plain language. Figures have been commonly divided into two great classes ; Figures of Words, and Figures of Thought. Figures of Words are called Tropes^ and consist in a word's being employed to signify something that is different from its ori- ginal meaning ; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure. When we say of a person, that he has a fine taste in wines, the word taste is nsed in its common, literal sense ; but when we say, be has a fine tost*, for painting, poetry, or music, we use the word figuratively. " A good man eiyoj-s comfort in the midst ot adversity," is simple language ; but when it is said, " To the upright there ariseth light in darkness," the same sentiment is expressed in a figurative style, light is put in the place of comfort, and darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity. The following are the most important figures^ 1. A Metaphor is founded on the resemblance which one ob ject bears to another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form. When I say of some great minister, " That he upholds the state like a pillar which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a com- parison ; but when I say of such a minister, ** That he is the pillar of state," the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter coiistruction, the com- parison between the minister and a pillar, is made in the miod ; but it is ex- pressed without any of the words that denote comparison. Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be fouod in vast yanety. Thus^ our blessed Lord is called a vine, a lamb, a lion, &o. PIOURBS OP SPEECH. 223 •nd men, according to their difibrent dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, dops, seqients, ripers, &c. W.Lshington Irving, in npcaking of the degraded state of the American Ala-ri^inei* who liufjer on the borders of the " white settlement*," employs tljc loUowinj' beautiful metaphor : " The proud pillar of tlieir independence han been sliAen down, and the whole moral /oZric lies in ruins." 2. An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued ; or, it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as fre- quenlly to form a kind of parable or fable. It differs from a sin- gle metaphor, in the same manner that a cluster on the vine differs from a single grape. The follovk-ing is a fine example of an allegory, taken from the 60th psalm ; wherein tlie people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : " Thou Irnat brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out tho heathen and planted it. Thou preparedst room before it ; and didst cause it to take deep rooi, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it; and the bouglis thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs into the sea, and her branches into the river." 3. A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance between two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form. Thus, we use a simile, when we say, " Tho actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every* one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few." " As the mountains are round about .lenisalem, so the Lord is round about his people." " The music of Car)'l was like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mounifid to the soul." '* Our Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which wither when expoaed to the influence of the sun." " The Assyrian came down, like the wolf on the fold. And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold ; And the sheen of their spears was like stars on the sea When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee." 4. A Metonymy is where the cause is put for the elTect, or the effect for the cause ; the container for the thing contained ; or the sign for the thing signified. When we say, " They read Milton" tlio cause is put for the effect, mean- ing " Miltim's works." " Grav hairs should be respected ;" here the etTect M put for llie cause ; meaning by " gray hairs," old age, wliich produces gray hairs. In the phrase, " The Ketde ooils," the container is substituted for the thing oontaineu. " He addressed the chair;" that is, the person in the chair. 6. A Synecdoche or Comprehension. When the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus ; in general, when any thing less, or any thing more, is put for the precise object meant, the figure is called a Synecdoche. Thus, ** A fleet of twenty tail, nistead of, «." " The horue U a noble animal ;" " The dog i« a faithful creamre :" here an individual is put for the nieciet. We sometimes use the " head" for the person, and the ' waves" for the tea. In like manner, an attribute may be pat for a subject ; as, ** touth" for the young, the " deep" for tho tea. 224 RHETORIC. * 6. Personification or Peosopopceia is that figure by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, " The ground thirsts for rain," or, " the earth smiles with plenty ," when we speak of "ambition's being restless^** or, "a disease's being fieceitful;** such expressions show the facility, with which the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to things that are inanimate. The following are fine examples of this figure : *• Cheer'd with the grateful Bmell, old Ocean tmiUa;** ** The wnldemess and the •olitary place ahall be glad for them; ftnd the denert shall rejoice aiid blossom as toe rose.'* 7. An Apostrophe is an address to some person, either absent or dead, as if he were present and listening to us. The address is frequently made to a personified object ; as, " Death is swal- lowed up in victory. O death/ where ui thygting? O grave/ where is thy victory V* * " Wee() on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore ; bend thy (air head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghust of the hills, wheu it moves in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morven." 8. Antithesis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects. Example. " If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase hia §tore$, but to diminitk his detire$" 9. Hyperbole or Exaggeration consists in magnifying an object beyond its natural bounds. " As swift as the wind ; as white as the snow ; as slow as a snail ;" and the like, are ex- travagant hyperboles. " I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; hia spear, the blasted fir ; his shield, the ri»iiig moon ; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hills.** 10. Vision is produced, when, in relating something that is past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually passing before our eyes. 11. Interrogation. The literal use of an interrogation, is to ask a question ; but when men are strongly moved, whatever they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally put in the form of a question. Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak : " The Lord is not man. that he shoiiid lie, nor the son of man. that he should repent. Hath be said it T and •hall he not do it? Halh he spoken it T and shall he not make it good T'* ** Ha*i ihim an amor like God T or canst thou thunder with a voice like him 7** 12. Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions, such as surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. •• O that I had in the wUdemess a lodgin* place of way-faring men !*' " that I had wings like a dove ! for then wouJd I fly away, and be at rest !" 13. Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary to out thoughts ; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to oui KEY TO THE EXERCISES. reiparks. We can reprove one for his negligence, by sayin; •* lou have taken i(?v.at care, indeed." Tkc prophet Elijah adoi>t«l this figure, when ho challenged iho pHjMts of Baal to prove the truth of their deity. " Ho mocked thein, and mid. Cry aloud for he 18 a god : either he ia talking, or ho is pun»uing, or ho b o» ^ journey, or, perudveuture, he sleepeth, and must be waked." 14. Amplification or Climax consists in heighteninj; all the circumstances of an object o^ action, which we desire to plao« in a strong light. Cicero gives a lively instance of tliia figure, when ho says, " It is a crim*» to jpiit a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the heiiiht of guilt to scourge hiin; little less than parricide to put him to death : wliat name, then, shall I give to the act of crucifying him 7" KEY. Corrections of the False Syntax arranged wider the Rules and Notes. RoLi 4. Frequent commission of sin hardens men in it. Great pains have been taken, &c. — is seldom found. The sincere are, Sx. — is happy. What avail, &c.— Disappointments sink — the renewal of hope gives, &c. — is witli- oiit limit, has been conferred u|)on us. — Thou canst not heal — but thou mayst do, SiC. — consists the happiness, &c. — Who touchedstf or didst touch Isaiaih's hallowed lips with fire. Note 1. And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned f— And vho had great abilities, &c. NoU 2. Are peace and honor. — was controversy. RoLK 7. Them that you visited. — him that was mentioned. — he whc preached repentance, &c. — they viho died. — he who succeeded. Rule 8. Time and tide toait, &c. — remove mountains. — are both tracer^ tain. — dweli with, «S&c. — affect the mind, ».tc. — What sifrnify the counsel aneoplo do, &c. — The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their. Sec.— -were divided in their sentiments, ajid they Have referrod, &c.— The people rejoice — give them 8orTo\>fc Rule 12. Homer's works are, &c. — Asa's heart. James Hart's book. Note 1. It was the men, women, and children's lot, «fec. or. It was the Id / the men, women, and children. — Peter, John, and Andrew's, &c. • Note 2. • This is Campbell the poet's pro — he came home. — befallen my coJisin — he would have gone. — already risen. — is begtm. — is spoken. — would have written — had they written, Sf-c. Rule 29 : Note 1. It cannot, therefore, be, &c. — ^he was not often pleas* ing. — should never be separated. — We may live happily, S^c. Rut«B 30 : Note. I don't know any thing ; or, I know nothing, &c. — I did not see anybody; or, I saw nobody, i.,;n of the lot of man. nor of the ^^ inates the body, d1e and sincere, uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies and the vigor of our minds. RULK 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical ; as a friend, cap- tious and dangerous. If tlie spring put forth no blossoms, in- summer there will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be trifletl away with- i>ut improvement, rnauhcHxi will be corplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship ; hell, of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly ha|)piness, which God perceives to be no other than disguised misery ; as there are worldly honors, whiclx, in his estimation, are a reproach ; so, there is a worldly wisdom, which, in his sijjht, is foolishness. But all subsists by elemental strife ; And passions are the elements of life. COLON. RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquijjily, are vice, superstition, and idleness : vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind w-nth bad passions ; ■urterslition, which fills it with imaginary terrors; irlleness. which loads it with tediousness and disgust. *5 c on rz > 5 1 -T-wrw: IT.- : 'WfJCJ '.^TU- YB 36464 U.C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES miiiM C052a32b20 ivi249534 3»f THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY I