UC-NRLF 12 O INCREASING ECONOMIES A Dollar Saved in Operating Expense is One Hundred Cents in Net Earnings INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES PRINTED BT FEDERAL PRINTING COMPANY, NBW YORK INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES BY C. C. CHAPPELLE CONSULTING ENGINEER AND VICE-PRESIDENT RAILWAY IMPROVEMENT COMPANY [LIMITED EDITION] 1916 RAILWAY IMPROVEMENT COMPANY NEW YORK Foreword THIS volume has been prepared to assist those interested in the problem of securing better economies in the practical operation of electric railway cars. Financiers, executives, men actually directing opera- tions, and everyone interested in increasing the economies and net earnings of electric railways will find presented information and practical suggestions worthy of the most careful consideration. The principles controlling and determining the possible econo- mies and limitations for standards of service are discussed; as, also, the methods commercially available for securing the obtainable results in practice. Our impelling motive is the belief that a thorough under- standing of such principles will be the deciding basis for a decision as to the effective method for securing the available results. This brings us to the point that the Rico Coasting Recorder is not the embodiment of some new and wonderful principle in car operation, but an instrument that helps the motorman to attain in practice the motor efficiencies that the designer considered in the design of the equipment, as obtainable for the stated operating conditions. Since the mechanical accuracy of the Rico Coasting Recorder is not in dispute, it remains to prove that the thing that the Re- corder measures coasting is the correct measure of actual efficiency in the use of electrical energy. This proof is furnished conclusively in the study by Mr. Chappelle, herewith. First of all, let it be clearly understood that Mr. Chappelle does not stand alone in stating that coasting is the correct measure of efficiency. On the contrary, every motor designer tacitly recognizes the truth of this statement by including a coasting period in deter- mining the adaptability of the equipment for the stated operating conditions, based on the motor characteristic performance curves. Mr. Chappelle, however, has gone further by pointing out in de- tail just what the correct utilization of coasting means in every-day practice. To this end he has made clear the fact that for any given 336124 set of operating conditions the resulting coasting shows the most efficient combination for the proper rate of acceleration, the proper rate of braking, the duration of stop, etc. As these are all time-element factors, a time-measuring device, the Rico" Coasting Recorder or the Rico C & S Recorder, is the logical instrument for checking them. Perhaps the most valuable feature of Mr. Chappelle's study (in Chapter Two) is the relation which it establishes between power and platform costs, schedule speeds, and coasting, to the number of stops of traffic conditions. This relation shows when it is more profitable to save wages by decreasing coasting time than to save power and brake shoes by increasing coasting time. While Mr. Chappelle's study (Chapter Two) demonstrates that coasting is the correct measure of efficiency, Chapter One discusses the types of devices, available commercially, for checking the effi- ciencies of power and other factors entering into car operation in practice, and more particularly the new Rico Coasting and Service Recorder (commercially abbreviated Rico C & S Recorder), which gives the number of stops, the time consumed for stops, the actual running time in which the schedule time is made, in addition to the coasting time and identification features of the original Rico Coasting Recorder. The Rico C & S Recorder card form record may also be used to compare the motorman's platform time with his pay-roll time which may be recorded on the same card record. It would be hard to overestimate the wonderful possibilities of the Rico C & S Recorder in the hands of the practical railway oper- ator. At last he has at his command an automatic analyst which can tell him, not once a year, once a month, once a week or once a day how the most important elements of operating cost are being affected, but a device that reveals what is going on from minute to minute! Following the conclusion of Chapter Two are letters from a promi- nent engineer of each of the great electrical manufacturers, also, from Mr. H. St. Clair Putnam, one of the recognized authorities on railway engineering and operating practice, reprinted by permission, from the Electric Railway Journal. Mr. W. B. Potter, Engineer, Railway and Traction Department, General Electric Company, says: "I quite agree with his (Mr. Chappelle's) argument in favor of the maximum percentage of coasting practicable as an effective method of minimizing the power required for a given run, and that a record of the percentage coasting is a desirable and effec- tive means of determining the relative operating efficiency of different motormen." Mr. Potter also cautions against attempting to secure the lowest power possible through using rates of acceleration and braking that would be hard on the passengers and on the equipment. With this caution we are in full agreement, but we would add that the Rico Coasting Recorder or the Rico C & S Recorder is the only device that directly reveals excessive rates of acceleration and braking. An energy recording device, obviously, cannot show that the desired rates of acceleration and braking (with corresponding coasting percent- ages) have been unduly exceeded. Mr. F. E. Wynne, Engineer, Railway Section, General Engineer- ing Division, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, states: "Mr. Chappelle's discussion of these principles brings out a point which is frequently overlooked in practical operation; namely, that under a given set of conditions, the power input to the car is determined by what he designates as 'time-element factors.' ' Mr. Wynne also believes that: "A knowledge of the frequency and duration of stops is also necessary in order to satisfactorily analyze a service and deter- mine from the analysis what schedules are most economical." It is our pleasure to add that the new Rico C & S Recorder meets these various requirements. Mr. Putnam makes several timely comments, among others, pointing out that the sub-section, "Series Operation," in his 1910 A. I. E. E. paper, had reference to "Pausing on the series position of the controller/' and not to the operation of running on the series position of the controller, as some have inferred. Mr. Putnam also points out that both operations should be avoided for general efficiency, as equipment is selected for normal operation in multiple, series opera- tion being a special contingency for certain features encountered in practical operation. We can think of no stronger endorsement of the need for a device that measures and records the efficiency of the motormen than the article by Mr. J. F. Layng entitled, "Relation Between Car Oper- ation and Energy Consumption." In this article, which we reprint (Chapter Three) through the courtesy of the General Electric Review, Mr. Layng says : "With the same car over the same route, with the same number and length of stops, the power consumption will vary more than 30 per cent when operated by different motormen." Mr. Layng calls attention to the desirability for keeping records of the motorman's operations, as is done in the matter of other ex- penditures, and states: "By keeping these records and following them up properly, savings in power of 20 to 25 per cent can reasonably be expected." It is the function of the Rico Coasting Recorder and the Rico C & S Recorder to bring the energy consumption of the motorman to the efficient minimum and to keep it at such minimum. We have (Chapter Four) reproduced, by permission, portions of Mr. F. E. Wynne's paper (read before Baltimore Section A. I. E. E.) entitled, "Economies in Railway Operation," without which a con- sideration of the subject of Efficiency would be incomplete. In Chapter Five, Mr. Chappelle discusses "Car Operation Effici- ency With Special Reference to Energy-Input Method of Deter- mining Motormen's Efficiency." To those who may prefer the meter method for checking efficiency, Chapter Five will be interesting reading. To conclude: All authorities emphasize that most efficient management is impossible without a constant analysis of the oper- ating results in connection with traffic conditions. Such analysis is effectively obtainable only with the Coasting Recorder equip- ments developed by this company and now in successful use under the widest conceivable range in electric railway operation. RAILWAY IMPROVEMENT COMPANY. NEW YORK, April, 1916. INDEX PAGE The Commercial Application of Fundamental Principles of Car Operation Efficiency 9 Time Element Factors Control Efficiency 11 Coasting an Essential Factor in Economy 12 Correct Method Efficiency Checking System 12 Rico Coasting Recorder 12 Rico Coasting and Service Recorder (Rico C & S Recorder) 18 Automatic Analyst of Railway Operation 19 Skip-Stop and Service Standards 20 Power Measurement Not an Effective Efficiency Check 20 Results Desired How Obtainable 21 Results from Practical Operation 22 Co-Operative Engineering Service 23 Advisory Bulletin to Motormen 24 Monetary Value of Obtainable Results 26 Highest Net Return Yield on Investment 26 Deferred Payments Purchase Plan 26 Fundamental Principles of Car Operation Efficiency 29 Factors Affecting Energy Input 31 Relation of Energy Input to Coasting Time 33 Relation of Schedule Speed to Power and Platform Expense 33 Coasting as a Necessary Factor in Economy 35 Energy Input a Misleading Measure of Efficiency 35 Coasting the Correct Relative Measure of Actual Efficiency 37 Economic Advantages of the Skip-Stop Plan 39 Reduction in Demand on Generating Station and Distribu- tion System 40 Summary and Conclusions 40 Comments on Car Operation Efficiency 41 By W. B. POTTER, Engineer, Electric Railway Department, General Electric Company 43 By F. E. WYNNE, Engineer, Railway Section, General Engineering Division, Westinghouse E. & M. Company 44 By H. S. PUTNAM, L. B. Stillwell, Consulting Engineers 46 I Index continued on next page ] INDEX {Continued} PAGE Relation Between Car Operation and Power Consumption 51 By J. F. LAYNG, Railway and Traction Engineering Department, General Electric Co. 51 Economies in Railway Operation 57 By F. E. WYNNE, Engineer, Railway Section, General Engineering Division, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co. 57 Reduction in Weight 58 Proper Gearing and Armature Speed 58 Correct Operation 61 Field Control 63 Results of Tests 66 Car Operation Efficiency with Special Reference to Energy-Input Method of Determining Motormen's Efficiency 69 The Efficiency Problem 71 Practical Principles and Law of Averages 71 Motormen's Operations by Diagrams 74 Practical Limitations Control 75 Coasting Correct and Simple Check 75 Operation Results Confirm Principles 76 Finale 78 Chapter One The Commercial Application of Fundamental Principles of Car Operation Efficiency Chapter One The Commercial Application of Fundamental Principles of Car Operation Efficiency BY C. C.CHAPPELLE Consulting Engineer and Vice-President Railway Improvement Company EVERY electric railway company is con- established from such analysis of the funda- fronted with the necessity of increased mental principles, as follows: economies in operation. The competi- [ I ] The power input required to operate a tion of other means of transportation (particu- given car and its equipment of given gear larly the pleasure automobile) tends to curtail ratio, at a given average schedule speed, wit the natural growth of gross earnings. a given average number of stops per rml< The constant upward trend of labor and a given average trolley voltage material costs tend in connection with the solely by the following factors: almost universal fixed rate of fare to reduce , of acceleration i.e the rate of ace the duration of braking, i.e., the rate ot ! net The inTeTt a ra n enTIn tl0 present equipment is tion approaches for genera, average condition, JaVsuchthat it is ^practicable to write app , ^^ rf (I) . off the investment in existing equipment, ad- 11 1 lne Vising the time-element vantageously, from the obtainable econom.es mammg ^unchanged ^ *n^ ^ ^^ by means of new equipment. of stoos on any selected basis), the maximum Therefore, it is apparent that the logical and rtop. on any ^ ^.^ wj (h po effective method for increasing net savings is u b " P wi ? h resulting maximu m power by reduction in operating expenses through d mMimum attaine d speed The power increased efficiency in the use of either V* ^ maximum atta ined speed both . new equipment. crease and t he coasting time increases, a: Time Element Factors numb ; r of stops per mile decreases Control Efficiency portant fact is ^*f jJ^TS! The fundamental principles involved in the VP^ of input . The ratio of but as many readers may be too occupied or me o ^SS ^:, - - * [12] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES element factors, acceleration, braking and du- costs for power and platform expense. Such ration of stop. economical schedule speed has a corresponding [ III ] The other given conditions of (I) resultant percent coasting. If the schedule remaining unchanged (utilizing the time-ele- speed approaches the economic schedule speed ment factors of acceleration, braking and du- for the traffic conditions, the corresponding ration of stops on any selected basis), the resultant percent coasting shows little varia- maximum schedule speed is obtained with no tion over the ranges of traffic conditions coasting time, and with maximum power input usually encountered in practical operation, resulting. The power input decreases and the coasting time increases as the schedule speed Correct Method Efficiency decreases. Ine increase in percent coasting is in proportion to the decrease percent of Checking system power input ; the ratio of this proportion The fundamental principles of car operation approaching approximately the same one to efficiency, hereinbefore analyzed and discussed, one ratio as in (I) and (II). establish that the measurement of the coasting [ IV ] As the maximum attainable speed is time and the determination of the percent approached, for given conditions, the power coasting therefrom is the correct relative input mounts in large increments. Hence a measure of efficiency in practical car operation, point is reached where the reduction in plat- The percent coasting is, therefore, the proper form expense, due to increased schedule speed, basis for a correct method efficiency checking is offset by the increase in power expense, system, dependent for given conditions upon the relative unit costs for platform and power ~ . ^ expense. The relation of such unit costs, Rlco Coasting Recorder encountered in practice, is such that any The Rico Coasting Recorder (Fig. 1-A) is schedule speed which is too high to result in essentially a clock mechanism of simple and possible coasting is an uneconomical schedule rugged design, so constructed and connected, speed. by suitable electric relay with the car wiring and brake equipment, as to measure and print Coasting an Essential Factor the time durin S which the car is ^motion ^ P with "power off" and "brakes off," or in other words, the coasting time. Therefore the Rico The fundamental principles, summarized in Coasting Recorder meets the requisites for a the preceding paragraphs (I) to (IV) inclusive, correct method efficiency checking system, establish for given conditions and equipment The Rico Coasting Recorder during the past of given gear ratio, that efficiency is solely five years has been so widely advertised by dependent upon the efficient utilization of descriptive articles in the technical trade the controlling time-element factors ; the effi- press on its varied and numerous installations cient utilization of these time-element factors on representative railway systems, that space is measured by the coasting time and percent will not be taken here to describe its details, coasting for the varying conditions encoun- The Rico Coasting Recorder for each trip tered in practical operations. For any sched- run gives the motorman a printed voucher ule speed now in effect on any railway or for slip (see Fig. 2-A) showing the car number, any adopted schedule speed, increase in coast- the motorman's number and the coasting time ing means increase in efficiency; and any in minutes. Such voucher slip shows the motor- schedule speed to be economical must be man (and his executive) how and when he such as to permit possible coasting. operates efficiently through his efficient utili- For a given car, with given equipment, there zation of the time-element factors which are is a most economical schedule speed, dependent the only factors under the motorman's control upon traffic conditions and the relative unit that can possibly affect the power input. Rico Coasting Recorder Figure 1-A Rico Coasting Recorder 263 oo- 263 17 1467 1467 BADGE NO. COASTING MINUTES CAR No. Figure 2-A Voucher Slip "RICO" Type No. DB590 Form G Rico Coasting Recorder Relay Engraved Motorman's Key tor Rico Coasting Recorder [13] Rico Terminal Clock INTERBORC ?fi* Rl .1 * Aye LI UGH R. inning 1 ne . 1 sJU* ^PID TRANSIT CO. 3tej91L,_ Name *WU*&<^ ....-Key I ^o & MIT] 02 1 Arrive u 826 sAiuy Leave^ % ?38 SABS'] 61 2 Arrive co 9 24 SAUjy Leave ^f 7x5 8^ M*T| 81 3 Arrive 510^ SAUjy Leave V*H 9ii Mar] L[ 4 a, 11 46 Arrive eo 1X47 SAUjy Leave /^J^1058 MMP| 91 5 Arrive 458 SAUiy Leave 7^ 432 MT] 91 6 Arrive 551 SALUy Leave ^y g 5 07 tMri M 7 Arrive 5 6^2 Mfuy Leaveyy/^ i| MMT| ei 8 ou >y 38 Amve ffl i, 39 Mfuy Leave ^/^ 5 50 i*trj 21 9 -- Arrive ^^^^^ -^^ ,t 9AUiy ^trfTIri SABS'] 11 10 Arrivf ~^^^^"^ SAixiy \4#^ Note: Mark (X) for Local Express and (XX) for Through Express in space after trip number. Rico Terminal Clock Automatically Records the Running Time (For use with Rico Coasting Recorder) Running Time Envelope Showing Facsimile Record from Rico Terminal Clock [14] Rico C & S Recorder Figure 3-A Exterior View Figure 5-A Engraved Motorman's Key RY. IMP. CO X.Y. FORM C-S 1MB S. S.T. C.T. R.T. MMi HO. CAM NO. TWT M 33 02- 03-" 19- 45 r 450 636 S c p ECONOMIC & EFFICIENT RAILWAY CO. MOIOHMNN S TIMR CAHI. RunN. /3b Roul. ^J^^/t/" !>.,. NOV. 25. 191 5 1 i 60 06- 07-" 15f 49-^- 450 636 2 3 | 55 05- 06- 15 - 47~ 450 636 31 02- 03- 15- 16-" 44-: 450 1274 4 i 45 06^ 15-. 16- 46^ 450 1274 S i 42 05-. 06- 16-.- 46-1 450 1274 6 i 29 02-E- 13- 14- 43-: 450 1274 7 41 05- 06-" 16^ 45^ 450 1274 9 59 08-- 13- j 14-' 48 -. 450 543 9 i 57 07- 08-" 15-E- 47- 450 543 10 48 06^- 16f 45^- 450 543 11 39 03^- 18^- 45- 450 543 12 13 i 14. 15 16 i 17. 10. 19 - 3 530 5.TO TOTALS MOTORMAVS PAY TIME TIM CLERK ** FIRiT SECOND TWRD H'rT ON [ OFF ON OfF ON | OFF TOT.U. g3 g* 1 a 8* SfO_ Figure 4- A Interior View Cover Removed Figure 6- A Rico C & S Recorder Card Form Record [15] Rico C & S Recorder Relay Figure 7-A Exterior View Front Figure 9-A Exterior View Back Figure 8-A Interior View Front Figure 10-A Interior View Back [16] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES The Rico Coasting Recorder is not a watt or ampere-hour meter, which obviously can mea- sure only the power input; but it is the correct tool and accurate yard-stick for measuring the motorman's efficient utilization of the time- element factors that control the efficient use of the power input. The fundamental principles, considered and analyzed, as to the effect of the controlling time-element factors, demonstrate that in- creased efficiency, developed through a correct method efficiency checking system, means not only reduction in power input, but reduction in brake shoe wear and motor temperature, thereby reducing the maintenance expenses. Likewise, it is also obvious that the efficient utilization of the time-element factors results in better conformance to the established sched- ule speed, with less variation between the maximum attained speed and the average schedule speed; also that such an efficiency checking system must develop a standard of alertness in the motorman all controlling factors in reduction of accident liability. The efficiency checking system based on the Rico Coasting Recorder, when applied in practical operation, has generally developed such a standard of efficiency in handling the car equipment that schedule speeds have been increased and efficiently maintained. TABLE I-A The Ratio of increase "Percent Coasting" to decrease "Percent Power" has been determined by carefully conducted Tests, under actual conditions of operation, upon metered sections or systems of several typical Railway Companies, covering widely divergent operating conditions, as follows: (17) NAME OF ROAD San Francisco-Oakland Terminal Railway Denver Tramway Company Pacific Electric Railway ... ;,-. Metropolitan West Side "L," Chicago Bay State Street Railway . . . , . . Washington Railway & Electric Go Northern Texas Traction Co Los Angeles Railway Co Empire United Railways. . . . . . ... . . Milwaukee Electric Railway & Light Oo Elevated . Syracuse Rapid Transit Co . . lt borough Rapid Transit Co ^ Ratio of Increase Percent Coasting to Decrease Percent Power 1.22% Saving 1.1%. Saving 1.06% Saving 0.98^ 1.05 Saving Saving 1.02% Saving 1.2% Saving 1.07% Saving Saving Saving Saving Saving Saving Saving Saving , Saving she ditioE_, less voltage drop consequent imprc ditions of operation actual operation. , thereby The results obtainable by the Rico Coasting Recorder, Correct Method Efficiency Checking System, may be summarized as follows: [I] EFFECT ON POWER: 1. A saving in power consumption; the percent- age of saving in power being approximately directly proportional to the increased percent- age of coasting. (See Table I-A.) 2. A lowering of the peak on the power station. a. Due to the decrease in average power con- sumption, per car, per hour of operation. b. Due to the motorman's time in accelerat- ing the car becoming more uniform and approximating the calculated acceleration time, based on the motor equipment characteristic performance for established schedule speed and traffic conditions. [ II ] EFFECT ON BRAKE - SHOE MAINTENANCE : Due to saving in direct brake-shoe wear. The energy to be dissipated in brakes varies as the square of the speed at the time of applying the brakes. Therefore, as a portion of the energy stored in the car is utilized in coasting, the speed at the time of applying the brakes is less, with resultant reduction in the energy to be dissipated by the brakes. [ III ] EFFECT ON EQUIPMENT: 1. Decrease of armature and other motor troubles due to smaller rise in temperature, resulting from lower average amperes passing through the motor. 2. Decrease in wear and tear on equipment in general, resulting also in saving in mainte- nance and renewals of wheels, gears, etc. [IV] EFFECT ON RUNNING TIME: The regular running time is made more uni- form per trip and closely approximates the schedule running time, due to the system of checking by the use of the Rico Coasting Recorders. [V] EFFECT ON ACCIDENTS: Decrease of accident liability. Due to lowering of maximum attained speed, hence resulting in more uniform speed. Due to more uniform braking. c. Due to power being on for a smaller per- centage of the time, thus leading to one less operation to stop or reverse the car, as necessity may demand. d A motorman to obtain maximum co: time must at all times be on the alei avail himself of all opportune fore, as a natural deduction the moton ceases to be an automaton He become; a thinking operator on the alert times. Hence under these condition accidents to pedestrians and tram hides will diminish. a. b. [18] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES Rico C & S Recorder economical schedule speeds based on the analy- sis of the accurate record of traffic conditions, Both the consideration of the fundamental for each hour and minute of each car, on every principles of car operation efficiency and the line and route of a railway system, results obtained on the large number of rep- To meet the requirements for the attain- resentative railway systems, establish the Rico ment of these additional efficiencies the Rail- Coasting Recorder as a correct principle and way Improvement Company, manufacturer an effective "tool" for attaining the increased of the Rico Coasting Recorder, has developed efficiency, which in practical operation is at- the Rico Coasting and Service Recorder, tainable only through the human equation designated for commercial abbreviation, the the individual motorman. Rico C & S Recorder. Not all the time-element factors, that have The Rico C & S Recorder is a development been shown as controlling and determining based on the essential features of the Rico possible efficiencies for given conditions are .Coasting Recorder, modified in design to give within the control of the motorman. For in printed form the essential factors, encoun- illustration, the motorman has only part par- tered in practical operations, that affect car ticipation in the resultant duration of stop, operation efficiency. while the schedule speed and number of stops The Rico C & S Recorder equipment, are wholly determined by others and by the necessary for each electric car or each mul- traffic conditions. tiple unit train operated, consists of the Rico The fundamental principles demonstrate that C & S Recorder, see Figs. 3-A and 4-A, for a given car and its equipment of given gear with its electric relay, see Figs. 7-A to 10-A, ratio, there is an economical schedule speed, inclusive. dependent upon the traffic conditions and the The record from the Rico C & S Recorder unit costs of power and platform expense. is printed on a card form. Fig. 6-A is a fac- The curves showing the relation of total simile, typical of the record and data obtain- power and platform expense to schedule speed, able from the Rico C & S Recorder equip- Fig. 14, p. 36, Chapter II, hereof, show a ment. The identification of the motorman rapid increase in the cents per car-mile cost, is established by the motorman's engraved for power and platform expense, for a compara- key (Fig. S-A), inserted to operate the Re- tively short range departure either above or corder and obtain the record, below the most economical schedule speed. Referring to Fig. 6-A, from left to right, It is readily apparent from these curves that the card record shows for each trip of a run or material increase in operating expenses, per between any designated points for which the car, per year, must result from improper information is desired, the following: schedule speeds, for given car equipment and COLUMNS., the record of the total number of stops; traffic conditions. COLUMN ST., the record of the aggregate total The most economical schedule speed for a time in minutes, consumed by the total num- given car and its equipment, for given power her of stops; and platform unit costs, is a function of the COLUMN C.T., the coasting time in minutes; average number of stops per mile, coupled, COLUMN R.T., the actual total running time, in of course, with the average duration of stops minutes, and includes in such total, the aggre- . i IT- ir -2/r r^u TT gate stopping time (Column ST.); as illustrated in Fig. 15, p. 36, Chapter II, ... . , COLUMN BADGE No., the number of the motor- hereot. man operating the car, when the record was The attainment of possible efficiencies in obtained; car operation, in practice, means not only COLUMN CAR No., the number of the car on improvement in the efficiency of the motorman, which the record was taken ' under any existing schedule speed and traffic COLUMN TRIP No., at the extreme right, is self- ,. . i ! ft explanatory. It acts as a guide and gage to conditions, but also means the accomplish- gj motorman for placing the records con- ment of additional attainable efficiencies from secutively on the form card. INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [19] The columns S., .S.T., C.T., and R.T., are totaled for the motorman's daily operation, and entered as indicated. The card can be arranged with space at the bottom, as shown in Fig. 6-A, for entry by the time clerk of the motorman's pay time, for the day. This entry can be made by the time clerk, or by an automatic time clock, showing the day of the month and the motor- man's exact time on and off duty, leaving only the footing of his automatic record of pay time, to be entered by the time clerk, as shown on Fig. 6-A. This particular motorman's total pay time tor November 25, 1915, was 580 minutes or 9 hours and 40 minutes for the ^ The record shown on the card form, Fig. 6- A is taken as typical of the twelve trips, made by Motorman No. 450, on Nov. 25, 1915, his operations being on a route, covering in each trip a distance of 7^2 miles, with a schedule, speed f * requiring 4S min " matic analyst which can tell him not once a year, once a month, once a week or once a day the vital factors that affect operating costs and service standard results, but a device that re- veals such factors from minute to minute in the operation of each car! The Rico C & S Recorder, it is apparent, possesses all the advantages and secures all the results obtainable from the Rico Coasting Recorder. The Rico C & S Recorder, also, makes available for study and analysis the constant, accurate and automatic record of the vital fac- tors of varying traffic conditions for utiliza- tion in the determination of economical sched- ule speeds and for analysis of the equities of standards for service. The operations required to obtain the record from the Rico C & S Recorder are quickly made and "foolproof." In the making of the record all the type dials return to zero the record of the day's operations can be analyzed as follows: Total number miles, for all trips ..... 90 miles Total number stops, for all trips . . . Average number stops per n ^ Totluggregate'timeVs'-T.) consumed in total stops of all trips. .60 mms. or 3600 si Average duration of stop, for all trips 6.67 sees. Total running .time (R/T.) being the 55Q . ns for all trips .................... Coasting time (C.T.) for all trips Per cent coasting, the measure of the 550 or... ._ The earning or income time (K. 1 .Jot Comparison with the total entered by the time clerk, for the Rico C & S Recorder an Automatic Analyst of Railway Operation TbewonderMp^biU^of^i^d^ able bv the use of the Rico C & S Reco 1 Vt once to the practical railway oper- ^wJhThe^ at'his command an auto- clerical work required in making any desired fboti^jjj analys,.^ ^ c & g ^^ fecord ma kes it more convenient for handling, reference and preservation than the tape form ^^ ^ in thc RicQ Coasting Recorder. The principles analyzed and discussed Chapter II demonstrate that the obtamabl iWc efficiency for the operation of a given F equipment can be calculated for Tny gten scUle speed, with the factors known as to the average stops per mile and of the stops> etc . ic g Rccor(Jcr ^tSaM^correct.re.ative measure O f the motorman's efficiency, snot only Der cent coasting, but the data are av.ul- Sle to' c^ck his actla. efficiency with the obtainable efficiency for the schedule sp* BMH ^^ ^^ ^^ ^ T he R i co C & S Recorder removes tion are available [20] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES The Rico C & S Recorder records make mine by calculation and present in tangible available the data for determination of the proof and form the betterments in service ob- suitability of the gear ratio of the equipment tainable by reducing the number of stops from the record of the traffic condition re- through some reasonable skip stop rule or quirements. regulation. The records of the number of stops and dura- Furthermore with the record of the Rico tion of stops, in connection with the passenger C & S Recorder available, the proof for the record data, can be utilized to determine the unequitableness or hardship of hasty and often efficiency in practical operations of entrance- ill-advised service standards, can be estab- door designs, step heights, seating arrange- lished. ments, etc., thus giving definite data for de- termining their adoption. Similarly, the adapt- Measurement Not An Effective ability and advantages of high efficiency . , bearings, methods for lubrication, etc., can be rLniciency dneCK checked, having the schedule running time, The use of a watt or ampere-hour meter coasting time, etc., obtainable therewith, avail- naturally suggests itself as a method for check- able as an automatic printed record, from the ing car operation efficiency. car or cars so equipped, for comparison with It is self-evident that neither the Rico similar records on the existing car equipment. Coasting Recorder or the Rico C & S Recorder nor the meter (watt or ampere hour) will of m . f. , . n IT themselves effect any savings, except by the Skip Stop and Service Standards utilization of the records obtained as an effi- Every railway executive and transportation ciency checking system, to improve thereby manager has long realized that the number of the efficiency of the human equation the indi- stops affects not only the cost of service, but vidual operator. the limitations of the service attainable with The fundamental principles for car opera- available equipment. tion efficiency demonstrate that the efficient The American Electric Railway Association utilization of certain time-element factors solely has made extended investigations upon the controls the ultimate results. Unless the effi- study of the effects of the number of stops. cient utilization of these time-element factors Such studies being determined only by per- is checked and efficiency obtained by the sonal investigation surveys, have necessarily correct method of checking the controlling been limited in scope, but have pointed to the time-element factors, the best obtainable effi- unerring conclusion that the number of stops ciency cannot be approached in practical opera- is a vital factor in the costs and standards for tions. service. The principles analyzed and summarized In Chapter II, p. 39, we have shown how in Chapter II establish the measurement of the advantages and value of the Skip Stop on the controlling time-element factors as the the quantity and time for transportation serv- correct basis for an effective efficiency checking ice is a matter of exact calculation for given system. The logical and fair consideration and equipment and conditions. analysis of the principles involved, demon- The great difficulty has been that no real strate that the meter does not measure up to information as to the number of stops and the the requirements, the Coasting Recorder does. time consumed thereby is known in reference As shown on p. 35, Chapter II, hereof, the to any railway's regular practical operations. measurement at the car of power input only The Rico C & S Recorder gives this data is an incorrect and misleading measure of the for every route and car of the system. With motorman's actual efficiency. Such measure- its record available, the railway operator knows ment means nothing, unless analyzed in refer- the limitations placed upon his service by the ence to the component time-element factors, existing conditions of stops and can deter- which control and determine the power input; INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [21] for as demonstrated, the kw.-hrs. per car mile of railway accounting are based on the kilowatt- -crease in excessof ^ unlt^t is poss^ly 7-7 1/ j MUIJT d iiaiurai error to con- /3 per cent, due to the variations in such elude that the measurement of power input at factors (encountered in practical operation) the car is a proper method to check the motor and yet the actual efficiency of the motorman, man's efficiency. in the use of power, remain unimpaired. However, it must be conceded that a fair- The incorrectness of power input meas- minded and reasonable consideration of the urement as a basis of motorman rating and its practical and technical principles involved will disadvantages as an effective method for establish the fallacy of such power measure- developing efficiency of the motorman is appar- ment being an effective, "Square Deal" cffi- ent from Columns 3 and 4 of Table I, p. 39, ciency checking system. Chapter II, hereof; from which table it is to If the operating executive, in selecting an be noted that motormen D, F, C and E are efficiency checking system for purchase, does given rated standings not in accordance with not go into the fundamental and basic prin- their actual efficiency, as shown in Column 1 ciples involved (which demonstrate conclu- of said Table; also it is to be noted that sively the time-element factors, control and motorman C, who operated under the most determine the ultimate power input), how can severe traffic conditions of all (see Fig. 17, it be expected that a motorman will analyze p. 37), is particularly discriminated against the apparent discrepancy of the widely vary- on the power measurement basis of rating. ing power input readings that must result (a* The preceding is further illustrated by the hereinbefore shown) from variations in prac- log sheet data from a test conducted by one tical traffic conditions ? of the large operating companies, as follows: With the same car operated over the same route, Motorman A made a trip run, carrying a total of 70 passengers, averaging 6 stops per mile and used 2.42 kilowatt-hours per car mile The real result of interest to the operating by meter measurement; Motorman B made the executive staff is reduction of power at the next trip run, carrying a total of 101 passen- source of supply, where the costs for power gers, averaging 7.8 stops per mile and used originate. 2.42 kilowatt-hours per car mile, by meter To obtain such results, the executive measurement. b Y a correct method and means, should con- Now based on power input measurement, stantly and consistently check the individual these 'respective motormen operated with motorman's efficient utilization of like efficiency, though even a casual knowledge trolling time-element factors of physical and mechanical principles indicates The efficient utilization of more energy required for B than A; the Rico factors is relatively correctly measure Coasting Recorder reading on the log sheet any and all conditions of practical open ,1 h? Lv their Relative efficiencies, by the coasting ; any increase coast,^ for f v ? Results Desired How Obtainable tells he story per cent coasting of A was 18.9 as conditions encountered m practice ( suggest that efficiency can properly be developed through a checking sys- tern which indicated that A and B, making successive trips in regular operation, are alike in efficiency? Yet such would be their ^respec- tive ratings, if based only on measurement of data and the unit costs factors and consequently a reduction of power ^ **,% & S Recorder Etfi- System, the motorman (mam- J d} ' has to deal only with of g coasting time , whic h , automatically recorded in printed form for [22] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES each trip. Thereby he obtains the correct sign-boards indicating the point at which relative measure of existing efficiency a guide power is to be thrown off for a station stop, and monitor for him and record data for the thus fixing a period for coasting before applying executive staff to compare with possible ob- the brakes, to make the station stop." How tainable efficiency. can a company know whether the instructions The simplicity and effectiveness of such a on the sign-board are followed, unless a con- system is apparent when compared with an stant, accurate record of the motorman's efficiency checking system based on power operations are available? Certainly a human measurement records on the car. To mean inspector can check only a small percentage anything intelligible such a system involves of car operations ! laborious analysis and correction for the mul- We feel that the purpose of this paper will titudinous variations encountered in traffic be accomplished if it shall lead to the con- operating conditions. sideration of the controlling and determining The time and expense required are likely to effect of time-element factors on operating re- cause such analysis of power measurement suits. records to be "passed up" by the operating Time is the essence of railroading! The time executive staff; but in any event, such records, essence applies to every railway regardless of analyzed, or unanalyzed, logically lead to the type and character of traffic conditions. When bewilderment and discouragement of the motor- the time-element factors are considered there man, the human equation through whom will be no difference of opinion as to the correct efficiency results must be obtained with any method for checking efficiency, or as to the system for checking efficiency. justification of the necessary investment for Railway companies generally emphasize the a correct method efficiency checking system, desirability of coasting, as witnessed by the space devoted thereto in practically every n <\^ r r> .. i > i i r i r 1 Results trom Practical company s book of rules for motormen, also by their educational directions for the motor- Operation man to coast by means of inspectors, instruc- Thus far, the purpose of our endeavor has tors, lectures on operation, tickler reminder been to point out the fundamental principles cards, etc. This certainly demonstrates an involved in car operation efficiency and the appreciation on the railway's part that coast- application of such principles to practical ing is a necessary practical factor in obtaining operations; together with consideration of the increased efficiency. Yet, paradoxically, many adaptability of available commercial equip- companies overlook the vital necessity for a ment for checking, in practice, the efficient constant, individual, accurate and effective utilization of the time-element factors, demon- checking record of that coasting, which coast- strated as controlling the efficiency results of ing the fundamental principles demonstrate practical operation. is the correct relative measure of the motor- Therefore, it is now desirable to present man's actual efficiency. some of the results actually obtained and the Time and money are expended in following methods for obtaining same in practical opera- up and keeping records of almost all other ex- tions with the Rico Coasting Recorder, penditures or possible leaks from income, The operating results of more than 8,000 while the effective checking of the motorman's cars (on thirty-seven railways) whose opera- operations and efficiency in car operation, a tions are checked with the Rico Coasting field for prolific results in possible savings, Recorder Efficiency Checking System are is allowed by many companies to pass with the available. These results show 10 per cent to generalities of indirect methods and measures, 25 per cent reduction in power used for trac- having no other check than the fallible one of tion purposes, 15 per cent to 45 per cent re- personal inspection by several men. duction in brake shoe maintenance and a The statement is often heard: "We have material though less tangible reduction in INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES r 2 3] maintenance and accident tion of this saving is due to the beneficial re- T? " i suits obtained through the use of *rom the preceding paragraph it appears that nearly two score electric railways are using Rico Coasting Recorders to check the motor- t*VI Ol"l * 1 1 O^ *- 4> l*fc fi-r-r -m . -. ^ * 1 C and fare L he several operating conditions of these ing economies, companies represent the widest possible range of Illustrative of the methods used in familiar- topography, of speed, of congestion in traffic, izing motormen with the use and purpose of car and tram service, and of labor conditions, the Rico Coasting Recorder, herewith (pages The success of the Rico Coasting Recorder, 24 and 25) is the copy of a railway company's therefore, is independent of local physical and advisory bulletin to motormen, the substance operating traditions. The progressive opera- of which can easily be modified for the condi- tor, eager to eliminate every form of waste tions of any railway company, and to exploit any aid to efficiency, should not longer ignore the lesson taught by the results, r> n T? from operating companies using Rico Coasting Operative Engineering Recorder installations. It is easier to create than to maintain en- The Railway Improvement Company, manu- thusiasm ; the Rico Coasting Recorder Effi- facturer of the Rico Coasting Recorder and the ciency Checking System not only creates but Rico C & S Recorder, emphasizes the fact that maintains enthusiasm. it is not merely selling a device, but a co-opera- For example, on the Denver Tramway Com- tive engineering and transportation service. pany, prior to the installation of Rico Coast- Rico installations are based upon a most ing Recorders in 1912, the average per cent exacting study and analysis of the customer's coasting was 11 per cent; since the installation power, equipment and schedule conditions, etc. this has risen steadily and consistently from Rico installations are introduced by a thor- the 11 per cent in 1912 to 40 per cent for 1915, ough system of instruction in the correct way with a corresponding reduction in power for to operate a car. traction purposes of 25 per cent and increase in Rico installations are accompanied by an life of motor armatures of about 50 per cent, organization which provides and supplies com- The San Francisco-Oakland Terminal Rail- petitive records, insignias, etc., thus keeping way Company, during the months of Febru- up the interest of the men ; and which arranges ary to May, inclusive, 1914, installed Rico for any re-instruction necessary to maintain or Coasting Recorders to check the operations improve coasting results. of its 360 cars. The company purchases its Rico installations are furnished wit power and based on the respective kilowatt- essary forms to keep correct maintenance and hours 'per car mile for the calendar year 1914 cost records for the Rico equipmer compared with 1913 operations, there was saved Finally, the Railway Improvement the -sum of 28,718.04; similarly the savings in acts as a clearing house for the power for the calendar year 1915 compared results by and experiences of Rico use n with 1913 power aggregated 256,252.72. Rico equipment has such wonderful po r JLettet$ea& of ISaUtoar Company' ADVISORY BULLETIN No To Mot or men: Now that all the cars of this company have been equipped with Rico Coasting Recorders, no doubt some of you motormen are probably asking what is the use of all this expense and what good are the coasting recorders. Have you ever read Rule No. 266, Economical Use of Current, in your book of rules and regulations ? Are you economical in the use of your power ? Are you handling the car in the best possible way? I think I heard somebody say, "Yes, I believe I am doing as well as the next man." How do you know you are without some device to show you what you are doing from trip to trip and day to day? Now stop and think what happens when you run a car. First, current is applied, by steps, through the controller and the car gets up speed. When you have cut out all the resistance the controller is at a running point and the speed of the car has very nearly reached its limit. When you have a stop to make, you throw off the power and then apply the brakes. Why do you have to apply brakes? That is simple: when the power is applied a certain amount of energy is used to bring the car up to the speed, and then, to keep up this speed, a constant amount must be applied to overcome the resistance of the air and the friction of the moving parts, and the car has a certain amount of energy stored up in it. Now, suppose after you have thrown off the power and you do not apply the brakes. The speed of the car will gradually decrease and finally come to a stop. In other words, the energy that is stored up in the car will carry it quite a dis- tance without further application of power. You say, "Yes, sure, but if that is done it will take longer to cover that distance and if I tried it I would lose time." There is no doubt about that, but don't carry this method too far. Turn off the power far enough back from the stop and let the natural forces reduce a portion of the car speed, then apply the brakes and bring the car to a nice, easy stop. Every time you do this you are saving power by using a portion of the energy that is stored up in the moving car. The Rico Coasting Recorder shows whether you are availing yourself of this opportunity. It is a device which registers the actual time that the car is moving without power and without application of brakes. An application of either power or brakes instantly stops the measuring mechanism of the Recorder. Experiments have shown that by careful operation you can coast more, still maintaining the running time, and by having your car under better control decrease accidents, at the same time helping your company by helping to utilize the power more efficiently. Now you say, "I am going out and pay a little more attention to the way I use power. How can I increase my coasting and still keep up my record as a careful man?" FIRST: The more attention you pay to your operation, the less trouble you will have. SECOND: The more attention you pay to your operation, the more coasting you will do. THIRD: The greatest acceleration in miles per hour, for the general average conditions of operation, can be obtained only by a strict adherence to the time rate of acceleration. You have received instructions as to the proper rates of acceleration, determined as suitable in practical operations, for our company' T%^^ S :^^" ^ in P ractice is ^, generally, too'raoic . - ., Kvilt.1 any . itnj IdUI acceleration, but *oo irregular acceleration; the motorman pausing longer than he should on one point, only to rob the next of its proper time element-or even passing over the same without a pause. FOURTH: Energy once stored in a car can be dispelled only through coasting or braking. One application of air with a graduated release (where possible) is good practice. The fewer applications of air ("fanning the air") in stopping a car, the higher the coasting obtainable. FIFTH: Length of stop is materially lengthened by the failure of the "Rear End" operator to give the bell promptly or because the "Front End" operator is not on the alert to start his car when "given the bell." Length of stop is also materially increased when the operator indulges in "inefficient braking." Regular passengers soon come to know the careful operators on their lines and will leave their seats when approaching their regular stopping points and are all ready to alight when car comes to a standstill. The "inefficient braking" operator has the opposite effect on his passengers, thus causing longer stops. SIXTH: Increased number of stops per mile, on certain trips, are often caused by the operator "dragging the line," thus carrying not only his own normal "Run Load," but part of his "followers." SEVENTH: A good coasting record, day by day and week by week, is not brought about by spurts but by the adding up of the coasting in small amounts. You may try to secure a long coast where coasting is apparently easy only to lose it in small amounts when you find that you have lost time and have to make it up. The highest records are made )by paying attention to the small amounts obtainable just before stops, traffic slow-downs, etc. Unless it is an emergency case, make a practice of throwing off the power, say, 3 or 4 seconds before apply- ing the brakes. This increase in coasting is not noticed by casual observation but results in a great increase in total coasting time at the end of each trip or at the end of the day. Increased coasting obtained in this manner does not affect the schedule running time, as the momentum of the car is not sufficiently retarded during the coasting periods, to be noticeable. In carrying out the foregoing suggestions, see what you can do by utilizing the stored-up energy of the moving car in the following ways: [11 Coast behind a leading car instead of using power till you have to make a heavy application of brakes. Keep far enough behind so that all his stops will not cause you to stop. You can't pass him on the same track, and yoi utilize this time by coasting. [21 Coast to a passenger or bell stop. Unless the bell is short or the sign; by a passenger is given late, you can always throw off a few seconds be fo ing brakes and you will_be surprised how it adds up at the end of [3] throw under UCLLCI VAJHH.W* ... v..~~ ''v i cleared you can again apply power, thus losing very l.ttle ,4, Coast to cu- S -d siding Never , , ,n,o a .* ^curve . spied is reduced, release and coast around the curve. Approved: [ SIGNED!. Superintendent of Transportataoo. SIGNED General Superintendent. [26] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES complishing the possibilities of Rico equipment the effective utilization of the controlling time- in the practical operations of railway com- element factors, effects a reduction in the panics. "demand" on the generating station and dis- tribution system (see p. 40, Chapter II). The Monetary Value of Obtainable consideration and analysis of these matters for P i actual conditions in operation shows that for each dollar invested in the Rico Coasting The results obtained in the operation of a Recorder or Rico C & S Recorder Efficiency given railway can or should be capable of Checking Systems from 35.00 to 310.00 in determination from the. -analysis of the oper- power generating, sub-station and distribution ating statistics of such railway. system investment is not required or is avail- Trie obtainable possible results can be de- able for other purposes, dependent upon con- termined by calculation from the application ditions and the existing type of construction, of the principles herein discussed (in Chapter Therefore, there are available, not only in- II) to the analysis of the company's equipment creased net earnings from operating Rico in reference to existing or adopted schedule equipment, but there is saved or released a speeds, number stops per mile, etc., for the capital investment that is several times greater average operating conditions. than the capital investment for the Rico equip- The difference between such obtainable re- ment. suits and the existing results represents the savings possible by increased efficiency in oper- Yidds Highest Net Retum ation. We believe a fair-minded consideration and analysis of the whole problem and the factors The investigation of the results obtained in entering it will be convincing as to the practical operation will demonstrate that either large possibilities for increased efficiency even the Rico Coasting Recorder or the Rico C & S to those who, heretofore, have contemplated Recording Efficiency Checking System yields their present operating results with satisfaction. higher net returns on the investment, after The results obtained by railway companies allowing operating expenses, including fixed utilizing the Rico Coasting Recorder Efficiency charges, than can be obtained from any other Checking System show net savings, after de- system available commercially for checking ducting maintenance and operating expenses the efficiency of car operation, for the Rico equipment, ranging from 350.00 to 3200.00 per car per year dependent upon the Deferred Payments conditions or operation, the cost of power, etc. p i, pi The analysis of results obtained in practice, indicate that for the conditions of the average In conclusion, it may be mentioned that the company, approximately the entire cost of the purchase of Rico Coasting Recorder and Rico Rico Coasting Recorder equipment can be C & S Recorder equipment can be arranged saved each year of its operation. through the Railway Improvement Company The utilization of the Rico C & S Recorder by mutual agreement, on the basis of deferred (see p. 18), now offered for commercial use, payments, making possible the payment out makes possible even greater net savings than of the net savings obtainable and in many those accomplished by the use of the Rico instances with a possible handsome surplus Coasting Recorder. remaining in addition to the requirements for The increased efficiency obtained through meeting such deferred payments. Chapter Two Fundamental Principles of Car Operation Efficiency Chapter Two A Study of the Practical and Technical Principles Involved in the Use of the Time-Element Factors in Railway Operation, Particularly in Determining the Most Economical Rates of Acceleration, Braking and Speed from the Standpoint of Power and Platform Costs BY C. C. CHAPPELLE Consulting Engineer and Vice-President Railway Improvement Company EVERY traction company executive and the ordinary every-day operations of electric his operating staff are confronted with railway systems. the necessity for increased economies in The first point to remember in this connec- operation on account of the greater cost of tion is that time is the essence of railroading money needed to meet the constant demand before and after construction. Success depends for new capital, and because the general busi- upon the efficiency with which railway opera- ness depression and the competition of the tions are performed in established intervals automobile tend to curtail gross earnings, of time. Obviously, increases in gross earnings are not In considering and analyzing the effective to be expected under conditions generally utilization of time on a railway in operation existing. we must a PPty tne same P rmc *pl es which are In searching for means of reducing operating used in determining by calculation the power expenses attention would naturally first be and equipment requirements of a railway pr directed to the motor, but the manufacturers to its construction. of motor equipment cannot be expected to In determining the capacity of secure efficiencies substantially higher than power plant and selecting the those already obtained. Economies are, of ment for the rolling stock course, obtainable through reduction in weight speed-time and energy diagrams of cars and equipment, and the possibilities proposed schedule speed, aa =s vestment in present equipment is so large at oy m ipment f or the average con- it is rarely practicable to wnte off the cost of ab ty of new equ pm S ^ rr t h f r,"=.%-',t ~ = efficiency with either old or new equipment. as ' , The e wei ght, including average One of the greatest needs of the present time [ 1 1 e avmge g . ^ in the railway field is a better understandmg load of ; yp ca q ^ ^ of the principles involved in the attamment m to ^^ schedule spe ed. of the high efficiencies desired, and c number of stops p( . r m ,| e . practical application of these prmciples to BjBtuc *"" SmmAI " *" "' '"* Company A 1_ 8. - 24 75 Len Wek Equ tops per gthofR ihtofCai om:4-*. Mile tn 754. -Loaded VOWestu TFeet 26 Tons igh.Motoi A Gt Li 'S 4. ^ 'eroge b vr Katie w/ Tar 40KW.-I ACC.& \ Le 'oltage 15:57- gent T Irs. per Braking igthof^ NoCoc. 550 ?6"Diam.Wheets inck ' I.7M.PH.RS. Stop 7Sec. Speed in Miles per H k * *3 * 6 / g \" JJL 1 'Averag 'Sched Speed 1 40M.Rt ! \ rf s? -~ \ i^ I-* * v I t 1 .' \| $ 10 /5 20 2 5 X 35 40 4!> Time in Seconds Company B SStop Lengtl Weight T of Run 1056 Feet of Car Loaded 2}Tons Double#93-AWestingh. e Voltage 50O Tangent Track 'W-Hrs. per Car Mile r Braking 0.75M.KH.PS. h of Stop 9.5 Sec. Wo Coasting- I" Equipir GearK. Avera^ 2.672h Accel, t I ^ \ y Sched. Speffa\. 10M.KH. / \ 4 / / \ \!T ftl _/ ~ ^ K) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 ft Time in Seconds Figure 1 Speed-Time and Power-Time Graphs for No-Coasting Conditions Length of StopConstant 7Sec Length of Run 7543 Feet Coasting Rate QjiM.PH.RS. fffr- K s. 10 15 ^ 7? Jo 35 40 7: Time in Seconds Acceleration in M.fH.RS. Coasting -% of SchedJime 10 20 30 40 SO 60 TO 80 SO Time in Seconds Figure 2 Speed-Time and Power-Time Graphs for Several Rates of Acceleration M- 120 AcceleratbnConstant 1.7/HfHJS LengttiofStopConstant 7 Sec. Length of Run 754.3 Feet "" Coast!ngRate0.llMmPS. IX -_ 20 25 30 35 40 43 Time in Seconds ga Braking Rate in M.PHP5 Coasting-%ofSched.Time KW.-Hrs. per Cor Mile KW.-Hrs.Sawd with Coos % Decrease in Power Acceleration Constant 0.75 M.f UPS Length of StopConstant ff.sSfe. Length of Run 1056 Feet Coasting Rate O.llMfH.PS. Time'in Figure 3 Speed-Time and Power-Time Graphs for Several Rates of Braking 120 00 | u> Eeo 8. 1^ 20 24 s_ 20 I* (D 1* D (L) &* (0 4 fi iy^ Coastlr KW.-Hr* of Stop in Seconds 6.5 g-%ofSched.Time I8JJ7 i per Car Mile ISX Sa'/sd with Coasting CL640 it Power Saved \j5AS . Accel. & Braking ^~ RatesConstant 1. ~^^Length of Run 75- ^Coasting Rate 0.1 " 6:^ 2SJ use 1855 BB ad Ufi MJ> i5 5/.S5 30? x<7a? ^.fij ^WJ ^ WS 'KW.-tirs PerCe &'5Sf X -^= _//^; ~K%K 1 4 B 'A'/erag, 'Sched. Speed 1 40M.KI1 % \ K 3 / ^\ 1 n \ If It 1^ 7! / | ; * *i 1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 " 40 ' Time in Seconds 45 175 150 - 35 25 30 ff Length of Stop in Seconds Coasting-% of Sched Time K W.-Hrs. per Car Mile ' KW.-Hrs.Saued with Coasting 0.337 0472 0.569 f 54 % Decrease in Power Accel.8 Braking RaiesConstant 0.75MMKS. ' Length of Run 1056 Feet Coasting Rate ai/M.PHP5. Id ~w jo 4q J5 W To e3 w Time in Seconds Figure 4 Speed-Time and Power-Time Graphs for Several Durations of Stop INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [3 [ 4 ] The average length of a run that i* T^ r> 5280ft. divided by the number of steps' per mil ' Un^^T "" ""^ """""P*- ' [ 5 ] The average schedule time of a run That '^"-hours per car-mile for a schedule is, the time required to cov^r the avele ?" dof ^'^hourwith a 23-ton car, five length of a run at the average schedule 3 ^J?^,* * !**> o( " ine ^ "ne-half including the time consumed ii average stop ' raKmg u ''> miles P" hour per second is [6] The average trolley-wire voltage. Ah Tease for "Casting conditions i, [ 7 ] The average gradient and degree of curvature of line. With the above data in hand for two typical Factors Affecting Energy Input J . :: affect economical car operation. The studies equipment, of given gear ratio, at I give have been made for level and tangent track, but average schedule speed with a given aver the several factors shown will remain in the number of stops per mile and a given averas same relative proportions if modified to meet trolley voltage is affected solely by the fol- the condition of average gradient and degree of lowing factors: The duration of acceleration curvature. Each study embraces a series of six,- the duration of braking, and the duration of teen diagrams and these have been reproduced stops. It will be noted that all of these are in such a way as to permit ready comparison, time-element factors. The effects of the varia- Each study begins with the "no-coasting" tions in these elements are illustrated in Figs. conditions for the case in hand. These com- 1 to 6, in the Company A and Company B prise the minimum equal rates of "straight diagrams. line" acceleration and of braking which will Fig. 1 has already been explained. Fig. 2 enable the car to cover the required distance shows how coasting can be increased and power in the length of time corresponding to the aver- saved by increasing the rate and decreasing age schedule speed. The straight-line accelera- the duration of acceleration. Fig. 3 shows tion is that which is determined by the rate of how similar results can be produced by in- cutting out the starting resistance. After the creasing the rate of braking. Fig. 4 shows how starting resistance is all cut out the car contin- slight decreases in the duration of stop permit ues to accelerate at a constantly reducing rate increased coasting and decreased power con- as the motor counter electromotive force rises, sumption. The results illustrated in the pre- For the no-coasting there is a definite energy ceding figures are exhibited in Fig. 5 in con- consumption, which can be readily calculated venient form for study and show the relation from the voltage, current and duration of the of per cent coasting to per cent energy- saving "power on" period. by the three individual methods of saving Fig. 1, Company A case, shows the no- energy, that is, increasing the rate of accelera- coasting conditions for a 754.3-ft. run under tion, increasing the rate of braking and de- conditions existing in that city, while Fig. 1, creasing the duration of stops. Company B case, shows the no-coasting con- ratio of per cent coasting to per cent ditions for a 1056-ft. run. In the first case, saving, that is, the saving which could 4.14 kilowatt-hours per car-mile are required expected from suitable combine for a 26-ton car making a schedule speed of 11.4 three factors, is also indicated m I miles per hour with seven stops per mile. To do curve might be termed the co this without coasting requires 1.7 miles per acteristic" for this partic hour per second as the rate of acceleration and suits of combining all of the of braking. The length of stop is seven seconds, tribute to energy saving are i Company A Company B Length of Run 7543 Feet Schedule Speed il.40M.RH 10 ?0 X 40 50 60 70 00 90 TOO Rsr Cent Coasting Referred io Schedule Time IS) I < . ff Length of Run 1056 Feet Schedule Speed /OM.PH. X 40 50 60 TO SO 90 100 FterCent Coasting Referred to Schedule Time .- Figure 5 Curves Showing the Relation of Power Saving to Per Cent Coasting fa-Cent m-Hrs. VfUn. Vtotr toasting 'jgrMile Saved Saved Length of Run 754.3 Feet Sched.Speed il.40M.PH. Coasting Rtite ailM.PH.PS. I71r- 35 IS 1$ 2Q 25 }0 Ji 40 45 Time in Seconds Length of Run 1056 Feet Sched.Speed IOM.PH. Coasting Rate O.IIM.PH.P.S. 40 50 60 70 80 90 Time in Seconds Figure 6 Speed-Time and Power-Time Graphs for Several Rates of Acceleration and Braking and Durations of Stop Length of Stop Axd&Braking I.5M.PH.P5. > Coasting tote ailM.PH.PS. ' C 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Time in Seconds Figure 7 Speed-Time and Power-Time Graphs for Several Numbers of Stops Per Mile KW.-Hrs. per Car Mile KW.-Hrs.Saved with Coasting % Decrease in Power 10 ?0 30 40 50 60 Ffer Cent Coasting Referred to Schedule Time i i i L, , ^j- 90 as to is ir KW-Hrs. per Car Mile 10 SO 30 4) 50 W 70 80 90 Per Cent Coasting Referred to Schedule, Time IS 75 zo 75 Jo Js 40 4.5 KW.-Hrs. per Car Mile Figure 8 Curves Showing Relation of Stops Per Mile to Energy Consumption and per Cent Coasting, and Per Cent Coasting to Power Saving INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES (331 A study of the diagrams mentioned above Up to this point the number of stops per demonstrates the following as the effects of mile has been taken as constant variation in these time-element factors. of step is to consider the practical conditions acceleration, braking and duration of stop on arising from a change in this quantity. Figs. r i P i^L r mpUt - : 7 and 8 of both Com Pany A and Company B Lne maximum energy input and maxi- diagrams, have been prepared to show these mum speed occur when these factors are such effects. The no-coasting conditions have been as to permit "no-coasting time." changed so as to permit the original schedule [ 2 ] The energy input and the maximum speeds to be maintained with somewhat more speed both decrease as the time of acceleration than eight stops per mile in each case. In the is decreased, that is, as the rate of acceleration Company A case this proved to be 2 miles per is increased. Obviously the limitation for the hour per second and in the Company B case \% rate of acceleration, within limits of motor miles per hour per second for acceleration and equipment, are the slipping of the wheels on braking rates. The results are shown in Fig. 8, the one hand and the comfort of the passen- in the two sets of diagrams, gers on the other. In practice the discomfort Analysis of these results shows that by util- of the passengers results more from irregularity izing the time-element factors of acceleration, than rapidity of acceleration. braking and duration of stop on any selected [ 3 ] The energy input and the maximum basis, the maximum number of stops per mile speed attained both decrease as the time of is obtained with the condition of no-coasting braking is decreased, that is, as the rate of time, with corresponding maximum power in- braking is increased. The limitations of put and maximum speed attained. The energy braking are the skidding of the wheels and the input and maximum speed attained both de- comfort of the passengers. Here also the dis- crease, and the coasting time increases, as the comfort of the passengers results more from ir- number of stops per mile is decreased. Another regular than rapid braking. important deduction is that the increased per- [ 4 ] The energy input and maximum speed centage of coasting is practically proportional attained both decrease as the time consumed to the decrease in energy consumed, in the stop is decreased. The practical limi- tation for energy saving at this point depends R e ] at i on of Schedule Speed to Power upon the facilities for boarding and alighting, ^ Platform Expense the alertness of the conductor as to signals and the alacrity of the motorman in obeying The next step for consideration is or in even anticipating such signals. paramount in the minds , transportation managers, namely, t termining the most efficient schedule speeds Relation of Energy Input The so i ut i on O f this problem can be found by to Coasting Time the methods previously used. Figs. ' A most important condusion from the stud- in the two ser of diagrams ies up to this point, deduced from the data pare It > in ,cate e ^ ut on shown in Fig. 5, is that as the t-me-e eme t fo , ^ typ <^^ ^ factors of acceleration, braking and duration g duration of of stop, are varied, the corresponding energy the pr ced ng ca e bu t v ry,^^ ^ ^ consumption is in inverse proportion o the >o as to g g ^ ^^ coasting time. These time-element factors tops pe rmrte, *apo, ^ ^ ^ ^ solely and only can affect the energy input typ ^ with (he time ^| emcn t required to operate a given car and n ine , ion braking and duration equipment for given conditions of schedu e f^% an ' y selecte d basis, and a speed, with an average number of stops per "PJ numbe /of stops per mile, the mile, etc. Company A Company B 5ched.5ptrtriM.KH. %Decrease in SchedSpeed Coastvig-%of5ched. Tune I3MI3JJ 12*0 1096 AX ISO 10.14 21.05 3C s5 51.00 fix nn KW-Hrs. Saved with Coasting nPower LengthofRun lOXfixt LengthofStop TSeconds AcctBraking 2M.PH.PS. Coasting Rate 0.1 IM.PH.PS. 60 Time in Seconds er Cor Mite %Dfcrease in SchedSpeed Cca$ting-%ctSehed Time KW.-Hrs.per -Car Mile <#? 13.10 2336 S5.S 17.28 SS.25t&S8T&2i Klt-hnSaved with Coasting %DecmoseinPbwer LengthofRun /TSOFeet LengthofStop lOSeconds Aec.&Bnaking I.5M.PH.PS Coasting Ki/e 0./IM.PKPS. grams Showing Operating Conditions ) >. _. f for Several Schedule Speeds, with > r IprilTP 9 < Five Stops Per Mile J Xi 6" JV ^ ( SO 96 Time in Seconds 20KW-HraperCarMile Diagrams Showing Operating Conditions for Several Schedule Speeds, with Three Stops Per Mile Sched.5peedinM.RH. %Decreasein Sched.Speed Coasting-% of Sched Time KW.-Hrs. per Car Mile with Coasting % Decrease in Power LengthofRun IOS6Feet Length of Stop 8 Seconds AcaSBraking I.SM.PH.P5. _ Coasting Rate 0.11 M.PH.PS. ?9J2 45.65 W21 TOM 77.08 ZS7X.I45 17SJ 1.452 1217 1086 KW.-Hrs. Saved with Coasting %Decrease 'm Pbwer LengthofRun 754.3 Feet LengthofStop f Seconds Acc.sBraking2M.PH.PS. ~ CoastihgttiteailMPHPS 48 Time in Seconds 4U7KW.-Hrs.per Cor Mile Diagrams Showing Operating Conditions for Several Schedule Speeds, with Seven Stops Per Mile Diagrams Showing Operating Conditions for Several Schedule Speeds, with Five Stops Per Mile Sched. Speed in M.PH %Decrease r> Sched. Speed Coasting -% of Sched. Time KW-Hrs. per Car Mile KW-Hrs.&nfdw;th Coasting %Decrease in fbtrer JOS7 K129 SL47 8S7 7.34 25 IOAI 18.92 T055 4352 VS4 ?I9 Z367 1896 1.168 Z/J3 LengthofRun KSfeet Length of Stop 5 Seconds Ax.iBraking 2M.PH.PS. Coasting Rate UO 5 10 IS t5 2JO 2J> Diagrams Showing Operating Conditions for Several Schedule Speeds, with Nine Stops Per Mile r $ 150-30 oljj I b^jo^ so 25 SchedSpeed in M.PH. JOM 9.88 9.42 8.70 7.94 3M SJ7S ISM 21.90 ZA6 JS.IOXt55Sf.lf 17981.332 751 IKS %Decrease in SchedSpeed Coasting -%of Sched Time ' KW-Hrs. per Car Mile KK-ttrs.$o*>d with Coasting % Decrease in Power LengthofRun 58&6Feet LengthofStop 6 Seconds Ax.&Braklng I.SM.PH.PS. Coasting fate 0.11 Mf UPS. } Figure 11 { 25 SO Time in Seconds L7S 2M 2.25 Z50 2.75 300 JC^KW-Hr&perCcrMile Diagrams Showing Operating Conditions for Several Schedule Speeds, with Ten Stops Per Mile 175 Iff u .S 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 SO Cxxasting in % of Schedule Time 5 15 2O 25 30 35 - 40 45 Percent Decnease 'n Schedule Speed Curves Showing Operating Conditions Compared with No-Coasting Conditions with Five, Seven and Ten Stops Per Mile 16 v Coasting in % of Schedule Tim^ SO 90 } Figure 12 { ) 10 15 2O 25 30 35 40 45 Ffercent Decrease in Schedule Speed Curves Showing Operating Conditions Compared with No-Coasting Conditions with Three, Five and Nine Stops Per Mile INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES maximum schedule speed is obtained with no- mile. By combining with this information coasting time, and with corresponding maxi- the cost of energy and platform labor for the mum energy input case in hand it is possible to put the study 1 he diagrams show further that energy in- upon a cost basis. put decreases and coasting time increases as In Fig. 14 two sets of operating cost curves the schedule speed decreases, and that the per are plotted, one with costs plotted against cent decrease in energy input is in proportion schedule speeds and the other with costs to the increase in per cent coasting. It should plotted against per cent coasting. These are be noted, however, that the curves plotted shown on the basis of 0.75 cent per kilowatt- for per cent decrease in energy-input referred hour energy cost, and 54 cents per hour to per cent decrease in schedule speeds rise platform labor cost in one case and 0.7 cent very rapidly, particularly at low values of and 60 cents, respectively, in the other. In these quantities. In considering an increase each curve there is a minimum value which is in schedule speeds, therefore, we must balance obviously the best one for the given number the increased cost of energy with the de- of stops per mile. In order to emphasize creased cost of platform labor. these minimum cost values, curves are drawn through the minimum values of the two sets of Figs. 13 to 15 in Company A and Company curves respectively. B diagrams have been prepared to show the In Fig. 15 the same data are plotted so that relation of energy consumption in kilowatt- the most economical schedule speed can be hours per car-mile to per cent coasting and to read directly for any desired number of stops schedule speeds; the relation of total energy and per mile and the corresponding per cent of platform expense to schedule speeds and the coasting, combined power and platform labor relation of total energy and platform expense cost and energy consumption are shown by to the per cent coasting. curves plotted against number of stops per The curves shown in these figures were mile. plotted from data tabulated in the accompany- Both Fig. 14 and 15 show that when the ing tables III, IV, V, VI, VII and VIII. schedule speeds are determined with relation to economical results, coasting must result ,-, and that the amount of coasting which corre- Coasting as a Necessary factor sp0 nds to the most economical schedule speed in Economy is approximately the same in per cent over a Figs. 13 to 15 summarize all that has gone wide range in the number of stops pe before on a cost basis. It is obvious that a certain amount of coasting is necessary in Energy Input a Misleading Measure any schedule. For any existing or adopted Q f Efficiency suiting. The method for the ^ohmon of th.s seven o r m , fcth^ ^ P ^^ problem is shown clearly in the curves. watt n v ^ c(at Fig. 13 contains curves which form a sum- sped of the in . mary of the data in the pleading four figures era ing J*^^ per car . mile with a in each set of diagrams, and they show < put w -.. hour Now the nitely the relation of energy consumpnon schedu e spe d o to per cent coasting and schedu e speed re- number d p p spectively for three numbers of stops per t,on, Company A Company B Zfl Per Cent Coasting \40\40\40 Number of Stops per Mile \S\7\IO Ccmsp.KWrs.pereorMile \2M\2.65\3.8 "7 6 9 10 II 12 IS 14 Schedule Speed in Mites per Hour 15 IS Htr Cent Coasting \x\5O\x Number' of Stops per Mite] 3 - .5 I S \I.68\2.I3\2JB2 OrrespondingSchedSpeed From figs. % 10 and I 'I d // 72 75 74 s Schedule 5peed in Miles per Hour Curves Showing the Speed 75 Schedule lowing the Relation of Power to Schedule )-->. -. /, f Curves Showing the Relation of Power to Sched and Per Cent Coasting for Five, Seven > ^ 12UTC 1 J { Speed and Per Cent Coasting for Three, Five and Ten Stops Per Mile J & and Nine Stops Per Mile '-3,0 &0 as wo LLJZ5 7.0 >ds \ffil Power &CtperKW.-Hr. \ . X-& Platform Expense 60Ct.perHr ' U\ ~/ . 30, 40 r ' ~ _, ~ _. .- Coasting m % t of Scheduje Time a ^~ 10 . ii "'ft ft Schedule Speed h Mites per Hour ~80 30 14 is Fbmer }Ct. per KW-Hr. Platform Expense SJCtpertir JStops per Mile 95topsperMile Stops o // Schedule Speed in Miles per Hour * Curves Showing the Relation of Power and Platform Expense to Per Cent Coasting and Schedule Speed, for Three, Five and Nine Stops Per Mile 60 }55 145 3 55 J* Ftwer JsCtperKWHt: PtatformEtp. SOCtpfrfc For i.7a/05K>p5 per Mile, LengthofStopis7,6t5Secjesp. -AxMBrakingKtrte ZMfHJS. Coasting/tote ailMfttfo rn.cfCarwHhAifer.Riss.U3od XTons 5 6 7 8 9 10 Number of Stops per Mile .55 150 #1 ,45 y 3 >, |J 60 TO 60 ting Referred to Sched. Time Figure 16 Diagrams of Heating Currents Corresponding to Different Operating Conditions Shown in Fig. 6 [37] approxi- hour and the INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES are representative of the range in these auant-i A\A +u ties actually encountered X*SSt nt 7 ^2? ^ '"< ot non-rush-hour and rush-hour conditions. For the above enumerated stops per mile and corresponding schedule speeds, motormen showing coasting records of 40 per cent on that equipment are all operating at equal actual i^^oT^^^*^ ^ efficiency, even though the conditions of opera- and the energy input I A kilowattlurs tion vary widely, as enumerated. The coasting mile, record of the motorman, therefore, is the correct relative measure of his actual efficiency ^ for variations in the number of stops per mile Coasting the Correct Relative Measure or in the schedule speed that must necessarily f Actual Efficiency arise in practical operation The actual efficiency, based upon the inher- Un the other hand, the measurement of ent principles involved in operating any given only the energy input of the car is an incorrect car under given conditions, is dependent upon and misleading measure of the motorman's the effective utilization of the controlling actual efficiency where the number and dura- time-element factors. tion of stops or schedule speeds are variable. For further better understanding of the Efficiency based on such power measurement factors affecting the motorman's actual effi- means nothing unless analyzed in reference to ciency Fig. 17 has been prepared, showing the component time-element factors controll- speed-time and power diagrams, for common ing the energy-input, for as we have noted in variations encountered under the simplest the illustrations (opposite), this may vary from conditions of operation, i.e., a constant schedule 2.4 kilowatt-hours to 3.21 kilowatt-hours per speed, with assumed equal duration of stops car-mile, although the true efficiency of the for the average number of stops per mile. motorman is exactly the same. In Fig. 17, seven typical runs, numbered 1 to The incorrectness of conclusions based upon 7, are shown, the number of stops per mile energy measurements where the number and being either five, six or seven and, as indicated, duration of stops are variable is further illus- each stop being of eight seconds' duration. trated by reference to Figs. 4 and 8 of Company It is to be noted from Fig. 17 that, for like B diagrams. In Fig. 4, with 10 miles per hour number of stops per mile, the per cent coasting schedule speed, five stops per mile of eight increases and the power input decreases, de- seconds' duration each, and acceleration and pendent upon the increase in acceleration and braking respectively % miles per hour per sec- ond, the per cent coasting is seen to be 21^ and the energy input 2.1 kilowatt-hours per car- mile. In Fig. 8 with the same schedule speed, 7.18 stops per mile of the same duration and twice the rate of acceleration and braking, the per cent coasting is seen to be 42 and the energy input 2.1 kilowatt-hours per car-mile. Based on power input measurement the performance of the motormen is exactly the same in the two cases, yet everyone knows that the additional stops in the second case require additional energy. By the efficient utilization of the time-element factors of ac- celeration and braking the motorman in tli second case used the same energy input as Wt.ofCar>AtLood -23Tbns . RunNrter Time in Seconds Figure 17 Tables III to VIII Analysis of Relation of Energy and Platform Expense Based on variable schedule speed with efficient coasting, determined from time-speed and energy diagrams. Track level and tangent Company A Motor Car Without Trailer Weight with average load, tons 26 Gear ratio 15: 57 Line voltage 550 Company B Motor Car Without Trailer Weight with average load, tons. ... 23 Gear ratio 19. 68 Wheel diameter, inches 26 Rate of acceleration and braking, m.p.h.p.s 2 Energy coat, cent per kilowatt-hour 0.7 Platform labor cost, cents per hour 60 Line voltage 500 Wheel diameter, inches 33 Rate of acceleration and braking, m.p.h.p.s .... 15 Energy cost, cent per kilowatt-hour 75 Platform labor cost, cents per hour 54 Table III Table VI Stops per mile 3 | Duration of stop, seconds 10 Duration of stop, seconds . 7 Combined Schedule Cost of Platform Power and Speed, Per Cent of Kilowatt- Power Expense Platform Miles Coasting Hours per Car- per Car- Expense per Hour Possible per Car-Mile Mile, Cents Mile, Cents per Car- Mile, Cents 9.84 78.25 0.90 0.67 5.49 6 16 11.67 68.88 1.04 0.78 4.63 5.41 13.34 55.25 1.26 0.94 4.05 4.99 14.50 39.88 1.46 1.09 3.72 4 81 14.63 37.28 1.56 1.17 3.69 4.86 15.35 None 2.21 1.66 3.52 5.18 Combined Schedule Cost of Platform Power and Speed, Per Cent of Kilowatt- Power Expense Platform Miles Coasting Hours per Car- per Car- Expense per Hour Possible per Car-Mile Mile, Cents Mile, Cents per Car- Mile, Cents 9.00 77.70 1.35 0.95 6.67 7.62 10.90 65.60 1.68 1.18 5.50 6.68 12.40 51.00 2.08 1.46 4.84 6.30 13.31 31.65 2.66 1.86 4.51 6.37 13.80 None 3.53 2.47 4.35 6.82 With 15.35 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. . .33.92 kw.-hr. With 14.50 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. . .21. 17 kw.-hr. Excess power per car-hour for 15.35 m.p.h. over 14.50 m.p.h. is. . 12.75 kw.-hr. Or excess power for 15.35 m.p.h. over power for 14.50 m.p.h. is. . 60. 2 per cent But 15.35 m.p.h. schedule speed in excess of 14.50 m.p.h. ia 5.9 per cent With 13.80 m.p.h. schedule speed, total energy per car-hour is. . .48.71 kw.-hr. With 12.40 m.p.h. schedule speed, total energy per car-hour is. . .25. 79 kw.-hr. Excess power per car-hour for 13.80 m.p.h. over 12.40 m.p.h. is. . .22.92 kw.-hr. Or excess power for 13.80 m.p.h. _over energy for 12.40 m.p.h. is. . .88.8 per cent Seventeen cars at 15.35 m.p.h. gives 260.95 car-miles using . 576 64 kw -hr per hour Nine cars at 13.80 m.p.h. make 124.20 car-miles, using. .438.39 kw.-hr. per hour Ten cars at 12.40 m.p.h. make 124.00 car-miles, using. . . 257. 90 kw.-hr. per hour Saving in kilowatt-hour output per hour for ten cars at 12.40 m.p.h. over nine cars at 13.80 m.p.h. schedule speed, both making approximately the same car-miles and hence running on the same headway, is 180. 49 kw.-hr. per hour Eighteen cars at 14.50 m.p.h. gives 261.00 car-miles using 381 06 kw -hr per hour Saving in kilowatt-hour output per hour for eighteen cars at 14.50 m.p.h. over seventeen cars at 15.35 m.p.h. schedule speed; both making approximately the same car-miles, and hence running on the same headway, is 195 5g kw -hr per hour Or as offset to investment for one additional car there is required an investment for 180 kw. in power plant and distribution system. Or as offset to investment for one additional car there is required an investment for 195 kw. in power plant and distribution system. Table IV Stops per mile 7 Table VII Stops per mile 5 | Duration of stop, seconds 8 Combined Schedule Cost of Platform Power and Speed, Per Cent of Kilowatt- Power Expense Platform Miles Coasting Hours per Car- per Car- Expense per Hour Possible per Car-Mile Mile, Centa Mile, Cents per Car- 8.03 75.50 1.46 1.02 7.47 ^lls? 11 ** 9.89 63.45 1.89 1.32 6.07 7.39 11.42 43.35 2.52 1.76 5.25 7 01 12.06 25.55 3.11 2.18 4.97 7 15 12.35 None 3.99 2.79 4.86 7.65 Combined Schedule Cost of Platform Power and Speed, Per Cent of Kilowatt- Power Expense Platform Miles Coasting Hours per Car- per Car- Expense per Hour Possible per Car-Mile Mile, Cents Mile, Cents per Car- 8.00 77.08 1.09 0.82 6.75 ^'.H* 9.23 70.10 1.22 0.91 5.85 6.76 10.58 59.27 1.45 1.09 5.10 6.19 11.61 45.65 1.76 1.32 4.65 5 97 12.05 36.80 1.96 1.47 4.48 5 95 12.41 28.32 2.14 1.60 4.35 5.95 12.79 None 2.87 2.15 4.22 6.37 With 12.35 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. .. .49.27 kw.-hr. With 11.42 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is ... .28. 78 kw.-hr. Excess power per car-hour for 12.35 m.p.h. over 11.42 m.p.h. is. . .20. 49 kw.-hr. Or excess power for 12.35 m.p.h. over power for 11.42 m.p.h. is. . .71. 2 per cent But 12.35 m.p.h. schedule speed in excess of 11.42 m.p.h. is 81 percent With 12.79 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. . .36.71 kw.-hr. With 12.05 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. . .23.62 kw.-hr. Excess power per car-hour for 12.79 m.p.h. over 12.05 m.p.h. is . . 13. 09 kw.-hr. Or excess power for 12.79 m.p.h. over power for 12.05 m.p.b . is . . 55 . 4 per cent But 12.79 m.p.h. schedule speed in excess of 12.05 m.p.h. is 6 1 per cent Ten cars at 12.35 m.p.h. gives 123.5 car-miles using 492.76 kw.-hr. per hour Eleven cars at 11.42 m.p.h. gives 125.6 car-miles using. 316. 56 kw.-hr. per hour Saving in kilowatt-hour output per hour for eleven cars at 11.42 m.p.h. over ten cars at 12.35 m.p.h., schedule speed, both making approximately the same car- miles and hence running on the same headway is 176.20 kw.-hr. per hour Or as offset to investment for one additional car there is required an investment for 176 kw. in power plant and distribution system. Seventeen cars at 12.79 m.p.h. gives 217.43 car-miles using 624 07 kw -hr per hour Eighteen cars at 12.05 m.p.h. gives 216.90 car-miles using 425 16 kw -hr per hour Saving in kilowatt-hour output per hour for eighteen cars at 12.05 m.p.h. over seventeen cars at 12.79 m.p.h. schedule speed; both making approximately the same car-miles, and hence running on the same headway, is 198.91 kw.-hr. per hour Table V Stops per mile 10 Duration of stop, seconds 5 for 198 kw. in power plant and distribution system. Table VIII Stops per mile 9 | Duration of stop, seconds 6 Combined Schedule Cost of Platform Power and Speed, Per Cent of Kilowatt- Power Expense Platform Miles Coasting Hours per Car- per Car- Expense per Hour Possible per Car-Mile Mile, Cents Mile, Cents per Car- 7-34 71.40 1.90 1.33 8.17 ^.fif"* 8.57 60.40 2.37 1.66 7.00 8.66 9.47 48.25 2.82 1.97 6.34 8.31 10.29 26.85 3.78 2.65 5.83 8.48 10.57 None 4.95 3.47 5.68 9.15 Combined Schedule Cost of Platform Power and Speed, Per Cent of Kilowatt- Power Expense Platform Miles Coasting Hours per Car- per Car- Expense per Hour Possible per Car-Mile Mile, Cents Mile, Cents per Car- Mile, Cents 7.84 61.15 1.77 1.33 6.89 8.22 8.70 50.55 2.13 1.60 6.21 7.81 9.42 37.90 2.55 1.91 5.73 7.64 9.88 22.46 3.08 2.31 5.46 7.77 10.04 None 3.88 2.91 5.38 8.29 With 10.57 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. . .52.32 kw.-hr. With 9.47 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. . .26.70 kw -hr Excess power per car-hour for 10.57 m.p.h. over 9.47 m.p.h. is. .25.62 kw.-hr. Or excess power for 10.57 m.p.h. over power for 9.47 m.p.h. is. .9.5.9 percent But 10.57 m.p.h. schedule speed in excess of 9.47 m.p.h. is 116 per cent With 10.04 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. .38.96 kw.-hr. With 9.42 m.p.h. schedule speed, total power per car-hour is. .24.02 kw.-hr. Excess power per car-hour for 10.04 m.p.h. over 9.42 m.p.h. is. .14.94 kw.-hr. Or excess power for 10.04 m.p.h. over power for 9.42 m.p.h. is. .62.2 per cent But 10.04 m.p.h. schedule speed in excess of 9.42 m.p.h. is 6.6 per cent Fifteen cars at 10.04 m.p.h. gives 150.60 car-miles using 584 . 40 kw.-hr. per hour Nine cars at 10.57 m.p.h. gives 95.13 car-miles using 470. 88 kw.-hr. per hour Ten cars at 9.47 m.p.h. gives 94.70 car-miles using 267. 10 kw.-hr. per hour Saving in kilowatt-hours output per hour for ten cars at 9.47 m.p.h. over nine cars at 10.57 m.p.h. schedule speed, both making approximately the same car-miles, and hence running on the same headway is 203 . 88 kw.-hr. per hour Or as offset to investment for one additional car there is required an investment for 203 kw. in power plant and distribution system. Sixteen cars at 9.42 m.p.h. gives 150.72 car-miles using.384.32 kw.-hr. per hour Saving in kilowatt-hour output per hour for sixteen cars at 9. 42 m.p.h over fifteen cars at 10.04 m.p.h. sched- ule speed; both making approximately the same car- miles, and hence running on the same headway, is. .200.08 kw.-hr. per hour Or as offset to investment for one additional car there is required an investment for 200 kw. in power plant and distribution system. [39] Table I TABULATION or RATH> STANDING or MOTOKM.M OPBUTIONS AS. SHOWN .? TH^ 1. Basis 2. Baste ' * " ""vn MS OF JTII J ttmmtm L 17 Actual Efficiency A Par B Par Per Cent Coasting A 4.3 B 64.1 .*jmMim Power Input A-Par B Ml per cm A l.Slt B Mil C Par C 42.45 below par I>7.4 per cent D 1.1H D 11.4 per cent below par D 42.45 below par F 501 per cent r I.MI E 43.5 per cent below par F 5 0.1 per cent below par Q 5 3. 8 per cent below par B 27.7 F 21.6 00 below par C-*Mperot below par below par m.J per cent below par c-ow B .! INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES braking rates. Now, assume these Runs 1 to 7 are made respectively by motormen A to G. Assume further that, as is the case in prac- tice, nothing is known as to the number of stops per mile, the only known quantity being the schedule speed. Under such conditions suppose the performance of these motormen on their respective runs to be checked, on the one hand, by coasting measurements and, on the other hand, by measurement of the power input. Which method of checking would in- compared with the rated standing on the basis dicate the correct relative measure of the re- of actual efficiency; the discrepancies being spective motormen's actual efficiency? that though the actual efficiency of motormen The standing rating of the respective motor- A, B and C is the same, the rated standing men can be stated as follows: on the basis of per cent coasting differentiates [ 1 ] Basis of actual efficiency. Since the as shown. best efficiency for each respective number of This differentiation is desirable, for results stops per mile occurs with the highest rates of in practical operation show that the motorman acceleration and braking, all motormen operat- tends to accelerate and brake at rates propor- ing with such highest rates can be rated as tioned to the traffic requirements, instead of "Par" and the remaining motormen rated the the efficient rates, unless his operations are "Per cent below par," which the power effectively checked. From Fig. 17 it is to be actually used exceeds in per cent the power noted that the stops per mile for A were less which would have been used had the highest, than for B, whose stops in turn were less Par," rates of acceleration and braking than those of C. The tendency in practice or been utilized. would have been for B to operate less effi- [ 2 ] Basis of per cent coasting determined ciently than C, and A even less than B in from the measurement of the coasting time. reference to the controlling time-element fac- [ 3 ] Basis of power input measured by tors. Therefore, the psychological and prac- meter, the motorman using the minimum tical effect is good if A and B are given credit, power input (kilowatt-hours per car mile) being in their rated standing, as is done by the per rated as "Par" and the remaining motormen cent coasting rating, for their efficient opera- being rated the "Per cent below par" which tion under the easier traffic conditions. their respective values of kilowatt-hours per car-mile actually used exceed in per cent the minimum or "Par" value of kilowatt-hours per of motorman's index number Economic Advantages of the Skip-Stop Plan The enormous advantages to the public :and o from metered measurements of the railway from the utihzation of mile used by such motorman to the average of the kilowatt-hours per car mile of all the motor- men. , Table I shows a tabulation of the rated 1 /-kM ^Mf* standings of the several motorm respective foregoing basis for ratings. From Table I it is to be noted the rat standing of the respective motormen, base on the per cent coasting, is relatively correct, Table II SHOWING GAINS BT RK>UCTION IN Nc uo or Stow 8Chedulfl Ml Ml 77.' 37, PerCtet bHMM 11.4 ** 7.M I*-*' MJ Decrease. [40] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES seven and ten stops per mile. The following tion and analysis of speed-time and power table shows the results of eliminating three diagrams based on the maximum deviation of stops per mile. series operation with maintenance of schedule Table II shows that the reduction from ten speeds for any average condition, will dispel to seven stops per mile results in making any illusion that rheostatic losses may more available for the public 20.2 per cent more than offset efficient utilization of the time- service, with 20.2 per cent saving in time due element factors hereinbefore discussed, to increased rapid transit, at an approximate additional cost of only. 1.6 per cent to the railway, on the basis of"4000 car-hours opera- Reduction in Demand on Generating tion per car per year. Station and Distribution System A similar study of Company B curves shows that, based on 4000 hours of operation per car , That the adoption of a high rate of accelera- per year, a reduction from seven to five stops tlon wl1 not mcrease the . demand on < h , e per mile results in 15.7 per cent more available f ower f P lant > su bstat,on equipment, etc fol- service for the public with 15.7 per cent saving lows , from the fact that tbe duratl n of the in time, at only 0.7 per cent additional cost. acceleration current and the required average In concluding this part of the subject, it current both decrea f as the rate , of acc j elera ; should be noted that while the curves in Fig. * lon increases. As the current peaks produced IS show the most economical schedule speeds b l the different cars occur at different times, for given numbers of stops per mile, together wben the diversity factor f ^e usual number with the corresponding most economical energy f cars operated is considered it is apparent and platform expense, based on given energy that on 'y *]* sum of tbe reduced avera S e and platform labor costs and for a given equip- cur / ents ls drawn fro , m tbe P ower P lant ' ment, similar curves can be determined and As generating and substation equipment constructed for any combination of expense ratm S s are usuallv based " hourl y M P^' rates. The important, dominating principle the a ge current drawn from or the de- demonstrated by the curves is that the deter- mand u ? n s " ch ^"'Pffnt, for the usual mination of conditions yielding best economy ratm f P u enods of tlme ' wl " be redu f d a PP rox '- carry with them such utilization of the time- mate 'y b ? * same Pontage a f. the efficiency element factors that coasting time must result. ls mcr f a ^ d b y th f effic ^ utilization of th, It would not be right to leave this phase controlling time-element factors, herein dis- of the subject without considering the effect cussed ' **,* furtber a PP arent fr M a udy oi of variation in the time-element factors upon tbe sev e ^ al *P*ed-time and power diagrams the heating of the motor equipment. Fig. 16, that the m , v f tm ^. nt for an e ffic'ency checkm f for Company A and Company B conditions, s y st m wl " be offset man y. fold b y the valut shows the results of studies made to determine of * f "crating station, distribution system^ this heating effect. In each case the square a " d s " bsta n capacity, unrequired or avail- of the current, to which the heating is propor- able / or j other purposes, due to the reduct.or tional, is plotted against time, and the average of the demand thereon ' heating current is plotted against per cent coasting. The curve between the average heating current and per cent coasting shows Summary and Conclusions that the results already described can be se- By way of summarizing and emphasizing the cured without exceeding the equipment limi- results of the foregoing analysis of efficiency o; tations. car operation the following may be of interest Questions may also be raised as to the effect [ 1 ] The power input necessary to operate z of the rheostatic losses on the results and as given car and equipment at a given averagt to the effect of short-period, high-rate accele- schedule speed and with a given number o ration on the power plant. The construe- stops per mile is solely dependent upon th< INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES mi efficient utilization of the time-element fao As was stated earlier in this paper, there is no tors : acceleration, braking and duration of stop. question as to the necessity for efficiency The effect on the power input of varia- operating an electric railway property Gross tion in these time-element factors is in propor- earnings can hardly be increased under existing tion to the coasting time, and the increase in conditions, and, therefore, net earnings can be per cent coasting is in proportion to decrease increased only by the reduction of operating in per cent energy consumption. expenses, which is a condition and not a theory [ 3 ] Since efficient utilization of power for that confronts us. In the solution of the prob- given conditions is solely determined by these lem of securing greater efficiency, practical and time-element factors, the correct method of technical analysis must be applied to the only checking the motorman's efficiency in the use factors that control and determine results. of power is by a system giving him a positive, As demonstrated hereinbefore, the laws gov- authentic record of his efficient utilization of erning these factors are based on known these factors, which as explained above, is principles, and deductions based on the applica- measured by the coasting time and the per tion of these principles are correct to the cer- cent coasting. tainty of the proverbial "death and taxes." [ 4 ] Equipped with such a correct method No railway executive or engineering staff of checking efficiency, the motorman has only questions the reasonable certainty of obtaining to handle his equipment and to take advantage calculated efficiencies and results from the of physical conditions encountered in operation large investment involved in a new power so as to obtain the greatest possible coasting generating station, yet the factors affecting time, with maintenance of schedule time, the results obtained from that power station on each trip of his run. The coasting time can contain many more variables than the time- be increased only by the motorman's efficient element factors which control car operation utilization of the time-element factors of efficiency, and the correct method for checking acceleration, braking and duration of stop, such efficiency. these being the only factors under his control Doubtless many operating companies that can affect power input. already secured, or are securing, large ecoi [ 5 ] The economical schedule speed for given mies from increased schedule conditions is also dependent upon the efficient adopting the skip-stop and utilization of the time-element factors, and to from the use of coasting signboar be economical the schedule must be such as education of employees as mines the limitations of possible schedule speeds, with a given equipment. It therefore operation of the average number of stops per mile and the average duration thereof. [ 7 ] The per cent coasting is the mea ure of the correctness of the relation of the con- trolling time-element factors for any give_ number of stops per mile and schedule speed, and of the motorman's efficiency without re- gard to the variation in number of stops pe mile and schedule speed encountered in prac- tice. bi|ities of such e real zes t p ^ Approaching ob- ^ ^^ .^ mabl e etoc, J ^ ^ ^SS by means of stop-watch , ( coastjng timCi ngsof ninn ng ^ ^^ rf $j du , dem( J trate the varubil.ty ^.^ moMrmen utilBe time ^l c ment factors under [42] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES the same conditions, to say nothing of the It should always be borne in mind that the variations from obtainable possible results, coasting which has been referred to in this and will prove convincing as to the need for a article is that coasting which forms an inherent correct efficiency checking system. part of the cycle of operations involved in To expect the best obtainable results with- moving the car efficiently under the practical out such a system is as inconsistent, when the conditions of traffic operation. Coasting is a facts involved are considered, as would be function of such a cycle just as is acceleration, the checking of conductors in matters of fares, braking or duration and number of stops, etc., by the average results per car on the sys- but, as demonstrated, it is also the measure tern, instead of using " some fare-registering of the efficient utilization of these factors, checking system. The efficiency checking system based on The fact that increased economies are accom- measurement of coasting comprehends the plished by means of the more or less indirect attainment and measurement of only such methods mentioned points unmistakably to coasting as exists as a function of this cycle, the economies which may be obtained when It does not involve, as some seem to think, the the efficiency problem is approached with the slowing of schedules, the running by of stop- correct tool and accurate yard stick for ping points, the operation on down grade, etc. measuring the efficient utilization of the con- In conclusion the writer believes that execu- trolling time-element factors. tives and transportation managers will agree It is well recognized that changing the gear that the application of practical and technical ratio or utilizing the principle of field control principles to ordinary, every-day operation for motors, will affect material economies under is the means for accomplishing efficiency in conditions that may be encountered in prac- car operation. When the time-element factors tical operation. However, it is apparent that are considered there will be no difference of such changes will not eliminate the importance opinion as to the correct method of checking for the efficient utilization of the controlling efficiency, or as to the justification of the time-element factors herein considered. necessary investment in the checking system. INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [43] Comments on CAR OPERATION EFFICIENCY by W. B. POTTER, Engineer Railway and Traction Department, General Electric Company GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY SCHENECTADY, N. Y., January 22, 1916. To the Editors: I have read with much interest C. C. Chappelle's article in the issue of the ELECTRIC RAILWAY JOURNAL for January 15, on the "Fundamental Principles of Car Oper- ation Efficiency." I quite agree with his argument in favor of the maximum percentage of coasting practicable as an effective method of minimizing the power required for a given run, and that a record of the percentage coast- ing is a desirable and effective means of determining the relative operating efficiency of different motormen. The percentage values as illustrated by the curves are subject to variation due to condition of track and rolling stock, and I doubt whether results in practice will actually con- form with his figures, as a coasting friction of 10 Ibs. per ton is lower than usually considered for service of the char- acter illustrated, although modifications on this account would not detract from the general conclusions of the article. Economy in power, however, is only one of the fact of successful operation. Attempting to secure minimum power possible through maximum obtainable coasting, with acceleration and braking to the limit of adhesion on the rail, would obviously be undesirable as causing discomfo passengers and increased maintenance by reason of greatc wear and tear. There are limits beyond which it will found undesirable to reduce the power consumption, 2 it does not follow that the motorman showing the power consumption is necessarily the best operator Unde such circumstances excessive acceleration and brakin come as undesirable as the failure to profit by coas rung unnecessary. A proper application of the fft^ vocated bv Mr. Chappelle should result in a "du don in the powerused by unskillful motormen with outTn any way causing discomfort to passengers, or adding to maintenance of the equipment. Engine Railway and Traction Department. Reprinted ty fission from ELECTRIC RAILWAY JOURNAL, January 29, 1916. [44] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES Comments on CAR OPERATION EFFICIENCY by F. E. WYNNE, Engineer Railway Section, General Engineering Division, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company WESTINGHOUSE ELECTRIC & MANUFACTURING COMPANY EAST PITTSBURGH, PA., January 11, 1916. To the Editors: A most interesting and valuable contribution to the literature on this subject is found in C. C. Chappelle's article in the issue of the ELECTRIC RAILWAY JOURNAL for January 15. From time to time numerous engineering papers and articles have been presented using speed-time curves for the purpose of illustrating the effects of changing operating conditions as well as for determining the correct equipment to apply. The manufacturers of railway equip- ments have for years endeavored to assist the operating departments of the electric railways in thoroughly understanding the fundamental principles governing efficient operation of cars. In spite of the progress due to these efforts, there is much yet to be desired. Mr. Chappelle's discussion of these principles brings out a point which is frequently overlooked in practical operation; namely, that under a given set of conditions, the power input to the car is determined by what he designates as "time-element factors." Therefore, his article should be of great assistance in securing full appreciation of the possibilities for economy which may result from a careful an- alysis of operating conditions. He mentions the large investment in present equipment and the impracticability of obtaining the maximum economy which might be secured by scrapping it and installing new equipment designed to take advantage of all the recent developments in the construction of cars and electrical apparatus. In this connection it is well to note that probably on many roads the rolling stock is being operated at less than its maximum efficiency. In such cases there exists the opportunity for the application of the fundamental principles to decrease operating expenses and improve service without incurring the great expense accompanying a complete change of equipment. A study of the service conditions will bring to light incorrect oper- ating features such as overloaded and underloaded equipments, wrong gear ratios, slow acceleration and braking rates, stops of unnecessary length, poor arrangements of schedule, headway and layover, etc. It will also furnish the data required for making a logical application of the fundamental principles to correct such defects as may be discovered. Consideration of these facts in con- junction with Mr. Chappelle's article makes it evident that every railway operator should be fully acquainted with all the details of INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [45, his service conditions in order to get the most economical results trom the equipment which is under his control. In the matter of determining the most economical schedule only the cost of energy and the platform expense have been con* sidered. Apparently, the maintenance and fixed charges also should be taken into account. However, these are minor factors in comparison with the cost of energy and crew wages, so that the general conclusions will not be affected materially. Evidently the total maintenance and fixed charges per car-mile would be de- creased, although the value per car annually would be greater. It is important to remember that the benefits to be derived from higher schedules are greater when the platform expense is high as compared with the cost of energy. It is also interesting to note from Fig. 15 that the average per cent coasting for the most economical results is greater for Case "A" than for Case "B." This illustrates the fact that the numerous variables encountered make the problem some- what different for each railway. If schedule speeds for different runs and at different times of day are once adjusted to be the most economical in each case, Fig. IS indicates that approximately equal amounts of coasting should be secured with stops varying in frequency over the range ordinarily found in city service. This being the case, the coasting time alone will indicate directly the relative efficiencies of various motormen. However, it is not always possible to adjust schedules to the most economical value on account of the necessity for maintaining cer- tain headway and meeting competition. For instance, one motor- man in all-day service might be 100 per cent efficient when securing 40 per cent coasting. On the same line, the rush-hour service might be such that an extra motorman on a tripper would be 100 per cent efficient with only 20 per cent coasting. Hence it is nec- essary to have a record of the number of stops and the standing time as well as the coasting time in order to make fair comparisons, knowledge of the frequency and duration of stops is also necessary in order to satisfactorily analyze a service and determine from the analy- sis what schedules are the most economical. Such analysis followed by adjusting schedules to the most economical value will be highly profitable to many railways. An instrument for measuring am cording running time, coasting time, standing time and numb stops would make such an analysis a comparatively simple prob and also insure proper operation of the equipments on the cal schedules as determined. Engineer Railway Section, General Engineering L R, printed by permission from ELECTRIC RAILWAY JOURNAL, January 22, 1916. [46] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES Comments on CAR OPERATION EFFICIENCY by H. ST. GLAIR PUTNAM, of L. B. Stillwell, Consulting Engineer -s, 100 Broadway, New York City L. B. STILLWELL, Consulting Engineers NEW YORK, March 20, 1916. To the Editors: I have read with interest Mr. Chappelle's analysis of the "Fun- damental Principles of Car Operation Efficiency," as based upon the coasting element in the speed-time curve, which was published in the issue of the ELECTRIC RAILWAY JOURNAL for January 15, 1916. The theory of the coasting element of the speed-time curve, as measured by the coasting clock, was discussed in a paper on "Power Economy in Electric Railway Operation Coasting Tests on the Manhattan Railway, New York," presented by me before the American Institute of Electrical Engineers on June 28, 1910. The analysis now made by Mr. Chappelle reaches the same conclusions as were then presented, excepting that Mr. Chappelle has extended his analysis to include a general solution of the prob- lem, and includes also a study of the relation between platform expense and the most economical schedule speed for any given equipment and condition of operation. This is a very interesting addition to the subject and should be of value to operating com- panies. The useful energy absorbed in moving a train or car from one point to another depends only upon the train resistance, which, of course, includes the resistance due to grades and curves. The wasted energy appears as rheostat losses in acceleration, motor losses and energy absorbed in braking. Where the equipment for a road is already installed the useful energy required for a run over a given portion of the road is practically constant. As has been frequently pointed out, any method of operation that results in the application of the brakes at a lower speed tends to produce a saving in the energy used. Any method of operation that increases the amount of coast- ing decreases the speed at which the brakes are applied and tends to reduce the amount of energy wasted in braking, and hence also tends to reduce the amount of energy required for the operation of the train. In railway equipments as usually installed the relationship seems to be that an increase of 1 per cent in the amount of coasting results in a saving of approximately 1 per cent in the amount of energy used. It has been called to my attention that in my paper above men- tioned the paragraph referring to a momentary pause on the series INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [471 point during acceleration, and the effect of such a pause on the amount of energy used, shows a result inconsistent with the general principle as set forth above. The general principle, however, is controlling in this case also, the discrepancy being caused by factors resulting from the use of the starting resistance. The pausing on series position of the controller for a few seconds should not be confused with such operation as occurs in short runs encountered in congested districts of a surface line route, or in approaching curves and switches where series operation only is a special and unavoidable condition, with an equipment selected for normal multiple operation in reference to the average conditions encountered in service. The result of a pause on the series point in acceleration is a re- duction in the average rate of acceleration, and this results in a de- crease in the amount of coasting, an increase in the speed at which braking is begun, and therefore an increase in the energy wasted in braking. There would then be a corresponding increase in the energy actually used in the operation of the train, unless it is offset by the reduction in the energy absorbed in the rheostat, due to the elimination of a part of the rheostat losses in the multiple position. The energy absorbed in the rheostat is not actually used in the movement of the train, but is absorbed in the rheostat before it reaches the motors. If the reduced voltage on the motors could be obtained in some other way, the general principle would hold true in this case as in all others. In the case where rheostat control is used, however, a slight pause on the series position in acceleration results in cutting out a material portion of the rheostat losses in the multiple position, because of the increase that has occurred in the speed of the train. This reduction in rheostat losses tends to offset the additional energy required because of the lower average rate of acceleration. For a very short pause on series, in accelen amounting to from one to three or four seconds, depending on t maximum speed of the equipment used and the rate of initial accelera- tion, the reduction in the energy losses in the rheostat may equ; or exceed the increase in the actual energy input to the motors cause by the resulting lower average rate of acceleration, circumstances there will be but little or no increase m the energy taken by the equipment, or it may even decrease. As the rheostat is in circuit in the multiple position for from say "^This long period is found in heavy electric traction. [48] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES tion. As the saving in energy, if any, resulting from this method of operation increases the wear on brake-shoes and wheels and en- dangers the maintenance of the schedule, motormen should be in- structed against pausing on the series point during acceleration. The best all-round results are obtained by getting up to speed as rapidly as' practicable. The disadvantages of rheostatic control have been long recog- nized, but the rheostat is the most practical device available for d.c. motor control. Where it is possible to obtain voltage control directly, as in alternating-current operation or by field regulation in direct-current operation, then the general principle is of universal application. It can be stated generally, therefore, that any method of operation that increases the amount of coasting decreases the amount of energy required for the operation of the train. H. S. PUTNAM. Consulting Engineer. Reprinted by permission from ELECTRIC RAILWAY JOURNAL, April 1, 1916 Chapter Three Relation Between Car Operation and Power Consumption Chapter Three Relation Between Car Operation and Power Consumption* BY J. F. LAYNG Railway and Traction Engineering Department, General Electric Company SINCE the early days of electric railroad- ing at all times, and as a result the coasting ing it has been known that in test runs clock was designed and is now very extensively there are great differences between used throughout the country, power used, even when the conditions of service Two other methods that have been used in are the same. With the same car over the same a number of instances to obtain the maximum route, with the same number and length of coasting consist in employing wattmeters and stops, the power consumption will vary more ampere-hour meters. With these two instru- than 30 per cent when operated by different ments it is of course necessary to make proper motormen. This is a case where the difference allowance for the difference in the weight of between individuals is strongly emphasized. cars when making an analysis. Recently there It is also recognized that with the same has been considerable data published regarding motorman on different days the power used will the methods of obtaining the maximum amount vary greatly. If he feels strong and in a good of coasting, and it would therefore seem ad- humor the motorman accelerates fast and saves visable to make an analysis of the fundamentals power, but if he feels otherwise he will acceler- which will illustrate in curve form just what can ate slowly and consequently waste power in be expected in energy savings by accelerating starting resistors. Weather conditions, of and decelerating as rapidly as possible. course, will cause variation in the amount of To illustrate these points, calculations and power used, but with reference to the remarks curves have been made on cars weighing 1 just made, it is assumed that weather condi- tons complete with load, and equipped with tions are normal. two motors. It is assumed that the car^ The difference in power consumption in the geared to have a free running spe different runs is caused by the relative amount miles per hour, a 1000 ft run, a sch of coasting and rate of braking by the differ- of 10.65 miles per hour 7 ent men Ib. per ton friction. As has been p ' The maximum amount of coasting is ob- stated, with maximum rates of accelerate tained when a car is accelerated at a maximum deceleration the maximum amount rate and decelerated at a maximum rate '^Turves shown in Fig. 1 illustrate the When a car accelerated rapid y instead of ^^^^ J be requircd ^ slowly, the starting resistor is in use for P accelerating at different rates, proportionately shorter length of time and on " e ^ and 2 miles per hour per consequently the difference in the energy con- * 4, ^"J^ J, lso plotted sumption is transferred from rheostatic losses seco r , , on these curves. to useful work. , f the amounts O f energy required A few years ago there were a number A J^ ^ Qf acceleration is vcry investigations made to determine some sysl ti When accelerating at ?-{ miles per matic method of securing the maximum coas * k ^ found thaf the ^ con . *Rriutod by permission from October 1915 issue G.N.BAL EL.CTBIC R.V..W. [52] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES /^ M.fiM Per Se c oncf Bra/fin ZOLb. fl&r Ton Fr/ct/on OOft./?i/n. 7 Sec. Stop. IO. 6-5 M.f?K Schedu/e. JOOO ft Run 9 V g^fc> 20 * _ s ^SM.PH.WS^ ' ^ V ^ ieo (e r f7rf.r?i5d&' f^ ^ ^< ^ ^ s.^ ^> i i^ ' ^ \ v S ^ ^ ^^ [ ^ ll / ^'i / ^ ^ ^ N, v x^ X ^120^12 - f IV rt/ // ^ z v ^ X X ^ [[ 6= ^1 i-4*tl?H^.._ X CN V A- i Zv - "f J a /W /^/T/7 PHf? a 3 ' s 1 * ao^- e I r< )i y X 1 "^ ^ '*r\ \ J5 ^ / ) s s\ \ ~\ ^ CO 6 hfe ^^ s ^ /. -~^ ~ \ ^ o o ^-* \- ZOLb. Per Ton fr/ction. /4 M.PH.RS Acceleration. lb.65M.PH. Schedule 7S&0 S't,op. o /o so jo 40 so t Time In Seconds JM.RH. Per Second Accetei~atlon._ Figure 1 Decrease in Energy as Rate of Acceleration is Increas i ed * /60 t6 I \IOO^/0 o J) 40 -rf .20 2 ^ ^ .8 ?5 M p H f 'J. -/J0. ^ \. j \^* ^ . "X \ ^ Q> ^1 5^ X ^ /> H| ^ >^ / *<. X V^ \> PS 7 a | ^ fcv. s '-i M.P. tf* H.R5 MP.h \ \^ \ X! IF X \ o \ S. / 5 a J n c? Q \ \ \ 1 / ^ ^O>>. ; r ^ \v / "** -r/^Je e. a -. ,-' .v 1 \ \\- ' v; ; \ \ 1 " ' 1 1 1 1 \\1\' *' V T. / 1 1 i ' i \1 '. 5 y "T 1 1 \ ^ ^ \\ ) /C? i'C' 3O. 4O 5O 6O Jlmes^in. Seconds^ 1 5 f ii s zz 3 MRH.PS. Braking Figure 2 ise in Energy Consumption as Rate of Braking is Increased C ooort. i?un WLb Per 72>n f/at friction, s MR H. Per Second \ cceleralton And Brakinq. O.65MPH. Schedule. 4 / Decres / jO < - , =" \/?3 5Yo

c. J top * / x; . Is /P/9 V; 1? - i; z ^ V T I s ^/*^"ec.5c^/> < /0O *^ /O ~^ \ * X L i! \ S s h <57 . sr c f 51 40 4 . r \ A j rjr - ^ b ,/ these figures illustrate of acceleration and the lowest rate of J* ^^ Qf ^ ^^ working , eeway in running where the lines cross. It is generally accepted that the proper rate [54] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES It will be noted that the actual running time, not including stop, is extended to 80 seconds, and that the energy is reduced to 54 watthours per ton mile, but the schedule has been reduced from 11.7 miles per hour to 7.8 miles per hour when considering the entire range which is covered by the curve. The last two sets of curves which have just been discussed are entirely separate from the first two curves. The first curves illus- trate certain fixed conditions with reference to schedule speed, length of run and length of stop, while the last two curves assume the operating conditions to be changed, that is, by changing the length of stop or extending the schedule speed. After reviewing the four series of curves given, there can be but two conclusions, viz.: the effort to keep track of power consumption and to instruct the motorman is a very profit- able undertaking, and that there is as much reason for following up and keeping tab of the energy used by individual motormen as there is for keeping record of any other expenditures on the property. By keeping these records and following them up properly, savings in power of 20 to 25 per cent can reasonably be expected. In many cases a study of the local conditions will show how schedules can be slightly rearranged and either less cars used for a given service, or the running time can be very slightly extended and the power savings made which are illus- trated in the curves of Fig. 4. .no 100 ZOO 2O SO 130 IS x- SO ISO 16 6O \ IZO*^ A? o 40 v; 0^ s u C! u 30 6O 6 * ^O 4O 4 /O ZO 2 A si si 1 \ \ i ^ s /.> ?L *H (Hi A ei ?/- -/ 5 J/7 SC ft ?/ fcri 1 tcf J frit. \ \ cce/e tion. re. 7 't/Oi 3e 7> r 'rx. nc '^ Is ^TO .5 frl to, n? o ] , r ^' , - \ \ . i^l ^ "N \ \l\ X ^ x \ \ *x. X x A \ *ti r \ X X u X X N x x X Q ^ f X s X * S <* g N ) ' X X, s^ 5 V s x y es ^ x. ^ / 1 * X x. \ 1 "* vS^ t ^ / \ N x. ft s \ ^>< 53 H ,j / S V ^^ Sr \ \ \ x\ ^ X I s x ft P; 5 \ s x X 1 H; ?^ e f -ff \\ \ X \ ; \ i \ V X. \ \ \ X X, 1 A \ X 1 E \ \ ^ \ 1 \ \ \ \ /O O 3O <*O JTO 6O 7O TJrne cf f?un, Cxc/vd/ng $ top, /r> Seconds 60 Figure 4 Decrease irt Energy Consumption, Current Input, and Schedule Speed by Increasing the Coasting in a 1000-ft. Run Chapter Four Economies in Railway Operation Chapter Four Economies in Railway Operation BY F. E. WYNNE Engineer Railway Section, General Engineering Division Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company NOTE: Through the courtesy of Mr. F. B. Wynne we have reprinted in this Chapter IV portions of his paper read in 1912 before the Baltimore Section of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Mr Wrnns discusses several elements and factors that can effect economy of operation. Some of these can be comedy determined as to their adaptability in the selection of equipment, while others are controlled more or less en- tirely by the operations of the motorman or the motorman and conductor. To appry most effectively the prin- ciples discussed by Mr. Wynne in reference to gear ratio, type of control, etc., it is necessary to hare an ac- curate record of the traffic conditions and requirements, while the economies he shows as obtainable In the correct operation of cars in service can only be attained by means of an effective and constant 'K^.n-0 of the actual operations of every car. It will be apparent that the foregoing necessary requirements areeffee- tively accomplished only by means of the Rico Coasting Recorder or the Rico C & 8 Recorder. (C, C. ChappeDe.; NEVER before in the history of modern ments that are found on all up-to-date roads, industrialism has there been such a Car bodies, trucks, wheels, control and motors stupendous effort made by everyone have all improved to an extent undreamed of a for high efficiency as at the present time. It few years ago. Not only has there been a is the keynote of every convention; the pro- great increase in reliability which is always ceedings of the Institute and other engineering one of the greatest assets a road can have- societies are full of it; magazines and daily but the cost of inspection and maintenance papers are devoting a great deal of space to the has been reduced to a degree that makes it subject. cheaper to scrap old equipments than to Under such conditions it is natural that the operate them, pendulum in railway operation, which has un- Since the life of wearing parts til recently been swinging far upon the side creased to an extent that but little return i of safety and reliability at any cost, started to be expected from further endeavors swing toward the side of reduction in cost line, the busy minds of engineers at the price, as some engineers think, of both country have been turned toward safety and reliability. When this happens, of reducing cost of operation and _hav, an extreme is likely to be reached that may rested on the cost of power. show a reduction in cost of some items that have one of the larger items ; in i the been in the limelight, but will show an increase and offers a fruitful field for mves - ... f A *. _~.-.-/rc h^V^ I in other items affected thereby that will tar a change from practice that is giving good > P , h( results. In other words, the old maxim, be and the k JTJJ^ ,5,000 to90,OOC sure you are right, then go ahead," apphes "^^^^2 may cos. in on. here with special force. kilowatt-hour at the switch Probably nowhere has this search for effi- .4cen f ^ ^ ^ ciency been more active than m the electric board and ^ ^ ^ . railway field. In the first place every part of unt^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ the equipment has been studied with the great ou cond itions of sen-ice ma) est care to increase its life and reliability and w dely. FjMJ y^ ^ ^ ^^ decrease the cost of maintenance. T thours per ton-mile at the car resulted in the present magnificent equ.p- to [58] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES A road which averages 50,000 miles per car section, regardless of the actual cause of the per annum, consuming 100 watthours per ton- break, which might have been in something mile at the car, and whose power costs 1.5 entirely different. This, of course, resulted in cents per kilowatt-hour at the car, will pay designs which were unnecessarily heavy. It 3% cents per pound per annum for power. is the part of good designers and conservative 50,000 x .lOOx 1.5 engineers to redesign them, distributing mate- wnere necessary for strength and cutting 2000 out as mucn unnecessary material as possible. It is astonishing what results have already But whatever the actual cost may be, it has been obtained in this line, and the end is not put the matter before the operating people in yet . The use of high-grade materials and such an attractive way that many of them have pressed-steel shapes with new types especially been bending every energy to reducing weight, fitted for them will still further reduce weights thinking that every pound reduced, no matter o f car bodies and trucks, and now the question how reduced, will result in an immediate saving has been put squarely up to the electrical of 5 cents per pound per annum. Some even manufacturers to reduce the weight of the go so far as to say that every pound removed mot ors and control apparatus. from the dead weight of a car is worth 75 cents to them off the car. This is the kind of talk that must be accepted I ^ J with a good deal of salt. It is, no doubt, true Proper Gearing and Armature Speed that if the cost of operation per ton- mile re- mains the same with the lighter weight cars and "The selection of improper gear ratios for equipments, the saving will be made. The railway-motor equipments has alone caused danger is that in reducing the weight, condi- a l ss f hundreds of thousands of dollars to tions may be altered so much as to make the tne operating and manufacturing companies in cost of operation more than before. The cost tms country. Motors have been overloaded of inspection and maintenance may be increased and burned out by the thousands. Fifty horse- on account of the necessity for more frequent power motors have been used where 40 horse- renewals of wearing parts. power motors would have done equally well if It is intended to discuss in this paper some properly geared. Power houses and substations of the proposed means for saving power on nave been overloaded, have had their load fac- electric railroads and to clear up, if possible, tor greatly decreased and the line loss has been some of the misunderstandings that exist at greatly increased, simply because the motors the present time. on the cars have been geared for too high speeds. Few people who have not made a r j 1 special study of the subject realize its impor- tance, and at the present time, in spite of the Keductlon ot Weight campaign which has been waged against it by In the development of the electric railways, the manufacturing companies and a few en- the evolution of cars and equipments from h g htened engineers, there are still a good many the old horse cars to the modern double-truck motors in service which are so g eared as to re - city cars and the high-speed interurban cars, sult in a continual loss to the operating corn- has been attended by much grief and loss. P 3 ^' The lar e companies have been realiz- The development was so rapid that the only in more and more in recent y ears the disad ~ method possible to pursue was to build the car vanta g es of high-speed gearing and some of and equip it, using the best judgment obtain- them are now makin g wholesale changes in able in proportioning the parts. their g earin g> reducing the maximum speeds Where parts broke in service, they were a nd making savings of 5 to 12 per cent in power usually strengthened by increasing weight and *N. w. storer in ELECTRIC JOURNAL, volume s, P a ge sio. INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [591 temperature of the motors." Probably 5 to 10 per cent of all the power used for propelling electric cars and trains could be saved by correct gearing. The maximum gear reduction varies from reducing the than the motor of higher revolutions per min- ute. Both of these features tend to reduce the power consumed. As an illustration compare the shorter runs in Figs. 1 and 2. In each case train, grade and curve resistance has been taken at 22 3.5:1 to 5:1, depending upon the power of the pounds per ton. The slow-speed motor of Fig. motor. The armature speed at the 500-volt 2 takes the same accelerating current as the rating of the motor varies from about 500 to high-speed motor of Fig. 1. Because of the 650 revolutions per minute. Therefore, with quicker start with the slow-speed motor, the maximum reduction and minimum wheel diam- eter, the car speed at full load of the motors varies between about 10 and 18 miles per hour. Even motors of the same power are built for such speeds that with the same gearing, the car speeds differ by as much as 25 per cent. The opportunity for incorrect motor application, heavy current does not last so long, the same amount of coasting is obtained, and the brakes are applied at a lower speed. The gain in power consumption in favor of the slow-speed motor is 10.9 per cent. Part of this saving is the result of lower rheostatic losses and the balance is due to the smaller amount of stored particularly where stops are frequent, is there- energy wasted in the braking process, fore apparent. It should be noted that the gain of 10.9 per cent is in total power consumed and is in spite [ A ] CITY SERVICE ( Q f ^ extfa weig h t Q f caf w j t h t h e slow-speed By city service we mean the service in the motor. It is further worthy of note that the larger cities where stops average seven (7) or heating of the high-speed motor is the greater, more per mile and are fairly evenly distributed. These curves will also serve to illustrate the In such service there is very little or no running effect of gear ratio. The high-speed motor at full speed. The essentials for maintaining corresponds to the slow-speed motor < the schedule are rapid acceleration and brak- 4.43:1 gear reduction, ing In most cases there is no difficulty in stance, the car weights should be the keeping cars on time with the motors geared that the difference in favor of with the maximum reduction. Under such con- gearing is even a little greate ditions a motor of low revolutions per minute per cent saving indicated by the wai with the same gear reduction will do either one ton-mile values of the or two things" it will give the same rate of The motor speeds used are wit acceleration with less current or with the same of commercial apparatus and current it will give a higher rate of acceleration within the limits found on i Figure 1 Figure 2 [60] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES in the same service, so that actual service con- annually. The net saving is $38.00 annually ditions are represented. in favor of the slow-speed motor. The actual The argument most frequently heard against difference is more than this because part of the adoption of slow armature speed and high- the saving of 5 cents per pound annually is gear ratios for city service is that the car speed based on reduced power consumption with the will be so slow that the running time will be high-speed motor. We have shown that this greater. basis is incorrect. Let us examine this contention and see of If the heavier car consumed the same energy how much value it really is. Figs. 1 and 2 per ton-mile (145 watt-hours) as the lighter show that the two motors made the schedule car, the latter would save in energy 4350 equally well. The higher acceleration is ob- kilowatt-hours annually. Hence, 343.50 of tained with the slow-speed motor without sub- the $100.00 annual saving credited to the light jecting the equipment to any heavier current, motor above is not really obtained and the The amount of coasting is practically the same, actual net saving for the slow-speed motor is so that if the runs were made without any coast, $81.50 per year. the times would be the same. The high-speed Many railway systems are facing the prob- motor is already slightly overworked, so there lem of operating more cars, while their gener- is no hope of making a faster schedule by fore- ating and distributing systems are already ing its rate of acceleration up to the value which loaded to their full capacity. The reduction in is safe with the slow-speed motor. Neither can power consumption with slow-speed motors the high-speed motor take advantage of more would mean that more cars could be operated rapid braking to increase the schedule speed, without increasing the generating and distribut- However, since the slow-speed motor is not yet ing capacity. So the questions of motor speed worked up to its full capacity, it can use faster and gearing are exceedingly important when braking to a certain extent without being over- considering the installation of a new system loaded. or a new line. It is unfortunate that this has The figures given above show the saving in not been better appreciated in the past, power at the car. This is further augmented by the accompanying reduction in losses (B] COMBINED CITY AND SUBURBAN SERV.CE throughout the system from the cars to the Here are considered those lines giving a coal pile on account of the reduction in the mixed service consisting in part of city service duration of peaks and the improved load as defined above and in part of a service factor with slow-speed motors. Therefore, the averaging four or five stops per mile, with more figures given are conservative. The assump- or less well-defined limits, tion of equal gear reduction is fair because the In this class of service the same general maximum gearing is fixed by the power of the principles hold as for city service. The possi- motors and the clearance between gear case bility of using high-speed is only slightly and track. greater than in the city service as the stops are Now consider whether the saving due to still comparatively frequent, less weight will make up for the loss in power For example, assume that the operation of consumption. If the car under consideration a certain line comprises 6 miles of city running makes 30,000 miles annually, the car with with nine stops per mile and 6 miles of suburban light high-speed motors at 4.21 kilowatt-hours running with five stops per mile. The mini- per car-mile will consume 126,300 kilowatt- mum running time without any coast is 68.8 hours annually, while the car with slow-speed minutes for the slow-speed motor and 68 min- motors will consume 112,500 kilowatt-hours, utes for the high speed motor, a difference of The annual saving is 13,800 kilowatt-hours. 0.8 minute or 1.16 per cent. On the basis of At 1 cent per kilowatt-hour, this amounts to a scheduled time of 81 minutes for the run one $138.00. At 5 cents per pound per year, the way and operation of the two motors as shown in high-speed motor car 'would save $100.00 Figs. 1 and 2, the power consumption with the INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [ft] high-speed motor is 42.54 kilowatt-hours per limited schedule and yet of sufficient capacity trip and with the slow-speed motor is 39.9 to perform the local service without overheating kilowatt-hours per trip, the latter saving 6.2 is chosen, with the result that the power con- per cent of the energy required by the former, sumed in local service is excessive and equip- In this class of service the annual car-mileage ments are heavier than need be for the major is generally higher than in city service portion of the service. only, on account of the longer trips, somewhat With the large motor geared for a high- higher average speeds, and smaller difference limited schedule, the heating in local service between the average and maximum number is as great as with the smaller motor properly of cars required at different times of the geared for the local service, day and year. Assuming 40,000 miles per car Large high-speed equipments collect their yearly and power at 1 cent per kilowatt-hour, toll all along the line through extra weight, the saving by using the slow-speed motor in- first cost, cost of maintenance, cost of power, stead of the high-speed motor amounts to greater feeder capacity, larger substations and 346.00 annually. larger power houses. Is it worth the price? We believe it is not. In certain cases of keen [C] INTERURBAN SERVICE competition it may rise to the dignity of a Practically all interurban railways enter one necessary evil, but too often high speed is or more large towns or cities over tracks laid assumed as the essential element in building in the streets for several miles. This condi- and maintaining traffic, when in reality the tion generally requires slow-speed running frequent service and ability to receive and whether the stops are few or frequent and, deliver passengers at several central points in therefore, this part of the service is most the terminals and towns served assures all the economically maintained by the slowest-speed profitable traffic. gearing suitable for the other service. Many In the last analysis we believe that of these railways give both local and limited extra cost of excessively high-speed service. It is of course desirable to use the service is rarely equalled by the ad< same motor and same gear ratio for both classes revenue obtained on account of the exec of service. With the same gearing, the local speed over what could be secure service, because of the more frequent stops, ments geared for moderate spec, will work the motors more nearly up to their Table II shows that the energy ; full capacity than will the limited service, sumption per car-mile for 1 The limited service is most often considerably kilowatt-hours with 75.horse P ower mot less than half of the total. 2.7 kilowatt-hours with **"^ the local service, and the limited schedule ad- ively. justed to suit the equipment and gearing best adapted to the local service. Correct Operation If a high-speed limited schedule is taken economies the basis of choosing the gear rat.o one of two We h. e show y S rf ^ evils frequently results: (1) a small equipment "g^^ZS speed and correct gear: geared for abnormally high speed smdjus * ab o arm* ^p ^ ^ ^ ^ to maintain the limited schedule nicely d b correct oper . selected with the inevitable result of over consu m p non may ^ ^ heating the motors in local service, roasting out amn o the ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ the windings, loosening connections and con anon ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ th suming an unwarranted amount * amount of coasting consistent wth (2) a large equipment geared to maintain [62] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES the particular equipment used in any given service. [ A ] ACCELERATION It is frequently found that where a road is operating under a fairly easy schedule, the motormen will accelerate rather slowly and perhaps operate with the motors connected in series for a considerable part of the time. The limits to the rate of acceleration are the strains on the car and equipment and the comfort of the passengers, so that all of these features should be considered in determining the maximum rate of acceleration which is permissible in any given case. So far as com- fort is concerned, rates of acceleration up to 2 miles per hour per second are in use without objection on the part of the passengers. Fig. 4 shows a run of one mile at a schedule speed of 24 miles per hour with various rates of acceleration. The car weight is 38 tons and the equipment comprises four motors each rat- ing 75-horsepower at 500 volts. The braking rate is constant at 1.25 miles per hour per second. A consideration of this figure shows that by varying the acceleration from 0.75 miles per hour per second to 1.5 miles per hour per second, the power consumption may be reduced 29.6 per cent. It should be noted in this connection, however, that the maximum current requirements vary from 370 amperes per car with the lowest rate of acceleration to 570 amperes per car with the highest rate of acceleration. Hence, substation and line capacity must be considered in many instances. [ B ] COASTING The amount of coasting obtained is a fairly good measure of the difference in power con- sumption for a given run made under different conditions; because, when the amount of coasting is great, it usually means that the acceleration is rapid and that the braking rate is also high. The actual economy obtained by increasing the amount of coasting in any given service is not effected during the coast- ing period itself, but is the result of (1) more rapid acceleration with power taken from the line a decreased proportion of the time and (2) of a higher braking rate with decreased waste of energy in heating the brake shoes and wheels. [C] BRAKING Other things remaining the same, an increase in the braking rate produces a decrease in power consumption because the brakes will be applied at a lower speed and consequently there will be less of the stored energy of the car consumed during the braking period. This saving is indicated directly by the de- creased time during which it is required to supply power to the car in order to maintain a given schedule. Fig. 5 shows the same run as in Fig. 4 except that a constant accelerating rate is maintained and the braking rate is varied. Fig. 3 40 so ea 100 \Secon4s Figure 3 Figure 4 INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES By varying the braking rate from 0.8 miles per hour per second to 2.0 miles per hour per second, the power consumption is reduced 23.1 Fig. 9 is a general curve showing the rheo- static losses in an equipment plotted against the speed at which the rheostats are all cut out of circuit; the stored energy in a car at any speed ; and the power input to the car in bringing it from rest up to any given speed. The energy to propel a car is utilized in heat- ing the electrical equipment, overcoming rheo- static losses in starting, in heating brake shoes and wheels and in overcoming the friction and windage due to operating the car in service. The latter item is the useful work and is prac- tically constant for a given service irrespective of the method of operation. By using a motor so designed and geared that the rheostats will all be cut out of circuit at a low speed, the rheostatic losses will be be- low those obtained when the rheostats are cut out of circuit at a higher speed. With a given equipment, increasing the rate of acceleration produces this result. Higher rates of acceler- ation permit the car to coast to a lower speed before the brakes are applied and therefore less energy is wasted in heating the brake shoes and wheels. High rates of braking ac- complish the same result. The curve on Fig. 9 marked "Rheostatic Losses" shows what may be accomplished by cutting out the rheostats more quickly. The curve marked "Stored Energy No Rotational" gives a measure of the amount of energy wasted in braking from any given speed a ^d shows what may be accomplished by applying the brakes at a lower car speed. This curve is used in preference to the one including the energy of rotation in armatures, gears wheels and axles since this rotational energy will be about balanced by the train resistance while braking. The curves for field control will be considered later. [IV] Field Control The control of the speed of railway moton by changing the effective turns on the field is as old as railway motors. Practically all of the early double reduction motors were con- trolled in that way. Some few single reduc- tion motors were also controlled in that way and the old "loop" system was quite familiar 15 years ago. It was a failure at that time chiefly because of difficulties with commutation due to poor motor design. Its advantages have remained fresh in the minds of some engineers, however, and when the locomotives for the New York, New Haven & Hartford Railway were designed in 1905, they were arranged for Figure 5 Figure 6 [64] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES speed control on direct current by shunting the field. Forty-one locomotives have been in operation with this system of control on this road for the last five years and it has proven entirely satisfactory. When the giant Pennsylvania locomotives were designed, the requirements for large tractive effort in starting and high maximum speed were so severe that it was necessary to use field control of the motors. The applica- tion was slightly different from that of the New Haven locomotives, however ; instead of shunt- ing the field, half of it is cut out on the final notches in series and parallel. This is to avoid having a non-inductive shunt around the field which with a solid frame machine might be productive of flashing. This is the scheme which has since been tried with great success on motors for city and interurban cars. The question that naturally arises is, what are the advantages of this system ? The answer is brief, to save power. How is this accom- plished ? On the same general principle which saves power by the use of slow-speed motors and high gear ratios; namely, more efficient acceleration. In Fig. 9, the rheostatic losses with field control are less than for the same speed with ordinary control because field control is used in series in place of the last resistance step. Fig. 6 shows the speed and tractive effort curves of a 40-horsepower field control motor with maximum gear ratio and 33-inch wheels. Fig. 7 shows the characteristics of the cor- responding slow-speed motor without field con- trol, and Fig. 8, the corresponding light-weight motor. From these curves it is seen that the speed of the field control motor on normal field is about the same as that of the slow-speed motor without field control, while the speed of the field control motor on full field is very low. The full field is used in accelerating and there- fore the rheostatic losses are greatly reduced. The normal speed is used for running and enables the car to attain the same speeds as with the non-field control motor, so that the braking losses are not increased. The following example will serve to show the saving which may be obtained by field control. Suppose that the tractive effort per motor required to give the necessary accelera- tion is 1575 pounds. With a non-field control motor this takes 75 amperes and with a field M.PH. ** -*^ -to . M/K tit SWVol sn 4OH S./U tar NOAKO Atari IP Ampt res tlo no i s 9909 #606 *&6 MV0 -W# ^w Figure 7 ,. LIQt 4/7 TWE DUOT iff % i \ S $.12 riYfie ar/f t/sS itio OVolt t 1 \ V \ / \ $ / S \ 7 > ^ ^_ / / "~~t* *C4 / / / / x i S 7. Airy rts 11 1, f Figure 8 LEASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [65] contro motor only 68.5 amperes The rheo- of field control makes a further reduction of static losses are all cut out at 8.9 miles per 9.6 per cent and the combination of, hour with field control motor, but are not cut motor and field control produces a out until a speed of 9.9 miles per hour is reached 19.5 per cent with the non-field control motor. Reference For a combined city and suburban service to the general curve Fig. 9 will show that the similar results are obtained. The application corresponding rheostatic losses are 1.07 watt- of field control to the example of this class hours per ton with the field control motor and previously considered under Section II shows 1.62 watt-hours per ton with the non-field con- that the field control motor will make the trip trol motor. In other words, the field control with 35.76 kilowatt-hour and therefore will motor saves 0.55 watt-hours per ton every save 10.4 per cent of the power used by the time the car starts. If the car weighs 30 tons slow-speed motor and 15.9 per cent of that and makes 9 stops and starts per mile, the sav- required by the high-speed motor. ing is 0.149 kilowatt-hour per car-mile. For interurban service, field control produces Fig. 3 shows the same run as in Figs. 1 and 2 more economical running over the slow-speed made with the same acceleration as used for city sections, permits the use of a gear ratio the slow-speed motor in Fig. 2. which is economical for local service and with Table 1 gives the results from Figs. 1, 2 and the same gearing gives a higher limited speed 3. The power consumed is 3.39 kilowatt-hour than could be obtained with the same size non- per car-mile, or 9.6 per cent less than with field control motor geared for the local schedule, the slow-speed motor of Fig. 2 and 19.5 ( per This tends not only toward economy in local cent less than with the high-speed motor of service, but also toward reducing the motor Fig. 1. In this case, the use of a slow-speed capacity required for the operation of frequent- motor instead of a high-speed motor reduces stop local service and high-speed limited scnr- power consumption 10.9 per cent while the use ice with the same gear ratio. A 75-horsepower field control motor geared for the local service, as heretofore described, and operating as shown in Fig. 10, will main- tain a limited schedule speed of 38.4 miles per hour, which is the same as that possible with the next size larger non-field control motor. At the same time the reduction in power consump- tion is 15.9 per cent for local service and 11.7 per cent for limited service. The power con- AMLKIS OF POWER CONSUMPTION IN STRAIGHT LINE ACCELERATION Based on I Ton Weight Motor efficiency at full Voltage fS/i Acceleration 1.7 M.P.H.P.S. Accelerating Power IS3 Lbs Control Series Parallel Series parallel with Field Control 9 Figure 9 Figure 10 [66] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES sumption in limited service is somewhat more than with the ordinary 75-horsepower motor on account of the faster schedule speed main- tained with the field control motor. The com- parative results are shown in Table II. [v] Results of Tests Within the last few years a number of tests have been made on cars operating in regular service, the results of which show that our contentions in respect to proper gearing and armature speed, correct operation and field control are correct in practice as well as in theory. Table IV shows the results of tests made in December, 1910, under the direction of the writer, on the Frankstown Avenue line of the Pittsburgh Railways Company. The cars and equipments in this case were identical except for gear ratio. Test "A" was made with a slow-speed gearing, while test "B" was made with a higher speed gearing. A comparison of the service conditions shows that they were approximately the same, the slightly higher schedule speed in test "B" being balanced by the somewhat fewer stops and slow-downs, shorter duration of stop and decreased average passenger load. The railway company had in service a number of cars equipped as for test "B." The car geared as for test "A" was operated in regular service for a considerable period of time prior to the tests and proved itself capable of main- taining the schedule equally as well as the car geared for higher speed. It will be noted that not only did the tests show that the low-speed gearing effected a saving of 13.8 per cent in the power consump- tion but they also showed that, whereas the equipments with the high-speed gearing were operating with dangerous temperature rise, with the low-speed gearing the heating of the motors was just within safe limits. All equip- ments of these same motors installed since these tests were made, have been provided with the low-speed gears. In Volume 29, page 1484, of the A. I. E. E. Transactions, Mr. H. St. Clair Putnam makes the following statement regarding the use of coasting clocks on the Manhattan Elevated Railway in New York: "The result of these calculations and tests shows that an increase in the percentage of coasting from 12 per cent to 37.5 per cent will effect a saving of 24 per cent in the power required for traction." The report of tests, made on cars of the Chicago Railway Company, as given in the Electric Railway Journal, Volume 38, pages 1192 and 1200, shows that increasing the accelerating and braking rates (through the use Table I Motor Type Light Weight Standard Field Control Light Weight Standard Field Control Length of run feet 587 587 587 1056 1056 1056 Time of run seconds Stops per mile 43.4 9 43.4 9 43.4 9 61 5 61 5 61 5 Length of stop seconds. . . Scheduled speed m.p.h. . . Braking rate m.p.h.p.s. . . Motor equipment 7 9.2 1.25 4-40 h.p. 7 9.2 1.25 4-10 h.p. 7 9.2 1.25 4-40 h.p. 7 11.8 1.25 4-40 h.p. 7 11.8 1.25 4-40 h.p. 7 11.8 1.25 4-40 h.p. Gear ratio 33-in. wheels. . Motor r.p.m. at 40 h.p. at 500 volts 5.12 608 5.12 526 5.12 445 5.12 608 5.12 526 5.12 445 Amperes at full load of 72 72 73 72 72 73 Car weight, equipped and loaded tons 29 30 30 29 30 30 Accelerating current am- peres per motor 75 75 68.5 75 75 68.5 Accelerating rate 1 5 1 88 1.88 1.5 1.88 1.88 Speed at which rheostats are all out 12.4 9.9 8.9 12.4 9.9 8.9 Coasting time seconds . . . Speed at time brakes are 7.5 16 2 7.5 15 10.8 14.5 19.8 15.3 13.3 16 20.8 14.7 Watt.-hr. per ton-mile Sq. rt. mn. sq. amp. per motor 145 38.3 125 33.3 113 32.4 99.3 33.9 96.7 30.4 85.7 29.7 Temp, rise in service from 65 47 45 50 42 40 Kw.-hr. per car-mile 4.21 3.75 3.39 2.88 2.90 2.57 Table II Motor Type Standard Field Control Standard Standard Field Control Standard Length of run miles Time of run seconds Length of stop seconds. . . Schedule speed m.p.h. . . . Accelerating rate 1 150 12.5 24 1.25 1 150 12.5 24 1.25 1 150 12.5 24 1.25 6 611.8 60 35.3 1.25 6 563 60 38.4 1.25 6 563 60 38.4 1.25 Braking rate m.p.h.p.s. . . 1.25 4-75 h.p. 1.25 4-75 h.p. 1.25 4-90 h.p. 1.25 4-75 h.p. 1.25 4-75 h.p. 1.25 4-90 h.p. Amperes at full load of 130 130 156 130 130 156 Car weight, equipped and 38 39.5 38 38 39.5 Accelerating current am- 127 122 177.5 127 122 177.6 Speed at which rheostats are all out m.p.h .... Coasting time seconds. . . Speed at which brakes are 21.3 60 27.1 20.3 70 26 28.2 77.5 25.7 21.3 67.8 30 20.3 86.2 30 28.2 86.7 30 Kw-hr. per car-mile 2.4 2.27 2.70 2.025 2.11 2.39 Watt-hr. per ton-mile Temp, rise in service from air 25 degrees C 63.2 58C. 59.7 60C. 68.4 70C. 53.4 50C. 55.5 58C. 60.5 60"C. INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES [67] of coasting clocks) will save 15.6 per cent of easily that the gearing is being changed from the power required for traction without special 4.06 to 4.73 in order to reduce the -ale effort on the part of the motorman, and that mands. Incidentally it may be noted that it is possible and practicable to increase this one of the dangers previously mentioned in saving to 27 per cent. This report also shows connection with the application of coastine that there is a saving m brake shoes amount- clocks is beginning to show itself here as the m t l 40 ' 8 u per u cent ' Chicago report states that the running iimc for Both of the above reports show what can be the cars on the line tested has been reduced 3 accomplished by correct operation as induced minutes. In any such case, care should be by the application of coasting time recorders, exercised to determine what effect upon the It should be noted in connection with the heating of the motors such a reduction in run- Chicago Railway Company service that the ning time may produce before faster schedules equipments now maintain the schedule so Table III Tests in New York Showing Effect of Gear Ratio and Field Control on Power Consumption S3 | j 2 ff H"8 i "i la < 1 a sw 1 CUJJ I f- 1 fca 1 2 si ii is ^1 8 So S B""* H a i D J "S 8 s "H H 1 1 O J CO ^2 Iss * 1 20.214 Standard 560 4.6 6.975 2.86 8.503 7.126 557 152.26 60 h.p. *2 19.729 Standard 550 5.12 6.778 3.08 7.765 7.261 556 141.63 40 h.p. Field T3 20.153 Control 445 5.12 8.333 3.11 7.240 7.142 551 133.85 40 h.p. Field 4 19.714 Control 445 5.12 6.881 3.56 7.335 7.409 555 124.41 40 h.p. 2 Saves 7 per cent of power used by 1. Reason 12 per cent less car speed at 40 h.p. 3_S aV es 5.5 per cent of power used by 2. Reason field control. 4 g aves 7 pe r cent of power used by 3. Reason fewer stops. 4 Saves 12 per cent of power used by 2. Reason field control. 'Normal field on field control motor. tin congested district ran in series only. Table IV Tests on Frankstown Avenue (Line of Pittsburgh Railways Company) Showing Effect of Gear Ratio on Power Consumption and Motor Heating Items A B _ 49000 23000 4-50 h.p. 4.6 9.15 8.7 1.94 6.8 37 483 137 68.8 49000 23000 4-50 h.p. 3.67 9.50 8.63 1 37 6.2 30 480 160 87.8 ' Motors Gear ratio 33-inch wheels Schedule speed m.p.h Slow-downs per mile Average duration of stops seconds Average passenger load Average voltage Aviate "m^ratuVrrile' on' armatures corrected to 25 d'e- Reason correct gearing. trips wUhouUrailer, followed by two round tnps with tnu are adopted generally. More or less protection against too rapid acceleration may be secured by careful circuit-breaker adjustments or auto- matic acceleration, or by a graduated scale with respect to the bonus offered motormcn in connection with their coasting time records. Table III shows the result of a series of tests made on the cars of the Metropolitan Street Railway Company of New York under the direction of Mr. H. H. Adams. It will be seen from this table by comparing tests 1 and 2 that the use of a slower speed armature and greater gear reduction effected a power saving of 7 per cent. In test 3, throughout the con- gested district the equipments were operated in series only and then operated in series and parallel on the remainder of the runs. In spite of the fact that this test shows nearly 23 per cent more stops than test 2, the power con- sumption was decreased 5.5 per cent due to the use of field control. In test 4 the number of stops and other serv- ice conditions are practically the same as in tests 1 and 2 but the motors were operated making full use of the field control in series and parallel over the entire line. This test showed 7 per cent less power consumption than test 3 with its greater number of stops and 12 per cent saving in power in comparison with test 2, where the service conditions were practically the same. Substantially all of this saving was due to the use of the field contr motor in test 4 as against the non-field control motor in test 2. In this connection, it should be noted that while the 60-horsepower moto test 1 showed an average temperature ns about 48 degrees Centi-r.ide corrected to air at 25 degrees Centinr.uk-. the 40-horsqxnver [68] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES motors in test 4 showed only 58 degrees Centri- grade temperature rise, which is still a perfectly safe operating condition. Tests recently made on various lines of the Pacific Electric Railway showed an average power consumption of 97.3 watt-hours per ton- mile with quadruple 75-horsepower, 650-revo- lutions-per-minute motors geared 2.18 :1. Other 75-horsepower, 640-revorutions-per-minute mo- tors geared 3.24:1 showed an average power consumption of 87 watt-hours per ton-mile. The latter motor with field control showed an average power consumption of 81 watt-hours per ton-mile. These figures indicate that proper gearing would effect a power saving of 10.6 per cent in this service, while the application of field control would produce a further saving of about 6.9 per cent and the total saving which could be obtain- ed by the use of correct gearing in combination with field control will be about 16.8 per cent. It is interesting to note further in this con- nection that the average temperature rise of the motors, corrected to air at 25 degrees Centigrade, in the most severe service was 80.5 degrees Centigrade for the motors geared for high speed and 51.2 degrees Centigrade for the field control motors. Temperatures on the non-field control motor geared for low speed in this service are not available at the present time. Summing up the results of calculations and tests as previously described in detail, it is found that proper gearing and armature speed, correct operation and field control, are essential to the most economical operation of railway service and the indications are that from 10 per cent to 30 per cent of the power now consumed in specific cases may be saved by a careful study of the operating con- ditions and the intelligent application of these principles. Chapter Five Car Operation Efficiency with Special Reference to Energy-Input Method of Determining Motornlen's Efficiency Chapter Five Car Operation Efficiency With Special Reference to Energy-Input Method of Determining Motormen's Efficiency BY C. C. CHAPPELLE Consulting Engineer and Vice-President The Railway Improvement Company THE Feb. 19, 1916, issue of the Electric Railway Journal, contained a com- munication from Mr. C. H. Koehler, commenting on the writer's article, "Funda- mental Principles of Car Operation Effici- ency" appearing in Jan. 15, 1916, issue of the Electric Railway Journal, which article is Chapter Two of this volume. Mr. Koehler's criticisms may suggest to some readers that the general fundamental principles (Chapter Two) are not applicable and controlling for the attainment of efficiency under practical operating conditions. The analysis of the fundamental principles discussed in Chapter Two, hereof, covers the principles involved for the attainment of effi- ciency and was made without any thought or intention of "several misleading compari- sons made of two devices now on the market for determining motormen's efficiencies, etc." that it appears has been interpreted therefrom. The solution of the efficiency problems con- fronting electric railways, must ultimately be squarely met and solved by the effective prac- tical application of the fundamental principles. With the view of furthering a better under- standing of such principles we will dignify Mr. Koehler's critical comments by showing their relations to both principles and practice. The Efficiency Problem The efficiency problem is not one of contro- versy as to methods, but is one involving the consideration and analysis of principles and factors definitely determining and controlling the limitations of attainable efficiency for the given traffic conditions. Power reduction is one of the results obtained by better efficiency in operation. The funda- mental principles demonstrate that power in- put, for given equipment and traffic condi- tions, is determined and controlled by certain factors, some of which are entirely, some par- tially and others not at all under the control of the motorman. The adaptability of methods for checking efficiency in the use of power must be con- sidered from the standpoint of whether check- ing the result (power input at the car) or check- ing the factors controlling and determining such result is most effective to secure the at- tainable efficiency. Some undoubtedly believe checking the result is the preferable system and Mr. Koeh- ler's criticism being from such viewpoint, it becomes desirable to analyze somewhat in detail his suggestions and show their relations to the general principles. Practical Principles and Law of Averages The first practical principle that Mr. Koehler overlooks is that the manufacturer and the user of motor equipment select equipment and gear ratio suitable for operation with the motors in multiple for the normal average traffic conditions. The second principle is the basis for the application of the "law of ;r ages." The writer's article of Jan. i (Chapter Two), applies the law of aver based on the averages encountered in i operations in reference to well-known varia- tions in certain factors recognized as affecting practical operating results. These average [72] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES were analyzed by the well-known and recog- Between the normal mode of multiple opera- nized accurate method of plotting speed-time tion and the series operation, which is advan- and power diagrams based on the character- tageous under certain conditions of congested istic performance curves for the motor equip- traffic, an intermediate mode of operation is ment. Such analyses and the conclusions there- possible, i.e., pausing a few seconds in series from as to the fundamental principles and position then notching up to full multiple, factors controlling and limiting attainable Such operation follows the governing laws of efficiencies and the effective manner to secure the fundamental principles. Its use under the such efficiencies, are based on multiple opera- predominating railway conditions that con- tion of the equipment, because, as before stated, template multiple operation will show a loss, multiple is the normal operation contemplated as in reality it is only an equivalent average by both the manufacturer and user of the lower rate of acceleration. Under the rather equipment, as suiting the average conditions infrequent traffic conditions where advantages predominating for the aggregate operations of series operation are relatively small compared encountered in regular operating practice. with multiple operation, pausing on the series Every practical operator knows that the position of the controller obviously possesses length of a one-way trip on the average rail- advantages. way route is anywhere from 2 miles to 10 miles, Practical operating results, however, demon- depending upon the layout of the city and the strate that best results are obtained with few plan of routing. Probably 4 miles to 5 miles and simple rules for the direction of the motor- approximates the average length for the typical man. The conditions for the aggregate of one-way trip of the average railway. For operations and the selected equipment con- example, the average equivalent number of templates multiple operation, as before stated, stops per mile on the Madison Avenue line Increase in the rates of acceleration and brak- (Chicago Surface Lines), having one terminus ing within the limitation of the equipment in the congested loop district, has been found and the comfort of the passengers result in to be approximately nine stops per mile. increased coasting and corresponding reduction The writer's article of Jan. 15, 1916, states in power for the equipment operated at the that the car and equipment selected by Mr. schedule speeds and traffic conditions encoun- Koehler as the basis for his "example" is used tered under the average conditions of railway on a typical line of a well-known company operations. Therefore, pausing on the series having an average equivalent of five stops per position of the controller should be dis- mile. An average equivalent of seven and couraged to obtain the best efficiency in one-half stops per mile approximates the typi- practical operation. cal conditions on the average railway route. The foregoing mentioned series operation With equipment selected for normal opera- and pausing on series position of controller tion in multiple, at the schedule speeds usually seems to be the basis of Mr. Koehler's discov- encountered upon any given route in connec- ery, and upon which he builds his "example" tion with the equivalent average number of in connection with which is mentioned the old stops thereon, short runs are encountered be- gastronomical adage, "The proof of thepud- tween stops (particularly in the congested dis- ding is in the eating." Having selected such trict of the traffic terminus), for which, if an isolated example based on his Cycle I run, normal multiple operation is followed, the equivalent to over twenty stops per mile, Mr. controller must be thrown off at or near full Koehler proceeds to wreck the entire basis of multiple position. For such short runs the the fundamental principles involved in car rheostatic losses from full series to full multiple operation efficiency, and thereby demonstrates position are so great relatively that a saving that the writer's "conclusions must have been in power will result if such a short run is made in based on unsound premises" ! full series without attempting the normal Mr. Koehler has outlined clearly the basis multiple operation. of his proposed proper method of operation, INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES MO 35 SO 95 100 106 IV US GO /& Bd O& H& ft Time in Seconds Figure 1-B Operating Data Graphs for Typical Runs of Different Lengths and it is easy to show a little further the application of his principles to the reasonable limitations of traffic conditions encountered in ordinary every-day average practical operations. In the accompanying Fig. 1-B we have shown the application of Mr. Koehler's principles and selected equipment in three sets of dia- grams. Cycles I and II are Mr. Koehler's 'cor- responding runs of one block and three blocks respectively, making his total run of four blocks, with an average of ten stops per mile for a run of 0.2 mile, or a distance approxi- mately only 5 per cent of the average one-way trip. For these runs he has assumed an aver- age number of stops 11 per cent higher than upon one of the most congested lines of Chi- cago, 33^3 per cent higher than the average number of stops hereinbefore mentioned as typical of the average railway line, and just double the number of stops mentioned as the average for the particular equipment on the line of Company B in the writer's article of Jan. 15. We do not contemplate dragging the reader through a series of diagrams for the entire length of the average typical line route, but we have in Cycle III one additional run of only four blocks, to be made immediately fol- lowing Mr. Koehler's Cycles I and II. Such a run is certainly well within the reasonable practical probabilities, for Cycles, I, II and III aggregate only a total run of 0.4 mile or ap- proximately 10 per cent of the average one- way trip. In connection with such a short total run the equivalent average number of stops is seven and one-half per mile, or approxi- mately that encountered in average practice In Table I-B is shown a summary of the data for diagrams A, B and C of Cycles I, II and III (Fig. 1-B), also for the total run composed of Cycles I and II and the total run composed of Cycles I, II and III. The diagrams A repre- sent the performance of Mr. Koehler's Motor- man A defined as "after a coasting record." Diagrams B represent the performance of his Motorman B, represented as having definite anticipatory knowledge in reference to the Table I-B E SUM MART or DATA FOB DIAGRAM SHOWN FOB CTCLCS I. II AND III U 259 U 791 Length of run feet Corresponding number stops per mile 20.23 Acceleration A and B, m.p.h.- p.s 1.5 Acceleration, C, m.p.h.p.s 1.25 Schedule Time A, B and C 7 stops 1 mile 31.40 610 Schedule speed A, B and C m.p.h 6.03 10.U 1 1.002 1.0(4) 2.11 : 0.03 4.97 1000 76 1.6 1.26 15 i :; 1.6 i :-, 1.6 1 24 67.15 S4.4t M: JS Seconds coasting A 13.3 Seconds coasting B Seconds coasting C 1.5 141 10.13 216, 4M 17 .7 pl^iTc ^(n S -\ ::::::::: j n.a -lu , Per cent coasting B 20.04 3160 SSSfsaffl^.: :::::::: 4 j gg * JSSSStS :::::::::: ; ; BSS8SSS?3ti i Kilowatt-hours per car-mile C 3.543 1410 113* 1WI Increase In per cent coasting A ^ over per cent coasting B. . Per cent saving-power for A rA B .. ferred .." .. P Wer -." " > ~ 4IJ 114T Increase in per cent coasting A -_ . .. 4J over per cent coasting C.... 37.57 21.51 Per cent saving-power f for er A referre< "121 10.17 31 > 5: Note (Mode of Operation) Motorman. A Normal operation, straight up to multlpl* or pausing In Mii* for f*w Brik*n$? ric *^ ** - ^^^ - TV-iin in**1 COlUlilUF rtwBtSlH^ *w l 9^* W^ ^tit ro. -jr****. -gj "SSSSSV ^ration for which a ^^gL "ff^.ff.jl-aj tto . ^_,__ up straight into multiple. [74] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES stop requirements of traffic conditions; dia- grams C represent the performance of a third Motorman C, whom we have taken the liberty of introducing and who has the same anticipatory powers claimed for Motorman B. Motorman C has noted from watching a certain device "placed in view of the motorman" that the amperes drawn during the acceleration period is less if he accelerate at 1.25 miles per hour per second instead of the wasteful rush of amperes which he has observed when using the accelerating rate of 1J^ miles per hour per second of diagrams A and B. It is to be noted that the results for diagrams A and B, Cycles I and II, and for the total run composed of Cycles I and II, are somewhat different from the results of Mr. Koehler's similar diagrams, which we have endeavored to reproduce from the data of his article, Motorman A being even more wasteful than found by Mr. Koehler for Cycle I, and some- what improved in Cycle II, and the total run composed of Cycles I and II. Table I-B, however, gives the complete data, whereby anyone desiring can check any discrepancies in the results by constructing the speed-time and power diagrams. The diagrams have been constructed using Mr. Koehler's suggested retarding force of 20 Ibs. per ton for train and coasting resistance instead of that used in the writer's former article (Chapter Two) for, as commented by Mr. W. B. Potter in his communication (Elec- tric Railway Journal, Jan. 29, 1916), such modification does not "detract from the gen- eral conclusions of the article." Motormen's Operations by Diagram The reasonableness and simplicity of dia- grams applied to practical operations, as also the unreasonableness of befogging general prin- ciples and practice by a strained special example, will be apparent from the considera- tion of the detailed operations of Motormen A, B and C, as shown from the diagrams of Fig. I-B and Table I-B, as follows: For Cycle I (run of only one block of 259 ft.) the factors are as follows: Motorman A, following the mode of normal operation contemplated in the selection of the equipment as suit- ing the average traffic conditions, notches straight up to multiple at the rate of 1.5 miles per hour per second, gets bell to stop in 7.2 seconds after starting, throws off power, coasts 13.3 seconds and brakes at the rate of 2 miles per hour per second and makes a 7-second stop at the end of the first block. Motorman B accelerates to the series position of the controller at a rate of 1.5 miles per hour per second, but in anticipation of a stop or from general sluggishness pauses on the series position, gets bell to stop 7.2 seconds after starting, continues in series until 13.6 seconds from starting, throws off power, coasts 6.3 seconds, brakes at rate of 2 miles per hour per second and makes a 7-second stop at the end of the first block. Motorman C, in anticipation of a stop or from a wrong conception of the relation of amperes observed as required for different rates of acceleration, or from being even a little more sluggish by nature than B, accelerates to the series position of the controller at the rate of 1.25 miles per hour per second, pauses on the series position, gets bell to stop 7.2 seconds after starting, continues in series until 17.6 seconds from starting (in order to make the schedule), throws off power, coasts 1.5 seconds, brakes at the rate of 2 miles per hour per second and makes a 7-second stop at the end of the first block. For Cycle II (run of three blocks, totaling 791 ft.) the factors are as follows: Motorman A accelerates in the manner and for the reasons outlined for Cycle I to full multiple, continues in multiple until he attains the speed which his experi- ence and judgment have established as suitable for the probable traffic conditions considered in relation to the time-element factors controlling his ultimate efficiency, with maintenance of schedule, then throws off power, coasts 27.6 seconds, brakes at 2 miles per hour per sec- ond and makes the 7-second stop called for the end of the third block of this three-block run. Motorman B accelerates in the manner and for the reasons outlined for Cycle I to the series position, pauses on the series position 7.5 seconds (for the bell that came not), then passes to multiple and continues in multiple a sufficient time to make up for the delay caused by pausing on series with maintenance of sched- ule, then coasts 20.4 seconds, brakes at 2 miles per hour per second and makes the 7-second stop called for the end of the third block of this three-block run. Motorman C accelerates, in the manner and for the reasons outlined for Cycle I, to the series position, pauses on the series position 8.8 seconds (for the bell that came not), then passes to multiple and continues in multiple a sufficient time to make up for his delays caused by slow acceleration and pausing on series, with maintenance of schedule, then coasts 16.2 seconds, brakes at 2 miles per hour per second and makes the 7- second stop called for end of third block of this three- block run. For Cycle III (run of four blocks, totaling 1056 ft.) the factors are as follows: Motorman A accelerates, in the manner and for the reasons previously described, to full multiple, continues in multiple until he has attained the speed his experi- ence and judgment have established as suitable for the probable traffic conditions considered in relation to the INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES time-element factors controlling his ultimate efficiency with maintenance of schedule, then throws off power, nj-.nnA.nO'lC.. J _ t__ t . ^ ! 1751 t \ r motormen in congested districts /* -| r -- -v w / I'*- 7 " **i ) / coasts 21.5 seconds, brakes at 2 miles per hour per sec- * tne general nature illustrated in Cycle I ?*& t'hisTulblocVr' *" " "" Thc logic of Mr . mately 10 per cent of the length of a one-way Koehler , s reasoning is on pari ty with that in trip of a typical average car line route ^^ .^ mattef for whkh Mr Kochler ' s It is interesting to note that even for this is respons i b ie; J n one installment the short run the ratio of the increase in per cent term cannon _ ball acceleration" is used in re- coasting to the resulting per cent saving in fe to ^ increase o f tne acceleration rate >rt- r\f A onH R nnerarions pives a ratio of 1 .__. power of A and B operations gives a ratio to 0.51, and similarly for A and C operations, the ratio of 1 to 0.59, being a definite illustra- tion of the definite ratio existing between in- crease in per cent coasting to per cent saving in power that the fundamental principles estab- lish as existing in connection with conditions for encountered in practical operation. Such toward the maximum within the limits equipment and comfort of passengers, while in the next installment is an illustration of raf>it acceleration on a 1000-ft. run effecting a sav- of 27.3 per cent in power. schedule speeds and stops per mile, per cent resulting coasting was oiwT . the widely varying ranges of kilo- ratios are somewhat reduced for the particular wa " tt _ hours mput at the car enumerated, closely 'comparisons, due to the Cycle I run, for ximate tne actual conditions existing which series operation, only, is advantageous. ^^ Hne of a we ii^ now n railway on \ the daily services of some sixty-four differei Practical Limitations Control motormen are required. the for , , '"" [76] INCREASING CAR OPERATION ECONOMIES jgp fl9/3Erergy i j u "IT /3l 4 E_ ner & V f% itedt rher i -- eg 4WT- > i w.ag Jj If & * h ~ ) G) fe * l wl c fe 0^ i ** Q.fH ass |S 25f3 s it BB si Wo .fcg>2 &az on ss Sot, c > O S January .... February . . March 4.2 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.7 4.1 4.6 4.7 4.5 4.5 4.4 4.3 ZZ'A 22.2 22.2 15.9 4.6 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.40 0.38 0.38 0.34 0.32 0.32 0.35 0.37 0.38 0.03 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.01 0.00 Average 3.76 4.50 \6A 0.38 0.34 0.04 Second July Six 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.9 Months Using Meters 4.1 2.4 4.0 0.0 4.1 2.4 4.2 7.1 Ended 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.40 40 Dec. 31, 1915 0.37 0.35 0.37 0.37 0.37 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.0} O.OS August . . . September October . . N ovember 3.9 4.3 i n o!ss 0.38 0.00 December 4.0 4.3 1 . V AND DEC. 31, 1913 ; ALBO FOR Six MONTHS ENDED JONS JO. ItlS. AND JUNE 30, 1914, AND roe Six MONTHS ENDED DSC. 81. 1914. AND DEC. 81, 1914 First Six Months Using Coasting Recorders Snded D*e. 81. 1914 Per Cent Kw.-Hr. Kw.-Hr. Saying Aveng* per per In Power Per Cent Car-Mile. Car-Mile, by Use of Coasting. 1914 1918 July 2.50 8.11 August 2.49 September 2.30 October 2.40 November 2.38 December 2.66 Average 2.45 8.05 Hasfsssi 19.6 14.4 17.4 24.7 19.1 18.2 19.6 1914 22.7 17.8 25.7 tfj 26.8 260 2SP- '.1914 Second Six Months Using Coasting **eor*r* *** / .* 1915 1914 sx,-n iss ir.:;:::::!!! in ST June I'. .2.19 Average .. . .2.39 2.94 18.7 88.1 1915 wj _ October 2-3 November . ...B.n December 1914 2.40 : 3 266 Average ...-2.38t '.* a!o 1915 29.8 28.7 29.0 276 26.9 26.1 1914 :JT 171 2S.7 2S.S 26.8 240 Increase. 88.1 242 corresponding Average 3.96 4.16 4.7 0.38 6.37 0.01 f. i Finale ^HE foregoing discussions demonstrate that there is no reason to assume the efficiency -* of a car's operations is something that cannot be accurately measured and automatically recorded. Since the importance of efficiency in car oper- ation is disputed by none, the means for accurately measuring and recording the degree of that effi- ciency should be conscientiously studied by every electric railway executive and operating staff, to the end of achieving and retaining the highest efficiency attainable for the conditions of equip- ment and traffic. The most effective means to secure that end are the RICO Coasting Recorder and the RICO C & S Recorder equipments developed by this company, as daily demonstrated under the widest conceivable ranges of electric railway operation. Railway Improvement Company 61 Broadway, New York UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. SEP 11 1f? HOT 3 4Nov'51Hl REG'I 50wi-7,'16 336124 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY