OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THB HISTOEIC NOTE-BOOB: TO THB RIGHT HON. THE COUNTESS MANVERS WHOM TO KNOW (TO USE TUB WORDS OF SIB RICHARD STEELE) 'IS A LIBERAL EDUCATION 1 f&ts'torlr fjotrtf' are tottl) pcnm&fum BY THB AUTHOa B192 THE HISTOEIO NOTE -BOOK WITH AN APPENDIX OF BATTLES BY THE BEY. E. OOBHAM BKEWEK, LL.D/ * AUTHOR OF 'GUIDE TO SCIENCE,' 'THE DICTIONARY OF PHRASE AND PABLB,' HISTORY OF FRANCE POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND LITERARY' to TUB rRKSKNT YBAR, ' HISTORY OF GERMANY POLITICAL, SOCIAL, A5D UT&BARY' TO THE PRESENT YKAR, 'THE READER'S HANDROOKf* DICTIONARY OP MIRACLES,' * THEOLOGY tf SCIENCE/ 'BULKS FOB ENGLISH aPKLLINa/ KXVL PHILADELPHIA J. B. L 1 F ? i IN T T COMPANY 1905 PREFACE THIS volume, entitled The Historic Note-Book, 1 is the third and last of a series. The first was the * Dictionary of Phrase and Fable,' the object of which was to explain the meaning of words and expressions in which an allusion is made to some fable, custom, or character, more or familiarly known. The 'Header's Handbook,' the second of the series, undertook to unfold in a few lines the tale of the best known epic poems of ancient . modern times, (the plots of novels and plays, ballads and romances, and to give short biographical sketches of their respective authors. The present book does for history what the first of the series did * for phraseology, and the latter did for poetry .and romance. It is purely historical, and ,expl-ius* with the utmost possible brevity allusions to, historical events, acts of parliament, treaties, and customs, terms and phrases, made in books, speeches, and familiar conversation. Probably no one could turn over a couple of pages of this book and not find some item which he would be at a loss to explain or to find in any book near at hand. It may be hidden in some corner of history, some modern or ancient encyclopaedia, some law dictionary, periodical, or book of f Equities ; but, bein." i insert-eel ; would bush'. , ap days, of re. Out, Till PREFACE down. Some items have been kept by the author in the form of < for many years waiting for solution, and those solutions have b< mately found in most unexpected places. X have been an author for sixty years, have written many books, and of course have been a very miscellaneous reader. In mv long expe- rience J. have remarked how little the range of ' literary ' read varied, and how doubt still centres on matters which were cruces in u^v early years. So that a work of this kind is of as much usefui i 1891 as it would have been in 1830. J^ always read with a ajip of paper and a pencil at mj side, to jot down whatever I think may be to rue- and these jottings I keep sorted in different lockers. been a life -habit with me. and tl g of them into a live volume consists chiefly in selecting, sorting, expla' inging down to date. What J^ mjjggjf have wanted to know,J so others younger than ^am may wish to know also; . have found difficult to discover, j^ presume others with fewer boo find difficult also. J^know that many a time and oft I should hav been lankful if jjbnld have laid m^ hand on a book, ar . v 3 research, the explanation of ome item in this SVQ tonffi: and^uu . ymvirel This very way of looking at a big book has been the secret of ij^ 31 4^^^^^H . It was begun at the age of eighteen, and m^ f 1 Guide to Science,' the sale of which has been almc The ' Dictionary of Phrase and Fable ' was more than twent as had a very wide ly useful, and J^ 1 not be less acceptable olio. Notes' i.ha 1 -* advantage of two B ' - on to evt iV, #* PREFACE proper name, and much of the accuracy of the book is undoubtedly due to their painstaking co-operation. For myself I am under unbounded obligation to them, and hope they will accept my thanks thus publicly acknowledged and without stint. Little more need be said. The arrangement is somewhat different to that usually followed in Historical Dictionaries. 'The items are not set under the rulin^gjvor^d, but generally under the first noun or adjective of the phrase. Thus under ' Massacre ' will be found all articles of that category, massed together, and not distributed under the name of the place where the deed of blood was committed. This has been done to bring the subject together in a compact form. Similarly with Church Councils, Literary Forgeries, and so on. When this allocation has been found impracticable, as in ' Irish Associations, 1 ' Monastic Orders,' * Sunday Fete Days,' and so on, then under the general heading will be found an alphabetical list of all the articles in the book on the subject, which may be turned to if required. Some antiquated customs have been pointed out, and a suggestion has been occasionally made which may possibly direct attention to what s to the author of these ' Notes ' a national want or national defect. See p. 697, article POETS' CORNER, and p. 115, article BORROMEO. In one instance, that of ' Abigail,' in which a word has an ancient and modern history, the recent revival of the word in the reign of Anne has been thought more consistent with the scope of this book than the well-known tale in the life of David. Those, however, who prefer the older story may, if they think proper, consult the 'Diction***/ of Phrase and Fable.' - ^ Finallv the book here offered to " r-"- '= *** * 'Book of Dates,' ... , i.^,. * ,. added whenever required. Inventions and ories, the great staple of a book of dates, find no place here ; and hundreds of the articles here inserted ar wru/ay independent of dates. x PREFACE Similarly, the book is not an ' Historic Dictionary,' but a dictionary of historic terms and phrases, jottings of odds and ends of history, which historians leave in the cold or only incidentally mention in the course of their narratives. If I might borrow the motto of ' Notes and Qn ' When found make a note of,' it would most aptly describe the end an * object of these ' Historic Notes. 1 THE AUTHOR. If I might make the suggestion without being impertinent, I think the book would be admirably adapted to the upper forms of Ladies' Schools, and to those in private life who seek to extend their general knowledge, after having laid aside t! mentary books. Of course, these Historic No*es are mainly designed and specially *riiteu for the general public, and thia, tLeir educational uae, it ft afterthought HISTOEIO NOTE -BOOK ABBOTT A Eire maraud d I 'A, of first-class quality. A is the distinctive mark of money minted in Paris, which is purer and more free from alloy than any other money in thf> French dominions. For A 1 see Diet of Phrase and Fable, p. 1. Aarau (Peace of), 8, 9,11 Aug., 1712. This treaty concluded the war of Toggen- burg. Aaron's Breastplate, 4 rows. 1. Reuben sTdini; Simeon, topaz ; Levl, carbuncle. :!d; Dan, jacinth; NaphtaU. 8. Gad.rtrov(>i/*<; Asher, beryl \ Isaac har, sapphire. 4. Zcbulon, lUamond; Joseph, onyx; Benjamin, jatpar. Abbaeides(3Byl.). Califs of Bagdad, 'od 'rom Abul Abbas (Abdullah ben Mohamm tS), who defeated Mervan II., and became -jalif, 18 Feb., A.D. 750; y the overthrow of Mo9tasem,put to .UaKou ox F-l.-icni. a Mornil prince. The Abbasides succeeded the Oinma le califs were. Aboul-Abbas (750); Mmanzor (754); Mohammed Mahdl uun al Raschid (780) ; Amyn ; i aruoun (813), and BO more. Abbate (2 syl.). A young Italian man who has received the tonsure, but has not taken full orders. Abbates Milites, or Abba-comitfo. 1 Oth cent. Lay abbots, who deputed deans or priors to the spiritual oversight of their abbeys. Pronounce Ab'-a-teee Mil'-l-teei. Abbaye de Mont0 a Regret. The guillotine. What ia now the Hue de$ v Bourses, in Paris, was formerly the Monti d Regret, the place for public executions. Pronounce Ab-bay-d' Mont ah Ba-gra'. Abbe's Commendataires. The a25 abbots appointed by the king of France. The office was a perfect sinecure, but the abbe commendat->re drew one* third of the revenues of hi a convent. Many of these abbots were laymen, but generally they were literary men, often noblemen's sons included under laymen. Pronounce Ab-bay Com-men-da-tarei. Abbey. In Scotland, a sanoiuary for debtors against 1 afforded by the abbey of Holyrood. Abbots in eommendam. Abbots nded to hold an abbey and its dig- nity in charge till a regular abbot has been appointed. In the Reformation several abbots and other ecclesiastics were allow- tu. ,u enj ^ * u ~ : " livings for life, or for a time. By 6, 7 Will. IV. c. M, . ecclesiastical dignity, office, or benefice, after ,the living possessors, was allowed to be held in commend am. Abbeys and other Catholic livincs held in com- ' .-ures for lifo. Abbotsford Club (TJie\. A literary club founded in Edinburgh (1835) for the publication of works belonging to Scotch history, literature, and antiquities. Above 80 quarto volumes were published. The club no longer exists. Abbptt Scholarships. I. In the University of Cambridge: two for classics and mathematics, for undergraduate* ia ABDICATED ABIGAIL their first year. Value about 60Z. a year, tenable for three years f founded by John Abbott of Halifax, Yorkshire, 1871. II. In the University of Oxford. : three for the sons of poor clergymen; founded the same year by the same founder. Abdicated Monarchs. The follow- ing monarchs of Europe have abdicated : 1 1. (duke of Aosta) Spain _ _ 1878 Charles IV. ol Spain (forced) ... . 1808 Charles V. of Spain and Germany .. 1656 Charles X. ot Franco forced) ..... .. 1830 Charles Albert of Sardinia (forced) .. _ 1- Chnrlea Emmanuel of Sardinia ._ M . 1803 Christina of Sweden.. ... . 1654 Diocletian and Maximian ... ... _ ft*, 808 Felipe > ol 3j Or . <; , Francis II. of the Two'Sicllies (forced) .. 1860 Jams II. of England (forced) Louis Bonaparto of Holland Louis Philippe of France (forced) Ludwig of Bavaria (forced) w Matilda (Lady of England) Milan of Servia I Napoleon I. of France (forced) . Napoleon III. of France (forced)... i of Greece (foreud) ... , p II. of Brazil (forced) ... _ 1 of 1'oland (forced) . . 11. of England (forced) _ StuniKlaus Leszcainski (forced) _ Victor Amadeus of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel .. 1810 ~. ~ 1848 . . 1848 -. ~ 1154 . M 1889 - 1814 - -. 170 . ^ 18H8 w M 1R89 . . 171* 17H5 -. -. 1730 -. ... 1819 Several dethroned without even the mocking how of abdication, like Edward 11. of England OUT) ; Henry VL of England 0471) ; Ac. Abeceda'rians. Anabaptists who Bet their faces against all human learning, lest it should impede the progress of the soul in its apprehension of Divine truth. The Cathodes at one tone opposed all learning except what they called sacred literature, such as the lives of the saints, and other religious books. Abel'ians or Abelo'nians. A sect of the ancient Christian Church which married, but lived in continence, as they assumed Abel did (4th cent.). Abenzerraghes. A wealthy and powerful family of Spanish Moors, de- scended from Yusef ben-Zerragh. The word divided is A-ben-Zerragh[es], and is pronounced Ah'-ven-zerark'-ey. Their struggles with the family of Zegris, and destruction in the palace of the Alhambra, in Granada (fifteenth century), have fur- nished the subject of a charming Spanish romance, ' The History of the Civil Wars of Granada.' Chateaubriand made it the subject of his 'Adventures of the Last Abenzerraghe,' and it furnishes the text of one of Cherubini'b operas. The feud began 1474. Often wilttcn Abenoexrage*. Ab'erdeen' (University of), 1500; founded by James IV. It was originally founded in 1494, by W. Elphin bishop of Aberdeen, and called - College. In 1858 Marischal College (q.v.) was united to the University of Aberdeen. (21, 22 Viet o. 83). Aberdeen man's privilege (An). To alter or change one's mind on second thoughts. These good folVs, Alan, make no allowance to* what your food father call* the Aberdeen man privilege, of ' taking his word again,' or what the wise call - second thouhU.'-Sir W. 8OOTT, E*A- gauntlet. Letter 7. Ab'garus, king of Edessa (AJ>. 1S- 50). Is said by Eusebins to have written a letter to Christ asking Him to cure his disease, pronounced by his physicians to be incurable. Christ replied, -after His ascension, that one of His disciples should be sent to effect the cure. Thadduus was the apostle selected, and Abgarus was restored to perfect health. Of course this is only tradition. (Euseb. L 18.) Abhorrera. A political pu England, in the winter They looked with ' abhorrence ' on Shtiftesbury's proposal to set aside not only James, who was a Roman Catholic, but also his daughter Mary, who was a Protestant, married to the Prince of Orange. See ' Petitioners,' f of the .* times, to be githered from .- ture only. <2i Nothing UBod in the Church of Home may in any wise be continued. Wilcox an the supposed authors, were imprisoned. A second Admonition by Carter called forth a reply by Archbishop Whitgift. Admonitionists (The), 1571. Cer- tain puritans in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, authors of the 'Admonition of Parliament ' (q.v.). Pronounce Ad mo-nlsh'-shun-lsta. Adop'tian Controversy^*). A controversy which arose in Spain in the 8th cent., whether Jesus Christ was the Son of God by generation, or by adoption only. Elipand archbishop of Toledo, and Felix bishop of Urgel, maintained that Jesus Christ had two distinct natures, one divine and the other human. In his di- vine nature he is the Son of God by gen- eration, the ' only begotten of the Father; ' but in his human nature he is the Son of God by adoption only (Rom. viii. 29). Alcuin took the orthodox side. Two syn- ods were convened on the subject : one at Batisbon in 792, and the other at Frankfort in 794, in which Adoptiunism was pronounced heretical. Duns Scotua and Durandus were Adoptianists. Adop'tianists (The). 'Adoptiana, 1 or ' Adoptiani,' 8th cent. Spanish heretics who maintained that Christ was the Son of God only by adoption. This heresy waa condemned at the Synod held at Frank- fort in AJ>. 794. Ador'ni and Frego'si Contests (The). In Genoa, 1800-1527, contests between the two powerful families of Gabriele Adorno and Domenico da Fre- goso, who contended for the chief magis- tracy. Adorno was appointed doge and deposed, then Fregoso was appointed doge and deposed, and so it went on till 12 Sept. 1527, when Andrea Doria gave Genoa * new constitution, Adrianites (4 uyl). Followers o* Adrian Hamstedius (16th cent.). They held that the body of. Christ was f . entirely of the substance of the Virgin mother. The follower! of Simon Magus are also called Adrianites. Pronounce A'-dre-an-ltea. Adrianople, Peace of(The),Sepi. 14, 1829. A treaty between Russia and Tur- key. The war preceding this treaty was the most disastrous in which Turkey had ADVENT 11 ever been engaged, and the treaty added large territories to Russia. It acquired Anapa and Poti, with a considerable ex- tent of coast on the Black Sea, a portion of the pashalik of Akhilska, with the two fortresses of Akhilska and Akhilkillak, and in many other ways greatly weaken- ed Turkey. As Lord Aberdeen said in his despatch, it gave Russia the control of Asia Minor, and the keys to the Persian and Turkish provinces whenever she may choose to extend her conquests to Tehe- ran (Ta-rain) or to Constantinople. Advent Sundays. Instituted 567, by the Council of Tours, to comme>norate the four Advents of Christ 1. His advent to Bethlehem, where He was born. 2. His advent to Jerusalem, where He was crucified. 8. His advent into man's heart when he believes and receives Him as a Saviour. 4. His advent in the clouds when He comes to judge the world. See ' Sun- days.' Adventure Bay (S.E. of Tas- mania). So called by Captain Furneaux, from the ship Adventure in which he ailed, 1773. Adventurers. 1. 1641-1650, persons who had adventured money for the re- duction of Ireland during the rebellion. Those who adventured 200?. were to have 1,000 acres hi Ulster. Those who adven- tured 300Z. were to have 1,000 acres in Connaught. Those who subscribed 450Z. were to have 1,000 acres in Munster, and those who subscribed 6001. were to have 1,000 acres in Leinster. II. 1652, those soldiers who had served in Ireland since the landing of Cromwell in 1649, and were entitled to a share of the lands in lieu of their arrears of pay. Adversity Hume. J oseph Hume, M.P. (1777-1855). So called because he was for ever presaging the .ruin of Great Britain. ' Prosperity' Robinson, M.P., just before the commercial crisis of 1825, boasted that the country was never in a more prosperous condition. Cobbett gave Robinson his sobriquet, and that of Hume followed naturally. Advocate (Lord). About 1500, the principal public prosecutor in Scotland, lie is assisted by a solicitor -general and four junior counsel (termed 'advocates depute'). Virtually he is secretary of state for Scotland. Pronounce Ad'-vo-kate. Advocates' Library (The), Edin- burgh, 1682. By the copyright law of 1709 it obtained the privilege of receiving gra- tuitously a copy of every new book. This magnificent library belongs to the Faculty of Advocates (q.v.), and was established by Sir George Mackenzie. It contains about 170,000 books, and of course th number increases every year. Advoca'tus Diab'oli. One ap- pointed to advance every conceivable reason why a person whose name is sub- mitted for canonisation should not be ad- mitted into the calendar of the saints. Advo wson (' Advocatio '). The right of presentation to a living. Advowsons were originally vested in those laymen who were founders or benefactors of liv- ings ; but at the dissolution of the mon- asteries in the reign of Henry VIII. liv- ings were given to laymen who took the tithes and appointed vicars to represent the patrons. These vicars were paid stipends, generally ' the small tithes.' By sales the right of presentation to livings has passed into private hands. -ZEgine'tan Standard (The). That is, the standard of weights and measures used in the island of ^Eglna, and intro- duced into Greece by Periander of Corinth (B.C. 665, 625-585). A, E, I, O, U. The five vowels, adopted by Friedrich III., second of the Habsburg dynasty,for the imperial device: Austria Est Imperare Orbi Universo (or Imperatura). In German : Alles Erdreich 1st Oesterreich Unterthan. In 1866, after the seven-weeks' war with Prussia, Austria was denuded of Germany, and in 1870 the king of Prussia became the emperor of Germany. Then the famous anagram might have been in- scribed on the conqueror's banners, Austria's Empire Is Overthrown Utterly. and Fuf ian Law (The), B.C. 156, in ancient Rome, empowering magistrates to prevent or dissolve comitia when the auspices were unpropitious. -Elian Sen'tianLaw(TAe), B.C. 8, regulating the manumission of slaves. ^mil'ian Laws (The). These were (1) the law by Mamercus ^Emiliua, dicta- JEMTLTAN JETOLIAN tor of Rome, to shorten the censors' term of office, B.C. 434. And (2) the sumptuary laws of Marcus ^milius (Scaurus), relative to the kind and quantity of food to be set on table at entertainments, B.C. 115. Road (The), between Bononia (Bologna) and Placentia; made by Marcus jEmilius Lepidus, the consul, B.C. 187. It was a continuation of the Flaminian Way. JEolian Poets. See ' Lesbian Poets.' JEo'lians (The) had for their posses- sion the plain land of Thessaly, with Phocis, Boeotia, part of Peloponnesus (i.e. Arcadia and the parts near), and their colony in Asia Minor. In Asia Minor they founded Lesbos. Smyrna, and lis. JEol'ic Migration (The). In the mythic period of Greek history. Accord- ing to mythic history, ^Eolos was the eldest son of Hellen and grandson of Deucalion. He spread his ancestral name through the greater part of northern Greece and along the western coast of the peninsula. In the llth cent. B.C. some of them migrated to Asia Minor, where they founded, on the north-west coast, above thirty cities. They were ultimately ab- sorbed in the Human Empire. .33ra or A.E.R.A, Annus Erat (or Est) Regni Augusti. The Spaniards L which fall daily to the earth ' exceeds twenty-oue millions.' Nineteenth Century (Nov. 1U89, p. los ( The French). Prosper de Crebillon (1674-1762), noted for his power in depicting rage and terror. His plays are 'Xences,' ' Serniramis,' 'Electra,' ' Pyrrhus,' and ' Catiline.' Pronounce Kas'-kl-lui. JEtolian Confederacy (The), B.O. 823, called into existence by the Lamian war (q.v.). The states used to assemble annually in the autumn at Thermum, and the assembly was called the Paneetoliron. B.C. 189 the JEtolian States were subjected to the Romans. The object of the Lamian war was (on the death of Alexander the Great) to liberate Greece from Macedonia. The Athenians were the principal Insurgent*, but were defeated in sm at Cranon, by Antipator. -Etolian League (Th*). joined the Greek confederates in the Lamian War B.C. 818, but the ^tolian League rose into no great prominence till the Macedonian War (B.C. 214), whea Sparta joined it, and it became the anta- gonist of the Achiean League, which sided with Philip V. of Macedon. It was the unwise policy of the ^Etolian League which made Rome master of Greece. AFFSHAES AGAMEMNON II The JEtollan Confederacy Included JStolia, Acarnania, part of Thessaly , Locrls. and the island of Cephalonia. Affshars (The). An eastern tribe known by the celebrated Nadir-shah, who received the crown of Persia on condition that he would compel the people to aban- don the doctrines of the Sophi, and re- ceive those of the Sonnee. After a reign of 11 years he was assassinated. Afghan (Treaty of), 1881. A secret treaty between Russia and the amir of Afghanistan. Russia on her side engaged to be the perpetual friend of the amir, to recognise the successor appointed by the amir, and to assist the amir against any of his foes, if such assistance was required (the English were meant). The amir, on his part, engaged not to wage any war without permission from Russia, and to keep Russia well informed of whatever took place within the kingdom of Afghan- istan. Afghan War (The). A diplomatic contest between France and Russia in- duced Dost Mohammed of Cabul to invite the friendship of Great Britain in 1886. This led to a diplomatic contest between Great Britain and Russia respecting Afghanistan. Dost Mohammed joined Persia, and war was proclaimed against him at Simla by Lord Auckland, gover- nor-general of India, 1 Oct., 1888. Dost Mohammed gave himself up at Cabul to SirW. MacNaghten, 8 Nov., 1840; but his son Akbar Khan completely outwitted General Elphinstone and the envoy, Sir William MacNaghten, both of whom were treacherously put to death. Negotiations for quitting Cabul were purposely de- layed till winter had set in ; and then the whole British force, which, with women and children, amounted to 20,000 souls, were as treacherously destroyed in the Khyber Pass, 1842. No event In British history la more deplorable than this. The total incompetency of such men as General Elphinstone and Sir William MacNaghten so demoralised the soldiers under them, that every Englishman is ashamed of the miserable fiasco in which was not one single redeeming trait. Dost Mohammed and Akbar Khan, no doubt. were villains, but our ' leaders ' actually invited treasonable dealings. African Methodist Episcopal Church (The), 1816, seceded in Phila- delphia under Richard Allen. They are coloured Methodists. African Paris (Th*). Algiers. African "War (The). The first African war was undertaken by the Romans for the restoration of Hiempsal to the throne of Numantia. Aheno- barbus, the leader of the Marian party in Africa, had dethroned him, but Cneiua Pompey slew Ahenobarbus, and restored Hiempsal B.C. 81. The second African war was between Caesar and Scipio, B.C. 46. Ceesar defeated the partj of Pompey at Thapsus, in Africa, and thus pu> an end to the civil war. The third African war was undertaken by the Romans against Tacfarlnas, a Numidian, in the reign of Tiberius. Tacfarinas, having collected a large gang of freebooters, defied for some years the Roman arms in Numidia, but was ulti- mately overthrown and slain by Dola- bella, A.D. 17-24. The fourth African war was between the Romans and Vandals in Africa. The Vandals under Genseric took possession of the Roman dominions in Africa, and continued masters for 105 years (A.D. 429-534). Belisarius was sent into Africa by the emperor Justinian to win back the African dominions, and he utterly overthrew the Vandals, took Carthago in 583, and returned to Rome in triumph in the autumn of the year following, A.D. 584. Africa'nus. Three of the Scipioa were so called from their African con- quests: (1) Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major, B.C. 284-183 ; (2) Pub- lius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, his elder son; and (8) Lucius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, younger brother of No. 2. Africa'nus (The Arabian). Akbar Khan (7th cent.). Africa'nus of New Rome (The). Belisarius, Roman general in the reign of Justinian (505-565). He is called ' The Third Africanus.' If the three Sclpios were all called Africanua, Belisarius was the fourth, not the third. Aftas'ides (8 syl.). A dynasty founded by Abdallah ben al Aftas about 1080; overthrown 26 Feb., 1094. Agamemnon, Menela'os. Atreug had two sons Plisthenes and Thyestei. (Thyestes usurped the throne of Argos). Plisthenes had two sons Agamemnon and Menelaos. Agamemnon married Clytemnestra, daughter of married Helen, sister of Cly temnestr* u AGAP^E AGITATOR The two brothers married two sisters. Both the wives were false. Clytemnestra became the mistress of the regent JEgisthos, and Helen eloped with "Paris, son of Priam king of Troy. Ag'apffi. Originally love feasts, in which contributions for the poor brethren were made. These feasts were held after the communion service. Afterwards, they were degraded into wakes, took the place of the heathen Parentalin, and were held at the tombs of relatives or 'saints.' Great efforts were made to abolish these unseemly gatherings, but they continued even into the 18th cent. Enjoined by the council of Gangra. A.D. 840 ; forbidden by the council of Laodicea In 866 ; by th council of Carthage in 897 ; by the council of Orleans In MS; and by the council of Alx-la- Chapelle In 818. The last mention of them is In 1350. Agapem'one (The abode of lore), in Somersetshire, 1848. Founded by Henry James Prince and a Mr. Starkey, and hence the members are called Princeites, Starkeyites, and Agapemonians. The object of this abode is perpetual joy. Pain and grief, sorrow and sickness should be banished from the abode. The Princeites are taught perfect resip- nation, and Prince himself tells us, ' He has no wish, no desire, no will of his own at all.' 00 ' Princeites.' Agapemo'nians (The)\ Agape- mo'nianism. The Agapemonians are those who dwell in Agapemone, and Agapemonianism is their special views, social, moral, and religious. Agape'tSB, 8rd cent. Certain ascetics who lived together as man and wife, but preserved a life of celibacy. St. Cyprian (200-258) condemned the practice, and the church generally did the same, though several of these Agapetae are en- rolled among the saints, as Cecilia and Valerian, Gombert and Bertha, Injurieux and Soholastica, Jeanne Marie de Maille* and Robert de Sillery, Julian and Basilissa, Thierry and his wife, &c. Du Cange says (vol. I. p. 129, col. 1): Bo called, 'quod cum mulieribus ac virginibus, quas doml ub tiiyii/vbirum Ben dilectarum appellatione deti- nebant, prava commercia habere dicerentur.' Age of Leo X. (The), 1513-1521. A proverbial phrase for magnificence and high art. Leo X. was a great patron of learning and art, and his court was mag- ninoeat in the highest degree. Agents of Captain Right. See under ' Whiteboys.' Ages. The Golden Age, a mythical period when the earth brought forth spontaneously, and the gods held con- Terse with men. The Silver Age, the second period, when the gods taught men the useful arts. The Age of Bronze, the third or transi- tion period, semi-historical. The age of heroes. It followed the ' Stone Age ' (q.v.). The Iron Age, the historic period, when wars abound, and man earns his food by labour. The Wire Age, the present age of tele- graphs and telephones. Aggregate Bodies, 1785. Irish volunteers in favour of free trade, and the extension of the franchise to the people at large. Some of them adopted the American fashion of tarring and feathering their victims ; and some, call- ing themselves 'houghers,' deliberately maimed their victims, especially the soldiers. The introduction of the ques- tion of Catholic disabilities broke up the associations. As Plowden says, ' at night they existed with all their attributes of power . . . but on the following day the room of their assembly was shut, their colours waved no more, their uniform was no longer seen in the streets, and the body was disbanded.' S00 'Irish Asso- ciations.' Ag'idaB (Dynasty of the), B.C. 1058- 219. One of the dynasties of Sparta; the other was the dynasty of the Proclidro. They were contemporaneous. The former was founded by Agis, son of Eurysthen->s ; and the latter by Procles, son of Aristodemos. These dynastic kings were followed in B.C. 219 by the 'Tyrants,' viz. Lycurgos, 219; Machanldas, 210; and Nabis, 216. Agiosemandrum. A wooden instrument used in Christian churches in Turkey instead of a bell ; because the use of bells in Turkey is forbidden. Greek agiot mtuiino, meaning the holy (Mrrle*) caller. Incorrectly, but generally spelt ty. Pronounce Ag'gt-os'sy man' drum. Agitator (The). Daniel O'Connell (1775-1847). He began agitating for the Repeal of the Union in 1842, and the 'Monster Meeting' was held in 1848. He was arrested for sedition and con- AGITATORS AGRICULTURE 16 rioted, but the judgment was reversed by the House of Lords (1844). Agitators (The). The committee appointed in 1647 to manage the affairs of the army when it formed a eparate body in the state. The com- mittee consisted of two of the superior officers of each of the eleven parlia- mentary regiments. The secret object of the council was to get possession of the person of the king (Charles I.), and withdraw him from the power of the Parliament. Cornet Joyce was one of these agitators, and, at the head of fifty horse, actually took possession of the king at Holmby House. The real appel- lation of this committee was the Council of Adjutators or Assistors, but the Pres- byterians nicknamed them the Council of Agitators, which they readily adopted. Ag'labites (8 syl.). Califs of Kair- wan, so called from Ibrahim ibn el Aglab, who was invested with the government by Harun al Raschid, A.p. 800. He made himself independent in 802, and founded the dynasty of the Aglabites. Succeeded by Abu 1'Abbas (811) ; Zladet Allah (815); Abu Akkal (827); Abdul Abbas (887); Abu Ishak Ibrahim (874) ; Abd ul Abbas II.. murdered by his eon and successor, Ziadet Allah (906) ; dynasty overthrown A.D. 909. Ag'noites or ' Agnoitee ' (8 syl.). L A.D. 370, followers of Theophronius the Cappadocian, who denied the omniscience of God. II. A.D. 685, followers of Themistius, deacon of Alexandria, who denied that Christ knew the time of the day of judg- ment. ' Of that day and that hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father [only].' (Mark xiii. 82.) They die out before 700. Du Cange says (vol. 1. p. 137, col. 1) 'quod novis- Imam horam Christo, etiam quoad diviuam ejua i, ignotam ease arbitrarentur.' Agnos'tic (An), 1885. One who maintains that tnere are subjects wholly beyond the scope of human thought ; not subjects now unknown, but subjects actually unknowable. On the other hand, an agnostic repudiates the belief that there are propositions which men ought to believe without such logical evidence. Agnosticism. The faith of an The refusal to say that we know or believe what we have no scien- tific or experimental grounds for profess- ing to believe or know. Agnostics are not atheists, because they believe the question of God's existence unfathomable, and the question of his non-existence equally BO. Man, they say, has no means of knowing either the one or the other. Human knowledge cannot go beyond human observation and experience. The term ' agnostic ' was introduced by Professor Huxley in 18G9 at a private meeting preliminary to e term ' agnostic ' was introduced xley in 18G9 at a private meeting preliminary to the formation of the Metaphysical Society. Plato said, ' Speculations about the gods are speculations of man respecting the gods.' Agonalia. A Roman festival held several times ft year in honour of the guardian deities of the state. So called from Agonius, the god who presided over business. (Ovid, Fasti i. 831.) Agrarian Agitation, B.C. 480. The great Roman agrarian agitation was set on foot by Spurius Cassius, who had been three times consul. To win popular favour, he told the people that the senate ought to give an account of the land taken from the Volsci, which ought to have been equally divided amongst the whole people irrespective of rank. The senate, to allay the popular clamour, promised to give the matter their best consideration, but arrested Cassius and hurled him from the Tar- peian rock. Things went on till B.C. 464, when Herdonius the Sabine got pos- session of the Capitol. Then the senate promised to pass an agrarian law, if the people would eject the invaders. The invaders were expelled, but it was not till B.C. 865 that Licinius Stolo, the plebeian tribune, got a law passed mak- ing it penal for anyone to hold more than 500 acres of the public lands. Agreement of the Pepple (The), 1647. A paper drawn up by the Levellers and presented to the Council of Agitators or Adjutators, for the abolition of kings and lords ; biennial parliaments with six- monthly sessions ; a widely-extended franchise, and a more equal distribution of representation. See ' Lilburne.' 'Biennial parliaments with six-monthly se*. sions ' means the parliament was to meet for six months every two years, the other eighteen months were to be wholly under the control of the Executive Council. In 1649 Colonel John Lilburne objected to this clause, and said it wal not agreed to by the people at ail. Agriculture. The Board of Agriculture WM incorporated i 1798, and dissolved in 1816. The Report of Children's Employment Commis- sion on Agricultural Gangs was published in 18(17. and their employment was regulated by Act ol Parliament the same y*t. 16 AGRICULTURAL ALABAMA The Rnynl Agricultural College at CIrencester wa bartered In 1845, and opened in 1846. The Royal JifriruUuraf Oocietj was Incorporated by charter in 1H40. The Scotch Society, called ' Improvers of Agri- culture In Scotland,' -was established in 1728. Minister of Agriculture appointed 1889. Agricultural Protection So- ciety of Great Britain (The), 17 Feb., 1844. Founded in opposition to the Anti-Corn-Law League to advocate protection in opposition to free trade. Agrippa. Son of Aristobulus, who was the son of Herod the Great and his second wife Mariamne the Asmonean. It was this grandson of Herod the Great who was made king by Caligula. He slew James the apostle. His ton, also named Agrippa, went with his sister Berenice to hear Paul's defence. Ahab of the Nation (The). Charles I. was so called by the Levellers. Aids. Sums to be paid by the tenant to ransom his lord if taken prisoner, or to make his lord's eldest son a knight, or to dower at marriage the lord's eldest daughter. Subsequently aids were ex- acted to pay a lord's debts, or to enable a lord to pay aids to his own superior lord. Of course, those who held imme- diately of the king could never be called upon for this last-named contribution. Introduced by William the Conqueror, and abolished by 12 Car. II. c. 24. Ainaly-Cavak (Treaty of), Jan. 8, 1784, between Turkey and Russia, whereby the Ottoman Porte abandoned the Crimea and Kuban to Russia. Ainslie's Supper, 1566. A supper given at Ainslie's tavern in Edinburgh by the Earl-of Bothwell, at the rising of parliament, to its leading members. After the banquet Bothwell informed his guests that he was about to marry the widowed Queen Mary ; and drawing forth ft bond, he induced them to sign their full and entire approval of the alliance, although at the time he was married to Jane Gordon. The tavern itself WM afterward, called ' Aln. lie B Supper.' Aix-la-Chapelle (Congress of), from 14 Feb. to 24 Nov., 1818. To settle the affairs of Europe after the restora- tion of the Bourbons. Aix-la-Chapelle (Convention of), 80 Nov, 1818. For the evacuation of France by the Allies. It was signed by the plenipotentiaries Oct. 9, and ratified by France Oct. 13. Aix-la-Chapelle (Peaceof), 2 May, 1668. Between Louis XIV. and Carlos IL respecting the Spanish Netherlands. Aix-la-Chapelle (Treaty of), 1748. Between George IL, Louis XV., Maria Theresa of Austria, Ferdinand VL, Charles Emmanuel III., the Republic of Genoa, and the United Province*. Signed by England, France, and the United Provinces, 18 Oct. ; by Spain, 20 Oct. ; by Austria, 23 Oct. ; by Modfria, 25 Oct. ; by Gen5a, 28 Oct. ; by Sardinia 7 Nov. (1748). It was a mere truce forced on the signatories by sheer ex- haustion. France still contemplated the humiliation of England; the 'Family Compact' was still maintained; Maria Theresa had still designs on Silesia. In 1755 a league was secretly formed between Russia, Spain, Austria, and France for the renewal of war on the first favourable occasion ; and, in 1756, the ' Seven Years War ' began. Ajax of the East (The). Leo, appointed by the eunuch Eutropius to the command of the Asiatic army ; called the Ajax of the East from the bulk of his body and the dulness of his mind. He was originally a wool-comber. Akerman, in Bessarabia (Treaty of), 26 Oct. (4 Sept.), 1826. Between Russia and Turkey, placing Moldavia, Valachia, and Servia under the protec- tion of Russia. This was to secure the fulfilment of the treaty of Bucharest. Akh'shidites (8 syl.). An Egyptian dynasty, generally called ' The dynasty of the Ikhshidites,' founded by Abu Bekr Mohammed Akhshid, or Ikhshid, A.D. 93G. The dynasty was overthrown in 970 by the Fatimite general Goher. Alabama. An American state, BO named, in 1817, from its principal river. The river was so called by the Indian* in allusion to the well-stocked hir grounds. The name is properly t)i;it of an Indian band, or tribe, of the Muscogee stock. Pronounce Al'-a-b&h'-tnah. Alabama (The). A vessel built by Messrs. Laird of Birkenhead, and known as ' No. 290.' On 31 July, 1MJ2, it sailed surreptitiously from the Mersey and pro- ALABAMA ALBERT 17 eeeded to Terceira, one of the Western islands, where she was supplied with guns, coals, and stores by a vessel sent iroin London for the purpose. Captain Semmes then took charge of her, named her the ' Alabama,' and hoisted the Con- federate flag. She committed great damage to the American shipping, cap- turing 65 vessels, and destroying property to the amount of four million dollars ; but in June 1864 she was sunk near Cherbourg by the United States steamer 'Kearsage.' In 1871 it. was agreed to refer the question to five arbitrators, who were to decide if the English Govern- ment were responsible, and if so, what fine was to be paid by England for the damage done to the United States of North America. Alaba'ma Claims (The), 1868. A money demand made by the United States of America on Great Britain for damage done by a corvette named the 1 Alabama,' and built at Birkenhead for the Confederates, who were at war with the United States. The British Govern- ment, which had declared itself a neutral power, had forbidden the corvette to leave the docks; but, notwithstanding this pro- hibition, it put to sea, displaying a British flag, and succeeded in destroying 65 of the United States vessels ; but in 1864 it en- countered the ' Kearsage ' off Cherbourg, and was sunk. After the war, the United States demanded compensation, and five arbitrators met at Geneva to consider the question in 1872. The sentence of these arbitrators was to award damages to the amount of 8,250,OOOZ., with interest in settlement of the American claims. The money was duly paid, and a large surplus remained in the hands of the American Government after all recognised claims had been paid in full. See ' Alexandra.' The arbitrators were the king of Italy, the President of the Swiss Confederation, the Emperor of Brazil, a representative of Great Britain, and another of the United States. Alba Comiti'va. A free company of English, also called 'Les Tards Venus,' q.v. Alban Hall (St.), Oxford, 1549; founded by Robert de St. Alban. The head of the Hall is called the principal. Al'bany or Albyn. The ancient Dame of Scotland; a corrupt spelling of Albanigh, connected with the and meaning hilly or mountainous. The Romans called the south part Caledonia. The west, now called Argyllshire, was colonised by the Scoti of Ulster, and these Irish Scots, in the time of their chief, Kenneth Macalpine, having conquered the Picts who occupied the eastern parts> added that portion to his dominion, and called the two Scot-land (q.v.). Al'bany, New York, North America. So called in honour of James, duke of York and Albany (afterwards James IT.), to whom Charles II. gave the proprietor- ship of the colony. Alba'ti (The), 1399. A class of her- mits who dressed in white linen. Pope Boniface IX. fancied their leader aimed at his deposition, and put him to death. Albe or Albane'ser. Lord Byron was so called. A correspondent in ' Notes and Queries' (March 28, 1887, p. 425) says : ' Madame Cottin wrote a romance entitled " Claire d'AlbeY' This romance was well known to Shelley, who induced his first wife to translate it into English.' May not the intimacy between Claire and Byron have suggested the application of Albs' to Lord Byron? Mr. Forman suggests L-B (Lord Byron). Others fancy it is a contraction of Albe-rnarle (Street), the place of business of Murray, his lordship's publisher. Albert I. (Albrecht I.). One of the promiscuous kings of Germany (1248, 1298-1308), son of Rudolf I. of Habsburg. In this reign is placed the tale of William Tell. Albert (Albrecht) II. Founder of the present line of Austrian emperors and first of the House of Habsburg (1IW4, 1438-1489), son of Albert IV., duke of Austria, and son-in-law of Siegmund, the preceding kaiser-king. He was sur- named 'the Illustrious,' 'the Magna- nimous,' and ' the Grave,' but reigned only about a year and a half. Like his next two successors, Frederick III. and Maximilian, he died of dysentery brought on by eating too freely of melon. Albert (Albrecht) the Bear, so called because his cognisance was a bear. H was a fine tall fellow with a quick eye, and so well featured that he was familiarly called ' the handsome.' He was the first margriioi Brandenburg (1106-1170), 18 ALBERTUS A.LEXAKDER Albert the Bear died the same year as Thomas Becket did. Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), bishop of Ratisbon. A marvellous man, whose literary worka cover 21 folio vo- lumes. Thomas Aquinas was his pupil. He made a speaking head of brass, and his knowledge of chemistry was ascribed to the black art. He was the founder of the Second Age of Scholastio Philosophy, or the Aristotelian school. Albigen'ses (The), llth and 12th cent. Reformer! or ' heretic* ' of mid- France, so called from Albi or Albigia, where their tenets were first condemned, in 1176. They were defended by Count Raymond of Toulouse, Roger viscount of Beziers, and the Counts of Foix and of Be*arn. Alexander in. excommuni- cated them in 1179, and Innocent III. organised a crusade against them in 1204. It is said that 60,000 were mas- sacred in 1209. Another crusade against them was set on foot in 1219. The Waldenses should not be confounded with the Albigenses, although many of thoir religious views were the same ; out the Waldenses rose in the 9th cent, under the teaching of Claudius of Turin. The peculiar faith of the Albigenses wa that Ood the Father created the first matter ; but the Evil Principle arranged it and stamped every created thing with all their present forms and attributes. Albigen'ses (Wars with the). The first, 1209-1229, set on foot by Philippe Auguste of France. The second, 1226, prompted by Pope Honorius ILL and set on foot by Louis VIII., called the Lion. The third, 1545-1547, set on foot by Francois I. of France. In the last war John, baron of Oppldo, out them of! root and branch. Alcacebas (Treaty of}. Between Isabella of Castile and Alfonso V. of Portugal ; signed at Alcacebas, in Estre- madura, Sept. 24, 1479. Alcan'tara (Knight* of), 1212. A Spanish order, so called by Alfonso IX., king of Castile, from the city of Alcan- tara. It was founded in 1156 by Don Suaree and Don Gomez, but called by them ' Knights of the Pear-tree ' ; which was changed in 1176 by San Julian del Pereyro into ' Knights of San Julian.' Alcibi'ades of Germany (The). Albrecht, margraf of Baireuth (IDil'J- 1655). Aldermen. Since the Municipal Corporations Act (q.v.) in 1885, one third of the councillors are elected alder- men, but they are not eligible for th offices of coroner or recorder, and an exempted from serving on juries. They hold office for six years, one-half going out every three years. Since 1889 aldermen are chosen by the new organisation called the County Council (<7-t>.), and hold office for sit years in the Council. The councillors are in office for three years only, and are elected like members of parliament. Aldine Editions. A series of books published by Aldo Manuzio (Aldus Manutius) between 1490 and 1597. During this period 908 books, chiefly Greek and Latin classics, with carefully corrected texts of Boccaccio, Dante, Petrarch, and other Italian authors, were issued. Aldo was the first to use the Italian type. His mark is an anchor entwined by a dolphin. Pickering, a London publisher, published an edition of the British poets, which he called the Aldine (2 syL). Aldrich'ian Professorships (The). One for anatomy, one for the practice of medicine, and one for chemis- try, in the University of Oxford, founded by George Aldrich, M.D., in 1798. That for anatomy is now annexed to the LJnacre professorship of physiology ; that for the practice of medicine is attached to the Regius professor- ship of medicine ; and that of chemistry is In- corporated with the Waynflete professorship of chemistry. Ale-conner. A judge of ale, an a- nual office of great antiquity, appointed in the court leet of each manor. His duty was to taste the ale and beer, and decide if they were wholesome, sound, and sold at a proper price. Ale-conners were called Gustatoret cervisia. Alexander (The English). Henry V. (1388, 1418-1422). He resembled Alexander in the shortness and glory of his reign, his princely liberality, his en- joyment of life, his great military talents, and his wonderful hold on the hearts of the people over whom he reigned or whom as a general he commanded. Captain Fluellen would put it thus: Alexander was born at Macedon and Henry V. was born at Monmouth, and both begin with M. ALEXANDER ALEXANDRINE If Alexander (The Second). Sandjar or Mog-Eddyn-Sandjar, third son of Malek Shah, king of Persia (1118-1175). He was called Sandjar from the place of his birth, but his proper name was Abou'l Hareth Moez Eddyn. Alexander-Newski (Knights of), 1725. A Russian military order. Cor- don, a flame or poppy colour. Alexander's "Wine. A celebrated poison, so called from Rodriguez Borgia, historically known as Pope Alexander VI., traditionally said to have been killed by drinking one of the Borgia poisons, in bowl of wine intended for another person. Alexandra (The). A screw-steamer seized, 1863, by the government at Liver- pool, during the civil war of America, under suspicion of its being a Confede- rate vessel (England had declared itself neutral in the war). The case was tried in the Court of Exchequer, and judgment given against the government. An ap- peal was made to the House of Lords, and the previous judgment being con- firmed, the vessel was restored to the owners in April 1864. See 'Alabama.' Alexan'drian Codex. A manu- script in Greek of the entire Bible written on parchment, and now in the British Museum. It is in uncial letters, without accents, and without spaces between the words. The probable date is about A.p. 500, or a little before. It belonged (in 1098) to the patriarch of Alexandria, and in 1621 was taken to Constantinople by Cyrillus Lucaris, the patriarch. The patriarch gave it to Charles I., king of England, in 1628, and it was placed in the Royal Library. It was transferred to the British Museum in 1758. See ' Bibles.' There are two other Greek MBS., one the Codex Vaticanus, in Rome, and the other an imperfect copy called the Sinaitic Codex, in St. Petersburg. The Alexandrian Codex contains the epistles of Clemens Romannt, a third and fourth book of the Maccabees, the epistle of Athanasiu* to Marcel- Onus, a hymn to the Virgin, ic. Alexan'drian Era (The). Dates creation Aug. 29, B.C. 5502. This must not be confounded with the Er Of Alexander, Nov. 12, 824. See under ' Era.' Alexan'drian Library (The). This magnificent museum and library was begun, B.C. 204, by Ptolemy Soter, and completed by his son, Ptolemy Phila* delphus. It was in the quarter of Alex- andria called Bruchlon, and contained 700,000 volumes. It was burnt in the siege of Alexandria by Julius Caesar, but partially restored and again destroyed by Theophilus, a fanatical Christian bishop, by order of the Emperor Theodosius. We are told that the library contained a copy of every known literary work in the civilised world, whether Egyptian, Jewish, Greek, Latin, Phoenician, Punic, Chaldee, Syriac, or Persian. According to Abdallatif (1280), Amrou, A.D. 640, burnt the library, saying: 'If the books contain truth, they are needless, being mere repetitions of the bleued Koran ; if not, they are mischievous, and better destroyed.' Alexan'drian Massacre (The), A.D. 215. When Caracalla, the Roman emperor, visited Alexandria, the people made some allusion to his flagitious crimes and to those of his mother ; upon which he ordered a general massacre of all the inhabitants. Many, especially of the Christians, escaped by flight, but the slaughter was immense, especially of young men of military age. See 1 Massacres.' Alexan'drian School (The). It may be divided into two periods: The first, or Ptolemeean period (from B.C. 323- 80), was given to mathematics and poetry; the former unrivalled, the latter little better than mathematical verse, perfect in anatomy, but without a living soul. The second period (from B.C. 80 to A., 640, the fall of the Ptolemeean dynasty to the irruption of the Arabs) was the philosophic period. The introduction of Christianity produced the systems of Neo-Platonism and Gnosticism. The former was a fusion of Christian doctrines and dogmas with the ideas of Plato, the chief exponent of which was Philo the Jew ; the Gnostic school dipped into the religious tenets of Origen and other fathers of the Church. The dogmas of the Logos and the Trinity are ascribed by many to Alexandrian influence. Alexan'drine MS. (The) of the Bible. See ' Codex Alexandrlnus.' Alexan'drine Platonism. The philosophic system of Plato applied to the Christian system. Platonism led to mysticism, the Aristotelian philosophy led to sophistry and disputation. In the middle ages the Alexandrine Platonism 02 ALEXANDRINE ALL SOULS matured in Asia, adopted in the Greek Church, and afterwards introduced into the Western Church, produced much mischief. Joannes Scotus, surnamed 'Erigena,' was the reviver of mystic theology. Erigena divides nature Into four classes: (1) that -which creates and IB not created ; (2) that which is created and creates ; (3) that which is created and does not create ; and (4) that which neither creates nor is created. Alexan'drine War (The). Tb war between Caesar and Pompey, from August, B.C. 48 to January, B.C. 47. After the defeat of Pompey at Pharsalia, Cesar pursued him into Egypt, where Pompey was assassinated. Cesar then placed Cleopatra and her younger brother on the throne of Egypt, and the war was over. Alexan'drists. Disciples of Alexan- der of Aphrodiaia, a peripatetic philo- sopher (2nd cent. B.C.). He was an expo- nent of Aristotle, and has left comments on nearly all Aristotle's works. The Alexandrists in the 12th Christian century were combated by the Averroists (q.v.) t and for a time there were two antago- nistic and concurrent sects called the Alexandrists and the Averroists. Alex'ians, or ' Brethren and Sister* of Alexius.' Lollards, who rose at Antwerp, about 1800, and were admitted by Sixtus IV. among the religious orders in 1472. Also called Cellites (q.v.), and Matemans. Recognised by Pius IX. in 1870. See ' Monastic . . . Orders.' Alfonai'nas. The Alfon'sine tables of astronomy (1252), in which Alfonso X., 1 the Astronomer,' corrected some of the errors of the Ptolemaic system. The king was assisted in this work by Isaac Hazan, a Jewish rabbi. It would be more correct to say that these tables were con- structed by the order and under the patronage of Alfonso by Isaac Hazan, assisted by Christian and Arabian savants united at Toledo. See ' llkanian and Ru- dolfine Tables.' These tables recognise what was called the Trepidation,' of Ptolemy'8 system. This was a mere cabalistic mystery, and has not the smallest foundation In any scientific observation. Milton makes Satan, in his way to earth, Pass the planets seven : and pass the fixed [stars] ; And that crystallin sphere, whose balance weighs The Trepidation talked [of] ; and that first moved [primum mobile]. i',iradis? Lst, iii. 481, &c. It was Alfonso X. who (puzzled over the intrl- eacios of cycles and epicycles), exclaimed, ' What ft muddle 1 I could have dona creation better.' Alfonsine Tables (The). Alfonso the Magnanimous. Alfonso V. of Aragon (1885, 1416-1458), by far the most accomplished sovereign of the 15th cent. Algerine Act (The\ 1831. So Daniel O'Connell called the prohibition of holding political meetings in Ireland. The time at which he (O'Connell) should have been called up for judgment did not arrive till w ithin a month or two of the expiration of the statute under which he was convicted, and which he called the ' Algerine Act.' Pcrtonal liecoUechoMt Of Lord Cloncurry, pp. 418-421. Pronounce Al'-Je-reen'. Algon'quin Tongue (The). The language of the native north-east Americans, dialects of which are spoken over the greater portions of eastern North America. Mr. A. Oatschet, after a careful study of what remains of the Beothuk language, has come to the conclusion that it belongs to 'a separate linguistic family to the Innuit, Tinne, Iroquois, and Algon- kin.' Lady BLAKE, Nineteenth Century (Deo. ItseS. p. 906). Alham'bra of the Crimea (The). Aloupka, built of rich greenstone, in various colours ; the Gothic and Saracenio being the prevailing orders of the archi- tecture. Alien Acts (The). 83 Geo. in. c. 4, Jan. 4, 1793, and 84 Geo. III. c. 43, 67, . 827. It was retranslated by Gerard of Cremona, about 1230. Ptolemy's ' Syntaxis of As- tronomy ' was written about A.D. 150. Almiran't6 (El), without the adjunct of a proper name, means Columbus. So El Marchese, among Mexicans, means Cortes ; and II Segretario, among the Florentines, meana Machiavel. Al'mohades (8 syl.) A dynasty that ruled ia Africa and Spain in the ALMORAH AMBOISE 12th and 13th cent. The word means ' The Unitarians,' and they assumed that they alone of all the earth worshipped God properly. The founder of the sect was Mahommed Ibn Toumert, of the Atlas retrion. The power of the Mohades was destroyed in Spain in 1257 and in Africa in 1269. (Mohades, 2 syl.) Almo'rah, in Hindustan (Convention of), 27 April, 1815, for the cession of Kumaon to the British. Almo'ravides (4 syl.). A dynasty in Africa and Spain founded by Yahia Ibn Ibrahim about 1050 ; driven out of Spain in 1155 ; suppressed in Africa 1208. The word Almoravides is a corruption of ' Al Morabeth ' (the frontier people). Called in English the MarabQts. The founder IB sometimes called Abdallah Ibn Yasim, who undertook to instruct the tribes on the slopes of the Atlas rang* In the Mahometan fatth. Alog'ians (The), or 'Al'ogi.' 2nd cent. Those who denied the divinity of the Logos, and rejected the Gospel of St. John with the Apocalypse. (Greek, A, negative, A6yo, the word.) AlomTDrado8(rfoj). Religious sect- arios of Spain first mentioned in 1575, suppressed by the Inquisition in 1623. They were an early school of the Illuini- nuti. Alphonsine Tables. See ' Alfon- sine ' &c. Altenberg, in Hungary (Congress of), 12-28 Sept., 1809. For the negotiation of peace between France and Austria. Alter ego. Is an official title origin- ally in use in the Two Sicilies, meaning the vicar-general of the king, to whom was deputed sovereign power. The French lieutenant-general of the kingdom was a similar officer. It Is now used to Unity s> rerjr dear friend, a ' second self.' Altmark, in Prussia (Truce of), 26 Sept., 1628. Between Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden and Sigismund of Poland, for ail years. Extended to 26 yean Sept. 13, 16S6. Altona, in Holstem (Convention of), 20 June, 1689. Between Christian V. of Denmark and Christian Albert of Hoi- stein-Gottorp, by the mediation of the kaiser. (AT-to-nah.) Amal ( The). The chief or king of the Goths. The Amals, or ' sons of Odin,' were a race of heroes who reigned over the Goths in the 5th and 6th Christian centuries. The word means celestials Amal'aric, or rather Amalric, one of this race, means ' the celestial king.' Theo- dorick the Great was an Amal. Kingsley in his ' Hypatia ' frequently uses the word. Amal'fian Code (The), or ' Tabula Amalphitana.' A code of maritime laws compiled by the Amalfians in the llth cent., and observed by all Italy. Amazo'nian Brigade (The), 179S. The dames de la Halle and the women of the Faubourg St.-Antoine enrolled them- selves into this brigade in the French Revolution. Their head-dress was a bon- net-rouge, or red night-cap, with a tri- colour cockade, and their arms were pikes. Am'azons. Runjeet Singh of La- hore formed a regiment of 150 of the prettiest girls in Cashmere, Persia, and the Punjab. They were magnificently dressed, armed with bows and arrows, and appeared on horseback as cavalry. This regiment was more for the amusement of the maharajah than for war service. Ambarvalia, a festival in which the Romans, in solemn procession, prayed for their fields and increase of corn. (Am^ round about, arva= the fields.) It was the day of the ' little or private Ambar- ralia. celebrated by a single family (or the welfare of all belonging to it; as the great college of the Arval brothers at Rome officiated in the interest of the whole city. PATM, Af arm* Uu /ncureo. chap. 1. Amber Witch (The). A literary for- gery, professing to be a 'story of the olden tune.' When it first appeared the great scholars of Germany applied severe tests of historical and philological criti- cism to the work, and declared it to be an undoubted relic of antiquity. Even those acute neologists, the Tubingen Re- viewers, found it 'hoary with the lapse of centuries.' When the wise ones had fully committed themselves, Dr. Reinhold came forward and proved beyond a doubt that he was himself the author. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Amboise (Conspiracy of), 1560. Formed by the partisans of the Prince of Conde, to carry off Francois II., and to massacre the Guises, who had removed from Paris to Amboise when they gained AMBOISE AMERICAN secret information of the conspiracy. Called the Conspiracy of Amboise because the conspirators assembled there to carry out their purposes. It was betrayed to the Duke de Guise, and 27 barons, 11 counts, and 7 marquises were executed in one day. Pronounce Ahm-bwola. Amboise (Edict of], 19 March, 1568. It gave to the Huguenots free exercise of religion in those towns which were in the power of the Calvin ists at the date of 7 March, 1563 ; permission to the lords hauts justiciers to hold assemblies throughout the whole extent of their do- mains ; permission to the nobles of the second rank to celebrate their worship in their own houses, but only for their house- hold; finally, permission in each baili- wick pertaining directly to the parle- ments for a single place of worship. To all other persons it accorded only the right of private worship. See ' Edict of January. 1 Amboise, in France (Treaty of), 12 March, 1563. Concluding the ' Religious War ' (1562-63) ; signed by Charles IX. of Prance. Amboy'na (The Massacre of), 1624. The Dutch laid claim to all the Spice Islands in the Indian Archipelago. In one of these (Amboyna) the English East India Company had established, in 1612, a small settlement at Cambello. In the whole island there were some 20 English, 80 Japanese, and 200 Dutch. The Dutch pretended that the English and Japanese had combined to expel them from the island, so they seized Captain Towerson, with 9 other Englishmen, 9 Japanese, and 1 Portuguese, and, after torturing them, cut off their heads. See ' Massacres.' Ambro'sian Chant, or 'Hymn,' called ' Ambrosianum,' mentioned by Isidore in his ' De Eccl. Offic.' Book I. c. 6. It was a chant or hymn introduced into the church at Milan in the 4th cent., now known as the ' Te Deum laudamus,' said, as we now have it, to have been the joint work of St. Ambrose and St. Augus- tine. Ambro'sian Library (The\ at Milan, founded by Cardinal Ffiderigo Borroraeo in 1602, and plundered by Napoleon in 1796. The plunder was ro- tored in 1816. So named in honour of Si. Ambrosias, patron saint of Milan. N.B. St. Ambrose was Bishop of Milan, A.D. 374-397. Ambro'sian Liturgy, ' Missal, 1 ' Office.' So called from being edited and supplemented by St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan (340, 874-397). This liturgy is one of the most ancient; and must, of course, have been in use before the tune of St. Ambrose. This is called the Liturgy of Milan, and is one of the chief liturgies of the Roman Church, the other three being the Roman, the GaJlican, and the Spanish Liturgies. Ambro'sian Mass, 'Missa Am- brosiana.' Used at Milan, according to the service employed by St. Ambrose. Am'brosin. A coin of the middle ages, struck by the dukes of Milan, on which St. Ambrose was represented on horseback, with a whip in his right hand. Amedieu (2 syl.), or 'Friends of God,' 1400. A religious congregation who wore no breeches, but a grey cloak girded at the loins with a rope. Pius V. united them to the Cistercians and Soccolanti. Amen Corner, London. Before the Reformation the clergy used to walk in procession every year on Corpus Christ! day to St. Paul's Cathedral. They mus- tered at the upper end of Cheapside, and there commenced chanting the Pater- noster, which continued through ' Pater- noster Row ' ; at the end of the Row they said Amen, and the spot was called 1 Amen Corner.' They then began the Ave Maria, turning down 'Ave-Maria Lane.' After crossing Ludgate, they chanted the Credo in* Creed Lane ' (which no longer exists). Corpus Christ! Day, called In French the ' F6t Dieu,' is the Thursday after Trinity Sunday ; It wafl the greatest Church festival in the year. American Academy ofArU and Scieneti, incorporated by th legislature of Massachusetts, 1780. Academy of Fine Arts, founded at New York, 1808. Antiquarian Society, incorporated by the legible ture of Massachusetts, 1812. Anti-Slavery Society, formed 1838. Association for the Advancement of Science, proja* ted at Boston, 1847. Bible Society, founded In New York, 1816. Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mission*, Insti- tuted 1810. Colonisation Society, founded at Washington, 1816. Company (of Russia) for carrying on the fur trad* with the north-west coast of America, Incorpor- ated 1799. Philosophical Society, originated by Franklin, 17ifc Temperance Society, formed at Boston 1820. Tract Society, instituted at Boston 181*. AMERICAN AMIENS American Cato ( The). Old Samuel Adams (1722-1803), who played such a patriotic port in the American Revolution, and was governor of Massachusetts. American Fabius (The). George Washington (1732-1799). American Land League (The), 1882. A branch of the Irish 'Land League,' suppressed the same year. The Irish league was reorganised into the ' National League ' (q.v.). See ' Irish Associations.' American Postage Stamps (The). Each denomination of stomp contains a different head. There are twelve denominations, and twelve heads of American worthies. Cents. 1. Benjamin Franklin, 1706-1790. 8. Andrew Jackson, 1767-1846 (7th president). I. George Washington, 1783-1799 (1st president). a. Zachary Taylor, 1786-1890 (llth president). ft, Abraham Lincoln, 1809-1866 (14th president, llh>-:i!-Mll:i:i I . 9. Edwin Stiinton. 1816-1809 (statesman). 10. Thomas Jellcrson. 1748-1836 (8rd president). l->. Benrj Clay. 1777-1853 (statesman). 1 '.v.-bstcr. 1782-1863 (statesman). 24. \Vinii> Id Scott. 1786-1866 (general). 80. Alexander Hamilton, 1757-1804 (statesman). 90. M. C. Perry. See 'Japanese Perry. 1 American War of Indepen- dence (The), 1775-1783. The first skir- mish was at Lexington, 19 April, 1775; issue doubtful, but unimportant. Ter- minated by the Peace of Versailles, signed at Paris 8 Sept., 1783. The ob- ject of the war was to make the United States of America independent of Eng- land. The chief battles of the war are subjoined. Those in common type were doubtful. Those in italics were won by the Americans. Those in capitals were won by the British. Lexington, 19 April, 1775. Bunker Hill. 17 June, 177S. BROOKLYN, 27 Aug., 1776 .Howe over Washington). WHITE-PLAINS, 28 Oct., 177<>(won by Lord How*). Trenton, 26 Dec., 1776 (won by Washington). Princeton, 8 Jan., 1777 (Washington over Corn- walhs). lietininglo*, 16 Aug., 1777 (German mercenaries 1 :u VNDYWINK. 11 Sep., 1777 (Howe over Washing- ton). Btlllwatcr, 19 Sep., 1777 : and 6 Oct., 1777. Saratoga, 11 Oct., 1777 ^Gates over Burgoyne). 1/onmoutA Court House, 28 Jan., 177U (won by Washington). King't Mountain. 7 Oct., 1780. , n Jan., 17*1 Morpvn over Tarleton). GriLFOBD, 16 March, 1781 (Cornwallis over Gr''iir>. HOBKIBK HILL, 26 April, 1781 (Rawdon over firi'cno). Kutaw-Sprlng, 8 Sept., 1781 (claimed by Arnold.) \,.iktuien, 19 Oct. 1781 (Washington over Corn- irallis). Ilia war lasted eight years to a day. The battle of Lexington was fought 19 April. 1775, *nd ths cessation of hostilities with Great Britain was. by order of General Washington, proclaimed in the American camp 19 April, 178.4. France acknowledged the independence of th United States 16 Jan., 1778 ; Spain in 1779 ; Holland on 19 April, 1782. England signed a provisional compact with America, 80 Nov., 1782 ; announced to Parliament, 6 Dec.; and all hostilities ceased 20 Jan The British troops evacuate New York, 25 Nov. : and an American detachment under General Knox took possession of the town. American War (The Second), 1812-1814. The American War of Inde- pendence terminated in 1783. The second war between America and Great Britain was declared by the Uniti-d States, June 18, 1812, and concluded Dec. 24, 1814, by the Peace of Ghent. The chief battles were : (capitals, Eng- lish victories ; italic, American victories). OUXENBTOWN iSheafle over Van Renaselaer). STONY CREEK (Vincent over Wind.-- llorarian Town (Harrison over Proctor), 6 Oct. BLADENBBDBO (Ross over Winder), 24 Aug. Itfla, Platttburyh (Macomb over Provost). Hew Orleant (Jackson over Pakenham). The immediate cause of this war was, that IB 1811 a British ship called ' The Little Belt,' under Captain Bingham, had engaged the American frigate named ' The United States.' under Com- modore Rogers, and each party laid the M the other. Nearly the last Incident was that the President Madison, on Aug. 24. prepared a grand banquet at the White House, but General ROM took Washington by surprise, and feasted his ni.-n on Madison s banquet. (Ross killed 12 8e t American Civil War (The), 1801- Between the Federals of the Northern States and the Confederates of the Southern and slave-holding States. The total loss of life was 800,000. The Federals were the victors, and American alaveholding was abolished. Cost of the war, to the Federals, 940,000,000*. ster- ling; to the Confederates, 460,000,0001, Total, 1,400,000,0002. sterling. Ami du Peuple (') A scandalont democratic journal conducted by Marat in the French Revolution. Its articlet were most ferocious, and no one was spared except the very scum of the people. The original name of this in- famous journal was the 'Publicist* Parisian,' and its last title WM ' Le Journal de la Republique.' Pronounce Lah'-me du Peu'pl. Am'iens (Peace of), 1 Oct., 1801. One of the most fatuous ever made by England. As Lord Grenville said : 'England gave up everything, and France nothing. France kept Savoy, Belgium, the Germanic States on the left bank of the Rhine, Upper Italy, and Holland. In Asia she waa to AMIS ANABAPTISTS Pondicherry, Cochin, Negapatam, and the Spice Islands ; in Africa she was to have the Cape of Good Hope and Senegal ; in the West Indies she was to hold_ Martinique, St. Lucia, Guadaloupe, Tobago, Curacao, and most of St. Domingo ; in America si le was to be repossessed of St. Pierre and Miquelon ; and in South America she was to keep Surinam, Demerara, Berbice, and Esse- quibo.' We had spent in the nine years 461,800,000^., and retained nothing but Ceylon and Trinidad. Addington's Ministry. On 22 May, 1802, a fresh tupture put an end to the ' Peace.' Amis des Weirs (SocittS des). The first anti-slavery society instituted at Paris by Brissot de Warville, Feb. 1788. Pronounce Ah' me da Nwar'. Amnesty Association ( The), 1870. The members were nearly all Fenians, and one of them was Mr. Parnell. Other members were Egan, Biggar, J. Nolan, John Levy, James Carey, John Sullivan, and Daniel Curley. Amor'ian Dynasty (The), of the Byzantine Empire. It includes Michael II., the Stammerer, who was born at Amoria, in Phrygia, from 820-829; Theophilus, 829-842, and Michael HI., the Sot, 842-867. This dynasty was then succeeded by the Macedonian under Basil I. Michael II. conspired against Leo the Armenian, ftud was made emperor in 820. Amor'ian War (The), AJ>. 838. Between the Emperor Theophilus (son of Michael the Stammerer), and the Calif Motassem (son of Harun al Rashid). So called from Amorium, in Phrygia, the birthplace of Theophilus. The Saracens had the word AMOBIUM in- srribed on their saddles, in revenge of Theophilus's siege of Sozopetra, the birthplace of Molasses. The Saracens were the victors, but the slaughter on both sides was great. Gibbon gives it as 70,000 Moslems and 80,000 Christians. Theophilus was defeated at Dasymon, and Amorium was lost. Amphictyon'ic Council (The). Established B.C. 1124 to the 2nd cent. A.D. A politico-religious court of twelve Grecian tribes held twice a year. In spring, the members met in the Temple of Apollo, at Delphi ; and in the autumn they met in the Temple of Cerea, at 2 Anthela, near Thermopylae. Their pur- pose was (1) to determine questions of international law; and (2) to preserve the religious institutions of Greece. ^schines gives the following names : the Thessalians, Boeotians, Dorians, lonians, Perrhee- bians, Magnetes, Lccrians, CElseans, Phthiots, Malians, Phocians, and one omitted, probably the Dolopians. In the time of Demosthenes th glory had departed from the council. Amphis'san "War (The). The third sacred war of Greece, from Feb. to Aug. B.C. 838. The Locrians of Amphissa rebuilt Cirrha on the ' Sacred Land,' and the matter, B.C. 839, was laid before the Amphictyonic Council, which declares war against these Locrians. Philip IE. of Macedon undertakes the war for the Council, and is joined by the Peloponnesians ; but Athens and Thebes take the side of the Locrians. Amphissa is taken and destroyed in the summer of 838, and in August of the same year the Thebans and Athenians being over- thrown at Cheronea, the war is brought to an end. Am'pian Law (The), B.C. 64. A law by T. Am'pius, one of the tribunes, to allow Pompey to wear the symbols of triumph at the Circeusian games. Amyclse'an Silence, perilous silence. It is said that the Amyclseans were forbidden to disturb the peace by raising a cry of danger from invasion. This law was passed, because the people were always crying ' wolf,' out of fear of the Spartans. It so happened that the Spartans came at last, and none durst sound a note of warning, and so the city was taken. Hence the Greek proverbs, 1 Amyclsp perished through silence,' and 'more silent than the Amycleeans' (Amyclia ipsis taciturnior). Anabaptists, 1521. The nickname of a religious party who maintained that, as baptism should not be administered without a personal confession of faith, the baptism of infanta was worthless, and those who had so been baptized must be baptized again as adults, at their own express desire, and after a confession of faith. In Germany, John of Leyden, Munzer, Knipperdoling, and others were called Anabaptists, and maintained that Christ was not God, that righteousness is of works, that there is no such thing a* original sin, that infants ought not to be ANDELOT baptized, that all men are of one rank, and that civil magistrates are anti- scriptural. See ' Mennonites.' The Anabaptists of Moravia called themselves apostolical. They went barefoot ; had a community of goods ; dressed in black ; and had very gloomy views of future judgment, the malice of Satan, and the enduring pains of hell. Anac'reon (The French}. I. Pontus de Thiard, one of the 'Pleiad poets' (1521-1605). IL P. Laiyon, perpetual president of the 'Caveau Moderne,' a Paris club noted for its good dinners. No one not a poet could be a member of it (1727-1811). Anacreon (The Persian), Mo- hammed Hafiz. His collected poems are called ' The Divan ' (1310-1389). Anacreon '(The Scotch) Alex- ander Scot (nourished 1550). Anacreon (The Sicilian). Gio- vanni Meli (1740-1815). Anacreon Moore. Thomas Moore of Dublin, who translated Anacreon's odes from Greek into English in the spirit of the original, and wrote numerous odes and other poems of unusual merit (1779-1852). Anacreon of Painters (The). Francesco Albano (or Albani), 1578-1GGO. Anacreon of the Guillotine. Bertrand Barcre de Vieuzac, president of the National Convention in 1702. So called from the flowery language he employed in speaking on the measures of the Reign of Terror. Anacreon of the Temple (The). Guillaume Amfrye, abbe" de Chaulieu (1639-1720). the Tom Moore of France. Called 'of the Temple' from the place of his abode. Sometimes called the Horace of France. Anacreon of the Twelfth Cen- tury. Walter Mapes or Map (1150-1196). His song 'Meum est propositum 1 has been translated by Leigh Hunt. Anagni, in Italy (Council of), 2-4 March, 1160, in which Pope Alexander III. excommunicated Frederick Bar- barossa. Anally, i& Ireland. The modern Longford. Anatomy (Professorship of), in the University of Cambridge, 1707 ; founded by the University. Stipend 800J. a year. See ' Lowndean Professor.' Anatomy Act (The), 2, 8, Will. IV. o. 75, 1882. It provides that a person must have a licence to practise anatomy ; it enjoins that inspectors be appointed to visit chambers where anatomy is carried on ; that any one may leave his body to be dissected, if he chooses. The law is not applicable to post-mortem examinations. The causa of this Act of Parliament wag that persona previously used to murder people and sell their dead bodies for dissection. Burke and Hare murdered sixteen persons and sold their bodies. They used to inveigle men, women, and children into a house, make them drunk, and then smother them by placing a pitch plaster over the mouth and nose. Anatomy of Melancholy (The\ 1621. ' A carnival of quotations, Greek, Latin, German, French, and Italian; philosophical, geometrical, medical, poetical, astrological, musical, pedagogic.' The subject is melancholy, its nature, seat, varieties, causes, symptoms, pro- gnosis; its cure, by legitimate and for- bidden means, by dietetics and by phar- macy. Author, the Rev. Robert Burton (1576-1640). AnceniS, IB France (Treaty of\ 10 Sept., 1468. A treaty of peace be- tween Louis XL and Francois IL, duo de Bretagne. Ancient of the Mountains (The). Chief of the Assassins. The Assassins settled in Pemla In 1090. Mar dered the Marquis of Montfcrrat in 11T2 ; Louis (Ludwigi of Uavaria in 1213; the Khan of Tartary In 12M. ,Vo. la 1^7 the mlachievoua aect was xtirpated. Ancients. The Moravian elders who are the civil and ecclesiastical heads of the community. They preside over the education of the children, enjoin penances, pronounce excommunications, and determine the rank of each member of the community. Between the French ' National Council ' and 'Corps L4gislatlP were 'two councils,' one of which was called the Conteil df Aneifn* (consisting of '250 members), the other being the OnntU de Cinq-cent*. The Florentine Council in the 13th cent, were called the Amiani. Senator mean* ' eniox,' ox elder. Andelot (Treaty of), 28 NOT., AA 687. Between Gontran of Orleans and Childebert IL of Australia. By fchia ANDREW ANGELUS treaty Burgundy was assigned to Gontran. Andrew (Knights of St.), 10 Sept., 1698. A Russian military order (founded by Peter the Great). The cordon is sky- blue. The motto is 'For Religion and Loyalty.' The Scotch order is generally called the Order Of the Thistle. Andrews (University of St.). Lec- tures commenced here in 1410. Charter granted by Henry Wardlaw, bishop of Bt. Andrews, 27 Feb., 1411. Chartered 8 March, 1432, by James I. of Scotland. St. Salvator College founded, 1455, by James Kennedy, bishop of St. Andrews. Bt. Leonard's College founded, 1512, by prior John Hepburn. St. Salvator's and St. Leonard's Colleges united 1747, and called the * United College.' The Psedagogy of Wardlaw was enlarged In 1588 'jy Archbishop Beaton, and called St. Mary's or New College. Andrussow, in Russia (Truce o/), JO Jan., 1667. Between Alexis Michailo- witz, czar of Russia, and John II., king of Poland, for fifteen years. It stipulated for the re-annexation to Russia of Smolensko, Polotsk, Mohilef, and Kief, with the abandonment of part of the Ukraine and Severia. Ane'da or Agne'da. The modern Latin name of Edinburgh (Scotland). Angel of the Church of Smyrna (The). Polycarp, the fourth of the Apostolic Father? (q.v.). He is so ad- dressed in the Book of the Revelation. It is said that he was a disciple of John, the apostle, who appointed him bishop. Angel of the Schools (The). Thomas d'Aquinas, the fifth doctor (1224- 1274). See ' Angelic Doctor.' Angelic Doctor (The). 'Doctor Angelicus,' ' Angel of the Schools,' ' the Eagle of Divines,' ' the Universal Doctor,' &c. Thomas Aquinas, or St. Thomas of Aquino, in Italy, nf the Dominican order (born 1227, died 1274, canonised by John XXTT. in 1869, and declared by Pius V., in 1567, to be the ' Fifth Doctor of the Church ' ). He was a schoolman of the Aristotelian class, and a Nominalist (q.v.). His great opponent was Duns Scotus, a Realist (q.v.), of the Franciscan order; and from these two leaders Nominalists were called ' Thomists,' and Realists ' Scotists.' The five doctors were Ambrose (840 897) ; Augustine (354 430) ; Jerome (345-420) ; Gregory, and Aquinas. See Addis and Arnold's Diet- Doctors of the Church.' It is said that Thomas Aquinas was called the Angel of the Schools/ or the 'Angelic Doctor,' from his controversy Utrum Angelas possit moveri de extreme ad extremum non transeundo per medium.' Aquinas took the negative. Angel'ici, 1st cent. Certain Chris- tians who worshipped angels. They were most numerous in A.D. 180. Men- tioned by St. Augustine in his ' Liber de Haeresibus,' ' qui angelos cultu divino prosequebantur.' Angelolatry was for- bidden by the Council of Laodicea in 866, but enjoined by the Second Council of Nice in 787. See Angelites.' Angel'ici. An order of knighthood instituted 1191 by the Emperor Isaac IL AngericTIS, meaning ' Hymnus An- gelicus,' is the hymn sung in the Mass, ' Glory to God in the highest, &c.,' sung by the angels at the Nativity. The Trisagion is also called 'Hymnus An- gelicus.' The monk's dress is called ' Angelicus,' or 'Angelica Vestis,' 'quod et ipsi di- cantur angeli a patribus,' as in the Revelation the ministers of the churches of Asia are addressed as ' Angels.' An'gelites (8 syl.), A.. 494. Mono- ph'ysites (4 syl.), or heretics who main- tained that Christ had but one nature. They received their name from Angelius, in Alexandria, where they used to meet See 'Angelici.' Angerium(TAe). The annunciation. First mentioned by Gelasius in 492. An'gelus, 1095 (Council of Clennonty A prayer and a bell which calls to the prayer. The Angelus is a prayer to the Virgin Mary, instituted by Urban II. It begins with the words ' Angelus Domini nuntiavit Marise ' (Luke i. 28), then follows the salutation of the angel Gabriel, ' Ave Maria,' &c. The prayer contains three verses, and each verse ends with the salutation, 'Ave Maria.' The bell, which is rung three times a day, morning, noon, and evening, was instituted in 1816, by John XXII. It was Louis XL who (1472) commanded it to be rung daily at noon. Louis IX., in 1472, commanded all his subject* to repeat the ' Salutatio Angelica ' every noon, at the bound of a bell. The Compline IB about three ANQLESEA ANNALS hours after the Vespers, which are Bald at sunset, ay 60 clock p.m. Anglesea Leg (The). An artificial leg like that made for the Marquis of Anglesea. Dr. Blu't leg i an improvement on the Anglesea Pronounce An'-gle-M*. Anglo-Israel Identity Society (The). A religious sect which holds that the inhabitants of Great Britain are none other than the lost ten tribes of the House of Israel. Some of the reasons assigned are these : (1) The children of Israel were to inhabit islands north-west of Palestine ; (2) they were to speak a language not Semitic ; (8) they were to possess colonies in all parts of the earth (Isa. liv. 8) ; (4) Israel was to have a nation from her, but independent of her (America); (5) Israel was to be under a monarchy ; (6) Israel was to be unconquerable, but to be a great conqueror ; (7) Israel was to be a sabbath-keeping people; (8) Israel was to be a prolific race ; (9) Israel was to send missionaries to the end of the earth (Isa. xliii. 21). Anglo-Israelism (19th cent., last quarter). The hypothesis that the English are the descendants at the lost tribes. See above. Anglo-Saxon (Professorship of), in the University of Cambridge, 1878. Founded by the Rev. Joseph Bosworth, D.D., of Trinity College, and called the Ebrington and Bosworth Professorship of Anglo-Saxot. Stipend not less than 6002. a year. Anne Margaret Klllot. married twice, flnt Colonel Ebriugton, and then Dr. Bosworth. Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (The). Said to have been begun at the instance of King Alfred. It begins with Caesar's invasion, and ends with the accession of Henry U. (1154). An'gr i as ( The) . The Mahratta pirates. Conaji Angria and his brothers began their piratical exploits in 1670. Angria was taken prisoner by the English in 1756, when his piratical state was overthrown. An'ima Mundi, called by Plato, 'Psuche tou kosmou.' Plato compared the great world to a human being (or the little world). As man is vitalised by the living soul within hi..i, so the world itself is vitalised by its living soul, without which it would be a mere corput nwr- tvum. The sun would give neither light nor heat, the vegetable world would yield neither leaves nor seed, the animal world would consist of dead bodies only. The sun would not glow, the trees would not blossom, the air would not circulate, the rivers would not run into the sea, the sea would not evaporate, and the seasons would have no succession. Stahl (1660-1734) called this ' Psuch6 ' Anima Mundi,' by which he meant that it is not God who vivifies and preserve* all things in being, but a vital principle which dwells in the universe, as the soul dwells in man. This anima mundi is not material, but co-exists with all objects and quickens them : Warms In the sun, refreshes In the breese, Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees. Laves through all life, extends through all extent, Spreads undivided, operates unspent. Pope. Animism, Animists. The system which explains the phenomena of life and disease by the action of soul (anima), and rejects the solution of these pheno- mena as purely physical. Van Helmont may be called the chief advocate of animism, and the system was taken up by George Ernest Stahl in the 18th cent. Those who believe in animism are called ' Animists.' See Rom. i. 20. The difference between Stahl's doctrine and Spinoza's is this. Stahl taught the existence of an independent and all- pervading ' anima ' ; but Spinoza taught the identity of phenomena and deity. Pope expresses Stahl's idea in the well- known lines Great in the earth. M ta the ethereal (ram*, *. See above. Annals. Registers kept in Rome from the commencement of the state down to the time of Publius Mucius; they were made by the Pontifex Maxi- mus, and were called ' Annales MaximL* Livy freely used them in his history, Annals are bare records of events. History Is tracing out the motives and consequences ul these vents. Annals of Tacitus (The). Said to be a forgery by Poggio Bracciolini, a learned scholar of Tuscany (1881-1459), author of ' Historia Florentlna ' (printed 1715), and 'De Varietate Fortunes ' (printed 1723). The tale is that he was paid 600 gold sequins (about 250Z.) by Cosmo de' Medici for his MS. ; the original is still shown in the library ol Florence. It was published i ANNAPOLIS ANNUAL when Johannes de Spire produced ' the last six books, which he affirmed he had copied carefully from the original in St. Mark's, Venice ; ' but this original was only Bracciolini's forgery. The first eix books did not appear till 1514 (i.e. 46 years after the last six). See ' Literary Forgeries,' &o. The reply to this is that Poggio Brac- c ; olini was a professional dealer in MSS. and purchased them if possible, or ob- tained permission to make transcripts. The sixteen books of Annals in MS. are not Poggio's original work, but merely a transcript of the original lent him to copy. The manifest reply is, first, that Poggio was not a mere tradesman, but apostolic secretary to Boniface IX. and seven succeeding popes (1412-1452). He attended the Council of Constance (1414- 1415), most certainly not as a tradesman. He resided with Cardinal Beaufort in 1417 ; was chancellor of the republic of Florence in 1452, and was the author of two important works at least. Where it the original from which Poggio made his copy? And can any reference to the Annals ' be shown before the 16th cent. ? The Annals consist of Books I., II., m., rv., half of v., vi., ... xi., xn., XIII., XIV., XV., and part of XVI. No writer has mentioned the name of the 'Annals of Tacitus ' before 1583, when Beatus Rhenanus so peaks of the book, and may be said to have given it its name. See 'Tacitus and Bracoiolini,' pub- lished by Diprose & Bateman, Lincoln's Inn Fields. Annap'olis, in Maryland (U.S. America). So named in compliment to Anne (1669), afterwards Queen of Eng- land, when it was constituted the seat of local government. An'nates (2 gyl.), or 'first fruits.' In ecclesiastical law means the value of a spiritual living for a whole year. From 1260 to the time of the Reformation, the pope claimed the first fruits ; but by the 26 Hen. VTLL c. 8 (1584) they were, in England, annexed to the crown, and by 2 Anne c. 11 the revenue thus arising was vested hi trustees for a perpetual fund to augment poor livings. This fund is called ' Queen Anne's Bounty.' An- nates were first calculated according to a rate made under Innocent IV. in 1253. This rate was augmented by Nicholas III. in 1292. The Council of Pisa pronounced them simoniacal in 1485, but Alexander VI., in 1500, doubled the late. It appears that these 'Annates* were not actually the whole produce of a living for a year, but a sort of property tax paid by the new Incum- bent on presentation. Anne (1 syl.), Queen of England (1664, 1702-1714), sister of Mary (wife of William III.), and younger daughter of James IL Married Prince George of Denmark. She had thirteen children, only one of whom lived to the age of 11. The rest died in infancy. Her style : Anne, D.Q. of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, &c. Anne of Bohemia was the wife of Richard II. ; Anne of Cleves was one of the wives of Henry VIII . Anne of Denmark was the wile of James I. of England. Anne, 'the Word.' Anne Lea (1736-1784), the apostle of the Shakers, by whom she was called ' Mother,' that is, ' the true Mother of all living in the new creation,' and ' the Morning Star of the second coming of Christ.' She was born in Toad Lane, Manchester, and her father was John Lee, a blacksmith. She married Abraham Standley, also a black- smith, joined the Shakers, and migrated to New York hi 1774. Ann6e Terrible (L\ 1870. When Paris was besieged by the Prussians from 19 Sept. to 28 Jan., 1871. Annius of Viterbo. Nannius, or 'Giovanni Nanni,' a Dominican (1432- 1502), a literary impostor. His work, entitled ' Antiquitates Variae,' professes to contain selections from Berosus, Manetho, Megasthenes, Archilocus, Myr- siles, Fabius Pictor, Sempronius, Cato, &c., but are, for the most part, mere fabrications. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Anno'nsB Prsefectus. An officer appointed by Augustus to superintend the corn-market (ancient Koine). Annual Indemnity Act (The), 1689. A clumsy makeshift for the repeal of the Corporation and Test Acts, where- by Dissenters were admitted into office in defiance of these acts, and were legally indemnified for violating them. An Act passed in every session of Parliament to indemnify those who neglected to take the sacrament before entering parliament or accepting some civil office. By 22 Viet. c. 15, an Act of Indemnity secures from punishment or damage all those who have neglected to take the necessary oaths of office, &o. ANNUAL ANTHROPOMORPIIITE3 Annual Mass, ' Missa Annualis,' The mass which is said daily throughout the year. Annual Register (The). Com- menced by Robert Dodsley for the year 1758-9, appeared in June 1759. The ' Register ' is published once a year, and contains a brief abstract of every event of historical interest, during the preced- ing twelve months. Also notices of new books and other miscellaneous matter. The work still goes on. Edmund Borka assisted Dodsley la preparing The A'rir Annual Rtgitter, edited by Dr. Morgan, WM started 1781 and came to a close In 18-36. The Edinburgh Annual Regitter, written by Sir W. Scott and afterwards by Southey. commenced M06 and closed 1827. Annuncia'da, 1460. A society founded at Rome by Cardinal John Turrecremata for the marriage of poor young women. It now provides, every Lady-day, 60 Rom. crowns, a dress of white serge, and a florin for slippers to above 400 persons for marriage portions. Annun'ciades (4 syl.). The name of several religious orders instituted in honour of the Annunciation. L 1362, called 'The Ammnciades of Savoy,' created by Amadous VI., count of Savoy. This was a military order. II. 1500, an order instituted at Bonrges by Jeanne de Valois, daughter of Louis XI., in honour of the ten virtues of the Virgin Mary. III. 1604, ' The Celestial Annunciades,' instituted by Maria Vittoria Fornari. They dress in a blue mantle and are therefore called ' The Blue Sisters.' The Annunciades of Jeanne de Valois wear a (rev gown, a scarlet scapular, a blue dinar, and a white mantle, to prefigure penitence, the passion of Christ, heaven, and virginity. Annunciation (The), 36 March, omr Ladyday. Commemorates the an- nouncement of the angel to Mary that she was to be the mother of the Messiah (Luke i. 26-88). In the Roman Catholic Church the Annunciation, or ' Festum Campanarum, is the Monday next after Easter Monday. The ' Annunciatio Dominica ' (or) 'Beat Virglnis Mariie was instituted (?.*. by the Twelfth Council of Toulouse ll was transfer red to Dec. 18; but inii'l it was rebtored to March -J6. Set ' Order of the An- nunciation.' Annus Deliberandi, in Scotch law, is the interval allowed to the heir from the death of a proprietor of here- ditary property to make up his mind whether he will accept the succession with its incumbrances or not. The time is now reduced to six months. Annus Mirab'ilis, A.D. 1666. The year of the great fire of London, and of the successes of our arms over the Dutch. So called by Dryden, who has a poem on the subject. Anomalis'tic Year. The inter- ral between two successive times of the earth being at the least distance from the sun. It consists of 365 days, 6 hours, 18 minutes, 45 seconds, and is 25 minutes less than a mean tropical year. Anomotans, 357. A branch of the Arian heretics, who maintained that the essence of the Son is not like the essence of God the Father (Greek anomoios, un- like). They rejected the dogma called ' Homolouslan. i.e. that the nature of Christ was like that of God the Father. The ' heresy ' was condemned 'by the Council of Ancyra in 868, and some subsequent councils. Antal'cidas (Peace of), B.C. 887. A peace between Persia and the different states of Greece, arranged by Antalcldas (or Antalkidas), the Lacedaemonian, after the suicidal contest called the Corinthean war (q.v). It ran thus : ' King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities In Asia and the islands of CUiomJnae and Cyprus should belong to him. He also thinks it lust that all the other Grecian cities should be left independent, except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros, which are to belong to Athens, as of old. If any state refuses to accept these terms, I, King Arta- xerxes will make war thereon, both by sea and land, Alltelu'can. The ' before daylight ' service held by early Christians to avoid observation (Latin, ante iuccm, before daylight). Anthropol'atrro, or 'Worshippers of Man,' so the Apollina'rians called the 1 orthodox ' Christians, because they wor- shipped Christ, who, they maintained, was ' a perfect man of a reasonable soul, and human flesh subsisting ' (Greek, anthro- pos, latreia, man-worship). Anthropomorphism, in theology, means that God is formed like man, or rather that God is man's ideal, as every man forms his own god. One man forms him revengeful, another all merciful, a third love, and so on, according to each man's notion what a god ought to be. Anthropomor'phites (5 syl.), 4th cent. Egyptian monks who maintained ANTI-ADDRESSERS ANTI-POPES that God has the human form, and is of the same substance as man, because he made man in his own likeness. Anti-Addressers, 1759. Those Irish Catholics who disapproved of the * address,' and therefore seceded from the Catholic Association. See 'Addressers.' Anti-Birminghams, 1680. Oppo- nents of the Birminghams (q.v.) t or Exclu- sionists. They were the friends of James, duke of York, and favourers of ' the right divine ' and succession of James. Anti-Burghers, 1747. Those Scotch Presbyterians who refused to take the required oath ' that they heartily and en- tirely concurred in the religion as by law established.' Those who accepted the oath were called Burghers. Anti-Corn-Law League (The], 20 March, 1889. An association against the corn-laws was formed in London in 1886 ; the Manchester Anti-Corn-law As- sociation was formed 24 Sept., 1888 ; the League with Cobden at the head was formed in 1889 ; dissolved 2 July, 1846. The corn-laws existing prior to the repeal consisted of a sliding-scale. When, for example, corn was selling at 62s. a quarter, a duty of 24s. 8d. a quarter was imposed on imported corn ; for every shilling less than 62s. a quarter an extra shilling was added to imported corn ; but when corn exceed- ed that price the duty rapidly increased, till it reached 785., when a minimum tax of 1*. was imposed. This minimum tax of Is. a quarter is still paid to defray the expenses of registration. Anti-Corn-law Wafers. Sheets of mottoes (40 for Is.) advocating free- trade in corn. These mottoes are either original or mere extracts ; some aimed at wit, some at smartness, some were politi- cal truisms, and some were satirical. During the Anti-Corn-law agitation these ' wafers ' had a large sale. Anti-Gallican Society (The), 1757. ' To promote British manufactures extend the commerce of England, and discourage the introduction of French modes and the importation of French commodities. 1 The headquarters of the society were at Lebeck's Head, Strand. St. George's Day (28 April) was the day pi their anniversary feast. II WM at Its beat In ITU. Anti-League League (The), 1844. A league formed to counteract the Anti- Corn-law League, on the supposition that the higher the price of corn, the higher the rate of wages. Chartists were anti leaguers. Sir Robert Peel said experience proved that the high price of corn was not accompanied by a high rate of wages, and that wages did not vary with the price of corn (1846). Anti-Paedo-baptists, 1607, now called Baptists. Certain dissenters who object to infant or pee do baptism, and maintain that no one should be baptized without expressing a personal wish to undergo the ceremony, and without a personal confession of faith. They per- form the rite by total immersion. (Greek anti pais baptisma, against child bap- tism.) Anti-Popes. Popes elected in oppo- sition to the pope of Borne. 1. NOVATIANUS, elected In opposition to Corne- lius, A.D. 251. 2. FELIX II., elected on the banishment of Liber- lUB, A.D. 855. 8. UBSIANUS or URSINUi, elected in opposition to Damasus, A.D. 866. 4. K I'LALIUS, elected in opposition to Boniface I., A.D. 418. 6. LAURENTIUS, appointed by Festus in opposi- tion to Symmachus, A.D. 498. 6. DIOBCOBUS, consecrated in opposition to Boni- face II., A.D. 530. 7. VIGILIUS, appointed by Belisarius on the exile Of Silverius, A.D. 687. 8. 9. PETEB and THEODORUS, in the pontificate of John V., A.D. G86. 10. 11. PASCHAL and THEODOBUB, elected in oppo- sition to Sergius, A.D. 687, 12. 13. 14. THEOPHYLACTUS, CONSTANTINUS, and PHILIP, elected at the death of Paul I., A.D. 767- 768. Constantinus was deposed by Pope Stephen III., shut up in a monastery, and his eyes put out, Aug. 6, 768. 15. ZiziMUS.elected in opposition to Eugcni us II., *16. ANASTASIUS, who contested the election of Benedict III., A.D. 855. 17. SERGIUS, elected in opposition to Formosui, A.D. 891. 18. BONIFACE VI., chosen to succeed Formosug, A.D. 896, died a fortnight afterwards. 19. CHRISTOPHORUS, who deposed and Imprison- ed Leo V., A.D. 905. 20. LEO VIII.. elected to succeed John XII., A.D. 964, deposed 965. 21. BONIFACE VII., elected on the death of Bene- dict VI., A.D. 974, deposed 975. 22. GBEOORY, who unseated Benedict VIII., A.I>. 1012, deposed by Kaiser Henry II., A.D. 1014, 28. SILVESTER III., elected to succeed Benedict IX. on his banishment, A.D. 1044. Benedict sold tha pontificate to John, 1044. 24. BENEDICT X., who opposed Stephen IX.. A.D 2s! HONORIUB, appointed by the diet of Basel in opposition to Alexander II., A.D. 1061, deposed by the council of Osbor, 1062. 26. CLEMENT HI., elected at Brlxen in opposition to Gregory VII., A.D. 1080. Clement was set up by Kaiser Henry IV. 27. ALBERT, appointed to succeed Clement, taken prisoner by the partisans ol Paschal II. 9 ANTI-REMONSTRANTS ANT1NOM1ANB 38. THEODORIO, appointed to succeed Albert, A.D. 1100. 29. MAOINUFE, appointed to succeed Theodoric. A.D. 1106. 30. ORBOORT VIII., elected In opposition to \3elasius II., A.D. 1118. Gregory was set up by Kaiser Henry V. 31. CALIXTUS, elected during the pontificate of Honorius II., A.D. 1K'4-1130. 32. ANACLETUS, elected by a majority of the con- clave in opposition to Innocent II., A.D. 1130. 88. VICTOR IV., chosen to succeed Anacletus, A.D. 11 w, abdicated. 34. VICTOR (also called Victor IV.). elected In opposition to Alexander in., A.D. 1159. 35. PASCHAL III., elected to succeed Victor, A.D. 1164. 86. CALLI8TUS HI., elected to succeed Paschal. A.D. 1168. Abjures his schism, 1178. 87. INNOCENT III., chosen In the place of Callis- tuH, A.D. 1178. Taken prisoner by Pope Alexander, 1180, and died soon afterwards. 38. NICHOLAS V., chosen by Louis of Bavaria In opposition to John XXII.. A.D. 1828. Renounced his schism 1330 The Great Schism of the Went, 1878-1429. When there was a pope at Rome, and another at Avignon, and sometimes three or four popes. Presuming the French popes to be anti-popes In this schism, -we have 89. CLEMKNT vil.. the French pope In opposition to Urban VI., A.D. 1378. 40. BENEDICT XIII., who succeeded Clement, A.D. l:>4. 41. ALEXANDER V., elected by the Council of Pisa, which took upon itself to depose t lie two existing popes, and to elect a third, A.D. 1^4. There were now three popes, vis. Gregory XII. at Rome, Benedict XIII. at Avignon, and Alexan- 42. JOHN XXII.. who succeeded Alexander. A.D. 1410. Was deposed by the Council of Constance 1417, and Martin V. elected. There were now four popes ; Gregory XII., Bene- dict XIII., John XX11L. and Martin V. 48. CLEMENT VIII., succeeded Benedict XIII., A.D. 1424. Abdicates 1429, and thus the schism ends. Gregory XII. died 1417, John XXin. died 1419, Benedict XIII. died 1404. Clemont VIII. abdicated 1429. Martin V. was left sole pope. 44. FKLII V., elected In opposition to Kuffenlns IV. by the Council of Basel, A.D. 14X) ; abdicntf d 1449. Undoubtedly an excellent choice, accepted by England. France, Germany, Spain and Lombardy. Only Italy (bar Lombardy) and Venice refused to acknowledge him. Anti-Remonstrants, or 'Gomar- Utg,' 1611. Ultra-Calvinists and follow- ers of Frang Gomar, of Bruges (1563- 1641), who arbitrarily laid down the dogmas of absolute predestination and reprobation in answer to the 'Remon- strance' of the Arminians presented to the states of Holland in 1610. The word Is also applied to the Jansenlsto (a.v.) ; and their opponents ithe Jesuits) were termed Re- monstrants. Anti-Tobacconists (The), 1848. In Italy. The Austrians had the monopoly of tnl.acco in Itiily, and the Liberals re- solved to leav> off smoking, so that a cigar became the ?.\^n of loyalty, and non- smoking of dis:itYei-t.ion. The Austrians resented the anti-tobacco movement ; and in order to put a stop to it, supplied their Italian troops with cigars, and them to smoke them ostentatiously in the streets. This insult was resented by the Italians. On 17 March the Milanese rose in revolt and expelled the Austrians. Venice next rose and did the same. Sicily expelled King Ferdinand II., and elected in his stead Charles All-ort (Albert Amadeus I.). At last Garibaldi appeared and liberated Italy, making it a united and independent kingdom. Anti-Tory Association (The), 1834. Established in Ireland by Daniel O'Cpnnell to oppose the new Tory ad- ministration under the leadership of Sir Robert PeeL See ' Irish Associations.' Anti-Trinita'rians. Those who reject the doctrine of the Trinity on philosophical grounds. Those who reject it on theological grounds are called Arians, Socinians, or Unitarians ; Mohammedans are Anti- Trinitarians. Anti-Union Society (The), 1830. A new name for the Repeal Association (q.v.), when that association was pro- claimed. Both had the same object viz. the repeal of the Union Hit < { <} in 1801, or the amalgamation of the IrMi and British Parliament*. See 'Irish Associations.' Antid'ico-Mariani'ttB (4th cent.), i.e. ' Detractors of Mary,' as the Apolli- narians and Eunomians were called, who denied the perpetual virginity of Mary ; in other words, believed that Mpry had other children besides Jesus, who was her 'firstborn' (Matt. i. 2".). The brethren of Jesus mentioned in the gospels they considered to be the other children of Mary (see Matt. xiii. 55, 56; Mark vi. 8 ; Matt. xii. 46 ; Gal. i. 19). In English ' Antldlcomarlanltes,' prononncs Antid'-i-co Ma'-ri-an-ites (Grek, ArrUurot, MtpU, (adversary [of] M ary). Antino'mians, 1585. A sect founded by John Agricola, who main- tained that Christ abolished the entire law for believers. They furthermore a i that good works do not further salvation, which is wholly of grace. ' Not of works, lest any man should boast.' ' If (salva- tion") is by grace, then it is no more of works, otherwise grace is no more grace. But if it be of works, then is it no more grace, otherwise work is no more work ' ANTIPHONAKIUM ANTONINE'S 88 (Rom.xi. 6) ; (Greek, anti,nomo8, opposed to the law, i.e. of works.) The system is called ' Antinomianism.' The Antinomians taught that the chosen were at liberty to help them- Bol^es to such a share of this world's goods as their necessities required ; and that however they might sin in their outward man, in the inner man they sinned not. (Strype, Cranmer, p. 178.) This is a gross perversion of Antino- mianism. N.B. In New England, Antinomians, in the 17th cent., denied the ' moral law to be the rule of Christ ' (John Harvard, 1628). The Antinomians contended that all things were free and allowable to the saints without sin. HOWITT, Hitt. of Eng. vol. 11. p. 262. Antiphona'rium. An Antiph'o- tary, or book containing the Antiph'onies throughout the year. Such as the ' Gieater Antiphonies of O ' ; the ' Roga- tional Antiphonies ' ; the ' Alleluyatio Antiphonies ' ; the ' Antiphona ad in- troitum ' ; the ' Antiphonee Invitatorisa ' ; the ' Antiphona de Podio ' ; the ' Proces- sional Antiphonies ' &c. By the Con- stitutions of Archbishop Winchelsey, at Merton (1805), every parish church was ordered to have ono. The ' O Antiphonies ' are the fifteen prayers be- ginning with the letter O (' Horee Beatissimee Vir- ginia Maria '). The ' Antiphona de Podio' is the ' Salve Regina ' made by Ademarus, bishop of Po- dium, I.e. Puy. The ' Antiphona ad introitum ' was sung in introitu Mitsa. The ' Invitatorite ' were sung on Sunday nights. Antiphon'eti. An image of Christ crucified set up near the pulpit. Du Cange quotes (vol. i. p. 276, col. 2) the following words : Vlsns est sibi in occiduo graduum, qul ad sacram dem ducunt, ascensu stare, nbi praeter divinam Domini imaginem quam Antiphoneti appellant, ipsius etiam Niconis effigies expressa est. MAHTEN, 10, 6, Ampliu. Collect, col. 880. Antiquaries (The Society of). For the cultivation and understanding of the antiquities of the chief countries of Europe and America. It was started in 1572 by Archbishop Parker and Sir Robert Cotton; but James I. dissolved this society in 1604 ; and it was recon- structed in 1717. The London Society was chartered In 1573. The Scotch Society was founded in 1780. The Royal Irish Society was chartered in 1786. The French Society was founded, as the Aca- Umie Celtique in 1805 ; but in 1814 it changed its name Into the Socittt det Antiquairei de France. The American Antiquarian Society was incor- porated in 1812 by the legislature of Massachusetts. Antiquitates Varise, 1498. A literary forgery by Annius of Viterbo (Nannius, Giovanni Nanni), a Domi- nican. His 17 volumes profess to be selections from Berosius, Manetho, Megasthenes, Archilocus, Myrsile's, Fabius Pictor, Sempronius, Cato, . 66. His days are 29 June and 25 Jan. Apostle of the Germans (The). St. Boniface, an English Benedictine monk, whose name was Winfrith or Winfrid, born at Kirton or Crediton, in Devonshire, then part of Wessex, in '.M>. He was archbishop of Germany in 781, metropolitan at Metz in 742, and was slain 5 June, 755, aged 75. St. Martin is the patron saint of Germany. Gregory II. consecrated him bishop of the New German churches, in 725, and changed his name to Boniface (or Well-doer). Apostle of the Goths (The). Ulfilas, their first bishop (848-888). He translated the Bible into the Gothic tongue, and one copy of the four gospels (if not more) is still extant. Apostle of the Highlanders SI Coloinb (531-597). His day s 9 June. Alo the patron saint of the Bighlands. Apostle of the Hungarians [The). St. Anastasius (954-1044). St. Louis is the patron saint of Hungary : and also St. Mary of Aquisgranum (Aix-la-Chapelle). Apostle of the Indians (The). Bartolome* de Las Casas (1474-1566). Also the Rev. John Eliot (1603-1690). Apostle of the Indies (The). 81 Francis Xavier (1506-1552). His day ia 8 Dec. Apostle of the Irish (The). St. Patrick (372-498). His day is 17 March, Apostle of the Lowlands (The). Cuthbert, Archbishop of Canterbury (741-758.) Apostle of the Netherlands (The). St. Amandus (594-667). He was bishop of Maestricht. Also the patron saint. Apostle of the New Jerusalem (The). Emanuel Swedenborg (1688- 1772). Apostle of the North (The). 81 Ansgar (801-864). Also Bernard Gilpin (1517-1588). Apostle of the Peak ( The). Wil- liam Bagshawe,-of Ford Hall, a noncon- formist in the reign of Charles II. (17 Jan., 1627-82 April, 1702). Apostle of the Scottish Re- formers (The). John Knox (1505- 1572). St. Andrew la the patron saint of Scotland. His day Is 80 NOT. It is said that his remains were brought by Regains to Fifeshire, A.D. 868. Apostle of the Slavi, or Slave (The). St. Cyril, who died 868. His day is 14 Feb. Apostles (The 14). According to Gospel history or Church tradition 1. ANDREW of Bethsaida, a fisherman, brother of Simon Peter, and son of Jona (bar-Jona). Bound to a cross like the letter X, called a St. Andrew's cross, by order of ./Egaeus, proconsul of Achnia (1st cent.). His day is 80 Nov. Ilia symbol in paintings is a St. Andrew'* cross. His scene of labour was Scythia, according to tradition. 2. BARTHOLOMEW of Galilee, a fisher- man ; supposed to be Nathaniel Bar- Tholemy. Flayed alive in ArmeuiA, APOSTLES APOSTLES 87 A.D. 71. Hia day is 24 Aug. His symbol is a knife. His scene of labour was India, according to tradition. 3. JAMES I. (the Greater), of Bethsaida, a fisherman, brother of John, and son of Zebedee and Salome. Beheaded at Jerusalem by Herod Agrippa, A.D. 43. His day is 24 July. His symbol is a pilgrim's staff and a gourd bottle. 4. JAMES II. (the Less), surnamed The Just,' supposed to have been a Jewish ecclesiastic. Brother of Simeon and Jude, called ' brothers of the Lord.' Son of Cleopas (or Alphseus) and Mary. Thrown from a pinnacle of the temple, and then beaten or stoned to death, A.D. 65. His day is 1 May. (See ' Philip. 1 ) His symbol is a fuller's club. Said to be the first bishop of Jerusalem, and Succeeded in 67 by his brother, Simeon or Simon. 6. JOHN (the beloved disciple, an Evangelist) of Bethsaida, a fisherman, brother of James I., and son of Zebedee and Salome. The two brothers were called Boanerges. John was the youngest of the apostles, and died at an extreme old age at Ejjhesus between A.D. 91 and 100. His day is 27 Dec. His symbol is i bowl with a winged serpent flying out of it. He wore a priest's petalon. 6. JUDAS ISCARIOT, i.e. of the tribe of Issachar. Place of birth, parentage, and vocation unknown. Hanged himself A.D. 64. 7. JUDE, Judas not Iscariot, surnamed Thaddeeus, of Nazareth. Brother of James II., and son of Cleopas (or Alphseus and Mary), a 'brother of the Lord.' Occupation unknown. Shot to death by arrows in Armenia or Persia, A.D. 80. His day is 28 Oct. His symbol is a club. 8. MATTHEW, or Levi, of Galilee, a Roman revenue officer at Gennesareth. One of the four Evangelists. Slain by a eword in Ethiopia (1st cent.). His day is 27 Sept. His symbol is a hatchet. 9. MATTHIAS, elected by lot to the college, in place of Judas Iscariot. Nothing known of him. Said to have been first stoned and then beheaded in Colchis (1st cent.). His day is 24 Feb. His symbol is a battle-axe. 10. PAUL, or Saul, of Tarsus. Probably designed to be a Jewish scribe. Brother of Rufus (Rom. xvi. 13), and son of Simon of Gyrene, who helped to carry the cross (Mark xv. 21). Beheaded at Rome, AJ>. 66. His days are 29 June (death), and 25 Jan. (conversion). His symbol is a sword. 11. PETEB (Simon), or Cephas, of Bethsaida, a fisherman, brother of An- drew, and son of Jona (Bar-Jona). Crucified at Rome with his head down- wards, A.D. 66. His day is 29 June. His symbol is two keys. Called by Catholics ' the Prince of the Apostles.' 12. PHILIP, of Bethsaida, probably a fisherman. Parentage unknown. Hanged against a pillar at Hierapolis, a city of Phrygia, A.D. 80. His day is 1 May. (See ' James II.') His symbol is a long staff with a cross at the end. 13. SIMON or Simeon (Zealotes), pro- bably a fisherman of Nazareth. Brother of James II. and Jude, and son of Cleo- pas (or Alphseus) and Mary. Crucified in Persia, A.D. 107, at the age of 120. The oldest and last of the Apostles. His day is 18 Feb. His symbol is a saw. Said to have succeeded his brother James in 91, KB bishop of Jerusalem. 14. THOMAS (surnamed Didymus), of Galilee, Probably a fisherman. Paren- tage unknown. He was run through the body with a spear at Coromandel (1st cent.). His day is 21 Dec. His symbol is a spear. His scene of labour was Parthia, according to tradition. The Apostolic days are : Jan. 25, Feb. 18 and 24, May 1 (two apostles), June 29 (two apostles), July 24, Aug. 24, Sept. 27, Oct. 28, Nov. 80, Dec. 21 and 27. None in either March or April, the busy season of Lent and Easter, but two are placed in the following months of May and June. Of the two non-apostolic Evangelists nothing is known. Probably Luke (Lucius) was a Roman by birth, and it is supposed he was a physician and an artist. Tradition says he was hanged in Greece on an olive-tree, in the 1st cent. Mark is supposed to be John Mark, the companion of Paul. Tradition saya that, being dragged through the streets of Alexandria, he was hurled from a high rock into the sea. Apostles* Creed (The), or ' Symbol of the Apostles.' This creed is so called because each of the twelve clauses is attributed to one of the apostles. Thus : 1. PETER: I believe in God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth. 2. JOHN : [And] in Jesus Christ, His only Son, on* Lord. 8. JAMES (Sen.): Who was conceived of the Holy Ghost, born of the Virgin Mary. 4. ANDREW : Suffered under Pontius Pilate ; wai crucified, dead, and buried. (' Dead ' not in UM Oriental Creed.) ' Was dead '=was deaded. APOSTOLIC APOSTOLIC 6. PHILIP : He descended Into bell. (From the Creed of Aquilr.ia.) 6. THOMAS: The third day He rose again from the dead. (St. Augustine.) 7. JAMES (Jun.) : He ascended into heaven, and itteth on the right hand of God the Father Al- mighty. 8. MATTHEW: From thence He shall come to judge the quick and the dead. 9. NATHANIEL : I believe in the Holy Ghost. 10. SIMON : The Holy Catholic Church, the Com- munion of Saints. (Added 6th cent.) 11. MATTHUR: The forgiveness of sins. 12. JUDE : The resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting. (Last part belongs to the 8rd cent, the first part to the 4th cent.) These twelve articles, we axe told, were uggested by the Apostles in a grotto of Mount Olivet, before their final separa- tion, and the Apostles were anciently delineated each holding a banderole, on which was inscribed the words of the symbol attributed to him. Apostolic Bishops (The). The bishops of the Apostolic Churches (q.v.). In 1046 trip Council of Reimp declared that the bishop of Home is the sole apos- tolic primate of the Universal Chun-h, and hence such terms as apostolic see, apostolic nuncio, apostolic notary, apos- tolic brief, apostolic vicar, &o. meaning papal nuncio, notary, &c. Apostolic Blessing (The). The blessing of the pope of Rome, as successor of St. Peter. Apostolic Brethren, or ' Aposto- llci '(1260-1868). A Christian sectfounded by Girolamo Segarelli, a weaver of Parma, who went about in the dress of an apostle, preached repentance, free society, and a return to apostolic man- ners. From 1290 his adherents began to denounce infant baptism, the dogma of purgatory, invocation of saints, prayers for the dead, and the corrupt lives of the clergy. In 1300 Girolamo Segarelli, the founder, and many of his followers were brought to the stake. Dolcino then became the head of the ociety and drew together many thou- sands of followers, but in 1305 a crusade was preached against him, and being captured, he was burnt alive. The brotherhood lingered on till 1368, and gradually died out. Dante refers to Dolcino in the ' Inferno,' xxviii. 55. Volumua quod nullus clericus, nulla secularla persona, intuitu religion!? eorum, ac insolito habitu, cos de ctctoro recipiat, aut eia alimcnta ministret. Council of Jenuoltm, 1387. Apostolic Chamber (The). A ouucil entrusted with the care of the revenues of the see of Rome. Equal to papal chamber or board. Apostolic Churches (Thr). Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and Rome ; sometimes Corinth and Ephesus are also included. These churches are supposed to have been founded by the Apostles themselves. Apostolic Constitutions (The), or ' Apostolic Canons.' A collection of ecclesiastical laws attributed to St. Clement, a disciple of St. Peter, but proved to be not earlier than the 3rd cent. Indeed the Quini-Sext (q.v.) council, held at Constantinople in 690, pronounced the collection to be apo- cryphal. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Apostolic Fathers (The). The im- mediate fellow-labourers of the apostles, born in the first century. They were: (1) Barnabas, who died A.D. 61 ; (2) Clement of Rome, 80-100; (8) Ignatius, who died 116; (4) Polycarp, 80-169. They were succeeded by the Primitive Fathers Papfas of Hlerapolls, and Hennas, author of the 'Shepherd,' are sometimes ranked amongst the apostolic fathers. 1'apias died 109, I'oi \ >:. : i ii. 1<>7, and Hermas In the 1st cent. It is doubtful whether Hermas is a proper name at all. Apostolic Kings (The). Pope Sylvester II., in 1000, granted to Stephen of Hungary and his successors the right of so styling themselves. The reigning king is addressed as- Your Apostolic Majesty, and referred to asH.A.M. In 1768 Clement XIII. conferred the title of H.A.M. on Maria Theresa, as quern of Hungary, and the emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary, con tinues the same style. Apostolic Letter or Brief (An). A papal letter or brief. Apostolic Months (The). The six following months : January, March, May, July, September, and November. That is, every alternate month beginning with January. It was on these months that the pope (according to the Vienna Con- cordat of 1448) took possession of the va- cant benefices in Germany, &c. Apostolic Party (The), 1819-1880. In Spanish history. Fanatical Catholics who were also absolutists. Their leaders were priests and their troops were smug- glers and robbers. They ultimatelj merged into the Catholic party. APOSTOLIC APPARTEMENTS 89 Apostolic See (The). The Bee of Rome, said to have been founded by the apostle Peter. Apostolic Succession (The). The supposed succession of the priesthood in an unbroken line from the Apostles, by mean s of ordination and laying on of hands. Apostolic Vicar (The), or ' Vicar Apostolic.' The cardinal who represents the pope in extraordinary missions. Apostolical Canons, 'Canonea Apostollci.' Two collections of ecclesiasti- cal rules and formularies attributed to Cle- ment of Rome (1st cent.). This, however, has been entirely disproved, and probably Iney were first drafted in the 2nd and 3rd cents., and the main portion is assigned to a period close upon the great council at Nice (A.D. 825). The first allusion to these canons is in the Council of Con- stantinople, A.D. 894. The whole number is 85, of which 50 are regarded with re- spect by the Western Church, but all are accepted by the Greek Church. See 4 Apostolic Constitutions.' The first fifty were translated from the Greek Into Latin, in the 6th cent., by Dionysius the Younger. References being made in these canons to Euseblus (265-838), Athanasius (29G-373), and Epiphanius (810-408), suffice to prove that parts at least of these canons cannot have been earlier than (he 4th cent. ' Literary Forgeries.') Apostolical Constitutions (The). In eight books, in which the Apo- stles are introduced as speakers. They are supposed to date from the 4th cent., but certainly much is of later date. They enjoin the duty of assembling twice a day for public praye land psalmody ; the ob- servance of fasts and festivals ; the obli- gation of tho Jewish Sabbath and the Christian Sunday ; the duty of reverenc- ing bishops as God's anointed ones and of inferior clergy as Christian magistrates. Epiphanius (3(>7-408) speaks of these books, and, though not genuine, they are useful in showing the religious tone and feeling of the period. See 'Apostolical Canons.' The first six books contain rules for a Christian life ; Book VII. is an abridgment of the preceding ix books, and Book VIII. relates to priests and their duties. Apostolical Junta (The), 26 Sep., 1825. Formed by Ferdinand VII. of Spain for the purpose of assisting the ministry. Apostolicals (The). Members of the Apostolical Junta (//in. UIUEL IB represented carrying a parchment scroll, to signify his being the Interpreter of pro- MfcfA ZADKFKL bears the sacrificial knife which he took from Abraham, when the patriarch was about to slay his son. ZOPHIKL beam a flaming sword. Archdeacon's Court (TJie). To hear ecclesiastical causes, subject to an appeal to the bishop, 24 Hen. VIIL c. 12. Arche and Duum'virat. The vital principle and the soul. Terms used by Van Helmont of Brussels (1577- 1644) to express the dual nature of man. By archi he meant the vital principle penetrating the entire body, which prin- ciple performs all the functions of nutri- tion and digestion. ' Duumvirat ' with him meant the intellectual principle or soul. He called it duum-rn-rat because it resides in the 'two organs' called vi[scera] and ra<[a], that is the bowels and the spleen. See ' Natura Naturans,' ' Aniraa Mundi,' and ' Pre-established Harmony.' He did not place the soul in the brain, becauM he said the brain has no blood ; but as the diges- tive organs are so intimately wrapped up with the intellectuality of man, he placed the soul there. Archestratides, B.C. 677. The Archons of Athens. Pronounce Ar-kes-trat'-l deei. Archibald Bell-the-cat. Archi- bald Douglas, earl of Angus (died 1514). An armed conclave was held In Lauder church (on the subject of ridding the kingdom of the up- start Cochrane, who hod risen from the station ol a mason to become the earl of Mar). Lord Gray ARCHIMANDRITE ARISTIDES reminded them of the fable of the mice which laid a project for preventing the ravages of the cat by tying a bell round her neck. ' An excellent project indeed,' said one of the conclave, 'but who would undertake to bell the cat ? ' ' That will I,' exclaimed Douglas, earl of Angus ; and ever after he was called Archibald Bell-the-cat. Sir W. SCOTT, Hitt. of Scotland, xx. Archimandrite. A father pro- vincial of the Greek Church. The su- periors of convents are Mandrites (2 syl.) or Hegumeni. Pronounce Ar'-ki-man'-drite. Archon'tics. ' Archon'tici ' or Val- entinians, a section of the Gnostic school founded by Valentlnus in the 2nd cent. So called because they taught that ' mundum universum a Deo conditum opus esse apxovTiav.' They denied the resurrection of the body, the divine institution of the sacraments, and maintained that the incorporeal could not communicate with the corporeal, or that a spirit god could reveal anything to a material substance like man. Arctic Highlands (The). That part of the American continent which lies between Hudson's Bay and the mouth of the Mackenzie. The general route of the explorers of a north-west passage, such as Franklin, Richardson, Back, Dease, Simpson, Rae, &c. Areop'agites (The), (5 eyl.). An Athenian court of judicature, which was held on the Mars Hill (in Greek, Ares Pagos). All wilful murders came under the cognisance of this court. The num- ber of members varied ; but on a column in the citadel of Athens, erected to Rufus Festus, the number is stated to have then been 800. Argen'teus Codex (The), or 'Silver Book..' The MS. of Ulphilas's Moeso-gothic translation of the gospels, discovered hi the abbey of Werden, and taken to Prague in 1597. It was cap- tured at Prague in 1648, and presented fco Christina of Sweden ; subsequently, it was presented to the University of Upsala in 1662. It contains a large part of the four gospels and is written or vellum, the letters being silver, and the initials gold. (Ar-gen'-te-us, 4 syl.) Ar'gentine Republic (The), 1816. Thirteen confederated provinces of Rio de la Plata, South America. Argyll. God bless the Duke of Argyll! The Duke of Argyll set up rubbing-posts for cattle in the Highlands of Scotland. When the tenders of cattle used these posts for their own delecta- tion, suffering from what they call yuke, they gratefully ejaculated, 'God blesa the Duke of Argyll ! ' Pronounce Ar-gHe. A'ria Cat'tiva Mala'ria. So the Italians call the emanations of the Pontine marshes, which produce fevers. The aria cattiva reaches even to the lower parts of Rome. A'rian Controversy (The), 4th cent. In the time of Constantino the Arians were very numerous. They withdrew from the Trinitarians, built their own churches, and ordained their own bishops. The General Council of Nice, A.D. 325, condemned the Arians ai heretics. A'rianism, A.D, 812. The religious tenets of Arius of Alexandria (270-336)^ who disavowed the dogma of the Trinity, and denied that Christ, the Word, is co. equal and consubstantial with God the Father. In fact, he maintained that Christ is not God at all, but was a human being, born of human parents. The religious views of Arius were condemned in the First General Council held at Nice in 825. Arius said : If God is one, all wise, all powerful, and everywhere present, it Is a contradiction of terms to suppose a second possessed of the same attributes. The party-word of the Arians was homoioutios not homooufios. That of the Athana- sians was homoousins not homoiousioi (homo-otisios = identical in nature ; homoi-ousioi = similar [but not identical] in substance). Arios'to of the North (The). Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). Aristar'chos and Zoilos. Critics. Aristarchos (B.C. 160-88) of Samothrace revised Homer with such severity that his name is proverbial for a caustic critic. Zoilos of Amphipolis also criti- cised Homer with equal severity and was called ' Homeromastix.' Aristides (The British). Andrew Marvell (1620-1678), poet, satirist, and politician. He was the last paid M.P, for Kingston -upon-Hull. Pronounce Ar'-ris-ti'-dee. In 1678 the Lord Treasurer Danby paid a visit to Andrew Marvell in his humble lodging; and, at parting, slipped into his hand a cheque for 1000J. Marvell bade the Treasurer wait a moment, and said to the serving boy, 'Jack, child, what had! for dinner yesterday 1 ' ' Don't you remember, 44 ARISTIDES ARMAGNACS Sir? It was a Bhoulder of mutton V 'Aye, true! I remember. And what am I to have to-day ?' 'The blade-bone broiled.' 'So, my lord, you bee my dinner is provided. I thank you, but there is the piece of paper you gave me. My services belong to my constituents.' C. 1'UOMboN, Autobiography, p. 87. Aristi'des (The English). John Pym, the republican (1584-1648). See above. He sought no advantage to himself, he derived nothing from bis exertions or his prominent posi- tion, but the satisfaction of seeing his country saved by his labours. He derived no influence from wealth or rank, for he had none of either: his whole prestige was intellectual and moral worth. He wore himself out for the public good, and died as poor as he commenced, the only grant which he received from the state being an honour- able burial in WeBtniinster Abbey.-HowiTT, HU*. of Enyl., ' Charles I.,' chap. IT. p. 242. Aristides (The French). M. GreVy, the third president of the third republic of France, from 1879 to 1884. Aristoph'anes (5 syl.). Samuel Foote (1722-1777) is called the English or Modern Aristophanes. Aristophanes of his age (The). J. Baptiste Poquelin de Moliere, the French dramatist (1622-1678). Aristophanes of the Revolu- tion (The). Camille Desmoulins (170'2- 1794). See above. Aristotelian Categories (The). The ten Aristotelian categories are : (1) substance; (2) quantity; (8) quality; (4) relation ; (5) action ; (6) passivity ; (7) position in space; (8) position in time ; (9) situation ; (10) possession. Aristotelianism. The system of Aristotle's logic and metaphysics applied to the Christian system in the middle apes. This substitution of reason for faith, and logical inferences for what are called ' inspired truths,' gave birth to the Scholastics. The tendency of Platonism was to enthusiasm and mysticism, that of the Aristotelians to subtlety and logical minuteness. Platonists tended to fanaticism, Aristotelians affected dis- putation. Thomas Aquinas was an Aris- totelian, Duns Scotus a Platonist. Aristotle of China. Tehuhe (8 uyl.), who died AO>. 1200, also called ' the Prince of Science.' Aristotle of Christianity. Thomas Aquinas, who tried to reduce the doctrines and dogmas of Christianity to syllogistic formula (1224-1274). Aristotle of the nineteenth century (The). George Cuvier (1769- 1882), the great French naturalist. Ark of the Covenant (The). Exod. zxv. A chest of shittim wood, the lid of which was of pure gold. It contained at one time the two stone tables of the law, a pot of manna, Aaron's rod, and the book of the law. The lid was the ' Mercy Seat.' It was taken to Babylon and lost sight of. ' Shittim wood.' probably cedar. Arkan'sas (U.S. of America). So called in 1819 from its chief river. The inhabitants of this state are nicknamed 4 Toothpicks.' The rivers are the Mississippi, the Arkansas, the Red River, the White Uivcr, and the St. Francois. The Arkansas is a magnificent river, navigable for 1,960 miles, area reckoned 178,000 square mile*. Arm of Iron (The). Baldwin, who married Judith, widow of Ethelbald. Judith, when she married Ethelbald, was a widow, having been previously married to his father, Ethelwulf. Baldwin I., Bras de Fer, count of Flanders, died 877. Arma'da (The), or 'The Invincible Armada,' as the Spaniards vauntin/(ly named it, 29 July to 7 Aug., 1588. The Armada consisted of 130 vessels, four of which were gigantic galleys, and the whole carried 2,500 cannons. Against this was opposed 50 English vessels no bigger than yachts, and 80 queen's ships, the biggest of which was smaller than the least of the Spanish ships. The Armada was so roughly handled that it tried to retreat round the Orkneys, but a storm scattered the ships and dashed them to pieces against the Irish cliffs. What escaped were 60 of the 180 ships, and 10,000 of the 80,000 men a miserable wreck. The medal struck to com- memorate this mighty overthrow had for its legend, ' He sent out his arrows and He scattered them ' (Pa, xviiL 14). Armagnacs (Les\ 1407-1497. In French history. The faction headed by Bernard VII., comte d'Armagnac, during the insanity of Charles VL The other faction was that of the Burgundians led by Jean Sans-peur, duke of Burgundy. The object of each was to get possession of the king, and thus obtain mastery of France under the title of regent. The original Artuaguac faction was called ARMATOLE8 ARMS the Orleanists, from Charles, duke of Orleans, who married the daughter of the Count of Armagnac and was assassinated in 1407 by the Duke of Burgundy. On the death of the Duke of Orleans the Count of Armagnac put himself at the head of the Orleanist party, entered Paris at the head of an army in 1413, and was named Constable by the Queen Isabella. He made himself odious by his exactions, and broke with the queen, who fled to the court of Burgundy in 1418. The Burgundians now entered Paris and drove out the Armagnacs. The count fled, was discovered, and assassinated with many of his adherents. The race died out with Charles I., brother of Jean IV., in 1497. Pronounce Ar-ma'-nyak. Armatples (8 syl.), or 'Armatoli.' A Thessalian militia instituted at the beginning of the 16th cent, by Selim I. to oppose the incursions of the Klephtes. In the insurrection of 1821 the Armatoles and Klephtes united against Turkey. Botzaris was the most illustrious leader of the Armatoles. Armed Neutrality (The), 1780. Against Great Britain, which insisted on the right of search during the American war, to be assured that neutral vessels were not carrying to America articles reckoned contraband of war. Catharine of Russia resisted this claim, and was joined by other European states on the principle that ' free bottoms make free goods.' Denmark and Sweden joined Russia in August ; the States-General on 24 Dec.; Prussia on 8 May, 1781; the Kaiser, 9 Oct. The treaty between Russia, Denmark, and weden was ratified 16 Dec., 1800. Arme'e de Conde" ('), 1789. An army collected on the banks of the Rhine by Louis Joseph, prince de Conde, to resist the Revolution. It was distin- guished for its valour at Wissemburg, Haguenau, and Bentheim ; but in 1800 the prince took refuge in England. He returned to Paris at the restoration, and died at Chantilly in 1818. Arme'nian Era ( The). Commenced 7 July, 552. Superseded by the Julian wra in 1830. Arme'nian Liturgy (The). Dates from the time of Gregory the Illuminator (257-831), who introduced Christianity into Armenia. It is based on the Liturgy of St. Chrysostom. Arme'nian s (The). Christians of Armenia, and the purest of the disciples of Eutyches (8 syl.). They still maintain that the manhood of Christ is of a divine and incorruptible substance. The Jaco- bites say the Armenian Christ is a mere phantom ; and the Armenians retort by saying the Christ of the Jacobites is a God with all the infirmities of the flesh, and even with the infirmities of nutrition and digestion. They are pretty numerous hi Russia, Austria, and Turkey. See 'Arminians.' The Armenians believe that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father only. See ' Filioque.' Armin'ianism, 1603. The religious tenets of Dr. James Arminius, a Latinised form of Harmennsen or Hermannsen, a native of Holland (1560-1609). The following five points are the most salient : (1) God wills that all should be saved, and His predestination is only the effect of His- foreknowledge; (2) Christ died for all, and God will bestow eternal life on all who repent and believe on Christ ; (8) Man is of himself incapable of true faith, and hence the necessity of being born again by the Holy Ghost; (4) All good works are to be attributed to the Holy Ghost, but that Holy Ghost forces no one against his own inclination; (5) God gives to the true believer the means of continuing in grace. Condemned by the Synod of Dort in 1618. At the present day, Arminians reject all 'creeds ;' advocate the right of private judgment in the interpretation of Scripture ; virtually reject the dogma of original sin ; look on the sacraments aa religious ceremonies ; dwell on preaching more than on churchism ; and are anti-Calvinists. Armin'ians. Anti-Calvinists in the five points. See above. Arms of Bourges (The). An ass on an arm-chair. The tradition is this: Asinius, a Roman governor of Bourges in the time of Csesar, being too ill to stand, was carried in an arm-chair to animate his troops ; and gained a signal victory. Be this as it may, the arms are a never-failing source of jests; and to honour one with the arms of Bourges is like giving Dr. Pangloss the degree of A double S. Pronounce Bonrjh. Arms of the English sove- reigns (The). 46 ARMY ARMY WILLIAM I. and II. Gales, 2 lions (Ifns pardft) passant gardant Or. And for Matilda of Flanders, Cyronny of 8 : In the nombril point a plain shield IIESRY I. and Matilda of Scotland. England as before, and Scotland. STEPHEN and Matilda of Boulogne. Gules, 1 tagittaries Or, 8 torteaux. HENRY H. England ae before ; and for Eleanor of Aquitaine, gules, 1 lion passant gardant. Bis cognisances were a crescent beneath a star, an eecarbuncle of 8 rays, and the broom-plant or genista for his name Planta-genet. RICHARD I. 8 lions passant gardant for England : and for Berengaria of Navarre, a cross botonne Arg. Motto: Difu ft man droit. HENRY III. England ; and for Eleanor of Pro- vence, paly of 8, Or and Gules. EDWARD I. England land for Eleanor of Castile, a label of 8 or 6 q. With Margaret of France, England and semee de lys. EDWARD II. The same with his father, but with 2 small castles on the side of bis throne to show his descent through his mother, from Castile. EDWARD III. England, within a border of Franc* (i.e. Ai.semee-le-lys, placed on his throne, between 1 flenrs-de-lys, to show his descent from France). He first quartered the arms of France In 1858. His cognisances were the sun issuing from the cloud*, the stump of a tree sprouting. RICHARD II. France and England quarterly. with a label of 8 points, the middle point charged with the cross of St. George. He was the first to bear supporters, which were 9 angels. HENRY IV. France and England quarterly, fleurs de-lys, and the supporters of Richard II. HENRY V. and VI. France and England quar- terly, tho 6 fl and VI. eurdolys naucrd to a. in in,it..ti..n of Charles VI. of France. Supporters, the black l of Clare and white lion of Mortimer. Crest. bull the flour de-lys of France, and the lion of England conjoined. Likewise with 2 lions' supporters, and arms within the garter. EDWARD IV. V. France and England. Suppor- ters, a lion and a white hart. RICHARD III., France and England, between J boars, or a boll on the right and a boar on the HENRY VTI. Franc* and England, surrounded with a garter, and ensigned with a large crown. Crest, the portcullis, from the mother of the family of Beaufort. Supporters, a red dragon. from Cadwallader ; and on the left a greyhound Arg. collared Gules, from the Somersets. Badges, the white and rod rose per pale. HENRY VIII. France and England. Supporters, a red dragon and greyhound (in the early part of his reign), afterwards a lion of England and a red dragon sinister. For Katharine of Antgon. Im- paling Cnst tip and Leon, and Aragon and > EDWARD VI. France and England. Supporters, lion and a griffin. MARY. A losenge, 1 and 4 France, 2 England, S Spain. Supporters, an eagle dexter, and a lion rampant gardant sin i ELIZABETH. France and England, ensigned with imperial crowns. Supporters, a lion dexter Browned, and a red dragon sinister. JAMES I. France, Knglund. Scotland, and Ire- land, differently blazoned. Supporters, lion and unicorn. v George III. omitted France, and it hai been omitted ever since. Army Book 48. The orderly corporal's ledger, a monthly account- book, each page of which is headed Cowpany Daily Messing Account. It contains an exact account of the articles and price of every eatable served to the company, in four columns. (1) The article (as tea, sugar, oatmeal, &c.) ; ('2) the quantity ; (8) the rate charged ; and (4) the sum totalised. Army Plea (The). See under 1 Plea.' Army of England (The), 1797. A French army raised by the Directory and placed under the command of Bonaparte (Napoleon), for the subjuga- tion and plunder of England. After visiting Etaples, Ambleteuse, Boulogne, Calais, Dunkirk, Fumes, Newport, Ostend. and Walcheren, Bonaparte satis- fied himself that the attempt must be abandoned. Again, 1803, when Bonaparte was first consul, he assembled a fine army on the heights above Boulogne, called the ' army of England,' and there continually ex- ercised it, under the inspection of Soult, Ney, Davoust, and Victor; but hearing that England was one vast camp, he abandoned his projected invasion in despair. Army of God and trie Church (The), 1215. The barons and their re- tainers who took up arms against King John when he refused, at Oxford, to sign MagnaCharta. Pandulph told the king that the prtmnta of the kingdom ought to excommunicate the barons for daring to present the charter; but St , replied, he ought rather to excommunieatt thr foreign mercenaries who overran the kingdom, and indeed would do so, unless the king ordered their Instant i Army of Reserve (The), 1804. A contingent to the regular army enforced on every parish by William Pitt. The men were called out for five years' but were not compelled to quit the United Kingdom. The reserve were attached to the regulars as second battalions. Army of Viscounts (The), An army of Huguenots which overran Gascony, Quercy, and LimiTm-doc. So called because it had fcr count Montelar, Viscount Bruniquel, Viscount Caumont, and Viscount Rapin. Viscounts pronounce Vi'counts. Army of the Cross (The), and 'Soldiers of the Cross,' the crusaders. Every man wore a cross cut in red cloth either on his shoulder or on his breast. First crusade was lODf. (Rufua reigned in England at the time). Army of the Indus (The), 1839. An army under the command of Sil ARNALDISTS ARREST 47 John Keane, raised to restore Shah Shuja to the throne of Afghanistan, from which he had been driven by Dost Mohammed, chief of Cabul. The army consisted of a British force amounting to 28,000 men, 6,000 Sikhs of the Punjab, and 6,000 troops raised by the Shah Shuja. The shah was restored and crowned 8 May; Ghazni was taken 2 July; Jellalabad 80 July; Dost Mo- hammed fled to Bokhara, and Sir John Keane entered Cabul 7 Aug., 1839. Amaldists. A branch of the Wal- denses ; so called from Arnaldo of Brescia (1100-1155). This Arnaldo was ft disciple of Abelard, but on his return to Italy became a monk, and introduced numerous reforms, to bring back his followers to primitive times. He was condemned by Innocent II. and the Lateran Council in 1189, after which he withdrew to Switzerland. Wishing to increase his following, he went to Rome in 1144, but was driven out by Lucius II. and Eugenius III. He was seized by Barbarossa and put to death. See 1 Waldenses.' Pronounce Ar-nol'dlsts. Ar'naoot. An Albanian Mohamme- dan. A pasha's bodyguard should be composed of Arnaoots. Arnold's Historical Essay. Ox- ford University. Value 42Z. annually. Founded, by subscription, in honour of Dr. Arnold, Regius Professor of Modern History (Head-Master of Rugby), 1850. Arpad (House of}. The Hungarian dynasty which succeeded on the death of St. Stephen. The crown remained in the dynasty for three centuries. It began with Andrew, duke of Arpad, who reigned 1046-1061. The last of the Arpods was Andrew III. (1290-1301). This was a most heroic dynasty, still fondly remem- bered by the Hungarians. Andrew II., a very worthless king, like our King John, reluctantly granted the Bulla Aurea, or Magna Charta of Hungary. LadislauB I. (1077-1095) was the greatest of the Arpad kings. He was canonised. Bela III. U17- 1196) was an excellent king. Arquebuses of Sancerre (The), 1573. Slings. When Sancerre was be- sieged by the French Catholics, the in- habitants, who had no firearms, defended themselves with simple slings. The town endured a long famine, and the siege is compared to that of Jerusalem by Titus and Vespasian. Arrabbia'ti (The), i.e. ' the Enraged.' The party of the Medici opposed to that of Savonarola, called the Piagnoni (or the Weepers). The Arrabbiati wanted to see an oligarchy, not a tyranny in Florence. Arraigns (The Clerk of). The official who reads the indictment, and calls on the prisoner to plead. The calling of a prisoner by his name to the bar of a law court to answer to the charge laid against him in the Indictment is called ' Arraignment.' Pronounce Ar-ralns'. Arrest of Judgment. A plea made by an unsuccessful defendant, after ver- dict, to arrest judgment in consequence of some error which vitiates the proceed ing. By 15, 16 Viet. c. 76 (1852), omitted facts and other ' faults ' may now be cor- rected. Arrest of the Five Members. I. By Charles 1. 4 Jan., 1642. Charles I., supposing he had evidence of treason against five members of parliament, im- parted to him by James Graham, earl of Montrose, proceeded to the House with a band of armed attendants to arrest the members and strike terror into the rest of the House. A measure like this de- pends wholly on its success. Cromwell succeeded when he turned out the mem- bers and locked the doors upon them; but the five members that Charles sought, having an inkling of what was about to happen, kept away, and Charles cut a most ridiculous figure, a blusterer utterly foiled and made a fool of. The five members were Hampden, Haslerlg, Hollis, Pym, and Strode. II. By Louis XVI., May 1789. Louis was urged by the Parlement de Paris to convene a States-General in order to solve the national deadlock in the ministry of Brienne. He agreed to do so, but a few days afterwards refused to do anything of the sort; and, entering the Assembly, insisted on its registering two royal edicts, one of which was for a succession of Government loans. Epremenil, Sebas- tian de Cabre, Fr-n a eleven articles; fuvitx articles ; ihirty-ninf articles ; forty-tiro articles. Also nine articles of the Kvan^s- Itoal Alliance. Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union (The Thirteen), 1777. 1. The States to be called the United States, instead of the United Colonies, aa heretofore. 2. Each state to retain its sovereignty and independence. ARTICLES ARTIST 8. All the states to league together for tantnal defence. 4. The free inhabitants of any one stat> to enjoy the immunities and privi- leges of free citizens in every other state. 5. Traitors or great delinquents fleeing from a state to be delivered up to the state where the offence was committed. 6. Laws and judicial proceedings of each state to be respected by all. 7. Delegates from each state elected to meet in congress the first Monday in November. 8. No state to have less than two or more than seven delegates. 9. Each state to maintain its own dele- gates. 10. Each state to have only one vote in congress. 11. Freedom of speech to be allowed to all delegates, and freedom from arrest, except for treason and felony. 12. No state to enter into war or make peace without consent of Congress. 13. In times of peace no ships of war or military force to be kept in any state without consent of Congress. Articles of Henry (The), orPacta Conventa, 1573. Articles agreed to by Henry de Valois on his election to the throne of Poland. 1. That the king should not elect his successor ; 2. should not declare war without the sanction of the Diet ; 3. should not appoint ambassadors to foreign courts; 4. should not impose any tax; 6. should be governed by a privy council of 16 (4 bishops, 4 palatines, and 8 castellans) ; 6. should confer no dignity or office on any foreigner ; 7. should neither marry nor divorce a wife without consent of the Diet, &c. Articles of Reform (T^e). Ireland, 1840. By these articles Edward III. threatened to take the lands and posses- lions of the Anglo-Irish into his own Band* . ; f the great landholders were not uoore attentive to their duties. In two centuries the English lords in Ireland had grow* enormously rich, and showed symptoms o* a very rebellious spirit. It had becotrp the fashion among them to assume the dress, cut of the hair, and man- ners, as well as the names of the Irish. Articles of Schmalkal'den or Sxnalkald (The), 1537. The articles of defence adopted in the city of Schmal- kaidon by the Protestants under the direction of Martin Luther. Articles of Torgau (The), 1580. 3 The 17 articles drawn up by Luther at the request of the Elector of Saxony, show- ing the points of difference between the Reformer and the Church of Rome. The document was presented to the Electof at Torgau, whence the name. Torgau, pronounce Tor'-gow. Articles of War. Government regulations relating (1) to the army, (2) to the navy, and (3) to the marine forces. Articles of the Peace. The terms required from a defendant, when a person swears in court that he is in fear of damage or personal injury from the defendant. The terms set forth what security the defendant shall give that he will keep the peace, and to what length of time the terms extend. Articlemen, 1648. Those restorable Irishmen who were promised pardon and restoration by the articles of the peace made between the Duke of Ormonde on behalf of the king (Charles II.), and con- federate Catholics. The Act of Explana- tion shut the door of hope on more than 6,000 of the restorable Irish. There were four classes of restorable Irish, via. Innocents, Articlemen, Ensignmen, and the King'i Nominees (q.v.). Artic'uli Cle'ri, 1313. An Act for the ptirpose of maintaining in England certain prerogatives of the Church against the temporal power. Artillery Company (The Honour- able), 1537. The oldest Volunteer corps in Great Britain, being established in the reign of Henry VIII. In the Gordon riots (1780) it successfully defended the Bank of England against the rioters. The members are elected by ballot on a recommendation of five members, and pay an annual subscription of two guineas, but the uniforms are expensive : of the cavalry, 291. 9s. ; of the artillery, 18Z. 14s. 6d. ; of the infantry, 14Z. 17s. Qd. It consists of one squadron of light cavalry, an artillery division, six companies of infantry, and a veteran company, 'i'lio Prince of Wales is captain-general and colonel of the company. Artist of the Revolution (The). J. L. David (1748-1825), founder of the Statuesque School. His best piece is the ' Oath of the Horatii,' and his moeri popular piece is ' Napoleon crossing the Alps.' Napoleon is represented as prancing on a fiery white charger, with fluttering shawl, and in a very theatric*) ARTISTS attitude. Historically, he rode a patient male, was buttoned to the chin in a large grey coat, aud toiled through the deep now doggedly. Artists and Smiths (Patron tiint of). St. Eloi (688-659), master of the mint in the reign of Clotaire II. Artizo'e. The Fatale Marmor of ihe Persians, mentioned by Pliny. Ela- gabalus was a similar black conical stone representing the sun, and worshipped at Kmesa. Similar palladia were the Black Stone of the Aeidr . n to a huge mass of very rich grey silver ore of one of the Indian tribes of South America, which was removed from place to place, as the kribe fled from before the Spanish invaders. The Oaaba of the Mussulmans, which Mahomet re- moved to Mecca, was another t'liinli- Mnrmor', BO probnbly was the Idol of Diana at Ephesus. which 'fell from heaven.' We have also the Ida Fail of Ireland; the Tanist Stone; the pillar of Bhechem fl Kings xl. 14) ; and so on. Artoty'ritffi or Bread and Cheese Christians. So called from their using bread and cheese in the Eucharist. (Greek, artoi, bread ; turos, cheese.) Ar'undel Marbles (The). 'Mar', mora Arundellia'na ' or ' Marmora Ox- onien'sia,' preserved in the University of Oxford, and often called the Oxford marbles, the most valuable of which h the 4 Parian Chronicle ' (q.v.). These gems of Grecian art were collected by Mr. (Sir William) Petty, who was commissioned by the Earl of Arundel to collect antiquities in Greece. Brought to England A.D. 1610 ; presented to the University of Oxford by his BOH Henry Howard, in 1667. The entire collection originally contained 87 tatues, 128 busts, and 2SO Inscribed marbles, besides altars, sarcophagi, fragments and (ems; but part was sold in 1678. The Pomfret marbles were given to Oxford in 1756. Arval Brothers (College of the). ' Fratres Arvales,' priests of Home who went in procession through the fields, and prayed for the increase of corn. (Varro.) The little or private Ambarralia were celebrated by a single family for'the welfare of all belonging to It, as the great college of the Arval brut HITS . . . officiated in the interest of the whole state. PlTRR, Muriut tti,- Kpu-urcan. chap. L A'ryan Languages (The). The different languages of the Aryan Na- tions (q.v.), which have all one common aource, and bear a strong family like- ness. 'They count with the same momerok, call individual speakers by ASCETICS the same pronouns, adflrfs<; parents and relatives by the same titles, call the different parts of the body by the same names, decline their nouna on the same system, compare their adjectives in the same way, conjugate their verbs alike, and form derivatives by the same suffixes.' A'ryan Nations (The). The Per- sians, Hindus, and all Europeans ex- cept the Basques, Turks, Hungarians, and Finns. See 'Semitic' and 'To- ranian.' Eastern branch: the Persian! and Hindfta. which Inclnde Zend, Armenian, Kurdish, and Afghan; Sanskrit, Hindi. Hindustani; Gipsy; Pali, and the dialects of Oylon. Western branch (First Swarm), the Celtic. II settled in Greece; and spread into Italy. Spain. France, and the British Isles; (Second Swarm). the Teutonic, colonised Germany, and spread Into Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and KnKlc-nd; (Third Swarm), the Slavonic, settled in Bohemia, Poland, and Russia. Pali Is the sacred language of the Buddhist* ; Sanskrit is the sacred language of the Hindus: Zend is the sacred language of the Persians. All now dead languages. As = a God. The twelve Asce or ^sit of Scandinavian mythology are Odin, Thor, Baldur, Niord, Froyr, Tyr, Brajji, Heimdal, Wedar, Wali, Uller, and Forseti. The chief goddeMM are Frlgga, Freyja, Idunnik, Eira, and Saga. The twelve divine AMB.EHIO O. GF.IJKR, HitL oj Sweden, p. 6. Asca'nian House (The). One of the most ancient families of Germany, so called from the castle of Ascania in Aschersleben. It reigned over the prin- cipality of Anhalt in the llth cent., and gave the sovereigns of Brandenburg (1148- 1820) and of Saxony. The dukes of the Ascanians of Saxony formed two branches, viz. Saxe- Wittenberg, extinct in 1422, and Saxe-Lauenburg, extinct in 1689. Ascension Day, or* Holy Thursday.' A religious festival held on the 40th day after Easter to commemorate the Ascension of Jesus Christ. Beating the bound* (of parishes), called In Scotland 'riding the marches,' used to be, and till is in some places, observed on this day. Ascet'ics (The), 8rd cent Persont who devoted themselves to a solitary and contt'inplutive life, following the system of the Esst-m-s and Therapcuta (q.v.) among the Jews. They practised great austerities for the mortifying of the flesh, withdrew the mind front ASCITES worldly objects, and tried to lose them- selves IL God. They haunted the deserts o* Egypt and Syria, and gave rise to monachism. Asci'tes (8 syl.). From the Greek i pierre, Petion, and Dan ton ^ere ex eluded. It consisted wholly of men unknown, but of red republican prit .uplei low attorneys, club orators, newspaper, writers, and mere adventure**. TUr ASSEMBLED ASSESSORS special function of this assembly was to conform the laws to the new constitution. On 21 Sept., 1792, the Legislative Assembly gave place to the National Convention. Burke said there were '400 lawyers and 300 of no condition whatever.' Pronounce As-sahm'blay Led'-jis-lah'tif . Assemblee Rationale ('). 1. 17 June, 1789-30 Sept., 1791. The National Assembly of France. The clergy and nobles having refused to sit in the same chamber with the commonalty, the deputies of the tiers etat withdrew, con- stituted themselves into a deliberative body, and assumed the name of the National Assembly. On the jeu de paume (20 June), they swore not to separate till they had given France a new constitution, and from that day the house was called ' L' Assemblee Consti- tuante.' Having prepared the constitu- tion, they dissolved themselves, and gave place to the 'Assemblee Legislative,' whose function was to conform the laws to the new constitution. On 21 Sept., 1792, the Legislative Assembly gave place to the National Convention. II. 4 May, 1848, of 900 members. The most democratic form of government ever devised. Every Frenchman who was of age was an elector, and every Frenchman after the age of 25 was eligible to become a deputy. There waa only one assembly. See above. Pronounce As-sahm'-blay Nas-ce-o-nahl. Assemblies of the Wilderness (The), 18th cent. French history. The assemblies of the restored Protestants of France. Held in open day when possible; but when dangerous, in some wild retreat or rocky nook. Summonses were issued only a few hours beforehand, and unarmed sentinels were placed on the heights to give notice of the approach of soldiers. Assembly (The Act of). Enacts that no persons, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall be molested in respect to their religiop, or in the free exercise thereof, or be compelled to the belief and exercise of any other religion against their consent. Assembly of Divines (The), or 'Westminster Assembly,' 1643. Con- voked by the Long Parliament in Hen. VII.'s chapel, Westminster, to reconstruct the Church of England. iLpiscopao? was abolished, and Presbyterianism sub- stituted in its place. Above 3,000 of the clergy refused to aubmit, were ejected from their benefices, and pensioned ofi with a fifth part of their clerical incomes In 1644, ten of the assembly and thir- teen presbyters were told off to ordain ministers to thcoo vacancies. The Ag- sembly was dissolved in 1649. It woe this assembly whidh put forth the 'Assembly's Larger and Shorter Cate- chisms ' for the use of the people. Thia assembly was a spiritual court, *vith jurisdiction over all bffairs peroainiag to religion or morals. Assembly of Notables (Tfo). An assembly of the princes of the blood, and the chief nobility, magistrates, and clergy, convened occasionally in times of trouble to consult with the king on matters of state. Ev'.-ry member of tlio assembly was named " and invited by the king. It possessed no legislative or executive functions. Assembled for the first time in 1369, under the summona of Charles V. of France. They wore again convoked iu 1470, and met at ours. Again in l.V2(i, and met 1" in ir.i-,0, and met at Fontaincbloaa. Tours. Again in l.V2(i, and met <, Cognac Atfain in 1560, and met at Foutainobleaa. Again in 1561, and met at St. Germain. Again in 1506, and at Moulins. Again in 1596, and met at Ilouen. Again in 1626, and met at Paris ; but the two best known were those convened at Versaillos 22 Feb., 1787, and 12 Dec., 1788. Assent (Royal) to bills which ha-^e passed the House of Commons and House of Lords is given, either personally in the House of Lords or by letters patent. After the title of the bill has been read by the clc rk of the crown, the clerk of the parliament says (if it is a bill of supply) ' Le roi ' (or ' La reyne ' ) 'remercie ses bons su^et:;, accepte leur bienveillence, et ainsi le veult.' If a public bill, not of supply, he says ' L roi (la reyne) le veult.' If a, private bill^ he says ' Soit fait comme il cat desire*.' If the royal assent id wilriheld, tha announcement is made by the words 'Le roi s'avisera,' but the last instance of such a refusal was by William III. in 1693. One would think it Is time for the monarchs o! England to speak English, and not old French. Assessors (The). Since the Muni- cipal Corporations Act of 1835, two officers chosen by the burgesses to assiel the mayor in revising the burgess lista. ASSIDIAN3 ASSIZE Assid'ians, or 'Chasidim.' A set of zealous defenders of the unity of God, against the attempts of Antiochus Epiphanes and his successors to force the Jews into idolatry. Mattathias headed the Chasidim for four years, afterwards Judas Maccabaeus assumed the chief command. Chasidim ' means pietists. Assien'tO. A Spanish treaty con- f erring on some foreign nation a monopoly in the negro slave-trade. In 1713 the exclusive right of importing negroes to Spanish America was transferred from France to Kngland, and was made over by government to the South Sea Com- pany for thirty years. In 1748 the English company relinquished its right (which had still four years to run) on the payment of 100,OOOZ., and the concession of certain commercial advantages. The Spanish name of this treaty Is ' 1 Aslcnto de los Negros. 1 Assien'to Company [pfEnglancf], 1713. I. Under the Treaty of Utr.-dit. Thin English company had the monopoly or exclusive privilege of supplying the Spanish West Indies and the South American colonies with slaves. The queen (Anne) had one-fourth of the pro- fits of this traffic in human blood. Abolished (1807) by 47 Geo. HL c. 86. The word means 'a treaty,' and is applied to a compact between Spain and some foreign nation. II. [of France], 1702. The French Guinea Company took the name of the ' Assiento Company,' \vlu-n 1'hilip V. of Spain granted them the exclusive right of importing 4,800 negroes of both sexes annually for ten years to the continent and islands of Spanish America. Assignats, 9 Sept., 1790, recalled 18 July, 1796. French government notes. The National Assembly confiscated all the church lands, but being unable to sell them, kept them as national property and issued paper money to the amount of 400,000,000 livres, making the church lands security for the r -payment. These assignats were negotiable like our bank notes, and were generally for 100 francs (41.) each, though some were as low as 5 francs. In June 1793, this paper money was worth only one-third of its nomina value; and in March 1796, an English overeign would have bought 7,200 franca worth of assignats. They were then xmght in by the French government at he rate of one franc in specie for 80 rancs in paper. It is said that the entire amount of asslgnatc ssued represented i5,578,000,000 francs, we. 23,000,0003. sterling. Pronounce As'-sln-yahs'. Assistors (The Cr.unc.il of). The same as the ' Council of Adjutators' ( was carried up to heaven by Christ and nla angels. Titian's picture of the Assumption, in Venice* U one of the finest pictures ever painted by man. Assyrian Canon (The), B.C. 909- 640. Discovered and published by R*w- linson in 1862. Ast9'ria (Oregon, U.S. America). So called, in 1811, from Mr. Astor, merchant of New York, who founded here a fur- trading station. The adventure of truj merchant forms the subject of Washing- ton Irving's ' Astoria.' Astral Body (The),or linga sharvra, the third principle. A semblance of the human form, fully inhabited by its higher principles. It can migrate tu any dia- tance from the physical body. The Scotch ' double ' is a sort of linga sharira. Astral Spirits. The supposed spirits which pervade the stars, each utt*? having its own spirit, (or soul). Parueel BUS taught that every human Wo^ u* an astral spirit; hence the miiueiioj of . person's particular star on his life. Astrologers. The most noted a.re : Tommaso Pisano, father of the cele- brated Christina Pisano ^-1380); Johann Miiller Regiomontanus, German (1436-1476); Johann Stuffier, Gonna** (1452-1531); Cardan (1501-7 6); Nos- tradamus (1503-1566); Cou"C Cosmo Ruggieri, astronomer to Cathftnn* di Medici (16th cent.) ; Philip and Maithieo Laensberg (17th cent.). The chief aatr> nomers between Ptolemy and Ko^io/ believed in astrology. ASTKONOMY ATTABEGS 1 he rnJe of the triplicates, as recommended by ^Ttkwrorati, HjpDccratfcfi, IHoclrs and Avicenna. Oit 1 will begin ad nurn nuintinnis, as Haly, Massa- fca.ni, OanwehlB, and G uldo lionatus have recom- manned. Will yon place. . . th -vernacular name of Isaac *.;-*ton in tmositton to ... Dariot, Bonatus, Ptolemy. Ha.y, F.ztlet Meterlck, Naibob, Harfurt, y.fc.'i. THUS -ttii. Agrippa, Durctus, Maginus, Origen, and Argol f Sir W. SCOTT. Guy bannering, Chap. iii. Astronomy and Experimental rhilos phy (Professorship of). In flve University of Cambridge, 1704 ; foandfJ by I>r. Plume, archdeacon of llocherter. Stipend 8001. a year, er- cli-sive of fees. The professor is called tr- riumian Professor. See ' Sheep- ahinks Exhibition.' At'abeks (The), i.e. 'Father of the Princes,' llth and 12th cent. A title assumed by certain emirs, governors of provinces, who, under the Seljuks, usurped supreme power. The chief wei s . (1) The Atabeks of Irak, founded bv Oroad Eddin Zenghi. This dynasty lasted from 1127 to 1218. (2) The Ata- beks or Attabegs of Farsistan, who ruled over Persia (1148-1264), and were driven out by Hulagou ; (8) the Atabeks of Ader- baYdjan (1169-1225); (4) the Atabeks of Laristan, the last of whom, named Rok- neddin, died 1339. See ' Attabegs.' Ateliers Nationaux, 1848. Na- tional workshops for unemployed opera- tives. The works were generally useless, badly dony, and dearly paid for. In Paris they proved an utter failure ; and -iaailar attempts in England and Ireland Lavd alwn.78 been fruitful sources of dis- content ! J rebellion. renounce At tcl'--a Nas'-se-o-no'. Atella'nB, 'Fab'ulse Atella'nre,' or 'LndJ OHM.' First introduced into Rome from Atelltt in Campania. Called ' Ludi Odci ' l. 183. II. The London weekly journal esta- blished in January 1828. HI. The club BO called in Pall Mall, founded in 1824. Athenian Confederacy (The), B.C. 431. It contained Thessaly and Acarnania (in northern Greece), Corcyra, Zacynthus, and Naupactus. Their allies were Chios and Lesbos, with all thion for this legion, and called the sU1 ion Augusta. Taci&aa in his Annals calls it Londinum. Now din is Keltic for town, and I/on, if tho o is also corrupt for y or , would be lyn or llyn, which meacc in Keltic a pool cr body of water, so that Llyu-din means the water-town, or tonn on the pool. Liver-pool seems to give colour to this ot 5t> logy (another plausible suggestion ia Lion, cheer- ful or gay). Augustales Sod alos, about A j>. 17. An order of priests instituted by Tib<*? ius. Pronounce Aug-UB-t&r'-lez Bo-day'-]S-J714) also called the Silver Ago, tLo Guide* AUGUSTAN AULIC Age beln 2 the reign of ^v^p.l th. By far kfee f orem.s^ name is tnat of Sir Isaac New- Ion. and of command 3rs, John Churchill (duke of Marlborou^n). The poets were Congreve, Garth, Gay, Parnell, Philips, Pope, Prior, Rowo.aml Swi't. The other authors woro Addiaoa, Earnes, George Bull, Anthony Collins, Jnremy Collier, Roger Cotes, Defo*, Dcdwell, Flamsteed, George Hickes, B. John Jeffery, John Norris, P.ay, South, Steele, &c. Wren, Archibald Pitcairn, arid Sir Cloudesley Shovel also lived in this reign. Except Pope and Gay, thn poets have no high standing, and of the miscellaneous class, Addison and Defoe are the best known. Augustan Age of Prance (The). The middle p?rk>l "f the reign of Louis XIV., wl\;ic Colbert was his chief minmtor (lC13-16o3). Augustan Age of Germany (The). Tho 19th century. Augustan Age of Hindustan (Tht). The roign of Vilrr^MjCditya, sur- named 8kari (orfooof tho S^kas), B.C. 56. Jt IB an anachronism to nro*k of an Augustan age before the roign of Augustus. Augustan Age of Persia (The). That of ArUxorxca (c.C. 4 r i4-425), about which time historians, philosophers, poets, pointers and sculptors of peculiar merit flocriohod. Augustan Age of Portugal (The). The rei^n of Dom Affonso Henri- quez (1004, 1137-11.^5). In this reign Brazil was occupied ; the African coast was explored ; the sea-route to India was traversed ; Camoous flourished, &c. Augustan Era (The). Began 14 Fob., B.C. 27. Augustine (The Rule of St.) in- cluded : abso'.uto obedience ; personal poverty ; univera.il charity, and perfect cliujtity, bjtli ol liimJ and body. The ordor first appeared In England about 1106. AugviPt'no (The second St.). - dc St. 7-^tor, who died 1140. i<. ji4djsil^l-180) Is called the* Augustine Augns'tines (8 syl.), or 'Augus- niaiis,' 12Y7. I. Some thirty monastic alerDil:-* Her.: so called, not because they wtro (viJ;d by St. Augustine, but Alexander IV. imposed on them the rule of St. Augustine (18tl| cent.). II. An order of nuns which claimed descent from a convent founded by St. Augustine at Hippo, of which his was abbess. Till 1G82 they wore a black habit, but it was then changed to a violet. Their special office was the charge of hospitals and the sick. Augustin'ian Canons. Those who lived under the rule (kan'Jn) of St. Augustine. Their dress was a long black cassock, having a white rochet over it, covered with a black cloak and hood. See ' Austin Friars.' Au^usti'nus, 1640. A work by Cornelius Jansen (1586-163S), just com- pleted before he died, and which proved the occasion of a religious controversy the most important in its doctriiuJ. social, and political aspects since* the Reformation. Its object was to show that the teaching of St. Augustine waa in direct opposition to that of the Jesuits on the subjects of grace, free will, pre- destination, and pelagianism. It was inhibited by the Jesuits in 1641. In 1642 Pope Urban VIII. condnniu-a it, in his bull ' De Eminonti'; Al. -xamler VII. condemned it 165G ; but the scholars and divines of Port Royal defended it In France, the members of Port Royal (q.v.) were JanscnisU ; those of the Sorbonne <iy of treason. This article was cancelled iu 1705 by Joseph I. Like John, Aiidrttf? was a bad king ; and, like John, he neither observed hia Aurea i>uila nor intended so to do. . Auro'ra (Missa de). The second inais on C liristmas Day, the first being the Missa de node, or midnight mass, und the Lhit J high mass. See ' Mass.' Sir Walter Scott aays, ' On Christmas Eve the mass was sung,' and he has been accused of an overnight, inasmuch as no mass is ever said or Buiitf at uiniiUime. But Cassianus (' Instit.' book ii e lb) says. ' Quare post missam nocturnam dormire oon oporteat.' Again, 'Missa de Ex- coylato ' Is defined by l>u Cange as the macs ' quee die vlgiliam Natalia Domini praecedente cantatur, onde eadein Pr.Tparatio ad vesperam Natalis Domini vocatur In M.ssali Qothico.' Cassianus says kgain (o. 7): 'M-.sva. Canonica celebrata usque ad l.ioem pout T< t ai8 extendunt.' However, the 'Miss* d* no'-'t we are told, was only begun be- fore BidnUkk. the 'sacrifice' must be in the morning after the clock has struck 12. Austin Friars, or 'Begging Her- mits,' or ' Hermits of St. Augustine.' "Were not founded by St. Augustine, but had the rule of St. Augustine imposed on them by Innocent IV. in the middle of the 18th cent. In 1256 Pope Alex- ander IV. pUced them under a superior called a ' p-wal.' In 1570 Friar Thomas, a Jcnait, to reduced a still more austere rule, forbzdding his disciples to wear hoes, whenc e they were called ' The Bare- footed Friars.' Austria (House of), 1488-1745. Has given Germany fourteen kaisers, Lvm Albert II. to Karl VII. 8c -net imeB the house of Hohenstaufen IB called tl.s tiouse of i . >. . >nd sometimes the present reigning HO.PO. uij also called the house ot but cu^ut to be called the house of Austria-Lorraine (House of). The present reigning familj of Austria. This house began in 17-15 with Franz o* Francis I., who married Maria Theresa. Austrian Hye'na (The). Julius Jakob von Haynau, an Austrian general (1786-1853), noted for his ruthless cruelty towards the Hungarians, and his alleged flogging of women. In 1850 he visited the brewery of Messrs. Barclay & Perkins, when he was assaulted by the draymen, and barely escaped with his life. Subsequently, he received similar discourtesy in Belgium and France. Called also ' the Austrian butcher.' Austrian Lip ( The). A protruding tinder- jaw, with a heavy lip disinclined to shut close. It came from Cimburgis, a Polish princess, who married Kaiser Friedrich III., and displayed itself in their son, Maximilian (I.) Hence also called the ' Cimburgis Under-lip.' A somewhat similar peculiarity occurs in the family of Sir Gideon Murray, of Elibank. He had taken prisoner a young gentleman named Scott, whom he was about to hang, but his wife induced him to commute the sentence into mar- riage with their daughter Meg, of ' muckle mouth.' Meg made a good wife, but the muckle mouth descended to their posterity for many generations. Austrian "War (The), 1859. To rescue Italy from the hands of Austria, The belligerents were France and Sar- dinia against Austria. France won the battles of Magenta and Solferino, and then made peace with Austria. Garibaldi continued the contest to a successful issue. Rome was not added to the new kingdom of Italy till the autumn of 1870. Venetia was ceded to Italy in 1866, as the fruits of the Austro-Prussian war. Austro-German Treaty ol Alliance (TJie), 7 Oct., 1879. Between the Emperor of Austria and the Emperor of Germany. They agree, if either state is attacked by Eussia, both shall unite their full strength to repel it. If either state is attacked by any nation except Kussia, the other shall observe a friendly neutrality. If Russia assists any other state in an attack upon either Austria or Germany, the two allies shall consider the attack as made by Russia Signed at Vienna. In 1887 Italy joined the alliance. Austro-Hungarian Empire (The), 14 Nov., 1868. The kaiser-king of Germany had to abandon his title of AUSTRO AVERROISTS Emperor of the West, or of the Holy Roman Empire, in 1806, and was entitled 'Emperor of Austria,' till 1868, when he styled himself 'Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary and Bohemia,' his dominion being styled the 'Austro- Hungariaji Empire.' Austro-Pmssian War (The), 1866. Called the Seven Weeks' war. Won by Prussia. The chief victories were the battles of Custozza, Langen- aalza, Sadowa, and Olmutz. By this vic- tory Prussia became the chief power of Germany, and Austria was entirely ex- cluded therefrom. Total cost of the war 66,000,OOOZ. sterling. Total loss of life 60,000. Authentic Doctor (The). Gregory of Rimini (' Gregorius Ariminensis '), general of the Augustine order at Mont- pellier, died 1858. He wrote two books of ' Sentences.' Pierre de Lombard, who died 1100. was the great ' Magister Sententiarum.' Authorised Version (The), 1611. Means the English translation of the Bible, authorised to be read in churches by James L Fifty-four men were ap- pointed by the king to bring out this version, but seven died or retired from the task. This version is often called 1 King James's Bible,' or the ' King's Bible.' See ' Bible.' The Psalms in the Common Prayer Book are those In the Bishops Bible, and so were the pintles and gospels till 1OU. The Authorised Version was based on Tyndale's translation j.r.) t which passed through three stages: (1) the publication of the Great llible (163D-1M1), in the reign of Henry VIII.; oJ the publication of the Bishops' Bible (166H-1572), in the reign of Elizabeth; (3) the publication of the King's Bible, in lull, in the reign of James I. Re- vised 1870-1884, in the reign of Victoria (published 1886). Auto da Fe" (plu. 'Autos da Fe*'). An act of faith. In the Catholic Church ft day was held by the Spanish Inquisition to examine into the faith of a supposed heretic. If innocent, the accused was absolved ; if guilty, he was handed over to the secular power to be put to death, generally by burning at the stake. The sentence of the court and the session also are both called ' Autos da fe*.' Burning of heretics symbolised hell flre, to which heretics were consigned by the Church. In Portugal it was customary to erect ft vast theatre capable of holding 8,000 spectators, and the accused were brought forward one by one to hear Those who were brought in tlieir ow clothes paid a fine arid were discharged; those who wore ft ' 6aiufc>onito ' 4it is, a straight yellow oat withocft sKMre*. charged with a St. Andrew's cross had to forfeit all their ->"*ct8, but their Irwei were spared ; those who had their ' 3svm< benito ' decorated with red serge patched resembling flames, without a cross, wan discharged, but warned, if ever tbej *- lapsed, they would be delivered k> t flames ; those, lastly, who had the ' . a wr benito' decorated with flames and d-nr were condemned to die. Tho pi*-- ' execution in Portugal is called ' Kouosi. Pronounce Awe'-to-dah-lajr'. Auxiliary War (rv\ B.C. 214-2CK. Between the Romans M. J the last Phil.;; of Mace don. The Romans wer th* victors. Avaricious Tyrant. Mauritius, emperor of the East (582-600). This waa ft mere pun. Mauritius re.'nsed to pay Chagan, king of the Avari. ioar oboli a head for the prisoners takon by him in war, in 587. This refusal bot only fixed on him the ill name, bat also lost him his crown and empire. Avengers (The). A Fenian society organised by Burton, of which he was himself the ' supreme head.' It consists of the most desperate of the Irish faction. bound by oath to murder any one the society wishes to be removed. Burton was condemned to penal servitude for life in May 1885. #00 ' Irish Associa- tions.' Aver'roism. The doctrines of Averroes, the Arabian philosopher, that the soul is not an individual possession, but part of a Universal Intellect difhised through the whole world. A sort of pan- theism. See ' Averroists.' Aver'roists. Of Seville, and Fez. Disciples of Averroes. the Arabian philosopher and expositor oi Aristotle (1149-1225). Ho tnngnt th doctrine of evolution, or that every existing form has been developed from some previous one ; that each individual is a part or limb of the gr;>at muiuiane whole, and that this muixkne whole is animated by a GeaatTil Intelligence . r ' Anima Mundi,' aiid ultimately al? existences will be reaWorbed in deity AVIGNON BABINGTON Of course he denied what we call ' the human soul,' for the ' Anima Mundi ' was general and not particular. Thomas Aquinas combated this doctrine, which was condemned by the University of Paris in 1240, and by the Lateran Council in 1512. The Averroists were opposed to the Alexandrists (q.v.). Avignon Captivity (The), 1309- 1376. When the popes resided at Avignon in France, instead of at Rome. Avignon, pronounce Av'-vin-yOntf. Avignon Obedience, in the great Western schism, means obedience to the Avignon pope. As obedience to the pope of Rome is called ' Roman Obe- dience.' See above. Avocat-ge'ne'ral (L*). A magistrate attached to the ministry of France, and charged to defend the law and public order. Pronounce Av*.vo-kah' djen'-e-rahl Avocats au Conseil d'Etat et & la Cour de Cassation. Ministerial officers charged to follow the procedure and plead for clients before the Conseil d'Etat and la Cour de Cassation (q.v.). These two courts since 10 Sept., 1817, have been united. Such an 'avocat* must be 25 years of age, and must have been in the profession at least two years. The number is limited to sixty. Pronounce Av'-vo-kah' o con-say** da-tab'. Avyogado'ri (The), 1178. Three Venetian magistrates whose duty it was to watch over the public interests. In the courts of justice they acted as checks upon the administration of the law, and were also public accusers. In the councils they superintended the debates, and without the presence of one of the Avyogadori no act of any session was valid. The police was under their care ; the public disbursements passed through their hands ; they were the guardians of the public registers. (Singular, ' Awoga- dore,' 5 syl.) Ayerst Hall, in Cambridge Uni- versity. Named after the Rev. W. Ayerst, the first principal, 1884. The chief object of this foundation la to reduce the expense of a college education. Aylesbury Men (The), 1704. Mr. A-shby, a burgess of Aylesbury, and five other Aylesbury men who insisted ttut they had a right to vote i .. their owa member, because they were freeholder*. The House of Commons gave it agairat the claimants, and the House of Lcids reversed the judgment. When the A yli- bury men commenced actions agaii fc the constables of their town, they ware committed to Newgate for contempt o? the House. The queen (Anne), to cut t l is knot, dissolved the parliament, the mtr- were then set at liberty, and the nvatter dropped. Ayoubites (8 syl.). Descendant* *A Ayoub, a Turkish dynasty which riigueu! in Egypt and Syria from 1171 to 12o4. It was founded by Saladin, son of Ayonb, and was overthrown by the Mameluke* Azores (2 syl.). Martin Beli^m. in 1448, gave this name to these wee^rn islands, because he found thorn full of hawks (azor, Spanish, a goshawk). Aztecs. The dominant tribe of ancient Mexico. Their kingdom was founded in 1825. Allied with the Toltoo*, they extended their kingdom of Tenoch- titlan (Mexico) to the Q alf of Mexico and the Atlantic. They wore at their best in the 15th and 16th cenfca , when the Spa- niards arrived. The supreme god of the Aztecs was Taotl, and the protector o their nation was Huitzilopochtli. Az'ymites (8 syl.). Those who rvjJo- brated the communion with unlebveao'1 bread. There was a tribe or province under the Saracenr BO called. Thus Robert the monk, in hia ' Histoi T of Jerusalem,' book vl.. f>pea.ks of ' Persw t Mud. Arabes et Turd, Azymitw t Saracenl, Curti *4 Publican!, et diversarum uatlonum alii multl.' Babel (Tablet of A Tower or"), 1876. Discovered by Mr. George Smith. A tile of burnt clay impressed while soft with an inscription. It is much broken, and only four columns of irritmg out of six remain. The translation rune thus : ... of Babylon He hastens to the submission, Small and great He confounded the mound. Their walls all the day they founded. For their destruction in the night He did not leave a remainder In His anger, secret counsel Ho poured out ... to confound their speech He set Hia face. He gave the command He made strange thl< counsel. They weep hot tears for Babll. , . . Bitterly they weep. . . . Babin* ton's Conspiracy, 1885. To murder Elizabeth, and hiring libo- BAB1SM BACHAEDIAN3 rated Mary to place her on the throne instead. Tiue V. excommunicated Elizabeth, and authorised all true Catho- lics to compass her death. Three priests Giflord, Gilbert Gifford, and Hodgson associated with Savage, under- took the assassination of the queen. Another priest, Ballard, afterwards joined the conspiracy; then Anthony Bubington, a young man of fortune, with ten others (\Vu.dsor, Salisbury, Tilney, Tichboame, Gage, Travers, Barnwell, Oharnock, Dun, and Jones) ; last of all a nui named Polly, who was, in fact, one f Walsirgham's spies, who made his amplojer acquainted with all the pro- ceedings. At the fulness of time all wf-ro apprehended and executed, except Salisbury, who escaped abroad (20 Sept., v, 1848. A new religion founded in Persia by Mirza Ali Mo- bammed, a y^'yig man who professed x> be the r ul successor of Ali, the prophet of In a. He told the people that he waa the bdb (the door) through which all must go who enter into para- lis?. Hia followers are called Bdbis. He condemned polygamy; disapproved -i the seclunion and veiling of women ; Allowed believers to mix with un- believers; and advocated a republican form of government. The royal troops woi sent against the Babis, thousands w jio put to death, and Mirza Ali, with his 'apostles,' were publicly executed. However, Mirza Yahya, ayouth of sixteen, vw ohonen succwHor, and the religion of the. Bab still continues. Jt U not a mtl~ remarkable that Jesus Christ tayi 3i hi m*. I'. *.' -an the bib or door. By me if fcny loaii enter m. ho ohall be saved ' (John x.). Babouvipm. Socialism, or the (spoliation of land from landowners to distribute to those who had none ; agra- rian equalisation. So called from its author, Kdouard Fleury Babeuf, who perished on the scaffold in 1797. The socialistic system if this Frenchman bear* ar extraordinary likeness to the of the Irish Land League Baby Jumper (TM- Bob Munton, who was entrusted ly t/u- Oambridge unAergrad nates with .neir b-mness at NtwniarKet races (18th and Ifcw -.ent.). Babylon. Old Cairo was so called, aa well as the city on the Euphrates. Thus we read of the fourth crusade, ' Babylon was proclaimed to be the destination of the armament ' (Villehardouin). Babylonian Captivity (The\ Lasted seventy years, from B.C. 588, when Jerusalem was taken by Nebu- chadnezzar, and the people of the king- dom of Judah were deported to Babylon. On the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, B.C. 538, the captives had permission to return. Only a few of them returned with Zerubbabel in 536, but a second migration was made B.C. 458, under the command of Ezra ; and a third, B.C. 445, under Nchemiah. The ten tribes never returned, and they haye been Identified with the Kurds, the Afghans, the Kestorians. the North American Indians, the Angles, and many others, Babylonica doctrina. Astrology in which the Chaldaeans were especially killed. No Babylonios tentaris numeros means, do not pry into futurity by astro- logical calculations do not consult fortune-tellers. Bac'chiadSB. The kings of Corinth, BO called from Bacchis, who : B.C. 931, succeeded his father Prumnides, and ruled with firmness and equity. His descendants continued to reign in Corinth till B.C. 779, when the govern- ment of the Prytanes was established. Bachardians. Pantheists, so called from one Bachardus, of whom Hermann says, ' Hujus Brunonis tempore, quidam fuit (Deo et hominibus detestabilis) Bachardus nomine, speciem gerens magnee sanctitatis, sed plenus malitia homo' ('Chron. Comit. Schawenburg,' p. 26). This must be taken for what it is worth, but most likely the word is simply a corruption of Bcghardians, Pantheists on the borders of the Rhine in the 12th cent., condemned by the Council of Vienne in 1311, and so called from the German begehren (to beg), their fundamental law being that ' necessaria mendicarent, quo facilius possint sua deliria divulgare.' These begging friars were also calk-d ' Fratret Conversi, hoc est, fratres non habentei domicilia ' (' Annales Colmarienses,' year 1802). The Turlupins and German BACK-STAFF BAHARITES 65 Mystics of the 14th cent, were offshoots of the BacLa/ds. Back-staff (A). An instrument invented, in 1590, by Captain John Davis, %nd used for taking the sun's altitude at sea, before the invention of the quadrant and sextant. In using it, the observer turned his back to the sun. Ba^on of the Rhyming Crew 'The). John Dryden (1631-1701) ; so nailed by Landor. Badge. Of England, a white and red rose en- gipned with the royal crown. (The crown ensigned with the initial of the OYereign.) Of Scotland, a thistle ensigned with a loyal crown. Of Ireland, either a golden harp or a prig of trefoil, ensigned with the royal crown. Of Wales, a dragon passant, winga levatcd, gules, on a mount vert. Of Ulster, the ' bloody hand.' Of France, the fleur de lis. Th white hart was the badge of Richard II. ; the tilrrr , quodestcafltarf apud Suidam. Boxhornius ab Hebraeo rtoQitedim (rebclles). Alta- serra sic dictos censet Bagaudas (quasi silvicolas) a voce (jau, quse Gallis silwm sonat. A ban, no-railed from an Italian, Baiamund or Bajimont de Vinci, sent in 1276 from Rome to make the valuation, and collect tU tithes for an expedition to the Holy La-:.d. Balaam's Ass Sunday. The Btcond Sunday after Easter, when the Btor, cf Balaam is read in the lesson for tiie u.y See ' Sundays.' Balaf6 (Le), that is, the scarred one. Bo Henri, due de Guise was called, after recbiving at Dormans (1575) a frightful tvrord-cut on the face (1550-1588). i-ut . :.**!/ n old archer In the Scotch Guard \\ PUMif . f i urs, one of the castle palaces of '.<' IX U ctJ!*.) It H.iUifif- in 'Uuentin bur- -a*d. FrotMtblr *ir Walter Scott had some to* t* apywiluiluu. Balance of Power (The). Thai limitation of the European states which forbids any one of the nations having such a preponderance as to endanger the in- dependence of the others. In the 18th and first half of the 19th cent, it was a European principle, but is now utterlj exploded. Balance of Trade (The). The dif ference between the aggregate amount of the exports and imports of a nation ; or the difference of purchase and sale be- tween any two nations. This calculation no longer exists, as it leads to false con- clusions. Balbus (the stammerer). The most renowned was Lucius Cornelius Balbus of Gades, in Spain, who served under Pompey the Great against Sertorius. Pompey took him to Rome, B.C. 71, and he gained the esteem of Julius Caesar Cicero defended him in an oration still extant. In the civil war Balbus accepted the management of Caesar's affairs during the frequent absences of the great dicta- tor, and to this Balbus the 8th book of the ' Commentaries ' is dedicated. After the death of Caesar Balbus served the consulship, B.C. 40. Balfour Studentship. For original research in biology and animal morpho- logy, in the University of Cambridge. Value 200Z. a year, tenable for three years. Candidates need not be members of the university. Founded from the memorial fund of Francis Maitland Balfour, fellow of Trinity, 1883. Balia. A temporary delegation of sovereignty to a number of dictators. They named the magi st rates and banished suspected individuals, in the republics of Italy. Italian, balia, power. A balia was appointed (in Florence), for ten years to exclude all the Albiti from magistracy . . . and thin was repeated six times In twenty-one yean. HALLAM. Middit Agtt, vol. 1. p. MO. \\ hen the signory has taken its place to address the assembly the piaisa is guarded by armed men, and then the people are asked if they wish to give balia (dictatorial power) to the citisen named.- SYMONDS, Kenaittance in Italy. Balia (The Council of). The council which discussed and carried into effect every important measure of Florence during the Mrdiei administration. They appointed eight men for criminal business, Mid this committee was called the ' Otto di guard ia e balia.' BALIOL BAN In Venice was a similar council con- vened originally only on great emergen- cies, but in the time of Lorenzo di Medici, the Balia was made permanent, and be- came the legislative, administrative, and judicial power of the republic. ' Magistratus novem civium apud Benenses, qui rebus bellicis prsefecti unt.' Du Cange. Baliol. See 'Balliol.' Ball Money. Blackmail levied on the newly married to prevent their being mobbed on leaving church. Called ' ball- money,' because it was given ostensibly to buy a foot-ball for the village green, but probably it rarely got further than the nearest public-house. Ball put off (A). Andrew Marvell Bays, in his Satires, ' A silly fellow's death puts off the ball.' The allusion is to the death of the beadle of the ward, attacked, 1672, by the Duke of Monmouth, young Monk (Duke of Albemarle), and eight others, in a drunken brawl. Charles II. pardoned the ruffians, but deferred the ball which was to have taken place at Whitehall the same night. Balliol (John). Joint claimant with Robert Bruce of the throne of Scotland, at the death of Alexander III. He was great-grandson of David, but in the elder line. Robert Bruce was grandson, but in the younger line. Edward I. decided the claim in favour of Balliol. MALCOLM IV. bad two BOOB, WILLIAM I. and David. From WILLIAM I. descended ALEXANDER II. (his son), and ALEXANDER III. (his son), -when Issue Then comes David, who had three daughters, Tl. Margaret, Isabella, and Adama. Margaret's daughter, Devergilda, married John Balliol, and had a son called John liallwl (the claimant). Isabella married Robert Brace, and h*d a Eon ailed Robert Bruce (the claimant). Balliol College, 1268. Founded by John Balliol of Barnard Castle, Durham, father of John Balliol, king of Scotland. The head of the college is called the Master. Ballot (Voting by). Was first publicly adopted in England in the election of the school boards in 1870. In 1872 an act was passed by which ballot was applied to parliamentary and municipal elections in the United Kingdom. In France the ballot Is used in the election of toemberi of the Chamber of Deputies, and not unfrequently In the deliberations of the legisla- tive chambers. In the United States of America and In the Australian colonies almost all public elections are conducted by ballot. Baltadji. The 400 halberdiers who attend on the royal princes and princesses of Constantinople. Their colonel is called the ' Kizlar-agasi.' The name means hatchet-bearers. Baltimore, in Maryland, U.S. America. So called, in 1634, from Lord Baltimore, who led a colony to settle there; Bambi'no. A representation of the infant Christ in swaddling clothes, sur- rounded by a halo and watched over by angels. The 'Santissimo Bambino ' in the church of the Ara Coeli, at Rome, is carved in wood from Mount Olivet, and the likeness is attributed to Luke the evangelist. The festival of the Bambino occurs in the Epiphany. Bampton Lectures (Oxford Uni. versity), 1779. The highest distinction the university can bestow. The lecturer must be an M.A. of Oxford or Cambridge, and is chosen annually on the fourth Tuesday in Easter term by the heads of colleges, but no one can hold the appoint- ment twice. Founded by the Rev. John Bampton, of Trinity College, Oxford, who left 120Z. a year for eight lectures, preached in Great St. Mary's on eight consecutive Sunday mornings between Lent term and Trinity term, on the fol- lowing subjects: (1) Confutation of heresies ; (2) The divine authority of the Holy Scriptures ; (3) The authority of the Fathers; (4) The divinity of the Holy Ghost, and (6) The Articles of the Established Church as explained by the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds. Thirty copies of the sermons are printed within two months of their delivery. The en- dowment is 200i. for the eight printed sermons. The Cambridge Hulsean Lectures are of a similar character to the Oxford Bempton Lectures. Ban. An Illyrican word, bojan = lord, about equal to the German margraf. Croatia is still a banat. Thei'e were at one time several others, as Dalmatia, Slavonia, Bosnia, Wallachia, Bulgaria, Servia, &c. In tho reign of Maria Theresa, a ban was the third dignitary of 79 BAN BANDB the Hungarian kingdom, but on the traction of the vassal lauds into crown lands in 1849, the banat of Hungary ceased. Some say Slavonic Pan = lord. Jellachich, the Ban of Croatia, resolved to hold a Sclavonic diet at Agram on 6 June (1848). HOWITT, Hitt Of Engl. (year 1849, p. 86). Ban (A), in French history, is a call to arms, and the ' ban lieu ' was the district encompassed by the call or pro- clamation. Ban and Arrid re-ban. Regulated in France by Louis le Gros, 1124, and last levied in 1G72. The ' ban ' was a sum- mons of the king to his immediate vassals, calling them to his banner ; the ' arriere-ban ' was the summons of the suzerain to his tenants. Sometimes the levy itself was called the ' ban ' or 1 arriere-ban.' See ' Bouillet ' sub voce. Ban of the Empire. 'To be put under the ban of the empire,' in German history, means to be cut off from society, and deprived of rank, title, privileges, and property. Banat (A). The district under a ban The ban of Croatia is the third of the Hungarian barons. See ' Ban.' Banbury Saint(^ ). An overstrained puritan. Mr. S. R. Gardiner calls Ban- bary the ' most puritan of all puritan towns.' It is a tradition that cats who caught mice on Sunday in Banbury were hanged on Monday. To Banbury came I, O profane on* I Whero I saw a puritane one Flanging of his cat on Monday For killing of a mouse on Sunday. l>runken liarnaby. Banbury Story (^). An idle sill? story. A OQRWpondBnft in 'Notes and Queries' (21 May, I*s7, p. 404), derives the phrase from one William Morrell, who lived at Banbury, noted for the wonderful tales which he told of his travels. He was a professor of chirur- gery, and was looked on by the country people as a prodigy. (See Gardner, ' His- tory and Gazetteer of Oxfordshire,' p. 482.) Banco (Sittings in). Now means the sittings of judges during term-time, when the several judges sit in their respective courts; but formerly it, meant those pdges who held their court at West- minster, in contradistinction to judges of the curia or aitla regis, who followed the king. See ' Days in bane.' Banco. The standard money in which a bank keeps its accounts, as dis- tinguished from the current coin of the locality. Thus the Hamburg bank keeps its account in an hypothetical coin having no representative in the current coinage. Band of Hope, 1855. Children under working age that is, about 14 who have agreed to abstain from all intoxicating drinks. Started by the Rev. Jabez Tunnicliffe, of Leeds. First pre- sident of the union was Canon Morse, who was succeeded by Lord Ebury, and then by Samuel Morley, M.P. Stephen Shirley was one of the most active leaders, but Mr. TunniclilTe suggested the name. Band of the Heroine (The), AJ>. 618. A band raised by Lee-chee, daughter of Lee-chee-min, who sold all her jewels to pay for a band of soldiers to assist her father in deposing Yang-tee, the emperor of China. The emperor was deposed, and the conqueror, after a short interval of a few months, founded the thirteenth imperial dynasty, called that of Tang, the Augustan age of China. Band-room Methodists, or ' The United Free Gospel Churches,' 1806. So called because they met originally in the Band-room at Manchester. They do not pay their ministers. They admit persons who are not members into their society, and ignore class-meetings. Bandage (The), with which Christ was blindfolded by the soldiers, accord- ing to Mark xiv. 65, was given (we are told) by Charlemagne to St. Namphasns, who built the abbey of Marsillac (in France), where he deposited it. It is now kept in a little country church called St. Julian of Lunegarde. It is a linen bandage stained in places with blood. See ' Crucifixion, Relics of the.' Asscrvatur In ecclcsia S. Julian! de Luneganto (cujus prasscntatio ad abbatem Marciliacensem pert inet) tenue velum ex lino JCgyptio; idemqua illud esse dicunt quo Christi faciom militee ob- duxere, dum per ludibrium colaphis caeden-tur. Eat et In eadom ecclesia frustum arundinis al in signum regni affectati pro sceptro traditae. DOMINICY, L* Siuiano Capitit Chruti. p. 47. Bande Noire. A society of specu- lators which, after the French Revolution, bought up the chateaux, the abbeys, BANDIT BANTINGISM the monuments of art, not to preserve them, but to sell them as ' raw material.' These Vandals would pull down a fine building merely to sell the material, or a work of art as so much gold, silver, or marble. Hence ' Bande Noire ' means Vandals who would sell a Colossus of Rhodes merely as so much bronze, or Doomsday Book as so much parchment. See ' Black Band.' Bandit. In Italian bandito, plural banditi, means an outlaw or banished man ; what we call banditti the Italians tall briganti (brigands). Bandoleer (A). A leather belt formerly slung by musketeers over the left shoulder, and to which were sus- pended twelve little cases, each contain- ing sufficient powder for a charge. Bangorian controversy (The). Whether or not the reigning monarch can consistently be called the ' head of the Church.' The question was raised by Dr. Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, who preached (31 March, 1717) before the king (George I.) on the text ' My kingdom is not of this world,' meaning to prove that the kingdom of Christ is spiritual, not temporal. This brought on a long paper war, but had the happy result of severing convocation from the govern- ment, for it has never since been called together by the sovereign, and has now no legal authority whatever. Hoadly'a chief opponents were Dr. Sharpe and William Law. Dr. Hoadly denied that episcopacy is a divine institution, and also denied the existence of a visible Church. He greatly objected to Articles XVIII. and XIX. ; and denied wholly the divine right of kings. Ism, disestab Christian creeds. Bank Holidays. In 1871 an Act of Parliament (34, 85 Viet. c. 17) was passed providing that Easter Monday, Whit Monday, the first Monday in August, and the day after Christmas Day, shall be bank holidays, and that bills due on such days shall be payable the day following. The sovereign has power to appoint any other fey as a bank holiday. Bank Restriction Act (The), 7 Geo. IV. c. 6 (1827). The prohibition of banknotes under 51. The issue of email notes was restricted 5 April, 1826, but the Act of prohibition was deferred till the following year. . His opinions tended to republican Ism, disestablishment, and the equality of all Bannatyne Club (The), 1823 Instituted by Sir W. Scott in Edinburgh for printing rare works illustrative o/ Scotch history, topography, poetry, and miscellaneous literature in a uniform size and style. Only 100 copies of each work were published, one for each member who paid 51. a year. The club was dissolved in 1859. The club was called after George Bannatyne, by whose industry much of the Scotch poetry of the 15th and 16th cents, had been preserved. Banner (A). In feudal times was the square flag of a knight banneret, made by cutting off the point of the pennon of a simple knight. Now any flag carried on a pole may be called a banner ; but the royal national flag is more strictly called the Royal Standard ; a bishop s banner Is called a gonfalon (one is called an ori. flainme) ; a ship's flag is a union-jack, an ensign, and the long strip of bunting is a pennon. For telegraphic uses three flags are used, viz. a square flag ; a pennant or triangular flag ; and flag with two points like a <, called a burgee. A white flag indicates a truce or a desire to come to terms for a truce ; a red flag means defiance ; a black flag indicates a pirate's vessel ; and a yellow flag a ship In quarantine. See ' Labarum.' Banner-bearer of the Church (The). Louis the Great of Hungary was so styled by the pope (1342-1882). Banner of St. Ambrose (The). The sacred oriflamme of Milan. When taken to a battle-field, it was drawn thither in a red car, by red bullocks harnessed with red trappings. Banneret. A higher grade of knighthood conferred by the king for some heroic deed performed in the field. So called because the knight's pennon was then exchanged for a banneret, by rending off the points and making it square. The first banneret was made by Edward I. and the last by Charles I., in 1642. George III., at the naval review, Portsmouth. in 1778, conferred the title on Admiral Pye an* some other officers. Banns. A proclamation or public notification, as ' banns of marriage,' firs; enjoined by the fourth Council of the Lateran, 1215. Bantingism, 18G2. The system adopted by Mr. William Banting to reduce obesity. His system was to abstain from fat-producing foods, such as bread, sugar, fat, oil, and butter. Breakfast : tea or coffee without milk or sugar ; beef, mutton, kidneys, boiled nsh, eggs, biscuit, dry toast, brown bread. AKwujr (at 1 o'clock) : fish, any meat but pork 70 BAPHOMET BARBAROSSA greens, dry toast, game, poultry, sherry, claret, but no port or champagne. 7V0( at 5 o'clock): fruit, rusk, tea without milk or sugar. Supper (8.80) : fish, meat (not pork), claret. Bap'homet. A small image used by the Knights Templars in their religious services. It had two heads, one of a man, and the other of a woman. It held the key of life, and was surrounded with the sun, moon, and stars. The Gnostics and Manichaeans made use of a similar image. It is compounded of two Greek words, baphe metes (wisdom from bap- tism), meaning the wisdom which those initiated by baptism possess. Baptiste (Jean). A generic name of French Canadians, like John Bull for an Englishman, Sawney (Alexander) for a Scotchman, Taffy (David) a Welshman, Michael a German, brother Jonathan a native of the United States of North America, . 782. The battle of Tours between Charles Martel, leader of the Franks, and Abdalrahman, the Moslem general of Spain. The Saracen army was 400,000 strong, but Abdalrahman was slain, and his army was overthrown with great slaughter after a whole week's fighting. No other battle in all history lasted so long. Battles (The fifteen decisive), according to Professor Creasy : 1. Marathon (B.C. 490), in which the Greeks, under Miltiadus, defeated Darius, the Persian, and turned the tide of Asiatic invasion. 2. Syracuse (B.C. 418), in which the Athenian power was broken, and the BAUEBN extension of Greek domination was prevented. 3. Arbela (B.C. 331), by which Alex- ander overthrew Darius, and introduced European habits into Asik. 4. Metaurus (B.C. 207), in which the Romans defeated Hannibal, and Car- thage was brought to ruin. 5. Armin'ius (A.D. 9), in which the 'Jauls overthrew the Romans under Yarus, and established their indepen- dence. 6. Chalons (A.D. 451), in which Attila, 'the Scourge of God,' was defeated by Aetius, and Europe saved from utter devastation. 7. Tours (AJ>. 732), in which Charles M artel overthrew the Saracens, and broke from Europe the Mohammedan yoke. 8. Hastings (A.D. 1066), by which William of Normandy became possessed of the English crown. 9. Orleans (A.D. 1429), by which Jeanne d'Arc raised the siege of the city, and secured the independence of France. 10. Aimada (The), AJ>. 1588, which crushed the hopes of Spain and of the papacy in England. 11. Blenheim (A.D. 1704), in which Marlborough, by the defeat of Tallard, broke the ambitious schemes of Louis XIV. 12. Pultowa (AJ>. 1709), in which Charles XII. of Sweden was defeated by Peter the Great of Russia, and the stability of the Muscovite empire was established. 13. Saratoga (A.D. 1777), in which General Gates defeated Burgoyne, and virtually decided the fate of the American Revolution. 14. Valmy (A.D. 1792), in which the allied armies under the Duke of Bruns- wick were defeated by the French revolutionists, and the Revolution ws suffered to go on. 15. Waterloo (A.D. 1815), in whicn Wellington defeated Napoleon, and rescued Europe from French domina- tion. Several of these might be changed for far more Important battles, as, for example, that which gained the independence of Switzerland, that which destroyed the independence of Poland, ic., ic. Bauern Krieg. The peasants' war of Germany at the time of the Reforma- tion, similar to the Jacquerie of Franoe and Wat Tyler's rebellion in the reign of Richard II. Bavaria (House of). Fui-nished Germany with two kaisers, Ludwig V. (1314-3347), and Robert (1400-1410). Baxter's Maxim. 'In necessary things unity, in doubtful things liberty, in all things charity.' Though attributed to Baxter, he was not the original author of the maxim. Baxterians. Those who adopt the religious system of Richard Baxter (1615- 1691). With the Calvinists they believe in election, but with Arminians they reject the doctrine of reprobation. Their religious system is (1) that, although Christ died in a special sense for the elect, yet He atoned for all, and, therefore, if a man is not saved, it is his own fault. (2) They reject the dogma of repro- bation. (3) They maintain that it is possible for saints to fall away from saving grace. Dr. Watts and Dr. Doddridge were Baxterians. Baxter was the author of the ' Saints' Everlasting Best, 1 and of the ' Call to the Unconverted.' Bay State (The), Massachusetts, which before the Federal constitution was called the colony of Massachusetts Bay. When first the pilgrims landed on the Bay State'! iron shore. LOWELL. Bayaderes. The trained dancing girls of India, which are divided into Devddassi (devoted to the service of the temples), and the Nautchis. The former dwell within the inclosure of the temple, and never leave it without a permit from the high priest; the latter are not attached to the temples, but take part in grand processions. The Devddassi prepare garlands for the idols, dance before them, sing sacred songs, and take part in all processions ; the Nautch girls go about the country and perform for pay. Pronounce bahy-a-dairs' (8 ?!.). Bayandourians (The), or 'the Bayandouree.' The Turkoman dynasty generally called the White Sheep. Bayandour was the founder of the line, but Ussum Kassan (the Tall) founded the dynasty, which was driven out by Ismail L in 1499. 82 BAYARD BEATIFICATION Bayard (The British). Sir Philip Sidney (1554-1584). The Chevalier de Bayard (1475-1624) was callod Le lion Chfwlirr, tan peur et um$ reprncht. He took part In the ' Battle of the Spurs,' 16 Aug., 1518, where he was taken prisoner, but was re- stored to liberty by Henry Vlli. without ransom. Bayard of India (The). General Sir James Outram (1802-1863). In the Indian Mutiny he was sent to supersede General Havelock, but by rare chivalry he allowed Sir Henry Havelock to retain command. Bayard of Poland (The). Prince Joseph Poniatowaki (1768-1814). Bayard of the Netherlands (The). Louis of Nassau, brother of William of Orange (founder of the Dutch republic). Bayeux Tapestry (The). Dis- covered in the cathedral of Bayeux in 1728; removed to Paris by order of Napoleon I. in 1803; restored to the town hall of Bayeux in 1804 ; and copied by C. A. Stothard in 1816. Sup- posed to be the work of Matilda (wife of William the Conqueror) and her maidens. It is a picture in worsted needle-work of the nistory of England from the mission of Harold to William, duke of Normandy, to the conquest of England by William, whereby he became king of England. It is now preserved in a glass case in the library of the town of Bayeux. It was originally one piece of cloth 227 feet long and 20 feet wide ; containing 623 figures of men, 137 of birds, 49 of trees, 87 of buildings, and 41 of ships. The Bayeux tapestry and Domesday Book are Invaluable document* of the period. Bayonne (The Secret League of), 1567. A Catholic league between France and Spain, to compel France, Sjmin, and Flanders to abandon Protestantism. Here, in 1572, Catherine de' Medici and the Duke of Alva planned together the massacre of the French Hnguenote. Mary, queen of Scots, joined the league in the year of her marriage with Henry Darnley. Bayonne (The Treaty of), 6 May, 1,-os. When Carlos IV. of Spain resigned his crown to Napoleon I. Bayou State (The). Bayou means ft creek. The State of Mississippi, which abounds in creeks, is BO called. Bear Flag War (The), 1847. I* California, between General Fremont and the Mexicans, who tried to prevent the Americans from settling in California The Mexicans were soon driven bact and the independence of California VK: secured. Bear State (The). The State o< Arkansas, the forests of which are in fested by bears. Beards. The Arabian* dyed their jeards id, because Mahomet hated block hair. Attyriant and African* appear In sculpture aad paintings with long beards. Briton*, according to Cassar. shaved all bnt the upper lip. The Anglo Saxons and Dane* wore forked beards. The Normans were clean s"--vVfe/. Edward III. Is represented on his tomb at *** minster with a long beard. In the reign of Elisa- beth beards were cut into fantastic shapes. la the rclgn of James I. each profession wore a differently shaped beard. In the reign of Charles I. a small pointed beard was the mode. In the reign of Charles II. only whiskers and moustaches were worn. The modern fashion of wearing beards was introduced in the Crimean War. 1854, but the habit had been creeping In ten years before. Even the clergy no longer considered it needful to follow the fashion of Catholic priests. In the reign of Klixabeth It was ordered that no fellow o( Lincoln's Inn shall wear a beard above a fortnight's growth.' Kgyrtiant apparently wore beards only m mourning ; in some statues we find that they had heard* enclosed In a beard case. Franc*. Beards were worn till th reign of Louis XIII.. who was beardles*. and the custom phi ng(1 In the reign of Napoleon III. the French shaved off their whiskers, and shaved the chin, only leaving a knot of hair, called an imperial. The moustache was worn long, pointed, and waxed. Grecian hsrofi are represented with short curled beards. The philosopher* are for the most part represented with long beard?. Alexander made his soldiers shave that the enemy might not lay hold of their beards. Jrvi. In Leviticus xix. 37 the lawgiver says, ' Thou shalt not mar the corners of thy beard.' Beards were always worn by the Jews. Lombardi, or Longobards, wore long beards. I'mthiani. The kings had bushy beards. Ptrtiant entwined their beards with gold thread. Roman*, according to Pliny, began to shave A.0.0. 454. Sclpio Afrlcanus Introduced daily ehavlng. The first fourteen emperors shaved, but H ad rian retained his beard. .s/Hiin. Beards were worn till the accession of Feline V.. who. being beardless, like Louis XIII., set the fashion of clean chins. Be'arnaise(ic). Henri IV. of France, so called from ' Le Beam,' his native pro- vince (1558, 1589-1610). Beatification, Canonisation. In imitation of heathen apotheosis. When persons are beatijied, their picture or image is allowed to be placed in some particular church, where spiritual com- munion may be held with them in prayer. When persons are cani>ni.scd their image or picture may be placed in all el lurches, that the whole body of Christians may hold communion with them. Instead of BEAUCLERK BEES image or picture, the names of the beati or canonised saints are inscribed in missals or service books. Beauclerk, ' Good Scholar.' Henry L of England (1068, 1100-1135). Beau Sabreur (Le). General Murat, marshal of France, and after- wards king of Naples (1771-1815). Beaute" (La dame de). Agnes Sorel (I409-I450)was so called from the Chateau tie Beaute", on the banks of the Marne. This chateau was given to her by Charles VII. Beauty of Holiness (The). Jeremy Taylor was so called from the extra- ordinary beauty of his person and his great piety. He died 1667, aged 54. Becket, in his flight from North- ampton, Nov. 1164, assumed the garb of a monk, and called himself ' Dereman.' His murderers were four knights, viz. Richard Brito,Hugh de Morville, William de Tracy, and Reginald Fitzurse who struck the first blow. He was assassi- nated in Canterbury Cathedral, 29 Dec., 1170. In 1538, Henry VIII. put forth a proclamation that Becket was killed in a riot of his own provoking ; and as he was a rebel and traitor, his name should be erased from all religious books and calendars. Becket's Day was Tuesday. He was born on Tuesday, baptized on Tues- day, took flight from Northampton on Tuesday, withdrew from the realm to take refuge in France on Tuesday, had his vision of martyrdom at Pontigny on Tuesday, returned to England on Tues- day, was assassinated on Tuesday, and his body was removed from the crypt of the cathedral to the shrine on Tuesday. The new church was consecrated to him by Cardinal Manning on Tuesday (18 April, 1875). Beckmanites (The), 1875. A reli- gious sect, the followers of Mrs. Dora Beckman of Alpena, Michigan, who died 1883. Mrs. Beckman claimed to be a 1 second Christ,' and gave out that Christ, in her person incarnate, ' is the bride of the Church.' In 1888 a Beckmanite of Chicago claimed to be the wife of Christ. Their midnight meetings were so dis- orderly, that an appeal was made to the legislature to forbid them. Bed of Justice, 'Lit de justice. 1 The seat occupied by the king of France in a parlement when he enforced an edict not acceptable to the house. As the parlement derived its authority from the crown, when the king was present the power of the parlement was in abeyance. The last ' lit de justice ' was held by Louis XVI. at Versailles, in Sept. 1787. Bede (The Venerable). An English monk and historian of the 8th cent. There is a tradition that a monk, writing his epitaph, fell asleep without com- pleting the verse, and when he woke discovered the word ' venerabilis ' sup- plied by some unknown hand. The whole line then ran thus : Hao Bunt in fossa Bcedte [venerabilis] ossa. Bedells' (Esquire). In the Univer- sity of Cambridge. Two officers elected by the senate to carry silver maces on all public solemnities. They precede the chancellor or his deputy in processions ; receive from him all graces, and deliver them officially to the proctors ; they summon members of the senate to the chancellor's court ; arrange all public processions, and on all such occasions carry their maces or staffs of office. Bedlam. A corruption of Bethlehem, formerly a hospital founded by Simon Fitz-Mary in Bishopsgate Street Without, in 1246, as ' a privy of canons, with brethren and sisters.' When the religions houses were suppressed by Henry VIII. the corporation converted it into a lunatic asylum for six lunatics, but in 1641, the funds being insufficient, partially conva- lescent patients were turned out to beg, and wore a badge. These were the ' Bed- lam Beggars,' generally called ' Tom-o'- Bedlams.' In 1675 the old building was taken down and a new one was erected in Moorfields. In 1814 this building wag also pulled down, and a new hospital built in St. George's Fields. Bedouins of Paris (The). The Red Republicans and roughs who thronged the streets in every insurrection and revolution. Bees (The). Candidates for ' danger- ous work ' in the Fenian lodges. Every seven bees is responsible to a ' centre ' ; each set of seven centres is responsible to the district centre ; each set of seven district centres is responsible to the ' head BEES BEGIN centre,' with whom alone these district centres are allowed to communicate ; and, lastly, the head centres communicate with the ' Apex ' (q.v.). A circle, centre, and bee are Fenian officers, not boards. They correspond to captain, lieutenant, and sergeant. Each bee has ten members under his Jurisdiction. Bees' College (St.), Cumberland, 1816. Founded by Bishop Law. Befa'na. A kind of Santa Klaus, who visits children on Twelfth Night to put presents in a stocking hung at their bed. Befana, it is said, was an old woman busy cleaning her house when the Magi passed by, but she said she would look out for them on their return. As they went home another way, she is looking out for them still, but entertains a great fondness for young children. The word is ft corruption of ' Epiphania ' (Epiphany). Be sards. See ' BegharcUu' Begeaux (Lea). In the reign of Chnrles VI. of France. Bands of free- booters, consisting of Burgundians and their butchers, predatory forces from Artois, discharged German, Lombard, and Savoyard mercenaries, with other disor- derly persons, who laid waste the country round Paris and ravaged France at will. These brigands were still more demoral- ised than the Free Companies in the time of the Black Prince. The two most noted of their leaden were Jean de Poix and De Bobre. Beggars (The), 1566. Those Cal- vinists of Holland who leagued together to resist the Inquisition in their country. The term arose thus : Three hundred of the chief men of the Netherlands, all Calvinists, were deputed to demand of Margaret of Austria, the governor, the removal of the Inquisition. When Mar- garet inquired of the Comte de Barley- mont, her counsellor, about the deputa- tion he told her they were only a ' set of beggars ' (' Ce ne sont que des gueux '). This reply got wind, and the party as- sumed the title of 'Beggars' as their distinctive badge, and from that time dressed as beggars, substituting a fox's tail for a feather, and a wooden platter instead of a brooch. Their place of rendezvous was a house called the Cock, OUT of whope mouth proceeded the words ' Vivent let gueux par tout le mondel ' It IB said that the count ' spat upon them, called them beggars, and dismissed them contemptu- ously.' ' Oeus ' ! still a Dutch by-word (or ' Pro- testant.' Beggars of the Sea (The), or 'Lea gueux de mer,' 15C6. Those Hollanders who placed themselves under Count Horn, in the Zuyder Zee, to resist the Spa- nish invaders. See below. Beggars of the Wood (The), or 1 Les gueux des bois,' 1566. Those Hol- landers who lurked in the woods, and resisted on land the Spanish invaders. See ' Beggars.' Begging Friars. The second Coun- cil of Lyons reduced them to these four orders : Franciscans or Grey Friars, Dominicans or Black Friars, Augustines (Black Friars), and Carmelites or White Friars. Begging Licences. Licences granted to the poor Venetian nobles to beg. These beggars were called 'I Vergognosi ' (q.v.). Beghards (The). 'Beghardi,' or ' Begenardi,' 1065 ; ' qui vulgariter Bege- hardi quoad viros, et Beginae quoad feminoa nominantur ' (Conradus de Monte, 'de Erroribus Begehardorum'). Also called 'Tertiaries' (the third order). See ' Beguins.' Secta qundam pestlfera Ulorum qul B*frutnl YulK-trlter appellantur. qul M Fratres panpercs d tertlo Ordine S. Kranciscl oommunlter nomlna- bant, ex quibus plure* fuerunt tanquam haereticl condemnati et combustl. BERNARD GlUDo, L\fe Beghinee, or ' Belgian Beguins.' Very numerous in Belgium in the 12th and 13th cent. John XXIL (7 Kal. Martii, anno 8) calls them ' Sorores de Pcenitentia.' It is said that their founder was Begha (Papini Landensis filia, S. Gertrudis Nivellensissorore) ; but this cannot be relied on. In Alemannla mullerum continent lurn, qnM Begulnaa rolunt appellarl, multitude aurrexit Innumerabllls, adeo ut solam Coloniara millc vcl plures Inhabltarent. MATTHIW PARIS (year 1 i,l). Begihards (The). 'Begihardi/ preaching friars, 1802. Fuerunt convent seu Begihardi, boo est, fratre* non habonte* domlcllla. Aniudet Colmtrunttt (year 1802). Begin with Vesta. Before the guests of a Greek banquet began to eat, an oblation was always offered to Vesta, the tutelary goddess of hospitality. BEGTASH1 BELL-ROCK Begtashi. A religious order in the Ottoman Empire, instituted in the 14th cent., by Hadji Begtash. The members have secret signs and passwords, like freemasons, to which they bear many resemblancea Be"guins, of Flanders, 1207. Followers of Lambert le Begue, of Liege. They believed men capable of perfection, and of obtaining so clear a view of God as to become freed from the obedience of any human laws, civil or ecclesiastical. They are now orthodox. They were called Bizochl In Italy ; BSguIns 1 1 nance ; and Beghards In Germany. Begums. Women of high rank in the East Indies. The charge of Warren Hastings, brought by Sheridan in his famous speech of five hours' length, referred to his treatment of the mother and grandmother of Asoff-ul-Dowlah, nabob of Oude. These ladies were very rich and kept a splendid court. Asoff- ul-Dowlah forced large sums of money from them, and the begums appealed for protection to Warren Hastings, governor- general of India (1778). Hastings com- manded the nabob to abstain from further extortions, but Hastings resolved to get the begums' money for conducting the war in Madras. His plan was this : He supplied the nabob with a brigade of British soldiers to keep down his own people, and ran up so heavy a claim that the nabob could not pay it. Hastings told him to extort the money from the begums. The nabob trumped up a charge against the begums that they were concerned in stirring up the insur- rection at Benares, 115 miles from their residence, and marched against them. The ladies resisted, and were taken ! prisoners, but had concealed their treasures (3,000,0002. sterling). The two chief ministers were seized and put in irons, and the two ladies were placed in rigorous confinement. As the money was not produced, torture was applied, and 500,0002. was produced. More severe torture forced from the ladies, another 500,0002. The begums and their two ministers were released, and were told that they ' owed this favour to the governor-general.' See ' Sheridan's Begums Speech. 1 Begitm is the fern, of Beg, or By. Behmenists. Disciples of the German mystic Jacob Bohin or Boehm (1575-1624). He taught that all things consist in Yes and No. The Yes is pure power, life, deity ; the No is the reply to the Yes, and indispensable to the revela- tion of the truth. The present controversy respecting the absolute and relative in an offshoot of Behmenism (1890). Behring. A strait, sea, bay, and island named after Captain Vitus Bering, a Dane in the service of Peter the Great. He discovered the strait in 1728. Cap- tain Bering died in 1741 in the island which bears his name. Belgian Lion (Order of the), 29 Sep., 1815. Instituted by William I., king of the Netherlands. The decoration is a white enamelled cross surmounted with the royal crown, in a blue 'ring' with the letter W and a circle of laurels ; on the reverse, the royal arms with the legend 'Virtus Nobilitas.' The ribbon is blue, edged with orange. Belgic Confession (The), 1559. One of the chief confessions of faith of the continental Calvinistic or Reformed churches. See ' Confessions.' Belgica. That part of ancient Gaul which lay between the Seine and the Rhine. Believers. So those were called who believed in the divine visitation of Joanna Southcott, prophetess of Exeter (1750-1814). Believers in Christ (The). A sect, whose special doctrine is that their prayers alone can influence the decrees of divine providence. Bell, Book, and Candle. In the ceremony of the greater excommunica- tion by the Catholic Church, since tha 8th cent., after reading the sentence a bell is rung, the book closed, and a candle extinguished; and from that moment the person excommunicated is excluded from the communion of sainti, divine worship, and the sacraments. Bell-rock. A reef of old red sand- stone, 2,000 feet long, once a fruitful source of shipwreck. The abbot of Ar- broath (John Gedy, 14th cent.) placed on the reef a bell fixed on a beam of wood, and the beam being agitated by the sea, kept the bell incessantly ringing. Southey, in a ballad on the subject, sayg that Sir Ralph the Rover wantonly cut the bell from the buoy, and on his home- ward voyage was wrecked on the reef. BELL feELZUNCE Bell Scholarships. For classics and mathematics. Two annually for un- dergraduates, worth about 51. a year each, tenable for four years. Founded in the University of Cambridge by the Rev. William Bell, D.D., fellow of Magdalene College, 1810. See 'Barnes Scholar- ship.' Bell the Cat. See p. 42. Belle Alliance (La). The name of a farm some thirteen miles from Brussels ; ever memorable for being the position occupied by the centre of the French infantry in the battle of Water- loo (18 June, 1815). Napoleon himself was in the vicinity of this farm, but Wellington was at Mont St. Jean, two miles further north. Between these two spots was La Haye Sainte, where were posted the French tirailleurs. The Prussians call the battle of Waterloo the ' Until.- of la Belle Alliance, 1 and the French call It the ' Battle of Mont Saint-Jean.' Belle Bretonne (La). The Prin- cess Eleanor, also called the Pearl of Brittany, daughter of Geoffrey, duke of Brittany, grand-daughter of Henry II., and niece of King John. She would have been heir-presumptive if her brother Arthur had succeeded Richard Cceur de Lion, but from the time of Arthur's ieath she had to endure a life- long imprisonment at the hands of John. Belle Cordiere (La). Louise Labe' (1520-1566), a Frem-h poetess, who married Eddemond Perrin, a wealthy ropemaker. Belle Corisande (La). Diane, comtesse de Guiche et de Grammont (1554-1620). Belle Qabrielle (La). Daughter of Antoine d'Estre'es, grandmaster of artillery, and governor of the ile-de- France. She was the mistress of Henri IV. of France, and died from eating an orange (i:G5-15UU). Also called ' La Belle Jardiniere.' Belle Parricide (La). Beatrice Cenci, executed 1599. Belle et vertueuse Huguenotte (La). Rachel de Rouvigny, the mother of Rachel, who first married Francis, lord Vaughan, and afterwards Lord William Russell. She received the name of Wriothesley from Thomas Wriothesley, the mother of her first husband (an heiress). Bellot Straits. In the Arctic ocean ; so named from Mons. Joseph Rene Bellot, who perished in the Arctic regions, while searching for Sir John Franklin (1826-1853). Bellum Episcopale, 1640. The convocation which met this year made canons, and gave subsidies to carry on the war against the Scots. Beloved Merchant (The). Michael de la Pole was so called by Edward IIL This De la Pole in the next reign was created earl of Suffolk. Belted Will. Lord William Howard, who died in 1640. His belt used to be shown at Naworth. He waa second son of Thomas Howard, fourth duke of Norfolk (beheaded in 1572). In right of his wife he succeeded to Naworth Castle, in Cumberland, and was the ancestor of the present earls of Carlisle. In 1603 'Belted Will' waa restored in blood, by Act of Parliament ; he died and was buried at Greystock. Beltein, or 'Beltane.' A festival observed in Ireland and in some parts of Scotland. Sometimes fires are kindled on hills; and sometimes the young muster on some green spot, feast on a dish of eggs and milk, and go through various ceremonies. The Irish B is held on 21 June, the Scotch hold theirs on May-day (old style). The Romans held the festival of Cybeld on May-day ; and Gregory changed the day in order to change 'CybelO uiul all the gods ' into ' St. Mary and all the saints.' Beltane mean* Baal's fire, and probably the festival U a relic of heathen time*. See ' LLUlow Eve Flrea. 1 Belvedere (8 syl.) means a corridor or look-out which commands a fine view (Italian ' bel vedere,' bnuitiful view). The most famous is that of the Vatican, built by Bramante, but the word is associated with a statue culled the Apollo Belvedere, i.e. the Apollo of the (\V belvedere or corridor, discovered at Cape d'Anzo (Antium), in the 16th cent. It was taken from Rome to France in 1797 by Napoleon, but restored after the battle of Waterloo, in 1815. Belzunce, bishop of Marseille*. Immortalised by his attention to the sick SENCH BENEFIT 87 and dying in the plague of Marseilles in 1720. It was introduced by Captain Chataud, who brought over a Turk in- fected, and entered Marseilles 25 May. Above 40,000 persons within the walls of the city, and 10,000 in the suburbs, died between 25 May, 1720, and 20 Aug., 1721, when the plague ceased. See ' Plagues &o.' So when Contagion, with mephitic breath, And withered Famine, urged the work of death, Marseilles' good bishop, London's generous mayor, With food and faith, with medicine and with prayer, Raised the weak head, and stayed the parting sigh, Or with new life relumed the swimming ere. DARWIN, Loves of the Plant*, ii. 433, &o. N.B. The mayor was Sir John Lawrence, and the plague referred to was the Great Plague of London. There s many a statue to a lesser man. Bench. A seat of justice. There are two benches: the Crown Bench, called the Queen's or King's Bench; and the Common Bench, called the Court of Common Pleas. The former takes cog- nisance of crown or criminal offences; while the Common Bench or Court of Common Pleas has jurisdiction in civil matters only. There is a plea side even in the Queen's Bench, but there ia no criminal side in the Common Pleas. Bench Warrant (A). A warrant signed by a superior judge or two jus- tices of the peace, during the aesizes, to apprehend a defendant against whom a bill of indictment has been found. Benedictines (The), A.D. 628. Founded by St. Benedict, who drew up the 'rule' of his order in 529. They wear loose black gowns with large wide sleeves, and cowl ending in a point as a head covering. They pejform their devotions seven times a day. Every monk of the order has two gowns, a table-book, a knife, a needle, and a handkerchief. The Benedictines are great agriculturists, and at one time supplied Europe with corn. The order was introduced into England by St. Augustine, archbishop of Canterbury, about 600. The rule implied obedience to the superior, avoiding laughter, holding no private property, living sparingly, exercising hospitality, and above all great industry. They were the most gentle- manly and most literary of the monkish orders. Benedictines (Father of the English). St. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury (925, 959-988), who enforced Mie Benedictine rule, and became the first abbot of that order in England. Benefice (^4). A church living. Estates distributed in fief by sovereigns of France and Germany among their favourite nobles were termed beneficia. Similarly, the temporalities of bishops are held by the bounty of the sovereign, and the temporalities of rectors and vicars are (or at one time were) held of the bishops. Benefices. In England and Wales, 11,728. Of these, 9,669 are in the province of Canterbury, and 2,059 in the province of York. The number of parishes is 14,610. The entire number of incumbents in England and Wales ia 11,029. The number of churches and episcopal chapels is 11,825, but of officiating ministers, 12,832. The income of the archbishop of Canterbury is 15,0002. a year; of the archbishop of York, 10,0002.; of the bishop of London, 10,0002. ; of Durham, 8,0002. ; of Winchester, 7,0002.; of Ely, 5,5002. ; of St. Asaph and Bangor, 5,2002. ; of Worcester, 5,OOOZ.; of all the other bishops between 5,0002. and 4,0002. Benefit of Clergy, or ' Privilegium clericale.' The origin of this privilege is not clear, but it was based on the text, ' Touch not mine anointed, and do my prophets no harm ' (Ps. cv. 15). The privilege related to ecclesiastical places and persons. Places consecrated to religious offices were exempted from arrests, and hence became sanctuaries; and the clergy themselves were exempt from criminal processes in the civil courts. By 8 Edw. I. A.D. 1274, we find the privilege had extended to all laymen who could read, and such a criminal could not be put to death, but was branded on the brawn of the left hand. In 16'Jl the privilege was extended to wonier.. By 4 Hen. VII. c. 13, A.D. 1489, it was enacted that no person should be allowed to avail himself of the benefit more than once. By 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 s. 6, A.D. 1827, the benefit was abolished. It never at any time extended to high treason. Benefit of Inventory (The). In Scotch law. -, abandoning this theory, maintained that all that is known is the idea; thus, all that we know of a tree is our idea of a tree. He does not say there is no such thing as a tree, but only that our knowledge of such an object is our idea or conception of a tree. BERLIN BESIEGER 89 Dr. Johnson kicked a stone and asked If that (tone were only an ideal one. It is a sorry thing that a man like Johnson should have been so foolish. What did Johnson know of a stone beyond his idea of it ? The kick may have given him a more accurate idea of its hardness, but still, all be knew of it was limited to his conception or idea Of a stone. Berlin (Peace of), 28 June, 1742, which closed the first Silesian war, between Maria Theresa of Austria and Friedrich II., the Great, of Prussia. By this treaty Silesia was given up to Prussia. Berlin Decree (The),Zl Nov., 1806. Issued by Napoleon for the ruin of Great Britain : 1. The British Isles were declared in a tate of blockade. 2. All commerce and correspondence with Great Britain were forbidden. 3. Every Englishman found on the Continent was declared a prisoner of war. 4. All British goods and merchandise were to be considered lawful prize. 6. All vessels coming from England or an English colony were to be refused admission into any continental harbour. Bermudas (The). So named from Bermudez, a Spaniard, who first sighted these islands in 1527. They are also called ' Sommers Isles,' from Sir George Sommers, an Englishman, who was ship- wrecked here in 1609. Sir George's ship- wreck was the immediate reason why these islands were colonised from Vir- ginia, which, at the time (1611), was itself only four years old. Probably the 'Bermoothea* of Shakespeare (' Tempest,' 1. 2) is Bermudas. Bernadotte (The House of). The present reigning family in Sweden and Norway. Carl XIII. died childless, and concurred with the states in choosing Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's generals, as hia successor. Bernadotte proved true to his adopted country by refusing fco enforce Napoleon's ' Continental Sys- tem ' on Sweden. The Continental System was to ' boycott ' Great Britain, and ruin its foreign trade. Bernadotte reigned as Carl XIV., but his name was Jean-Bap- tiste-Jules Uernadotte. He died in 1844, and was succeeded by his son, Oscar I., who died in 1872, fcnd was succeeded by his son, Oscar 11. Bernard (The Great St.). The hospice on this famous mountain pass was founded in 962, by Bernard de Menthon, a Savoysien nobleman, for the benefit of pilgrims. Bernardiani. Franciscans of the Strict Observance, so called from St. Bernardin of Sienne, of the same order (1380-1444). Bernardines, 1115. Cistercians reformed by St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153). Called White Monks frora the colour of their habit. Also a congregation of women of the same order, who consecrated themselves to the education ot girls. The chief establishments were those of the Port-Royal, and another in the Faubourg St.- Antoine. Bernese (The). Henri IV. of France. Before he was king of France he was called the Bernese or Bearnese king. He was king of Navarre, sovereign prince of Beam, and first peer and prince of France. Bernesque Poetry, 'Poesia Ber- nesca. 1 Burlesque poetry, so called from Francesco Berni of Tuscany (1490-1586). Bersserker (The). The bodyguards of Danish jarls and kings, noted for their dauntless daring. These military fanatics were probably so called from * ber ' (bare), ' sserker ' (garment), because they wore no armour in battle. Ogier the Dane, one of Charlemagne's paladins, was a Berseerker. Berserkir rage means a frenzy of passion wholly beyond control. The rage of the French In the first Revolution was Berserkir rage. Bertram (Dr. Charles Julius). A literary impostor. He was professor of English at Copenhagen, and professed to have discovered, in 1747, the 'De Situ Britannia ' of Richardus Corinensis (Richard of Cirencester), in the library of Copenhagen. In 1758 he published it with two other treatises, calling the whole The Three Writers on the Ancient History of the British Nations ' (' Scrip- tores Tres '). His forgery was exposed by J. E. Mayor, in his preface to ' Richardi de Cirencestria Speculum Historiale.' See ' Literary Forgeries,' A . The 'Scriptores Tres' were Richard us Corinensli (of Cirencester), Gildas Badnlcus (.of Bath), and Mennlus Banchorensis (of Baugor). Beshters. A Jewish sect, a branch of the ancient Chasidim, which take their stand on the Kabbala, but remain (ostensibly at least) within the province of rabbinical Judaism (Baal Shem Tob). Besieger (The). Demetrius Polio*> cetca, king of Macedonia. BES9 BIBLE Bess of Hardwick. Elizabeth, countess of Shrewsbury, to whose charge, in 1572, Mary Queen of Scots was com- mitted. She built a former mansion of Chatsworth, the present Hardwick Hall, and founded, by her three marriages, the wealth and dignity of the Cavendish family. The countess treated Mary with great harshness and rigour, being exces- sively jealous of the earl, her husband. Bethlehem Hospital. Granted to London for lunatics in 1547. The word is generally called Bedlam (q.v.) t and its lunatic inmates Bedlamites. In 1814 a new building was erected south of the Thames. Bethlehem Massacre (A). A murder or massacre of young children. Of course, the allusion is to the massacre of the Innocents by Herod. These ruthless scoundrels would not scruple committing a second Bethlehem massacre. Sir W. 8COTT, (iu'j Manneriny, chap, xxzix. Bethlemites (8 syl.t, 1257. A sect of monks, of whom Matthew of Paris writes : ' Concessa est mansio Fratribus B thWmitis in Contabrigia . . . quorum habitus similisest habitui Praedicatorum. Signatur autem capa eorum in pectore quadam stella rubra 5 radiis crinita, in cujus medio quaedam rotunditas est aerei coloris propter stellam, quee apparuit in Bethleem nato Domino.' Beza's Codex. A Greek MS. of the four Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, with a corresponding Latin text on every opposite page. It was presented by Theodore Beza to the University of Cam- bridge in 1581, and is sometimes called the ' Codex Cantabrigiensis.' It is a thick quarto, written on vellum in uncial letters. Supposed to be of the 5th or 6th cent. Bianchi(rA). L 1294. Apolitical faction in Pistoia, similar to the Cenchi of Florence; favourers of the Ghibellines. The Bianchi were opposed to the Neri or faction of the Guelfs. The names Bianchi and Neri belonged to two powerful families. Bianchi-' white ' ; Neri/ black.' Dante, the poet, though of the house of Donati. joined the Bianchi faction, had his house pulled down over his ears, and was actually condemned, 'col (also pretesto d'aver egli commesso barat- terie, doe estortdonl dl denaro e vendito dl offlcl pubbUcl.' Dante says of baratteria (/n/Vnw. xxL ' Ognl aoxn v'6 barattier, fuor che Bonturo ; Del no, per 11 denar, vi si f a ita,' II. or ' White Penitents,' 1899. Fana- tics who dressed in white, and wandered about Italy crying out ' Misericordia,' with their faces covered and bent towards the ground. A great crucifix was borne before them. Their constant song was 'Stabat Mater dolorosa.' The march continued for three moiiths at a time, and those who refused to join the procession were accounted heretics. They appeared In France, but Henri IV. forbade any one, ' under pain of forfeiting all his goods, to receive the new sect in white clothes pretending to great sanctity (Rot. Parl. vol. Hi. p. 4-> . This was because their hiding up th.-ir faces gave grant opportunity to the commission of all sort* ol crimes. Biandrate (8 syl.). Commander aff the Order of St. John of Jerusalem. Biaronne (L'ambassade de). The three tailors of Tooley Street, see ' Diet, of Phrase and Fable,' p. 875. Biaronne is a small town in Spain, the chief trade of which is in honey. The embassy re- ferred to consisted of ' trois cents che vaux et une mule,' i.e. trois satis chevaux et une femme. Oudin, ' Curiosites Francaises.' Bible. Sea. Authorised Version Manx Bible Blblla Pauperum Matthew Parker's Blblt Biblla Sacra Matthew's I'.U.le Bishops 1 Bible Masarinlan Bible Breeches Bible Peace m.ik.r s Bible Bug Bible Printers Bible Cd. The amendment was carried by a majority of eight, the bill was abandoned, and the parliament dissolved. Bill Chamber. A department of tne Court of Session in Scotland in which one of the judges officiates at all tiin.'.s, during session and vacation. The your.gi-st judge is lord ordinary on the bills during session ; and the duty is performed during vacation by the other j int^es, with the exception of the two presidents. Bill of Adventure (A). A writing to signify that the goods shipped by a merchant in his name are the property of another, whose adventure it is; but the shipping merchant undertakes to account to the adventurer for what the goods produce. Bill of Attainder (A). A bill in Parliament, introduced for penally en- acting the attaint ami punishment of a person or of persons who have criminally offended against the state and public peace. Bill of Complaint (A), or 'bill in Chancery.' The formal statement in writing by which a plaintiff in the Court of Chancery seeks equitable redress or relief. Bill of Costs (A). An account tat ing articulately and in detail the charges and disbursements of an attorney in the conduct of his client's business. Bill Of Exceptions (A). A state- ment of objections against the ruling of a judge in a civil cause. This is done by way of appeal against the judgment. Bill of Indemnity (The), 1660. All the injuries and offences against the crown or against individuals, arising out of quarrels between political parties sine* 1 June, 1637, shall be and are forgiven Except (1) the 51 individuals actually concerned in the death of the king'i father ; (2) Vane and Lambert ; (3) Lord Monson, Hazlerig, and five others, as far as regards liberty and property ; (4) all judges in any high court of justice, together with Hutchinson, Lenthall, St. John, and 16 others (named), who shall not be eligible to hold any office, civil, military, or ecclesiastical. The 19 regicides who have voluntarily sur- rendered, shall not be put to death without a special Act of Parliament, passed expressly for that purpose. Bill of Rights (The), a Nov., 1C89. By which William and Mary, being called to the throne, bound themselves to rule on the constitutional principles set forth in the bill. It stated that it is contrary to law for the king to suspend the laws, or interfere with them without consent of parliament ; that it is contrary to law lor the king to erect commission boards, levy money, or impose fines without con- sent ol parliament ; that it is contrary to law for the king to keep a stain! ing army in times of peace without consi-nt of parliament. It provided for freedom of speech in parliament, disallowed ex- cessive bail and fines, enjoined the due impanelling of juries, forbade grants and promises of fines before conviction, and insisted that parliament only shall be empowered to amend the laws and redress grievances. Bill of Sales (The), 1600. Passed by the Convention Parliament (q.v.). This was for the restoration of all crown lands. Church larms were not included, so that many church livings remained to the Presbyterians. This mast not be confounded with a 'bill at ale,' or assignment of chattels-personal. Billets, 1796. Royal missives granted to the Vaudois to repair and enlarge BILTT BISHOPS 98 their temples, or even to remove their sites, provided notice was given to the intendant of the province. Billy Blue. Lord Admiral St. Vin- cent (John Jervia), 1734-1823. Admiral of the Blue, 1795. Called Lord St. Vin- cent from his victory over the combined French and Spanish fleets of! Cape St. Vincent in 1796. Bi-metallism. The employment of two metals, like gold and silver, of fixed legal relative value. Till 1873 this had been the custom for nearly 200 years. One ounce of gold was then equal to 15$ ounces of silver. Up to 1873 silver was the standard of Germany, as it is still of India, China, and Japan; but in 1878 gold was made the sole standard of Ger- many, and silver became a mere article of commerce and circulating counter, which varied in value according to cir- cumstances. The relative value might be one ounce of gold worth twenty ounces of silver, or any other difference ; and those countries which pay in silver pay more as the relative value of silver declines. Bi-metallists want to restore the fixed relative value of these metals. Birdcage Walk (St. James's Park, London). Here Charles II. made an aviary. Birmese War. See f Burmese.' Birmingham Political Union (The), 1 Feb., 1830. Members paid from 4s. to 2 guineas a year. There were several affiliated unions for the dissemi- nation of Radical principles, such as free trade, manhood suffrage, shorter parliaments, the ballot, and so on. Birminghamers, 1680. Opponents of the Court, or adherents of the Exclu- sion Bill that is, a bill to exclude James from succeeding Charles II. The Court party were called Anti-Birminghamers. The Birmingham manufacturers had become notorious as coiners of base money, so the Tories and ' Catholics ' nicknamed the Exclusionists 'Birming- hamers,' i.e. men who preferred a base or usurping king to one of the real stamp of right divine. The Whigs were Birminghamers. PetltionisU, Mid Exclusionists (see these words). The Tories were Antl-Birminghamers, Abhorreri, and Tantivies (it4 then* wordaji Biron's Conspiracy, 1602. Th< conspiracy of Charles de Gontaut, due de Biron, to dethrone Henri IV. This was a conspiracy with Spain and Savoy. Biron was to receive in marriage the daughter of the Duke of Savoy and the full sovereignty of Burgundy. Biron was betrayed and beheaded. Birthday. The following, among many others, died on the anniversary of their birthday. ALEXANDER the Great, 34 July (B.C. 856-324). ANTIPATBR, died B.C. 44. BROWNE (Sir Thomas), 19 Nov. (1605-1682) ; his 77th birthday. CARACALLA, 8 April (188-217). DIOBY (Sir Kcnelm), 11 June (1608-1665). ELIZABETH, wife of Henry VII., 11 Feb. (1466- 1508). GAKSIAS, grandfather of Petrarch, at the age of GREGORY the Great, 12 March (540-604). HiLARUS (M. Ofilius), the comedian. HOLLAND (Sir Henry), born 1788. PLATO, 21 May (B.C. 430-347). RAPHAEL, 6 April (1483-1520). SANDFORD (John), died 1850. SHAKESPEARE, 28 April (1564-1616). WILLIAMS (John), archbishop of York, 25 March (1582-1650). See Pliny, Nat. Hilt. vii. 58. Bishop in partibus, 1623. A vicar apostolic, vested with episcopal authority by the pope over a church in want of a bishop, but which, for some reason, cannot have one of its own. In such a case a bishop is consecrated to some see, in partibus infidelium, which had formeily a bishop, but has now no church. These bishops in partibus were created only during the pope's pleasure, and might be removed at any hour. They are now called titular bishops. Bishop of the English (The). Augustine (597-604). Sent over by Gre- gory the Great. He is called 'The Apostle of the English.' Bishops (Commitment of Twelve, , 1641. Williams, archbishop of York, prevailed on eleven other prelates to joia nun in a declaration stating that they could no longer, without danger to their lives, attend their duty in parliament, and that therefore they protested against the validity of any votes or resolutions during their absence. The Lower House impeached the twelve prelates of high, treason for this declaration, and ten were committed to the Tower. The bishop of Lichfield and the bishop of Durham, oa account of their great age and infirmity, were given in charge to the usher of tk Black Bod. 94 BISHOP 3 BLACK Bishops' Bible (The), 1568-1572. The corrected edition of the G eat Bible (q.v.) in the reign of Elizabeth. Arch- bishop Parker engaged the bishops and other learned men to take each a portion for revision ; the different portions were printed with short annotations, and the whole called 'Parker's Bible' or the 'Bishops' Bible.' It was based on Tyndale's translation. See ' Bibles.' Bishops' Book (The) 1537. Or 'The godly and pious Institution of a Christian Man, &c.,' compiled by the bishops and dedicated to the king. Quoted in brief as the 'Institution.' See ' King's Book.' It was founded on the ' Ten Articles ' (q.v.), and explained such matters as the Apostles' Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, A.ve Maria, the seven sacraments, infant baptism, baptismal regeneration, con- fession, absolution, the apostolic succes- sion, and the real presence. Two arti- cles, published in 1536, were appended, one on Justification and the other on Purgatory. Bishop's Eye (The). So the arch- deacon is called in canon law. Bishops' War (The) 1640. The contest of the Scotch against the appoint- ment of bishop* in their country, which Charles I. tried to force upon them. It terminated in the conference held at Repton, October 1640. Charles I. was urged to stand to his ground by Laud and the Earl of StraflonL The Scotch had petitioned for triennial parliament! and freedom Of election and debate. Straflord said the rascals ought to be 'whipped 1 Into their sense*. When the parliament refund to vote supplies ^thout redrew of grievances, Strafford tofd the king he was entitled to help himself, and be advanced to the North with an army. The Scots crossed the Tyne. occupied Newcastle, and despatched pro- poMls of peace. Charles, to evajfT calling a parliament, summoned at York a ' Great Council of Peers,' but the council was obstinate, and the king after all was forced to call a parliament. Laud called these Scota 'the rascal riotous multitude. 1 Bissextile Year. Leap year was so called, because Julius Caesar ordained that the 23rd Feb. should be counted twice on leap years ; and by the Roman calendar the 23rd Feb. was the sextile or vi. Kal. Martii, i.e. the sixth day before the Kalends, or 1st of March. Bizochii, or Fratricelli, 1189. A sect of Minorites condemned by Boniface VIII. (1294-1803), by John XXIL, and by Martin V. in 1418. Nonnulli vlrl pestiferl, qnl vulgarltor FniUV celll. seu Fratres dp paupero vita, aut P.izocm, sire Bichlni, vel aliie fucatls nominibus nuiicu- pantur. JOHN XXII. (year 8), Epitt. Cvmmunivm. Black. The colour consecrated to the Abbassides (3 syl.). Their turbans and garments were black ; and t,\vr, black standards (called Night and Shadow) were borne aloft on pike-st.-wva nine cubits long in the van of their army The 'Black and White Factions' were the factions of Abu Moslem the AkM side, and Merwan II. the Ommia.d* calif. The Fatimitea (1 syl.) colour -was grrrn ; UM Ommlades (8 syl.) vhiu ; the Abbasides, black. Black and White Cockade (The). The allied American and Frvn, -h badge in 1780. Washington directed all his continental troops to adopt the black and white cockade, as a sign of amity (between America and France). HowiTT, Hitt. ofEnal. (Qeo. III. p. 364). Black and "White Faces. See under ' White, &c.' Black and White Factions (The). I. Of Florence, called the Neri and BianchL Rival factions towards the close of the 13th cent., and for the first five years of the 14th. The Blacks were the noblesse, and the Whites the rich merchants. The Whites joined the Ghibellines. Dante was a White, and was banished in 1302. II. That of the Abbassides and Owv- niiades. The colour of the Abbassides (3 syl.) was black, and of the Omniiadea (3 syl.) was white. The colour of the Fatlmites (8 syl.) was i Black Act (The), 1722 (9 George I c. 22). Is so called because it was directed against the Waltham deer-stealers, who blackened their faces for disguise, and under the name of ' Blacks ' appeared in Epping Forest. This act was repealed in 1827. It made It felony to appear with the faos blackened or otherwise disguised In any park, warren, Ac., for the purpose of hunting or stealing deer, io. Black Acts. Acts of the Scottish parliament from the reign of the firsk James to 1587 (James VI.) were M called because they were printed in black letter. Black Agnes. Wife of the Earl of Dunbar, famous for her defence ol BLACK BLACK 95 Dunbar Castle, when in 1837 it waa besieged by Lord Salisbury. See ' Sow.' Came I early, came I late, I found Black Agnes at the gate. Sir W. SOOR. Black Arrow (The Band of the). A fraternity of freebooters at the time of the war of the Two Roses. The arrows used by the band left a black mark on those wounded by them. Black Assize (The). The assize held at Oxford, 6 July, 1577. So called from the fatal pestilence which broke out at the time. It is said that it broke out in the court-house just as the judge was passing sentence on Richard Jencks, a bookbinder, who was condemned to lose his ears for sedition; and it waa popularly called a divine judgment for the cruelty or injustice of the sentence. Another ' Black Assize ' was that held at Cambridge in the Lent term of 1521 ; when a similar putrid fever broke out. Black Band (The). I. A body of German foot-soldiers employed by Louis XII. in the Italian wars. So called be- cause they carried black ensigns after the death of their favourite commander. H. A body of Italian troops in 1526 was also called the Black Band because they also carried black ensigns on the death of their leader, Giovanni de' Medici. III. A French regiment of Piedmont, who had served for a long while in Italy for the same reason, was called the Black Band in 1596, on the death of Cpmte de Brissac. See 'Black Bruna- wickers ' and ' Bande Noire.' IV. Saxon mercenaries hi the employ of Denmark. The Black Band employed by John I., king of Denmark, to enforce on Sweden the ' Union of Calmar,' in 1497, had served under the kaiser Maxi- milian in the wars of Flanders. Black Bartholomew's Day. I. French history, 24 Aug., 1572. Noted for the great Huguenot slaughter in France. II. English history, 24 Aug., 1662. When, by the Act of Uniformity, some 2,000 ministers in England and Wales resigned their benefices, or were ejected from them for conscience sake. Who BO active as he to execute the fatal edict at Black St. Bartholomew's day, when BO many hundreds of gospel-preachers were expelled from bouM and home, from hearth and altar, from church and parish. Sir W. SCOTT, Peveril tf Ow Peak, chap xlii. Black Belt (The). A part of Alabama where the negro population has always been very dense. Black Book (The), 1536. A book containing the reports of two royal commissioners, named Legh and Ley ton; appointed by Thomas Cromwell, chief minister of Henry VIII., to visit the religious houses of England. About a third of them are charged in these reports with drunkenness, simony, and crimes perfectly revolting. In conse- quence of the charges all houses were suppressed whose income fell below 2001. a year, and their revenues were con- fiscated to the crown. The great abbey a were still suffered to remain. Called ' Black Books ' because they blackened the practices of the religious houses In England when Henry VIII. designed their dissolution. Black Book of the Exchequer (The). 'Liber Niger Scaccarii,' 1175 (Henry II.). Said to have been the work of Gervase of Tilbury ; contains an account of the exchequer and its officers. It describes the ranks and privileges of those officers, their wages, perquisites, and jurisdiction ; with the revenues of the crown in money, grain, and cattle, Called black from their black leather covers. See ' White, Red, Yellow Books.' There are two Black Books of the Exchequer pre- served in the Public Record Office. The smaller one was bound by William Caxton the printer, and had at one time two stamps for the decoration of th leather cover. These stamps, being Caxton's, prove the book to have been bound by the great printew JAMES WHBALB, Book-binder$ and Book-binding Black Breeches. 8e 'Procession of the Black Breeches.' Black Broth (^Aa$ frn6<). The chief food of the Spartans, who dined in public. A citizen of Sybaris said : ' He no longer won- dered why the Lacedaemonians were the most valiant soldiers of the world; seeing that any man of sound mind would rather die a thousand times than devour such Hastiness.' And Glaucos, the Locrensian, declared that it IB unfit food for the meanest of the free-born. Black Brunswickers (The), 1806 The 700 hussara under the command of Frederick William, duke of Brunswick, son of Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, who made the foolish manifesto against the French republic, was driven by the republican army from Valmy, and mortally wounded at Auer- BLACK BLACK stadt. His son Frederick William took part in the campaign of Waterloo, and was slain at Quatre-Bras (1815). The Duke Frederick William, at the death of his father, clothed his hussars in black, with lace disposed like the ribs of a skeleton. Their caps and helmets, moreover, bore in front the device of a skull and cross- bones, and instead of feather, long flow- ing black horse-hair was adopted. It was Charles, son of Frederick William, who two days after the battle of Qnatre- Bras joined in the battle of Waterloo. Black Bull's Head (The). The sign of death. It is repeatedly men- tioned in Highland tradition, and seems to have been a Celtic custom. When William, son of the fifth earl of Douglas, and his younger brother David, were inveigled, in 1440, to Edinburgh Castle, as they sat at meat, the black bull's head was placed before them. The two boys were forthwith dragged from table and cruelly beheaded. Black Cabinet (The). Le Cabinet Noir.' The secret apartment where (in continental countries) letters of political importance, or such as are supposed to be so, are opened by government agents. Some are copied, and the copy sent to the address given ; others are impounded and find their way to the head of the police. Black Califs (TJie). The Abbas- sides (3 syl.), whose uniform and standards were black. As subjects of the White party, i.e. the Omml- ades (8 syl.). they mltfht lawfully invade the dominions of the Black Califs. GIBBON, chap. HI. The standard of the Katlmltes (> syl.) Is green. Black Camisards (The), 1703. Huguenots. So called in contrast to the White Camisards fa.t>.), who were Catholic auxiliaries in Montrevel's army. Cn misard is used in two senses ; sometimes the Protestant insurgents of the Cevennes are so called v Camuard should not be confounded with Ceanitade (an attack by night). Black Canons (The). The Canons Regular of St. Augustine were so called from their black cloaks. The 'Black Friars ' were Dominicans. See ' White Canons.' Black Captain (The). Lieutenant- Colonel Davidoff, an officer in the Russian army in the time of the French invasion, was called by the invaders ' Le Capitaine Noir,' from the terror of his name, like our ' Black Prince.' Bl ack Charlie. Sir Charles Napier (1786-1800). Black Clergy (The). Monks in Russia are so called in contradistinction to the white clergy, or parish priests. Black Code (The), of Louis XIV., 1685. Colbert's code relating to the African slave-trade. Black Colin Campbell. General in the army of George III. Introduced by Sir W. Scott in ' Redgauntlef Black Country (The). South Staffordshire, famous for its hardware manufactures and its mines of coal and iron. The volumes of smoke thrown off all day and night cover everything with smut and destroy vegetation, so that patch of grass or green tree can scarcely be seen. Gardens are well nigh uu- known, and cleanliness is almost impos- sible. In this vast district, Wolvei- hampton (to the south-east) produces locks, tin, and japan wares; Walsall (to the north-west) saddlers' ironmongery, brass, and iron wares, ry with 400 or 500 nit-n. l>rake tied und Ilmvell took the command of the English. The Indiana, with muskets presented, drove llowell und Ins 1 r. Kngllslimcii into the ' Black hole prison, situated at the end of tin- In. r tacks.' Mr.Howellv . and It la from his pen tluU we obUia a aarruUvs 9t Oil* aittoblrous eveut. Black Hood House (The). The Non-Regent or Lower House in the Uni- versity of Cambridge. So-called because its members wore black hoods. This house consisted of masters of arts of more than five years' standing and doctors of more than two. Graduates on the boards of shorter standing formed the Regents' or Upper House. See 'White Hood House.' Abolished in 1858. See ' Senate.' Regents mean tutors, professors, and lecturers. Non regents, those who had served their time and were exempt from these duties. Such masters of arts stripped off the white lining of their hoods. Black Horse (The), or ' The Blacks.' The 7th Dragoon Guards; facetiously called, in the reign of George II., ' The Virgin Mary's Guard.' They are called the ' Blacks ' from their black facings, and ' horse ' because they are a cavalry regiment. Black Indulgence. A licence to preach without interruption, granted by Charles II. to those Presbyterian ministers who complied with certain specified regulations made by parlia- ment. This indulgence made a great schism, and those who availed themselves of it were hated with odium theologi- eum. Of all the balU with which the devil baa fished for souls in these days of blood and darkness, that Black Indulgence has been the most de- structive. Sir W. SCOTT, Old Mortality, chap. v. Presbyterian!' answered Gilflllan contemptu- ously ; r s> wretched Eraatian. or rather an obscure prelatist a favourer of the Black In- dulgence; one of the dumb dogs that cannabite.' -Sir \v. SCOTT, Waterlcy, chap. xxxvL Black Jagers (The). See 'Black Brunswickers.' Black John. Scottish history. John Home, the man who revealed the Slot of Sir James Edmonstone to take ames VL prisoner and keep him so till he recalled the lords banished or cud for the part taken by them in the raid of Ruthven (q.v.), 1584. Black Knight of Lorn (The). Sir James Stewart, who married Joanna, the widow of James I. of Scotland. Black Legion (The), 1806. That of the Duke of Brunswick. After the til-nth of his father, Frederick William put all his soldiers into mourning. Their military caps had in front for device, a skull and cross-bones, and for gay feathers were substituted flowing BLACK BLACK 09 black horse- hair. This was because Napoleon refused to allow the dying duke to be removed to Brunswick ; so the son commanded that his legion should wear mourning till the death of Napoleon. However, soon after the battle of Waterloo, the Brunswickera resumed their proper costume. Black Legions (The). So the Hun- garian troops were called in the 15th cent. See ' Black Troop.' singular number, and the Black Hussars: but Godkin, In his 'History of Hungary, 1 says, 'the Hussites were everywhere compelled to give way We generally read of the Black Legion, In the lar number, and the Black Hussars: but ung pell before the terrible attacks of the Black Legions, *s the Hungarian troops were called ' (p. 127). Black List. I. 1832. A list of all those members of the House of Commons who voted in favour of reform till the bill was thrown out by the Lords ; but it was known that the king (William IV.) hated the bill and wanted to shelve it. Several members shuffled and held themselves at bay. These 72 members constituted the black list, to be blackballed at the next election. II. A printed list of bankruptcies, liquidations by arrangement, registers of protested bills, decrees of absence, offers of composition, and other matters pertaining to the credit of firms and in- dividuals, circulated from London to subscribers for the information and guidance of men of business. Black Lord Clifford. John, ninth Lord Clifford, son of Thomas, Lord Clifford. Also called 'the Butcher ' (died 1461). Black Lord Herbert. Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1581-1648). Black Mail. A payment made by the Highlanders in the first half of the 18th cent, as a compromise to bandits, who promised that neither the property nor person of anyone who paid the impost should suffer injury. In 1601 (by 43 Eliz. c. 13) the levy of black mail was made felony. Mail (Ango Saxon mat, rent tax), used in Scotland to designate every sort of periodical payment, and is still the term employed techni- cally for rent paid by a tenant to his landlord. Black Militia (The). The officials of the Jesuits. Black Monday. I. Easter Mon- day, 14 April, I860. So called because it was so dark with mist and hail, so cold and windy, that many of the men and horses in the army of Edward III. lying before Paris perished. See Shakespeare, ' Merchant of Venice,' 11. 6. H. 27 Feb., 1865. So called in Victoria (Australia), from a terrible sirocco from the N.N.W. which produced frightful havoc between Sandhurst and Castlemaine. Black Money. Base money intro- duced from foreign countries. By the statute of York (12 Edw. II. AJ>. 1318), it was ordered that all manner of black money (noir monnoie) lately current in the realm shall be excluded. In 1389, a certain black money called turneys was made in Ireland, and circulated to the injury of the king's sterling money ; and in 1341 the mayor and bailiffs of Dover made proclamation for the better obser- vance of the statute of York respecting black money. Gamden speaks of the prohibition of black money by Edward III. (9 Edw. in. at. 2). Black Parliament (The). I. In English history, 1529. The parliament held by Henry VHI. at his palace in Bridewell, the year of the king's divorce from Katharine. See 'Parlia- ment.' H. In Scotch history, 1320. The parliament which condemned to death Sir David de Brechin, Sir William Malherbe, Sir John Logie, and Richard Brown, and imprisoned for life the Countess of Strathearn and Sir William de Soulis, for a conspiracy against Robert Bruce. The plan was to put Bruce to death and make Sir William de Soulis king. The Countess of Strathearn betrayed the conspiracy. Se Tarlm- ment.' Black Prince (The). 1. 1855. Edward, prince of Wales, son of Edward III., was first so called by the French just before the battle of Poitiers. He had won the marvellous battle of Cressy, had invaded Gascony, had carried terror through the length and breadth of France, and was called the very devil or prince of darkness. Froissart sayi ' he was called black by the terror of his arms ' ; and Strutt, in his ' Antiquities,' gives the same reason. See this word in the ' Dictionary of Phrase and Fable,' p. no " True Blue " now. There are many Tories, but no "True Bluet," 'Sir W. HARCOUKT, '24 Oct.. 1885. Blue and Red Hoods (The). 1 Mi-partie bleus et rouges,' 1356, during the captivity of Jean le Bon, was the faction livery of the dauphin (afterwards Charles V.). In 1358, on the death of the provost Marcel, this faction fell away. See ' Blue Hoods.' Blue and White. The Whig cockade, in some counties. Hence the well-known song and tune ' Come 'wave your blue and white.' Blue and Yellow (The). The 1 Edinburgh Review ' is so called from its cover, which is blue with a yellow back. The Blue and Yellow speaks ont with Its old directness. Newpaper paragraph, Jan. 1880. Blue and Yellow Robes. In China. All the twelve sects wear blue robes in China; but the followers of Lamaism wear yellow robes, the imperial colour, because Lamaism was promul- gated by a son-in-law of the emperor. Yellow Is also worn by Buddhist monk* of th southern countries. Bluebeard. So Giles, marquis of Laval, the French general, was called. It is said that he put to death seven of his mistresses ' to aid his incantations with their blood.' This debauched and licentious villain was at last burnt alive at Nantes by order of the Due de Bretagne, 1440. (Nantes, pronounce NaJint.) Blue Bellies. The Federals were to called by the Confederates in the civil war of America, from the light blue cloaks worn by the northern soldiers. See ' Greybacks.' Blue Blanket (The). The blue standard or banner of the incorporated trades of Edinburgh. When the trades- BLtJE men thought themselves aggrieved, they unrolled their standard, and the people used to say, Up goes the Blue Blanket ; ' in other words, the tradesmen are rallying their forces to resist the powers which they think have aggrieved them. It was originally called ' The Banner of the Holy Ghost ; ' but James III. changed its name into 'The Standard of the Crafts within Burgh.' Blue Blood and Pigeon's Blood. ' Sangue bib ' and ' Sangue colombin.' The blue blood in Venice were the wealthiest of the nobility, termed I Signori; the pigeon's blood were the poorest of the nobility, termed I Barnaboti, from the quarter San Barnabo where they resided. There was an Intervening class sometimes called Uorfl di Mizto. V The Spaniards are especially proud of their blue blood when they can trace their pedigree to the Goths. Blue Bonnets over the Border. The reference is to the Covenanters in the year 1640, passing into England against Charles L The whole of the infantry wore the Lowland blue bonnet. Blue Book (The), of America, is similar to the English Red Book. It contains lists of all persons under government in the civil, military, and naval departments, including the law offices. Called blue from the blue wrapper. Blue Books. L Parliamentary reports, but not statutes. All command- papers, all returns such as import duties, export duties, returns of the names of members of parliament, all official state- ments, statements of accounts, / Ireland, vii.. p. 133. Boatswain Smith. O. C. Smith, pressed into the British navy in 1796, quitted the service in 18U3 ; became pastor i>f a Baptist church at I'en/.tiiu-e iu 1807 11782-181.1). Bob^che (2 syl.). A famous clown (1815-1825) who drew crowds to a small theatre on the Boulevard du Temple of Paris; his rival was Galimafre*. Bobeche takes rank with the Tabarin and the Bruscambille (18th cent.). A comedian or farce-actor is complimen- tarily called ' un vrai Bobeche ' in France. See ' Tabarin.' Bocasoti. The same as ' Bizocii ' (q.v.). Bode's Law, of the relative dis- tances of the planets from the sun. Write 4 nine times. Under the second write 8, and multi- ply by 2 throughout. Then add. Thus: 4444 4 44 4 4 8 6 12 24 48 96 192 84 Between Mars and Jupiter is no planet, but Bode said there must be one in the gap, and the asteroids being discovered proved the correctness of the series. Taking earth to be 10. the relative distances are (roughly) 81>. T*, 10. 14-*, a?'*. M. 96'4, 1M. BOO (millions of mile*). Boden Scholarships. Four for Sanskrit. Value 501. a year, and tenable for four years in the University of Oxford. Founded by Colonel Boden in 1830 and 18CO. Bodleian Library (The), 1597. The public library of Oxford restored by Sir Thomas Hod ley on the site of the old University library, which had been despoiled of its contents in the riML'n of Edward VI. It has been added to by many magnificent gifts, and now contains above 25(,000 volumes and 22,000 MSS. The Bodleian Library is one of tne five depositories of copy- right books. The corresponding institu tion in Cambridge is called the Univer- sity Library. Rcfounded by Sir Thomas Bodley 0607-1599). The new building commenced 17 July. liilO, and tlni-h.d II.IM. aopMBted l>y the libraries of lUchard Qough and K.lmun.l M alone In lolu and by that of Francis Douce in Boece (Hector), or 'Boethius.' A literary romancer born at Dundee (1470- BCEUP GRAS BOMBA 111 1550). In his ' Scotorum Historia,' pub- lished in 1526, he has forged the names of forty-five Scotch kings with which he interpolated the Irish list of the Dalria- dic rulers (i.e. kings of Argyllshire). See 4 Literary Forgeries.' Bceuf G-ras (La marche du). The procession of the prize ox on Shrove Tuesday through the chief streets of Paris, introduced in the reign of Charles VIII. (1483-1498). The ox, with gilt horns and hoofs, a fillet on its head and decorated with ribbons, is led through the chief streets, accompanied by a host of followers dressed in ridiculous cos- tumes, and bands of music playing on ridiculous instruments. The whole is a farcical imitation of Roman priests going to oSer sacrifice. The butcher's ex- penses are paid by donations from ambassadors, noblemen, ministers, and wealthy citizens, on whom he calls to show his ox. I have seen the procession six or eight times, but probably It is now (18;K)> shorn of its glory, if not abolished. Shrove Tuesday is called Mardi grot in French. Bceuf Gras pronounce Buh-grah'. Boeotian Confederacy (The). The confederacy of the fourteen indepen- dent states of Bceotia, with Thebes at the head. The chief magistrates of the league, called Boeotarchs, were elected annually, two for Thebes and one for each of the other states. The number of Boeotarchs varied as the inde- pendent states were not constant; but fifteen may be roughly called the college of Boeotarchs. Bogomiles or Bogarmit89, 12th cent. Heretics of Bulgaria, who denied the Trinity, the resurrection, the institu- tion of the sacraments, and holy orders. They were deists. The Emperor Alexis Comnenus in 1118 burnt to death their leader. (Sing. Bogomil.) Bog is the Sclavonic for ' God,' and mil la * corruption of milotii, ' have pity on us.' Bohemian Brethren (The). The followers of Huss of Bohemia, 1457. Their great offence was allowing the cup to the laity, whence they were called 'chalice men.' They subsequently merged into the Moravians or ' United Brethren.' Their platform was : (1) the free preaching of the gospel ; ('2) the administration of the eucharist in both kinds; (3) the separation of the clergy from all secular pursuits; and (4) the punishment of the clergy by the civil courts. Bohmenifits. See ' Bektnenists.' Boiling to death. By 22 Henrj III., c. 9, it was enacted that poisoners should be boiled to death. The law was repealed by 1 Edward VL o. 12. Bolden Book ( The). The book con- taining the survey of the see of Durham, made in 1183 by order of the Bishop de Pusay. So called because the parish of Bolden is the first mentioned in the sur- vey. It begins thus : Incipit iiber qui vocatur Bolden Book, Anno Dominice Incarnationis, 1183. It is a small folio, and is kept In the auditor's office at Durham. Bolivia (in South America). So called after Simon Bolivar, who liberated several of the South American provinces from Spain in 1824. Bollandists. The compilers of the numerous folio volumes of the ' Acta Sanctorum ' (q.v.). So called from Father John Bolland, who with ten coad- jutors brought out the first 32 volumes folio, and completed the first series. Re- organised at Brussels in 1837, and the 54th volume was published in 1845. The 57th volume brings down the hagiography to 1855 ; the 61st to 1875. The first five vols. contained Jan. in two vols. (1648), and Feb. in three vols. (1658). The68rdvol. appeared in 1794. Lea Petits BoUandistes ' is a French hagiogra- phy by Mgr. Paul Guerin in 17 large octavo vols., the 7th edition of which was published in 1880. The last vol. is all index. Bolleghe, pi. Bolleghes. The herdsman and his herd in Ireland living on the mountains. The usage is called Bollinge. Bologna (Treaty of), 1 Jan., 1530. A treaty of peace between Venice and Charles V. Charles abandoned to Venice all his conquests in Lombardy, and Venice gave up to Charles the Neapolitan ports. Bolton Quarter. Instant death without mercy. 3 May, 1644 Bolton was taken. Colonel R.' forces routed, and many a sweet saint slain. No quarter would be given, so that Bolton Quarter grew into a proverb. ISAAC AMBRUSK, Media of Middle Thingt. 1060, p. 72. Bomba. A sobriquet of Ferdinand II. of Naples and Sicily, so called from hit savage bombardment of Messina in Sept. 1849. Ill BOMBALINO BONNET Bombalino, or ' Bomba II.' Fran- cis II. of Naples, who bombarded Palermo in I860. He was the son of Ferdinand II., nicknamed ' King Bomba ' (q ..). Bombay (in Hindustan). A corrup- tion of the native name into the Portu- guese Bom-bahia, the good bay (1509). Bona Dea. Called by the Romans Fauna, who revealed her oracles to women only, and no man was permitted to be present at her mysteries. There was a similar deity, named Faunus, exclusively confined to the other sex. PubliuB Clodius, in the house of Caesar, Violated the sanctuary of Bona Dea, and was brought to trial, but he was acquitted by bribery (Cicero, ' Att.' i. 12). Bonaght (Ireland). An exaction imposed at the pleasure of the lord for the maintenance of his sold in. There were two sorts, viz. Bonapht-bur and Bonaght-beg. The first was free quarters at discretion, the latter was a money commutation. See ' Coygne and Livery.' Bonaparte's Egyptian cam- paign, 171)9. Alexandria fell into his bands ; he won the great battle of the Pyramids; completed the subjugation of Egypt ; passed into Syria, made himself master of Gaza and Jaffa ; won the battle of Mount Tabor; returned to Egypt, attacked the Turks at Aboukir, and utterly destroyed their whole army, 25 June, 1799. Bonaparte's Italian cam- paign, 179G-7. He was 27 years of ftge. 11 April, he defeated Beaulieu, the Austrian general, at Montenotte, in Sar- dinia. 14 April, he won the battle of Mille- Bimo. 15 April, he won the battle of Dego. 22 April, he won a victory over the Piedmontese at Mondovi. 10 May. he defeated the Austrian gen- eral Beaulieu nt the Bridge of Lodi, and entered Milan. 19 June, he occupied Bologna, Ferrara, and Ancona. 8 Aug., he defeated the Austrian gen- eral \Viirmser at Lonato. 5 Aug., he defeated the same general at Castiglione. 8 Sept., he defeated him again at Baa- 17 Nov., he won the great battle of Arcola over Alvinzi, the Austrian gen- eral. 14 Jan., 1797, he won the battle of Ri- voli over Alvinzi and Wiirmser. 15 Jan., he won a battle at the faubourg of St. George, near Mantua. 16 Jan., he won a battle near the palace called The Favourite. 16 March, he defeated the Austrians led by the Archduke Karl at Tagliamento. 17 Oct., the treaty of Campo Formio, and in December he returned to France. He had won 15 battles : added Savoy and Nice to France, the Netherlands, and Italy ; had obtained vast money compensations, and returned to France laden with treasures of art. Bonaparte's Forty Days' Cam- paign. He left Paris 6 May, 1800; marched over the Alps, and reached Aosta 23 May ; he entered Milan 2 June; won the battle of Montebello over the Austrians 9 June, and the great battle of Marengo, 14 June ; returned to Paris 2 July. The 40 day* count from his arrival at Aoslft. May. to his return to Paris, 8 July. Bones, or St. Hugh's bones. Dice. 'To rattle the bones,' to play dice. The St. Hugh referred to is St. Hu^h of Lincoln, whose teeth were knocked out by Jews when he was crucified in mockery of the crucified Saviour. Of course this state- ment is given only as a tradition, and not as an historic fact. Bonfire of Vanities (The). In Florence, 1493. Savonarola had such effect by his preaching on the people of Florence, that women, gay gallants, and grave scholars, went in throngs, and threw into a vast bonfire before the gates of the cathedral whole hecatombs of poems, works of fiction, and other works of art, and burnt them, after the example of the men and women of Ephesus (Acts zix. 19). Bonnet-piece (A gold). A gold coin of James V. of Scotland, and the most beautiful of all Scottish coins. So called because the head of the king is represented wearing a bonnet instead of a crown. Bonnet Rouge ( Uri). A red repub- lican was so called from the red cap of liberty worn by him. Bonnet Vert. Prendre le bonnet vert, to become a bankrupt. Alluding to BONONCINISTS BOOK 118 an old law which compelled bankrupts to wear a green cap. This custom con- tinued down to the 17th cent. Bononcinists, 1720-1780. A musical faction in London opposed to the Handelists. The Prince of Wales led the Handel party, supported by Pope and Dr. Arbuthnot ; the Duke of Marl- borough led the Bononcinists, supported by many others of the nobility. For about twelve years the Italian school was BO strongly supported that Handel ceuld not resist the tide ; but in 1742 his popularity returned. Bonzes. Priests of Fo, founder of a reformed Buddhism in China. Born about B.C. 1027. He taught the equality of man ; the love of others ; the love of truth; honest dealing; the sin of murder ; abstention from all intoxicating drinks ; the love of purity ; recompense or punishment after life according to one's deeds. Bonzes live in monasteries. Book. I. The first book printed in German (1461) was the ' Edelstein ' (or ' precious stone ') by Ulrich Boner. A collection of fables, tales, and maxims in reproof of evil ways and for the en- couragement of piety and virtue. The first printed book -was the Psalter of Mains, 1457 ; the next was William Durand's ' Holy Office (' Rationale diviiiorum offlciorum libris viii dis- tinctum'), printed 1459; the third was Balbis's ' Catholicon, a sort of dictionary, 1460 ; then conies the 'Edelstein,' in German. II. The highest price ever offered for a book was 20,OOOZ. It was a Hebrew Bible in the possession of the Vatican. In 1512, the Jews of Venice wished to buy this book, but though Julius II. was greatly pressed for money in order to keep up the Holy League against Louis XII. of France, he declined to part with the volume. The German Government paid 10,OOOZ. for the missal given by Leo X. to Henry VIII. , along with the parchment con- ferring on him the right to assume the title of ' Defender of the Faith.' Charles II. gave these relics to the ancestor of the famous Duke of Hamilton, whose library was sold by Messrs Sotheby, Wilkinson, and Hodge of London. III. The largest book on one subject is the 'Acta Sanctorum' of the Bol- landiots, not yet completed (1890). The 61st vol. was published in 1875. IV. The oldest book in the world if a papyrus containing the proverbs of Ptah-hotep, an Egyptian king, who reigned some 3000 B.C., which was before the birth of Abraham. It has been in part translated by Chabas and others; and may be seen in English dress in J. D. Heath's ' Record of the Patriarchal Age.' Book of Advertisement (The), 1565. The book containing the canons and articles drawn up by the Court of Ecclesiastical Commission appointed by Queen Elizabeth. The object of the book was to secure uniformity of doc- trine and discipline throughout the realm. Sampson, dean of Christchuroh, and Humphrey, regius professor of divinity at Oxford, with many others, refused to conform, and were called N on-conf ormists. Book of Common Order (The), 1562. A liturgy drawn up by John Knox for the use of the Scotch church. It was in general use for nearly a century, and contained forms for the Sunday services, for week days, for the sacra- ments, and for some other occasions. The people took no part in the liturgy. All saints days were Ignored. Book of Common Prayer (The). Based on the ' King's Primer ' (q.v,), was published by Henry VIII. in 1546. In the reign of Edward VI. it underwent two revisions, and ' The Second Prayer Book of Edward VI.' approaches very near to the one now used in the Church of England. In the reign of James I. was introduced a collect in the daily morning and evening service, the prayer for the Royal Family in the Litany, and that part of the catechism about the sacraments. It was revised in 1662, and from time to time special prayer* have been introduced which are not now included in the Common Prayer Book. Cranmer appointed In 1548 twelve commis- sioners to assist him in compiling the Book of Common Prayer in tho rei(,'n of Edward VX. They were Goodrich (bishop of Ely), Holbeach (bishop of Linco;-i), Day (bishop of Chichester), Skip (bishop of Hereford), Thurlby (bishop of Westminster), Ridley (bishop of Rochester ), May (dean of St. Paul's), Taylor (dean of Lincoln), Hayncs (dean of Exeter), Redmayn (master of Trinity, Cambridge), Coxefdean of Christ Church, Oxford), and Robertson (archdeacon of Leicester). The service books consulted by them were these eleven : the Antiphonarium, the Finale, the Graduale or Graylo, the Legeiida, the Manuale, the Missal, the Ordinale, the Pica or Pie, the Pontificate, the Portiforium or Breviary, and the Procossionale. Cranmer presided. 114 BOOK BORDER Book of Discipline (The), 1560. A digest of the forms by which the reformed church in Scotland was to be governed. Both in doctrine and disci- pline the church was modelled on the Geneva or Calvinistic plan. Book of Leinster (The). An Irish MS. compiled 1000-1100. Book of Mormon (The), 1880. The ' revealed ' history of America from its first settlement by a colony dispersed at the confusion of tongues to the 5th cent, of the Christian era. Joseph Smith professed that this information was obtained by him in September 1327 in a volume of metal plates engraved in reformed Egyptian, and discovered by revelation 'on the west side of a hill, not far from the top, about four miles from Palmyra, in the county of Ontario.' As Smith could not decipher the writing, a pair of magic spectacles, which he called his Urim and Thummim, were given to him, and one Oliver Cowdery wrote down on paper what Smith pro- fessed to translate. It is said that the 'Book* is a mere plagiary of a MS. romance by the Rev. Solomon Spalding in 1816. Certainly the plates and specta- cles have disappeared. 800 'Literary Forgeries.' Book of Sentences (The). By Pierre Lombard (1100-11G4). A compila- tion of the leading arguments of the fathers upon moot points of divinity, arranged and digested under heads. Above 244 commentators have written annotations on this book ; among others, Thomas Aquinas, Guillaume Durand, fit. Bonaventure, &o. Book of Sports (The), 1618. A declaration issued by James I. of England, signifying his pleasure that on Sundays, after divine service, 'no lawful recreation should be barred to his good people.' The sports more especially mentioned were dancing, archery, leap- ing, vaulting, May-games/ Whitsun-ales, morrice-dances, and setting up of May- poles. The declaration was appointed to be read in the parish churches. In I(i3;{ the declaration was again published. In 1044 the Long Parliament ordered all copies of the declaration to be burned. It was again reprinted in Arber'g ' Eng- lish Garner.' The following sports were forbidden on Sunday! : bear and bull baiting, bowling, and Interlude*. Those who had not attended church were for- bidden to join in the sports, and no one could go out of his parish to join the sport* of another parish. Book of Torgau (The), 1576. A famous confession of faith by the Reformers, the object of which was to produce unity and uniformity among the divergent sects. From this was developed ' The formula of concord ' (1580). B9oted Mission (The). 'La Mission botte*e,' the dragonnade of Louig XIV. Trench, speaking of the Ephesian Church, refers to ' the French Protestant refugees, who had found shelter from the dragonnades, the " Mission bottle," as it is so facetiously called by some Roman Catholic writers, of Louis XIV.' (' Commentary on the Epistles to the Seven Churches of Asia,' p. 73.) None of the infinite abases which might arts* from this ' Mission bottee ' (as the rude and fierce body of Instructors were called, either in bitter sportlvencss or contempt) was likely to be dimin- ished by the temper of the officer to whom its direction was entrusted. SMKDLET. History of the Reformed Religion in France, ToL lii. p. 250, ohap. xzlr., of A.D. 168L Boot-jack. John, earl of Bute (1713-1792) ; a pun on John-Bute, whence Jack-Bute, and by metathesis Boot-jack. Booth's Expedition (Felix), 1829. He equipped the ' Victory ' steamer at his own cost and sent it under the com- mand of Captain Ross to discover whether there is a north-west passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Mr. Booth has his name perpetuated in the words Boothia, Booth iana, and Point Felix; and William IV. made him a baronet ; but no passage could be dis- covered. Captain Ross returned in 1832. Border (The). The frontier of Eng- land and Scotland. The Tweed for about sixteen miles, the Cheviot hills for about twenty-five miles, then the Kers- hope Water (a tributary of the Esk), then the ' Debatable Land ' and the river Sark, to the Solway Firth. Border-thief School (The). Thos* novelists who took for their heroes border thieves, or for their subjects the adven- tures of border chiefs. Sir W. Scott and his poetical imitators are meant. With your Lake Schools, and Border this! Schools, and Cockney and Sutanic Schools, thers baa been enough to do.-CA<UL BORDER BOSTON 118 The 'Lake School,' such as Wordsworth, fcouthey, and Coleridge, -who 'haunted the lakes ol Cumberland ' and Westmoreland. The 'Cockney School,' such as Leigh Hunt, Hazlitt, Shelley, Keats, &o. The 'Satanic School,' such as Byron, Moore, Bulwer, Rousseau, Victor Hugo, Paul de Kock, and 3 eorge Sand. So called because they show no deference to the conventionalities of religion and morals. Border Warrant (4). A warrant issued by a Scotch sheriff or county-court judge to arrest a debtor on the English side, and detain him till he produces bail for his appearance when called on within six months. Borgites (2 syl.), or 'Bordjites.' A dynasty of Mamelukes in Egypt (1882- 1517), which succeeded the Baharites (3 syl.). Every one of these rulers, except Barkuk the founder, was either deposed or met with a violent death. Touman-Bey (the last of them) was hanged by Seiim, sultan of the Ottomans. Borome" (The), or Leinster tribute. An annual tribute paid by the King of Leinster to Tuathal, overlord of Ireland, for causing the death of Tuathal's two daughters, whom he had inveigled into his power under the promise of marriage. Boromean Tribute (The). See Boarian.' His (Leogalre's) war upon the Lagentans, or people of Leinster, to enforce the payment of the Boromean tribute, seems worthy of notice. T. MOORE, Hist, of Ireland, xl. 232. Borough English. The law by which the youngest son is the heir, from the supposition that he is less able to maintain himself than his elder brothers. Borough-mongers. A term ap- plied by Cobbett to those who were ' mongers ' of boroughs ; that is, had property in parliamentary seats, which seats they could sell or bestow on whom they thought proper. Borrome'o (Charles), archbishop of Milan, and Augustin Valerio, bishop of Verona, have won to themselves immortal fame by their intrepidity in visiting the plague-stricken in 1576. This terrible pest depopulated Venice, Verona, Milan, and Trent. The great Titian fell a victim *iO it. It was attributed to the miasma rising from stagnant water and bad drainage. See ' Plagues/ &o. We have an Englishman fully worthy of being placed with these philanthropists. During the great plague of London in IGiW, Sir John Law- rence, then Lord Mayor, continued the whole time in the city ; heard complaints and redressed grievances. The day after the disease was known to be the plague, 40,000 servants were dismissed and turned into the streets, for no one would take them In. Sir John supported them all at first from his own private fortune, till subscriptions came in to help him in his benevolent work. Journal of the Plague, printed by E. Nutt, 1722. Query. Is there a statue to this great man In the City ? If not, for the honour of our Lord Mayors, there ought to be. The John Lawrence In Westminster cloisters was a 'short-hand writer.' I can call to mind no public monument to one of the greatest of England's worthies. Boscobel. So celebrated for the concealment of Charles II., was originally the property of a Mr. Giffard, who built there a small mansion, which he called ' Bosco-bello,' fair wood. When Charles took refuge there the farmer's name was Penderell. Bosphorus (The). Means the ox or cow ford. So called because lo, trans- ported into a cow, forded or swam across it. So, at least, we are told in Grecian fable. Bosporic Bra (The}. Commenced B.C. 297. Boston Bard (The). Robert S. Coffin, born in Boston, Massachusetts (1797-1857). Boston Massacre (The), 5 March, 1770. A ridiculously grand phrase for a petty squabble between the British soldiers quartered in Boston and the men employed in Gray's rope-walk. Some of the soldiers mockingly asked to be employed in the rope- walk ; a row ensued, which was renewed for two or three days, and at last some of the officers drew up a company of soldiers to overawe the men. The workmen began to taunt the ' lob- sters,' and struck one of them. The soldiers fired. Three of Gray's men fell and eight were wounded. The funeral of the three men was made a public protest, and its anniversary was kept for 14 years. Boston News Letter (The). Appeared 24 April, 1704. It was the first American newspaper. Boston Port Bill (The), March 1774. A bill by Lord North to take away from Boston (Massachusetts) the customs, the courts of justice, and the government offices, and transfer them to New Salem, in consequence of the re- 12 116 BOSTON BOWIDES bellion of the Bostonians, especially their wanton destruction of tea to the value of 18,000^., to show their hatred of England. Boston Tea-party (The), 16 Dec., 1778. Those citizens of Boston who, disguised as Indians, boarded the three English ships, which had just come into the harbour, and threw into the sea several hundred chests of tea, by way of protest against English taxation of America without a representation in parliament. Botany (Father of), Tourneforl (1656-170H). Botany (Professorship of). In the University of Cambridge, 1724, founded by the university. Stipend 800/. a year. Botany Bay, 1770. So called by Captain Cook, who discovered, on enter- ing the bay, the epacris (a sort of heath), which, though very brilliant, will grow in the poorest soil. Bottle Riot (The), 1822. In Dublin theatre. Someone (12 June, l^J'J) daubed the equestrian statue of William III., on College Green, with lampblack. The Orangemen had been accustomed for many years to whitewash it and decorate it with* yellow ribbons on the anniversary of the battle of the Boyne (1 July, 1690). As these pranks caused great riots, the Marquis of Wellesley, the lord-lieutenant, forbade any un- authorised person to interfere with the statue at all. This offended the Orange- men, who clubbed together to mob him in the theatre. During the National Anthem, someone threw a bottle at the marquis ; a riot ensued, and some of the offenders were prosecuted ; but the bills were thrown out, and when government took the matter up, the jury would not agree, and the prosecution was dropped. Bottomless Pitt (The). William Pitt (1759-1806), the statesman, a very thin man, with no ' fall ' in his back. Boulden Book (The). A book recording the inquisition made by Hugh Pudsey, bishop of Durham, in 1183, still extant. It shows that the villeins of Bolden held each thirty acres of land, which they paid for partly in service, partly in land, and partly in money. It IB valuable for throwing light on the subject of villeinage in England in the 12th cent., and for other incidental in- formation on the social state of tho people. Bourbon Dynasty, of France. Began with Henri IV. the Great, and continued in a direct line to the Revolu- tion. Louis XVIII. and his brother Charles X. were also in the direct line. Louis Philippe was of the Orleans branch. The Bourbona were descended from the sixth on of St. Louis, brother of Philippe III. The dynasty (with the interruption of the Revolution nd Empire) continued from 1589 to 1848. Bourbon Orleans branch of the Bourbon dynasty. Gave to France one king, Louis Philippe, called Le Ro\ Citoyen (1778, 1830-1848, died 1850). Bourguignons (The), 1407. The faction of the Duke of Burgundy (Jean- sans-Peur), opposed to the Armagnacs or Orleanist party, during the imbecility of Charles VI. of France. The cogni- sance of the Bourguignons was a St. Andrew cross on a red scarf. The cognisance of the Armagnacc wa > 8V George B cross on > white scarf. Bourguignons (pronounce Armagnacs i pronounce Ah-man'-yaJu). Bow-street Runners (established 174'.)). Nicknamed Robin Redbreasts from their scarlet waistcoats. The Bow-street officers were a brave resolute set of men, nimble of foot like a proctor's ' bull-dog,' skilled to run down offenders and ' bring them to book.' Bowdlerise. To expurgate a book in editing it. Dispatches are bowdlerippd by government, or 'edited,' that ob- jectionable statements may be omitted, before the dispatches are given to the public. Bowdler gave to the world an expurgated edition of Shakespeare's works, in which, as he tells us, 'nothing is added to the original text, but all words and expressions are omitted which cannot with propriety be read aloud in a family.' See ' Grangerise.' Bowdlerite (A). An abridger, so called from Thomas Bowdler (1754- 1825). The opposite of a Grangerite (q.v.). Wo have also Bowdlerise, Bowdlerlser. Bowd torlsm, Bowdlerlsatlon, ic. Bowides (2 syl.) or ' Bouides,' 10th and llth cents. A Mussulman dynasty, under the califs, in Irak Adjeiui, in Persia, offspring of Bouyah of Dilem, BOX-DAYS BOYCOTT 117 This Bouyah had three sons, viz. Imad- Eddaula, Rockn-Eddaula, and Moez- Eddaula, who rose to sovereign power, reigning at Bagdad and over Persia (932-1055). " These three brothers were called the pillars of the state, and under their vigorous reign the language and genius of Persia revived. The Seljuks succeeded them. The Bouides (2 syl.) were not shahs, but emir*. Box-days, 1690. Two days (one in the spring and one in the autumn vaca- tion) appointed by the Scotch judges of the Court of Session, when law papers raay be filed. For preventing [private solicitation], and tot easeing the leidgos themselves, and the lawyers, they . . . have appointed boxes for every one of the lords, to stand on a bank in the Session house from 8 o'clk till 7 o elk at night, each box having a elitt in which the Informations or bills may be lett in, and cannot be drawn out untill the box be opened ; the key whereof is to be kept by every Judge himself, and to be committed to no other. Boxers. There were two schools of boxing during the regency, the Bristol school and the Hebrew school, the chief exponents being Tom Cribb of Bristol and Mendoza the Jew. See 'Broughtonian.' The chief boxers have been : Jim Belcher (Brlstolian), who had but one ey (champion), and Tom Belcher, his brother ; Ben- digo ; Cohen ; Thomas Cribb, the champion ; Figg ; Gardolio, of the Hebrew school ; Bob Gregson (the Pot of Pork) ; Gully ; John C. Heenan, the Benicia Boy ; Humphries ; Gentleman Jackson (Lord Byron was his pupil); Jim Mace ; Daniel Mendoza, the Jew : Molineux, the Negro ; Oliver ; Painter ; Kandal (the Nonpareil), noted for his pink cheeks ; Caleb Rann (Mendoza's favourite pupil, and called the Pink [of Bow] ; Richmond Scroggins, a sailor ; Tom Sayers (who fought the Benicia Boy in 1800) ; Cyrus Smalley (the Sprig of Myrtle), Cribb's favourite pupil ; Spring, so called by Cribb, but bis real name was Thomas Winter; Sutton; Tomkins ; Jem Ward, the Nestor of the ring, &c. Daniel Mendoza published in 1790 the 'Art of Boxing, 1 in which he gives particulars of hia match with Humphries. The era of boxing was 1719-1860. Boy Bachelor (The). Thomas [cardinal] Wolsey (1471-1580), of Mag- dalen College, Oxford. He took his degree before he was fifteen years of age. He told Sir William Cavendish that he was usually so called at Oxford. lugo Grotius, 1600, pleaded his first cause when jnly seventeen years of age ; Francis Bacon, born 1561, entered Trin. Coll. Camb. at the age of twelve, nd was called to the Bar before he was twenty- one. Edward Herbert matriculated at University College, Oxford, at the age of twelve. Boy Bishop (The). Mentioned aa early as 1290. Prohibited by the council of Sens in 1485. The election of a boy- bishop prohibited in England by pro- clamation in 1542 (reign of Henry VIII.). The election revived by an edict of the bishop of London, 13 Nov., 1554. Custom abolished by Queen Elizabeth in 1558 The boy-bishop was elected on St. Nicholas's Day (Dec. 6), and the office lasted till Holy Innocents Day (Dec. 28). He was chosen from the cathedral choir or grammar-school, and when elected was arrayed like a bishop, and, attended by his chapter, went about the streets blessing the people in ridicule. He took possession of the church and performed all services except mass. Boy Bishops. A child of only five years old was made archbishop of Reims. The see of Narbonne was purchased for a boy of ten. See ' Boy Popes.' (Hallam, 1 Middle Ages,' vol. ii. p. 248.) Boy Crusades. Set ' Child Pilgrimages.' Boy Martyr (The). St. Pancra*., who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian (293-303). Boy Patriots (The), 1742. So Walpole, after his fall, called Pitt, Lyttelton, Grenville, and their party of ambitious young men opposed to him and his measures (temp. Geo. IL;. Boy Popes. John XII. was made pope at the age of eighteen (956-963). Benedict IX. was made pope at the age of ten (1033-1054). Both these lads were licentious, extravagant, and profli- gate. One died at the age of twenty- five, having been pope for seven years, and the other died at the age of thirty- one, having been pope for twenty-one years. See ' Boy Bishops.' Boys (The). L So Walpole called the young 'Patriot* faction (1733), at the head of which was the young cornet of horse, William Pitt, the future earl of Chatham. In 1739 Walpole was obliged to bow to the faction, and consent against his better judgment to a war policy, and in 1742 he was compelled to resign. II. The Irish Land-leaguers (q.v.) are generally called ' The Boys.' III. See 'Wonderful Boys.* Boycott (To). To ostracise. A word adopted from a Mr. Boycott, who was ostracised in 1881 by the Irish Land League. The principle is old enough, as the proverbs Damner une boutique, and Damner une ville, will show. One word as to the way in which a man should be boycotted. When any man has taken a farm from which a tenant has been evicted, or is a grabber, let every one in the parish turn his book 118 BOYLB BRAVEST? on him ; have no communication with him ; have no dealings with him. You need never say an unkind word to him; but never say anything at all to him. If you must meet him in the (air, walk away from him silently. Do him no violence, all to him. If you must meet him in the ly. but have no dealings with him. Let every man's door be closed against him ; and make him (eel himself a stranger and a castaway in his own neighbourhood. J. DILLON, M.P., Speech to the Land league, 20 Feb., 1881. Boyle's Law. The volume of a portion of gas varies inversely as the pressure (1602). Thus if we double the pressure, the gas will be reduced one- lialf; if we treble the pressure, the volume of gas will be reduced to one- third, and so on. Called by Continental writers Mariotte's Law (1676). Boyle Lectures. Eight lectures in one year in defence of Christianity against heterodoxy, infidelity, or objectors. Bentley preached the first series. Esta- blished by Robert Boyle, son of the Earl of Cork (1627-lG'Jl). Braban9ons. Bands of mercena- ries or brigands, chiefly from Brabant, who overran France, in the middle ages, and committed frightful disorders. John king of England and Philippe (II.) Auguste draughted them off into their armies, and trained them, Brabant Screen (The), 1720. A caricature in which the Duchess of Kendal, from behind a screen, is supply- ing Knight, treasurer of the South Sea Company, with money to effect his escape, when the bubble bursts. Knight, with all the document*, books, and secrete of the directors, effected his escape to Calais. He was apprehended near Ll< ge, and lodged In the citadel of Antwerp ; but tin- States of Brabant refused to give him up, and he was allowed to make his escape. The Duchess of Kendal was the mistress of George I., the reigning king, and the caricature implies that the royal family was Involved in the Iniquity of the scheme. The Prince of Wales was certainly one of the governors of the Company. Bracceschi ( The), 1409. The party of Braccio, formed into a company on the death of Barbiano. See ' Sforzeschi.' Bracciolini (Poggio), of Tuscany (1881-1459), secretary to seven popes. Said to be the author of the ' Annals of Tacitus' (q.v.), for which 'forgery' he received from Cosmo de' Medici 500 gold sequins. We are told that the original MS. of Bracciolini's forgery is still pre- served in the library of Florence. See 1 Literary Impostors, criut> by his procurator Pontius Pilate ' is from the ' Annals ' xv. 44. Bradford Law. Hang first and try afterwards. A summary way of dealing with marauders, especially in border laws and in times of general turbulence. There are many similar expressions : as Lydford Law. Halifax Law, Cupar Justice, Jedburgb Justice, Uurslem Club Law, Abingdon Law (q.v.), Mob Law, Ac. Brahminism. It includes a belief in a Supreme Being, the doctrine of immortality, that of a Trinity, and also of an Incarnation. It teaches a belief in a heaven and hell, and of a divine revelation. The Brahmins have their sacred scriptures (viz. the Vedas, the Vedentas, the Upanishads, and the Pura- nas), and two sacred poems of immense length. The present number of Brah- mins is 139,000,000. Brandanes (2 syl.). The name given to the 1,000 Scotch archers, ex- ceptionally tall and handsome men, who, in 1298, followed Sir John Stewart to the battle of Falkirk. In that fatal ment, Sir John was slain and the 4 Brandanes ' were annihilated. Brandons and ' St. Brandon's day.' Valentine's day is called ' Dominica de brandonibus.' A brandon is a lighted torch, like Cupid's torch of love; and boys used at one time to carry about brandons on Valentine's eve and Valen- tine's day, collecting largesses. Bras-de-Fer. Francois de Lonoue, ft Calvinist of the 10th cent., and most distinguished chief after the death of Coligny. Brasenose College, Oxford, 1509. Founded by William Smith, bishop of Lincoln, and Sir Richard Sutton of If restbury, Chester. The head-master is called the principal. The origin of the word Is doubtful. There Is a brazen nose over the great gateway, a sign,' as Anthony Wood culls it ; but th.-rr is it 1. x ml that the site of the college was aa ld brew -house ox brasserie. Bravest of the brave (The), 'L* brave des braves.' Michael Ney, marshal of France, so called for his services at the terrible battle of Moskowa in Russia, in 1812, which procured him the title of due de hi Moakowa' (17Gy-l15). BRAZEN BREHOtt lid Brazen Horses of St. Mark (The). Four horses of gilt bronze re- moved by the Venetians from the Hippodrome at Constantinople, and placed over the western porch of the Basilica of St. Mark. No one knows the artist or date of these horses. Augustus brought them from Alexandria, after the conquest of Antony, and set them on a triumphal arch in Rome; they were removed by Nero, Domitian, Trajan, and Constantine to other arches. Constantino removed them to Constantinople. When Bonaparte took Venice in 1797 he removed the four horses to Paris, but in 1815 they were restored to Venice, which was allotted to the Austrian Govern- ment. Brazen Wall (The). A horse regiment of Cromwell's republican party, BO called because it was never broken. See ' Stonewall Jackson.' Bread and Cheese. The shibbo- leth of Tyler's rebels, 1381, whereby he detected Flemish merchants. Bread-and-cheeseland. Twenty acres of land left by Mary and Elizabeth Chukhurst of Biddenden (in the 12th cent.) for the benefit of the poor of their parish. The rent of this land was to be laid out in bread and cheese, to be distributed on Easter Sunday. The parish poor were to have 270 three-and- a-half pound loaves, with cheese in pro- portion ; and 600 rolls were to be given to non-parishioners. Breaking Money. To break a piece of money at parting, each keeping * part, was a bond of fidelity at one time among lovers. This came from very remote times, before inns and houses of public accommodation were known. Travellers had then to trust to the hospitality of strangers living on the road, and it was customary at parting to .divide some article, such as a white stone or small coin, and for the host and guest each to take a part, that if the host required similar hospitality from his guest, he might claim it by showing the token. In the Revelation of St. John this custom is referred to (ii. 17), where Christ says, 'To him that over- cometh will I give a white stone,' so that it the day of judgment he may demand admission into heaven. It stares, beckons, points to the piece of gold We brake between us. The I'otv Breaker, ill. 1 Breast-laws. The common law of the Isle of Man. The code being 9. jus non scriptum is deposited in the heart or breast of the deemsters and keys (q.v.). Breda (Compromise of), 1566. (Peace of), 81 June, 1667, between England, France, and Denmark. Breeches. See 'Procession of the Black Breeches.' Breeches Bible (The), 1557- Printed by Whittingham, Gilby, and Sampson. So called because Gen. iii. 7 runs thus : ' The eyes of them bothe were opened. . . . and they sewed figge-tree leaves together and made themselves breeches.' Also called the ' Geneva Bible.' Breeches Martyrs. O'Brien, M.P. and several other Irishmen imprisoned in 1889 for exciting the Irish to rebellion during the turbulent times of the Land League, refused to put on the prison dress, and went without their breeches, shivering with cold. Ridiculed by the general public as the ' breechless martyrs.' Breeches Review (The). The 'Westminster Review,' so called from Francis Place, a West-end breeches- maker who had a considerable share both in the property and also in its con- duct. Breffni. Comprised the present Irish counties of Cavan and Leitrim. Cavan was called Breffni O'Reilly ; and Leitrim was Breffni O'Ruark. Dermot MacMurrogh, king of Leinster, eloped with the -wife of O Ruark of Breffni, who appealed to the monarch. O'CONNOR, Hist, of tlie Irish People, p. 48. Brehon Laws. In Ireland. Un- written or traditional laws. These laws were reduced to writing about 440. As, not unfrequently, the Brehon laws were repugnant to the laws of God and man, they were abolished in Anglo-Ireland by the Statute of Kilkenny 40 Edw. III., 136(5 ; and the abolition was extended to the whole island by James I. Brehon In Ireland meant a 'judge,' and Brehon law was justice administered by the chief of a clan to those of his own tribe. The Brohon sat In the open air 011 a stone or mound. Spenser calls the Brehon laws ' a rule of right unwritten.' That is, not deriving Its authority by written statute*, The writing was simply a record of existing laws. 80 with to* ' common law ' of England. 120 BRENNU8 BRETON Brennus. No proper name, but a corrupt Cymric word, brenhin meaning 1 king.' It was a Brennus who sacked Eome in the days of Camillus, B.C. 890. Another Brennus invaded Greece, and was defeated B.C. 280. Brethren, Brethrenism, 1832. The Plymouth Brethren. call themselves only 'Brethren,' and their religious system they call ' Brethrenisin. 1 They practise no rites and have no ministers. According to the teaching of these Christians, to preach the Gospel is to deny that the Saviour's work is finished. However, they baptize one another, which la * rite. See ' Brothers.' Brethren of Good Will (The). See ' Brethren of Social Life.' Brethren of Our Lady of Mount Olivet, or Olivetans, 1272. An offset of the Benedictines, founded by John Tolomei. The brethren devoted themselves chiefly to teaching and the cultivation of sacred science. Brethren of St. Alexius. See 'Alexians.' Brethren of St. George (The\ 1472. See ' Brotherhood of St. George/ Brethren of Social Life (The), 1876. Founded in Holland by Geert Groote and Florentius Kadewin, not unlike the subsequent society known as the ' United Brethren ' or Moravians. They enjoined a community of goods, ascetic habits, the use of the vernacular tongue in all religious services, and ac- knowledged no conventual distinctions (' all ye are brethren '). In 1480 they numbered 130 societies. Brethren of the Christian Schools. 'Fri'resdesecoleschretit inn s,' 1681, instituted at Reims by Canon J. B. de la Salle, for the gratuitous education of children in the elements of religion. The bretliren wore a large black robe and square cap. This order survived the Revolution, and was legalised in 1808. Brethren of the Common Lot (The). See l Brethren of Social Life.' Brethren of the Free Spirit, 1065, or ' Fratricelli. 1 Censured by the Council of Vienna in 1811, and persecuted by Karl IV. in 1869. They took their name from Rom. viii. 2. ' The law of the spirit of life in Christ Jesus hath made us ftee from the law of sin and death.' Their doctrine was a sort of pantheistic mysticism. They said that all things emanate from God, and will revert to Him again ; that rational souls are part of God, that the whole universe is God, that by divine contemplation the soul is converted into the divine essence and becomes free from sin. Brethren of the Holy Cross (The), 17th cent. The Rosicrucians, said to have been founded by Christian Rosencreutz, who died 1484, and bound his disciples not to make public any of his doctrines till 120 years after his death, The Rosicrucians were credited with pos- sessing the secret of gold-making, keep- ing lights burning for centuries, and othet alchemic secrets. Brethren of the Passion (The). A company of pilgrims authorised to re- present dramatically in cathedrals and other churches religious mysteries, such as the Incarnation, the Crucifixion, the Holy Trinity, the Real Presence, the Resurrection, &c. (13th to 15th cent.). Brethren of the White Caps, 18th cent. The followers of one Durand, a carpenter, so called because their headgear was of white linen. They bound themselves not to play dice, not to frequent taverns, to wear no at clothing, to avoid perjury and all vain swearing. They also forbade the lords from taking ' dues ' from their vassals. Bretigny (Treaty of), 8 May, 1360. Between France and England, in which Edward III. renounced all pretensions to the crown of France j abandoned his claim to Normandy, Anjou, and Maine: but, on the other hand, his duchy of Aquitaine (including Gascony, Guienne, Poitou and Saintonge) remained to him, not as a fief, but in full sovereignty ; while his new conquest of Calais continued till the reign of Queen Mary possession ot the English crown. King Jean was taken captive and bro London, when his ransom was fixed at H H U crowns (about l.AOCi.KOW. sterling. Wlu-n lie went to France to collect the money, he loft his on, the Due d'AnJou, as a hostage ; but the duke ran away, and Jean returned to London, where he died in 1364. Breton Club (The). 1789. Founded at Versailles at the instigation of Lafay- ette by the deputies of Brittany. It was subsequently transferred to Paris, and became the famous ' Club des Jacobin*. 1 BRETTS BRIDGEWATER 121 The Breton club was formed because the king (Louis XVI.) over and over again refused to see their deputations, sent to remonstrate against his arbitrary con- duct. Bretts and Scots. Bretts were the remains of the British or Welsh people in Scotland. At one time the ' British ' were the chief inhabitants of Dumbarton, Renfrew, Ayr, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh, Dumfries, and Cumberland ; and this province was called ' Cambria,' ' Cumbria,' and ' Strathclyde.' In the middle of the 10th cent, it was a tributary to England, and continued so into the 12th cent., when Cumberland became a part of England. The Scots were a Keltic people dwell- ing in the western and northern parts, and were called the 'wild Scots,' the Irishry of Scotland,' and ' Scotch High- landers.' The ' Laws of the Bretts and Scots * were abolished by Edward L Bretwalda. An Anglo-Saxon chief chosen to command the army (Bretwald, British ruler). I. Ella of Sussex, 491-614. II. Ceawlin of Wessex, 684-692. III. Ethelbert of Kent, 597 to Feb. 8161 IV. Kedwald of East Anglia, 616. V. Edwin of Northumbria, king o all England except Kent, C20 to Oct. 633. VI. Oswald of Northumbria, 635 to 8 Aug.. 642. VII. Oswy this brother) of Northumbria, 651 M 16 Feb., 670. VIII. Egbert of Wessex, 827-837. Also king. E:. Alfred the Great, 871. Also king. Edgar the Pacific, 958. Also king. Breviarium Alaricianum, A.D- 606. An abridgment of the Theodosian Code by Alaric II., king of the Visigoths. Breviary (The), 494. A book con- taining the canonical hours of the Latin church, viz. Matins, Lauds, Prime, Tierce, Sexte, None, Vespers, and Compline. It is called a breviary because it contains in a brief or abridged form the several offices. An ecclesiastic ought to go through his treviary daily. The original breviary was the work of Pope Gelasius, A.D. 494, but it has been often modified. The Greek breviary is called ' EiMtology,' and is more ancient than the Latin, going back to the time of Chrysostom, who died 409. Originally It consisted of the Lord's Prayer and xtracts from the Psalms. Subsequently short readings (lessons) from the Scriptures were added. v The Breviary la quite a distinct book from the If iMal (. j. Brian (Boru) king of Monster in the 10th cent. He was slain in the I at tie of lontarf on Good Friday 1014. Bridewell, 1522. Was built by Henry VIII. for a royal palace, for the reception of Karl V. and his retinue, but sometimes the king himself lived there j in 1553 the palace was given by Edward VI. to the city of London for a workhouse and bouse of correction. In 166G it was burnt down in the fire of London. Bridewell is the name of the parish, so called from a well dedicated to St. Bride. Bridge of Sighs (The), or Ponte dei Sospiri, Venice. Connecting the Prigioni Sotterraneo with the judgment ball of the doge's palace. Those who passed over it after their trial were prison- ers on their way to execution. Buskin says it is renaissance of the 16th cent. After the great fire of 1574 the prisons previously connected with the palace were moved to the other side. Whether Niccolo da Ponte, the doge, who died in 1578, had any connection with the word 4 Ponte ' in the phrase I cannot determine. The bridge was the work of Jacopo Tatti Sansovino, th architect (1479-1570). Bridge of Straw, Venice, (The). ' Ponte della Paglia.' One of the bridges which connected the prisons with the doge's palace. So called because when the nobles rode to the council they left their horses at the foot of this bridge in charge of grooms, and they were either stabled or baited, or both. Bridge water Canal (The), 1760. From Worsley to Manchester, cut by Brindley under the direction of the Duke of Bridgewater. Bridgewater Collection (The), 1829. In the MS. department of the British Museum. Collected by the last earl of Bridgewater. Chiefly MSS. relat- ing to French history. Bridgewater Treatises (The\ 1829. Francis Henry Egerton, 8th and last Earl of Bridgewater, placed 8,OOOZ. at the disposal of the president of the Royal Society to be paid to eight persons -Ap- pointed by him to publish 1,000 copies of a work on the goodness of God mani- fested in his works, from eight stand- points. WHEWELL was appointed to take general physics considered in connection with natural theology. BUCKLAND, geo- logy and mineralogy. BELL, the human hand. ROOET, animal and vegetable physiology. PBOUT, chemistry and the functions of digestion. CHALMERS, ex- 1-2-1 BRIGANDAGE BRITAIN ternal nature adapted to man'g moral and intellectual constitution. KIDD, on the adaptation of nature to man's physical condition. And KIKBY, the history, habits, and instincts of animals. Brigandage of Ephesus (The), ^J>. 449. A council of Ephesus, which condemned Theodoret, one of the Chris- tian fathers, and defended Eutyches the heresiarch, who maintained that the humanity of Christ was absorbed in his divine nature. The Council was called ' Latrocinium,' the assembly of thieves and robbers. Briggs's Logarithms. Construc- ted by Henry Briggs, a contemporary of Baron Napier (1556-1680). Bright'B Disease. A fatty de- generation of the tissues of the kidneys. So called from Dr. R. Bright, who was the first to investigate the character of the disease in 1837. Brighton of the Riviera (The) cr Brighton of the South, 1 Nice. Brilliant Madm an (The). Charles XIL of Sweden (16U7-1710). He com- pelled the Danes to make peace, dethron- ed the king of Poland, and waged war with Russia for a time with success ; but, being defeated by Czar Peter the Great at 1'ultowa, Sweden fell from her high estate as a first-class power. Brin villiers, the poisoner, was Marie Madeleine d'Aubray, marquise de Brinvil- liers (1C30-1676). She poisoned her father, her two brothers, and a sister. She was tortured, beheaded, and then burnt to ashes in Paris, 16 July, 1676. Brissot (Jean-Pierre). The French revolutionist (1754-1798); was the first to abandon the use of hair-powder, and was the first victim of Robespierre. He as- sumed the dress of a quaker, and the name of De Warvillo. Brissptins. The followers of Jean- Pierre Brissot in the first French revolu- tion. Brissot was editor of the journal called ' Le Patriote Francais,' and was one of the moving spirits of the times. He was a member of the Convention, but was opposed to the Montagnards, which drew upon him the wrath of Robespierre, who caused him to be proscribed 81 May, and he was put to death 81 Oct., 1793. Bristol Fashion (In). Methodical, in apple-pie order. In the great mass meeting, 18 Oct., 1884, a route of above three miles was observed in one un- broken line. No cheering disturbed the stately solemnity; no one ran to give any direction ; no noise of any kind was heard; but on, in one unbroken line, steady and stately, marched the throng in 'Bristol fashion' ('Daily News,' 20 Oct., 1884). Bristol Riots (The), Sunday, 29 Oct., 1881, on the visit of Sir Charles Wetherell. It was during the excitement of the Reform Bill, which had been thrown out by the House of Lords. Sir Charles, a tory, entered with a cavalcade in a kind of triumph, and the mob rose in rebellion. The bridewell, the new gaol, the Gloucester county prison, several of the toll-houses, the bishop's palace, the mansion-house, the custom-bouse, the excise-office, and several private houses were set on fire. About 110 persons were killed, and three of the ringleaders were executed. The loss of property sustained was over half a million sterling. Bristolians or Bristolites (8 syl.). Prize-fighters in the regency, of the Bristol school. Bristol was famous for the three pugilists, Jem Belcher (who had lost one eye), Thomas Cribb (once a coal-porter), and Molineux. The other school of boxers was called the ' Hebrews,' of which Mendoza was the chief ex. ponent. The Prince Regent was a Bristolian, and his brother Frederick, duke of York, was a partisan of the Hebrew rivals. Much to the annoyance of the general public, the Prince Regent actually attached Thomas Cribb to his household. See ' Boxers.' Britain (Rulers of), before Egbert. (Those In lUilica were praetors, propraetors, or pnvfecU of Rome.) BegOnax ... _ _ ... B.o. 88--JO Temantius 901OA.D. Cunobcllni (Cymbellne) (at Camelodd- num) 9-l Adminius 81-40 Caractacus and Togodumnos (ton* of Cunobclin) . _ 0-.<1 Pub. Otloniu Scapula, prtttor .. . _ CO 63 l>i,liut. proprietor ... . .. 68-i7 Vrruniu* ... 67-S8 Paullnut Suftoniui . - -* Boadic&a, queen of the IcSnl -. . 60-03 Petroniui Turmli&nut ...... 62-70 Petiliut Cfredlit ...-.-._ 70- 78 Cnirui Juliut AuricSla ... _ _ . t-tf Oladu*. king of the IcCni ~ Z Z It BRITAIN BRITISH 123 Trebfllins .-.. _ AJD. 86-120 Hadrian , emperor ....._._ 120 Si'renin, prtflor ^. . ^ 120-188 oiUu frbtVii* ...-.. 188-161 Calpurnius Agricola -. .. 161-183 t/ T /pit Marcellui ~ M. . _ M 183-186 Pertinax ... .~ ~ ... 186-192 Ctodttw^JWniu ^ 192-196 F.Lupu* ... 196-208 (Seterut, the emperor, rtied at York 211) (A'o name* yu-H ttii 257) Posthumus, proprietor ... ^, ... .. . 257-276 Bonosus . 276 Marcus Aurelius Carausius 387-298 (Revolt*, and assumes the title of Augustut, in Britain) Aleetus, emperor of Britain ... ... 8-29 (//< murdered Carausius) Atclfpiodotus, captain of thf guard ... 896-804 (Slew Aleetus ; nnd acted as prtetor) Britain joined to the pr.rfrcture of Gnul ... 804 Constantius Chlorus, -with imperial power 804-806 (Died at York) Constantino the Great _..*._. 806-885 Constantino II. ... ~ ,,. 835-840 Constans ... 840-360 Constantius .... 860-360 Julian and Lupicus, prattort . ^. _ 860-3 of Maximut 381) Victorlnus ... 895-408 Stilicho, preetor ... 408-408 Constantine, prefect . ....,-. 408-421 (How/* recalled 421) Vortigern, king of the Britons . 448 (Dethroned 454) Ambrosius and Vortimer 454-457 (\'ortig,'rn rtttored 454; deposed by Henaist 455) Am brosiuB sole nominal king... _ 608 Hengist ... ... . ^. 457-488 Ella, brefrwalda of Britain ... ^ . 491-619 Cerdic 619-6&4 (A rthur it laid to have reigned 518-542) " Kenric . _ ... _. ^ 84-6flO Coeline -..-.. 560 Chevllne Ethelbert, king of Ken ..... (.St. Augustine arrive*) Redwald of East Anglia ... . . 616-624 Edwin the Great of Mercia ... 624 685 Oswald of Northumbria ... ... 635-642 Oswy of Northumbria ..,, 642-670 Wolfhere of Morcia ^. ,, 670-675 Ethelred of Mi-rcia .. 675-704 Cenred of Mercia ...., _. 704-716 Ethelbald of Mercia , Z Z 716-757 Olla of Mercia ... 767-794 Egfryd of Mercia ... ^. , ^ , .^ 794-795 Cenolf of Mercia ... ... . 786-829 Egbert sole king (lie teas bretwalda in 827) Britain. The Romans divided it Into five parts : 1. Britannia Prima : all the southern counties from Kent to Cornwall. 2. Britannia Secunda : Wales, Here- ford, Monmouthshire, with parts of Shrop- shire, Worcestershire, and Gloucester- shire. 8. Flavia Ccssariensis : all between the north of the Thames and the wall of Severus, and between the Mersey and the Humber, i.e. Lincoln, Nottingham, Leicester, Cheshire, and part of Shrop- shire. 4. ValentinVa : Northumberland, part of Cumberland, and the south of Scot- land. 6. Maxima Ccesariensis : Lancashire and Yorkshire. Britain (Little), Aldersgate Street, London. So called from the Earl of Breton, whose mansion stood on the site. Brittany is so-called by Waller. Britain of the South. Nw Zealand. Britannia on the copper coins wa first adopted by Charles II. The academy figure of Britannia was Louise de Querou- aille, created by the king duchess of Portsmouth. The general design was copied from the coins of Antoninus Pius, in which is a female figure holding a sceptre, and sitting on a rock, the whole encompassed by the word BRITANNIA. Some say that Britannia is meant for Frances Theresa Stuart, duchess of Richmond ; others say It is meant for Barbara Villiers, duchess of Cleve- land. The probability in favour of Louise da Querouaille is this : tho coinage dates from 1672, and a son by Louise -was born the same year, and Bhe was created duchess of Portsmouth in 1673 ; go that at the time she was the reigning favourite. Querouaille, pronounce Ker-uail. Britannia Prima. One of the five provinces into which Britain was divided in the reign of the Emperor Severus. It included all the country south of the Thames and the estuary of the Severn. It had its own ruler (called prases), who was subject to the preefect or governor-general of the island. Britannia Redi viva. A birthday ode by Dryden. His Pollio, who was to usher in the Golden Age, was the sou of James II. and Mary of Modena, known in history as that very poor creature called 'The Old Pretender.' Dryden might be a good poet, but certainly he was no prophet. Britannia Secunda. One of the five provinces into which Britain was divided in the reign of the Emperor Severus. It included that part of the island lying between the Severn and the sea, now called Wales. It had its own ruler (called prases), who was subject to the prsefect or governor-general of the island. British Association (The). I. In 1831. To give a stronger impulse and more systematic direction to scientific inquiry; to promote the intercourse ol 124 BRITISH BROMSBERQ scientific men generally; to obtain more general attention to objects of science, and a removal of whatever impedes its progress. First meeting was Le'd at II. In 1846-1847, for the relief of the starving Irish and Scotch during the potato famine. It was under the direc- tion of Mr. Jones Lloyd (Lord Overstone) and Mr. Thomas Baring, and the collec- tion was 269,802Z., to which was added collections made in churches of 209.738J., total 470,0412., of which one-sixth was Bent to the highlands of Scotland and Hie rest to Ireland. British Columbia, 1859. A terri- tory about 420 miles in length (extending from the Rocky Mountains on the east to the Pacific), with an average breadth of 800 miles from the American frontier northwards. It includes Vancouver's Island, British Kings. According to the Chronicles of the Celtic Kings,' Japhet was the first British king. This is not given as history, but it is worth knowing an a tradition. British Legion In Spain (The), 1888. The 1,200 men under the command of Colonel Evans which Lord Palmerston permitted to serve the Queen of Spain in the Carlist civil war, by doing which he suspended the Foreign Enlistment Act. British Lion ( The). Richard Coeur de Lion (1157, 1189-1199). So early were hit heroic energies displayed, that he was called ' The British Lion ' before he beg m bis reltfn.-SHARoN TUKNKH, Hitt. of England, vol. L p. 301. British Museum (The), 1753. Began with the library and curiosities of Sir Hans Sloane, purchased for 20.UUO/., and deposited in Old Montague House, Bloomsbury (the house was built by the first Duke of Montague for his resideiieei. Townley's collection of marbles was purchas( d by the nation in 1805; his perns, coins, and bronzes in 1814. The Kljrin Marbles were purchased for the nation in 1816; and Blacas's collection of antiquities in 18157. See 'Townley Marbles,' ' Elgin Marbles.' British Museum Library (The\ 1758. The library of Sir Hans Sloane. and the MSS. collected by Harley (earl of Oxford) and his son, were purchased by the British Museum, In 1757 George II. presented to the Museum the ' RoyaJ library,' and the Cottonian library was then transferred thither (the Cottonian library was collected by Sir R. B. Cotton, who died in 1681). In 1828 the splendid library of George IIL was presented to the Museum by George IV. In 1847 the Grenville library was bequeathed to the Museum. In 1857 the new reading room was opened, and the military guard was discontinued in 1863. British North America Act (The), 18C7. The instrument of Federa tion, constituted as the 'Dominion of Canada.' British Solomon (The). James L (1566, 1603-1625). Sully called him ' the most learned (not the wisest) fool in Christendom.' The poet Hawes calk Henry VU. the 'British Solomon.' British Thaumaturgus (The). St. Cuthbert, who died 688. Broad Bottom Administration (The). From Aug. 1748 to March 1754, formed by Pelham and dissolved at his death. It succeeded the Grenville ad- ministration. It was called ' Broad Bot- tomed ' because it included bttiiWhtfl and Tories. Lord Hardwicke (chan- cellor); Pelham (first lord, &c.) ; Duke of Newcastle and Earl Harrington (secre- taries of state) ; Duke of DevonaltiM (steward of the household); Bedford and Sandwich (admiralty); Earl Gower (privy seal); Lyttelton, Marquis of Tweeddale, Earl Harrington, Mr. Gren- ville, Sir John Hynde Cotton, Bubb Dodington, Cobham Hobart, and the Duke of Dorset were the other members. It contained nine dukes, seven of whom were in the cabinet, viz. Argyll, Bed- ford, Dorset, Grafton, Montajju, New- castle, and Richmond. See ' Unionists.' Broad Church School (T\e). Of German theology, headed by Neander, a converted German Jew. His ' Universal History of the Christian Religion and Church' has superseded Mosheim'a ' Ecclesiastical History.' Bromsberg (Treaty of), 23 Aug., 1645. Between Sweden and Denmark. In 1648 Oxenstiern, chancellor of Sweden, invaded the duchies of Holstein and Sleswig, because Christian IV., jealous of Sweden, had secretly tried to ruin its BRONZE BROTHERHOOD 125 trade. After a war of two years, a con- ference for peace was opened at Broms- berg, through the mediation of France, and in Aug. 1645 a treaty was duly signed. This treaty secured to Sweden exemptisn from the payment of the Sound duties ; and the isles of Gothland and Oesel were ceded in perpetuity to Sweden. Bronze Age. That period when a people or race use chiefly bronze for tools and weapons. Byron calls the era of Napoleon Bonaparte -the Age of Bronze.' Brook Farm. A socialistic society which had its locale in the vicinity of Boston, U.S. Every member contributed to the general fund or paid his quota in manual or other work. The idea was suggested by Margaret Fuller, but the society was organised by the Rev. W. H. Channing. The members boarded in common, dressed most economically, bought at their own stores, and reduced the price of living to the lowest point. The evenings were spent in intellectual amusements or social gatherings. The speculation was an utter failure, and after six years the ' Farm ' was broken up. Emerson often visited the Farm, and Hawthorne lived there for twelve months. Broom (Van Tromp' s). Dr. Lin- gard, in his ' Hist, of Engl.,' viii. 5, tells us that in 1652, while Admiral Blake (sup- posing the naval operations for the year to be over) had detached a large part of his fleet, Van Tromp came into the Downs with a fleet double the size of that commanded at the time by Blake. A battle ensued, but at night Admiral Blake ran up the river as far as Leigh. Van Tromp insulted the coast as he sought to renew the fight, cruising back- wards and forwards from the North Foreland to the Isle of Wight, Intoxi- cated with his success, he now fastened a broom to the head of his mast to indicate that he had swept the English from the sea ; but next year, 18 Feb., Blake met Van Tromp on an equal footing, when the victory rested with the English, the loss of the Dutch being 11 men-of-war and 30 merchant-men. He gives as his authorities: Heath, p. 838; Whitelock, p. 661 ; Leicester's ' Journal, 1 188 ; La OUro, 1. 828, and Bacnao, i. 399-801. Brother Protectors (The). A secret republican society of France and Lombardy, sprung from the Carbonari, after the unsuccessful outbreak of 24 June, 1817. Brothers and Sisters of the Free Spirit, 13th cent. Sprang up in the Rhine country and spread into France and Italy. As the ' Spirit had made them free,' they claimed perfect civil, moral, and religious freedom. They set aside the marriage tie and acknowledged no church. Their religion was a mixture of pantheism and antinomianism. They were condemned by the synod of Cologne in 180G, and by that of Treves in 1310. Brothers of Charity, 1520. Established for visiting and administer- ing to the sick. Approved by Paul V. in 1621, and subjected to the rule of St. Augustine. In Europe they dress in black, in America in brown. See ' Brethren.' Brothers of the Cross. I. A name adopted by the Jesuits after the society was suppressed by Clement XIV. in 1773. See l Paccanarists.' II. The Flagellants. See 'Brother- hood of the Cross.' Brothers of the Pen (The). A trade-guild at Brussels, in the middle of the 15th cent., for the copying of manu- scripts, and their illuminations, hitherto confined to the scriptoria of religious houses. Some twenty years later the introduction of printing revolutionised the literary world of Europe. Brothers of the Teutonic House of our Lady of Jerusalem (The). The ' Teutonic knights ' (q.v.). Brotherhood of St. G-eorge (The), 1472-1494. A short-lived fraternity of arms constituted by Act of Parliament in the reign of Edward IV., and consisting of 13 gentlemen chosen from the four counties of the Pale : for Kildare 4 ; for Dublin 8, one of which was the lord mayor of the time being ; for Meath 4, one of which was the senesclii 1 ; and for Louth 2, one of which was the mayor of Drogheda. They met annually to elect a captain on St. George's Day and main- tained 120 mounted archers, 40 horse- men, and 40 pages, for the protection of the English border. BROTHERHOOD BRTANITES Brotherhood of St. Patrick (The), about 1868. An Irish secret society, a branch of the Ribbon associa- tion (q.v.), their platform being similar to that of the Fenians. See ' Irish Associations.' Brotherhood of Thomas a Becket (The), 1300. A merchants' company chartered in 1406 by Henry IV. Brotherhood of the Cross (The). The Flagellants (q.v.) so called them- selves. They wore a cross on their breast, another on their back, and a third on their hat ; and took upon themselves to do penance for the sins of the people. All who joined the brotherhood had full forgiveness of sins for 33 days, a day for a year of Christ's sojourn upon earth. Broughtonian (A). A boxer, so called from Broughton the beefeater, who was the best boxer of his day. Brown Monarch of Ireland (The). Rotherick O'Conor, called don, dun, or dhu, king of Connaught (1116- 1198). Browne Scholarship, for classics. Value 21J., tenable for seven years. Founded in the University of Cambridge, by Sir William Browne, M.D., 1774. See ' Regius Professor of Greek.' Browne's Medals (Sir William). (1) For a Greek ode in imitation of Sappho ; (2) for a Latin ode in imitation of Horace ; (S) for a Greek and Latin epigram. Each medal to be gold, worth 51. For undergraduates in the University of Cambridge. Founded by Sir William Browne, M.D., in 1774. S 4 Regius Professor of Greek.' Brownists, 1580. The followers o! Robert Brown, educated at Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. He main- tained that the Scriptures ought to be followed in all matters of discipline, as well as in matters of doctrine. That every congregation is a church, indepen- dent, and with power to settle its own discipline and government. Whence they were called 'Independents' and 1 Congregationalists.' The Brownists were rigid Separatists, the Robin- oniaiiB only semi-separatists. The Brownists. as ultra-puritans, looked on the Established Church M unchristian, and refused communion with it. Thacker and Copping, two BrownUto. Buffered Bruno (Giordano), 1530-1600. He was burnt to death for what was called ' heresy,' but his heresy consisted in hig belief that this earth of ours is not the only part of the universe inhabited by intelligent beings; that the temporal power of the pope is an anomaly ; and that thought should be free. In 1889 the Italians, Germans, Swiss, and some others, erected a bronze statue to the 1 martyr,' executed by Signor Ettori Fer- rari. It stands on a granite pedestal, adorned with bas-reliefs. The ceremony of unveiling took place on Whitsun Day, 9 June ; a procession of above 8,000 took part in it, and 200 flags were carried. The statue stands in the Campo dei Fiori, on the spot where Bruno was burnt to death. Brunswick (Line of). See 'Hanovet &c.' Brunswick Clubs and 'Bruns- wickers,' 1828. Clubs organised to coun- teract the Catholic Association (q.v.). Called Brunswick because George III. was most resolute against any oo sions to the Roman Catholics. Frederick, duke of York, shared his father's hos- tility, and so did George IV. Members of these clubs were called ' Brunswick. -rs.' The Duke of Newcastle, Lord Winchelsea, and Lord Kenyon led the way to the formation of Brunswick clubs in Eng- land. The Catholic Association led to a counter-organ- isation of the Protestant*, In the form of liruns wick clubs. This organisation embraced the whole of the Protestant peasantry (of Ireland), north and south, the Protestant farmers, and many of the g-.ury. They held their regular meetings ... and had their ' rent to bear the expense of the agita- tion. HOWITT, Hut. of England (year 18*, j Brunswick Manifesto (The), 25 July, 1792. A manifesto of the Duke of Brunswick, commander-in-chief of the united armies of Prussia and Austria, sent to put down the French revolution. The duke stated in this foolish and in- sulting document that he had been sent by the sovereigns of Europe 'to lay Paris in the dust, and to crush the republican vipers under his heel.' Brunswick was thoroughly beaten by the revolutionists. Bryanites (8 syl.), 1815. The fol- lowers of William Bryan, a local preacher, who separated from the Methodist connection, and introduced a more popular element in his scheme of BBYCB BUFFON 191 church government. Like the Methodists they are great open-air preachers, and receive the Lord's Supper sitting. Bryce, or Brice (St.). Bishop of Tours; he succeeded St. Martin about 400, but was driven from his see by the mob, and took refuge in Borne. Subse- quently he returned to Tours, where he died in 444. His day is 13 Nov. Bryce's Day (St.), IS Nov., 1002. Memorable for the massacre of the Danes in England. They had accepted heavy bribes time after time from Ethel- red n. the Unready to quit the kingdom, but always returned again to commit further devastation. At length, by un- wise policy (un-ready policy), it was re- solved to massacre all the Danes in the kingdom. As might ha^ e been expected, this roused the vengeance of the Danes, and next year Sweyn appeared with a more formidable army to avenge his countrymen. Bubble Act (The), 1719. 6 George L c. 18 ; to punish the promoters of bubble schemes. Repealed 5 July, 1825. Buccaneers, 1526-1697. In French ' Flibustiers.' An association of seamen whose object was to effect landings forcibly on the shores of the New World, locked against them by Spanish guarda- costas. Originally the English and the French united for the purpose, and were afterwards joined by the Portuguese and the Dutch. Thomas Tyson was the first to fit out a fleet which ravaged several of the West India Islands (1526); but the most renowned buccaneer was Henry Morgan, a Welsliman. In the reign of William HE. the French flibustiers were the sworn enemies of the British bucca- neers ; and at the treaty of Byswick, in 1697, all these piratic expeditions were suppressed. Bucentaur (The). The state barge jf the Venetians. A flashy cumbersome 'Lord Mayor's Coach,' some 100 feet long and 21 broad, with 82 banks of oars, manned by 168 rowers. All the fittings were gorgeous in the extreme. It was employed every year when the doge 1 married the Atlantic,' and also to con- duct guests whom the republic de- lighted to honour to the doge's palace. Bee ' Espousal of the Adriatic.' The barge was broken tip Venice in 1797 fell into the ha the French when i of Bonaparte. Buchanists, 1783. A Scotch sect, extinct in 1846. See ' Buchanites.' Buchanites (8 syl.), 1776, 7-1826t,oviparou8 animals, serpents, shales and fishes. Published 179. Oaeneau de Montbeillard (17-AM785), birds. ' Sonnini (1751-1811), foreign birds. He published %n edition of Button In 127 vols. Daudin (1774-1H04I. reptile*. Latreille (1702-1883), Insects. Bug Bible (The), 1551. Matthew's bible is so called because verse 5 Psalm xci., 'Thou shalt not be afraid of the terror by night,' is there translated ' Thou shalt not be afraid of the buggea by night.' See ' Bibles.' Building Act Committee (The Metropolitan). Responsible for the carry- ing out of the different acts regulating the height of buildings in the metropolis, the materials used in their construction, the thickness of the party walls, and (in cases of theatres and other places of public entertainment) the facilities afforded for ingress and egress. For these purpose* London is divided Into 74 districts, each under the charge of a district BUT- veyor appointed by the board, but paid by fees. Building Bess of Hardwick. She was thrice married. She built a former Chatsworth, the existing Hardwick Hall, and added 'a great parlour,' and the chapel of Button Court, in Somersetshire. Bulgarians (The). The Cathari (q.v.) were so called sometimes from their connection with the Bulgarian Pauliciana. Bull Bun. See Appendix. Bull against Luther (The). By Leo X., 1521. 'In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, the Blessed Virgin, St. Peter and St. Paul, we do curse him and those who are led astray by him; and we cut off both him and them from all communion of the saints. Cursed be they in prayer, cursed in speech and in silence, in eating and in sleep, in taste, in hearing, and in all the other senses. Cursed in the eyes, the head, and the whole body, from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot. I conjure Satan and his imps to torture them both day and night, till they perish by water, by fire, or tlu- conl.' As thi* bull was read in the churches, the officiating priest, nftor the lights had been extinguished, said aloud, 'As I blow out these lights, may the light of life be for ever hidden from their eyes. So be it. Amen and amen.' dee a similar bull ia 'Notes and Queries,' Si Jan. 183J p.O. Bull of Pius V. (The), 27 April, 1570 Commanding all the faithful to break with the Anglican Church, to abandon and dethrone Elizabeth, and to subject England to a foreign invader. See ' Ccen* Domini.' The words ran thus : ' Declaramus Ellzabctham hrereticam . . . elque adheerentes . . . anathema- tis sententiam incurrlsse esseque a Christi cor. poris unitate praecisos . . . prout nos illos prwsen- tiura autorltate absolvimus, et privamus eamdem Elizabethan! prnetenso jureregni aliisque omnibus, aupradictis. Prsecipim usque et interdicimus universls et singulls procerlbus, subditis, populls, et aliis prtedictls, ne 1111. ejusve monitia, raandutis. et legibug, audeant obedlre. Oui secus ogerint, eos slmili anathcmatis sentcutiii Innodarnus. V In 1*78 Gregory XIII. supplemented the bull of his predecessor by declaring that Elizabeth bad forfeited the crown of Ireland. Bulla Aureaof Hungary, 1222. The Magna Charta of that kingdom, exacted from Andrew H., a feeble, self-willed, worthless king, not unlike our King John. Bulla Coenro Domini. A bull of excommunication and anathema against heretics, read before the people on Holy Thursday. Those offences which are condemned by this bull can be absolved only by the pope. Buller of Brasenose. Joha M is so called in Wilson's ' Noctes Ambrosianse.' Hughes, however, was not of Brasenose, but Oriel College, Oxford. Bullies. P. J. Gall noticed that all bull-eyed boys are overbearing and quarrelsome. By bull-eyes he meant full prominent eyes. As an historical pun this connects bull-eyes with our word ' bullies,' but whether the connection is of any philological worth is quite another matter. See ' Nab.' Bulwer Clayton Treaty (The), 1850. Between Great Britain and the United States of North America, respect- ing the ship-canal between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Signed at Washing- ton. This treaty bears upon the canal through Lake Nicaragua. Bund (The) of Germany. A confeJe ration of the thirty-five sovereign states, which had every variety of gove~nmont. from absolutism to democracy, aJl inde- pendent. It was represented by a Diet, q.v. Bundesrath ( The), 1871 . The dele- gates of the confederated governments at the Gennai empire. BUNGTOWN BURGESS 129 The twenty-five states confederated with Prussia are Alsace-Lorraine (taken from France), Anhalt, Baden, Bavaria, Bremen, Brunswick, Hamburg, Hesse, Lippe, Liibeck, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Meckleuburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Reuss (elder branch), Keuss (younger branch), Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxony, Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwartzburg-Sondershausen, 8chwartzburi*-Uudolstadt, Waldeck, Wiirtemburg. Bills which have passed the Reichstag and Bundesrath, after being signed by the emperor, are binding on all the empire. Bungtown Coppers (American). Counterfeit English ha'pennies manu- factured at Bungtown (now Barney sville), Mass. (Bartlett, ' Dictionary of American- isms,' 1877). Buoy (The Mystery of the), 14 Sept., 1854. When the combined French and English army resolved to land on the Crimea, the spot selected was the ' Old Fort Bay,' i.e. the southern bay ; and to prevent confusion a buoy was to be placed in the centre of the bay. The French were to debark on the left of this buoy, and the English on the right. During the night, three French officers placed coloured buoys as the limits for the French landing, taking up the whole south bay, and leaving Admiral Lyons to improvise a new arrangement as a landing place for the English. This was a dodge that the French might be the first to land. Burchardicum, Burchardic. Beyond dispute. Burchard, who died 1026, bishop of Worms, compiled a huge volume which long enjoyed unbounded repute. It was a ' compte rendu ' of edicts and decretals, so admirably set forth that an appeal to his book was considered final. Hence 'Burchardicum' came to mean a dictum beyond dispute. Burchardicum has not an English timbre, but Burchardism, Burchardic, Burchardise, might be admitted and prove useful. Burchell (Old). The pen-name of Elihu Burritt, the 'learned black- smith,' an American linguist and author (1810-1879). Burdett Riot (The), 1810. This arose out of the arrest of Gale Jones, president of a debating society called the British Forum.' The question of debate was, 'Which was the greater outrage upon public feeling : Mr. Yorke's enforce- ment of the standing order, or Mr. Wind- ham's attack on the liberty of the press on the same occasion ? ' Sir Francis Burdett moved in the house that Gale Jones should be discharged, as the ' Brit- ish Forum' was a'private debating society and Cobbett, in his 'Weekly Begister, took Burdett's side of the question. Sir Francis, in a letter published by Cobbett, spoke contemptuously of the House of Commons, and Mr. Lethbridge moved that he should be committed to the Tower. This led to a riot, in which the soldiers were called out, and two men were shot dead. The question now was whether the soldier who killed one of the men should not be tried for murder. Ulti- mately the contention drifted into this question ; Is not the House of Commons so one-sided that it needs a radical re- form ? Burdett-Coutts Scholarships* Two for geology in the University of Oxford, each tenable for two years- Founded by the Baroness Burdett-Couttsi I860. Bureau. Not unlike our board of Green Cloth in the history of the name. A bureau meant originally a coarse wool- len cloth. Hence Boileau says of Damon, the author, ' n'etant vetu que de simple bureau, passe 1'ete sans linge, et 1'hiver sans manteau. 1 It then camo to mean the cloth on the board table, then the officials who sit at the board. Bureau d'Esprit. Literary re- unions, such as those held in the Hotel Rambouillet, in the hotel of the Duchesse du Maine, of Madame de Tencin, of Mes- dames du Chatelet and du Boccage, of Deffand and Geoffrin, of Madame Doublet, &c. In the reign of Louis XV. the three 'bureau* d'esprit ' were presided over by Madame de Deft- and. Mademoiselle de Lespinasse, and Madame Geoffrin. The first embraced the elite of the literati ; the second, the leading political reform- ers ; and the last, professed sceptics. Madame Deffand was noted for her caustic wit ; Mademoi- selle de Lespinasse for the charms of her conversa- tional power ; and Madame Geoffrin for her prac- tical benevolence. Burgess Oath (The), administered in royal boroughs of Scotland, ran thus : ' I protest before God and your lordships that I profess and allow with my heart the true religion now at this present pro- fessed within this realm, and authorised by the laws thereof. I will abide in the same and defend it to my life's end, re- nouncing the Koman religion called popery.' Those who saw no inconsistency in taking this oath were called burghers, those who refused to take it were called anti-burghera. 180 BURGESS BURNETT Burgess Roll (The), 1882. An alphabetical list of the burgesses entitled to vote for municipal officers or borough members, made out by the respective town clerks. There was also for a time another list called the Freeman's Roll (q.v.), but this list is no longer required (5, 6 Will. IV. o. 76, amended by 20, 21 Viet. o. 60). Burgesses of the Palisades Aliens who sought the sanctuary of forti- fied towns in the middle ages, especially in Germany, where they were called ' Pal- burgers.' These aliens were allowed to dwell in the suburbs between the city walls and the palisades which bounded the territory of the corporation. Hence the name. See ' Outburgere.' It must be remembered that there wai a con- tant collision between the feudal barons and the corporate towns ; and therefore offenders of the one Bought refuge with the other, and It was a point of honour or policy not to give up the refugee. Burgh Schools, 1696. Fondled by the General Education Act in Scotland. They were of the same character as English grammar schools; of a higher grade than the parochial schools, founded by the same Act, and existing in burghs or towns, managed by the town councils, and supported by grants from the ' Common Good,' i.e. the public funds of the burgh. Burghers and Anti-Burghers, 1745. Seceders from the Kirk of Scot- land. The burghers are those who saw no inconsistency in taking the ' Burgess Oath ' (q.v.). Those who refused to take it were anti-burghers. The two parti, s were united in 1820. aa4 called the ' United Presbyterian*. ' Burgundian Code (The), or'Loi Gombettc, 1 published in 502 by Gundi- bald, at Lyons. See ' Gombette.' Burgundians The). The followers of the Duke of Burgundy, in the early part of the 15th century, opposed to the faction of the united Orleanists and Armngnacs (q.v.). Headed by Jean Sans Peur, duke of Burgundy. He got the Duke of Orleans assassinated at Paris 28 Nov., 1407, and became reconciled with the Orleans family in 1409; but after the marriage of the young Duke of Orleans with the daughter of the Count of Arimvgnac in 1411, the feud broke out frgaia: Uie Organists and Armagnacs against the Burgundians. The Duke ol Burgundy in 1417 led an army to Paris, liberated the queen at Tours, and was by her named governor of the kingdom 10 Jan. ,1418; but in 14 19 he was assassinated at the bridge of Montereau. Burkers' Hole. Formerly called 1 Nova Scotia Gardens,' a part of Bethnal Green now occupied by St. Thomas's Church and Baroness Burdett Coutts's model lodging-houses. It was the resi- dence of May, Bishop, and Williams, the infamous ' burkers,' who procured sub- jects for dissection by secret assassina- tion. They were convicted of the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy in 1826. Burke (who gave his name to the words to burke, burker, &o.) used to place a pitch plaster over the mouth of his victim to smother his cries. He was an Irishman, and was hanged in 1829. Burmese Wars (TJie). I. 1826. Arakan and Tenasserim were acquired by the treaty of Yandabo, and annexed to our province of Lower Bengal. II. 1851-1853. Martaban stormed C April, 1852 ; Rangoon stormed 14 April, 1852; Pegu taken 4 June. 1852, and annexed to our province; Prome taken July, 1852. III. Upper Burmah was annexed to our Indian empire 26 Feb., 1886. The population of this province is about 8,500,000, and the territory (including the Shan States) about 200,000 square miles. Burnbill. Henry de Londres, arch- bishop of Dublin, in the reign of Henry HI. He fraudulently procured the ar eh i episcopal estates, and burnt all the deeds by which the lands were held. Burlington Fine Arts Club (The). London, established 1867. Burnett Prizes (The). Allotted every forty years to the authors of the two best essays on the 'Evidence that there is a Being all-powerful, wise, and good, by whom everything exists, &c.' First award, 1815, to Dr. William Law- rence Brown 1200Z., and the Rev. J. B. Sumncr (archbishop of Canterbury) 4001. ; the next award, 1855, was to the Rev. R. A. Thompson, 1SOOZ., and Dr. J. Tulloch COOL The third award should be in 1895. Founded by Mr. Burnett of Dona, Aberdeenshire. The judges ur three. BURNEY BUTCHERS 181 Burney Collection (The), 1818. In the MS. department of the British Museum. Collected by the Rev. Dr.Charles Burney, and consisting of 520 volumes, chiefly Greek and Roman classics. Amongst these is the Townley ' Homer,' a MS. of the 'Iliad' similar to the 1 Odyssey ' in the Harleian collection ; a Greek MS. of Ptolemy's ' Geography,' adorned with maps of the 15th cent., &c. Burney Prize (The). For an essay on some moral or metaphysical subject on the existence, nature, and attributes of God. For graduates of the University of Cambridge of not more than three years standing, value 105Z. annually. Founded by Richard Burney of Christ's College, Cambridge, 1845. See ' Mathe- matics,' &c. Burning and Starving Act (The). The Commutation Act passed by William Pitt, greatly reducing the duties on excisable articles, enabling the lawful dealer to compete with smugglers. These smugglers in Galloway and Dumfriesshire, being ruined by the Act, called it the Burning and Starving Act. Burnt Candle-mas (Day), 2 Feb., 1856. The day when Edward III. marched through the Lothians with fire and sword. He burnt to the ground Edinburgh and Haddington, and then retreated for want of provisions. The Scots call the day ' Burnt Candlemas.' Burnt Pillar (The), or Tchern- berle Tash.' A column in the centre of the forum of Constantinople. It was raised by Constantino on a pedestal of white marble twenty feet high. The pillar was composed of ten pieces of porphyry, each eleven feet in height and thirty-three in circumference. It was surmounted with a colossal statue of Apollo in bronze, said to have been the work of Phidias. This statue was thrown down in the reign of Alexis Comnenus. Burschenschaft, 1818. A secret society of Germany, established by the stu- dents for the defence of the country The (irand Burschenschaft of Jena, in Saxe- Weimar, was established 12 June, 1815, and soon absorbed all the others. In 1818 the government declared the association to be illegal, and it gradually dropped off. BurBchen. pi. of.' Bunch,' a student, and ' Bchfttt, Burton Arch (The). The marble arch formerly at Hyde Park Corner, in imitation of the arch of Titus at Rome, on the top of which was placed, in 1846, a huge equestrian statue of the Duke of Wellington, the work of Mr. C. Wyatt. This hideous deformity was removed in 1888. ' Hail to the statue t ' people cry- In justice there they fail ; But let it have the Burton arch. If we've the Burton ale. Newspaper Epigram, 1848. Butcher (The). I. Dante, in his 1 Purgatory ' (canto xx.), makes Hugh Capet say, ' I was the son of a butcher of Paris.' Pasquier told Francois I. that Dante meant by ' butcher ' a formidable warrior. II. Olivier de Clisson, constable of France (1820-1407), who never spared the life of any Englishman who fell into his hands. III. John de Clifford, called the ' Black Clifford,' the ninth baron, died 1461. IV. Ahmed Jezzar, pacha of Acre, which he defended against Napoleon. He struck off the heads of his nine wives at one and the same time (1735, 1775-1804). Butcher (The Bloody). William Augustus, duke of Cumberland (1721- 1765), son of George II., so called for his cruel treatment of the Jacobites, whom he defeated at Culloden, 16 April, 1746. Also called the * Butcher of Culloden.' He (Cumberland) seemed to revel in blood, and to be ambitious of earning the name he there (at Culloden) won of THE BUTCHER. . . . When the wounded had writhed in their agonies all night they were despatched by the bayonets of the Butchers. They were hunted out of their hiding, places in the woods and moors, and massacred in cold blood. Twenty wounded men, who had crept into a farmhouse, were shut up and deliberately burnt in it. The prisoners in Inverness were treated with equal cruelty. HowiTX, Hitt. of England, (George II. ch. xl. p. 525). Butcher of England (The). John Tiptoft, earl of Worcester, lord deputy, who died 1470. On one occasion, in the reign of Edward IV., he ordered Clapham (one of Lord Warwick's squires) and nineteen other gentlemen to be impaled. This bloodstained leader of the Wars of the Roses was a great patron of Caxton, and one of the earliest scholars of the revival of letters. Butcher of Vassy(TfoO. Francois, due de Guise (1619-1568), was so called by the Huguenots. See ' Massacre of Vassy. Butchers and Carpenters' In- BUrrection, 1418. This was the great 189 BUTCHERS BYNO nsurrection of the White Hoods and White Scarfs. The Butchers or White floods wero the Burgundian faction ; the Carpenters or White Scarfs were the Orleans or Armagnac faction. The Car- penters or White Scarfs prevailed, and after the bloody fray in the Place de Greve, the White Hoods were driven out of Paris, and disappeared. Butcher's Dog (The). Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, son of a but -her of Ipswich (1471-1530). After h; brought Edward Stafford, duke of Luck iigham, to tha block in 1521, it was wittily said of him, ' The butcher's dog has pulled down the fairest buck in Christendom.' Many efforts have been made to give Wolsey a more aristocratic birth. One is this: that he was a bourgeois son, and that bourgeoit was corrupted into butcher; bat there would be no point thru in the witticism above referred to. Another Is this : that the Emperor Charles V. called Henry Mil. the butcher and Wolsey was the 'butchers dog'; but Henry was by no means a butcher when a young man, and at the death of Buckingham he was under thirty, and called 'a gentle, merciful, and pleasure-loving iprince.' Buckingham was exe- cuted in the 12th year of Henry's reign ; and Wolsey must have been known before then as a butchtr'i ton, or there would have been no wit in the remark. Skelton. a contemporary, speaking of Wolsey, says he ' was oast out of a butcher s stall,' and William Roy. another contemporary, calls him ' the vile butcher's sonne.' Begot by butchers, but by bishops bred ; How high his honour holds his haughty head I Butcher's Shambles (The). An old oak tree in Birkland, a part of Sherwood Forest. It is now a mere shell, but in this tree a butcher named Hooton used to conceal the carcases of sheep or deer till he could dispose of them. There used to be a beam across the tree with hooks, on which three sheep oould be suspended. Old men can still (1890) remember this arrangement. In the hollow of this tree fourteen or fifteen persons could stand, and its girth at the height of a man was certainly thirty feet or more ; but now half even of the rind is gone, and the other half is a mere shell. Buttermere (Mary of). Daughter of an innkeeper, called the 'Beauty of Buttermere,' married a man who came to the vicinity for fishing, and passed himself off as the Hon. Augustus Hope. It turned out he was a married man, whose name was Hadfield, a notorious swindler, who was ultimately executed for forgery. At the beginning of the 19th cent, this romantic tale caused a fiy great sensation. It is said that Mary afterwards married a substantial farmer. Buttoners (The). A branch of the Strict Mennonites (8 syl.), which split from the general body in 1554, and were so called because they used buttons in their dress instead of hooks-and-eyes. See ' Mennonites.' Buttons. In China there are nine official buttons worn in the cap, each one denoting a special rank. 1. the plain red ; 2. the red figured with the char- acter SHOU (longevity); 8. the clear blue ; 4. the opaque blue ; 5. the crystal ; 6. the opaque white; 7, 8, 9. buttons of brass. By this conquer, A.D. 812. The inscription said to have been annexed to the cross seen in the sky by Constantine when about to encounter Maxentius. According to tradition it was the cause of his conversion to Christianity. Of coarse the words were Greek. 'K i4nr vUm. Bye Conspiracy (The), 1603. A conspiracy of Roman Catholics, Puritans, and Presbyterians, who thought that James I. would favour their own special religious party, but found that he threw himself entirely into the hands of the High Church of England party. Clarke and Watson, two Catholic priests, were the heads of the conspiracy. Their plan was to seize the king, proclaim Arabella Stuart queen, and to place the govern- ment in the hands of the chief con- spirators. Lord Cecil was to be put to death, and Watson to be made lord chancellor. The plot was revealed to Cecil, the leading conspirators were tried for treason, and Watson, Clarke, and Brooke were executed. The con- spiracy was called the ' Bye ' because it was simultaneous with another con- spiracy called the ' Main ' (q-v.). Byng (To), or ' make the Byng of the day,' to sacrifice one as a scapegoat. The reference is to Admiral John Byng, who was shot at Portsmouth by sentence of court martial, 14 March, 1757. He was sent to relieve Minorca, besieged by the French, and after a partial action sheered off, declaring that the ministry had not supplied him with a sufficient fleet. The ministry and the public were furious, and Bvng was brought before a court martial. BTZANTINE CACCIATORI 19? Precisely the same thing occurred in the Crimean war. The ministry and officers were blamed for not taking Sebastopol sooner, and the Duke of Newcastle, minister of war, was made the ' Byng ' or scapegoat of the day. Byzantine Historians (The). Greek historians who lived under the Eastern empire between the 6th and 15th cents. They consist, 1. of historians who continue the history of the Byzan- tine empire; 2. of general chroniclers; and 8. of authors who wrote on the antiquities, politics, manners and cus- toms of the Romans. The whole of the works were compiled and published by order of Louis XIV., and ran to thirty-six Yolumes folio (1644-1711). The most noted are Zonaras, Nlcetas Acomi- natus Chon?ates, and Nicephorus Gregoras, who form a complete corpus Ml/tori* to the close of the 15th cent. Then comes Laonlcus Chalcondylas, and then follow a host who wrote detached parts of history. Ca'aba, or 'Kaaba.' A stone which Mahomet removed to Mecca, where it was inserted in the walls of the sacred shrine built by Abraham and Ishmael., The angel Gabriel presented Mahomet with this stone, which was originally a petrified angel, and quite white. It is now black from the kisses of sinners. The site of this shrine is where repentant Adam tood, after wandering for 200 years, when he received pardon for his disobedience in Paradise. Cabal' Ministry (The), 16G7-1674. A ministry under Charles II., so called because the initial letters of the cabinet happened to form the word cabal : they were Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. The French ' cabale' means a party who seek to gain their object by underhand or unscrupulous means, and the Spanish ' cabala' means intrigue. The word was not therefore first coined from Clifford s ministry, although it was not used in the English language before. Dryden uses the Thomas Clifford (first commissioner of the treasury, afterwards Lord Clifford). Lord Ashley (chancellor of the excheqner, after- wards Earl of Shaftesbury). Duke of Buckingham (master of the horse). Earl of Arlington (secretary of state). Duke of Lauderdale. Caballarii. Feudal tenants bound to serve on horseback, equipped with coat of mail. This service implied no personal merit and gave no civil privi- leges. It was a mere duty or knight's fee. Cabbala. Jewish tradition said to have been handed down from Moses. The first book, on cosmogony, is attribu ted to the 7th cent. ; but from the 12th to the 15th cent, numerous cabbalistic writings were added, teaching the esoteric meaning of 'the Law,' the method of performing miracles, incantations, &c. The ' Sohar ' (13th cent. ) in Aramaic may be called the bible of the Cabbalists. Cabinet Council. Lord Clarendon says the term originated thus : In the reigit of Charles I. the affairs of state were controlled by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Earl of Strafford, and the Lord Cottington; to these were added 'for ornament ' the Earl of Northumber- land, the Bishop of London as lord treasurer, and Vane and Windebank (two secretaries) for service and intelli- gence. The Marquis of Hamilton ' meddled just so far and no further than he had a mind.' These persons made up the committee of state, reproachfully called the junto, but ' enviously ' called afterwards the ' cabinet council.' In cabinet councils the royal presence is not necessary, as it is in 'privy councils.' When George I. was king, as he was ignorant of the English language, he took no part in state councils ; and ever since cabinet councils have dispensed with the sovereign's presence. Cabinet Noir (The). The secret offices where all the correspondence of the French nation used to be handled during the monarchy. Cabi'rL Ancient Pelasgian deities. Cabochienne (La), 1418. An ordi- nance for the reform of the state forced from the Dauphin of France by the White Hoods or Cabochians (q.v.). Cabochiens (Les), 1413-1422. A gang organised by Jean Sans Peur, duke of Burgundy, and placed under the command of Simonet Caboche, a butcher. It numbered 500 vagabonds, and kept Paris in terror by its massacres and plunder. In 1422 the Parisians rose en masse, fell upon the gang, Jean Sans Peur fled from the city, and the Arma- gnacs or Orleans faction remained in the ascendent. See ' French Brigands.' Cacciatori. The Chasseurs of th Alps, or ' Cacciatori delle Alpi.' (Italian, eacciare to hunt, cacciatore a hunter). We have already referred to Garibaldi M general of the CacciatorL-Howm, 11 M. of Eng- land, year 1869, p. 662. 184 CADDEE CAGLIOSTRO Caddie or Cade (The), or ' League of God's House,' 1400-1419. See ' Cade- ian, etc.' Cade (Jack). Ringleader of the in- surrection which broke out in Kent, 1450. He was an Irishman, and called himself Mortimer, because he was a natural son of the Duke of York. He marched to London at the head of 20,000 armed men, who encamped at Blackheath, 1 June, 1450. Being slain by Alexander Iden, 11 July, his head was stuck on London Bridge. Cade's Insurrection. See above. Cadeian League (The), 1400-1419, i.e. the league of Casa-dei, or God's house; in German, Gotteshausbiind. One of the three unions of the canton of the Grisons. The other two leagues were the 'Llgxie Grlse.' formed in 1424 ; and the ' League of the Ten Jurisdictions. 1 formed In 1436. All three wore admitted Into the Helvetic Confederation in 1798. Cadets of the Cross, 1703. Catho- lic auxiliaries in the army of Marshal Montrevel, sent to extirpate the Cami- sards of the Cevennes. Also called 4 White Camisards.' Cadjahs. See 'Dynasty of the Kadjahs,' or Kujurs. Cadmean Letters. Sixteen Greek letters said to have been introduced into Thebes (in Boeotia) by Cadmus, son of Agenor, king of Phoenicia. The letters re a, b, g, d, e, i, k, 1, m, n, 5, p, r, s, t, u. These letters were subsequently increased by 8 Ionic letters, z, e, tli, x, ph, ch, ps, and 6. Simomdcs of Cos is credited with the 4 letters th, z, ph, ch, and Epichannos the Sicilian with the 4 letters x, e, ps, 5. The loniaiis were the first to employ all the 24 letters, whence the 8 added were called Ionic letters. Cadmean Victory (A). A victory purchased with great loss. The refer- ence is to the armed men who sprang out of the ground from the teeth of the dragon sown by Cadmus. These men fell foul of each other, and only five escaped with their lives. Hence the Greek ' Kadmeia nike,' and Latin ' Cad- mea Victoria.' The victories of Boadicea sowed her kingdom with dragon's teeth, and the Romans were roused by them to most vindictive fury CaBrite Franchisp (The). The franchise of a Roman subject in a pre- fecture. These subjects had the right of self-government, were registered by the Roman censor as taxpayers, but enjoyed none of the privileges of a Roman citizen. Caere was the first community placed in this dependent position, whence the term ceerite franchise. Caesar, as a title, varied in its force. L The first twelve emperors were all entitled Caesar in compliment to Julius Caesar. Tims Octavius or Octaviamu Caesar (better known as Augustus); Tiberius Caesar; Caligula Csesar; Claudius Caesar; Nero Caesar; Galba, Otho, Vitellius, whose united reigns lasted only one year ; Vespasian Caesar ; Titus Caesar ; and Domitian Caesar. II. After the death of Domitian, A J). 96, the word as a title dropped out of use till the reign of Hadrian (14th emp. 117-188), who called the heir presumptive Ccesar. HI. In the reign of Diocletian, A.D. 292, the two emperors of Constantinople and Rome were each styled Augustus, and the two viceroys of Illyricum and Gaul were each styled Ccesar. This arrangement, however, soon dropped after the death of that emperor. The wife of a Roman emperor was entitled Ctrtara, and probably all imperial princes were by courtosy addressed OB ( ',/tar. Cxar and Kaiser are modified forma of Ceaar. Caesarean Era of Antioch (TJte). This era began 1 Sept., B.C. 48, to com- memorate the victory of Julius Caesar over Pompey. Cage (The). The little hut built of sticks, heather, and moss, in a thicket of trees on the rocky face of a high moun- tain, called Letternilinchk, in Bcnal<]<-r, to which Charles Edward was taken for concealment by Lochiel and Mucpher- son, after the fatal battle of Culloden (1740). Cameron had been one of those who aBKtated Charles Edward to escape, and had lived with him in the 'Cu^c.' Howrrr, Uitt. of EnyUmd, (George II. oh. xli. p. 649). Cagliari. Generally called Paul Veronese (1530-1588). Cagliostro of Literature (The), 1885. Comte de Courchamps, the most unblushing literary thief on record. He stole the two novels of John Potocki, a Polish count, and published thm as his own. The ' National ' exposed the theft, and ferreted out all the falsehoods of De Courchamps, establishing his infamous CAGOTS CALEDONIA ice piracy beyond a shadow of doubt. Comte de Courchamps called his book ' The Inedited Memoirs of Cagliostro,' and hence the quack of literary quacks was stigmatised with the name of the quack of quacks. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Joseph Balsamo, the prince of quacks, assumed the tiiie-nanie of Comte de Cagliostro (1743-1793). Cagots. A tribe of men in France akin to the gipsies. Some think the word is compounded of Oaas-goths (dogs of Goths), and that they are remnants of the Teutons who overran the south of Europe at the fall of the Roman Empire. Others quote the synonyms Caqueux, Cacous, Capos, and Gaffos, meaning ' lepers,' to prove that they were Jewish lepers. They are often called ' Canards,' because they were obliged to aarry as a badge 'une patte de canard.' It is In Brittany that they are called Caqufux. In Poitou, Maine, and Anjou they are called ' Coili- berts.' In Auvergne, ' Matrons. ' Cainites (The), 2nd cent. A Chris- tian sect which held that the books of the Old Testament were inspired by the Demiurge, or son of darkness and chaos ; and that the real worthies were Cain, Esau, the men of Sodom, Korah, and so on; and the only spiritual apostle was Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Christ lest he should lead men into darkness. These 4 heretics ' say Judas Iscariot left a gospel, which is the only true one. to. 113-118 SS ::: i I I r I I SS:i8 Argade .... M M 162-166 EthodeL .......... ... ,. 166-199 Batrahal ... ..... . 199-208 (MarcelluB was praetor) Donald I. ... ... ...... _ 203-224 Erode II. .. .......... _ _ 224--240 Atirgo ... . _ ... ^. _ . 241-25-2 Nathollo .....__. 2S-2-203 Findoc ... _._..._. taw-278 Donald IL ...... J Donald III. . w M. M M. M 274-284 Cratlini .. .__.-..2m308 Finformao n M it tll j Bomao ... M _ _ ~ .* ... AuLn.-.i:in m M. M *. Fetelmao . _._... Eugene I ....... .*. 8C3-.SH5 Fergus (the restorer) . . 440 Eugene II ....... _ . ... 440-461 Dongard ...... ......... 401-465 Constantino I. king of Scotland. Caledonian War (The), A.D. 208- When the Roman emperor Severus was sixty years old, he went with his two sons, Caracul la and Geta, into Scotland to repel an invasion. He marched to the northern extremity without meeting an enemy, but it cost him the loss of 50,000 men. At length the Caledonians sued for peace, but the moment the Roman legions were withdrawn they were up in arms again. While Severus was preparing to extirpate the Caledonians, he died. If Osslan Is historic, it was Fingal who opposed 8,.v,.ru:.. ;i.,,l (' ,r.., UU i, <-;ti:,,i l.y o.M-urCarr.rul. on of tho king of the world (Poems. L p. 176). Strange that Osslan should call Antoninus by a ni< i.n tnio not used even In Roma till four yean after the war I Calendar. The French Republican calendar was the work of Fabre d'Eglan- fcine and M. Romme. Autumn months: Vend.'miaire. Bramalre, Fit- malre. Winter months: Nlv6se, Pluvlflse. VentoRe. Spring months : Oermln r.ilrlal. gttmmer months : Messidor. l licrmidor, Fructldo*. l. ii a. .v rtl, t'Uivtry . 4. II Calenders, 13th cent. The 'Purists,' species of Moslem hermits, founded by Youssouf, an Arab of Andalusia. They have no fixed abode, but lead a vagrant life under the vow of poverty. They have proved themselves dangerous sectaries, who have always taken an active part in all Oriental revolutions. See ' Santons.' Calends. See 'Diet of Phrase and Fable, 1 p. 182. AtLsonian Calends (Ausoni* Calendae), fche Roman Calenda. Greek Calends (Grsecse Calendae), neverj there were no Greek Calends. Intercalary Calends (Intercalares Calendse), February. Calenda of Janus (Jani Calendae), New Year's day (Statius). The Women's Calends (Fceminese Ca- lendoa), the 1st of March (Juvenal, ix. 58) Tristes Calenda, pay-day. The Romans paid on the 1st of every month. Calif. The successor of Mohammed the prophet, both in temporal and spirit- ual power. At first there was but one calif, whose empire was called the califate, which for three centuries exceeded the Roman empire in extent; but in 970 there were three califates, viz. one at Bagdad, one at Cairo, and one at Cor- dova. In 1031 the califate of Cordova ceased. In 1158 the calif of Bagdad fled to Egypt before the sword of the Mon^ula. In 1517 the Turks conquered Egypt, and the sultan thus became the one and only calif. In 800 Tunis and Fes made themselves indepen- dent tor a time, and In 831 Taher established for a time an Independent califate at Khorassan. Calif of the West (The), A.D. 756. So Abd-el-Ramah, founder of the Cordova califate, styled himself (781-787). This califate lasted till 1031. The calif of Bagdad was then called Calif of the an has Calif. East. Since 1617 the sultan been the only California (U.S. America). The inhabitants are called ' gold -hunters.' Caligula. Cains, son of Germanicus, and successor of his uncle Tiberius, in the empire of Rome. So called because he wore the callga or clouted shoe of the common Roman soldier. The caliga was a close shoe, studded with nails, and bound on the foot and ankle by straps. It was not worn by the superior officers, but Cains was an insane fool. Callg&tus meant ' a common soldier,' one of the nnk and file. It was this monster who said oh, tli it -ill the Roman people had but one neck, that I might decapitate Rome at a blow I ' Calixtins (The), or ' Calixtines ' (3 syl.), 1424. Bohemians in the Hussito war. These were for the most part the gentry and better classes. So called because they insisted on retaining the calix or cup in the Eucharist. The priests had only very recently withheld the cup from the laity. The more violent partjf were called Ta'borites (S syl.). CALIXTINES CALVIN IS 1 ? Calixtines* Confession of Faith (The). 1. The Word of God ought to be freely and regularly preached thoughout all Bohemia. 2. The Eucharist ought to be adminis- tered to all communicants. 8. The clergy ouerht to follow no secular occupation. 4. All crimes ought to be punished by those in lawful authority, whether com- mitted by clerks or laymen. Call of Abraham (The), B.C. 1921. The command from God to Abraham to leave the land of his birth and sever himself from his relations, friends, and neighbours, who were idolaters, and to go afar off to live among strangers, that he might be the founder of a people which would serve God and abjure idolatry. He was 75 years old at the time ; the land he left was Ur of the Chaldees; the land he went to was Canaan, 'the land of promise;.' and the son of promise was Isaac, father of the twelve patriarchs. Call of the Abbasides (8 syl.). Abu Moslem, A.D. 750, the founder of the Abbaside califs, who removed the seat of empire from Damascus to Bagdad. Call Of the House (4). An im- perative summons to every member of parliament to be present in his place, when the sense of the whole house ia deemed necessary. In 1820 such a call was made to pass an opinion respecting the trial of Queen Caroline. On the day appointed the Speaker (in the House of Com- mons) calls over the names of the county mem- bers first, and then of the borough members, both in alphabetical order. Absentees are committed to the custody of the serjeant-at-arms. Callias (Peace of), B.C. 871. Between Sparta, Athens, and their allies. Thebes was excluded. Callias was the Athenian representative. Callippic Cycle (The). Meton's cycle corrected by Callippus, B.C. 330. In B.C. 432 Meton set up a column in Athens which recorded that 235 lunar months corresponded to 19 solar years. This was too long, and made an error of nearly a day and a half in a cen- tury . Callippus discovered that a year consists of 865 \- days, and proposed a cycle of 76, or 4 Metonic cycles (19 x 4 = 76). A further correction was made in 1512, whereby the error of a day requires the lapse of 3,000 years. Callippic Period (The). Began with the new moon of the summer sol- stice, B.C. 830. Calojoannes. John, n. (Com- nenus), emperor of the East, so called from his extremely handsome person. Keigned 1118-1143. Calottistes (3 syl.), or ' Le regiment de la Calotte,' in the time of Louis XIV. A society of satirists, headed by Torsac and Aimon, who sent a ' calotte ' (or small cap) to any public character who had exposed himself to ridicule. The ' calotte ' was worn by monks over their tonsure, and was to cover the ' weak part of the head ' of the receiver. The armorial bearings of the Calottistes consisted of various symbols of folly, and their motto was ' C'est re*gner que de savoir rire.' Calvary (A). A chapel with a cross, generally placed, in Catholic countries, on an eminence, or at the meeting of two or more roads. The calvary of Mont- martre and of Mont Valerien, near Paris, are well-known examples. The latter still attracts many persons during Holy Week. The approach to a calvary is called the ' Via Dolorosa,' and at each stone which marks a station a prayer should be said. A little farther on ... IB a colossal wood carved calvary, and beside it a small but *-ery rich chapel. OUIDA, Uimbi, The Nurnberg Stove. Calvinism, 1561. The religious tenets of John Calvin of Picardy. They are generally called the five points : (1) Predestination and reprobation ; (2) original sin; (3) particular redemp- tion; (4) irresistible grace; (5) the per- severance of the saints. Calvinist. A Christian whose tenets are Calvinistic. See ' Calvinism.' There are Calvinistic Baptists, Calvinistlo Methodists, Welsh Calvinists, and even In the Episcopal Church there are some few of a Cal- vinistic tendency. Calvinistic Methodists, 1741. A body which seceded from Wesley, especially on the doctrine of election. Whitefield was the leader of the Calvin- istic Methodists. After Whitefield's death they divided into two; (1), Lady Huntingdon's Connexion, and (2) the Tabernacle Connexion. Calvin's Daily Offices. For family prayer, as well as for morning 138 CAMALDOLITE9 CAME e.nd evening services, in the reformed churches. It was used in the reformed churches of France after their organisa- tion in 1555. Various modifications have been introduced from time to time. It was at one time much used in Scotland, and John Knox died repeating words of Calvin's ' Daily Offices.' Camal'dolites (4 syl.). See below. Camaldulensian Order (The). ' Camaldules,' or' Camal'dolites ' (4 syl.), 1010. A very austere religious order first established in the vale of Camaldoli by Roinuald, a Benedictine monk ; and approved by Alexander II. in 1072. The order IB almost extinct. Camarilla (4). A royal clique, junto, or secret council, composed of the sovereign, the priests, and the intriguing ladies of the court. It was for a long time part of the Austrian government. Some of the sovereigns of France and England too had their camarillas. Cambray (League of\ 1608. Be- tween the pope, Louis XII. of France, and the Duke of Ferrara, ' to blot out the Republic of Venice from the map of Europe.' The Venetians, however, bribed off the pope, who promised to break up the league. To this end he made a compact with the Swiss to chase the French out of Lombardy ; and then Venetia, Spain and England joined the league, which was called 'The Holy Alliance ' (1518). Cambray (Peace of), or ' Paix dei Dames,' 6 Aug., 1529. Between France and the Kaiser. So called because its terms were settled by two ladies, viz. the mother of Francois I. on behalf of France, and Margaret of Austria, the aunt of Karl V., on behalf of Germany. By the terras of this scandalous treaty, Francois stipulated to renounce the lord- ship of Flanders and Artois; to pay 400,0001. for the ransom of his two sons ; to abandon Venice and all his other allies to the vengeance of Karl V. ; and to marry Eleonore, sister of the emperor. Cambria, Wales. The Welsh call their country ' Cymru,' ' Cymro ' is a Welshman, ' Cymraes ' a Welsh woman, Cymraeg 1 the Welsh language, and * Cymruain ' the adjective Welsh. Cambria, or Cumbria, was also the country of ths Brettsor Welsh in Dumbarton, Renfrew. Ayr, Lanark, Peebles, Selkirk, Roxburgh. Dumfries, and Cumberland, which formed a separate king dom. Cambridge Colleges. N.B. The head of King's is a. provost, of Queen's a president, and of all others a master. (MM Catherine Hall or College ... ^ ... Cat's 1475 Christ's .... . ... 1505 Clare Hall or College . _ ... 1*36 Corpus Christi ... . C.C.C.C. 1301 Downing _ _ _ Oonv'ille or Caliis Z Z I! Keys IHlh Jesus .... 14'.i6 John s (St.) _ >. Kings ,., 1441 Maudlin 1519 1848 _ 1257 -. -. 144C, refounded 1465 ... 1598 ... 1546 Pembroke Peter s (St.) Queen's Sidney Susse Trinity Trinity Hall All these 17 are corporate bodies. HOSTELS AyerstHall _ . . UM Cavendish College ... ... 1876 Belwyn College and Ridley Hall _ ... 1883 In 1873 Qlrton. and In 1880 for ladles. _ ... Newnhana. colleges Cambridge Platonists (The). The Whig partv opposed to the Oxford Anglicanism of which Laud was the exponent. The leaders were Whichcote, Cudworth, Henry More, Culverwell, Rust, Glanvil, and Norris. They suc- ceeded the puritan divines, and were succeeded by the school of Sherlock, Law, and Paley, who in turn gave way to the evangelical school of Berridge, Milner, and Simeon ; and still later came the school of Trench and Hall am. Camden and Powis Medals. For a poem in Latin hexameters. Founded by the Marquis of Camden, chancellor of the University of Cam- bridge, and called, from 1841 to 1866, the Camden Medal. On the death of the marquis, the Earl of Powis, high steward of the University, continued the medal, since called the Powis Medal. For undergraduates of not more than two years' standing Camden Professorship of Ancient History (The), in Oxford University. Stipend GOOJ. a year. Founded by William Camden, Claren- cieux King of Arms, in l(iii % 2. Came with a lass and will go With a lass (It). The words uttered by James V. of Scotland on his dying bed, when informed of the birth of a daughter, CAMEL CAMPUS 13d 1 God's will be done. It came with a lasa and will go with a lass.' Marjory Bruce, daughter of Robert Bruce, married Walter, the 6th steward of Scotland, and this alliance eventually brought the crown into the Steward family (called Stuart in French). The daughter born to James V. on his death-bed was Mary (Queen of Scots), whose son James removed to England, and called himself James I. of England and VI. of Scotland. Camel-driver of Mecca (The). Mahomet the prophet of Arabia (570-632). Camel People (The). So the Arabs oall the inhabitants of the Sahara. The inhabitants of the towns of Barbary they call the Gold people, and those of the Tell, or cultivated lands, they call the Silver people. Came'le'on. A nickname given in France to Thiers the historian (1797- 1877). See ' Attila le Petit.' Cameron Highlanders (The). The 79th regiment in the British service, raised by Allan Cameron of Erroch in 1793. Now called th Queen'* Own Cameron High- Unders. Cameronians (The). I. Scotch Covenanters, 1680. So called from Richard Cameron, who was slain at Airds- moss, Ayrshire, 20 July, 1680. Richard Cameron disowned Charles Stuart (II.) for having violated the Engagement (q.v.) t and his brother James as a papist. He col- lected some six-and-twenty horse and forty foot, which he called ' the host of Israel,' was attacked and fell. His followers hold the perpetual obligation of the Solemn League and Covenant (q.v.) ; they stoutly resisted the introduction of the English Church into Scotland, and continued to preach in the open air in violation of the Act against 'Field Conventicles' (q.v.). The party still exists in Ireland and North America, but is very small. Graham of Claverhouse, viscount Dundee, has obtained dishonourable notoriety (or his slaughter of the Cameronians. II. The Scottish Eiflea. Originally formed from the Glasgow Cameronian guard raised in 1786 from the followers of Richard Cameron, the puritan preacher. Tl* first battalion is the 26th foot, and tl* second batUUion the 19th. Camisards (The), 1688. Calvinista of the Cevennes, who, after the Revoca- tion Edict, took up arms under their leaders Cavalier and Roland, and defeated the French troops sent against them by Louis XIV. again and again. At last the Duke of Berwick extirpated them and desolated the whole province of the Cevennes in 1705. Called Camisards from the camise or smock which they wore. Clement VI. said they were ' a cursed brood from the execrable race of the Albigenses.' Dr. Emms died 22 Dec., 1707, and the Camisard* of England staked their reputation that he would return to life on 25 May. Guards were set over his grave ; but it is needless to add that Dr. Emms Slept on the sleep which knows no waking. N.B. Any military surprise by night is a Catnia- ade. Thus the taking of Pontoise in 1419 wa a camisade, and the battle of Pavia in 1524 com. menced with a camisade. Camp of Boulogne (The), 1802. Preparations made by the Consul Bona- parte, at Boulogne, for the invasion of England. It contained a vast number of gunboats and flat transports, military stores and munitions of war ; but it came to nothing. Campbell's Acts. Two Acts of Parliament introduced by Lord Campbell (9, 10 Viet. c. 98) 1846, and (20, 21 Viet, c. 83) 1857, against the sale of obscene publications, prints, &c. Campbellites (3 syl.). Reformers of New America, 1823, so called from Alexander Campbell of Bethany, U.S. He was a Baptist ; protested against all creeds, and professed subjection to the Bible only. The Campbellites reject all school theological terms and doctrines attached to names such as Regeneration, Trinity and Trinitarian, Unitarian, Calvi- nism, Arianism, Arminianism, using only the words and phrases of Scripture. They baptize by immersion, and employ the word immerse instead of baptize. Campo-Formio (Peace of), 17 Oct. 1797. In which Austria recognised the Rhine as the boundary of France ; and ceded to that nation Milan, Mantua, and the Netherlands. France, on the other hand, restored to Austria the city of Venice, Istria, Dalmatia, and the left bank of the Adige. Campus Martius. A vast plain to the west of Rome where was a temple of Mars. Here the assemblies of the people were held, here magistrates wer , the 140 CANADIAN CANONICAL elected, and here the young Romans held their athletic sports. In the latter times of therepublic porticoes, triumphal arches, and magnificent public monuments were erected round the Campus Martius. At Paris a vast plain was laid out in 1770, which was called the Champ de Mars ; it is south-west of the city, between the Ecole Militaire and the river Seine. And here in 1815 was held the federation of the Champ de Mai. Champ de Mars (pronounce sharnd Mart), Champ de Mai (pronounce i/ia > May). Canadian O'Connell (The). Papineau, leader of the democratic party of Lower Canada, in the rebellion of 1836. He was made attorney-general when the two Canadaa were united in 1840. Canal Navigation (Parent of). Francis Egerton, 6th earl and 3rd duke of Bridge-water (1729-1803). Candiotes (3 ayl.). Natives of Candia or Crete. Candle Hymn (The). The hymn Bun at the kindling or lighting of the lump at sunset. Jost then the voices of the ringer* . . . concen- trated themselves . . . into an evening or 'candle hymn.' PATER, Mariin the Epicurean, chap. xxl. Candlemas Day, 2 Feb. The feast of the Purification of the Virgin Mary, observed by Catholics with a procession of lighted candles. On this day the candles required for the services of the ensuing year are consecrated. In Scotland Candlemas-day IB one of the four term days, for the payment of rentB, Interest, taxes, uke de Chartrcs (Louis Philippe), and his brother th Duke of Montpensier, then only 17 years of age. Kellermann was afterwards created by Napoleon ' ducde Valmy' ; and on his >lt>:ithl>ed he requested to be buried in the field of Valmy. Canon (A). A cathedral dignity (Greek 'kanon,' a rule), originally t Cenobite living under a certain rule, aa the rule of St. Augustine, the rule of St. Francis, the canonical rule, 1745. The retreat of the dragoon picquets, immediately the Highlanders under Charles Edward fired their pistols. These rascal dragoons, not waiting to 142 CANTERBURY CAPS return the fire, rode off towards Colt- bridge, nearer to Edinburgh. Fowkes and Gardiner now ordered a retreat, and the men went belter skelter through New Town towards Leith. Still dread- ing an attack, they made off to Preston, BIX miles further, and stopped not till they reached Dunbar. This is certainly one of the most dastardly actions on record. Canterbury Riots (The), 1888. Caused by a Cornishman, named John Nicholl Thorn, who went to Kent, and passed himself off as Sir William Courtenay. He said he was the Messiah, invulnerable, and immortal. Strange as it may appear, hundreds of respectable persons followed him. At length the military being called out the 'lunatic' was shot. No such absurd delusion and infatuation had been known for cen turies. Cantred (A), of land contained 100 towns; so that an Irish cantred (says Ware) corresponded to the Saxon hundred. In the registry of Duisk Abbey, Connaught is said to contain only twenty-six cantreds (i.e. 2,600 towns). Canuleian Law (The), B.C. 445. A law projected by Caius Canuleius, a Roman tribune, to allow patricians and plebeians to intermarry, and legitimise their offspring. This wise law utterly broke down the absurd caste of old Rome. Canute the Great (995, 1016- 1035). Canute was called 'the Oreaf from the extent of hih dominions (six kingdoms); he was called 'the Brave' for his military prowess: he was called 'the Rich' from his wealth and liberality, and ' the Fious ' for his devotion. Canute's Law, or 'Cnut's Law.' The laws enforced by King Canute, and the mode of government which then pre- vailed. When the people clamoured for Canute's law. they meant that they wished to be governed in the samo way as Canute governed the nulion (10)4-1036). Cap. See also : Blue cap (republican) Phrygian eay Cardinal's red hat Pope a cap City Mat cup Purple caps (religious 1 pi-ropu.1 cap virgins) Greek cap Square caps . i-ap (bankrupt's) Statute capo MorUr board Yellow cap iJews' badge) Cap of Liberty (The). In the French Revolution was not like the cap worn by manumitted slaves in Roman history, but a red cloth Phrygian cap, properly with two pointed ends behind. The annexed engraving is taken from a 25 centime-piece in the year 3 (i*. 1794-1795). See ' Phrygian Cap.' It was and still is called ' Le bonnet rouge.' ' Bonnet ' means a woollen cap, ' mortier ' a velvet one. Cap of Liberty (The). Worn in the Roman states by manumitted slaves ; was made thus, according to a coin of Brutus, after the death of Caesar. It was made of red cloth, and those who wore it were called 'pileati,' i.e. wearers of the pileus.' In revolutionary e*mentes at Rome the pileus waa sometimes hoisted on a spear. After the murder of Caesar, Brutus and his rebels adopted the red cap as a token of their republican sentiments. The pileus was commonly worn at games and festivals. The sick also wore it as more convenient than the 'gelarus' or the broad brimmed ' p*. tasus.' Cap of Maintenance (The). One of the regalia of state belonging to the British sovereigns, and carried before them at the coronation and other national solemnities. Caps of maintenance are also carried before the mayors of several cities in England. It is made of crimson velvet lined with ermine, and has two points behind. Most of the reigning dukes of Germany and various fa in: lies of the British peerage bear their M a cap of maintenance. ' Mantenementum ' (says Ducange) means ' ad- miuistratio ' ; and the capof maintenance, with- out doubt, is the symbol of administrative power. Caps (T/wr), 1738-1771. The popular faction of Sweden under Frederick and Adolphus Frederick. They upheld the treaty with Russia, and wore the Russian cap as a badge of their proclivities ; they were also friendly to England. The opposite faction were called the Cha- peaux or Hats, and wore the French 'chapeau* as their builire, to show their French proc.lh ities. They wanted to roll back the government into an oli garchy. The leader of the Caps waa Count Horn; the leader of the Huti waa Count Syllenborg. Gustavua 11 L CAPABILITY CAPTAIN prohibited the names and broke up the factions, 1771. Gustavus courted the Caps, that is, the cltfcens and the people, and thus received the services of the burgher guard of the capital. The Caps were only too ready to assist in pulling down the haughty and oppressive aristocracy. HowiTT, Hist, of Engl., ' George III.,' chap. iv. p. 95. Carlyle says : ' Faction of Caps, that ia night- caps, as being somnolent and disinclined to France and war. Seldom has a valiant nation sunk to Buch depths.' Capability Brown. Lancelot Brown, the landscape gardener, was so called from his constant use of the word in regard to the sites submitted to his skill (1715-1783). Bute . . . employed Capability Brown (1771) . . . to sound Chatham as to a coalition. HowiTT, Hitt. of Engl., ' George III.,' chap. iv. p. 87. Capetian Dynasty (The). The third race of French kings (987-1848). In 1270 the Philippine or elder branch succeeded, and in 1328 the younger branch, called the Valois. In 1848 Louis Philippe abdicated, and the line ended. Huguet Capet appeared in public in an abbot's cope, for he was abbot of St. Martin de Tours, but never crowned. He was called Capet us, which means one who wears a capot, or abbot s cope. In 1792 the monarchy was interrupted by the First Republic. In 1804 Napoleon I. became Emperor of the French. The monarchy was restored in Louis XVIII., Charles X., and Louis Philippe. In 1848 the Second Republic was introduced. From 1852 to 1873 the Empire was restored in Napoleon III., after whose captivity the Republic was again restored. Capitoline Games (The), A.D. 86. Instituted by the Emperor Domitian to commemorate the saving of the Capitol by the sacred geese when Rome, B.C. 890, was invaded by the Gauls. Capitularies. The laws of the Prankish kings are so called because they are subdivided into 'capitula' or chapters. Ducange says any laws re- duced into a code may be so called ; but the most famous are the Capitularies of Charlemagne (827) compiled by the Abbot Angesius of Fontenelles (8 syl.), and those of his son Louis le Debonnaire. Capitulation Resolution (The), 1612. Granting absolute religious liberty and equality, because the estates of Austria, leagued in the Union of Horn, refused otherwise to do homage to Math i as, the new kaiser. Ferdinand II., who succeeded Mathias in 1019, wholly disregarded the capitulation, and acted on the motto, ' Better a desert than a country full of heretics.' Capitulation of Dantzig (The), 26 May, 1807. Capon Tree (The). An oak on which six followers of Charles Edward were hanged on Tuesday, 21 Oct., 1746, viz. Colonel James Innes, Peter Lindsey, Ronald Macdonald, Thomas Park, Peter Taylor, and Michael Delard. Called the Capon Tree because under it the judges and their retinue regaled themselves with capons on their way from Newcastle to Carlisle. The tree no longer exists. Cappel (Wars of), 1529, 1531. These were religious wars between the adhe- rents of Zwingli the Swiss reformer and the Catholics. The Ziirichers sided with Zwingli, but the Catholics of Lucerne, Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, and Zug opposed them. On 11 Oct., 1531, in a conflict at Cappel, in Switzerland, Zwingli the reformer was slain. The war of 1529 was patched up by a peace. Capriana (Peace of), 1441, between Venice and Milan. Celebrated by the marriage of Sforza with Bianca, only child of Filippo Maria Visconti, duke at Milan. Captain Cobbler. An insurgent leader in 1536, who with Dr. Mackrel headed a rising in Lincolnshire. Some 20,000 followers presented a petition to Henry VIII. complaining of extortion and misgovernment. The King replied : ' Ye are presumptuous the rude commons of one shire, and that the most brute and beastly of the whole realm ye would rule your prince whom ye are bound to obey and serve with your lives, your lands, and your goods. Mind your own business and leave government to your betters.' Captain Cobbler (Melton) and Dr. Mackrel, with thirteen others, were executed. ' Captain * Grant, sometimes called ' Cooney.' A famous Irish burglar, executed 29 Aug., 1816. He was pro- fusely liberal, most polite, and an incom- parable dancer. He never injured any- one except in self-defence, and on no account allowed those who paid him blackmail to be robbed of anything. He was a great favourite with Irish farmers, and a welcome guest at every fair. Hia first operations were in Queeu's County, hie last in the countv of WxfoH 144 CAPTAIN CARACALLA ' Captain Grant' being surprised by the military, was committed as ' Cooney.' Captain Moonlight, 1878. The name assumed by some unknown leader of Iriab. Fenians, who wrote threatening letters to those who resisted or refused to join their league. The following was receiv*- Antoinette as ' Des Carmagnole*.' V. Bombastic and fanatical reports of the successes and glory of the French arms. These were tried in the Franco- Prussian War (q.v.), but were found to be wind-bladders. Carmagnole, pronounce kar-man-yole. The -word is from Carmagnola, in Piedmont, the great nest of the Savoyards, noted for their street musio and dancing. Carmathiana (The), or 'Carma- thites '. (8 syl.), A.D. 890-951. The follow- ers of Garmath, the Mussulman reformer, who called himself ' the guide, the director, the demonstration, the Word, the Holy Ghost, the camel, the herald of the Messiah, and the representative of Mahomet, John the Baptist, and Gabriel. He relaxed the duties of ablution, fasting, and pilgrimage, allowed the indiscriminate use of wine and food, and enjoined the daily repetition of fifty prayers. His twelve apostles bf the success of their preaching seemed to threaten Arabia with a revolution. The Carmathians were a secret society united and concealed by an oath of secrecy. Carmelites (8 syl.), 1171. One of the four orders of begging friars and nuns founded by a Calabrian monk on Mount Carmel in Syria, and established in Eng- land in 1240. They dress in white and are called ' White Friars ' from the colour of their dress, as the Dominicans are called ' Black Friars,' and the Franciscans are called ' Grey Friars.' The Carmelites abstain from animal food. St. Theresa in 1540 established a reformed order called the Carmes-dechausses, or Barefooted Carmelites. See ' Monastic . . . Orders.' Carmental Gate (The), orCarmen- talis Porta. One of the eight gates of Eome, very celebrated because it was the gate through which the Fabian clan (consisting of 806 men) passed, when the patricians rejected their agrarian law. They were all cut off by Veientines, and the gate was nicknamed Scelerata or cursed. Garment! Portee dextro via proxima Jano est ; Ire per hano noli, quisquis es : omen habet. OVID, Fatti, ii. 20L Carmes. See * Carmelites.' Carolin Books (The). Containing the judgments of the general council of the bishops of the West on certain religious questions which were mooted in the time of Charlemagne, especially the desirability of having pictures and images in churches as aids to devotion. Alcuin induced Charlemagne to submit the question to ft 148 CAROLINA CARHOLL general council, and the practice was con- demned. See ' Iconoclasts.' Carolina. . So called in 1562 by Jean rte Ribault in honour of Charles IX. of Prance, whose envoy he was. He settled in the south, but in 1565 the colony was massacred by the Spaniards. In 1668 some English settled there, and renewed the name in compliment to Charles II. of England, who granted the whole country to eight English adventurers. The nick- names of the North Carolinians are tar- boilers, tar-heels, buffaloes, and tuckoes ; of the Southerners weasels. Caroline of Brunswick. The dirorced wife of George IV., and mother of the Princess Charlotte. It was Bergami, her chamberlain, with whom the queen's name was BO slanderously connected. Carolus. A silver coin worth ten deniers, struck in the reign of Charles VIIL of France (1483-1498). It bore the letter K, the initial of Karl. Hence the phrase ' H a des Carolus ' he has lots of money. This word is quite common in French comedy, and is called sometimes b carle, charle, or carlo. The English Carolus was -what we now call * overci..ii. It was a gold coin struck In the reign of Charles I. Carosse a cinq sous, 1602. A French omnibus introduced by Colbert. Beven were started, each containing eight teats, and they were compelled to start at fixed times whether full or not. Three tarted in Paris from the Porte St.-An- toine, and four from the Luxembourg. The modern omnibus, ' Kntrcprlse Generate de Omnibus.' was established In 1K27 ; and Shillibocr Introduced tho omnibus into London three year* later, in IbSO ; the (are was Od. Carpenters' and Butchers' In- nrrection (The), 1418. This was the great insurrection in Paris of the White Scarfs and White Hoods. The Carpenters or White Scarfs were the Orleans . or Armagnao (Ar-man'-yak) faction ; the Butchers or White Hoods were the Bur- gundians. The Carpenters prevailed, and after the bloody fray in the Place do Greve, the White Hoods were driven out of Paris and soon wholly disappeared. Carpet-bag Regime (The), 18CO- 1876. When the Southern States of America were practically disfranchised after the rebellion, there grew up swarms of adventurers who went down to the Southern States and organised the negro voters, who got elected to all the chie! offices, plundered the state treasures, contracted huge state debts, and stol the proceeds. Government in the South Carolina and Mississippi states was a mere caricature. When, in 1876, Presi- dent Hayes refused the ' carpet-baggers ' the protection of Federal troops, the regime fell to pieces, and the rule fell again into the hands of the whites. Carpocratians (The). Disciples of Carpocrates, who flourished under Hadrian (A..D. 180) at Alexandria. Carpo- cratcs taught that the world was made by angels ; that Jesus was the son of Joseph and Mary, and that his body after his burial remained in the grave; he denied the doctrine of the resurrection of the body, but seems to have believed in the transmigration of souls. Carrickshock Affray (The), 1882. An anti-tithe affray. A number of writs against defaulters having been issued by the court of exchequer, the process-servers, with a strong body of police, proceeded on their mission with secrecy and dis- patch; but the Irish were in waiting, and suddenly a vast number armed with ' pitch- forks and scythes attacked the yeomen.' A terrible hand-to-hand fight ensued, and in a few minutes eighteen of the police, with their commanding officer, were slaughtered; the remainder fled. The coroner's verdict was ' wilful murder," but not one single conviction was obtained. Carrier of Europe (The). Den- mark, which lets out for hire her ma*, chant ships and men to foreign states. Carrier's Battues, 1794. A device by Carrier for clearing Nantes of persons suspected of being disaffected towards the republic. Some 500 persons wer* placed on a bridge near Nantes (1 syL), and shot down by cannons. Carrier's Vertical Deporta- tion, 1794. A scheme devised by Carrier to clear Nantes of persons sus- pected of not being red republicans. He confined 150 persons at a time in the hold of a ship, and drowned them in the Loire by scuttling the vessel. We are told that the number of persons thus 'deported' amounted to 82,000. Carroll (Lewis). The pen-name of C. Lutwidge Dodgson, author of ' Alicd in Wonderland,' ' Through the Looking- CARROUSEL CASTE 149 glass,' ' Phantasmagoria,' ' Hunting the Snark,' &c. Carrousel. A species of tournament at one time very common and very popu- lar in all the courts of Europe. It was not known in France till the reign of Henri IV. (1589-1610); but there were such sports in Italy before that time. The most famous carrousels in history were that of Louis XIII., and the two given by Louis XIV. in honour of Made- moiselle de la Valliere (one in Paris, 1602, and the other at Versailles in 1664). The ' Place de Carrousel ' in Paris is the place where these fetes were usually held. In 1750 a revival of the carrousel was attempted at Berlin, and in 1828 the cavalry school at Saumur held one in honour of the Duchesse de Berry. The Eglinton tournament was the last car- rousel held. Running with a lance at the pasteboard head of a Turk, or cutting It down with a sword, or firing at it with a pistol, were favourite tests of horse- manship In France. Cartesians. Partisans of Rend Descartes, the French philosopher (1596- 1650). Gisbert Voet charged him with atheism, and some of his books were placed in the Roman ' Index,' especially his ' Meditations.' Descartes said he could find only one thing that was not doubt- ful, and that was that he existed because he thought (cogito, ergo sum). From this he inferred that whatever ' thought ' must also exist, hence God must exist. Now spirit cannot act on matter without a concursus on the part of God, the true cause of the action of mind on matter. It is absurd to call Descartes an atheist. He wan not orthodox, but a God was absolutely essential to his system. Of course, his axiom is a petitio i. Why not ' ambulo, ergo sum ' 1 Carthu'sians (The), 1084. A mon- astic order founded by Bruno of Cologne. So called because their chief institution was at Chartreuse (in Latin Cartusia), near Grenoble, in France. Their esta- blishments, wherever situated, were called ' Chartreuse Houses,' corrupted into Charter Houses. They were introduced into England in the reign of Henry II., A.D. 1180. They adopted, in a great measure, the Benedictine rule, with addi- tional austerities. The Carthusian Hull was as follows : To fast all Lent till six at night ; never to eat meat at any time ; and three days a week to fast ou bread, salt, noil water. Each monk to have a separate cell, where he was to sleep and take in silence his solitary meals. Every monk to wear a hair-shirt at all times. All tc work at agriculture, to be hospitable, and given to works of charity. Cartoon of Pisa (The), by Michel Angelo. It represented some soldiers bathing, and suddenly disturbed by the appearance of the enemy. It was torn to pieces by Baccio Bardinelli out of envy of the young artist. An old copy of this cartoon is in the possession of the Earl of Leicester. Car us Greek Testament Prizes. In the University of Cambridge, 1858. Two prizes of books, raised by subscrip- tion in honour of llie Rev. William Cams, Fellow of Trinity. Casa de Pila tos. In Seville. It is a Moorish house said by tradition to have been removed from Jerusalem by angels. Murray's ' Handbook for Spain ' tells us ' it was built (1533) in imitation of Pilate's house at Jerusalem by Fredrique Enriquez de Ribera, in commemoration of hi shaving performed the pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1519.' Others say it was built by Moorish captives for a duke of Medina Cceli. See ' Santa Casa.' Cassation (Court of). France. For quashing the decision of other courts (casser, to annul). The only question this court has to decide is whether the tenor of the law and its administration have been correctly observed by the court from which the appeal is made. Cassin'ians. In Latin Cassiani. A law school which took its name from Cassius Longlnus, governor of Syria, A.D. 50. He wrote ten books on the civil law, and was a follower of the Sabinians (q.v.), or imperial party. Caste. In India, a social class, to each of which certain pursuits are limited by the Laws of Manu, B.C. 900. 1. The Brahmans or sacerdotal class, which ' issued from the mouth of Brah- ma.' '2. The Chuttree or military class, which ' sprang from the arm of Brahrna.' 3. The Bais or mercantile class, which 1 sprang from the thigh of Brahma.' 4. The Sudras or servile class, which 1 sprang from the foot of Brahma.' The Paititlm and Chandalat are nobodies, o* worse, for it it* pollution to be touched u gcuinof UMMKU 150 CASTL2 CATHARINE'S Castle (The), Dublin. The town residence of the lord-lieutenant. It is the headquarters of the principal public de- partments, and contains an armoury, an arsenal, and a chapel. Here are the offices of the chief secretary, who is prac- tically the prime minister of the lord- lieutenant or viceroy, but he has nothing whatever to do with the police. Hia office is divided into two departments, each presided over by one of the two per- manent under-secretaries. The lord- chancellor of Ireland and the law officers of th 9 crown have offices in a wing of the castle. Prosecutions are initiated in the law-rooms of the Castle, and both the attorney-general and the solicitor-general uf Ireland have their offices here. Cat (The). So James I. used to call Chief-Justice Sir Edward Coke (1549- 1684), noted for his 'Commentary on Littleton's Treatise on Tenures.' James called him ' the Cat,' because he always fell on his legs when he got into trouble. Thus, in 1616 he was removed both from his office of chief-justice and the council, because he refused to favour certain views of Villiers(the king's new favourite) on money matters ; but in 1616 he married his youngest daughter to Villiers' brother, and was restored. Again in 1621 (27 Dec.) he was imprisoned in the Tower for supporting the privileges of the Commons, but was liberated 6 Aug., 1622. Cat Hoax (The), 1815. When Napoleon was about to depart for St. Helena, some wag in Chester had a number of handbills distributed, stating that the island was so overrun with rats that 165. would be given for every full grown tom-cat, 10*. for every full-grown tabby, and 2s. 6d. for every kitten aole to feed itself. The city on the day fixed was crowded with men, women, and children carrying cats. A riot ensued, the cats broke away and infested the private houses ; 500 were killed, others were drowned, and many infested the neighbouring sheds and barns for many weeks afterwards. See ' Cats,' p. 152. Catamaran' Admiralty (The), 1804. The English Admiralty which employed a catamaran to destroy the French flotilla at Boulogne. The catamaran referred to was a machine In- vented by Fulton to be sent against an enemy's ship with a view of blowing it into the air. The machine tiuployed on thin occasion blew ileeli up with iU commander and thlreeen sailors, amidst the jeer* of the French and the sarcasms of our own people. This was the first and last time that such a machine was employed by our navy. Gateau Cambre'sis (Peace of), 2 April, 1559. Between France, England, and Spain, called in French history La Paix Malheureuse, because, after 65 years of war in Italy, the French had to renounce all their conquests in that peninsula and also Corsica. Catechumens' Mass, ' Missa Catechumenorum.' The part of the liturgy which precedes the ' Missa Fidelium,' i.e. the consecration of the elements a^id the communion. That is the epistle and gospel, after which the catechumens were dismissed, the deacon saying ' Si quis non communicat, det locum.' See ' Mass.' Caterans (Scottish history), outlaws, freebooters. Thus Sir Robert Graham, the outlaw who murdered James I. at Perth, was the leader of a band of caterans. (Gaelic, ceatharnach, a soldier.) Iron stanchions on the lower window* ... to repel any roving band of gipsies, or resist a preda- tory visit from the Caterans of the neighbouring Highlands-Sir W. SCOTT. tTaeerfey, chap. vlli. Cath'ari, 'CutharC-s,' or 'Cathar- ists ' (about A.D. 2 .">."), similar to the Waldenses (12th cent., latter port). A plain, unassuming, harmless, and industri- ous race of Christians, who placed their religion in faith, and entertained supreme reverence for the Bible. They rejected the dogmas of apostolic succession, pur- gatory, and papal supremacy; accepted only two sacraments; believed in only one Mediator, and therefore disavowed the advocacy of the Virgin Mary and of saints, and disbelieved in masses for the dead, the adoration of images and relics, and, of course, in indulgences also ; and set their faces against second mar: Sometimes called Bulgarians, sometimes Patarene* or Patarines, sometimes Popelitans or Poplicans, and in the Low Countries Piphles. The word Catharl is the Oreek katharoi. puritans. Their religions tenets were very siinil ir to those of the ' Poor Men of Lyons,' and the Waldensec. Probably they rejected infant KipM-m. but it is a gross slander to call them ManichtButiu. Of cour they times. persecuted as Luther Catharine's College (St.). In Cambridge University, founded by Robert Wodelarke, D.D., chancellor of the University, 1473. Familiarly called Cat's, CATHARINE CATO isi Catharine de' Medici of Africa (The). Sophonisba, queen of Numidia (died B.C. 203). Catharine de' Medici of China (The). Voo-chee, who married Kao- tsong. As Francois I., the father-in-law of Catharine de' Medici, was called Le P&rt: des Lettres, BO Tae-tsong, the father-in-law of Voo-chee, was called the ' Solomon of China,' and the greatest patron of letters of all the emperors of the celestial kingdom. As Catharine, on che death of her husband, ruled her sons [ike puppets, so Voo-chee ruled her son, and usurped the whole power. As the conduct of Catharine demoralised society and impoverished Prance, so Voo-chee demoralised and impoverished China. As Catharine alienated from her all France, so Voo-chee exhausted the patience of her subjects, who at last deposed her. See also ' Catherine.' Cathedra Petri means Koman supremacy, or the supremacy of the Church of Rome, ' founded ' by St. Peter. Hence the Church of Rome is styled ' Ecclesia Apostolica.' Cathedral Beard (The). A long square-cut beard peculiar to ecclesiastics. The fashion of his beard was Just, for all the world, like those upon Flemish jugs, bearing in gross the form of a broom, narrow above and broad beneath. EVI.WRB., The Artificial Clumgeling, 1053. Cathedral Builders of Flo- rence. Arnolfo, Giotto, Ghiberti, Donatello, Brunelleschi, and Agnolo. Cathedrals of the New Foun- dation. Those to which Henry VIII., after the dissolution of the monasteries, gave a new dean and chapter. Catherine of Aragon. Wife of Prince Arthur and afterwards of Henry VIII. of England, was lineal descendant of John of Gaunt, whose fourth child and second daughter married Alfonso V. of Castile. See also ' Catharine.' John of Gaunt ; his daughter Joanna married Alfonso V. of Aragon, and their son was Juan II. of Aragon. The son of Juan II. -was Ferdinand V., who married Isabella of Castile, and the daughter af Ferdinand and Isabella was Katharine or Catherine, who first married Arthur (eldest son of Henry VII.), and then his younger brother, Hei'.ry VIII., by whom she was divorced. Catholic Association (The), 1824. In Ireland. Abolished by Act of Parlia- ment in 1825. It still existed in 1828. when the Brunswick clubs were formed ; but after the passing of Catholic eman- cipation the association dissolved itself, 1829. Catholic Emancipation, 1829 (10 Geo. IV. c. 7). The repeal of all laws which disqualified Roman Catholics from the enjoyment of civil rights and the free disposal of cheir property The Corporation and Test Acts had been repealed in 1828. In 1832 Jews were admitted to their elective franchise, in 1845 were admitted to municipal offices, and in 1858 were made eligible for seats in Parliament. Catholic Epistles (The). Those seven epistles of the New Testament, not addressed to particular churches or persons. They are the Epistle of James, the three Epistles of John, the Epistle of Jude, and the two Epistles of Peter. Originally only 1 John and 1 Peter were accepted as apostolical, but in the 4th cent, the other five epistles were read as ' lessons,' and therefore received as canonical epistles. The 2 and 8 John are anything bat ' catholic.' Catholicos. The primate of the Armenian Church, and of the Christiana of Georgia and Mingrelia. Catilines and Cethegi (The). Conspirators who hope to mend their fortunes by rebellion. Cethegus was one of Catiline's crew, a kind of O'Donovan Rossa of ancient Rome. The intrigues of a few impoverished Catiline* and Cethegi. MOTLEY, Dutch Republic. Catnach Press (The). The press which published 'last dying speeches and confessions,' with accounts of ex- ecutions of notorious criminals, such as Thurtell and Greenacre, Bishop and Williams, Fauntleroy and Corder. So called from ' Jemmy ' Catnach, the printer of ' patter songs ' and ' last dying speeches and confessions,' &c. One of his chief assistants was John Morgan, the ' last of the Catnach bards.' Cato (The Polish). Thaddeua Reyten, deputy of Novogrodek, who in 1773 resisted the partition of Poland. Cato the Younger. Sir John Barnard (1685-1764), the firm and upright patriot. A statue was erected to him in the Royal Exchange, afta 152 CATO-STREET CAVALIER8 vhich he never transacted business within the edifice, but always in the front of it. Cato-street Conspiracy (The), 22 Feb., 1820. A conspiracy devised by Arthur Thistlewood to assassinate Lord Sidmouth, Lord Eldon, Lord Castle- reagh, and all the other cabinet ministers at the great ministerial dinner to be given at the house of Lord Harrowby. One of the conspirators was to call with a note, and then the rest were to rush in and put the ministers to death. This done the conspirators were to fire the cavalry barracks by throwing fireballs into the straw-sheds. Then they were to take the Bank and the Tower. Two spies, Edwards and Hidon, kept the ministers well posted in all the plans. Thistlewood and four others were ex- ecuted on May day (1820). The conspirators met in a stable In Cato Street, ear Kdgware Itoad, London. Catochiens, 1418. French rebels po called from their leader Catoche, a butcher. Like the Jacquerie (1357), they insisted, amidst blood and rapine, on stamping out the privileged classes and abolishing royalty in France. Catskin Earls. Earls who wore cut-ikin trimmings instead of ermine that is earls prior to 1520, as Shrewsbury, Derby, and Huntingdon. Some period subsequent to 1530. the catsVln trimmings of earls was changed to ermine. The earls, however, created before that period were allowed to wear their catukin trimmings. The only ones existing are those of Shrewsbury, I>erby, and Huntingdon. Nottt and (Jueriti. I Sept., Ix. 214. Cats' Raffael (The). Gottfried Mind of Berne, in Switzerland (1768- 1814). See ' Cat,' p. 150. Caucasians (The). An ethnological division adopted by Blumenbach, in- cluding all the inhabitants of Europe (except the Fins); with the Hindus, Persians, Assyrians, Arabians, Jews, and Phoenicians, of Asia ; and in Africa, the Egyptians, Abyssinians, and Moors. Dr. Prichard says this division Includes two i; language, not the form of the skull, being now OOnsldeMd the philosophical separate groups ; ig-\ not the form of th basis of ethnological groups, Caucus, 1774. A meeting got to- gether at Boston (Massachusetts) by Sai'iuel Adams to resist the British Government and especially the Boston Port Act (, won by Rupert mid lost again : New- bury (BerkBhire) 30 Sept. 164H, in which Charles lost his general Gary, lord l-'nll bind : Martton Moor (Yorkshire). 2July,lf>44. In which Cromwelldefented Prince Rupert; and Naseby (Morthumptoiibhire) U June, lo*o, won by Fairfax ana Cromwell. Ihu Tictory closed the contest. TheirrranUwho followed the body from London to Windsor were Herbert and Cuptain Anthony Mlldmay, his sewers: Captain Preston: Joyncr, Ihe king's cook; and Murray, his coachman, who rirovp the hearse. TIOHB and DAVIS, Annali of Charles II., of ENGLAND. Son of Charles I., born 1630, dates his reign from 1648-9, restored Saturday 29 May, 1660, died 1685. Married Catharine or Katerine, Infanta of Portugal, had no legitimate off- spring, but many children by mistresses. His style was: Charles D.G. of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, King. Defender of the Faith. Head of the Anglican and Hibernian Church. 1 1 'ifp, nnaire; M other, Judith of Bavaria; Son, Louis II., le Begue. He died while Alfred th Great was king of England. Charles I. was ' Charlemagne ' (q ..). Charles III. (le Simple), of FRANCF (879, 887-929). Posthumous son of Louis IL, le Bhgue, and brother of Louis in. Charlemagne (Charles I.) ; whose son was LouU 1_ If D/fcomioir* ; Louis's son was Charles 11., U CJUiui-f, whose son was Loui . h:id two sons. viz. Louis III. and Charles III. From the latter the line WM continued in his son Louis IV., ic. I Charles IV., (le BeV), of FRANCB (1294, 1822-1828). Third son of Philippe IV., le Bel, and last of the Capetian dynasty. Contemporary with Edward II., who was his brother-in-law, having married Isabelle, ' the she wolf of France.' Hngues Capet ; Robert, his son ; Philippe I., his son- Louis VI., his son; Louis Ml., his son; Philippe II., bis son: Louis Mil. .hi* Mm; Louis IX.. hUson; 1-hilippc III.. 1 i* IV, his son ; whose three sons were Louis X.. 1 hilipp* V., and Charles IV. See ' Fatal Three.' Charles V. (le Sage), of F .NCB (1887, 1364-1880). Grandson of Philippe V., and third of the Valois line. CHARLES CHARLOTTE 161 Father, Jean II., le Bon ; Mother, Bonne, daughter of the blind king of Bohemia slain at Crecy ; Wife, Jeanne, daughter of the Due de Bourbon. Contemporary with Edward IH. and Richard II. of England. The Valois line was from Philippe III., son of 8t. Louis [IX.], whose second sou was Charles de Valois. Charles VI. (le Bien-aimt), of FRANCE (1368, 1380-1422). An imbecile, who resigned his kingdom to Henry V. of England, after the battle of Agincourt. He was the fourth of the Valois line. Father, Charles V. ; Mother, Jeanne, daughter of the Due de Bourbon ; Wife, Isabelle of Bavaria. One of his daughters, Isabelle, married Richard II. of England, and another, Catherine, married Henry V., and afterwards Owen Tudor of Wales. Contemporary with Richard II., Henry IV., and Henry V. of England. Charles VII. (le Victorieux), of FRANCE (1403, 1422-1461). So called because he succeeded in wresting France from the hands of the English. His first success was due to Jeanne d'Arc. Father, Charles VI., the Imbecile; Mother, Isabelle of Bavaria; Wife, Marie d'Anjou, daughter of Louis II. of Naples ; Son, Louis XL Contemporary with Henry VI. of Eng- land. Charles VIII. (VAffaUe),ot FRANCE (1470, 1483-1498), last of the Valois line. Father, Louis XI. ; Mother, Charlotte of Savoy ; Wife, Anne of Brittany. All his children died young. Contemporary with Edward V., Richard III., and Henry VII. of England. Charles IX., of FRANCE (1550, 1560- 1574), of the Valois-Angouleme line. Notorious for the St. Bartholomew slaughter (q.v.). Father, Henri II. ; Mother, Catharine de' Medici ; Wife, Elizabeth, daughter of Maximilian II. of Austria ; no issue. Contemporary with Elizabeth of England. His mistress was Marie Touchet, who afterwards married Francois de Balzac, whose younger daughter was the Marchioness of Ver- neuil, mistress of Henri IV. It was Henri IV. who made the anagram on the name of ' Marie Touchet,' Je charme tout. CHARLES V. had two sons, CHARLES VI. and Lou la duo d'Anjou. The elder branch of the Valois line, viz. CHARLES VI. ; CHARLES VII., his son; Louis XL, his son; CHARLES VIJI., his son ; no surviving issue. The younger branch or second son of CHARLES V., viz. Louis, due d'Anjou; Louis, due d'Orleans, who had two sons, viz. Charles, due d'Orleans, and Jean, comte d'Angouleme. First take Charles, duo d'Orleans : his BOH wa Louis XII., no son. Next take Jean, comte d'Angouleme : hia son was Charles, duo d'Angouleme, whose son waa FRANqoiS I. ; then comes HENRI II.. his son, who had three sons, all crowned, viz. FRANCOIS II., CHARLES IX., and HENRI III., with whom 'thf dynasty became extinct. See ' Fatal Three. 1 Charles X., of FRANCE (1757, 1824- 1830 ; abdicated and died in 1836). The fourth son of Louis the Dauphin, grand- son of Louis XV., and last of the Bourbon dynasty. The only king of France who reached his 80th year. Father, Louis the Dauphin; Mother, Marie Leczinska; Wife, Maria Theresa of Savoy ; Son, Henri [V.] never crowned, lived at the castle of Frohsdorf in Austria, where he died in 1883. His eldest son Louis-Antoine married Marie-The*rese (his cousin, daughter of Louis XVI.), ' the modern Antigone.' Contemporary with George IV. Charles X., on abdicating, assumed the title of Comte de Marnes. He first retired to Holyrood in Scotland, then to Hradschin near Prague, and lastly to Goritz, where he died. The Bourbons : HENRI IV. ; Louis XIII., hla son ; Louis XIV., his son, died 1715 ; [Louis, le grand dauphin, his son, died 1711 ; Louis, due de Bourgogne, dauphin, his son, died 1712] ; Louis XV., his son, died 1774 [Louis, the dauphin, died 1765], leaving three sons, Louis XVI., LOUIS XVIII., and CHARLES X. See ' Fatal Three.' (Louis XVII., the son of LouisXVL.fe .Martyr, was never crowned, but as he survived his father he received the empty title, like Henri V. (sec above), and Napoleon II.). Charles le Te"me"raire or the Bold, duke of Burgundy (1488-1477). ' Bold ' he was not ; foolhardy or self- willed would be nearer the mark. Charles's Law (1787). The volume of a gas under constant pressure expands when raised from the freezing to the boil- ing point, by the same fraction of itself, whatever be the nature of the gas. Citizen Charles lived 1740 1H23. This law is also called ' Dal ton's Law,' who published it in 1801, and 1 Gay-Lussac's Law,' who published it in 1802. Charles did not publish it at all, but it is mentioned In his Memoir. Charlotte (The Princess), daughter of George IV. Her mother's name was Caroline (afterwards the wife of George IV.); her husband was Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (afterwards King of the Belgians). She was married 2 May, 1816, at Carl ton House. Her town residence was Camelford House ; and her country residence waa Claremont, not long &go 162 CHARTK CHARTISTS the property of Lord Clive. She was born 7 Jan., 1796, and died in child- birth 6 Nov., 1817. The name of her accoucheur was Croft. Charte Constitutionnelle (of Prance), 1814. Granted by Louis XVm., and re-formed in 1830 after the abdication of Charles X. Charter of Community (A). A charter of corporate rights, a French term. See ' Chartered Towns.' Charter of 1830 (France). The charter granted by Louis-Philippe when he was made King of the French. This was a modification of the Constitutional Charter granted in 1814 by Louis XVm. Its chief item was changing the line of monarchs into the family of Louis- Philippe, Duo d'0rle"ans, and his de- cendants. M. Gulzot Bald: "The Charter of 1880 would be transmitted to future generations as an Inviolable deposit ; and would secure for France the alliance of order and liberty, the most invaluable co-beri- rhich a nation could receive ' (1847). Charter ofLiberties (Henry !.'),' 1100. This charter was the re-establish- ment of the laws of Edward the Confessor. Magna Charta is for the most part a mere renewal of the same. Charter of Louis XVIII. (The). See above, ' Charte Constitutionnelle.' Charter (The People's), 1838-1848. It consisted of these six items : (1) Man- hood Suffrage, (2) Annual Parliaments, (3) Stipendiary Members, (4) Vote by Ballot, (5) Electoral Districts, and (6) No Property Qualifications for members. It was drawn up by William Lovett, a working man, but the preamble was written by Mr. Roebuck, M J>. In 1848 the monster petition was taken to the House of Commons in three cabs, but being examined, was found to contain the name of the Duke of Wellington 16 times, with whole strings of fictitious names, such as Snub-nose, Hook-nose, Long-Nose, Short-nose, (fee. It was a complete failure, and brought the Chart- ists into such ridicule that the society fell to pieces. See ' Chartists.' Their first petition was presented to Parliament by Attwooil, 14 June, 1839. Charter-house (The). A corrup- tion of Chartreuse, i.e. Carthusian house in Aldersgate Street. It was originally founded by Sir Walter de Manny, in 1871, as a monastery ; but, on the suppression of monasteries in 1587, it was used by Henry VHL as a depot for his nets and pavilions. It was next sold to the Duke of Norfolk, and sundry other persons. In 1611 Thomas Sutton bought it for 18,OOOZ. of Lord Suffolk, and endowed it with the revenues of more than twenty manors, lordships, and other estates, for eighty poor brethren over 50 years of age ; and the free education of forty-four boys, ' sons of poor gentlemen,' admitted at the age between 10 and 14. The following were educated at this school: Dr. Barrow, Judge Blackstone, Addison, Sir Rich- ard Steele. John Wesley, Bishop Thirlwall.Georga Orote, Thackeray, Sir Charles Eastlake, and many other*. Kemovcd to Qodalming, Surrey, in 1872. Charter Schools (The), 1783. IB Ireland. Schools chartered by govern- ment for the education of the Irish poor on the principles of the Established Church. Grant withdrawn in 1882. See 1 Incorporated Society for Promoting English Protestant Schools in Ireland.' Chartered Towns. According to feudal law, towns (like all the rest of the soil) pertained to the feudal lords ; and the inhabitants, together with their shops and houses, were the property of these lords ; but when a town was chartered it was emancipated and set free. It then chose its own magistrates, had its own guild, its own police, and its own bye- laws. The bailiff or steward hitherto ap- pointed by the feudal lord to collect his dues was then superseded by a mayor and other civic officers, elected by the townsmen. The feudal lord had no longer any legal authority in the town, which was wholly governed by its own magistrates and the king. Louis VI. (1108-1187) was the first to grant char- ters of community In France; but Henry I. in 1100 granted such charters In England, and pro- bably Edward the Confessor did the same. Charters of Inspeximus or of 'Vidimus.' Charters reciting previous charters and confirming them, with the addition of some new privilege. 'In- speximus' or 'Vidimus,' i.e. we have inspected or seen the old charter, and confirm it. Chartists. Organised 1838, but the word was in use in 1832. The most sedi- tious speakers were Stephens (a dissent- ing minister), Oastlt-r, and Feargui O'Connor. Charles Ernest Jones, bar- CHARTIST CHATEAUBRIAND 1B3 rister-at-law, was also a great Chartist advocate (1819-1869). The Rev. Joseph Rayner Stephens, of Hyde, Chester, was in 1839 imprisoned in Knutsford gaol for 18 months. For the six points tee above, 'Charter (The People's).' Chartist Constitution (The). It contained six items. See under ' Charter (The People's).' The Chartists intended to march to the House of Commons on 10 April, 1848, to place Feargus O'Connor in the chair, and pass their charter ; but the whole scheme fell through. Chartist Convention (The), 1839. Also called by them the 'National Convention ' (q.v.). Chartist Riots in Birmingham (The), 1838. Of these riots the Duke of Wellington said in the House of Lords : ' I have seen as much of war as most men ; but I have never seen a town, carried by assault, subjected to such violence as Birmingham has been in one single hour by its own inhabitants.' Chartist Riot at Newport (The), 29 Sept., 1839. Led by John Frost (linendraper, a magistrate), Williams, and Jones. Upwards of twenty persons were killed in this riot. The three leaders were condemned to be hanged. Sen- tence of death was commuted into trans- portation for life ; but in May 1856 the three were pardoned and returned to England. Chartreux. A religious order, called in English 'Carthusians' (q.v.). La Grande Chartreuse is a celebrated French monastery in the department of Isere, which owes its origin to St. Bruno, who settled there in 1084. The monks were despoiled in the revolution of 1789. Chasidim, i.e. Pietists. I. Those who resisted the efforts of Antiochos Epipha- nes and his successors to lure the Jews into idolatry. II. Jewish ascetics who studied the Kabbala, and sought by mortifying the flesh to come into closer communion with God and his angels. III. In 1750 Israel Baal Shem pre- fcended to work miracles, and the revived Chasklim became numerous, but at his death in 1760 they died out again. IV. In 1760, among the Jews of the Ukraine. The sect spread rapidly through Poland and other parts of Russia. They are very strict observers of the law ; be- lieve in the miracles of their saints, and in their power of curing bodily ailments. Joyf ulness is insisted on by these Pietists, but i* is said to tend to Epicureanism. Chasles Forgeries (The). M. Chasles, a member of the French Aca- demy of Sciences, gave out that he had bought 27,000 MSS. for 5,OOOZ., but would not tell where, ' lest others should go and spoil his market.' Amongst these MSS. was a correspondence from Alexander the Great to Aristides, several letterg from Attila, king of the Huns, and from the widow of Martin Luther. Several also from Judas Iscariot to Mary Magda- lene, and from Lazarus to St. Peter. What, however, more nearly concerns Englishmen was a faded yellow MS., purporting to be letters from Pascal to Sir Isaac Newton, to prove that Newton had pilfered his system of gravitation. The tale was that this MS. belonged to the Abbey of Tours ; came into the pos- session of Comte de Boisjourdain, who in 1791 was wrecked on his way to America. The MS. was sold, and the purchaser gave it to M. Chasles. Another letter was produced from Galileo, stating that the discovery had been made known to him. A committee was formed to ex- amine into the matter, when a poor tool named Vrain Lucas was discovered to be the forger, and, after conviction, waa severely punished. See 'Literary For- geries.' Chassepot Rifle, 1866. A breech- loading rifle invented by M. Chassepot, and adopted by the French government. It was largely used by the French in the Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871. Chasseurs de Vincennes, or ' Tirailleurs,' i.e. sharp-shooters, 1835. A corps in the French army organised by the Duke of Orleans, and armed with the new rifle. They were first garrisoned at Vincennes; but now a whole battalion has been organised. Chaste Week (The). Hebdomada Casta. The week preceding Lent; so called because the faithful vowed in that week to observe inviolable chastity throughout the coming Lent. Chateaubriand (Edict of). In France, 27 June, 1554. Published by Henri JL, renewing the persecution of 3 164 CHATTERTON CHESTNUT the Huguenots, and referring cases of ' heresy ' to the civil as well as to the ecclesiastical judges. The edict prohibits all books of an unorthodox tendency. Chatter ton (Thomas). ' The mar- Tellous boy.' A literary impostor. He began in 1768 to produce poems which he professed to be from the pen of Tho- mas Rowley, a monk of the 15th cent. Chatterton was born at Bristol, and com- mitted suicide (1752-1771). See ' Literary Forgeries.' Chattertonian Controversy (The), 1770. This controversy was whether the poems said by Thomas Chat- terton to be Rowley's were forgeries or not. Rowley was said by him to have been a priest of Bristol in the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. The forgery was exposed by the poets Mason and Gray. The wonder is how anyone the least acquainted with the literature of the period referred to could be deceived. Modernise the spelling, and the deception is manifest. The boy, however, was a true poet and great genius. Chaucer of Artists ( The). Albert Diirer, of NUrnberg (1471-1528), called by his countrymen the ' prince of artists.' A contemporary artist was Lucas Kranach (H72-15.W. famous for his portrait* of Luther, MelauchUion, and other reformers. These por- traits are aa celebrated aa the portraits of Charle- magne and hla successors by Albert Diirer. Chaucer of Prance (The). Cle*- ment Marot, valet to Francois I. (1484- 1544). Chaucer of Scotland (The). Wil- liam Dunbar (1465-1530). His 'Thistle and Rose,' an allegory, celebrates the marriage of James IV. (the Thistle) with Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. (the Rose), and is a rich specimen of poetical allegory worthy the bard of Woodstock. Chaucer's Inn, the ' Tabard,' was burnt down in the Great Fire of London, 1606. Rebuilt and called the 'Talbot' or ' Dog ' till 1878, when it was converted into a gin-shop. Chaumont (Treaty of), I March, 1814. A treaty of alliance against Napo- leon, between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia. The allies bound themselves to pursue without relaxation war against France, till Napoleon con- Bunted to renounce all the acquisitions made by France since the coiiuueiicemeut of 1792, and to abandon all interfereno with any state except France. Chauvinism originally meant ex- travagant admiration of Napoleon ; but now it means jingoism. Chauvin is a character in Scribe's Soldat Laboureur, an intense admirer of Napoleon Bona- parte. Cheapside Knight (The). Sir Richard Blackmore, who resided at Sad- lers' Hall, Cheapside, and was knighted by William HI. (1650-1728). Chefs Plaids (The). The parlia- ment or general assembly of Sark, con- vened by the ' Seigneur ' (q.v.). The members consist of the seneschal, the pre'vot, the gremer, and the tenants of the forty farms. Chelsea Philosopher (The), oe ' The Sage of Chelsea.' Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) ; he was born at Ecclefechan, in Dumfriesshire, but settled in Chelsea. Chemistry (Father of French). Arnaud de Villeneuve (1238-1314). Chemistry (Professorship of). ID the University of Cambridge, 1709; founded by the University. Stipend, 5002. a year. Cherubim. Ezekiel's cherubim ii identical with the four standards sta- tioned at the four sides of the Tabernacle in the Wilderness : the Lion for Judah, Man for Reuben, Ox for Ephraim, and the Flying Eagle for Dan (Gen. xxx. 14). According to Dante the Cherubim in- habit the Fixed Stars, and the Seraphim the Primum Mobile. See ' Evangelical Symbols.' Cheruscan League (The), A.D. t. A league of German tribes each side of the Weser to drive out the Romans from their territory. Hermann, called in Latin Arminius, was chosen chief ; and suc- ceeded in destroying the army of Varus, and driving the Romans beyond the Rhine. Chestnut Bells. In 1886, in New York, and some other large cities in the United States, the gallery gods carried little bells into the theatres, and rang them when a stale witticism (or ' chest- nut ') was uttered by the actors. These bells soon became a stale nuisance, and were called ' chestnut bells.' Chestnut i an Americanism for a uala jok CM ttUoiam CHEVALIER CHIEF 16fl Chevalier de St. George (The), 1708. The name and title assumed by James the Pretender, just as he was about to cross over to Scotland as its king. This son of James II. is generally called the ' Old Pretender.' See ' Warm- ing-pan.' His son was Charles Edward [Stuart], the ' Young Pretender,' who, on the death of his lather, laid claim to the throne of Great Britain ; but, being signally defeated at Culloden in 1746, he fled to the continent. V He assumed the name of Betty Blake, an Irishwoman, when he escaped to Skye, accom- panied by Flora Macdonald. The sum of 80, phcrs, were both born under this dynasty. Chremonidean War (The), B.C. 208 or 203. When Athens was taken b> AntigfinuB Gonatus. So called from (.'lire- monldes, the Athenian, who distinguished himself in the defence of the city. Christ (Knights of), 1818. A mili- tary order, founded in Portugal by King Dionysius ; also founded in Brazil in 1813. Christ (Order of), 1205. In Livonia, instituted by Albert, bishop of Riga. The popes also confer the ' order of Christ.' Christ's Birth. Idler fixes it in . Dec. B.C. 7 Petavius and Usher 25 Dec. Bengel . . 25 Dec. Anger and Winer . March Scaliger . . . Oct. St. Jerome . 25 Dec. Eusebius (Bk. i. 6.) . 6 Jon. (Dr. Geikie, ' Life of Christ,' i p. 559.) Bunsen shows, on the authority of Iremeus, that Jesus u us born some fifteen years before the fine assigned, and that he lived to be about fifty yeah, of s Btinage. the Jew, in his Hist, des Juifs.' placed he birth nearly a century sooner than 4.D. 1. According to Luke ii. 1-7. It WM about AJ*. UL CHEIST CHRISTIAN 169 Christ Church, 1526. Founded by Cardinal Wolsey. The most aristo- cratic and wealthy of all the colleges of Oxford. The head-master of this college only is called the Dean. Christ's College. In Cambridge University, founded by the Lady Mar- garet, countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of Henry VII., in 1505. The founder of St. John's College also. Surely this college ought to be Christ College, as Christ Church in Oxford. What would be said of Tri- nity's College, Peter's House, or Corporis Christ! College ? Bishop Latimer, Milton, and Cudworth were of this college. Christ's Hospital (The Blue-coat School), London, 1553. Founded by Ed- ward VI. (the year of his death). Called Blue-coat from the blue woollen coat fastened round the waist with a narrow red leather girdle. The boys wear yellow breeches and yellow stockings, bands, and a very small blue worsted cap. Christadelphians (The], 1st cent. Brethren of Christ, not brethren in Christ. Revived by Dr. Thomas in the 19th cent. The immortality of the soul, the theory of hell, the devil, disembodied spirits, and the Trinity they utterly dis- believe ; but the millennium they believe in fully. The Holy Ghost is not a dis- tinct person, they say, but simply the instrumental power of the Father. And Jesus Christ is God, only because the Spirit of God dwelt in Him fully and without measure. Dr. Thomas died in 1871, but the Thomasites continue still. Christian Ad vpcate (The). In the University of Cambridge, 1789 ; founded by the Rev. John Hulse, of St. John's College. In 1860 converted into the Hulsean Professor of Divinity Christian Brethren (The), 1525. An association chiefly of London trades- men and citizens, who smuggled over and circulated the Gospels and Epistles translated by Tyndale, and reprinted at Cologne or Worms the tracts of Wyclif and Luther. Christian Charity (Knights of), 1578. Instituted by Henri III. of France for the benefit of poor military officers and maimed soldiers. It resembled our 1 Poor Knights of Windsor ' (g.v.). Christian Cicero (The). Lactan- fcius, first of the Latin fathers About 250-880. Converted 801. 8 Christian Club (The), 1768. A political union in the borough of Shore- ham, where the burgesses agreed to sell their borough to the highest bidder, and share the proceeds equally. Called the ' Christian ' club because, like the early Christians, they agreed to have all things [i.e. the proceeds of the bribe] in common. Christian Connexion (The), 1800. Chiefly in the United States of America. They recognise no leader, no creeds, no forms of prayer. The Bible is their code, and each man is his own interpreter. Their great law is universal toleration. The general creed is this: There is one God ; Christ the Son of God is the Mediator between God and man. The Holy Ghost is the power and energy of God. Of course the table of com- munion is open to all who choose to attend. Christian Eloquence (Founder of). Bourdaloue (1632-1704). Especially famous for his ' Lent Sermons.' Christian Era. It was Dionysius ' Exiguus,' in the 6th cent., who introduced the felicitous custom of dating from the birth of Christ. He, however, was incor- rect in fixing the Nativity after the death of Herod ; and indubitably it was not in December, but either in the spring or autumn. Ireneeus (11. 22, 6) tells us that Jesus was between 40 and 50 when he was put to death, but the general opinion is that be was between 33 and 34 years of age. Christian Era (The). Fixed by Dionysius Exiguus at zero A.D. 1 Eusebius . B.c 2 Jerome and ScalTger 3 Anger, Bengel, Petavius Winer, Usher . 4 Ewald ... 6 Idler ... 7 Bunsen . . . ,,15 Irenseus apparently 20 Luke ii. 1-7 . . A.D. 4 or 5 (See Josephus,' Ant.' xvll. 1. l.and Euseblus, 1. 6.) (On tho authority of Irenseus Jesus was 50 at hit crucifixion.) In regard to the month of the Nativity, Euee- bius places it in January ; Anger and Winer in the spring; Sealiger in Oct.; Bengel. Idler. Irenams, Petavius, and Usher in Doc. The Christian Era, suggested by DlonysiuB Exiguus, began to be used A.D. 526. Christmas Day was celebrated in the reign of Antonlnui Pius il:-li)l), and the festival is attributed to Telesphorus. (See ' Dec. 25.') Christian Era (The). This era begins Jan. 1, JL.D. 1, or A.u o. 758. First 170 CHRISTIAN CSRISTIN03 used by Dionysius Exiquus in 526. In- troduced into Italy in the 6th cent. ; into France in the 7th cent. ; ordained by the Council of Chelsea in 816. Not generally used in Spam till the llth cent. ; not in Portugal till 1415; not in the Eastern Church till 1468. Called the 'Tear of Grace'; the Tear of the Incarnation ' ; ' Annus Trabeationis' ; and some- times ' Recapitulatio Dlonisii ' [tic]. It is generally thought that A.D. 1 should be A.D. 4, In order to bring in Herod the Great, who died that year ; but the government of Cyrenius, mentioned by Luke, requires an adjustment in the opposite direction, as a* was proconsul of Syria 4-5, according to the calculation of Dionysius. Christian Fathers (The), 8rd cent. Irenseus, Panteeus, Clemens Alex- andrlnus, Tertullian (Latin), Minucius Felix (Latin), Hippolytus, Origen, Gre- gory Thaumaturgus.Cyprian, and Metho- dius (10 altogether). See ' Doctors.' Christian Forgeries (The). Of Brahmanic writings printed in French at Yverdun, in 1778, imposed even on Voltaire. A Carmelite missionary justi- fies the forgery, as the object was laud- able. Origen thought that a good aim or end justifies the means. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Christian Sen'eca (The). Joseph Hall, bishop of Norwich (1574-1656). Christian of the Cleek, 1385, Unitarians, (6) Trini- tarians : aa the Arians and Socinians ; the Ana- baptists, the Anglican Church or Church of Eiig- and. Armintans, Baptists, Calvinists, Congrega- iionalists, Enthusiasts, Episcopalians or those Protestants who have an order of Bishops, Evan- gelicals, Hernhtitters, Huguenots or French Cal vinists, Lutherans. Mennonites, Methodists, Mo- ravians. Mormons, Mystics, Nonconformists, Presbyterians, Puritans, Quakers or Friends, Remonstrants, Shakers, Swedenborglans, Wes- eyans, Zwinglians, Ac. These and many other* will be found under their distinctive i Christians of St. John(2Vw), 1st cent. A sect which recognised John the Baptist as their head. They repeated their baptism annually ; denied the divinity of Christ ; attributed a body to God ; called Gabriel God's son, and declared that God created the world by the instrumentality of Gabriel and 50,000 angels. At death, they asserted that the soul wept to diffe- rent spheres. Christians of St. Thomas (The), A.D. 883. Said to have been founded by Thomas the Apostle. In 888 ambassa- dors of Alfred visited the shrine of the founder in the neighbourhood of Madras. They were then governed by the bishop of Angamala, who exercised jurisdiction over 1,400 churches and 200,000 souls. In 1500 the Portuguese inquisitors accused them of the Nestorian heresy, and after a fierce persecution Malabar was reduced under the dominion of the Pope of Rome. They remained sixty years in this servi- tude (1599-1668), when, the Portuguese empire being shaken, the Malabar Chris- tians asserted their independence and relapsed into their Nestorianism (q.v.). The 'ThomlsU 1 were Roman Catholics. The disciples of Thoma* Aquina* were quite another class of Christian*. Chris ti'na of Sweden. Crowned under the title of ' king,' was bm lUSti, reigned 1683-1654, abdicated, and died 1689. She was the daughter of the great Gustavns. Christines and Carlists, 1833, &c. In Spanish history. The partisans of Donna Maria Christina (regent for her daughter, Isabella Maria II.) and Don Carlos, brother of the late king. A salique law had been passed in Spain by Felipe V., but was repealed by Carlos IV., as he had only a daughter. Don Carlo* claimed his right of succession, on the CHRISTMAS CHUPATTIE 171 ealique law. His partisans were called Carlists, and for seven years a tedious guerilla war ensued. It was renewed 1873, and ended in 1876. Christmas Day. Now held on 25 Dec. The early Christians held it, some in May, some in April, and some in June. It could not have been in December, as shepherds would not be in the fields watching their flocks by night in that month. Most likely it took the place of the Yule-feast and Roman festivals held during the winter solstice. The festival of the Nativity was introduced at Antioch in 375, but in the forged Isidorian Decretals (q.v.) Telesphoros (who lived in the 2nd cent.) is said to have insti- tuted it. The Puritan Parliament abolished the Christmas festival; and the decoration of churches and houses was made an act of sedition. Christmas Day, 1684. Eight of the British sovereigns were all living. 1. Richard Cromwell, born 4 Oct., 1626-1712. 2. Charles H., born 29 May, 1680-1685. 8. James II., born 14 Oct., 1633-1701. 4. William III., born 4/14 Nov., 1650- 1702. 6. Q. Mary II., born 80 Apr., 1662-1694. 6. Q. Anne, born 6 Feb., 1664-1714. 7. George I., born 28 May, 1660-1727. 8. George II., born 80 Oct., 1683-1760. (See ' Notes and Queries,' Dec. 28, 1889, p. 505.) Christmas Eve. Sir Walter Scott says, ' On Christmas Eve the mass is sung.' Strictly speaking, this is not correct, as no mass is celebrated on the vigil of Christmas Day, or indeed on any vigil ; but it is usual in Rome to celebrate * midnight mass, i.e. a mass in the small hours of the morning of Christmas Day. The service may commence before mid- night, but it cannot be finished till after midnight. It is absolutely necessary that the elements be taken in the morning, i.e. between midnight and midday. On Christmas Day or any other day any number of masses may be said in a church at different altars by different priests, but no priest should celebrate more than one mass in a single day. This is not trictly observed. Christmas Prince (A). A Lord of Misrule. The High and Mighty Prince. Henry, prince of Purpoole [? Poola Pork], archduke of Stayulia and Bernardla [Staples and Barnard's Inn], duke of High and Nether Holborn, marquis of St. Giles and Tottenham, count palatine of Bloomsbury and Clerkenwell, great lord of the cantons of Islington, Kentish Town, Paddington, and Knightsbridge. Notes and Queries, 17 March, 1888 (quoted from the ' Book of Christmas,' by T. K. Hervey, 1835). Christopher North. The pen- name assumed by John Wilson (1785- 1854). Christot'okos, Theot'okos, Theoph'oron. Nestorius (5th cent.) taught that Mary was not (mother of God), but only (mother of Christ), for God cannot be born of a woman. Jesus of Nazareth he called 9f dpov (possessed of God). These distinctions were condemned by the Council of Ephesus in 481. Chronicle of St. Neots (The). The Chronicle of Asser is so called be- cause it was discovered in the monastery of St. Neots. Asser, bishop of St. David's, Wales, died 910. Hit chronicle goes down to 893, and has been con- tinued by other hands. Chronicles of Denis (The\ or ' Chronicles of France.' The lives of St. Louis (IX.) and his brothers (Robert, Alphonse, and Charles), and the sons of St. Louis, Philippe III. le Hardi, and Robert de Clermont (the root of the Bourbon dynasty of France). It was written by Guillaume de Nangis, who died in 1300, and was a Benedictine monk of St. Denis. Suger (1092-1152), the wise minister of Louis VII If Jeune, is called the precursor of the Chronicle* of St. Denis. [Pronounce Sahn Dnee.] Chronology (Father of). Scaliger the younger (1540-1609). Chrysostom, or Golden-mouth. John, patriarch of Constantinople, wag so called, but not till long after his death. His oratory was very attractive, appeal- ing more to the feelings and passions than to the reason (347-407). Dion, the rhetorician, was surnamed Chrysostom before the patriarch (A.D. 50-117). Chupattie Mystery (The), Feb. 1857. Just before the Indian mutiny, a native policeman entered a village of Oude, carrying two chupatties, or cakes, and ordered the person who took them to make ten more and distribute two to the five contiguous villages. In a few hours the whole country was alive with watchmen running from place to place with these cakes. The mystery has not 172 CHUKCII CHURCH SCOT yet been solved, but two facts are known : (1) that soon all India was in mutiny ; and (2) that five centuries previously a similar distribution of cakes in China led to the mutiny which overthrew the dynasty of the Moguls. Church (Orders of the}. The sacra- ment of orders is only one ; but it is di- vided into seven grades in the Roman Catholic Church. I. Latin Church : Seven clerical orders (or grades) : Ostiarius, exorcist, reader, acolyte, subdeacon, deacon, priest. The last three are called the greater orders ; the other four are called the lesser orders. The priesthood completes the grades; the dignitaries being only priests. Subdeacons have been classed with the higher orders only since the time of Innocent III. (IlMh mn. Bishops, priests, and deacons are said to be of divine institution. The five orders of ostlarius, exorcist, reader, acolyte, and subdeacon are human institutions, which (we are told) have existed from apoblolio times. Ten clerical orders. Those who insist that there are ten clerical orders in the Latin Church reckon these three amongst the grades: the tonsure, the office of precentor, and episcopal consecration. II. Greek Church : Either Four cleri- cal orders: reader, subdeacon, deacon, and priest; Or Eleven. Those who maintain that there are eleven clerical grades in the Greek Church recognise the following : sexton, confessor, singer, ostiarius (or doorkeeper), exorcist, acolyte, reader, subdeacon, deacon, priest, and bishop. III. Anglican Church : Three clerical orders : deacon, priest, and bishop. Church-ale. A wake to commemo- rate the dedication of a church. These revels consisted of drinking and sports, especinlly dancing. In U-'U Denham issued an order In the western circuit to put an end to the disorders attending chr.roh iilcs, bid-ales, and clerk-ales. HowiTT, Hist, of England (Charles I. ch. 111. p. 159). Church Army (The), 1882. A home missionary society for the conver- sion of the masses by out-door and in- door meetings, and by personal influence. Church Catech ism (The). Strype asrigns it to Nowell (' Ecc. Mem.' ii. StiS) ; but Churton, in his ' Life of Dean Nowell,' attributes it to Poinet, afterwards bishop el Winchester (pp. 403,407). The' Church Catechism ' must not be confounded with what is called ' Cranmer's Catechism ' (q.v.), which was originally German. Church-cess (Ireland). Same aa church-rate in England, for the general expenses connected with the parish (Pro- testant) church, such as clerk's salary, washing the surplice, cleaning the church, buying the sacramental bread and wine. Levied in Ireland on Catholics as well aa Protestants, and in England on dis- senters as well as church-goers. Church- rates abolished 1868 (31, 82 Viet. c. 81) ; but the Irish church-cess was abolished in 1888. It amounted to 80,OOOJ. a year See l Irish Church Temporalities Bill.' Church Cities. In feudal times, were those built on church lands ; and in these the abbot or bishop was chief magistrate. Generally speaking these cities were much more free than ' Ducal Towns ' (q.V-)< Church Education Society (The). In Ireland, 18:5'.). Supported wholly by voluntary subscriptions. This society was started by those who dis- approved of Mr. Stanley's 'National Schools' (q.v-), because religious instruc- tion was disallowed, and because any person, of any persuasion, at certain hours, might give special instruction to the children whose parents sanctioned it. The Church Society insisted that the Bible should be taught, and that reli- gious instruction should be given to the children in conformity with the prin- ciples of the Established Church. Church Forgeries. Mosheim sayo (vol. ii. 17) : ' Acts of councils, records, epistles, and whole books were forged by these zealous fanatics [the monks], in order the more easily to rob and plunder the credulous, on whom they imposed their glaring and fraudulent absurdities.' See 'Literary Forgeries.' Church-scot. The same as church- rate, a tax levied as far back as 692 for the repair of churches, and the supply of what was needful for divine worship. It was paid at Martinmas, according to a rate made at Christmas. In case of failure to pay the rate, a fine of twelve times the amount was imposed. In 1868 Mr. Gladstone virtually abolished parish church rates by making the payment voluntary. CHUKCH CINQ 178 Church Temporalities Act (The). Ireland, 1834 (3, 4 Will. IV. c. 87). Investing the revenues of the suppressed bishoprics of Ireland (about 50.000Z.) in the Board of Ecclesiastical Commissioners, to be applied by them to the erection and repairs of churches, church-rates, and other ecclesiastical purposes. The archbishoprics of Cashel and Tuam were reduced to bishoprics, the total number of sees being 10, instead of 21 as hereto- fore, with 2 archbishops instead of 4. The suppressed sees were Ardngh, Clogher, Clonfert with Kilmacduagh, Cork with Ross, Dromore, Elphin, Kildare, Killala with Achonry, Ossory, Raphoe. Walerford with Lismore. Value In 1833 of the 11 sees, 61.5-111. Of these Clogher was 10.560/. a year, and Elphin 9.4S4/. There are now (18'JO) 4 Catholic archbishops and M Catholic bishops in Ireland. Church of Christ (The). See 'Disciples.' Cicero (The British). William Pitt, earl of Chatham (1708-1778). Cicero (The Christian). Lucius C- lius Lactantius (died 330). Tutor of Crispus, son of Constantine. Cicero (The German). Johann Sturm, printer and scholar (1507-1589). Cicero of France (The). Massil- lon, bishop of Clermont (1063-1742). The conclusion to his sermon called ' The Day of Judgment ' is sublime and harrowing. Cicero of Germany. John elector of Brandenburg (1486-1499). Cicero of Latin Christianity (The). Augustine (354-430). Cicero of the British Senate. George Canning (1770-1827). Cicero's Mouth. Philippe Pot, prime minister of Louis XL (1428-1494). Cicero's Murderer was Popilius Leenas. Cid el Campeador (4 syl.). Don Roderigo Ruy Diaz de Bivar [i.e. Rode- ric, son of Diego of BivarJ, a nobleman of Castile (1040-1099). ' Cid ' is an Arabic word meaning lord, and Campeador ' = champion. Cid'aris. The head-dress of Persian monarchs, not unlike the French cap of liberty, or Phrygian cap. Only the kin ^ ie allowed to wear the top of the cap erect. The cidaris of Darius was blue and white, or purple and white (Quintus Curtiua, book iii. ch. 8, and vi. chap. 6). Cimbri. The inhabitants of the Chersonesus Cimbrica. Confederated with the Teutones, they invaded the Roman dominions, and were overthrown by Marfus in the battle of the Campi Raudii, B.C. 101. Cimbrian Panic (The). B.C. 105. A Roman panic after the annihilation of five armies by the Cimbrians. This panic rose to its climax after the terrible defeat of Coepio, the consul in Gallia Narbonensis. Cimburgis Lip (The). A pro- truding under-jaw, with a heavy lip in- disposed to shut close, often called the ' Austrian Lip.' It came from Kaiser Maximilian I., and was inherited from his grandmother, Cimburgis, a Polish princess, who married Kaiser Friedrich III. Cimon (Peace of), B.C. 447. Which brought to a close the hostility between Persia and Greece. This treaty of peace was made by AnaxicraWs, not Cimon, who had lately died. Cincinna'ti (The), or ' Cincinnatus- es,' 1783. An order in the United States of N. America, established by the officers of the anti-British army ' to perpetuate friendship, and to raise & fund for the relief of the widows and or- phans of those who fell in the War of In- dependence.' Their badge is Cincinnatus receiving the ensigns of dictator, and the motto is ' Omnia reliquit servare rem- publicam.' Cinerarians, ' Cinerarii.' So Chris- tians were called by their enemies, be- cause they reverenced the ashes or bones of the dead. Reliqua SS. Mirac. 8. Urslnari, sumptis de con- cineratione sanctissimi corporis in sepulcro ejus duobus dcntibus. Hiiic ' cinerarios ' catholicos ap- pellabant heretic!. Du CANOE, vol. ii. p. 619, col. a. Cinq Mars (Conspiracy of), 1642 A conspiracy secretly fomented by the king himself, Louis XIII., ' to get rid of Richelieu, whose domineering spirit was most hateful to him. Those who favoured the conspirators were called ' Royalists,' the adherents of Richelieu were called 'Cardinalists.' The object of the con- spiracy was to dismiss Richelieu and make Cinq Mars chief minister. The plot being discovered, and it being known that Cinq Mars had made a treaty with Spain, the leading conspirators were 174 CINQUE CIRCULAR arrested. Cinq Mars and other noblemen were beheaded ; the Due de Bouillon was deprived of his principality, which was confiscated to the throne; and the in- famous Due d'Orteans turned king's evi- dence. Uichelieu brought to the block at least six noble- men: Marillac, Cinq Murs, De Thou. Chalais, Eou to villo, and Montmor ency . Cinque Centisti. Those Italian artists of the 16th cent, who formed the Cinque Cento schooL See ' Seicentisti,' and ' Trecentisti.' Cinque Cento (2 syL each), 500. Used to designate the style of art which rose in Italy after 1,500. The Golden Age of Italian art, con- taining the immortal five, who all died %fter 1500, viz. : Leonardo da Vlnol ... ... who died 15% Raphael . 1520 Corretfgio 1534 Michel Angelo [tHetulagiuHor I-'** Titian 1576 Hla name was Michel Angelo Buonarroti. V In literature Italy produced at the same period: Machiavelll who died 1527 Ariosto (Orlando Furioio) ... 15SS Tasso (Genualemme Liberate.) M 1595 All these, except Tasso. were born In the cen- tury before, BO that many use the word ' Cinque- cento' to denote the sensuous school that fol- lowed the immortal five a school which borrowed their subjects from heathen mythology. Pronounce Chin-kwa Chento. Cinque Ports ( The). Incorporated In 1212 by King John. The five ports are Dover, Hastings, Sandwich, Romney, and Hythe. Three other ports, viz. Rye, Winchelsea, and Seaford, were subse- quently added. The governor is entitled lord warden. Cinque in English Is pronounced Sin*. Circe of the Revolution (The). Madame Roland (1754-1798). The most fascinating woman of the period. As site was led to the guillotine she exclaimed, bowing to the statue of Liberty, ' O Liberty, how many crimes are committed in thy name ! ' Circle of Popilius (The). The necessity of explaining your intentions without hesitation or delay. The tale is that Popilius was sent by the Roman Senate as envoy to Antiochus, king of Syria, and was commissioned to forbid the king making war on Egypt, or harass- ing the children of Ptutetty. Antiochus replied that he would think about the matter, when Popilius drew a circle round the king, and said : ' Prince, you must reply before you leave this circle.' Anti- ochus, taken by surprise at this boldness, replied at once, ' Tell the Senate I will do what they demand of me.' Having so said, Popilius saluted him, and offered him the friendship of the Roman people. Circle of Stennis (The), or ' Circle of Odin.' A circular hole in one of the huge Standing Stones of what is called the Orcadian Stonehenge. This Standing Stone was at one time used by rustics for plighting troth. The lovers joined hands in this hole, and swore by Odin to be faithful to each other. This plight is called the ' promise of Odin,' and making the plight is 'taking the promise of Odin.' We were wedded after the ancient manner of the Norse, our hands were clasped in the circle of Odin, with . . . YOWS of eternal fidelity. Sir W. SCOTT. The Pirate, chap, xxxiii. Circles of Germany (The'j. De- partments or districts. In 1387 I. Wenceslaus divided Germany into four circles, viz. (1) Saxony ; (2) the Rhine provinces; (8) Austria, Bavaria, and Suabia; and (4) Franconia and Thurinpia. In 1438 Kaiser Albert II. increased the number to six, each of which had a ri-;ht to be represented on the diet or national assembly. The circles were : Franconia, Bavaria, Suabia, Westphalia, Upper Rhine, and Saxony. In 1512, under Maximilian I., the num- ber of circles was increased to ten, \ iz. Austria, Bavaria, Burgundy, Franconia, Lower Rhine provinces, Upper Rhine provinces, Lower Saxony, Upper Saxony, and Westphalia. Each circle had an ecclesiastical and lay prince, with a military chief. At the Reformation the circles were divided into Catholic, Protestant, and Mixt. The Catholic Circles were Austria, Bavaria, and Burgundy ; the Prote.ttcnit Circles were those of Upper and Lower Saxony ; and the Mixt Circles were the other five. In 1800 the division into circles was broken up by the ' Confederacy of the Rhine.' Circular Coin. 'When English coin is made circular the prince of Wftlai shall be crowned in London.' Th'g ' prophecy ' is attributed to Merlin. In l-jsi Edward I. issued a new coinage of round halfpence and farthings, and for- CIRCUMCELLIANS CITY 17B bade the penny to be divided into four quarters. David, thinking this to be the thing predicted, invaded England 22 March, 1282, and, being joined by Llewel- lyn, brought Edward I. into the field and led to the conquest of Wales. In 1284 Edward's son was born at Carnarvon, and was presented to the Welsh as the 'prince of Wales.' When Llewellyn's head was placed on the Tower of London it was crowned with a willow-wreath in derision of the ' prophecy. 1 The circular coin and coronation of the Welsh prince synchronised, but the prophecy brought about its own accomplishment. Circumcellians (The), or ' The Cir- cumcelliones,' A.D. 817. A kind of ' Sal- vation Army ' organised by the Donatists, which marched from town to town with staves in their hands, to redress wrongs, and propagate their own religious views. They set slaves at liberty, released debtors from prison, and called tiiemselves ' The Saint's Chiefs.' They were very zealous, and courted martyrdom, but were at last put down by the magistrates. (Lat. cir- cumcello, to beat about, to go about. Ex- cello, to excel, is to go beyond others). The leaders were called Captains ; the ' soldiers ' (who were peasants) carried huge clubs called Irraelitet; their war-cry was ' Praise be to God.' Circumspecte Agatis (The Sta- tute of), 18 Edw. L St. 4 c. 1, A.D. 1285. Defining more strictly the power of the clergy, and directing the bishops to see that the parishioners kept their parish churches in repair. The statute is called ' Clrcumspeote AgStiB, 1 from the first two words. Cirrheean War (The), B.C. 595-586. This was the First Sacred War. See Sacred War.' Cisalpine Republic (The), 1797. Bonaparte, after the battle of Lodi, organ- ised two states in Italy, one on the south and the other on the north side of the river Po. These two states were united next year into one under the title of the Cisalpine Republic, with Milan for the capital. Cistercians, 1098. Reformed Bene- dictines, founded by Robert, abbot of Moleme, in Burgundy, who retired with some twenty monks to Citeaux, in the diocese of Chalons. His order rapidly increased, and acquired the form and privileges of a religious republic, which exercised a sort of dominion over other monastic orders. The Cistercians were great graziers and wool-growers. Cities of Great Britain. Aberdeen, the granite city. Birmingham, the midland capital. Brighton, the queen of watering-placet. Edinburgh, the modern Athens. Liverpool, the modern Tyre. Manchester, Cottonopolis. Worcester, the faithful city, BO called from its motto : ' Floreat semper civitas fidelis.' Brighton Is often called ' London-super -max*. ' Citizen King (The). ' Le roi citoyen, 1 Louis Philippe of France (born 1778, reigned 1830-1848, died 1850). He was a member of the Jacobin Club, the son of Philippe Egalite*, and one of the leaders of the revolutionary party. As a king he was most despotic and autocratic. Servius Tullius of Rome was called the 1 People's King.' Cittadini (The). The Venetian bourgeois, between the popolari and gen- tiluomini. City Flat Cap (The). The cap of Edward VI.'s reign, similar to the cap of the Blue-coat Boys. Subsequently called the Statute cap (q.v.). See ' Cap.' City of Brotherly Love (The). A translation of Philadelphia, the chief city of Pennsylvania, U.S. of America. City of David (The). Mount Zion, the fortified part of Jerusalem, where David had his palace. City Of Elms (The). New Haven, Connecticut, the streets of which are thickly shaded with elm-trees. When happier days shall return . . . the South . . . will renr a monument of gratitude in the beautiful City of Elms, over the ashes of her greatest benefactor (Ell Whitney). EDW. EVK- KETT, 1861. City of Magnificent Distances (The). Washington, chief city of the U.S. of America, intersected with fifteen avenues from 180 to 160 feet wide. It wag designed to cover a space of four and a half miles long by two and a half wide. City of Notions (The). Boston, Massachusetts, ' the metropolis of Yan- keedoui.' City of Peace (The). I. Jerusalem. The word Salem means peace. Jesuit, 176 CITY CIVIL ' King of the Jews,' was called the ' Prince of Peace ' (Salem). II. Bagdad, the capital of the Abbas- Bides (3 syl). The calif retired from Bagdad, and established his residence at Samara oil the Tigris, about twelve leagues above the City of Peace. GIBBON, ch. 111. City of Rocks (The). Nashville, in Tennessee. City of St. Mark (The). Venice. City of Spindles (The). Lowell, in Massachusetts, the largest cotton city of the U.S. of America. City of Victory (The). Cairo, which means victory. The Arabic name is El Kahira (the Victorious). Founded 969 by Gohar, lieutenant of Moez (the first Fatamite kalif ). City of the Golden Gate (The). San Francisco in California. City of the Seven Hills (The). Both Rome and Constantinople stood on seven hills. City of the Seventy Isles (The). Venice. City of the Straits (The). Detroit, which means a strait. It is situated on the west bank of the strait connecting Lake St. Clair with Lake Erie. City of the Violated Treaty (The). Limerick, in Ireland; so called from the repeated violations of the treaty signed Oct. 1C91, granting to Roman Catholics the same privileges in the exer- cise of their religion as they enjoyed in the reign of Charles II. Y.-ars of unjust and vindictive penal laws ahoir thi.t OH- name. 'City of the Violated Treaty.' wa* well bestowed. KNIGHT. City of the Violet Crown (The). Athens. Aristophanes (Equites, and Acharnians) calls it Joore'^ai-o?. Ion [moaning a violet] was a representative king of Athens, whose four sons gave names to the four Athenian classes. It was Ion's city, the city of the violet, the city of King Ion or king of the Violet Crown. Similarly, Paris, the city of Louis or Lys, is the city of the lily. [Pitt] loved England, as an Athenian loved the City of the Violet Crown. MACAULAY. Civil Era of Constantinople (The). This era began 1 Sept B.C. 6508. Civil Jewish Era (T/ie). Thii era began Oct. B.C. 3761. Civil Law (The), or 'Corpus Juris CivTlis.' A collection of the laws, edicts, and imperial decrees of the Roman Em- pire ; first compiled by private indi- viduals, afterwards by Theodosius, A.D. 438, and finally by Justinian, A.D. 533. It comprises (1) The Institutes or first prin- ciples of Roman Law ; (2) The Digest or Pandects in 60 books, being the opinions of eminent lawyers ; (3) a new Code or collection of Imperial Constitutions in 12 books, and (4) the Novels, or new constitutions of succeeding emperors. This body of laws was unknown in feudal times till a copy was discovered at Amalfi, in Italy in 1130, and produced a greater effect on the laws, pursuits, and characters of the Middle Ages than any book ever published before or since. The Corpus Juris CiviHs. with certain modifica- tions, restrictions, and additions, is still an authority in our Ecclesiastical, Admiralty, and University Courts. Civil List (The). The yearly sum of money granted by the British govern- ment for the support of the household of the reigning monarch and the dignity of the crown. It used to include the royal household, the privy purse, the royal palaces, the salaries of the chancellor, judges, great officers of state, and ambassadors, the incomes allowed to the several members of the royal family, secret service money, pensions, and other irregular claims. The army and navy, with the interest of the national debt, have been separate charges since the accession of James I. At the beginning of the reign of Vic- toria the Queen surrendered the here- ditary revenues of the crown, and received from parliament a yearly stipend of 885,0002., with 1,2002. a year for pensions ' to those who have just claims on the royal bounty.' Her Majesty pays her own household, but all other national expenses are paid by parliament as separate items. Civil Marriage Act. 6, 7 Will. IV. c. 85. 17 Aug., 1836. Provided for the celebration of marriage without re- ligious service, before a registrar, or with religious service in any certified place of religious worship, leaving it optional with the parties concerned to be married, as aforetime, in a parish chuich. CIVIL CLARENDON 177 by licence, or after banns. By this Act marriage is constituted a civil compact consummated before witnesses, with or without religious service. Civil Oath (The), 18 July, 1790. Taken in the Champ de Mars, first by Lafayette on behalf of the National Guards, then by the President of the Assembly, and then by the king himself (Louis XVL), who said ' I, king of the French, swear to use all power delegated to me by the constitutional law of the State to maintain the Constitution (q.v.) de- creed by the National Assembly, and accepted by me.' The oath taken by Lafayette and the President was: 'We swear to be faithful to the nation, the law, and the king. To maintain with our utmost power the Constitution de- creed by the National Assembly, and to remain united to all Frenchmen by the indissoluble bonds of fraternity.' Champ de Mars, pronounce Sharnd Man. Civil Service (The). The duties rendered by those in government ap- pointments, and paid for by the State. The whole list would be over 15,000 names, including the officers of the royal household, the officers of the House of Lords and House of Commons, all such offices as the Treasury, Home, War, Foreign, Admiralty, Post, &c. (but not policemen, postmen, and such other em- ployes as receive weekly wages). In 1855 a law was made for the examination of candidates for the Civil Service, who enter generally as clerks and rise by seniority, the age at entrance being be- tween eighteen and twenty-five, and the first year's stipend about 801. Of course the more important departments are not included. The Civil Service Estimates ara between MV| and eight millions sterling annually. Civil Wars of Rome (THe). In their widest extent they began with Tiberius Gracchus, and terminated with the election of Octavius Augustus to the empire, B.C. 133-31. In a more limited sense, they mean the contest between Caius Marius and Cornelius Sylla, or Sulla (B.C. 88-78). The original cause of the civil war was the struggle between the oligarchy and the democracy of Rome. This struggle lasted till Sylla restored the Benato to sovereignty; but this sove- reignty was soon disturbed by Julius Caesar. , 1870. An Irish Fenian organisation founded in Phila- delphia, and known in secret as the * United Brotherhood.' Its avowed ob- ject is to secure ' the complete and ab- solute independence of Ireland from Great Britain ; and the complete sever- ance of all political connection between the two countries, to be effected by un- ceasing preparation for armed insurrec- tion in Ireland.' See ' New Departure.' In 1883 Alexander Sullivan was elected one of the three heads of this murder club. His col- leagues were Colonel Michael Boland, and D. C. Feely (or, RS some say, Michael Kir win). To thla club tho dynamite outrages In London are due. the designs to murder the Queen's ministers, and all the outrages of 1883 connected with ' Horn* Rule ' (q.v.). Clare College, Cambridge, 1826. This is University Hall, founded by Richard Badew, chancellor of the Uni- versity. It was destroyed by fire, and on its restoration by Elizabeth de Clare, countess of Ulster, changed its name to Clare Hall; since 1857 called Clare College. Clare Election (The), 1828. An epoch in the history of Ireland. Daniel O'Connell was elected M.P., although, being a Catholic,, he was disqualified from taking his scat. So popular was he, and so powerful the Catholic Association, that the Duke of Wellington (the pre- mier), and Sir Robert Peel (leader of the House of Commons) did not dare to resist the movement; and in 1829 Sir Robert brought in his bill for Calholio Emancipation, which was carried. The Cluro election was the harsh prelude ! Catholic Emancipation and civil equality. Howixi, History of England (year 1823, p. 125). Clarenceux King - of. arms. English herald of the southern provinces. That of the northern provinces is called Norroy (q.v.). Clarenceux king-of-arms, like Garter king-of-arms, was first ap- pointed by Henry V. Clarendon, in Wiltshire (The C&un- cil of), A.D. 1164. It comprised the king (Henry II.), the 2 archbishops, 11 bishops, 40 of the higher nobility, and a host of barons. It was convened in con- sequence of the conduct of Thomas Becket, and its judgments are comprised in the 16 canons called 'The Constitu- tions of Clarendon ' 178 CLAHENDON CLEMENTINES Clarendon Press (The). Univer- sity of Oxford. The building was erected by Lord Clarendon, partly out of the profits of his ' History of the Rebellion,' 1713-1830. On the south side Bibles and Prayer-books are printed, on the north side general literature. Ten dele- gates have the management of the press, the vice-chancellor being one. The cor- responding foundation in Cambridge if the Pitt Press (q.v.). Clarisses, or ' Poor Clarisses,' 1224. Founded by St. Francis of Assisi, and placed under the charge of Clara, or Clarissa, of Assisi, his favourite nun. See under ' Franciscans.' ClartyHole. Muddy hole or slough, the site of Abbotsford, on the south bank of the Tweed, the residence of Sir W. Scott. Claude (The English). Richard WO- son (1718-1782). Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 1850. See ' Bulwer-Clayton,' &c. Clean-the-Causey Riot, 1515. The street riot between the rival factions of Angus and Arran. The former repre- sented the Douglas party, and the latter the Hamiltons. The partisans of the Earl of Angus were swept from the cau- seys or streets like dirt. Cleanest City in the World (The). Broeck, in Holland. It is ' pain- fully clean and neat.' Cleanse the Causeway (The Battle o/), 1522. A skirmish between the Douglases and Hamiltons in the High- treet, Edinburgh. The Douglas party occupied the High-street, and attacked their opponents as they issued in disorder from the narrow closes or lanes. The Hamiltons were driven out of the city, leaving upwards of 70 men dead. Their strife had been appeased since the battle of Clc:inse the Cause \vay, and Arran drew out his foroos in support of Angus, and not in opposition to him.-Sir W. 8COTT, K of ScolLind. Mil. Clear the Causeys. See ' Cleanse the Causeway ' and ' Clean the Causey.' Clearing-House (The), 1775. A t/nilding in Lombard Street, where debit snd credit cheques from different banks are balanced by transfer tickets. These tickets are white and green; the whittt being used when the bank has to pay a balance to the Clearing-house, and the green when it has to receive one. By thia means transactions to the amount of several millions daily are settled. There Is a Railway Clearing-house In Beymoui Street. London (adjoining the Euston Station), which enables different companies to carry on a through traffic. The Railway Clearing Act was passed in 1850. Most large commercial cities have clearing-houses. Clem's Day(OW). St. Clement's day, the blacksmiths' day (23 Nov.). St. Cle- ment is patron saint of blacksmiths, as St. Crispin is of shoemakers, St. Wini- fred of bakers, St. Louis of barbers, St. John Port Latin of booksellers, St. Lucy of candle-makers, St. Joseph of carpen- ters, St. Christopher of ferrymen, St. Peter of fishermen, St. Sever of fullers, St. Eloy of goldsmiths, St. William of hatters, St. Yves of lawyers, St. Arnold of millers, St. Florian of mercers, St. Cloud of nailers, St. Luke of painters and sculptors, St. Cosmo of doctors, St. Se- bastian of pinmakers, St. Gore of potters, St. Nicholas of seamen, St. Gwendoline of shepherds, St. Hubert of sportsmen, St. Peter of stonemasons, St. Goodman of tailors, St. Urban of vintners, St. Boni- face of wheelwrights, St. Blaise of wool- combers ic. &o. Clementi'na. A spurious account of the journeys of Clemens Romanus with the Apostle Peter. The Apostolic Canons and Constitutions attributed to him are also spurious. Clemens is said to have died in 102. See ' Literary For- geries.' Clementine Liturgy (The). The oldest liturgy extant. It directs that two dr;i< -mis shall stand, one on each side of the altar, holding their fans of vellum, fine linen, or peacock's feathers, to wave off the flies, and prevent their defiling the sacred elements. See ' Liturgy.' Clementine Museum (The), of the Vatican, 1773. Founded by Clement XIV. It was improved by Pius VL, and then called Museo-Pio-Clementino, Clementines (The). Nineteen dis- courses, preceded by two letters. One of Peter to James, bishop of Jerusalem, and the other of Clement to the same. The discourses are spurious Christian stories, but the work was cstcrnu'd next to the Holy Scriptures. There is no reason to believe it to have been the work of Cle- mens Romanus. On these fictitious homilies rests the sole evidence that Si CLEMENTINES CLINIC 179 Peter ever was in Home. See ' Literary Forgeries.' What la usually understood by Clementines la the third part of the Decretals of Raimond de Pennafort, a continuation of the text (q.v.) to- gether with the rescripts since Boniface VIII. Undertaken by the order of Clement V. The Cle- mentines of Clement I. are homilies, and wholly apocryphal. The Clementines of Clement V. are 'constitutions,' decrees, or rescripts of Roman pontiffs, forming the seventh volume of the Decre- tals. The Extravagantes Joannis (XXII.) form what was the ' Extravagantes Communes ' of the Corpus Juris Canonici. Clementines and Urbanists, 1878. The followers of Clement VII., pope in Avignon, and Urban VI., the simultaneous pope in Rome. France and Spain were Clementines. The split lasted fifty-one years, during all which time there were always two popes. Cleomen'ic war (The). The war waged by Cleomenes IEL, king of Sparta (225-222), against the Achseans, aided by Antigonus Doson, king of Macedonia. Cleomenes was completely defeated at the battle of Sellasia, B.C. 222, and in B.C. 220 put an end to his life. Cleopatra's Needles. Two obe- lisks of the time of Thothmes III., who reigned in Egypt some 1,500 years before Cleopatra was born. Clerical Titles. The English clergy first assumed their honorary titles at the beginning of the 18th cent. Every clergyman is called ' Reverend.' Addres- sed in letters by strangers ' Rev. Sir.' An archbishop is styled, ' Mt>st Reverend Father in God,' or ' The Most Reverend Arbp. of .' Addressed as ' Your Grace/ 1 May it please your Grace.' A bishop is styled ' The Right Reverend Father in God,' or ' The Right Reverend the Bishop of .' Addressed as ' My Lord.' Deang are called ' The Very Reverend the Dean of .' Addressed in letters ' Mr. Dean,' or 'Dear Mr. Dean.' Archdeacons are called 'The Venerable.' Addressed in letters by strangers ' Rev. Sir.' The title of Canon was assumed by canons and honorary canons in the last quarter of the lUth cent. They are addressed as Canon , or the Rev. Canon . See ' Church Orders.' Cler'ici Regula'res (4 syl.). Monks ordained to the priesthood, and who lived in monasteries (10th cent.). Cler'ici Secula'res (4 syl.). Parish clergymen who lived in their own houses Mid might marry (10th cent.). Clericis Laicos ' (The Bull). L 1074. By which Gregory VII. forbad* prelates to receive investiture from secu- lar princes. This bull gave rise to the long contention about investitures. II. Of 1160. Directed against Kaiser Friedrich I. III. Of 1227, 1246. Directed against Friedrich II., Barbarossa. IV. Of 1263. Directed against Man- froi, king of Naples. V. Of 1294. Issued by Pope Boniface VIII., forbidding Edward I. and all other princes, under pain of excommunication, to tax church property without permis- sion from Rome. In 1296 Edward, in defiance of this bull, did tax church pro- perty, and that severely ; nay, more, he outlawed all those ecclesiastics who re- fused to pay the levy, and then confis- cated their whole property. VI. Of 1327, 1346. Directed against Ludwig of Bavaria. Clerk of Assize. A salaried officer attached to each circuit, who accompanies the judge at the assizes, to issue sub- poenas, orders, writs, and other processes. Clerk of the Pipe. An exchequer clerk for making out leases for crown lands, sheriffs' accounts, and so on. The Pipe Office was abolished in 1833. The office is so called (says Lord Bacon) because the whole receipt of the court is finally conveyed into it by means of divers small pipes or quills, a* water into a cistern. Clerks in Oxford University. Stu- dents on the foundation, received at re- duced fees. These foundations belong to the five colleges : Magdalen, Morton, New College, Queen's, and Wadham. See 1 Bible Clerks,' ' Sizars,' * Servitors.' At Jesus College, Oxford, there are three ' clerks ' not on the foundation. Clerk-ales. A festive meeting in the house of the parish clerk, celebrated with drinking, dancing, and sports. The ordinary amusements (1C32) in country parishes were church-ales, clerk-ales, and bid- ales. T. V. SHORT, D.D., Hist, oj ike Church of Eng- land, p. 8D2. Climacteric Years. Certain year* in the life of man which were at one time considered to be turning-points in his health and fortune. They were 7 and its multiples. The Grand Climacterio was 63, which consists of 8 times 8 mul- tiplied by 7, all ' sacred ' numbers. Clinic Baptism. Baptism admin, istered to a clinicus, or one on a sick- bed. No clinicus could enter holy order* X2 180 CLINICUS CLUB Clinicus. One who has received elinic baptism that is, one who has been baptized on a sick-bed. Cliquot. The sobriquet given by Punch to Frederick William IV. of Prussia (1795, 1840-18G1), who was fond of champagne with the ' Cliquot ' brand. Clog Almanac (The). A square stick oT some hard wood about 8 inches long, which might either be hung up in a room or be fitted into a walking-stick. It was a ' perpetual almanac,' showing the Sundays and other fixed festivals. Used in Denmark, and brought to Eng- land by the Danish invaders. Close Communioniets, or ' Strict Communionists.' Those Baptist dis- senters who admit no one to partake with them of the Lord's Supper who is not one of their special persuasion. Dr. Doddridge says, ' They most inconsis- tently avow that they hope to sit all together in the great Marriage Supper of the Lamb, but refuse to sit together at the table of a little Bethel' Closelings, 1687. Private confe- rences in which James II. sought to win over men of influence and men in office to aid him in the abolition of the Test Acts, which excluded Catholics from office. He said, of course, men must act as they think proper, but, at the same tkne, tney could not expect to continue in his favour or employ while they acted in direct violation of his wishes. The Lords Derby, Thanet, Shrewsbury, Lum- ley, and Newport, with Vice-admiral Herbert and many others, at once re- signed their respective offices. Closter Seven (Convention of), 10 Bept, 1757. Concluded with the French by the Duke of Cumberland, but dis- avowed by the British parliament. By this most disgraceful compact Hanover was left in the hands of the French, and it was agreed that England and France should take no further part in the Seven Years' War. Clothier of England (The). Jack of Newbury that is, John Winchcomb the greatest clothier in England in the reign of Henry VIII. He kept 100 looms in his own house at Newbury. Cloveshoo, in Kent (The Council if), 747. Called by Cuthbert, arch- bishop of Canterbury, in deference to request of Pope Zacharias. It was de- cided in this Council that bishops should visit their dioceses every year ; that the people should be taught the Creed and the Lord's Prayer in the vulgar tongue, and have the two sacraments explained to them ; prayers for the dead were en- joined. The great historical value of this council is, however, that there is no in- dication that the English Church was at the time under submission to the See of Rome, although Wilfrid, an ultra par- tisan of the Roman pontiff, and friend of Cuthbert's, was certainly present. Club (The), 1689. A league of dis contented Whigs in the Scotch Conven- tion of Estates, at the beginning of the reign of William and Mary. The leaders were Montgomery, the Lords Annandule and Ross, and the factious Sir Patrick Hume. These clubbists caused for a time great trouble. They opposed every measure which the ministers introduced in the Scotch 'Convention of Estates,' refused all supplies, and claimed for the convention a veto on the nomination of Scotch judges, by which they put a stop to the business of the Court of S. They tried to ruin the Dalrymples, and succeeded in carrying an act to incapaci- tate all who had served James II. from holding office under the new sovereigns. The government of Scotland was at a deadlock ; boih the legal and legislative business was at an end. The object of the clubbists was to compel the king to give them posts in the government of Scotland. By the end of the year their influence declined, and the nation insisted that business should be obstructed no longer. Club des Enrages (Le), 1789. A po- litical club which acted with the T club (q.v.) at the outbreak of the Great French Revolution. When the S General was about to be convened, these two clubs vehemently insisted that the Tiers Etat should outnumber the other two orders together. Club Monarchique (Le), 1790. A nickname of the ' Feuillants Club ' Club Parliament (The), 14526. So called because, arms being prohibited, the retainers of the barons appeared with clubs on their shoulders. This prohibi- tion was made in consequence of the CLUB COALITIONS 181 brawls of the Duke of Gloucester and Cardinal Beaufort. See ' Parliaments.' Club of Equality and Freedom (The), 1793. A Scotch club in sympathy with the French revolutionists. Club of '89 (The). A branch of the Jacobin Club (q.v.). It held its meetings in the Palais Royal. Lafayette, Bailly the mayor of Paris, the Abbe Sieyes, and Mirabeau were members of this club. Though called the ' Club of '89,' it was not founded till 1790. It was nicknamed Le Club Monarchique, being friendly to the monarchic constitution. It changed its quarters from the Palais Royal to a convent of the Feuillants, near the Tuileries, and was then known at ' The Feuillants.' Clubbists. See above, The Club.' 1689. Clubmen, 1644. A society formed for self-defence against Maurice's and Goring's armies in the west. They were yeomen and others, who armed them- selves with clubs to resist military ma- rauders. They were not political, and being between two stools, were befriended by neither. The king's party hated them because they hindered their movements ; and the parliamentary party called them ' traitors to the commonwealth ' because they opposed the depredations of Fair- fax's army. They were strong in num- bers (some 10,000 in all), but want of discipline was their weakness. Their badge was a white ribbon. The republican party had cause to be suspi- cious if it is true that ' after the battle of Naseby there was found on Sir Lewis Davis a royal com- mission for raising clubmen to aid the king's party. 1 Cluniac Order (The), or 'Cluniacs,' 942. A branch of the Benedictine monks reformed by Odo abbot of Cluny, in Normandy. Introduced into England by William earl of Warren, in 1077. Coal Burner (The). Edmund king of Sweden (1026-1051) was called Kol- brenner because he enacted ' If anyone injures his neighbour's goods, he shall have goods to the same value burnt in a coal-fire.' Coalition Ministry (The). The ministry formed under Lord North and Charles James Fox, from 6 April, 1788, to 19 Deo. same year. Also the Aberdeen Administration, 28 Dec., 1852, to 30 Jan., 1855. Coalitions against France. First coalition 1793, made by England and all the powers of Europe, except Sweden and Denmark. Napoleon Bona- parte won the battles of Montenotte, Milesimo, Dego, Mondovi, Lodi, Lonato, Castiglione, Bassano, Arcola, Rivoli, Ta- gliamento. The Treaty of Campo For- mio was made 17 Oct., 1797. Second coalition 1799, by Russia, Aus- tria, England, Naples, Portugal, Turkey, &c., a year and a half after the Treaty of Campo Formio ; 1800 famous for Bona- parte's ' Forty Days' Campaign,' in which he won the battles of Montebello and Ma- rengo ; and Moreau won those of Hoch- stlidt, Hohenlinden, and Traun. Peace of Luneville, 9 Feb., 1801. Third coalition 1805, consisting of England, Austria, Russia, and Sweden. Napoleon won the battle of Austerlitz. Peace of Presburg, 26 Dec., 1805. Fourth coalition 6 Oct., 1806, to the Treaty of Tilsit, 8 July, 1807, consisting of Prussia, Saxony, Great Britain, and Russia. Napoleon won the battles of Schleitz (9 Oct.), Saalfeld (10 Oct.), Jena and Auerstadt (14 Oct.), Potsdam (16, 17 Oct.), Berlin (28 Oct.), Eylau, the most bloody of all his victories (8 Feb., 1807), Heilsberg (10 June), and Fried- land (14 June, 1807). Fifth coalition of April 1809, to the battle of Wagram (6 July, 1809). Na- poleon won the battle of Ingolstadt (20 April), Eckmiihl, in Bavaria (22 April), and Wagram (6 July). He was wounded in the heel at Ratlsbon 28 April; was defeated by the Archduke Karl at Aspern 21 May, and at Essling 22 May ; and was excom- municated by the pope 10 June, 1809. Sixth and last coalition, consisting of Prussia, Russia, Austria, Sweden, and Great Britain, 8 March, 1813 to the banishment of Napoleon to St. Helena, 18 Oct., 1815. Napoleon won the battles of Liitzen 2 May, 1813, Bautzen (in Saxony) 19 May, Wurschen 20 May, Hochkirchen 21 May, Dresden 27 Aug. (here Marshal Moreau was slain), St. Dizier 27 Jan., 1814, Brienne 29 Jan., Champ-Aubert 10 Feb, Montmirail 11 Feb., Chateau-Thierry 13 Feb., Champ-Aubert (a second time) 14 Feb., Mery-sur-Seine 24 Feb. ; an J after his escape from Elba he won tin battle of Ligny 16 June, 1815. 182 COASTGUARD COCKPIT He lost the battles of Leipzig 16, 18, 10 Oct., 1818 ; Rothiere 1 Feb., 1814 ; T.aon 9 and 10 March, Quatre Bras 16 June, and WATERLOO 18 June, 1815. Coastguard. A force originally established to prevent smuggling. In 1856 it was placed under the Admiralty, and is now divided into eleven districts, each under a captain of the navy, and the whole under a commodore. The number is 4,000. Coat and Conduct Money. Mo- Bey required for the equipment and transport of the militia. This tax was extorted by Charles I. (' Fairfax Corre- gpondence,' vol. ii. p. 2.) Cobden Prize (The). For an essay on political economy. For members of the University of Cambridge who have not graduated more than three years. Value 501. Founded by the Cobden Club hi 1876. See ' Political Economy.' Cochrane-plack. Debased coin issued in Scotland in the reign of James III. by Cochrane, the royal mason, on whom the king conferred the earldom of Mar, lately made vacant by the mur- der of the king's brother. When Coch- rane was told that the base coin would certainly be called in, he answered in- credulously, ' Yes, on the day when I am hanged.' But so it turned out Cochrane was hanged, and the Cochrane-plack was called in. Cockade City (The). Petersburg, in Virginia. Cockburn's Act. The Act of Sir Alexander Cockburn in 1858 to abolish 1 list offices,' set up after the Act of 1845 to abolish sweepstakes. In list otii.-.-s money was staked in advance on an ad- venture, and they proved to be most disastrous of all the methods of gambling, especially among clerks, shopboys, and servants, who were induced to rob their employers under the promise of certainly winning. Though betting houses were abolished in 185S (16 & 17 Viet. c. 119), yet Tattersall escapes the law because he himself has direct personal interest in a bet, like a ' bank ' ; and gentlemen there bet with each other freely, without any interference what- ever. No bet can be recovered as a debt in any court of law. They are 'debts of honour' only. Gambling was prohibited by law even in the reign Of Henry VIII. <1S41). Cock Lane Ohost (The). Near West Smithfieia. London, 1760-1762. The Duk of York.with Lady Northumberland, Lady Mary Coke, Lord Hertford, and Horace Walpole, all in one hackney-coach, drove to the ' haunted house,' while the rain fell in torrents. The house was crammed full, above fifty people having crowded into the room, lighted with one tallow candle, and stayed from seven till half- past one hi midwinter, to witness the knockings and scratchinga of the ghost, which refused to make any manifesta- tions. But such a company tells plainly what hold the imposition had takm OL the public. The case was this : Kent, a broker, having lost his wife, was visited by his sister-in-law Fanny, with whom he fell in love. They took lodgings with Par- sons, parish clerk of St. Sepulchre's, and each made a will leaving all to the sur- vivor. Fanny died suddenly, and Parson* gave out that Kent had murdered her. In proof of this, certain knockings and gcratchings were heard every night in the chamber lately occupied by Fanny, and these were attributed to her ghost. When questions were asked ' the ghost knocked once to signify yes, twice to signify no, and scratched to indicate displeasure.' Parson's daughter, a child of 12, took a board into her bed, and made these knockings and scratchings, which for many months set all London agog, and even made matter for sober history. Cock-pen Tree. A large hollow oak in that part of Sherwood Forest called Birkland, from the number of silver birches. In the hollow of this tree game cocks were penned for the Shrove Tuesday sports, to keep them well out of the way of dunghill poultry. The tree is now called 'The Major,' or the ' Major'i Oak,' from Major Rooke, the antiquary. This tree Is very large, fifteen persons can be packed Inside It. The bole grips the earth wit h u circumference of 90 feet : 6 feet above the ground Its girth Is 80 feet; and its branches cover a cir- cumference of 240 feet. It stands in a part of the forest belonging to the Earl Manvers, and isalniobt always called the ' Major Oak.' Cockpit, Whitehall, the Privy Coun- cil Office. Also a locality where persons lived, for George duke of Albemarle died ' at his apartment in the Cockpit ; ' and the Princess Anne, we are told, ' left the Cockpit ' to live ' at Zion House.' After the Restoration, the Treasury Board sat at a place called the Cockpit.-Cox, Irut.of Eng. Govern, li. vii...-. Cockpit of Europe (The). Bat COCLE9 CODEX 188 gium is so called because it has been the Bite of more battles than any nation in Europe. Codes, or Horatius Codes, of Horn. John Haring, of Horn, who de- fended the Dienierdyke against 1,000 Spaniards, and made his escape un- wounded by either spear or gun. Codes, or Horatius Codes, of the Tyrol, 1793. Alexander Davy Dumas, father of the novelist, who, at Brixen, defended the passage of a bridge on which Dumouriez's success wholly depended. Code Henri (The). That is the code of Henri, king of Hayti (1767, 1811- 1820). Joining the black insurgents against the French, he became head of the Haytian army in 1806, president of Hayti for life in 1807, and king of Hayti in 1811. He was a giant in stature, and his courage was indisputable. Code de Napoleon (Le), 15 Mar., 1803 to 17 Sept., 1804. A French code of laws regulating all that pertains ' aux droits civils, a la personne et a la pro- pridte des citioyens.' There are several other codes used ID France, as Le Code de Commerce, Le Code de Procedure Civile, Le Code d Instruction Criminelle, Le Code Penal, Le Code Kural, Le Code Forestier, Le Code de la Peche fluviale ; all except the last two ;ire Napoleonic codes. There are also Le Code Mill- taire, Le Code Maritime, Le Code de lEuregistre- ment, &o. Code Noire (Le). That is, a code of laws for the negroes in the French colonies, made by Colbert, in the reign of Louis XIV. Code of Lanego (The). An excel- lent code of laws drawn up at Lanego, in Portugal, by order of King Alfonso L (1139-1185). Code of Melrose (The). A collec- tion of laws compiled at Melrose Abbey ; the work of many learned jurisconsults, appointed for the purpose by David L of Scotland, who reigned 1114-1148. Codex Alexandri'nus. Long sup- posed to be the oldest MS. of the Bible extant. It is preserved in the British Museum, and was published in facsimile Under the care of Charles Godfrey Woide, in 1786 (London). It contains all the New Testament, except Matt, i., xxv. 5 ; John ri. 50, viii. 52 ; and 2 Cor. iv. 13, xii. 6. This valuable MS. was found in Alexandria, and was presented to Charles I. in 10^8 by Cyril Lucar, at one time patriarch of Alexandria. It is in four vols,, size 10 in by 13, in double columns, and in uncial or capital letters. The Codex Vaticanus (q.v.) is older. See ' Sinaitic MS.' Supposed to to of the 5th cent., towards the close. Codex Argen'teus, or rather 4 Ar- genteus Codex.' A MS. of the Gospels in Moaso-Gothic, by Ulfilas bishop of the Goths (348-388). It was discovered by Arnold Mercator, in the abbey of Werden, and taken to Prague in 1597, where it remained till 1648, when it was captured and presented to Christina of Sweden. Finally, it was presented to the University of Upsata in 16G2 by Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie. Called Argenteus, or the Silver MS., from its silver letters. Codex Augiensis. Purchased by Richard Bentley, and presented, after his death, to Trinity College, Cambridge, by Thomas Bentley. It contains most of the Pauline Epistles, in Greek and Latin. Codex Basiliensis. A MS. copy of the four evangelists, with a few gaps, attributed to the close of the 10th cent. Belonging to the library of Basel, or Basle. Codex BeZcB, or ' Cantabrigiensis,' A Bible MS. of the middle of the 6th cent., once in the possession of Beza, and sent by him as a gift to the University of Cambridge. It contains the Gospels and the Acts. Edited in 2 vols. folio by Thomas Kipling in 1793. Codex Claromonta'nus. Con- taining the Pauline Epistles. This MS., which belongs to the latter half of the 6th cent., was edited in facsimile by Tischen- dorf in 1852 (Lips.) Codex Coislinia'nus. Belonging to the Imperial Library of Paris. It is a MS. of the 6th cent. Codex Cyprius. Formerly Colber- tlnus. Containing the four Gospels. The MS. belongs to the 9th cent. Codex Damasce'nus. A Greek MS. of the Old and New Testament, with the Epistle of Barnabas and part of 'Shepherd 'of Hermas. It was dis- covered in 1889 by M. Papadopulos in the vaults of the Arabic library of Damascus. 184 CODEX COGNIZANCES From the extremely meagre description given of this new-found MS., itbciii.s to be a copy of the Sinaitic Codex. The douM tni-ht casilv be settled by referring to the ; which in the Bhialtic MS. lacks the conclubion. ' Codex Diplomat'icus Sici- liSB,' 1791. A literary forgery, by Abbe* Giuseppe Vella, who confessed his frauds, and was sentenced to fifteen years' im- prisonment. He died 1814. See ' Lite- rary Forgeries.' His other book to Libra del Contiglio di Egitto. nw. Codex Dubliniensis. A palimp- sest belonging to Trinity College, Dublin. It belongs to the close of the Oth cent., and was edited in facsimile by Dr. Barrett in 1801. Codex Ephra'imi. The Parisian palimpsest, so called because over the original Bible MS. some treatises of Ephraim the Syrian have been inscribed. It is preserved in the Royal Library at Paris. Edited in facsimile by Tischen- dorf, 1843 (Lips.) Latter part of 5th cent. Codex Sinait'icus. A Greek MS. of the Old and New Testament, with fhe Epistle of Barnabas, and part of the ' Shepherd ' of Hermas, discovered in 1859 by Tiftchendorf in the Convent of St. Catherine. This codex, supposed to be- lonu' to the 4th cent., is one of the oldest in the world. In 1868 it was acquired by the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg. Codex Theodosia'nus. A recueil of the Roman laws since the reign of Con- stantine, reduced by the order of Theo- dosius II., and promulgated in the East in 488. Valentinian III. introduced the codex into the West. Codex Vaticanus. The oldest MS. of the New Testament, containing the four gospels, the Acts, the Catholic Epistles, and the Pauline Epistles. A facsimile of this MS., comprising the LXX. version of the Old Testament, was issued at Rome (edited by Cardinal Mai), and published in 1858, 4 vols. folio. Called ' Vaticanus ' because it is pre- served in the Vatican Library at Rome. Its date is supposed to be of the 4th cent. It does not contain the Revela- tion of John the divine. Copies are to be found in all the chief libraries of Chris- tendom. This MS. contains 700 leaves of the finest vellum. bout a foot square, bound together. It IB very doubtful which codex IB the older, the Vaticanus or the Slnaltlcus. The secretary of UK- UiMc Society (18 April. 1) writes to me that the latter is ' regarded as the oldest MS. of the Kew Testament.' Cce'nobites (8 syl.). Those who lived in community, having all things in common. The locality where they dwelt was called the Coenobium, and the first was built by Pachomius in Egypt A.D. 840. The coenobium was subsequently called a ' monastery,' and the Coenobite a ' monk.' It was St. Basel who reduced monachism into a system A.D. 878. Of course the word is compounded of the two Oreek words rfr, f>Co; coium.m life, or living in common), in contradistinction to Anchorites or Hermits, who lived solitary lives. Cceur de Lion, 'Lion's-heart.' Richard I. of England (1157, 1189-1199). Probably so called from his generosity, magnanimity, and bravery. It is said by the troubadours that Richard a*, quired the nutne of 1 Jon's heart from a contest he had with a lion, like David, the son of Jesse, and in the contest, thrusting his mailed arm down the lion's throat, he tore out iU heart. Cogito, ergo sum. Because I think, therefore I must exist. Descartes's axiom (1597-1650). He argued thus : ' I think, but thought cannot proceed from nothing; if therefore I think, I must be some- thing.' Pushing the argument further back, as ex nihilo nihiljit, if something cannot proceed from nothing, and I my- self am something, there must be a something from which I proceed, and that something is God. Of course the fallacy of this argument Is patent, for It makes cogitation the proof of what is re- quired to be proved, and Descartes (3 syl.) is hope- lessly involved in a vicious circle. Ice is cold, therefore there is such a thing as ice. Descartes furthermore said : ' I can think of eternity and infinity, subjects beyond a finite can think beyond himself, " , mind ; and as no man man must possess a soul, " spark ot the Deity." But can a man think of either eternity or in- finity T Does be not think Instead of time without dimension, and the finite multiplied T Cognac (Treaty of), 22 Mar., 1526. Between Leo X., Francois I., Henry VIIL of England, Venice, Florence, and Swit- zerland. Cognizances of English Kings. The Cross of St. George has been the royal badge since its introduction by Edward III., but all the kings up to the time of Henry VII. (inclusive) had their private cognizance also. KTKPHBM, a sagittary. I II., an escorbuncle. Ki. IUUD I., JOHN, and HI.SBY HL. a star above a horned crescent. COIFFURE COLONISATION IBB EDWARD I., a golden rose. EDWARD II., a castle, in allusion to hismothei'B arms (Castile). EDWARD III. had several badges, as a falcon, the ostrich feather, a gr iffln, and the stump of a tree. KICHARD II. adopted the tump and the falcon, but added the hart couchant, the peacock, and the sun behind a cloud- HENRY IV., the ermine, the eagle, and the panther crowned. HENRY V., a lighted beacon, an antelope and wan chained, with crowns round their necks. HENRY VI., the antelope, panther, and doable Ostrich feather. EDWARD IV., the falcon within a fetterlock, the rose and sun, a white hart, a white wolf, and a sable dragon and bull. EDWARD V., the falcon and fetterlock. RICHARD III., the rose and sun, a white boat ; or boar and thorn-tree. HENRY VII., a hawthorn bush crowned, a grey- hound, the red dragon of Wales, a portcullis, red and white rose combined. Coiffure a la serviette (La). A head-dress devised by Leonard, hair- dresser of Marie Antoinette. It consisted of a coarse whity-brown table-napkin twisted into the hair amidst real vegetables, such as artichokes, cabbage-leaves, carrots, turnips, and radishes. Coincidences L The fall of Robespierre was 1794, which added together = 21. Now add the two together thus, 1794 + 21 = 1815, the fall of Napoleon. II.- 1815 added together =15, which two added together, thus 1815 + 15 = 1830, the fall of Charles IX. It would be remarkable If 1902 were to complete the triad so striking in French history. III. It is curious about Louis Philippe. The year of his birth, or the year of the queen's birth, or the year of his flight, added to the year of his coronation, will give 1848, the date of abdication (this is another French triad q.v.). He was born 1773 ; his queen was born 1782, and his flight was 1809 ; the sum of each is 18. And 1830 + 18 = 1848. IY. Charles I., Louis XVI. each con- tains 8 letters. Charles was decapitated January, Louis was guillotined January. The sum of the day of the month in each case is 3. Thus Charles was exe- cuted January 30, Louis January 21. The sum of the year in each case is 20. Thus 1649 = 20; and 1793 = 20. Hence, finally, the entire summation is identical, 8 letters in the names, month January, sum of the days of the month 8, sum of the year 20 ; and total 81 + January. V. Louis XIV. The number 14 is the am of the figures of hie age, 77 = 1 i ; the sum of the figures which make tne date of his coronation 1643 = 14 ; and the sum of the figures which make the date of his death 1715 = 14. Coining Machine of the Revo- lution (The). The guillotine, so called by Fouquier Tinville, the public accuser, because the wealthy were always sus- pected when money was needed. Cold shade of the aristocracy (The). It was Colonel Napier, in his ' History of the Peninsular War,' who said the people were doomed ' to wither in the cold shade of the aristocracy.' Cold Year (The), 1614. Collar of Tomar (The). A golden torque which Malachy, monarch of Ire- land, took from the neck of a Danish chieftain whom he had conquered. Let Erin remember the days of old, Ere her faithless sons betrayed her, When Malachy wore the collar of gold Which he won from the proud invader. T. MOOBE, Irish Melodiei. Collection des Deux-Ponts (La). A collection of the Latin classics published at Deux-Ponts, or Zwey- briicken in Bavaria, towards the close of the 18th and in the first quarter of the 19th cent. Colliberts. So the Cagots (q.v.) are called in Poitou, Maine, and Anjoti. Colloquy of Poissy (The), 1561. A synod of Catholics and Calvinists held at Poissy to settle the religious contro- versies by which France was molested. The end of this colloquy was to make each party more fiercely hostile than before, and their animosity broke out into a desolating religious war. Collyrid'ians (The), or 'Collyridian Christians,' A.D. 873. Heretics abundant in Arabia, who invested the Virgin Mary with the name and honours of a goddess. They were so called because they offered to the goddess virgin a KoAAvpo. or cake. The heresy was carried from Thrace to Arabia by some women. Colonisation of Ulster (Th\ 1610. A measure introduced in the reign of James I. for the pacification of Ire- land. It was a vast measure of spolia- tion. Two-thirds of the north of Ireland was confiscated to the crown, and the land was allotted to Scotch and 186 COLOQtJINTlDA COLUMN ettlers. The Corporation of London undertook the rolonisation of Derry. Without doubt this ' plantation of Uls- ter ' was a brilliant success ; but its in- justice has not even yet been condoned by the Irish. An attempt was made. In 1889, to 'colonise' vlcted (arms, in Ireland, by English and Scotch Coloqiiint'ida (St.). So Charles I. was called. Coloquintida is colocynth (or ' bitter apple '), which is extremely bitter and nauseous. To say Charles was to the Levellers a Coloquintida ia about equivalent to saying he was to them ' very bitter pill.' See Claren- don's 'Rebellion,' book iii. p. 91 (Oxford edit. 1839). In 2 Kings iv., 'Death in the pot,' or 'wild gourds,' is in the old versions translated ' coloquintida,' whence the Levellers obtained their comparison. The Levellers styled him [Charlec I.I an Ahab Mid a Colo<|Uintlda, a man of blood, and the ever- lusting obstacle to peace and liberty. HowiTT, Hut. of Eng. (Charles I., chap. vi. p. 284). Colora'do (U.S.America). So called from Rio Colorado or coloured river (Red River) which falls into the Vermi- lion Sea. The inhabitants are nick- named Rovers. Colossus of Danish Literature (The). Baron Ludwig Holberg (1084- 1754). . One of the greatest authors of comedy that ever lived. He was also an historian and satirist. Colossus of the 19th cent. (The). Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821). Colours for Church Decora- tions. White for festivals of our Lord, for Easter, and for all saints except martyrs. Bed for martyrs, for Ash Wednesday, the last three days of Holy Week, and Whitsuntide. Blue for all week days after Trinity Sunday. Blue or green, indifferently, for ordi- nary Sundays. Violet, broum, or grey for Advent and Lent. Black for Good Friday. Colours for the Days. An effort was made in France to introduce letter- paper of a special colour for each day of the week. For Sunday, * delicate mauve. Monday, pale green. Tuesday, pink. Wednesday (an unlucky day), sombre grey. Thursday, blue. Friday, white. Saturday, straw-colour. Colours in China. Yellow is the imperial colour, restricted to the emperor and his sons. Symbolical of faith. Purple is the colour worn by the em- peror's grandsons. Red is the symbol of virtue, truth, and sincerity. Vermilion is the colour in which im- perial edicts are written. Black denotes guilt and vice. White denotes moral purity. The colour of mourning indicative of hope. Colours. See ' Military Colours.' Colston's Day, or 'The Colston Day,' 18 Nov. The anniversary of the birth of Edward Colston (1030-1721), merchant, and M.P. for Bristol (1710). He founded and endowed schools and almshouses in Bristol, and on the anni- versary of his birthday the four follow- ing societies dine together : The Colston, established 1726. The Dolphin, established 1749 (the Colston crest is two dolphins). The Grateful, established 1758. The Anchor, 1769. Large sums of money are collected at these dinners for annuities to aged persons, relief for lying-in women, ap- prenticing boys, and money gifts. In 1886 the subscription amounted to 8,r>342. Columbia. America is so called from Columbus, who discovered it. A part is still called British Columbia. It was called America from Amerigo Ves- pucci, the pilot who accompanied Alonzo de Ojeda in 1499 and published an ao- count of the voyage. This book first made the New World popularly known. Columbia. Colombia, to glory arise. The queen ol the world, and the child of theskla*. DP. T. DWIOHT. Hall, Columbia, happy land I JOSEPH HOPKISSON, 1789. Column of Antoninus (The). At Rome ; made of marble, 176 feet hi^h, in memory of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. Like that of Trajan, this column is covered externally with spiral C6LUMN COMMENDAM 187 bas-reliefs representing the wars carried on by this emperor. As Sixtus V. caused the original statue of Trajan to be sup- planted by that of St. Peter, so he caused the original statue of Antcninus to be supplanted by that of St. Paul. The spiral staircase has 106 steps, and the column has 56 windows to let in light. This pillar Is very Inferior to Trajan's Column. The column In the Piazza Colonna at Rome, called the Pillar of Antoninus, is really one raised by the senate to Marcus Aurelius, after his victory over the Marcomanni. Column of July (The), 1832. Paris. Made of bronze, erected on the Place de la Bastille, to commemorate the Revolu- tion of July (q.v.), 1830, when Charles X. abdicated. It is surmounted with a statue of Liberty standing on one foot. In 1840 the bodies of the victims of that revolution, which had been thrown into a ditch, were disinterred. A monster hearse being provided, 50 coffins (each containing ten bodies), drawn by 24 black horses, were buried in the vault under this column. Column of the Place Vend6me (The), 1806-1810. Paris. Made of bronze, erected in honour of Napoleon L, and containing, in a spiral, pictorial repre- sentations of his victories in a series of bas-reliefs, 900 feet long, and terminating with the battle of Austerlitz in 1805. This magnificent column, made of cannons taken from enemies, the facsimile of Trajan's famous column, was surmounted with a statue of Napoleon himself. On 17 May, 1871, It was hurled to the ground by the Communists out of hatred to Napoleon III. It was re-erected in 1874, but the statue of Napo- leon was replaced with another standing on one leg, infinitely inferior in every respect to the ori- ginal one. Columns. See ' Pompey'g Column,' 1 Trajan's Column.' Columns of Hercules (The). Two large pyramidal columns set up by the Phoenicians as lighthouses and land- marks, dedicated one to Hercules (the sun) and the other to Astarte (the moon). By the Greeks and Romans the two pyramidal mountains at the Straits of Gibraltar, viz. Calpe and Abyla, the former in Europe and the latter in Africa, were termed Columnce Herculia from their resemblance at a distance to the Phoenician columns. Calpe (2 syl.), Ab -y-lah, i.e. Ce-u'-ta. Combat of the Thirty (The). 1 Le Combat des Trente/ 1351. Thirty Bretons against thirty Englishmen. It was the defiance of Jean sire de Beauma- noir to the English chatelain of Ploer- mel. Eight of the English being slain, the combat was brought to a close. It is said that Beaumanoir, exhausted by fatigue and heat, drank the blood which flowed from his wounds. See ' Battle.' Combative Kings (The). The dynasty of Tcheou-kue of China, from the tenth to the third cent. B.C., when China was broken up into a multitude of minor states always at war with each other. In B.C. 247 Thsin-chi-hoang-ti (of the dynasty of Tsin) united all the states under one sovereign; pushed back tha Moguls ; and built the Great Wall. Combination Laws (The), 1860. The Statute of Labourers enacted ' that all alliances [combinations] of masons, carpenters, and other artificers,' be an- nulled and declared unlawful. Abolished in 1824, since which times Trades-Unions (q.v.) have become very general. See ' Criminal Law Amendment Act.' Comedy (Father of French). Moliere (1622-1673). Comite* de Surveillance, 1792. A committee in the French Revolution whose function was to examine the de- nunciations received by the Committee of General Safety. After the butcheries of 2 Sept. this committee drew up an address, recommending all the communes in France to follow the same example. See under ' Committee.' This address was signed by Duplain, Panis, Ser- gent, Lenfant, Marat, Lefort, Jordeuil, ad in in is- rators of the Comite de Surveillance, constituted at the Mairie, 2 Sept. 1792. Cpmmandery (A). A district con taining estates with a revenue annexed, belonging to a military order, and go- verned by a knight-commander, or the whole body of knights subject to a knight- commander, as the Commanderies of Malta, of St. Lazare, of Calatrava, of Alcantara, of St. Bernard, and of St. Antony. Till 1267 Commanderies were called Preceptories. Commenda, or ' Ecclesia Commen- data.' A living commended by the crown to the charge of a clergyman to hold till a person is duly provided for it. It may be either temporary or perpetual. Commeiidam (In). A living is held 188 COMMENDATORS COMMISSIONERS 'in commendam* when (to prevent its becoming void) it is committed (coinmi-n- datur) to the charge of a clergyman till it can be conveniently provided with a pastor. Thus when a rector or vicar is made a bishop his benefice becomes void from the moment of consecration, but, being ' commended ' to a commendatory, the bishop retains the income till his suc- cessor is provided. Commendators. A Scotch term meaning secular persons upon whom church benefices are bestowed. The livings are commended, i.e. entrusted to their care and keeping. They &re,pro tcnipore, trustees of the priories, abbeys, or dioceses committed to them. The living thus held in trust was called a commendatory. Commendatory Abbot (A). Was i secular clerk provided by the pope to enjoy the fruits of an abbey, generally for life, without being saddled with clerical duties. Commendatory Letters. Letters written by one bishop to another on be- half of a clergyman or layman going to the diocese. Commenda'tus [pi Commendati]. In baronial times was a person who lived under the protection of some great man. He was a voluntary vassal, and paid voluntary homage for the sake of protection. Commerce (Father of English). Edward in. (1312, 1326-1877). Commissaires de la Commune (Li'8), 10 Aug., ITUii. A title assumed by Danton, Tallien, Billaud-Varennes, and ('(.Hot d'llerbois, who usurped on this day the municipal functions of Paris. Commissary (The). In the Univer- sity of Cambridge. An executive officer appointed by the chancellor by letters patent to hold a court of record for all privileged persons and scholars under the degree of M.A. Commission (The Parnell), 1889. See l Parnell,' &c. Commission of Innocency (The), 1GG8. A commission appointed by the Duke of Ormond, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to inquire into the guilt or iuno- cency of those Catholic* whose estates had been forfeited by Cromwell. The cases were so numerous that the K- was limited, and only a fourth of the cases were adjudicated. The other three- fourths (about 3,000 in number) were stripped of their estates whether they were innocent or not. Commission of Inquiry (The), 1623. A commission appointed by Jamea I. to examine into the titles of holders of land in the province of Leinst>r and the adjoining districts. The commission ad- judged 82,500 acres of land to be crown land, and James tried to plant it with Englishmen and Scotchmen, as he had done Ulster. Commission of Twelve (The), 1793. An extraordinary board appointed by the National Convention to watch over the commune, arrest those who in- terrupted the business of the house, and to judge traitors. It forthwith an He'bert; whereupon a riot ensued, and the Convention was obliged to dissolve the commission. Commissioners of Delinquen- cy, Hf>0. Commissioners appointed after the rebellion of Ireland to decide what lands were forfeited by the rebellion, and what Catholics were entitled to receive compensation. Those Catholics who in the lifetime of Charles I. had served the king against the rebels, and would be entitled to retain any part of their estates, were to resign that part and receive an equivalent in the waste lands of Cor naught ; but no Catholic, under any condition, was to re- side in any town or within a certain fixed limit of a town. There were commis- sioners to decide on the qualifications of Catholics, others to arrange the details of those to be transplanted to Connaujzht, and others to receive and hear claims. The first sat in Athlono, the second in Loughrea, and the third in Dublin. Commissioners of Innocency. See ' Commission of Innocency.' Commissioners of National Education (The). In Ireland. !>:.:'. The board appointed to carry out the S'an of national education introduced by r. Stanley, chief secretary. See ' N*. tional Schools, Ireland.' The first commissioners were the Duke ol Lei'ihtor, Archbishop Whately, Archbishop Mur- ray, Uev. Dr. 8;idlier, Rev. James C:vrlile (I'lstby- fe-. uin), A. K. Blake (Catholic), tuid Uobert Holme* COMMISSIONERS COMMITTEE 181 Commissioners ofParliament. Part of the civil government of Cromwell, appointed to grant commissions by letters patent, and to examine into the legality of those holding any public office. In Ireland their chief duty was to adjust and apportion among the claimants confis- cated estates. Commissioners of Trust (The), 1647. Twelve persons appointed by the general assembly of confederates and Protestants in Ireland to guard the treaty, and vested with powers to levy soldiers, raise money, and perform all acts of su- preme authority in Ireland. The arrange- ment fell through because the king was beheaded before he had signed it. The Catholics were granted by the treaty free- dom of religion, seminaries for the education of their children, admission to Parliament, and an amnesty for the late rebellion. Committee of Estates (The), 1640. A committee appointed by the Scotch Parliament which had been pro- rogued by Charles I., but which refused vo obey, declaring the warrant to be informal. They instantly voted a tax of 10 per cent. on rents, and 5 per cent, on interest of money, and appointed a Committee of Estates to act in the place of the king in giving assent to their measures. Committee of Evils (The), 1625. A committee of the House of Commons in the second year of the reign of Charles I. for the remedy of grievances and abuses. The Committee of Grievances brought forward to the notice of the house what were national grievances, and the Com- mittee of Evils suggested remedies. Thus the Committee of Grievances complained of purveyance [collecting provisions at a Bet price], tonnage and poundage, and so on ; and the Committee of Evils, attribut- ing these grievances to the Duke of Buck- ingham, insisted on his being punished. Committee of Grievances (The) t 1626. A committee of the House of Com- mons to check the encroachments of the young king Charles I. It was especially directed against the Duke of Bucking- ham, the king's favourite, whose inso- lence, extravagance, incapacity, and licentiousness were a great scandal. Committee of Murder (The), 1690. A committee appointed by the Whigs, in the reign of William and Mary, to inquire into the concern of sundry in- dividuals in the deaths of Lord Russell, Algernon Sidney, and others of the Whig party. John Hampden (grandson of the great patriot) and John Howe were the most violent, and would have inundated the nation with blood if William had not stoutly resisted the persecution. Committee of Nine (The), 6 April, 1793. The Committee of Public Safety (q.v.) in the French revolution. It con- sisted of nine members. Committee of Public Safety (The). ' Le Comite' du Salut Publique. f formed in the French revolution, 6 April, 1793, by a decree of the Convention. For a year it was omnipotent, and had under it the ' Revolutionary Tribunal,' the ' Revolutionary Committees,' and the Committee of General Security.' It ori- ginally consisted of nine members chosen from the Convention, the leaders being Danton, Barere, and Cambon. Three more were added in June ; and, after the fall of the Girondists, Robespierre and Carnot belonged to the committee. It was this committee which inaugurated the Reign of Terror, and filled France with scaffolds. It was broken up 27 July, 1794. See ' Committee of the Two Kingdoms.' Revolutionary committees and Committees ol General Safety were also appointed in every com. mune of France. The former to receive denun- ciations and the latter to look after the police. Committee of Purchases, 1791 A committee of Frenchmen, under Bider- mann, the banker, and consisting of Jews and speculators, whose function was to make bargains for the army under Du mouriez and pay the soldiers. The sol- diers were paid in cash, but all bargains were paid for in assignats. All emigrants were plundered of their money, jewels, furniture, and works of art; and the people of Belgium were treated as aris- tocrats. Plunder and robbery were thus made a very profitable trade. Committee of Religion. 1. 1626* A committee of the House of Commons, in the second year of Charles L, to put down the growth of popery, which had become aggressive from the large suite of Roman Catholics introduced by the queen. The committee presented its report 25 Feb., 1629. It complained that the bishops licensed the circulation of books favourable to popery. It advised COMMITTEE COMMITTEES that such books as those of Mainwaring and Montague should be burnt ; that candlesticks should be removed from communion-tables, now impiously called high-altars; that pictures, lights, and images should be removed from churches ; that crossing and turning to the east in prayer should be forbidden ; that better and more learned men should be preferred to church livings ; and better provision be made for the supply of holy ministers to the several parishes. IL 6 Nor., 1640, a committee of the whole house appointed by the Long Par- liament for providing preachers, and re- moving ministers of scandalous character. Committee of Safety. I. In the civil wars of Charles I. was a supreme council which sat in the 'Pain ted Cham- ber, Westminster. Pym was president, and among the members were Lord Saye and Sele, Sir Harry Vane, Harry Marten, Selden, St. John, and others. IL Oct. 1775. A committee formed from the congress convened by Governor Gage at Salem, and adjourned by the 1 patriots ' to Concord, a town about 25 miles from Boston. Here a standing committee was appointed, which assumed the name of ' The Committee of Safety,' with authority to call out the militia when they thought it necessary for the defence of the province. The French afterwards adopted the same idea in their Comite* du Salut Publique. Committee of Secresy (The), 6 Jan., 1721. A committee appointed by the House of Commons to examine into the South Sea Company's failure. The committee was appointed merely to soothe the angry feelings of the public. The directors in the service of the crown were discharged 11 Jan., and the rest were examined before the House of Lords. Knight, the company's cashier, ah- conded 22 Jan., wav imprisoned at Ant- werp, 8 Feb. ; escaped, and was pardoned 18 Oct. the same year. It was not till 1 June, 1788, that an inquiry into the conduct of the company was made in the House of Lords. Broderick was chair- man of the committee, and Jekyll, Moles- worth, itc. were members put upon it. Committee of Supplies (The), 1774. To purchase ammunition, ordnance, and other military stores, when the Com- mittee of Safety (q.v.) thought it advis- able to call out the militia in defence of the province of Massachusetts. Committee of Twelve (The\ 1793. A committee appointed by the Con- vention, through the influence of the Girondists, to watch over the designs of the commune and to arrest those persons who were dangerous to the public peace. The Twelve were the sworn enemies of the Jacobins. Committee of the Protestant Interest (The), 1780. Formed to n-sist any relaxation of the penal code against the Catholics. The synod of Glus<:ow was especially rancorous, but the synod of Edinburgh favoured measures of relief. Committee of the States, 1777. Appointed by Congress to sit during their recess. It consisted of one delegate from each state ; nine to form a quorum. This committee exercised such powers as Congress thought fit to vest them with. Committee of the Two King, doms (The), Dec. 1648. So the Com- mittee of Public Safety was called, when Scotland joined the Parliamentary party. This was after the death of Pym. It wai again called into active service in 1647. Committee of the whole House (A). All the members of the House of Commons in attendance, pre- sided over by a chairman for the nonce instead of the Speaker. After a public bill has been printed and distributed to the members, it is read for the second time and then 'committed.' "When the day for ' committing ' -has arrived, the Speaker moves 'that I do now leave the chair,' and the bill is read clause by clause, and line by line, till every part nos received the approval of the house, and then the Speaker resumes his chair to receive tho report. Committees of Correspond- ence, 1779. To carry out reform in Par- liament ; organised in twenty-one counties, and in the towns of York, Bristol, Cam- bridge, Nottingham, Newcastle, Reading, and Bridgwater. The chief promoter* of these committees were Lord Rocking- liam, in Yorkshire ; Lord Shclburne, UR Buckinghamshire ; Lord Mahon (son-in- law of Chatham), in Kent ; the Duke of Richmond, the Marquis of Carmarthen, Sir George Savile, E Jmuud Burke, and Charles James Fox. COMMITTEES COMMORANTES 191 In 1780 Committees of Correspondence were organised by the Protestant Association numerous towns to resist any relaxation of the penal acts against the Catholics. The anti- Catholic furore culminated in the Gordon riots. Committees of General Se- curity, or ' Comite de Surete Ge'nerale ' (1793). Appointed by the Convention to act under the Committee of Public Safety to look after the police. Common Good (The). A Scotch phrase meaning the public funds of a burgh. Common Prayer Book (The). Was drawn up chiefly by Goodrich bishop of Ely, and Ridley bishop of Rochester. Their coadjutors were Skyp bishop of Hereford, Thirlby bishop of Westminster, Day bishop of Chichester, Holbeach bishop of Lincoln, Dr. May dean of St. Paul's, Dr. Taylor dean of Lincoln, Dr. Haynes dean of Exeter, Dr. Redmayne dean of Westminster, Dr. Cox the king's almoner, and Dr. Robert- son archdeac&n of Leicester. In the communion office there were added the Archbishop of York and the Bishops of Durham, Worcester, Norwich, St. Asaph, Lichfield, Salisbury, Carlisle, Bristol, and St. David's. Common Recovery. A legal fiction practised in the reign of Ed- ward IV. for cutting off entails. The estate being forfeit to the crown was granted to a person by private agreement. This person brought an action against the grantor for unjustly claiming such estate. Of course the suit was permitted to go by default, and the entail, being declared lost, the fee simple of the property re- curred to the possessor, to be disposed of as he thought proper. Common Sense, 1776. A pamphlet by Thomas Paine, then living in Phila- delphia, urging the Americans to claim independence. It ridiculed the idea of a small island, 8,000 miles off, ruling the immense continent of America, and threatening three million men, more vigorous and more virtuous than their would-be enslavers. This spark was sufficient to rouse the Americans, who at once signed their Declaration of Inde- pendence. Commoners. The ordinary students of the University of Oxford, called ' pen- sioners ' in the University of Cambridge. In the University of Cambridge 'Fellow Com- aonera ' are pensioners who din* at the Fellows' or Masters' table. They are generally married men, noblemen, and elderly men. They wear a gold tassel on their cap instead of a silk one, and have the privilege of paying higher fees. Commons' King (The). The Com- mons' King of Rome was King Serving Tullius, sixth king of Rome. His mother was a captive taken at Cornubium, and became the female slave of Tanaquil, wife of Tarquin I. Seryius was by birth a slave also, but married the king's daugh- ter and succeeded to the throne. Louis Philippe of France was called ' Le tat oitoyen.' Commons Spiritual (The). The Proctors of Convocation, who, in the reign of Richard II., were elected at knights of the shire were. Commonwealth, or Free State. 19 March, 1649. So the government of the United Kingdom was called, as soon as it was constituted after the execution of Charles L Commonwealth (The). Lasted in England eleven years (1649-1600). Dur- ing which period, Cromwell was Lord Pro- tector for about four and three-quartet years (16 Dec., 1658, to 8 Sept., 1658), and was styled 'his highness.' During the Commonwealth, the recognised govern- ment superscription ran thus : ' Keepers of the liberties of England by the au- thority of Parliament.' Commonwealth of Babina (The), 16th cent. A society founded in Poland in the time of Sigismund Au- gustus, last male heir of the house of Jagello (1548-1572), so called from Ba- bina, the place of meeting. They had a regular mock government, under king, senate, and magistrates. The executive was elected from something which ap- peared ridiculous in the member elected. Thus, an officious man was made arch- bishop, a disputatious one was made speaker, a boaster was made comniander- in-chief. To decline to serve was to be outlawed. Thus every foible was held up to observation, and Babina was a word of terror. Without doubt the society did a vast amount of good. It gradually died out. Commorantes in Villa. Gradu- ates of the University of Cambridge, not on any of the college staffs, but members of the Regent's House (called the White Hoods). When the university was re- organised in 1858, the term was abolished IPS COMMUNE COMPAGNIE3 and the Regent's House formed part of the Senate. Commune of Paris (The), 14 July, 1789. A municipal revolutionary board, which took the place of the ' Conseil de Ville ' and held its sessions in the Guild Hall (Hotel de Ville). It had the supreme government of the city, the appointment of the civil officers, and the magisterial duties. It was presided over by a pro- vost Chaumette was the first provost, and the next was Robespierre, at whose fall the commune was abolished (27 July, 1794). Com'munes (2 syl.). Chartered towns were so called in France. The first was the commune of Mans, in 10(56. Commu'nes (8 syl.). A supplement, in five books, to the Corpus Juris Cano- nicijbeingtheExtravagantesofpopessub- B<'<|U<-nt to John XXII. Not unfrequently called ' Extravagantes Communes.' Communion Service (The First\ 1548. By a committee of bishops and other clergy, appointed by Cranmer. It made auricular confession optional ; appointed that the encharist should be given in both kinds ; that the Host should not be ele- vated ; that the chief part of the service should be in English ; that the ,bread should be of the same form and kind as heretofore; and that the words used should be those printed in our Common Prayer Book, now in use. Communism. A scheme for asso- ciating men and women together without recourse to the laws of social and political economy, usually resorted to. The repre- sentatives of communism are Robert Owen, St. Simon, Fourier, Proudhon, and Enfuntin. (1) Owen published his scheme in 1813, and tried it in 1825, at Orbiston, in Lan- arkshire. This scheme failed, and in 1843 he opened his ' Harmony Hall,' in H:,m|-iiiiv ; but this also was a failure. (2) St. Simon established a corporate society at Menilmontant, but Louis Philippe charged it with immorality and im-li^'ion. The readers were imprisoned and the commune dissolved. (3) Fourier established his 'phalans- tery' at Rambouillet, but it proved a totiil failuiv. (4) Proudhon is noted for his axiom, La propric'te*, c'est le vol.' 1848, and for his Banque du Peuple, 1849, which hod for its object the suppression of capital. It was closed by authority, and Proudhon fled to Geneva. (5) Enfantin, a partisan of St. Simon, advocated the abolition of marriage ties, and was prosecuted on the grounds of public decency. See ' Socialism,' ' St. Simonianism,' ' Supreme Father/ Communists (Tfo). A secret so- ciety, which the report of the Government of Zurich, 1844, says was then in exist- ence in Switzerland. Its object was ' tin enfranchisement of all humanity ; the abolition of property, of heritage, of money, of wages, of laws, and of punish- ments.' They also insisted on an equal distribution of labour and enjoyment. See 'Communism.' Commutation Act. See 'Tithes Bill.' Comneni (The), or 'The Comne- nians.' A family of Roman origin which furnished six Byzaiitian emperors, one Heraclean, and three of Trebizond. The six of Constantinople are : Isaac (1057- 1059), Alexis I. (1081-1118), John (1118- 1148), Manuel (1143-1180), Alexis H. (1180-1183), and Andronlcus (1188-1185), who was dethroned. The one of Heraclea was David, grand- son of Andronieus. Alexis III., who founded a dynasty at Tn 1'izond, which lasted from 1204 to 1402. The rest of the Comneni migrated to the Morea and Corsica. Napoleon used to claim descent from these Comneni. Comorbans, or Corbes. Lay dignitaries who held in Ireland church lands. If not dignitaries, they were called Erenachs. Like lay abbots, they appro- priated to themselves the revenues, leav- ing the clergy the fees and tithes. (From the 9th to the 17th cent.) Compagnacci (The}. A set of foolish youths in Florence, during the palmy days of Lorenzo de' Medici ; \vlx>, laying aside all sense of shame, gave themselves up to every sort of wicked- ness, emulating each other in the depths of naughtiness to which they could attain. Compagnies (Lea). Often called *Les grandes com) .armies.' Bands of troops composed of different nations, and led by a general whose device was ' L'ami COMPANION'S COMPURGATORS 10; du Dieu et 1'ennemi du tout le monde.' See ' Companions' League,' ' Condottieri.' One of them called himself ' The enemy ot God, ol pity, and ol mercy.' Companions' League (The), 1860. A confederacy of the mercenary troops disbanded by Edward III. after the battle of Poitiers (1356). The league mustered 40,000 soldiers, and fought several pitched battles with the French troops. In 1366 they joined Duguesclin'g army levied to aid Henry da Trastamare against his brother Pedro the Cruel. This league was a confederacy of Les grandes compagnies (q.v.). Companions of Jehu (The). The Chouans, a royalist faction in France in 1800. Louis XVIII. being Jehu, whose ' companions ' were bound to aid him in 1 cutting off, root and branch, all who had taken part in the assassination of his royal brother' (Louis XVL). See 2 Chron. xxii. 7. Company of 1789 (The). The club of the Feuillants was originally so called. Its platform was the support of the constitution against the ultra party. They took the constitution of England for their model. On 28 March, 1791, the club was forcibly dispersed by a raging mob. Company of St. George (The), 1379. A company of adventurers under Alberic di Barbiano. This company was a most famous school of great generals from its formation to the ICth cent. Compassionate Allowance. A government gratuity to the widows and children of those in the British army slain in the Crimean War (1855-1856). Compassionate Brothers (The), 1640. Founded at Seville, in Spain, by the Portuguese John di Dio, who had served in Africa under Charles V. They ob- tained their funds by begging. Their chief functions were nursing the sick and reforming immoral women. The brothers were laymen under no rule till 1572, when the pope subjected them to the rule of St. Augustine. Competitive Examination for the Civil service, introduced in 1855. Every candidate is required to pass first a preliminary examination. Cpmpitalian Lares. Gods who presided respectively over th'e several quarters of the city (Rome). Compitum was the place where two or more roads met, as Trivium was the place where two or more streets met. It was customary with the Romans to erect altars, shrines, and small temples at these spots, as Roman Catholics used to erect on such pots crucifixes. The Lares Compitales were the deities who presided over cross roads (Prcpertius, iv. 3, 54). Varro tells us the word compUum comes from the verb competo, to agree in one. Complaint (The), 1450, or, in full, * The Complaint of the Commons of Kent.' The petition of grievances presented by John Cade, calling for administrative and economical reforms, a change of ministry, a more careful expenditure of the royal revenue, and the restoration of freedom of election, which had been broken in upon both by the crown and by the great landlords. Compline. The last of the eight daily services of the Catholic Church and of the four greater ones. At bed-time. The word means complete. See ' Canoni- cal Hours.' Polyglot rinted under Complutensian Bible (The), 1502-1517. Print the patronage and at the expense of Cardinal Ximenes at Complutum (i.e. Alcala de Henares in New Castile, about nineteen miles from Madrid, in Spain). Comprehension (A), 1670. A decree by Leighton to pacify the Scotch clergy irritated by the Act against Field Conventicles (q.v.). It required that they should attend presbyteries as they were established before the year 1638. The bishops were required to waive their claim of a negative voice, and all who pleased were to be at liberty to protest against it. (See Lingard, ix. 4.) Compromise (The), 1567. The league between the Protestants and Catholics of the Netherlands, headed by the Prince of Orange, the Count Egmont, and the Count Horn, to put down the Inquisition, introduced into their country by Philip II. of Spain. The Duchess of Parma, who governed the country, gave way to the storm, and abolished the In- quisition ; by which wise concession she broke up the league. Compur'gators. Twelve persons who swore that they believed an accused 194 COMTE CONCORDAT person who pleaded ' not guilty ' to be innocent of the crime charged against him. The finding was called ' compur- gation.' This basis of our common jury gystem existed in the Saxon times, and is generally placed to the credit of Alfred the Great. Comte's Three States. The theo- logical state, the metaphysical state, and physical state. ' Chacun de nous, en contemplant sa propre histoire, ne se souvient-il pas qu'il a e"te* successivement, quant a ses notions les plus importantes, thlologien dans son enfance, metaphysi- cien dans sa jeunesse, etphysicien dans sa virilit^ ? ' In the infancy of thought the mind attributes changes in phenomena to the overruling will of some divinity which shapes them. In the next stage the mind attributes changes of phenomena to some hypothetical abstract principle. In the third, or mature stage, the mind clings to facts, and attributes phenomena to those agencies which experience or experiment v teaches us to have been in operation. Comuneros, 1520-1521. A Span- ish party opposed to the appointment of Karl V. of Germany to the Spanish crown. Padilla, a young nobleman of Toledo, was at the head of the insurgents. They were defeated by the royalists at Villalar in 1521, and Padilla was executed. This civil war is called the ' Guerra de las Comuniades.' Conacre System (The). The sys- tem of subletting small patches of land, consisting of from 1 to 5 acres, for a single potato crop. Thus, in Ireland, a landlord of, say, 100,000 acres, would farm it to a middleman, and live in England or abroad. The middleman will divide this large tenement into several smaller ones, which he will let out to tenants, say from 100 to 500 acres each. These tenants will sublet a part (say in parcels of from 10 to 50 acres) to other tenants ; and, lastly, these farmers will ' conacre ' small patches to some peasant to grow on it a crop of potatoes for the current year. So that sometimes six or eight persons under the landlord make a profit of the land, and the last occupant pays at the rate of Si. or 10Z. per acre for his little patch of land. Conception of the Virgin Mary (The), or 'Festum Beatae Maria 4 Adventu,' 8 Dec. Instituted 1350. There is an order of nuns, which was founded In 1484, entitled ' The Conception of Our Lady. 1 Theil dress is a white gown, a blue mantle, and a scapu- ary. Conceptualisrn, Abelard's ier- tium quid (q.v.). Concord of Madrid (The), 1526. Extorted by Karl V. from Francois L, his captive. Francois consented to give up all claims to Flanders and Artois, the possession of Naples, Milan, Genoa, and all other Italian territories, to deliver the dauphin and Due d'Orteans into the hands of Karl as hostages, and bound himself to return into captivity if these conditions were not fulfilled within four years. Francois also promised to marry Queen Eleonora (sister of Karl V.), to re- store Bourbon and the rest of the rebels to their estates and honours, to pay Henry VIET, all the money which Karl owed him, to lend Karl his whole navy, with 500 men-at-arms and 6,000 foot soldiers, to put down the princes of Italy, and to use his influence with the King of Navarre and Duke of Gueldres to get Karl appointed heir to their dominions. The pope absolved Francois from his obligation to observe this scandalous exaction. Concordat of 1801 (The). Between Pius VII. and Napoleon Bonaparte, then first consul. It put an end to the anarchy introduced by the revolution in the Gallican Church, and re-established the French hierarchy. The appointment of bishops was left in the hands of the tem- poral power, but their institution was reserved to the pope. A new division of the dioceses of France was made. The appointment of cores or vicars was left to the bishops. Napoleon said to Cabanls : ' Do you know what this Concordat really is? Ik is the vaccination of religion. In fifty years there will be no more religion In France than small pox.' Concordat of 1855 (The). Between Pius IX. and the Emperor Francis Joseph of Austria. This concordat was abrogated in 1870. Concordat of Francois I., A.D. 1515. A repeal of the Pragmatic Sanc- tion, which the pope had condemned, and the substitution of a compromise. By the Pragmatic Sanction the independence of the Gallican Church was secured, and ita frt''ili)in from all papal encroachments; by the Concordat the pope and king made a partition^of the spoil. The king ap- pointed to vacant bishoprics within au CONCORDAT CONFEDERATES 195 months ; if the nominee was objected to by the pope, three months more were allowed, and if then the appointment was objected to, the pope made the ap- pointment. By this foolish arrangement annates or first fruits were again rendered to the pope. Of course the French par- liament and council greatly objected, but the king carried his point. Concordat of Vienna (The), 1448. Drawn up by Kaiser Friederich III., and approved of by Czar Nicholas V., esta- blishing the canonical election, abolishing the Acts called ' Provisiones ' for curbing the arbitrary power of the crown, abolish- ing pontifical expectatives, determining in what cases the pope could dispose of German benefices, and substituting a tax spread over two years for annates. Concordat of Worms (The), 1122. Between Pope Calixtus II. and Hein- rich V. of Germany. This instrument put an end to the long contention about investitures. The pope recognised the right of the monarch to give temporal investitures, and reserved to himself the right of spiritual investitures. A concordat is a contract between the pope and temporal potentate to fix their respective rights in matters pertaining to the Church and State. Condignitism. A doctrine taught by Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), who contended that man in his natural state cannot so live as to merit or earn God's grace ; but that with Divine assistance he could do so, and render himself worthy (condignus) of salvation. This sort of merit is called the ' merit of condignity.' The 'merit of congruity* Is the possibility of BO ordering oar lives as to deserve grace, and with the desert, of course, follows the grace. See 'Congruism.' Condottie'ri. Either free-lances, or bands of adventurers, who for hire entered the service of anyone who would pay them. Hawkwood's condottieri hired themselves into the Venetian service in the 14th cent., and were called the Eng- lish condottieri. A condottiere is not a captain or leader of a band, but a free- lance, or a company of free-lances under a leader. Thus Hawkwood collected a band of condottieri, and made the best bargain he could with those who were willing to pay for their services. At the same time Francesco Sforza was a con- dottiere; BO also Angelo de la Pergola, Nicolo Piccinino, and Guido Torello were noted condottieri. Of course the word condottie're means a captain OP leader, and condottieri those under a leader. Confarrea'tion. A species of mar- riage in ancient Rome ; so called because the chief ceremony was partaking of the panis farreus (bread made of spelt) in the presence of ten witnesses. This was the highest form of marriage ; and certain offices in the state, such for example aa the Flamen Didlis, could be held only by those who were born of parents thua married. Our bridecake la a relic of the panis farrau. Confederacy of Delos (The), B.C. 477. A league to place Athens, instead of Sparta, at the head of Greece, chiefly brought about by the treason of Pausa- nias. Called the Confederacy of Delos, because the deputies of the allies were to meet annually in Delos in the temple of Apollo and Artemis. Confederate Catholics (The), 1641. An Irish secret society formed in Ulster, where 50,000 Englishmen were assassinated. 'Husbands were cut to pieces in the presence of their wives; children's brains were dashed out be- fore their parents ; women were brutally violated, and driven naked to perish in the woods. Some were burned ; others drowned for sport; many were buried alive. The contest was that of Catholic against Protestant ; and the rebels, believ- ing that Charles I. really befriended them, called themselves ' the king's army,' and claimed to be acting on the king's commig- sion. See ' Irish Associations.' Confederates (The), 1861-1865. The Southern States of North America, in the American civil war, consisting of South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Vir- ginia, North Carolina, Alabama, Mis- sissippi, Louisiana, and Texas. These states were utterly opposed to what was called the Garrison school, which considered American slavery a scandal. Sumner and Sewardtpok up the question, and organised an anti-slavery party. The Southerners confederated, and resolved to separate from the Union, the federalists or unionists armed to preserve the Union. As the war went on the slavery question was thrust to the forefront. The South- erners were vanquished, slavery was abol ished, and the Union was preserved. 196 CONFEDERATION CONFESSION Confederation (The Irish), 184fi. Formed by the Young Ireland party when it separated from the old Repealers, led by Daniel O'Connell. The meetings were held in the Music Hall, Abbey Street. See ' Irish Associations.' Confederation of Bar (The), 1768. Formed by the Catholics of Poland against the dissidents (g.v.). It was dissolved in 1778. Bar Is a (own of Podolla. The confederation was supported by Russia. See ' National Confederacy Of Poland. 1 Confederation of the Rhine (The), 1806. The German states confede- rated by Napoleon. AB allies of France each state was bound to furnish a con- tingent to the French army. In 1808 the number of Germans yielded 120,000 men to Napoleon's call. Bavaria and Wurtemburg allied themselves to France in 1805, and in reward of this unpatriotic conduct these electorates were raised into kingdoms. In 1806 fourteen other Ger- man princes signed an act of alliance, and in 1808 other princes did the same. After the disaster of Moscow in 1813 the con- federation broke up, and the German princes allied themselves against their common enemy. The fourteen were, the Elector (now called the Grand Duke) of Hadcn, the new Grand Duke of Cleves (Napoleon's brother In-law) the Landgraf (now called Grand Puke of Hessen Darmstadt, (he Prince of Nasnau-Uslnges, the Prince of Naeean* Weilburg, the Prince of Hohonzollern Hechlngen. the Prince of Ibenberg Birstein, the Prince ot Liechtenstein, t ho 1 Hike of AremlnTtf. th<> Count of I/agen. Subsequently, the Duke of WUrsburg, the King of Saxony, the King of Westphalia, the Duke f Mecklenburg, and some other small princes. Conference (The), 1661. Held at the Savoy, in the residence of the Bishop of London (Dr. Sheldon). Four months were awarded to it (25 March-25 July). Between twenty-one BpiMOpalima and twenty-one Presbyterians. After long dispute, the nonconformists reduced their grievances to these eight : The sinfulness 1. Of wearing a surplice. 5. Of the cross in baptism. t. Of calling the baptized regenerate. 4. Of kneeling lit the Lord's Supper. t. Of admin istering the Lord s Supper to (he slek and impenitent. 6. Priestly absolution. 7. Returning thanks promiscuously In the Burial fervice. 8. Subscription to the Thirty nine Articles- Conference of London (The), 1826. A diplomatic congress held in London to determine on the fate of Greoc*. Confession of Augsburg (The), 1580. A summary of faith drawn up by Melanchthon, and presented to the Em- peror Charles V. at the Diet of Augsburg. This confession is based on ' The Articles of Torgau' (q.v.), and contains twenty-one articles on doctrine, and seven on prac- tical matters. They very much resemble the Thirty -nine Articles of the Church of England. Torgau, pronounce Tor-gov. The last 7 are these : 22 : of both kinds, tft Art. xxx. ; 23 : of (he marriage of priests, tee Art. xxxil. , 24 : of the sacrifice of the mass, tee Art. xxxi. ; 25 : of oral confession ; 26 : of distinction of meats : 27 : of conventual vows; and 28: of the authority of bishops. Compare also the 21 Articles of the Con- fession with the Articles of the Church of Eng- land, vis. : 1 : of Ood with Art. I. ; 2 : of orlniinl sin with Art. Ix. ; 8 : of the Son of God with Art. 11. ; 4 : of justification with Art. xl. ; 5 : of preaching with Art. xxiv. ; 6 : of obedience ; 7, 8 : of the Church with Art. xix. xx. ; 9 : of baptism with Art. xvil. ; 10 : of the Lord's Supper with Art. xxviii. xxlx. xxx. ; 11 : of confession ; 12 : of penance ; IS : of the use of the sacraments with Art. xxvi. ; 14 : of church govern- ment with Art. xx. ; 15 : of church order ; 16 : of secular government with Art xxxvii.; 17: of Christ s second comlnp ; 18 : of free will with Art. x. ; 19 : of the cause of bin with Art. Ix. ; 20 : of faith and good works with Art. xll. xilL ; and 21 : of the worship of saints. Confession of Bale (The), 1534. The first Helvetic confession of faith, drawn up by Zwingli in 1580, was so called because it was ratified at Bale. Confession of Brandenburg (The). The confession of faith drawn up in the city of Brandenburg by order of the elector, with a view of reconciling the tenets of Luthor with those of Calvin, and to put an end to the disputes occa- sioned by the Confession of Augsburg. Confession of Bullinger (The). The Expositio Simplex 01 Heinrich Bullinger, the successor of Zwingli, at Cologne, 1566. Confession of Emden (The\ 1562. By the Belgian reformers. Confession of Wurtemburg (The), 1551. A Lutheran confession of faith. Confession of Zwingli. In 1523 the government of Ziirich invited the Protestants and Catholics to a con- ference, in the hope of adjusting their religious difficulties. Zwingli drew up his arguments under sixty-seven heads, and the council gave their vote in his favour. These sixty-seven articles he afterwards submitted to Francois L of France, and called them his Con- fession. They are worthy to be com- CONFESSION CONGREGATION 197 pared with the twenty-eight articles of the Confession of Augsburg, drawn up by Melanchthon, or the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England. Confession of the Druses (The), llth cent. (1) The Unity of God. He manifested himself to man seven times, the last being in the person of Hakim ; (2) there are five superior ministers who have all manifested themselves to man the chief of them were Hamza and Christ ; (8) the transmigration of souls ; (4) Hakim shall by-and-bye reign on earth, and all its kingdoms shall be sub- ject to him; (5) the seven points are truth, mutual aid, renunciation of all other religions, belief in one Hakim (as God), contentment, submission, and se- paration from heretics. Confessions of the Reformed Churches. (1) The Helvetic Con- fessions, as that of Basel in 1530, and that of Bullinger, called Expositio Sim- plex, in 1566 ; (2) the Tetrapolitan Con- fession in 1531 ; (3) the Gallic Confession in 1559 ; (4) the Palatine, or Heidelberg, Confession in 1575; and (5) the Belgic Confession in 1559. See each of these in loco. See also ' Westminster Confession of Faith.' Confessor of the Household. One of the twelve royal chaplains, whose office it is to read prayers every morning to the family, to visit the sick, to prepare communicants, and give advice on points of religion to those who desire information. Conflrmatio Charta'rum, 25 Edw. L A.D. 1297." By which Magna Charta was directed to be allowed at the common law, all judgments contrary thereto were declared void, copies of the charter were directed to be read in all cathedral churches twice a year, and sentences of excommunication were de- nounced against all those who infringed the charter. Confi&TM (Treaty of), 1465. A treaty of peace after the battle of Montlhe'ry (q.v.). Confreres de la Congregation de Notre-Dame de Misericorde, 1223. A religious order instituted in Barcelona by Pierre de Nolasque, a Frenchman, for the redemption of slaves. Till 1308 it was chiefly supported by the laity. The members went barefoot. Confucianism. Called 'Yu,' the orthodox, or state, religious system of China, devised by Confucius. The other two systems are Taoism (Rationalism), and Fo or Buddhism. Confucius Is KZng-fu-ltu, Kiing the philosopher. His three chief books are (1) The Lun-yu or sayings ; (2) the Ta-kio or Great Lesson; ana (3) the Ch.ung-yung,oi doctrine of the mean. Cong6 d'elire (A), 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20, A.D. 1534. A licence sent to the chapter to elect one of the persona named by the crown to a vacant bishop- ric. If the chapter refuses to elect within twenty days, it incurs the penalty of preemunire. Pronounce cfoijay day-leer'. Congesta Mendve'dii. A collec- tion towards the history of Denmark by Eric VI. or VIIL (Mendvedius), 1274, 1286-1319. Congested Districts of Ireland. Those parts of Donegal and Kerry which are mere mountain or. bog lands. The population is so thick that, even if cabins and holdings were free, the people could not earn a living. Dillon says he ' would Include Leitrim, Galway. Roscommon, and western half of Cork also ' (April Is'JO). A line drawn down the map fifteen miles from the sea would about enclose this area. Congregation (The), 1559. A name assumed by the Protestants of Scotland in the regency of Marie de Guise. The leaders, called the 'Lords of the Congregation' (q.v.), pledged themselves to see the ' Solemn League and Covenant ' (q.v.) carried out. The Duke of Chatelherault abandoned the con- gregation [reform party]. In this predicament the Lords of the Congregation made still more impassioned appeals to Cecil. HowiTT, Hitt. of Eng., vol. 11. p. 406. Congregation de Propaganda Fide (The). A Board of high church dignitaries in the Catholic Church which consult on the propagation of the Catholic religion throughout the world. Congregation of France. Se* 'Genove'fains.' Congregation of Relics (The). A board of high Catholic dignitaries whose duty it is to enquire into the genuineness of supposed relics. Congregation of St. Maur (The^ 1621. Keformed Benedictines. Congregation of the Holy The congregation at Kom 198 CONGREGATION CONGRESS to which the direction of the tribunal of the Inquisition is subject. It was estab- lished in 1542 by Paul III., and consists of twelve cardinals, a commissary, several 1 theo!f>7. Consisted of a band of Protestants who met at Edinburgh. They were led by the Earls Argyll, Morton, and Glencairn. They covenanted to stand together in mutual defence of faithful ministers, gospel truths, and the holy sacraments. The Established Church was styled ' The Congregation of Satan. 1 The Book of Common Prayer of Edward VI. was ordered to be used in the paribb churches of Scot- land, Congregation of the Oratory (The), 1558. Founded by Philip de Neri. Confirmed by the pope in 1575. Estab- lished in France in 1G11 by Father de Berule. Introduced by Newman into England in 1847. Congregation of the Univer- sity of Oxford (The), 1854. Consists of the heads of colleges, professors, ex- aminers, and university officials, with all members of the Convocation who have resided 140 nights within a mile and a half of the university. Duties are, to deliberate and vote on statutes proposed by the Hebdomadal Board (q.v\ and to submit their deliberations to the House of Convocation (q.v.) to be accepted or rejected as the case mfey be. Congregation of the Visita- tion (The), 1610. Under the rule of St. Augustine, founded by the Baroness of Chantal at Anne'cy. Confirmed by Urban VHL in 1626. Congregations of Aids (i.e. ' de AuxilhV). Began 2 Jan., 1598. Polemical consultations or conferences between the Dominicans and the Jesuits. The fourth was held in 1601, opened in Jan. and in July. The last began 14 Sept., ir.ur>, and went on to 1 March, 1006. Paul V, in Aug. 1607, prohibited its renewal. Congregationalists or ' Inde- pendents,' 1580. Those dissenters who maintain the right of each separate con- gregation to choose its own minister and lay down laws for its own government. They are all trinitarians and ]>a l* Mercury (quoted In ' Note* and Queries,' 22 Jan., 18H9. p . Constantinople (Convention of), 1784. Between Catherine II. of Russia and the Porte, confirming to Russia the sovereignty of the Crimea. Constituent Assembly (The), 27 June, 1789. ' L'Assemble'e Constitu- ante.' The name assumed by the Na- tional Assembly (q.v.) after it was joined by the Duke of Orleans and forty-seven other members of the aristocracy, with a large number of the clergy. So called because the work they set themselves to perform was to get France a constitution. In 1848 the Legislative Assembly of France was again called L'Assemble'e Constituante, because it set itself to give France another constitution^ democratic republican one, with a four-years president and universal suffrage. It met 4 May, finished its labours 4 Nov., on 12 Nov. proclaimed the republican constitution, and gave place to the Legislative Assem- bly. In the first of these were three parties, the right, the left, and the cfntre. The right were the ministerial party, the left the republican party, the centre the moderate party, or trlmi Constitution (A). The cudgel car. ried by a Muscadin (q.v.). Constitution de la Re*publique (La). I. 26 Feb., 1848-14 Jan., 1852. The Second Republic of France. This constitu- tion was even more democratic than that provided by the Acte Gonstitutionnel (q.v.). Every Frenchman in France, who had attained the age of 21, was an elector, and everyone who was 25 years old was eligible to be a deputy in the National Assembly, which consisted of 900 mem- bers. There was only one assembly, the members of which were elected by uni- versal suffrage, the age of 21 being the one and only restriction. The motto ol this constitution was ' Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality.' II. 18 Feb., 1871. This was the fifteenth change since the reign of Louis CONSTITUTION CONSTITUTION ios 80 Sept., 1791. Represented by a presi- dent and National Assembly. The National Assembly nominally consists of TOO members, but as any deputy can represent more than one constituency, the number does not xceed 670. Constitution Francaise (La), 80 Sept., 1791. Decreed by the National and Constituent Assembly, and accepted by Louis XVI. It was monarchical and representative. The previous form of government was thenceforward called the 'Ancien Re'gime.' In 171)3 the Acte Constitutionnel (q.v.) introduced a purely democratic government, called the Constitution of '93 ' (q.v.). Constitution of '93 (The) The constitution given to France by the ' Acte Constitutionnel ' presented to the nation by the Convention 21 June, 1793, and based 011 the sovereignty of the people, and the indivisibility of the republic. On the death of Robespierre in 1794 the Thermi- dorians had the chief power, and set about abolishing the Constitution of '93, and on 24 June, 1795, they created an executive director, assisted by two councils. Constitution of the President (The), 14 Jan., 1852. See ' Constitution of the Second Empire.' Louis Napoleon was elected president of the French Republic 10 Dec., 1848; here-established universal suffrage 2 Dec., 1851 ; he was made presi. dent for ten years, by plebiscite, 20, 21 Dec. 1851 ; the Second Empire was established 7 Nor., 18J2; Louis Napoleon was elected emperor by plebiscite 21, 22 Nov.. 1852; and he assumed the title ot Napoleon III. Deo. 2, 1852. Constitution of the Second Empire (The). Much the same as that of the president, 14 Jan., 1852. It consisted of an emperor, a senate, and a legislative chamber. The senate consisted of 150 members chosen by the emperor, and each member had a stipend equal to 1,2002. a year. The deputies of the corps legislatif were elected for six years by universal suf- frage, and received a salary equal to 1002. a month during the time of session. In case of a dissolution, a new corps legis- latif was to be in sessions within six months. The number of deputies fluctu- ated with the population, each of the eighty-nine departments having one re- presentative for every 35,000 inhabitants. There was also a council of state com- posed of the emperor, all members of the imperial family, a president, yice-presi- dent, and about 150 councillors ; acting as a high court of appeal. In 1870 the emperor resigned the right of proposing laws, and made himself a ' constitutional emperor.' Constitution of the Second Republic (The), 13 Feb., 1871. M. Thiers being the first president and minister of War, with a stipend of 2,0002. a year. See ' Constitution de la Repub- lique,' IL (Thiers, pronounce Tear.) Constitution of Year III. (The}, 24 June, 179524 Dec., 1799. This form of government was adopted in France after that called ' The Constitu- tion of "93,' which after the reign of terror was impracticable. The legisla- tive power was vested in two houses, called the Council of Elders and the Council of 500. The former contained 250 members. The executive was en- trusted to five directors, called the Directory. All laws were to emanate from the 500, the elders rejected or ratified them, and the directors saw that they were carried out. Constitution of Year VIII., 24 Dec., 17992 Aug., 1802. It vested the power of government, in France, in 8 consuls, 60 senators, 100 tribunes called the tribunate, and 300 legislators called the corps Ugislatif. The 1st and 2nd consuls were to hold office for 10 years, the 8rd for only 5. The 1st consul was almost absolute. In 1802 the consular office was for life. In 1814 the conservative senate became the ' Chamber of Deputies.' In 1807 the tribunate was suppressed, and the corps legislatif was addressed by the Corneil d'Etat. In 1814 the corps legislatif was replaced by the Chamber of Deputies. During the 'Hundred Days' the Chamber of Deputies was called the ' Chamber of Representatives ;' In 1815 it was again called the T Chamber of Deputies ;' and in 1852 it resumed its name of the corps Ugitlatif. Constitution of Year X. (The\ 8 Aug., 180218 May, 1804. Bona- parte was made consul for life, and the entire executive power was vested in his hands. The act which established this constitution was the Senatus-consulte organique de la constitution (YearX). Constitution of Year XII. (The), 18 May, 1804 I June, 1814. Con- ferring on Napoleon I. the title of em- peror. The act which created this con- stitution was the Senatus-consulte or- ganiquo de V Empire Francaia <7of 204 CONSTITUTIONS CONTINENTAL Constitutions were the edicts of the Roman emperors. The first com- pilation of these edicts was by Theodosiua the " younger, from Constantino to A.D. 438 ; but the great compilation was the Imperial Constitutions of Justinian, 4J>. 5Ji'.. See 'Apostolical Constitutions. 1 Constitutions (The). . That is, the Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.). The pope advocated the side of the primate [is. Becket], and condemned ' the Constitutions.' 1'INNOCK, Annlytu of the Early Church, p. 82. Constitutions of Clarendon (The), 1164. Sixteen ordinances agreed to in the General Council assembled by Henry II. at his palace of Clarendon, Wilt- shire. The objects of these ordinances were to define the limits between civil and ecclesiastical jurisdictions, to abolish the abuses arising from the encroachments of the popes, and to limit the papal patron- age and jurisdiction in the realm. These enactments provide that the clergy shall be amenable to the king's courts : that no appeal shall in any case be carried from the king s court h to the pope; that no ditfnitiiry of Englmid shall quit the kingdom without the king's per- mission ; that no officer or tenant of the crown shall be excommunicated without the king's sanction; that presentations to all royal livings shall be with the king; that the revenues of vacant livings still accrue to the crown ; that all tinhops shall be made by the king's writ; and before consecration every nomine* shall pay homage and fealty to the crown. Constitutions of King Half (The). Regulations for pirates : (1) No one to wear a sword more than an ell long; (2) each pirate must be able to encounter twelve ordinary men ; (8) no boys or women to be made prisoners ; (4) no wounds to be bound till after the lapse of twenty hours, (Bartholinus, ' De Causis Con temp too a Dam's Mortis,' book ii. 9.) Constitutions of Otho (The), 1237. Passed by a council held in Lon- don by Otho, the papal legate, forbidding the clergy to keep concubines ' openly in their houses,' or to visit them ' openly, to the great scandal of religion.' The name constitutions forbade the clandes- tine marriages of priests, which were declared to be very common. Constitutional Agitation Act \The), 1792. A mere mask to mislead the loyalists of Ireland, by giving out that Irish agitation should be carried on by constitutional mean*. It la a plan that has proved eminently success- ful in preventing the Government from grappling with the beginning of sedition ... it is a game of masked sedition. Irish Sfditiont, 17TO-1880, p. 84. Constitutional Assembly of Rome (The), 80 March, 1848. A re- publican assembly of deputies established in Rome by the triumvirate Mazzini, Annellini, and Sum. Constitutional Charter (The), 4 June, 1814. Given by Louis XVIII. t* France. It established a representative government, composed of two houses, one of hereditary peers (a house of lords) and the other of elective deputies (a house of commons). The franchise he restricted to persons above 30 years of age who paid annually at least 121. of direct taxes. He thus disfranchised about three and a half millions of his subjects. Constitutional Society (The), 1769. A society founded by Home Tooke and Wilkes for supporting the Bill of Rights. In 1775 Lord North commented sharply on the conduct of this society, and Tooke was prosecuted for circulating letters of the society denouncing the skir- mish of Lexington (America) ' as a bloody murder on our own part of British sub- jects.' The society voted the sum of 1007. for the relief of the widows and children of those who fell at Lexington on the American side. C9nstitutionalists The), 1814, of Spain. The Exaltados or radicals were so called, because they wanted to restore the constitution given to Spain in 1812, but abolished by Ferdinand VIL in 1814. In 1890 Ferdinand swore adherence to the con- stitution, and for two years matters went on more smoothly ; but then civil war broke out afresh, Louis ran. Interfered, and for many years Spain, from one cause or another, was in almost cease- less broils. Consubstantialists(2Vu?). Those who maintained what was called the hoino-oiision, '.. that the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are all of the same na- ture. Aristotle says the stars are con- substantial or homo-ousian. So men are consubstantial or homo-ousian. Consulate (The), of France, from 10 Nov., 17U9-18 May, 1804. See ' Con- stitution of Year VIII.' Continental System (The). A pet system of Napoleon's to ruin England by ruining her trade. He prohibited an/ CONTINENTAL CONVENTION 205 nation over which he had control or in- fluence to trade with Great Britain ; he enjoined that every subject of the British kingdom who set foot on the continent should be accounted a prisoner of war, and all British merchandise be considered law- ful prize. The folly of boycotting England was this: as Great Britain was the best customer of these continental nations, they ruined their own commerce in seek- ing to ruin that of England. The first announcement of this system was made 9 Feb., IfiOl ; the ' Berlin decree ' was made 21 Nov., 1807. Austria acceded to the system 24 Nov., 1807 ; Sweden 17 Sept. 1809 ; the Roman States in Deo. Russia relaxed 31 Dec. ,1810. Strenuous efforts were made by France to enforce the system in 1812, but after the Moscow expedition in the autumn of that year the system was wholly abandoned. Continental Troops (The), 1775. A body of men maintained by the united colonies of North America, in the War of Independence, and placed under George Washington. The conti- nental troops must not be confounded with the provincial militia. Continual Council (The). Certain great prelates and lords, who combined together in the reign of Edward I. to control the king and overpower the par- liament. Edward II. tried to oust them by choosing his council from men of in- ferior rank, but the ' continual council ' then formed themselves into a standing committee of bishops, earls, and barons, for the government of the realm, and drew up certain 'articles of reform,' which transferred the power of the crown into the hands of the ' Lords Ordainers,' as the committee called themselves. Ed- ward II. resisted for a time, but was ultimately compelled to take some of the most powerful of the barons into his privy council. Contra-Remonstrants, or ' Anti- Remonstrants,' 1611. The Calvinists, or Gomarists(g r .v.), who opposed the Remon- strants or Arminian party. This party became more violent after the Synod of Dort, 1619. It is said that the Socinian bias of Voretiiu greatly weakened the Arminian party. Conventicle Acts (The). I. The First, 16 Car. II. c. 4 (10(54). By this act, very person found at any dissenting meet- ing, where more than five persons were present, was punishable by fine, or three mouths' imprisonment. For a third offence a person might be transported for seven years. In 1670 (22 Car. II. c. 1) this act was enlarged. Children above 16 years of age were to be fined 5s. each for attending such meetings for the first offence, and 10s. for every subsequent offence. The preacher was to be fined 20Z. for the first offence, and 40Z. for every subsequent one. The master of the house where the meeting was held was to be fined 20Z. for each offence. Repealed by the Toleration Act, 1 Will. & Mary, c. 18 (1689). II. The Second, 1670 (22 Car. II.). By which it was furthermore enacted, that all incumbents who had been admitted by the kirk-sessions and lay-elders during the interregnum in England must receive a presentation from the patron of the living, and be instituted afresh by the bishop of the diocese, under pain of de- privation. In consequence of this law 850 parishes were declared vacant. Convention Rationale (La), 10 Aug., 1792. Succeeded the ' Assemblee Legislative.' The first sessions held 21 Sept., when royalty in France was abolished, and France was declared a re- public. 17 Jan., 1793, they condemned Louis XVI. to death. 1 Feb., 1793, they declared war against England, Spain, and Holland. 6 Oct., 1793, they introduced the Revolutionary Calendar. 16 Oct., 1793, they condemned to death Mary Antoin- ette. 81 Oct., 1793, they condemned to death twenty-one of the Girondin depu ties. 5 April, 1794, they condemned to death Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and several members of the club of the Cor- deliers. 27 July, 1794, they outlawed the two Robespierres and their chief partisans. 81 May, 1795, the :nit>pressed the Revolutionary Tribunal. 22 July, 1795, they concluded peace with Spain. 26 Oct., 1795, they passed a decree of general amnesty, and declared its ses- sions terminated. They met in the Tuileries. Chief members were Brissot, Collot d'Herbois, Condorcet, Couthon, Danton, Gensonne*, Marat, Pethion, Robespierre, St. Just, Tallien, and Vergniaud. Convention Parliament (The). I. 1660. The first parliament after the restoration, consisting of both houses. It was not called together by order of the tovereign, but was merely convened by 206 CONVENTION CONVOCATION Monk. Passed an act restoring the an- cient general constitution of kings, lords, and commons, and was legalised by Charles II. The Convention Parliament was certainly the most bloodthirsty and infamous of all the parliaments in the annals of English history. Even John Milton, the immortal poet, was con- demned by it to death ; but the fame of his great genius saved him, and Eng- land was spared the scandal of so great a shame. First met 25 April, 16CO ; dis- solved 29 Dec., 1660. II. 22 Jan., 1689, dissolved 29 Jan., 1691, under William III, (prince of Orange). Conferring the crown on Wil- liam and Mary. See ' Parliament ' and ' Geneva Convention.' Convention of Cintra (The), 80 August, 1808. This was really the conven- tion signed at Torres Vedras, when Junot agreed to quit Portugal; but the despatch of Sir Hew Dalrymple, inclosing a copy of the treaty, was dated from Cintra, 18 miles from Torres Vedras. Sir Arthur Wellesley was so disgusted with the treaty that he requested to be recalled. The French ought to havo been made to disgorge all their spoil. The Russian fleet ought to have been givon up to England; and Junot, with hi* army, ought to have been forbidden to take any farther part In the war. Convention of Estates. The Scottish Parliament was so called be- tween the removal of a king from Scot- land and the Union. Convention is a word applied to a parliament not sum- moned oy the king. Sometimes spoken of as ' The Estates,' and sometimes as ' The Convention.' Convention of St. Cloud (The\ ft July, 1815. A military convention signed at St. Cloud by Davoust, Welling- ton, find Bliicher, to put an end to further hostilities. The next day the allies entered Paris for the 2nd time, and Louis XVIII. followed on the 8th. Convention of Sempach (The), 1398. The act of confederation between the Swiss and the Austrians. The two memorable battles of Morgarten and Semparh, won by the Swiss, had lowered the pride of Austria, *ho concluded peace with Switzerland for twenty years. Convention of the Irish Rule (The). According to their own circular, the object of thi& association was ' to promote the confederation of every body in America, and, if possible, in the whole world, to advance the welfare of a wretched, oppressed, plundered, and mis- governed people [the Irish], and to awaken the long-suspended conscience of a power- ful and brutal foe [the English].' Converters, or 'Propagators of the Faith,' 1680. Missionaries, or rather ambulating controversialists monks, Capuchins, and Recollets (q.v.) with others of meaner sort, paid for every convert they made to the Catholic faith. Fonelon says many were cordwainers. brokers, tailors, itinerant grinders, and little shopmen, who, without any study, abandoned their trade to convert the Huguenots; but they drew down upon the Converters universal contempt by their ignorance and fanaticism. Convertisseur. A title given to Polisson, the great converter of the French Huguenots in the reign of Louis XIV. In 1677 Louis devoted a secret fund for the conversion of these ' heretics,' the price paid per head was about .">.. (6 livres), and Polisson was the chief in- strument in distributing this fund. The French llvre = a franc. The litre tnurnnii was a little lew, but in each case 20 sous = 1 livre. The exact deficit of the Hire tournoit was : 61 such livres were equal to 80 francs. Convocation, 12th cent. An as- sembly of the archbishops, bishops, and canons, summoned by the king's writ for the purpose of assessing them in levies of taxes. Subsequently oth.-r church questions were discussed in these meetings, but the crown had the power of proroguing and dissolving them. In 1 ('(.:> the clergy gave up the power of taxing themselves, and Convocation lost its raison d'etre. Now, Convocation Con- sists of two houses; in the upper house Bit the prelates; in the lower house deans, archdeacons, canons, and proctors. Both are mere debating societies without one jot of authority. In the Convocation of York the same distinction exists, but the business has generally been con- ducted in one assembly (ItOO). Convocation. In England. A synod of clergymen dating from 8 Hen. VI. c. 1, A.D. 1429. Reconstituted by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, A.D. 1533, but greatly changed in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, A.D. 1600. The Convocation of Canterbury was then made to comprise all the bishops of the province, who compose the upper house. While the lower house i-on- sists of 22 deans, 58 itrc&ieaoOBf -J4 proctors of chapters, 44 proctors of th CONVULSIONIST3 CORINTHIANS 207 parochial clergy, and one precentor (of St. David's). The Convocation of York is of much smaller extent. Occasionally the two act together. See l House of Convocation.' In 1870 the Convocation of Canterbury ap- pointed the Committee of Revisers of the Autho- rised Version of the Bible. Convulsionists, 1632. L The con- vulsion epidemic broke out in whole nunneries about Bordeaux, especially in the convent des Ursulines of Loudun, an educational establishment. In 1686, the French refugees, driven from house and home in the infamous dragonnade expedi- tions, were affected by the same epidemic. See ' Convulsionnaires ' and ' Plagues,' Vc. II. 1882. An extreme democrat or radical, whose platform is convulsion, or plucking up the established order of all things by the roots. Convulsionnaires, 1780. Certain Jansenists of France who met in St. Medard's churchyard, in the suburbs of Paris, where was the tomb of the Abbs' Francois de Paris, who had died in 1727, where numberless miracles were alleged to have been done. These fanatics ' threw themselves into the most violent contortions of body; rolled about on the ground, imitated birds, beasts, and fishes; and when utterly exhausted went off in convulsions or a swoon.' Louis XV. ordered them to be imprisoned in 1738, but it was not possible to stamp out the fervour altogether. In the revival meet- ings in the last quarter of the 19th cent, similar exhibitions have been recorded in the daily papers. When the king commanded the cemetery gate* to be closed, a wit wrote over them : De par le roi, defense a. DIeu De faire miracle en ce lieu. Henceforth the king forbids God's graot To show His wonders in this place. Co-operative Stores. Retail stores for the sale of groceries, drapery- goods, shoes, and even butcher's meat and poultry, of the best quality at the lowest profitable price. The movement began at Rochdale in 1848. In London the Civil Service Co-operative Store does an enormous business, insomuch that an original 11. share is worth 200L (1890), and the capital of the stores is worth even millions sterling. The next largest is the Army and Navy Stores. Every customer must be ft member by the pay- ment of 20s., and all sales are strictly for ready money. A member may hold as many as 200 shares. Copenhagen (Peace of), 10 June, 1660. Between Denmark and Sweden, effected by the Swedish Government on the death of their king Carle X. By this treaty the district of Trondhjem and the island of Bornholm were restored to the Danes. See ' Treaty of Roskilde.' Trondhjem, pronounce Tron-yem, Copley Medal (The), 1709. Insti- tuted in the Royal Society of London by Sir Godfrey Copley for scientific dis- coveries. Copts, or Copti.' Egyptian Chris- tians of the Eutychian heresy. They continue the practice of circumcision. Their patriarch lives in Cairo, and is called the Patriarch of Alexandria and Jerusalem. Copyright. See 'Lord Mahon'i Act.' Coqueluche (The Great Plague of), 1580. Was so called in France ' parce que les malades a 1'agonie rendaient des sons enroue"s, comme le fait un coq.' A sort of catarrhe convulsif, or hooping-cough. Cordeliers. I. The French name for the strictest branch of the Franciscan friars, who wore a girdle of knotted cord . n. 1790. A republican club which held its sessions in the convent of the Cordeliers, Paris. It was opposed to the Jacobins (q.v.), and affected extreme poverty. It was this club which de- manded the abolition of royalty and the institution of a free republic. Closed by the Convention at the death of Danton in 1794. The chief members were the giant Danton ; the scarcely less notorious Camille Desmoulins, H6- bert, the editor of ' Pere Duchene,' and Marat, the bloodthirsty young surgeon. Camille Desmoullnfl was the editor of a popular journal called Le Vietut Cordelier. Corinthians. L Prize-fighters. Fal- staff calls himself ' a Corinthian .... ft lad of mettle ' (1 Hen. IV. act ii. 4). So called from the Isthmian games held by the Greeks on the Isthmus of Corinth every alternate spring. In these games boxing formed a prominent part, and St. Paul, in his first epistle to the Corin- thians (ix. 26), alludes to the racing and boxing so famous in Corinth, when ha gays, ' I, therefore, so ran, not as unoer- 208 CORK CORONA tainly ; BO fight I, not as one that beateth the air.' A Corinthian, a swell of the first water. Brave Tom, the champion, with an air Almofat Corinthian took the chair. CRIB, Memorial. II. In the days of the Regency, Corin- thians meant London bloods, or, more strictly speaking, members of the Pugi- listic Club, in Bond Street, London, of which both George the prince regent and his brother Frederick duke of York were distinguished members. The Prince Regent was the chief champion of the Bristoleans (Belcher, Cribb, and Moli- neux), the Duke of York was leader of the Hebrew school, of whom Mendoza was the principal. Thomas Cribb was actually attached to the household of the Prince of Wales, much to the annoyance of the general public. Cork, in Ireland, is the Irish corcah, a marsh. Cork-boys, 1762. A political Irish association, a Cork branch of the White- boys (q.v.). Their especial grievance was the payment of tithes. See 4 Irish Associations.' Corn Importation Bill (The\ 1846. When wheat is 48*. the duty shall fall by 1. with every shilling in price till it touches fi3s., whi -n the fired duty shall be 4s. This scale to last for three years, and to disappear on 1 Feb., 1849, leaving from that date only a normal rate of duty. All colonial wheat and flour to be admitted at once at a nominal rate. Corn -law Rhymer (The). Ebe- nezer Elliott (1781-1849); born near Rotherham, in Yorkshire. His Corn-law Rhymes were published in 1831. Corn Laws (The). Laws to regu- late the exportation nnd importation of corn date as far back as I860, which pro- hibited the exportation of corn except to Calais and-Gascony. In 1393 the right to export was granted. In 1486 the right to export was granted only when wheat did not exceed 6*. Sd. a quarter. From that time sundry laws were made, till 1828, when the sliding scale was 'per- fected.' By this law, if wheat was sell- ing at 62#. a quarter, a duty of 24s. Sd. a quarter was imposed on imported corn ; for rery shilling less than t>2. a quarter an extra shilling was added to the im- port duty ; but when corn exceeded that price, the import duty rapidly decreased, till the price of corn reached 73s. a quarter (famine price), when a minimum duty of a shilling was imposed on im ported corn. Cornage. A kind of tenure in grand sergeanty. The sen-ice in this tenure was the blowing of a horn to warn the subjects of the king when any invasion of the Scots was detected or apprehended (Latin, cornu, a horn). Corn-cracker State (The). The State of Kentucky. The inhabitant* are called Corn-crackers. Corneille du Boulevard (Le) Guilbert de Pixe're'court (1778-1844). Cornwallis (A). A sort of Guy Fawkes procession once held in the U.S., to commemorate the struggle for inde- pendence, typified by the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at York Town in 17S1 to the united American and French army. Prior to this he had rendered himself formidable to the Americans in the battle of Brandywine, by the reduction of Charleston, and his victories at Cam- den and Guilford. Now obsolete. Coro'na (The Roman). I. ' Corona Castrensia,' or 4 Corona Vallaris,' a gold crown, ornamented with palisades (valla), bestowed on the soldier who first sur- mounted the stockade, and forced his way into an enemy's camp. 2. Corona Civica (a civic crown), a chaplet of oak-leaves and acorns, be- stowed on the Roman soldier who saved the life of a comrade in battle and slew the antagonist. 8. Corona Classlca, or Corona Nava- fa, or Corona Bostrdta, a gold chaplet designed to imitate the beaks of ships (rostra), presented to the admiral who had destroyed an enemy's fleet (classic). 4. Corona Longa, a festoon of flowers hung round the neck on festive occasions, as on the feast of Bacchus, &c. 6. Corona Mural is (or mural crown) decorated with the towers and turrets of a battlement, and bestowed on the soldier who first scaled the walls of a besieged city. 7. Corona Natal it I a, a wreath of laurel, ivy, or parsley, hung over a door to announce the birth of a child. Li COEONA CORPORAL Holland a rosette of lace is the natal symbol. 8. Corona Obsidiondlis, a garland of grasses and wild flowers presented to a commander who came to the relief of a besieged army. The least in value, and highest in honour, of all crowns. 9. Corona Oleaglna, a wreath of olive- leaves, presented to all those by whose counsel or instrumentality a triumph was obtained, whether present or not in the action. 10. Corona Ov&lis, a chaplet of myrtle won by a general in an ovation. 11. Corona PactUis, or Plectilis, a wreath of natural flowers with their leaves and stalks, worn on festive occa- sions. 12. Corona Badidta, for gods and emperors. A band of gold set round with conical rays, tapering upwards. 13. Corona Sutttis, a wreath of roses without their stalks, worn by the Salii at their festivals. 14. Corona Triumphdlis, worn by a general in a triumph. Some were laurel leaves without their berries, some were gold leaves in imitation, and some were of gold, not worn, but presented as a Taluable gift. Corona never meant a royal crown. No. 13 ors not as imperator but divwt. ress was a white band tied was worn by emperors not as imperator but divwt. The royal head-dress was a white band tied behind the head in a bow with long ends. Asiatic toonarchs wore a blue and white fillet. Besides the corona mentioned above, there were Others not honorary, but only emblematical, such as the Corona Sacerdotdlis, worn during sacrifice, both by priests and people. Corona Funeb,ii, or SepulehrOit, wltii which the dead were crowned. Corona Comnridlis, the Corona Nvptialii. and the Corona KaMitia ove^ the door of the vestibule where a child was born. Coro'na Sacerdotalis. A crown of flowers worn by the clergy on certain high festivals, when they walked in pro- cession from the monastery to the parish church. Thus, in the fifteenth century, Roger de Walden went to St. Paul's to be enthroned bishop, crowned with a wreath of red roses. Polidore Vergil (sixteenth century) refers to the same custom at the feast of St. Paul. Stow speaks of ' the dean and chapter issuing from the west door with roses on their heads.' The tonsure was called the ' corona clerical Is,' meant to symbolise the crown of thorns. BKDE, Coronation of English Queens (The). The queen of William I. crowned two years .after the coronation oi the king ; the queen of Henry I. ditto ; the queen of John not crowned with him, but alone; the queen of Henry III. not crowned with him, but afterwards alone ; the queen of Edward III. crowned alone ; the queen of Henry IV. not crowned with him, but alone ; the queen of Henry V. ditto ; the queen of Henry VI. ditto ; the queen of Henry VII. crowned long after him; the queens of Henry VIII. some crowned and some not crowned; the queen of Charles I. never crowned ; the queen of Charles II. ditto ; the queen of George I. ditto ; the queen of George IV. never crowned. Coronation of the Ass (The). An important ceremony in the Festival of Vesta, to commemorate the following incident: Vesta was once brutally as- saulted by some Roman ruffians, who would have offered her indecent violence, but were alarmed by the sudden braying of an ass. See f Feast of the Ass.' Coroners, 1079, were originally stat officers with authority to determine felo- nies; but now they only take inquisitions of death. They are elected for life, and have authority to assemble juries. When a jury is assembled, it is charged ana sworn by the coroner to inquire, upon view of the dead body, how the party came by its death. Recently, the coronea has been empowered to order the attend- ance of a legally-qualified medical at- tendant to make a post-mortem examina- tion if required. The fee is one guinea for attendance without a post-mortem, and two guineas for attendance with post-mortem examination. Corporal D'Epre", 1814, A sobri- quet under which the imperialists toasted Napoleon while he was in Elba. D'Epre* is a pun on the word d&pre, parted [from us]. Corporal Violet, 1814. The sobri- quet under which Napoleon was toasted during his stay in Elba. The violet is and was the floral emblem of the French empire. Napoleon left for Elba in May, but it was generally thought by the im- perial party that he would return the spring following 'with the violets,' and so he did. The Government of Louis XVIII. never paid the money promised to the ' Emperor of Elba, ana therefore broke the contract which bound the exile to his abdication of the throne at France. 210 CORPORATION CORRUPT Corporation Act (The), 1661. This act, passed in the reign of Charles II., compelled everyone, before being admit- ted to any office in any municipal corpo- ration, to take the sacrament in the Established Church, to subscribe the de- claration abjuring the Solemn League and Covenant, and also that against the lawfulness of taking up arms against the ruling sovereign on any pretence what- soever. See 'Test Act' and 'Municipal Corporation Act.' Corporation and Test Act Re- peal Bill (The), 9 Geo. IV., May 1828. To repeal the ' Corporation ' and ' Test' Acts fe.v.). See ' Municipal Corporation, Ac.' Corporation Oath (The), 1661. Passed by the Pension Parliament (..) to this effect : ' I do declare and believe that it is not lawful upon any pretence whatever to take arms against the king; and I do abhor that traitorous position of Uking arms by his authority against his person, or against those commissioned by aim.* Corps Le*gisla1if (Le), of the Con- rolate, 24 Dec., 1799. Consisting of 800 deputies. The Tribunate acted as a lfislative grand jury, deciding what lw and bills were to be laid before the Corps LeVislatif. In 1807 the Conseil d'Etat took the place of the Tribunate. In 1814 this body was replaced by the 1 Chamber of Deputies.' During the 1 Hundred Days ' the ' Chamber of Depu- ties ' was called the Chamber of Repre- sentatives. In 1815 it was again called the ' Chamber of Deputies.' In 1852 it resumed the name of the Corps Ligis- latif. 1 renounce Cor lay-jit-lah'-tetf. Corpus Christ! College. I. Cam- bridge [C. C. C. C.], 1352. Founded by the guilds of Corpus Christi and of the Blessed Virgin Mary, assisted by Henry duke of Lancaster, and originally called 'Benet College.' The head is called 1 master.' II. Oxford, 1516. Pounded by For, bishop of Winchester. The head is called ' president.' Corpus Christi Festival (The). Called by the French Fete Dieu, 1264, in honour of the consecrated host or wafer. Ik is held on the Thursday following Trinity Sunday, and is the most splendid festival of the Catholic Church. Corpus Juris Canon'ici. A sum- mary of the legal responses and papal rescripts respecting the jurisdiction of the Church of Rome. It contains three parts : viz. (1) The Decretals, in 5 books; (2) The Text, in 5 books ; and (3) The Extrava- gantes Communes. The Decretals, com- piled by Raimond de Pennafort, by order of Gregory IX., contain the rescript of the popes Alexander III., Innocent IIL, and Gregory IX., and was published in 1234. The Text was compiled by order of Boniface VHL, and continued the De- cretals to the reign of the living pope. The Extravagantes Communes contained the ' Clementines,' or constitutions of Clement V. and the Extravagantes Johan- nis(XXIL). Corpus Juris Civilis. The sum- mary of Roman laws made in the reign of the Emperor Justinian. It consisted of four parts : (1) The Code, in 12 tables; (2) The Digest or Pandects, in 50 books; (8) The Institutes, a prlcis of the Digest to teach the rudiments of Roman law, in 4 books; and (4) the Novels, contain- ing 16 edicts and 168 new laws by Justi- nian himself. The first three published AJ>. 588, the last in 584. Correggio. The best pictures of Correggio were actually used in the royal stables in the North to keep the wind from the backs or tails of the horses. Well then, the Charles of M West And Oliver, I do protect. And eke the witnesses of resurrection (Pete* and John) Will stop a hole, keep oat the wind, And make a properer window-blind, Xhan great Correggio, used tor horse-pro*** PTTKB PnnuB. Lyric Oda. 1L Correggio of Sculptors (The). Goujon (1515-1572), slain in the massacra of St. Bartholomew. Corresponding Society (The), 1792. A society in London in strong sympathy with the French revolutionists, which corresponded with the National Convention of France. The object of the society was to establish a republic in Great Britain. Corrupt Practices Act (The\ 1854 (21, 22 Viet. c. 87). Relating to bribery, treating, and undue intiuence at the election of members of parliament CORRUPTIBLE S COTERIE Numerous additions and amendments of the original act have been made. The New Act came into force in 1883. Corruptibles (The), or 'Corrupt- ibilists, 537. A party of the Monophysitea of Alexandria, supported by Justinian, and led by Theodosius, a disciple of Severus. This party, favoured by the Empress Theodora, and the arms of the eunuch Narses, were called by their op- ponents Imperialists or Melchites. It was opposed to the ' Corruptibles ' (Win,ti*ti>, vol. vl. p. 850. (The word coteraux In this extract la an ana- chronism, aa John Cottereaux died in 1794.) Cottesmore Pack (The). Rutland- shire. One of the three packs of the old 1 Melton-Mowbray Hunt,' established in 1759. They were the Earl of Lonsdale's hounds. The other two packs were the Duke of Rutland's and Mr. Osbaldiston's, called the Quorn pack, of Leicester. The *Melton-Mowbray Hunt' is now a thin of the past, but the Duke of Rut- land's hounds, the Quorn, and the Cottes- more hounds are still celebrated (1890). Cottonian Library (The), 1753. In the British Museum, but purchased lor the use of the public in 1700. It was collected by Sir Robert Cotton (1570- 1634), and consisted originally of 958 volumes ; but part was burnt by a fire which broke out in Ashburnham House, and the present collection consists of 746 entire volumes and 98 defective ones. It ie rich in historical documents, from the Saxon times to the reign of James L It also contains numerous registers of English monasteries, the charters of Edgar and of Henry I. to Hyde Abbey, near Winchester, written in gold letters, and the MS. called the ' Durham Book,' which is a copy of the Latin Gospels, with an interlinear Saxon gloss, written before the year 800, and reputed to have belonged to the Venerable Bode. COUNCIL OB COUNCILS. A complete list of the 2,730 Church councils, wl th brief summary of the subjects of debate in each, would fill at least fifty pages of this Dictionary. Those here given require to be known by all students of Church history. See p. 218, col. 2. 'Councils (contradictor]/),' ana ' General Councils.' Council, PARLIAMENT. In the early times of parliaments we frequently meet with the word ' council,' especially in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. After the Leicester Parlia- ment (q.v.), a parliament was an assembly of the commons with the clergy and barous. A great council was an assembly to which the commons were not sum- moned. Strictly speaking, a parliament had the power of granting taxes, and a council was called merely to consult with the king on matters where taxes were not concerned. Council (A Civic). 'Concilium Civile,' in which a local bishop meets the clergy of his diocese. Council (A Great). 'Concilium Magnum,' an oecumenical council or great synod. The Council of Nice is called ' Magnum et Universale Concilium.' The whole college of bishops dispersed throughout Christendom ought to be convened to an oecumenical or general council. Council (The Palace). 'Concilium palatinum,' 859. These councils were held biennially in the royal palace of the Carlovingian kings, and were conventions of the bishops ' generates episcoporum conventus.' Council (A Plenary). 'Concilium Plenarium ' is one to which a metropoli- tan invites all the bishops under his jurisdiction. Council (A Provincial). * Concilium Provinciale.' Bunt et provlnclalla Concilia quos port Ilia unl- versalia necessario reclpere debemus, quia et in lllis mnlte ecclestasticis negotlis necessaria re- perlmus. BUPULDOl CONSTANTIKXSIS PRES- BYTER. De RecoiiciiMtione laptorum, p. 287. Council (Privy). See ' Privy Coun- cil.' Council for the Propagation of Faith and the Extirpation of Heretics ( The), 81 May, 1650. At Turin. Designed for the extirpation of the Vau- dois. If the council could not convert the Vaudois to the ' Catholic ' faith, they were to extirpate them as heretics. Council of Aix-la-Chapelle (The), Nov. 809. An ecclesiastical council, held at Aix-la-Chapelle, on the Procession of the Holy Ghost.' The 'Filioque' controversy, which long dis- turbed the church, was this: Did the COUNCIL COUNCILS tts Holy Ghost proceed from the Father only, or from the Father and the Son (filiogue)? The Greek Church main- tained the former, the Roman Church the latter dogma. The Council of Aix- la-Chapelle condemned the Greek dogma. Council Of Albi (The), in Lent 1255. That is the Council held at Albi, in France, for the final extirpation of the Albigensian heresy. Council of Ariminium (The). That is, Eimini, in Italy, A.D. 859 ; con- vened by the Emperors Constans and Constantius to decide upon the Arian controversy. This council condemned as heretics Arius, Urs- cius, Valens, and others. Councils of Aries (The). L A.D. 814, assembled by Constantino against the Donatists (q.v.). II. A.D. 353. Against Athanasius and others. Ill.-Vn. On discipline : viz. A.D. 442, 462, 524, 554, 818. VIII A.D. 1059. Against the Arch- bishop of Narbonne. IX. A.D. 1205. Kespecting church government. X. A.D. 1211. To excommunicate the Count of Toulouse, the great defender of the Albigenses. XI. A.D. 1284. Against heretics. XTT. A.D. 1260. Against the followers of Joachim, abbot of Flores, called ' The Prophet.' It was his 'Everlasting Gospel' which was condemned in the council. XIII. A.D. 1274. Eespecting church discipline. Council of Basel (The), 1481-1443. The Ninth General Council of the Western Church (eighteenth), convened for the reunion of the Eastern and Western Churches, and for general re- form. It declared the authority of a general council superior to that of the pope, and that appeals lay from the pope to a general council ; it abolished annates or first-fruits, and wrested from the pope the right of electing to vacant bishop- rics and benefices. Pope Eugenius was so disgusted that he set up an oppo- sition council ; whereupon the Council of Basel cited him to appear before them, but he refused, and declared the council dissolved. The council now deposed the pope, and elected Felix V. in his place, thus making a new schism. Eugeniua died in 1447, Felix resigned, and Nicho- las V. remained sole pope. Eighteenth if numbered from the Council of Nice. A.D., 325, when the Eastern and Western Churches were not divided. Council of Blood (The). So the council established in the Netherlands by the Duke of Alba was called by the Brabancons, fax consequence of the nn* merous executions which it ordained, The Counts of Egmont and of Horn were two of its victims. See under ' Conseil.' Councils of Carthage (The). I. A.D. 200. Respecting the rebaptism of heretics. II. A.D. 251. To confirm the election of Cornelius as pope ; to regulate the re- admission of apostates ; and to condemn the schism of Felicissimus. III. A.D. 252. Respecting the treatment of apostates. IV. A.D. 258. Eespecting the baptism of infants. V. A.D. 254. Respecting the deposition of Basilides and Martial, Spanish bishop* VI. A.D. 255. Respecting rebaptisro. VII. A.D. 256. To confirm the previous council. VIII. 812. To elect Csecilianua as bishop of Carthage. He was deposed by the Donatists. IX. A.D. 897. To abolish love feasts. It declared the Apocryphal writings of equal authority to other scriptures. See 1 LAODICEA.' X. A.D. 401-411. Respecting the Do- natists. XI. AJ>. 412. Against Celestius. XII. A.D. 416-418. Against Pelagiua and Celestius. Xm. A.D. 419-425. On the appeal of Apiarius to the pope. XIV. A.D. 484. A conference appointed by Hunneric between the Catholics and Arians. The Catholic bishops exiled. XV. AJ>. 525. On the liberties of mo- nasteries. XVI. A.D. 535. For the restitution of the rights and possessions of the church usurped by the Vandals. Council of Chalce'don (The), 451. The Fourth General Council, convened by the Emperor Marcian to condemn the heresy of Eutyches. This council confirmed the condemnation of the Nest oriana. 814 COUNCIL COUNCILS The Eutychton heresy merged the human nature of Christ in his divine nature. The Kettoriant divided the Godhead and manhood of Christ into two distinct persons and natures. The Firtt General Council was held at Nice 825 and condemned the Arian heresy. The Second General Council was held at Constantinople in B80 and condemned the Macedonian heresy. The third General Council was held at Ephesus, and condemned the Nestorian heresy. The fourth. condemned the Eutychian heresy. Arius denied the divinity of Christ. Macedonius denied his humanity. Nestorius maintained that Mary was not the mother of God but of Jesus, for God could not be born. And Eutyches maintained that the human nature was merged in the Divine and there lost. See ' General Council*. 1 Council of Cloveshoo (The). In Kent, AJ>. 747. Convened by Cuthbert, archbishop of Canterbury. It enacted that every bishop should visit his diocese at least once a year; that the people should be taught the Creed and the Lord's Prayer in English, and should have the nature of the sacraments explained to them in English. Other canons were passed for the correction of morals and discipline. Prayers tor the dead were enjoined In this council. Councils of Constance (The). I. A.D. 1048. To establish 'public and universal peace ' in Germany. IL A.D. 1094. To reprobate simony and incontinence, and to regulate the time of Easter and Whitsuntide. III. AJ>. 1153. For the divorce of Fre- derick Barborossa and Adelaide. IV. The Eighth General Council of the Western Church (seventeenth ), AJ>. 1414-1418. Against Wyclif, Huss, and Jerome of Prague. With impotent rage this council not only condemned the opinions of Wyclif, but ordered his bones to be exhumed and burnt. Thirteen years afterwards his bones were actually exhumed and burnt, and the ashes thrown into the river Swift. This council de- posed the three contemporary popes (Gregory X1L, Benedict XIIL, and John XXIII.), and elected Martin V. pope. Gregory died first, and no other was elected in his place : then John, and then Benedict, leaving Martin V. the sole pope, and thus closing the Great Schism which had lasted from 1378 to 1429. Seventeenth If reckoned from the Council of Nice, A.D. 825. when the Eastern and Western Churches were not divided. Councils of Constantinople (The). Those of 836, 839, and 860 were in favour of Arius. The Second General Council, May to July 881. Called by Theodosius. It condemned appeals to Rome, and deter- mined the limits of the Metropolitan provinces. It also condemned Mace- donius, who denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost. The councils of 882, 883, 894 were convened to pacify the schismatics, if possible. The council of 408 was in favour of Chrysostom, and that of 404 deposed him. The council of 448 condemned Euty- ches. See ' Eutychians.' The council of 450 condemned the dogmas of Nestorius and Eutyches. Set 1 Nestorians.' The council of 469 condemned the Simoniacs. The council of 492 confirmed the Coun- cil of Chalcedon. The council of 495 or 496 deposed Euphemius. The council of 516 condemned the Council of Chalcedon. The council of 518 reversed the con. demnations of Euphemius and Mace- donius, and restored their exiled par- tisane. The councils of 520, 531, 532 were in favour of Euphemius, who was ordained patriarch. The council of 686 condemned ' hereti- cal ' bishops. The councils of 543, 547, 551 condemned Origen. The Fifth General Council, 553, also condemned Origen. So did the council* of Constantinople of 588, c.-jr,. The council of 638 was in favour of the Monothelites (q.v.). Sixth General Council, 680-681, con- demned the Monothelites (q.v.). The councils of 712, 715, 730 were in condemnation of the ' Sixth General Council.' The councils of 786, 806, 809, 812, 814 condemned the Iconoclasts (q.v.). The council of 815 deposed Nicephorus. In this council the Iconoclasts had it all their own way. The councils of 821, 829 were called to reconcile the Catholics and Iconoclasts, but the Catholics refused to attend. The councils of 842, 847 condemned the Iconoclasts. The council of 858 deposed Photiua (the fans et origo of the separation of UM two churches). COUNCIL COUNCILS 215 The council of 861 restored Photius and deposed St. Ignatius. The council of 867 reversed the decision of the previous council 861, and deposed Photius again. Eighth General Council, 869-870, de- posed Photius and condemned the Icono- clasts. The council of 1054 anathematised tlw pope's legates. The councils of 1066, 1067 were against incestuous marriages. The council of 1110 condemned the Bogomiles or BogarmitaB (q.v.). The councils of 1140, 1143, 1144, 1147, 1157 condemned the works of Constantino Chrysomale. The council of 1170 was to effect the union of the Eastern and Western Churches. The councils of 1277, 1280 excommu- nicated the opponents of the union. The council of 1283 condemned Veccus. The councils of 1284, 1285 reversed the judgments of 1277, 1280, and con- demned those who sought the onion of the two churches. The council of 1841 condemned Bar- laam, the opponent of Palamas. The council of 1345 condemned the doctrine of Palamas, the opponent of Barlaam ; he was imprisoned 1346, but in 1849 was created patriarch of Constan- tinople, and in 1351 a synod in the same city confirmed his doctrine. The council of 1450 was also against the union. The councils of Constantinople give a lament- able picture of the Eastern Church, which seems to have had no fixed principle. Council of Eanham (The). In Oxfordshire, 1008, convened on the sub- ject of church government. It decreed that tithes of produce should be paid at Allhallows, but tithes of young at Whit- suntide. That Rome-shot should be paid at St. Peter's mass, soul-shot immediately the grave was opened, light-shot thrice a year, plough-alms a fortnight after Easter. That on Sunday no trade should be carried on. Council of Elders (The), or 'Con- eil des Anciens/ 23 Sept., 1795. One of the two Legislative Councils of Year III. in French history. The other coun- cil was ' Le Conseil des Cinq-cents,' which had the sole right of initiating laws ; the Elders had the power of veto or approval. The executive was placed in a board of five directors called the Directory. Le Conseil des Ancieiis consisted of 250 members. Councils of Ephesus (The). L A.D. 245. Condemned Noetus. II. A.D. 401. For the election of a bishop. in. AJ>. 481. The Third General Council, condemned Nestorius and Pela- gius. It laid down this canon, that every diocese and province shall exercise the right of ordaining unmolested and in- violable, and no bishop shall occupy an- other's diocese. Each province is ' Auto- cephalus,' and each diocese independent IV. A.D. 449. Called the Latrocinium, or ' Bobber Synod ' (q.v.). V. A.D. 476. Bespecting Basiliscus and the Council of Chalcedon. Council of Holy Martyrs (A). 1 Concilium MartyVum Sanctorum,' a place where many martyrs or holy men lie buried. Council of Laodicea (The), AJ>. 860. Excluded the apocryphal writings from the canon of Scripture; but the Council of Carthage, in 397, declared them to be ' of equal authority with the other scriptures.' Councils of the Later an (The). I. A.D. 649. To condemn the Monothe- lites (q.v.). EL Nov. 864. To depose and excom- municate the Bishop of Porto. III. Aug. 900. To restore the Bishop of Langres. rV. Jan. 993. To canonise Udalric, bishop of Augsburg. V. Feb. 1111. Bespecting investitures. Pope Pascal II. compelled by Kaiser Heinrich V. to concede the right. VI. March 1112. To revoke the con- cession of Pope Pascal II. VIL March 1116. To excommunicate Kaiser Heinrich V. VIII. A.D. 1123. The First General Council of the Western Church, held by Callixtus H. (Ninth). IX. A.D. 1139. The Second General Council of the Western Church, for the reunion of the Eastern and Western Churches (Tenth). X. A.D. 1179. The Third General Council of the Western 'Church. It placed in the cardinals the sole righl of electing the pope. Decided on th 116 COUNCIL COUNCILS crusade against the Albigensea. Anathe- matised the Albigenses as heretics, ajid forbade their interment in consecrated ground (Eleventh). XI. Nov. 1215. The Fourth General Cou n cil of the Western Church. Held by Innocent III. to deprive Raymond count of Toulouse of his dominions for pro- tecting the Albigenses. To anathematise the English barons for forcing Magna Charta on King John, and declaring the charter null and void. To vote for the extermination of heretics. And to de- clare transubstantiation to be a tenet of the ' Catholic ' Church. XII. July 1511 (The Fifth General Lateran). Tlie Tenth General Council of the Western Church. By Julius II. to declare void the Council of Pisa. XIII. March 1517. To abolish the Pragmatic Sanction. To confirm the concordat with Francois L To impose a tax of one-tenth for war with Turkey. And to issue a decree against the print- ing of ' dangerous books.' (This was in fact a part of the preceding council.) If reckoned from the Council of Mice, when the Eastern and Western Churches were not divided, these general councils would be num- bered thus: A.D. ll--':i (the Tenth), A.D. lift* (the Eleventh). A.D. 117a itho Twelfth), A.D. 1U15 (the Thirteenth), and A.D. 1611-1517 (the Nineteenth). Council ofLyons (T/te), 1245. The Fifth General Council of the Western Church (Fourteenth), held by Innocent IV., to depose the Kaiser Friederich IL A.D. 1274. The Sixth General Council of the Western Church (Fifteenth), held by Gregory X. Respecting the election of bishops, the reunion of the Eastern and Western Churches, the reduction of the Begging Friars, and the reformation of the clergy. The Council of 1529 was against Lutheranism. FourU-nith nnd Fiftrfnth, If reckoned from the Council of Nice, A.D. :<-'.'.. \\lu-ii the Eastern and Western Churches were not separated. Council of Mantua (The), 1586. Summoned by Paul III., who cited Henry VIII. to appear before it. Henry VIII. of course denied the authority of the council. Council of Nice, or 'Niceea.' Called The First General Council, A.D. 825. Assembled by Constantino against tin- Arians. ' The sentence runs thus : The Catholic and Apostolic Church uiu tit>es all who say that there was a time when the Son did not exist ; that He had no existence previous to his birth in Bethlehem ; that He was created out of nothing; or who say that He was formed from another substance or es- sence ; or who say. that He is capable of change.' It also condemned the Melesian schism (q.v.), and ' settled ' the Paschal or Easter Controversy (q.v .). The Nlcene Creed, as It now stands, was not published by this Council, but by the Council of Constantinople in :i-l. It was drafted at Nice, approved of by the Council of Milan in 846, by the Council of Sardica In 347, and the Council of Himini in SCO; but it was completed by the Council of Constantinople. nical Council was also held U The Mice A.D. 7*1. Council of Officers (The), 1647. Officers elected from each of the par- liamentary regiments to examine into and rectify the ' distempers ' of the par- liamentary army. To this upper council was added a lower one, consisting of two privates or officers not higher in rank than ensigns, and called the adjutants or ad- ju tutors or adjuvants, and afterwards Agitators, because, like the Roman tri- bunes, they were ceaseless disturbers of the peace. This lower council soon be- came the Aaron's rod of all the other national assemblies, and dominated even the parliament itself. Charles 1. called Cornet Joyce ' Mr. Agitator Joyce,' not by way of reproach, but as a usual method of address. Council of Peers (The), 24 Sept, 1640, or 'Great Council of Peers.' Con- vened at York by Charles I., who was unwilling to summon a parliament, be- cause his parliaments always insisted on redress of grievances before they would vote supplies. The object for which the Council of Peers was convened was to grant supplies in order to raise an army against the Scotch, who had en- camped on Duuse-law hill, and threatened to advance. Council Of Pisa (The), 1409. Con- voked by the cardinals of the rival popes (Gregory XIL and Benedict XIII.). The two popes were summoned to appear, but refused, and were declared contu- macious, schismatic, heretical, and per- jured. They were both deposed, and Alexander V. elected pope. The con- demned popes treated the decrees of the council with supreme contempt ; and all the council effected was to make three COUNCIL COUNCILS 21? popes instead of two, all of whom hurled curses, calumnies, and excommunications at each other. Declared void by the Fifth General Lateran Council. Council of Sar'dica (The), or 1 Sardia,' in Thrace, A.D. 847 ; to settle the controversy between the Arians and Athanasius. It condemned the Arians. Councils of Toulouse (The). L 13 Sept., 1056. Against simony, the marriage of ecclesiastics, and other abuses. II. 1068. Against simony. III. 1118. Against the Manichseans. IV. Nov. 1229. To establish the In- quisition. Council of Trent (The), or ' Tri- d-ntum,' 1545-1563. Assembled by Paul III., and continued under Julius III. and Pius IV., to fix what should be admitted as orthodox doctrine. Its main object was to condemn the Reformation. Council of Trouble (The), 1567. The organisation, under Margaret, go- vernor of the Netherlands, under which 18,000 persons in three years were put to death. Also called ' The Tribunal of Blood.' Council of Trullo (The), AJ>. 692. The Fifth and Sixth General Council, which confirmed the decree of the Council of Ephesus, that every bishop shall ordain unmolested in his own diocese, and no bishop shall interfere in another's diocese or province. In tbe language of the council, each province la Autocephalous, and each diocese independent and tree except to its own metropolitan. Council of War (A). A conference of officers on some matter in which the chief commander, pending war, wishes to state his own opinion upon some military or naval matter, and hear what his officers think about it. In the navy the council of war usually consists of flag officers, assisted sometimes by other officers of lower rank. In the army the commander-in-chief can call whom he thinks proper to confer with him. Council of the Earthquake (The), 1882. The council, held at Black- friars, and headed by Courtenay, arch- bishop of Canterbury, to condemn Wyclif and his teachings. The archbishop sub- mitted twenty-four allegations drawn 10 from Wyclif 's works ; but an earthquake in the midst of the proceedings terrified every prelate present, except the pri- mate, who declared that the earthquake was a good omen, signifying that God would expel from the church the ill humours of heresy. Council of the Senate (The). University of Cambridge, established in 1857 (19,20 Viet., c. 88), which must send a ' grace ' to the senate before that legis- lative body can move in any matter. The council consists of the chancellor and vice-chancellor, with eight other members of the senate chosen from the electoral roll (q.v.). The eight members hold office in the council for four years. The eight members of the council consist of 2 heads of colleges, 2 of the professors, and 4 othcc members. Council of the Troubles (The). So the Spaniards called the ' Council of Blood ' (q.v.). Council of the 6 (The). For the exclusion of the Stuart dynasty and the restoration of Great Britain to a re- public. Of this council four were be- headed, viz. Russell, Algernon Sidney, Monmouth, and Argyll; Essex died in the Tower by his own hand; and Howard of Escrick (a traitor and sad villain) perished hi great poverty, deserted and hated by all men. Hampden said ' that the coming Into England of King William was nothing else but the continuing ot the council of six.' Ho WITT. Hist, of England. Council of the 10 (The), 'I Dieci; 1310. A secret tribunal of the republic of Venice, armed with unlimited powers in watching over the safety of the state. It punished at discretion all secret ene- mies of the republic. At first it was prorogued annually, but in 1825 it was made perpetual, and continued as long as the Venetian republic endured. Council of the 13 (The), 1653. A council of state, with Cromwell at the head, appointed after the dissolution of the Long Parliament. The council se- lected a parliament of 156 members; 139 for England, 6 for Wales, 6 for Ireland, and 5 for Scotland. It was to last fifteen months, when they were to choose suc- cessors and disperse. It was called the ' Little Parliament Some proposed that the council of state should coubist of 10 members ; some of 70, after the modal 118 COUNCIL COUNCILS of the Jewish sanhedrim ; others of 18. In Imita- tion of Christ and hie apostles. The last sugges- tion was adopted. Dr. LINOAKD, Ihtt. of Kng., Council of the 16 (The), * Conseil des Seize,' 1585. A committee of sixteen members of the Catholic League of Prance to prevent the crown descending to Henri of Navarre, a Protestant, on the death of the reigning king, Henri III., who was childless. The plot was to pro- claim the old Cardinal de Bourbon king. This, however, was a mere bait, for if they had succeeded, they would have given the crown to Charles de Lorraine, duo de Mayenne. On th death of Henri III. In 15*0 the old cardi- nal was actually proclaimed Charles X., but Henri of Navarre, by his victories of Arques and Ivry, secured the crown to himself, and in the Interim the old cardinal died. Council of the 38 (The), 1649. The government of England was vested in a council of thirty-eight members, with Cromwell at the head, after the execution of Charles L Council of the 40 (The.) See 1 Forty.' In 1663 Cromwell Intended to dissolve the Long Parliament, and aubtititute a ' Council of Forty,' with himself at the head. But after dismissing th parliament he appointed instead a 'Council of Twelve,' with himBelf at the head (making IS), in imitation of Christ and his twelve apostle*. Council of the 100 (The). The great legislative and executive council of ancient Carthage, which concentrated in itself all the real power of the state. The two elective magistrates called ' Suffetes ' were amenable to the council of the self- elected hundred, who held office for life, and so was the senate, which con- sisted of 800. Similarly in Venice the doge and senate were amenable to the Council of Ten. Council of the 400 (T;*),B.O. 594. Instituted by Solon of Athena. Se 'Government of the 400.' Council of the 50O (The), t In Greek history. BovAij TM? -VTa*o.), the Council of Aries in 858, and the Council of Milan in 354, declared Arianism to be the ortho- dox faith. Eusebius, bishop of N icpmedia, sided with Arius. When Julius, in 836, succeeded Mark, he called a council at Sardica, but it was so divided on the subject that each 857. SIUMIUM condemned the dogma of Homoioufion (q.v.); but the Coun- cil of Ancy'ra and that of Constanti- nople confirmed it 860. LAODICEA excluded the Apocrypha from the canon of scripture ; but in 897 the Council of Carthage declared it to be equal in every respect to all other scripture. 882. CONSTANTINOPLE confirmed the Council of Calcium ; but in 516 another Council of Constantinople reversed the previous decision. 403. CONSTANTINOPLE was in favour of Chrysostom; but that of 404 de- posed him. 492. CONSTANTINOPLE confirmed the Council of Chalcedon ; but in 516 another Council of Constantinople condemned it. 495. CONSTANTINOPLE deposed Euphe. mius ; but that of 518 reversed the decree, and restored him. 638. CONSTANTINOPLE confirmed the doctrine of the Monothelites (4 syl.), as the true faith ; but in 680 another Council of Constantinople con- demned it as heresy. Three other councils condemned that of 680. The Lateran Council of 648 also condemned it. COUNCILLORS COUNTRY *19 712. CONSTANTINOPLE condemned the Sixth General Council. 780. CONSTANTINOPLE approved of Icono- clasm ; but in 814 condemned it. In 815 approved of it ; but in 842, 869, 870 condemned it. In 787 it was condemned by the council held at Nice. TM. CONSTANTINOPLE condemned the worship of images. In 766 the Council of Jerusalem favoured images, so did the Council of Nice in 787. In 829 the Council of Con- stantinople again condemned them, but in 842 another Council of Con- stantinople reversed the judgment of the previous one. 862. CONSTANTINOPLE deposed Photius ; 861 it restored him and deposed Ignatius; in 867 it reversed the judgment of 861. 1112. LATERAN revoked the 5th Lateran of the previous year. 1284,1285. CONSTANTINOPLE reversed the judgments of 1277, 1280. 1841. CONSTANTINOPLE condemned Pala- mas; but in 1845 another council reversed the judgment. 1611. IV. LATERAN declared the Acts of the Council of Pisa null and void. N.B. A complete list of all the Contradictory Councils would require several pages of this NOTB- BOOK. Councillors (The). Since the Muni- cipal Corporations Act of 1885, every burgess is qualified to be elected who was of full age on the last day of August pre- ceding the election, provided (1) he haa occupied premises within the borough continuously for three preceding years, and has for that time resided within seven miles of the borough ; (2) provided also he has been rated to the poor-rate, and has paid both poor-rates and borough- rates. In the council is vested the entire deliberative and administrative functions of the corporation. They appoint the town- clerk (q.v.), the treasurer (q.v.), the mayor (q.v.), and aldermen, all from their own body. They control the police, the watch, and the lighting ; make bye-laws, impose fines for nuisances, and are respon- sible for the government of the borough. They control the burgess fund, and ap- point the salaries of police magistrates. Counter-Remonstrance (The), 1611. The counterblast put forward by Frans Gomar of Bruges against tho Remonstrance (q.v.) of the Arminians, presented to the States of Holland in 1610, and dogmatically laying down the dogmas of absolute predestination and reprobation. Counter-Remonstrants. Ultra- Calvinists or Gomarists who put forward the Counter-Remonstrance (q.v.). The States tried to reconcile the Remonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants in 1614, but wholly without effect, and so violent did the contest grow that the Remonstrants had to be protected by a military guard. In 1619 the Synod of Dort was convened, and the Arminians were excluded from pleading their cause. Since then the Remonstrants have become more tem- perate and less Calvinistic. Countess of Huntingdon's Connexion (The), 1770. A sect of Calvinistic Methodists founded by Selina countess of Huntingdon, widow of Theo- philus earl of Huntingdon. They use the English Prayer-book. Counties Corporate. Twelve cities and five towns in England with territories annexed, governed by their own sheriffs, who are quite independent of the county sheriffs The twelve cities are Bristol, Canter bury, Chester, Coventry, Exeter, Glou cester, Lichfield, Lincoln, London, Noi- wich, Worcester, and York. The five towns are Kingston-upon-Hull, Ne wcastle-upon-Tyne, N ottingham, Poole and Southampton. In 1889 London was erected into a county of itself. There are some In Ireland. Country (The), 1620. The anti-Court party. The terms ' Court and Country ' to express the royalists and anti-royalists first arose in the parliament assembled 80 Jan., 1620, by James I. In 1678 the ' Country ' was the opposi- tion party, bent on overturning the go- vernment of Lord Danby, and on the exclu- sion of the Duke of York from the succes- sion. After the death of Charles II., the Dukes of Buckingham and Shaftesbury (who were in the ' Cabal ') were its leadera. In 1692 they were often called the ' Grumbletonians,' and were opposed to what was called the ' Patriot party.' They were the 'outs' in Walpole's ministry. The ' ins ' or ' let alones ' were the Patriot party, called formerly the * Court party ' 220 COUNTRY COUP In the latter part of the reign of George L, and in the reign of George II., the Court party meant the Whigs, and the Country party the Tories. In the early part of George L's reign the Whigs, or Court party, were called the Hano- verians. Country Pastor (A). The pen- name of Archbishop Whately (1787- 1803). Country of the Three Moun- tains (The), and of four rivers, Hun- gary. The mountains are the TiCtra, Fa"tra, and Mittra. The rivers are the Danube, the Theiss, the Drave, and the Save. The last three are tributaries of the Danube, which empties itself in the Black Sea. County Councils, 1889. 1. They have charge of the public buildings, such as the shire-hall, the police-courts, the bridges, the lunatic asylums, &c. in the county. 2. They appoint the public analyst, the inspector of weights and measures, the county surveyor, the county treasurer, and the county coroner. 8. They have to keep up the highways (i.e. the disturnpiked roads). 4. They carry out the regulations connected with the Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act, the compensation to those who have to destroy their infected animals, and the restrictions to be placed on the importation of cattle. 6. They make regulations, nt la pendant les troubles de Pologne ' (Quitard, Diction- naire des Proverbes Franyais, p. 273). Je donne sept mille llvres .... an baron da Knlran, icondition qu'll RO rondra, tousloslundm et vendredls . . . . an Palais Royal. SOUR larbre de Cracovie, et one tt 11 lira desnouv.'. pot-ea 4 cette multitude de faux politiques et de Trail desceuvres, qui gobent tout ce qu'on leur dit. Le Livre det Quatre Coultur*, p. 103. Craft-gilds. Clubs of tradesmen in contradistinction to merchant-gilds. These gilds were all-powerful with ap- prentices, who were required to carry their work to the craft-box to be inspected by the committee of masters, bad work being punished by fines. Any work- man who proved refractory might be expelled, in which case he was not allowed to exercise any trade within the limits of the gild. Our ' Livery Companies ' are relics of the craft-gilds. Edward HI. was a member of the Armourer*' craft gild. Craftsman (The), 1724. A very celebrated journal planned and esta- blished in the reign of George I. by ' the Patriots,' in opposition to the ministry of Walpole. Bolingbroke and Pulteney were the chief organisers of this paper. Crane's Charity. For the relief of sick scholars. To pay nurses, medicine, medical attendance, and give money grants to sick scholars in the University of Cambridge, or one of the following grammar-schools, that of Wisbeach, Cam- bridge, Lynn, and Ipswich. The pro- ceeds of the gift received in order by the five aforestated institutions. Founded by John Crane in 1654. Cranmer's Bible, 1589. Thisww Corerdale's Bible (q.v.), examined and CRANMER CREED 225 corrected by Archbishop Cranmer, who also wrote the preface. It was printed by Grafton in 1540, and every parish was obliged by royal proclamation to have a copy in the parish church under a penalty of 40s. a month. See ' Bibles.' Cranmer's Catechism was not composed by Cranmer, but only adopted by him. It was originally written in German for the youth of Niirnburg ; was translated into Latin by Justus Jonas, the friend of Luther; was brought to England in 1548, and translated by Row- land Taylor, one of Cranmer's chaplains. It insists on Three Sacraments baptism, absolution, and the eucharist and states that those who have heathen parents and die without baptism are 'damned eternally.' Our Church Catechism is quite another thing, probably the work of Nowell or else of Poiiiet. It was not originally written In question and answer. It contained a third sacrament, called the ' Sacrament of Reconciliation." Crannoges (2 syl.), or 'Crannogs.' Fortified islands in the Irish or Scotch lakes, in common use as dwelling-places among the ancient Celtic inhabitants. Herodotos (v. 16) speaks of the lake- dwellings of Lake Prasias. A crannoge was generally approached by a boat. In the Irish annals frequent mention ia made of these lake-dwellings between the 9th and 17th cent. That at Lough Lynch, in Antrim, was the birthplace of Colkitto ; and that of Boughan Lake was the last retreat of Sir Phelim O'Neil in 1641. In 1858-4 similar dwellings were found in Lake Zurich (Switzerland), in Lake Con- stance, and at Morges, on the Lake of Geneva; and since 1857 lake dwellings have been discovered in Savoy, Hanover, Denmark, Borneo, New Guinea, Burmah, and Siam. Craven Fund. For researches in the languages, literature, history, archaeology, and arts of ancient Greece and Rome, or for the comparative philology of the Indo- European languages. Value 401. a year. Left to the University of Cambridge by John lord Craven, and founded in 1886. Craven Scholarships. For classics. I. Two for undergraduates in the University of Cambridge. Present value 50Z. a year, tenable for seven years. Founded by John lord Craven. See 1 Regius Prof, of Greek.' In 1861 new rules were made for these scholar- ships. IE. Six in the University of Oxford ef the value of 80Z., and tenable for three years. Founded by Lord Craven in 1647. Craven Studentship. Philology. Value 200Z. for one year, but the holder eligible for re-election. The funds for this studentship were left by John lord Craven, but it was not founded till 1886. Cambridge University. Subjects : Languages, literature, history, arch ology, and arts of ancient Greece and Rome, or else the com >arative philology of the Indo- European languages. Crazy Jane. Joanna la Loca, daughter and heiress of Isabella of Spain. She was born to vast dominions, but was imbecile, and spent her time in watching the coffin of her husband Philip, who she believed would come to life again (1479-1555). Crazy Poet (The), Nathaniel Lee, the dramatic poet, who was confined four years in Bedlam (1657-1690). Cream-coloured Parasite (The\ 1770. Bradshaw, one of Bute's agents with the king (George III.). Credenza di Sant* Ambrogio, 1198. The House of Commons in the Milanese republic. 8. Ambrogio, i.e. St. Ambrose, patron saint of Milan. Credit Foncier, 1852. A French method of borrowing money on real pro- perty. Its peculiarity is that the repay- ment of the loan is by an annuity ter- minable at a certain date the date and annuity being so calculated that when the last payment is made, the loan and interest are both extinguished. In England, loans advanced from the Queen Anne's bounty are of a similar character. A clergyman borrows a sum of money on the se curity of his ' living,' and either he or his succes- sor pays annually a sum of money equal to the in. terest and part of the principal, so that in twenty years both are extinguished. Creed of Pope Pius IV. (The). In Latin, 'Professio Fidel Tridentlna,' A.D. 1564 : (1) the seven sacraments ; (9) the Trent doctrine of justification and ori- ginal sin ; (3) the propitiatory sacrifice of the mass ; (4) transubstantiation ; (5) com- munion in one kind only ; (6) purgatory ; (7) invocation of saints ; (8) veneration of relics ; (9) image worship ; (10) the Ro- man Church is th mother of all Christian 226 CREMERA CROMNYO-MANTIA churches ; (11) obedience to the pope is obligatory ; (12) the decrees of all synods, Trent included, must be accepted. This oath is to be taken by all priests and all members of a monastic order. ' Hanc veram catholicam Fidem, extra quam nemo salvns esse potest, voveo, spondeo, et juro.' See ' Confession ' and ' Symbol.' Crem'era (The). A river which flows into the Tiber below Veil. It was here that the Fabian clan marked out their place of abode when they quitted Rome. Creole State (The). Louisiana. The original settlers were French and Spanish. Crescent and the Cross (The). Mahometanism and Christianity. The Saracenic symbol is a crescent; the Christian symbol is the cross. The battle of Tours was to decide whether or not the Cross was to sink under the Crescent. Chroniquet de St. Denyt, book v. 98. Crescent as a Turkish Symbol (The). The Sultan Othman (1259-1326), founder of the Othman or Ottoman dynasty, saw in a vision a crescent moon which went on increasing till it reached from furthest east to furthest west. This led him to adopt the symbol which had been in use by the Janissaries at least half a century previously, and he took for his motto 'Donee totum compleat orbem.' Philip, father of Alexander, meeting with great difficulties in the siege of Byzantium, sot workmen to undermine the walls; but a crescent moon discovered the design, which misourrioil. Conse- quently, the Bysantes erected a statue to l>rum, and tho crescent became the symbol of the state. This legend reminds us of the Thistle of Scotland. Crespi (Treaty of\ 17 Sept., 1544. Between Karl V. and Francois I., bind- ing the two sovereigns to unite for the defence of Christendom against the Turks, and to unite their families by the marriage of the second son of Francois with a daughter of Karl. Henry VIII. was allied with Karl in an inva- sion of France, but while Henry was besieging Boulogne Francois broke up the alliance by a separate treaty. Crests of the Kings of Eng- land (The). Richard I., a lion, assumed in the cru- sade. The same was borne by Edward 10., Henry VIL, Edward VI., James I., and has since been recognised as the crest of the royal family of England. Edward III. sometimes bore a white raven crowned. Alexander the Great assumed a ram'tliead undej pretonce of being sprung from Jupiter Ammon. Julius Caesar adorned his helmet with a star to denote his descent from Venus. Crime'an War (The), 1853-1856. In 1852 Napoleon HE. demanded thai the protectorate of the Holy Places in Turkey should be restored to the Latin Church, according to the treaty of 1740, called ' The Charter of the Latins.' The Greek Church, supported by Russia, had gradually ousted the Latin Church ; and Turkey, wholly indifferent to the religious question, but fearing to offend either France or Russia, swayed backwards and forwards according to the pressure made to bear upon her. Threatened by Russia, the sultan at last declared war in Oct. Ib58, and, being supported by England and France, hostilities were carried on till 1855, when Russia sued for peace, and a treaty of peace was signed by all the belligerents 80 March, 1856. "The secret object of Napoleon TTT, was to divert the attention of the French from home politics. Criminal Law Amendment Act (The), 1871. Provides 'that no person shall be liable to punishment for doing any act on the ground that it tends to cripple or restrain the free course of trade.' Crimson and "White. In the Valois-Angoulome dynasty, the Catholic soldiers wore crimson jackets and scarfs ; but the soldiers of the Protestant faction wore white jackets and scarfs. The Swiss guard wore a grey livery. Crofters. Descendants of the High- land clansmen dwelling in the Western Isles, and the counties of Ross, Argyll, Sutherland, Inverness, and the islands of Orkney and Shetland. They occupy small farms or crofts. In 1745 the chiefs claimed the ownership of the lands, and during the present century have made large clearances for sheep-walks. Crofters' Act (The\lS8Q. Provide* (1) security of tenure for the crofters; (2) fixed reasonable rents ; (8) compen- sation for improvements; (4) enlarge- ment of holdings; and (5) bequest of holdings. By this Act a crofter ts a yearly tenant of a hold ing not rented at more than 30!. a year. Cromnyo-mantia. A kind of divination with onions laid r.n the altai CROMWELL CROSS 227 umeiits in bringing their respective i to the block, and both after the death on Christmas Eve. See Burton, ' Ana- tomy of Melancholy,' vol. ii. p. 841. Cromwell G-randison. So La- fayette was called by Mirabeau. The Grandison referred to was Sir Charles Grandison, the hero of a novel by Samuel Richardson, so faultless a gentleman that Sir W. Scott wrote of him as ' the fault- less monster that the world ne'er saw.' Lafayette was as dogmatic and dictatorial as Cromwell, and assumed all the French uavity and finesse of a Sir Charles. Cromwell of France (The). Francois Maximilien Joseph Isidore Robespierre (1759-1794). Both were main instruments kings! of their king rose to supreme power ; but in other respects there was very little resemblance between them. Tallien was one of the first to denounce him [Robespierre] from the tribunal ; and the whole assembly shouted, ' Down with the tyrant I Down with the Cromwell I'PniNCB, Parallel Ilittory, vol. 111. p. 98. Cromwell of the Jews (The). Judas Maccabeeus, died B.C. 160. Cromwell's Mad Chaplain. Hugh Peters (1599-1660). His favourite text was Psalm cxlix. 6-9, ' To bind their kings with chains, and their nobles with fetters of iron.' Cromwell's Trench. A woody dell about half-a-mile from Lathom, in Lancashire. So called because the par- liamentary army made their camp there when they besieged the Countess of Derby in her castle. 'Cromwell's Stones' are two circular holes In a large stone which evidently once contained nodules of iron. It is said that the parliamentary besiegers used these holes as moulds for casting balls during the siege. Cromwellians. The partisans of Oliver Cromwell (1599, 1653-1658). Cronbane Halfpenny, 1789. A token of the Associated Irish Mine Com- pany, payable at Cronbane Lodge, Wick- low. It had on one side the head of a mitred bishop (perhaps meant for St. Patrick), with the legend CRONBANE HALFPENNY, Croppies (The). So the Irish in- surgents were called in derision, when, in 1796-97, soldiers and yeomanry auarched over the country to put down the various societies which kept the island in continual terror. They were so called because of their short-cut hair. In 1798 Ireland was in revolt. Some 15,000 * rebels' mustered on Vinegar Hill, near Enniscorthy; the camp was stormed by English troops under General Lake, and the revolt stamped out. See 'Irish Associations.' Croppers, 1812. The tag-rag of 1 General Lud,' who went about destroy- ing the new frames for the finish of woollen goods. These Croppers were the men hitherto employed to finish the woollen goods; and the new frame*, which did the work better, faster, and cheaper, threw them out of employ. The chief ringleader was a man named Mellor. These riots broke out from time to time for four -or five years. Croquants (Les). Peasants of Guyenne, who revolted in the reign of Henri IV. and in that of his son Louis Xin. They were reduced to submission in 1595, and again in 1636, by the Duo d'Epernon. It is said they were BO called from the town Crocq (Creiue). The word is used as a verb : 'Lea gens de guerre qui de toutes parts croquaient la peuple.' BOBDIEK and CiXAiiTON, Ilistvire 4t France, voL ii. p. 107, coL 2. Cross. Agnus Dei 9. Altar cross 5. Austral cross 18. Cardinal's cross 18. Constantino's cross 10. Croix de Bourgogne, 10. Cross crosslet 6. Cross patonee 6. Cross pattee 8. Cross pendant 5. Cross potent 4. Cross of the Passion 12. Cross of the Resurrec- tion 9. Cross of Victory 9. Crux decussata 10. Crux immissa 12. Egyptian cross U. 1'itchee 17. Kleury cross 8. Greek czosa 1. Holy Rood M. Lambeaux 15. Latin cross 12. Maltese cross 7. Marking cross 11. Moline cross 2. Patriarch's cross Ut Pectoral cross 4. Pope's cross 14. Reliquary cross 10. St. Andrew's cross 10. St. Anthony's cross 1L St. George's cross 1. St. Patrick's cross 10. Saltire 10. Southern cross UU Spire cross 8. Tau cross 11. Teutonic cross 7. Triumphant cross IX (1) J. Greek cross. The basis of all others. Two straight lines bisecting each other at right angles. St. George's cross, red on white. (2) JC) Cross inoline. A Greek cross ^ with the ends turned round both ways. (3) t-b Cross fieury. A Greek cross with & fleur-de-lis on each end. 128 CROSS CROSS (4)|Z| ^^ Cross potent. A Greek cross with each end crutched. The Pectoral cross. Cross patonie. A Greek cross with three points at each ex- tremity. The cross pendant or Altar cross. (6)4!* Cross crosslet. A Greek cross with a cross at each extremity. (7) Jk Maltese cross. A Greek cross ^P narrowing towards the centre, with two points at each ex- tremity. The Teutonic knights wore a black Maltese cross. (8) & Cross pattee. A Maltese cross without the points at the ex- tremities. The Spire cross. (9) A Agnus Dei. A Spire cross on 1 the top of a blunt spear. The cross of the Resurrection. The cross of Victory. (10) X St. Andrew's. The capital let- tor X. White on blue. St. Patrick's cross, red on white. Crux decussata. The Re- lit] nary cross. In heraldry called a Saltire. Croix de Bourgogne. (11) T Tau cross. A Greek letter T. St. Anthony's cross. An Egyp* tian cross. The Marking cross, or Crux Ansdta. (12) -l Latin cross. A Greek cross with I the stem lengthened. Crux irn m issa. Cross of the Passion. The Triumjihnl cross. When placed on the chancel screen and made large, it is called the Rood or the Holy Rood. (18) __ Cardinal's cross, carried before a cardinal. A double Greek cross. A Lorraine cross. The Patriarch's cross in the Greek Church. (14) .A. Pope's cross, carried before the pope. A triple Greek cross. (15) * The Lambcaux. A Maltese cross on a Latin stem, set on * lambel with three pendants. (16) Constantino's cross, jj? Across * with a Greek P [RJ = Chr, .. Chr[istosl. (17) f A cross crosslet with the lower stem pointed, technically called (18) The Austral or Southern cross. A constellation con- : -. sisting of four bright stars disposed in a cruciform fashion, the upper and lower stars point- ing to the south pole. E : * JLJ Cross (The sign of the}. This ie made by carrying the right hand to the forehead, the stomach, the 9 left shoulder, and the right shoulder, thus forming the j four points of a Latin cross. It is said that this was a secret sign practised by Christians for mutual recognition, and that it maybe traced back to the 2nd cent. Cross of Christ (The). The Em- press Helena, mother of Constantine, is supposed to have found the cross hidden in a cave, near the Temple of Venus, at Jerusalem. We are told that she cut it up into three unequal pieces, one of which she enshrined in a silver casket, and gave it to Macarius, patriarch of Jerusalem ; another part she sent to Constantinople, and the rest she sent to Rome, where it was deposited in the church of the Holy Cross. This part is now enclosed in one of the four pillars which support the dome of St. Peter's Church. The part sent to Constantinople was given by Baldwin IL (king of Jerusalem) to St. Louis PX.] of France, and it is kept in Notre-Dame de Paris. The part sent to Jerusalem was, in 636, subdivided into nineteen pieces, four of which were kept at Jerusalem, and the rest were sent, three to Antioch, three to Constantinople, two to Cyprus, two to Georgia, and one to each of the five following places: Alexandria, Ascalon, Crete, Damascus, and Edessa. See ' Crucifixion,' Relics of the. Macarius was the person who suggested to Helftna that the true cross of the three discovered should be tested by touching with the crosses a woman ready to die. The two crosses of the two thieves produced no effect, but the moment she telt the touch of tho true cross she leaped up, restored to perfect health. As Helena was eighty years old at the time, one Is rather surprised that he parted with so valuable a treasure. Calvin says that * fifty men could not carry th wood of what Is called the true CTOB*. Luthe thinks there was wood enough ' to build an im- mense house.' Cyril of Jerusalem tells us the wood was multiplied ' like the loaves and fishea when JMIU tod lh* multitude In the dewr% ' , CROSS CROWN and St. Paulinas tells as that, although chips were cut from it daily, 'yet the wood never juffered diminution.' By a diligent search I find the follow- ing places are said to possess parts of the cross : Aix-la-Chapelle, Amiens, Angers, Aries, Arras, Autun, Avignon, Bauge", Bernay, Besancon, Bologna, Bonifacio, Bordeaux, Bourbon-Larchambault, Bour- ges, Brussels, Chalinargues, Chalons, Charairey, Chatillon, Cheffes in Anjou, Chelles, Compiegne, Conques, Cortona, Courtray, Denmark, Dijon, Donawert, England, Faphine, Fiume, Florence, Gand, Geneva, Grammont, Jaucourt, Je- rusalem, Langres, Laon, Libourne, Lille, Limbourg, Longpont, Lorris, Lyons, Macon, Maestricht, Marseilles, Milan, Mount Athos, Montepulciano, Naples, Ne- vers, Norway, Nuremberg, Padua, Paris, Pisa, Poitiers, Pontigny, Ragusa, Riel- les-Eaux, Rome, Royaumont, St. Die, St. Florent, St. Quentin, St. Sepulchre, Sens, Siena, Tournay, Treves, Troyes, Turin, Valcourt, Vamback, Venice, Ven- loo. These I have traced, but doubtless there are several others. Mount Athos has 878,360 cubic millimetres of the cross ; Rome has 687,587 ; Brussels 516,090 ; Venice 446,682 ; Ghent 486,450 ; and Paris 237,731. Cross of Shame (The). The Fiery Cross ' (q.v.) was so called, because dis- obedience to its summons was deemed infamy. Crosses on Tombs. Seven crosses designate the tomb of a bishop, who alone can administer all the even sacraments. Five crosses designate the tomb of a priest, who can administer five out of the seven sacraments. One cross marks the tomb of an ordi- nary Christian, to indicate his faith in the cross as his one hope of salvation. Crosse Scholarships. For Theo- logy. Three in the University of Cam- bridge for Bachelors of Arts ; value 20Z. a year each, and tenable for three years. Founded by the Rev. John Crosse, vicar of Bradford, Yorkshire, 1832. See ' Re- gius Professor of Divinity.' Crossing the Line. The first authentic account of the ordeal observed on board ship dates 1702. One sailor represents Neptune and another his wife Amphitrite ; another his barber, and the rest his suite. All dress in the most grotesque raiments they can obtain. A tarred topsail is formed into a baui, and a throne is provided for Neptune and his wife. Those midshipmen who have never crossed the line are then brought forth, while the men pour over them buckets of water, or play the fire hose into their faces. Their faces being tarred are scraped by the barber, and the victims are then soused into the bath provided. Here they are left to struggle out and make their escape as they best can. This horse-play is now almost entirely, and in most cases wholly, abolished. Grossman's Catechism. This is Robert Nelson's 'Whole Duty of a Christian,' edited and abridged by Cross- man. Nelson lived 1656-1715, and was a non-juror, but the intimate friend of Tillotson. Crouchback. Edmund Plantage- net, 2nd son of Henry III., and first earl of Lancaster. Next brother to Edward I. (1241-1296). Crown (The). It was Walter Walker, grocer, at the sign of the Crown, who said he would make his son heir of the crown. When Edward IV. was told of this merry jest, he ordered Walker to be arrested and put to death for treason (1461). Crown. A crown is the circlet of gold, &c., ornamented, placed over the cap represented in England by a border of ermine and a silk or velvet loose cap. The crown of the sovereign and Prince of Wales has a jewelled diadem of gold arched over the cap, surmounted with a ball and cross pattee. Cap velvet, turned up with ermine. The sovereign's crown has two dia- dems crossed at right angles. The crown of the Prince of Wales has only one diadem. The coronet has a fleur-de-lis, and 4 crosses pattee, alternately. A cross pattee stands in full-front midway between the spring of the diadem. The robe of state of the Prince of Wales is of purple velvet, lined with ermine, and trimmed with a deep ermine cape reaching to the elbow*. Its speciality is five rows of ermine tails. Baron's crown. A velvet cap with er- mine border similar to that of other peers, but the coronet differs from that of a vis- oouut by having only 8 round pearls on 230 CROWN CROWN ean on tne upper rim rosses patt6e, a duke's marquis's 4 strawberry 4 golden balls, an earl s Ihe upper rim instead of 14. In France ' une torsade en perles.' His robe of state Is similar to that of a viscount, but the cape has only 2 rows of black spots. A prince has 6 rows, a duke 4 rows, a marquis half 4 and half 3, an earl 8, a viscount half 3 and hall 9, a baron 2. A prince's coronet bean on the npper rim 4 fleurs-de-lis and 4 crosses B strawberry leaves, a m leaves alternating with 4 .. 4 points surmounted with balls alternating with 4 strawberry leaves, a viscount's with 14 golden balls, a baron's with 8 golden balls. Duke's crown consists of a velvet cap with a border of ermine, and the coronet over it is a circle of gold with jewels, the npper rim being set with 8 gold straw- berry leaves. In France the leaves were 1 fleurs de persiL' His state robe Is a crimson velvet mantle lined with white taffeta (not ermine), but the cape is ermine, reaching to the elbows, having 4 (instead Of 51 rows of ermine tails. His parliamentary robe Is scarlet cloth, lined With white taffeta, and the ermine cape. Earl't crown. A velvet cap with a border of ermine, with a circlet of gold enriched with jewels, from the upper rim of which rise 8 points, each sur- mounted with a round pearl, towering, somewhat above the cap, and between these points 8 small gold strawberry leaves. In France the leaves were omitted. His robe of state Is crimson velvet, like that of a duke, but the cape has only 3 rows of black spots Marquis's crown. A velvet cap with a border of ermine, and a coronet of gold jewelled like that of a duke, but with this difference, instead of eight straw- berry leaves on the upper rim, the rim is surmounted with 4 strawberry leaves and 4 round pearls. In France they were parsley leaves. His state robe Is a crimson velvet mantle, and the cape has 4 rows of black spots on the right boulder, and only 3 rows on the If ft. Prince's crown (except the Prince of Wales). A velvet cap turned up with ermine and surmounted with a gold ball. The gold and jewelled circlet has 4 crosses pattee and 4 fleur-de-lis alter- nately, but there is no diadem, nor ball and cross. The princesses' crown is like that of the princes'. The nephews and nieces have straw- berry leaves in the place of fleurs-de-lis and crosses pattee. Viscount's crown. The cap is the same as that of a duke, marquis, or earl; but the gold and jewelled coronet has 14 round pearls on the upper rim, quite close together. In France the pearls were arranged in sets of three. His state robe is the same as that of an earl, with this difference, instead of 8 complete rows of black spots, there are 3 rows on the right shoulder and only 2 on the left. Bee 'Marquis, 1 above. Crown (A). In the Catholic Church is the subjective recognition of superior Christian merit : as the crown of virginity, the crown of humility, the crown of learn- ing, the crown of martyrdom, &c. St. Peter of Ravenna received the ' triple crown of virginity, doctorate, and martyr- dom.' St. Angelus, in 1225, received ' the triple crown of virginity, preaching, and martyrdom.' St. Cecilia received the double crown of virginity and martyr- dom. Crown (The English). It is said that Alfred, in 872, was the first English sovereign to wear a symbol of regal authority. In 929 Athelstan wore a coronet nol unlike that of our earls. William the Conqueror added a coronet with points to his ducal cap. In 1488 Richard III. introduced the crosses, and Henry VII. the arches in 1485. The oldest crown now existing in England is that of Charles H., If.f-U. The present crown was made in 1888, the jewels being taken from old crowns broken up. It contains a large ruby and a large sapphire. The smaller stones are 1.363 brilliants, 1.273 rose diamonds, 278 pearls, 147 table diamonds. IGsap- phiri-K. 11 emeralds. 4 rubies, and 4 drop pearls. In l:wo Richard II. pawned his crown and re- galia for a loon of 2,000*. Crown (The Papal). In 698 Pope Hormisdas wore a cap of state. In 1053 Pope Damasus IL followed the same example. Hildebrand (1078-1083) wore a royal crown, with the legend, Corona regni de ma nu Dei. In 1160 the papal cap was encircled with a crown. Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) added a second crown, with this legend, Dtadema imperii de manu Petri. It is very doubtful who introduced the third crown. Some say it was John XX LI. (1316-1334), some say it was Benedict XII. (1334-1342), and some ascribe it to Urban V. (1362-1870). It indicates so- CROWN CRUSADES 231 preraaey in temporal power, in spiritual power, and in ecclesiastical power, in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Crown and Anchor Associa- tion (The), 1795. For the ' protection of liberty and property from republicans and levellers.' The chairman was Mr. Beeves, M.P. Crown and Government Se- curities Bill (The), 1848. To facilitate prosecutions for political offences. The bill was especially directed against the war party of Ireland urged on by Mr. Mitchel, M.P., editor of the 'United Irishman ' (q-v.). Crown Oration (The), B.C. 880. Soon after the battle of Chaeronea, Ctesi- phon proposed that Demosthenes should be presented with a golden crown in the theatre, during the great Dionysiao festival, for his services to Athens. JEschines indicted Ctesiphon for this proposal, and Demosthenes spoke in his defence. The oration of JSschines is called the * oration against Ctesiphon ' ; that of Demosthenes is called his oration ' on the Crown,' or his ' Crown oration.' JEschines failed to secure a fifth part of the votes, and quitted Athens to live in Rhodes. Crown of Thorns (The). Placed on the head of Jesus ; was not found in the cave with the cross, and there is no record extant of its discovery. In the thirteenth century Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, gave it to St. Louis [IX.] of France, who built in Paris a holy chapel for its depository. It is devoid of thorns now, for they have been given away to a vast number of churches, and parts have been' set in rings. I myself have seen and handled one of these rings. This relic and fragments of the Cross are borne in procession by twelve canons at 8 o'clock every Good Friday night through Notre Dame de Paris. At least this was the case when I lived in Paris. See ' Cruci- fixion,' Belies of the. In the Hotel de Cluny, Paris, Is a ring Bald to ontain a small part of one of the thorns. Crowns. The kaiser-kingr of Ger- many received three crowns. I. The silver crown, as king of Germany. II. The iron crown of Lombardy, as king of Italy; and III. The imperial crown as kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire. The The Bandage. Th jRobe. Blood. Spear. Cross. Sponge. Crown of Thorns. Staircase. Grave clothes. H Table. Title. Handkerchief. Tunic or Shirt. Nails. Keed. Whipping-post. first he received at Aix-la-Chapelle, the second at Monza, and the third at Rome ; but Karl V. (Charles-quint) was the last kaiser-king who received the imperial crown at the pope's hands. The imperial crown was a small mitre, cleft la the front Instead of at the sides. Crown of St. Stephen (The). The crown of Hungary. Stephen I. (979, 997- 1038), called ' the Apostle of Hungary,* received a crown from Pope Sylvester II., with which the emperor of Austria is still crowned as ' king of Hungary.' Sea ' Corona.' If Hungarian Independence shonld be secured through the help of Prince Napoleon, the prince himself should accept the crown of St. Stephen. KOSSUTH, Memoir* of my Exile (1880). Crucifixion (Relics of the). Set under Crusades, from llth to 13th cent. Expeditions to recover Palestine from the Moslems. So called because the soldiers wore a cross on the shoulder or breast as a badge of their religious faith. 1st, in 1096-1099; decreed by Urban EC. It ended in the capture of Jerusalem by the crusaders. 2nd, in 1147-1149 ; led by Louis VII. and Konrad III. Its object was the relief of Christians oppressed by the Moslems. It was a complete failure. The Christians had to surrender Jerusalem. 8rd, in 1189-1192. This crusade was the most heroic. Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Philippe Augustus of France, and Richard Coeur de Lion of England were among the crusaders, while the re- nowned Saladin was on the other side. It was brought to an untimely close, on Saladin's agreeing to allow pilgrims free access to the Holy Sepulchre. 4th, in 1198-1204. Constantinople wa taken. 5th in 1216-1221. The sultan recovered Damietta. 6th, in 1215-1229. Kaiser Friederich EL proclaimed King of Jerusalem; but in 1244 Jerusalem was retaken by the Turks. 7th, in 1248-1253. A truce of ten years concluded. (Led by St. Louis of France.) 8th, in 1270-1272. Nazareth taken, truce 233 CRUSCA CUB1EAN of ten years concluded. (Led by St. Louis, who died at Tunis, on his way, 25 August, 1270.) CTU8ca,(Accademiadella),I58Z. The famous Florentine Academy, instituted to enrich the literature and improve the language of Tuscany. So named be- cause it discarded as bran all words not purely Tuscan. The great Italian dictio- nary was produced by this Academy, 1(512. See ' Delia Crusca.' Crusoe's Island. Juan Fernandez is so called by sailors, from a persuasion that it was the island of Defoe's famous story. Crusty Christopher. So Tenny- son called Professor Wilson, who noticed the works of the young poet in ' Black- wood's Magazine ' with praise not un- mixed with censure, 1830. Crystal Palace (27*?), 1851. A large building almost entirely of iron and glass constructed in Hyde Park, London, as an exhibition room for all nations in the world. It was 1,848 feet long, 408 feet wide, and G6 fed lii^li, crossed by a tran- sept 108 feet high and 408 feet long, enclosing several noble elms. It was nearly four times the length of St. Paul's and twice the width. It contained 34 miles of gutter to carry off the rain, 900,000 feet of glass, and covered over 18 acres of ground. The designer was Mr. Joseph Paxton, and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and Henderson ; their contract being 79,8002. and the material, or 160,0002. without it. The actual cost was 176,0302. It was brgun 20 Sept., 1850, and opened 1 May, 1851. It realised a profit of 150,0002. in 144 days. Cuckoo Ale. Ale drunk the first day one hears the cuckoo. In Shropshire it was at one time customary for the labour- ing classes, as soon as the cuckoo was heard by them for the first time in the year, to leave off work, and spend the rest of the day in merry-making, a main part of which was drinking cuckoo ale. This was drunk out of doors to welcome the cuckoo. Cuckoo Day, 14 April. The birthday of the Princess Beatrice. The tradition is that the old woman let the cuckoo out of hex bag at Ueathfield Fair. Cuentas del Gran Capuan. A ridiculous pretence of an account of money spent. Gon salvo, the great cap- tain, was accused by Ferdinand of mis- appropriating the public money, and was commanded to produce his accounts. Gonsalvo read aloud: 'Item the first, 200,768 ducats and 9 reals to friars, nuns, and mendicants, to offer up prayers for the success of his majesty's arms. Item the second, 700,494 ducats and 10 reals to spies.' Here Ferdinand, who had never sent Gonsalvo money enough to pay the soldiers, seeing the jest, and fully ashamed of the accusation, interrupted the captain by a burst of laughter which was echoed by the whole court. Cuirassiers. Heavy horsemen wear- ing, in the time of Queen Mary, body- armour over their buff coats. They carried sword and pistol. Napoleon had twelve regiments of cuirassiers. The Russian cuirassiers are armed with lances. In England, at the present day, the Life Guards and Horse Guards wear cuirasses. Pronounce K&-ra$-Ktah. Culdees. Secular clergy attached tc cathedrals and performing the office oi dean and chapter to the episcopate. They were pretty numerous, and made their first appearance in the 9th cent. No- thing is heard of them after the 14th cent. The word seems to be Irish, and to mean ' Attendants of God ' (ccile De). Cum Occasione (The Bulls), ir>53. By which Innocent X. condemned the five famous propositions of Jansen. In 1665, Alexander VII. prescribed a formula for the condemnation of Jansen and the Jansenists, which all ecclesiastics were required to sign. Cumean Sibyl. Amalthrea offered 9 vols. of prophecies on the future of Rome to Tarquinius Superbus, who re- fused to purchase them. Having de- stroyed three of them, she returned the following year, asking the same price for the remaining six. Tarquin again refused to purchase them ; whereupon Amalthsea destroyed three more, and demanded the original price for the three left. The books were bought, p laced in a coffer, and stowed away in the crypt of the cnpitol under the charge of two patricians. The custodians were afterwards increased to ten, and then to fifteen. In the reign of Uonoriui CUP CURTMANTLE 233 they were burnt by Stilico, his master of the horse. (Varro, ' Antiquities,' vol. ii.) It is rather remarkable tnat Tarquinius Su- perbus died at Cumte, the home of the famous sibyl. Cup or Chalice (The) used by our Lord at the Last Supper has been pre- served, according to tradition ; but there are two cups which profess to be the genuine one. Some affirm that it is the silver chalice at Valencia, in Spain ; but others insist that it is the green glass cup at Genoa, which was taken to Paris in 1816, and broken in the transit. This cup has two handles and is of hexagonal form. Its diameter a-top is 826 milli- metres, and it will hold three litres of liquor. See ' Crucifixion,' Belies of the. The ' Sacro Catino ' Is sometimes identified with the ' Holy Graal ' of the romances of the middle ages ; but many consider the Holy Qraal to be the paten and not the cup. In Arthurian romance it seems to be a golden vessel, nol silver or glass, and suits the idea of a paten with the consecrated bread far better than that of a chalice. Thus we read (part Ui. chap. 3, 4, 85, 1O2), ' immediately the bread had been distributed the graal vanished.' Cupid's Gardens. A corruption of Cuper's Gardens. Public gardens laid out by Boydell Cuper, gardener to Thomas, earl of Arundel. Boydell Cuper, when Arundel House was taken down, obtained numerous mutilated marbles, which he erected in these gardens. They were op- posite Somerset House, were opened to the public in 1678, and ceased to exist in 1753. These gardens were famous for fireworks, but no less notorious for licen- tiousness. Curfew Bell (The' A corruption of couvre-feu, ' put out the fire.' William the Conqueror ordered the bell to be rung at eight o'clock every night in every city and town in Eivfand, when every fire and every lamp and candle was to be put out. This was not to annoy the English, but to prevent fires and conspiracies. William had enforced the same in Nor- mandy as an act of police before the battle of Hastings. Curia Regia (The), 1860. The aupreme court of judicature in Hungary. Curia Regis, or Council of the Realm, 1172. A sort of parliament held by Henry II. at Lismore for the purpose of conferring with the prelates and mag- nates on the government of Ireland. Henry determined to extend to his English subjects in Ireland the laws and usages they were accustomed to while they lived in England. These laws and usages extended over what was called the Pale (q.v.), but all the rest of Ireland con- tinued to observe their own laws and Sir John Davies informs ns that no legislative council was held in Ireland for 140 years after the council at Lismore, but that Irish representatives attended the English parliaments. Curlew Mountains (The). The county of Leitrim was so called even in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Curop'alate. One who had charge of the palace in the Eastern Empire, called in the Frankish kingdom ' Maire du Palais,' by the Romans ' Major domus,' and in English ' Steward of the House- hold.' Michael I. was called ' Curopala- tus,' because he was Mayor of the Palace to Stauracius, whom he deposed and suc- ceeded 2 Oct., 811. Being himself de- posed by Leo, he turned monk and died about 845. Curry-powder Duke (The). The Duke of Norfolk, who, during the corn- law agitation, said in a speech he was surprised that the poor did not put a pinch or two of curry-powder in theii stews, as it gave the meat such a piquant flavour. I remember Sir Robert Harvey saying in a public speech that he was surprised the poor did not more frequently eat a red herring at break fast, aa it gave such a piquant flavour to bread and butter. In ridicule of this speech, a red herring was often carried on a pole in political elections. The re- mark of the Princess Lamballe was of a similar character. She was surprised the poor did not eat brioches, as bread was so dear. And our Princess Charlotte said she would rather eat beel than starve. Curse of Cromwell (The), 1650. His campaign in Ireland, which certainly was stained with revolting cruelty. Wit- ness the massacres of Drogheda and Clonmel. He was lord-lieutenant at the tune. This bloody campaign has always been remem- bered in that country as the ' Curse of Cromwell.' HOWITT, ttist. ofEng. (Commonwealth, p. 815). Curse of Scotland (The). The Nine of Diamonds is so called from ilia resemblance to the nine lozenf ss in the heraldic bearing of John Dalryn pie, first earl of Stair, so scandalously concerned in the massacre of Glencoe (%>v.)> Curtmantle. The surname of Henry II. of England. He wore the Anjou mantle, which was shorter than 234 CtJRULB DACTYLS the robe worn by his predecessors (1188, 1154-1189). Curule Magistrate (A). A Roman state officer, such as dictator, consul, praetor, &c., who sate on an ivory chair at the head of public assemblies. All the children of such a magistrate became nobles [nobiles]. The Curule chair was like a camp-stool, which could easily be moved about, and was placed in the chariot of the magistrate when he rode in state. Curfllli is connected with eumu. a chariot; hence tquut curulit (a carriage-horse), triumphu$ tvrulit (a carriage triumph , in contradistinction to an ovation which was made on foot. Gustos Rotulo'mm. The chief officer of the court of Quarter Sessions (q.v.), who has custody of the records or rolls ; he must be a justice of the peace of the county, nominated by the crown, and appointed by the commission. Cynic Philosophers (The) of ancient Greece. Founded by Antis- thcnes the Athenian (B.C. 440-876). Cynic ia an adjective from m^o? (g en . of xui'wf, a dog) ; so called because Anti^ theiu'S taught in the gymnasium called Cynosarges (the White Dog). He was a censor of public morals and manners. Diogenes of Sinope (B.C. 412-823) af- fected to be surly like a dog, and like a dog snarled at every one. The Athenians raised to his memory a pillar of Parian marble surmounted with a dog. The substance of the inscription being Bay, dog, I pray, what guard you in that tomb T A dog.' His name f 'Diogenes.' From far T ' Blnope.' He who made a tub his home ? ' The same. Now, dead, among the stars a star.' Cyclic Poets (The). Theepicpoets who sprang up after Homer, and con- fined themselves to the same cycle of events, viz. the Story of Troy. Staslnos of Cyprus chose for his subject events Immediately preceding the Trojan war. Arctlnos of Miletus related the story of the wooden horse. AgTas of Trcezene took for his subject the return from Troy. And Eugamon of Gyrene made a con- tinuation of the Odyssey. Nee lie incipies, ut scriptor cycllcus ollm. HOKACK, Art Poetica, 187. Cy-pres Process (The). The pro- cess of approximation. Where a literal execution is inexpedient or impracticable, the court will execute a devise as nearly M it can, according to the spirit of the devisor's words, or, to speak technically, cy-pres. For example : if there are no objects remaining to take the benefit of a charity, the court will dispose of the revenues by a new scheme on the prin- ciples of the original trust. As in law, a cy-pres or approximate administra- tion of an obsolete devise is admlusible, so in r*. ference to the Bible, is it not incumbent upon you to apply what seems obsolete to cases analogous to those originally intended ? Dr. HKSSKY. .YK.nU D(jjlcultie$ connected tcith the Bible (1871). p. 112. Cyrena'ic Sect (The). Founded at CyrenS, in Africa, by Aristippos, who studied under Socrates. He taught that pleasure is the ultimate object of human pursuit, but that virtuous motives and virtuous conduct are indispensable to true pleasure. Aristippos died B.C. 880. CyzicenilB. Antiochus IX., king of Syria, who was educated at Cyzicos (B.C. 112-96) Czar (Caesar or Kaiser), 1*237. A title first conferred on Dimitri I., son of Yaroslaf, by the Greek emperor. Before then the sovereign was called Knian (grand-duke) or Welilc Knee (great prince), a title which ran on concurrently with czar till 1545. After the battle of Pultowa, in 1709, the head of the Russian empire was also styled emperor and autocrat. The monarch of Casan was called fear. This monarchy wa conquered, in 154-V by Ivan Vaml. livich (the Terrible): and it Is said that Ivan then dropped the titles of Knitu and Wtlik Kne*. and re- tained only that of ' tzar ' or 'ciar. 1 D. By the Mutiny Act, 21 Viet. c. 9 (1858) it was enacted that, 'on the first, and on every subsequent conviction for desertion, the court-martial . . . may order the offender to be marked on the left side, two inches below the armpit, with the letter "D " (deserter), not less than an inch long, with some ink, or gunpowder, or other preparation not liable to be ob- literated.' For other brands, see F ' (' Diet, of Phrase and Fable,' p. 281), ' V,' and S.' Dacoits. Brigands, BO called in Oude, Burmah, Y- ingly designated by the Irish. Danaanian Dynasty (The). A dy- nasty said to have reigned in Ireland, and to have been succeeded by the Milesians. They were descendants of Tuatha na Danaan (g.tf.), who had migrated to Scot- land, and had been led back by Nuad of the 4 Silver Hanoi' See ' Silver Hand.' Danans (ZVte). Invaders of Ireland in prehistoric times, who overthrew the Belgee settlement in one great battle and the ' Irish ' in another, and made them- selves masters of the island. The Belgaa were allowed by them a free territory in Con naught. By the 'Irish' mast be understood the Fomo- rlans and Partholanians (q.v.). Dance of St. Guy (The), 1378. An epidemic in Germany; also called the 'Dance of St. Witt.' It was supposed that the victims of this disease were pos- sessed, and therefore they were exorcised by the priests. Pausanlas tells as that the daughters of Praa- tus and the women of Argos fancied they were cows, and ran about the meadows under thi* hallucination. Compare Van. ii. 82, 83. Dancing Mania (The), 1874. A strange disease, which pervaded different parts of Germany, and first broke out in the neighbourhood of Aix-la-Chapelle. Persons would join hands, forming large circles, and dance like mad people till they fell exhausted to the ground. The magis- trates of the Rhenish cities wereobli^-il to put down the mania by an armed force. In the French Revolution a similar mania prevailed, the 'Carmagnole' being the name of the dance and song which then moved men, women, and children to a temporary frenzy. Called In Holland ' St. John's Dance:' in Qer many 'St. Witt's Danoe;' In Straaburg ' St. Guy . .tus's Dance.' Dancing-masters (Father of all). Beauchamps, who died 1695. Louis XIV. took lessons of him for twenty years. Dando (The), Sept. 1427. A kind of influenza which affected nearly everyone in France. It began with pains in the shoulders and loins, shivering fits fol- lowed, and then a tearing cough. It lasted fifteen or sixteen days. A chro- nicler says during the dando not a man or woman could be found who had not a large pimple either on the mouth or on the nose. Dandy. For the different names of French dandies, see ' Incroyables.' Dandy King (The). Joachim Murat, king of Naples, called by Napoleon ' Un roi de theatre.' He used to parade the streets of Paris dressed like a stage king in silks and satins (1771-1815). Egan says the word ' dandy ' was first used IB 1820; this requires confirmation, for velocipede*. s,' ana ommon in 1818. I mself rode one time. , invented In 1779. were called 'dandy-horses,' were common in 1818. I myself rode one at the Dane Territory. In England. At the Peace of Nottingham, 868, Alfred the Great divided England into two parti, DANEBROG DARIEN 237 the larger of which he assigned to the Danes ; but ne kept London in his own portion. The boundary ran along the Thames to the mouth of the Lea ; then by Bedford and the river Ouse to the old Roman road called ' Watling Street.' See ' The Five Burghs.' Danebrog(Tfo? Order o/), 1219. In- stituted in Denmark by Waldemar the Victorious. Revived in 1671 by Chris- tian V. To recompense services rendered to the state, whether military or civil. The decoration consists of a cross of gold pattte, enamelled with white, and sus- pended with a white ribbon edged with red. Brog = flag. The order IB in honour of the na- tional nag of Denmark. Danegelt. A tax first levied in 991 by Ethelred the Unready to bribe the Danes, who had invaded the kingdom, to quit it. Several times during the reign of Ethelred the Danes returned, and re- ceived fresh bribes. It is said that he paid them altogether 150,000/. (fully four and a half millions according to uie present value of money). The tax was from time to time levied by subsequent kings, under pretence of fortifying the kingdom or maintaining a fleet or army against the Danes. Edward the Con- fessor abolished it; but it was again col- lected, under the name of 'Heregeld* (army tax), in the reigns of William L, William II., Henry I., and Stephen. In 991 the tax was l.s. for every hide of land, bat the tax was soon doubled. Danelagh. Means the ' Danes' law,' but the word is applied to the 'Five Burghs' given by Alfred to the Danes at the Peace of Nottingham in 868. The * Five Burghs of the Danes ' were Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Nottingham, and Stamford. According to the ' Bromton Chronicle,' the Danelagh contained fifteen counties (not five), viz. Essex, Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Hertfordshire, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Lincoln, Notting- hamshire, Derbyshire, Northamptonshire, Leices- tershire, Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, and all that vast territory called North umbria. Danish Butler (The). Baron Ludvig Holberg (1684-1754), author of the heroi-comic Hudibrastio poem en- titled ' Peder Paars.' Danites (The). Sometimes called ' Destroying Angels.' The more violent members of the Mormon community who carried out the decrees of the Elders on recalcitrant brethren. A number of them, disguised as Indians, massacred a party of Mormons withdrawing from tha Utah settlement. Brigham Young was accused of complicity. P'r'aps you've heard tell of Danites? 1 I had heard ... of that spiritual police of Mormon- dom, of those fierce zealots who obey their pro- phet blindly . . . Seth's right ; we don't want to Bet up any chaps to paint-Injun on our account, as Angel Brown, and young Harris, and the Danites did.' CHARLES DiCKKNS, Christmas Num- ber, 1861, All the Year Round, p. 41 (Tom Tiddler'i Ground). Dante of Philosophy (The). John Baptist Pico, professor of rhetoric in Naples (1688-1740). Danton of the Gironde (The). Isnard, son of a perfumer at Grasse ; a literary man, formed on the old Grecian and Roman model. He was a thorough republican of very impetuous character. Dantonists. The followers of Dan- ton, one of the three leaders in the Reign of Terror, the other two being Hebert and Robespierre. When Danton thought that blood enough had been shed, he halted and advised moderation, but was trampled in the dust by those less scrupu- lous than himself. Robespierre accused him of monarchical proclivities, and he was condemned to death by the Revolu tionary Tribunal. Danubian Principalities (The). Moldavia and Wallachia, constituted into independent states by the Conven- tion of Paris, 19 Aug., 1858. They were united provisionally by a firman of the Sultan, 12 Nov., 1861. United under the title of Roumania 23 Dec., 1861. Darbyites (Dar'-by-ites), Darby- ism, 1832. A split from the Plymouth Brethren on the doctrine of the humanity of Christ. So called from John H. Darby. Darg. The regulation enforced by the trades union among colliers, that no workman shall raise in a day more of the mineral than could be easily raised by the most inexperienced and unskilful of the colliers. Darg = day: contract work by the day. Darien Scheme (The). TheDarien Company was projected by William Paterson (founder of the Bank of Eng land) in 1694. Incorporated by Act 01 Parliament in Scotland, 1095. Settle- ment abandoned in 1699, and finally in 1700. The scheme was to colonise the Atlantic side of the Isthmus of Pauaiu* DARK DAY in order to form a commercial entrepot between the eastern and western hemi- spheres ; and a monopoly of all the trade of Asia, Africa, and America was granted to the company. The ground, however, belonged to Spain, and the climate was fatal to the colonists. Many having died and more sickened, a Spanish force was Bent against the new-comers, which broke op the company entirely. Then there were malcontent* [In Scotland] created by the government opposition to the Darien scheme. . . . The Darien malcontent* were for the moat part revolutionist*. HOWITT, Hutory of England (Anne. p. . Dark Ages (The). From the fall of the Roman empire, A.D. 475, to the re- rival of literature on the discovery of the Pandects at Amalfi in 1137. Not to draw the limits too finely, say 700 years (450 to 1150). The Middle Ages (q.v.) may be extended to about 1550, covering from ten to eleven centuries. Darling of Mankind (The). Ves- pasian the Roman emperor (9, 70-79). Titus was called the ' Delight of Man- kind ' (40, 79-81). Darvel Gatheren. A great wooden idol in Wales, held in great veneration. There was a legend that one day Darvel would burn a forest. When Friar For- rest, in 1538, the confessor of Queen Katharine, was burnt for denying the kind's supremacy, this image was cast OB the pile. David Darvel Oatheren, As saith the Welshmen. Fetched outlaws out of hell ; Now is he come, with spear and shield, In harness to burn in Smith field, For in Wales he may not dwell. And Forrest, the friar, That obstinate liar, That wilfully shall b dead. In his contumacy The gospel doth deny The king to be supreme head. Darwinism. So called from Charles Darwin. Is the theory that species owe their origin to natural selection, or the arrival of those best adapted to the surroundings. A.V. Evolution is the development of new species of animals and plants by a natural process, of which the chief factors are heredity, variation, and adaptation. Hence Darwinism and evolution are quite distinct ideas. Daughter of Jerusalem. Mount Zion, the fortified part of Jerusalem. Here David had his palace, and hence it was also called ' The City of David.' Dauphin of France (The), 1349. Beir apparent of the crown, like our 4 Prince of Wales.' Humbert II. eount of Dauphiny, by the Treaty of Vincennes (30 May, 1349), ceded Dauphiny to the crown of France, and from that time to the first Revolution the eldest son of the reigning king was entitled ' The Dauphin. 1 The wife of a dauphin was entitled Dan- phine (2 syl.). The Grand Dauphin means the eldest son of Louis XIV., named ' Louis de France' (16til-1711). The son of the Grand Dauphin also died before his grandfather (Mtt-lTU). David Dale's People. Scotch Independents. So called from David Dale of New Lanark, the philanthropist (1738-1806). Da vidians, or the ' Family of Love.' So called from David George, who made himself sometimes Christ and sometimes the Holy Ghost. See Strype, ' Cranmer,' p. 291. Their tenets are touched upon in the preface to the ' Ecclesiastical Polity,' and a short account of them is given in Sir W. Scott's ' Woodstock,' ii. p. 218. David George published an account of his vinlons In 154i, under the title of the ' Book of Wonders.' He died in 1556. Davies Scholarship. For Classics. Value about SO/, a year, tenable for years. Founded in the University of Cambridge by the Rev. Jonathan Davies, D.D., provost of Eton, 1804. See ' Regius Professor of Greek.' Davis Chinese Scholarship. Tenable for two years. Founded in the University of Oxford by Sir John F. Davis, F.R.S. Davis Strait. So called from John Davis, an English navigator of the 16th cent. Day of Adoration (The). Dies Adoratus,' 14 Sept. Called also ' L'exal- tation de la Sainte Croix,' en me'moire de ce qu' He'raclius rapporta snr le Calvaire en 642 la vraie croix que Chosroes, roi des Perses, avait enleve'e 14 ans auparavant.' Day of Federation (The), 14 July, 1790. The anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, when the people swore ' to defend the liberty of France.' Day of Ferdinand (The), 27 May.. 1800. By a most disgraceful trick, Napoleon Bonaparte persuaded the old king of Spain to abdicate, and then he set his own brother Joseph on the vacant DAT DAT throne. The Spaniards, disgusted at this treachery, rose as one man, massacred the French garrison at Madrid, and cut to pieces the squadron at Cadiz. This, of course, led to reprisals, and the result was the long Peninsular War (q.v.), so glorious to the Duke of Wellington, end- ing with the battle of Waterloo, 18 June, 1815, and the banishment of Napoleon to St. Helena. Day of July (The). 'Journe*e de Juillet,' 14 July. Noted for the insurrec- tion of the people of Paris in 1789, and the taking of the Bastille. Between 1790-1792 the anniversary was called the ' Fete de la Fe'de'ration. See ' Days of July.' Day of New Cloaks (The}. Old Christmas Day was at one time so called in France, from the custom of giving on that day a new robe to each courtier. On Christmas Eve, 1245, the king [Louis IX.] bade all his court be present at early morning mass. At the chapel door each man received his new cloak, put it on, and went in. ... As the day rose, each man saw on his neighbour's shoulder the cross which betokened the crusading vow. KITCHIN, History of France, vol. 1. p. 828. Day of Poniards (The), 28 Feb., 1791. The day of the attack on the prison of Vincennes (2 syl.), called ' the Second Bastille.' On this day a large number of courtiers rushed to the Tui- leries to defend the king and royal family. Lafayette with the National Guards disarmed them, and they were very roughly handled by the mob. This day was called 'the Day of Poniards' because Marat, in his journal, L'Ami du Peuple, declared that 5,000 poniards had been manufactured in Paris for the use of the aristocrats against the patriots. A diligent search was made by order of the National Assembly, but only thirty-five poniards could be found, and those were for persons engaged in the slave trade. A number of the king's friends . . . had nocked to the palace, as on the Day of Poniards. HowiTT, Hittory of England (George III., p. 418). Day of Reason (The), 8 June, 1794. When the bishops and clergy of Paris, decorated with caps of liberty, re- nounced their sacerdotal office and pub- licly declared : ' We now abjure the trade of superstition, and are resolved hence- forth to be men instead of Christians ; to own no temple but the sanctuary of the law ; no divinity but liberty ; no object of worship but our country ; and no gospel but the constitution.' The Bishop of Moulines trampled on his ctoat and mitre, and, taking up a pike and cap ot liberty, preached to the people that ' death is an eternal sleep.' Day of Rest (The). set apart 1st day of the week (Sunday). M 2nd (Monday). Christ Greeks Persians Assyrians Egvptians \ andJesids)" Turks Jews ,, 6th 6th 7th _ (Tuesday). (Wednesday). H (Thursday). H (Friday). H (Saturday). See ' Sunday.' Day of St. Ferdinand (The). A repetition of the ' Sicilian Vespers.' See Day of Ferdinand.' Day of the Barricades. See 1 Barricades.' Day of the Bastille (The), 14 July, 1789. The day on which the Bastille was demolished by the French rabble. Day of the Bura (The). The first Sunday of Lent is so called by the Lotharingians, from the custom of carry- ing bandons or torches on that day, first observed in 1249. The day is known as the ' Buree ; ' hence we read such phrases as these: 'Die crastina burarum,' or 4 Feria quinta post boras.' See ' Sunday.' Day of the Camel (T*.,, * Nor., A.D. 657. The famous battle of Bassorah, in which Ali defeated Ayesha, Telha, and Zobeir. It was the first civil war of the Moslems, and received its name from the following circumstance: Ayesha, the prophet's widow, who hated Ali (son of Fatima), went to the battle on a camel, with seventy men to hold her bridle. All the seventy men were slain, and the cage or litter in which Ayesha rode was struck with so many darts and javelins that, as Gibbon says, it was like a porcu- pine with its quills. Day of the Dupes (The), 11 NOT., 1630. Marie de Medicis, the queen mother, hating Richelieu, induced her son, Louis XIII., to dismiss him; and the king, unable to resist his mother, commanded the cardinal to resign hi* portfolio. The lady was triumphant, her friends were loud in their congratu- lations, and all thought the influence of the queen mother was paramount. Next day Richelieu waited on the king to place in his hands the seals of office ; Louis relented, refused to accept the resignation, and Richelieu became more powerful than ever. This day is called 240 DAY DEAD-CART in French history 'La Journe"e des Dupes.' The dupes were the queen mother, her younger son the Duke of Orleans, Michel and Louis de Marillac, and all their clique. Day of the Millers (The). 'Jour- ne'e des Farines,' 8 Jan., 1591. When Borne of the partisans of Henri IV., dis- guised as millers, attempted to get pos- session of the barrier de St. Honore, in Paris, with the view of making themselves masters of the city. In this they failed. Days. See also Baronial days. i Red-letter day*. Black days. I Scarlet days. Egyptian day*. ' Sundays. Days in Bane. Days appointed by the courts, or fixed by statute, when process must be returned, or when par- ties served with writs are to make their appearance in full court. Days of Grace. The three days beyond the time at which a 'bill' is actually due. Sunday, Good Friday, and Christmas Day do not count. Days of Ill-name. 'Dies male- dicti,' also called ' Dies JEgyptiaci ' and 1 Dies JEgri.' Two days in every month held unlucky by the Egyptians, because they fancied ' quod in aliqua hora dierum illorum non erat bonum sanguinare (id est sanguinem minuere), nee aliquod opus incipere.' On these days they would commence no new work, nor start on a journey. St. Augustine refers to this in his ' Commentary on Epistle to the Gala- tians,' chap. iv. Days of July (The). ' Journe*es de Juillet,' the 27, 28, 29. When the people of Paris rose and drove Charles X. from the throne for suppressing the liberty of the press, 1830. See ' Day of July.' Days of June (The), 6, 6. I. An e'mouto provoked in Paris by the Re- publicans at the funeral of Lamarque, deputy of the Opposition, 1832. Barri- cades were thrown up in the quarters of St. Antoine, St. Martin, St. Denis [Sahn Diirt'], ite. The troops were called in, and on the Oth put down the disturbance by taking the church of St. Merry by storm. II. 28, 24, 25, 26. A bloody insurrec- tion by the party styled the ' Democra- tique et Sociale ' against the republic established in France 24 Feb., 1848. It f aroused by the dissolution of the ateliers nalionanx. St. Jaqnes, St. "M^r- ceau, and St. Antoine were besieged, and it was only put down by calling out the soldiers under the direction of Cavaignao. Seven generals were killed, and MUT. Affre (archbishop of Paris) was shot on the 25th, attempting to stop the slaughter. The loss of life was enormous, but the number of slain was not allowed to b published. DeDonis ConditionalibusWo- tute). The statuteof Westminster \vliii-h established in England the power of creating an entail (18 Edw. L c. 1). De Eminent!, 1642. The bull ol Urban VIII. against Jansen and his book ' Augustlnus.' De Heeretico Comburendo (TAc),2 Hen. IV. c. 15, A.D. 1401. An Act forbidding all unlicensed preaching ; au- thorising bishops to arrest anyone sus- pected of propagating unsound doctrines; and all persons arrested were to be kept in prison till they abjured their errors, or in default thereof were to be handed over to the secular power, which ' shall forthwith do them to be burnt.' Repealed by 29 Car. II. c. 9, A.D. 1677. William Sawtrev. a London clergyman, was the first to suffer, lie WM arrested oy Archbishop Arundel, and burnt alive (or refusing to adore the DeOfflciis. By Cicero, 1466. Printed by Fust and his son-in-law Peter Srh;rffer. The first secular book ever printed in moveable metal types. The three books previously printed were Biblia Sacra Jjatina, Biblia Latina^KoAPsalmorum Codex. De Profundis. The first two words of the Psalm cxzx. in Latin, sung by Catholics in the funeral service. Deacon. A deacon must be 22 yean of age. His duties in the Greek and Latin Churches are: (1) to administer the alms to the poor, and to administer the Eucharist, but not to consecrate. Deacons were prohibited from celebrat- ing the Holy Communion by the Act of Uniformity (q.v.), 1CG2, 14 Car. II. c. 4. Dead-cart (The). A cart which tra- v i -i il London from nightfall to daybreak during the plague. It was accompani>-il by two men, one with a bell, and the other with ft long pitchfork. The bell was rung from time to time to give notice that the DEAD DEANS 211 cart was at hand, and when the dead were pushed into the street, they were tossed by the pitchfork into the cart, and carried to a great pit, where they were shot down wholesale (1665). The pit in Aldgate was 40 feet by 18 feet, and feet deep. Above 400 bodies were shot into It between the 6th and 20th of Sept. Dead Hand (The). Mortmain, i.e. the possession of lands and tenements in 'dead hands,' or hands which cannot alienate. These may have been his reasons for seeking the protection of the 'dead hand.' H. HAYMAN, D.D. A corporation is a ' dead hand ' because it can* not alienate. 80 is the Church. Dead's Part (The). That portion of Che moveable estate of a deceased person which remains over, after satisfying the legal claims of wife and children. In Scotland the surplus is the only part which the deceased could dispose of by will or testament. Abolished by 19, 20 Viet. c.94. Dead Reckoning. A term in navi- gation, signifying the calculation of a ship's place at sea, made independently >f celestial observations. Dead Weight Annuity (The). 4 Geo. IV. c. 22. Military and naval pen- sions, and pensions given to civil super- numeraries. They expired in 1867. Dead Woman Crowned (A), 1857. Ines de Castro, wife of Pedro (I.) of Portugal. Pedro had clandestinely mar- ried Ines de Castro, and his father Aff onso, king of Portugal, had her privately assas- sinated. In 1357 Affonso died, and Pedro succeeded to the crown. He then had the corpse disinterred, sumptuously arrayed, and crowned. Pedro stood beside the corpse, and the nobles did homage to it by kissing the hand. The ceremony being over, the dead body was restored to its sepulchre again. Dean. In Oxford University; the title of the master of Christ Church, which is a cathedral. Dean Ireland Exegetical Pro- fessorship (The). In Oxford Univer- sity. Stipend 800Z. a year. Founded by Dr. John Ireland, of Oriel College, dean of Westminster, 1847. Dean Ireland's Scholarships. Four for Latin and Greek, tenable for four years. Founded in the University of Oxford by Dr. John Ireland, of Oriel Col- lege, dean of Westminster, in 1825. Dean of Faculty (The). President of the incorporation of advocates or barristers in Scotland ; elected annnally. Dean of Guild. In Scotch burghs was head of the mercantile body called the ' Guild brethren.' At one tune he was a judge in mercantile and maritime causes within the burgh, but is now a kind of city edile. Dean of University College, London. The principal or head of a faculty chosen for a limited period. Deans (Honorary). Without juris- diction, such as the dean of the Chape] Royal, of St. James's Palace, &o. Deans (Rural). Are deputies of the bishop, planted all round his diocese, to inspect the conduct of the parochial clergy, inquire into and report dilapida- tions, and armed with judicial authority in matters not of serious importance. Deans of Chapters. Are either of cathedral or collegiate churches. Such as the dean of Canterbury and the dean of St. Paul's, who are governors over the canons. It is a crown appointment, and the dean must reside eight months in the year, and may hold a living with his deanery. The office in Durham is worth 8,OOOZ. a year ; of St. Paul's, of West- minster, of York, and of Manchester is worth 2,000?. a year; of most other cathedrals about 1,OOOZ. a year ; but from agricultural depression in the last ten years (1890) the value of all church bene- fices dependent on tithes has much de- preciated. Deans of Peculiars, or ' Deans in Peculiar.' Have sometimes jurisdiction and cure of souls, and sometimes juris- diction only. Of this nature is the dean of Battle in Sussex, founded by William L, the dean of Westminster, the dean of the chapel of St. George of Windsor, and the dean of King's Chapel. The following have jurisdiction but no cure of souls, viz. the dean of Arches in London, the dean of Booking in Essex, the dean of Croydon in Surrey, and the dean of Christ Church, Oxford. DeaniJ of Provinces, or 'Deans of Bishop.' Like the bishop of London, who is ' dean of the province of Canter- 249 DEANS DECEMBER bury.' The archbishop sends to him his mandate for summoning the bishops of his province when a convocation is to be assembled. Deans of the Chapel Royal (The). In Scotland there are three such deans appointed by the crown ; the duties are quite nominal, being limited to an occasional sermon before the sovereign when in the neighbourhood. Deasy's Act, 1860. An Irish land act, which reduced the question to a mere matter of contract. So that the tenant's house, the out-offices, the fences and drains, made or paid for by the tenant, were the property of the landlord. This continued till 1870, when an act was passed to provide compensation for improvements and prevent capricious evictions. Death Hate. The number of in- habitants at present on the earth is 1,800 millions. The annual death rate is 83 millions ; 92 thousand daily : nearly 4 thousand every hour,* 60 every minute, and 1 every second. Only 1 in 1,000 reach the age of 100, 1 in 500 reach the age of 80, 6 in 1,000 reach the age of 65. In round numbers: More exact, 88,083,038 die annually, 91,HV:4 dolly. 8,730 hourly. Death with Music. Leopold L, the kaiser (1058-1705), on his death-bed requested that the court musicians might be introduced, that he might die to the sounds of sweet music. Mirabeau's last words were ' Let me die to the sounds of delicious music.' Deaths (Registration of). Sea 'Registration,' &c. Debarring. In the Scotch church, means excluding from communion all those deemed by the minister and his lieutenants unworthy to ' partake of that feast.' Debased Style (The), 1600. Ap- plied to architecture means that which followed the Reformation period. Called debased, because the desij^is were in- ferior to the previous styles, and the execution by no means gooil. There was no unity, but different schools and diffe- rent periods were mixed together. The first -was the Early English or Lancet style, the second the Decorated, the third the Florid m Perpendicular, and the fourth the Debased. Debateable Land (The). "The space between the Esk and the Sark, bounded on the third side by the march dike. It seems properly to belong to Scotland, but having been disputed by both crowns, was styled "The Debate- able Land." In the reign of James VI. (L of England) Sir Richard Graham, obtain- ing from the Earl of Cumberland a lease of this tract, bought it of James, and got it united to the county of Cumberland,' (Pennant, 'Tour in Scotland,' vol. ii.p.82.) Decadence. In ancient art applied to works subsequent to the reign of Augustus. In modern art the term i* applied to the post-renaissant period, or the rococo style introduced in the reign of Louis XV. In Greece the term Is applied to art subsequent to the time of Pericles, the turning point of Greek art. In England art reached Its lowest point in the reign of George IV. Dec'adists. Those who observed the new French Calendar introduced by Pabre d'Eglantine in 1793. So-called because the year was divided into decadeg (10 days instead of weeks), the 10th decade being called dtcadi. There were 800 decade* In a year, and thes made up 800 days, the odd 5 (to make up 885 days) were called Sans-culottidea, or holidays (or the uuxs-culottea or operative*. Decalcea'ti, 1570. The barefooted friars. They were Augustine and Fran- ciscan friars of the stricter rule, which forbade the wearing of boots or shoes. Deccan (. e. the south). The country between the river Nerbuddah and the river Krishna. Deceleean War (The), B.C. 418. Decelea was a demus of Attica on the borders of Boeotia. In the nineteenth year of the Peloponnesian war (B.C. 413) the Peloponnesiars, under Agis, seized and fortified the demus, and thereby greatly annoyed the Athenians. It waa held till the close of the Peloponnesian war (B.C. 404). December 2K. The time of the winter solstice has been held in high festival by well iv^h all the nations of the earth, and probably our festival of the Nativity was fixed to this day in order to divert a long and J: priest-cardinals, and 8 deacon-cardinals. Henry's book is now In the Vatican, and contains this inscription in the king's handwriting: 'Anglorum rex Henricus Leonl X. raittit hoc opus et fidei testem et ami- citice ' *.* The title ' Defender of the Faith ' seems to have been given to advocates of ecclesiastical suits who defended the Church against those who opposed its doctrines, rules, and discipline. Defenders. I.A.D.407. Ecclesiastical history. Church officers. In 420 one or more were appointed to each patriarchal church. II. 1690. An Irish secret association formed after the battle of the Boyne in defence of the Catholics. Opposed by the Orangisls. They were very active in the uprisings between 1798-1803. HI. 1795. An Irish Roman Catholic association organised in self-defence against the Peep-o'-Day Boys, a Presby- terian association which arose in Ireland in 1790. In 1688 all the Catholic property of Ireland was confiscated. In the latter part of the 18th cent, some attempts were made to ameliorate this injustice, 248 DEFENESTRATION DELAWARE and the Protestants of the north clamour- ing for ' Protestant ascendency ' associ- ated themselves into a society called ' The Peep-o'-Day Boys,' whose object was to maintain the Protestant ascend- ency, and resist all Catholic encroach- ment. The Roman Catholics then or- ganised themselves into a society called 4 The Defenders,' and collisions became Common, bat the principal aggressions of the Defenders were nocturnal plunder, house-breaking, and murder. In 1795 a pitched battle was fought in the county of Aimaph, attended with much blood- shed. Ultimately the Defenders amalga- mated with the United Irishmen (q.v.), and the great opponents were the Orange- men, a Protestant association. See ' Irish Associations.' The battle of the Diamond, in which the Catho- lics of Ireland sustained great loss, was fought 21 Sept., IT-iS. and the first Orange lodge was formed later In the tame day. Defenestration of Prague (The), 23 May, 1618. That is, the ejection out of windows by the Bohemians. The Bohemians had two Protestant churches, one in the diocese of Prague, and the other in the territory of the abbot of Braunau. The archbishop of Prague and the abbot pulled down these re- formed churches, and when the Protes- tants remonstrated they were told it was the king's pleasure. So Count Thurn of Bohemia headed a deputation which went to the royal castle of Prague to lay their grievance before the king. Being ad- mitted into the council hall, they were so insolently received that they threw two of the councillors and the king's private secretary out of the windows into the moat. This was the beginning of the Thirty Years' War. Precisely the tame thing occurred at Praffne In 141:'. when someone from the royal castle threw a tone at a procession of Bohemian reformers. Instantly a rash was made Into the council hall, and thirteen of the magistrates were thrown out f the windows Into the street*. Degree of Meridian. First mea- sured by Eratosthenes between SyenS and Alexandria, about B.C. 196 ; next by Posidoniua between Alexandria and Rhodes, AJ>. 112-150 ; then by the brothers Ben Shaku by order of the calif Al Ma- mun, on the plain south of Damascus, AJ>. 818-888. It was measured from London to York by Norwood in 1683-1685. It was measured in France by the Abbe* Plcard, between Amiens and Malvoisine, in 1669-1671. It was measured in Lap- land by Maupertius, Clairaut, and others in 1735 ; in Peru by Bouguer and others in 1735 ; at the Cape of Good Hope by Lacaille in 1752. Dei Gratia. Introduced into English charters in 1106. It continued in the British coinage up to 1849, when it was discontinued in the florins, thence called the ' graceless florins.' These coins were recalled the same year, and the letter* D.o. were restored. It Is In reality a relic of the exploded doctrine of the 'divine right of kings. 1 Thus M.N. Is king by divine right, or Dei gratia, and not by human appointment, or hominum gratia. Deilemites. See ' Di'-le-mites.' De'ipassia'ni or ' Patripassionists.* Certain Unitarians who maintained that God is one and indivisible, and denied the three personalities of the Trinity. Hence, said they, the being crucified on Calvary was not God the Son (for there is no such being), but God the Father, or the one and only God. St. Augustine refers to these ' heretics.' Dek'abrist. A Decembrist, from Dekaber, the Russian for December. It denotes those persons who suffered death or captivity for the part they took in the military conspiracy which broke out in St. Petersburg in December 1825, on the accession of Czar Nicholas to the throne. Delaval Papers (The). A large collection of letters, state papers, and old records belonging to the Delaval family of Seaton Delaval, discovered by John Robinson in 1888 in certain store-rooms of the disused Royal Northumberland Glass Works, Hartley, near Seaton Dela- val Hall, and presented to the museum of the Society of Antiquaries. See ' Notes and Queries,' 1889, May 25, pp. 415, 416. Delaware (Pennsylvania). The English name of an Indian tribe (the Lenape) with which William Penn chiefly negotiated. Delaware (U.S. North America). A river and a state so called from Lord Delaware, governor of Virginia under James L He rendered the colony great services (died 1618). The nickname of the inhabitants of this state is Musk-rat. Visited by Lord Delaware in 1010; was settled by Swedes in 1627 : passed to th Dutch in 1655 ; wai ceded to England in 1664 ; made Into a separate colony in 1704 (but was attached to Pennsylvania^ and became one of the United State* 1a 177*. DELEGATES DEMOCRATIC 249 Delegates (The High Court o/), 1533. Established by Act of Parliament (25 Hen. VIII. o. 19) as a tribunal of appeal from the Ecclesiastical and Ad- miralty Court. The jurisdiction was transferred to the Privy Council in 1832 (2, 3 Will. IV. o. 92). Delegation (The), 1867. A body of delegates in the Austro-Hungarian king- doni, in which both states are equally represented; the house acts in matters which affect both the kingdoms, such as relations with foreign countries, army and navy, peace and war, &c. Besides this house each kingdom has its own legislative chambers, consisting of an upper and lower house. Delenda est Carthago. Carthage must be destroyed, or wiped out of the nations of the earth. The words with which old Cato used to finish his speeches. Alexander said to the same effect, ' No world two suns can bear ' that is, Persia and Macedonia cannot both exist together. Napoleon said that London must be stamped out. Delicate Investigation (The), 1806. This was a closed-door investiga- tion by the four lords, Erskine, Grenville, Spencer, and Ellenborough, into the conduct of the Princess Caroline, cousin and wife of George, prince regent of Wales, with the view of a separation for alleged adultery. The real cause of offence was the intimacy of the prince with Lady Jersey, whose dismissal, demanded by Caroline, was refused. The four lords gave a very unsatisfactory verdict of ' Undue levity,' and the princess was banished from the receptions at Windsor. A trial was afterwards ar- ranged, called ' a Bill of Pains and Penal- ties,' 1820. Denman and Brougham undertook the defence, and the Bill was abandoned i.e. the queen was acquitted in November. She was refused admis- sion into Westminster Hall at the coro- nation of her husband (July 1821) and died the following August. Delight of Mankind (The). Titus the Roman emperor (40, 79-81). Delinquents, 1641. Those pro- ceeded against for having exercised illegal powers in levying arbitrary taxes, and in the sentences of the Star Chamber, High Commission, and so on. There was an order of Parliament directing th confiscation of their estates. In this order cer- tain bishops and other of the clergy are named. We constantly find them coupled with Papists. Delia Crusca (L'Accademia), or 1 Delia Cruscan School,' 1582. Instituted at Florence; but in 1785 a number of English residents at Florence assumed the name of ' Delia Cruscans,' and amused themselves by writing verses which they published in the 'Florence Miscellany.' These verses were con- spicuous for affectation and insipidity, but got introduced into two daily English newspapers, 'The World' and 'The Oracle.' Gifford says the epidemic spread 1 from fool to fool ' ; but in 1794 Gifford's 1 Baviad,' and in 1796 his ' Mseviad,' so mauled these simpletons that the name of ' Delia Cruscan ' became a by-word for literary puerility. Clifford's Delia Cruscan bookworm, who ' livea upon a ichilomn lor a week,' has become proverbial. Delphine Classics (The), 1670- 1680. ' In usum Delphini.' The chief Latin authors, edited by Pierre Huet for the French dauphin. They contain, in the margin of the text, the ' interpretatio ' in italic type, and at the bottom of each page a commentary which explains every allusion and difficulty. At the close is a verbal concordance of great value, added chiefly by the Daciers (husband and wife). They were republished by Valpy In 188 volume*, Delta of 'Blackwood's Magazine* was David Macbeth Moir, 1798-1851. He was author of ' Casa Wappy.' Deluge. See 1 Flood. 1 Demagogische Umtriebe, 1817. An attempt of demagogues in Germany to stir up the people against the govern- ments. In 1819 a committee was ap- pointed to examine into it, and in 1834 a tribunal of arbitration was constituted. Democratic Labour Associa- tion, 1890. Organised by Michael Davitt in Ireland, in opposition to Mr. Parnell's notion of peasant proprietor- ship. Davitt insists that there should be neither landlords nor proprietors of land, under any kind of denomination, whether farmers or independent gentle- folk, but that the people of the soil have each a natural right to 'a man's full share ' of the land, which he has as much right to take from the farmer proprietoi DEMOCKITUS DEPOSED as from the landed proprietor. Mr. Par- cell's platform is that farmers should be proprietors, not tenants. See 'Irish Associations.' De"mocratique et Sociale. See 1 Days of June, II.,' p. 240. Democritus Junior. Rev. Robert Burton, author of the 'Anatomy of Melancholy ' (1576-1640). Demon of the South (The). Philip H. of Spain (1527, 1555-1598). Demosthenes (The High-born). William the Silent, prince of Orange. The High-born Demosthenes electrified large assemblies by his Indignant Invectives against the Spanish Philip, 1568. MoTLKY, The Dutch lie- piiMic, pt. 111. 2. Demosthenes of America (The). Daniel Webster, the statesman. Like Demosthenes, he was neither florid nor impassioned, but he reasoned with irresis- tible force, and his language was terse, well chosen, and telling. He had the power of sarcasm, bnt seldom used it. His face, figure, and voice made him master of his audience. Demosthenes of Prance (The). Comte de Mirabeau (1749-1791); also called 'The Hurricane/ from the over- powering force of his eloquence and irresistible audacity. He was so corpulent that he was jocosely called the Tub. Demosthenes of the Pulpit. Dr. Thomas Rennell, dean of Westmin- ster, was so called by William Pitt (1753- 1840). Demy* (plu. Demies). A * scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. Denmark, i.e. dain-mark. Dain means flat> hence the German danieder, on the ground, &c. The Danskir occu- pied the flat or low lands between Goth- land hills and the sea. Denyer and Johnson Scholar. Ships. Two for theology. Value 50/. a year each, tenable for one year. Founded in Oxford University from the revenue of the scholarship founded by John Johnson, D.D., fellow of Magdalen Col- lege, and the prizes offered by Mrs. Denyer for two theological essays. In- corporated in 1878. Denys (St.). Martyred 251. The tradition is that after being beheaded he walked from Paris four miles to found an abbey, where now stands the town of St. Denys, carrying with him his head under his arm, and resting seven times on the way at equal distances to bless and console his followers. Crosses were erected at these seven places, and it was long customary to lay the dead which Eassed by on one of these crosses for * jw minutes. St. Deny*, pronounce Sah* dnee. Deodand. A chattel or chattels forfeited as a peace-offering to God for causing the death of a human being, as when a brick or tile falls on him, or the wheel of a cart runs over him. When the forfeit was transferred from the church to the crown, instead of the chattel being forfeited, a money-fine was imposed. Abolished 18 Aug., 1846 (6, 10 Viet. c. 62). Deontology, 1830. Jeremy Bent- ham's system of the science of morality or Maxima felicltas doctrine. Deon, a Greek word, means ' right ' or ' fit,' and the great aim of deontology is to secure the ' greatest happiness to the greatest num- ber.' There can be no doubt that Bent- ham was in advance of his age, and many points once considered Utopian are now established by law. Departments, 1790. Territorial divisions of France made by the Consti- tuent Assembly. The ' Departemente Maritime* ' (8 87!.) are th five great uorts, vis. Loriont, Brest, Toulon, Cher- Deposed Kings of England. L Before the Conquest. Sigebert of Wessex, A.D. 755. Alcred of Northumbria, 774. Ethelred L, 779. Eardwulf and Ethelwulf, 857. Edwy, 957. Ethelred IL, 1018. Hardicanute, son of Canute, 1037. n. Since the Conquest. Edward IL, 1827. Richard n., 1399. Henry VI., 1460. James n., 1688. Euphemistically called his ' abdication.' Charles I. was not only deposed but tried for treason against his parliament and beheaded; Charles II. was not exactly deposed, but he waa kept from the orown during the Commonwealth. The most absolute and tyrannical of our sove- reigns have been the Welsh and Scotch dynasties, but Wales and Scotland are emiuaiiUjr ' DEPOSED DETERMINIST3 261 The Stuarts claimed the ' right divine ' of kings, but James L and Charles II. did no honour to the claim. Deposed Kings of France. Louis XVI., like Charles I., was not only deposed but executed, 1793. Napoleon I. (emperor) was twice de- posed, 1814, 1815. Charles X. (1830), like James H., is aid to have ' abdicated.' Louis- Philippe (1848), also said to have abdicated.' Napoleon HL, 1872. De'pretrisation, 7 Nov., 1793. When Mgr. Gobel, archbishop of Paris, and hundreds of the clergy appeared at the bar of the Convention, and declared they would henceforth acknowledge no master, in heaven or earth, except the sovereign people. They renounced their ministry, and abandoned the Christian religion. Derby Day. The Wednesday of the great spring meeting which takes place at Epsom, in Surrey, in the month of May. The Derby week is the week succeeding Trinity Sunday, and Derby Day, which is the second day of the races, is the most important horse-race day in the kingdom and the greatest English holiday. Derby la generally pronounced Dar'-be. Derby Scholarship. In Oxford University. The recipient must have highly distinguished himself either in the final examination or as the winner of university scholarships and prizes. Founded in honour of Edw. Geoffrey S. Stanley, earl of Derby, chancellor of the university, by subscribers in Lancashire. Value, the interest of 4,3002. Founded 1870. Derbyites or 'Darbyites.' A split from the Plymouth Brethren, under a Mr. Darby, on the subject of the human nature of Christ. Derbyshire Hudibras (The). George Eyre. Derbyshire Insurrection (The), 1817. Stirred up by Jeremiah Brand- reth, a framework-knitter of Nottingham who induced 300 Derbyshire and Notting- ham men, chiefly miners, to march with him to London and overturn the govern- ment. At Eastwood, some three miles from Nottingham, they were overtaken by a troop of horse-soldiers, and fled IE all directions. Several were taken pri- soners and three executed at Derby, one of whom was Brandreth the leader. Derbyshire Neck (The). Goitre or swelling in the throat produced, some think, by excess of lime in the water used for drinking. Dervises, i.e. paupers, A.D. 759. A species of Moslem monk, of which there are thirty-two sects. They live hi con- vents, the principal establishment being at Konieh, in Caramania. They fast every Thursday. They are great opium eaters and are given to strong drinks. The dancing dervises twist themselves round with extended arms for hours to- gether, all the while repeating the name of Allah. Persia is noted for its dervises. Descartes. See ' Cogito, ergo sum.' Despairing Shepherd (The). Addison is meant, and the lady was the dowager Countess of Warwick. The ballad is by Nicholas Kowe (1716). Despard's Conspiracy, 1803. A very foolish plot devised by Colonel Ed- ward Despard of Ireland to assassinate the king (George III.), and establish in Great Britain and Ireland a republican form of government. Despard and six others were executed on Kennington Common. If Despard was not partly insane, this silly plot was out of revenge for being superseded in office on the Mosquito Shore in consequence of having got into some squabble with the colony. Destroying Prince (The). Tamer- lane or Timur the Tartar (1336, 1870- 1405). So called in India because in 1396 he made in Delhi a general massacre o f the inhabitants. It is said that 100,0. ,,> were put to death in a single hour (!) Destructionists. Those Christians who believe that after the wicked have suffered in hell in proportion to their sins they will be destroyed. The Kev. Mr. Bourne of Norwich is the founder of this sect. They deny that they teach the doctrine of annihilation ; assert that destruction Is the scrip- ture term, and say they are not bound to be wise above what Is written. Determinists. Those who believe that the actions of men are not pre- determined by God, but are determined 253 DETROITS DEVIL'S by the nature which they inherit and surrounding circumstances. Detroits (Treaty of), 13 July, 1841. Between England, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, and Turkey; by which the sultan engaged to close the Bospho- rns and the Dardanelles to all nations without distinction or favour ; revoking the privilege accorded to Russia by the treaty of UnkiarskelessL Deus Vult. The war-cry of the first crusade (1096-1099). At the Council of Clermont in France, after Pope Urban had finished his address in favour of a crusade against the Saracens, the as- sembly shouted Deus vult (God wills it), the crowd outside took up the cry, and Urban, crossing his arms over his breast, and bending to the rails of the altar, said with deep emotion, ' God wills it, God's will be done.' Deux-Ponts (The Dynasty of the). Deux-Ponts' is the French form of Zweibriicken in Bavaria. After the abdi- cation of Christina, last of the dynasty of GustavusVasa, in Sweden, Charles X., of the principality of Deux-Ponts, was elected king of Sweden. The dynasty lasted from 1654 to 1751. Charles X. was cousin of Christina, but is generally called Charles the Aggressor. The suc- cessor of Charles X. was Charles XL (H'.r.o-ir.i)?), 'The Golden Era of Art.' Then followed Charles XII., surnamed the Warlike, or 'Brilliant Madman.' Deux-PonU pronounce deh pO'n, ' m ' very slight and nasal. Devadassi (The}. Indian girls at- tached to the temples. They prepare the garlands, dance and sing before the idols, and take part in all public pro- cessions. See ' Bayaderes,' Devil (rfo?). L 'LeDiable.' Olivier Ledain, the tool of Louis XI., and once the king's barber. So-called from his malice and mischief-making. He was executed in 1484. II. John Hunyados, surnamed Corvin (1400- 14 HO), called 'The Devil' by the Turks, from the terror of his name. Called Corvinus from his crest, which wai ft crow with a gold ring in its beak. Hunyadeu pronounce Hu'-ne-a-de*. HI. Giovanni de' Medici was called Le Grand Diable (1498-1526). So-called by the French on account cf his horrible cruelties at Caravaggio and Biagrasso in 1524. IV. A noted public-house (No. 2, Fleet Street), purchased in 1788 by Child's Bank firm. Here the original Apollo Club was held, and here lawyers of the neighbour- hood used to dine, sticking up a notice on their doors ' Gone to the Devil,' that those who wanted them mi^ht know where to find them. See the ' Heaven.' Devil (Robert the). I. Robert of Normandy, surnamed the Magnificent, father of William the Conqueror (1028- 1035). IL Robert Francois Damiens, who attempted to assassinate Louis XV. (1714-1757). See 'Damiens.' Devil (Son of the). Ezzelmo, chief of the Ghibellins, governor of Vicenza. So called on account of his diabolical cruel- ties (1215-1259). Devil (The French). Jean Bart, ai\ intrepid French sailor born at Dunkirk (1650-1702). Devil (The White). George Castriot, called 'The White Devil of Wallachia' (1401-1467). Devil Dick. Richard Person, the Greek critic (1759-1808). Devil of Arras (The). Cardinal d' Alibi, sent in 1418 to negotiate a peace between the ArmagnacBandBurt, r undians. The cardinal offered fair terms, but while the Count of Armagnac was signing the treaty the soldiers of Louis XL mas- sacred both t'n> and his followers. Devil of Vendee (The). J.Antoine Rossignol, the commissioner in the Ven- ded War (1759-1802). Devil's Bible (The). An exquisite MS. Bible, inscribed on 800 asses' skins, and taken to Stockholm after the 80 years' war. The tradition is that a poor monk was condemned to death, but was told that the sentence would be commuted if he would copy out on asses' skins the whole Bible in a single night. At night he made a compact with the devil to exchange his soul for the required tran- script. The writing is exquisite, and every letter is a model. See ' Bibles.' Each of the many editions of Tyndale'a New DEVIL'S DIALOGUE 268 by which it may be recognised. The edition of 1552 has a woodcut of the Devil with a wooden leg, owing tares. DORE, Early English Bibles. Devil's Bridge (The). I. Over a precipice of Mount St. Gothard. It has only one arch. n. In Cardigan, Wales. Over a preci- pice at the base of which flows Monk's brook. Devil's Parliament (The). The parliament assembled by Henry VI. at Coventry, hi 1459. So called because it passed attainders on the Duke of York and his chief supporters. See 'Parlia- ment.' Devil's Staircase (The). General Wade's road up the Corry Arrack, con- structed after the rebellion of 1715. It wound up the mountain by seventeen zigzags, or traverses, and down the other side. If this road you had seen before It was made, You'd hold np your hands and bless General Wade. Devil's Wall (The), in Germany, which extends from the Danube to the Rhine ; built by the Romans to preserve the possessions south of Germany from the incursions of the Teutons and Ger- mans. It was begun by Hadrian. Devoirs of Calais. Customs due to the king for merchandise brought to Calais or exported therefrom while our staple was there. A staple IB a mart or place where goods are stored or exposed for sale. There were courts of staple, statutes of staple, and a mayor of the staple. Devolution (The War of). See 'War of Devolution.' Dewanny Adawlut (Court of). An Indian court for trying revenue and other cases. ' Adawlut ' means a court of justice, and ' Dewanny ' the jurisdic- tion of a dewan, a minister of the revenue department. Dey. The chief of Algiers before the French conquest. The Algerian militia was under a pacha sent from Constanti- nople, but in 1600 permission was ob- tained from the sultan to elect a dey, to counteract the tyranny of the pacha- goTernors. The power of the deyg grew rapidly, and in 1710 the dey Baba- Aly actually deposed the pacha and obtained from the sultan the investiture of regency. As the deys were always elected from Constantinople, they were always under the power of the sultan. In 1732 six deys were installed and assas- sinated hi one day. The last dey of Algiers was Hussein, who reigned twelve years, up to the occupation of the French rn 1830. Dgelallian Era (The). The Per- sian era followed to this day, and begun in 1075. Dgel-al-Eddin, son of Alp- Arslan (the valiant lion), called Malek- Shah (1071-1092), appointed eight astro- nomers to reform the calendar. Dharina Subh'a (The), 1830. A Hindu society formed at Calcutta for the purpose of keeping up the ancient usages of the Hindu faith, and especially of the Suttee, which the ' Company ' had made illegal. Diadem. A diadem was anciently a fillet worn round the head, and tied be- hind with a bow having long ends. In Egypt, the diadem bore the symbol of the sacred serpent. In France, Clovis wore a diadem ; and Francois L was the first to adopt a crown. In Greece, Alexander the Great adopted the Persian diadem. In Persia, the diadem was a blue fillet worked with white, and bound round the tiara or turban. In Rome, Julius Caesar bound his head with a diadem of laurel leaves. Diocle- tian introduced the Persian diadem. Constantine the Great habitually wore it ornamented with precious stones. Sub- sequent emperors adorned it with single or double rows of pearls and precious stones. * What we now call a diadem is the gold and jewelled band springing from the coronet and arched over the cap. The Prince of Wales has one diadem to his crown, the sovereign has two crossing each other at right angles. Dialogue with Trypho. By Jus- tin Martyr, A.D. 156, hi Latin. Trypho is a Jew supposed to be travelling in Greece, having been driven out of Palestine during the insurrection of Barchocab ; and Justin Martyr is supposed to convert him. He shows from the Old Testament that Jesus Christ is the Messiah, and confutes the usual charges of the Jews against this theory. The disputations of the first and second day are lost. 154 DIAMONDS DIATESSARON Diamonds of note. (N.B. 161J carats = 1 oz.) Carats (uncut) Carats (cut) KanM Discovered Possessor 1680 (?) Utter cut Braganza ... _ ^. 1741 King of Portugal 7871 Klfr Rajah of Mattan~ . 176fl Rajah of Mat tan Borneo) 194$ Orlofl __ Czar of Russia (sceptre) _ 139* Florentine _ . . _ Emperor of Austria 242J Ta vernier . ^. ^, 1668 Stolen in 1792 ISO 410 254 Si 127 Pitt or Regent ... _ Star of the South M 1775 Kiiif,' of Portugal King of Prussia A ItraziUan ttinvm4 186i K **> i V Koh-i-noor ... ^. ... B.C.*68 Queen of England Bhah . ^ Czar of Rubbia 891 388} 781 Nassao ... m , ^. Lijjht yellftv ..,. Lord [Marquis of] Westmlnstet Stewart idiamond) 160 Porter Rhodes . . 1871 found in South Africa 119 aa i Sancy... Pigott _ . Uth cent. Czar of Russia Bought by Messrs. RondeO and a 1 98 Star of South Africa .. Dudley Hope _ . Pacha of Egypt ... ^. Charles the Bold... 1867 Bridge Earl of Dudley Mr. Henry Hope's family Khedive of Kgypt The Oreat Mogul Is the Koh-i-noor. The Brnganza diamond was discovered In Brazil, and is now among the Portuguese State Jewels. It is the size of a hen s etfg and Is valued at 58 million pounds sterling. It has never been cut. nnd many fancy It munt be a white Topaz ; if so, the diamond of the Knjah of Mat tan is th<> known. K. W. BTKUTKB, in his ' Precious Stones and Oems ' (p. Ill), says it 1* valued at 5tt,B50,uuU. V for the hitlory a/ Uuie diamond* tee under the rapcctive name*. Diamond Necklace (Th\ 1785. A necklace presented through Madame de Lamotte by Cardinal de Rohan, as he supposed, to Marie Antoinette. It was a swindling transaction of the Countess de Lamotte. The fact is this. The Cardinal de Rohan, a profligate church- man, entertained a love passion for the queen; and the Countess de Lainotte induced him to purchase for 85,0002. a diamond necklace, made for Madame Dubarry, and present it to the queen. The cardinal handed the necklace to the countess, and when the time of payment arrived Boehmer, the jeweller, sent bis bill in to the queen. Marie Antoinette denied all knowledge of the matter, and in the trial which ensued it was proved that the countess had sold the necklace to an English jeweller and kept the money. The trial lasted nine months, and created immense scandal. Diane de France. The Duchess of Angouleme (1538-1619). She married Francois de Montmorency, and in 1572 contrived his escape from the massacre of St. Bartholomew. She exercised great influence over Henri III. and Henri IV. of France. Diane de Poitiers (1499-1500). Married Louis de Bri'zf?. Her influence in the court of Ueuri II. of France waj paramount. The king created her Duchesse de Valentinois. Even Catherine de Medicis, the queen, was under the thumb of the court favourite. At the death of Henri II. she retired to Anet, and disappeared wholly from public life. Diapason. See ' Musical Scale,' &c. Diapente (4 syl.). See 'Musical Scale,' &c. Diatessaron. Bee ' Musical Scale,' &c. Diatessaron (Tatian't). An here- tical precis of Four ' Gospels,' ascribed to Tatian, and supposed to confirm the existence of four gospels, and only four, received by the church at the time. There were three or more Tatians in the first four centuries of some celebrity : L The Platonic philosopher (born in Syria, AJ>. 130), a disciple of Justin the Martyr, author of ' Discourses to the Greeks' (published by C. Gessner ia 1546, and by Otto, Ie"na, 1851). He be- came a Gnostic and chief of the En- cratistes, or total abstainers. II. Tatian of Mesopotamia, who lived in the 5th cent., author of the 'Diates- saron ' in bad Greek ; a Latin transla. tion by Victor of Capua is inserted in the ' Library of the Fathers.' TTT, A martyr who suffered death in the reign of Julian. His day ia 18 Sept, &c DICKON DIET 255 Many erroneously ascribe the ' Diates- saron' to the Platonic Tatian, but the Greek of the ' Discourses ' is far better than that of the ' Diatessaron,' and the style of thought is widely different. Dickon of the Broom. Richard Cceur de Lion. So called from the genista or broom plant worn by his ancestors, as pilgrims, symbolical of humility ; whence the name Plantagenet. Strange as it may seem, never was there BO proud and overbearing a line of princes as these self-styled ' humble ones.' Dictator. The first dictator of Rome was Titus Lartius, created dictator B.C. 498, about nine years after the expul- sion of the ' kings.' The cause was the fear of a domestic sedition. Cincinnatus was dictator B.C. 458; Mamercus JDmilius in 4S7, 433, and 426 ; Quintus Servilius, B.C. 489 ; Camillus was five times dictator, B.C. 896, 890, 889, 868, 867 ; Papirius about 820 ; and Fabius Maximus 815. After B.C. 202 the office fell into abeyance ; but in B.C. 82 it was revived by Sulla ; in B.C. 48 Julius Csesar was dictator. The office was offered to Augustus B.C. 23, but declined. The office WM formally abolished by Antony Dictator of Letters (The). Vol- taire (1694-1778). Dictum of Kenilworth (The), 15 Oct., 1266. After the battle of Eves- ham and death of Simon de Mont fort, Montfort's younger son shut himself up in Kenilworth Castle, and there sustained for six months a siege by the royal forces of Henry in., but at the end of six months he surrendered. A decree was then enacted that hereafter all who took up arms against the ruling sovereign shall pay to the crown five years' value of all their lands and possessions. This it called ' The Dictum of Kenilworth.* Dido, niece of Jezebel. ITHORAL I., king of Tyre (1 Kings xvl. 18) had for children, BEL[US], Margenus, and Jezebel. Belus was the father of PYGMALION and Dido (of Carthage). Hence Jezebel w& Dido's aunt. Dies Fasti. Business days. On these days, marked F, the prsetor adminis- tered justice, and assemblies of the people might be held. Subsequently a law was passed forbidding the holding of a comitia upon certain of the dies fasti. Fasti dies, qaibus certa verba legitima, slna ptooulo. prcatorlbiu Ucebat farl. Erant hwo trla. - !0 Uusl> "**" [eM ^ A mea Dies Intercisi. Half-holidayg. On these days it was lawful to administer justice one part of the day, but not fot the other half. Dies Ir 89. A famous medieval hymn on the Last Judgment, beginning with the line ' Dies me, dies ilia,' supposed to be the work of Thomas of Cela'no, a native of Abruzzi, in Naples, who died about 1255. It forms a portion of the service of the mass. The first and third stanzas are : fc Dies Iran, dies Ilia, Solvet steclum In fa villa, Teste David cum Sibylla. III. Tuba mlrum spargens sonata Per sepulcra regionum, Coget omnos ante thronum. I. That day of wrath, that fearful day, Shall melt both heaven and earth away. As David and the Sibyl say. III. The trumpet by the angel blown Shall wake the dead, bring bone to bon*. And summon all before the throne. Dies ISTefasti. Holidays. On these days it was unlawful to administer justice, and assemblies of the people could not be held. Marked N. Numa nefastoa dies fastosque fecit. LiVT, bk. 1. 10. Diet (The). I. Of th old German Empire. It was summoned by the em- peror twice a year, and of tener if needful, and met usually at Ratisbon. The em- peror and his diet levied taxes, enacted laws, declared war, and made peace. The diet consisted of three chambers, that of the electors, that of the princes, and that of the Imperial cities. Each chamber deliberated separately, and then the electors and princes ratified or re- fused the proposition. If they ratified it, the emperor was asked to sign it, and it became law. Switzerland and Poland had their diets. Greek tuur, the diet of the Atom^a*. or Justices-in- eyre. II. Of the German Bund. A per- manent assembly containing the pleni- potentiaries of the thirty-five sovereign states. The place of meeting was the free city of Frankfort-on-the-Main. The diet might be either a plenum of seventy representatives, or a federative council of seventeen. Every state of the Bund 56 DIET DIET has at least one vote in the plenum \ Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Han- over, and Wiirtemberg had four votes each, five other states had three votes each, and three other states had each a double vote. In the minor or federative council the eleven principal states had one vote each, and all the rest of the states six votes amongst them. Austria always presided. Superseded in 1848 by the National Assembly. See ' Keichstag.' This was all changed In 1-71. Aa to Hanover. It IB now only a geographical name. It was attached to Prussia in Ift6. Diet of Augsburg (The). L 1680. Convened by Karl V. to put an end to the Lutheran controversy. At this diet the Protestant party presented and read out their ' Confession,' or summary of their faith. This summary spread over twenty-eight chapters, and had been drawn up by Melanchthon. A confuta- tion on behalf of the Romanists was put in, and met the emperor's approval. It was therefore decreed that all Protest- ants shall forthwith return to their allegiance to the see of Borne on pain of the emperor's severe displeasure. This decision led the Reformers into an alliance, called ' The League of Smal- kald ' (q.v). See ' Augsburg Confession.' There were three other dleto, so-called. In 1500. 1618, 1M8 (tee ' Interim '); and 1656, which conceded to t >,- Lutherans liberty of conscience. See next article. II. 26 Sept., 1555. Also called "The Religious Peace of Augsburg.' Accord- ing to the treaty of Passau (1552) an imperial council was called for the autumn of 1555. Karl V. would take no part in it ; he was disgusted at the turn of affairs, and deputed his brother Ferdi- nand, ' king of the Romans,' to represent him. The diet was held at Augsburg, and full liberty of conscience was con- firmed. Lutherans and Catholics were declared alike eligible to all offices of the state, and to seats in the imperial diet. Every ruler in Germany might sanction in his own province whatever form of religion he chose, but all were to tolerate those who held different views. Diets of Compearance. Scotland. The days on which a party to a civil or criminal process is cited to appear in court. Till 1*28 there were two such diets, because there were two summonses, but since then only one summon* and one diet to a process, Diet of Hungary (The). Is com- posed of the king (i.e. Emperor of Austria) and two chambers. The upper chamber consisting of the higher clergy, the mag- nates, the two courts of appeal, and two representatives from each chapter, county, city, and privileged district. Diet of La Magione (The), 1509. The confederacy of Cardinal Orsini, hi brother Paolo, Vitellozzo Vitelli, and other magnates, to assassinate Cesaro Borgia. Cesare by craft managed to assemble all the lords of this conspiracy, apart from their troops, in the castle of Sinigaglia, where he had them all strangled. Diet of Roncaglia (The), 12 Nov., 1158. It declared Italy to pertain to the empire of Germany. Diet of Spire or Speyer (The). In Bavaria. L AJ>. 1526. Called by the German princes to terminate the reli- gious differences stirred up by Martin Luther. It was resolved to request the Emperor Karl V. to call a general council, and in the interim each indi- vidual state in Germany was to regulate its own church matters. IL AJ>. 1529. In which the decrees of the previous diet were revoked and de- clared to be illegal. The Edict of Worms was directed to be put in full force; and the Gospels were not to be preached except in the sense approved of by the Church. The Lutheran princes protested against this decision of the diet, and appealed to the emperor (Karl V.) and to the next general council. Hence arose the name of Protestants. See ' Diet of Worms.' Diet of Switzerland (The). In composed of the representatives of the several cantons, and is held every two years, alternately at Zurich, Berne, and Lucerne. Each canton has a vote. Diet Of Worms (The). 1. 1495. Maxi- milian asked for troops against Charles VIII. of France; but instead of troops the diet proclaimed a perpetual peace, by which decree private feuds were stamped out; for instead of appeals to arms the angry barons were commanded to refer their grievances to courts of law. II. The Diet of 15-21 , to which Charle*- quint (Karl V.) cited Luther, and com- manded him to rccaut. Luther made. DIETRICH DIONYSIAN 257 answer: 'Whatsoever can be shown in my writings contrary to the Word of God I will freely retract ; but he who shall take away from that book or add thereto, God will take away his part from the Book of Life.' Luther was then dismissed. This is what is generally meant by the ' Diet of Worms.' The other diets of Worms were those of 1547 and 1578. Dietrich. A German way of spell- ing Theodoric, the great Gothic hero. Dieu et mon Droit. Assumed as * motto by Richard Cceur de Lion (1189- 1199). It was revived by Edward III. in 1840. Diffusion of Useful Know- ledge (Society for the), 1825. Consist- ing chiefly of eminent public characters and men of distinguished literary and scientific merit. The object was the diffusion of useful knowledge to all classes of society, by periodical litera- ture. Mr. Henry (afterwards Lord) Brougham was the leader, and published the first book, on ' The Objects, Advan- tages, and Pleasures of Science,' in 1827. Digest. The Pandects of Justinian, in fifty books, containing the opinions of eminent lawyers on points of Roman law, digested or arranged in systematical order by Tribonian and sixteen assist- ants. It was finished in three years, A.D. 583. Digesta is the Latin term ; the proper Greek title is Pandecice. The symbol is S, a corruption of the Greek it (p). A manuscript copy of Justinian's Digest was discovered at Amalfi in 1187, and was carried from Pisa to Florence in 1411. Dilemee (The). The middle part of Ghilan, raised into a separate government by Abu Shu j ah ul Buiyah, a fisherman, while Persia was under the califs (10th cent.). The government of the Dilemee included Irak, Fars, Kerman, Khuzistan, and Laristan. Dilemites (3 syl.) or 'Bouides,' (a syl.). A Mussulman dynasty (932-1055) in Fars, Kerman, Khuzistan, Laristan, and part of Irak, contemporary with the Samanides (q.v.), while Persia was a province of the califs. Founded by Abu Shujah ul Buiyah, a fisherman of Dilem iu Mazanderan. He had three tons, and an astrologer told him all his sons should be kings, and so it was : Ali, his eldest son, was king of Fars and Irak Adjemi. Dying childless, he was succeeded by his brother Ruken uDowlut Hussein Buiyah. The third of the fisherman's sons was virtually king of Bagdad. Persia was at the time a province of the Califs. The Samanides (q.v.) were contemporary from Dilettanti Society (The). A so- ciety of some sixty gentlemen for the study of antique art, formed into a club in 1784, and holding its meetings in the Thatched-house Tavern, St. James Street. In 1764 three members were sent to the East to make drawings : they were Mr. Chandler for the literary part, Mr. Revett for the architectural part, and Mr. Pars to take drawings of bas-reliefs and views. They returned in 1766, and published two magnificent volumes. In 1811 another expedition was sent out, viz. Mr. Gill (Sir William), Mr. Francis Bed- ford, and Mr. John Gandy, who visited Asia Minor, and published two volumes of drawings, one in 1817 and the other in 1835. These are all first-class works. The following gentlemen were members of the society : Sir Joshua Reynolds, Charles James Fox, the Duke of Norfolk, George Selwyn, David Garrick, George Colman, Lord Holland, Sir Joseph Banks, and Sir George Beaumont. Dinner Bell (The). Edmund Burke (1729-1797), though a great orator, was, especially in the latter part of his life, most prolix. General Fitzpatrick said of him : Ask any person In the house who is the best- Informed man, and the answer will certainly be Mr. Burke. Ask who is the greatest wit, and the answer will be Mr. Burke. Who is the most eloquent? Mr. Burke. Who is the most tedious ? Mr. Burke. Dionysian Cycle (The). The cycle harmonising the Alexandrine and Roman usage. It was Dionysius Exiguus who constructed this table, which was in use till the reform of the calendar by Gregory XIII., in the latter half of the 16th cent. Dionysian Period (The), of ' Great Paschal Period,' 532 years. The Ethiopians, who use the ' Era of Diocle- tian,' do not date as we do, consecutively from one period, but after the lapse of 532 years begin again. This is called the ' Dionysian Period.' DIONYSIU3 DISPERSION Dionysius the Areopagite (Acts xii. 84). The books called the ' Celestial Hierarchy,' ' Mystical Theology,' and the 'Name of God,' ascribed to him, are spurious, and certainly are not earlier than the 6th cent. See ' Literary For- geries.' Diploma (A). A'libellus duorum foliorum,' written on one side, granted by a magistrate either for a passport or to confer some privilege or favour on the person named therein. Greek iAoof double, SirrAoco to double, 5i.'rrAw/jLa. Diploma Leopoldinum. The constitution of Transylvania, granted by Leopold I. the Magna Charta of Tran- sylvanian freedom. It guaranteed reli- gious toleration, the existence of Hun- garian laws, and the reservation of offices and appointments of state to natives only, and a large number of minor immunities. Directions (The), 1695. For the unity of opinion in the doctrine of the Trinity, issued by command of William and Mary under the advice of Archbishop Tenison. It followed the Injunctions for the maintenance of church discipline. Directory (The). 'Le Directoire, 1 the executive of the Constitution of Year IEL (27 Oct., 17959 Nov., 1799). The legislature consisted of two houses, the Council of Elders and the Council of 600. The number of the directors was five, named by the two councils, and they were elected for five years, without power of re-election. They appointed the ministers and les generaux-en-chef. Abolished by Napoleon in Nov. 1799. The military glory of France was never greater than in the Directory. It had for Its commander* Bonaparte, Kleber, Deaaix, Mauena, and Moreau. Directory for Public Worship (The), or ' The Directory,' 1646. A book put forth by the Westminster Assembly of Divines (q.v.) to supersede the Book of Common Prayer. The Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments were omitted ; the sign of the cross in baptism, private and lay baptism, and the use of the ring in matrimony were disallowed ; the Confession, the absolu- tion in the ' Visitation of the Sick,' the Burial Service, saints' days, and Christ- inas Day were dispensed with ; the Apocrypha, vestments, crosses, crucifixes. roodscreens were forbidden. For the use of the people the Assembly put forth their ' Larger and Shorter Catechisms.' The Directory contained directions, but no prayers. It is almost obsolete. Disastrous Peace (The). 'La Paix Malheureuse,' 1558. Made after the battle of Gravelines. It was signed at Cateau-Cambresis. By this treaty Henri II. of France renounced all claim to Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Corsica. Thus ended the Italian war, which had lasted for sixty-five years (1483-1559). Discalceati of the Augustine Order were reformed by Friar Thomas of Jesus, a Portuguese, in 1570. Disciples of Christ (The), or the 1 Disciples.' Members of the ' Church of Christ,' or ' Campbellite Baptists.' Or- ganised by Alexander Campbell, who emigrated to America early in the 19th cent. They are Baptists, and think all Christians have departed from the sim- plicity of the gospel. They ignore all creeds, and take the Bible as their only rule of faith and practice. Discipline (The First Book of), 1560. Was drawn up by John Knox and four other ministers, laying down rules for the Scotch, for the election of their church ministers by the congregation, for their examination by the elders, for the election of elders, the way of dealing with ecclesiastical offenders, and other matters of discipline. 'THE SKCOND BOOK OF DISCTPUKB, 1678. AB exposition of Presbyterianlsm by the Committee of the General Assembly, in which Andrew Mel- Tille took a leading part. Ik seta forth the line of demarcation between the civil and ecclesiastical power*, the platform being Preebyteriani&m. Discoverers, 1628. Agents em- ployed by the English government, in the reign of James I., to scrutinise Irish titles to estates, and to discover flaws if possible. Their reward was a part of the lands discovered to have faulty titles. The disturbed state of Ireland, and the law fluctuating between English and Irish tenure, caused great laxity in the enrolment of patents and rights of all sorts in Ireland, and full 600.000 acres were added to the crown by the Disc over era, Dispersion (Day of the), 6 July. Instituted 1098, in commemoration of the dispersion of the apostles, each of whom then went to a specific field of labour- DISSENTERS DIVINE 259 Dissenters' Acts (The). In the reign of Charles II. The Corporation Act (q.v.), excluding dissenters from municipal offices, 1661 (18 Car. H. st. 2, c. 1). The Act of Uniformity (q.v.), 1662 (14 Car. H. o. 4). The Conventicle Acts (q.v.) of 1664 (16 Car. H. c. 1) and 1670 (22 Car. H. o. 1), forbidding conventicle assemblies. The Five Mile Act (q.v.), 1665 (17 Car. H. c. 2). The Test Act (q.v.), 1678 (25 Car. H. c. 2), excluding dissenters from govern- ment offices. Steal *<> the Toleration Act, exempting dissenters from certain penalties, 1689 (1 Will. & Mary, c. 18); the Savoy Conference (q.v.), 1661 ; and the ' Seven Bishops. 1 Dissidents (The), of Poland, 1548. The Greek Church party, with the Cal- vinists, Arians, and other Protestants. In 1578 Henry of Valois, by the * Pacta Conventa,' gave freedom of worship and quality of rights to all Poles, regardless of their religious creeds; but still the Catholics persecuted and oppressed the dissidents. In 1786 the ' Pacta Conventa ' was repealed. Russia interfered on behalf of the dissidents (for Russia be- longed to the Greek Church), and was supported by England, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark, but without success. In 1767 the dissidents united into what was called the Confederation of Radom, and applied to Russia to support their cause. Next year the Catholics of Poland, calling themselves * patriots,' combined into the Confederation of Bar. Poland was divided. Russia interfered, and this led, in 1772, to the partition of Poland. Dissidents. In Polish history. Originally the Polish Christians generally fipoke of themselves as ' nos dissidentes in religione ' from the Catholic Church ; but in 1572 the Catholics called the Lutherans 'dissidents' and the Greek Church ' schismatics.' Dissolution of Monasteries (The). The lesser monasteries, entirely dissolved in 1539 (31 Hen. VIII. c. 13), were restored by Queen Mary, but again suppressed, and the property vested in the crown 1559 (1 Eliz. c. 24). Distinguished Service Order (The), Nov. 181,6. A naval and military order founded by Queen Victoria for dis- tinguished merit iu the United Kingdom; Ditch (The), 625, or ' Expedition of the Nations.' The great defeat of the Koreish tribe by Mohammed; after which the tribe concluded a truce and then sur- rendered Mecca to him, Dithmarschen War (The). Count Gerhard VIL of Holstein at- tempted to subjugate Dithmarsch, but the inhabitants resisted, and defeated the count with considerable loss (1886). In 1500 John I. of Denmark resolved to subjugate the rebels, and marched into Dithmarsch with an army of 80,000 men ; but he was utterly defeated, and the sacred banner called ' the Dannebrog ' became the trophy of the conquerors. Diversions of Purley (The). A philological treatise by John Home Tooke (Pt I., 1786; Pt. II., 1805), to prove that all words were originally formed from objects of external percep- tion. Called ' Purley ' from the residence of William Tooke, his benefactor. The title of the work is headed by the Homeric phrase ra irrepDeVra. The persons of the dialogue are: B (for Dr. Beadon, afterwards bishop of Gloucester) ; H (tot Home Tooke). and 2' (for William Tooke). Divine Aspasia. ' Whom to know is a liberal education.' (Steele, ' Tatler, 1 No. 49 ; Lady Elizabeth Hastings, 1682- 1789). Divine Doctor (The), or the ' Ec- static Doctor.' Johan van Ruysbroeck, the mystic, born at Ruysbroeck, neat Brussels (1294-1381). Divine Legation (The), or, in full, * The Divine Legation of Moses demon- strated.' By William Warburton, bishop of Gloucester (1738), to prove that the Pentateuch must be a divine revelation, because it is silent on the subject of ft future state. This extraordinary pro- duction has laid under tribute such * parade of learning as was never equalled, except, perhaps, in Burton's 'Anatomy of Melancholy.' Everyone is aghast at the learning, but no one is convinced. Divine Bight of Kings (The). A 17th cent.' dogma, implying the belief that kings hold their office by divine appointment, and are the earthly repre- sentatives of deity. So they are in a theocracy like Judsea and the popedom. The dogma was sanctioned in the book of the Canons of Convocation, 1604 ; bu| a 9CO DIVORCE DOCTOR in the Bill of Rights, 1689, the right of the people to depose the monarch, to change the order of succession, and to confer the throne on whom they think proper is distinctly set forth. In Great Britain the monarch has only parlia- mentary right, and the parliament that makes a sovereign can unmake also. In Russia the Czar st ill claims the ' divine right to govern wrong, 1 and, accordingly, in 1883, AJer- ander insisted on placing the crown on his own Divorce a mensa et thoro (Latin). A partial divorce, severing wife and husband ' from board and bed,' but not annulling the marriage. In this sort of divorce neither husband nor wife could marry again so long as both remained alive. Divorces a mensa et thoro were granted by the ecclesiastical court when man and wife could not, from incompati- bility of temper or ill-usage, live under the same roof. Mow called 'Judicial separation ' ; the court baa power to order alimony for the wife. The new law of divorce date* from 1857. In 1878, by the ' Matrimonial Causes Amendment Act.' a wife can plead cruelty a* a sufficient cause fox judicial eparation. Divorce vinculo matrimonii. A total divorce ' from the bond of matri- mony,' in consequence of some canonical impediment existing before marriage, uch as bigamy, kinship within the pro- hibited degrees, &c. The children of uch parents are illegitimate. By the law of 1867 adultery ia made a valid plea tor an entire dissolution of marriage; but the Council of Trent, which closed in 1 ''>.. pronounced marriage to be absolutely indissoluble. Divorce Court, 1857 (28, 24 Viet 144). A court which takes the juris- diction of divorce out of the ecclesiast ioal courts. It is composed of a judge ordinary, the three chiefs in the courts of common law, and three present judges. After divorce the offending party is free to marry again. Dix-huit Brumaire. Tear VIII. The coup d'ttat of Bonaparte, when the Directory was overthrown, and the su- premacy of Bonaparte established (9 Nov. 1799). Dixie Professorship. Of eccle- astical history. Stipend 6001. a ; and a fellowship at Emmanuel Coll iastical history. Stipend 500J._a year liege. Founded in the University of Cambridge by Sir William Dixie, of Emmanuel College, 1881. Djezzar, i.e. Butcher. Achmed Pacha (1785-1804). He was originally a slave, and rose to the pashalic of Acre. He is noted for his dogged defence of Acre against Napoleon I. in 1799. His cruelty was a monomania, for at times he was both tender-hearted and charitable. 00 4 Butcher.' Djoubanians (The). A dynasty which reigned in Irak and Khorassan from JLD. 1335 till 1378, founded l>v Djouban, tutor of Behader-Khan. He married the khan's sister and revolted. Tamerlane conquered this part of Persia, and made his son governor thereof. Doce'tBB (The), or 'Docetes' (8 syl.). A sect ascribed to Simon Magus. They believed that the body of Christ was a sort of phantom body, like that which had appeared to Adann' and Eve, Cain and Abel, Noah and Abraiiam, and there- fore that the sufferings and death of Christ were not real. Supposed to be referred to in 2 John vii. (Greek o/, to seem, to appear.) The Dooetn were a Gnostic sect, and, like the Gnostics gMIMlllj. considered matter the oppo- site of spirit, and evil the opposite of good. A* God is spirit and only good, evil must be resident In matter, and it would be no more possible for a divine nature to take a material body than for good to mix with evil. Doce'tism. The doctrine of the Docetffl (q.v.), which was this, that the humanity, the actions, and the sufferings of Christ were only phenomenal and not real. Doctor Doctorum. Alexander of Hales, Gloucestershire, the ' Irrefragable Doctor,' a friar minor, who applied the rules of Aristotle to school philosophy. His chief work is ' Summa Theologi.' He died in 1215. Doctor My-book. John Abernethy (17G4-1B31). So called because he said to so many of his patients, ' I must refer you to my book ; there are only about a dozen pages you need read. Begin at p. 78, and yon will soon find all that I can tell you or you need know.' He was not a physician, but a surgeon. His fundamental principle was that most njlments, whether of the legs or eyes, feet or head, are due to deranged diges- tion, and that a ' blue pill,' with 4 ozs. of food three time* a day, will prove panacea. DOCTOB DOCTORS 261 Doctor of Asia. POLYCABP, bishop of Smyrna, in Asia ; or ' Doctor of the Holy Church of Smyrna' (26 Jan.), 72- 167. Doctor of Dancing (The}. Beau- champs, of whom Louis XIV. took lessons for twenty years. Beauchampi died 1695. Doctors (Scholastic) who bear complementary titles. Those marked with ft * are ' Doctors of the Church.' The rest are, for the most part, Mediaeval Schoolmen, %* Those without a date have been borrowed from a list sent from America to the publishers. Doctor Admirabilia Angellcus ... AuthenticuB Christie Collectlvus Com munis _ M Difflcilia _ _ .. Divinua .... Poctorum M. M Dulcifluua M M Dulcissimua . m Ecstatieus... . M Evangelicua , ... Facundus . . M Famosissimua M . Famosus ... , M Fertilis ... *. M Fundatissimus ~. _ FundatuB ......... et Copiosus Illibatua ... . ..... Illuminatus ...... ., Illustratua BACON (Roqer)... M M m w . . 1214-1293 AQUINAS (r/w7/w) -.,'.,. .. 1224-1274 . GREGORY of Rimini M . M M M M M. died 1357 BRINKEL ( IFaiter) ...... M M M M ^. OERSON (John Charlier de) M M ~. . M . 1363-1429 CARACCIOLI (Lardolpho) M. M M M m . AQDINAS (r^owirt) ... . ^. ... ^. 1224-1274 JOHN of Ripatransone w M . . . . RUYSBROECK (Jan cte) M m M. M M. . 1294-1881 HALES (Alexander of) ...... m M M . died 1246 ANDKE.K or ANDREAS Unfoniut] M M M M died 1320 BUY8BBOECK (Jan de) . . 1294-1381 WYCHF (John) .., ~. ~. ~. . 1H24-1384 PETER AUREOLUB .*..._ ... ~. 14th cent INNOCENT V. .... r2-25-l27 TORRE (Bertrandde la) M . M M m , M FRANCIS of Candla ...... ^. ^ ....-. fioiDiusor GILES of Colonna^. ^, ..... 1247-1818 VARRO (Guliebnus) M .... . 18th cent MlDDLETON (Kit-hard) ... . ~. ^. . died 1364 ALEXANDER Alemanicoa LULLY CRilVWKW ^. . MARCA (Franyois i 1235-1316 died 132? Ingeniosissimusill Invincibilis M Irrefragabilia M M Marianua ... . . Mellittuus^. Methodical _ . Mirabllia . . Notabilia ... . .. Optimus ... ^, M OrdinatiBsimua ... , Perspicuus . Plan us et Clarus _ et Perspicuoa.M Profitabilis ... . Profundissimus .. m 1'rofundus... M. . ADAM de Marisco (bishop of Ely) vo Castro ^ died 1237 ALPHONSO de Novc _, _ OCCAM ( William) (excommunicated by John XXII). . 1276-1847 TOME (P eter) HALES (Alexander of) (Gloucestershire) ... . M died 1248 DUNS SCOTUS (founder of. tho Scotibts) ^ ^. . 1265-1308 BERNARD of Clairvaux* . . ... . _ 1091-1153 BASSOL (Jo/in), a Scot . ^ .'-... died 1847 BACON (Roger) _..*._ . 1214-1293 PETER del'Isle ... . M ~. . ~. ~. ANTONY of Padua ... M . M M w ^ 1195-1231 BASSOL (Jo^n), a Scot . ___..._ died 134? BONET (Nicholas) . . ^ ^. ~. . died I860. 1275 135T died I860 I 24 ? I 36 Refulgidus . ^. Resolutissimua _ M Resolutua ... BONET (Nicholas) _...._ /V.diDii-s or GILES of Colonna ... _ .. JACOBUS de Ascoli ... _ BRADWARDINK (Thomai) (bishop of Chichester) ... . 1290-1849 MIDDLETON Uttcliard) ~. died 1364 ALEXANDER V. (pope) ... ... 1389-1410 DURAND de St. Pourcain (Guillaume) (bishop of Meaux) 12G7-133J _._. BACONSTHORP (John) ... M M. M. . WESSEL (Jan Hermann) ... . ... _. ~. _ . ~ ALFRED, the Philosopher ... ... ~. ...... M M. w ANSELU, archbishop of Canterbury* m . . ... ANSELM of Laon M . BURIDAN ^ . . 1295 1360 Z ~ . CASTRO NOTO (Hugh de) (an Englishman) ... -. M died 1310 Mt ^ ODON (Gc'rard) M. , ... ... ... ^. [John of Antioch, Climacut (525 600), and Epiphanua ware also urnamed ' Scolasticus.1 died 1340 1419-1489 died 1270 1033-1109 1050 1117 Seraphicua , . Singularis . . Solemnia -... Solidus Sublimis et Illuminatua Sublilis . . BOKA VENTURA (Qiovonni di Fidenza)* m 1221-1274 M. OCCAM (William) (excommunicated by John XXIL) . 1276 134T . GOETHALS (Henry of Ghent) ~. -. ~ 1217 1298 MIDDLETON (Richard) ... died 1364 Z TAULER (Johann) ....-. jaw ig ^. DUNS SCOTUB .>. 1265-1808 Bufflcens " PlETRO Aqulla Z 1850-1420 Theologicus m CLEMENOES (Matihieu Nicholas de) *.__. 1860-1440 Ultimus Scholasticorum . BiEL (Gabriel) M M ... M ~. ~. 1420-1491 M. . AQUINAS (Thomas)* . . M ~. ~. 1224-12 -. . M ALAN de 1'Isle M M M M ~. M* H14-120J _ . ^ LYRA(A'fr/wJdl| r Z Z Z Z - m^'l^2 HlLDEBERT M. . w 1055-1131 Z Z Z OCCAM (Will-lain) Z Z Z Z . 1276-134J Universalis UtiliB Yauerabilia DOCTORS DOCTORS Doctor VenerabiHs PIERRE de Cluny .. [Bede the Anglo-Saxon historian (673-735) is also called the ' Venerable.'] Doctor Venerandtu GREGORY of Fonts -... II. A SUPPLEMENTAL LIST. Other complementary titles. Aquila Doctorum AlLLY (l>i. f the ' Fathers ' (3B Jan.) ... lireek EFHRKM, ' the Deacon ' of Odessa. One of the ' Fathers U Feb.) ... G reeJt EPIPHANIU8, bishop of Constantia, In Cyprus. One of the 'Fathers' (U ifay) Greek FDLOKNTIUS (Falritu Claudius Gordina- ma), bishop of Kusplna. In Africa, the ' Augustine of his age ' (1 Jan.) Latin O&KOOBY the Great, pope (12 March) Latin Naiiansus, In Cappadocla, Theologian.' One of the 'Father*, and archbishop of Con- stantinople (9 May) GREGORY of Nyssa, brother of 8. Basil (a March) Latin HILARY, bishop of Poitiers, 'Malleus Arlanorum ' and the ' Rhone of Latin Eloquence.' One of the ' Fathers ' of the Church (18 Jan.) l^itin HIPPOLYTUS, bishop of Portus. In Rome, author of the ' Refutation of all Here- sies (22 Aug.) Greek l8iiK)KK, archbishop of SeTllie, ' the Theologian ' (4 April) Latin JKRUMK, ' Father of the Latin Charcb ' (30 Sept.) Latin JOHN CHRY808TOM (Golden IJouth), pa- triarch of Constantinople, and one of the ' Fathers ' iU7 Jan.) 0rcft DOCTORS DODD S6S JOHN DAMASCENES or ' Joannes Damas- - cenue(6May) Greek 696-756 EO I. the Great, pope (11 April) Latin 390-461 NAHEN, prophet of Antioch (24 May.) (See Abbe Migiie, ' Dictioimaire Ha- giographique ') Greek HlL of Ancyra. of Galatia. A disciple of St. ChryBOslom. (See Migne, ' Diction- naire Hagiographique , (12 Nov^ ORIOKN of Alexandria (22 April) Greek 186 247 PANTENUS or Panteenus of Alexandria (7 July) ... Greek 155-216 PIETRO CHRYSOI/OGUS (Golden Speech), archbishop of Eavenna (2 Dec.) Latin died 450 PROSPER AQUITANAS (25 June) ... Latin 403-464 BATYRUS, brother of 8. Ambrose (17 Sept.) Latin 838-878 THOMAS of Aquino or THOMAS AQUINAS, ' Angel of the Schools, 1 ' Eagle of Di- vines,' 'Universal and Angelic Doc- tor,' ' The Fifth Doctor of the Church,' ' The Dumb Ox ' (7 March) ... Latin 1224-1274 V The four preceding doctors of the Latin Church were 1. AMBROSE of Milan 840-897 t. AUGUSTINE of Hippo . 854-4SO . JEROME, ' Father of the Latin Church ' 345-420 A. GREGORY the Great 544-604 When Pius V. In 1667 declared Aquinas to be the ' Fifth Doctor of the Church,' he did not ignore those between Gregory and Aquinas, but spoke of B. Thomas as we speak of the Tenth Muse, or Eighth Wonder of the World, meaning some one or some wonder of striking excellence. There may have been others more learned than Aqui- nas, as there are poets superior to Marie Lejars de Gournay, surnamed ' the Tenth Muse,' and buildings more marvellous than the palace of the Escurial of Toledo, called the ' Eighth Wonder.' Such phrases are merely complementary hyper- bole. Doctors of the Sorbonne. * Doc- teurs en Sorbonne.' The Sorbonne is a secular ecclesiastical college founded in Paris by Robert de Sorbon in 1252. The members live in common, and are pro- vided with everything necessary for life and well-being. The head of the college is called the Proviseur, and his assistant is called a Prior. The buildings were re- stored by Richelieu in the 17th cent. Since 1821 these buildings have been the seat of the University of Paris, consecrated to humanity studies, the arts, sciences, and theology The following doctors of the Sorbonne are placed in the 'Petits Bollandistes ' among the saints. They were ' Martyrs of the Revolution ' (M. R.). BURTE (Jean Franyoit), whose day is 2 Sept. WEVR (rincent de), 26 June THORAME (Jules de Pazcry de) ' 2 Sept. Doctors' Commons. A college of doctors in the civil law, London, wherein the Court of Admiralty and the princi- pal ecclesiastical courts were held. Founded by Dr. Henry Harvey, dean of the Arches. The original house was destroyed by the great fire of London in 1666. Building taken down in 1867. Doctrinaires. I. or ' Pretres de la Doctrine,' 1592. Founded by Csesar de Bus of Avignon, and confirmed by the pope in 1597. The object of the society was to instruct the poor, especially hi rural districts, in religious matters. Many schools were under them. Caesar de Bus also established a female society for women called ' Filles de la Doctrine.' II. 1815. A political party in Franca favourable to a constitutional govern- ment, and hoping to combine perfect liberty with regality. Royer-Collard was the chief, or pere de la doctrine. See above. The following were eminent doctrinaires, vl. Camille Jordan, De Broglie, De Serre, Duchatel. Duvergier, De Hauraniie, Guizot, Jaubert, and Bemusat. Doctrine of Signatures (The). The doctrine that visible signs indicate the virtues and uses of natural objects. Thus white was cold, and red hot. Hence in fever red medicines, such as mulberries and pomegranates, were prescribed. For liver complaints yellow substances wera recommended. Malignant plants, says Coles, have a sad or evil appearance, either in their leaves, flowers, or fruit. Euphrasia, or ' eye-bright,' has a spot like the pupil of the eye ; walnuts, which represent the human brain, are good for idiocy ; nettle-tea for the nettle-rash ; bilberry and turmeric, being yellow, are good for jaundice; liver-wort, which is spotted like tubercles on the liver, is good for liver complaints. So through- put Nature puts her label on everything, if men were but wise enough to read her writing. Doctrines of Port- Royal. The community of Port Royal, in Paris, were the most strenuous defenders of the famous book called ' Augustlnus ' by Cornelius Jansen, which was designed to show that St. Augustine was unsound on the doctrines of grace, free-will, predesti- nation, and universal redemption. Jan- sen's book was condemned by Pope Urban VHL, and the school of Port Royal was suppressed in 1660. [She] had adopted the tenets of the Jansenlsts, with perhaps a still further tendency towards tha reformed doctrines than those of Port BoyaL Si* W. SCOTT, Hedgaunllct, chap. xvii. Dodd, D.D. (William), 1758-1777. Hanged at Tyburn for forging the nam of Lord Chesterfield to a bond for 4,2004 E64 DODO DOMESDAY Dodo (The). This bird, now extinct, was seen by the Portuguese in the Mau- ritius in 1499 ; it was seen by the Dutch in 1598 ; it was figured by De Bry in 1601, by Clusin in 1605, and by Bontius in 1G58 ; the bones of a dodo were dis- covered in the Mauritius by Clark in 1805. There Is a dodo'B foot In the British Museum ; * head and foot iu the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Dog, or ' Dog Steenie.' George Vil- liers duke of Buckingham. When first made the king's favourite [James L], the queen said ' Now you must be my watch- dog, and whenever the king is inclined to make a fool of himself, you must pull the old sow by the ear.' Buckingham -wrote from Madrid to James to end over jewels: 'first your best h tband, the Portugal diamond, the rest of the pendent dia- monds to make up a necklace to give the Infanta, and the best rope of pearls, with a rich chain or two for myself to wear, or else your dog will lack a eollar ' (1628). Dog-days, or ' Canicular Days.' The forty days beginning with 8 July and ending 1 1 Aug. So-called from Caniculus, the Dog-star, or Sirius, in the constella- tion called Canis Major, the brightest of the fixed stars. The Egyptians had the beginning of their year dependent on the heliacal rising of the Canicula, coinciding with the flood of the Nile. Dogs, or Barbets. So the Vaudois were usually called by the Catholics. The Vaudois employed by gentlemen as foot- men to stand behind a carriage were called barbets. The Marquises Floury and Angrogna, fearing the bite of the dogs (birtx-fe), were not the last to run away. LfcoKR (quoted by Ant. Monaatier, HM. e/tht Vaudoit Church, p. 804). Dogado. The territory of the doge of Venice, comprising the city of Venice, the isles of Malamocco, Chioggia, and Brondolo, with a narrow slip of coast be- tween the mouths of the Adige and the Musone. By a law in 1867 neither the doge nor any of his family could hold any estate beyond the dogado, and if before raised to the office any doge happened to have any estate or fief beyond this terri- tory, he was obliged to sell it Doge, i.e. duke. The chief magis- trate of several Italian republics. In Venice (697) and Amain (897) the office was held for life; in Genoa from 1528 there were twelve doges a year. Th doge was both general and judge, ruling in concert with a representative council of the chief citizens. The first doge of Venice, 697, was Paulucci Anaferto ; the last was Ludovico Marlni, for in 1795 Napoleon I. abolished the office. Marini was elected in 1789, and died 1808. The doge was ' rex in foro, senator in curia, captivus hi aula.' The constitution of Venice waa a pyramid, i ngon the basis of the grand council, and rl_._, through the senate and the college to the doge, the rising the office was limited to two years, in ! Ragusa from 787 it was monthly, so that ornamental apex. In 1172 the election of doge waa transferred from the people to the grand council. Dogget's 'Coat and Badge,' 1715. The prize of a rowing match on the Thames, instituted by Thomas Dogget, an actor. The race day is 1 Aug., the day of the accession of George I. The race is from London Bridge to the ' Old Swan ' at Chelsea, when the tide \% strongest against the rowers. Dogmael's Stone (St.). A stone in Pembrokeshire with an inscription in Ogham. See ' Golspie Stone.' There 1* another near Margam In Glamorgan- Bhlre, and one near Crickhowcl, In Brecknock- shire. The town is called St. Dogmell in Bartho- lomew'* Gazetteer.' Dogmatists and Empirics. Two schools of medicine in Alexandria which prevailed during the three centuries pre- ceding the birth of Christ. The Dogma- tists or Methodists were those who fol- lowed certain prescribed rules; the Empirics were those who trusted to experiment and experience. The chief of the Dogmatists were Erastratos, The- mison, and Coelius Aurelianus. The chief of the Empirics were Phi linos of Com, Sextus Empiricm, and Heraclldes of Tarentum. Dom-Boc. A book of dooms or ' Liber Judicialis.' A code of laws com- piled by Alfred the Great from the West Saxon collection of Ina, the Kentish col- lection of Ethelbert, and the Mercian laws of Off a. It begins, ' The Lord spake all these words, say- ing. . . .' Then follow the Ten Commandments, part of the Mosaic Law, and the Golden Rule; then the ecclesiastical and civil laws. Dome of Chosroes (The). A mag- nificent edifice in Modain, one of the wonders of the East, built in the 6th cent, by Chosroes the Great of Persia. Domesday Book. See ' Doomsday Book,' DO-MICELLA DOMINUS 65 Domicellse Cameree Reginse. Ladies of the bedchamber ; generally, if not always, married ladies. Domicell89 Reginae. Maids of honour, and of course unmarried. Domiciliary Canons. Canons not in holy orders, and therefore having no right to any particular chapter. Domina Anglorum. Maud, daughter of Henry I., and mother of Henry II., by Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou. Domingo (Revolt of Santo) from the French yoke. (a) The revolt of the slaves broke out 22 Apg., 1791, and Toussaint Louverture, a negro chieftain, was proclaimed gover- nor for life in 1801, but he died in 1803. (b) Another revolt, to expel the French from the island, broke out in 1803. The revolters put themselves under British protection ; D'Essalines (originally a slave) was appointed governor, and the ancient name of Hayti was restored. In 1804 the governor declared himself em- peror of the whole island, but in 1806 he was assassinated, and the French part of the island was divided into two parts a negro republic and a mulatto com- monwealth. In 1822 Peter Boyer, a man of colour, reduced the whole island under one , government a representative re- public but he abdicated in 1843, and retired to Paris, where he died in 1850. (c) In 1844 the Spanish portion of the island was seized by the blacks, and formed into a republic under Santana, and in 1849 Faustin Soulouque, a negro, proclaimed himself Faustin I. emperor of Hayti, but he abdicated in 1861. Sal- nave was declared president 11 Jan., 1870, but was shot by the French on the 15th of the same month. At present (1890) the Island IB divided Into two republics : one (Hayti) French-speaking, and the Other (Santo Domingo) Spanish-speaking. Dominica Bran'donum. Pro- perly was the Sunday preceding Quadri- geBtina Sunday (1st in Lent). See ' Sun- days.' P.randones appellabant Oalll prim am quadra- gesimal is Jejunii hebdomadam, quod hujus prima die sub vesperum pueri brnndanibiu, seu facibua fcccensis februare solerent. Dominica brandonum QuHdnigcsimam prsecedit. DUCANGE, Glossary BRANDO). Dominica de Rosa, or 'Ltetare Sunday' (g.v.). The fourth Sunday in 12 Lent, when the pope blesses the golden rose. See ' Sundays.' , Domin'ical Letters (The). From Dominica (dies), i.e. Sunday ; the Sun- day Letters. They are A B C D E F G, used in almanacs to mark the Sundays throughout the year. The 1st, 8th, 15th, and 22nd days are marked A ; the 2nd, 9th, 16th, 23rd, &c., are marked B, and so on. Hence, on whatever day the first Sunday of the year falls, the letter which marks it will mark every other Sunday in the year. If it is A (the 1st of the month) every Sunday will be A, and so on, because there are seven days and seven letters. Dominicans, or Preaching Friars, 1215. A religious order of the rule of Augustine, founded by St. Dominic at Toulouse for preaching and the con- version of heretics. In 1233 the func- tion of Inquisitors was added. They had several houses in Italy, Spain, Por- tugal, France, Germany, and England, In 1218 the Dominicans of Paris were called Jacobins, because their convent was in the Rue St. Jacques. Among the, most famous of the order were Albert the Great, St. Thomas Aquinas, Ray- mond of Penafort, Vincent of Beauvais, Cai'etan, Dom Soto, &c. They sustained a long rivalry with the Franciscans, but were suppressed in France in 1790 by the National Assembly. Their outer dress is a black garment with a scapu- lary and capuchin of the same cloth. They also carry a rosary suspended from their girdle. By the Second Council of Lyons the Begging Friars were limited to the Dominicans or black Friars, the Franciscans or Grey Friars, the Augustines (also Black Friars), and the Carmelites or White Friars. There are Dominican nuns and Dominican t*f tlaries, &0. Dominicans, 1793, &c. Those Frenchmen who observed Sunday after the introduction of the new French Calendar, which abolished the week of seven days and introduced a decade of ten days instead. The Dominicans had, of course, fifty-two weeks in the year, the Decadists had thirty-six decades. Dominion Day. Canada, 2 July. Dominus. Ds. on tombstones, in the middle ages, indicates either a clergyman or a knight. Clergymen were then addressed as knights. 866 DOMINU8 DONATIST3 Dominus ac Redemptor Nos ter, 1778. The famous brief of Clement XIV. suppressing ' for ever the society of the Jesuits, out of regard to the peace of the church.' Domitian Road (The), B.C. 122. Constructed in Gaul by Cnfleua Domitius (Ahenobarbus). Don, Dom, Dona. Don Is Do- Dom ia Dom-inua, Dona is [mi]na. Don and Dona are Spanish forms, Dom is Portuguese. At one time these were given only to princes, bishops, and seniors, then to hidalgos ; hutnow-a- daya they are very often mere polite forms of address, like our esquire. Donald Ballach, . 0. the Freckled. Cousin-german of Alexander lord of the Isles. Donati (The), 1293. A faction in Florence opposed to the Cerchi. So named from two powerful houses. Dante, the poet, waa connected with the house of the Donati. See ' Donatista.' In Ms tola, an ally of Florence, ther were two similar factions, the Nerl and the Itianchl. The Nerl sided with the Donati. and the Itianchl with the Cerent. The Nerl were aeulous Guelfa. and the Itianchl were of the Ohlbelline party. When Dante waa In PUtola he joined the liiaiichl, and hlb hoiibo waa pulled down about hla eara by the Nerl lealota. (Cerchi pronounce Cter-ki.) Donation of Constantino (The). The tale ia that Constantino the Great (806-337) waa healed of leprosy by the water of baptism under St. Silvester, the Roman bishop. In reward of this service the emperor withdrew from Rome, and founded a new capital in the East. The Roman capital he resigned to St. Sil- vester and his successors for ever (' pa- latiam nostrum, et urbem Romam, et totius Italire civitates '). If this tale is accepted, the 'Donations of Pepin and Charlemagne ' were no donations at all, but simply restitutions of a part of Con- tantine's Donation. The deed has been proved to be a gross and impudent for- gery. See l Literary Forgeries.' In Artosto we read that the Deed of Constan- tine B Gift was found In the Moon with other rubbish Di varll florl ad un gran monte passa, Ch' ebbe gla buono odore, or putia fort Oueato era 11 dono (se pcro dlr lece) , forte. Che Coatantlno al buon Silveetro foce. Orlando Furioio, xxxi v. 80. Donation of Pepin (The). By the liberality of Pepin and Charlemagne the ancient patrimony of farms and house* of the popea was transformed into -the temporal dominion of citir-s and pro- vincea. This first-fruits of the conquest* of Pepin, called his donation, was the germ of the temporal dominions of the pope of Rome (' Liber Pontificalia,' p. The 'donation* Included the territories at Ravenna, Bologna, and Ferrara, taken f-om Astolphus. The donation was greatly enlarged by Charlemagne.- (W;-.r Cmnttmm. The 'Donation of Constantino ' waa a forgery Kobably of the notorious Hiculfo, who U'auppoeed have forged the ' Decretals ' (6th cent.). Donatism, A.D. 311. The religions tenets of Donatus, the Numidian bishop, who insisted that personal holiness made a Christian ; and that the apostolic suc- cession of bishops did not of itself form the necessary medium of communication with Christ; that, in fact, Christianity ia a personal matter more than a matter of pedigree. At one time Donatism ran Catholicism very hard indeed, and at the present day there are not many who would not subscribe to this fundamental doe- trine of Donatus, ' that he who by faith and worka shows himself an approved Christian, ia to be accounted a Christian, whether that grace has been communica- ted by apostolic succession or not.' Don'atists. L A.D. 811. A religious Beet founded by Donat, bishop of Casa Nigra, in Africa. Donatus declared that Caecilianua, bishop of Carthage, waa not duly elected, and that all those in hia obedience were heretics. Hia heretical doctrines were these: that baptism ad- ministered by heretics is null and void ; and that the church ia not infallible, seeing it had erred in the case of Caeci- lianua, The Council of Aries, held A.D. 814, acquitted Ceecilianus and condemned Donatus. Donatus and hia followers now seceded from the church and formed a new sect which, in 830, had as many as 172 bishops. The fundamental doc- trines of the new sect were these : (1) that the Son ia inferior to the Father, and the Holy Ghost ia inferior to the Son; (2) that personal holiness is far more important than apostolic succession, and (8) when any member is excom- municated for offences, he must be re- baptized before he can be again admitted into church membership. II. A.D. 816. The followers of Donatua, bishop of Carthage, who, being coo- DONNELLAN DORISLAU9 167 flemned by pope and emperor as a schis- matic, revolted, and carried with him a large following of reformers, who lighted * civil war and desolated Africa in the reigns of Constantine and his successors till the Vandal invasion. St. Augustine combated these ' sectaries.' Donnellan Lectureship (The), 1794. Instituted in Dublin University under the will of Anne Donnellan. Dooms of Ethelbert (The), AJ>. 697. Giving a legal status in England to the Christian church. Doomsday Book, or 'Domesday Book,' 1085-1086. A statistical survey of that part of England which was under the sway of William the Conqueror. So called, probably, because it was of autho- rity in all dooms, i.e. judgments in dis- puted questions which afterwards arose on matters contained therein. It was anciently known as the ' Liber de Win- tonia ' (Book of Winchester), because at one time it was preserved in the royal treasury of that city, under three locks and keys. It was printed and published in 1783 in two folio volumes. In 1816 two supplementary volumes were pub- lished. See below ' Supplementary Volume.' N.B. The counties of Durham, Northumberland, Westmoreland, and Cumberland are omitted. There are two volumes: one called the Great Domesday Book and the other the Little Domes- day Book. The great book contains 382 double pages of vellum, each page having a double column. Borne of the capital letters are in red ink, and Rome passages are touched 'with red ink. It con- tains a survey of thirty-one counties. The Little Domesday Book contains 450 double pages of vel- lum in single column. It contains the counties of Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, part of Rutland, part of Lancashire, York, and Chester. Contents : The name of the place ; the present tenant ; the tenant in the time of Edward, 1041 ; bow many hydes of land in the manor ; how many ploughgates in demesne (i.e. reserved in the lord's own hand) ; how many homagers or vassals ; how many villeins ; how many cottars ; how many serfs; what freemen; how many tenants in oca go (i.e. by hereditary right) ; how much wood: how much meadow and pasture ; what mills and fishponds ; how much has been added or taken .way since 1041 ; what the present value. The return was three-fold: (1) As these details were In 1041 ; (2) As they had been given by William ; and (8) As they were when the survey was made. Doomsday Book (Supplementary Volumes). Vol. i. contains an introduc- tion by Sir Henry Ellis, and indices of the names contained in Doomsday Book. Vol. ii. contains (1) the Exon Domesday (q.v.) \ (2) the Inquisitio Elieubia, or sur- vey of the lands of the monastery of Ely, i.e. of the counties of Cambridge, Hertford, Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Huntingdonshire ; (8) the Winton Domes- day, containing two surveys of the city of Winchester : one made between 1107 and 1128, and the other made in 1148 ; and (4) the Bolden Book (q.v.), or survey of the see of Durham made in 1183. Dorian Mode (The). In music is our scale of D played entirely on white notes of the piano, with the minor seventh so characteristic of Greek music. Practically singers began their scale with A instead of D. Dorians. One of the four distinc- tive people of old Greece, who conquered Peloponnesus and settled there. This is called 'The Return of the Heraclldea.' There were also Dorian settlements in Asia Minor and the neighbouring islands. They were a sturdy unpolished race. In architecture it was the strongest, sim- plest, and plainest of the three orders ; in philosophy it was of the Pythagorean school; in politics highly aristocratic; in dialect harsh and rough. Scotch if often called the British Doric. The three orders were the Ionic, the most chaste and elegant ; the Corinthian, the most ornate ; and the Doric, the most plain and the strongest. Doric School of Greek Poets (The). Founded by Alcman and Stesi- choros. Alcman of Lydia (B.C. 660-600) was a Spartan slave, emancipated. He wrote in the Doric dialect ; most of his poems are erotic, but very few fragments remain. In one of his odes he exclaims, 4 Oh that I were a seamew, which wings its flight among the halcyons, and runs on the surface of the sea-waves. Bird of spring with radiant plumage, and heart that knows no sigh I ' This is not unworthy to be compared with that beautiful verse of the psalmist, ' Oh that I had wings like a dove, for then would I flee away and be at rest ! ' Stesichoros (B.C. 632-552) was a native of Sicily, and was the father of the choral epode. His poems are in irregular verse, and the subjecta are 'The Labours of Hercules,' the ' Return of the Heraclldaa,' the ' Siege of Troy,' ' Return from Troy,' and the ' Calydonlan Hunt.' Alcman wrote in Old Doric; but Theoerltos, Bion, and Moschos wrote in New Doric. Dorislaus (Dr.), in 1649. Was sent by the British parliament as envoy to BC3 DORSETSHIRE DOVER the States of Holland, while Charles II., in exile, was holding his court at the Hague. The very evening of his arrival, while he sat at supper in the inn, six gentlemen with drawn swords dragged him from his chair, and murdered him on the floor. These assassins were Scotchmen, followers of Montrose, and Dorislaus had been recently employed * to draw the charge against the king.' As long as he (William II. prince of Orange) lived, no atonement could be obtained for the murder of Dorislaus. Dr. LINGAKD, llitt.oj Engl., viii. 6. It must be remembered that William II. had married a d\ughter of Charles I., and all the partisans of the stadtholder were rabid royalists. Dorsetshire Labourers (The), 1834. At the Dorchester assizes six agricultural labourers were tried and convicted of being members of an illegal society, and for administering illegal paths. They belonged to a trades-union in which those initiated were admitted blindfold into a room where was the pic- ture of a skeleton and a skull. These labourers were sentenced to transporta- tion for seven years. It was now proposed that, as the Orange leaden had violated the law as much as the Dorsetshire labourers, they should be dealt with in the same manner, and that if evidence could be obtained, the Duke of Cumberland [grandmaster]. Lord Ken- yon, the Bishop of Sallabury [chaplain]. Colonel Kalrman, and the rest should be prosecuted in the central criminal court. HoWITT, UuL oj Eiigi. (year 1886. p. 278). Dort (Si/nod of). Held between 18 Nov., IfilH, and 25 May, 1619. It was an assembly of Protestant divines to con- sider the nature and tendency of the doctrines of Arminius, professor of divinity in Leyden. The synod decided in favour of Calvinism, and excommuni- cated Arminius and his adherents. Dotation of Pepin (The). Se 1 Donation,' &o. Dotted Bible (The). An edition of the Bible printed in 1578, page for page with that of 1574. See ' Bible.' Douay Bible (The), 1581. A trans- lation made by the professors connected with the College of Douay, founded in 1568 by Dr. William Allen for the educa- tion of English boys designed for the Romish priesthood. These students were to be sent into England as itinerant preachers, with the view of creating a reactionary feeling and upsetting the Reformed Church. Dr. Allen himself worked on the translation. See ' Bible.' Double Procession (The). That is the Fihoque dogma. Did the Holy Ghost proceed from the Father AND the Son, or from the Father BY the Son? The former is the dogma of the Western Church; the latter is the belief of the Eastern Church. Doublement du Tiers (Le), 27 Dec., 1788. When the commons or depu- ties of ' Le Tiers ' were made equal in number to the deputies of the noblesse and clergy both together. There were 572 of the Tiers, 572 of the other two estates, and a chairman. Doubling Ordinance (Tfo),. A law that whoever advanced one-fourth more than his original share for land in Ireland should be entitled to double the quantity of land ; but if any ' adventurer ' refused to make such advance, any other T erson might reap the benefit, provided he repaid the ' adventurer' the sum ori gin ally subscribed. Those who subscribed 8001. were to have 1,000 acre* In Ulster ; those who subscribed 80W. were to have 1,000 acres In Connaught; those who subscribed 4501. were to have 1,000 acres In Mun ster ; and those who subscribed OOOi. were to have 1.000 acres of the forfeited land in Leinster. The subscribers were called ' The Adventurers. 1 Douglas's Larder, 1807. ' Jame Douglas penetrated into his own country in disguise, and, collecting some of his ancient followers, surprised the English garrison placed by Lord Clifford in Douglas Castle, and putting the garrison to the sword, he mingled the mangled bodies with a large stock of provisions which the English had amassed, and s-t fire to the castle. The country people to this day call this " Douglas's Larder." ' (Sir W. Scott, ' History of Scotland,' ix.) Having let fire to his caotle. he fled to the mountains, saying that he liked better to hear the lark sing than the mouse cheep. Douglas Wars (The), 1572, ir,73. Skirmishes in the regency of James . arl of Morton, in which prisoners were re- lentlessly executed on both sides. Douloir (The). An instrument of death resembling the more modern guil- lotine. It was used in the reign oi Henri IV. for the execution of his godson, the Due de Montmorenci. Dover (Treaty of), 22 May, 1670. A secret compact between Charles II. of England and Louis XIV. of France, negotiated through Henrietta duchess of DOVES' DRAMA Orleans, and providing that Charles should publicly announce his conversion to Romanism; and if any disturbance ensued, that Louis should send to hia aid a French army and a subsidy of three million francs. Doves' Dung (2 Kings vl 25). Sold in the siege of Samaria at the rate of half a pound for twelve shillings, does not mean the droppings of pigeons, but the plant called by botanists ' ornitho- gallum,' from two Greek words, Sp^flos yAa, bird's milk, and known as ' the Star of Bethlehem ' i.e. the star-shaped flower of Bethlehem. The roots of these plants are white, edible, and in some English counties are sold for * ' French asparagus.' They are much eaten in the Levant, where the plant abounds, roasted like chestnuts or boiled. The plant sold in Samaria would be better understood by the equivalent, ' A bunch of asparagus or half a pint of chestnuts for twelve shillings.' Dow Purse. The money anciently given by the bridegroom to his bride on their wedding day. It was a Roman custom, but obtained among the Greeks, the Jews, and almost all the northern parts of Europe. The Greeks called it optpm/ ta>po. In Germany It la called Morgengabe, ijR. morning present. Downing College. In Cambridge University, founded by Sir George Down- ing, of Gamlingay Park, Cambridge, in 1800, opened in 1821. Downing Professorship of the laws of England. Stipend 200Z. a year. Founded 1800, in the University of Cam- bridge, by Sir George Downing, Bart., founder of Downing College, Cambridge, and of the Downing Professorship of Medicine. See ' Regius Professorship of Ciril Law.' Downing Professorship of Medicine (The), in the University of Cambridge, 1800. Founded by Sir George Downing, Bart., the founder of Downing College, Cambridge, and of the Downing Professorship of the Laws of England. Stipend 200Z. more than a Fellow of Downing receives. See ' Regius Profes- sorship of Physic.' Doxology (The). In the reign of Constantine the Great there were four forms of the doxology in use : 1. Glory be to the Father, and to th Son, and to the Holy Ghost. 2. Glory be to the Father, and to fhe Son, in the Holy Ghost. 8. Glory be to the Father, in the Son, and in the Holy Ghost. 4. Glory be to the Father, by the Son, and in the Holy Ghost. (Philostorgius, Book ILL, chap, xiii.) Doyen des Rois (Le). So Louis XIV. used to style himself in the latter years of his long reign. He reigned 72 years, and it will not be easy to find in nistory a reign of equal length. Dozen Peers (The). The 12 peers assembled at the instance of the barons, in the reign of Henry III., to be privy councillors, or rather conservators of the kingdom. Dozsa Rebellion (The), 1518-1514, Hungary. Also called the Kurucz Re- bellion, that is the rebellion of the Cru- ciferi, because the original insurgents were intended to be ' soldiers of the cross.' It was a peasants' uprising against the oppressions of the upper class. Of course the rebels were defeated im- mediately they came into conflict with the better trained, and George Dozsa was put to death with the most savage cruelty. He was seated on a red-hot iron chair, a red-hot iron crown was placed on his head, and a red-hot sceptre in his hand, and to add to his tortures his flesh was then torn from his bones. See 'Damiens.' DraCO Regis. The standard borne in war anciently by our kings. It had the figure of a dragon wrought on it. Dragonnades (8 syl.), 1685. An armed expedition to stamp out Protest- antism in France. Each expedition was led by a bishop, who demanded that every Protestant should abjure Protestantism, and those who refused to do so were left to the tender mercies of the dragoons who accompanied him. Hundreds were thrown into dungeons; hundreds who fled were hunted down like wild beasts ; many were gibbeted or sent to the gal- leys ; and not a few were cut down by the sword. The persecutions were renewed in 1723 and 1724 Drama (Father of the French}, Jodell (1582-1573). 9/0 DRAMA DRUSES Drama (Father of the modern Ger- man). Andreas Greif (1616-1664). Drama (Father of the Greek). Thespis, 6th cent. B.C. Drama (Father of the Spanish). Lope" de Vega (1562-1635). Drapier's Letters, 1724. A series of letters by Dean Swift on the halfpence and farthings coined for Ireland by William Wood, iron and copper founder of Wolverhampton. Drapier is repre- sented as a poor but independent-spirited shopkeeper, utterly unskilled in law, but who did not mean to be mined if he could help it. In these letters the Irish were told that Wood's patent was in- iquitous, and that the contract had been infamously carried out. Wood was called a 'wood-louse,' and his copper was de- clared to be vile brass, 20 of which coins were not worth 10 honest ones. The Irish refused to take Wood's halfpence, and the government was compelled to withdraw the coinage. Swift became immensely popular in Ireland, but Sir Isaac Newton, master of the mint, ex- amined the coin, and declared it to be father above the terms of the contract. Dreadful Woman (The). Caro- line, the wife of George prince regent. Married 1795, separated the year her daughter was bom, 1796, died 1821. The Whigs threatened to espouse in a body the eaune of the Dreadful Woman, and bring hr r to the front afaln. WINGFIBLD, Abigail Hove, vol. 1. p.160. Dresden (Treaty of Peace at). 25 Dec., 1745, was signed at Dresden the treaty which concluded the second Sile- sian war between Maria Theresa of Austria and Frederick II. the Great of Prussia. By this treaty Silesia was again restored to Prussia. See f Berlin,' treaty of. Drinking in Belgium. The Bel- gian labourer spends one quarter of his wages in dram-drinking. On ordinary days he requires six drams a day, and on festal ones more. The first, called a Worm-killer, is taken at 5.80 a.m. ; the second, called an Eye-opener, at 8 a.m. ; the third, called a Whip, at 11 a.m. ; the fourth, called a Digester, at 2 p.m. ; the fifth, called a Soldier, at 5 p.m. ; and the iitb, called a Finisher, at 7.30 p.m. Drinks of Great Men. BRAHAM, the singer Bottled porte*. BYRON Port wine. CHARLES V. Alicante. CROMWELL Mai voisl*. FRANC, us I. Sherry. FREDERICK THE GREAT Tolrajr. FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. of Prussia-Clique*. GLADSTONE Kgg beaten up in sherry. GOETHE Johaunisberg hock. HKNRI IV.-Surenes. H I-MBOLDT Sauterne. KEAN (Edmund), the actor Beef tea tot fast, cold brandy. NAPOLEON I. Chambertln. PETKR THE GREAT Madeira. KAKELAIS -Old Chablis. RICHELIEU (Cardinal) Roman**. RICIIKLIEU (Marshal) Mi-doc. RUBBN8 -" SAXE (Marshal de) Champagne. TALLKYKAND ChAteau-Margaux. Driving for Kent (Ireland). Driving the cattle of a defaulting tenant into a pound, there to be kept till the rent is paid, or sold by auction till the money due to the landlord is realised. Droits of Admiralty. Derelict ships and other property picked up at sea and unclaimed. These possessions at one time were the perquisites of the lord high admiral ; but by the Merchant Shipping Act of 1854 they were placed under the control of the Board of Trade. Droughty Year of 26 (The), i.e. 1826. The prevailing wind was north. Corn ceased to grow, and grass was dried up. The hottest day of the year was 28 June, when the thermometer in England stood at 90 in the shade. Drum (The Sacred). An object of religions veneration and instrument of magical incantations among the Lap- landers in former times. It was hollowed out of a piece of pine or birch, and covered with skin like a kettledrum. The drumstick was a reindeer's horn. Every family had its sacred drum, and the movement of certain rings attached to it was the domestic Urim and Thummiin. Drunken Parliament (The). The parliament assembled at Edinburgh 1 Jan., 1661, the members of which, says Burnet, ' were almost perpetually drunk. 1 It annulled, in a single act, all the pro- ceedings of its predecessors during the last twenty-eight y ars. By this measure the whole church system of Scotland fell to the ground. See ' Parliament.' Druses (The) of the Lebanon. Th seven heads of their religious creed are: DRY DUCHOBORZES 71 1. Speak the truth to a Druse ; 2. Every Druse must stand fast to every other Druse; 8. The religious creed of a Druse must be exclusive; 4. A Druse must believe in the unity of Hakem as God ; 6. A Druse must be contented with his lot ; 6. he must submit his own will wholly ; 7. he must eschew the devil and all false doctrine. Hakem (the sixth Fatlmlte calif of Egypt) taught that he himself was the tenth and last revelation of God to man. He was therefore a sort of Christ or God manifest in the flesh. The chief la always aalled the Hakem. Dry Mass. 'Missa Sicca,' mass without the elements. The Introitus, Collect, Epistle, Gospel, and Canticles constitute the entire service. This sort of mass was performed when ' sacerdos non potest conficere, quia forte jam cele- bravit, vel ob aliam causam, potest, accepta stola, Epistolam et Evangelium legere, et dicere Orationem dominicam, et dare benedictionem.' This mass was not allowed in the Netherlands, and was vehemently objected to by the Jansenists. It is now quite obsolete. Dryden of Germany (The). Martin Opitz of Silesia (1597-1639). No more like the Duke of Buckingham'* poet ' Squab ' than Beau Brummel is like Dr. Samuel Johnson. Duad. According to Pythagoras is the second mathematical quantity, viz. length. The point is the monad, length the duad, breadth the triad, and depth the tetrad. Physically, intellectual capa- city is the monad, scientific knowledge is the duad, opinion the triad, and percep- tion by the senses the tetrad. Dualism. Same as Manicheism. So-called because it teaches the twofold nature of everything, one evil and the other good. Thus there is a principle of good and a principle of evil in soul and matter, male and female, and even in deity. The correlative of dualism is monism. Dublin Castle. I. A collection of public government offices, such as the Privy Council Chamber, the Chief Secre- tary's Office, the Prisons Office, the bureau of the Constabulary and Metro- politan Police, the Record Tower, &c., conjoined in one block of buildings, with the lord lieutenant's official residence, where he dispenses hospitality. IE. 1880. A convenient but not very precise phrase to express the policy introduced in the Gladstone administra- tion of arresting men known to the agents of government ' for inciting to any act of violence or intimidation, and tending to interfere with or to disturb the main- tenance of law and order ' (in Ireland). Dublin University. In 1591 (at the especial direction of Queen Elizabeth) the first stone of Trinity College, Dublin, was laid. This university has a chan- cellor, vice-chancellor, provost, vice- provost, and nineteen professors. Th students may, if they choose, take an ad eundem at either Cambridge or Oxford. That is a graduate of Trinity College, Dublin, may take the same degree at Cambridge or Oxford without being called on to pass an examination. Due de Boussillon (Le). A name and title assumed by Henri Cosprons of Perpignan, but not recognised in France. The man so-called was ' d'une famille tout-a-fait bourgeoise.' He disappeared suddenly into obscurity, and whether alive or dead in 1890 is not known. Ducal Towns. In feudal times were those built on the domains of dukes and other princes. They were inhabited by the duke's retainers, who were subject to just such laws and service as each par- ticular duke thought proper to impose. Generally the townsmen were obliged to ask their lord's permission even to marry or give in marriage, and the lord expected a fee for his permission. When license for a marriage was obtained, a herald announced it in the streets, and at one time the ceremony could not be per- formed till that day twelvemonth. Se* 1 Imperial Free Cities,' and 'Church Cities/ Duchess of Devonshire's Kiss (The). In 1784, the Duchess of Devon- shire, with Lady Duncannon, Mrs. Crewe, Mrs. Darner, and some others, dressed in blue and buff, the colours of the American Independents, canvassed per- sonally for Mr. Fox. In the purlieus of "Westminster a butcher, in his sleeves and apron, stoutly refused his rote ex- cept on the condition that he might give her grace a kiss. The request wa granted, and the vote secured. Duchoborzes (The), or 'Duchc- borUi.' A aecfc of the RuMO-Greek DUDLEY DUNCES 1 church (Iftth cent.). They believe that human souls existed before the creation of the world, and, like the Swedenborg- ians, ascribe hidden mysterious mean- ings to Bible language, which only in- ward light can unfathom. They reject the use of pictures, and observe neither the rite of baptism nor of the eucharist. During the reign of Alexander L an im- postor, named Kapustan, who called himself a prophet, taught them the trans- migration of souls. Disputes arose, many were burnt alive, many others were put to death in other ways, and in 1841 almost all the residue were transferred to the provinces beyond the Caucasus. Dudley Diamond (The). A Cape diamond weighing 46 carats, triangular in shape, and of great brilliancy. It was bought by tho Earl of Dudley, and has been set in a beautiful head ornament (1872). Duke, 1337. The first English duke was Edward the Black Prince, created by his father (2 Edward ILL), 1827. Duke of Exeter's Daughter (The). The famous rack in the Tower of London is so called, because it was in- vented by the Duke of Exeter when he was high constable, 1447. Duke of Thunder (The). Horatio Nelson, in allusion to his Sicilian title 4 Duke of BrontYj ' (in Sicily). Bront Is tbo Greek for thunder Duke of York's School (The). The 'Royal Military Asylum* at Chelsea is so called because, in 1800, Frederick duke of York was the chief instrument in founding the soldiers' orphan asylum at Cholsca. In 1MW sc-hools were opened for 700 boys and 800 girls, children of deceased soldiers. The girls' school it abolished. Duke -with the Silver Hand. Nuad, who led the tribe of the Danaans from Scotland back to Ireland. Having lost his hand in the great battle of Moy- tura, Cred a goldsmith made him a silver one, which the surgeon Miach, son of Dian Kect, fixed on his wrist. See 'Golden Hand,' 'Iron Hand' (Keating, i a >' P art "i- chap. 10). In this phrase duke = king, as in dukes of Edom (1 Chron 1. 61-64). Shakespeare calls the king of Athens * Duke Theseus '; Horace calls Laomrdou km* ol Troy, ' the fraudulent duka ' (Odea 111. ill. 24), because he borrowed money from the templet and never restored it. Then we have the dukes of Parma, of HoLstein. of Savoy, 4c.; and several grand -dukes. Dulceans or Dulcinists (The), 1800. Heretics, so Called from Dulcin (* 1808), an Italian, who gave out that his was to be the third reign : first, the Father, from the beginning to the com- ing of Christ ; then the son to the year 1800 ; and then the reign of Dulcin, the Holy Ghost, when the authority of the pope was to cease. He and his wife were burnt to death, in 1308, by Pope Cle- ment IV. Dulcifluous Doctor (The}. ' Doc- tor Dulcifluus' or ' Dulcissimus,' Anto- nius Andreas or Andrea, a scholastic philosopher, who died 1320. Dulwich College, 1619. Founded by Edward Alleyne, a tragic actor. Pronounce Duf-lUeh. Dulwich Gallery (The). A col- lection of pictures in a gallery constructed by Sir John Soane, and connected with Dulwich College. It was opened to the public in 1812. The collection originated with M. Noel Desenfans, a picture dealer, agent to Stanislaus king of Poland ; and bequeathed to Sir Francis Bourgeois, who left it to the trustees of Dulwich College. .Dumas (Alexandre). A French novelist (1803-1870). According to the Times newspaper (13 Dec., 1870, p. 6) Alexandre Dumas wrote 1,200 vols. His memoirs take up thirty volumes. In his heyday he made 80,0001. a year. Dumb Ox of Sicily (The). Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), so called by his fellow-students at Cologne ; but Albertus Magnus, his tutor, said, The dumb ox will one day fill the world with his low- ing.' Longfellow, in ' The Golden Le- gend,' calls him ' the dumb ox of Cologne,' from the monastery of Cologne. He was born in Naples. Dunces' Day. In the University of Cambridge, Ash Wednesday, 18th cent., , the * llM* possible. If, ou the oihex baud, 1 April should happen to be Sunday, then Easter Sunday would be postponed a week, viz. to 26 April, the latest day possible. V If the full moon fell on a Sunday. Easter day was postponed for a week, to prevent the coincl deuce of the Jewish passover and the Christian Easter being on the same day. Easter Week. 'Hebdomada Pas- chalis.' The week beginning with Easter Monday, and ending with the following Saturday, and therefore containing only 6 days. The next week following it was ' Hebdomada in Albis ' (q.v.), which con- tained 8 days; and the week before it was the Great Week or Passion Week (q.v.), which contained 13 days. Easterlings (The). 15th cent Mariners of the Hanse-towns, as terrible at sea as the pirates of Algiers were after- wards. Spelman derives our word ster- ling [money] from these traders. In the time of Richard I. monle coined In the east parts of Germany began to be of especial! request in England for the puritle thereof, and was called Easterling monle. Shortly after, some of that countrio skillful in mint matters and in all dies, were bent for Into this realm to bring ths colne Into perfection, which since that time was called of them itctling, for Easterliiig. GiMDKN. Eastern Church (The). Separated from the Western or Latin Church about 824-334, and a rivalry began in 841. In 451 the Council of Chaleedon conferred on the bishop of Constantinople equal rank and power with the bishop of Rome. John in 588 assumed the title of ' (Ecu- menical Patriarch,' The bishop of Con- stantinople is now generally called ' the Patriarch,' or ' the Patriarch of Constan- tinople.' See ' Patriarch.' Eastern Empire (The). The eastern portion of the old Roman em- pire after its division by the brothers Valentinian and Valens, AJ>. 864. Valens took the eastern part, with Constanti- nople for its capital; and Valentinian the western part, with Rome for his capital. The Eastern empire ended in 1453, when Mahomet EL warred against Constantino, who was slain, and the Eastern empire fell to the Ottomans or Turks. The Wester* empire fell much sooner, vis. ID A.D. 476. Eating Fruit (Death from). An- acreon died from rating grapes. La Belle Gabrielle died from eating an orange. Kaiser Albert It., Friedrich III., and Maximilian I. all died from eating melons. Qen. Euoz (U.S.) from eating raisin*, EAU ECCLESIASTICAL 277 Eau de Brinvilliers, 1718. A poison made by Godin de Sainte Croix, who lived in scandalous intimacy with the Marchioness Brinvilliers, and fur- nished her with the means of poisoning her father, her two brothers, and several others. The marchioness chiefly em- ployed a powder, called 'le poudre de succession.' Eb'ionites (4 syl.). Judaising Chris- tians of the 1st cent. They insisted on circumcision, despised the prophets, ac- cepted only the gospel of St. Matthew, and that they interpolated ; looked on Jesus only as a human being, but be- lieved that Christ descended on him at his baptism. Paul's Epistles .they re- jected as antinomian. The Ebionites con- tinued to exist as a sect after 800. M. Guizot says the first Christians of Jerusalem *ere called Ebionites, on account of their poverty ; called in Horn. xv. 26 ' the poor saints.' These 'poor saints' were afterwards accused of the heresy of denying the divinity of Christ, (wBauoL poor, insignificant.) Eblana, i.e. Dublin in Ireland. EcclesiaApostolica. The Church at Borne, called 'Cathedra Petri,' as having been founded by St. Peter. Ecclesiastical Commission (The). I. 1583. A permanent commis- sion, consisting of 44 members, established by Queen Elizabeth to decide on all questions respecting supremacy and uni- formity. It had power to deprive any clergyman of his benefice without appeal. Heresy, schism, nonconformity, and even incest and adultery, fell within the pale of this court. Practically the whole power of the court rested with the bishops, and au there was no code to re- fer to, each question as it arose had to be left to the private judgment of the court or bishop appealed to. Parker deprived a vicar of his benefice for deny- ing the verbal inspiration of scripture. Whitgift tried to force on the church the Calvinistic supralapsarian dogma. Ban- croft was hot for the divine right of bishops. Abbot had no mercy on Eras- tians ; Laud none for anti-Erastians. ' gupralapsarlanism,' the doctrine that the fall of Adam and Eve, as well as the salvation or rejection of every living being, was predestined from all eternity. 'Erastianism,' the dogma that the church is, and ought to be, wholly dependent on the State. II. 1686. Appointed by the advice of Jeffreys, the lord chancellor, with full | authority, and without appeal, to decide on all ecclesiastical matters, without re- straint of canon, civil, or municipal law. The commissioners were three divines and three laymen, all tools of the king (James II.), and their first act was to suspend Compton, bishop of London, because he would not favour the Romish party. Ecclesiastical Commissioners (The), 1840. Amended from 1836. Ex officio the two archbishops and 8,11 the bishops of England and Wales, the deang of Canterbury, St. Paul's, and West- minster, the lord chancellor, the two chief justices, the master of the rolls, the chief baron, and the judges of the prerogative and admiralty courts, the president ol the council, first lord of the treasury, chancellor of the exchequer, and one of the secretaries of state. Also nine lay- men, not ex officio, seven appointed by the crown, and two by the archbishop of Canterbury. Five commissioners make a quorum, the highest in rank or else the senior commissioner to take the chair. Ecclesiastical Courts. To de- cide on matters exclusively pertaining to the clergy and the established religion. Bacon enumerates ten such courts in his time : 1. Convocation (q.v.). 2. The Court of Arches (q.9 8. Prerogative Court (q.v.). 4. Court of Audience (q.v.). 6. Court of Faculties (q.v.}. 6. Court of Peculiars (7 the Prerogative Court was merged In the Court of Probate. In 1832 the Commission of Delegates was super- seded by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. II. In Scotland there have been three ecclesiastical courts (1) the General Assembly ; (2) the Commissary Court ; and (8) the Court of Teinds. Ecclesiastical Era of Antioch (The). This era began 1 Sept., B.C. 5492. Ecclesiastical Era of Constan- tinople (The). This era began 1 April, B.C. 5508. Ecclesiastical Titles Assump- tion Act (The), 1851. To prohibit the pope of Rome from conferring on ecclesi- astics titles connected with the names of places in the United Kingdom, such a0 478 ECCLESIASTICAL Westminster, Nottingham, and BO on. This act was provoked by what is called the ' papal aggression ' of the court of Home, which, 30 Sept., 1850, had divided Great Britain into territorial bishoprics under the Catholic archbishop of West- minster. Lord John Russell introduced the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill. Repealed 1867. Ecclesiasticum Reservation. A provision made in 1555 whereby it was stipulated that if any of the German clergy abandoned the Roman Catholic Church hereafter, his benefice should be forthwith filled up by a Catholic succes- sor. With this exception, the alienation of all ecclesiastical property, secularised fcefore the Treaty of Passau, in 1552, was confirmed by the Diet of Augsburg jn 1655. Pass&u. pronounce Pat-tow, as In rum. Eclectic School (The). L Of Italian painting, succeeded the cinque cento (q.v.). The Carracci headed the movement. Domenichino (1581-1641) and Gnido Reni (1575-1642) were exponents also of the same school. EC. Of French painting, founded by Paul Delaroche (1797-1856). He selected from the Classic and Romantic schools. Eclectics (The). Alexandrine philo- sophers. Potamon and Ammonios Saccas (2nd cent.) were the first who attempted to fuse Platonism and Aristotelianism into one consistent system. The Neo- Platonic school was founded by Plotlnua (205-270). Modern eclecticism was founded by Victor Cousin, the French philosopher. Ecole Polytechnique (The), 1795. France. For the education of young men for the army, navy, civil engineering, and telegraphy. Ecoles Centrales, 9 Feb., 1795. Established by the National Convention for teaching sciences, arts, and letters. There must be 800,000 inhabitants in order to have such an institution. la 1802 many of these schools were con- verted into ' grammar schools ' (Lyces) t and in 1808 many ceased to exist. Pronounce A -coal ten-troM. E*coles Chre'tiennes (Frtret des), 1681. Instituted at Reims by J. B. de la Balle for the gratuitous instruction of children in the elements of religion and in elementary instruction. ' Lea Freres portent one grande robe de bure noire et un chapeau a cornes.' This order was not suppressed at the Revolution, and still flourishes in France and other Chris- tian countries. Pronounce A-coal kra-te-en. Ecoles Pieuses (Lea). The 'homes 1 of the waifs and strays brought under the care of the Piaristes (q.v.\, Pronounce A-coal pc-iue. ifcoles Primaires, 1802. To give children elementary instruction, as read ing, writing, arithmetic, and the elenvnts of French grammar. In some elementary schools geography and history are taught. They subdivide into tcoles publiques (or communales), and tcoles prirccs ; the former are directed by laymen and the latter by ecclesiastics. They are under the inspection of the bishops, pastors, rectors, prefects, sub-prefects, and mayors. Pronounce A-coal pre-mair. Ecoles Secondaires, 1802. For teaching ancient and modern languages, geography, history, and the elements of science. They include grammar schools (lycees), colleges, boarding schools (pen- sions), and so on. Pronounce A-coal tkone-dair. Economists. Christians who take for their rule of life 1 Cor. ix. 20 : All things to all men/ In other words, ' Do as Rome does,' that is, adapt yourselve* in every respect, as far as possible, to the society in which you are thrown. Economists (French tconomistex). A name given to certain French writers of the 18th cent., who maintained that agriculture is the only fountain of wealth, and therefore clamoured for a land-tax. They were usually called ' Physiocrates ' (q.v.). Ecorcheurs (Let), 1437. A gang of adventurers who committed great ra- vages, chiefly in Hainault, during the revolt of the Low Countries against the Duke of Burgundy. The best known of their leaders were Villandras and I'ha- bannes the bastard. They were called the Skinners (Scorcheurs), says Bouillet, 'parce qu'ils se composaient pour la plupart de bouchers ou d'ecorcheurs de betes,' or else because they stripped those who fell into their hands of all their ECRASEZ EDICT 279 clothes, even their body-linen. See 1 French Brigands.' Pronounce Lays a-kor-shure. ilcrasez 1'infame. A party watch- word among the Encyclopaedists, meaning Down with superstition, or Down with senseless mummery. In full it would be iZcrasez Vinfdme superstition (' Wai- poliana,' ii. 88). Pronounce A-krah-zay lahn-fahm. Ecstasy of Plotinus. A rapture in which he lost his personal consciousness and became part of the ' universal mind.' Plotinus says this ecstasy may be attained by music, by love, or by meditation. Paul speaks of such rapture in 2 Cor. zii. 2. Ecstatic Doctor (The). See ' Di- vine Doctor.' Ec'thesis of Heraclius. Published 638. Heraclius was emperor of the East, and the EC thesis was the famous edict in favour of the Monoth'elites (4 syl.), q.V. Ecumenical Bishop, AJ>. 592. John, bishop of Constantinople, assumed this title, but Gregory I. of Rome induced Mauritius, emperor of the East, to insist on his dropping the title. Ecumenical Councils (The Eight). I. AtNiC^A In Bithynia, held 825, to condemn the doctrine of Arlus, who denied the divinity of Christ. Present 818 bishops. II. At CONSTANTINOPLE, held 381, to condemn the heresy of Macedonius, who denied the divinity f the Holy Ghost. Present 160 bishops. III. At EVHESUS, held 441, to condemn Neato- sius, who denied the divinity of the Virgin Mary. Present 200 bishops. IV. At CHALCE r DON, held 451, to condemn the Monophyslte heresy, Present 630 bishops. (N.B. The Anglican Church admits these four.) V. At CONSTANTINOPLE (the second), held 553, to Condemn the Nestorians. Present 165 bishops. VI. At CONSTANTINOPLB (the third), held 6HO, to condemn the Monothelltes. Present 170 bishops. Bee ' Synods.' VII. At Nic.EAftfK tecond) held 787, to condemn the Iconoclasts and re-establish images. VIII. At CONSTANTINOPLE (the. fourth), 889, to depose Phocius and reinstate Ignatius. In this council the Monoth'elites and the Iconoclasts were both anathematised. Monopfiysiiet (Greek /">>?, *. 405. Published by Honoring against the Do- natists and Manichaeans, with a view of ' uniting ' them with the Catholic Church, EDICT EDWARD 281 II. 21 July, 1588. The edict by which Henri III., who had been driven out of Paris, was supported by the League, and declared s'unir d elle. Edict of 1698 (The), 18 April. French history. This edict solemnly confirmed the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and enjoined that new means should be employed for the better in- struction of the people in the true reli- gion. Nantea (1 syl.), to rhyme with aunt, jaunt. Edict of 1724 (The), or ' The Royal Declaration of 1724,' 14 May. By Louis XV. on the advice of Cardinal Dubois. This was the last law against the French Protestants, and the most severe of all. It declared the punishment of perpetual imprisonment at the galleys for men, and life seclusion for women, with confisca- tion of property, if they attended any religious service except those of the Ca- tholics. The galleys or imprisonment for all who sheltered or omitted to denounce & ' heretic.' All children to be baptized by a Catholic priest within twenty-four hours of their birth, and to be sent to a Catholic school till fourteen years of age. Notice to be given to the parish priest of illness. No marriage to be legalised unless solemnised by a Catholic priest. No child to be sent out of France to be educated. No office whatever to be held except by Catholics. All mulcts to be for the relief of necessitous new converts. Ediles (2 syl.). Annual magistrates in Rome whose duty it was to see to the edifices (cedes), especially the public baths, aqueducts, and market-places. There were curule ediles and plebeian ediles, the latter instituted B.C. 493. They ceased to be created in the reign of Constantino. Edinburgh, is Edwins-burgh, so sailed from Edwin, who founded the castle in the 6th cent. In Notts is a village called Edwin-stowe, where Edwin was buried. Here Robin Hood was married. Edinburgh (Treaty of), fl July, 1560. Between Queen Elizabeth and the Scots for the evacuation of Scotland by the French. By this treaty Fran- cois II. and Mary fully recognised the right of Elizabeth to the English crown, fcud agreed that Mary, in time to come, should neither assume the title nor beat the arms of England. At their coronation in Paris Francois and Mary were proclaimed king and queen of France England, and Scotland. The princes of Lorraine had money struck In France bearing the arms of England ; and proclamations were made In the names of Francois and Mary, king and queen of the three realms. Edinburgh (University o/), 1582. Founded by James VI. (James I. of Eng- land). Reconstituted in 1858. Edinburgh Review (The). Com- menced in Oct. 1802. The political views were those of the Whig party. Edmund Crouchback, 1241- 1296. First earl of Lancaster, 2nd son of Henry III., the eldest son being Edward I. Edmund Hall (St.), Oxford. Said to have been founded by Edmund arch- bishop of Canterbury, in the reign of Henry in. The head of the Hall is called ' the Principal.' Edrisites (3 syl.), 785-919. A Mussulman dynasty which had Fez as the seat of government. The founder was Edris (785-793), of the race of Ali, poisoned by order of the calif Harun al Rashid. Edrls was succeeded by Edris II. (793-828); Mohammed I., AH, Yahia I., Yahia II., Ali II.. Yahia III., Yahia IV. (905-919). Education. The first parliamentary grant for education was made in 1834. The Committee of Privy Council was appointed in 1839. Public elementary education in England and Wales was provided for in 1870 (33, 84 Viet. c. 75). Edward I. ' Longshanks,' king of England (1239, 1274-1307). Son of Henry III. He married twice: (1) Eleanor daughter of Ferdinand III. of Castile, by whom he had four sons and eight daughters. The first two sons died young, and the last three daughters. 3rd son, EDWARD II. (the first prince of Wales) who succeeded his father. The daughters who married are Eleanor, Joan, Margaret, Beatrix, and Elizabeth. Mary was a nun at Amea- bury, and died 1286. By his second wife he had two sons s Thomas earl of Norfolk, and Edmund of Woodstock, earl of Kent. His style and title: 'Edwardus rex Angliae dominus Hiberniea et dux Aqui- tanise ' (Guienne). His title to France : On the death of 183 EDWARD EDWARD Charles IV., two claimants for the crown appeared, Philippe de Valois his cousin, and Edward I. his nephew. If the Salique law was set aside, then Blanche (sister of Charles IV.), wife of Phi ,>e de Valois, was the heiress ; if the Salique law remained in force, Edward, who claimed through his mother Isabelle, must be set aside, and again Philippe de Valois, grandson of Philippe HI. le BeL was heir. In neither case had Edward any just claim. PHILIPPE III. was father ot PHILIPPE IV. and of Charles de Valois. PHILIPPE IV. was father of LOOTS X..PHILIPPB V., CHARLES IV., and Isabella (who married Edward II.). See ' Fatal Three.' CHAKLKS IV. left a daughter, Blanche, who married PHILIPPE [VI.], son of Charles de Valois. This was after his accession to the throne; he was then son-in-law as well as cousin to the last king, CHARLES IV., and grandson of PHILIPPE III. Edward II. * Caernarvon, 1 king of England (1284, 1807-1327). This son of Edward I. was born at Caernarvon, and was the first English prince of Wales. He married Isabella, daughter of Philippe IV. of France, his cousin, by whom he had two sons and two daughters. 1. EDWABD in., who succeeded hit father. 2. John of Eltham, earl of Cornwall. 8. Joan, who married David Bruce, king of Scotland. 4. Eleanor, who married Reynald count of Gueldres. His favourites were Gaveston, who was twice banished in 1297 and in 1807 and at last executed summarily by the indignant barons in 1812. Edward'g next favourite was Hugh Despenser, who was executed in 1826. He was murdered in Berkley Castle by Maltravers and G-ournay. Hit style and title, up to 1826, was : 'Edwardus, D.G. rex Angliw, dominus Hiberniro, et dux Aquitaniaa ' (Guienne). From 1826 he discontinued the title of ' dux Aquitanire.' Edward III. ' Windsor,' so called from the place of his birth (1812, 1827- 1877). Married Philippa of Hainault, by whom he had seven sons and five daughters. 1st son. Edward the Black Prince, born at Woodstock, father of RICHARD II., who succeeded his grandfather. 1880 (Isabella) 2nd son. William, born at Hatfield, who died 1336 . . 1834 (Joanna, born 1335, died 1348.) 8rd son, Lionel duke of Clarence, born at Antwerp . 1888 4th son. John of Gaunt, born at\ 1839 Ghent, duke of Lan- [ or caster . . . . I 1340 6th son. Edmund duke of York, born at King's Langley 1341 (Blanche, died young; Mary and M,I >;i;() 6th son. William, born at Wind- sor, lived only front June to Sept. . . 1848 7th son. Thomas, born at Wood- stock, created duke of Gloucester 1385 by Richard II., and mur- dered in 1397. Bora, according to Stow and Dugdale . . . 1355 After the death of Philippa, Edward III, attached himself, without marriage, to Alice Perrars or Perrers, one of the ladies of the bedchamber. His style and title, from 1827 to 1837 : 'Edwardus, D.G. rex Angliee, dominus Hibernise, et dux Aquitaniae ' (Guienne). From 1837 to 1377 : ' Edwardus, D.G. rex Angliee et Franciaa [sometimes ' Francire et Angliaa '], dominus Hiberniee, t dux Aquitaniaa.' N.B. All the monarchs of England from 1877 styled themselves ' king of France ' up to 1800, when George III. relinquished the senseless title. Hit claim to the throne of Francs. On the death of Charles IV. without male issue, the claimants were Philippe de Valois and Edward III. of England. The former was crowned as Philippe VL de Valois. PHILIPPE in. of France had two sons, vii. PHILIPPE IT. (who succeeded him) and Charles de Valois. PHILIPPE IV. had for Issue Louis X. (who suc- ceeded and died without issue), PHILIPPE V. (who also died without issue), and Isabelle. Philippe the claimant was the son of Charles de Valois, grandson of PIMUPPK III., and cousin ol the last kiiik'. CHAKLKS IV. Edward III. was the sou of Isabelle, and great- grandson of PHILIPPE III., and nephew of the last king, CHARLES IV. *. The main argument warn this: As women could not succeed to the crown, therefore Isabella had no claim whatever, and her children could have none. Edward III. and the two captive kings. At the battle of Poitiers, 1855 Jean IL of France was made captivt EDWAKD EDWARD and brought to England. At the same time David II. of Scotland, defeated at Neville's Cross in 1346, was made captive. Thus were there two kings at one and the same time captives in London. Edward IV. First of the line of York. The claim of York was un- doubtedly superior to that of Lancaster, being from the third son (Lionel) of Edward TTT. ; whereas the house of Lan- caster was from John of Gaunt, the fourth son, and therefore a younger brother. The descent was from Lionel, third son of Edward HI. Lionel's daughter Philippa married Edward Mortimer. Their son was Roger Mortimer; and Roger Mortimer's daughter Anne married Richard (son of Edmund duke of York). Richard duke of York, the White Kose, was slain in the battle of Wakefleld; and his sons were EDWARD IV. and RICHARD III. Edward married Elizabeth Woodville, ft widow, and was the first of our sove- reigns since the Conquest to marry a subject. He had ten children, but of the seven who reached maturity five were girls and two boys. Edward V. suc- ceeded, but he and his brother Richard were both murdered in the Tower. Elizabeth, the eldest daughter of Edward IV., and called ' The Rose of York,' or 'The White Rose of York,' married Henry VII., and thus united the rival branches of York and Lancaster. His style and title : ' Edwardus, D.G. rex Angliaa et Franciae, el dominua Hibernise.' Edward V. Nominal king of Eng- land for about a month (1483). He was thirteen years of age, and his brother Richard was nine ; both were murdered in the Tower by order of their uncle Richard [III.] duke of Gloucester. The actual assassins were Slater, John Digh- ton, and Miles Forest. In the reign of Charles II. the bodies of the princes were found under a staircase, and removed to Henry VIL's Chapel in Westminster Abbey 1674. Edward V. and Dr. Shaw. Dr. Shaw, at St. Paul's Cross (Sunday, 22 June, 1483), preached from these words in the Book of Wisdom, 'Bastard slips shall not strike deep root,' his object being to ehow that Edward V. was a bastard. He said that Edward IV. was married to Lady Eleanor Butler, the widow of Lord Butler of Sudely and daughter of the Earl of Shrewsbury ; consequently, Eliza- beth Woodville (mother of Edward V.) was merely a concubine, and that Stil- lington, bishop of Bath, was a witness. As Edward V. was the son of a concubine, he could not come to the throne. To set aside Edward and his brother Richard would not render Richard duke of Gloucester heir, because his elder brother Clarence left two sons behind ; but Clarence having been pat to death for treason barred his sons by his attainder. Richard III. (1483) ordered Edward V. to be called officially ' Edward the bastard, lately called Edward V. 1 Edward VI. Son of Henry VIII (1537, 1547-1553). He died after an attack of small-pox, leaving the crown to Lady Jane Grey. His style was * Ed- ward, D.G. of England, France, and Ireland king ; Defender of the faith, and supreme head of the Anglican and Hibernian Church.' The Pretender, Edward FT. Lam. bert Simnel, son of Thomas Simnel, a joiner of Oxford, instructed by one Simons, a priest, to personate Edward Plantagenet, son of the Earl of Warwick, and become a ' pretender ' to the crown, in the early part of the reign of Henry VII. (1486). He was crowned at Dublin as Edward VI. 2 May, 1487. Being de- feated at Stoke by Henry VII. (16 June, 1487), he was made a scullion in the king's kitchen, but was afterwards raised to falconer. Henry released Edward Plantagenet from prison and showed him publicly to the people, to show the imposition of Lambert Simnel. Edward VI. [SinmelJ was crowned by the liishop of Meath, with a diadem taken from a statue of the Virgin Mary, and carried to the castle on the shoulders of a chieftain named Darcy. Edward VI.'s First Prayer Book or The First Liturgy of Edward VI. 1549 (2, 8 Edw. VI.). Substituted for the Latin Mass Book. By the Act for Uniformity all clergymen who refused to adopt the new liturgy were subject to imprisonment for six months for the first offence, loss of benefice for the second offence, and perpetual imprisonment for the third. The DAILY SERVICE did not contain the Intro- ductory Sentences, Exhortation, Confession, and Absolution, but began with the Lord's Prayer. There were no State prayers in this liturgy. The LITANY contained a petition against the The COMMUNION SERVICE did not contain the Ti'ii Commandment^ but enjoined that water be mixed with the wine. In the BAPTISMAL SERVICE exorcism was em- ployed to drive out the evil spirit ; the child waa clothed in a chrisom, and was anointed on tha The CATECHISM formed part of the service, but it comprised only an exposition of the Creed, tn Lord s Prayer, and the Ten Commandments. 284 EDWARD EGYPT In the MARRIAGE SERVICE the sign of the cross was to be made on the forehead of the newly- married persona, and a present of money was given to the bride when the ring was put on her finger. In the BURIAL SERVICE prayers for the dead were offered. VESTMENTS. The priests of parish churches were to wear a surplice only ; in cathedrals the hood was to be worn in preaching. Edward VI.'s Second Prayer Book, or The Second Liturgy of Ed- ward FT., 1552. The first liturgy re- formed by Cranmer under the advice of Bucer and Peter Martyr. In the DAILY SKRVICE the Introductory Sen- tences, the Exhortation, the Confession, and the Absolution were added. In the CoMMt'Niov SKRVICE the Ten Command- ments were added ; but the Introit, prayers for the dead, the name of the Virgin Mary, the sign of the cross, and mixing water with the wine were all omitted. In the I'.APTISMAL SERVICE exorcism, anointing the child, chrisom, and dipping the child thrice were omitted. In the MARRIAOE SERVICE the sign of the cross and present of money were omitted. In the BURIAL SERVICE prayers for the dead were omitted. VESTMENTS. The nether albe. vestments, 1 and cope were forbidden. Prelates might wear a rochet, but other clergymen ' a turplice only.' Edward Longshanks. See 1 Edward I.' Edward of Caernarvon. Set ' Edward II. 1 Edward of Hampton, Edward VL (1537, 1547-1553). Called Hampton from Hampton Court, the place of his birth. Edward of Hampton was no otherwise prince of Wales firm under the general title of Fn, 'land, his father being king of England and Wales. COKE, Report* (3 Jacob!, sect. viii.). Edward the BlackPrince (1830- 1376). Son of Edward HI., king of England, and father of Richard II. As he died a year before his father, he never succeeded to the crown. He was called Black because he was a name of terror to the French. Similarly Lord Clifford was called Blot* for his cruelties. George Potrowitsch was called by the Turk- 'rom the terror of his name; Agnes countess of March was called />/>* Agnrt (or her resistance to Kdward III. at lumbar. The Black Sea means the sea of terror, and the Black Wind the wind of terror. See ' Black.' Edward the Confessor (1004, 1041-10(56). A king of England before the Conquest. Canonised 1166 by Alex- ander III. The use of the Great Seal was first introduced by this king. Confessores diet! qni martyr to vltam proChrlsto, luem palam confess! et con testati sunt, flnierunt. PC CANOE, vol. ill. p. C44, col. l. Edward the Elder (870, 901-925), king of England. Edward the Martyr '961, 975- 979). A king of England before the Con- quest, assassinated at Corfe by order of his stepmother Elfrlda, to make room for her own son, Ethelred the Unready. Edward was no martyr in the ordinary sense of the word, but he was basely and treacherously murdered. Edward the Outlaw. Son of Edmund Ironside, outlawed to Sweden by Canute. Eelkhanee Tables (The). The astronomical tables of Nazir-u-Dien, pro- duced in the reign of Hoolakn, slmh of Persia (1258-1265). They are still highly esteemed, and are referred to for the latitude and longitude of places not yet fixed by European observations. See 4 Star Tables.' The word Eelkhanee means ' Chief of the Tribe*. ' Effendi. A Turkish title of courtesy equal to our squire, and always placed after the proper name. Sometimes, how- ever, in speaking to a Turkish gentleman the word effendi is used as the French use monsieur before a proper name. The Grand Chancellor of Turkey is called * Keis Effendi.' liJgalite" (Monsieur). Louis Philippe Josoph, due d'Orleans (1747-1798). Wlu-n Buri-re, president of the National As- sembly, put the question what punish- ment should be accorded to the king, Louis XVI., the Due d'Orleans rose and said, ' La mort sans phrase* It is somewhat strange, but the only person who voted against the sentence of death was Thomas Paine, an Englishman, who had the manhood to say to the assembly, 'The king's death, instead of an act of justice, will appear in history as an act of vengeance.' Louis figalite was guil- lotined 1793. Egypt and Bible History. There were thirty dynasties in ancient Egypt. From B.C. 3892 to 340. The I. dynasty began in Upper Egypt with Menes, B.C. 8892. Mentis founded the city of Memphis. No trace of the ' Flood has yet been discover** by Egyptologist*. IE. dynasty began with Boethos, B.C. 3639. The second king of this line was Kakan, who introduced the worship of Apis, the sacred bull. III. dynasty began with Necherophea, EUYFT EIGHT 985 B.C. 8838. The Sphinx was carved in this dynasty. IV. dynasty began with Khufu [Suphis or Cheops], B.C. 8124. Khufu built the great pyramid. His successor, Khafra or Khafren [Cephren or Kephren], built the second great pyramid ; and the third king of the same line, Menkara [My- kerlnos], built the third great pyramid. V. dynasty began B.C. 2840. The VI. began B.C. 2744, the last monarch being Queen Nitocris, noted for her great beauty. VII. dynasty began B.C. 2592 ; the VIH. B.C. 2522; the IX. B.C. 2674; the X. B.C. 2565 ; the XL B.C. 2423. XII. dynasty began B.C. 2380 with Amen'emhat. In this dynasty were built the Temple of Amun-Ra, at Thebes, and the obelisk of Heliopolis. Amenemhat's son was Usurtesen L XIII. dynasty began B.O. 2136; the XIV. B.C. 2167. HYKSOS or 'Shepherd Kings' were probably Arabs. The XV., XVI., XVH. dynasties (B.C. 1842, 1684, 1591). It Is supposed that ABRAHAM went to Egypt in B.C. 1806, while the XVI. dynasty was regnant. It is supposed that JOSEPH was viceroy of Sutapepe-Nubti of the same dynasty. About B.C. Hyk = king, Sot = shepherds. Xvill. dynasty was founded by Aahmes [Amasis], B.C. 1591, who expelled from Egypt the Shepherd Kings. XIX. dynasty, B.C. 1443, was the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. The XIX. began with Ramses I., who was succeeded by Seti [Sethos], who built Karnak. Ramses II. was by far the greatest of all the kings of Egypt. It is said that he had 170 children, of which 111 were sons, that he reigned 67 years, and died above 96 years of age. After his death came a period of confusion. It is supposed that MOSEB was born In the reign Of the gre;it Harases, and that the EXODUS occurred after his death, during the reign of Arlsu, a usurper and a Syrian, about B.C. 1314. No hint can be traced by Egyptologittt either of fkt Exodut or the Pottage of the lied Sea. XX. dynasty was founded B.C. 1269 by 8et-Nekht, and Egypt was on its full decline. XXI. dynasty began B.C. 1091. SOLOMON married Abra, the daughter of Pfusenes II. [PNham], last king of this line. She was 19 years of age (1 Kings ill. 1). It is supposed that ' Solomon b Bong' was an epithulamium of this alliance. XXII. dynasty was founded by She- houk [Shishak], B.C. 961, who received under his protection Jeroboam, and afterwards marched against Rehoboam with 12,000 chariots and 60,000 horsemen. See 1 Kings xlv. 25, and 2 Chron. xii. It is supposed that 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15, and xvi. 8, Ac., refer to Zerah, the fourth of this dynasty, generally called Osorthon II. XXIII. dynasty began B.C. 787. The second king of this line (Osorthon IV.) was the Egyptian Hercules. XXIV. dynasty had only one sovereign, Bochoris, B.C. 729-716. He was deposed and put to death by Shabak. XXV. dynasty founded by Shabak, B.c. 716. HOSEA gave tribute to this king (2 Kings xvii. 8). The successor of Shabak was Shabakok, called So in 2 Kings xvii. 4. HEZEKIAH formed a confederacy with So, king of Egypt, against Sennacherib, king of Assyria, and Sennacherib marched against the allies (2 Kings xviii., xix.) ; but So had been succeeded by Tirhakah or Xarach. XXVI. dynasty was founded by Psam- metik [Psammetichus] the Great, B.C. 685. His son, Neku II., called Pharaoh-Nechoh (2 Kings xxiii. 29, &c.), overthrew Josiah and slew him. Pharaoh Hophra, the seventh of this line, con- temporary of Jeremiah (illv. 30), was dethroned by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon. In 525 B.O. Egypt was an appanage of Persia (dynasty XXVII.); then followed a Saite dynasty, a Mendesian, and a Sebennyte, after which the Persian power was restored. Next came the Graeco-Macedonian period; and B.O. 80 Egypt became a Roman province. Egyptian Days. Unlucky days. There are three in the year, viz. the last Monday in April, the 2nd Monday of August, and the 3rd Monday of December. Called Egyptian because ill-luck was attributed to them by the Egyptian astrologers. In the Exeter Kalendar, a MS. of the time of Henry II., there are 24 Egyptian days. Three days there are In the year which we call ' Egyptian days.' Saxon MS. (British Museum). V In regard to Friday, the Brahmins and Buddhists consider it a diet mala, as well as many Christians. Egyptian Hall (The). In the Mansion House, City ol London. It wag built after the description of the Egyptian Hall by Vitruvius. Egyptian Version of the Sacred Scriptures, embraces the Coptic and Memphitic, in the dialect of Lower Egypt. It is ascribed to the 3rd cent. There Is a version In the dialect of Upper Egypt, called' Sa'hidic ' or' Theba'idic/even more ancient. Probably close upon the 2nd cent. Eight (The), i.e. ' Al Motamen.' So the Kalif Al Motassem was called by 86 EIGHT play on his name, after bis death. His subjects used to say he was the 8th of his dynasty, was born in the 8th month, reigned exactly 8 years, 8 months, and 8 days, had fought 8 battles, and left at death 8 sons, 8 daughters, 8,000 slaves, and 8 millions of gold. It is possible that this may be true, Just as It la possible that a dealer may bold thirteen trumps to his hand. Eight Articles (The'), 1555. While Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer were in prison they drew up their confession of faith in eight articles : (1) the Scriptures are the true word of God ; (2) the three Catholic creeds are to be believed ; (8) justification is by faith only; (4) marriage is lawful to all men ; (5) *e reject the dogma of tronsubstantiation ; (6) we reject the dogma of purgatory ; (7) the cup in the Lord's Supper is to be given to the laity ; and (8) public worship is not to be carried on in any foreign tongue. See ' Articles.' Eight Canonical Hours (The). In the Catholic Church. There are four great (printed in capitals), and four little (printed in italics). MATINS, or Nocturnes, between mid- night and daybreak. On festivals and Sundays, three psalms, three anthems, and three lessons. LAUDES, at daybreak. Five psalms, two or more capitules (scripture extracts), prayers, and canticles. Prime, six o'clock in the morning. The first hour of the day. Tierce, nine o'clock in the morning. The third hour of the day. Sexte, twelve o'clock, or mid-day. The sixth hour of the day. Nones, three o'clock in the afternoon. The ninth hour of the day. VESPERS, at sunset. Five psalms, a capitule, a hymn, the Magnificat, one or more anthems, and prayers. COMPLINE, at bedtime. Confession, one lesson, three psalms, an anthem, a hymn, a capitule, a short response, Nunc IJiiniltis, and prayers. Eight Par adises(2Vte), or 'Hesht Behesht.' Eijjht pinions in Ispahan, on either side of the i/utt- called CharBaugh. Each garden has a, pleasure-house. Eighteenth Brumaire (The Battle o/ the), Year YUL (9 Nov., 1799). Between Napoleon Bonaparte and tht Directory. The Directory was overtl > r< >wn, and Bonaparte constituted ' First Consul.' Eighth Wonder of the World (The). The Escurial of Spain (q.v.). Eighty (The), or the Ottanta. The upper house of legislature in the re- public of Florence, in the tune of Savon- arola; the lower house consisted of 8,200 benefiziati, divided into three sec- tions, holding office for six months. All laws were proposed by the Signoria, discussed by the Ottanta, and voted in silence into law by the Commons. The bewfUtViM -were those -who had already held office in the state, or bad been proposed (or office. The former were called the Seduto. and the latter the Vtduto. Ei ghty-six. ' The immortal 86.' The followers of C. 8. Parnell hi the House of Commons hi 1886, ans, Stamford, Stoney Stratford, Walbham. West Cheap, and Woburn. Charing cross was the work of Richard and Roger Crandale. Uunftablf. cross was thr WWP't of John Battle. Lincoln cross was the v orkof Richard de Howe. MorOtamptOK cross was the work of John Battle. Stoney Stratford cross was the work of John Battle. Waltham cross was the Joint work of Dymenge de Leger and Dymenge de Reyns. Wett Cheap was rebuilt by John Hetherley, lord mayor of London. Wuburn cross was the work of John Battle. *.* Some of these crosses were certainly nol memorial crosses, but were built by Queen Klaanor herself as worka of piety. Eleanor, Maid of Brittany. Bister of Prince Arthur, and next to Arthur lawful successor to the crown of England. John usurped the crown, and both Eleanor and Arthur were captured by him at Mirabel 81 July, 1202. Arthur met with his death mysteriously, and Eleanor was imprisoned for life. She died in Bristol Castle 1241. Eleatic School of Philosophers (The). So called from Elea, uf Italy, the chief seat of these philosophers. They were divided into the Old and New Schools. The Old School was speculative, like the Ionic sect, and taught that there is but one element. The New School confined themselves to the study of natural philosophy. The chief of the Old School were Xenophanes, the founder (B.C. 556-456) ; Parmemdes (B.C. 618-430), and Zenon (B.C. 480-405). The chief of the New School were Leucippos (B.C. 510-430), Democrltos (B.C. 509-400), and Protagoras (B.C. 481-411). Xenoph&nes revived the Eastern theory that God and the Universe are Identical. The Eleatic Metaphysicians were Pantheists, and the Eleatic Physicians were Atomlstics. Electoral Roll (The). University of Cambridge. Consists of members of the senate who have resided for fourteen weeks, at least, within 1 mile of Great St. Mary's Church. The following are ex officio members : All officers of the Uni- versity (members of the senate), all heads of houses, all professors and public examiners. The Electoral Boll is published by the first Monday In October, from which day residence is calculated. Electors (The). Originally the seven most powerful feudatories of Germany, who assumed the exclusive privilege of choosing the kaiser. They were (1) the king of Bohemia, (2) the duke of Saxony, (8) the margrave of Brandenburg, (4) the count palatine of the 111 line, (5) the archbishop of Mentz or Mayence, (6) the archbishop of Treves, and (7) the archbishop of Cologne; the archbishop of Mentz was the official president, and 1 Convener of the Electors.' In 1618 the Duke of Bavaria was substituted fot the King of Bohemia (the palsgrave), but in 1648 the palsgrave was readmitted, and In 10U2 Ernest duke of Hanover was created the ninth elector ; but In 1777 the number was again reduced toctght. In 1856 the Golden Bull of Karl IV. recognised the right of the electors to choose thejdng, but li^ 1806 the whole i Bonapart* ELECTRIC ELIZABETH Th title of Elector continued to be held In Hesse-Casse! till lftC6. The electoral crown was a scarlet cap turned up with ermine. Electric Telegraph (The). Pa- tented by Cooke and Wheatstone 12 June, 1887 ; brought into use on the Great Western Railway 1839 ; purchased by the postmaster-general 81 July, 1868 ; management of the telegraph assumed by the post-office 6 Feb., 1870. Morse's original Instrument dates from 1833. The submarine electric telegraph from Dover to Calais was laid In Aug. 1850, and purchased by the postmaster-general in 1888. Elemental Spirits. Beings sup- posed in the middle agea to preside over the four elements. The elemental spirits of fire were called SALAMANDERS ; the elemental spirits of air were called SYLPHS; the elemental spirits of earth were called GNOMES (1 syl.); and the elemental spirits of water were called UNDINES (2 syl.). Elephant (Order of the), 1189. A Danish military order created by Knut VI. after his crusade in the East, when an elephant was killed. Revived in 1458 by Christian L The cordon is blue moire*. Elephants. The eight which sus- tain the world, according to Indian my- thology, are called Achtequedjams. Eleusin'ian Mysteries (The). The sacred rites with which the annual festival of Ceres was celebrated atElensis in Attica. Eleuther'ia. Games in honour of Zeus EleutherTos, so named from Eleu- theris, a city of Boeotia, near which the famous battle of Plataea was won B.C. 479. See ' Platsea,* Eleven (The). Athenian magistrates who had the charge of executing cri- minals. When he [Socrates] came In from bathing, he sat down, and did not speak much. For then the officer of the Eleven came In.-PuiTO. r/*<; 1'haedon. Eleven Articles (The), 1560. Pro- visionary articles drawn up by the bishops in the early part of the reign of Queen Elizabeth for the instruction and guid- ance of the clergy and people till the meeting of convocation : (1) The Trinity is to be believed ; (2) the holy scriptures and the three creeds are all sufficient ; (8) the Church has authority to decree rites and ceremonies ; (4) all persons not Vwfully appointed shall be excluded from the ministry; (5) asserts the roya supremacy ; (6) renounces all papal juris diction ; (7) declares that the Commoc Prayer Book is according to scripture ; (8) forbids exorcism, and the use of oil, salt and spittle in baptism; (9) rejects private masses, and denies the propitia- tory sacrifice of the mass; (10) enjoin* communion in both kinds; and (11) rejects images, relics, praying on beads, pilgrimages, miracles, and BO on. Set 'Articles.' Eleven Members (The), 1647. When the army presented their ' Humble Representation' to parliament, it de- manded the expulsion of eleven members, with Holies at their head. The army charged these members with stirring up strife between them and the parliament, and with a secret design of renewing the civil war. The eleven members were no* expelled, but were induced to withdraw. A London mob forced the House to recall the eleven, and fourteen peers with 100 commoners fled to the army. Cromwell in two days took London, restored the 114 fugitives, and expelled the obnoxious eleven. Elgin Marbles (The), 1816. So called from Lord >E1gin, who collected thorn during his mission to the Porte in Is0'2. They were chiefly dorivrd from the Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis of Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and pediment built by Phidias about B.C. BOO. They were purchased by the British government for r,:>,ooOJ. f and placed in the British Museum. Flfjin. pronounce m* M In lh word ' begto,' M* like the monosyllable. Elijahs of Mosul (The). One of the three branches of the Nestorians. The other two are the ' Josephs of Ami' da' and the ' Simeons of Ormla.' Eliot (George), the pseudonym of Miss Marian Evans (afterwards Mrs. Cross), a novelist (1819-1880). Elisabeth (Mad.), sister of Louis XVI., who shared the captivity of the Royal family, and was scandalously guil- lotined in 1794. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII. (1588, 1558-1603). Katharine was divorced 28 May and Elizabeth born 7 Sept the same year. Elisabeth if ELIZABETHAN EMBASSY called ' The Virgin Queen of England,' because she was never married. Her style was: 'Elizabeth, D.G. of England, Fian e, and Ireland queen ; De- fender of the Faith ; Supreme Governor of the Church of England and Hibernia.' Elizabeth (1 Eliz. o. 1) insisted that the title ' Supreme Governor of the Church ' should be ubbtituted for ' Supreme Head of the Church.' Elizabeth and Man/ queen of Scots. Elizabeth was not the cousin of Mary queen ol Scots, but the cousin of Mary's father. HENKY VII. had issue HENRY VIII. (who sue- ceded him) and Margaret (who married James IV. f Scotland). ELIZABETH was a daughter of HENKY VIII. Margaret's eon was James V. of Scotland, and Wary queen of Scots was the daughter of James V. tehe married Henry Stuart, lord Darnley). Her favourites were, first, Kobert Dudley (earl of Leicester), who died 15SS; then Robert Devereux (arl of Essex), executed for treason in 1601. Elizabethan Architecture. A tyle of domestic architecture which pre- Tailed in the reign of Elizabeth, especially Used in mansions and palatial buildings, lis gables are most characteristic. Ellerton Theological Essay. Oxford University. Value 21Z. annually. Founded by Dr. Ellerton, fellow of Magdalen College, 1825. Ellison Gallery (The) of water- colour paintings. Presented to the nation by Elizabeth Ellison, and placed in the South Kensington Museum, May 1860. Elms (The). The place of execution in Smithfield previous to the reign of Henry IV., when the gibbet was erected at Tyburn, which continued to be the chief place of execution in London till 1783. Eloquence (Father of French). Alain Chartier, secretary to Charles VI. And VII. He was both poet and prose writer (1380-1458). Eloquent Doctor (The). Peter Aureolus, archbishop of Aix. There was a Peter of Ravenna surnamed Chrysologos, or Golden-speech, who died 450, and was canonised. And two Chrysostoms or Golden-mouthed, viz. Dion and John. Dion was born in Bithynia A.D. 80 and died 116, and John was born at Antioch 847 and died 407. It is this latter who is generally known as St. Chrysostom (the aint with the golden mouth). Elrington and Bosworth Pro- fessorship. See ' Anglo-Saxon, &o.' 13 Elzevirs. Books printed by a cele- brated family of printers in Holland be- tween 1583 and 1680. The 12mo and 16mo classics are beautifully and correctly printed. The Virgil, Terence, and other Roman classical authors, the New Testa- ment and the Psalter, have an unrivalled reputation. For Greek printing the ALDINES are wholly on- rivalled. Emancipation Act (The), 13 April, 1829. The act which emancipated Ca- tholics from religious and civil disabilities in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. It was framed by Sir Robert Peel, in the ministry of the Duke of Wellington, and signed by George IV. Emancipation of Slaves (The), 28 August, 1833 (3, 4 Will. IV.). By this act slavery was abolished throughout the British colonies, and slave-owners were compensated by a grant from par- liament of 30 millions sterling. In 1R61 Alexander II. of Russia emancipated 50 million serfs, but ' it has proved a gigantic failure, as the wretchedness of the peasantry is greater, the cultivatfon of the soil inferior, and ranch of the land is little better than waste. They cannot pay the interest of the money, which is 95 millions sterling, and hundreds are knouted every year. The result is the irrepressible Nihilists, by whom Alexander was blowa to pieces.' Nineteenth Cen- tury, June 1689. Emania (The Kings of). King Kimboath of Ireland built the palace of Emania in Ulster, an epoch from which Tigernach dates the dawn of authentic Irish history. From this splendid palace the princes of Ulster were called the ' kings of Emania.' The princely palace of Emania was utterly destroyed when Muredach [Emain Maclia] Tirech invaded Ulster, and dispossessed his cousin, the usurper Colla, of his kingdom (A.D. 327). It was Colla himself and his brothers who burn* Emania after their return from banishment. Embargo Act (The), 22 Dec., 1807, of President Jefferson, forbidding Ameri- can vessels to leave their ports. This was, in fact, a measure preparatory to war, allowing merchants to call home their ships, and the country to put itself into a posture of defence. Repealed 3 Feb., 1809, 'as ruinous to the States, un- satisfactory to France, and ineffectual aa a retaliation upon England.' Embassy of the Three Philo- sophers (The), B.C. 151. An embassy sent by the Athenians to the Roman senate to obtain a, mitigation of the niM U S90 EMBASSY EMMANUEL (500 talents) imposed on them for attack- ing Oropus. The fine was reduced to 100 talents. The three philosophers sent were Diogenes the Stoic, Critolaos the Peripatetic, and Carncades (founder of the third academy). Embassy to China (The), 1793. (George) lord Macartney was sent by George HL on a friendly embassy to Kien Lung, emperor of China, who was at the time in his summer residence, Zhe-hol, in Tartary. His journey from Pekin to Zhe-hol was most gratifying, and more information of this ancient people was gained in this embassy than in all preceding ages put together. He tells us that white is w< r -^"gj but never by brides ; tT the left is the ide of hoi i' ties of never descend : and thai all rankg, except pcnd on ooaipetit: p Cation. Yellow b th colour. Ember Days, i:'J5. Four times a Tear : the *; the Wednesday, Friday aturday of E khu weelr uftor the first SnnJ.iy iu L.-nt; mmer being the same days after unday; th autumn the same days after the feast of Holy Cross (14 tiept.) ; and the winter the same days after the feast of St. Lucia (18 Dec.). seasons in the Western Church are appointed for the ordination of the clergy. German qvatfmbtr. I.e. 'quatuor tempera, ' or Consult Skeai Dictionary. Emerald Club (The), 1882. A branch of the Fenian Brotherhood whose nbject was to work by force alone for the fri'.Mlom of Ireland. Dynamite and other compounds of nitro-glycerine were freely employed. Tho Emerald Society was organised in the United States of North AJTK rica, and was contemporary with the Dublin ' Invinciblcs.' The principal of Emerald Society was O'Donovan Rosta. See ' Irish Associations.' Emerald of the Green Vault (THfi). An immense uncut Peruvian emerald given by Randolph II. to the Elector of Saxony, and kept in the Green Vault (griines Gtarftte) at Dres.l-n. This 'vault' In In the Zwlnger, a group of fcnlldlngH ertcUJ I y logustua 11 a* a \.-iil.ulf to txia new palace. It is called 'Green' from the Colour of the paper or th which UWM oovued. 'iho regalia used at the core- nn'ion of Angustus (a present of Karl V.) are Rtill kept in the seventh apartment. The Emerald is in the eighth or last apartment. A riot of a political cha- racter, the result of what the French call 1 attroupement ' or party meetings in the public streets and squares. These public musters were first declared illegal in France in 1791 ; the law was confirmed 21 May, 1834, and again 7 June, 1848, when the pillagers of shops, breakers of windows, plunderers of arms, stump orators, and leaders of riots were moat severely handled. The Great Three Days Emeute of 1830 occurred on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday, 27, 28, 2. 633. Purchased by Justinian of Kosroes or Chosroes I. the Great, king of Persia, for 11,000 pounds of gold (about 440,OOOZ. sterling). It lasted barely seven years (Gibbon, 'Decline and Fall,' xli.), Enfans sans Souci (Les). A volunteer theatrical company of young tradesmen in Paris, in the 15th cent., for the representation of satirical farces, in which living characters and current events were introduced. There was another company formed of lawyers and called the 'Basocians* (q-v.). Pronounce Ahn-fahn tahgn soo-tet. Enfant de Miracle ('). Napo- leon I. They flit like phantoms about the mimic court Of the "Enfant de Miracle," ' The Oracle, 1885. Enforcing Act (The). Passed Con- gress 9 January, 1809. Its object was to preserve strict neutrality between Eng- land and France. All vessels from these two countries were, by this act, excluded from the United States. Engagement (The). I., or Scottish Covenant, 1643. The agreement of the Assembly of Divines met in Henry VH.'s Chapel at Westminster, to maintain Presbyterianism. The whole clergy were required to submit ; and 3,000 were ejected from their livings for refusing to do so. II. In 1647. A secret treaty between Charles I. and the ' Solemn League and Covenant' (q.v.). Charles engaged to establish Presbyterianism in Scotland and extii-pate the sectaries; and the league engaged to restore the king by force of arms. See l Engagers.' III. In 1649. The new oath substi- tuted by the Long Parliament, after the execution of Charles I., for the oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance : ' I swear to be true and faithful to the government established without king or house of peers, and never to consent to their re- admission.' Some doubt may be raised of the policy of the ' Engagement.' ... As long as it was confined to those who held office under the government, it remained a mere question of choice ; but when it was exacted from all Englishmen above 17 years of age ... it became to many an act of necessity, and served to irritate rather than to produce security. Dr. LINGARD, History of England, vili. 5. Engagers (The), 1649. Or the party of Hamilton, pledged to support 'the Engagement.' The Duke of Hamilton collected some 15,000 men, tumultuary and ill-disciplined, on the king's (Charles I.'s) behalf; but they were Utterly routed by Cromwell near War- rington, and Hamilton surrendered. The Engagers were the moderate Presbyterian party; the rigid Presbyterians, called ' Whigamores,' had the Duke of Argyll for their leader, and were the dominant party in the middle of the 17th cent. If the Covenanters got the upper hand ... ha [Montrose] must abandon his most devoted fol- lowers, the old Royalists and Engagers, and take the covenant himself. HowiTT, Hiitory of Eng- the old Royalists and En tenant himself. Hov land (Commonwealth, p. 815). England. Its Sovereigns and Dynas- ties since the Conquest : NOBMAN line Four kings (1066-1164) : William I. the Conqueror; William H. Rufus (son); Henry I. Beauclero (brother) ; Stephen of Blois (nephew). PLANTAGENET line Eight kings (1154- 1399) : Henry II. (grandson of Henry I.) ; Richard I. Cceur de Lion (son); John Lackland (brother); Henry III. (son); Edward I. Longshaiiks (son) ; Edward IL (son); Edward III. (son); Richard II. (grandson). House of LANCASTER Three kingg (1399-1461) : Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt duke of Lancaster); Henrj V (son) ; JIenry VI. (son). ENGLAND'S ENGLISH House of T^RK Three kings (1461- 1485) : Edward IV. (son of Richard duke of York) ; Edward V. (son); Richard III. (brother of Edward IV.). TUDOR line Five sovereigns (1485- 1603): Henry VII. (son of Edmund Tudor and Margaret Beaufort) ; Henry VIII. (son); Edward VI. (son); Mary (daughter of Henry Vm. and Katharine of Aragon) ; Elizabeth (daughter of Henry VIIL and Anne Boleyn). Lady Jane Grey not reckoned in the list. STUART Dynasty (sovereigns of Great Britain) Four sovereigns (1603-16891: Tames I. (son of Mary queen of Scots) ; Charles I. (son); [COMMONWEALTH: Cromwell, Lord Protector] ; Charles II. (aon of Charles I.) ; James IL (brother); Anne (daughter of James II.). House of ORANOE (Revolution), 1689- 1714 : William LEI. (prince of Orange) [grandson of Charles I.] and his wife Mary (daughter of James II.), conjointly. House of HANOVER At present (1890) five *overeign0 (1714-*) : George I. (elector of Hanover); George II. (son); George III. (grandson, son of Frederick prince of Wales) ; George IV. (son) ; William IV. (brother) ; Victoria (niece of William IV., daughter of Edward duke of Kent). See ' English Sovereigns.' The Saxon race, which dominated 827-101B, gave fourteen sovereigns. The Saxons and Dane* gave eight sovereigns (1013-1066). N.B. The English monarchs descend through the female line from King Egbert, the first king of England ; and trace back in the male side up to Wil- liam the Conqueror, whose son, Henry I., married Matilda, daughter of Margaret and Malcolm III. of Scotland. Margaret was the daughter of Prince Edward, and granddaughter of King Edmund, lineally descended from Egbert. See ' Victoria.' England's Darling. Hereward the Wake, lord of Burn hi Lincolnshire, famous for his resistance to William the Conqueror. He established his 'camp of refuge ' in the Isle of Ely, where, in 1071, he was joined by Earl Morcar. Morcar surrendered and was imprisoned in Normandy, but Hereward escaped. England's Standard Ad- vanced,' 1 May, 1649. A manifesto sued by Captain Thompson demanding the completion of public freedom, vowing Justice on the murderers of Arnold and Lockyer, and threatening, if a hair of Lilburne's head was touched, to avenge the wrong seventy-and-sevenfold. Tina party was put down on 17 May by Fairfax and Cromwell, who shot Cornet Thomp- son (brother of Capt. Thompson) and two corporals in Burford churchyard ; the rest promised to return to Ireland. Lockyer, a trooper, a brave young fellow of M, was shot by Fairfax and Cromwell, '26 April, 1649, for mutiny. He was buried with military honours, followed by thousands with sea green and black ribbons on their hats. English Aristophanes (The). Samuel Foote (1722-1777). English Chrysostom (The). Jeremy Taylor is so called by Coleridge in ' Table Talk ' (4 June 1830). English Church Union (The\ abbreviated into E.C.U. Formed in 1859 * for the purpose of uniting church- men in defence of the doctrine and disci- pline of the Church of England, and of the right* and liberties of her faithful children.' It is what is called a high- church or ' ritualistic ' association. The ' Church Association ' represents the ' mod*. rate ' or ' Evangelical ' party. English Claude (The). Thoma* Gainsborough (died 1788 at the age of 61). Contain* 1 large ruby, Irregularly polished. I large broad spread sapphire. 16 sapphire*, II emeralds. English Crown (The). the following jewels : 4 mble*. 1.9R3 brilliants. . diamond*. 147 table diamonds. 4 drop shaped pearl*. 373 pearls. The gross weight of the crown made In 1898 kf Hewn. Hundell A Bridge Is 89 om. S dwts. Troy. The famous ruby was given to Kd ward the lUaok Prince by Don Pedro of Castile in 13t57. Henry V. wore it la his helmet at the battle of Agincourt in 1415. English Ennius (The). See ' En- niua.' English Oarrison (The). So the Irish landlords were denominated by the partisans of the Irish Land League (q.vj. The third allegation of the Titnes, in their charge called ' Parnellism and Crime,' 17 Sept., 1888. We [the three Royal Commissioners] find thai the respondents did enter into a conspiracy to s> t-y-:t>in of coercion and intimidation to promote an agrarian agitation ... for the purpose of Im- poverishing and expelling from the country the Irish landlords, who were styled the ' B "g**" 1 ' Garrison.' Verdict (1890). English Justinian (The). Ed- ward I. (1239, 1272-1307). So called ENGLISH ENGLISH 295 because, like Justinian, he codified the laws, and reduced to practical shape the institutions of his predecessors. Edward I., in fact, begins a new epoch; all before him was ancient England, all from his accession is modern England. He de- nned the linn'ts of civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction, instituted the appointment of ' Conservators of the Peace,' now called ' Justices of the Peace,' organised into their present shape the superior courts (the Queen's Bench, the Exchequer, and the Common Pleas), and instituted the 1 Court of Appeal,' the basis of our ' Court of Chancery.' In this reign were passed the ' Statute of Mort- main,' 1-279, and the ' Statute of Rhuddlan,' 1284. And both Magna Charta and the Charter of the Forest were confirmed. English Language (The). Or- dered to be used in all courts of law, 1862 (86 Edw. III. st. i. c. 15). It is a pity that the sovereign still uses Norman ITrench, instead of English, in expressing the royal assent or dissent to Acts of Parliament. English Language, how derived. 1. Indian (Sanskrit). ARYAN 2. Persian (Zend). family J 8. Slavonic (Russian). has six " 4. Celtic (Gaelic and Cymric), branches 5 Grceco-Latin (Greek). 6. Gothic (German). TEUTONIC 1. Mceso-Gothic. Gothic 2. Low German (English, has three Dutch, Flemish). groups 8. High German (German;. See 'Erse.' English Martyr (The first), 10 March, 1401. William Sawtre, rector of Lynn, Norfolk, who was burnt at the stake in the reign of Henry IV. 'English Mercuric ' (The), 1588. Was for many years considered to be the oldest English newspaper, but in 1839 Mr. Thomas Watts of the British Museum proved it to be an impudent forgery, as the paper on which it is printed bears the arms of the House of Hanover, and the initials 'G. R.' See 'Literary For- geries.' English National Anthem. 1 God save the King ' (or Queen). EnglishPale (The). In Ireland. The five districts of Cork, Drogheda, Dublin, Waterford, and Wexford. Generally Balled ' the Pale ' (Henry II.). Thare wu an ' English Pale ' about Calais. English Pope (The). Adrian IV (1100, 1154-1159). His name was Nicho- las Breakspear. English Sovereigns do not suc- ceed to the crown by hereditary right, but by parliamentary authority. A crooked sort of descent is preserved, bat not like that of our hereditary nobility. WILLIAM I. had no hereditary right at all. The heir (though not of royal descent) was Harold. WILLIAM II. had no hereditary right. The heir was his elder brother Robert duke of Normandy. HENKY I. had no hereditary right. The heir was Robert. STEPHEN, the nephew of Henry I., had no hereditary right. The heir was Maud. JOHN had no hereditary right. The heir was Arthur, son of Geoffrey, 4th son of Henry II. John was the 5th son. HENBY II. had no hereditary right. The heir was Eleanor, damsel of Brittany, heiress of William I. HENKY IV. had no hereditary right after Richard II. ; the heir was Edward Mortimer, earl of March, by descent from Lionel (3rd son of Edward III.). Henry IV. was the son of John of Gaunt (4th son of Edward III.). HENBY V. and VI. were out of the direct line, which was continued in tho line of Mortimer earl of March. RICHABD III. had no right to the crown while Edward V. was alive, and after the death of his nephew Edward the direct heirs were the sons of George duke of Clarence, his elder brother. HENBY VII. had no right in descent ; he was the son of Edmund Tudor, whose only pretence to 'royal descent' was that his grandmother was the widow of Henry V. (daughter of Charles VI. king of France). The heir was Elizabeth of York, whom he married after he became king. There was another equally shadowy 'claim.' His paternal grandmother, Margaret, was the granddaughter of an illegitimate son of John of Gaunt (i.e. John Beaufort earl of Richmond bad a natural son by Katharine Swynford). WILLIAM III. and MABY had no here- ditary right. The heir was the Old Pretender. ANNE had no hereditary right. The heir was the Queen of Sardinia, by Hen- rietta Anne, daughter of Charles 1. GEOBGB I. had no hereditary right. 296 ENGLISH EOLIO This line was chosen by parliament be- cause theBrunswickers were the nearest Protestant relatives to their predecessors. See ' England,' its sovereigns and dy- nasties. English Sweat (The), Sept. 1482. So called because those attacked were covered from head to foot with a profuse perspiration. It lasted twenty-four hours, and sometimes longer, but left an extreme languor with palpitations for three years, and in some cases till death. Some 600 persons were attacked daily, and ninety out of a hundred died. It reappeared in the years 1485 and 1486. See 'Plague,' &c. From 1506 to 1551 a modification of this disease appeared in Great Britain and in France. It was attributed to bad drainage, and was especially fatal to the fat and non-industrial class. Twelve hours decided whether it would prove fatal or not. In 1533 it broke out In Germany and th> Nether- lands, and again uH>cnrid in England In 164U and 1661, since which time it baa not recurred. English Twenty Club (The). A club restricted to twenty of the best shots amongst the English volunteers. In 1884 Albert Victor, son of the prince of Wales, joined the club. English in the Pale. The Eng- lish settled in Ireland, holding the estates of native chiefs expelled by Straff ord. These colonists kept themselves apart not only from the Irish proper but also from the Anglo-Irish. Many of the Pale were Catholics. See ' English Pale.' Enne'ades (8 syl.). The great work of Plotlnus, the neoplatonic philosopher, edited by Porphyry his disciple. It con- sists of six sections each divided into nine parts; hence the name Enneades or Nines. Ennius (The English). Layamon, who wrote a translation in Saxon of ' The Brut ' of Wace (18th cent.). Ennius (The Spanish). Juan de Mena of Cordova (1412-1456). Ennius of France (The). Jehan de Meung (1260-1820), surnamed Clopi- nel t because he was lame and hobbled in his gait. He added 1,280 verses to the ' Eomance of the Rose,' begun by Lorris. Enoch (The Book of). Referred to by Jude, supposed to have been written about A.D. 40. Three Ethiopia versions were brought to Europe by Bruce in 1778 ; and a translation of it into English by Dr. Laurence was published in 1821; and much more recently Dr. Kenealy published a translation ' illustrated.' It is divided Into five parts: a) the fall of the angels and the journey of Enoch through tha earth under the guidance of an angel; (2) the re- velation made to Enoch, as that of the revelation of St. John ; (8) astronomy and the phenomena of the seasons : (4) the prophetic' vision of the Messiah s kingdom till the Last Judgment; (6) ax- bortations and moral reflections. Bruce presented one of his MS. copies to th Bodleian Library, Oxford. Ensign of the British Wavy (The). The Union Jack. It consists of three crosses, the blue field of St. Andrew is the field ; then the white saltire of St. Andrew and the red saltire of St. Patrick, joined together, with a white edging to the latter, to express the field ; over all is charged the red cross of St. George fimbriated with white. The white ensign of the British o't Royal Navy is the banner of St. G with the 'Jack' cantoned in the first quarter. The red ensign is that of the merchant service. The blue ensign is that of the z.c.val reserve. Ensignmen, 1662. Those evicted Irishmen who joined the ensigns of Charles II. in Flanders, and after his re- turn were entitled to have their estates restored to them by the Act of Settle- ment. To prevent injustice the then holders were ' reprised ' by the grant ol land elsewhere of the same value. The claimants fared but badly. One of them was Lord Castleoonnell, who had served Charl. -, II. for five or six years as a common soldier in tha Netherlands, in the Duke of York s regiment. Another was Colonel Charles MacCarthy lleagh. once the owner of a principality. It was found impossible to carry out the Restoration Settle- ment. Enthusiasts (The). A sect of the Independents which sprang up during the civil war between Charles I. and the parliament. The word was applied to all those who insisted that the Scriptures must be interpreted by the light of pri- vate inspiration. Under the head of Independents .... were tha Arminians, Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptist*. Familibts, Enthusiasts, Seekers, Perfectists, Socl- nians, Arians, and others. HOWITT, Hut. of Eng. (Charles I., chap. vL p. 278). Eolic Dialect. The Eolians formed one of the four great divisions of Greece, and dwelt originally north of Thessaly, but pushed their way southwards. Their dialect was distinguished by an aspir* EON EPIDEMICS 297 tion of initial vowels, called the digamma. Alcseos, Sappho, Corinna, and Pindar wrote in the Eolic dialect. One of the modes of music was called Eolic ; it was less grave than the Doric, and less effeminate than the Lydian and Ionian. Eon de PEtoile, 12th cent. A reli- gious impostor who gave himself out to be the Son of God, and drew around him a host of followers. In 1148 he was taken before the Council of Keims, and pro- nounced to be an idiot, but was thrown into prison and died there. He used to pervert ' Eum qui venturua ett' into 'Eon qui venturus est.' Eons. Intermediaries between the Supreme Being and the Jewish Jehovah ; or, according to the Gnostic theory, be- tween God and man. Wisdom is an Eon, BO is Faith, so is Prudence. Basilldes Bays there are 865 such beings, but Valen- tin admits only thirty. In modern phraseology the word ' Eon ' (from the Greek aion, for ever) means an Interminable period. Thus Eternity is said to be ' eon upon eon.' Ephesian Letters. Magical letters from an inscription of the statue of Diana in the temple of Ephesus. These letters were looked on as an amulet or charm. They were ascribed to the Dactyli or priests of Cybele. The letters were AsJcion, Kataskion, Tetrag, Dam- nameneus, Aisia. When Mlleslus contended with Epheslus at the Olympic games, Ephesius proved the successful competitor, because he had the Kphcsian letters attached to his heels. When these were removed Mlleslus was the winner. Ephors. Five contemporary Spartan magistrates of almost unlimited civil power. The two contemporary kings were, for the most part, only generals of the army. Ephtalites (8 syl), or White Hung Epicureans (The). 'Ancient Greek philosophers, so named from Epicures of Samos, the founder. He taught in his own private grounds in Athens, and his disciples, like the Academics, were called the ' Garden sect.' His system was that the chief aim of life should be enjoy- ment ; that the highest degree of enjoy- ment is perfect repose ; and that is to be obtained only by keeping a sound and healthy mind in a sound and healthy body. Epicuros lived B.C. 342-270. His disciples were Metrod5ros, Polysenos, and Hermachos. His successors were Poly- stratos, Basilldes, Protarchos, and others of less note. Heraclltos of Ephesus (B.C. 643-483) taught that happiness is the end and aim of life. Epicure'ans (The Sect of the). One of the Grecian sects in the early ages of Christianity. They denied that God troubles Himself about mundane matters, and taught that the world was made by the chance conflux of atoms. They dis- believed in a resurrection ; held that man consists only of a material body, and as this life is his end-all and be- all, his duty is to make the best of it, without taking any thought of a state after death. Epicu'rus of China (The). Tao or Taou, generally called by the title Laou-keun. He is mentioned by Kong- foo-tse (Confucius), with whom ho was contemporary (about 5th cent. B.C.). See ' Tao ' and ' Taoism.' Epidemics. Such diseases as attack a large number of persons at the same time. The following have been noted : DM Popular Kama Scientific Name Affected Authority 1874 1523 1642, &e reduced to B.C. or A.D. if required, accord- ing to the notes appended to several of the following eras. The Catholic Church divides the whole history of man into six epochs or ages of unequal length, via. > 1. From Adam to Noah ; 2. From Noah to Abraham ; 8. From Abraham to David ; 4. From David to the Babylonish cap- tivity; 5. From the captivity of Judah to the birth of Christ ; 6. From the birth of Christ to the end of the world. But independent of these epochs there are numerous other events which have been made points de depart by different people: The Eraol the Greek Olympiads ... _ B.0.778 The Era of the Foundation of Horn* _ 7i3 The Era of Nabonassar _ . 747 The Era of Alexander the Great -. . SM The Era of the Seleacidee ._.. >li The Julian Era 5 * ftnd so on. 'See ' .-Era.' Era (The Mundane). Many chrono- logists date from the foundation of the world, at any rate up to the Nativity ; but great diversity of opinion exists on the subject. The chief authorities are : 4 The Benedictines,' Calmet, The Greek Church, Professor Hales, and Archbishop Usher. The BENEDICTINES' system Is better known as ' I/Art de Verifier les Dates.' Dom August in CAI.MKT (1672 1757; was a learned theologian of Lorraine, author of a ' Dictionary of the Bible,' in French. The GREEK CHOKCH based its calculation on ths vtaagtnt. HALES (Prof. William) of Dublin University, author of ft ' New Analysis of Chronology (1OW- Dr. James USHER, archbishop of Armagh, was born In Dublin QMO-10B8) : and Is the author of 4 Annales Veteris et Novi Testament!,' and a book Of universal Chronology. NUMBER OV YEARS BETWEEN THE CREATION AND THE NATIVITT. According to the modern Greek Calendar ... TJWb According to Josephus J According to Scaliger >. Uuf ERA According to the ancient Greek Church . 6"0f? According to Professor Hales .. ... . 5411 According to ' L Art de Verifier les Dates ' . 4903 According to Arrhbishop Usher 4004 According to Calmet ... ... . 4DOO According to the Jews . 3760 See ' Era of Antioch,' ' Era of Constanti- nople,' ' Era of Alexandria,' c. Prof. William Hales, the Chronologist, who died In 1831, must not be confounded with Alexander de Hales, who died in 1242, and was called the ' Irrefragable Doctor.' Era of Abraham (The). Those who make the patriarch Abraham the epoch of their chronology begin their era 1 Oct., B.c. 2016. To reduce the era of Abraham to the Christian era, subtract 2,015 years and three months. The remainder will be the year and the month. Era of Actium (The), or 'the Actiatic Era.' Began 1 Jan. B.C. 80. It commemorates the victory of Octavianus (Augustus Ccesar) over Antony. We ourselves often speak of events as occurring before or since the Conquest. Era of Alexander (The), or Era of the Lagidse, that is of Ptolemy son of Lagus, a general of Alexander the Great, who reigned in Egypt after the death of the Macedonian. The era here referred to was that which began with the death of Alexander, and was used hi Egypt after the accession of Ptolemy. It began 2Nov.,B.c.824. Called in Latin Mra. Pkilippi or JCra Bicornit. Era of Alexandria (The). A com- putation of Julius Africanus adopted by the Christians of Alexandria, who reckoned the interval between Adam and Christ to be 5,500 years, or rather 5,502. In the reign of Diocletian ten years were deducted, and 5,787 was called 6,777 of the world, or 277 of the incar- nation. Era of American Indepen- dence (The), 4 July, 1776. Era of Antioch (The). According to Panodorus of Antioch, the chronolo- gist, who lived in the 5th cent., the world was created 1 Sept., B.C. 5492. This differs from the Mundane Era of Alexan- dria, which was fixed at 5502 ; but In A.D. 285, ten years being subtracted from the Alexandrian cal- culation, both the eras were alike. &tt ' Kra, I'M Mundane: Era of Augustus (The), or of 'the Empire,' adopted by the Romans. It began B.C. 27. Era of Bengal, or The Bengalee Bra.' Measured by solar time, and not ERA 999 by lunar, like the Mohammedan year. It is supposed, however, to be derived from the Hegtra, and in the middle of the 16th cent, the two correspond. Era of Bithynia (The). An era adopted by the Bithynians, who took for their starting point the year when they threw off the Macedonian yoke, and be- came independent ; that is, B.C. 288. This means that the year B.C 288 of the Chris- tian Era was the year 1 of the Bithynian Era. Era of Constantinople (The). Adopted in the Eastern Empire in the 7th cent. Like the Era of Antioch (q.v.), it began from the creation of the world. According to this calculation, the interval between the Creation and the Nativity was 5,508 years, and the birth of Christ occurred hi the 5,509th year. The Rus- sians followed this era till the reign of Peter the Great. The civil year of Constantinople began 1 Sept.; the ecclesiastical year eithor 21 March or 1 April. 80 in the Church of England the civil year begins on New Year's Day, but the ecclesiastical year in the preceding Advent, fomr weeks before Christmas Day. Era of Creation (The). See ' Era, The Mundane.' Era of Diocletian (The). Began 29 Aug. A.D. 284, when Diocletian was proclaimed emperor of Rome. This era was used by Christian till the introduc- tion of the Christian era. See next article. Era of Jesus Christ (The), or the 1 Christian era,' the ' Year of Grace,' or 'the Incarnation.' Begins 1 Jan. in 4714 of the Julian period. This era was first used hi 527 by Dionisius Exiguus, a monk of Scythia, and a Roman abbot, but was not generally adopted till long after that. In France in the 8th cent., in England in July 816, hi Spain in the llth cent., in Portugal in 1415, in the Eastern empire in 1453. It was in use in England as far back as A.D. 680. Herod the Great died A.U.C. 750, and the era of Jesus Christ is A.U.C. 753. There must be an error of three years or more, for Herod not only died A.U.C. 750, but he spent the last forty days of his life at Jericho. Rpgiiante in perpetuum ac gubernante Domino nostro Salvatore secula universa, anno recapitu- lationis Dionisl, id est ab Incarnatione Christi, sexcentessimo ootuagessimo [080]. . . . Ego Oshere Sometimes called 'Annus Trabeatlonii ' ; an4 sometimes ' The Circumcision.' Era of Julius Cassar (The), of * the Julian Era.' It was B.C. 46 whea 800 ETU ERA a followed by used by the a* transmitted by Julius Caesar reformed the calendar, and Julian's system prevailed in England till 1752, when it was superseded by the Gregorian year. What we call the ' Old Style' is that according to the Julian system :and what we call the 'New Style' is the Old Style corrected. In 1752 the difference was twelve days. Russia still adheres to the ' Old Style.' Era of Kings (The). See ' Era of the Seleucldse.' Era of Nabonassar (The). This era began on Wednesday, 26 Feb., B.C. 747. Nabonasp.ar was the founder of the kingdom of Babylon. The Jews at this era made their year consist of 805 days instead of 360. Famous In astronomy, being the Hipparchua and Ptolemy. It wa Chuldtean astronomers, and was Calliflthenes to Greece. Era Of Pisa (The). Much used in France in the 12th cent. ; it preceded oar common era by one year. Era of Rome (The). See 'Era of the Foundation of Borne/ Era of Salivahana Saka (The), or ' The Saka ' (i.e. the year), began A.D. 78. Named after Salivahan, a king who reigned many years in the Deccan, and was a great encorrrager of the arts and sciences. This era is much used in the southern provinces of Hindustan. The years are called ' Saka.' Era of Spain (The). Began 1 Jan., 3.C. 88, and wan in commemoration of the conquest of Spain by Augustus the year preceding. This era was long fol- lowed in Spain and Portugal. Era of Tyre (The). Began 19 Oct., B.C. 125 ; the year when the Tyrians ob- tained their autonomy from the Syrian kings. This era was used in Syria. To reduce the Tyrlan Kra to the Christian Era, subtract 124, and if the given year is less than 125. deduct it from 125. and the remainder will be the year B.C. Era of Vicramadityais reckoned from B.C. 56, and prevails chiefly in the northern provinces of India, and in Guz- erat. It is called after a sovereign of Malwa, who defeated Soka king of Delhi, and acquired possession of the most im- portant throne of India. The years are called ' Samvat.' According to Indian mythology the world Is to |Mt fur 4 y uyi [atfosj, three of which are paat already. The fourth, called the Kali-yug, Is the last and worst. EraofYezdegird (The). A. Per- sian era which began on the accession of Yezdegird III. to the throne of Persia, 16 June, A.D. 632. Also called ' the Ge- laltean era.' To reduce the Persian to the Christian era, add to the Persian era 690. Era of the Arabians (The). See EraoftheHeglra.' Era of the Armenians (The). This era began Tuesday, 9 July, A.D. 552, when the Council of the Armenians confirmed the condemnation of the Coun- cil of Chalcedonia, pronounced in 536, and thus completed their ' schism.' Era of the Ascension (The}. The era was used only by the author of the ' Chronicle of Alexandria,' who dates the martyrdom of Menas, ' Anno CCLVII Domini in coelos assumption is." To reduce this era to our A.D. add 38. Thus the martyrdom of St. Menas of Cotys is given in the 'Chronicle 1 : 'Anno CCLVII Domini In cculo* aasumptionis.' Which would be A.D. 296. Era of the Chinese (The). Begins B.C. 2697. The Chinese betfin their era with the accession of the Emperor Tao, a semi-historical monarch of the Tenth Ki (or race). Yao was the traditional author of the Chinese calendar, who first divided the year into 865 days, with an extra day every fourth year. It is said that on one occasion, during the reign of Yao, the sun did not set for ten days. Some persons quote this, but not wisely, in confirmation of Joshua z. 12. Era of the Foundation of Home (The). A.U.C. According to Varro 21 April, B.C. 753 According to the Capitoline Marbles 7">J According to Polybius . . .751 According to Archbishop Usher . 748 According to Fabius Pictor . 747 According to Newton . . . 627 Cato. Dionyslus of Halicarnassus, Sollnus, and Eusebius follow the date given by the Capitolin* M.irMfR. The Roman emperors, with Plutarch. Tacltns, Dion, Aulus Oellius. Consorlnus, Onuphrius. Ba- ronlus. Prof. Hales, liishop lieveridgc. Strauchius, Dr. Playfair.&c. follow the computation of Varro. Era of the French Republic (The). Began 22 Sept., 1792, the day of the foundation of the French Republic, and terminated 81 Dec., 1805. The following table will show the correspond- ence between the foolish French system and ih4 ordinary Christian era ERA ERASTIANISM 801 Tear I. From 22 Sept., 1792 to 21 Sept., 1793 II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X XL XII. XIII. XIV. 1793 1794 1795 1796 1T>7 17J8 1799 1800 1SIW 1803 1804 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1805 to 81 D O., 1805 Era of the Heg'ira (The). Adopted by all Mohammedans. It began with the 'flight' of Mohammed from Mecca, 16 July, 622. The i of ' Hcgira ' is generally pronounced long, but it would be more correctly written and pro- nounced ' Hedj'rah.' The word does not mean flight but emigration. Some place the Hedjrah on Thursday, 15 July. Era of the Jews (The). The Jews now date from creation, which they place B.C. 3760, and they begin their year with the new moon next after the autumnal equinox. Era of the Maccabees (The). Began B.C. 166, when Judas Maccabseus took the command of the insurgent Jews who sought to throw off the yoke of An- tiochus Epiphanes. His arms were suc- cessful, he destroyed every vestige of the heathen religion, restored the Mosaic law, and established a Jewish dynasty called the Asmonaean which lasted to B.C. 87, when Herod the Great was made king of Judeea by the Romans. This era of the Maccabees ia called by the Jews 1 the Era of Kings.' In 2 Maccabees vil. we read of a mother and her seven sons who were martyred by Antiochos Epi- phanes, because they refused to eat swine's flesh at the king's command. This massacre Is said to have occurred B.C. 166, and is celebrated in the Catholic Church on 1 August. Those seven brothers were not related to the great Asmoniean family, but it Is rather remarkable that both the vents referred to occurred in the same year. Era of the Martyrs (The). Began 23 Feb., 803. It .was the tenth and last persecution of Diocletian, the Roman emperor, to which he was instigated by his colleague Galeriuo. Diocletian died A.D. 313. The ' Era of Diocletian ' (q.v.1 and the ' Era of the Martyrs ' are often used as synonymous terms, but the former began 29 August, 2*4, and the latter 23 Feb., 803. Without doubt Christians used the era of Diocletian in consequence of the persecu- tions which rendered the reign so memorable. Much error prevails on the subject of these per- secutions. We are apt to forget that Christians in power instituted the crusades, the wars of the Waldenses and of the Albigensea, the Dragon- the Thirty Year*' war, the Bartholomew slaughter, the fires of Smithfleld, and all th- horrors of the Inquisition. All religious porsecu tions arose from a conviction that there is only one right religion ; and those in power think that religion which is sanctioned by the state IB the right one. Era of the Olympiads (The). Began 1 July, B.C. 776. The era of the Olympiads is a system of dates adopted by the ancient Greeks. An Olympiad was the interval of four years between two consecutive celebrations of the Olym- pic games. These games were trials of strength and agility tested by running, boxii 'g, leaping, wrestling, and so on, held at Olympia, a plain of Elis, every fourth year. They were first employed for chronological purposes, when Choroebos won the foot-race, the principal match before chariot-races were introduced. By this system of dates, events were said to have occurred on the 1st, 2nd, &c. year of the so- and-so Olympiad, mentioning the number of cele- brations since the establishment of the era In B.C. 776. Era of the Persians. See * Era of Yezdegird.' Era of the Seleu'cidss (The). Began 1 Oct., B.C. 812, when Seleucus Nicator, king of Syria, took possession of Babylon. The dynastv lasted 247 years, to B.C. 64. Seleucus Nicator, one of the best generals of Alexander the Great, was a native of Macedon, and therefore the era which he founded is sometimes called the ' Macedonian Era.' It was called by the Jews the Era of Contraeto, certainly a very apt appellation. Erasmus's Paraphrase. This was a paraphrase of the Scriptures, in 1547, placed with the Bible in parish churches. Erastianism. The religious tenets of Thomas Erastus, a physician of Baden (1524-1583), who asserted that the church is a civil institution, sub- ordinate to and dependent on the civil power. Thus it is said that the Church of England is Erastian or a parlia- mentary church, and that its articles and discipline depend on acts of parlia- ment. Erastus taught that the Christian ministry is not a divine institution, that Christ and his apostles prescribed no particular form of church government, and that the punishment of all offences belongs to the magistrate. Of course he denied the dogmas of apostolical succession, the power of the keys, and ordination. He taught that anyone might preach who liked, and that th EREMITES ESPOUSAL success of preaching depended solely on moral suasion. The Scotch Covenanters called submission to the civil powers 'EriiBtiunism.' The book of Erastus la entitled ' De Excommunicatione eccle- dastica. 1 Eremites of St. Paul (The), or ' Freres de la Mort,' 18th cent. A reli- gious order under the patronage of St. Paul the Anchorite. Their special duty was to attend to the sick and preside at funerals. They wore on their scapulary a death's head and cross-bones. Erenachs. Laymen who held i* Ireland church lands. If dignitaries they were called Comorbans. They ap- propriated the revenues, like lay abbots, leaving to the clergy only the tithes and fees. (From the 9th to the 17th cent.) Erfurt (Treaty of), 27 Sept., 1808. Between Napoleon I. and Alexander of Russia. NapoU-on agreed to recognise aa parts of the Russian empire Finland (taken from Sweden), and Moldavia and Walachia (taken from Turkey); and Alexander promised to support Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain. Erie. Blood-fine which the kindred of a layman convicted of homicide were compelled to pay to the family of the slain (Ireland). Eric's Law. The ancient laws of Sweden collected into a single volume by order* of Eric IX., who reigned 1150- 1162. Eri'gena means 'the Irishman.' Joannes Scotus, the Schoolman, is so called. Scot and Irish wore at one time ynonymous terms; so that Jolin Eri- gena and John Scotus mean the same thing. (Died 875.) He muet not be confounded with Dons Scotus, the Schoolman U'Aw -lnoa). Erlau (He has won the fame of). An Hungarian proverb. In 1552 Erlau was besieged by the Turkish army of Solyman the Magnifurnt. Women joined the men in its defence, and so obstinately resisted that the Turks raised the siege, and Erlau was saved. This was one of the noblest defences in his- tory. (Erlau, -lau to rhyme with now.) Ernest of Hanover. Called the Confessor on account of his having intro- duced into his dominions the ' Augsburg Ooofesaiou ' .v.. Erse. The native Irish language. Celtic is divided into Cymric and Gaelic. Cymric is Welsh, old Cornish, and Armorican or Breton. Gaelic is Highland Scotch, Erse, and Manx. See ' English Language,' &c. Escalier des Malheureux (L'). A back or private staircase in the palace by which the boon companions of Phara- mond entered into his sanctum sanctorum. When Pharamond wanted a little relaxa- tion he made a well-known sign, and entering this apartment, ' on admettait ceux a qui les ministres avaient refuse* leur audience, on qne la garde avait re- but os; et cet escalier, par lequel le monarque et eux passaient e*galement, s'appelait " 1'escalier des Malheureux " ' (Dvctionnaire Historique, prominent feature. Exhibitioner. In Oxford Uni- versity one who holds an exhibition ; a kind- of scholarship in Corpus Christi; and in Worcester College. Exhibitioners tire now called scholars. Exon. A title applied to certain officers of the Yeomen of the Guard. Latin exon-erarius, i.e. one relieved from work or active service, but still remaining in a position of dignity and ease. Exons are also called exempts. Exon Domesday. The statistical urvey of the Conqueror's commission for the monastery of Exeter, containing the counties of Wiltshire, Dorsetshire, Somersetshire, Devonshire, and Corn- wall. This survey contains, what is omitted in the great Domesday Book, the tally of live stock, as well as the names of landowners, the amount of land held by each, the number of vassals, villeins, cottars, and serfs, the amount of pasture land and arable land, the number of mills and fishponds, &c. Exorcist. This officer of the Greek and Latin churches had nothing to do with the act of exorcising, but only to dis- criminate between the really possessed and those who pretended or were supposed to be so. In the fourth Council of Carthage it was prescribed that the bishop, when he ordained an exorcist, should place a book in the hand of the aspirant, and say to him, ' Take this book, study it, and receive power to lay hands on the possessed, whether they be baptized or only catechumens.' The exorcism itself was delegated to certain priest* by the bishop of the diocese. Ex-oukontians. Arians were M called by their opponents, because by their tenets Christ was created out of nothing (ex-ouk-onta), in which respect alone He differed from man. Expectation Sunday. The Sun- day before W T hit Sunday. Acts i. 4, Christ commanded the disciples 'that they should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait for the promise of the Father.' They waited till the day of Pentecost and the promise was fulfilled. See ' Sun- days.' Expectation Week. The week preceding Easter, commemorative of the waiting or expectation of the apostles for the outpouring of the Spirit, which came at Pentecost. Expectative Canons. Canons without revenue or prebend, but possess- ing the title of canon, with a voice in the chapter, and a place in the choir till a prebend became vacant. Expectatives (4 syl.), or 'Man- dates.' Letters of request from the pope praying that benefices be conferred on certain individuals nominated in the letters. Experimental Physics (Pro- fessorship of). In the University of Cambridge, 1871, founded by the Uni- Tersity. Stipend 850J. a year. Explanation (Act of), 1649. A bill brought into parliament by the Duke of Ormond, lord-lieutenant of Ireland, to confirm the Protestants in the estates confiscated from Irish Catholics, after what is called the ' Irish Rebellion.' This act was quaintly called the ' Magna Charta of the Protestants of Ireland.' Expositor (The). Averroes, the Moorish expositor of Aristotle; born at Cordova, in Spain, 1120 ; died betv 1196 and 1206. EXSUEGB PACT 809 Exsurge, Domine (The Bulls}. I. 1877. By Gregory XI. against Wyolif. II. 1520 by Leo X. against Luther. This bull was publicly burnt 10 Dec., 1520, at Wittenberg by Luther. Pronounce Ex-tur'-ge Dom'-i-ne. Extension Teaching, 1887. Ex- tending the voluntary popular education to a regular course of instruction cover- ing between two and three years. The instruction to contain two groups (1), natural, physical, and mathematical Bcience; and (2) history, political eco- nomy, mental science, literature, and art. It requires the students to attend a consecutive series of lectures for six terms in a group of subjects, and an examination proof of efficiency either in Latin or some modern language, the first three books of Euclid, and algebra as far as quadratic equations. Extradition Treaty. For the mutual surrender of criminals (not poli- tical) who have taken refuge in another kingdom. Concluded between England and France 18 Feb., 1843, and the same year between England and the United States of America. Since 1843 similar treaties have been made with other nations, so that now we have extradition treaties with Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, [France], Hayti, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Prussia, Salvador, Spain, Sweden and Norway, Switzerland, Tonga [the United States], &c. Extravagants or ' Extravagantes Constitutions,' in canon law are decre- tals or constitutions published after the Clementines (q.v.), not at first included in the Corpus Juris Canonici, but forming a supplementary volume. They consist of the Extravagants or papal constitutions of John XXII. and a few of his suc- cessors. They were added to the Corpus Juris Canonici by John Lancelot in the time of Paul IV. (1555-1559). The whole Corpus Juris Canonici consists of (1) the Decretals of Kaymond of Penaforte (1234), in 6 books; (2) the Sixt, or continuation of the Decretals, also in 6 books ; and (8) the Extrava- gantes Communes, consisting of the Clementines, in 5 books, and Extra vagantes Joannis in 1 book. Subsequently 5 books of Communes were added, being the rescripts of later popes. Ezra. Same as Esdras, Zoroaster, or Zerdushc. The last is the Persian translation of Ezra, which means 'help.' He died B.C. 440, aged 99. P. The three F's. Mr. Butt's Irish platform (1876) : F[ixity of tenure], F[ree ale], F[air rent]. 7?he principle of com- pensation for unexhausted improvements was introduced in Ireland in the Land Act of 1870 ; that of the Three Fs in the Land Act of 1881. Fabian Method (The). Delay. Fabius Maximus, instead of attacking Hannibal, harassed him by marches and countermarches. Hencw the proverb, ' To win, like Fabius, by delay.' Fabius of America (The). George Washington (1732-1799). Fabius of Austria (The). Marshal Daun, able and cautious (1705-1766). Fabius of France (The). Anne Montmorency (1493-1567), so called from the way he conducted his expedition against Kaiser Karl V. annoying him in every way, alluring him from place to place, and never coming to a general battle. Fable of Jenkins* Ear (The), 1738. Capt. Robert Jenkins, master of a sloop trading from Jamaica, was boarded and searched by a Guarda Costa (Spanish coastguard), and barbarously ill-treated. He affirmed that the Spanish captain had cut oft one of his ears, and Jenkina carried about with him an ear wrapped in wadding. On 16 March he appeared at the bar of the House of Commons, and Pulteney, Barnard, Wyndham, and Pitt made political capital out of the story to embroil the nation with Spain ; but Burke dubbed the whole story a fable. This incident or fable led to ft declaration of war with Spain. Fabliaux, 1150-1350. Short fables or tales in verse, such as ' Reynard the Fox' and Parnell's' Hermit.' The fabliaux poets were wandering minstrels very in- ferior in position to the Troubadours and Trouveres. The best of all this immense pile of French verse which has come down to us is the fabliau of ' Aucassin and Nicolette,' which is tender, natural, and full of interesting situations. Fabulse Atella'nre. A species of farce written in the Oscan language, which was spoken in all the south of Italy, and, from its resemblance to Latin, was understood by educated Romans. Atellanea, from Atella, a city of the Oscans, ! Campania, where these farces were performed. Fact an4 Bight. See 1 Right and Fact.' 810 FACTOHY FALAISE Factory Act (The], 9 Aug., 1870 (88 ). The foreboding dream in his ' Hippolyte ' ha* nothing superior in Corneille or Racine. However, Corneille is generally looked 'the Father of French Tragedy.' Father of Grace and Elegance (The). So the French style Du Bellay, one of their Pleiad poets, also called ' the French Ovid ' (1524-1560). Father of Landscape Garden- ing (The). Lenotre (1(513-1700). He laid out the gardens of Versailles, the Tui lories, St. Cloud, St. Germain, Fon- taineblean, Clujjny, Chantilly, Meudon, and Sceaux. He died at the age of 88, never having had a day's illness in his life. Father of Letters (The). Louis XII. (1462, 1498-1 r.l:,). Francois I. (1494, 1515-1547). Lorenzo de Medicis of Florence (1448- 1492). Maecenas, the Roman statesman, the Patron of Letters ui.c. 73-b). called Father of Medicine (Tfo). Hip- pocrates, B.C. 460-357. Father of Mesmerism (The), or 'Animal Magnetism.' Mesmer (1784- 1815). He taught that there exists a force in man which he could communi- cate to others, and that this force was of a sedative character, inducing sleep or alleviating pain. Father of Modern French Literature (The). Claude de Seyssel (1450-1520), celebrated for being the first prose writer in French with any degree of purity. Father of Modern German Poetry (The). Martin Opitz of Silesia (1597-1639). Father of Modern Philosophy (The). Roger Bacon, a friar, author of 'Opus Majua ' (1214-1292). FATHER 816 Father of Modern Scepticism (The). Bayle (1647-1706), author of a French ' Historical and Critical Dic- tionary.' Father of Modern Swedish Poetry (The). Stjernhjelm (Shearn- yelm), 16th cent., contemporary with Shakspeare, Lope de Vega, &c. Father of Parody (The). Hippo- nax of Ephesus (B.C. 566-520), a Greek poet. Father of Physiology (The). Haller (1708-1777). He wrote eighty-six books on medicine and physiology. Father of Political Dissenters (The). Sir John Oldcastle, commonly called Lord Cobham (1800-1417). Burnt to death in the reign of Henry V. He was condemned by Archbishop Arundel in 1413, but the sentence was carried out by Henry Chicheley, Arundel's successor, 14 Dec., 1417. Lord Cobham was said to be unsound on these four points : Tran- gubstantiation, penance, pilgrimages, and image-worship. Father of Satire (The). Archi- lochos of Paros (B.C. 710-690), a Greek poet. He inveighed against Paros, against Thasoa, and against Lycambes, who promised to give him his daughter in marriage, but afterwards retracted his word. Lycambes was so pricked to the heart by the satire of the poet that he hanged himself. Archilochum proprlo rablea armavit iambo, HOB. De A rte Poetica, 79. Father of Waters. The Irrawaddy (Burmah). Johnson, in his ' Rasselas,' calls the Mississippi 'the Nile of the Father of Waters.' Father of his Country. ANDRONICOS Palceoldgos assumed the title (1260- 1332). AUGUSTUS ('Pater atque Princepg' HORACE), B.C. 63, 81-14 A.D. CICERO, who broke up the Catiline con- spiracy (B.C. 106-43). The Romans offered the same title to Marias after his annihilation of the Teut6n6a and Clmbrl, but he declined to accept It. COSMO DE' MEDICI is so designated on his tombstone. Cotmus Medici \ Hie situi e$t, \ Deereto pubUco, \ Pater Patriot (1519-1574). DOHIA (Andrea) is so called on his statue at Genoa (1468-1560). JULIUS C.E6AR was BO styled after he had quelled the Spanish insurrection (B.C. 100-44). LAURENCE O'TooLE, archbishop of Dublin, who died 14 Nov., 1180 : he was of the illustrious house of O'Tuathal, and was canonised in 1226 by Honorius III. Louis XVIILof France (1755, 1814- 1824). WASHINGTON (George), ' Defender and Paternal Counsellor of the American States ' (1782-1799). See also 1 Chron. iv. 14. Father of his People (The). Louis XII. of France (1462, 1498-1515). Even Louis XI. was BO called. The French, aa a rule, have not been happy in their royal appellatives. Father of the English Uni- tarians (The). John Biddle of Glou- cestershire (1615-1662). He was thrice imprisoned by the Long Parliament, and was at last liberated in 1652 by the Act of Oblivion. He was again arrested in 1655, but Cromwell discharged him in 1658 ; he was again arrested in 1662, and fined 100Z. Not being able to pay the fine, he died in prison within five weeks. Father of the Forest (The). It stands in California in Tulare County, is 450 feet high, and 138 feet round the trunk. Father of the French Drama (The). Rotrou (1609-1650) was so called by Corneille. If not the ' father of the drama,' he was doubtlessly the ' founder of the French theatre ' so far as scenery is concerned and the general conduct of the stage. Father of the G-erman School (The). Albert Durer (1471-1528). Fuseli Bays of Albert Dtirer, 'though called tha Father of the German School, he neither reared scholars, nor was he imitated by German artists of any age.' Father of the Land League. Ireland. Michael Davitt, 1879. Father of the Modern Drama (The). In Germany. Andrew Gryph (1619-1664), prince of the Silesian poets. Shakspeare died the very year that Gryph was born. He wrote both tra- gedies and comedies, but is pompous, declamatory, and overstrained. Father of the People (The). Christiern III. of Denmark (1502, 1534* 1559). 316 FATHERS FEAST Gabriel du Pineau, a French lawyer (1578-1644). Fathers (Last of the). St. Bernard (1091-1153). The 'Fathers of the GhuMh' wwe followed by the ' Schoolmen. 1 Fathers of the Greek Church. Those Christian writers of the Greek Church who succeeded the Primitive Fathers (q.v.), and lived in the 4th and 5th cents. : Died 842 Kusrbius of Nicomedia. 873 Athanasius. 879 Ephrem of Edessa (the deacon). Basil the Great. 886 Cyril of Jerusalem. 890 Gregory of Naziunzus in Cappa- docia. 896 Gregory of Nyai*. 403 Epiphanius. 407 Chrysostom. 444 Cyril of Alexandria. Fathers of the Latin Church. Contemporary with those ol the Greek Church (q.v.). Died. 817 Lactantius. 897 Ambrose of Milan. 420 Jerome (2 syl.). 430 Augustin of Hippo. 467 Hilary. St. Hcrimrd U09M15S) la called the La** of te i*tiii Fathers, and was follow ed by the Schoolmen. Fatherland. Germany. What is the Gorman fatherland Is't Prussia s realm or Suul.iun land? Is'twhor.' ihi> IMionlsh rod tfrapos hanf f Or where the Baltic sea mows clang J Oh I nay, nay, nay. so cribbed a stran4 Is not the German fatherland. Our fatherland all Germany Who Rpeak th<> t.'iiuiir our sons must be, God niv< us courauo, will, itml strength, To free it in its l.retulth and length; Join every heart. Join every hand Till Germany's one fatherland. AHNDT (trnntlated by E. C. B.). Fatigue Party. Men of the rank and file employed on works, such as making roads, digging trenches, moving guns, pitching camps, &c., not their special military work. They are said to be 'men on fatigue.' Fatimites (3 syl.). An Arabian dynasty in Egypt, founded by Mahadi Obaidallah, a descendant of Fatima, daughter of Mohammed 'the prophet' (910-1171). On the death of Adhid (last of the Fatimites) the dynasty of the Ayubides (3 fiyl.) succeeded. The Fati- mites of Egypt wore red turbans. The princes of the Fatimites were callea Aliades (8 STL), from AH. cousin of Mohammed. Ali married Fatima, the Prophet's daughter, and was pro claimed kalif in 666. Faust (The English). Dr. Dee, the astrologer (1527-1608). Favoured Child of Victory (The). Marshal Massena, duke of Bivoli (1758-1817), so called because his whole career in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, and Poland had been an unbroken series of victories. He was foiled by Viscount Wellington (Duke of Wellington) at Busuco 27 Sept., 1810. Fawkes (Guy, i.e. Guido). Waa at the taking of Calais by Archduke Albrecht in 151)8. He took part with Catesby and the other conspirators in Gunpowder Plot, 1GU4-5, was arrested 6 Nov. 1U05, and executed at Westminster 81 Jan., 1606. In l-oo, the fear of 'the Papal aggression/ the figure of Cardinal Wiseman was substituted for Guy Fawkes in the street processions. Fealty was performed standing; homage was performed kneeling. Fealty was sworn to by oath ; homage required no oath. In fealty the vassal stood before his lord, and laying his right hand on the Bible, said aloud : ' Know ye this, my lord, that I swear to be faithful and true to you, and to bear faith to you for the lands that I shall hold of yon. And I will lawfully do unto you the customs and services which I ought to do, and at the times assigned. So help me God and his saints.' Then taking up the book he kissed it, and put it back again. See ' Investiture ol Vassals.' Feast, Feasts. Se* also 'Festa,' ' Festum,' and ' Fete.' Christian Feasts are (a) Fixed; (6) Movable. (a) The Fixed Christian Festivals are All Saints or All Hallows, 1 Nov. All Souls in honour of all the faithful dead, whether canonised or not, 2 Nov. Candlemas Day or the Purification of the Virgin Mary, 2 Feb. Christmas Day or the Nativity, 25 Dea Circumcision, 1 Jan. Epiphany or Twelfth Day, 6 Jan, Innocents' Day, 28 Deo. FEAST FEAST 817 Lady Day or Annunciation of the Virgin Mary, 25 March. The following are also called Saints' Days, or Red Letter Days ; 8. Andrew ... 80 Nov. Barnabas ... _. ... ... 11 June James the Elder 25 July John the Baptist (his Nativity) 24 June John the Evangelist ~. . 27 Dec. Luke the Evangelist _ 18 Oct. Mark the Evangelist _ M 25 April Matthew the Evangelist _ 21 Sept. Matthias ^ 24 Feb. Michael (Michaelmas Day) _ 29 Sept. Paul (his Conversion) 25 Jan. Peter (by Catholics Peter & Paul) 29 June Philip and James the Less .,. 1 May Simon and Jude ... . 28 Oct. Stephen (the first martyr) ... 26 Deo. Thomas (the shortest day) ... 21 Deo. (b) Movable Christian Feasts : Ascension Day or Holy Thursday, ten days before Whit Sunday. Ash Wednesday, the first day in Lent. Easter Sunday (q.v.). Good Friday, the Friday before Easter Day. Palm Sunday, the Sunday before Easter Day. Pentecost or Whit Sunday, the seventh Sunday after Easter. Sexagesbna Sunday, (about) sixty days before Easter, second Sunday before Lent. Trinity Sunday, the Sunday following Whit Sunday. See each of these in loco. They all depend on Easter Day. Feasts (Grecian), or Grecian Fes- tivals. Agraulia, or Agrauria, held at Athena in honour of Agraulos or Agrauros, daughter of Cecrops. Artemisia in honour of Artemis [Diana] ; the bread offered to the goddess was called lochia, and the women who performed the sacred rites were called lombai. Diony'sia in honour of Dionysos [Bac- chus], observed hi Athens with great plendour and numerous ceremonies. Eleusinia, the most celebrated and most mysterious festival of any in Greece. The greater mysteries were celebrated .t Eleusis, in the month Boedromion (the latter half of Sept. and the former of Oct.). Panathenaia in honour of AthenS [Minerva], protectress of Athens. It lasted several days and was celebrated with great magnificence. The festivals of Greece were very numeroui. There -were fifty beginning with the letter A. And besides these special festivals there were the times set apart for the Isthmian, NSmean. Olym. plan, and Pythian games. Feasts (Roman), or Koman Festivals. 1. In January : The Agonalia hi honour of Janus on the 9th ; and Car- mentdlia in honour of Carmenta (mother of Evander) on the llth. 2. In February: The Faunalia in honour of Faunus on the 13th ; the Lu- percdlia in honour of Pan, on the 15th ; the Eegifugium on the 24th, to com- memorate the flight of Tarquin ; and two or three others. 8. In March : the Matronalia to com- memorate the termination of the Sa- bine war on the 1st; the Liberdha in honour of Bacchus on the 18th; the Quinquatria in honour of Minerva, on the 19th ; and two others. 4. In April : the Megalesia, on the 4th and 5th, in honour of the mother of the gods ; the Ceredlia in honour of Ceres, on the 9th ; and three others. 6. In May : on the 1st the sacred ritea of the Sona Dea were performed by the vestal virgins ; the Lemurta, to the souls of the deceased, on the 9th; and two others. 6. In June : On the 1st were several festivals, one of which was that of Juno moneta. Other festivals were held on the 4th, 7th, 9th, and 10th. With the festivals of this month the Fa$ti of Ovid end. The other six books are lost. 7. In July were seven festivals. 8. In August were four festivals. 9. In September: the Ludi Magni were held on the 4th in honour of the great gods ; and on the 13th the consul fixed a nail in the temple of Jupiter. 10. In October were two festivals. 11. In November were two festivals. 12. In December : the Saturnalia were held on the 17th, the most celebrated festival of the whole year, when all per- sons of every rank gave themselves up to feasting, frolic, and fun. Besides the time devoted to the games. Feast of Fools, or ' Festum Fatuo- rum.' The Christian substitute of the Roman Saturnalia. The same as ' Festum Kalendarum' (q.v.), 1 Jan. Abolished in Germany by the Council of Basel (1481-1449) ; in France by Charles VII. in 1444. Observed at Antibes (2 syl.) aa late as 1644. See ' Festum Asinorum.' This was not the Ass's Festival, as many assert. The Ass's Festival was the 14th of Jan., and com. isemorated the ' Flight into Egypt,' whereas Uu 818 FEAST Feast of Fools was New-year's day, and thence called ' Festum Kalendarum.' It was called Fi-iitum hypodiafOHorum, ' non quod revera soli Subdiaconi hasBcelcstas choreas ducerent; sed quod hac jocu- lar! appellations Indicare voluerint festivitatem hanc fuisse ebriortun clerlcorum vel diaconorum.' Du CANOK, vol. lv. p. 296, article ' Kalendea.' It waa a day of drunkenness and debauchery, in which the clergy took a leading part. Feast of Liberty ( The). A festival held by the Athenians every five years, in commemoration of the victory of Salamis over Xerxes and his host. It was celebrated on the battle-field of Plafoea. Feast of Nature (The), 10 Aug., 1798. To celebrate the ' perfected consti- tution.' Sdchelles and David the painter were the chief devisers. A plaster statue of Nature was erected on the Place de la Bastille, having two streams of water sprouting from her breasts. The front of the pedestal bore the words, ' We all are her children.' Other mottos were ' Hell vomits kings,' and 'Hell vomits priests. 1 The chief members of the Convention, public committees, and commune kneeled in adoration to this plaster image, pray- ing her to receive the eternal devotion of the French. Then followed firing of can- non, scattering of flowers, kissing, and dancing. The nurses of the foundling hospital brought their children to ' Mother Nature,' and the Dames de la Halle were crowned with wreaths. In the Place de 1* Revolution (now ' de la Concorde ') was gigantic statue of Liberty with a forest of poles bearing red caps, and inscribed, ' Imitate us ; we are free.' Feast of Pikes (The), 14 July. So the 'Feast of the Federation ' is called by Carlyle, because the Bastille was taken on 14 July, 1790, by the mob, for the most part armed with pikes. France roared simultaneously to the welkin, bursting forth Into sound and smoke at its Feast of Pikes. Ci.RL.YLK, French devolution, vol. ill. bk. ii. 1. Feast of Reason (The), 10 Nov., 1793. Celebrated by decree of the Con- vention at Paris. Feast of Reconciliation (The), 25 Jan., 1555. A grand religious proces- sion in London, in the reign of Queen Mary, to commemorate the return of England to the See of Rome. It was to be held annually on St. Andrew's day (25 Jan.). The bishops were empowered to ' reconcile ' all to the Catholic Church, and enter their name* in FEDERALISTS registers. Those who did not give In their name* were to be proceeded against as heretics. Thig was followed by four years of persecution, -when bout 800 suffered death. Feasts of the tre Supreme (The), 8 June, 1794. Celebrated by de- cree of the Convention at Paris. See also ' Festa,' ' Festum,' and ' FOte.' Feathers Tavern Association (The), 1771. An association opposed to the abolition of subscription to the Thirty- nine Articles and confessions of faith. Its name is derived from the place of meet- ing. In 1772 the association presented a petition to parliament on the subject. It was signed by 200 clergymen and 50 lay- men, chiefly lawyers. Febron'ianism, anti - papalism. John Nicholas von Hontheim, who assu- med the pen-name of Justlnns Febronius, wrote a book, ' De Praesenti Statu Eccle- si,' published in 1767, to prove the inde- pendence of national churches, and the 'home rule ' of diocesan bishops. It me*i with the severest censures of the Roman tribunals. February Patent or Ordi- nance (The), 1861. Promulgated for the establishment of a central Reichsrath, consisting of a house of lords and house of representatives from all the provinces of the Austrian empire. Hungary re- fused to send any representative, and in 1867 Hungary was granted its present form of government. February Revolution (The), 1848 (22, 23, 24). In which the govern- ment of Louis Philippe of France was overthrown. It began at a reform ban- quet with the cry of Vive la. HI forme ! and ended in three days with the cry of Vive la Rlpublique ! The king fled, and ft republic was proclaimed 24 Feb. Fedavees. A company of young men, agents of the Chief of the Assassins, a secret society of Asia. They dressed in white, with red bonnets and girdles, and were armed with daggers; but they as- sumed all sorts of disguises. Federalism, 1792, 1793. A scheme proposed by the Girondists (q.v) to form the different departments into a ledoraoy, like the United States of America. Federalists (The), 1841. 'Ireland. When the House of Commons decided FEDERALS FfiNELON 819 that demands for the repeal of the \Jnion were unconstitutional, the repealers called themselves ' Federalists,' and declared that their platform was not identical with the repeal for which Daniel O'ConneU had previously been agitating. They said they were opposed to the dismemberment of the Imperial Parliament, but favoured the idea of an Irish Parliament to have juris- diction in exclusively local affairs. O'Con- nell accepted the new programme. Federals (The), 1861-1866. In the American Civil War the Federalists were those who armed to preserve the Union against the Confederates (q.v.) or Southern States. Federate Republicanism, 1798. A French federation against the Con- vention. The chief league consisted of Lyons, Marseilles, and Toulon. Keller- mann was sent with 80,000 troops to re- duce Lyons to obedience, and the siege lasted from 19 Sept. to 9 Oct., 1798, when the city surrendered, and 2,000 of the inhabitants were put to death. Toulon was set on fire, and the federation was stamped out. Federation of the Champ de Mars, or 'Fete of the Federation,' 14 July, 1790. The first anniversary of the taking of the Bastille in Paris, when 60,000 persons assembled, and Louis XVI. swore to preserve the constitution worked out by the Constituent Assembly. A second federation was held 14 July. 1792. A third was held during- the famous Hundred Days (q.v.), 26 May, 1815. Thig is more properly called the Champ de Mai, but it was held in the Champ de Mars of Paris. Here Napoleon the Great proclaimed what is called ' L'Acte Addi- tionnel' that is, the act which Napo- leon, during the Hundred Days, ' ajouta aux Constitutions de 1'Empire.' This assembly, announced for 26 May, did not really take place till 1 June. Fee-penny (The). A fine paid or exacted of a debtor if his debt was not paid to time. Sir Thomas Gresham, writing from Flanders, frequently requests the English government to settle its debts ' to saye the fee-penny.' Fehmgerichte (4 syl.), or the ' Holy Fehm.' A secret tribunal of the middle ages, in Westphalia. Its object was espe- cially to terrorise the barons, whose law- less conduct was the curse of the land, These tribunals were at their climacteric in the 14th and 15th cents. The members of the tribunal were called. 1 Wissende ' (8 syl.), the initiated. The district over which it exercised judicial authority was called the ' Bed Land.' The assessors of the court and execu- tors of its sentences were called ' Frei- schoffen ' (free justices). The presiding judge was the ' Freigraf ' (free count). The kaiser (king of Germany) was ex officio one of the ' Wissende.' Felix'ians, 8th cent. A Spanish sect so called from Felix bishop of Urgel. He taught that Christ in respect of his divine nature was the Son of God by generation ; but in respect of his human nature was only the adopted Son of God, like other holy men. This was called the 1 Adoption Controversy.' Ellpandus (archbishop of Toledo) was a Felixlan. Fellow Commoners, in Cam- bridge University, are students who pay higher fees, wear a distinctive costume, and 'common' or dine at the Fellows' Table. They were called in Oxford Uni- versity ' Gentleman Commoners.' They are generally either noblemen or married men. Female High Sheriff (T&e). Anae countess of Pembroke, a staunch royalisi in the reigns of Charles I. and II. On the death of her father, the Earl of Cumber- land, in 1648, she succeeded to the here- ditary office of Sheriff of Westmoreland, attended the judges of assize, and sat with them on the bench at Appleby. Fencing the Tables. Keeping from the eucharist all whom the ' Fencers ' thought unworthy to be communicants. One clergymen of Dumfries forbade from the table all who used minced baths, such as ' heth, teth, feth, fegs, losh, gosh, and lovenenty .' Fe"nelon of Germany (The). Lava'ter (1741-1801). Born at Zurich; the founder of physiognomonie, or the art of reading character by physiognomy. Fe'nelon of the Reformation. Johann Arnd of Anhalt (1555-1621). 820 FENIAN FERMIERS Fenian. Heroes (The). The heroes of Finn, called by Ossian ' Fingal.' ' Gal ' means the alien or foreigner, as Wales, 1Mb Fenians, or Fenian Brother- hood. An association of Irish rebels ill-disposed to the British government, and bent on a separation of Ireland from England. It was organised in America by James Stephens in 1858. The leaders were called ' Head- Centres,' and their subordinates were called ' Centres.' It was introduced into Ireland in 1865 by James Stephens, the 'head-centre,' who was imprisoned in Dublin, 11 Nov., but made his escape, 24 Nov., by the connivance of the turnkey. This society, which made the most reckless attacks on life and property, was condemned, 12 Jan., 1870, by Pope Pi;* IX., and on 14 Oct. by General Grant, president of the U.S. of America; but it still remains active for mischief. 16 Sept., 18G7, Sergeant Brett WM killed ; and on 18 Deo. the wall of Cler ken well House of Detention was blown up. by these miscreants. The attack on Clerkenwcll prison WM for the rescue of JUchardnourke. 12 March. 1KW, O'Farrell, a Fenian, made an t tempt to assassinate In Sydney the Duke of Edinburgh, the second eon of Queen Victoria. In May 1883 Lord Frederick Cavendish (the newly-appointed viceroy of Ireland) and Thomas A. Burke, under-secretary. were savagely assassi- nated while walking in Phoenix Park, Dublin. In March 1888 simultaneous attempts were made to blow up the offices of the Local Government Board and the office of the Times ' newspaper. In 1884 the Fenians attempted to blow up with dynamite four of the chief railway stations. *.* The name ' Fenian ' is a base dishonour to the famous national militia, the Fianna Eirin, whose achievements formed a source of song and romance honourable to Ireland. Fingal, son In- ln\v of KingComhalor Combal (A. D. 212-363). little thought his name would be so degraded in the 19th 'sir Walter Scott alludes to the Fenians In ' The Antiquary ' but not the Fenians condemned by every ritfht thinking man, under the patronage of Michael Da vitt. Fer, aut feri ; feri, ne feriare (Suffer or strike; strike lest you be stricken), or thus, ' Aut fer, aut feri ; ne feriare, feri.' The jingling words inces- santly muttered by Queen Elizabeth while she remained in doubt whether to si^ii the death-warrant of her cousin Alary or not. Ferdinand I. Kaiser-king of Ger- many of the house of Austria (1503, 1556- 1564), FtitJier, Philipp the Handsome ; Mother, Juafia, daughter of Ferdinand ana Isabella; his elder brother was KABL V., and his grandfather was Kaiser MAXIMILIAN I. ; Wife, Anna Jagellon of Bohemia; Son and successor, 3I\xi- MHJAN II. Contemporary with Mary and Elizabeth. Ferdinand II. Kaiser-king of Ger- many of the House of Austria. He was son of Karl duke of Styria, and succeeded his cousin Mathias on the throne of Germany (1608, 1G37-1657). He began the infamous thirty years' religious war against the Protestants. Father, Karl archduke of Styria; Mother, Maria of Bavaria; Son and successor, FERDINAND III. Contem- porary with James I. and Charles I. FERDINAND I. had two sons, vis. MAXIMILIAN II.. who succeeded him, and Karl, who died duke of Styria. Karl of Styria dinand I.) had for issue FKRDIHAND II.. who BUO- (the 2nd son of Kaiser Fer- ceeded his cousin Mathias on the throne of Ger- many. Ferdinand HI. Kaiser-king of Germany (1G08, 1637-1657). Father, FERDINAND II.; Mother, ; Wives (1) Mary-Anne of Spain, mother of LEOPOLD, his successor, (2) Mary Leo- poldina of Austria, and (8) Eleanora of Mantua. Contemporary with Charles I. and the Commonwealth. Ferdinand the Summoned. Ferdinand IV. of Castile and Leon (1285, 1295-1312). So called because, when he ordered two noblemen, the brother! Carvajal, to execution without trial, they summoned him to appear before the tribunal of God within thirty days, and within the allotted time he died. Fergus Maclvor (Sir W. Scott'i Waveriey). The original was Major Donald Macdonald, executed on Satur- day, 18 Oct., 1746, with eight others. Feringhee (Afghanistan). A Euro- pean. Fermiers Ge"ne"raux. A name given in France, before the Revolution of 1789, to a privileged association who ' farmed ' the public revenues. It was a shocking jobbery, the fermiers being selected either by the minister of finance (who made his selection for a money consideration) or by the king's mis- tresses. The number was forty, but rose to sixty a little before the revolution. These farmers paid the king a fixed sum and made what profit they could out ol the taxpayers. Pronounced Fai- '-mt fly/ra tw*, FERNET FESTUM 821 Ferney (The Patriarch of). Vol- taire (1694-1778). After his departure from Prussia he retired to Ferney, a juiet little spot near Geneva. He died at the age of eighty-two. Ferocious Beast of Auso'nia (The). So Caracalla, the Roman em- peror, was called by the Alexandrians. It is said that the tyrant was pleased with the name, and boasted of it. Ausonia means Italy. Ferra'ra (Peace of), 26 April, 1433. Between Venice and Milan, brought about by Nicholas marquis d'Este, the ' Paci- ficator of Italy.' Ferry of Death (The). The ferry of the Irtish, leading to Siberia. So called because it leads the Russian exile to political death. To crog *-' Ferry of Death, to be laid on the shelf In political life. Fertile Periods. Plato tells uz there are times when the powers of minerals, vegetables, and animals sym- pathise magically with superior natures, and have a greater aptitude to partici- pate in those superior powers. At those periods ' miracles ' abound, for inferior things partake of the Divine powers. When no such celestial powers are inherent in minerals, vegetables, and animals, Plato says it is a 'barren period.' Festa Brachio'rum, or 'Festa Manualia,' 1493. Dayo on which no works requiring the aid of horse and cart might be done. Manual labour means such as is done by the skill of the hands ; but brachial labour is such as is done by the muscular force of the arms. [Festa] ' Manualia ' sou ' Brachlorum ' vulgo appellantur, in quibus videlicet ipsa prohibitioper totam diem ad ea duntaxat opera et negotia qusa Bine euuis et carrucis fieri possuntseextendebat.' titatuta Ecc. M,-Utrns. 14J3. See Historia Mcldens. inter Instrum. p. 54'2. Festa Capit'uli, i.e. those fete days ' quae Capitulum habent ' : as All Saints', Annunciation, Ascension, As- sumption, Epiphany, Michaelmas Day, Nativity of Christ (Christmas Day), Na- tivity of John the Baptist, Pentecost, Purification of the Virgin Mary, and the Resurrection. Add to these the fete day of Mary Magdalene, and that of Hugh of Lincoln. Festa Domin'ica. Sacred fes- tivals set apart in honour of some saint, martyr, or confessor of the Christian Church, called in English a saint's day. Festival of St. Napoleon (The) t 1806. 15 Aug., the birthday of Napoleon, was so designated by the first Emperor of the French. Festival of the Sacrifices (The). 1 Id-al- Azha,' or 'Kurban Bairam,' the second or Great Bai'ram, is observed by Mohammedans in commemoration of Abraham offering his son. It is observed seventy days after the Lesser Bairam, and lasts four days. Festum Ar'chitricli'ni. The second Sunday after Epiphany, the gospel of which day is John ii. ; the marriage feast, when the Architriclmus wanted wine and Jesus miraculously sup- plied it. See ' Sundays.' Festum Asino'rum. 14 Jan., to commemorate the ' Flight into Egypt.' Several rituals of tiiisfestum are extant. That of Beauvais, in France, has a rubric which orders the priest to bray three times, and the congregation to bray three times in answer. As the ass was led to the altar a hymn of nine stanzas was sung, each stanza ending with hee-haw^ hee-haw \ The first runs thus (see ' Feast of Fools ') : Orientis partibua, Adventavit Asiiius, Pulcher et fortiss'imus, Barcinis aptissimus. He, sire AIM, Ml From out the East Came forth the beast, Both strong and fair ; Its packs to bear. Hee-haw 1 Sir Aac, hee-haw \ Festum Bea'tae Mari'ee de Ad- ventu, i.e. the Conception of thd Virgin Mary, 8 Dec. Instituted 1356. Festum Broncher'ise, i.e. Fes- turn Brancher'ise, or Palm Sunday (the Feast of Branches). See ' Sundays.' Festum Campana'rum. The festival of the Annunciation; the day after Quasimodo Sunday; that is, the Monday next after Easter Monday. So called because on this day ' ad Salu- tationem-angelicam solemnius pulsantur campanfe ' (Du CANGE). With us the Annunciation la called 'Dady Day,' celebrated on 25 March. Festum Canaba'rum. The Feast of Tabernacles (Lev. xxiii.). Festum Cande'lse. The founder'! day of any church or religious institu- tion when candles were lighted in honour 822 FESTUM FESTUM thereof. This festival used ti be called in old English Lichtmesse. FestumCompassio'nis Bea'tse Mar i'8B. Instituted 1428, and held the Friday before Palm Sunday. Festum Coro'nse Christi. Insti- tuted 1857. Innocent VI. appointed it to be held as the ' Feria 6 post octavam Resurrectionis Dominicaa.' Festum Corporis Christi, or at full 'Festum Consecrationia Corporis Christi,' or in brief ' Festum C.C.C.' In- stituted 1871. The great C.C.C. festival is ' 5 feria post Octavam Pentecostes.' Another festival of ' Corpus Christi ' was that called ' Festum Sacrosanct! Sacrament!,' In Ger- man Frohnlfiehnamnfffi, instituted by Urban IV. in 1264 ; it followed the octave of Pentecost. The ' FeBtum Kucharistia*.' instituted in 1356, was another ' Festum Corporis Christi.' Festum de Clav'ibus, 1855. In- stituted by Innocent VI. in honour of tlio nails used in the crucifixion of Christ. Festum Divisio'nis Apostolo'- rum, 5 July. When Bede, Usuard, and others say the apostles parted company, and each went into his special field of labour. Also called the Festival of the Dispersion ; instituted 1098. Festum Duplex. When two fetes occur on the same day. In which case the greater festival is observed and the lesser one is deferred to the day following. Festum Fatuo'rum. See 'Fete des Fous.' Festum Florum. ' Nono Kalen- das Junii ' (May 21). Festum Herba'rum. Assumption Day (15 Aug.). This was the day when Roman women carried bundles of herbs to the templos, as offerings to their gods. The [Roman] Catholic Church preserved the custom, but changed the object of veneration. The Assumption is the act of taking up to heaven the Virgin Mary bodily without dying. Thta change was made in the 5th cent. Festum Hypapantes, or ' Purifi- cation of the Virgin Mary,' Feb. 2. Also called ' Festum Lumlnum. 1 Instituted 542. Hypapante means ' meeting together.' It was on this tiny that Mary met Simeon and Anna the Prophetess. Festum Hypodi'acono'rum. 'J ho feU of the bubdtiucona, a i>;ut of the Saturnalia, when archbishops and bishops, with all the inferior clergy, played practical jokes on each other, and all forms of distinction were, for the time being, held in abeyance. The general character of the feast was grosa drunkenness, and the name was a satire on the worldly lives of the general clergy. As Beletua says, 'hac joculari appella- tione indicare voluerint, festivitatem hanc f uisse ebriorum clericorum.' Festum Kalenda'rum. A Chris- tian substitution of the Roman Saturn- alia, at the close of the old year and beginning of the new. It was a time of unbridled license, when slaves and servants were on equal footing with their masters. Men, women, and chil- dren dressed up as beasts, and ran about the streets braying, roaring, bark- ing, and indulging in the coarsest practi- cal jokes. The early Church, unable to abolish the custom, tried to divert its ob- ject, and introduced innovations scarcely less objectionable than the old Roman licentiousness. One day of the feast was a satire on the drunkenness of the clergy, and was called ' Festum Hypodiacono- rum' (g.o.), or the Subdeacons' Fvte, where subdeacon included all eccle- siastics, from the archbishop to his curate. Augustine refers to the feast in his ' Sermo da Tempore.'2l5; and In the 'Life of Ellglus,' bk.ii. chap. 15, we read ' Nullus In Kalendis Janutvrli icfanda et ridlculosa, vetulas, aut cervulos. aut Jottlcos [practical jokes] faciat.' Festum Lu'minum, or 'Festum Hypapantes.' The Feast of Purification (Greek farairavT-f)), from the meeting of Simeon and Anna with Christ, whom they had long waited for in the Temple Also called ' Festum St. Simeon is.' Festum Oliva'rum. The Sunday before Easter day, generally called Palm Sunday. See ' Sundays.' Festum Sancti Petri ad Vin'- cula, 1 Aug. Instituted by the order of Eudoxia,wife of the Emperor Theo- dosius. This was the continuance of an old heathen festival in honour of the victory of Actium, in which Octaviua overcame Antony. The festival waa continued, but its object was changed. Festum Translatio'nia Jesu, or the ' Day of Transfiguration.' Insti- tuted 6 Aug., 1498. (Matt. xvii. 1-18.) See also under the word ' FEU1LLANTS Ffce Days. See ' Holy Days.' Fete de 1* Ane. Introduced into Paris in the 15th cent. ; was a ridiculous carica- ture of the Flight into Egypt. A young woman with an infant in her arms was seated on an ass, led by an old man representing Joseph, and followed by a long procession to the cathedral church, accompanied by bishops and their clergy. As it went along, chanting the appointed canticles, the crowd responded hinha ! hinho, I imitating the bray of an a&s. It was not discontinued till the close of the 16th cent. Other similar processions were the ' Marche du Bceuf Gras ' (. 945 ; in Scotland in 954 ; and in Italy and Germany in 985. ' Ce mal [says Sauval] brulait a petit feu, et oon- sumait sans qu'on y put reme*dier . . . elle brulait les entrailles ou toute autre partie du corps, qui tonlbait en lam- beaux. Sous une peau livide, elle con sumait les chaires en les se*parant des os. Ce que ce mal avait de plus etonnant, c'est qu'il agissait sans chaleur, et pene- trait d'un froid glacial ceux qui en e*taient atteints ; et qu'a ce froid inortel succedait une ardeur si grande dans les monies parties, que les malades y e*prou- vaient tous les accidents d'un cancer.' Feudal System (The). Holding estates by military service. William I. divided the kingdom of England into 700 fiefs and about 60,000 knights' fees (or holdings). These knights' fees or second- ary holdings were held, not of the crown immediately, but of one of the 700 crown vassals under similar service. The 700 vassals were bound to supply the crown with soldiers according to a fixed scale, and the secondary holders supplied the vassals under whom they held in a similar way. Bishops and abbots were bound, in times of war, to supply the king with soldiers in proportion to their possessions. Feuillantines (4 syl.), 1588. Be. formed Feuillants, an order founded by Marguerite de Polastron. Anne of Aus- tria, in 1622, founded a house of Feuil- lantines in the Faubourg St. Jacques, Paris. Feuillantism. The political prin- ciples of the Feuillants in the French revolution. It was reformed monarch- ism. FeulllantlBm-that party which loves liberty yet not more than monarchy. CARLYLE, French Revolution, vol. il. bk. v. 10. Feuillants (The), 1577. Keformed Benedictines, founded by Jean de la Barriere, Abbe" de Notre Dame de Feuil- lant, in France. They go about bare- headed and bare-footed, sleep upon wooden pallets, eat kneeling, and impose on themselves incredible austerities. Their robe is white, with a white hood. In 1680 Urban Vlii. separated th II FEUILLANTS' FIERY Feuillants of Italy, and called them ' Reformed Bemardins.' The Feuillans or Feuillants are often called the Bare- footed Monks. Pronrunce Feuillants' Club (The), or 'Club des Feuillants,' 1790. The more moderate of the Jacobins. So called because they held their meetings at a convent of the Fcuillants (sec above), near the Tuileries. The chief of the club were Lafayette, Bailly, Duport, and the brothers Lameth. Their enemies nicknamed them the 1 Club Monarchique.' Extinguished Nov. 179]. The original name of the club WM the ' Com- pany of 1789.' Fez (The), or 'Council of Tara,' in Ireland. The triennial meeting of the subordinate chieftains, priests, and bards, held at Tara in Ireland, and instituted by Ollav Fola about 900 years B.C. Ollav Fola reigned forty years and died in peace. In the second year of hla mission Patrick pre- Hented himself before the Fei . . . and Lotfary the king declared himself a convert. The Hritan- nirn (article ' Ireland, p. 405). ff for Pandects, f is a corrupt way of making the Greek n, *, the initial letter of Pandects. Fiacre. A French cab, so called because the first fiacres were made in the Hotel St. Fiacre, Rue St. Martin. St. Fiacre Is the patron saint of gardener*. Fian'a Er'ion (The). A very celebrated Irish militia commanded by Fingal (or Fein M'Cooil), in the reign of Cormac, grandson of Conn. It consisted of 9,000 men of great strength, activity, and intelligence, who were bound to choose wives solely for their merits, never to ill-treat a woman, and never to turn their backs on a foe. This force was annihilated at the battle of Gabra, or Gawra, in Meath, where Oscar, the son of Ossian the poet, fell. Fiann (The). An ancient order of warriors in Ireland. No man of the order was allowed to marry a dowered wife, lest he might choose her for her money and not for her merits. No man of the order might use his strength against a woman. None might assert his own rights selfishly against another' J want*. Fief or Feud. Conquered land let out, not for money, but military ser- vice. The Romans let out conquered land for usufruct, called Emphyteusia (grafting), the grantor was the 'stock,' the tenant was only the graft. Feud is a corrupt contraction of 'phut', fut, feud. And fee, fief are variants of the samo Latinised Greek word. Field Conventicles (Act against), 1670. A field conventicle is ' any un- authorised meeting for religious worship, even in a private house, if any of the hearers stand in the open air.' Every minister who preaches and prays on such occasion during the three following years shall incur the forfeiture of his proj>. rty and the punishment of death. Field Fortification has for its ob- ject the protecting of camps, villages, posts, passages of rivers, and the con- struction of such works as may be re- quired to aid the operations of an army in the field. Trenches and offensive works executed on the spot in carrying on a siege also belong to ' field fortification.' Field of March (The), or ' Champ de Mars.' A national convention or assembly held during the first dynasty cf France. It was revived by Pepin d'He"- ristal, but after A.D. 755 was held in May, and called Champ de Mai. Napoleon L revived these assemblies in the ' Hundred Days ' (June 1, 1815). Pronounce Sharnd Afan, Sharnd 3Ia?-e. Field of the Cloth of Gold (The). Called in French history Le Champ du Drap d'Or. The site between Guisnes and Ardres, where in June 1520 was held an interview between Henry VIII. and Francois I. of France. So splendid and gorgeous was ihiaflte, that the site where it was held was called ' The Field of the Cloth of Gold.' Fiery Cross (The). A blazing torch in the form of a cross, carried from hill to hill to summon the clans to battle. Sir Walter Scott speaks of it in ' The Lady of the Lake.' He says the chaplain slew a goat, and dipped the cross in its blood. It was then delivered to a swift runner, who ran with all his speed to the next hamlet, where he presented it to the prin- cipal person, who was bound to send it on Every man, from 16 to 60 years of age, WM expected instantly to repair fullj FIERY FILIOQUB equipped for war to the place of rendez- vous on pain of ' fire and sword.' In the civil war of 1745-6 the Fiery Cross was sent round thus. The ' fiery cross ' was borl.e swiftly through the townships and parishes tof Upper Canada), calling forth a levy en masse of the loyal inhabitants, who rushed to the defence of the capital.-HowiTT, Hist, of Eng., 1837, p. 889. Fiery Tears of St. Lawrence (The). The shooting stars which appear with considerable regularity between the 9th and 14th of August. The festival of St. Lawrence is the 10th August. Fieschi Laws, 1837. Some very stringent laws against the French press, published after the attempt of Fieschi on the life of Louis Philippe, king of the French, by the ' infernal machine ' (q.v.). Enormous fines were imposed on those who ridiculed the king, or disputed the wisdom of any act of his government, or who avowed themselves republicans, or who published a print of any sort with- out subjecting it first to the minister of the interior. The fines were from 4001. to 2,0001. sterling for the first offence, double that for a second offence, and so on. Pronounce Fe-eiK'ke. Fifteen (The). The judges of the Supreme Court of Session in Scotland. Fifteen (Out in the Fifteen). A partaker in the Derwentwater rebellion, 1715. See 'Forty-five.' Is it so singular that a man should have been out in the forty five ? . . . your father, I think, . . . . was out with Derwentwater in the fifteen. Sir W. SCOTT, Redgauntlet, chap. vii. Fifteen Mysteries (The),in Catho- lic theology. See ' Five Joyous Mysterieo,' ' Five Dolorous Mysteries,' and ' Five Glorious Mysteries.' Observe the triplet. Fifteen Years' Farce (The). The Great French Kevolution which ended in the coronation of Napoleon I. (1789-1804). La comedie de quinze ans was admirably played In France . . . but what have been the results ? M A/./.INI, Faith of the Future. Fifth Doctor of the Church ( The). So Pius V. called Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). The Four Doctors of the Latin Church, em- phatically so called, were St. Ambrose (340-3'J7), St. Jerome (846-420), St. Augustine (354 430), and St. Gregory. The fifth doctor was similar to such phrases as the ' Tenth Muse, 1 the ' Eighth Wonder of the World,' &c., meaning one of Buper- emlnent merit. Fifth Monarchy Men appear in 1654. They believed in the four great monarchies of Antichrist, marked out by the prophet Daniel (ch. vii.), viz. the Assyrian, Persian, Macedonian, and Ro- man, the fifth being that of Christ on earth. In politics they were republicans, acknowledging no earthly king but Christ ; and they conspired to murder Cromwell, the lord-protector. In the reign of Charles II., led by one Venner, a wine- cooper, thej proceeded to ' take the king- dom of heaven by force, without waiting for Christ ' ; the king sent the military against them, and after some severe fight- ing, the ringleaders were taken captive and executed 1660, and the sect died out. Filibuster. A corrupt spelling of the French 'flibustier,' called in English a buccaneer (q.v.). Filibusters were piratical seamen, resolved to force their way into the New World jealously guarded by the Spanish. The most famous were Morgan (a Welshman), who took Panama in 1670 ; Pierre Legrand of Dieppe, who with twenty-eight men took the ship of a Span- ish admiral ; Nau 1'Olonnais, Michel le Basque, who made themselves masters of Vera Cruz in 1683; and Monbars the Exterminator, who in 1688 took Vera Cruz. After the accession of William III. the French flibustiers and the English buccaneers were in deadly antagonism ; but after the Treaty of Eyswick in 1697, the piratical expeditions were put an end to. Filio'que Controversy, which long disturbed the Church, was this : ' Did the Holy Ghost proceed from the Father by the Son, or from the Father and the Son (filioque)? The Greek Church maintained the former, the Latin Church the latter dogma. The phrase was added to the Creed by Eecared in the Council of Toledo A.D. 589 ; was adopted by Charle- magne in 788 ; and by Benedict VHL, at the instance of Kaiser Heinrich IL, in 1014. This question is often called ' the Procession of the Holy Ghost.' It must be confessed that the authority to not very satisfactory. Recared.Charlemagne.andHein. rich II. of Germany are not the names we should elect to settle a point in divinity. Recared, or Be- carede, was the seventeenth king of the VislgothB in Spain, who compelled his subjects to embrace the Christian faith, aud was therefore called ' The Catholic ' He was converted only two yeara and a few months before the Council of Toledo wafl convened. The addition of filioque to the Mean* Creed created a flame of discord between the Eastern and Gallic Churches. Pope Leo III. WM averse to the addition. 826 FIL1U8 Filius Nullius, or c Filiua populi,' a bastard. In the eyes of the law an ille- gitimate son is nobody's son ; and as such a son has no ' blue blood ' he is only a commoner, or one of the ignobile vulgus. FillesBleues (es), 1604. Also called the ' Celestial Annunciades ' (4 syl.). A religious order instituted by Maria Vic- toria Fornaro. They wore blue mantles, md hence their name. Pronounce Fee-yA bluk. filles de Sagesse (Les). The grey nuns of St. Laurent. A boat of other religious communities might be added, as : Filles de Ste Genevleve I Fllles Kepentles Filles de la Providence Fllles St. Thomas. Ac. Fllles du Calvalre | See ' Founders. 1 Filles-Dieu. Hospitallers, at one time called Sveurs de St. Gervais, because in 1800 they were charged with the hos- pital of that name. Their dress is a white gown and black mantle. Filxnerite (8 syl.), 17th cent. A disciple of Sir Robert Filmer (1688), author of ' The Anarchy of a Limited and Mixed Monarchy,' opposed to a Wil- liamite or adherent of the House of Orange. The Filmerites, like Arch- bishop Bancroft and Dean Hickes, believed in the 'divine right of kings,' and were therefore zealous Jacobites and advocates of the political doctrine of 1 Passive Obedience ' or ' Non-resistance ' Fine of Leinster (The). Exacted for more than 500 years, and paid by more than forty kings to the King of Meath. It consisted of 8,000 cows, 8,000 hogs, 8,000 sheep, 8,000 copper caldrons, 8,000 ounces of silver, and 8,000 mantles, and was paid every second year till A.D. 968, when it was remitted. For the reason of this fine see 'Boarian . . . Tribute.' Fines (Statute of), 4 Henry VIII. This was a renewal of the law of Edward IV., by which entails could be cut off at pleasure, and thus the great land- owners were enabled to divide their estates amongst their children, bequeath (horn, or sell them. Fingal. The Territory of the Fin- gal or White Strangers, consisting of Dublin and certain parts to the north thereof . See ' Wliite Strangers.' JUffa to oallad 'JTingaU o*v;' or, more FIRB strictly speaking, the CSTC in the Isle of Staffs Is BO called. Macpherson 8 Fingal was Finn. rig [king] of the Leinster Finns or Finlans. who resided at a dun or fort at Almhaln [Allen] In Kildare. Transferred by Macpherson to Morven In Scotland. Finn's Fingers. Five enormous stones, each about 5 feet in height, and some 4 tons in weight, on the top of the hill of Shanthamon, in the county of Ca'van, Ireland. Finns, the Fenni of Tacitus, and Phinni of Ptolemy, belonging to the Ugrian race or Ogres, probably of Mon- golian origin. They were divided into five groups : the Finns of Finland ; the Lapps; the Permian Finns; the Volga Finns; and the Ugrian Finns, to which group the Magyars [Mard'-yahs] belong. Firbolgs (The). The remnant of the old Thracian Nemedians which re- turned to Ireland under the conduct of the five sons of Dela. The tribe had been driven from the island by the Fomoriiins, said to be African pirates, descendants of Ham. The sons of Dela, according to Irish tradition, divided the island into the five kingdoms of Leinster, Minister, Ulster, Connaught, and Mcath, each of the sons being ruler of one of these principalities. The rule of these princes continued forty, or, as some say, eighty years, when they were dispossessed by the Danaans under Tuatha-na- Danaan (q.v.), a people famed for necro- mancy. The Irish still call strangers ' Fawmorrles (Fomorlana). The Nemedians are said by chroni elers to have been descendants of Japhet, through NemedluB. Of course all this is only Bardic history. The Firbolgs were probably . or Bolga who migrated tram Britain. Fire and Water Interdicted. 4 Aquae et Ignis Interdictio.' Th3 judicial form of words used to signify that the person referred to was banished from Italian soil. He might go where elso he liked, but must not remain in Italy. Fire Brigade Committee (The Metropolitan). Responsible for the management of the 700 men and the state of their 150 fire-engines, 150 fire- escapes, 150 horses, and 28 miles of hose. Since 1889 the number of fire-engines has been increased in London to 170. The whole city and county of London is divided into four districts, A, B, C, D, each district being under a separata superintendent, who ia paid 1951. a year. FIRE-CROSS FIRST-FRUITS 827 All the districts are connected by tele- graphs and telephones. The average number of fires In the metropolis IB about 2,000 a year. Fire Cross (The). See 'Fiery Cross,' 'Fire First.' 'Gentlemen of the French Guard, fire ' (said Lord Charles Hay); to which the Comte d'Auteroche replied, 'Fire yourselves, gentlemen of England; we never fire first.' The battle of Fontenoy, 10 May, 1745. Quant a moi, je tlens le mot de M. d'Auteroche, Messieurs les Anglais, tirez les premiers,' tres autheutique. . . . Los deux troupes sont en presence. Lord Hay cr'e, s'avancant hors des rangs : ' Messieurs lea gardes fran<;aises, tirez.' M. d'Auteroche alors va a sa rencontre, et le saluant de 1'epee : ' Monsieur (lui dit-il), nous ne tirons jamais les premiers; tirez vous-memes.' _M. E. FOURNIEB (an eye-witness). Cet engagement se fit a distance si rapprochee que les otflciers anglais, au moment d arreter leur troupe, nous salutrent le chapeau a la main; les notres ayant repondu de meme a cette cour- toisie. . . . Lord Charles Hay sortlt de son rang, et s'avanca; le comte d Auteroche, lieutenant des grenadiers, se porta alors au-devant de lui. Monsieur (dit le capitalne, lord Hay), faites done tirervos gens;' ' Non, Monsieur (repondit d'Auteroche), nous ne tirons pas les premiers ; ' et B'etant de nouveau salues, ils rentrerent chacun & son rang. L' Esprit dant I'Histoire, chap. Hi. pp. 848, 349 (Paris, 1883). Lord Charles Hay gives a different version : 'When we came within 20 or 80 paces of [the French], I advanced before our regiment, drank to them, and told them we were the English guards, and hoped they would stand still till we came up to them, and not swim across the Scheldt, as they did the Mein at Dettingen. Upon which I immediately turned about to our regiment, epeeched them, and made them huzzah, I hope with a will. An officer [d Auteroche] came out of the ranks, and tried to make his men huzzah; however, there were not above three or four of the brigade that did so.' Letter (now in the pos- session of the Marquis of Tweeddale, at Yester House). Fire of Antwerp (The}, 29 July, 1588. So the Spaniards called the fire- ships sent by Drake and Hawkins into the Armada. The eight vessels, under charge of Capt. Young, ran right into the Spanish fleet in full blaze, sending forth explosion after explosion. The Spaniards, remembering the Dutch fire-ships, shouted, 'The fire of Antwerp 1 The fire of Antwerp ! ' and every vessel was put in motion to escape in the darkness as best it might. The confusion was terrible, ships running foul of each other, and escaping from Ostend to Calais. A thunderstorm, with a furious gale of wind from the south-west, added to the terrors of that terrible night. Firman (-4). A decree issued by the ultan, signed with his cipher, and sealed with his signet. Also a passport given to travellers by a pacha. First Book of Discipline (The), 1561. A book of church polity drawn up by John Knox and five others for the use of Scotland. First Book of Homilies (The), 1547. In which is comprised the doc- trines of the Church of England, as established in the reign of Edward VI., declaring that salvation rests solely on a lively faith in the merits of Jesus Christ ; and that no works without such faith are good works in a scripture sense. First Communion Offi.ce (The), 1548. In the reformed Church of Eng- land. First Day of the Republic (The). French history. 20 Sept., 1792. When the National Assembly at the proposal of M. d'Herbois rose en masse, and, waving their hats, shouted, ' We declare royalty in France abolished for ever.' First English Liturgy (The), or 'Book of Common Prayer,' 1548. The Second Liturgy was in 1552. The Forty- two Articles in 1558; reduced to Thirty- nine in 1568 ; and modified to their pre- sent form in 1571. First English Martyr (The), 1401. William Sawtre, rector of St. Oswyth, London, a Lollard, in the reign of Henry IV., was the first person who suffered at the stake in England for religious opinions. There is a tradition that St. Alban fell a martyr in the persecution of Diocletian A.D. 805. The tale is that he served in the Roman army, but, having offered an asylum to Amphibalus, a Christian priest, in order to save his guest he changed dresses, and being apprehended was beheaded at Verulamium. It is said that a church was afterwards erected on the spot, and the name of the town was changed to St. Albans. First-fruits, or ' Annats.' The first year's income of a church living paid to the pope, forbidden in 1584 (by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20). Granted to the crown in 1534 (26 Hen. VIII. c. 8) ; restored to the church in 1555 (by 2, 8 Phil. & Mar. c. 4); again granted to the crown in 1559 (by 1 Eliz. c. 4) ; restored to the church by 823 FIRST FIVE letters patent of Queen Anne, 8 Nov., 1703. See ' Queen Anne's Bounty.' Abolished in France in 1488 by tho ' Pragmatic Sanction,' under Charles VII. Abolished in Ireland in 1833 (3, 4 Wm. IV. c. 37). Ceased in Spain tinder Carlos V. (1519-1558). In Germany it formed one of the Cen- tum gravamina presented to the em- peror in 1521, and the claim ceased. When Dr. Benson In 1888 was made archbishop of Canterbury his fees amounted to HH5I. 6*. Tha amount for this presentation has now been re- duced to 2812. Us. 6d. First Gentleman of Europe. George IV. (1762, 1820-1880). Louis d'Artois of France was so called also. First Martyr of Liberty (The), 1770. North America. Christopher Snider, a Boston lad. Theophilus Lillie, a Boston shopkeeper, persisted in selling English goods after they were tabooed. His shop was attacked by the mob, and one of his shopmen, named Richardson, fired on the mob and killed the boy Snider, who was followed to the grave by a pro- cession reaching a quarter of a mile, and the boy was exalted into a martyr. First Year of Equality (The), 1792, beginning 22 Sept. The address Monsieur was abandoned, and the word Citizen substituted in its stead. Fishing Inquiry (A). In parlia- mentary language means an inquiry at large ; an inquiry into a given question not for the sake of solving that question, but with the hope that something may turn up. This is what is called in the familiar language of lobbies of parliament ' a fishing inquiry. 1 Flan- ing for something to say about the matter; but you cannot get your fish if the fish will not coma into your net.-W. E. QLADSTONB, Speech, at Calder, 17 Nov.. 1885. Fitz William Museum (The). Of books, paintings, illuminated MSS., en- gravings, &c. in Cambridge; to which lias been added, in 1884, the Mesman col- lection; in 1850 eighty-three ancient marbles collected by John Disnay. In 1861 John Ruskin gave twenty-five water- colours by J. M. W. Turner, R.A. ; and in 18G2 Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison presented to the museum thirty pictures of modern English masters. Since then many other , valuable presents have been added by different donors, and the university has purchased numerous rarities. Founded by Viscount FitzwiUiam of Trinity Hali in 1764. Five (Council of), 1722. The Earl of Arran, the Earl of Orrery, Lord North, Lord Gower, and Atterbury bishop of Rochester. A junto constituted to bring back the Stuart dynasty after the birth of Charles Edward. Five Acts (Sidmouth's and Castle- reagh's), 1819. After the Manchester Massacre (q.v.) Lord Sidmouth brought in three bills in the House of Lords, and Lord Castlereagh two bills in the House of Commons to prevent large gatherings of a political character and political articles like those of Hone calculated to disturb the public peace. The five bills all passed, and were (1) An Act to prevent the training of persons to the use of arms (Sidmouth). (2) An Act to prevent and punish blasphemous and pernicious libels (Sid- mouth). (8) An Act to authorise justices of the peace to seize arms collected for riotous purposes (Sidmouth). (4) An Act to impose stamp duties on newspapers (Castlereagh). (5) An Act to prevent blasphemous and seditious meetings (Castlereagh). Five Articles (The), 1559). Drawn up by Convocation at the beginning of Queen Elizabeth's reign, and forwarded by Bonner to the lord keeper to be laid before parliament. They were these : (1) The corporal presence to be main- tained ; (2) the elements after consecra- tion are no longer bread and wine ; (8) the mass is a propitiatory sacrifice ; (4) the lawful successor of St. Peter is the supreme head of the Church ; and (5) the clergy only are to settle all matters bear- ing on doctrine and church discipline. No notice was taken of this petition. See ' Articles.' Five Articles of Dort (The), 161*- 1619. Calvinistic views of (1) absolute predestination and election ; (2) redemp- tion only through the death of Christ ; (8) original sin and human corruption ; (4) conversion not of ourselves, but the gift of God ; (5) the final perseverance of the saints. In church government the Synod of Dort d cidedly preferred Presbyterianism to Episcopacy. Five Articles of Perth (The), 1618. (1) The communion shall b FIVE FIVE received kneeling, and not sitting ; (2) in extreme cases the communion may be privately administered; (3) in extreme cases baptism may be privately adminis- tered ; (4) young people, when advanced to a suitable age, shall be confirmed by the bishop ; (5) the five following days shall be holidays viz. Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter Day, Ascension Day, and Pentecost. These five enact- ments were passed by a parliament held at Perth, in the reign of James I. of England, and were designed as the thin edge of a wedge to introduce into Scot- land a form of worship similar to that of the Anglican Church. Five Burghs of the Danes (The). Derby, Leicester, Lincoln, Not- tingham, a'nd Stamford. These five burghs were called the ' Danelagh ' (Dane-Law), because they were ruled by Danish and not by English law. Re- covered from the Danes in 941 by Edmund. Five Christian Verities (The). In Catholic theology. 1. The child Jesus, conceived in the womb of the Virgin Mary, was verily and indeed the Son of God, and the second person of the Trinity. 2. This Jesus is true God, one with the Father and the Holy Ghost. 8. The two perfect natures exist in one only person. The divine nature received from God the Father, and the human nature from his mother Mary. 4. All that pertains to the person of Christ as a substance is unique ; but all that pertains to his nature is double. 5. The Virgin Mary is veritably and properly the Mother of God. (Mgr. Guerin, Vies des Saints, vol. iii. pp. 625, 626.) Five Dolorous Mysteries (The). In Catholic theology. 1. The agony of Christ in the olive garden. 2. The scourging. 8. The crowning with thorns. 4. The burden of the cross borne to Calvary. 5. The crucifixion. Five Glorious Mysteries (The). In Catholic theology. 1. The Resurrection. 9. The Ascension. 8. The descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost. 4. The assumption of the Virgin, body and soul, to heaven. 6. The consummation of her glory by her triple coronation of grandeur, power, and goodness. See ' Crowns.' Five Good Emperors (The) of Rome. They succeeded the Flavian Em- perors (q.v.). They were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcua Aurelius. Five Hundred (The). See 'Coun- cil of 600.' Five Hundred (The), or Les Cinq- cents, 1795. One of the two legislative councils of the 'Constitution of Year III.' in French history. Dispersed by Napoleon I. in 1799. See 'Council of 600.' Five Hundred of Athens (The). The original number of the senate ap- pointed by Solon was 400, a hundred for each tribe, but Klisthenes increased the number to 500. B.C. 401 the constitution of Athens was changed into an oligarchy of 500, but this state of things only lasted from March to June, when the democracy was restored. Five Joyous Mysteries (The). In Catholic theology. 1. The annunciation and conception of the Word or Logos in the Virgin's womb. 2. The visitation and influence of grace on John the Baptist, who 'leaped in the womb.' 8. The birth in Bethlehem. 4. The purification and offering made by Mary in the temple. 5. Christ's visit to the temple at the age of twelve, when he was found by his mother among the doctors. Five Kings (The). I. B.C. 2598- 2205, preceded by the three emperors, and forming the tenth or mythic period of Chinese history. The names were Chao-hao, Chouan-hio, Ti-ko, Yao, and Shun. In the reign of Shun is placed the great flood or inundation of China. Next followed the semi-historic period. II. In A.D. 990, five kings were simul- taneously converted to Christianity viz. Olaf king of Sweden, Harold king of Denmark, Miczyslaf sovereign of Poland, Vladimir grand-duke of Muscovy, and FIVE Geisa prince of Hungary. A European panic, that the world was coming to an end, some time between 901 and 1000, may account for the religious fervour of the times. Never were there so many kings entitled ' pious ' before or since. Five Kings of France (The). The five Directors, 1795. The five kings of France sit In their curule chairs with their flesh coloured breeches and regal mantles. A telier du Lyi, li. Five Members of the General Assembly (The). In 1605 James I. of England asserted his right to call and dissolve the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland ; but several of the Scotch clergy resisted this innova- tion, and five of them were punished by banishment. See 'Arrest of the Five Members ' by Charles I. in 1642. Five Mile Act (The), 17 Car. II. c. 2, AJ>. 1665. This act subjected every Nonconformist minister who ap- proached within five miles of any corporate town, or other place where he had been used to preach, to a penalty of 40Z., or six months' imprison- ment, unless he would take the oath that ' he deemed it unlawful, under any pre- text, to take up arms against the king, and that he would in no wise seek to bring about any alteration of government either in church or state.' Abolished by the ' Act of Toleration ' in 1689. The act aimed at thoae who had been driven from their livings by the ' Act of Uniformity,' u well as at Nonconformist*. Five Nati ons ( The). The Iroquois, afterwards called ' The Six Nations,' q.v. See also ' Pentapolis,' ' History of the Five Nations ' (N.Y. 1787, 1866 ; London 1747, 1755). Five Orders of the Clergy \The), 3rd cent. Subdeacons, Acolyths, Exorcists, Readers, and Ostiarii, said by the Church of Rome to be apostolic institutions. The duty of sub-deacons is to wait upon the deacons in divine service. In the Roman Church there are seven, in some churches many more. Acolyths did the menial work, such aa lighting the candles, carrying the sacred vessels, bread and wine, &c. Exorcists had charge of the doernoniacs. Readers read the scriptures in that part of the service in which the catechumens were admitted. Ostiarii were the door- keepers. Five Points (The), 1536. The ftv points of Calvinism are (1) Absolute election and reprobation ; (2) particular and not universal redemption; (3) ths grace of God is irresistible ; (4) the wi is not free to choose or reject God'i grace ; (5) the final perseverance of the saints. Or in brief thus : (1) Absolute election and repro- bation; (2) particular redemption; (8) irreslbtibU grace; (4) the will Is not tree ; i5j the perseverance of the saints. Five Propositions of the Jan- senists (The). The bishops of France subscribed a letter to Pope Innocent X. in condemnation of five heretical propo- sitions said to be contained in the Augustlnus' of Jansenius. They are these: 1. Some of God's commandments are impossible to be kept by the righteous. 2. A man doth ever resist inward grace in the state of fallen nature. 8. In order to merit, or not merit, it is not indispensable to have a freedom of will, but only freedom from restraint. 4. The semi-Pelagians were heretics, because they maintained the necessity of an inward preventing grace. 5. It is heretical to say that Jesus Christ died for all mankind. Five Races (Period of the), or in Chinese Woo-tae, 420-618. Thi period includes the 8th, 9th, 10th, llth, and 12th imperial dynasties, called Tsong, Tsee, Leang, Tchin or Chin, and Swi. From 420 to 584 the empire was divided into southern and northern, the former being the imperial line. From 534 to 618 it was divided into the southern, eastern, and western empires. In 618 the three empires were united again under the Swi dynasty. Five Sacraments (The). (1) Con- firmation ; (2) Penance ; (3) Orders ; (4) Matrimony ; (5) Extreme Unction. Ar- ticle xxv says ' these five are not to be counted [by the Anglican Church] for sacraments of the gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt follow- ing of the apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the scriptures.' Five Successions (Period of the), or Heehoo-Woo-tae. This includes the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th imperial dynasties of China, called Hehoo-Leang, Hehoo-Tang, Hehoo-Tsin, Hehoo Han, and Hehoo-Chew. The seat of empir FIVE FLAGELLANTS 881 was at Kai-fong-foo. It lasted from 907 to 960. During all this period the Tartars held the north of the empire. The Five Successions gave way to the Song or Tsong dynasty, called the 19th, but the Tartars continued to occupy the north. In 1206 the Monguls established themselves in the west, and Temou-gin assumed the title of Genghis Khan (i.e. supreme khan or over-lord). Five Thousand (The), B.C. 411. A nominal distinction which included all the citizens of Athens. In contradistinc- tion to the 500 oligarchs. It meant that Athens was to be governed by all the citizens, and not by 500 only; that its government should be democratic, and not oligarchical. Fives Court (The). The head- quarters of the ' fancy,' during the regency. It was in the neighbourhood of the Hay- market. There was another in St. Martin's Lane. In ' fancy ' slang the hand is called ' a bunch of fives.' Flag Captain, Flag Lieuten- ant. A captain or lieutenant in a flag ship. A flag lieutenant in the navy is about tantamount to the aide-de-camp of a general in the army. It is his duty to see that the admiral's orders are com- municated to the various ships of the squadron. See ' Flag Officers ' in ' Diet. of Phrase and Fable.' Flag of the Prophet (The), or ' Sanjak-Sheriff,' 682. The sacred banner of the Mohammedans. Originally the white turban of the Koreish, captured by Mohammed. Subsequently a green flag was substituted, being the curtain which hung before the door of Ayesha, one of the prophet's wives. It is pre- served most carefully in a chapel of the seraglio, and watched over by several emirs. Flags (Modern National). America, field with seven red and six white stripes, and a blue canton with stars. ' Stars and Stripes.' Austria, red, white, and red (hori- zontally). A shield and crown in the white stripe. Belgium, black (next the staff), yellow, and red (vertically disposed). A device in the yellow stripe. Denmark, a red field, with a white CTOBB cutting it into quarters. France, blue (next the staff), white, and red (verticaDy disposed). Greece, a blue field with a white cross in the canton, and four white stripes, Holland, red, white, and blue (hori- zontally disposed). Mexico, a white flag with a black spread eagle, holding in its beak a green serpent. Norway, a red flag, quartered by blue and yellow stripes, and the first quarter crossed. Portugal, blue and white, vertically disposed (blue next the staff). Shield and crown in the centre. Prussia, a white flag with a black eagle and a small black Maltese cross in the top corner next the staff. Russia, a white flag with two blue stripes running from corner to corner like a St. Andrew's cross. Spain, red, yellow, and red (hori- zontally disposed). Sweden, a blue flag, quartered with yellow stripes. In the first quarter several crosses. Switzerland, a red flag with a white cross in the centre. Turkey, a red flag with a silver cres- cent and star with eight points. Venezuela, yellow, blue, and red (horizontally). A device in the yellow stripe. See ' Standards,' and ' Black Flag,' 1 Red Flag,' ' White Flag,' ' Yellow Flag.' Flagellants. Fanatics who ap- peared at sundry times in Europe, and marched about in procession along the streets and public roads to appease the wrath of God. They marched two and two, singing dolorous hymns, mingled with groans; and every now and then stopped to whip each other with scourges to ' atone for the sins of the people.' They first appeared in the llth cent, under St. Peter Damian. Again in 1268, when Eeinier, a Dominican, formed them into a sect. Again in 1349, when Germany was attacked with the pesti- lence, called the Black Death (q.v.). Again in 1574, when Henri III. of France joined the sect. They still exist in Italy, France, Mexico, and New Mexico, but their number is small. The Flagellants were naked to the waist, but on march threw over their shoulders a white cloak, hence they were called 'Blancs-battus.' They threw off the cloak when the scourging began, and Insisted that ' Without shedding of blood there was no remission.' They called themselves tat 882 FLAMINIAN FLEUR-DE-LIS Brotherhood of the Cross (?.v.), and wore a cross on their breast, another on their back, and a third on their hat. Rlaek Flagellant* ww so called from their black masks. Bluf Flagellant* were BO called from their blue mantles. ll'lntr Flagellants were BO called bom their white mantles. See ' Blancs battus. 1 Flamin'ianWay(27ie). The great high road made by Flaminius, the Censor, from Rome, through the Sabine country to Ariminium, B.C. 220. Flammock's Rebellion, 1495, in behalf of Perkin Warbeck. The most formidable danger which ever threatened the throne of Henry VII. The rebellion was crushed out by the king's artillery at Blackheath. Thomas Flammock, the leader, was hanged at Tyburn in 1497. Flanders. In 862 erected into a county under Baldwin ' Bras-de-Fer,' continued to 1119. Then follow Charl. s I. of Denmark, 1119-1127, and William Clinton of Normandy, 1127-1128. The dynasty of Alsace and Hainault, 1128-1405. The dynasty of the dukes of Burgundy, 1405-1482. The Austrian dynasty, 1482-1506. Charles Quint in 1659 incorporated it witli the seventeen provinces called ' The Circle of Burgundy.' Since 1830 it has belonged to Belgium. Flaaders Mare (A Great). So Henry VIII. called Anne of Cloves, who was married to him by deputy, and sepa- rated by mutual agreement. Born 1515, married 6 Jan., and divorced 12 July, 1540, died at Chelsea 1557, aged 42. Fla'via Csesarien'sis. One of the five provinces into which Britain was divided in the reign of Severus. It con- s vt, (1 of the western portion of the island. It had a separate ruler, but that ruler was subject to the prefect, or governor-general, of the island. Flavian Emperom (The) of Rome. The successors of the Caesars, of whom Nero was the last. After a year of anarchy, order was restored by Titus Flavius Vespasian, who gave his name of Flavian to the new dynasty, which con- sisted of Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, the 12th emperor. See ' Five Good Em- perors.' Flaxman Gallery (The). A col- lection of some 140 plaster casts modelled by John Flaxman, R.A., and presented by Miss Denman to the council of Uni- versity College, London. Fleet Marriages. Fictitious, clan- destine, or irregular marriages, in the 17th and 18th cents., solemnised without banns or licence in the Fleet chapel, or in some ' marriage-room,' dignified for the nonce with the name of cha{>rl, generally some tavern. These marriages were performed by disreputable parsons who lived in the purlieus of Fleet Prison, which were not under the jurisdiction of the bishop. They were declared illegal by Lord-Chancellor Hardwicke's Aft. which came into operation 26 March, 1 < .", j. March 25, the day before these marriages became Illegal, as many as 217 marriages were celebrated and entered In one of the Fleet register books. Fleet Prison. A metropolitan prison abolished in 1842, and pulled down in 1845. It was situated on the side of the river Fleet, and was used for persons committed by the Ecclesiastical Courts, the Court of Equity, the Exchequer Court, and the Common Pleas. It was burnt by Wat Tyler In the reign of Richard II.. laul ; again in the great Fire 1000 ; and again in the Gordon lllots 17HO. Flemish Painters. Called Nams Albrecht DURER .... 1471-1538 Lucas van LEYDEN (Luca* Dammesz) 1494-1533 Hans HOLBEIN 14;< Otho van VEEN (Otto-Venius) 1548-1588 Sir Peter Paul RUBENS . . 1577-ir.io David TENIEBS l5N-2-ir,49 Jacob JORDAENS 1594-1C.78 Sir Antony VANDYCK . . . 15'J'J-1C41 Hermanszoon REMBRANDT van Ryn 1606-1C.74 Snyders (1679-1657) the great animal painter was contemporary with Rubens. Fleshly School (The), 1871. A school of English poetry, of which the chief exponents areD. G. Rossetti, Swin- burne, Whitman, and Baudelaire. It means sensuous, voluptuous, amorous poetry, ' verging on Hastiness.' The term was given to this school of writers by Robert Buchanan in the ' Contempo- rary Review,' Oct. 1871. Fleur-de-lis (The), or 'Lily of France,' first adopted by Louis VII. le Jeune (1120, 1137-1180) as a symbol of the French monarchy. The royal stan- dard was thickly charged with the FLIGHT FLOKIDA 838 flower, but Charles VI. (1880-1422) re- duced the number to three. The nature of the emblem is uncertain. Some think it is a bee, the emblem of the early kings Clovis and his successors. Some fancy it is a toad or frog, whence Nostradamus calls the French crapauds. Some think it is the flower of the reed placed in the hands of Christ by the soldiers when they crowned him with a diadem of thorns. And some think it is an emblem of the Trinity, ' tria juncta in uno,' which probably is the basis of the symbol. Some heralds tell us that when the Franks chose a king they raised him on their shields, and placed a reed, for sceptre, In his hand ; hence the ancient kings are represented holding a fleur- de-lis. Flight into Egypt (The), 14 Jan. The flight of the Holy Family from Bethlehem to Egypt, in order to escape the slaughter of the Innocents about to take place under the orders of Herod the Great. Flint Jack. A notable forger of prehistoric implements. Floating Debt. Government loans not funded, but to be paid off in full at a stated time. If the government is unable to meet the demand, the floating debt, or such part of it as cannot be met, is con- verted into funded debt that is, a debt on which interest is paid by government either for a fixed term of years or for ever. The former is called terminable annuities, and the latter perpetual an- nuities. Flogged by Deputy. When Henri IV. of France abjured, and was received into the Catholic Church in 1595, two ambassadors were sent to Borne to do penance for him. They knelt in the portico of St. Peter's and sang the ' Miserere,' a blow being given on their boulders with a switch at each verse. Lesage, in hia ' Oil Bias ' (v. 1) makes Raphael the deputy of the marquis's son ; but Raphael, not eeing the justice of the substitution, ran away. Strange as it may seem, yet is it sanctioned by both God and man. Thus for the sin of David thousands of his subjects were ' scourged ' by a plague. And what else is the entail of Adam's dis- obedience ? N.l!. Flogging In both services was abolished in England in 1882. Flood (Date of the). According to Septuagtnt Jackson . Hales . Joeephus . 3'.'46 i Persian . 8170 Hindu . 8165 Samaritan 8146 Howard . B.C. 8103 8102 Clinton . . . 2482 Playfai* . . . 2352 Usher . . . 2848 Marsham&Calmet 2344 PetavluB Strauch . . Hebrew . Vulgar Jewish of 2104 Toulouse con Floral Games (The), 1 May, 1822. A literary wu test instituted at Toulouse for the en- couragement of poetry. The prizes con- sisted of flowers made of gold or silver, chiefly the violet, eglantine, marigold, amaranth, and lily. The poets who belonged to the institution were called ' The college of the gay science.' The games still exist, and the prizes are given away every year on 8 May. Florentine Diamond (The). Weighs 139 carats, and is among the crown jewels of the Emperor of Austria. It has a slight citron tint, and is valued at 105,0002. It belonged to Charles the Bold, and after the battle of Granson was picked up by a Swiss, who thought it was a bit of glass, and sold it to a priest for a gulden. The priest sold it for 8 francs, and it was next bought for 2002. by Bartholo- mew May, a merchant who lived in Berne. May sold it to a Genoese for a large sum of money; Ludovico Sforza bought it of the Genoese for double what he had given ; it then came into the possession of Pope Jnlius II., and Pope Julius presented it to the Emperor of Austria. Flores Historia'rum, or ' Flowers of History,' by Matthew Paris, is in reality the work of Wendover continued by Matthew Paris. It begins at creation pnd goes down to 1238. Matthew Paris brought it down to 1259, and William Kishanger continued it still further. Florid or Perpendicular Style. Succeeded the Decorated English in the 14th cent., as the Decorated had suc- ceeded the Early English or Lancet style in the 18th cent. The Florid style is so called from its profusion of ornamental detail. It is called Perpendicular from the perpendicular mullions of the windows, 'the lines of the panel-work, and the Tudor arch. One of the finest specimens is Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster. Its best period was between 1375 and 1598. The Tudor arch was four-centred. St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and the nave of Canterbury Cathedral are good specimens of thia style of architecture. Florida (U.S. North America). So called by Juan Ponce de Leon, in 1513, because it was discovered on Palm FLOWER FLOWERY Sunday, called in Spanish ' [Pascua] Florida." The nickname of the inhabit- ants in this state is Fly-up-the-Creeks. Flower Badges. Of Families. Blue cornflower, the badge of William king of Prussia. Erica cinerla, the five-leaved heath, the badge of the MacalisterB. Erica Tetrdlix,ihe cross-leaved heath, the badge of the Macdonalds. Genista, the badge of the Plantagenets. Primrose, the badge of the Primrose League, in honour of Lord Beaconsfiold. Hose (red), the badge of the Lancas- trians. Hose (white), the badge of the Yorkists. Violet, the badge of Napoleon and the French imperialists. Wild Strawberry, the badge of the Frasers. Flower Badges. Athens Canada England Florence France Ireland Prussia Saxony Scotland Wales . . As in England the roue, and the Yorkist a trhitf one, so in Kkrence the Gui-lfn .,.! :ulo|t.-.l the r,'d lily, nd the Ghlbellines (or imperial ptirty) u,ichitt one. Flower Symbols. Of Moral quali- ties. Of Nations. The Violet. Su_'ar -maple, ll.-il Rose. Giglio (Lily). Iris Lily. Shamrock-leaf. Linden. Mignonette. Thistle. Leek-leaf. Ki,h<- was si Tfd l-.ox ft symbol of Immortality. Cedar lity. Corn-ears }Ilv Communion. Pates Faith. Grapes Holfy.bMllH The htood of Christ. The Resurrection. Ivy olive Peace. " ( >rai>h'e-blosoiii 1'aliu 'illy. >ry. BOM Vine Iiu orruptlon. Chriht our Life. White Lily Parity. VOW , lV:tth. The amaranth, cypress, laurel, myrtle, oak, Olive, asphodel, and rosemary are funereal plants. Flower of the Levant (The). ' II fiore di Levante,' Xante". Flower of the Sun (The). The Elixir of Life. The alchemists called all sorts of flocculent substances obtained by distillation floirt'r, hence we have ' flowera of sulphur,' ' flowers of benzoin.' The flower of the sun was a bright ruby stone called the ' phil. Flowery Land Pirates (The), The Flowery Land ' was the name of the pirates' cutter. The oaptain, the PLY FOMORIANS Kl mate, and several others were murdered in the passage from London to Singapore. Five Spaniards were publicly executed at Newgate for this outrage. Ply (Killed by a). Adrian IV., the only Englishman who has been pope. He was Nicholas Breakspeare of Langley, and succeeded to the papal throne in 1151 ; died, being choked by a fly, in 1159. Flying Company (The), 1561. Chosen troops of 100 musketeers for con- stant service, destined to act in defence of the Vaudois at any point where an attack was threatened by their Catholic perse- cutors. Two pastors always attended the ' company.' Flying Dutchman (The), 1806, or ' Ship of Doom.' The reflection of a vessel off the Cape of Good Hope, occasionally seen at a considerable distance, and re- garded by sailors with superstitious terror. The tale is that this mirage is the ship of Vanderdecken, who in 180G tried in vain to enter Table Bay, and swore he would do eo, if he ' beat about the Cape till the day of doom.' Out of punishment his ship and crew were turned into phantoms, 1 beating about the bay,' and bringing evil to all who view the vessel. Flying Highwayman (The). Richard (Dick) Turpin, 1711-1739. To- day in town, to-morrow at York, the next day at Chester, 'an alibi personified.' Hanged at York 1739. Flying Roll (The), 1175. A book compiled by James Jershom White from the. writings of Joanna Southcott and John Wroe. It is a jumble of texts from Genesis to Revelation, supposed to have a meaning known only to the initiated. Flying Squadron (The), 1705. Those members of the Scotch Parliament who professed to act independently, but Bought their own ends by joining one of the other two parties (Jacobites and revolution! sis) as suited them. Their leader was the Marquis of Tweeddale. Fo, or Foe. The founder of a religious system in China which may be called Buddhism, or reformed Brahmaniaxn. His birth is placed B.C. 1027. He taught as his fundamental principles truth and altruism, to take the life of no living creature, to abstain from wine, not to steal or covet, to keep the body in chastity and temperance, and to believe in a future state. The priests are called ' Bonzes,' and live in monasteries. The orthodox or state religion of China is Con- fucianism (Yu) ; and there is a third system called Taoism, or rationalism. Fodrum Regale (3 syl.). Certain customary supplies of provisions, at the expense of the city where the German emperor resided when he visited Italy. See Hallam, ' Middle Ages,' vol. i. p. 346. Folio (Tom). Thomas Rawlinson, a bibliophilist, who flourished 1681-1725. Folk Mote. The Court of the Hun- dred in Saxon England. It was held once a month, and was presided over by the alderman and bishop of the diocese. This mote was superior to the Hall Mote and inferior to the Shire Mote. In the Folk Mote all contracts for the sale of land were made : and such crimes were tried aa could not be Judged by the lord of a tithing or town. Folkungs (The). A race of ad- ministrators in Sweden, somewhat like the French ' Mayors of the Palace.' They called themselves Jarls, and were in power from 1250 to 1887, when the regency of Sweden was given to Mar- garet, queen regent of Denmark and Norway. In 1397 by the' Union of Cal- mar ' the three kingdoms were nominally united in Eric, grand-nephew of Mar- garet ; but Sweden had separate adminis- trators from 1471 to 1523, when Gustavus broke from Denmark, and erected Sweden into an independent kingdom. Folkungs of Norway (The), from 1319 to 1387. Like the Folkungs of Sweden these rulers were not kings, but resembled the ' Mayors of the Palace ' in French history. The Norwegian Folk- ungs were Magnus VIII., also Folkung of Sweden (1319-1350), Hako VIII. (1360- 1880), and Olaf V. (1380-1887). Folly of Spain (The), or ' Foliea d'Espagne.' A lively dance tune. The dancers used castanets. The measure was d trois temps, and the movement moderately fast. Fomo'rians (The). According to Keating (p. 116), the original owners of Ireland. They supported themselves by fishing and fowling. When Partholan and his four sons, some 2,200 years before the Christian era, visited Ireland, these 836 FONDATION FOOLSCAP Fomorians were found in the island. It JB said they were an Iberian or Basque colony. Moore, in his ' History of Ire- land,' calls the Fomorians ' African sea- rovers, who infested the coasts of Ireland after the extirpation of Partholan's race.' He says they stamped out the Neme- dians, held the island for 200 years, and were succeeded by the Firbolgs. Of course, this is only ' bardic history,' but the storming of Tor Innia by the Neme- dians is the subject of a very famous Irish poem. Fondation Montyon (La), 1825. Founded by J. B. Robert Auget baron de Montyon, who gave 6 million francs aux convalescents sortant des hopitaux de Paris, qui auraient le plus besoin de secours. The money was invested, and brings an annual interest of 10,OOOZ. sterling. Everyone who has been in a hospital for five days receives 1 franc, and the bounty rises to 25 francs. Pronounce, Lnkfo*e-4*K-te-on Vooa-te'-VMM. Fondeurs, or ' Clippers.' Bands of robbers which disturbed France in the unsettled times of Charles VI. and VII. They were often accompanied by the icurcheurs and other vagabonds. Fontainebleau (Treaties of). (1) 1512. A treaty of alliance between Francois I. and Gustavus Vasa. (2) 2 Sept., 1679. A treaty of peace between France, Denmark, and Sweden. (8) 10 Nov., 1785. A treaty of peace between Austria and Holland, by the mediation of France. (4) 27 Oct., 1807. A secret treaty between Napoleon I. and Carlos IV. of Spain, for the deposition of the House of Bra^anza for refusing to accept the ' Continental System.' By this compact, Portugal was partitioned between the Prince of Asturias and a young libertine named Godoy, chief minister of Spain. In 1640, Portugal threw off the Spanish yoke and recalled the Duke of Bragania. The concordat Ix'tw.'en Napoleon and Pius VII. at Fontaine- bleau took place 25 Jan., 1818. Fontanges (A la). A style of head- dress in the reign of Louis XIV., in which lonj,' streaming ribbons were intro- duced. Mile. Fontanges ('2 syl.) was maid of honour to Mine, de Montespan, and was a court favourite for a few mouths ; but she died at the age of 20. Fontenoy (Battle of). See 'Fiw First.' Fonthill Abbey. Was commenced by Beckford in 1795, and sold by him in 1822. Foolish. More foolish than Abu Gabshan. An Arabian proverb. Kofa made Abu Gabshan intoxicated, and in- duced him to deliver up the keys of the temple of the Kaal>a. When hr ^r-\v sober he saw the full evil of his folly, Un- it was too late. The tribe of Khozaab, which had been in possession of Mecca and its temple, were deprived of both by the Koreish, who retained possession till the time of Mahomet. Fools (Last of the titled) of France was L'Angely (1620-1679), court fool of Louis XTTT. He was of good family, but very poor. His satire was so caustic that he grew rich by the blackmail given him to purchase exemption from his sallies. Armstrong, court Jester to James I. and Charles I., was the last of the titled fools in Eng- Fools' Fair, 14 Sept. Held in the Broad Gate, Lincoln, for the sale of cattle. Licensed by William and Mary. Called * Fools' Fair ' because the time ia BO unsuitable for the purpose. Being harvest time, very few can attend it, and Lincoln at the time had no special trade or manufacture. See ' Fete des Fous/ Fool's-cap Livery (The), 1563. A badge livery adopted by the Calvinista of the Netherlands to show their con- tempt and abhorrence for Cardinal Gran- velle, a pompous, arrogant, bigoted churchman, sent by Philip II. of Spain to introduce Roman Catholicism into Holland and stamp out Calvinism. A party of young nobles, to show their con- tempt for this churchman, assumed a dress in ridicule of the cardinal's finery. It was something like that of a poor monk, of the coarsest grey cloth, without any ornament except that of a fool's cap and bells embroidered on the si This was in allusion to the cardinal's custom of calling the Flemings ' fools.' In a few days all the Flemings assumed the new livery. Foolscap Paper. The smallest folio-sized paper. It used to have the royal arms in the water-mark, but the Hump Parliament ordered the water- FOOT FORMULARY 887 mark to be changed for a fool's cap and bells. There seems to be a pun in the device from the Italian foglio capo (chief or full-sized sheet of paper). Foot of a Fine (The). The fifth or last part of a fine, containing all the matter, the day, year, a ; nd place, and be- fore what justices the fine was levied. A corruption of the old French la p6e or la pis =paix. After proclaiming the fine in the Common Pleas, the justice said, 4 Criez la pees ' (i.e. Proclaim the peace), and the serjeant read the concord or agreement between the parties. The foot of the fine is, therefore, the paix or final agreement as stated by the counter or serjeant. Foot-page, or ' Foot-bearer.' An attendant in olden times whose duty it was to squat under the table of kings and other great men, and keep his mas- ter's feet warm, by rubbing them with his hands, nursing them in his lap, and even cherishing them in his bosom. The foot-bearer shall hold the feet of the king lu his lap from the time he [the king] reclines at the board till he goes to rest ; andhe[thefoot-pnge] shall chafe them with a towel, and during all that time shall watch that no harm befalls the king. Ho shall cat of the same dish from which the king takes his food ; and shall light the first candle before the king. SOUTHEY, Madoc (note). Fops' Alley. A railed-off passage in front of the pit of the Italian opera- house, where dandies lounged who thought their figures showed more to ad- vantage in a standing posture than in a sitting one. They wagged their cha- pcaux bras, And topped their canes, and hallooed to tbe'j. friends in the boxes, being thus an I/ tolerable nuisance. Forbes Mackenzie Act (The), 1853. For the regulation of public- houses in Scotlaj .d (16, 17 Viet. c. 67). Its object was to prf /ent grocers from being secret publicans for no liquor is to be drunk on the premises where groceries are sold. No l.quor is to be sent out from any hotel cv inn on Sundays before six in the morning, nor after eleven at night. Some grace was allowed to travellers journeying either on pleasure or business. Foreign Canons. Such as did not officiate in the canonries to which they were attached. They were the non-rec - dentiary canons. 15 Foreign Enlistment Acts (The). In 1605 British subjects were prohibited from entering foreign service (3 Jac. I. c. 4, s. 18). In 1835 the prohibition was suspended by order in council. The enlistment of foreigners into the British Bervice was permitted In 1854 (18 Viet. c. 2). Foreigners' Friend (The). Der- mot king of Leinster, who brought over English and Welsh allies to assist him in regaining his throne, from which he had been driven by Tiernan O'Ruarc, lord of Breffny, in 1168. Forest Cantons of Switzerland (The), or the ' Waldstetten,' that is, Schwitz, Uri, and Unterwalden. Forester (Fanny}. The pen-name of Emily Judson (Chubbock), an American author. Forester (Frank). The pen-name of Henry William Herbert, an English- born American author. Forfeiture and Corruption of Blood. A law which existed before the Conquest, that a man guilty of treason forfeits his estates to the crown, and can transmit no title of dignity to his heirs. In America the law of ' Corruption of Blood ' cannot exist, for there are no titles of dignity transmittable. Forgeries (Literary). See under 4 Literary Forgeries.' Fork-Beard. Sueno (Swe-no) king of Denmark (985-1014). He exacted the tribute called Danegeld, and in 1018 was crowned king of England. Tyf ve-skeg or Fork-Beard was succeeded by his son Canute. Form of the Beads (The), 1538. Certain instructions for praying drawn np by Browne, archbishop of Dublin. Forma Pau'peris (In). By statutes passed in the reigns of Henry VII. and VIII., if a plaintiff swore he was not worth 51, beyond the clothes he was wearing, he had counsel and attorney assigned him by the court gratuitously, and all court-fees were excused him. Formula of Concord (The), or ' Consensus,' 1576. Drawn up at Torgau ; suppressed at Brandenburg in 1614 ; re- published in Switzerland in 1675. Torgau, pronounce Tor-gow. Formulary, or ' Formula.' I. 1658 In which Innocent X. condemned the five propositions of Jansen taught in hii 888 FORT FORTY famous book entitled ' Augustlnus ' (q.v.). He commanded the Jansenists to sub- scribe to it, but they refused to do BO. II. The formulary of 1663, in which Alexander VII. confirmed the formulary of Innocent X. The Jansenists still re- fused subscription. In 1668 Pope Cle- ment, to prevent a schism, withdrew the formulary, and this is called the ' Peace of Clement IX.' Fort Adjutant (A). A staff -officer ii. command of a fortress. They have an extra pay of 4s. 9d. daily. Forties (The), 1826. The forty shfl. ling franchise of Ireland, repealed 1829. See l Forty-shilling Freeholders.' Mr. O Council at the head of the priests and the ' Forties ' was declared by the sheriff duly elected. HOWITT, Hi*t. of Kng., year l*lf*. p. 117. Mr. O Connell had repeatedly declared that he would not accept emancipation if the faithful 1 Forties ' were to be sacrificed. He would rather die on the scaffold than submit to such a measure. - Ibid, year 1829, p.142. Fortification (Permanent). The art of shutting in a circumscribed piece of ground, or a city, by defensive masses of earth and ditches, to resist the attacks of an enemy. Every plot of ground so fortified is supposed to be surrounded by a polygon of fortification, and the works constructed on any one side of this poly- gon constitute a front of fortification. The great mass of earth thrown up from the ditch inwards is the rampart ; and the covering shot-proof mass of earth on the outer edge of the rampart is the parapet. The step of earth behind the parapet (about a foot high) is called the banquette. A rampart is about Ti feet high. Fortunate (The). So Philippe VI. de Valois was called, but his whole reign was a series of calamities. In this reign the French lost the battles of Sluys (Slu'iz) and Crecy. The French have been singularly unhappy In their royal ' pet ' names. Forty. This number is very con- spicuous in the Bible and Christian Church. 1. It rained forty days and forty nights in the Flood. (,Vn. vii. 12. 2. MOSOB twice fasted for forty days and forty ninliis .-KroJ.xxiv. 18. Ac. :) 111- spies sent to Canaan were forty days in searching the land. Kum. xili. :. 4. The Israelites wandered forty years in the wilderness. /'*. xcv. 10. 5. Goliath defied the armies of Saul for forty *ays.-l Nam. xvii. 16. I UJ*h fasted forty days.- 1 King* xU. a. T. Ezeklel bore the iniquities of the house of Jacob forty days, a day for a year. 8. Jonah cried to the Ninevites, ' Tet forty day* and Nineveh shall be overthrown. 1 Jonah ili. 4. 9. Jesus fasted and was tempted forty days in the wilderness. Matt. iv. 4. 10. Jetius tarried on earth forty days after his resurrection. Acts I. 8. 11. Jerusalem was destroyed by Titus forty years after the Ascension. 12. According to Church tradition Jesus was forty hours In the tomb. 18. The Lenten Fast continues for forty days, from Ash Wednesday to Easter Sunday. Intro- duced Into England by order of dbald king of Kent, A.D. 640. 14. One of the saints of the Catholic Church is called ' Quadragesimns.' said to have been a shepherd, and under-deacon of Pa via. His day is 86th Oct. 16. St. SwHhln's days of rain are forty. 16. The Jews were forbidden to inflict more than forty stripes on an offender. 17. The martyrdom. See ' Forty Martyr*,' Forty (The). L 'I Quarantia.' A council of state, in Venice, between the Six Sages and 460 representatives, of whose origin and positive duties very little is known. It was a permanent body, which seems to have represented the chief families of Venice, and exercised criminal justice. In the best days the doge had a Council of Six, to which every bill was first submitted. The Six sent it to the Forty, or council of state, and then it was sent to the legis- lative assembly, consisting of 450 repre- sentatives. The 40 electors of the doge were in 1249 Increased to 41 to prevent an equal division. The nomina- tion of these electors was very complex. The Grand Council drat selected 90, who were red need by ballot to 9. These 9 nominated 40. who were reduced by ballot to IX These 12 elected 25. who were reduced by ballot to 9. These 9 elected 45, who were reduced by ballot to 11. These 11 elected the 41 electors, and the 41 electors chose the doge out of the Grand Council. II. Besides the council of state in Venice, there were three tribunals, each of which was composed of forty members. (1) The tribunal of appeal from the city magistrates; (2) Another tribunal of appeal from the suburban magistrates; and (8) a high court of assize which took cognisance of all criminal offences except treason. III. The Acade'mie Francaise, founded by Richelieu in 1685, consists of forty members, neither more nor less. Its original intention was to fix and purify the French language. Membership is now the highest literary distinction which the nation can bestow. The election of the ' head administrator ' of UM Theatre Francais to a seat among the ' Forty ' of the Acadomie Is, after the lapse of 900 years in atonemen t for the non election of the founder him- FORTY FORTY-TWO 890 IV. The English Academicians are called ' The Forty.' Mr. Faed lacked not backers all the way up and down among the ' Forty,' and Sir Frederick's threat of resignation bad no terrors. Truth, 13 Jan., 1887. V. One of the inferior courts of Athens consisted of 40 magistrates (01 reo-trapa- Kovra), who went on circuit to settle con- troversies about money, actions of assault and battery, and neglect in attending the public assemblies. Forty Columns (The), or ' Chihel Sutun.' A lofty erection still existing, but in a somewhat dilapidated condition, in 41 N. lat., on the route of the cara- vans from Bokha'ra to China (HEEREN, ' Asiatic Nations,' vol. iii. p. 389). This is the ' Stone Tower ' of Ptolemy. Qeogra- phia, bk. i., ch. 12. 'Forty-five (The). The rising which took place in Scotland in 1745. It was an attempt on the part of Prince Charles Edward Stuart to regain the throne of James II. Lewis Gordon, brother of the Duke of Gordon, was one of the adherents. 'Forty-five (Out in the). One of the Jacobites who had taken part in the rebellion of 1745, when the anti-Hano- verian furore ran very high not only in the Highlands of Scotland, but also in England. He designated the rebellion of 1745 as the affair of 45 ; and spoke of one engaged in it as a person who had been out in the forty -five. Six W. SCOTT, Redgnuntlf.t. In the 'forty-five, that la, concerned or Involved In the rebellion of 1745. I suffered in the forty-five. J6.cn. z. An old 'forty-five man, one formerly concerned In the rebellion of 1745. Ib. Forty-hour Prayers, 1560. Made before the ' saint sacrement ' in the times of public calamities, jubilees, ' les jours gras,' and BO on. At one time they lasted forty hours without interruption, because Christ was ' forty hours in the tomb.' In- dulgences were granted by Pius IV. to those who observed these prierea de quarante heures. Forty Martyrs (The), 820. The martyrs of the famous Thundering Le- gion, condemned to death by Agricolaus for refusing to offer sacrifice at Sebast6, in Lesser Armenia, in obedience to their commander Licinius. It is said that they were exposed naked on the surface of a pond frozen over, and St. Basil tells us that they lay there for three days, and all their limbs were mortified by the cold (St. Basil, ' Homily ' 20, vol. i. p. 452). Forty-nine Men, or The Forty- nine Officers.' Protestant royalist offi- cers who had served Charles I. in Ireland before 1649. These officers by a declara- tion of Charles II. were to receive their arrears in lands at the rate of 12s. Qd. in the pound, and an equal dividend of whatever should remain of their se- curity. Forty - shilling Freeholders (The Insh), 1826. Men entitled to the elective franchise who swore that their tenement was equal to them in value to 40s. a year. A hut and small potato plot were sufficient to give a vote. In order to multiply votes farms were cut up into smaH holdings, whereby a large constituency was created scarcely re- moved from actual pauperism, and almost entirely under the command of the parish priest. Repealed 1829 (10 Geo. IV. c. 8), after the Bill for the Emancipation of Catholics had passed. Till 1429 universal suffrage prevailed, but votes were then confined to 40*. freeholders in the counties, and the qualification of a county mem- ber was the possession of a freehold worth 401. a year, equal to 4001. at the present time. Forty-times Forty Churches (The City of), Moscow. Forty-two Articles (The), 1552, 1558. The original number of the Arti- cles of the Church of England. In 1562 seven were omitted, and the number was reduced to thirty-nine by the sub- stitution of four new articles. THE ABTICLE8 OMITTED. 1. (Art. x.) Of Grace. No man if constrained to sin. 2. (Art. xvi.) Of Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost. That is, perversion of 'God's Word,' or malignant opposition to it. 8. (Art. xix.) All men bound to keep the moral law. 4. (Art. xxxix.) The resurrection of the dead is not past. 5. (Art. xl.) The soul does neither sleep nor perish with the body. 6. (Art. xli.) Of the millenarians. De- claring the dogma a fable derived from Jewish tradition. 7. (Art. xlii.) Not all men will ba saved. The new articles are the v., sIL, xxix., nd xx* ni rosa FOUNDERS Toss of Ma'rius (The), B.C. 103. A canal cut by the soldiers of Harms when encamped against the Cimbrians. It ran from the rear of his camp on the right bank of the Rhone to the coast. Its object WM to secure ready access to the sea. Foujdarry Court (The). In India, the court of criminal law. The ' foujdar * is a magistrate of police who takes cog- nisance of criminal matters. Foul Raid (The], 1417. The dis- honourable inroad ; referring to the raid of the Regent Albany on Roxburgh Castle and the town of Berwick while Henry V. was in France. The Dukes of Exeter and Bedford, with an English army, compelled Albany to raise both the sieges. The Duke of Albany WM prime minister ot Scotland to Robert I., Robert II., and James I. (fifty years) ; be was above eighty at bis death (1419). Foul-weather Jack. The Hon. John Byron, admiral and navigator, who was noted for the tempestuous weather which pursued him in all his Toyages (1728-1786). Founder of Christian Elo- quence (The). Bourdaloue (1632- 170-1), unrivalled for argument, method, and depth of thought His ' Lent Ser- mons ' are the best known of his works. Founders of Religious Orders. Maria Vlttorla Fornarl Jeanne de Valols Amadous VI. Augustine ot Hippo Annunciades (numerous) Celestes ... of BourgM of Savoy Augustines Barefooted Friars (nu- merous) Barefooted Alcantarlnes AuKustines Carmelites Eromitrs or Ermitcs (several) Franciscan* . ^ Trinitarians . ... Benedictines _ _ Bernardines BrigeUlnes or Nuns of our Holy Saviour Brothers of Charity Camaldules Capucinsor Capuchins ... Carmelites (White Friars) of Maoon Several others Carthusians ... ... Celestines ... _ Christian Doctrine Cistercians Clarlsses or Poor Clares Olercs Mineurs - Beguliers (Theatlns) ... -I the Mother of God Ferdinand Oomei Tominauo da Jesus of Avila Paolo of Follgno Jean BnptUte de la Conception Benedict of Nursla Bernard of Clairraux Brigitte or Bridget of Sweden Vincent de Paul Romualdus Mut too linschl John of Jerusalem Margaret of St. Joseph Bruno Pierre de Moron [Celos- tine V.] Ippollte GalantTnl Robert de Molesme Clare ot Assist Francesco Caracclolo Oaetano of Chleti (Latin Theate) Giovanni Leonard! Clerca Somasques Geremla Emlllanl Cluniacs Bernon abb- de Cluny Congregation of the Holy Francos Mary Paul Heart of Mary Liebermann Holy Hearts ... ... Marie Joseph Coudr in Holy Trinity ... ... Marie de la Croix Son of Mary ... _ Louis Marie Baudoulm Very Holy Sacrament Looia \ i ~ (Gaston de Rent* an4 Cordonnlers _ \ , , !uch Daughters of CalTafj _. AnU>:in tte d Orleans Charity ... ^. ... Vincent do l':iul Providence Marie de Lumagne And several others Doctrinaires ... ... Cwsar de Bus Dominicans... ^. ... Dominic Fetiillanta ... Jean do la Barrier* Filles l>len (originally Soeurs de St. Qorvaia)... Franciscans Francis of Assist Fratres CelUUs oir Hex- ians ... Mexlus Prrres des Ecoles Chr*- Jean Baptlsta de Is, tlennes Salle Mineurs G libertines ... HieroniruiU* of Fiesole of the Observance ., of Spain of Umbria n.'-pltal de Moi Hospitallers .. Jesuits M. Lnsarlats _ Liguorians _ Minims Minorites Missionaries of the Pre- cious Blood Francis of Asisl Gilbert bishop of Meaux Chiirleb do Kumene ... Loup of Olmedo _. Thomas of Siena ... Pietro of Pisa . Gernnl Teinturie* _ Gerard Tom OT Ignatius Loyola _ Vincent de Paul ... Alfonso of LiRuorl M Francis of Paula Francis of Assist Gaspard del Bnfalo Norbert archbishop ot Magdeburg Mot re Dame do R/fnge ... Elizabeth of Ranfalng Thar* are thousands of institutions entitled Notre Dame Oratorlans ... _ ^ Philip Nerl Order of France . ... Pierre de IWrulle Mercy ... Pierre de Nolasque Our Holy Saviour .. Brinittfl or Bridget ol Theodc.ro of Colles Jeanne Marie de Matel Catherine Mechtilda as S. Sitcroiiieut Felix de Valois the Holy Cross ... ^ the Incarnate Word .. the Perpetual Adora- tion the Very Holy Trinity And many others Ordro de Flore de 1 (Kuvrede la Jean- OSSO M. a. ... de Pulsano des Servites . . de Tres-salnte Trlnlte Penitontsi Mf >M ui Pic pus .. Preaching Friars of 8. Dominic Premonstratenslans ... Priests of the Mission, or Lasaristo B^collets.reformed Fran- ciscans _ Redemptorlsts Reformed Beraardlnes ... Bellgleuses Anxiliatrlces des Ames du Purga- toire Religious Hospitallers Bt. 1 nitan of the Order of St. Jerome Second Founder of the FUles de 8U. QenevisTS B.Joachim John Joseph Allemand John of Mathera Manetto. Sostenus, and five others Jean de Matha Angela countess of CivV tella Abb6 Condrin Dominic de Gusman Korbert archbUbop of Magdeburg Vincent of Paula John of Guadalupe Alfonso of Liguori Louis Perrucard Ballon Marie de la Provld John de >ieu MaryOarclas Maria Bonnsau FOUR FOUB 841 de la Provl- Fjranijols de Chancier- deuce gues Kisters of Charity of St. Joseph ... ... ... Elizabeth Anne Bayiey of Mercy ... ^ ... Marie Thf>rse Char- lotto de Lamouroua of Ste. Anne ... ... Jeanne de la Noue of St. Gervala _ ... Francois Armand Ge- vais of the Hermitage ... Ursula Benincasa of the Holy Family ... Marie de liodat of the Presentation of Mary, &c. Marie Anne Rivler Society of French Mis- sions . , ... ... John Baptist Rauzan Suiurs Grisea M ... Marie Marguerite I>u- frost de Lajemmemi* d'Yoiirille Sylvestrlans M . Sylvester Gozzollni Tp.bennites ... . ... Templars ... , ... Hugues des Payens, Geoffrey de St. Adhe- mar, and 7 others Trapplsts Rotrou count of Perche Tertinries of St. Francis Francis of Ausisi Teutonic Knights Frederick duke of Suabia Third Order rt the Humble ... ... ... Jean de Meda Urbanists ... ... ... 8. Isabella (confirmed by Urban II.) Ursulines Angela of Merlcl Foundling Hospital (The). Lon- don, 1739. Founded by Capt. Coram. One established at Milan in 787. at Paris in 1640. . at Stockholm In 1TM by fth* Freemasons. Four Ancient Books of Wales (The). 'The Black Book of Carmar- then,' 'The Book of Aneurin,' 'The Book of Taliesin,' and the poetical por- tion of ' The Red Book of Hergest ' (q.v.). It was published in 1868, with an English translation, by the Rev. Canon Williams and the Rev. D. Silvan Evans. Four Articles (The). Drawn up by Bossuet in the reign of Louis XIV. 1. The ecclesiastical power shall be subordinate to the civil power in France. 2. The decision of a general council shall supersede the dictum of a pope. 8. The church shall at all times con- form to local usages and municipal laws. 4. The judgment of the pope even in matters of faith shall not be binding unless ratified by a general council. See ' Articles.' Four Attributes of Glorified Bodies (The). In Catholic theology: Subtlety, agility, luminosity, and immor- tality (Mgr. GU^RIN, ' Vies des Saints,' vol. ix. p. 559). Four Burghs (The). Edinburgh, Stirling, Berwick, and Roxburgh ; noted for their ' Court of the Four Burghs,' superseded by the ' Convention of Royal Burghs/ 1487. Four Cardinal Virtues (The). In Catholic theology : Fortitude, justice, prudence, and temperance. Four Credenze (The). After the treaty of Constance (q.v.), 1183, Frederick Barbarossa introduced a podesta or dic- tator into Milan, not a native, and under him were four estates or credenze: (1) the old consuls and their officers ; (2) the capitani or higher nobles, with the arch- bishop of Milan at their head ; (8) the popo- lani or burghers ; and (4) the valvassori or inferior nobles. Soon these four estates practically resolved themselves into the aristocracy and proletariat or popolani. Four Creeds (The). Of the Catholic Church of Rome : The Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Athanasian Creed, and the Creed of Pius V. Four Days' Battle (The), 1-4 June, 1665. Between the English fleet under the joint command of PrinceRupert and the Duke of Albemarle, and the Dutch fleet under the command of De Ruyter and De Witt off the North Fore- land. The English lost ten ships and 1,700 men killed and wounded; the Dutch lost two admirals, seven captains, and 1,800 men, with fifteen vessels of all sorts. The Dutch claimed the victory, and without doubt had the advantage. Four Hundred (The), B.C. 411. The oligarchical legislature of Athens. This body formed an irresponsible government, and held its sittings in the senate house. In four months the con- stitution of the 400 was overthrown, and the government placed in the hands of 5,000 citizens instead of the entire male population. A committee of five was first chosen ; this com. mittee chose ninety-five members; and each of the hundred chose three. Four Hundred and Fifty (The). The legislative assembly of ancient Venice, chosen from the six quarters of the city. The privy council of the doge consisted of the Six Sages; the great council of state of forty members. Four Masters (The). Rhyming annalists of Ireland. The annals were compiled in the 17th century (1686) by Michael O'Clery, with the assistance of three other antiquaries. Harris tolls us they are ' chiefly drawn from the annals of Clonmacnois, Inisfail, and Senat, as well a from other approved and ancieol 849 FOUR FKA chronicles of Ireland.' A full account may be found in Mr. Peti ie's ' Remarks on the History and Authenticity of the Autograph Original of the Annals of the Four Masters.' Pour Points (The), 1854. (1) The cession of the Russian protectorate in the Principalities, and establishment of a European protectorate in its stead; f2) the free navigat vu of the Danube ; (8) an arrangement to put an end to Russian preponderance in the Black Sea, and for bringing the Ottoman govern- ment into harmony with European go- vernments ; and (4) the renunciation by Russia of a protectorate over the Chris- tian subjects of the sultan. Pour Symbols (The), or standards in Catholic theology. (1) The Apostles' Creed; (2) the Nicene Creed; (S) the symbol of Con- stantinople; and (4) the Athanasian Creed. The Constantinople formulary was made at the Council of Constantinople in 831, and is recited at mass. It is identical with tho Nicene Creed. exctjit in the one article about the procession of the Holy Ghost from the father ^jilutjiu-). Pour Vows of the Order of St. Francis of Paula. Poverty, chastity, obedience, and the quadra- gesimal life (i.e. the Lenten fast of 40 days). Pou'rierism. The social system devised by Charles Fourier. He would divide men into groups of 400 families, and these groups into scries, and these series into phalanxes. A single group he would place under one immense roof, and there should he supplied every appliance of industry and art. No army would be required, no wars could ever break out, as all the world would be one great family. Fourteen Saintly Helpers (The). The fourteen saints to whose churches, between Bainberg and Coburg, annual pilgrimages were made, viz. George, Blaise, Erasmus, Vitus, Panta- leon, Christopher, Denys or Dionysius, Cyriacus, Achatius, Eustace, Giles or JEgidius, Marjaretha, Catharine, and Barbara. Fourth Estate (The). The news- paper press. The ' three estates of the realm* in the legislature are the lords spiritual, the lords temporal, and the OUUUUUA. The newspaper press as a power may well be called 'the fourth estate,' with a moral power far greater than the other three. Fourth of July (The), or 'The glorious Fourth of July.' In American history is glorious as being the day of the Declaration of Independence (1770). Fowler (The). Heinrich L of Ger- many is so called, because he was flying his hawks on the slopes of the Harz mountains when the messengers came to tell him he had been chosen king. Fox (A). An old English broadsword. So called because it bore the figure of a fox, the rebus of a famous sword-maker. Come, come, comrade, . . . put up your fox, and let us be joggingSir W. SCOTI , AVniltrortt, ch. iv. On point of fox. ' By the sword's point.' Thon diest by point of fox, if thou contest a prying to tbii tower once tuore. Ibnl. ch. xxix. (Probably, 'fox' is the Latin falx, which is the Greek e'Ajcv, a hatchet, axe, or pruning-knife.) Fox (The). A vessel of 170 tons burden, fitted out by Lady Franklin, and committed to the charge of Capt. McClintock, to go towards the North Pole to ascertain if anything could be learned of the fate of Sir John Franklin or his two ships, the ' Erebus ' and ' Terror.' On 6 May, 1859, was dis- covered in a cairn a document stating that Sir John Franklin had died 11 June, 1847. Numerous relics of the two crews were brought home and publicly ex- hibited in London. It was also ascer- tained that Sir John had discovered the long-sought-for North-west Passage. 'Fox's Martyrs.* The 120 sup- porters of Charles James Fox who lost their elections when parliament was dis- solved 25 March, 1784. Foxites (2 syl.). Quakers, followers of George Fox, founder of the sect (10-21- 1690). His muzzle, formed of opposition staff, Firm as a fr'oxite, would not lose its ruff, PKTBR PI.NDAK. The Haior-telier. Fra Diavplo. Michele Pezza, one of the leaders in the Calabrian insurrec- tion. In 1799 Cardinal Ruffo made him a colonel. He was taken captive by the French, and was hanged at Naples in 1806. Fra Moriale (4 syl.). Montreal d'Albano, proveucal oondottiere, died FRANCE FRANCISCANS 848 1354. Being sentenced to death by Rienzi, he 'summoned' the tribune to follow him within a month, and within a month Rienzi was killed by the fickle mob. France, (a) The three Royal dy- nasties of France : I. The Merovingian race (420-752), gives 84 sovereigns (including Phara- mond). II. The Carlovingian race (752-987) gives 16 sovereigns. in. The Capetian race (987-1848) gives 37 sovereigns. But the Republic was 1792-1804 ; the Empire of Napoleon I. was 1804-1814. In 1848 Louis Napoleon was president, and emperor 1852-1871. In 1871 a republican form of govern- ment was established. The Capetian dynasty was often in- direct. The first nine kings were in direct descent. Then came Philippe III. Le Hurdi, called the Philippine lint, 1270-1285 ; the elder branch gave five kings, 1285-1328 ; the Valois branch gave seven kings, 1328-1498; then followed the Valois-Orleans branch, Louis XII., 1498-1515; then the Valois- Angouleme dynasty of five kings, 1515-1589; then the Bourbon race from 1589. Louis- Philippe was Bourbon-Orleans. (b) The six great peers of France. In the time of Henri I. (1031-1060). The Duke of Burgundy, the Duke of Aqui- taine, the Duke of Normandy, the Count of Champagne, the Count of Flanders, and the Count of Toulouse. Each of these peers had almost equal power with the king himself. According to Ronsard (Franciade), the Franks were BO called from Francion, son of Hector of Troy. Of course this is a poet's fable. Franchi (Ausonio), The pseudonym of Francesco Bonavino, the Italian phi- losopher. Francis II. (Fra"nz). Emperor of the Romans and king of Germany. From 6 Aug., 1806, called ' emperor of Austria ' ; born 1768, died 1835. He reigned as kaiser-king of Germany, 1792-1806; as emperor of Austria, 1806-1835. Father, LEOPOLD II. ; Mother, the Infanta Maria Louisa ; Wives, Elizabeth of Wiirtemberg, mother of FERDINAND his successor, who abdicated ; Maria Theresa, mother of Maria Louisa, who married Napoleon I. ; Maria Louisa of Austria; and Charlotte Augusta of Bavaria. Francis II. was brother of Marie Antoinette, the unhappy wife of Louis XVI. of France, both of whom were guillotined. He gave up the Netherlands and Lombardy by the treaty of Ctuupo Formio, but received Venice 17 Oct., 1797. Gave up all his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine by the treaty of Luneville, 8 Feb., 1801. Gave up all his Italian states, Suabia, and the Tyrol, by the treaty of Presburg, 26 Dec.. 1805. Renounced the dignity of emperor of Germany, but retained that of emperor of Austria, 6 Aug., End of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806, after last- ing 1006 years. Francis - Joseph (Franz-Joseph), Emperor of Austria and king of Hun- gary and Bohemia. Born 1830, reigned 1848- He succeeded his uncle FERDINAND, who abdicated in 1848. Father, Francis (younger brother of Kaiser FERDINAND), son of Francis II. ; Wife, Elizabeth of Bavaria ; contemporary with Victoria. His son Rudolph, heir apparent to the throne, was born 1868, married Stephanie of Belgium 1881, and put an end to his life in Feb., 1689. Franciscans (The], or 'Fratres Minores,' 1209. Followers of the rule of St. Francis of Assisi, originally divided into ' Conventuals ' and ' Observantins. 1 The Conventuals lived in convents and monasteries ; the Observantins (q.v.) were hermits, and in France were called Cor- deliers, from the cord which they used for belt. The strictest of the Observan- tins were barefooted. Becollets of Spain were formed in 1500 by Father John of Guadalupe. ' Le nom BScollets fut donne" a ces religieux, parce qu'ils vivaient dans des convents solitaires, et qu'ils faisaient une profes- sion plus speciale de la pratique de la retraite et de recueillement ' (GUE"RIN, 1 Pet. Boll.' xii. p. 48). Reformed Capucins of Tuscany, 1525 ; formed by Matteo Baschi of Urbano. The Capucins 'ont une piece sur le derriere de leur habit, comme S. Fran- cois le recommande dans son testament.' They have long beards, but St. Francis himself had a very short beard. Both the Recollets and the Capucins wear a brown dress, but Cordeliers a black one. SECOND ORDER of St. Francis: The Clarisses, or followers of St. Glair. They were called, in France, ' Urbanists,' because they obtained their constitution from Urban IV. (in 1263), but generally they went by the name of 'The poor siiters Clarisses,' or the 'poor Clarisses.' 844 FRANCO-AUSTRIAN FRANCONIA The Minories of London were BO called from the Minory convent of Clarisses. The Grey Sisters of Flanders were Franciscans who originally dressed in grey, but subsequently adopted either white, black, or dark blue. They took on themselves the vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. THIRD ORDER, instituted by St. Fran- cis in 1221, for both sexes. These Fran- ciscans followed their own vocations, married and were given in marriage. The Dominicans, Augustines, Minims, Carmelites, and Servites, all had a similar order. Penitents were of this order, instituted in 18D7 by Angela countess of Civitella. ' Recollettines ' are reformed Penitents. Nurses of hospitals, asylums, &c., who took on themselves the vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience to the bishop of the diocese. They went by various names. In Spain, Minimes infirmiers, or Obregons, from Beraardin Obregon of Madrid. In Flanders, lea Bons-Fieux or - Bom Fils. Mgr. Ou6rln (vol. xll. p. 44) tells ns there were 1,500 ' mui sons de Franclficalns ' and 490.000 rrli- oifii.r in England in HWO. Introduced into England In 1224. Some Franciscan tertlarles live In con- vents. Th.-y wore called ' Orey Friars ' from the colour of their dress, as the Dominicans were called ' Hlack Friars,' and the Carmelites were called White Friars. They were In everlasting antago- nism with the Dominicans ever since 1260. Franco- Austrian War (The), 1859. Between France and Austria, to deprive the latter of Italy. France was victorious. Total loss of life, 40,000. Cost of the war, 60,000,0002. sterling. Franco -Prussian War (The), 1870, 1871. Between Napoleon HI. emperor of France, and William I. king of Prussia. The French were defeated in every great battle and in every siege. The chief battles were those of Weissen- burg, Worth, Saarbriick, Vionville, Gra- velotte, Beaumont, and Sedan. By these victories William I. became German emperor. This is called ' The Six Months' War ' (from 28 July, 1870, to 28 Jan., 1871). Total cost of the war, 500,000,000?. sterling. Total loss of life, 225,000. William I., who was king of Prussia, added to his titles ' German emperor' (Deutscher Kaiser). Francois I. le Grand. Also called ' Le Pere des Lettres.' Of the Capetian dynasty, and second of the Va}ois-An- gouK-me line (1494, 1515-1547). The Renaissance period. Francois I. 'had the largest nose in France, except hia jester ' (Triboulet). Father, Charles comte d'Angouleme (great-grandson of Charles V. and cousin of Louis XII., whom Francois succeeded); Mother, Louise of Savoy ; Wives, Claude, daughter of Louis XII., mother of HENRI II. his successor, and Eleanore, widow of Emmanuel of Portugal, and sister of Charles-Quint, emperor of Germany. Contemporary with Henry VIII. and Leo X. His first mistress was the Countess of Chateaubriant ; his second was Mdlle. Heilly, created duchesse d'Etarapes (that is, she was married, under cover, to Jean de Brosse, who was requited by being made due d'Etampes). Another of his mistresses was La belle Ferronniere, the nominal wife of one Ferron, an ironmonger. CHARI.KS V. had two sons, CHARLES VI. and Louis due d'Orleans. From the former descended in direct line CIIARLKS VII., LODIB XI. his son, and CHARLES Vni. No surviving isne. Louis due d'Orleans had also two sons vis. CharloH due d'Orleana and Jean d'Anumil. TUP. Louis XII. was son of Charles due d OrK-ans. Jean d'Angouldme had for son Charles d Angoo. lime, whose son was FRANCOIS I. Francois II. of FRANCK (1543, 1659-00). Was son of Henri II. and grandson of Francois L While dauphin he married Mary Stuart, daughter of James V. of Scotland. After his death the widow became queen of Scots and married her cousin Henry Darnley. Con- temporary with Elizabeth. Franco'ni (Roi). Joachim Murat. So called by Napoleon for his theatrical display. Franconi was a pompous, con- ceited director of one of the minor thea- tres of Paris. Murat, though undoubtedly intrepid, was extremely vain, and used to parade the streets of Naples in silks and satins like a theatre king (1771- 1815). Franco'nia. A large district of Ger- many lying north and south of the river Main, originally peopled by the Franks. In the early part of the empire this pro- vince enjoyed the privilege of electing the king of Germany within its own ter- ritory, and of crowning him by the hands of its own archbishop (Mainz), primate of the empire. In 912 Eonrad I., count of Franconia, succeeded the Carlovin- gians in Germany, but gave thorn only FRANCONIA PKATICELLI 845 o&e king ; but after the extinction of the Saxon dynasty, the house of Franconia succeeded in the person of Konrad II., and supplied Heinrich III., IV., and V. The house of Hohenstauffen was a branch of the same powerful line. At the close of the Hohenstauffen dynasty Franconia rapidly declined, and now forms a part of the kingdom of Bavaria. Franconia (House of). Repre- sented in Germany by one king, Konrad I. of Franconia (912-918). Succeeded by the house of Saxony. Another house of Franconia reigned in Germany (1024- 1106) , represented by Konrad II., Heinrich in., and Heinrich IV. Frangistan. The country of the Franks. Europe generally was so called by the Saracens. Others have made private offers ... to disjoin their forces from the camp of the kings of Fran- gistan. Sir W. SCOTT, The Talitman, chap. xv. Frank Pledge. A law which pre- vailed in England before the Conquest, whereby every member of a tything was held responsible for the good conduct of everyone within the tything. Hallam says ' ten men in a village were made answerable for each other.' Frank Tenements, or ' Freeholds.' Lay tenements which were divided into knight- service and free-socage. The former of these was divided into knight- service proper, grand-sergeanty, cornage, &c. Free-socage was divided into petit- sergeanty, tenure in burgage, and gavel- kind. Sergeanty means service rendered to the king. Grand-sergeanty was personal service, petit-ser- fcanty was a money or other payment as rent. This payment might be merely nominal, as the ielivery of a corn of wheat or small tult of grass, a fish, a flag, and so on. Franks of Walla'chia (The), 1750. A politico-religious secret society, founded by Frank, a neophyte of "Walla- chia. He preserved the Jewish doctrines and the Roman Catholic ritual. He was interred at death with royal honours, and his daughter became the Sovereign of the Faithful. The members of this sect are very numerous. Frankfort (Treaty of), 10 May, 1871. A treaty of peace between Ger- many and France after the terrible Franco-German war. Franking Letters. Sending let- terti by post free of charge. This pri- vilege was claimed by the House of Commons in 1660, when the post-office was first legally established. Each member of parliament was entitled to send ten letters a day (not exceeding an ounce in weight) to any part of the United Kingdom, and to receive fifteen free. Members used to give franks to their friends, relations, and constituents. Abolished in 1840, when the uniform penny-post was introduced. Cabinet ministers still send letters free of post, and letters from and to the post-office general are all free. Franklin (Benjamin), 1706-90. Aged 84. Turgot happily said of him : Eripult ooelo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis. ' Eripuit coalo f ulmen ' refers to his lightning conductor, and the latter clause to the part he took in American inde- pendence. Fraternelle (La\ 1798. A society of Parisian women, which met under the roof of the Jacobins. Each woman car- ried a dagger. These were female patriots, whom the Of rondina called' ' Megreras,' and count to the extent of 8,000 ; with serpent-hair all out of curl, who have changed the distaff for the dagger. They are of the Society called Fraternelle, which meets under the roof of the Jacobins. CABLYLE, French Revolu- tion, vol. ill. bk. ill. 7. Fraternity of St. George (The). A military order established in the reign of Edward IV. for the defence of the Irish Pale, or the four counties of Dublin, Meath, Kildare, and Louth. It consisted of 40 knights, 40 squires, and 120 archers. In the time of John the Pale contained twelve counties. Frates'chUTM.or'Piagno'ni.' Th* disciples and friends of Savonarol'a, or the republican party of Florence. Fraticelli (The), A section of the Italian Franciscans, founded by Father Maurato and Father de Fossombroni, who lived as hermits, and observed the rule of St. Francis in all its rigour. The Fraticelli gave out that the Church of Rome is the Babylon spoken of in the Book of the Revelation; that the rule of St. Francis was the rule observed and enjoined by Christ ; that the sacra- ments are inutile; and that the per- fection of the Christian regime is abso- lute poverty. This schism had a material tendency to lower the temporal authority of the papacy, and helped greatly to pave 846 FRATRES FREE the way to the Reformation. They were joined by the Beghards (q.v.). Sometimes the Fratres Mlnores are called Fra- licolli. which means about the same thing. Tho torm is alt-.o applied by way of contempt to the Catharists, Waldenses, and other ' heretics.' Fratres Cellitse. A religious order pretty common in Germany and the Netherlands ; sometimes called Mexians, from Mexius, their founder. Fratres Conversi. Lay monks (q.V.). Conversi proprle dlcebantur, qul a saecalarl vita, quam aliquandiu professl fuerant, vltam monacnlcam ainplectabantur, et ad morum con- ; . in venit bant. Dlfferebant a Kutritit. qul scilicet ab infantla In monasterlis enutritl ean- dcni vltam amplexatl erant. Do CANOE, vol. U. p. 708, col. L Fraunhofer's Lines. The dark lines of a solar spectrum, first carefully observed and measured by Fraunhof er in 1815. Frederick. For German kings tee Friedrich. Frederikshamn, in Finland (Treaty of), 17 Sept., 1809. A treaty of peace between Swedon and Russia, by which Sweden ceded Finland to Russia, Charles XIII. of Sweden also promised his adhesion to the ' continental system,' and closed her ports to British commerce. Free Bench (The). I. The place fcrhere a lodge of the Vehmgericht ( q.v.) was held. See * Frei-grafs. II. A widow's dower in a copyhold. Free Burghers. Judges, with the Frei-,M-afs, in the Vehmgericht (q.v.). The president was called the grand master. Free Church of Scotland (The), 1848. That part of the Presbyterian Church which resists all interference with the free choice of ministers by the con- gregations over which they are called to preside. No patron, no board, no trustees can present. They may nominate, but cannot over-ride the will of the congrega- tion. Between 18-80 May as many as 470 ministers and professors signed an Act of Separation, thus renouncing all claim to the benefices which they held. See ' Seven Ministers,' ' Veto,' ' Volun- tary Controversy,' ' Non-Intrusionists.' The chief leaders were Drs. Chalmers, Chandler, Candlihh. Welsh, IJuchaimn, and Gordon, with Messrs. Quthrio, Cunningham, and Dunlop. Free Communionists, or Open Communionists.' Those Baptist dissen- ters who admit other orthodox Christians to partake with them of the Lord't Supper. John Bunyan, author of ' Pil- grim's Progress,' was a 'Free Com. munionist' See ' Close Communionist.' Free Coup. A term applied in Scot- land to a piece of waste land where rub- bish may be deposited free of charge. Free Lances [Middle Ages]. Mili- tary rovers collected together under a free captain, and hired out by any government which wanted a ready-made army. In Italy they were called comlut- tien ; in France they were called Com- pagnies Grander. Free Methodist Church (TJu>), I860. Their distinctive points are sim- plicity in dress, free pews, extempore preaching, no instrumental music, no choir. They are Wesleyans in doctrine. Free Socage. Free tenure of land. It was divided into petit-sergeanty, tenure in burgage, and gavelkind. Free Trade, 1779. This phrase was coined by Grattan in the Irish Parlia- ment, and referred to the restrictions placed on the Irish trade by the British Parliament. In the reign of Charles II. Mite were passed pro- gland either hibiting the Irish from sending to En cattle, provisions, or manufactures As labour , was cheaper In Ireland, the English tradesmen. farmers, and manufacturers thought they would be ruined by Irish competition. Free Trade meant the liberty of trading freely with England. Free Trade Battle (The). The struggle for the reform of our customs and excise laws, which culminated in the abolition of the corn laws in 1846. The battle may be divided into four periods : (1) From 1822 to 1830, in which Huskis- son was the moving spirit ; (2) from 1880 to 1840; (8) from 1840-1846, when Villiers, Cobden, Sir Robert Peel, John Bright, and Lord John Russell were the most prominent characters ; and (4) from the repeal of the corn laws in 1846 onwards. No nation has followed suit, although Cobden predicted all would within twenty years. On the contrary, all nations of Europe. America, and even our own colonies, think Free Trade a great politi- cal mistake (1890). Free Will. The Arminians in- sisted on the freedom of the will to choose the right and reject the wrong. Calvinists are what is called ' Necessi- tarians,' i.e. they deny that the will is free. If the propensities of a man are evil, his will is enslaved by his evil propensities; if hia heart has bee* FREETHINKING changed by conversion, his will acts in obedience to the Spirit of God within him. Freeman (Mr. and Mrs.}. The Princess Anne and Duchess of Marl- borough mutually agreed to abandon all formalities and court etiquette in their intercourse with each other. To this end Anne and her husband were to be called ' Mr. and Mrs. Morley,' while the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough were to be called ' Mr. and Mrs. Freeman.' Freeman's Roll (The), 1832. A Hat of the Freemen (q.v.) made out by the town-clerk of a borough or municipal town (5, 6 Wm. IV. c. 76). As the Reform Bill did not disfranchise the freemen, a list was kept of those then living that they might still retain their municipal rights; but no new freeman was admitted, and the old ' citizens ' gradually died out. See ' Burgess Roll.' Freemason (The Female). The Hon. Mrs. Aid worth of Newmarket, co. Cork, the youngest child and only daughter of the Right Hon. Arthur St. Leger (created Viscount Doneraile 23 June, 1703). The lady concealed herself, it is said, in a clock-case, got frightened, and thus re- vealed her presence. It was resolved by the brotherhood, to prevent further mis- chief, to receive Mrs. Aldworth into the craft (nie Elizabeth St. Leger). In 188-2 Mdlle. Marie Deraismes was received Into the Grand Orient Lodge of Paris. Freemasons. Grand Lodge held at York, under the patronage of King Edwin, A.J). 926. Henry VI. entered the order in 1442. Duke of Sussex was grand master 1813 to 1843. Besides Edwin and Henry VI., Edward the Con- fessor, Henry VII., William III., and George IV. were ' free accepted masons.' So were St. Dunstan, William of Wyke- ham, Sir Thomas Gresham, Inigo Jones, Sir Christopher Wren, and a host of others whose names are household words. First French Lodge, at Paris 1725 First American Lodge .. .. .. .. 1730 First German Lodge, at Hamburg ., .. 1735 Grand Lodge ol Scotland 1736 Fr eem as onr y. The tenets and sys- tem of the Freemasons : ' 1'exercice de la bienfais tnce, 1'e'tude de la morale uni- versdle.et lu pratique detouteslesvertus.' In French Masonry, in which I was ac- cepted, the initiatory steps are called ' Voyages, the club-houses are called ' Lodges, and the heud of a lod^o is called The Venerable (in English lodges the Master). A lodge formed is called a Temple. There are thirty-three degrees, but the three early ones are most important, called Apprentice, Companion, and Master. (In England the Companion is called the Craftsman or Fellow-craft.) The initiated form a council called The Great East, or Grand Orient; in England the Grand Master. In France there are two annual banquets to celebrate the winter and summer solstice. In England banquets are more frequent, but less significant. French Master Masons wear a highly decorated pale blue scarf, on which are hung the masonic jewels. Freemasonry is generally traced to the building of Solomon's Temple. It was introduced into England in A.D. 674. The grand lodge at York was founded In 926. In France each lodge has an Orator, and when I was made a Master Mason In Paris the oration made to me was ' On the Im- mortality of the Soul. 1 I found the French lodges less social than those of England, but never once entered a lodge without being expected to con- tribute freely to some charity. Freemen. Persons in boroughs or municipal towns who had by birth, marriage, adoption, purchase, or appren- ticeship the right of citizen, from which right they were the sole electors of the municipality and members of parliament for such town or borough. At the time of the Reform Bill (1831) many of these freemen were in almshouses, many were paupers, many were in workhouses, and many in gaol, but still retained their votes, which were bought for a sum of money varying from 51. to ten times that sum, and in some cases even more. Freethinkers. Those who are not in bondage to any church formulary, such as creeds, articles of religion, and con- fessions of faith. They hold themselves free to think for themselves, and feel themselves not bound to think as coun- cils, states, or churches think for them. Their thoughts on religious subjects are not bound, but free. Freethinking Christians, 1799. They acknowledge no law of church government and no doctrine of faith binding but such as the New Testament teaches. They may be called Unitarians, or Deists, in that they reject the divinity of Christ, the doctrine of the atonement, the notion of original sin, the dogmas of election and reprobation, eternal punish- ment, angels, the immortality of the soul, and the inspiration of the Bibla, FKEI FRENCH Frei Grafs. The judges of the Vehmgericht (q.v.). See ' Free Burghers.' French Artists. 1. The Florentine school : Jean Cousin (1492-1570), Nicolas Poussin (1594- 1665), &c. 2. The Italian-French school : Vouet (1589-1649), Lesueur (1617-1655), Lobrun (1619-1690), Pierre Mignard (1610-1G'.>5), Jouvenet, called the ' Carracci of France ' (1647-1707), &c. 8. The liomantic school: Greuze (172C.-1805). 4. The Statuesque school: J.-L. David (1748-1825). 6. The Eealistic school : Carle Ver- net (1758-1836), Horace Vernet (1789- 1868), Ge'ricault (1791-1824), &c. 6. The Eclectic school: Paul Dela- roche (1797-1856), Delacroix, Hersent, Prudhon, Ary Scheffer, i :i ri l to Ul l 'P s of his ABOUT, To li:f Atht-nuitm, 3 July, French Club (The), 1792. A fede- ration of artisans aud bol/.'iers of the national guard, who had weapons con- cealed in the building where they met (near the Tuileries), with which they were to arm themselves aud rush to the defence of the king if his life was threatened by any of the desperadoes of the Paris mob. This club cost the court 10,000 francs a day (4002.). French Crown (The). Made L\ 1791, contained the following diamonds : The Regent, the Blue Diamond, the Sancy, the Golden Blies, the Crown diamond, the Ebenda, the Mirror of Portugal, the Tenth Mazarine, and a : lumber of others without specific I. Valued at 588,1127. when, in 1810, Napoleon conniiainl.-d the crown jewels to be re-valued ; but in 1791 they were supposed to be worth 807,8081. French Ennius (The). Guillaume de Lorris (1235-1265), author of the first part of the ' Roman de la Rose ' (q.v.). French Florentine School ot Painters (The). Includes Cousin li'.i-J- 1570) and Nicolas Poussin (15U1-1G65). French Fury (The), 1582. Th Duke of Anjou and Brabant had been recently raised to the sovereignty of the Netherlands; but, finding the Prince of Orange a great check on his ai resolved to make himself in one day master of all the towns in which were French garrisons. The seizure of Antwerp fell to the Duke's lot, and he assembled his soldiers in the city, ostensibly for review. At a given sign the French troops fell on the burghers, and set fire to the city. The burghers drove the French soldiers out of the city. Above 1,500 fell, among whom were 260 of noble rank. The biter was bit, and the French were victims of their own ' Fury.' French Iso'crates (The). F14- chief, bishop of Nismes (1682-1710). Florid, antithetical, and elegant in style. His masterpiece i his oration over Marshal Turenne. French Maccabseus (The). Simon de Montfort (1150-1215), the most cele- brated military genius of the 12th cent Entrusted by Philippe II. (Auguste) with the crusade against the Albigenses in th south of France (1208-1218). French Ovid (The). DuBellay,on of the Pttiod* Franfai** (1524-1560), FEENCH FRENCH 849 called also the 'Father of Grace and Elegance.' Spenser speaks of him as ' first garland of free poesy that France brought forth.' The word Olive, the title of his 115 sonnets, Is an anagram of Viole, the nnme of the lady whom he celebrates, as Petrarch shadowed forth his Laura under the figure of a laurel. French Painters (MediavaT), Nicolas Poussin 1594-1665 Claude le Lorrain [Claude Gelee] 1600-1682 Bourdon ....... 1616-1671 Le Sueur . , 1617-1655 UBrun 1619-1790 French Peasant Relief Fund (The). Originated by the 'Daily News' Sept. 1870 and closed' April 1871. French Phidias (The). J. B. Pi- galle (2 syl.), 1714-1784. His nude statue of Voltaire is, however, well- nigh ridiculous. French Pindar (The). Two of the French poets are so designated : (1) Jean Dorat (1507-1588) ; and (2) Ponce Denis Lebrun (1729-1807). French Ple*iade(Tfaj). 'LaPleiade Francaise ' in the reign of Henri III. (1574-1589), composed of the seven poets Ronsard, Du Bellay, Kemi Belleau, Jo- delle, Bai'f, Pontus de Thiard, and the seventh was either Dorat or Amadis Jamyn. Under Louis XIII. (1610-1648) was a econd batch called La PUiade Franc, aise, and consisting of Rapin, Commire, Larue, Santeuil, Menage, Duperier, and Petit. The term Is borrowed from the Alexandrians under Ptolemy Philadelphos, who BO called seven contemporaneous poets, viz. Lycophron, Theo- crites, Aratos, Klcander, Apollonlos, Callimachos, and Philiscos (called Homer the younger;. French Propertius (The). An- toine Bertin, who died 1790, at the age of 88. He possessed the brilliant imagina- tion and also the licentiousness of the Latin poet. French Raphael (The). Lesueur (1617-1655). French Re volution. I. JohnKar- rion, elector of Brandenburg, more than two centuries before the French Revolu- tion, says of 1789, in his journal (still in MS.) : ' Alors sera 1'une des plus graiides conjonctions et la dixieme totale renau- tion (sic) de Saturne, laquelle, apres la Nativitey de Nostre Seigneur, mil vii cents et Ixxxix, sera totalement accom- plie; et si le monde doit upres plus durer, nul ne scait (sic) sinon Dieu. O quelles grandes merveilles Ton verra ad'onc (tie), tant de variations et destruc- tions, principalement es constitutions et ordinances chrestiennes . . . &c.' Against the year W25 he has these words : ' II y auroit grand effusion de Bang des chrcBtiens, et grandes oppressions d'aulcuns grands fiefz.' n. Between 1719 and 1889 there have been seventeen revolutions in France. The Reign of Terror and that of Napoleon were terrible for their slaughter. The accumulated deficit of France in ten years, ending 1889, was 240 millions sterling. The revenue has fallen short of the expenses about 24 millions sterling annually. The financial embarrassment which led to the Great Revolution was a little over two millions sterling. The financial embarrassment in 1889 was, in round numbers, 1,686 millions sterling. The public debt of Great Britain In 1890 was 599 millions ; of France 1,286 millions. In ten years the public debt of Qreat Britain (1889) has decreased 68 millions sterling ; of France It has increased 240 millions. Mr. Goschen in 1889 reduced it 20 millions. French Revolution (The First). From 5 May, 1789, to 27 July, 1794. Chief Leaders of the First French Revolution : Comte de Mirabeau, 1789-1791. Dan ton, from the death of Mirabeau to 1798. Robespierre, from June 1798 to 27 July, 1794. Next to these three were St. Just, Couthon, Marat. Carrier, Hchort, Santerre, Camille DesmoU' lins, Roland and his wife, Brissot, Bernave, Sioyes, Barras, Tallien, &c. Great Days of the First French Revolution : 1789. 17 June. The Tiers Etat constituted itself into the ' National Assembly ' ; 20 June, the day of the Jeu de Paume, when the Assembly took an oath not to separate till it had given France a constitution ; 14 July, Storm- Ing of the Bastille; 5, 6 Oct., the king and National Assembly transferred from Ver- sailles to Paris. This closed the ancient rtyimc of the court. 1791. 20, 21 June. Flight and capture of the king, queen, and royal family. 1792. 20 June, attack on the Tuileries by San- terre; 10 Aug., attack on the Tuileries and downfall of the monarchy ; 2, 8, 4 Sept., massacre of the state prisoners. 1793. 21 Jan., Louis XVI. guillotined ; 31 May, com- mencement of the Reign of Terror ; 2 Juno, the Girondists proscribed; 16 Oct., Marie Antoinette guillotined ; 81 Oct., the Giron- dists guillotined. 1794. 5 April, downfall of Danton ; 37 July, down, fall of Robespierre. French Revolution of Feb. 1848. Set under Revolution,' &c. 860 FEENCH FRIDAY French Revolution of July 1830. See under ' Revolution,' &c. French Roscius (The). Francois Talma (1770-1826), the greatest of French tragedians. Roscius the great actor was a comedian. French Theatre (Founder of the). Rotrou (1609-1650). Corneille calls him his father. French Triumvirate (The), 1560. Francois due de Guise, Marshal St. Andre, and the Comte de Montmorency, who leagued together against the queen mother Catherine de' Medici. They were leaders of the high Catholic party, and irreconcilable enemies of the Huguenots. French Vegetius (The). The Chevalier de Folard, born at Avignon (1669-1752). French of the East (The). The Persians. ' Vanity ' (says James Morier) 'is their besetting sin, and that alone will account for the lust of compliment which prevails in both nations.' French of the Nor fh(The). The Poles. So called from their vivacity, fickleness, love of society, and quickness of parts. Frenchmen. It was Voltaire who described his countrymen as 'half monkey aud half tiger.' Freres Bleus (Les). Affiliated Phila- delphians, whose object was the restora- tion of the Bourbons. They were or-nnised by Lieut.-Colonel Oudet. See 'Philadelphia Society.' FrereB Mineurs. See 4 Fraticelli.' Freres Precheurs, or 'Preaching Friars.' Dominicans (q.v.). Freres de la Milice du Christ. See ' Chevaliers Porte-glaive.' Pronounce Fraird'lahme-ltcce; She-vaUe-ay port gl,ni\ Freres de la Mort (Lcs). The Eremites of St. Paul, 13th cent., whose special province was to look after the Bii-k and preside at funerals. They had on their scapulary a death's head, which they kissed by way of grace before meat, and laid beside them. Friar Bacon's Study. On Folly Bridge, Oxford. A gateway tower to defend the passage and keep out on- desirable intruders. Friars (The Four Branches of). (1) Augustine Friars, or mendicants ; (2) Franciscans, or Grey Friars ; (3 : 1 )o- minicans, or Black Friars; (4) Carmelites, or White Friars. The Franciscans and Dominicans were always 'cat and dog.' Friars Conventual. The first order of St. Francis of Assisi was divided into ' Conventuels ' and ' Observatins.' On les appela conventnels parce qu'lls vlvaient dans de grands couvents, au lien qne ceux qui uivaient la rvgle dans toute sa pureto demeu- raient dans des ermitage*. ou dans des maisoas trssrrrs et pauvres. Mgr. QciaiN, Let I'ehtet Bol- landittet, voL xil. p. 42. Friars Observant. Those Fran- ciscans who dwelt in hermitages or huts, observing the rule of St. Francis in all its length and breadth. Those who dwelt in convents were called 'Conventuals' (see above). There were four classes of Observants : (1) the Observatins, consti- tuted in 1868 ; (2) those who followed the strict observance ; (8) those of the Order of Mercy, called ' the Great Observants' ; and (4) the Preaching Friars of the pri- mitive observance who were reformed Dominicans. All the Friars Observant were [1538] ejected from their monasteries and dispersed. Some were thrust into prisons, and others were confined In the houses of the Friars ConventusA Hownr. Hutory of England, vol. U. p. 215. Friars Minor (The), or ' Minorites ' (8 syl.), 1209. Founded by St. Francis of Assisi. They arrived in England in 1224, and were called ' Grey Friars ' from the colour of their dress. Subsequently divided Into Observants, Con- Tentuals, Capuchins, BcolleU. Cordeliers, 4c. Friday Lucky to the United States. On Friday, 21 Aug., 1492, Christopher Columbus sailed on his great voyage of discovery. On Friday, 12 Oct., 1492, he first discovered land. On Fri- day, 4 Jan., 1498, he sailed on his return voyage to Spain. On Friday, 14 March, 1498, he arrived at Palos in safety. On Friday, 22 Nov., 1498, he arrived at His- paniola in his second voyage to America. On Friday, 18 June, 1494, he discovered the continent of America. On Friday, 5 March, 1496, Henry VIII. gave John Cabot his commission. On Friday, 7 Sept., 1565, Melendez founded St. An- gustine, the oldest town in the U.S. Or Friday, 10 NOT., IttiO, the ' Mayflower, FRIDAY FEIEDRIOH 51 with the Pilgrim Fathers, made the harbour of Provincetown. On Friday, 22 Dec., 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers landed at Plymouth rock. On Friday, 22 Feb., George Washington was born. On Fri- day, 16 June, Bunker Hill was seized and fortified. On Friday, 17 Oct., 1777, the surrender of Saratoga was made. On Friday, 22 Sept., 1780, the treason of Arnold was laid bare. On Friday, 19 Sept., 1791, was the surrender of York Town. On Friday, 7 July, 1776, the motion was made by John Adams that the U.S. are and ought to be independent. The 'Great Eastern' sailed from Valentia on Friday, 13 July, 1866, and landed safely at Heart's Content (New- foundland), with the ' cable,' Friday, 27 the same month ('Norfolk Beacon,' U.S.). Aurengzebe censidered Friday a lucky day, and used to say in prayer, ' O that I may die on a Friday, for blessed is he who dies on that day 1 ' Friday (Unlucky). Friday, 6 Oct., B.C. 105, was marked nefastus in the Roman calendar, because on that day Marcus Mallius and Caepio the consul were slain, and their whole army was annihilated in Gallia Narbonensis by the Cimbrians. Considered very unlucky in Spain. It is deemed an unlucky day by Buddhists and Brahmins. The reason given by Christians for its ill-luck is because it was the day of Christ's crucifixion; but surely that U not an ' unlucky ' event to Christians. A Friday moon is unlucky for weather. Friedrich I. Barbarossa, or Red Beard. ' The father of his country.' Kaiser-king of Germany (1121, 1152- 1190). Drowned while fording the Selef, a river of Cilicia. Second of the house of Hohenstauffen or Suabia. He was the first king to set pendant seals to diplomas. Father, Friedrich duke of Suabia, brother of KONBAD III., founder of the dynasty. Mother, Agnes sister of Hem- rich the Proud. Wives, Adelaide, repu- diated ; Beatrice of Burgundy, mother of his son and successor HEINRICH VI. Contemporary with Stephen, Henry II., and Richard I. (Cceur de Lion). Of course, KONRAD III. was his uncle. Friedrich II. Iron Tooth, son of Friedrich L count of Hohenzollera, elector of Brandenburg. So called be- cause he showed his teeth to the unruly barons who presumed oil his youth to rebel against him. He abdicated in 1470 in favour of his brother Albert [Albrecht], the Achilles and Ulysses of Germany. Friedrich II. The Wonder of the World. Kais/er-king of Germany (1194, 1215-1250). Probably poisoned by his son Manfroi, who poisoned his brother Konrad in 1254. Father, HEINBICH VI. Mother, Con- stance, heiress of the Two Sicilies. Wives, Constance of Aragon ; Yolande, or lo- lanthe, daughter of the king of Jerusalem, mother of KONBAD IV., who succeeded him ; and Isabella daughter of Henry III. of England. Contemporary with John and Henry III. Kaiser Otto III. (983- 1002) was also called 'The Wonder of the World.' Friedrich III. the Pacific, or, rather, 'the Indolent.' Second of the Habsburg line of kings (1415, 1440-1493), the longest reign of the kaiser-kings of Germany. Emperor of the Romans 1452, and this was the last time that any German king was crowned at Rome. It was this roi faineant that adopted the five vowels for the imperial device, mean- ing * Austrise Est Imperare Orbi Uni- verse,' or 'Alles Erdreich 1st Oester- reich Unterthan'; in English, 'Austria's Empire Is Overall Universal.' Like hia Eredecessor and successor Maximilian, e died of dysentery by indulging too freely in a melon. Three successive kings died of melon-colic. .Fa Mer, Ernst duke of Austria. Mother, Cimburgis, a Polish princess. Wife, Eleonore daughter of Edward king of Portugal. Son and successor, Maxi- milian I. Contemporary with Henry VI., Edward IV., Edward V., Richard HI., and Henry VII. V Ernst father of Friedrich III. was cousin of Kaiser ALBERT II., who married Elizabeth daughter of Kaiser SlEOMUND Or SlGISMUND. Frlodrich III. kaiser-king of Germany reigned 68 years (1440 1493), and died at the ago of 78. George III. of Great Britain reigned 60 years (17GO-1H20), and died at the age of 82. Louis XIV. of France reigned 72 yeara (1648-1715), and died at the age of 77. Friedrich the Handsome. A rival claimant of the German throne with Ludwig Y. Both were elected and both FBIEDRICH FRUCTIDOB crowned, but Friedrich, being defeated at the battle of Miihldorf in 1322, was imprisoned, and Ludwig remained king. Friedrich Wilhelm IV. of Prus- sia (1795, 1840-1861), son of Frederick William III. Father, FRIEDMCH WIL- HELM m. ; Mother, Louisa Augusta of Mecklenburg-Strelitz; Wife, Elizabeth Louisa of Bavaria; Son, Wilhelm I. king of Prussia and German emperor. Con- temporary with Queen Victoria. Friends (The Society of), Ifi24. Quakers, a sect founded by George Fox, of Drayton, in Leicestershire, a shoemaker. They believe in the main fundamental principles of what is called 'Orthodox Christianity,' but they express their re- ligious creed in the very words of the New Testament Scripture, and each member has the liberty of interpreting the words. Their main speciality is the belief of 'the Li<, r lit of Christ in man,' and hence they entertain a broader view of the Spirit's influence than other Christians. In morals, propriety of conduct, good order, and philanthropy, the Quakers are a pattern society. Friends of God (The), 1870-1400. A brotherhood formed by Nicholas of Basel, which protested against the sacer- dotalism of Germany and Switzerland. Friends of Liberty and Equal- ity (The), 1794. An Hungarian secret society, organised by Martinovics for the purpose of introducing the principles of the French Revolution. The society had not been in existence many months when it was stamped out, Martinovics and six others being executed by the sword in a field near Buda, still called ' the field of blood.' Friends of Truth (The). Quaker* were so-called in the seventeenth century. They are now called ' Friends.' Friends of the "People (The), April 1792. A political association formed in London for the purpose of obtaining a ro f( >rm in the representation of the people, II'ad'd by Gray, Baker, 'SVhitbread, She- ridan, Lambton, and Erskine. Frith Gild. A peace-club or volun- tary society pledged to the maintenance of peace and mutual security. A member of the gild was called a ' Frith-man,' and a breaking of the peace was a ' Frith- breach.' These Frithgilds were very general throughout Europe in the Uth and 10th cents. Our friendly societies arc ' Frith-gilds. 1 Fronde (La), 1648-1658. A French insurrection provoked by the meanness and arrogance of Mazarin, the chief mi- nister, while Louis XTV. was still a minor. At length the chief nobility united in a grand council, and insisted on a reform, such as the abolition of monopolies, the reduction of taxes, the examination of public expenditure, prohibition of arrest without assigning a cause, and so on. Mazarin resisted, and even arrested Blancme'nil (president of the council), and Broussel, a conspicuous member. All Paris rose in insurrection, and compelled Mazarin to release his prisoners. Mazarin and the queen-mother fled, and both par- ties prepared for war. The insurgents soon disagreed among themselves, and Mazarin, at the head of 8,000 men, re t urnod to Paris in triumph. The insurgents in this riot were called Frondeurs, and the court party were called Mazarimant (q.v.). Monglat thns explains the term. He eays that the Paris parlemcnt forbade boys to sling stones. and one day a young barrister said, ' Quandoesenk tour, je/rondcraiblen 1 opinion de mon p, ro.' mierai means to combat, to oppose : but the whole point of the remark was in allusion to the Fronde war. and therefore it could not have origl- anted the term. The word became popular slang for several years. Everything was d to Fronde. There were Fronde hate, coats, and gloves ; Fronde muffs and fans ; Fronde dishes and loaves of bread ; Fronde songs and tunes Fronde (The Little), 1650. The great Coivlo, in the guerre de la Fronde, was originally of the court or Mazarin party, but he quarrelled with the party, and made a split called ' the Little Fronde.' This was a third party, for though Cond^ hated Mazarin much, he bated the par- liamentarians more. Frondeurs. Slingew, common in the Spanish armies in the 18th and 14th cents. The natives of the Balearic Isles were most noted slingers. The Greeks, Romans, and Carthaginians had com- panies of slingers; so hod the French and German. But the word is chiefly associated with the insurgents of the Fronde war, called les Frondeurs, who were opposed to the court party called Mazarinians (q.v.). Fruc'tidor (Dix-hnit), '.. 4 Sept, 1797. A noted coup d'ttat, by the ma- jority of the Directory against Barthe*- Itjiuy and Gamut and against those mom. FUERO FUEIE3 858 bers, both of the Conseil des Cinq-centa and of the Conseil des Anciens, thought to be favourable to royalty. The three directors were Barras, Lareveillere-Le- paux, and Kewbell. The result of this revolution was the deportation of the two directors, 11 members of the Conseil des Anciens, 42 members of the Conseil des Cinq-cents,35 journalists, ahost of priests, and numerous others called ' conspirators.' Fuero Jusgo (The). The code of the Visigoths in Spain. Fueros (The). The written laws of Jaca (Spain), the most ancient of Europe. They were confirmed by Alfonso III., and called 'the Ancient Usages of Jaca.' Fuero = charter, statute, or code of laws. There were the ' Fuero of Leon,' the Fuero of Naxera,' the ' Basque fueros,' &c., which were char- ters. These charters were abolished by Espartero, but restored in 1844 by Queen Isabella. Fugger (Antony). A modern Croesus. When Charles-Quint was shown by Fran- cois I. the royal treasury in Paris, he said to the king, ' There is a linen-weaver in Augsburg that could pay for all this out of his own purse.' Fuh-he. First of the five emperors of China. Like the old kings of Rome, the mythological kings of China repre- sent five periods and not five persons. To Fuh-he is attributed the invention of writing, and he is said to have taught the people the art of rearing cattle, fishing, &c., and to have instituted the rite of marriage. Musical instruments are also attributed to this mythical king. Fullers and Weavers of Ghent (The), 1844. A trade dispute, in which Jacob von Artevelde, the great brewer, sided with the fullers, and Gerrard Denys with the weavers. In a battle fought in the market-place as many as 1,500 fullers were slain, and trade was utterly ruined. Artevelde (4 syl.) was assassinated 9 July, 3845. Fum. A kind of cock, often repre- sented on Chinese works of art, and em- broidered on the dresses of mandarins of a certain rank. Like the roc of the Arabs and the phoenix of the Egyptians, the Chinese ' fum ' is mythological. It is a salamander, with the head of a goose, the hindquarters of a stag, the neck of a snake, the tail of a fish, the forehead and beak of a cock, and the back of a tortoise. It is about 6 cubits high, and if called ' the mandarin of time.' Fum (George IV.). Fum 'the Chi- nese bird of royalty ' was represented on the ceiling of the staircase at the north end of the main corridor of the Brighton Pavilion (then called the Chinese Gal- lery). And where Is Fum the Fourth, our royal bird, Gone down, It seems to Scotland. . . . BYRON, ixm Jwm, xl. 78. One day the Chinese bird of royalty Fum, Thus accosted our own bird of royalty Hum, In that palace or china-shop, Brighton, which is it ? When Fum had just come to par Hum a visit. THOMAS BROWN (MOORE), The Fudge Family in Paris. Here, ' Fum ' seems to mean Lcuis of France, and ' Hum ' George IV. Fundamental Law (The), 29 Sept. (Oct. 11), 18(52, Russia. The whole judicial system of Russia was then settled on a new basis, securing the independence of the courts of justice, the limitation of the courts of appeal, the introduction of the jury system in criminal cases, and the appointment of judges by the state. It is framed in three parts, the first treating of the constitution of the courts in 91 articles ; the second of criminal procedure in 157 articles ; and the third of civil pro- cedure in 138 articles. By the first, judi- cial power is vested in justices of the peace, with the senate as a final court of appeal. By the second, prosecution is placed under the control of a public pro- secutor. By the third, it was decreed that there should be in future two courts of appeal. Fuor-Usciti (The), or the turned- out ones.' So were called those persons of the Neri and Bianchi (Blacks and Whites) who were exiled by the faction which for the time being had the upper hand. Dante, a White, was one of the Fuor-Usciti (1302). Singular of Fuor- Usciti is Fuor- Uscito. Let Florence perish, so long as the Fuor- Usriti get back to the city ; let her streets run with blood, hot treasure be exhausted, her foes victorious, until the Fw>r-U.inti be within her walls again. Mrs. OLIPHANT, Makers of Florence, p. 54. Furies of the Guillotine (The). The Tricoteuses, or women who frequented the public clubs and revolutionary tribu- nal of France, where they sat knitting, and openly expressed their approval or disapproval of the proceedings. With the fall of the Jacobins they disappeared. AA J54 FUROR GABELLB They were called Tricoteuses from their knitting, and Furies from their violence. Furor BerserTticus. An artifice of battle among the Danes, like the In- dian war-whoop. In this furor the men tried to resemble wild beasts, such as wolves and dogs. They bit their shields; they howled ; they threw off their cloth- ing ; they rushed about frantically ; they made hideous faces. It was at length made penal. Eric earl of Norway Omnet berterlu* Norvxgia txulare jutsit (Qrettls Saga, p. 143). Furry Dance (A). A processional dance in May consisting of thirty or more couples, who danced to the ancient Cel- tic Furry tune in at the front door of houses and out at the back door. It dif- fered from the May dance, which was round a May-pole. In Lithuania proces- sional dances on the octave of May-day have existed from time immemorial. Sometimes, but erroneoumly. called the ' Flora Dance,' or Kloralla. Furstenbund (The), March 1785. The alliance of Friedrich II. (the Great) of Prussia with the Electors of Saxony and Hanover, for the maintenance of the German constitution. By this master- stroke of policy Friedrich defeated the kaiser's plot of adding Bavaria to Austria. Fuste et bac'ulo. ' By staff and baton, 1 commonly called ' tenure by the verge.' A mode of tradition or delivery of real property where there is no house. In France, seisin was made by delivery of a baton or pair of gloves ; in Lombardy by a spear; in Germany by a clod or twig ; in Scotland by a pen, Fuste (Latin) In 3 yl. Fyzoola Khan. The charge brought by Mr. Wyndham against Warren Hast- ings, governor-general of India, was his conduct to Fyzoola Khan, the Rohilla chief, 1787. The basis of the charge was this : The Nabob of Oudh wanted to seize certain lands belonging to the Ro- hilla chief, and gave Hastings 100,OOOZ. to help him in this seizure. Hastings now told the Rohilla chief if he would give him one and a half million sterling he would guarantee his retention of these lands. Fyzoola (3 syl.) replied he did not possess so much money, and the matter was allowed to drop. G. Cornwall. George IV. BO signed ki private letters to his personal friends. Bee ' N. & QV 19 April, 1884, p. 805. Q of Edward's Race. There was a 'prophecy ' afloat in the reign of Edward IV. that the king's son would perish by the hands of a person whose name began with K Clarence, the king's brother, was named George, and Edward, with the Woodvilles, always suspected him of aiming at the crown. Fabyan says that Clarence was drowned in the Tower in a butt of Malmsey wine, but he left behind a brother Richard duke of Gloucester, who was generally credited with the death of Edward V. as well as with that of Margaret's son Edward, the Duke of Clarence, Henry VI., and many others. Gabelle. From the German tribute, impost, was a tax imposed on salt by Philippe IV. le Bel in 1286, and was one of the causes of the revolution. There were many other gabelles, as the gabelle des drop*, gabelle de3 vim, aabelle de tonlieu (standing in the mar- kets for sale), &c. ; but when used alone it always means the tax on salt. The king had the monopoly of this article, and every person was compelled to buy at least 7 IDS. of it yearly, whether wanted or not. Heads of families had to buy the same quantity for each member of their establishment; but no one wae allowed to use this salt for pickling or corning beef. Another injustice was this : the price varied in different pro- vinces; thus, what would cost 82s. in other provinces, was sold by government in Auvergne for 8*. As many as 8,000 persons were annually imprisoned in France for infringing the salt laws. See ' Pays de Grande Gabelle,' ' Pays df- Petite GabeBe.' Not till 1MO was the tax extended to all Franoa, Edward III. with a pun called It La Loi SaUqut. HISTORY 0V LA OABKLLS. Imposed by the Etats Ge*ne*raux in 1853, and abolished by the Assemble Constituante 10 May, 1790. It brought into the revenue at one time as much as 60,000,000 livres, and in the reign of Louis XVI. 88,000,000 francs. Some pro- vinces redeemed the tax, others obtained (from sundry causes) exemption from additions to the original levy, so that the greatest inequality existed, and at the time of the revolution one-third of th GABERLUNZIES GALLIA 86* eoantry paid two-thirds of the tax. Be- tween 1549 and 1553, Poitou, Saintonge, Aunis, Anjou, Limousin, La Marche, Perigord, and Upper Guienne, redeemed the tax; other provinces bought off a partial exemption ; while Artois, Flanders, Renault, Calais, the Boulonnais, Alsace, Beam, Lower Navarre, and other modern acquisitions of the crown were, like Brittany, wholly exempt from the tax. This inequality of necessity was the cause of smuggling, and we are told that every year there were more than '4,000 saisies domiciliaires, plus de 3,400 emprisonne- mens, et plus de 500 condamnations a des peines capitales ou afflictives.' It seems that a temporary tax on salt was imposed by an ordinance of Louis IX. as far back as 1246, by Philippe le Bel in 1286, again by Philippe VI. de Valois in 1840, and in 1353 by the EtatsGe'ne'raux ' pour dea besoins momentanes.' Discontinued in 1358; but Charles V. (1364-1380) made it a permanent tax. Wholly suppressed 28 March, 1790. G-aberlun'zies. Licensed beggars who were compelled to wear a badge to distinguish themselves from the Thig- gers and Scorners (q.v.). Gaberlunzies were called blue-gowns in England. Gadel'ian Conquest of Ireland (The). Gadelus or Gathelus, an Egyp- tian and contemporary of Moses, was the son of Scota (daughter of a Pharaoh of Egypt). He descended on Ireland under the conduct of two sons of Milesius (king of Spain), B.C. 1372, and utterly subdued the race of Tuath. From these Gadelians all the kings of Ireland, down to the English conquest in A.D. 1172, descended, and in Irish history are called the ' princes of the Milesian race.' We are also told that the Irish are called Krnta from Scota, the Egyptian princess. Of courne these traditions must not be accepted as his- torical facts, but they are necessary to be known. Gaelic. Comprehends the Irish, the Highland-Scotch, and the Manx lan- guages. Gagging Act (The). In England, 1795 (36 Geo. III. oo. 7, 8), for treason and sedition. Gaisford Prizes (The). One for Greek prose and one for Greek verse. Oxford University. Founded by sub- scription in memory of Dr. Thomas Gaisford, dean of Christ Church, regins professor of Greek, 1856. Galeazzo's Lent. A system of torture calculated to prolong the victim's life for forty days. It was the invention of Galeazzo Visconti, lord of Milan (1277, 1822-1328). Galenists. A branch of Men- nonists, founded by Galenus in 1664. They advocate freer views both in doc- trine and discipline than the strict Men- nonites. See ' Mennonites.' Galile'ans. Those Jews who held it unlawful to obey a heathen magis- trate. Josephus says they agreed in all things with the Pharisees, but insisted that they owed subjection and obedience only to God. When (Luke xxiii. 5) Jesus was represented to Pilate as a Galilean, an insinuation was made that he acknow- ledged no obedience to Caesar. Probably all that was meant is that he was a native of that province. Julian said in his dying moments, ' Thou hast conquered. Galilean !' The disciples of Jesus were called Galileans (Acts 11. 7). Galley Ha'pence (The). Genoan coins brought into England by the galley- men who came hither with wine and other merchandise. They were broader than the English ha'penny, but not so thick. They were prohibited by Henry IV. as a legal tender. Galleys (The). AB a punishment in France was fixed by an ordinance of Charles IX. in 1564, to be not less than ten years. The bagnes were substituted for the galleys in 1748 ; and the name was changed to travaux fords by the Con- stituent Assembly in 1798. By the Code Napoleon in 1810, the sentence of tra- vaux fords included forfeiture, infamy, and branding. Branding was abolished in 1832, and travaux fords in 1852. Gallia. The country of the Galli or Gauls. The Latin Galli and Greek Ta\- AdVai are classic forms of the word Keltai (Celts). The German form is Waelchs, whence our word Welch. Gallia, Wales, and Walloon, all mean the 'land of the Celts.' For a familiar Instance of the Interchange of Q and W compare Ouillaume and William. Gallia Bracca'ta. Later on, Gallia Narbonensis. Called ' Braccata ' from the braccce or trousers worn by the natives. AA2 GALLIA GAPING G alii a Coxna'ta. All Transalpine Gaul except Gallia Braccata (q.v.). So called from the long hair worn (coma). It included Belglca, Celtica, and Aqui- tanica. GalliaNarbonensis corresponded with the ancient provinces of Langnedoo, Provence, and Dauphine". Gallic Csesar (The). Napoleon L Galilean Church (The). The liberties of the Gallican Church were as- serted in 1438 in the Pragmatic Sanction (q.v.) ; and in 1512bythe Concordat (q.v.) between Pope Leo X. and Francois I.; and were distinctly defined by Bossuet in 1682 in his famous ' Four Articles Gallic Confession (The), 1699. One of the chief continental confessions of faith by the Calvinistic or Reformed Church of France. See ' Confessions.' Gallican Liberties, 1682. As opposed to Ultramontanism (q.v.) were thus summarised by Bossuet : Qua 1 EgUae dolt etre regld par les canons ; qua saint Pierre et BOB BuccesBcurs n'ont re^u da puissance que sur lea chose* Bplritnelles ; que lea regies et lea constitutions admires dans la royaume dolvent etre maintenns, et les homes posees par noa peres demeurer Inebranlables ; qua lea decreta et jugementa du papa ne sent Irr6* formablen qu'autant que le conoeutement da 1'aglise est Intervenu . . . Ac. *.* The defenders of the libfrU* gnllieanet were Hinrmar, Oerson, I'.oBSuet, the Abb* Floury, the Cardinal da la Luzerne, Bausset, Fraysslnous, Quillon, Boyer, Afire, &o. Gallican Liturgy (The). Dates from before the time ofPepin (9th cent.). It is based on the Oriental liturgies, be- cause the first missionaries of Gaul were from Greece. It remained in use till Charlemagne introduced the Gregorian liturgy. The liturgy now used in France is the Roman, with some slight alterations. See ' Ambrosian Liturgy/ ' Spanish Liturgy,' &c. Gallican Missal. See above. Gallicans (The). Catholics who insist on what they call the libertts gallicanes, one of which is the distinct separation of the spiritual and temporal powers. They place ' infallibility ' not in the pope, but in the whole church pre- sided over by the pope. They acknow- ledge the authority of General Councils. See ' Gallican Liberties.' Gallowglasses and Kernea, ' Gallowglasses ' were ancient Irish heavy- ami ed foot-soldiers ; but ' Kernes ' were Irish foot-soldiers of very mean condition, and without armour. See the 'Cent. Mag.' 1890, p. 296. Game Chicken (The). tearce, the prize-fighter. He fought with John Gully, who was taken out of the debtors' 1 ri.son by Colonel Hellish to fight this champion of the ring. Gully was beaten, but afterwards fought Gregson twice, and then retired, to settle at Newmarket. Game Laws. Before the Carta d* Foresta, 1224, the killing of game was punishable with death. Qualifications to kill game were introduced in 1389. Annual certificates required by 25 Geo. III. c. 50 (1785). Permission to selJ game given by 1, 2 Will. IV. c. 82 (1831). In France game laws were abolished In 1780. C ne Includes hares, pheasant*, partridges, (rouse, heath and moor fowls, black-game, and Bustards. The close season is their respective times of breeding and rearing. Gangway. To rit below the gang- way in the House of Commons, to sit among the independent members. The gangway is a passage running across the house, which separates the supporters of the government and the opposition from the independent members. In a ship the gangway Is the way out or Into the ship. Ang.-8ax. gangan, to go. Gants Glacis (Lea). The Black Mousquetaires during the Fronde war. Very dandified, but brave and daring. See ' Mousquetaire.' Gaoler of Napoleon at St. Helena (The). Sir Hudson Lowe, military governor of St. Helena while Napoleon was there in banishment. Gaping Gulf (Tki). A book pub- lished by John Stubbs, a student of Lin- coln's Inn, showing how undesirable it was that Queen Elizabeth should marry the Due d'Anjou, especially after the frightful massacre of the Huguenots on St. Bartholomew's eve. Stubbs and his publisher were seized and taken to the market-place of Westminster, where both had their right hand cut off by driving a cleaver through the wrist with a mulK-t. The moment Stubbs lost his hand, he waved his cap with his left hand, crying 4 Long live the queen I ' GARDE GARDEN IK7 Garde Doloureuse. A castle in the marches of Wales, so called because it was greatly exposed to attacks by the Welsh. Garde Impe'riale (La), 1804. Called before the Garde Consulaire, and orga- nised in 1799. It first consisted of 9,775 men, but in 1814 the number was in- creased to 102,706 men. In 1809 it was subdivided into the Vieille Garde and the Jeune Garde, and admission into it was given only as recompense for merit, and after having served in three campaigns. It was re-established In 1856 by Napoleon in. Garde Mobile (La), 1848. Com- posed chiefly of young soldiers, and ranking between the Garde Nationale and the general army. It was a species of Garde Nationale Mobile for Paris only. It consisted of 24 battalions of 1,000 men each. Garde Municipale de Paris (La), 1802-1813, and again 1830-1848. The guard charged with the preservation of good order in the city of Paris. In the old monarchy this guard was called the guet, suppressed in 1792, when it was supplanted by the gendarmerie, changed in 1795 into the LSgion de police genirale of 5,844 men. In 1813 jt took the name of the Gendarmerie Im- periale de Paris, and in 1816 the Gen- darmerie Hoy ale de Paris, and consisted of 1,021 men and 471 mounted police. Prom 1830-1848 it was called the Garde Municipale, and consisted of twelve companies, four of which were mounted. It was suppressed in 1848, and its place supplied by the Garde llepublicaine and the Gendarmerie Mobile. It next became la Garde de Paris, and in 1852 the Gendarmerie de Paris. Garde Nationale (La), 1789. Im- provised by the municipality of Paris on 18 July, and called at first the Garde Bourgeoise. Its badge was a blue and red cockade (the colours of the city) ; white, the royal colour, was afterwards added by its general, Lafayette. Charles X. disbanded the guard in 1827 for insubordination. It was reorganised in 1830. In 1848 it became a mere mob army of some 200,000 volunteers, but Napoleon III. reduced it to order in 1852, and gave it for motto 'Liberte, ordre public,' Garde Royale (La), 1815. A corps instituted by Louis XVIII., and consist- ing of picked men, to which were added two regiments Suisses. Dissolved in July 1830, when they tried in vain to defend Charles X. Gardes de la Marche (Les), who accompanied the king wherever he went. They consisted of 24 picked noblemen from the Gardes du Corps du Roi (q.v.). See ' Gold Stick.' Gardes du Corps du Roi (Les), or ' Garde Ecossaise,' 1448. Organised by Charles VII. of France. They consisted of 300 archers, all of whom ranked as gentlemen, and were sumptuously armed, equipped, and mounted. Each one was allowed a squire, a valet, a page, and two yeomen, with corresponding equip- age ; so that cadets of the best families in Scotland were sent to serve in this honourable corps. They wore the Scotch bonnet and feather, and, in the reign of Louis XL, a massive silver brooch, called a ' Virgin Mary,' the Virgin Mary being made by him their colonel. They wore a loose surcoat of rich blue velvet, with a large white St. Andrew's cross of silver bisecting it before and behind. Sup- pressed in 1791, but restored by Louis XVIII. in 1814, and formed into six companies, called the Corps Ecossaise, the Corps de Gramont, the Corps de Poix, the Corps de Luxembourg, the Corps de Wagram, and the Corps de Raguse. Finally disbanded in 1830. One of the two yeomen attached to theae guardsmen was called his ' knife-man ' (coutelier), from a large knife which he carried to despatch those whom his master had thrown to the ground inttmttte. Gardes-c6tes (Les). French coast- guards, created in 1791 ; reorganised in 1799 ; suppressed in 1814 ; and re-esta- blished in 1831. 'Ils se forment a*x compagnies de canoniers.' Gardes Pran9aises (Les), 1553. Formerly a part of the royal household troops, consisting of ten companies of 100 men each, and having barracks in the faubourgs of Paris. This guard took rank above all the rest of the army. In 1789 it fraternised with the insurgents, and became a part of the Garde Nationale de Paris. Garden of England. Worcestershut and Kent. Both ao called. 658 GABDEN GATES Garden of Erin. Carlow, in Leinster. Europe. Italy and Belgium. Both so called. France. Amboise, in the di- partement of Indre-et-Loire. India. Oude. Italy. Sicily. South Wales. The southern division of Glamorganshire. Spain. Andaluci'a. the Argentine. Turcoman, ft province of Argentinia. the East. Ceylon and Burmah. Both so called. Ceylon is also called 'The Re- splendent'; the 'Jewel of the Eastern Sea ' : the ' Oem of Para- dise.' Its climate and produc- tions are quite unrivalled. the West. Illinois and Kansas. Both so called. the World. The region of the Mississippi. Garden and the Lane (The). Covent Garden Theatre and Drury Lane Theatre. The old-fashioned friendly rivalry between the Garden and the Lane is renewed this year [Deo. l887].-Areipaper parag raph. Garden of the Mid-West (The). Evesham, in Worcestershire. Famous for table-fruit and kitchen produce. Garden Sect (The). The disciple* of Plato were so called because they attended his lectures in the Academy, a garden in the suburbs of Athens which once belonged to Academes. Epicuro* taught in his own private garden. Garigliano (Rout of the), 1503. The rout of the French, led by Saluce and Bayard (the chevalier tans peur et sans reproche),\>j Gonsalvo the Great Captain. Above 4,000 French fell in this rout, with all their standards and baggage, tents, provisions, stores, and splendid artillery. A capitulation was signed the next day. In 1860 (Nov. 8) Francis I. king of Naples was routed on the banks of the same river by Victor Emmanuel. Garrick Fever (The), 1742. A con- tagious disorder which broke out in Dublin, ascribed to the heat of the theatre crowded to hear Garrick during Unusually hot weather. Garter King of Arms (The) t 1417; also 'Principal King of Arms.' Two separate offices held by the sauie person. It was Henry V. who instituted the Garter King to attend upon knights at their solemnities, call them to their installation, see that their arms are hung over their stalls, to grant arms, and to marshal national funeral processions. See 'Heralds.' There are altogether four Kings of Arms for England : Garter and Bath ; and the two provin- cial kings CLAKKNCEDX and NORROY: the former having jurisdiction over all part* touth of the Trent, and the latter over all parts north of that river. BATH King of Arms, though not a mem- ber of the college, take* precedence next to Garter. The office was created in 1726 for the ser- vice of the Order of the Bath. The King of Arm* of Scotland is ' Lyon,' and for Ireland ' Ulster.' Gas from coal. Described by Clayton in 1739. First applied to illumination in 1792 by Murdoch. Introduced into Paris in 1802, into London by Winsor in 1803. Came into general use in London in 1814, and in Paris about 1820. The Gas Company was chartered in 1810 (50 Geo. HI., o. 163). The meter was Invented by Oronley In 181*. Clegg s meter In 1816. Gastein Convention (The), 1865, In which Austria and Prussia agreed to a joint occupation of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg. See ' Schleswig-Holstein Question.' Gate of Prance (The Iron) Longwy, a strong military position. Gate of Italy (The). That part o! the valley of the Adige (3 syl.) which is in the vicinity of Trent and Bx>veredo. It is a narrow gorge between two moun. tain ranges. Gate of Science (The), or ' Daur nl Ilm.' Shiraz was so called of old. Sadi and Hafiz were both born in Shiraz. Gate of Tears (The). Babelman- deb, the passage into the Red Sea. Like some ill destined bark that steen In silence through the Gate of Tears. MOORE, Lalla Rookh (The Fire WorthippenX Gate of the Mediterranean. Gibraltar. Gates (The). In Scripture language means the towns and fortresses. Thy seed shall possess the gate of his enemies. G<"n. xxil. v Gates of Hell = the power or dominion of Satan. Gates of the Grave = the brink of death. Gates or Mountain Passes of ASIA MlNOU. The Albanian Gate*. Either the pass GATES GAUTAMA 851 of Derbend along the Caspian Sea or else the Sarmatian Pass. The Amanian Gates. Tamir Kapu (or the Iron Gate of the Turks), a Cyclo- pean arch, where the hills come down to the sea-beach at the head of the gulf. The Cappadocian Gates. The pass described by Strabo and explored by the Euphrates expedition, leading through Taurus to Marash (ancient Germanica). The Caspian Gates, ' Caspiae Port ' or ' Caspiffl Pylae,' a defile near Teheran [Teh-ran'], in ancient Media. The Caucasian Gates. A defile in the Caucasus range leading from Mosdok to Tiflis. In this narrow valley Strabo tells us the river Aragon flows. Now called ' Dariel.' The Cilician Gates. The Taurus Pass (Kulak Bughaz or Golek B<5gha"z). Darius's Pass. Across the Amanus, north of Issus, and near the Amanian Gates. The Gates of Syria. The Pass of Ballan. Pictanus of the 'Jerusalem Itinerary ' ; Erana of Cicero. Near this pass was the battlefield of Issus. Thermop'ylcB, or ' the Hot Gates,' gene- rally called ' Pylse ' or ' The Gates.' The celebrated pass between Thessaly and Locris, immortalised by the heroic de- fence of Leonidas and 800 Spartans against the enormous host of Xerxes. Gates of China (The). The cluster of rocky islets called ' the Ladrones.' Gates of the Caspian, or 'Pyl Caspiae.' See above, ' Caspian Gates.' Gates of the Occult Sciences ( The) . Forty, or as some say forty-eight, books on magic in Arabic. The first twelve on sorcery and enchantment ; the thir- teenth on disenchantment. Gattpn and Old Sarum. Although without inhabitants, had the right, before 1881, of returning two members of par- liament. In the reform agitation ' Gatton and Old Sarum' proved a tour deforce. Gaudents (Les Chevaliers), 1204. A religious order of Italy, whose special work is to protect the widow, the orphan, and the poor. They wear a white dress with a red cross, surmounted with two stars, and follow the rule of the Domini- cans, but may marry if they like. Both father and mother must be of noble birth. Gaul. See ' Gallia.' Gaultier. ' As aspish as Gault.er. Claude Gaultier was a French advocate (1590-1666), referred to by Boileau. Dans vos discours chagrins plua aigre et plai mordant Qu'uue femme n furie, on Qaultlar en plaidant Sat. ix. Gaurian Dynasty (The). So called from Gaur in West Afghanistan, because Hussein Mahmoud Ghori was governor of Gaur under the Gaznevides (3 syl.), before he declared himself inde- pendent in 1155. He overthrew them in 1158, and usurped the kingdom ; but the Gaurians were in turn overthrown by the Khans of Kharism in 1218. The second Gaurian Dynasty was the 'House of Khilji,' which succeeded in 1288. The last of the house (Khusru) was dethroned and put to death, 22 Aug., 1321, by Gha"zi Khan Toghlak, who founded * The House of Toghlak.' Gau'tama (Prince). Prince Sid* dar'tha, born on the borders of Nepaul B.C. 600, died B.C. 548 at Kusinag'ara in Oudh. He became a Buddh, and waa the founder of the Buddhists, which em- brace more than a third of the human race. Father, SuddhSd'ana king of Sak'ya, Mother, Queen Maya. Wife, Yasod'hara. City, Kapilavas'tu. Son, Eahula. His horse was Kantara ; his pleasure* palace Vish'ramvan' ; his charioteer Channa. As Buddha he dwelt first on the rock Munda by the village of Dalidd' ; then in the solitudes of Sena'ni; his dress a yellow robe. ** Buddhism consists of four truths and eight precepts which lead to Nir- va'na, \.e. sinless rest which never changes. The four truths are : Sorrow ; desire the cause of sorrow ; the conquest of self; and the victory over sorrow. Eight precepts lead to victory. The five commandments of Buddha are : (i.) Kill not; (ii.) Give freely; (iii.) Bear no false witness ; (iv.) Shun intoxicating drinks ; (v.) Touch not thy neighbour's wife. The eight precepts are : Eight doctrine, right purpose, right converse, right con- duct, right purity, right thought, right lowliness, and right rapture. (Sir Edwin Arnold, ' The Light of Asia,' bk. i.) 'Lord Buddha Prince Biddartha styled ta| OAVELKIND GENERAL Gavelkind. A law whereby all the sons succeed alike. By this tenure an estate does not escheat to the lord (in case of felony), the maxim being 'The father to the bough [gallows], the son to the plough [land].' In default of sons the property descends to daughters. Suppose A, H. C, to be three eons, and A dies, leaving a daughter ; then A's daughter takes her third with U and O. Gay (Joseph). The pen-name of Captain John Durant Breval, who wrote The Confederates,' 1717 ; ' The Progress of a Rake,' 1783 ; ' The Lure of Venus,' 1788; &c. The fabuliht and author of the 'Beggars Opera ' was John Gay (1688-1732). Gay Science (The), or ' The Joyous Science,' that of minstrelsy. In Norman French, the Joyeuse Science. '[I am] an unworthy graduate of the Gay Science, my lord.' Bald the musician, 'yet let mo say for i i \vill not yield to the king of minHtrols. Oooffrcy Rudel, though the king of Knuliiml hath given him four manors for one song.' Sir W. SCOTT, Tke Betrothed, ch. xlx. Gazari, Gazeri, or Gacari. The same as the Cathiiri or Paterlni, meaning Puritans. Called in Italy 'Paterini,' 1 Cathari,' or ' Gazari ' ; in France, ' Let Vaudois,' and ' Lea Pauvres de Lyon' The Alblgenses were quite another sect, although both protested against the dogmas of the Oatholio Church, and the evil lives of its clergy. Gazette (The). Published at Venice in 1568. Published at Paris by Renaudot, 25 May, ir,:u. I'ublished at Oxford 16G5. See 'Pall Mall.' The gazette now means with us an ofi'u-ial newspaper in which proclama- tions, notices of appointments, bank- ruptcies, dissolutions of partnership, and BO on are published by government. It is issued every Tuesday and Friday. Gaznevides (8 syl.). A Tartar and Musulman dynasty which lasted 184 years (999-1183), so called from Gazng, the birthplace of Alp Tekin the founder. It succeeded the Samanides (8 syl.). The greatest of the Gaznevides was Mah- moud, who reigned in the eastern pro- vinces of Persia (9G7, 927-1080). He was ' the slave of the slave of the commander of the faithful,' and was the first who was ever called sultan. Gelal'ean Era (The). This era began 15 March, AJ>. 1079. So called from Gelal Eddin Malc-k Shah, who reformed the old Egyptian calendar. The reign of Malek was illustrated bylthe QelaJ- ean Era, which surpasses the Julian and ap- proaches the accuracy of the Gregorian style. GIBBON, chap. IviL Gelosi (I.). A celebrated troop of Italian comedians who acted in Venice. They went to Blois in 1577, and then to Paris. In 1588 a fresh company of Gelosi appeared at Blois, and then at Paris, where they acted till 1604. Gema'ra (The). The second part of the Talmud, or commentary on the Mishna, regarded as the text. There are two commentaries viz. the Baby- lonian Gemara (completed A.D. 500), and the Jerusalem Gemara (middle of the 4th cent.), the former of which is by far the better one. Gemblours (Battle of), Jan., 1578. In which Don John of Austria defeated the Dutch, and spread consternation throughout the Netherlands. Gemon'ioe ScalaB. The staircase in Rome down which criminals con- demned to death descended from their prison cells to execution. It was near the Tiber. Gemotes (2 syl.). There were several in the Saxon period, as The Shire-gemote, or county court, which met twice a year. The Burg-gemote, met thrice a year. The Hundred-gemote, met monthly. The Halte-gemote or ' court-baron.' The Witena-gemote, which corre- sponded to the Reichstage (2 syl.) of the Franks. A national assembly. Gendarme (2 syl.), i.e. gens armata. The men who accompanied a feodal lord to battle. In 1453 Charles VII. ap- pointed a permanent gendarmerie. In the reign of Louis XVL it was replaced by the Gendarmerie de "Luniville. In 1791 the Constituent Assembly converted it into the Gendarmerie departemcntale; tinder Napoleon I. it was called the Gendarmerie d'elite ; at the restoration it was called the Gendarmerie Roy a le ; in 1830 it was replaced by the Garde Municipale, called in 1848 the Garde EepubUcaine, and in 1852 the Gen- darmerie de Pari*. General (The). Of religious orders ia the Catholic Church. The supreme head GENERAL GENERALISSIMO 861 (under the pope) of each of the leading religious orders. The Superior of an Individual convent, &0., 1* fua abbot, prior, rector, superior, . 825, against Arius, who denied the divinity, of Christ. The second at Constantinople, 881, against Macedonius, who denied the true humanity of Christ and the Holy Ghost. The third at Ej.hosus, 431, against Nestorius, who said the Virgin Mary was the mother of Jesus, but not leorrficoc (the mother of God). The fourth at Chalcedon, 451, against Eutyches, who maintained that the human nature was merged in the divine nature. The fifth at Constanti- nople, 558, which condemned Origen's doctrine that parts of the scripture are <-ither allegorical or figurative. The (sixth at Constantinople, 680, against the Monoth'elites (4 Byl.), who maintained that, although Christ had two natures, He had but one will, that of his divine 16 nature. These are the only councils of acknowledged authority. Council 1 declared Christ to be God dXi^Sc (truly). Council 2 declared Him to be God and Man reXrtuc (perfectly). Council 3 declared Him to be God and Slan atfwi.p'ra>c(mdivisibly). And Coun- cil 4 declared him to be God and Man davyx^"* (distinctly). The decisions of these four councils are acknowledged by the Church of England. Sea ' Ecumenical Councils.' Of the Western Church : I, 2, 8, 4. All of the Lateran in Rome, A.D. 1123, 1139, 1179, 1215 (or 10, 11, 12, 18). 5, 6. Both at Lyons, AD. 1245, 1274 (or 14, 15). 7. Council of Vienne in France, A.D. 1311 (or 16). 8. Council of Constance, A.D. 1414 to 1418 (or 17). 9. Council of Basel, Ferrara, Flo- rence, A.D. 1431 to 1443 (or 18). 10. Council of the Lateran, AD. 1511 to 1517 (or 19). II. Council of Trent, A.D. 1545 to 1563 (or 20). 12. Council of the Vatican, 1869-1870. Numbered from 10 to 20 if taken from the Council of Nice, A.D. 325, when the Eastern and Western Churches were not divided. General Won - subscribing Presbyterian Association (The), Ireland, 1850. The union of the three non-subscribing presbyteries of Ireland viz. ' The United Presbytery or Synod of Munster,' 'The Presbytery of An- trim,' and 'The Remonstrant Synod of Ulster.' They claim the right of private judgment and non-subscription to creeds or confessions of faith. General Privilege of Peter III. The Magna Charta of Aragon, 1283. The Fueros de Aragon contain a series of provisions against tallages, spoliations of property, sentences of the justiciary without assent of the Cortes, appointments of foreigners to judicial offices, trials of accused persons in places beyond the kingdom, the falsification of the coin, bribery of judges, absolute power, and so on. It was an improve- ment on our own charter. Generalissimo Procession (A). An extraordinary religious procession, in which all the chief men of the state took part. In the Generalissimo Procession of Paris, 29 Jan., 1535, the king, Francois I., all the clergy, ambassadors, lords, presi- dents of the courts of justice, and all the notables took part. The reliquary of th GENTB Bt. Chapfllla Wn '!,r..n:'n Hi" streets; the head of Ht. Loui*; a piece of the true crofts, the crown '( ' "i.nii.i UK brim Generiare. The kin^ w.-nt, l.;.r. li> al< -I, holding a lighted torch. Kv.-ry 1 pMsed by WM lighted wi Hi I;I|.-M, an. I the faamotei ' lit-f ML- r.Hh cent, they WIT.' worn l.y tin- cli-r^'y of ths/SjItbUlhea ( l.in. Ii ;m.| univcrMity i im.v.-ini-iit both the bands and the black gown hare been almost iy abandoned by clergymen. Gene'va Bible (The), 1600. The a. The exiles who M> (Jibbs.Ban.Kon, William Colo, Wint- ry. It WM the first ! ndalo's translation. Bee ' Bibles.' Cov*rdlhfcd*lrft4yprodood hUown i *uprlnUndd the proJuo im'OrMLtlllbU,' 1M0. Geneva Catechisms (The), 1680. A larger and shorter formulary, the work in A standard work In Bwitznr- I UK', lliu Netherlands, France, and Hun- Urfnr and iimallKr c*U- , r pnMUhad ft Urr and mnnll. ii of Kdward \ > >-ivt<-.),Uii.(.f Mm I'rMbytarliui ' li M IA47. and lha Urtfnr form prtof th* ' WMtnilnitor OonfftM.|.... ..I i Geneva Convention (Thr), 1808. AA iuturuutiuuul agruuuioiit to routed tiiu persons and property of HIMUM who gire vnliintarily their services in times of war In nil. -in 1 on Ui-M.l; ami u..im.|..l. Tli-V hare > recognised <. in ..... il arm -badge (a rod cross on a whit. ^r..uii.li. If taken prisoners they are to be din- <1 without ransom. Often called The Bed Cross 80 tint brought Into op*r(loa In th* Kmnco- n, WM popular IL . I- '-.H . Hw.vl. n. Gene'va Formula ( I'.il.lmhed six years before the Kirut i;...,k ard VI. UWM the first t<> nate the idea of making the singing of psalms take the place of rocal response on the part of the people. Provision WM made for extemporaneous prayer, an. I fr prayer on special oooations. Genevieve (Canom Rcgular 1016. Ratified by Gregory XV. The abbey of Bte. Generiere WM built by Eugenias IIL in 1148. Gengiskha'niaBB (Th\ or ' giskTionTdes ' (4 syl.). A ii supplantod tho riz'mians (q.v.). Th four kl (rota th Clif ; oodad MMIOOU In UM, and f- -n of Iho li. I,,- .:(,..!, I,.,. h I i. whon It v. pUo to UM 1 MSJB. Genoese War (The), 1878-1881. The Venetians coll the 'War of Chiozza' (q.v.) the ' Genoese War.' Ami tho new The H aggrandised of ter the war they call Nobles of the Genoese War' ('I dull* Guorra di Qenora,') Bet f the, &o.' Genovefains. Canons of the abbey de Bte. Generieru, uln. h f.. s called the 'Congr stituted by Cloris in BOO. They fo! the rule of St. Angustino, and wore a robe with a rochet, but when abroad a black cloak. Gente Qrassa (The). The substan- tial truduHin* n "f Ctaly, liku Uu> Medici OouU u >U. GENTILTTOMME GEORGE Qentilhmnme de la Point urn (Le). RuheriB (1577-1G4U) m so railed by Charles Blanc. Gentiluom'ini (The). Tho mus- ters of Venice both by sea and land, corresponding with thn bur;.diern of Flo- rence. Tho lowe:,|, class wan tin- popo- hiri or plebeians, then the citl.admi, Mien i ;une the gentiluomini, about 8,000 in number. Gentle (The). Izaak Walton, tlio Anyler (1698-1068), An;'lin- in called 'The Gentle Craft.' Probably there ia BOmothin^ of a pun in Mie phrase, refer- ring to the bait of gentles used hy an/lent. Gentle Shepherd. George Gren- Tille (171 '2-1 770). In IV'-:; Sir KnuirlH Diinhwood proponed a, tax upon n.l.-r mi. I perry, wlm-li I'll,!, i Kurl dial .)i:iin) ol,j.-.-t.-.n,.,. whreup ..Mil,, declared tin- tax Inevitable, and addud, If I'ltt ol>J-.r.ti-d to it., ' 1,1-1, liini 1,1-11 mi- wii'-rn Hi.- iiM.ii.-y in !,<> l> rained. l.-.t, inn, t, -II i,,,- w I, -ro. 1 be repeated. Pitt, who safe B liiiiniiii-il. in ton,-. mum. I-.IMI/ (in-iiMlln. tin- I i/i ti M ill).' of a |ion ii lar til MI- of I. In- .lay , (in I In Kln-jilii-rd, tc-ll IIK-, wln-ri- V ' 'I In- I (otlHO WOM GOI1- vulh.-d With laiinlitr.r. ILII.I I 1 :!.!, wn.lU.ni (int. Gentleman George. George IV., ako called Handsome Al Baschid. See ' Fum.' Gentleman Highwayman(7V/r). I. 'J'om King, frie.nd of Richard (Dick) Tnrpm ; tlie ' I'ylades and Orebtea of the road.' Accidentally ahot by Turpin in a Hcnffle, in 17:i'.. II. Claude Duval, executed 1670. Gentleman's Magazine (The), 1781. Originated by Cave. Gentlemen Commoners. Stu- den!.:; in the Oxford University who dine at the Fellows' tablo, and wear a dia- tinetivo college COHtunuj. (Jailed in Cam- brid^n University Fellow (JonnnonerH (q.vj. Tlioy are generally either noble- men or married men. Gentoo. An obnolote term at one time applied to the natives of Hindfintan. It U the Portuguoite gf.ntio, meaning a Gentile. Geology (/Vo/V*.//./;/; <>f). In the 1-nity of Cambrid-e, I7'^7, founded Dr. Woodward ; and heneo tlio pro- in alno called the Woodwardian profesHor. Stipend, r> ()()/. a year. George I. First of the Hanoverian dynasty in Kn;/l;uid. lie died on li is road to ' nn.biir;', :i.nd waH buried in lln.ii'iver (ICiC.O, 17H-17ii7). He could not speak a word of Euglitth, and looked ou Uruat by only ai a useful appendage to I liinover. l>'ii//n-r, Erneatna duke of Brunswick, &c.; Mother, Sophia daughter of Mli/a- beth, }M-M,iidd;iii;diter of JAMKH I. of Kng- land; Wife, Sophia DoroMiy of /ell, only dn,ii;dile,r of (Jeorgo William dnlte <,f Brunswick and /ell ; Issue, (!I;IHUIK [ 1 1.|, his uuccoHKor, and Sophia, wli> married I''rederi<-k William of I'm!,:.!;!, and wart the mother of Frederick II. the Uroat. 1 1 in style. George, Doi Gratia, of Groat Britain, France, and Ireland, king ; Defender of the Faith. 1 1 in Mintrfft were the OountcM IMut.nn and Mri.|:uii(! I lrrriinar.l MnluHliui von Si -lilfinlxirtd who HiUd to Mio I Oct. Like hin father, he, lr ii iked on < i rent I '.rilaiii only an the appendage hiu Dorothy daughter of George William duke of Zell; Wife, Caroline W.lhel- m ina of Anspachj Issue, three aona and five datiglit(rH. Frederick Lewis (I'rituio of Wal.- H ), father of GKOIUIK III., died n bunt ton years before his father, George II. Hia nickname waa Prince Ti i.e. His style and title. George, Dei Gratia, of Groat Britain, France, and Ire- land, king ; Defender of the Faith. From Frederick Lewis prince of Waloi the Prlncnu Alexandra In dcnoendcd. thun : HIM , lil,.-r, flii.rollno Mcillldn, nnii-rind Christian V 1 1 1. of l>niiin;i rlc, tho Mori of wlioin WII,H ) 1:1 I.I.IMCK VI. of Ixuiinark ; tlm MOII of Kr.-di-rlck VI. wan FltKDKKICK VII.; thn non of l< i .!, ;r -|, VII. wan Cllur/riAN IX., wliomi daunhtrr In Alnxandra prlncnM of Wales (roat -grnat rnitt- Krundohlld of Quorge II.). George III. Son of Frederick Lewia prince of Walea, and grandson of George II. (1788, 1700-1820), born in London, and the first of the line of Brunswick who was a Briton born. He m..in.-d Charlotte daughter of Charles duke of Mucklenburg-Btrelitz, by whom he had fifteen children, viz. nine HODS and six dairditora. The eldoat aon George 1 1 V.j Biicceedod to the throne, but lie h;id pru- vi'iu:,ly been prince-recent, called ' Farmer George,' or ' tliv. lu- married Mrs. Fitiht-rbort. a widow, but tb' iimrri , was a 'German one. 1 After bis marriage with Caroline of Brunswick his favourite lady was the Countess of Jersey. George (A St.). A badge worn over the armour by every English soldier in the 14th cent., and subsequently. On the invasion of Scotland by Richard II., in 1880, and at the battle of Agincourt, it was ordained that I \.-ri man, of what estate, condlclon, or nation , large tbotbo ' ; yf he be til SO iloi.il they be of, so that he be of oure partie, shall bore a signe of the armee of St. George, lai before and behynde) upon parell that sluyne or WMOMwd to > un- do bere the same token or croese of St. George, notwithstandyug if he be prisoner, upon payne of doth. *.* The St. Gt-orge is a red croM on a white field. In the Order of the Garter it is a figure of Bt. George on horseback piercing the fallen dragon, on a mount. George (Knight* of St.), I. 1201. A military order of Alfana, in Spain. Con- fi n.i I'd by John XXII. in 1317 ; united to the order of Montesa by Benedict XTTT- in 1399. Extinct. II. In Burgundy, 1400, founded by Philibert de Miolans. Extinct. III. 1278, in Carinthia, founded by Rudolf of Hapsburg. Revived in 14G8 by Frederick III. Extinct in 1598. IV. 1470, in Austria, founded by Fre- derick HE. to guard the frontiers of Bohemia and Hungary. V. 1492, at Borne, instituted by Alexan- der VI., and abolished in 1578 by Gregory xm. VI. 1500, in Germany, founded 1500. Extinct. VII. 1585, at Ravenna, founded by Paul III., and abolished in 1578 by Gre- gory XIII. VIII. 1729, in Bavaria, refounded by Karl VII. IX. 1769, in Russia, founded by Ca- therine II. ; and restored by Alexander I. in 1801. X. 1819, in Sicily, instituted by Fer- dinand I. XI. 1833, in Lucca, instituted by Duke Charles Louis. XII. 1840, in Hanover, instituted by Ernest Augustus. George the Magnificent. Set above, George IV. Georgia, in N. America. So named in honour of George II., in whose reign the first white settlement there was effected (1733). The nickname of the inhabitants is Buzzards. Geougen (The). A gang of Tartar robbers, enlisted under Moko, slave of a Topa prince. The gang swelled into a camp, then into a tribe, and then into a numerous people. The posterity of Moko assumed the title of Khan or Cagan AJ>. 400. German Athena. Wittenberg was BO called by Giordano Bruno. German Catholics. A religious party in the German Catholic Church with independent congregations. They call themselves 'Christian Catholics.' They are not Protestants. This party sprang into being in 1844, when Bishop Arnoldi appointed a pilgrimage bo the Holy Coat at Treves, which called forth a protest from J. Ronge (2 syl.), a priest of Silesia, who characterised the relic as the ' coat of idolatry.' German Confederation (The). I. ' Der Deutsche Bund,' 8 June, 1815 ; constituted by treaty of Vienna, after the battle of Waterloo, to create a barrier against Fremh aginvssion. Its object was to grant to the thirty-nine states of Germany external and internal security. Of the states Austria and Prussia were large kingdoms, and Bavaria, Saxony, GERMAN GHAUTS Hanover, and "Wurtemberg were minor kingdoms; the other thirty-three states were grand duchies, free cities, &c. Each state was bound to supply 1 per cent, of its population to form an army in time of war. Austria presided, but in 1866 was excluded from the Bund by the treaty of Prague. The princedom of Gotha became extinct in 1826 ; the duchy of Anhalt Cothen was annexed to Anhalt Dessau in 1847 ; the principalities of Hohen- tollern-Hechingen and of Hohenzollern-Sigma ringen were annexed to Prussia in 149 ; the duchy of Anhalt-Bernberg became extinct in 1863; and in l*oti Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, Frankfort, and part of Hesse-Darmstadt were annexed to Prussia. II. 1871. During the Franco-Prussian war (Nov. 1871), Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Saxony joined the North German Confederation, which consisted of Prussia and the states north of the Main. By this extension the North German Confederation was changed to the ' German Confederation,' and on 18 Jan., 1871, the king of Prussia was elected German emperor. After the Seven Weeks' War, IMfi, the following states formed a part of Prussia : The kingdom of Hanover (annexed); Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort (annexed) ; Lauenburg (since 18(), Schleswig and Holstein (annexed) ; Kaulsdorf, Gersfeld, and Orl (ceded by Bavaria) ; Hesse- Homburg, Amt-Homburg, Amt-Meisenheim (ceded by Hesse-Darmstadt). German Emancipation War (The), 1813. That is, to emancipate Ger- many from the hands of Napoleon. The battles fought in 1813 were Liitzen and Bautzen, Grossbeerin, Katzbach, Dres- den, Culm, Dennewitz, Leipzig, and Hanau. The last of the battles was that of Waterloo in 1815. German Emperor. Not ' Emperor of Germany,' but either ' Deutscher Kai- Ber ' or ' Kaiser des Deutschen Reiches ' (Kaiser of the German Dominion). See 1 Prussia (King of) ' for his various titles. German Florence (The). Dres- den, noted for its architecture and col- lections of art. German Herrick (The). Paul Flemming of Silesia (1609-1640). Some of his Anacreontic odes are equal to those of the great Greek erotic poet. His Bonnet on ' Myself," and his ' Epitaph,' are gems of heaven-born poetry. German Iliad (The). The Nibel- nngen Lied, the most important poem of the middle age*. It is in thirty-nine books, and ia about as long as Milton'u 'Paradise Lost.' The poem is divided into two parts. The first part contains the marriage of Siegfried and Kremhild, and ends with the death of the bride- groom ; the second part is the marriage of the widow with Etzel, in order to revenge the murder of her first husband. German Knights of the Cross (The). The ' Teutonic knights ' (q.v.). German Literature (Father of). Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729-1781). German Nestor of Philosophy (The). Ernst Platner (1744-1818). German Odyssey (The). 'The Kudrun,' and second best poem of the Hohenstauffen school. It is divided into three parts. (1) The Hagen; (2) the Hilde; and (3) the Hedel; so caUed from the chief characters. German Pliny (The), or 'the Pliny of Germany.' Konrad von Gesner of Ziirich (1516-1565). So called from his ' Catalogue of Plants,' in four lan- guages, and his ' History of Animals ' (in Latin), a marvellous production, which from that day to this has been accounted a memorable treatise. German School of Painting (The), 1490-1520. Founded by Hoi- bein, Albrecht Diirer, and others. German Strabo (The). Sebastian Munster of Ingelheim (1489-1521), author of a ' Universal Cosmography.' German Version of the Bible (The). Old Testament, at the expense of the Kaiser Wenceslaus, 1405, first printed in 1466 ; Luther's version, 1522-1530. German'icus (The French). Louis the dauphin, son of Louis XV. (1729- 1765), father of three kings ; Louis XVI., Louis XVIIL, and Charles X. Gesta Romano'rum. A legen- dary book of the middle ages, in Latin. The stories are short, with religious morals. The compiler was Elinandus, a monk, and the morals were added sub sequently by Peter Bercheur of Poitou. Ghauts. Buildings on the banks oi the Ganges and other rivers of Northern Hindustan for the use of bathers. The steps down to the river form lounging places where the idle or devout pasa their happiest hours. GHAZNEVIDE3 GIBRALTAB Ghaz'nevides (8 syl.). A Tartar Musuhuan dynasty, which reigned over a large part of Persia and Hindustan. Bo called from Ghazna or Gazna, the hirlhplace of Alp-Tekin, who drove t the Samanides (8 syl.). There were on.y four kings of this dynasty viz. Alp Tekin .175), Sebek Tekin (975-999), Mah- moud (999-1028), and Masoud (1028-80). The Ghaznevides, called the sixth dynasty, con. temporary with the Califs, reigned only over a part of Persia. It was succeeded by the Seldjuk* of Persia. Ghib'ellines (8 syl.). A political party in Italy which maintained the supremacy of the German kaiser-kings over the Italian states in opposition to that of the pope. The Guelfs were sup- porters of thepope and of Italian inde- pendence. The Ghibellines were the imperial party, the Guelfs were the papal party. The strife began with a dis- pute about investiture between Gregory VII. and the kaiser-king Heinrich IV. The first time the names were used as a battle-cry was at the combat of Weins- berL, r . between Konrad of Franconia and H. inn, h the Lion, in 1140. The names continued in use till 1450. The commander of the Imperialist* at the battle of Ui-iiisburg wan Fried rich duke of Buabia ithe king's cousin), who lived at Webllngen. corrupt. <1 into (ihibelline. Guelf was the name of the leader of the papal army. Ghebres (The), *.. infidels. All non-Musulmans except Jews and Chris- tians. The appellation is more especially applied to the followers of Zoroaster t.. tire- worshipper. Also called Parsees, from Farsistan, their original locality. They are gentle, faithful, beiu.'volent, and hospitable. (Persian ghcbr, an infidel.) Ghebres, pronounce Gtf ben (hard g). Ghengis Khan (Dynasty of), 1222- 12:.'.t. ( ihengis (the Great Warrior) is a Chinese title given to Temudgin for his vast exploits. His empire included Per- sia. In 1250 his fourth son, MuniMu, his brother in China, and for ears Persia had no separate sove- reign. Ghent. Notorious for its rebellions. In the public library of Flanders is a book ent.it lrl 'The 120 revolts of the good city of Ghent.' Ghent, pronounce Gah n (with n nasal). Ghent (Peace of). 24 Dec., 1M4. Between UiuHt Britain and the United States, bringing to an end the second American War. Ghorides (2 syl.), 'Gaurides,' or 4 Ghorians.' A dynasty which reigned in Persia from 1158 to 1213, founded by Hussein Mahmoud Ghori, governor of Gaur or Ghor in Afghanistan. Under Ala Eddin they conquered all Persia and drove out the Ghaznevides (8 syl.) in 1158 ; but in 1218 they were supplanted by the khans of Kharizm. A branch of the House of Ghor reigned In Hin- dustan from 1152 to 1215, when the Kharismians drove them out ; but the Kharismians, in 1896, war* In turn supplanted by the Pathons. Giants' Stairs of Venice. A flight of forty-five stone steps leading to the doge's palace at Venice. Marino Falie'ri was beheaded on the landing of the stair- case Friday, 16 April, 1855. On the same landing the doge was accustomed to take the oath after his election, before he entered the palace. The giant stairs are guarded by two noble statues of Mars and Neptune, emblems of the military and naval power of Venice ; the works of San- sovi'no of Florence (1479-1570). Giaour, a corruption of the Turkish 'Yaoor,' is applied by Moslems to a Christian, and means an infidel. Pronounce, djovr. Gibraltar (Siege of), Sopt. 1782. Gibraltar was taken by Sir George Rooke in 1704, and ceded to the English in 1718 by the treaty of Utrecht. Several efforts have been made to wrest it from our hands, but the most serious was the siege hi Sept. 1782, when the Spaniards invested the fort, which was pilluntly di -f. n.led by General Elliott. "When all hope of reducing the place was aban- doned, the Spaniards determined to intercept the supplies and starve the gar- rison into a surrender; but Lord Howe succeeded in supplying abundant food, and the Spaniards raised the siege. Gibraltar of America, or the New World. Quebec, a city on Cape Diamond in the province of Quebec. Gibraltar of Greece. A preci- pitous rock 700 feet above the sea. Gibraltar of the West Indies (The). The Bermudas. These Islands were discovered by Juan Beimu- dei, a Spaniard, in 1652 ; but, being colonised by Sir George burner*, ttiej are sometime called ' Samara GILBERT'S GIUNTA 867 Gilbert's Act, 1782. To incor- porate parishes into unions, whereby parishes under the power of landlords were not depopulated in order to save poor rates. GilTbertines (8 syl.). A religious order founded by St. Gilbert of Sempring- ham in England, who live"d 1084-1190. Gilded Youth (The). See ' Jeun- esse Doree.' The prisons of Lyons, Avignon, Marseilles, Tar- ascon, and Toulon were no sooner filled with Jacobins than they were broken open by what were called the ' gilded youth,' and the prisoners massacred. HowiTT, Hist, of Engl. (Geo. III. 1795, p. 143). Gillies' Hill (The), 1814. The hill behind which the gillies were stationed at the battle of Bannockburn to guard the luggage. When they saw the battle was going in favour of the Scotch, they could restrain themselves no longer, but rushed forwards to share the victory and the booty. The English, thinking them to be a body of reserves, lost heart and fled, and the Scotch obtained a complete and signal victory. The g of ' Gillies ' ia hard, and not like j, M in gin. Gilt Lance (A). A symbol of vas- salage. A royal vassal, when he first paid homage, received a gilt lance to denote that he was henceforth the king's man [puer regis}. Gin Act (The), 1786. Sir Joseph Jekyll, greatly concerned at the excess of gin drunk by the poor, proposed to put a heavy tax on it, so as to put it out of the reach of the operative. The duty he suggested was to be 20s. a gallon on all gin sold retail, and 501. yearly for the licence to a retailer. Gipsy (The). L Dudley earl of Lei- cester (1532-1588). II. Antonio Sola'rio, the painter and illuminator, was called ' Zingaro ' (1382- 1455). The favourite greyhound of Charles I. WM named 'Gipsey.' See ' Memoirs,' 829. Giraldus Cambrensis, i.e. Gerald the Welshman. His father was a Norman and his mother Welsh. His name was Gerald -or Girauld de Barri (1147-1222). Gir'lingites (8 syl.). The followers of Mary Ann Girling, of Tiptoe, Hordle, Hampshire. According to her manifesto, dated 1683, Jesus Jhriat was not only God and man, but man and w*man ; the only visible part being the man nature. Mrs. Girling says: 'I am the second appearing of Jesus, the bride, the Lamb's wife, the God-mother, and there will not be another.' This crazy woman had some thousands of deluded followers. Girls* Friendly Society (The), 1875. The objects are (1) to band together in one society ladies as asso- ciates, and g'.rls as members, for mutual help, sympathy, and prayer. (2) To en- courage purity of life, dutifulness to parents, faithfulness to employers, and thrift. (8) To provide the privileges of the society for its members, wherever they may be, by giving them an intro- duction from one branch to another. Girqn'dins (Lea). In English The Girondists.' The pure republican party in the National Assembly and National Convention of the first French revolu- tion. So called because it consisted mainly of the deputies of the Gironde. This party was distinguished .for it* oratory, and for a time dominated the assembly ; but, horrified at the September massacres, they condemned the Reign of Terror, and tried to bring in more mode- rate measures. This drew upon them the hatred of the demagogues ; and on 81 May, 1793, some twenty-nine of the Giron- dists were arrested at the instigation of Robespierre, and on 81 Oct. twenty of them were guillotined, amongst whom were Brissot, Gensonne", Vergniaud, Du- cos, and Sille*ry. Valaze" stabbed him, self while he stood in the dock under his mockery trial. They were called Federalist, because they wanted to unite all the departments of France Into a Federacy like that of the United States of America. Girton College, 1873. A college for ladies, about two miles from the town of Cambridge. Gisors', In Normandy (Peace o/), March 1114. A treaty between Henry I. of England and Louis VI., in settlement of certain disputes respecting the rights of William the son of Henry I. to certain territories in France. By this treaty Maine and Brittany were ceded to Henry. Giunta(Tfoj). Of Venice. Consisted originally of ten patricians, but at a later period of twenty. It was sometime* called ' The Twenty.' GLADIATORIAL GLORIOUS Gladiatorial War (The}, B.C. 78. Headed by Spartacus, a Tkracian, who had served in the Roman army, but had turned brigand, and, being captured, was made a gladiator. Crassus brought this war to an end at Brundusium, but Pompey claimed the honour because he accidentally intercepted 6,000 fugitives and put them to tha sword. Crassus hanged 6,000 of the captives along the road from Rome to Capua. Glasgow Arms (The). A tree, a bird, a bell, and a ring. For the legend tee ' PhraKe and Fable,' p. 845. Here IP the tree which never grew; Here IB the bird which never flew; i he t.i-11 whii-h Hover rang; Here Is the fish which never swam. The tree is the hazel, which supplied St. Kentigern with the torch with which he lighted the lamps of Culross Cathe- dral. The bird is St. Serfs robin-redbreast restored to life by St. Kentigcrn. The bell is the one brought by the saint from Rome, and hung in the tree to summon the people to prayer. The j:*h is the salmon caught in the Clyde, containing the ring given to Ohm, th<> faithless queen, as a love-token by the king (7th cent.). Glass Houses. Those who live in class houses should not throw stones. \Vhen the Scotch came over in throngs with James I., the English were greatly enr:\'_r'd against them; and, instigated by the J)uke of Buckingham and others, the windows of the houses occupied by these interlopers were broken in all directions. A party of Scotchmen com- bined and retaliated by smashing the windows of Buckingham's mansion, which was called ' the Glass House,' and the duke brought his complaint to the king, who answered, ' Those who live in glass houses, Steenie, shouldn't throw tones.' Glassists or ' Glassites' (The), 1728. Followers of John Glass, afterwards culled ' Sandemanians ' (q.v.). This S>tch sect was founded in the 18th cent. Members are admitted by a holy kiss, and nl)st;iin from all animal food that has not been well Me ships, over the French fleet, with 26 ships, Probably the phrase is French, and refer* to the sinking of ' Le Vengeur.' H. In French history, 1 June, 170 (. When it is said that ' Le Vengeur ' refusi ites, and Ophites. All in the first two centuries. Gobbo (II). The Hunchback. I. Peter Paul Bonzi of CortSna, the famous painter (1580-1640). II. Lonati of Milan, the famous violinist (I7th-18th cents.). Gobelin Tapestry, or 'Tapestry of the Gobelins.' A famous tapestry made in the Faubourg St.- Marcel, Paris, and so called from the brothers Gobelin, dyers from Reims, who made a fortune by their scarlet dye in the reign of Francois I. Louis XIV. in 1667 con- verted the business into a royal manu- facture, and employed eminent artists, like Lebrun, to invent designs. It was then designated ' The Royal Hotel of the Gobelins/ and the manufactures pro- duced were called ' The Tapestry of the Gobelins.' The tale is that a dyer of Leyden one day left on a window seat lined with tin a bottl.- of aqua regia near some cochinoul which he was using. The bottle was accidentally thrown down, and mixing with the cochmoul produced an exquisite scarlet dye. The man thought tho tin had t-omp- thing to do with it. and by mixing in cream of tartar first some flnely-powdored cochineal and then some tin In solution succeeded in discover- ing the famous dye. God of Flowers (The). So Simon Varelst, the great flower-painter, called himself. God save the King. The nation* 1 anthem of Great Britain and of Prussia. Was (according to Cappell) the work of Dr. Henry Carey, both words and music (101)0-1743). Cappell says it was com- posed as a birthday hymn forGeorp II., and performed for the first time in 1740 at the Mercers' Company. The words are an Imitation of the ' Doming sal- vum fac regem ' of the Catholic Church service. Some still ascribe the words and music to Dr. John Bull U.W 1591), professor of music in Greeham College, and chamber-musician to James I. God-Bote. An ecclesiastical fine paid for offences against God. Man botc was a fine paid for slaying a BUMS. God's Congregation of poor unarmed Christian Brothers, 1587. So Simon Menno of Friesland called his followers. See ' Mennonites.' God's House (The League of). 'La Ligia de la Cliiuda.' Switzerland ; for the independence ol the territory previously subject to the Bishop rf Coire. Formed between 1424-148& GOD'S GOLD 71 God's Peace, 1035. See 'Holy Peace.' God's Truce, 1040. A suspension of arms from sundown on Wednesday till sunrise on the Monday following, and on all festivals. It superseded the ' Holy Peace ' (q.v.), 1035, which was an entire cessation of arms. All princes and barons bound themselves to abstain from feuds and spoliation on the days pro- hibited. Goddess of Liberty (The), 10 Aug., 1793. The Goddesses of Liberty and of Reason were enthroned by the French Convention at the suggestion of Chaumette, and the cathedral of Notre Dame de Paris was desecrated for the purpose. The wife of Momoro the prin- ter was the best of these 'goddesses.' The procession was attended by the municipal officers and national guards, while troops of ballet girls carried torches of truth. Incredible as it may seem, Gobet (the archbishop of Paris), and nearly all the bishops, vicars, canons, priests, and cures of Paris, stripped themselves of their canonicals, donned the red nightcap, and joined in this blasphemous mockery. So did Julien of Toulouse, a Calvinistic dis- senting minister. Se * Goddess of Reason.' Mrs. Momoro, It Is admitted, made one of the best goddesses of Reason, though her teeth wore little defective.-CABLYL, French Revolution, vol. ill. bk. v. 4. Goddess of Reason (The), 10 Nov., 1793. A festival was given at Notre Dame, Paris, in honour of the ( Goddess of Reason,' who was personated by Mile. Candeille of the Opera, one of the earliest of these ' goddesses.' She wore a red Phrygian cap, a white frock, a blue mantle, and tricolour ribbons. Her head was filleted with oak-leaves, and in her hand she carried the pike of Jupiter- Peuple . In the cathedral a sort of temple was erected on a mound, and in this temple (called the Temple of Philosophy) Mile. Candeille was installed. Young girls crowned with oak-leaves were her at- tendants, and sang hymns to her honour. See ' Goddess of Liberty.' The two goddesses one of Liberty and one of Reason have caused some confusion of names; and similar installations were repeated at Lyons end other places, as well as at Notre Dame and Bt. Sulpice. Mile. Malllard, the actress, Is mentioned by Lamartine as one of the goddesses, who was ouipeUed , much against hvs will, to play the par W And Mile. Anbray was one of the goddesses of Reason. A new religion. Demoiselle Candellle, of the Opera; a woman fair to look upon when well rouged. She, borne on palanquin, shoulder high, with red woollen nightcap, in azure mantle, gar- landed with oak, holding in her hand the pike of the Jupiter-Peuple, sails in, heralded by white young women girt in tricolor. This .... is our new divinity Goddess of Reason, worthy, and alone worthy of revering. CARLYLE, French Re- volution, vol. ill. bk. v. 4. Goderic. A nickname given by the Normans to Henry Beauclerc. They called his wife Matilda by the nickname of Godithe or Godiva, because, as Wace says, they 'tint la terre si sagement.' The sneer would be better understood by ' The goody king and queen.' Gold Coined. By Darius, son oi Hystaspes, B.C. 521-485. First coined at Rome A.D. 207. First coined in England by Henry ILL in 1257. Gold Keys (The). The badge or token of office given to the groom of the stole and mistress of the robes. The queen [Anne] had repeatedly insisted to Marlborough that the duchess should deliver up the gold keys .... but that resolute woman re- fused to comply. HowiTT, Hiat. of England (Anne. 274). Gold Mine of Europe (The). So Transylvania was once called; but the supply of gold now obtained thence is so much decreased that the title is no longer applicable. Gold People (The). So the Arabs style the people of the towns of Barbary; the inhabitants of the Tell or cultivated lands they call the Silver people ; and the inhabitants of the Sahara they call the Camel people. Gold Purse of Spain (The). An- dalusia, the city from which Spain derivea her chief wealth. Gold Rings. By Roman law, were restricted by Tiberius (A.D. 22) to citizens with certain property qualifications. Se- verus (193-211) conferred the privilege on the army. Justinian in 529 removed all restrictions, and allowed any one who liked to wear them. Gold Stick. The colonel of the 2nd Life Guards, who stands next to the sovereign on state occasions, and carries an ebony staff surmounted with a gold head engraved with the royal cypher and crown. He is assisted by another officer called the Silver Stick. The following GOLD GOLDEN extract from the standing orders of the 2nd Life Guards was supplied to me direct from the Lord Chamberlain's Office, St. James's Palace, July 1890. ' In consequence of a conspiracy exist- ing in 1528, the king's person [Henry VIII.] was supposed to be in danger. It was, therefore, ordered that one of the captains commanding the Life Guards should wait next to his Majesty's person, before all others, carrying in his hand an ibony staff with a gold head engraved with his Majesty's cypher and crown. Another principal officer, carrying an ebony staff with a silver head, was ordered to be near the captain to relieve him occasionally. They were to be in attendance on the king's person when- ever he walked, from his rising to his going to bed, except in the royal bed- chamber/ See ' Golden Staff.' The 'Morning Post, 1 describing the investiture of the royal princes in 1890, says : ' General Earl Howe, C.B., was introduced to her Majesty's pre- sence by the Lord Chamberlain, and received from her Majesty the gold stick of office as the '2nd Regiment of Life Guards.' colonel of the 2nd Gold of Affliction (The). A per- sonal tribute in the Eastern empire on the industry of the poor. Abolished by Anastas'ius about 500. Timotheus of Gaza chose this tax as the subject of a drama. He made it necessary for a fathi-r to end out his own daughter to earn money to pay (he tax by the wages of unrighteousness. This play contributed *n no small measure to the aboli- tion of the tax. Gold ol Tolo'sa, or Toulouse Gold, fll-gotten and ill-starred wealth. It is said that Caepio the consul, on his march against the Cumbrians, stole from the temple of Tolosa the gold and silver de- posited there. His subsequent defeat was regarded as a divine punishment for this sacrilegious act ; and hence arose the Latin proverb, Aurum Tolos&num habet, meaning ' his ill-gain* will never prosper.' Golden Age (The). The Greeks and Romans placed their golden age under the rule of Saturn. Hentod described five ages, and Byron adds s> sixth, the ' Age of Bronze.' Hesiod's five ages: The (ioldfn Age, or patriarchal, under the rote Of Saturn. The Stiver Age, or voluptuous, under the rule of Jupiter. The Brazen Age, or warlike, under the rule of The Heroic Age, or renalssaiit, under the rule of The Iron Age, or utilitarian, under the rule of The* Bnmv Ag (of Byron), undec Napoleon BoaapatU. Golden Age of England (The). The reign of Queen Elizabeth (1558- 1603). Statetman : William Ocil lord Burleigh 1S90-1WW Uramatitt* : Shakespeare (wrote 35 plays) ! Ben Jonson (' Rare Ben ') ... l. r >74-l'-':7 Beaumont (1586-1007) and Fletcher ... : Masslnger 1685-1689 Pott* not dramatist! : Spenser, ' Faery Queen ' Tusser, ' 600 points of Good Husbandry 1 1M5-1.VO Buchanan (elegant Latin verse) . 1506-1583 Ecrlftwttic* : John Knox (Scotch Re- former) 1S05-157S Hooker, 'Ecclesiastical Polity' ... ir>53-1600 Hittorian* : Camden, ' Britannia ' ... 1 Stow, ' Chronicle, 1 Ac l.vivlii06 Holinshed. 'Chronicles' died IX) Scholar : Sir Philip Sidney, "The Marcel- lus of England, ' Author of ' Arcadia ' 1564-1586 To these add ' The Admirable ' Crichton. a uni- versal genius (1651-1588), Sir Thomas Gresham. the great merchant, and a host of others not so well V It is rather remarkable that our three chief queens have all marked epochs in English history Elizabeth : The Golden Age. Anne : The Silver Age. Victoria : The Iron Age and Age of Science. Golden Age of France (The). Louis XIV. It contained the following great men : Army: Turenne, Cond*. Luxembourg, Catinat, Cr- i|uy, Vendome, and Villars. .v.<"/: Duquesne, Tour villa, and Puguay Trouln. Minister* : Colbert, Louvols, and Torcy. Clergymen: Bossuet, Bourdaloue, and Massillon. Slatfimen: Mole, Lamoignon, Talon, D Agues- eau. Military Engineer: Vauban. A rch i t,,-i : Mansard and Perranlt. Artitii : Pujet, Girardon, Le Poussln, Le Bucur. and Le Itrun. iMmitcni*- (inrdener : Le Vautre. Poet*: Racine. Corneille, Moliere, Qulnault Lafontatne. La Hruyere, and Boileau. Tut..,, te Fleury. This galaxy gave him a title to be called ' Ls grand monarque.' Golden Age of German Lite- rature (The), 1750-1850. It con- tained : Klopstock. author of 'Messiah' 170R-1V* Leasing, poet and prose writer 1729-1781 Herder. ' Outlines of the Philosophy of the History of Man ' ... 1741-1-1S Wieland, the ' Voltaire of Germany' ... IT.u 1-1.1 Goethe, author of 'Faust ' . _ . 1 Schiller, the poet ... . . _ 1 Kiint. the philosopher... .. Fichte, . . ... . Krholling, . ..-.! Hegel, m ~ ~ I _ 1 Burger, Voss, Kotsebue, Sohlegel, Gesner, Zim- mermann, Sturm, Rich; ] called because he defeated the Scyth- iaua, LLui'uli, and G^ths, who had invaded Moesia, A.D. 269. In the great battle at Nai'ssus there were more than 320,000 Goths, and as many as 50,000 were slain. Goths (The). Part of the great Teutonic swarm at one time dispersed about the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic. Afterwards they moved to- wards the Black Sea, where, in the middle of the 3rd cent., they split into two parts. Those who remained in the east of Europe were called the Eastern [Ostro] Goths; and those who journeyed westwards were called the Western [Visi] Goths. Gottesfreunde (The), or ' Society of the Friends of God,' who strove to esta- blish the unlo mystlca, or loving inter- course with deity. Gourides (2 syl.). A dynasty which reigned in Persia in the 12th cent., founded by Hussin Mahmoud Gouri, governor of Gour under the Gaznevides. He declared himself independent in 1155. Under Alah Eddyn the Gourides con- quered all Persia, and drove out the Gaz- nevides in 1158; but in 1213 they were in turn driven out by the Carizmians. Government (The Act of), 1657. The act which made Cromwell the Lord Protector. The Speaker, in the name of the Commons, invested him with a mantle of state, placed the sceptre in his hand, and girt the sword of justice by his side. By this act of government Cromwell was allowed to name his successor, but in all after cases the office was to be elective. The Commons had previously offered Cromwell the title of king, but the army disapproved; and Cromwell told the Commons he could not under- take the government burdened with such a title. Government of July (The). The Royal Republic, with Louis Philippe, an elective king, called ' King of the French,' not ' King of France.' From 9 Aug., 1830, to 24 Feb., 1848. Government of the Cortes (The), 1814-1823. The constitutional monarchy established in Spain after the fall of Napoleon. Government of the National Defence (The), 2 Sept., 1870, to 13 Feb., 1871. After the battle of Sedan, when the French emperor (Napoleon III.) yielded up his sword to William king of Prussia, certain persons arrogated to themselves the offices of state under the title of ' The Government of the National 860 GOVERNMENT GRACE Defence ' ; but they resigned their office to the National Assembly, when M. Thiers was appointed president of the new republic. (Thiers, pronounce Te-air.) Government of the 400 (The), B.C. 411. An oligarchy instituted in Athena for the democracy, by the per- suasion of Alcibiadt'S. The 400 were chosen by five presidents, and in them was lodged absolute power. This form of government lasted only four months. Governor-General of India, or 'Governor-General of the United Colony,' i.e. Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, 1786. Each of these provinces has a governor, but that of Bengal has precedence. Gower. A part of Glamorganshire, colonised by Flemings in the reign of Henry I. These colonists did not speak Welsh. Gownsmen. Men who had risen by their wise counsel in civil affairs ; in contradistinction to military hero6,call-(l Men of the Sword. The terms were common in Queen Elizabeth's reign. We still use the phrase 4 Carpet Knights ' for lord mayors and other civil officers who receive the order of knighthood. Gowrie Conspiracy (The), 5 Aug., 1GOO. The king's version is that during a hunting expedition Alexander Ruthven informed him that a mysterious stranger with stores of gold WHS in Ruth- ven Castle, and that it would be desirable for the king to see him. The king went to the castle with a few attendants, and was taken by Alexander to a high tower, where, instead of a stranger, he found Henderson, one of Gowrie's servants. He says that Alexander tried to murder him, but he called out 'Treason,' and, ome of his attendants coming to his rescue, Alexander was slain. The noise of the scuffle roused the house, and the Earl Gowrie, with seven retainers, rushed into the tower, whereupon a scuffle en- sued, and Gowrie fell dead at the hand of Sir John Ramsay. Some say the whole tale is most improbable, and that it is more likely that James was the aggressor, and murdered the two brothers to avenge an insult offered to him by their father, in the ' Raid of Ruthven ' (q.v.). The clergy generally disbelieved the king's version, and refused to offer up thanks to God for his deliverance; but a day was, nevertheless, set apart for the purpose. The truth of the matter seems to 1 the two brothers wanted to kidnap the king, but met with their death and the king escaped. Graal (The), or 'The Holy Graal. 1 A miraculous chalice made of a single emerald, which possessed the power of preserving chastity and prolonging life. Said to have been the cup from which Christ drank at the last supper, and it. which Joseph of Arimathea caught the last drops of blood as Chris: dou n from the cross. In 1170 Chre'ti.-n of Troyes sang of the search by knights for this miraculous cup, which was a very favourite subject in the middle ages. Grace was the title assumed by Henry IV. of England on his acn in 1399. 'Excellent Grace 'wa>a- i.nu-il by Henry VI. in 1425, and was retained till Henry VIII. adopted the word Ma- jesty ' (q.v.). An archbishop or duke of the United Kingdom is still addressed as 1 Your Grace.' Grace (A). In the University of Cambridge means a proposal ly the Council offered to the Senate to be con- firmed. All laws, all degrees, all permits, all licences, connected with the \' \\. are graces before they take effect by the authority of the Senate (q.v.). A grace for a degree is called a suppllcat. Grace (The Act of), 1696. Provides maintenance for debtors in Scotland when imprisoned by their creditors. In Kngland general pardons at the beginning of a new reign, or on other spclal o '.Is of Grace. In the reign of \\ illiam niul Mary, at the dissolution of the United Mini-try of Whigs and Tories, a general pardon for all political offences, called an Act of Grace, waa Bent down to the House, 1680. Grace (Days of). See ' Days of G race.' Grace Darling, 6 Sept., 1838. The ' Forfarshire ' steamboat, with sixty persons on board, was wrecked on its passage from Hull to Dundee. A few escaped in the larboard quarter-boat, but the vessel itself went to pieces on a rock near the Fame Islands. Half the ship was carried away, with all the persons in the cabin or on the stern and quarter- deck, but the other half stuck fast on the rock. Grace Darling, who was living with her father in the Longstone light- house, heard the screams, and induced hei father to go with her ia ft lifeboat to GEACELES3 GRANE 881 the rock. The sea was very rough, the wind high, and the rain heavy, but Grace and her father saved nine persons. This heroic maiden died 20 Oct., 1842, of con- sumption, aged 25. Graceless and Godless Florins (The). The florins struck in 1849 by Mr. Sheil, Master of the Mint. The legend was only ' Victoria Regina,' both F.D. (fidei defensor) and D.G. (Dei gratia) being omitted. This gave great offence, and the coins were called in the same year. Graces (The). Articles of the cove- nant between Charles I. and the great landed proprietors of Ireland. Charles had quartered a large military force on the Irish ; and the chief proprietors agreed to pay the king 120,000. to be secured in their rights and properties.* The Graces provided : That the king's claim to lands in Ireland should be limited to sixty years; that the pro- prietors of Connaught should receive new patents ; that the exactions of the soldiery should be restrained; that the fees of the king and the powers of the court should be defined ; and that a gene- ral pardon for past offences should be granted. The articles were never carried into effect. That is, that the Discoverers (q.v.) should nol be sent to examine the titles of their estates. Gradual. That part of the Mass which intervenes between the epistle and the gospel; it consists of a few verses of the psalms chanted on the steps (gradus) of the altar. Gradual Psalms. ' Psalms of the Steps,' ' Songs of Degrees,' Psalms 120- 134. The meaning is uncertain. Pro- bably they were the psalms sung during the time of burnt-sacrifice, called olut, m-olut (of degrees). Graf. In Germany a reeve, as in our word sheriff, i.e. shire-reeve. Subse- quently it was a mere honorary title, somewhat like the French count. The original function of the reeve was to collect the revenues of his district. The word is very old, and occurs in the Lex Sallca (5th cent.). Charlemagne divided his vast empire into grafschaften or districts, over each of which was a chief magistrate called * graf. See 'Mar- graf,' 'Pfalzgraf.' Graham's Dyke. The rampart running along the line of the detached forts which Agricola planted A.D. 81 between the firths of Clyde and Forth, to serve as a defence against the Picts and Scots. Also called the ' Wall of An- toninus.' Called the ' Wall of Antoninus ' because It -was made by Lollius Urblcus, general ol the Emperor Antoninus. The 'Dyke of Urbicus ' connects these forts together. See ' Grimes Dyke.' Grahamise. To open letters at the post office in order to trace crime. ' Har- courting ' is a word of the same meaning, introduced while Sir William Harcourt was home secretary (1880-1885). Grammarians, or ' Grammatlci.' Philologists of ancient Rome. Suetonius has written a history of the Grammatici. The most famous were Aristarchus, Dio- nysius, Didymus, Flaccus, and Quin- tilian. But of the second century of the Christian era the following names are well known: Pollio, Eutychius, Athe- neeus, Julius Pollux, Macrobius, and Aulus Gellius. Gramota Soudebnaia. The code of laws drawn up for the people of Novo- gorod by Jaroslaf I. of Russia (1015- 1055). The code is still in force. Granary of Athens (The). Th district about Kertch. The buckwheat of this district carried off the prize in the Great Exhibition of London in 1851. Granary of Europe (The). Hun- gary, famous for its cereals. Sicily w*s so called at one tune. Granary of Turkey (The). So Egypt used to be called. Grand Alliance (The). I. Of Kaiser Leopold and Holland against Louis XIV., signed at Vienna 12 May, 1689. Joined by England 20 Dec., 1689 ; by Spain 6 June, 1690 ; and by Saxony 2 June, 1694. II. Against Louis XIV. and the Spanish Succession. Between the kaiser, Great Britain, Holland, Prussia, and Hanover ; signed at the Hague 7 Sept., 1701. III. Against Napoleon I., 8 March, 1813. This was the 6th and last coalition against Napoleon, encouraged by the disastrous Moscow expedition. The alli- ance, signed at Reichenbach, consisted of Prussia and Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Great Britain. Denmark joined 14 GRAND GRAND Jan , 1814. Before this Denmark had thrown in her lot with Napoleon. Grand Assize (The). Appointed by Henry H. to supersede trials by battle. A freeholder might refer his dis- pute to twelve legal knights, and, if they agreed in their verdict, their judgment was final ; if not, others were selected till the verdict was unanimous. Grand Climacteric (The) of man's life is 68, the compound of the two mystic numbers 7x9. Of course it needs hardly be added that this year is not more fatal to man than any other. Certainly 9x9 is far nearer the psalmist's 'foar- Rcore ' years. As a rule, five times the years of full growth Is the natural term of animal life. Grand Companies (The), or ' Free Companies.' Troops of adventurers that desolated France in the reign of Jean II. le Bon, and the first part of the reign of Charles V., his son. The nucleus of these bandits was the disbanded German mer- cenaries after the battle of Poitiers (1356). Being without employment, they enlisted under any daring leader that would hire them, and spread themselves abroad as a desolating scourge. To free the country of this pest Charles induced them to take service under Duguesclin, and sent them to the Spanish war, where they were either slain or took service under the Black Prince (1367-1869). Grand Corneille (Le). Pierre Corneille (1606-1684). Thomas Corneille was also a dramatist (1625-1709). Grand Corrupter (The). Sir Robert Walpole (1676-1745). He was expelled the House 17 Jan., 1712, being found guilty of 'a high breach of trust, and notorious corruption.' There is no doubt that he always had a profound faith in bribery, and never scrupled to exercise it. Grand Council (The). 'Consiglio Grande." An assembly of Venetian noble- men over the age of 25. All persons eligible were inscribed in the Golden Book. The Grand Council chose a com- mittee of 11 to elect the members of the Grand Council ; the Grand Council, after 6 ballots and 5 scrutinies, elected the Council of Forty ; and the Council of Forty elected one of the Grand Council tor doge, Grand Coutu'mier of Nor- mandy (The). A collection of the ancient laws of Normandy, compiled in the 3rd year of Henry III., and contain- ing the laws and customs prevailing in the reigns of Henry IL, Richard I., and John. Grand Days. Those days in the term which are 'dies non juridlci, 1 in the Inns of Court and Chancery, as Candle- mas day in Hilary Ascension day in Easter St. John the Baptist's day in Trinity and All Saints' day in the Michaelmas term. In the French monarchy the annual assizes were called the Grand Jours, es- pecially the extraordinary assizes of the kings of France in the provinces. In the reign of Francois I. there were many such, e.g. in Poitiers 1581, and again 1541 ; at Moulins in 1584, 1540, 1545 ; at Troyes in 1535 ; at Angers in 1539, tc. The last Grand Jour was held by Louis XIV. in 1665 at Clermont-Ferrand. Grand Duke of the West (The). The Duke of Burgundy. Philippe III. le Bon (1896, 1419-1467) was 'due de Bpurgogne, de Lorraine, de Brabant, de Limbourg, et de Gueldres; comte de Flandre et d'Artois ; comte-palatine de Hainault, de Zetland, de Namur, et de Zutphen; seigneur delaFrise, de Salins, et de Malines.' Grand Master. The head of the Hospitallers, Templars.Teutonic Knights, and Freemasons respectively. Grand Monarque(-Le). Louis XIV. (1638, 1648-1715). He was for twenty years the pupil of Mons. Beauchamp, the dancing-master, and in his wars with Marlborough reduced France to the verge of bankruptcy. His religious per- secutions were almost as disastrous to France as his wars with England. It is well for a nation not to have such ' great kings ' as Louis XTV. It ia truly pitiable to call such a man as George IV. ' the First Gentleman of Europe.' or Louis XIV. the ' Grand Monarque'of France. Henri IV.-waa twice as ' Great ' as the pupil of M. Beauchamp. Grand Old Man (The), or G.O.M. I. William Ewart Gladstone was so-called in his last administration, 1881-1885. Lord Rosfbrry first used the expres- sion 26 April 188-2, and the Right lion. Sir W. Vernon llarcourt repeated it, 18 Oct. the same year. GRAND GRANGERITE 883 n. Dr. Hook, when ricar of Leeds (1837-1859), addressing a working class, said, in reference to the ' Messiah,' Han- del, 'the Grand Old Man,' entertained the town with that oratorio for a whole week (Leeds Weekly Express, 9 Nov., Local Gossip). Grand Pensionary (The). In Holland, or ' Assessor juris perltus,' the chief minister of the States, and chan- cellor of the exchequer. The office lasted for five years, but the same person was eligible for re-election. The most famous were Jean de Witt (died 1672) and Heiiisius (1689-1720). Office abolished by Napoleon I. in 1795. There used to be a pensionary In each of the main cities of Holland. Grand Privilege (The). 'Groot Privilegie.' The Magna Charta of Hol- land, granted 1477 by Mary duchess of Burgundy. Grand Remonstrance (The), 22 Nov., 1641. Adopted by the Long Par- liament against the measures of Charles I. It was brought in by Pym, who de- clared it was not the intention of the parliament to abolish episcopacy, but only to limit and reduce the power of the bishops. It repudiated the charge of being revolutionary. It demanded the observance of the laws against papistry ; securities for the even administration of justice ; and the employment of ministers who had the confidence of parliament. Grand Serjeanty. An ancient English tenure by which a man holds his lands and tenements of the king by ser- vice, such as carrying the royal banner or king's lance ; leading an army ; carry- ing the coronation sword; being the king's carver, butler, chamberlain, and BO on. Grand Tour (The). The tour made by wealthy Englishmen through France, Switzerland, Italy, and home by Germany. Grand Vizier. Chief minister of the Ottoman empire, introduced by Amu- rath I. in 1386 ; abolished by Mahmoud II. in 1838 ; but restored by Abdul Medjid in 1839. In 750 the chief mlnkter of the kallf was called Tlzier. Grande Mademoiselle (La). Anne Mario Louise d'Orleans, duchess of Montpensier, and first cousin of Louis XIV. She was the daughter of Gaston duo d'Orleans, and Marie de Bourbon- Montpensier. Louis XIII. was her uncle. La Grande Mademoiselle was one of the richest heiresses in Europe. Grande Semaine (La), 27, 28, 29 July, 1830. Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday of the Insurrection of Paris which drove Charles X. from the throne, and substituted for him Louis Philippe, called the Citizen-king. Semaine (2 syl.). Grandees, 1648. So the members of the council of officers were called in the reign of Charles I. The members of the inferior council were called Adjutors, and subsequently Agitators. Grandes Compagnies (Les), 14th cent. Gangs of adventurers which deso- lated France in the reigns of Jean II. and Charles V. They were recruited by strangers of all nationalities, especially by the Germans whom Edward III. had set at liberty after the treaty of Bre*tigny in 1860. The populace rose up against them and put them down for a time, but they reappeared in 1361 under the name of Tards- Venus. Duguesclin had the wit to enrol them in the army of Enrique of Trastamare, and employed them in the Spanish war against Pedro the Cruel. Grandes Pre'cieuses (Les). The learned women of the Hotel Rambouillet, in contradistinction to the Pre'cieuses Ridicules. Les Grandea Precieuses sqnt de ces choses ex- cellentes aptes & etre imitees par de mauvais inges. MOLIEKE. Grandison-Cromwell. So La- fayette (1754-1834) was caUed by Mira- beau. He wanted to appear a Christian gentleman, like Richardson's ' Sir Charles Grandison,' but in his heart of hearts he had the ambition of a Cromwell. [Paris rang] with endless talk about English Monk, nay about Cromwell. O thou poor Grand!. Bon-Cromwell I CARLYLK, French Revolution, vol. 11. bk. vl. 1. Grangerite (A). One who extends and supplements a book by collateral matter culled from all sorts of sources, as prints, maps, newspaper cuttings, selec- tions from other books, pamphlets, auto- graph letters, and so on. So called from the Rev. J. Granger (1710-1776), who ' grangerised ' a biographical history of England (1769) with ' supplement ' (1774). M BOWBJUBBIU. Thee* wr also ta word* GRANITE GRAVE-CLOTHES 1 Grangerlse,' 'Grangerlsm,' ' Grangerlsatlon," &o. Forster's ' Life of Dickens,' 8 vols. was ' gran- gerised ' to 9 vols. In America, by playbills, engrav- ings, portraits, views, catalogues, illustrations, and other supplemental matter. Granite City (T/w). Aberdeen, Scot- land. Many of the houses are built of the granite which abounds in the neigh- bourhood. O-ranite Redoubt (The), 14 June, 1800. The grenadiers of the Consular Guard of Bonaparte (First Consul) were go called from the stand which they made at the battle of Marengo against the Aus- trians. Granth. The sacred book of the Sikhs. There are really two Granths : one the Adigranth by Arjunmall, and the other by Guru Govind Sinh. Both are metrical and very bulky. Under me (Govind) the bows of the Singhs have proved triumphant over the sabres of tho Mos- lems ; and the precepts of the Granth over the cowardly doctrines of the Vedas and Shastraa. GOVIND, Hittory of hit Wart. Grape-stone (Killed by a). Ana- creon the poet was choked by a grape tone, B.C. 478, aged 85. The favourite concubine of Yezid IE., kalif of the Sara- cens, was also killed in the same manner, U>. 726. See ' Eating Fruit.' Grasshopper (The). Callimldes, an Athenian, in the tune of Philip of Mace- don ; so called on account of his vivacious wit and liveliness. Grateful Order of St. Cathe- rine (The), 1712. A Russian order founded by Peter the Great, in gratitude to his wife for delivering him from cap- tivity by bribing the Turkish vizier. Grateley (Synod of). During the reign of Edgar. Made ten regulations for the Church, by far the most important ever passed : 1. Regulated tithes. 2. Authorised judges to execute sen- tence on those condemned by the trial of ordeal. 8. Against witches and highwaymen. 4. Names the towns authorised to coin money. 5. Awards the punishment for debasing coin. 6. Regulates ordeals. 7. Forbids buying and selling on Sun- days. 8. Against perjury. 9. Commands bishops to assist tht judges. 10. Against remiss and negligent magistrates. Gratian's Decretal, or 'Docre- tum Gratiani.' A part of the ' Corpus Juris Ciyllis' collected by Gratian, a Benedictine monk of the 12th cent, in Tuscany. The collection took him twenty- four years to compile. Grattan's Parliament. Consisted of a house of lords and house of commons. It was altogether Protestant, and was elected exclusively by Protestants till towards the close of its career, whoa Catholics were admitted to the franchise. It was eminently the representative of the property class of Ireland, and many of its members were the nominees of the British government. Pitt based his argument for the Union mainly on the ground that the Irish Parliament was not workable. In 1780 Grattan proposed in the Irish Par- liament the abolition of 'Poyning's Act' (q.v.). It was not then carried, but in 1782 he moved what is called the ' 1 ration of Rights ' that any claim out of Ireland to bind the kingdom of Ireland is illegal. In April the same year he as- sumed the question to be carried, and de- clared that henceforth no body of men, except the Irish Parliament, has any right to make laws by which In-Iaml shall be bound. In May C. J. Fox repealed the bill of 6 Geo. I., and Ireland was set free. Grattan was rewarded by a grant from the Irish Parliament of 50,0002. See ' Parliaments.' Grattan'B Parliament pamed 64 coercion i It began in one revolution, and rn putting down of an Insurrection. 'I i. acta. r the putting down of an Insurrection. Tlio Irish par- liament was united to that of GrtMt Hriuiiu in 1800, by what IB called the 'Act of Union. G rat- tan atatue in Dublin was erected in Grave of the Russians (The), 1788. On the death of Augustus II. of Poland, Stanislaus Leczinski was elected king, but his election was opposi-.l hy Austria and Russia. Stanislaus ll.-il. and shut himself up in Dantzir, when- he was besieged by the Russian army, but so stout a defence that a place is still shown on the fortifications of Dantzio called ' The Grave of the Russians.' Grave-clothes (The), in which th. body of Christ was wrapped after the crucifixion, are thus tabulated by hagio graphers : Alx-la-Chapelle contains sou*; GRAVE-STONES GREAT the parts deposited at Besanlf. the brother of Henry the Proud, was defeated by Kou- rad of Hohenstaoffen at Weinaberg. V [After the reign of Kaiser Heinrich VTL, in 1818, the terms 'Guelf and 'Ghibelline* completely changed their original meaning. The Ghibellines were originally the imperial party, but from 1313 Italian rebels were called Ghibel- lines. This was because the German emperors were for ever disturbing the government of the Italian states ; and as these emperors were Ghibellines, so the word came to denote a disturber of the state, a rebel, or insurgent. Of course, the insurgents were not slow to retort on the government party the nickname of Guelfs. The Hanoverian British line is that of the Guelfs. See ' Tories.' Guercino (Squint Eye). Gian Fran. oeaco Barbieri, a famous painter of th GtJERlNETS GtJINEVEB 895 Bolognese school. His masterpieces are the fresco of ' Aurora ' in the Villa Ludo- visi, the ' Persian Sibyl,' and ' St. Petro- nilla ' (1590-1666). Gue'rinets (The), 1684. Enthusiasts and visionaries in France ; a sort of 11 lu- minati. Guerra de las Comunerades (5 syl.), 1520-1521. The insurrection of the Comuneros under Padilla, a young nobleman of Toledo. The insurgents were defeated at Villala, and Padilla was executed. See ' Comuneros. 1 Guerra di Candia (Una). 'War to the knife.' A Venetian expression alluding to the siege of Candia by the Turks (1667-1668). This siege cost the lives of 80,000 Christians and 120,000 Turks. Candia was ultimately obliged to surrender. Guerrillas. Petty wars, or partisan warriors; armed bands of peasants are so called in Spain. The insurrections of Jack Cade, Wat Tyler, and Robert Kett would be so called hi Spain. Prom 1808 to 1814 guerrillas were regularly organised against the French, and the names of Ernpecinado, the Pastor Merino, and Mina, as leaders, are well known. Mina's band joined Wellington, and did good service in the Peninsular war. The guerrillas also joined the Car lists, and distinguished them- selves. Guet (Le). The police of the old regime of France, changed, in 1789, into the Garde Municipale de Paris. It was reorganised in 1254 by St. Louis [IX.], who subdivided the corps into the Guet Rcyal, and the Guet assis or des mestiers. The Guet Royal consisted of twenty ser- gents a cheval and twenty sergents a pied. The Guet assis consisted of bour- geois and artisans, the former being the night watch, and the latter orderlies of the Guet Royal. The Constituent Assem- bly replaced the Guet by the Gendarmerie. Pronounce Gu-ay. Gueux. 16th cent, ragamuffins. The revolutionists in Spain and the Nether- lands in 1566. There were 800 deputies of the Calvinistic party, headed by H. de Brederode (a descendant of the counts of Holland) and Louis count of Nassau, who demanded of Margaret, the governor, the abolition of the Inquisition. When Margaret seemed about to give way the Count of Barleymoiit, her counsellor, re- commended her to dismiss the deputation, saying to her, ' Ce ne sont que des gueux.' The word was caught up ; they called themselves ' Les Gueux,' and took for their badge a wallet and porringer. The 4 Gueux des bois ' combated on land, the 1 Gueux de mer ' sought a refuge at sea. Pronounce Lay gewt ; Gewda bwa ; Gewd mair. Guillemites (8 syl.), 1153. A reli- gious congregation founded at Pescara by St. Gulielmus of Malaval. They soon spread over Italy, France, and Ger- many. From 12E6 they had a monastery at Montrouge, near Paris. They wr called White Mantles (Blancs-Manteaux) from the great white mantles which they wore. They ceased to exist long before the Revolution. Guillotine (The), 81 May, 1791. Joseph Ignace Guillotin, M.D., induced the Legislative Assembly of France to adopt the machine which bears his name for the execution of criminals condemned to death. But it was not till 20 March, 1792, that a special decree was made for its universal use. It was not the inven- tion of Dr. Guillotin, for a like instru- ment was used in England in the time of Edward HI. ' The Maiden ' of Scotland was used in 1578. The Halifax ' Maiden ' was well known. And a similar instru- ment had been used in Germany, Bohe- mia, and Italy. The Regent Morton, who introduced the ' Maiden ' into Scotland, was (according to tradi- tion) the first to suffer by it. Guinea. The English gold coin, equal to 21*., first coined in 1662. With- drawn from circulation in 1817. Physicians, barristers, schoolmasters, clergy- men in temporary office, artists, &c., still preserve the word ' guinea, 1 and are paid by guineas instead of sovereigns. Honoraria and many sub- scriptions to charities are also paid in guineas. In fact, it is esteemed a more ' aristocratic ' pay- ment. The gold of the first specimens came from the coast of Guinea. Guinegate, or ' Guinegatte.' In France. Noted for the ' Battle of the Spurs ' [p. 80, col. 1], won by Henry VIII. over the French. Here, on 7 Aug., 1479, had been fought another battle, between Louis XI. and Maximilian of Austria, to which Philippe de Comines (2 syl.) re- fers : Remember Guynegate, a warning against the allurements either of plunder or of prisoners ; for Guynegate was lost in the very momen t of victory by our too great eagerness for pillage. Guinever (The Canons Regular of St.). See ' Genevieve.' 800 GUIRLANDE Guirlande de Julie. This Julie was the celebrated Julie Lucie d' Angennes, daughter of the Marquis de Rambouillet, who presided over the society called L'Hotel de Rambouillet, and married the Due de Montausier. When the due was paying his court to the witty Julie, he made her a present of a MS. book of select poems, which he called the ' Guir- lande de Julie,' illuminated with flowers painted by Kobert. The poems were in the handwriting of Jarry. The book was in the family of the Due d'Uzes in 1870, and probably is there still, but it has been printed and published. Pronounce Gir-land d'zhu-le. Gulistan (Peace of), 1818. Between Persia and Russia. Gunpowder Plot, 1605. A con- spiracy to destroy the king, lords, and commons, by springing a mine secreted under the houses of parliament, on 5 Nov., the day of the king's speech. The plot was projected by Robert Catcsby, who was joined by many Roman Catholics of high rank. Guido Fawkes (Guy Faux) was employed to fire the train, but was apprehended in the vaults under the houses of parliament. Sir Everard Digby, Rockwood, Winter, Garnet (a Jesuit), Guy Faux, and some others were executed 81 Jan., 1606. Robert Catesby was shot 8 Nov., 1605, while attempting to raise an insurrection in Worcester- shire ; and Thomas Percy, of the family of Northumberland, was shot at Holbeach the same day. Gunter's Chain, 1624. A chain used for land-measuring. It is 22 yards long, the square of which is 484. Now an acre is 4,840 square yards, and there- fore a square chain is a tenth of an acre, or 10 = 1 acre. Again, a chain contains 10,000 square links, and, as 10 chains = an acre, it follows that 100,000 square links = an acre. So that, in measuring a field by a Gunter's chain, all that is re- quired is to divide the result by 100,000, or (which is the same thing) to cut off the last five figures, to obtain the area in acres. Gunter's Line. A logarithmic line engraved on scales and sectors, serving to perform the multiplication and Division of numbers inBtrumen tally. Gunter's Quadrant. A quadrant for finding the hour of the day, the sun's azimuth, and other problems of the sphere. Gunter's Scale. For resolving questions in navigation by the aid of a pair of compasses. Called by seamen ' The Gunter.' Gurgoylea (2 syl.), familiarly called 'The Gurgs,' 1775-1855. A society which flourished for eighty years at Lin- coln's Inn, being a revival of the old Cambridge Shakespeare Society. It was never formally dissolved. Guy's Hospital, 1721. Founded by Thomas Guy, a London book who was M.P. for Tamworth (1094-1707). Gwynn (Nett, or Ekanor). It is said that her real name was Margaret Symcott. The dukes of St. Albans are descended from this mistress of Charles IL GymnoB'ophists (4 syL), or ' Naked Philosophers.' Indian philosophers, so called by the Greeks because they went about naked. The two best known are CaULnus and Zarmenochegas. The for- mer followed Alexander the Great from India, and, being taken ill, burnt himself alive in the presence of the Macedonian army, B.C. 8'J3. '1 he latter burnt himself alive at Athens in the presence of Augustus. They are now represented by the 'rty-clad* branch of the Jain*. At present they eat thel> meals without any clothing. in 1122 in the German paraphrase of Genesis. They appeared in Hungary, Wai- lachia, and Cyprus in 1320 ; in Germany between 1416-1420; at Zurich in 1418; in Italy in 14'2'J ; at Paris in 1427; in Scotland in 1506. Gypsies forbidden to dwell t th* land: 1493, by Ferdinand the Cathobc of Spain. 1600. by the Diet of Augsburg . . Gfrmanw. 1680, by Henry VIII England. 1640, by James V Scotland. 1500, by the States of Orleans . Franc*. 1740, by Friodrich II. . . H, on pennypieces, 1875, (fee., stands for H[eaton] the firm of Ralph Healon & Sons of Birmingham, which supplied the mint with 100 tons of the bronz* pennypieces. Their first issue was 1876 j HABEAS HAITI 897 and the officers of Tower Hill, in order to identify the coin, had the letter H im- pressed on the dies. Habeas Corpus (Suspension of the). In times of great political excite- ment the operation of the Habeas Corpus Act is usually suspended, by which per- sons committed are not allowed to be bailed. The committing magistrate has to bear, in such cases, all the responsi- bility of the commitment. Habeas Corpus Act (The), 1679, (81 Car. II. c. 2), securing English sub- jects against arbitrary imprisonment. This is provided for by the writ called ' Habeas Corpus ad Subjiciendum' which is addressed to any person who detains another in custody, com- manding him to produce the body of the prisoner, ind to state the day and cause of his capture and detention. This done, the court decides whether the prisoner shall be liberated, admitted to bail, ox remanded. Habsburg (House of). Incorrectly written 'Hapsburg.' I. Furnished Ger- many with Rodolf I., Adolf of Nassau, and Albert I. of Austria (1273-1308). The word Habsburg or Habichts-burg, built in the llth cent.. means T hawk's castle.' The castle stood on the right bank of the Aax, in the Swiss canton of Aargau. II. Of Austria. Began with Albert I Albrecht] II. the Illustrious (son of Al- bert IV. duke of Austria), and son-in-law of Siegmund the preceding kaiser. Albert was also Called ' the Magnanimous ' and ' the Grave.' This line of kaisers began in 1438, and still continues in that part of Germany called Austria and Hungary. The Habsburgors of direct male descent ceased In 1806; Karl VII., son of Maria Theresa, was a Habsburger on his mother's side only. Hadith. Traditions about Moham- med the prophet, complementary to the Koran. Hadrian's Rescript. A letter to Serenius Granianus, proconsul of Asia, respecting the way he was to treat Chris- tians. ' If anyone shall prove any offence against the laws to have been committed by Christians, proceed against them as the law directs ; but if the charge brought against them be mere calumny, then punish the accuser as he deserves.' See 'Trajan's Rescript.' Heecceity. A term in school divinity meaning the principle of individuation. The Realists maintained that universals only were real, and that they formed in- dividuals by the intervention of the prin- ciple of hsecceity. HaQret'ico comburendo (De). A writ against heretics, who, being convicted of heresy by a bishop abjured it, but afterwards relapsing, were delivered over to the secular power to be burnt alive. Abolished by the pension parliament in 1677 (tempore Charles II.). Hag'gada. The rabbinical inter- pretation of scripture for homiletical purposes. See ' Midrash.' Haileybury College, 1806. Founded by the East India Company at Great Amwell, Herts, for the education of 105 students intended for the civil service in India. Hair. GBEEKS. The Spartans combed and dressed their hair carefully, especially when about to encounter any great danger; as LeonTdas and his 300 did before starting for Thermopylae. Sailors both in Greece and Rome shaved off their hair after a shipwreck or other calamity, and dedicated it to some deity. In mourning, Greek and Roman women cut their hair short, but the men in both countries left their hair rough and un- kempt, as if their grief was too great for their concerning themselves about per- sonal adornment. In childhood both Greeks and Romans wore long hair, but the boys, on reaching puberty, had their hair clipped and dedicated to some river-god. At Athens this ceremony took place on the third day of the festival called ' Apaturia.' Slaves, both in Greece and Rome, were always shaved, and vestal virgins, like Catholic nuns, cut off their hair when they took their vows. One way of supplicating was pulling out one's hair. After this manner Agamemnon presented himself before Zeus, when Hector had given the Greeks an overthrow. Iliad, xx. 15. ROMANS. Men wore their hair long till about B.C. 800, when short hair and shaving came into vogue. Scipio Afri- canus (B.C. 234-183) was the first Roman who shaved. Under the empire the style of dressing the hair was extremely finical. Mark Antony (B.C. 80-30) is represented as wearing his hair in sausage curls arranged in rows all round his head. The Emperor Gallienus (A.D. 260-208) had hi* hair powdered with gold-dusfc fTATR HAIR In Hadrian's time (76, 117-188) full beards and short hair were in vogue, and this fashion continued to the end of the empire. The GAULS and ancient BRITONS. The Teutonic tribes wore their hair long, as did the ancient Gauls and Britons. That part of Gaul the farthest remote from Roman influence was called Gallia Comdta (long-haired Ganl), to distinguish it from the half-Romanised Gallia To- gdta. The SAXONS and DANES wore longhair and long beards, but the NORMANS shaved their chins, and sometimes the back of their heads also. ENGLAND. In the reign of Henry I. (1100-1185) the gentlemen rivalled the ladies in the length of their hair, and long hair prevailed till the time of Henry VIII. (1509-1647), when short hair came into vogue. In the reign of Charles I. (1625-1649) ringlets and love- locks were affected by the Cavaliers, but Puritans cropped their hair close to the head. In the reign of Charles II. (1661- 1685) enormous wigs flowing over the shoulders were worn, and this fashion continued up to the reign of George III. (1760-1820). In 1765 the wig makers petitioned the king against the discontinuance of wigs, praying for their relntroduction. An excellent satire was set on foot praying his Majesty to introduce the fashion of wooden legs for the benefit of carpen- ters. At the close of the 18th cent, the dis- gusting habit of plastering the hair with flour, powder, and pomatum, to the amount of 2 Ibs. or more, was introduced. My father used to tell us how, when he was a young man, and was going to a public entertainment, the hairdresser was generally obliged, from stress of business, to come the day before ' to make his head,' which was the usual phrase; and that he was obliged to sleep in an armchair for fear of deranging his hair. When the head was ' unmade ' the lard and powder taken out would fill a small basin. He said that every gentleman used to carry a ' scratcher,' with an ivory hand at one end to scratch the back, and a sharp point at the other to scratch the head, because the parasites were so trouble- some. In my young days, gentlemen wore their hair smooth, with a pig-tail and bag or pig-tail and knocker. Not long after William Pitt introduced hi* tax on hair-powder, the hair was cut short as it is at present (1890). The style of dressing hair among ladles IB far too long a subject for this note-book, bnt foolery reached its climax In the time of Marie Antoinette. My mother says that in her days the hairdresser was provided with steps, that he might pile up the hair high enough. Hair as a sign of Rank. The PARTHIANS and ancient PERSIANS of high rank wore long flowing hair. Homer speaks of the 'long-haired GREEKS ' by way of honourable distinc- tion. Subsequently, the Athenian cavalry wore long hair, and all the Lacedaemonian soldiers did the same. The GAULS considered long hair a mark of honour, for which reason Julius Caesar obliged them to cut off their hair in token of submission, for all slaves were shorn. The FRANKS and ancient GERMANS considered long hair a mark of lii^'h birth. Hence Clodion, the Frank, was styled ' the Long-haired,' and his succes- sors were spoken of as Ut rots chevelurcs. The GOTHS considered long hair a mark of honour, and short hair a mark of thraldom. For many centuries long hair was in FRANCE the distinctive mark of kind's and nobles, and in the time of Charles II. the Cavaliers gloried in long hair. Hair shaved off. MOHAMMEDANS shave the scalp, but leave a tuft of hair for the ' angel to lay hold of when he carries the dead to paradise.' The CHINESE sha\e all the head except the top, where the hair is suffered to grow into a long pig-tail. This was a Tartar custom. The Buddhist priests bhavo all the head. Catholic priests shave their head more or less. The part shaved is called the 'tonsure.' St. Peter's tonsure is quite round the head, to indicate the crown of thorns. St. Paul's tonsure is the whole head shaved like a Buddhist priest's. Simon Magus's tonsure is a semicircle shaved from ear to ear above the fore- head, bnt not extended to the back of the head. This sort of tonsure is natural baldness. Catholic priests shave their faces quite clean, and the same custom is at: by the 'High Church party' of the Anglican Church. However, Christ and fTATTl 899 his apostles are always represented with moustaches and long beards. Hair Powder, 1590. An aristocru- tic badge of the Guise party, opposed to Henri IV. The Guise party put forward the old Cardinal de Bourbon whom they called king, and in courtly flattery whit- ened then- hair, and wore white plumes or white cockades. Originally hair- powder was an aristocratic distinction of the high church and state party in France. It was taxed in England in 1795 (II. 8s. Gd.), which brought in 20,OOOZ. a year. Nowadays hair-powder is worn only by some of the footmen of the nobility and higher commoners. The number of powdered footmen in 1890 was under 900. Hakem (A). A Musulman magis- trate under a cadi. Hal'danites (8 syl.). Followers of James Alexander Haldane (1768-1857) of Aithrie, near Stirling. They are the Scotch Baptists, commonly called ' Mac- lean's People.' Halifax, capital of Nova Scotia, 1749. So named in honour of the Earl of Halifax, then president of the Board of Trade in England. When the army was reduced in consequence of the peace of Aix-la-Chapello, a great number of sol- diers and sailors were thrown out of em- ployment. It was resolved, therefore, to grant to every settler in Nova Scotia a free passage, 50 acres of freehold land, and another 10 acres for each child. Some 4,000 men with their families ac- cepted the offer, sailed to Nova Scotia under Colonel Cornwallis, and founded the town of Halifax, now the capital of the province. Halifax Law. Whoever committed a theft exceeding 13d. in value in the liberty of Halifax was summarily exe- cuted on the ' jyn ' of Halifax, a kind of guillotine. Taylor the Water-poet (1630) refers to this law and this jyn. Hall College. Colleges are cor- porate bodies. Halls are not incor- porated. Hall Marks of gold and silver articles. Silver articles have now four marks and a cartouch. Beginning on the left baud we have (I) the head of the reign- ing sovereign ; (2) the date-letter ; (8) the leopard's head, the company's mark; (4) the lion passant, the national mark ; and (5) the cartouch containing the initials of the manufacturer. The head of the sovereign was first added to the marks in 1784. The leopard's head was adopted as the company's mark in 1300. The date-letters have been in use since 1438. The custom for the last 200 years has been to use capitals and small letters alternately every twentieth year. As all common alphabets have been exhausted, the shape of the shield will distinguish a modern mark from a more ancient one of the same character. Thus in 1876 Koman capitals were employed ; so they were in 1796. But the shields were different ; the shield of 1876 being and that of 1796 and of course the sovereign's head differs. A is the 1st year, B the 2nd year, C the 3rd year, and so on, omitting J and the last six letters. The character of letters hitherto used are as follows : 1438-1457 Lombardlo, simple, small letter*. 1458-1477 with external cusps. 1478-1497 ., with double cusps. 1498-1517 Black letter, small. 1518-1537 Lombardlc, simple, capital*. 1538-1557 Koman caps, with border. 1658-1577 Black letter, small. From thi* date the letter* are placed in thieldt. 1678-1597 Clarendon caps, in shield. 1598-1617 Lombardic, with external cusps, In shield. 1618 -1637 Italic, small, In shield. 1638-1657 Court hand 1658-1677 Black letter caps 1678-1696 Black letter, small 1696-1715 Court hand 1716-1735 Clarendon caps ., 1736-1755 Clarendon, small letters, in shield. 1756-1775 Old English caps 1776-1795 Clarendon, small letters From thi* date cap* and trRallt alternate. (1796-1816 Roman capitals, in shield, flat bottom. (1816-1835 Roman small letters (1886-1850 Old English caps, in shield, pointed J bottom. 11866-1878 Old English smalls, In shield, pointed ( bottom. /1876-1895 Roman caps, in shield, pointed bottom. (1896-1915 Roman smalls Clarendon, i.e. Roman letters with no Ana strokes, but all black alike. ** The assay-marks guarantee the exact proportion of alloy contained in the article. The standard of perfect purity being assumed to be 24 carats ; the figures such as 12, 15, 18, 20, . So by this meanes ther be but iii parodies in Halamahire that is of name, and a great chapelle ' (' Itin./ vol. v. f.94). See ' Iloyland.' Hallelujah Band (The). A Pro- testant religious sect whose services con- sist entirely of thanksgiving. Hallelu j ah Victory ( The), or ' Vic- toria Alleluiatica,' 30 March, A.D. 430. A legendary victory of St.Germanus bishop of Auxerre and Lupus bishop of Troyes over the Picts and Saxons at Mold in Flintshire. Socalled because the Britons led by them shouted 'Hallelujah' so loudly that the enemy was panicstruck and fled. St. Germanos was ohosen commander against the Saxons; aud uut by Ui cl*n uf truuipeuaad th- nut. of t [hallelujah, he route* Halley's Comet, 1682. Dr. Halley determined the recurrence of this comet by supposing it to be the same as that which appeared in 1607 and 1531. If ao it would appear again in 1759, an.), on May-day, old style. Gregory IV. rrnngrl the feast of All SainU or All Hallows from May-day to 1 Nov. Hence the double feast. The Romans hcM the festival of Cybele on May-day, and Gregory IV. changed the day for the sake of changing ' Cybele and all the gods ' into ' St. Mary and all the saints.' Hallow-e'en. The eve of All IF a- lows (31 Oct.), or day before All Saints', which is 1 NOT. Halt (Roberf). The pen-name ol M. Vien. Hamadanites (4 syl.), 892-1001. Of the tribe of Hamadan. A dynasty of Mesopotamia, including Mosul and Aleppo, occupied by Arabian princes of tti" tribe of Hamadan. Their history is a tissue of treachery, parricide, and The poeU ol their court Mid UM Hamadanltefl were formed with beauty of gmoa, eloquence of peech. and arms of Talour. Hamadites (8 syl.), 1015-1091. A Spanish dynasty, established by Soliman, after the defeat of Mohammed II. of CordSva, Hamburg (Treaty of), 22 May, 1763. A treaty of amity between Sweden and Russia, on the death of the Czarina Elizabeth, Hamilton (Patrick), 1504-1528. A Scotch reformer and martyr, of whom it was said, 'The reik of Patrick Hamilton will infect as many as it blows upon.' This sentiment wa like that ottered by Latimer, at the stake, 1566 :' We shall'thi. light up snob a blaM la the land as shall uevar IM put out.' HAMMEB HANDSOME 401 Hammer and Scourge of the English (The). William Wallace, the Scotch patriot (1270-1305), is so called by Fordun. Hammer of Scotland (The). So Edward I. is styled on his tomb in West- minster Abbey. Hampden Clubs, 1818. To pro- secute the cause of parliamentary reform, and to unite the reformers in one system of action. These clubs were established in every town in the kingdom, and in many villages ; but the great central club was held at the ' Crown n. The Mohocks, Scourers, and HuwkuMtes were contemporaneous, about 1711-1714. Hawkubites, an Indian tribe of savages. See ' Street Bullies/ 4 From Mohock and from HawkubiU, Good I-ord deliver mo. Who wander thro' the street* at nigh* Committing cruelty : They slash our sons with bloody knlrt*. And on our daughters fall ; And if they murder not our wives We have good luck withal. Coaches and carts they overturn . . .' An Argument to prove the present race of Mo- hocks and Hawkubites are the Gog and Magog mentioned in the Revelation. Head-Centres. The leaders of the Fenian Brotherhood of Ireland; their lieutenants were called '< James Stephens was appointed the first head-centre of Ireland 11 Nov., 1865. O'Mahoney was the first head-centre of the brotherhood in America, 1858. Head Pacificator (O'Connors). Tom Steel, who looked up to his hero with the veneration of Boswell for Dr. Johnson. Heads of Houses or College! (The). HEALING HEBDOMADA 401 In Cambridge : The Head of King's IB styled the Provost ; of Queens', the Pre- sident ; of all other colleges, the Master. In Oxford : The Heads of University College, Balliol, and Pembroke are styled the Master ; of Oriel, Queen's, and Wor- cester, the Provost ; of Trinity, St. John's, Magdalen, and Corpus, the Pre- sident ; of Merton, All Souls', Wadham, New College, and Keble, the Warden ; of Jesus, Brasenose, and Hertford, the Principal ; of Lincoln and Exeter, the Rector ; of Christ Church, the Dean. Healing Declaration (The), 6 Nov., 1660. The declaration of Charles n. for the settlement of most Church matters by 'competent persons' ap- proved of by the king. The idea was to have a united convention of suffragan bishops and synods, or presbyterians ; but the bishops refused to meet the synod. It was ultimately decided to unite the presbyterian and episcopal establishments, and of these the king was to select a certain number to revise the liturgy, and consider such moot pouits as standing or kneeling to receive the sacrament, signing infants with a cross, bowing at the name of Jesus, and wearing surplices. The bill was thrown out by the parliament, which re-assem- bled 6 Nov. Heart of Midlothian (The). The Tolbooth (a prison), of Edinburgh, is popularly BO called. Sir Walter Scott's novel of the same name gives a graphic description of the Porteous riot, and the execution of Capt. Porteous by the mob. See ' Mida of Mar.' Hearts of Steel, 1764. Irish in- surgents in Ulster, roused to rebellion by high rents and the rapacity of the agents of absentees. It was a part of the great southern brotherhood called Whiteboys. See ' Irish Associations.' Hearth-tax (The), 1662. A tax of two shillings for every fire-hearth and stove, 'payable on the feast of St. Michael and the feast of the Blessed Virgin Mary ' (18 & 14 Car. H. c. 10). Repealed by the special desire of Wil- liam in. in 1689. A hut with two chimneys paid as much as a house or hall with the same number. The hear th- t&x and the window tax were certainly the worst and most oppressive taxes ever laid on the people. Heaven (The). A public-house in Whitefriars, kept in the reign of Charles II. by Bradley. Charles, with Bucking- ham, Monmouth, Lord Howard, and other debauchees, visited this house, and drank punch there till their wits were out. Colonel Blood and Titus Gates also frequented the house. See f Gone to the " Devil." ' Heaven-born Minister (The). William Pitt was so called in a parlia- mentary oration by Mr. Drake. Prime minister 1783-1801, and again 1804 ; died 1806. Heavy Peg, 1412, &c. A heavy cannon by which Friedrich count of Hohenzollern, who had lately bought Brandenburg of the Kaiser Siegmund, reduced the turbulent barons to order by blowing up their castles. Hebdom'ada. For other weeks see the English equivalent. For example For Hebdomada Casta tee Chaste Week Crucia Week of the Croat Expectatlonla,, Week of Expec- tation Magna Great Weak Muta Silent Week Paschalia Easter Week Passionla Passion Week Peniteiitialia Penitential Weak Pentecostea Whitsun Week Trinitatia Trinity Week Hebdom'ada de Excepto. The last week in Advent is BO called in the Ambrosian ritual. Hebdom'ada G-rassa(Meat Week). The week preceding Quinquagesima Sun- day, the last week before Lent. The third day after Quinquagesima Sunday is Ash Wednesday, therefore the week preceding was the last in which meat was allowed to be eaten. Hebdom'ada in Albis. An oc- tave, beginning the Sunday after Easter and ending the following Sunday, when those baptized on Palm Sunday laid aside their white stoles. Hebdom'ada Indulgentiea, or Absolution Week. Between Palm Sun- day and Holy Saturday, when penitents received indulgence or absolution. Hebdom'ada Major. Holy Week (q.v.). Passion Week, which lasted thirteen days, was Hebdomad* 408 EEBDOMADA EEHOO-WOO-TAE Magna; but the last seven of these days constitute Holy Week, or the ' Greater Week ' of the ' Great Week.' Hebdom'ada Mediana. Begin- ning with the third of Lent, called in French Mi-careme (Mid Lent). In this week some slight relaxation was allowed of the long Lenten fast. Hebdom'ada Pcenalis, 4 Labo- riosam Hebdomadam ' vocant Latin! Patres. Also called Hebdomada Poenosa. Du Cange says : ' Ilia qua Christus crurera anbiit, et quod jcjuniis et laboribus transigatur ad memoriam passionis Christi.' Hebdom'adal Council (The), 1681. Oxford University. So called be- cause it assembles weekly. This weekly board discusses all measures of reform before they are sent to the House of Congregation (q.v.). The ex-officio mem- bers are the chancellor, vice-chancellor, ex- vice-chancellor, and the two proctors. There are also eighteen members viz. six heads of houses, six professors, and six members of Convocation, of not less than five years' standing. The council meets every Monday during term tune. Hdbertists. The followers of HeT>ert, the coarsest and most vulgar- minded of the three leaders in the Reign of Terror, the other two being Danton and Robespierre. It was Hebert who instituted le culte de la raison. Anacharsis Olooti, Ronsin, Vincent, and Mo- moro were Hcbertlsts. Hebrew of the Hebrews (A). A descendant from Abraham. Hebrew Prize. Worth about 20Z. Founded in the University of Cambridge by subscription, 1806 ; increased 1807. See ' Tyrwhitt Scholarship.' Hecatseos the Abderite (8 syl.). & lid to have been the author of a ' History of the Jews,' frequently referred to by Josephus, but pronounced by Origen to be spurious. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Hec'atomphon'ia. A sacrifice made to the Ithomaeon Jupiter by such as had slain 100 men in battle. Aris- tomcnes of Messenia thrice offered this sacrifice. Hectors. Street bullies and brawlers who succeeded the ' Tityre tu-s,' and delighted to be as rude as possible to women and the defenceless. Robbery was not their object, but simply to annoj and get talked about. See 'Street Bullies.' To hector Is to bully or treat with insolence : but the noble Hector of Troy waa aa unlike a bully aa possible. Hedgebote (2 syl.), or ' Haybote ' in English law. The right of a tenant to cut wood on the farm to repair 1iis hedges, gates, and fences, to make rake- handles and handles for forks, &c. Hedonism. The system of Aristip- pus, the Cyrenaitic philosopher, born at Cyrene about B.C. 485. He said that the aim of life should be ijSo->j (he done, plea- sure), and he passed his life in the court of Dionysius the Tyrant amidst delicacies and indulgences. > day brine rebuked for of Plonykius he rcpliod. He was very witty. One i easting himself at the feet of 1 Well, it is not my fault If his ears are In hls'feet.' He'donists. Philosophers who placed the sum-mum bonum in pleasure (qSon-i), before Epicurus improved upon their teaching by the dogma that psychic pleasure is superior in decree and dura- tion to physical enjoym< Hegelianism. The philosophical system of Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel of Stuttgart (1770-1881). It may be called an idealistic pantheism. In the Spinozan system God is a substance ; in the 1 lian system God is spirit. In 1 i system God is endowed with both matter and mind the phenomena of the mate- rial and spiritual universe may be com- pared to two parallel streams. In the Hegelian theory God objectifies Hims.-lf in nature, rises out of nature, and returns to Himself. Heg'ira (TfcA 16 June, 622. The day that Mahomet fled from Mecca to Medina. The people of Mecca were exasperated because those of Medi'na believed him to be a prophet. From this day the Ma- hometan era begins. Generally called HegTra. The Arabic word It ' Hijra,' and means the ' flight ' or emigration. Hegu'meni or Mandrites (2 syl.). Superiors of convents in the Greek Church. Hehoo-Woo-tae, or the Five Hehoo races, being the 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, and 18th imperial dynasties of China, called Hehoo- Leang, Hehoo-Tan^ HEIDELBERG HEINRICH 409 flehoo-Tsin, Hehoo-Han, and Hehoo- Chew. From 907 to 960. During this period the Tartars held the north of the empire. The ' five successions ' ter- minated with the 19th or Tsong dynasty. Hehoo, sometimes written in English 'Heou' Or ' How ' ; and Chew la written ' Chow.' Heidelberg Catechism (The), or the 'Palatinate Catechism,' 1563. A religious formulary compiled by the Hei- delberg theologians Caspar, Olivetan, and Zacharias Urslnus at the request of the Elector Priedrich III. of the Palati- nate. This catechism was sanctioned by several synods, and was revised by the Synod of Dort. Heidelberg Confession (The), 1575, or the ' Palatine Confession.' One of the chief confessions of the continental Calvinistic or Reformed Churches. See 'Confessions.' Heiltum (Hile-tum), or 'Heilig- thum.' That is, holy relics of Nuremberg, exhibited the second Friday after Easter, and consisting of the insignia of the city ; the sword, sceptre, and crown of Charle- magne ; a piece of the true cross, part of the manger of Bethlehem, Longlnus's spear, and portions of the respective chains with which Peter, Paul, and John were bound, with many other relics. The church of the Holy Ghost at Nuremberg, in which the Heiltum was formerly kept, was recently restored; but Nuremberg is now a Protestant city. Heinel (Mile.). A famous dancer in London in the last quarter of the 18th cent. See ' Walpole's Letters,' vol. v. pp. 827, 855, 383, 431. Dotes upon dancing, and, in all her pride, Swims round the room, the Heinel of Cheapside. Epilogue to She Stoop* to Conquer. Pronounce High'nel. HEINBICH OF GERMANY. (Hoinrich, pronounce Hine-reck.) Heinrich I., or 'Henry I. the Fowler,' surnamed 'the father of his country.' Founder of the Saxon dynasty of Germany. He succeeded Konrad of Franconia (876, 918-936). This dynasty gives five kings viz. Heinrich I., Otto I., II., HI., and Heinrich II. His father was Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony. His empire embraced Holland, Flanders, and Switzerland, as well as Germany. With Heinrich L the Fowler the modern 18 history of Germany begins, as that of France with Hugues Capet, and that of England with William the Conqueror. See ' Fowler.' Father, Otto the Illustrious. Wife, Mechtildes. Contemporary with Edward the Elder and Athel- Stan. Heinrich II., called 'The Saint' and 'The Lame.' Was the cousin v of Otto III., the grandson of Heinrich the Quarrelsome, and great-grandson of the Fowler. As he died without issue, in him the Saxon dynasty of Germany came to an end. It was Heinrich II. who founded Strasburg Cathedral. HEINRICH I. (Henry the Fowler), founder of the Saxon dynasty. OTTO I. the Groat and Heinrich the Quarrelsome, sons of the Fowler. OTTO II. son of Otto I. OTTO III. son of Otto II. HEINBIOH the Fowto OTTO L Eelnrich the Quarrelsome OTTO II. Heiririch the Kegent OTTO III. HEINRICH II. Both Otto III. and Heinrich II. were great- grandsons of the Fowler. Father, Heinrich duke of Bavaria (late regent). Wife, Cunegunda(no children). Contemporary with Ethelred, Edmund Ironsides, and Canute. Heinrich III. the Black King. Second of the house of Franconia (1017, 1039-1056). He died at the age of 89. In 1056 he created the title of ' King of the Romans' for the heir-elect of the throne. Called ' Black ' from the colour of his hair. He was an excellent king. The kings of Germany were elective, but a father before death generally got his son elected. Heiii- rich III. was elected in 1026. Father, Konrad II. Mother, Glsela of Burgundy. Wires, (1) Kunihild daughter of Canute; (2) Agnea mother of HEINRICH IV. Contemporary with Hardicanute and Edward the Confessor. Heinrich IV. kaiser-king of Ger- many (1050, 1056-1106). Died at Liege of starvation at the age of 56. The whole reign was one incessant struggle with the pope for mastery. He was three times excommunicated, and once his kingdom was put under the ban of Rome. His eldest son Konrad revolted against him, and died 1101. His second son Heinrich [V.] then revolted, arrested his father, and confined him in a castle. The kaiser made his escape, and died at Liege on the doorstep of a religious house, ' clemmed with hunger and starved with cold.' Father, Heinrich III. Mother, Agnes of Aquitalne. Wives, (1) Bertha ; (2) Adelaide of Russia. Contem- with Edward the Confessor and William porary with Ed the Congueror . 410 EEINRICH HELL Heinrich V. the Parricide, kaiser- king of Germany. Fourth and last of the house of Franconia. Son of Heinrich IV. the kaiser-king, and son-in-law of Henry L of England (1081, 1098^1125). Father, Heinrich IV. Mother, Bertha. Wift, Maud daughter of Henry I. of England.* Contem- porary with Kufus and Henry I. Soon after the death of her royal husband, Maud married Godjroi earl of A njou, by whom the becamt the mother ofawr Henry II. turnamed ' Curtmantle.' Heinrich VI. the Cruel, kaiser-king of Germany, son of Friedrich I., called Barbarossa (1163, 1190-1197). He was poisoned by his wife Messina, Sunday, 28 Sept., 1197, at the age of 82. This was the dastard who imprisoned Richard Coeur-de-Lion in 1192, and kept him captive for two years. KONRAD in., founder of the royal hcraM of Hohenstauffen. 1 liiKuiucii I., Rarbaroesa, Konrod'B nephew. Father, Kriedrich I., Ii:irbarossa. Mother, Bea- trice of Burgundy. H'iane de Poitiers, whose colour was blue. The colour of her rival, the Duchesse d Etampes, was lilac. Diane de Poitiers was created dMMSM de Valentlnols. CHARLES V. had two sons, CHARLES VI. and Louis due d'OrK'ans. From the Brst came, in regular succession, CHARLF.S VII. ; Louis XI. his son ; and CHARLES f II. his son, who loft no lasua. The second son. Louie dnc d'Orleans. had also two sons viz. Charles due d Orleans and Jean d Angouleme. l.'.i i- Ml. was ton of Charles dnc d Orleans, but left no male issue. From the second son. Jean d'Angouleme. cam* FRANCOIS I., and HENRI II. was the son of Francois. Henri HI. le Mignon, of France (1551, 1574-1589). Third son of Henri II. (q.v.). Weaker than woman, and worse than harlot. f.ith.r. H F.SRI II. ; Mother, Catharine de' Medici, daughter of Lorenio de' Medici ; Wife. Louise de Vaudemont ; no issue. Contemporary with Elisa- beth. S ' Fatal Three.' Henri IV. le Grand, first of the Bourbon kings of France (1558, 1589- 1610). He was the tenth in descent fr<>m Robert, the sixth son of St. Louis (IX.), and was related to the last king (Henri ILL) only in the eleventh degree. He is generally spoken of as le bon roi Henri. Father, Antolne due de Vend Ame ; Mother, Jeanne d'Albret. queen of Navarre ; Wirtt, Marguerite da Valois, daughter of HENRI II. (she was divorced); Maria de Medici, daughter of the duke of Tnscany and mother of Louis XIII. his successor : Mittrrtt, La belle Gahrielle. daughter of Antoine d Bstrees, created duchess of Beaufort. Con: . Elisabeth and James I. Life attempt.- 1 by Pierre Barriere in 1698. by Pierre Ouen in 1.W7. by Jeaa de 1 Isle In 1606. and fatally by Ravaillac in 1610. V Robert comte de Clormont (sixth son of ST. Louis) married the heiress of the Bleur de Hour- bon, and died 1317, leaving Louis doc de liourboa his son and heir. The third son of this Louis was Jacques, whose son Jean (Comte de la Marche) married the heiress of the Due de VendAme ; and their second son, Louis (Comte de la Marche), died 1446, leaving issue Jean comte do la Marche. The son of this Jean was Francois(who married Marie de Luxembourg), and their son was Charles, who died 1537. The bon of this Charles was Antoine due de Vendome (who married Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre), and these were the parents of HXNRI IV. Henri V. of France, like Louis XVII. and Napoleon II., was a mere nominal king. He was born 1-20, after the assassination of his father, Ch. tries Ferdinand due de Berry (son of Charles X.). When Charles X. abdicated, the next heir to the throne was Henri his grandson, who assumed the title of Henri V., but the French people chose Louis Philippe for their kini; instead. Charles X. died 188C; the I>uc de Kerry was assassinated by Louvel In 1890; and Henri V. (Comte de Chambordj died 1883, at the age of 68. Henricians (The), 1140. Followers of Henry of Italy, called ' the false her- mit,' who was given up in chains to the bishop of Toulouse, and died 1147. They rejected the Apocrypha ; would have no churches ; administered baptism only to HENRY HENRI 418 adults; denied the real presence and the existence of purgatory ; suppressed masses ; proscribed crucifixes, adoration of saints, relics, images, and prayers for the dead ; they rejected also the separate order of the priesthood and the lawful- ness of oaths. The Henricians, chiefly confined to Switzerland and Germany, merged soon after 1150 in the Albigenses. Pronounce Hen-rii'-ii-am. HENRY KINGS OF ENGLAND, XTO. (For those of France, tee 'Henri' ; for those of Germany, tee ' Heiiirich.') Henry I. ' Beauclero ' (good scholar), third son of William the Conqueror (1068, 1100-1135). He married Maud daughter of Malcolm III. of Scotland, and. niece of Edgar Atheling, heiress of the Saxon line. He had two children by Maud : William, who died at sea 26 Nov. 1119; and Maud, who married (at the age of 6) Heinrich V. kaiser of Germany. Heinrich died 1126, and the widow mar- tied, the same year, Geoffrey Plantage- net, from whom descend our long line of kings. His style and title : Henricus rex Anglorum et dux Normannorum.' After 1106 we find ' Dei Gratia ' introduced in charters. Henry I. had three natural children : two sons, Robert and William, and one daughter. Robert's son -was William of Gloucester, whose daughter Avisa married King John (Lackland). Henry II. First of the Plantagene* dynasty (972, Father, Geoffrey RantaferMl Mother, Matilda daughter of HENRY I. ; Wife, Eleanor, the divorced wife of Louis VII. of France (she was divorced 18 March, 1152, and married Henry six weeks after- wards) ; Mistress, the Fair Rosamond [Clifford]. He had three sons and three daughters : 1. William, died in infancy. 8. Henry, died before his father, without issue. 8. RICHARD [I., Cceur de Lion], died without Issue. 4. Geoffrey, who married Constantla, daughter Of the Duke of Brittany, by whom he had two children, Eleanor and Arthur. Arthur, heir to the English crown, was murdered by his uncle John, h'3U; and Eleanor was confined in Bristol Castle for 40 years. 6. JOHN. His style and title.' Henrions rex Anglorum, et dux Normannorum et Aquitannorum, et comes Andegavorum, or 'Henricus rex Angliaa, dux Kormannioe et Aquitanlee, et comes Andegavise.' Aquitania is now called Guienne, and Ande- gavia is Anjou. Maud the eldest daughter of Henry n. married Henry V. duke of Saxony and Brunswick, from whom our present royal family is descended. (Thus: (1) Otto duke of Brunswick and Lunen- burg, her son ; (2) Albert I., his son ; (3) Albert II. on ; ticn, ; (4) Magnus, son ; (5) Bernard, son : (6) Fried- BOB ; 13) Otto III, son; (8) Heinrioh. son ; (9) Ernestus I., son ; (10) Wllhelm, son ; (11) George, Bon ; (12) Ernestus II., son, who married Sophia, daughter of the Princess Elizabeth, and grand- daughter of James I. of England, whose son and heir was GEOROK I. of England.] Eleanor, another daughter of Henry II., mar- ried Alfonso VIII. of Castile. Joan, his youngest daughter, married William XL of Sicily. Henry HI of England, called ' Win- chester ' from the place of his birth (1206. 1216-1272). Father, JOHN; Mother, Isabelle cf Angouleme. Wife, Eleanor of Provence, by whom he had nine children, five of whom died in infancy. The four who lived to grow up were : 1. EDWARD I., who succeeded to the crown ; he was earl of Chester. 2. Edmund, surnamed Crouohback, earl of Leicester and king of Sicily. 3. Margaret, who married Alexander III. of Scotland. She had a daughter who married Eric king of Norway; and this daughter, also named Margaret, was the famous ' Maid of Norway,' who succeeded her grandfather (Alex- ander III.) in Scotland, but died on her passage from Norway to Scotland, Sep. 1290. 4. Beatrix, who married John duke of Brittany. Hit stylf. and title from 1216 to 1259 was : ' Hen- ricus, D.G. rex Anglise, dominus Hiberniae, dux NormannitB et Aquitaniea (.Guienne], et comes An- degaviee [A njou].' From 1259 to 1272 : ' Henrlcus D.G. rex Anglite, dominus Hibernise, et dux Aquitanise.' He there- fore dropped the titles of 'dux Normannorum ' or ' dux Normanniae,' and of ' comes Andegaviaa.' Henry IV. of England, called Bo- lingbroke because he was born atBoling- broke Castle, in Lincolnshire (1367, 1399- 1413). First of the line of Lancaster, which contained the three Henrys IV., V., and VI. HENRY III., son of John. EDWARD I. and Edmund duke of Lancaster, son* Of Henry III. EDWARD II., son of Edward I. EDWARD III., son of Edward II. Kdirard the Black Prince, William, Lionel, and Joh ; Of Gaunt, sous of Edward III. RICHARD II., son of Edward the Black Prince and grandson of Edward III. Philippa (daughter of Lionel), Roger Mortimer (son of Philippa), Edmund Mortimer (son of Roger Mortimer, and heir to the throne on the death of Richard II.) descendants of Lionel, third son of Ed ward III. HENRY IV. was son of John of Gaunt duke of Lancaster (4th son of EDWARD III.). V Henry IV. had no hereditary right to the Crown. The legal heir, on the death of Richard II., was Edmund Mortimer earl of March. Henry was duke of Lancaster in right of his mother Blanche, heiress of Edmund duke of Lancaster. Father, John of Gaunt. Mother, Blanche, heiress Of Edmund duke of Lancaster. Wives : I. Mary daughter of Humphrey de Bohun, by whom he had six children ; II. Joan (daughter of Charles II. of Navarre), no issue. His sons were HENRY [V.], his successor ; Thorn as duke of Clarence ; John duke of Bedford, regent of France ; and Humphry duke of Gloucester. His daughters were Blanche and Philippa. Phi- lippa married Eric X. of Denmark. Henry IV. was first of the Lancaster line, and bis usurpation brought about the War of the Roses in the reign of Henry VI. Hit style and title.' Henricus D.O. rex Anglieeel tranciw, et dominua Hiberniw.' 114 HENEY HENRY Henry V., ' Monmonth/ from the place of his birth (1889, 1418-1422), ' the English Alexander.' Father, HENRY IV. Mother. Mary daughter of Humphry de Bohun. Wife, Catherine daughter of Charles VI. of France, by whom he had one child, HENRY VI., who succeeded him. (After the death of Henry hit widow married Sir Owen Tudor, captain of the guard*. Their grandson was Henry VII., first of the Tudor line). Hit style from 1418 to 9 April, 1420, was : ' Henrlcnt D. O. rex Anglln et Francis*, et dominus H ibernlae." From 1420 to his death it wai : * Henricus D. O. rex Angliae, haeres et regens Francise, et dominus Hi- bernife.' HENRY V. was heir to the French crown. V The place of his traditional riotous court and merry doings, when Prince of Wales, was Cheylesmore, near Coventry, an estate belonging to the duchy of Cornwall. Henry VI., 'Windsor, 1 from the place of his birth (1421, 1422-1471). Father, HENBT V. ; Mother, Catherine daughter of Charles V J. of France ; Wife, Margaret of Anjoa ":lenl titular king of Naples "duke of Provence and Anjoa. He had one daughter of Rene or R son (Edward), murdered by the York party after the battle of Tewkesbury, 1471 Prince Edward was 18 years old at his death the battle of Tewkesbur Prince Edward was lo ^c.O.. of Eng- land. France, and Ireland, King. Defender of the Faith.' From 1684 to 1547 it was : ' Henry, P.O., of Eng- land. France, and Ireland, King. Defender of the Faith, and Supreme Head of the Church of England.' Henry VIII.'s Walking Stick. A spiked mare in the Tower of London. In the head of the ma^e are four barrels, which could be charged with gunpowder. The spikes are formidable triangular knives. Henry IX. of England, 1788. Henry Benedict Maria Clement (laefe of HENBY the Stuarts). He was the younger brother of Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. Henry [IX.] was a cardinal, but on the death of Charles Edward he succeeded to the mock dignity of king of Great Britain and Ireland, and had coins cast with the inscription, ' Henricus nonua Anglira rex,' and on the obverse, 'Gratia Dei, non voluntate hominum.' Forgetting in such cases that ' Vox populi est Dei vox.' Henry (Knights of St.), 7 Oct., 1786. A military Saxon order. A cross attached to a crimson ribbon. Henry Beauclerc. Henry I. (q.v.). Henry Fitz-Empress (Tha Statute of), 1172. An enactment of Henry II. and hia council in Ireland that, in case of the death of any chief governor, the chancellor, treasurer, chief justices, and certain other officers should be empowered (with the assent of the lords spiritual and temporal) to proceed to the election of a successor to that office (Ireland). Henry ' Longsword ' (1519, 1547- 1559). Henry II. king of England, grandson of Henry I., his mother being Maud daughter of Henry I. Also called CTRTMINTLB and FITZ-EMPREBS. The Anjou sword was longer and mantle shorter than the aword and mantis of th Norman kings. Henry Town-bull. St. John (Henry Viscount Bolingbroke, 1678- 1751). (Da. ABBUTHNOT, ' John Bull.') Henry of Monmouth. Henry V. of England, born at Monmouth Castle, belonging to the great estates of his mother, Mary de Bohun, daughter of the Earl of Hereford (1888, 1418-1422). Henry of Windsor. Henry VL of England, who was born at Windsor. On the news of the birth of a son being brought to Henry at Meaux, he eagerly demanded where the boy was born, and on being told at Windsor, he appeared greatly vexed, and repeated to his chamberlain, Lord 1'itzhugh, the following lines : I, Henry, born at Monmouth, Shall small time reign, and much get ; But Henry of Windsor shall long reign, and IOM all. Bnt a* God wills, So be It. Heou-Wpo-tae Dynasties (The). Five dynasties of China. The 14th Imperial dynasty was Heou-Woo-tae Leang or L'ang ; the 15th was Heou-Woo- e Tang; the 16th was Heou-Woo-tae iixi; the 17th was Heou-Woo-tae Han j HERALDS 415 and the 18th was Heou-Woo-tae Tche-u. These five dynasties lasted only from 907 to 960, and from 927 a warlike Tartar horde established itself in the north of China, under Tae-tsong. These dynasties ar called 'The Five Sac- cessions.' The seat of government was Kal-fong- Heptarchy (The). The seven king- doms founded in England by seven ' different Saxon invaders. See walda.' They are : 1. KENT founded by Hengist 2. SUSSEX Ella Bret- 455 477 519 526 547 571 584 8. WESSEX Cynric 4. ESSEX Erkinwin 5. NOBTHUMBBIA Ida 6. EAST ANGLIA Olfa 7. MERCIA Crida Northumbria was divided at Ida's death into Bernicia and Deira, and Deira was absorbed into Bernicia by Oswy in 655. Egbert, of the Wessex race of kings, united in his own person all the separate kingdoms, and called the united kingdoms ENGLAND 800. Heraclea (Table of), or ' Lex Julia Municipalis,' which was passed B.C. 45, discovered in 1782 at Heraclea, in Lucania. Heralds. L Of England. There are 14 viz. 4 kings- of -arms, 6 heralds, and 4 pursuivants. The 4 kings-of-arms are Clarenceux (having power over all parts of England south of the Trent) ; Norroy, i.e. North- roy (who has power over all parts north of the Trent) ; and the 2 who serve the Orders of the Garter and the Bath : the former called Garter King-of-arms, and the latter Bath King-of-arms. See ' Gar- ter King-of-arms.' The 6 heralds are Somerset, Chester, Windsor, Eichmond, Lancaster, and York. The 4 pursuivants are Rouge Dragon, Portcullis, Blue Mantle, and Kouge Croix. There are seven colours In English heraldry, and nine in French. The seven English colours are or (gold), argent (silver), gulet Cred),ancr (blue), table (black), vert (green), and purpure (purple). The two extra colours are tenne (orange), and tanguin* (murrey). II. Of Ireland. -Consists of 5 mem- bers. The king-of-anns is styled Ulster king-of-arms. The 2 heralds are Cork and Dublin. 416 HERALDS' HEREMONIAN The 2 pursuivants are Athlone (the senior) and St. Patrick. III. In Scotland. The Lyon Court consists of 12 members. The king-of-arms is styled Lord Lyon, or Lyon king-of-arms. The 6 heralds are called Albany, Islay or Hay, Marchmont, Boss, Bothesay, and Snowdoun. The 6 pursuivants are called Bute, Carrick, Kintyre, Ormond, and Unicorn. Heralds' College (The), or ' Col- lege of Arms.' Incorporated and chartered in 1483 by Bichard HL Herbs (The Feast of), or ' Festum Herbarum.' In German ' Krautweihe.' When women carried herbs and sweet spices to commemorate the anointing after the Sabbath of the Crucifixion week. Hercules. Almost every nation has its Hercules, or man of marvellous strength, some fabulous and some more or leas historical. Diod5rus mentions three, Cicero (' De Natura Deorum ') six, and Varro as many as forty-three. Thus Bel is called the Syrian Hercules, Mel- kart the Tyrian, Chon the Egyptian, Dorsanes the Hindu, and Ogmios the Gaulic Hercules. The following are well known ; The Attic HercuUs : Theseus (2 syl.), who went about performing exploits similar to those of Herakles or Hercules. The Barbaric HercuUs: Simeon ol Bulgaria (883-927). The Greeks were defeated, and their horn was broken by the barbaric Hercules. GIBBON, Iv. The Egyptian HercuUs : (1) Sesostris or Bamses II. the Great, of the XIX. dynasty. A sculptured head of this hero is in the British Museum. (2) Chon or Son, called by Pausanias ' Maceris son of Ammon.' The Enffluh HercuK: Gay earl of Warwick. Warwick . . . thon English Reroutes. DKAT- TON, Polyolbion, xiii. The French Hercules : Jean-Baptiste Kleber, the French general, a man of prodigious strength and stature (1764- 1800). The Greek Hercules: Alkides, *.. Herakles, who was grandson of Alkseos. The Indian Hercules : Dorsanes, who married Pandtea and became the founder of a race of Indian kings. Sometimes Belus is called 'Xb* Indian Her- The Jewish HercuUs: Samson, the judge of Israel, who died B.C. 1113. The Persian HercuUs: Bustum son of Zal, prince of Sedjistan. Matthew Arnold has a poem entitled ' Sohrab and Bustum,' which gives an account of Bustum slaying his son Sohrab. The Roman Hercults: Commodus the emperor called himself ' Hercules Secundus.' He was a gigantic idiot who killed 100 lions and overthrew 1,000 gladiators in the amphitheatre (161, 180-192). The Swedish HercuU*: Starchaterui (1st cent. A.D.). Hercules (The Farnese). A famou* statue, the work of Glykon, copied from one by Lysippos; called 'Farnese' (8 syl.) from being placed in the Farnese Palace at Borne, but now at Naples. The hero is represented leaning on his club, and holding an apple in his left hand, which rests on his back. There is i, copy of this statue in the Tuileriek garden of Paris. Farnese, pronounce Far-najf-tt. Hercules (Pillars of). Calpe and Abyia; one at Gibraltar and ^he other at Ceuta. Torn asunder (according to fable) by Alcldes on his route to Gadea (Cadiz). Hercules of Music (The}. Chris- toph von Gluck (1714-1787). Herdsman (Kina Alfred's). It is said that the name of the herdsman in whose hovel King Alfred was sheltered for six months was Dunulf, who was afterwards educated, ordained, and made bishop of Winchester. Hereditary Union (The), 1540. An act by which the crown of Sweden was declared hereditary in the House of Vasa. Heregeld, or 'Heregyld' (8 syl.). An army tax. It was first imposed by Ethelred II. under the name of ' Dane- gelt,' a war tax to resist the invasions of the Danes and buy them off. It was afterwards called ' Here-gyld,' from the Anglo-Saxon words here (2 syl.), an army, and gyld, a tax. See 'Danegelt' and ' Hidagium. 1 Heremo'nian Line [of Kings] (The). Descendants of Heremon (8 syLJ son o' Milesian king of Ireland. HEKETICAL HERETICS 417 Heretical Baptism. The baptism of heretics (3rd cent.). The controversy was this: Is baptism valid only when administered in the orthodox church ? If so, baptism by heretics is no baptism at all, and those so baptized must be baptized again in order to be members of Christ's Church. This was the view of tha Eastern Church. The Western Church considered any baptism valid if administered in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost ; so that whether performed by heretics or on heretics it mattered not if the orthodox words were ttered when the rite was administered. The Synod of Iconiumandthe Synod of Synnada In Phrygia decreed that ' heretical baptism is no baptism at all.' Some eight or ten councils con- firmed this view of the question. The Western Church would not give way, and council after council decreed that heretical baptism Is valid. This is still the belief of Western churches, whether affiliated with Rome or not. Heretics are those who differ from the dominant power in some religious point or points which those who condemn them deem essential for the ' true faith.' Thus Jesus Christ was considered a heretic by the Pharisees and Sadducees. The Buddhists are considered heretics by the Brahmins. The Shiites are con- sidered heretics by the Sunnites. SECTS are those who differ from a main religious body in some point or points less grave than heresy. Thus the Jansenists and Jesuits, the Dominicans and Fran- ciscans, always antagonistic to each other, are virtually sects of the Catholio Church Nonconformists of the Anglican Church and Ismaeliaiis of the Shiites. In a word, orthodoxy is the doxy of the judge; heterodoxy is the doxy of those condemned by the judge. Both change places as opinions change or the dominant power changes. Thus Mary considered Protestantism heretical, but Elizabeth called it orthodoxy. Laud condemned the Puritans, and, like Ferdinand II., would have stamped them ont if he could ; whereas the Puritans were every bit as intolerant during the Common- wealth. See the following in loco : ALBIGENSES. Condemned by the Third Laterals A'POLLINARIANS. Condemned by the Council ol Alexandria In 8(32, and the Council of Constanti- Condemned by toe Council of Nice Condemned by the Council of nople in 331. AIUANS. Chalcedon 451. BARDKSANISTS. BASILIDIANS. A branch of th" Gnostic*. BOGOMILES. Condemned by the Council of Con- Btantinople 1110. BUDDHISTS. Called heretics by the Brahmins. CALVINISTS. Condemned by the Council of Trent 1545. CELESIIANS. Condemned by the Council of Carthage 412, and again by the Council of Ephesus CKRINTHIANS. A branch of the Gnostics. Cerinthus denied that John was the author of the Fourth Gospel. CHRISTIANS. Called heretics by Moslems. CHYITES or SHIITES (2 syl.). Called heretics by the Sunnites (2 syl.). COPTS or COPTI, the Monophysites or Jacobites Of Egypt. DOCE'TJE. A branch of the Gnostics. DONATISTB. Condemned by the Council of Aries DRUSES. EBIONITES (4 syl.). Supposed to be condemned In the Fourth Gospel. EUTVCHIANS. Condemned by the Council of Chalcedon 451. They affirmed that Christ was one thing and the Logos another ; that there were two natures in Christ before the hypostatical union, but after that the two were amalgamated into one. GNOSTICS. GREEK CHURCH. Condemned by the Council of Alx-la-Chapelle 809. HERMESIANS. Condemned by a papal brief In 1835. HUGUENOTS of France. II us MTE s. HUBS was excommunicated by Alex- ander V. ICONOCLASTS. Condemned by several councils. ISMAELIANB (5 syl.). Deemed heretics by the Bunnites (2 syl.). JA'COBITES (3 syl.) or JACO'BIANS, of Syria. So called from Jacob, a disciple of Eut^ches. In the 7th cent, the Eutychians, Copts, and Monoph'o- Bites (4 syl.), who acknowledged but one nature in Christ, all merged in the Jacobites or Jacobians. JAN'SENISTS. Condemned by Innocent X. LUTHERANS. Condemned by the Council of Lyons 1528, and again by the Council of Trent 1545. MACEDONIANS. Condemned by the Council of Constantinople 881. MANICHE'ANS. Condemned by several councils. MAR'CIONITES (4 gyl.). Similar to the Basilidians. Perhaps the same. MONOPH'YSITES (4 syl.). A general term for those sectaries of the Levant who believe that Christ had only one nature. >S'45. SABELLIANS. Condemned by the Council of Alexandria 261. VAUDOIS. Condemned by the Council of the La- teran 1179 I by the bull of John XXII. in 1332 ; and by Innocent VIII. in 1487. WYCLIFITES 1.3 syl.). Condemned by the Counall Of Trent 1545. Heresy, in Greek aiptat*, simply means a choice, r gouiething chosen. A heretic is one whochooMf BJB 418 HERETICS HERMANDAD his own religious opinions, and does not accept blindly those chosen tor him by others. Heretics (Laws against). The first laws against heretics, on which all subse- quent ones were founded, originated in 1220 by the Kaiser Friedrich IL They were for the extermination of heretics, and had been dictated by Pope Honorius HI. Confirmed by Innocent IV. in 1243, by Alexander IV. in 1258, by Urban IV. in 1262, and by Clement IV. in 1265 (four popes, all the IVths of the name). ' These laws' (says the pope), ' published by our dearest son Friedrich emperor of the Romans, we praise and approve, so as to be valid for all time. And II anyone attempt to infringe them ... he will Incur the wrath of Almighty God. ... As for the persons of heretics, they are all to be burnt alive -without appeal or possibility of pardon . . . all their goods are to be confiscated, and never restored to their posterity. Their children and grandchildren shall be held incapable of holding any public office, with this one exception, viz. if a on informs against the secret heresy of a father. Persons only suspected of heresy shall be put to death unless they can clear themselves within a year and a day. Repentant heretics to be impri- soned tor life.' The bull of Paul III., published in 1588 against Henry VIII., contains some new enactments against 'the accomplices of heretics.' In Section "x~TT. all the faithful are admonished, under pain of excommuni- cation, 'to avoid and cause others to avoid ' all adherents of the king, and to 'have no commerce, conversation, or communion' with him, his household, vassals, and subjects; they are strictly enjoined not ' to buy or sell, exchange, deal, or chaffer, in any town, fort, castle, or city ' in his dominion, nor ' cause wine, grain, salt, victuals, arms, clothes, wares, or other articles of commerce, to be brought by ship, trireme or other vessel, by mule, horse, or other animal,' to any part of his dominion ; and ' stoutly to refuse all assistance, counsel, or favour to those who, directly or indirectly, secretly or openly, presume to traffic with them.' Section X. enjoined 'all who possess armed forces to set them on the king and his adherents.' Section XV11. gives everyone full liberty of appropriating to himself all goods belonging to the king or any of big subjects. In a word, the bull of Paul III. states :- 1. That no man who refuses to believe all the articles of the Catholic Church has any right to life or property. 2. No Christian has any right to respect the life or property of a heretic. a. Christian government* are bound to bora alive all heretics and to confiscate all their pro- perty. 4. Children are bound to pry Into the secret belief of their parents, and denounce them U heretical. 5. Error in faith U infinitely worse than moral turpitude. 6. Anyone may appropriate to himself the goodi of a heretic. 7. Every heretic Is virtually an outlaw, and all contracts made with heretics or debts owing to them are null and void. 6. Slavery and the slave-trade should be kept np, if the slaves are heretical. (Abridged from a letter sent to the ' Times ' from an English Catholic, and published in that Jour- nal under the title of 'Papal Infallibility and Persecution.') Heretics (Th Statute of), 1401. By this infamous act priests were allowed to arrest and imprison all heretical preachers in England, all schoolmasters tainted with Lollardry, all owners and writers of heretical books ; and, on refusal to abjure, or relapse after abjuration, to send the heretic to the stake, 'to be burnt to death on a high place in the sight of the people.' The first victim of this iniquitous statute was William Sawtre of Lynn, in Norfolk. Next fol- lowed John Badbie, for denying the dogma of transubstantiation. This statute, often called "The Statute of Heresy ' was revived by Mary in 1555 ; but it was the first act of Elisabeth to repeal it. Constantino, in 8-2-5. passed a penal edict against heretics ; and the Council of Laodicea In H72. forh^de marriages between heretics and orthodox Christians. But what was heresy and what orthodoxy in the 4th cent, is impossible to determine. Heretics of Brixen. In I486 the magistrates of Brixen refused to burn heretics, on the ground that heresy being an ecclesiastical offence, civil magistrates could take no cognizance of it. Innocent VIII. forthwith excommunicated them, ' without appeal, unless within six days they carried out the sentences of the Inquisition.' In 15-20 Leo X. condemned the proposition Harotico* oomborl eet contra voluntatem spiritus.' Heretics of PeVigord and Pe"i'igueux. The Waldenses were so called because they abounded inPerigord and Perigueux in the 12th cent. Heretoga (4 syl.). A Saxon word meaning a general or commander; from here (2 syl.), an army, and toga, a leader. Latin comes, our earl, the continental count. German Herzog = duke ; Graf= earl or count. Her'mandad (The Sa nta), or ' Holy Brotherhood.' An association of th HEEMANN HEROD 419 cities of Castile and Aragon, jound together by a solemn league for mutual defence. The first hermandad in Aragon was established in 1264, that of Castile in 1295. These associations were defences against the barons, whose unruly conduct and depredations were the curse of the middle ages. Hermann the Cripple (1018- 1054). One of the most marvellous of men. His body was wholly paralysed, so that he could not move without assistance, and could scarcely speak so as to be understood; yet was his society sought by men from all quarters of the globe. He has left a book of great merit behind, entitled ' A Chronicle of the Six Ages of the World,' containing a history of Ger- many during the 10th and llth cents. Paul Scarron, the French poet, was a similar Cripple 11610-1660). Herme'sian Heresy (19th cent., about 1828). The substitution of con- viction for faith. By conviction is meant the persuasion which results from judg- ment and sound reason ; by faith is meant the persuasion of authority. One is be- lief in what sound reason convinces the mind is true ; the other is belief in what the church pronounces to be true. Her- mes of Westphalia was divinity professor in the University of Miinster, and thought by his teaching to amalgamate Catholics and Protestants, as well as Calvinists and Lutherans, but his doctrine was condemned by a papal brief in 1835. Hermippic School (The). Her- mippus, the Greek philosopher, placed the elixir vitce in the health-bestowing breath of youth. Hermit of Lathom (The). Ro- bert Swarsbrick (1740-1824), who lived first in a one-roomed and then in a two- roomed hut at the bottom of the ' Ladies' Walk ' at Lathom. He wrote a journal, nd was fond of gardening. Hernhutters, or ' Hernhutes,' 1721. The Moravians or ' United Brethren ' were so called, because after the Thirty Years' War they found refuge in Hern- hutt, under the protection of Count Zin- zendorf. They profess to take the pure precepts of the gospel as their rule of conduct, choose their ministers by lot, wash each other's feet, celebrate agapaa or love-feasts, and address prayer to the Saviour oul/. He'ro de la Fable (Le). Charlea de Lorraine, due de Guise (1571-1640), the implacable foe. of the Protestants. He bore arms against Henri IV., but tendered his submission; he conducted a fleet against Rochelle, but incurred the displeasure of Richelieu, and retired to Italy, where he died. He'ro de I'Histoire (Le). The Due d'Enghien. Ever since 1485, when the house of Enghien passed into that of Bourbon, some member of the family has become historic. Amongst others we have Francois de Bourbon- Vendome, brother of Prince Louis I. de Conde (1519-1544); the Grand Conde' (1621- 1659) ; Louis Antoine Henri de Bourbon, last of the Conde*s (1772-1804). Hero of Modern Italy (The). Garibaldi (1807-1882). Certainly the most disinterested hero that ever lived, but treated with scant honour. Hero of Hora(Tfce). Joshua Jana- vel, who lived at Bora, and with seventeen companions put to flight a troop of Irish- men led on by Mario against the Vaudoia in 1655. Hero of the Wile (The). Horatio viscount Nelson ; so called for his great naval victory over the French, 1 August, 1798, for which he was created ' Baron Nelson of the Nile' (1758-1805). Hero of the Nine Hostages (The). Nial the Great, who was suc- ceeded in A.D. 406 by Dathy, last of the pagan kings of Ireland. Nial was killed by a flash of lightning. Hero of the Peninsula (The). The Duke of Wellington, who, between 21 August, 1808, and 10 April, 1814, de- feated five French marshals in the Penin- sula of Spain and Portugal, won nine battles, and made three successful sieges. A rare hero Indeed. Napoleon's prevailing fault was the exaltation of himself and family. Wel- lington's great merit was modest patriotism. Being asked in 1806 how he could condescend to lead a brigade after commanding large armies, ha replied: 'I am nim-muk-wallah, a,a we gay in the K ist ; that is, I have eaten the king's salt, and think it my duty to serve him faithfully, wherever he finds it convenient to employ me.' This is magnificent magnanimity ; more honourable to hero than the slaughter of Austerliti. Herod the Great. Son of Anti- pater, prime minister of Hyrcanus. He married ten wives. 1st. Doris, by whom he had Antipater. BB9 (20 HERODIANS HETAIREIA 2nd. Mariamne the Asmonsean, by whom he had Alexander, Aristobiilus, Herod, SaUmpso, and Cypros [Aristo- bulus]. King Agrippa, who put James to death, was son of Aristobulus. Agrippa's son and daughter (Agrippa and Berenice) heard Paul make his de- fence (Acts xxv., xxvi.). This was Herod II. of Judasa. 3rd. Mariamn, daughter of Simon the high-priest, by whom he had PHILIP (whose wife was Herodias). 4th. Malthace,by whom he had ABCHB- LA'US, Philip, and Olympias. 6th. Cleopatra, by whom he had HEROD ANTIPAS and Philip. 6th. Pallas, by whom he had Phasael, in honour of whom he built Phasaelis. 7th. Phaedra, by whom he had Roxana. 8th. Elpis, by whom he had Saloino. (Names of the other two wives not known.) N.B. Italics, put to death; capitals, the tetrarchs. At the death of Herod the Great the Romans divided the Jewish state into four parts, called tetrarchies viz. Judaea, Galilee, Iturtea, and Samaria. The first three they gave to the sons of Herod the Great. To Herod Archelaus was given Judaea ; to Herod Aiitipas was given Galilee (this is the man who slew John the Baptist) ; and to Herod Philip was given Ituroea (he married his niece Herodias, who lived in adultory with lu-r brother-in-law Herod Antipas). The tetrarchy was abolished A.D. 50, and Herod II. (Agricola) became sole king of Judaea. Samaria was ruled by Roman governors. For table of affinity, tee ' Maccabees.' See also next article. Hero'dians. A Jewish sect in the time of Herod. Dr. Prideaux reduces then* tenets into two heads : (1) a belief that the dominion of the Romans over the Jews was lawful, and it was their duty to submit to it ; (2) that, under present circumstances, they might follow many heathen usages. In fact they were trimmers between political policy and religious obligations. Herod'otos of China (The). Sse- ma-Thsian, author of the Sse-ki, or Annals of China. He lived in the reign of Han Ho-tee, who reigned 89-106. Herodotos of Old London (The). John Stow (1525-1605), author of 1 Summary of the Chronicles of England,' 1561, 'Annals of England,' 1580, and ' Survey of London,' 1598. Heroes scratched off the Church Doors. So Sheridan called Militia officers who had served four years. An act of parliament enjoined that a list of all persons between 18 and 45 should be affixed in each parish to the church doors three clear days before the day of appral, Sunday being one of the days. Commis- sioned officers who had served four y^ars in the Militia were exempt, and their names were ' scratched off the doors.' HoroicAge(IVie). The semi-historic age preceding the historic. The hcrio age of Greece dates from the arrival of the first colony under Inachos, and p><-s to the 19th cent. B.C., the return of the Hera- clidffl. China, Persia, and all other civi- lised countries have passed through tlu-ir mythical age and their heroic age, before they came to their historic period. England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland have had their heroic ages. Brute, Colbrand, Guy of Warwick, Arthur, o., will readily recur to the mind. Herrings (Battle of), Feb. 1429. Sir John Fastolfe carrying provisions, much of which was salt fish, to the Eng- lish army before Orleans, was i 1 1 1 r by an allied army of French and S Sir John succeeded in vanquishing his opponents near Rouvrai and reaching the English army. Herrying of Buchan (The). The ravaging of the country of Comyn earl of Buchan, in 1807, by Robert Bruou, in re- venge for the pertinacity with which the earl had pursued him when, wasted by sickness, he had retreated before him. Sir Alexander and Sir Simon Fraser took a very inent part with Bruce i y is to plunder or spoil. prominent part with Bruce in this expedition. To berry Hertford College, Oxford, 1282. Founded by Elias de Hertford, and called 1 Hertford Hall'; but the word 'colic-.- ' was substituted in 1740. It was di- in 1805, but in 1874 was reestablished. The head-master is called the Principal. Hertford Scholarship. For Latin, value about 301., and tenable for one year only. The funds are derived from the interest of 1,100^. made over to the Univer- sity of Oxford at the dissolution of the College in 1834. See above. Hes'ychastsor'Hesicastffl.' Mystics of the Greek Church, very similar to the Quietists (q.v.). They either came into being or revived in the 14th cent. Anachoretas dlcuntur quoque hesicastn tara- quam quiftcentet, t. Hetaireia(rfo), 1820. The Greek confederates, whose reaolv* WM to lib* HEXAPLA HIGH 421 rate Greece from the slavery of the Moslem. The leader of the confederates was Prince Alexander Ypgilanti. The confederacy was formed by Khigas before 1798, but made small progress till 1816. In 1821 it brought about the Greek lievolution. Hexapla (The). Origen's Old Testa- ment in six columns, each column being a different language. (1) Hebrew, (2) Hebrew in Greek characters, (8) the Septuagint, (4) the text of Aquila, (5) that of Theodotian, and (6) that of Symma- chos. The book no longer exists. It disappeared in the 7th cent. Hia Dynasty, B.C. 2205-1766. The first Imperial dynasty of China, and the first of the semi-historic period. It gave 18 emperors, and lasted 440 years. Their capital was Yang-tching. It was followed by the Chang dynasty. Too the Great, founder of the Hia dynasty, is the first monarch mentioned in the ' Shoo-king ' of Con- fucius. Hialmar's Ordinances for pirates. His men were forbidden to rob women of then* money, or to carry them off against their consent. They were also forbidden to eat raw flesh. (BARTHOLINUS, ' De Gausis Con temp toa a Danis Mortis,' bk. ii. 9.) Hialtland (3 syl.). The Norse name of Shetland or Zetland Islands, or rather of the mainland of that group. Or shall Hialtland's minstrel own One note to rival glorious John ? Sir W. SCOTT, The Pirate, zzi. Hibernia. The Roman name for Ireland. Diodorus Siculus calls it Irin ; Erin is the modern name. Ire-land is Iren-land ; and Hibernia is another form of lernia or Irinia. It is called the Holy Island, and Irin or Erin is connected with the Greek tepo? (sacred or holy), Hebrew Ira (to revere). Hibernian Roseius (The). Gus- tavus Vaughan Brooke (1819-1802). Hickesites (2 syl.). Non-jurors were BO called after Dr. George Hickes, a non- juror and learned Saxonist (1642-1716). Hicksites (2 syl.), 1827. Rational- istic Quakers ; so called from Elias Hicks, spoken of by Mr. Conway, 'a sort of mystical and eloquent Thomas Paine.' Walt Whitman wrote in 1887 a life-sketch of this mystic. Elias Hicks denied the miraculous conception, the divinity of Christ, the doctrine of the atone- bent, and the inspiration of Scripture. Hidage (2 syl.), or 'Hid^gium.' A tax paid to Ethelred II. for every hide of land ; levied in money, provisions for the army, armour, ships, &e. By this tax every 310 hides were required to furnish one ship in defence of the kingdom against the Danes, and every 8 hides had to supply 'one jack (foot- soldier) and one saddle (horse-soldier),' fully armed and equipped, in defence of the kingdom. See 1 Danegelt.' Hieronymites (5 syl.). I. A reli- gious society founded in Holland in 1376 by Geert Groote and Florentius Radewin, who named the society after St. JEROME, Very similar to the subsequent society known as the Moravians or the United Brethren. They owned no conventional distinctions, enjoined community of goods, ascetic habits, and the use of the vernacular tongue in religious services. In 1430 the Hieronymites numbered 130 societies. II. Hermits of St. Jerome, founded in 1380 in Umbria by Pietro of Pisa. Th austerity of these hermits is almost in- credible. III. The Hieronimites of the Obser- vance, instituted in Lombardy by Loup d'Olmedo in 1424 under the reformed rule of Thomas. High and Low Church, 1700. The favourers of the doctrine of divine right were the High Churchmen, and they, of course, were Jacobites. The friends of William of Orange and the Hanoverian succession, who denied the doctrine of divine right, were the Low Churchmen. At the present day High Churchmen are those who exalt the priestly office and church rites. See below, 'High Church Principles.' The Lov Churchmen are what may be called the Evan- gelists or Simeonites, whose creed Is 'by grace are ye saved, through faith ; and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God.' High and Mighty States (The), 20 Nov., 1789. The title assumed by the States of Brabant when they threw off their allegiance to Austria (Kaiser Joseph II.). High Church Principles. These seven doctrines may be termed essentials. See ' High and Low Church.' 1. Baptismal regeneration. 8. The Apostolic succession of ordained minis- ters. 8. The power of absolution in priests. 4. The eucharistic sacrifice. 6. The real presence of Christ in the elements ot bread and win*. 423 HIGH HIGHGEREVB . The communion of saints, militant and trl- umphant. 7. The authority of the Church, as a Church. High Church and Sache verell ! So shouted the London mob in 1709, after the trial of the doctor in the House of Lords. His offence was alluding to Lord Godolphin as ' Volpone ' in the sermon preached by him in St. Paul's, London. See ' Volpone.' High Commission Cpurt (The), 1 Eliz. c. 1, AJ). 1559; abolished by 16 Car. I. c. 11, AJ>. 1041. This court was instituted to vindicate the dignity and peace of the church by reforming, order- ing, and correcting the ecclesiastical state and persons, as well as all manner of errors, heresies, schisms, abuses, offences, contempts, and enormities. The commission was directed in the reigns of James I. and Charles L to tyrannical and unconstitutional purposes, and therefore the court was abolished. There was no appeal from the judgments of this court. James II. partially restored it. Not nnfrequently called ' The Court of High Commission. 7 The test of heresy was the Four Gospels and first four General Councils. Dr. Alex- ander Leighton, for his pamphlet, entitled ' An Appeal to Parliament, or Zion's Plea against Prelacy,' was thus sentenced by Archbishop Laud, In the High Commission Court: 'To be isoned for life, and to pay a fine of 10,0004. ; to egraded from his ministry ; to be whipped, imprisoned for life, and to pay a fine of 10,0004. ; to be degraded from his ministry ; to be whipped, Bet in the pillory, have one ear cut off, and one nostril slit up; then to be branded on the forehead up; ten o e rane on e oreea ditious slanderer), and carried back to prison. After a few days to be again pilloried, to lose his other ear, to have his other nostril slit, and being whipped, again to be restored to hia dungeon till his death.' High Constable (Lord) of Eng- land. The seventh great officer of the crown. The office existed before the Conquest, when it went by inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and next fell into the line of Stafford. In 1522 it became forfeited by the attainder of Edward Stafford duke of Buckingham. Abolished 1869 (82, 88 Viet, c. 47). High Constable (Lord) of Scot- land. Keeper of the king's sword, and commander of the army. Instituted by David I. in 1147, and made by Robert Bruce hereditary in the family of Errol. The title is only honorary, but it makes the earl of Errol the hightest peer in Scotland. High Court of Justice (The). A court formed for trying Charles I. for 'treason against the sovereign majesty of the people.' Bradshaw was the president The king was found guilty by the court and condemned to death. High Mass, ' Missa alta.' The cele- bration of the Eucharist in the Catholic Church, performed musically, and alta voce, with a loud voice. Low mass is merely read, submissa voce, with a low or subdued voice. See ' Mass.' High National Court (The), 179 >. A court which the National Assembly substituted for the court of justice at the Chatelet. This court was to try all treasons against. the nation. Barnave was thenrst president of this High Court. High School (The) t of Edinburgh, 1577. Founded by the magistrates of that city. High Steward (The). L At one time the first great officer of the crown. Established before the Conquest, but abolished in 1265. The office is still revived at a coronation, or may be so if a peer is charged with high treason. II. Of the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford. Adjudicates in all cases of felony charged against a member of the univer- sity if committed within the limits thereof. He is also empowered to hold a leet ; but he appoints a deputy, subject to the approval of the senate in Cambridge, and Convocation in Oxford. Api> in Cambridge by the senate ; in Oxford by the chancellor. In both universities there is a deputy steward. The limit of the university Is one statute mile from any of the suburbs. Stipend of the high steward, in Oxford, is ., and of his deputy tt. Highfliers and Moderates, 1835. In the Scotch Presbyterian Church. They were also called ' Non-intrusionists ' that is, those who looked on the veto law (q.v.) passed by the General Assembly as an illegal intrusion or interference with the patron's rights. The Hi^hHierswere the High Church party. See ' Free Church of Scotland,' The leaders of the Non-Intrusion party were Dr. Chandler, Dr. Candlish, Dr. Gordon, and Messrs. Guthrie, Cunningham and Duulop. Highgereve, or ' Shire-reeve,' we now call a viscount, not meaning a count's deputy or vice, but simply the peer next in dignity to a count or earl. Our high sheriff is of course the same word, but its modern meaning is quite different to that of HIGHGATE HIRAM 423 Highgate Prophet (The). William Powell (died 1803). For many years he walked from Sloane Street to Highgate Hill, then started off at a run to the top of the hill. Being asked why he did so, he replied, that if he ceased to do so, the world would be no more. Hence he was called The prophet.' Highland Host (The), 1679. A scandalous raid against what was called Scotch heretics. Some 8,000 Highlanders were let loose by the English Government upon the Presbyteriana, who refused to accept the prelacy which the government of Charles II. tried to force upon them. The savagery of these Highlanders was quite equal to that of the French dragon- nades. Neither age nor sex was spared, and Alva or Torquemada never showed more diabolical ingenuity of torture than these ' brither Scots ' did to their own coun- trymen. Highland Plot (The), 1704. A plot in which Simon Fraser and Athol were deeply concerned. The plot was to raise a rebellion hi Scotland, to invade England with French soldiers, and having sub- verted the government of Queen Anne, to bring back James, who called himself Prince of Wales, but is better known as the Old Pretender. Bishop Burnet [being told of the plot] remarked to the queen that . . they did not mean her to live any longer than till they thought their designs for the prince were well laid : on which the queen answered very quickly, There is no manner of doubt about that.' HOWXTT, Hitt. oj Eiig. (Anne), p. 180. Highness (His). A title given to princes not sovereigns. 'His Royal Highness ' or ' His Imperial Highness ' is S'ven to royal or imperial princes. ' His ost Serene Highness ' is given to the collateral branches of the blood royal in Germany. The Sultan of Turkey is en- titled * His Highness.' Till the reign of James I. in England kings were generally addressed as ' His Highness ' ; so were they in Spain till the reign of Charles V. In France, the Duke of Orleans was called ' His High- ness.' In 1633 the elder sons of the cadet branch of the Bourbons took the title of ' His Royal Highness.' Under Louis XIV. all legitimate princes were addres- sed as ' His Highness,' and the Prince of Conde* as ' His Most Serene Highness.' In addressing the Sultan of Turkey we say ' Your Highness ' ; Boyal princes we say 'Your Boy af Highness ' ; Imperial princes we say Tour Imperial High- ness ' ; The collateral branches of the blood royal of Germany we Bay ' Your Serene Highness. 1 V The king or queen Is addressed as ' Your Majesty. 1 See ' Majesty/ Hil'ary Term. One of the four legal terms of England. It used to be from 11 Jan. to the end of the month. It now terminates the Wednesday before Easter. St. Hilary's day is the 13th Jan., whence the name. The other three terras are called Eastox Term, Trinity Term, and Michaelmas Term. Hildebrand (The Hymn of), 8th cent. A popular German legend in metre, without rhymes. The story is this. Hildebrand thought his father was dead, and one day, as he was riding in full armour, he was encountered by another knight, and said to him : ' Sir Knight, tell me thy name and country, but an ye re- fuse to do so, ye shall not pass this way.' The stranger replied, 'Wit you well, I am Sir Hildebrand of Lombardy.' ' Knave,' cried the younger man, ' thou liest ' ; and so saying he let drive at him, and knocked him off his horse. Then going to unlace his helm, he discovered that it was hia father whom he had thus slain. Hill Coolies. Hindoo highland labourers. Hill-men. The Cameronians. The religious sect called Hill-men, or Came* ronians, was at that time noted for austerity and devotion, in imitation of Cameron, their founder. Sir W. SCOTT, Old Mortality (Introduction). Hillside Men. Old Nationalists (about 1881). So called because they believed that one day they would be in a position to fight for their country [Ireland] on the hillside. They had, however, an utter abhorrence of assassi- nation. They were not members of the Land League (q.v.). See 'Irish Asso- ciations.' Hippoc'rates (The British). Thomas Sydenham, M.D. (1624-1689). So called over and over again by Boerhaave. Hippoc'rates (The Roman). Aulus Cornelius Celsus (1st cent.) was so called because for the most part he followed the great fatiier of medicine. Hiram [exalted]. The common title of the kings of Tyre, as Pharaoh [the sun] is that of the kings of Egypt. The Hiram, in Solomon's days, was by name Abibalus, 424 HISTORIC EOLSTEIN-GOTTORP Historic Register (The). A quarterly publication containing an ab- stract of historical events for three months. Begun 1716, discontinued 1738. See 'Annual Register.' History (The Father of). Herodo- tus, the Greek historian (B.C. 484-408). History of Formosa (The], 1704. By George Psalmanasar, a Frenchman, who pretended to be a Japanese, and published an 'Historical and Geo- graphical Description of Formosa, an island belonging to the empire of Japan.' The real name of this literary Impostor Is not known. It seems that he was born in France in 1679, and died in London 8 May, 1763. His'triomas'tix. A huge volume by William Prynne, of 1,000 pages, against the stage. He says ' theatres are the chapels of Satan, the players his ministers, and that their frequenters are rushing headlong into hell.' He not only denounces theatres, but also dancing, music, village sports, and even chanting in churches. Hobbe (King). So Edward L called Robert Bruce. In the statutes of Kil- kenny (1867) the new arrivals from England were nicknamed 'English Hobbes.' (See Du Cange, art. 'Hobel- larii.') Equi quos Hoblnos sive Hobbyes vocant ob mollem gressum. Antiquitatet Hiberni&e, p. 88. Hohenstauffen (House of). The 3rd German dynasty: 1, the Saxon; 2, the House of Franconia. It gave five kings, viz. Konrad III., Friedrich I. (Barba- rossa), Heinrich VI. the Cruel, Friedrich II. and Konrad IV. Eonrad in. was the son of Friedrich of Hohen- itauffen, -who was son-in-law of Heinrich IV. On the death of Hoinrich VI. there were three contemporary kings of Germany. As Friedrich his son was only two years old the Ghibelline barons elected Philip, and the Guelflc barons elected Otto (son of Heinrich the Lion) ; but as Friedrich had been created already ' king of the Romans,' or kaiser elect, of course the other two were usurpers. Friedrich von Buren or Stauffen, born 1015, the founder of this house, lived in the castle of Hohenstauffen, and married the half -sister of Konrad II. kaiser king of Germany. Pronounce Ho-hen*to\cf-fn. Holding by the Straws. Similar to the old English custom of 'holding by the verge,' i.e. by a rod or stick handed to the tenant, whereby he is admitted into the occupation of a copy- hold estate. There was at one time a large number of these symbolic transfers. Thus a clergyman was presented by ono of the churchwardens with a sod from the churchyard, whereby the freehold was conferred on the clergyman so long as he remained incumbent of the parish. Holland. Was an independent country from 868 to 1483 ; when Philippe of Burgundy united it to his vast estates. In 1477 Mary of Burgundy married Maximilian, and Holland, with many other estates, was united to Austria. After Karl V. it passed into the Spanish branch of the house, and in 1523, under the influence of Luther, it became Protestant. In 1579 Holland united with six other provinces in the ' Union of Utrecht,' threw off the Spanish yoke, and became a republic, railed 'The Seven Provinces,' with "William of Orange as stadtholder. In 16-21 Holland was united to France. In 1MJC it was erected into the kingdom of Holland by Napoleon I. and given to lag brother Louis Bonaparte. In 1810 it was united to France, but after the battle of Waterloo (1814) it was united to Belgium and formed ' The Kingdom of the Is - lands.' In 1830 Holland and Belgium were divided into two kingdoms, called the ' Kingdom of Holland ' and the ' King- dom of Belgium'; the king of Holland still calls himself the 'King of the Netherlands.' See ' Netherlands.' Holland. One of the three dis- tricts of Lincolnshire. \Vh. r- Boston stands used to be called 'IliJi Hol- land.' The other two districts are Lin.l- sey (the highest land) and Kestevt : western part). ' Holland ' is the south- eastern part or fen district. See ' Hal* lamshire.' And for that part of me (ZAncoln,.). which men 'High Holland' call. Where Boston seated la. by plenteous Wytham'i No other 'tract Of land doth like abundance yield. DKAYTON, Pulyolbion, xxv. Holliglasses (buffoons). A word derived from Howie-glass = Eulen-sjiie- gel, the famous jester, the hero of a popular German tale, translated into English in the tune of Shakespeare. Mr. Black, speaking of the council, called them holiglafses, cormorants, and men of no religion. Sir W. SCOTT, Hut. of Scotland, xxxix. Holstein-Gottorp (The Dynasty of). I. SWEDEN. It succeeded that of Deux-ponts, and lasted from 1751 to 1818. Adolf Frederik was oi the hous HOLY HOLY 25 of Holstein-Gottorp, and was pressed on the nation by Eussia. It was in this reign that the factions of the Hats and Caps arose (q.v.). II. KUSSIA. The fourth dynasty, 1762 * It has given Peter III. (assassi- nated); Catherine II. his widow; Paul I. their son (assassinated) ; Alexander I. ; Nicholas I., who died during the Crimean war ; Alexander II. (assassi- nated in 1881) ; Alexander HI. Holy Alliance (The). 1.1511-1512. Not holy meaning pious and godly, but holy meaning in the temporal interest of the pope. In 1509 the pope (Julius II.) had joined the ' League of Cambray ' (q.v.), the object of which was to seize Venetia and divide it between the leaguers. Louis XII., being first in the field, won the brilliant battle of Agna- dello, by which Venice fell into his hands. The pope, being thus outwitted, formed a new league to otrsfLouis, but died the following year, 1513. The holy alliance consisted of the pope, Spain, Venice, and Switzerland. J> II. In 1609, formed at Wiirzburg, in opposition to the Evangelical Alliance (q.v.) formed by Protestant states of Ger- many in 1608. III. The aUiance entered into 26 Sept., 1815, between the Czar of Russia, the Emperor of Austria, and the King of Prussia. It was agreed by the three contracting parties to pursue no policy in future which had not for its object the maintenance of Christianity, justice, and peace. The three crowns contracted to stand fast to each other, and to suffer no other power to touch any portion of their respective dominions. France entered the alliance 26 Sept. It was under the strength of this alliance that Austria laid claim to Italy. England held aloof, feeling the scheme to be Utopian. Only think of Metternich, Talleyrand, and Castlereagh joining hands to bring peace on earth and good-will towards men. The inconsistency became a matter of ridicule, and fell powerless and abortive. Holy Bread. Not the eucharist, which is a wafer in the Catholic Church, but bread brought to the church to be blessed by the officiating priest on Sun- days and feast-days at the time of mass. The ' pain benit ' is distributed to the heads of families and taken home with them. The custom dates from 655, and was instituted by the great council of Nice. Du Cange (vol. v. p. 122) calls it ' Panis Beatus, eulogia, panis a sacerdote benedictione consecratus ' ; but panis beatus is not the synonym of Eulogia (q.v.). Hallowed Bread would be a better translation Of ' Panis Beatus ' than Holy Bread. Holy Brotherhood (The), or ' Santa Hermandad.' An association which executed summary justice on all offenders without distinction of rank. It was established in Spain by Ferdinand the Catholic for the suppression of high- road robbery (1481, 1516). Holy Cities of the Islam (The Four). Jerusalem, Mecca, Medina, and Damascus. Holy Coat of Treves (The). Sea 'Diet, of Phrase and Fable,' p. 411. Said to be spun from the wool of a lamb by the Virgin Mary, and woven in a grey coat by St. Helena on the Mount of Olives. Christ wore it at the crucifixion. It came into the hands of a Jew, who threw it into the sea because the blood- stains would not wash out, and a whale swallowed it. The whale being caught by a fisherman, the grey coat found in its belly was sold for thirty pieces of silver to Orendel, son of Eygel, a Christian king of Treves. Orendel de- posited the coat in a stone coffin, where, being discovered, it became a venerable relic exhibited to the faithful every twenty-five years. Holy Constitution (The), 'La Sainte Constitution,' 817. The division by Louis I. le Debonnaire of his kingdom between his three sons. Lothaire he associated with himself in the empire, to Pepin he gave the government of Aquitaine, and to Louis that of Bavaria. Lothaire, associated with his father, was charged with the vice-royalty of Italy. This ' holy constitution ' was certainly most impolitic, and proved to be an Iliad of woea. Holy Days observed in the Catholic Church. Some are more or less observed in the Church of England, and used to be marked in the Book of Common Prayer either with red letters or italics. Sundays are not included in this list except they happen to be fete days, (Those without a date are movable.) 421 HOLY HOLY 1 Nov by Peter the Great, having supreme con- AllSoSS" 1 -. . - - ^Npy' trol and judgment in all matters eccle- Annunciation (The), or Lady Day '.'.'. 25 March. Ascension Day, or Holy Thursday. TVio fnrtipih dav aftfr Kaster. siastical. The only appeal from this gynod was to the czar himself. Ash Wednesday. The first day of Lent. Assumption (The), or Ascension ol Marv Aug. Holy Fair (The). A Scotch custom of celebrating the eucharist in Barnabas'S ^Jj^- ~' 2 4 Aug. the open air. Burns has a poem on the Christmas Day ... ..'.' ".' ~ 26 Dec. subject. This led to such immorality Commemoration of the Passion. that it was abolished. Conception of Mary Deo. Holy Ghost (Knights of the). Ep?phany%r Twelfth Day ... . Jan. Fat Ox (The). Called in French Mnrdi Grot The day before Ash Wednesday. I. A Neapolitan Order, instituted by Louis of Anjou, king of Naples, 1352. Fete Dieu, or Corpus ChrUti Day The Sunday next after Trinity Sunday. Good Friday. The Friday befor* II. A French Order, instituted 1198 at Montpellier by Comte Guy. In 1(572 GSSSothes (The). In French th Tren-saint Uuaire. The Friday next it was united to the Order of St. Lazarus. III. A French military order instituted to Good Friday. (1578) by Henri III., who was both Lorn Holy Cross " ^rr Holy Relics of Never* (IT*) M 80 Oct. and crowned on Whitsunday. Ribbon, Innocents Day ... _*._%< D'C. T n, VI^IM 2r lulv blue moire". Abolished in 1789 ; re-esta- James the Elder ... _ > John the Baptist's Day - ~ - 4 June. blished in 1815, and again abolished in Beheaded -. ""f^ASK 1830. Jhn the Evangelist's Days _ .. . { 27 De 1 ^ Lammas Day 1 Aug. Lord's Prayer (The). Called in French L'oraison de Notre Seigneur. Shrove Holy Island. L Lindisfarne, about eight miles from Berwick-upon-T\v, , <1, in the German Sea. Once the see of the Luke^sDay M M M . ... 18 Oct. famous St. Cuthbert, but now in the Mark s Day ... ~. ... 2S Apr. Matthew's Day .. _ ... 21 Sopt. Michaelmas Day ... .. ifii S,-]>t. Miracles of the Virgin Mary of Deols 21 May. Name of Jesus (The Holy) 1 Jan. Name of Mary (The Holy). The second Sunday in Sept. Nativity (The), or Christmas Day ... 25 Deo. Nativity of Mary mother of Jesus ... 8 Sept. Patronage of Joseph husband of Mary. Fifth Sunday of Oct. bishopric of Durham. II. Ireland was so called at one time from its numerous saints. TTT T Guernsey was so called in the tenth century from the great number of monks residing there. IV. Riigen was so called by the Patronage of Mary wife of Joseph. Slavonic VarinL The third Sunday after Easter. Paul's Day Jnne, Pentecost, or Whitsunday. The seventh Sunday after Kaster. Peter ' prince of the Apostles ' ... 29 June. Holy League (The). I. 1511- 1512. Between the pope (Julius II.), Ferdinand of Aragon, Venice, and Switz- Petit Fete Dieu . . 2 Feb. Philip and James ... . . ... 1 May. erland, against Louis XII., to dispossess Presentation of Mary ... _ ... 21 Nov. him of Venice and drive him out of Purification of Mary . ... 2 Feb. Relics (Th?). The Sunday in the Octave of Ascension. Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Uncer- tain. Mgr. Querin says : ' 11 n'y a Italy. Louis now placed a formidable army under the command of Gaston de Foix, his nephew, who gained three vic- point de jour que Dieu n'ait fait, et qui ne reconnalsse ce grand ouvrier ' (vol. xvi. p. 60). This fete Is not the same as Easter Day. tories over the league in as many months, viz. at Bologna, at Brescia, and at Ravenna. In this last victory Gaston de Seven Sorrows of Mary ... _ ... 1 Sept. Foix was left dead on the field, and the Simon and Jude' ... 28 Oct. success of Louis terminated. Stephen the first Martyr ... . ... 26 Deo. Stigmata of Francis of Asslsl 17 Sept. II. 1565. The league of BAYONNE Thomas's Day (the shortest of the (q.v.). year) .. 21 Deo. Transfiguration (The) 8 Aug. Trinity Sunday. The Sunday next after Whitsunday. Vigils. (These are numerous.) Visitation of Mary to her cousin Ellaa- The Holy League was directed ng-xlnst Scotland as well as against other heretic d n -timis. and how ready soever the Cittholic prince^ n: t;ht i>o to avenge the death of the C-Uholic Mur> . they could not be supposed to entertain much seal in the cause of the Protestant James. Sir W. ScuTT, beth 8 July. Hist, of Scotland, xxx vii. See ' Sundays ' and ' Saints' Days.' HI. 1576. The high Catholic party of Holy Directing Synod (The). A college of bishops established in Russia France, taking umbrage at the ' Paix de Monsieur ' (g.v.), which gave the Protea HOLY HOLY 427 tftntf the free exercise of their religion in every part of the kingdom except Paris, formed themselves into a ' Holy League ' in defence of the ' Holy Catholic Church' against the encroachments of the Huguenots. The objects of the league were (1) to exterminate the Cal- vinists; (2) to shut up the king Henri III. in a monastery; and (8) to crown the due de Guise. The pope gave it his sanction, but its true strength lay in Felipe II. of Spain, who supported it with both men and money. Holy Maid of Kent (The). Elizabeth Barton of Aldington, Kent, a religious enthusiast, executed in the reign of Henry VIII. She entered the convent of St. Sepulchre, Canterbury, and was then called ' The Nun of Kent.' In 1531 the parish priest gave out that the nun was inspired. Elizabeth Barton raved against the divorce of Queen Katharine, and threatened the king with deposition and death. She was brought before the Star Chamber, condemned, and executed at Tyburn in 1534. Holy Mother of the Russians. Moscow; celebrated before its destruc- tion for its number of churches and religious houses. Holy Mountain (The). Athos, called by the Franks Mdtote Santo, and by the Greeks 'Ayic^ Spo?, for its numer- ous monasteries, convents, chapels, and other sacred edifices. It is said that above 8,000 monks reside on Mount Athos. It rises abruptly from the sea to the height of 6,849 feet. (Almost a mile and a quarter.) Holy Office (The). The examina- tion and extermination of heretics by the Catholic Church. The Inquisition was so called. The Holy Office existed in A.D. 382, when Theodosius I. appointed inquisitors to search out and punish heretics, and the first person put to death by them was Priscillianus of Aragon in 885. The epoch of the modern Inquisition was 1203, when Inno- cent IH. was pope ; but ' the modern Spanish Inquisition ' dated from 1480, was suppressed in 1818, restored by Ferdinand VI. in 1814, and finally sup- pressed in 1820. Holy Peace (The), or 'Peace of God,' 1095. An agreement of the princes and barons to cease from feuds, spoliation, and wars of aggression. The priests read from the churches daily after the gospel this bull : ' May they who refuse to obey be accursed, and have their portion with Cain the first murderer, with Judas the arch- traitor, and with Dathan and Abtram who went down alive Into the pit. May they be accursed in the life which now is : and may their hope of sal- ration, like the light of these candles, be put out.' Bo saying the lights were put cut, and the people aid ' Amen.' In 1040 the Holy Peace was super- seded by ' God's Truce ' (q.v.). Holy Roman Empire (The). The western part of the old Roman empire, which was severed from the eastern part in 800, and was given by the pope to Charlemagne, who was crowned ' Emperor of the Romans.' When Charlemagne's empire was divided, Lud- wig the German became kaiser ; but on the death of Karl the Fat the title fell into abeyance for 70 years. In 962 John XII. gave the title to Otto I. the Great, and changed it into ' The Holy Roman Empire.' Francis II. renounced the titles of king of the Romans and emperor of the Romans in 1806, and Napoleon added the Italian states to France 17 May, 1809. Holy Sabbath (The). Sabbatum Sanctum, the Saturday next before Easter Sunday. Holy Sea (The). 'Ayiov Tre'Aayo?, the Archipelago. This is D'Anville's ety- mology (vol. i. p. 281). It is, however, as old as JEschylus and Plato. Vossius says "Ayios is a corruption of aiyato?, and that the Dorians called the bound- ing waves alyes, goats. We call them horses. The fifty islands of tke Holy Sea. GIBBON, chap. Ilii. Holy Sepulchre (Defender and Baron of the). Godfrey, first Latin king of Jerusalem. He rejected the title of king, and refused to wear a diadem ' where Christ was crowned with thorns ' (1061, 1099-1100). Holy Sepulchre (Knights of the), 828. A military order founded by St. Helena on the discovery of the Holy Sepulchre. Revived by Godfrey of Bouillon 17 July, 1099, again by Baldwin in 1103, and confirmed 1114 by Pascal II. Holy Union (The), 1609. A con- federation organised at Wiirzburg of Roman Catholics against the Protestants. 188 HOLT HOMER The counter league was called the ' Evangelical Union,' which was formed in 1608. Holy Wars (The). The Crusades. Holy Week. The last seven days of Passion Week (q.v.), or the Great Week. It begins on Palm Sunday, and ends with Holy Saturday (the day preced- ing Easter Sunday). The 4th day is Spy Wednesday, the 5th Maundy Thursday, the 6th Good Friday, and the last Holy Saturday, or the Great Sabhath. See 1 Hebdomada Major.' Holy Week has been called the Silent Week (Hrbdvrnada Muta\ the Week of the Holy Passion iHebiUimniia Fasxionis), the Vacant Week (Hebm O Donnoll. July 2. It** (' Paroelllsm and Crime 1 lil.,'1 MM . V Imperium in Imperlo is proverbially a dan gerous hazard. Homer, Homeros. Everyone knows that it is somewhat doubtful if Homeros is a proper name or not. It is said Unit the Iliad and Odyssey were not continu- ous poems by one man, but ancient lays welded together under the direction of Pisistratos. It is not a little remarkable that the Greek word Homeros [o/xTjpot] means united or joined together. The great inequality of the poems has also been noticed by critics. Thus the inter- view between Priam and Achilles is ad- mirable, but the death of Hector is con- temptible, and the reconciliation of Aga- memnon and Achilles, which ought \A have exhibited magnanimity and gene- rosity, is absolutely puerile. Homer and Virgil of Portugal (The). Luis de Camoens (1522 author of ' The Lusiads,' i.e. the Lusi- tanians or Portuguese; a poetic Hstory HOMER HOMME 429 of the people, the hero being Vasco da Gama. The subject of the Lnsiads resembles that of the jEneid, but bears no resemblance to the epics of Homer. Homer (The British), Milton, 1608- 1674. No more the Grecian muse unrivalled reigns ; To Britain let the nations homage pay : She felt a Homer's fire in Milton's strains, A Pindar s rapture in the lyre of Gray. Westminster Abbey (Gray's Monument). Homer (The Keltic). Ossian,son of Fingal king of Morven. Homer (The Oriental). Firdusi (940-1020). See below, ' Homer of Kho- rasan.' Homer (The Prose). Henry Fielding the novelist, called by Byron 'The Prose Homer of Human Nature ' (1707-1764). Homer (The Scottish). William Wilkie, author of 'The Epigonlad' (1721- 1772). Homer of Ferra'ra (Tfte). 'Omero Ferrarefie.' Ariosto is so called by Tasso (1474-1533). Homer of Khorasan (The). Abul Casim Firdusi (940-1020), author of ' Shah Nameh,' an historical romance of the Kings of Persia (from Kayomurz to Yezdijird), begun by Dukiki, who was assassinated when he had written only 1,000 lines. It was the labour of 30 years. The chief characters In this poem are Rustem (the Persian Achilles) ; Feriilun, the model kin*,'; Zohak, the cruel and impious tyrant; Kavah the blacksmith, an intrepid patriot, -whose leather apron, set with jewels, became the banner of the empire till it fell into the hands of Kudsiah. The poem runs to 120,000 lines. The characters are bold and various, the diction polibhed and noble, the narrative especially perspicuous, and individual parts are of surpassing beauty. Homer of Modern Days (The). Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832). Homer of Persia (The). Firdusi, 941-1020. See ( Homer of Khorasan.' Homer of Philosophers (The). Plato (B.C. 429-347). Homer of our Dramatic Poets. So Shakespeare (1564-1616) is called by Dryden. Shakespeare was the Homer or father of our dramatic poets; Jonson was the Virgil. I admire rare Ben, but I love Shakespeare. L>RVDEN. Homer of the Pranks (The). Angilbert, who died 814, waa 00 called by Charlemagne, Homer of the French Drama. Pierre Corneille (1606-1684) is so called by Sir Walter Scott. Homer the Younger. Philiscoa of Corcyra, one of the seven poets of Alexandria, who, in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphos, formed the Tragic Pleiad." His six contemporary poets were Lycophron, Theocritos, Aratos, Nicander, Apollonios, and Callimachos. Home'rides (4 syl.), owpifcp. Those poets who succeeded Homer and either followed his style or took analogous sub- jects to the Iliad and Odyssey. Also called ' Cyclic Poets ' (q.v.). Homerites (8 syl.). A people of ancient Arabia dwelling in Arabia Felix. Gibbon (ch. 1.) says the first silk veil of the Caaba or temple of Mecca was an offering by a pious king of the Homerites 700 years before the birth of Mahomet. Ho'meromas'tix. Zoilos of Am- phipolis (B.C. 259-336). So called for h-'s caustic criticism on Homer, Homilia'rium. A collection cf homilies. Fifty homilies of the Vener- able Bede hi general use for a long time. The deacon Paul Warnefried, by the command of Charlemagne, compiled into a volume homilies for every Sunday in the year (8th cent.); it was printed at Speyer in 1482, and again at Cologne in 1557. A collection of English homilies in verse was composed in the 13th cent. It contained a sermon for every Sunday and every festival throughout the year. It is still extant in MS., and a part of it was published by Mr. Small, librarian to the University of Edinburgh. See 1 Homilies.' Homilies (The). Vol. i. (1547). On * Salvation,' on ' Faith,' and on ' Good Works ' are attributed to Cranmer ; that on ' Brawling and Contention ' is Lati- mer's, as appears by internal evidence ; that on ' Adultery ' is by Thomas Becon. one of Cranmer's chaplains; that on ' The Misery of Mankind ' is ascribed to Bonner; of the rest nothing is known. Vol. ii. published 1562; thought to be by Bishop Jewell. Some think Latimer was the author of the homilies on the 'Nativity' and on 'Whit Sunday.' Homme du Lit de Per (L*). Henri Eugene Philippe Louis d'Oile'aii* 480 HOMOEOPATHY HONORARY fourth eon of the Citizen King (Louis Philippe of France), born 1822, died *. Pronounce Horn deh leed-fair. Homoeopathy (The Creator of). Hahnemann (1755-1843). That is, the art of curing diseases by medicines which in healthy bodies would produce like diseases. His motto is Similia simili- $us curantur, or ' Like cures like.' Homoi'an theological party allied to the Arians, before 859, founded by Acacius, bishop of Cesarea. These Chris- tians were called ' Acacians,' from their founder. Homoi-ousion means ' of a similar nature, essence, or state.' Homo-ousion (q.v.) means ' of equal essence or consub- stantiate.' Applied to the nature of Christ, what is called the orthodox faith is that He is homo-ousios or consubstan- tiate with the Father. The semi- Arians maintain that He is only homoi-ousio8 or of similar essence, while strict Ariant affirm He is neither one nor the other. Arias declared that Jesus Christ might be homoi- ousws (of a similar nature) to the Father; but could not be homo-ousiot (of the tame substance). Homo-ous'ion (The). Consub- Btantial, of the same nature. According to Aristotle, the stars are homo-ousian to each other ; but the word is mainly connected with a theological controversy of the 4th cent, between Arius and Athanasius. The Arians were homoi- ousians, the Athanasians were homo- ousians. That is, the Arians believed the nature of Jesus Christ to be god-like, but not divine', the Athanasians be- lieved it to be very God of very God. As party words the ' orthodox ' were homo- ousians, the non-orthodox were homoi- ousians. Five times was Athanasius expelled from his (archiepiscopal) throne, and almost every pro- vince of the Roman empire was witness to his sufferings in the cause of Homo ousion. GIBBON, xxi. Hone (Wittiam), 1817. The trial of William Hone for publishing parodies on Scripture or church subjects was, in reality, an attempt to put down the free expression of political opinions. Hia first trial was 18 Dec. before Mr. Justice Abbot, and the charge was that Hone had published parodies on the Catechism, the Lord's Prayer, and the Teu Com- mandments. Hone showed that the editor of ' Blackwood's Magazine ' had parodied part of Ezekiel ; that Martin Luther had parodied the 1st Psalm; that Bishop Latimer, Dr. Boys dean of Canterbury, the author of the ' Rolliad,' and Mr. Canning were parodists, but were never accused of blasphemy. The j ury acquitted Hone. The second trial was on 19 Dec., before Lord Ellenborough, and the charge was a parody on the Litany. Hone fol- lowed the same line of defence and waa again acquitted. The third trial wae 20 Dec., for a parody on the Athanasian Creed. Hone showed that Lord Ellen- borough's own father, the bishops War- burton and Tillotson, with hosts of others, dissented from this creed, and he WM again acquitted. So ended this govern- ment attempt to gag the press. There is but little wit and little worth in these literary trifles, which often offend against ' good taste ' ; but the trials were an outrage on the liberty of free thought. Honest Lawyer (The). The tablet to Edward Trelawny, in Pelynt Church, ends with these two lines : Here lyes an honest lawyer, wot you what. A thing for all the world to wonder at. (Died 7 June, 1630). In St. Dunstan s In the West is a tablet to Hobson Judkins ' the honest solicitor,' who died 80 June, 1812. Honest Man (The). A man of Burton (name unknown), an agent in 1586 of Throckmorton, GifTord, and Wai- gingham, and spy upon Mary queen of Scots. 'The honest man' was in communication with the brewer who supplied the castle of ( with beer, and agreed to carry letters to and from Mary. Those intended for Mary woi a water tight bottle, which floated inside the beer-cask ; the answers were deposited in a hole In the castle wall, where they wore covered by a loose stone. The brewer and ' the honest innii ' were both in the pay of Walsingham. The letters were all broken open and read, after which they were resealed and despatched to their address. HOWITT, History of England. 11. p. 609, ic. Honorary Canqns and honorary prebends, 1888 that is, canons or pre- bends without any stipend were created by what is called the ' Oxford Movement ' .v.). 'Canon' is now used as an or- inary title of address, as ' Canon A or B,' and on letters ' The Rev. Canon A or B.' Each bishop has the power of con- ferring a certain number of these honor- ary titles to clergymen within his diocese Generally four. S! HONORIAN8 HOPKINS 483 Hono'rians (The), A.D. 408. Bar- IE. Black with silk lining. barian auxiliaries in Gaul and Britain, Hood Lining consisting of two bands of Scots or Atta- cotti, two of Moors, two of Marconianni, velvet cloth Black.. ... ... D.D. Glasgow Blue ... LL.D. Edinburgh Ascarii, Gallicani, and Victores. So silk dark M.A. Dublin (-white named from Honorius the emperor. velvet fur border) ... LL.B. Edinburgh Gold-coloured ... D.Sc. Glasgow Honourable. The younger sons of cloth, GrCen (white fn, D ' SC - Edinbur g h earls, and all the children of viscounts " . , (wtijto lur border) B.Sc. Edinburgh and barons. $iUt Puce _ ... B.D. Lampeter ' The Right Honourable ' is added to n Purple . ... M.A. Durham it m* > B.D. Glasgow the title of peers and peeresses below a . cloth Rd - - E in ^ ur h marquis. All the younger sons of dukes filit Ked . B - n - Aberdeen dark ^ ... M.A. Oxford and marquises, all privy councillors and ex-privy councillors, all the three lord velvet nils ~. ... LL.B. Glasgow LL.D. Glasgow .. heathei-bell M.A. Glasgow mayors (London, York, and Dublin) are BO styled. J Russet M.A. London White ... ... M.A. Cambridge YellOW _ B.So. Oln.Krfrvnr 'The Most Honourable' is added to _.. the title of a marquis and marchioness. BLUE HOOD. Not ' Most Noble.' Pale blue silk hood (with white fur Dukes and archbishops are styled ' His Grace,' and addressed as ' Your Grace.' border) B.C.C. or LL.D. Oxford Honours of Scotland (The). l"he Scotch regalia, consisting of the crown, sceptre, and sword of state, re- garded by the Scotch with superstitious veneration. Honours of War (The). The pri- vilege accorded to a garrison surrender- ing after a very brave defence. It per- mits them to carry away their arms, and in some cases to march out with drums beating and colours flying. Honveds (The), or ' Defenders of home,' 1848^-1849. Ten battalions of Hungarian insurgents who organised themselves for the defence of house and home. Hoods. As a badge. Bed hoods the party badge of Paris. Blue hoods the party badge of Navarre. Red and blue the party badge of Charles [V.] when dauphin. White hoods the party badge of the Burgundians. Hoods. See Chaperons. Hoods. I. BLACK without lining. Hood Trimmed Black silk ... Blue ... Gold coloured M:.uve Purple Kubbet brown ... B.D. Oxford or Cambridge ... LL.B. London ... B.Sc. London ... A.K.C. London ... L.Th. Durham ... B.A. London Trimmed with white fur tordfd I narrow ... ... B.A. Oxford ilk tuff I broad... _ .. B.A. Cambridge PURPLE HOODS. Hood cloth rillt Lining Blue (pale) LL.D. Aberdeen (bound with white fur) B.C.L. Durham Blue (pale) (bor- dered with white fur) B.D. Edinburgh White ... ... DJ>. Aberdeen SCARLET HOODS. Hood cloth eathmere cloth cloth or silk cashmere Lining Black... ... ... D.D. Oxford Blue . ... ... LL.D. London Crimson D.C.L. Oxford Gold-coloured D.Sc. London Pink .. D.D. or LL.D. Cambridge Purple D.D. Durham Russet D.Lit. London White satin ... LL.D. St. Andrew* White silk ... ... D.C.L. Durham VIOLET HOODS. HUhmere I White satin ... D.D. St. Andrews tilk I White silk B.D. St. Andrews V Hoods for medical, musical, civil engineer* Ing, &c. not included. Hook-and-Eye-ers. A branch of the strict Mennonites who split off from the general body in 1554. So called because they employed hooks-and-eyes in their dress instead of buttons. See Mennonites. Hope Professorship (The) of Zoology, in Oxford University. Founded by the Rev. Frederick William Hope of Christ Church, 1861. Hopkins Prize (The). For mathe- matico-physical or mathematico-experi- mental science. Founded in the Uni- versity of Cambridge in memory of W. 482 HORACE HOSPITALLERS Hopkins, and adjudged every three years. First adjudged in 1867. Horace of France (The). Be*- mnger (1780-1857). He was called ' The Poet of St. Honore,' from the street in which he lived, and ' The French Burns.' The English Horace. I. Ben Jonson (1574-1637) is ao called by Dekker the dramatist. II. Cowley (1618-1667) is prepos- terously called by George duke of Buck-, ingham ' The Pindar, Horace, and Virgil of England.' The French Horace. Jean Macrinua or Salmon (1490-1557). The Portuguese Horace, Antonio Fer- reira (1528-1569). The Spanish Horace, Lupercio Argen- /iola and also his brother Bartolome are both so called. Horatius Codes of the Horn. John Haring, who defended a dyke against 1,000 Spaniards, till all the men under the governor Sonoy, who were put to flight, had made good their escape. After which he threw himself into the sea and effected his escape untouched by either spear or gun. Horatius Codes of the Tyrol. Alexander Davy Dumas, father of the novelist. So called because in 1798, while in Dumouriez's army, he alone defended at Brixen the passage of a bridge on which depended the success of the day. Horn Fair. An annual fair granted by Henry III. (1268) to Charlton in Kent, for three days, viz. the eve, the day, and the morrow of Trinity, for the sale of winding horns, horn cups, and other vessels or implements made of horn. This fair was abolished in 1872. At horn fair it was usual for all persons to wear some horn ornament, generally on the headgear. Horned-Cattle Session (The), 1770. So called because the first and chief item of the king's speech was in allusion to a murrain among horned cattle, though questions of enormous magnitude required attention. Earl Chatham in his speech drew a dismal picture of the domestic condition and foreign relations of the country. By the abandonment of Prussia the nation was without an ally. The internal affairs were even worse. The people were partly starving and wholly murmuring. John Wilkes was invading the ancient insti- tutions, Spitalfields was in semi-rebellion, Ireland was netted with Whiteboys, Cork-boys, Levellers, and Hearts of Steel ; America was on the verge of war ; and yet, as Junius says, the ministers make the king a half-ruined grazier rather than the monarch of a vast empire, Horse decides who is to be king of Persia (A). Camb\>- followed on the throne of Persia by Smerdis the pretender, put forward by the Magi, but he was put to death by Otani'B. Otancs then called a council of the chief men to determine on a suc- cessor, and agreed to meet on horseback at sunrise next morning, and he whose horse neighed first they agreed should be king. When ./Ebares, the groom of Darius Hystaspes, heard tbis he took a mare to the spot the preceding evening, and showed it to his master's horse, which of course neighed next morning as soon as it came to the spot. So Darius was elected king. Horsenails (Counting). By the City officers at Westminster Hull. 'Walter le Brnn, farrier, in the Strand, was to have a piece of ground in the parish of St. Clement to place a forge there, for the nominal sum of 6 horseshoes. This n-nt was paid every year to the Exchequer . . . and it is still rendered at the Ex- chequer by the mayor and citizens of London, to whom in process of time the said piece of ground was granted ' (Blount, ' Ancient Tenures,' 1815). In the reign of Edward L Walter MareBO&lltu paid at the erwcm lajndfam six horseshoes with nails for a certain building which he held of th king in capitf opposite the stone cross. A similar entry occurs In the 15 Kd w. IL Ac. Hospit'allers, or ' Knights Hospit- allers,' or ' Knights of St. John of Jeru- lem,' or ' Knights of Malta,' 1050, established to protect pilgrims in the Holy Land. Confirmed by statute in 1118. They made themselves mas- ters of the Isle of Rhodes in 1810, but were driven from the island by the Turks in 1522, and established themselves at Malta in ir.:',o. Th.-ir dress is black, with a white cross of eight points. Established in England in 1100. Sup- pressed in England in 15*0, in Frauot HOSPITALLERS HOTEL 483 1792. Dispersed on the capture of Malta by Napoleon I. in 1798. Called Hospitallers because they built at Jeru- salem an hospital for the entertainment of pilgrims. The order still exists, and its flag is still seen in Mediterranean commerce. Hospitallers of St. Lazarus, 1119. A religious military order estab- lished at Jerusalem by Crusaders, and confirmed, in 1255, by the Pope. Its special duty was to take charge of lepers. Introduced into France by Louis VII., but in 1490 united in Italy to the order of the Knights of Malta ; in Savoy (1572) to the Knights of St. Maurice ; and in France (1693) to the Knights of St. Michel. There were 100 chevaliers, who might both marry and hold property. Their medallion was a cross with eight points, alternately green and purple, and adorned with images of the Virgin Mary and St. Lazarus. Hospitals and Asylums. We have mention of hospitals in Athens five centuries before the Christian era, and dispensaries long before that time sup- ported by the state. The Romans had public physicians at a very early date. The ancient Mexicans had hospitals in all their principal cities. India, however, seems to be the nursery cf hospitals. King Asoka, B.C. 825, com- manded that hospitals should be built for the poor, sick, and distressed, at each of the four gates of Patna, and throughout his whole empire. FaHian,a Chinese pilgrim (A.D. 400), says : ' The nobles and land- lords founded hospitals for the poor in all places, and thither the poor, the cripple, and diseased might freely repair. They receive every kind of help gratuitously. Physicians attend to their diseases, and order them medicine, food, and drink, according to their j udgment. Even when cured they may remain till it is con- venient for them to retire.' The first Christian hospital was built by a Roman lady named Fabiola, in the 4th cent. In regard to asylums : The Egyptians and Greeks took charge of them in their temples. The Mohammedans built asylums for the insane at Fez in the 7th cent. The first Christian asylum was built at Valencia, in Spain, A.D. 1409. Hospodar, 18th cent. The sove- reigns of Walachia and of Moldavia. In 19 1391 the hospodar of Walachia fell into the dependence of the Turks, and in 1536 the hospodar of Moldavia did the same, and the sultan nominated the hospodar. In 1821 the hospodars were nominated by the boi'ards under the inves- titure of the Porte. In 1829 the Hospodar of the Danubian Principalities was ap- pointed for life by the Treaty of Adria- nople. Since 1861 these provinces have formed (with the Dobrudscha) the king- dom of Roumania. Host of Israel (The), 1681. The armed Cameronians sn styled themselves. They took up arms to dethrone Charles II. and set aside James his brother. Ho stings [of the lord deputies of Ireland]. Circuits or progresses for the display of military force in terrorem. They were more precautionary than hostile. In some a collision took place, but very many were mere displays or military progresses through the Pale (q.v.). Sometimes a hosting was made into the territory of a rebellious Irish chief. Hot Gospeller (The). Edward Underbill of Worcestershire, an ardent Protestant, but yet a devoted partisan of Queen Mary. Hot Potatoes, 1782. So the British sailors called the red-hot balls fired from Gibraltar into the combined French and Spanish fleet sent to take the Rock from the English. This magni- ficent defence by Gen. Elliot is wholly without a parallel in all history, and the humanity of Capt. Curtis, in saving 250 Spaniards at the peril of his life, is an achievement which every Englishman must be proud of. The girl Campen, daughter of a Tyrolese tailot. sent with a load of hay while the Bavarians and French were fighting against Hofer, kept crying ' Come on ! Come on with ye I Who cares for Bavarian dumplings ? ' H6tel Rambouillet ('). Very influential soirees held at the chateau of Charles d'Angennes marquis of Ram- bouillet, who married (in 1600) Catherine de Vivonne. Their daughter was the celebrated Julie [i.e. Julie Lucie d'An- gennes] who married the Due de Mon- tausier. It was Julie who presided over these soirees, which were attended by Mme. de SeVigne* and Mme. de Lafayette. Pronounce Lo-iel Rham-boo-yea. V V 484 EOUGHERS HUGH Houghers, 1785. Irish Volunteers belonging to the 'Aggregate Bodies' (q.v.), who went about maiming the sol- diers and other persons obnoxious to them. The platform was universal suf- frage. The introduction of the question of Catholic disabilities broke up the asso- ciations, and, as Plowden says, ' they dis- appeared like a bubble on the face of a stream.' See ' Irish Associations.' (Houghers, pronounce hotf-kern. House of Congregation (The), in Oxford University, consists of all masters of arts and doctors of every faculty of less than two years' standing. Called Necessario Eegentes. Heads of colleges, masters of schools, and deans of colleges are called Regentes adplaci- tum. Duties are almost entirely confined to granting degrees and the appointment of public examiners. In Cambridge University 'The Electoral Roll' corre- sponds in a great measure with the Ox- ford House of Congregation. House of Convocation (The), in Oxford University, consists of all persons who have taken the degree of M.A. or of doctor, provided their names remain on the boards of their college. All the business of the university as a corporate body is transacted by Convocation, and no statute is binding till it has received the assent of this house. It also confers honorary degrees and degrees of diploma, affixes the common seal to all documents, and elects all offices in the gift of the university. No proposition of legislation originates in this house, nor can it amend any proposition submitted to it; it can only accept or reject. The Council of the Senate in Cambridge corresponds to the Oxford ' House of Convocation.' House of Keys (The), in the Isle of Man, consists of twenty-four represen- tatives formerly selected by their own body, vacancies being filled up by the House presenting to the governor ' two of the oldest and worthiest men of the land,' one of whom the governor nominates, and he takes office for life. But since 1866 they have been elected by the people (male and female freeholders voting). The civil government of the Island la vested In three estates : the king or queen In council, the governor and council, and the House of Keys. J he latter two constitute a court of Tynwald To the Keys ' or wardens all doubtful and important uiuiiberB oi iaw are referred. Houses of Parliament (Th Burnina of the), 16 Oct., 1834 (Will. IV.). Caused by overheating the flues with old tallies with which the fires were lighted. Household Troops (The). Those troops whose especial duty it is to attend the sovereign and to guard the metro- polis. They are the 1st and 2nd Life- guards, the Royal Horse-guards, and the three infantry regiments called the Grenadiers, the Coldstream Guards, and the Scots Fusiliers. Howard (Sister). So Queen Caro- line used to call Mrs. Howard (after- wards countess of Suffolk), mistress of George II. She even employed ' Sister Howard' at her toilet, and otherwise about her person. Howard of Russia (The). John Venning. Howard-Arundel Collection (The), 1831. In the MS. department of the British Museum, and consisting of about 600 volumes of interest in almost every branch of learning, especially con- nected with the history and language of our own country. Hubert (Knights of St.), 1414. A military order of Bavaria founded by Guerhard duke of Juliers. Revived in 1709 by the Elector Palatine. Hubertsburg (Treaty of), 15 Feb., 1763. A treaty of peace at the close of the Seven Years' war between the Kaiser, Prussia, and Saxony. Hudson's Bay Company (1670). A corporation chartered by Charles II. It consisted at first of Prince Rupert and certain specified associates, who were invested with the absolute proprietorship of ' Rupert's Land,' which consisted of all the regions then discovered and here- after to be discovered within the entrance of Hudson's Bay. The great traffic of the company was in beaver furs. In 1788 was formed the North-weet Com- pany of Montreal, which in 1821 coalesced with the Hudson's Bay Company. Sur- rendered to the crown in 1868, and ceded to the Dominion of Canada in 1869. It still exlbts as a commercial corporation. Hugh Wolf, or 'Hugh Lupus. 1 Hugh d'Avranches, * rear relative of the Conqueror. His device wag a wolf 'i HUGUENOTS HUNDEED 489 head, and William gave to his kinsman almost all Cheshire. Huguenots (U-gen-oze, g hard). Members of the reformed church of France, as Protestants are members of the reformed church of Germany, Eng- land, America, and other countries. The Huguenots are called 'French Calvinists.' Les uns font deriver ce nom d'un certain Hugutt [Hugon], chef d'un parti religieux et politique & Geiuve; Ics autres, avec plus de raison, de rallemand Eidgatoaen (associes par serment), nom donne d'abord aux habitants de Geneve souleves et ligut's centre le duo de Savoie. BOUILLET. Another derivation is Hugon, a gate in Tours, near which, it is said, the Huguenots assembled. ' Les huguenots avoient pris leur nom & cause de la tour Hugon [in Tours] 06 ils B' D'AUBIGNB, Hist. I. 96. Hul'sean Lecturer or Chris- tian Preacher (The). In the Uni- versity of Cambridge, 1789, established by the Kev. John Hulse of St. John's College. The subject to be on the evi- dence for revealed religion and exegesis of obscure texts. Four sermons. Hul'sean Prize (The). For an essay on miracles for any member of the University of Cambridge under the degree of M.A. Value between 701. and SOI. annually. Founded by the Rev. John Hulse of St. John's College, 1789. See ' Reg. Prof, of Divinity.' Hul'sean Professor ofDivinity (The). In the University of Cambridge, 1728. So called because it was endowed by eight-tenths of 1,OOOZ. left by the Rev. John Hulse of St. John's College. The professor must print and publish six lectures in the course of every six years. TiU 1860 the Hulsean Professor was called the Christian Advocate. See ( Regius Professorship of Divinity.' The l.OCOJ. has to be divided thus : one part to maintain two scholars at St. John's College ; another part to found a prize for d/ssertation ; & third part to support the office of Christian Advocate ; and the fourth part to support the Hulsean Lecturer or Christian Preacher. Hu'manistS, ICth cent. A literary get which devoted themselves to the cul- tivation of classical literature (litera humaniores). They not only set them- selves in opposition to classical professors, they also wanted to reform theology. Humanitarians. I. Those Chris- tians who deny the divinity of Christ. The primitive Ebionites (4 syl.) and the Cerln ihlans were Humanitarians, but not the Arians. II. The disciples of St. Simon, who believe in the perfectibility of human nature, and ignore the dependence ol man upon supernatural aid. Humanity Martin. Richard Mar- tin, of Ballinabench Castle, M.P. for Galway, so called from the Martin Act (1822) for the prevention of cruelty to animals (1754- ). II all had been like me, In fact, There'd been no need for Martin's Act. // 1 had a donkey that wouldn't go. Humble Petition and Advice (The), 1656. A petition from parliament entreating the lord protector to take a royal title. A blank was left in the peti- tion for the exact designation, which was ultimately filled up with the word ' Pro- tector.' Humble Representation (The), 1647. After Charles I. feU into the hands of Cornet Joyce, the army presented to the parliament an ' humble representa- tion,' stating : ' We desire a settlement of the peace of the kingdom, and of the liberties of the subjects. We desire no change in the civil government, but we demand toleration in religion. We de- mand the repeal of all acts enforcing the use of the prayer-book, attendance at church, and the enforcement of the cove- nant. We ask for triennial parliaments, the reform of the franchise, and the re- adjustment of taxes.' These petitions, with a simplification of law proceedings, constituted the ' Humble Representation.' Charles, however, resisted. Hume, Mr. Hume's motion carried without a division, 16 Oct., 1834, by the utter destruction of the two houses of parliament by fire. Mr. Hume had been noted for his efforts to get rid of the old houses, and to have new ones more worthy of the British Legislature. Humiles (Ordre des), 1184. A re- ligious confraternity of both sexes, founded at Milan by St. John of Meda. It was in a great measure of the Bene- dictine rule, but had its own badge. Suppressed in 1571. Hundred (A.) A county division mentioned in Domesday Book, and gene- rally supposed to include a hundred families. Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham are not sub- divided into hundreds, but wards ; York- shire, Lincolnshire, and Nottinghamshire are subdivided into wapentakes. York. vr 2 HUNDRED HUNTER'S hire is likewise divided into three parts, called Hidings. Kent is divided into five laths, and these laths into sixty- three hundreds. Sussex is divided into tta. rapes, with subordinate hundreds. Hundred Days (The). From 29 March to 22 June, A.B. 1815. From the time that Napoleon quitted Elba (break- ing his parole) to his abdication. In this period occurred the battle of Ligny (16 June) ; the battle of Quatre Bras (16 June) ; and the battle of Waterloo (IS June). Hundred Grievances of Ger- many (The), 1522. Presented to Pope Adrian VI. by the Diet of Nuremberg. During the contention between Luther and the pope, Adrian sent a brieve to the Diet of Nuremberg, calling on the princes of Germany to stamp out the plague of heresy. The diet, in reply, sent to the pope a memorial of a 'hundred griev- ances' which they besought the holy father to redress, and that too without dolay, as the nation neither could nor would endure them any longer. Hundred Isles (The). Venice. Hundred Years War (The), 1886- 1481. Between England and France. From Edward in. to Joan of Arc. The origin of this long war was Edward's claim to the crown of France. Philippe le Bel left three sons, all of whom died without male issue, and the nearest male heirs were Edward III. (who was the nephew of the three sons), and Philippe de Valois (who was their cousin). The flaw in Edward's claim is the Salic law, which passed over women, and Edward owed his blood relationship to his mother. Edward maintained that, though his mother was cut off , being a woman, the Salic law could not apply to him, being a man; but Philippe answered, if the mother was cut off, the son was cut off also. On this dispute began the war which lasted above a century. Hun'dreders. The impanelling of 'hundredors' on juries in civil actions abolished 1706 (4, 6 Anne c. 16). Hung^, Drawn, and Quartered. The punishment of traitors. It is an error to suppose that 'drawn' means dragged on a hurdle by a horse to the place of execution. It means disem- bowelled. The first instance in English history is that of David the Welsh prince, 20 Sept., 1283. He was 'hun<,'' fct causing the murder of the knights iu Hawarden Castle; he was 'drawn' be- cause he had profaned Palm Sunday by committing the murder on that day ; lie was 'quartered' for conspiring against the king (Edward I.). This was the pre- cedent in cases of high treason. It IB misleading and a falsifying of history to re verse these words Into ' drawn, bung, and quar- tered/ as some historians do, to intimate tint ' drawn ' means dragged on a hurdle to execution. Hungarian Anious (The). Suc- ceeded the Arpad dynasty. Charl-s Robert was the founder (1809-1842), Louis the Great his son (1842-1382), and Sigismund, in virtue of his wife (1386- 1437). Succeeded by the house of Haps- burg. Bigismnnd or Slegmund was king of Hungary, king of Bohemia, and kaiser-king of Germany. He will always be remembered for violating his royal word of safe-conduct, and afterwards aesent- Ing to the martyrdom of Huss and Jerome cf Prague. Hungarian Compromise (The), Feb. 1868. Providing the new army organisation. Hungarian National Anthem. Rakolski's March. Hungarian Revolution (The), 1848-1849. Under Kossuth. Kossuth resigned 11 Aug., 1849. 8 June, 1SCT. Francis Joseph of Austria was crowned king of Hungary. Hungarian Sea (The). Like Balaton, forty-seven miles long and nine- teen miles wide. Famous for the savoury fogas fish. Huns (The). A people driven out of China by Vou-ti (i.e. Hiong-nu). Many left the steppes of Tartary, and made their way to the Caspian Sea. A part, crossing the Caucasus, came into collision with the Eastern Goths in A.D. 875. Hunter's Mass. Missa VenatTra.' Celebrated very early in the mornim; fp, water; iropumj/uw, I present.) Hyksos (The), or Shepherd Kings of Lower Egypt. A race of Arabs which invaded ancient Egypt, and continued dominant, according to Manetho, for 500 years, but according to others about half that time (B.C. 1842-1591). They formed or were contemporary with the 15th, 16th, and 17th dynasties of Upper Egypt. Amosis drove them out and established the 18th dynasty in Thebais, contem- porary with the 19th and 20th. They were driven from the Thebais by Tot- mosis or Thotmosis, but continued to hold certain cantons of Egypt long afterwards. It is supposed that Abraham went to Egypt in B.C. 1806, while the 16th dynasty was regnant ; and that Joseph was viceroy about B.0. 1718, in the same dynasty. Uty*=king, Soi=ghephei'd.) 488 HTLO-IDEALISM ICILTATT Hylo-idealism, 1888. A .system thought out by Dr. Lewins, and given to the world in 1882-1883. It is not idealism, but objective or hylo-ulpalism. The fundamental principle is this: Ob- jects or objective phenomena must be made subjective or mental concepts before they are cognisable. The object is the stimulus and the perceiving brain the response. The two are like the two clocks of a telegraphic wire. The object works one clock, sends it to the brain, and the brain works the other clock. If either clock is out of order, or the tele- graphic wire is broken, no message is re- ceived, and the objective world is cut off from all cognisance or even existence as far as the person in question is con- cerned. Hyxnnus S. Marise, .. the * Mag- nificat.' Hyxnnus S. Trinitatis. In Latin: ' Sanctus Deus, Sanctus fortis, Sanctus immortalis, miserere nobis.' In Greek : 'A-yios w 0ebs, 'Ayio? i (I break). Iconodu'li (The). Those who advo- cated and reverenced images and pictures in churches. Those who broke them and discarded them were called Iconoclasts (6tb and 7th cents.). See ' Iconolatrists.' .IKV (image), 8m\tfa. (an Inferior reverence paid to saints, images, and relics, in opposition to fcNptifc Iconolatrists. Worshippers of im- ages. Applied to those Christians who admit crucifixes, material symbols of deity, and pictures into churches and houses, either for direct adoration, as aids to religion, or as ' outward visible signs of an inward invisible faith.' Iconoclasts, or image-breakers, were those Christians who opposed iconol'atry, and broke to pieces all such material symbols in churches, &c. See ' Iconduli.' Idsean Boy (The), or Idceus Puer Ganymede is BO c&Ued because it was from Mount Ida, in Asia Minor, that Zeua or Jupiter seized on him and carried him to Olympus to be his cup-bearer. Ideean Dactyls (The). Mythical priests and priestesses of Cybele, and said to have been the original discoverers of iron. Called Idcean from Mount Ida, in Asia Minor, their hypothetical seat ; and Dactyls, or fingers, because they were ten in number (five males and five females). Idaean Judge (The), or Idaus Ju- dex. Paris, who decided from Mount Gargarus, a part of Ida, between the rival claims of Juno, Minerva, and Venus. All the goddesses offered bribes to influence the award, which the shepherd gave in favour of Venus. Cicero calls Paris the ' Idaean Shepherd ' (Idceus Pastor). These 'dactyls,' like the ' Idrean Boy ' and ' Idtean Judge,' belong more to mythology than to history, as we now understand the word. Idealism. Two different systems of philosophy are so called : I. A system which considers absolutes or universals as subjective realities. Thus white, black, tree, &c., were sup- posed to have a subjective existence in- dependent of any special object. Plato is the exponent of this system, supported in modern tunes by Malebranche, Kant, Schelling, Hegel, and others. H. Those who deny the reality of the world, and maintain that everything is only an idea ; or at any rate, so far as any in- dividual is concerned, that his senses make his world, and if he had no senses there would be, to him at least, no ex- ternal world. Bishop Berkeley, Hume, Fichte, &o. wcw exponents of this sys- tem. Idle Bible (The), 1809. In which the ' idol shepherd ' (Zech. xi. 17) is trans- lated ' idle shepherd,' hi the new version 'worthless shepherd,' which does not mean the same thing. An idol is a counterfeit, and an ' idol shepherd ' is a counterfeit or false shepherd, who sets up himself for his people's adoration, and not God. The Pharisees of old, who did their good deeds to be seen of men, were ' idle shepherds.' See ' Bible.' The Hebrew word is of ambiguous meaning. Ignatian Controversy (The). Whether the Epistles ascribed to Ignatius, who died 115, are genuine and authen- tic. This is very important, as these writ- (40 IGNORAMUS ILLITERATE ings are the battle-ground of Episco- palians and Presbyterians. They favour the hierarchical system, and therefore are strenuously defended by Episcopalians, but the present opinion of scholars such as Daille, Semler, Hermann, Ernesti, Neander, &c., is that much is spurious, and the rest has been greatly tampered with. See ' Literary Forgeries.' The works of Ignatius are a Liturgy, a little book called DidacM (quoted by Chrysostom), and 16 epistles (12 in Greek and 8 in Latin). The 7 follow- ing epistles to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Phila- delphians, Trallians, Smyrneeans, Romans, and to Polycarp were long accepted as genuine and authentic, but are now suspected. Bunsen thinks three may be accepted, but condemns the rest. Probably all have been interpolated. It is a very sad thing, but too true, that no church lite- rature which passed through the hands of the monks can be relied on. Ignora'mus Jury (An). A grand jury was so called because they wrote Ignoramus instead of ' no true bill,' when sufficient evidence was wanting to send the case to the common jury. If yon find that anything proceeds from malice . . . you may acquit the person that is so wrong- fully prosecuted, and so ... an Ignoramus jury may be of no use. Judge Allibon's charge at the Croydon Assizes in 1G88. Ignoran'tines (4 syl.). The ' Con- gregation of the Ignorantines ' was founded in 1724 in France by the Abb6 de la Salle (1 syl.). It was suppressed in 1789, but re-established by Napoleon in 1806. Ik'shidites (3 syl.), 983-968. A dynasty of califs ruling hi Syria and )t founded by Abubekr Mohammed , Turkish slave. II Regno. The half-mocking name of the kingdom of Naples. It was so called for centuries by all the republics of Italy. Il'derim (lightning). So Bayazid I. of Turkey was called from the extreme rapidity with which he executed all his designs. He reigned 1889-1408. lie du Palais (IS). The larger of the two little aits or islets in the river Seine (Paris) ; the smaller one is called L'lle St. Louis, the two are connected by the Pont de la Cite'. The lie du Palais for many centuries constituted the whole city of Paris. Here a tribe of the Celtic Gauls, called the Parisii, built their mud huts o' a circular form, and thatched them with reeds from the river. Here Clovis built his palace, and here the kings of France resided up to the time of Philippe H. Auguste (1180-1223), who resided in the old Louvre. The palace of Clovis was converted by Charles V. into the Palais de Justice. Notre Dame de Paris stands on the lie du Palais, or cite. tie du Palais is so called because of the palace built there by Clovis, and used by the early kings Iliad (The French). The ' Roman da la Rose ' (q.v.) by Guillaume de Lorria (1235-1265). A ' continuation ' was sub- sequently added by Jehan de Meuug (1260-1818). One might just as -well call the ' Fa*ry Queen ' an Iliad. The ' Romance of the Rose' Is a love alle- gory In verse : The Rose is the poet's lady love, and the subject matter is the coarse of true love does not run smoothly. Fully described in the ' Reader's Handbook, 1 p. 842. The ' Chanson de Roland,' containing upwards of 1,600 verses, is called the ' Iliad of France.' Iliad (The German). The Nibel- nngen Lied, 1210. The plot and tale of this epic are folly described in the 'Reader s Handbook. 1 p. 084. (The Portuguese). The 'Lu- aiads ' by Camoens. Fully described in the ' Reader's Handbook,' p. 680. Iliad (The Scotch). The Epigoniad, by William Wilkie. Fully described in the 'Reader's Handbook,' p. 297. Ilkha'nian Tables (The), 13th cent. The astronomical tables and ob- servations of Nazir Eddin, the great Persian astronomer, in the reign of Houlagou Khan, son of Ghends Khun, who reigned 1259-1265. Na/ir Kildiu lived 1201-1274. Hassan Bonirnk Ilkanl did not found the Hkanian dynasty till 1886, sixty two years after the death of Naslr Eddin. Ilkha'nians (The). A Mogul dy- nasty of Persia, founded by Hassan Bouzrilk, or Ilek-khan, who made Bagdad his capital. His dynasty only las: years (1886-1401), when it waa overthrown by Tamerlane. Illinois ( U. 8 America). So called, in 1809, from an Indian tribe of that name. The natives are nicknamed ' Suckers.' Discovered by the French in 1670 ; ceded to England in 17U8 ; and admitted as a state of the Union in 1818. Illiterate Parliament (The), 1404. From which all lawyers were ex- cluded. See ' Parliaments.' It advised the king, Henry IV. to seize the r venues of the clergy, which were more than one- third of all the land of England, and to repeal th statute ' De Haeretico Comburendo : but the kiu feared to offend the cle %y. ILLUMINATED IMMORTAL 441 Illuminated Doctor (The). 'Doc- tor lUuminatuB,' or 'Most Enlightened Doctor.' Raymond Lully, born in Ma- jorca (1234-1315). He entered the Fran- ciscan order, and set himself to convert the Moslems, was stoned at Bugia [in Algeria], and supposed to be dead (30 June, 1315). Some looked on him as a saint, others con- sidered him 'un insensd et un hdretique.' He was the best chemist of his age, but spent his time in searching for the philosopher's Eton* by distillation. Illuminati (The), 16th cent. A re- ligious sect, founded by Jacob Boehmen, or Boehm, a shoemaker of Lusatia. He ayerred that he was often carried up to heaven, like the Apostle Paul. Sweden- borgians and Quietists were in a great measure ' Illuminati ' ; that is, they pro- fessed to have an inner light which illu- minated them. See ' Martinists,' ' Gueri- nets,' and ' Alombrados.' Also next article. Illumina'tists (The), or The Society of Illuminatists,' 1776. A secret society founded by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, professor of canon law at Ingolstadt, his avowed aim being 'to illuminate the world with a higher philosophy.' This society was joined by Mesmer, Cagliostro, Condorcet, the Due d'Orleans, Mirabeau, and the Abbe Sieyes. The real objects were to crush priestly intolerance and superstition, to stamp out feudalism, and to limit regal authority to the popular will. In a word, the ' Illuminatists ' were the midwives of the first French Revolu- tion, though, without doubt, the re- volution far outran their programme. Suppressed in 1785. Also called ' Illuminati.' niyr'ian Conservatives (The), 19th cent. The Croatian party which sought the establishment of an indepen- dent Slav nationality (about 1847). Illyr'ian Provinces (The), 1809. So named by Napoleon's decree. They consisted of Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, Austrian Friuli, the Hungarian littoral, and Southern Croatia. In 1810 it was augmented ; but after the battle of Water- loo (1815) the provinces were restored to Austria by the Congress of Vienna, and, in 1849, were subdivided into duchies and counties. Image Worship, introduced into Christian churches, was condemned by the Council of Illiberis (Elvira in Gra- nada) between 800 and 805. Calif Yezid n. in 723 commanded the destruction oi all ' religious ' images. See ' Iconoclasts.' Images were denounced in Germany by Carlstadt in 1522. In Switzerland by Zwingle in 1523, and removed from the churches of Zurich. In England by act of parliament 1549, and removed from all churches :n Eng- land. In Austria by Joseph II., 1782. See ' Iconduli ' and ' Iconolatrists.' In the Second Council of Nice, 787, a distinction was drawn between latreia (worship) and douleia (reverence). The adoration of God is latreia, the reverence paid to images and saints is douleia. Imam, or 'Imaum.' The chief supreme of the Moslem faith. The Sunnites, or orthodox Moslims, use the title of ' Imam ' as a synonym of calif, their spiritual and temporal head; but the Shiites maintain that the true Imam was Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, and his direct descendants : as Ali, Hassan, Hussein [sons of Ali], Ali-Seinolabiddin, Mohammed-Bakr, Giafar-el- Sadie, and Ismael, who died 730, leaving an infant son, named Mohammed, who was set aside for his uncle Mousa. This departure created a new schism. Those who fol- lowed the direct line called themselves Ismaelites, who separated from the Shi- ites or followers of Mousa. The Ismaelites maintain that Mohammed, one of these days, will manifest himself, but till then they will acknowledge no one as Imam. The ordinary ministers of the Moslims are called ' Imams.' In Arabia certain chiefs are entitled Imams, and their territory an Imamat. See Mahdi.' Imaum'ians (The). One of the numerous Shiite sects. They insist that the chief point of religious observance is to distinguish who is the true imaum or head of the Mohammedan Church. Tha people have no will in the matter. Sea 1 Imam,' ' Khallabians,' ' Zeyds.' Immaculate Conception (The Religionists of the). Were a branch of the Franciscans, founded in Toledo, in 1484, by the venerable Beatrice of Sylva. They followed the rule of the Clarisses, with certain mitigations. Immaculate Coneeptionists. See under ' Franciscans.' Immortal Principles of 1789 (The). So the French denominate the principles enunciated by the Constituent 142 IMPANNATION Assembly in their Declaration of Rights (q.v.), ' Declaration des droits de 1'homme et du citoyen,' 1 Oct. 1789. The chief were equal taxation for all classes ; equal eligibility of all citizens to hold office in the state ; unrestricted liberty to all. As principles, these are anything but immortal. A tax of 4s. in the pound to all alike would be any- thing but equality of taxation. To a man who earns a pound a week it is a fifth of his earnings, to another who earns 40. a week, it is a tenth part. To one who earns 42. a week it is only a twentieth part, and so on. Equal objection lies against the other two ' immortal principles,' which would "> more correctly denominated 'mortal folly. 1 Impannation, i.e. ' consubstantia- tion.' Luther taught that the bread of the eucharist remained bread after con- secration ; but that by consecration the body of Christ was imparted to the bread, so that the communicants ate both bread and Christ at one and the same tune. Catholics maintain that the broad is trans- muted, and no longer remains broad at all. Most Protestants believe that no change takes place in the bread by con- secration, but being devoted to God, like a church, it cannot bo used for secular or ordinary purposes. Krauth, in his ' Conservative Reformation,' affirms that Luther entertained the same views as the High Anglican party. Imperial Chamber (The), 1495. The first law-court established in Ger- many. Instead of settling differences by the sword, the barons were commanded by the Diet of Augsburg (1495) to submit their grievances to the Imperial Chamber, which consisted of a president named by the crown, four judges, and fifty assessors. The Aulic Council was instituted to prepare mat- ters for the Council ; but in 1654 the Aulic Council was recognised as equal to the Imperial Chamber. Imperial Federation League (The), 28 July, 1884. For securing a permanent unity of the United Kingdom and its colonies. Imperial Free Cities, in feudal times, were those built on the royal demesnes. In Germany they owed their origin to Heinrich I. (the Fowler), who granted them special privileges. See 1 Church Cities ' and ' Ducal Towns.' No one could open a shop in these towns without a licence, which was never granted to any except ' free burghers. Those who were not town-free could only have tneir shops beyond the city walls. Imperial Parliament (The), 22 Jan., 1801. George III. so called the parliament after the union with Ireland. See ' Parliament.' Imperialists, or 'Melchites,' 587. A party of the Monoph'ysites (4 syl.) of Alexandria, supported by Justinian and favoured by the Empress Theodora. See 1 Corruptibles.' They have ceased to be Monoph ysitos, and are now Orthodox Greeks. They are still found in Egypt, bat are very few. ImportantS (Les), 1643. Apolitical faction formed at the death of Louis XIII., consisting of those who had bM-n ill-used by Richelieu, in the hope of ob- taining justice under the new king. The chief s were Les Guises, LeaVenddmo8,tha Ducd'Epernon,th<- DucheMnil>a/on. 1'. these there were Poticr bishop of li -au- vais, and the Due de Beaufort. To break up this cabal many of them were sent into exile, Beaufort was imprisoned, and the bishop was sent to his diocese. M t of the Importants took part in the Fronde (q.v.). In Cam'era. With closed doors, the public not being permitted to be i>i It was directed that the Inquiry should be con. ducted in camera. The Royal Liter Fricmll. Jan. 1888. In Coena Dom'ini, !5fiH. The famous Bull of Pius V. anathematising everyone who dared to question, limit, <>r abjure the absolute authority of the Holy See. It was specially directed a I the League of Schmalkalden, a German Protestant association. Next year (i:.f-;i) the pope excommunicated Queen Eliza- beth, and absolved her subjects from their allegiance. Thomas Krastus wrote a book entitled ' Da Coma Domini.' in which he contended for the figurative interpretation of the words ' This is My body,' Ac. This Bull was read on Holy Tli called ' The day of the Lord's Supper,' whence iis name. In Eminenti (The Bull), 1642. By Urban VHI. in condemnation of the ' Augustlnus ' of Cornelius Jan sen. The work was designed to prove that (Judged by the Jesuit s standard) St. Augustine was unsound on the points of Grace, Free-will, and Prcii. Won. In Usum Saram, 1078. Th Salisbury Missal, drawn up by Oswald or Osmund bishop of Salisbury in the reign of Ruf us. It is in Latin, and based on the Roman Missals. There were numberless ' Uses ' or Missals em ployed before the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer. Hence in the Introduction of that book we read : ' There hath been great diver- sity in saying and singing in churches within this realm : some following Salisbury Use, some Her* tord UM, some the UM of Banyor, w>nM at York, INA INCORRUPTIBLE 443 *nd some of Lincoln. But from henceforth all the whole realm shall have but one Use.' Ina (Laws of), A.D. 692. Ina was king of Wessex, and promulgated a code of laws which was received over the whole heptarchy. By these laws the British proprietors were allowed to retain their lands; and alliances by marriage were encouraged between the natives and the Saxons. Incammina'ti (The). The school o* painting formed by the Carracci. The word means ' progressive,' and the Car- racci school was eclectic, seeking to stamp out the exaggerations and mannerism of contemporary artists. It directed art to the study of nature and the best masters. The good taste of the Carracci is pro- verbial. The Carracci were Ludovlco (1554-1G19), and his two cousins Annlbale and Agostino ; the former died in 1609 at the age of 48, and the latter In 1602 at the age of 45. Annibale was the best artist of the three. Incas. A Peruvian dynasty (1130- 1571) which succeeded the Aymara dynasty, and was reigning when (in 1533) Pizarro conquered Peru. The Incas called themselves descendants of the Sun. The first Inca was Manco-Capac 1130, and his successors were Sinchi- Roca, Lloqui-Yupanqui, Mayta-Capac, Capac-Yupanqui, Roca, Yahuar-Huacac, Viracocha, Pachacutec, Yapanqui, Tupac- Yupanqui, Huayna-Capac, Huas- car and Atahualpa (taken prisoners by the Spaniards and put to death in 1533). Tupac- Amaru was beheaded in 1571. Incident (The), 1641. A supposed plot of Charles I. to kill or kidnap the Marquis of Hamilton and the Earl of Argyll, at the instigation of James Graham earl of Montrose. Charles I. contrived to win over James Graham, Earl of Montrose ; but when the Scotch Covenanters got wind of this treachery they arrested the earl and imprisoned him. While iu prison he revealed to the king certain treasonable plots which he alleged were Bet on foot by Hamilton and Argyll, and he advised the king to summon the two Scotch noblemen ostensibly 'to a con- sultation ' ; but when they entered the ante-room armed men (headed by the Earl of Crawford) were to kidnap them, and carry them beyond the seas. If they resisted they were to be slain. The two noblemen escaped to their castles, and the king denied the scandal. The matter was privately investigated, and it was given out that the whole tale was a mare's nest ; but instead of punishing the supposed traitors the king created Hamil- ton a duke and Argyll a marquis. This strange ' Incident ' will be found in the ' Hardwicke Papers.' Income Tax (The). Proposed by Pitt Dec. 1798, repealed 1802. Reim- posed as a property tax 1803, abandoned 1816. Reimposed by Sir Robert Peel, 22 June, 1842, for three years, but con- tinued at varying rates, from 2d. to 8d. in the pound, according to the exigencies of government. The triennial renewals from 1842 were 1845, 1848, and 1851. In 1853 it was renewed for seven years and extended to Ireland. It was doubled in 1854, but In 1857 it was reduced, and incomes under 150!. a year were relieved. Incorporated Society for Pro- moting English Protestant Schools in Ireland (The), 1733. Established by royal charter, for the education of the poor in Ireland in the principles of the Established Church. Grant reduced in 1824, and wholly with- drawn in 1832. Incorruptible (The). I. Robes- pierre (1759, 1793-1794). Bouillet says: ' Robespierre etait un homme f roid, cache, tenace dans ses opinions, et dominant. H affectait le plus pur patriotisme et tous les dehors de la vertu, ce qui 1'avait surnomm^ par ses partisans Vlncor- ruptible.' Probably called the Incorruptible from his denunciations against corruption at the outbreak of the Revolution. IL Fabricius the Roman hero, of whom Pyrrhus said : ' It would be easier to turn the SUB from its course than Fab- ricius from his path of duty.' III. William Shippen, of whom Horace Walpole said, ' he la the only man proof against a bribe.' IV. Andrew Marvell, who refused a cheque for 1,OOOZ., slipped into his hand by the Lord Treasurer Danby in 1673. The anecdote is given on p. 43, under the title of ' Aristides (The British).' Incorruptible Lucas (The). Charles Lucas, who in 1746 (George II. 'a reign) tried to abrogate the law of Charles II., which took the power of choosing the city magistrates of Ireland from the Irish commons, and vested it in the alderman, thus virtually giving th 44 INCOBBUPTIBLEB INDEX election to the crown, because the alder- men were chosen by the privy council. Incorruptibles (The), or 'In- corruptibilists,' 537-568. A branch of the Monoph'ysites of Alexandria which arose on the death of the patriarch 'jfimothy. The leader was Gaian, a dis- ciple of Julian whence his followers were called Gaianites& party supported by the monks and senators, the city and provinces. The Incorruptibles were op- posed to the Corruptibles (q.v.), and so bitter the animosity between them that Alexandria was filled with the dead bodies of the factionists. Women from housetops hurled missiles against their religious opponents, and it is said that 200,000 Christians f ell by the sword when Apollinarius was installed patriarch of Alexandria. The Incorruptibles Insisted that the body of Christ was a celestial body, and not a body of corruptible flesh like ours. The Corruptibles in- sisted on the perfect manhood of Christ. Incroy'ables (Les). A class of young dandies during the time of the Directory. They affected great care in their dress, a refined manner of speech, and elegance of deportment the very opposite of the sansculotte style of dress and manner affected by the revolutionary party. The Incroyables represented the reactionary party. Under the Regent ' un Incroyable ' was called ,n talon rouge ; under Louis XIV., un libcrtin ; under Henri III., un mignon ; under Charles IX., un nijfinf ; under Francois I., un muynft. In 1886 he was called un Mcarre ; in 1887 un copurchic. Indemnity (Bill or Act of). 12 Car. II. c. 11, 1660. A bill for the in- demnity of all acts of treason and all state offences committed between 1 Jan., 1687, and 24 June, 1660. II. 2 William and Mary c. 10, 20 May, 1690. Indemnity for the adherents of James II. III. 7 Geo. HI. c. 7, 16 Dec., 1766. Indemnity for the advisers of the embargo on the exportation of corn. IV. 41 Geo. in. c. 66, 23 June, 1801. indemnity for protecting authorities from penalties in respect to proceedings during the suspension of the Habeas Corpus Act. V. 21 Viet. e. 1, 12 Dec., 1857. In- demnity for the infringement of the Currency Acts. Independence (Declaration of), i July, 1776. See under ' Declaration/ Independence Day, July, reat National Holiday in the I The U.S. of Great North America. Independent Methodists, 1810. Separatists from the old Methodist con- nection. Chiefly distinguished by their rejection of a paid ministry. Independent Order of Good Templars (The), 1852. Seceders from the ' Order of Good Templars,' whoso motto is ' Faith, Hope, and Charity.' It is a total abstinence society. Independents, 1580. Those Chris- tians who, in the reign of Elizabeth, pro- tested against a state church. Th-y maintain that each congregation is in- dependent in the selection of its own minister and the laws of church memlu'r- ship and government; in contradistinc- tion to Roman Catholics, Episcopalians, Presbyterians, and Methodists, who have no such freedom. They were at first called Brown ists from Robert Brown, a clergyman, 1580, and were not called Independents till 1610 ; but they attracted very little attention before the opening of the Long ' Peters returned from . Besides Independents (who arei .-._ Calvinlstic), there are the Independent Metho- dists, the Independent Religious Reformers, the Independent Unionists, Ac. In 1780 was form, d the association of the Thrre 7vn..nmUw;u: Inde- pendents, Presbyterians, and Baptists. Independents and Presby- terians, 1647. Two political parties in English history which sprang up during the Civil war. The Independents were the parliamentarians, but the V terians were disposed to make terms with the king and the royalists. In 1680 the Independents were called Whigs and the royalists Tories. Since the middle of the 19th cent, the words Liberal and Conservative have well-nigh superseded those of Whig and Tory. Independents' Declaration ot Faith (The). Their confession of faith, contained in 88 articles, 12 Oct., 1658. Index. The first index to a book was by Valerius Soranus. Pliny says that he himself gave an index to his ' Natural History,' adding these words : 'Valerius Soranus, one of our Latin authors, had done the like before me.' Index Expurgato'rius, or ' Index Librorum Expurgandoruni,' 1 * r>7. Issued by Paul IV. A list of books forbidden to INDEX INDULGENCE 44* be read by Catholics. The books of all heresiarchs, whatever the subject, are forbidden; all books of an heretical tendency, and all versions of the Bible by 'heretics.' The list was made out originally by the Congregation of the Inquisition of Home, but Pius V. ap- pointed a special ' Congregation of the Index.' See next article. Index Iiibrorum Prohibito- rum. In May 1825 Sir Robert Inglis, speaking in the House of Commons, said : ' I hold in my hand the " Index Librorum Prohibitorum " (a list of books proscribed by the Catholic Church under the penalties of the Inquisition). It was printed at Rome by authority in 1819, and I bought it there in 1821.' The first book on the list is ' Bacon, De Augmentis Scientia- rum.' Then follow ' Locke, on the Human Understanding,' Cudworth's ' In- tellectual System,' Milton's 'Paradise Lost ' . . . ' Algarptte On the Newtonian System,' &c. This is also called the ' Index of the Court of Rome,' or briefly the ' Index.' Many of the books of Des- cartes, Malebranche, Fleury, Fe"nelon, with all Calvin's, Luther's, and Voltaire's, are in the Index Gibbon, Robertson, Sismondi, Hallam, Goldsmith's ' History of England,' Kant, T. S. Mill, Whately's ' Logic,' Dante, Addison, &c. Some little tales for children are banned in the Index, as, for instance, ' Little Henry and his Bearer.' Sir Robert saya that Jacquler, the editor of Newton's ' Principia,' wrote on the fly-leaf 'New- tonus, in tertio lioro, Telluris motto hypothesim assumit . . . Cseterum latis a summis pontificibus contra telluris motum decretis nos obsequi pro- fitemur. 1739.' Indian File (In). In single file; one at a time ; as North American In- dians go on an attack, the one behind treading exactly in the footsteps of the man before him, the last man carefully obliterating the footprints. Indian Mutiny (The), 1857, 1858. It began by mutinies of the Sepoys at Barrackpore and Berhampore, between 24 Jan. and 6 May, 1857; the Meerut massacre (q.v,) occurred 10 May, the mutiny at Delhi 11 May, the mutiny at Lucknow 80 May, at Benares 4 June, at Allahabad and Cawnpore 5 June. War over June 1858. Also called the ' Sepoy War.' See ' Greased Cartridges.' la tool, the mutiny was virtually crushed la seven months, and by the close of 1857 the Bengal Army and East Indian Company ceased to exist. India'na (U.S. America). So called in 1802 from the number of Indiana who had flocked thither. A French settlement in 1702 ; a separate territory in 1800 ; admitted to the Union in 1816. The nickname given to the inhabitants of Indiana is Hoosiers. Indiction. I. In chronology means a period of fifteen years. The Indiction of Constantinople begins 1 Sept., 812, the date of Constantino's victory over Maxen- tius. This epoch is still preserved in papal bulls, because then Christianity was first recognised by the state. But the Papal Indiction begins on 1 Jan., 818. Divide the date by 15 and it will give the num- ber of indictions, the remainder being the years over. Thus 1890 + 15 gives 126 indictions exactly. II. In political history it means the recurrence of 15 years when the emperor of the East revised and reimposed the imposts of his empire. The word means the imperial edict. Indolent Dick. Richard Crom- well, son of Oliver Cromwell (1626- 1712). Induction Institution. Induc- tion is the investing of a clergyman with the temporalities of a benefice or living. Institution is the investing him with its spiritualities. If a bishop is the patron of a benefice the two ceremonies are united in what is termed ' collation ' to the living. Inductive Philosophy (The Father of). Francis Bacon lord Veru lam (1561-1626). Inductive philosophy' is Inferring general principles from data. Deductive philosophy goes the other way about ; it begins with general prin- ciples and then presumes what these principles involve. One is the d posteriori process, and the other Is the d priori one. All Iscience ' follows the inductive or Baconian plan. ' Theology ' still adheres to the deductive system. Indulgence (An). A Papal Indul- gence was a grace given or sold by the pope, or someone authorised by him, granting either partial or plenary immu- nity of sin for some meritorious act, on payment of a sum of money. The price of these notes-of-hand varied from 2Qd. to 10Z. In a captured vessel 500 bales of indulgences, each containing a million, were found during tie Reforma- INDULGENCE INEXPIABLE tion period in Germany. Tetzel, the great hawker of indulgences, went about like a cheap Jack, crying in the streets of German towns: 'The very moment the ring of the cash is heard in the basin St. Peter will throw open the gates of paradise to the buyer ; and if for the dead, the soul will be instantly taken from purgatory to Abraham's bosom.' We first hear of indulgences in Nov., 1095, granted by the Council of Clermont to crusaders. Next on 2 Feb., 1800, granted by Pope Boniface VEI. to pil- grims visiting Rome at the Jubilee. Again 27 Jan., 1343, granted by Clement VI. Again in 1411, granted by John XXIII. to those who joined the crusade against Ladislaus king of Naples. But the sale of indulgences authorised by Leo X. for raisingmoney to complete the cathedral of St. Peter at Rome was so barefaced a traffic in sin that Luther made capital out of it for his reformation plea ; and no worse agent could have been em- ployed than the charlatan Tetzel. The Council of Trent in Dec. 1563 restricted the grace by fixed laws. Samson, a hawker of indulgences In Switzer- land, roused the indignation of Zwingli the re- former, just as Tetzel roused Luther. The following is an exact translation of one of these diplomas, a few words being omitted where the dots are made for the sake of brevity : ' May the Lord have mercy on thoe, and absolve thee by , the merits of his most holy passion t And I, by God's authority, do hereby absolve thee from all ecclesiastical censures . . . and from all sins . . . how enormous soever they may be ... and I remit to thee all the punishment which those sina have deserved. I restore thee to the holy sacra- ments of the church, to the communion of saints, and to perfect innocence of life: so that when thou diest, the gates of hell shall be shut, and those of paradise be thrown open to thee ... In the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost.' The enormous impudence of this traffic almost exceeds belief. Through the Netherlands the price current of these indulgences was published in every town and village. God's pardon for crimes already committed, or about Co be com- mitted, was advertised according to a graduated tariff. Poisoning was absolved for eleven ducats (about 6Q.). MOTLEY, Dutch Republic, vol. i. p. 78. Indulgence to Scotch ministers, 1668, whereby the ejected ministers were readmitted to their livings if they accepted collation from the bishop, and would attend the presbyteries and synods. This *as the Earl of Tweeddale's Act. 1670. Lauderdale offered indulgence to all ministers who would take the oath of supremacy uici acknowledge the bishops. 1678. Lauderdale named eighty ejected ministers, and ordered them to officiate in their own churches, but nowhere else; but one-fourth of them refused the offer See under ' Declaration.' Indulgences (Tariff of). From 'The Tax of the Sacred Roman Chan- eery ' : Adultery 40s. (joint pardon). Arson, or setting fire to a house, lit. Forgery 8a. Fornication 8s. Incest by a priest 40s. (joint pardon). Keeping a concubine, a priest 9*. Murder of a layman 4. Perjury or lying 85. Procuring abortion 6*. Rape 40*. (joint pardon). Robbery 12*. Robbing a church 8*. Striking a priest Us. Of this list ' Robbery ' and ' Robbing * church Mem the most extraordinary. Industrial Schools. Generally means 'Ragged Schools,' in which writing, reading, and arithmetic are taught, with mechanical arts, and in which the children are clothed and fed. They scarcely existed till 1857, and were not finally established till 1866. In Scotland they were established by act of parliament in 1861. In Ireland in 1868. Private enterprise opened such schools before these dates, but the first act of parliament bearing on the subject waa 20, 21 Viet. o. 48. Industrialists (The), about 1800. A school founded by St. Simon for the amelioration of the people. He taught that producers are the only aristocracy, and if men would not work neither should they eat. After the death of St. Simon in 1825 the society became political and communistic. In 1825 they called them- selves ' St. Simonians,' and in 1833 were abolished by law. Inexpiable War (The), or 'The War without Truce ' (B.C. 240-236). A war which sprang up immediately after the First Punic War. It was headed by Matho, a Libyan, who had been very forward in urging the Carthaginian sol- diers to demand their pay. The insur- gents kept the Carthaginians at bay for more than three years, when Hamilcar reduced them to famine in Tunis; a tortie was made, Matho was taken pri- soner and put to death, and the war WM brought to a close. INFALLIBILITY INFERNAL 447 Infallibility of the Church of Borne means the moral impossibility of the church ever sanctioning the intro- duction of a false doctrine, as well as perfect immunity of all errors at all times. Our Lord said (Matt. xvi. 18), ' Thou art Peter, and upon this rock will I build my church ; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.' Not only is the church the fons et orlgo of doctrine, but it is deputed to carry its teaching throughout the world (Matt, xxviii. .1.9, Mark xvi. 15, Eph. iv. 11-16). Of course the main question is what is meant by the Catholic Church ? And the answer is the consensus of the pope and bishops either expressly delivered by ecumenical councils, or tacitly accepted on questions of doctrine or discipline, no matter from whence they originally ema- nated. What is called the Infallibility of the Pope, or, in other words, whether the pope alone, as pope, is capable of pro- nouncing an infallible judgment, was a moot point for many hundreds of years between Gallican and Ultramontane divines. The right was first claimed in 750, but was not made an article of faith till 1870, when it caused a rift in the Catholic Church. In the 19th Art. of the Church of England we read : ' As the Church of Hierusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch have erred, BO also the Church of Rome hath erred not only In their living and manner of ceremonies, but also In matters of faith.' V The Catholic Church distinctly repudiates any infallible judgment In historical and scientific matters. Infallibility of the Pop*. This dogma in 1870 was rejected by a party which termed themselves ' Old Catholics.' They also denied the ecumenical charac- ter of the Vatican Council, and rejected the Vatican decrees. Infant Stockbroker (The). Sid- ney Herbert Cronmire, aged twenty in 1886, when he was charged with mis- appropriating cheques which had been sent him for specified investments by gentlemen residing at Bridgewater. The ' Infant ' was arrested in Spain, and pleaded guilty. Infant of Liibeck (The). Christian Heinrich Heinecken (1721-1725). If what is told us of this unhappy child is true, it U the most pitiable instance of precocity on record. His life was written by his tutor Schbneich. We are told that he spoke when only a month old ; that at twelve months of age he knew the chief events of the Pentateuch; at thirteen months he knew the history of the whole Old Testament; at fourteen months the history of the New Testament ; at two and a half years he could answer any general question of history or geography; at three years old he knew French and Latin as familiiirly as he knew German, although he was not then weaned (!!). He died between four and five. * More marvellous still, the Infant prodigy John Philipp Baratier was born at Schwabach near Nurnberg the same year (!!), 1721-1740. Of this latter prodigy there Is no doubt. Infante . (mas. 8 syl.), Infanta (fern.). Titles given in Spain and Por- tugal to all the princes and princesses of the blood royal, except the heir or heiress apparent. The heir apparent of Spain Is called the Prince of Asturias. The heiress presumptive is entitled Infanta. In Portugal the heir or heiress apparent Is called the ' Prince ' or ' Princess Royal.' Infantry. Foot soldiers. 'Infantry' originally meant a particular army of foot soldiers, raised by the Infante or heir-apparent of Spain to rescue his father from the Moors, and is about equal to our phrase 'the Prince of Wales's Own.' The infantry was the Infante's own. We have applied the particular term to foot soldiers generally. Like calling all foot soldiers 'the Prince of Wales's Own.' Infernal Columns (The), 1793. Republican detachments in the Vendean war. So called from their diabolical barbarity. They murdered all, even children at the breasts, and as they advanced set the houses and country on fire. Infernal Machines. I. 21 Dec., 1800. A machine planted by the Chouans in the Eue St. Nicaise to blow up Napoleon Bonaparte on his re- turn from Italy. As Bonaparte drew near, the barrel hung fire ; but scarcely had he passed the spot when it exploded, shattered the windows of his carriage, and iftjured several persons in the crowd. II. 28 July, 1885. Discharged from a window at Louis-Philippe king of the French as he was riding on horseback with his three sons down the Boulevard du Temple (Paris). Marshal Mortier, General de Virigny, and twelve others, including a child, were killed, but Louis- Philippe was uninjured. The assassin was Fieschi, a Corsican, formerly a (49 INFBANCESADOS INNOCENTS' soldier and a police spy. Fieschi, Peppin, and Morey were executed ; Boireau was sentenced to imprisonment for twenty years, bat Bescher was acquitted. The projectile of Orslni thrown at Napoleon III.. 14 Jan., 18C8, was a species of bombshell : that which assassinated Czar Alexander II.. IS March, 1881, was a dynamite bomb, thrown at his carriage by Nihilists. Infrancesa'dOB, 1808. Those Spa- nish grandees who traitorously favoured the French usurpation of the Spanish crown and the appointment of Joseph Bonaparte as his brother Napoleon's viceroy king. Also called ' Josephi'nos ' (q.v.). Influenza. An epidemic catarrh. Appeared in Europe in 1510, 1657, 1580. Very fatal in London in 1729, and in Russia in 1781, 1782. It has appeared in England in 1782, 1803, 1881, 1888, 1886, 1887, 1889. The word means an epidemic due to the In- fluence of the planets ; under the notion that it ! connected with volcanic action. IngTiamites (8 syl.). Christian fol- lowers of Mr. Benjamin Ingham, son-in- law of the Countess of Huntingdon. Injunctions (Royal), 1585. It was commanded that no lectures should be given in the Universities on the ' Sen- tences ' (q.v.\ or on Canon Law; but that Greek, Latin, and Divinity should be taught in addition to the Trivium (q.v.) and Quadrivium (q.v.). Injunctions of Edward VI. (The), 1547. Commands issued to the Commissioners appointed by Cranmer to make a visitation of all England. They enjoined that all images, shrines, candle- sticks, pictures, representations of mira- cles, &c., in windows and elsewhere, be removed and destroyed ; that all proces- sions and pilgrimages be discontinued; that the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments be repeated when there is no sermon ; that the Epistle and ?rospel be read in English; that the Litany be said or sung kneeling; that the bidding prayer be used as prescribed. Undei penalty of excommunication, se- questration, or deprivation. Injunctions of Elizabeth (The), 1559. They were fifty-three in number. Most were similar to those of Edward VI., out some new regulations were added respecting the marriage of the clergy; chanting and tinging wr allowed in divine services ; reverence was enjoined at the name of Jesus ; all were required tc kneel during the Litany and all col- lects; the wafer in the eucharist was to be dispensed with ; and the oath of su- premacy was to be explained as disavow- ing all claim to any authority in the divine service or the sacred functions of the church. Injunctions of Mary (The), 1554 Restoring to the ecclesiastical courts their jurisdictions ; enforcing the celibacy of the clergy, and insisting that all mar- ried clergymen should put away their wives ; abolishing the oath of Royal su- premacy; restoring the Latin tonV'ir in all church services; forbidding Protes- tants to be schoolmasters; and com- manding that a new set of homilies he at once prepared to secure uniformity of doctrine and practice. Injunctions of William and Mary (The), Feb. 1695. Under the advice of Archbishop Tenison, for the maintenance of church discipline. They were followed by ' Directions ' for unity of opinion on the doctrine of the Trinity. Innocent Papists. Those Catho- lics of Ireland who could prove to the satisfaction of the commissioners that never adhered to the pope's nuncio, hi never been absolved for taking part directly or indirectly in the Irish r. 'hel- lion (q.v.), that they did not derive th. ir title to the estates claimed from p< who had been guilty of the offences men- tioned above, that they had never held any correspondence with any person who had concurred in the rebellion, that they never had taken any part in their coun- cils, never employed any agent dirt-rtly or indirectly to treat with a foreign power, never been a Tory, i.e. a marauder, &c. It was almost impossible to find such a papist in all Ireland. Innocents. Those Irish who had been transplanted by Cromwell merely for their religion, and not for rebellion r any political offence. These Irish at the Restoration were by the Act of Settle- ment to be restored to their estates, and the displaced tenant was to be indemnified by some other tenement. Innocents' Day, or ' Festum Inno- ceutium,' 28 D*c. To commemorate tbi INNS INQUISITOES 449 laughter of the babes of Bethlehem by Herod the Great, with the view of killing thereby the infant Jesus. Inns of Chancery. Ten schools between the City of London and "West- minster, for law students, founded in the reign of Edward III. Originally meant for preparatory colleges for young stu- dents, and each school was attended by 100 students at least. Now they are for the most part occupied by solicitors, &c. See ' London University.' Inquisitio Eliensis. The dooms- day of the lands of the monastery of Ely, contained in the counties of Cambridge, Herts, Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Huntingdon, Published by Sir Henry Ellis (1816) hi the second of the two supplementary volumes of ' Domesday Inquisition (The), or 'The Holy Office,' 1282. A tribunal erected by the popes for the examination and punish- ment of heretics. The chief inquisitors were the Dominicans. The Inquisition tried the suspects, and when condemned handed them over to the civil powers to be punished. Introduced into Spain in 1248; established in Portugal in 1543. Abolished in Portugal by the Cortes between 1818 and 1826. Extinguished by royal decree in Spain 1885. Strictly speaking it originated with Innocent III., who (in 1208) granted a commission for the conversion of the Albigenses. The jurisdiction of the courts of the Inquisition were defined and regulated by Gregory IX. in 1232 or 1233. The modern Spanish Inquisition \vas constituted by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1460, and suppressed in Inquioition of Goa, in the Indies (The). A very powerful tribunal for the trial of 'heretics.' Those sentenced to die were clad in much the same way as in Portugal. Sse ' Santo Benito.' Such as are convicted of magic wear paper sugar- loafed caps covered with flames and devils. All the ' heretics ' go in proces- sion to the church chosen for the cere- mony; they go barefooted, carrying lighted tapers in their hands ; the least guilty go first, then comes one carrying a cross, and then those condemned to die. The day after the execution the head of each person burnt to death is exhibited in a picture rudely executed, surrounded with flames, and underneath is written the name and quality of the person thus represented. Abolished. Inquisition of Rome (The), or 'The Congregation of the Holy Office,' 1548. Founded by the Bu/1 of Paul III. It consisted Of twelve cardinals and some inferior officers, but the pope himself presided. Its standard is of red damask, on which is delineated a cross, with an olive branch on one side and a sword on the other. The motto is ' Exurge, Domine, et judica causam meam' (Ps. Ixxiii.). Inquisition of Venice (The). Consisted of the resident nuncio, the patriarch of Venice, the father inqui- sitor, and two senators. This Inquisition was nothing like so severe as the Inqui- sitions of Spain and Portugal. It took no notice of Greeks and Armenians, and tolerated Jews, who wore a scarlet cap as a badge. Heretics were allowed to take their degrees in law and physic, and were not interfered with by this tribunal. Abolished by Napoleon in 1808. Inquisitor of Atheists (The). J. Andre Naigeon (1788-1810), so called from his intolerance. Inquisitori del Doge Defunto (The). Three magistrates of Venice whose duty was to examine into the administration of deceased doges, to compare their acts with the provisions of their oath, to inquire into charges brought against them, and if the charges were proved, to make their heirs responsible for reparations. Inquisitors (The State), 16 June, 1454. Three persons chosen by the Council of Ten in Venice, with dicta- torial powers; two were of I Neri (the Blacks, i.e. The Ten), and one was II Rosso (the Keds, or the Council of the Doge). These inquisitors were invested with plenary authority over every person in the republic, noble or citizen, magis- trate or ecclesiastic. The penalties they might inflict were wholly optional, and the trials of offenders were public or secret. They kept the keys of the treasury, and were accountable to no one for their expenditures. All commanders, ambassadors, and governors addressed themselves to the Three. They made their own laws and rescinded them as they liked; and to prevent the inviolability of secrecy, no one who had an ecclesiastic directly or indirectly among his counex ions was eligible to the office of inqm- ea 460 L N. R. L INSTRUMENT sitor. It is needless to add that the history of this Inquisition exceeds in infamy and cruelty any tribunal the world ever established. I. N. B. I. Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews. Inscription over the cruci- fix (Jesus Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum). Insabbata'ti, or 'Insabbates- (4 syl.), 12th cent. The Waldenses are over and over again called 'Inzabatati' in the council held at Tarragon hi 1242. Probably the word means 'shoeless.' They are also called ' Sabbatati ' (q.v.). Eberhard de Bethune is the first authority for the word. In opposition to the 'shoeless' explanation, Father Natalia says, they [the Waldenscs] cele- brate no sabbath or feast-day, and do not abstain from work even on days consecrated to the Virgin and the blessed saints. P. NATAIJ8 ALBX- ANDEB, vol. vli. pp. 94, 95. Inspection (An). In the Lutheran communion means a synod of five con- sistorial churches ; called a synod in the Calvinist communion. See ' Consis- tent.' Instance, in French law, means ttare in judicio, to be under judgment (instantia) ; and a process is en instance when it is brought before a jurisdiction. First Instance is the jurisdiction ' qui doit connaltre en premier ressort de la decision d'une affaire ' ; whence the civil tribunals before which processes are first brought are called ' Courts of First In- stance' (tribunaux de premiere in- stance). Second Instance means the jurisdic- tion of the appeal, or of the second degree. Reprise d'instance is resuming a suit which has been interrupted by the death of one of the parties, the retirement or withdrawal of the advocate, or gorr.e such cause. We also find the phrases L'inttaitee tUe conlradic- toiremrnt (qul a lieu lorsque les deux parties com- paraissent ensemble); and L'inttance par cUJunt (qui so poursuit lorsque le di>fend?urn& se present* pas sur 1' assignation qui lui a et donnee). Institute of Prance. Constituted in 1795 as the ' Institut National' by the union of the French Academy, the Academy of Inscriptions, and the Academy of Arts and Sciences. The constitution was revised in 1808 by Napoleon Bonaparte. Louis Philippe in 1882 added to it a class oi moral anf. political sciences. Institutes (8 syl.). The element* of Roman law, composed by Tribonian, Theophilus, and Dorotheus, A.D. 638. Divided into four books, each book sub- divided into chapters, and each cliapter into paragraphs. Institutes of Ghazan or Kasan (The), 1295-1804. The ' commentary ' < 1 Ghazan, or Kasan, sultan of Persia, com- piled from several sources. These Insti- tutes are still held in honour in the East. Institution, Induction, and Collation. Institution is investiture of the spiritualities of a benefice. Induc- tion is investiture of its temporalities. Collation is the union of the two inves- titures. Thus a person collated to a living is both instituted and inducted. Instrument of Government (The), 1658. Spoken of generally as ' The Instrument.' A new English con- stitution drawn up by the Council of State nominated by the Barebone Parliament (q.v.), and accepted by the Council of Officers. The house was to consist of 400 members from England, 80 from Scotland, and 80 from Ireland. The seats hitherto assigned to small and rotten boroughs were transferred to huvr constituencies; all special rights of voting for members were abolished, and the franchise was given to holders of pro- perty to the value of 2002. and upwards. Catholics and Malignants (q.v.) were ex- cluded. Cromwell was made Lord Pro- tector, but his power was stri'-tly limited. The members of the council were all named by him, but no member could be removed except by the consent of the council itself. With the council rested the power of peace and war, the choice of all officers civil and military, and the election of protectors. Parliaments were to last three years, and three years only. All taxes were to be imposed by parlia- ment only. *,* The conditions which Cromwell swore to observe when appointed the Lord Protector were as follows : (1) The legislative power to be vested in a lord protector and parliament; (2) the exe- cutive power to reside in the lord pro- tector acting with the advice of hii council ; (8) no laws to be made or taxes to be levied without consent of parlia- ment; (4) the civil libt to be fixed ) INSULATED INTERDICTION 451 200,OOOZ. a year, and the army to be 80,000 men, two-thirds of which to be infantry ; (5) all religious persuasions to be protected except prelatists and papists ; (6) the successor of Cromwell to be se- lected by council. They proceeded with the revision of 'the In- strument ' ; and their labours were embodied In a bill, which was read a third time 1655. - Dr. LINGARD, History of England, viii. 6. Insulated Abbots. Abbots of independent or liberated abbeys, who acknowledged no lord but the pope. In the middle ages these abbots frequently enjoyed episcopal titles, but very few had dioceses. Insurrection Act (The) of 1796. Giving the lord-lieutenant of Ireland power to proclaim any county or district of Ireland, on the requisition of seven magistrates ; and to seize, imprison, and send on board His Majesty's fleet persons found in an unlawful assembly or in any way imperilling the public peace. Insurrection of June (The), 23, 24, 25 June, 1848. This was a war against society, against law, against pro- perty ; and was produced by the closing of the national workshops of Paris, the expense of which cost the government 40,OOOZ. a week. Two million and eighty thousand pounds annually to maintain lazy, worthless operatives, who planned rebellion and diffused discontent ! Insurrection of La Vendee (The), March 1798. The Vendeans, a very primitive people, had no sympathy with the French Revolution, so the gentry and clergy organised an army to resist the dangerous innovations. They de- feated every army sent against them for a time, but at length were obliged to succumb. All who took part in the in- surrection were outlawed, and their pro- perty confiscated. M. Prudhomme in- forms us that 937,000 persons perished in this savage butchery. Insurrection of RagotsTd. (The), 1703-1713. He declared himself pro- tector of Poland and prince of Transyl- vania ; but in 1718 the Austrians compelled him to retire. He died 1785. Insurrection of the Duchesse de Berry (The), 1832. The last Chouan tnn'ute made with a view of placing Henri [Cinq] on the throne of France. The duchess was the widow of the assas- sinated Duo de Bordeaux and mothei of Henri V. Her insurrection was very romantic, and the duchess, being taken prisoner, would have been put to death had she not been enceinte. Insurrection of the Yellow Caps (The), A.D. 220. Tchang-kio of China persuaded the multitude that he could cure them of a pestilential disease which was then prevalent. He thereby soon acquired a large following of some 500,000 men. These he persuaded to adopt as a badge the yellow cap, and then he assumed regal power. The whole military strength of China was sent against the rebels; and though at first the mob gained certain advantages, ere long the regular troops prevailed, and the insurgents were routed with great slaughter. Intellectual Artist (The). Nico- las Poussin (1594-1665). Famous for his classic costumes. Intendants Militaires. A corps charged with all things which concern the administration and ' comptability ' of war. They are named by the minister of the war department. They were established in France in 1817 in substi- tution of the inspectors of revenue and commissioners of war. The corps con- sists of 28 intencLinta (who rank next to generals) and 140 sub-intendants. Pronounce Ahn-tahn-dahn me-le-1air. Intendants of a Province (The). Magistrates, administrative, judicial, and financial, who exercise their functions in each gSne'ralite' (q.v.). The chamber in which they meet is called the ' Intend- ance. ' The first intendants of a province were established by Henri II. hi 1551. They were suppressed in 1790. A ' generality ' is the Jurisdiction of an intendanfc. general. Intercursus Magnus. The treaty made by Henry VII. with the Flemings. In 1496 Henry made a less liberal treaty, which was branded as the Intercursua Malus. Interdiction of Fire and Water. 'Aquas et ignis interdictio.' The form used by the Romans in their t'udicial sentence of banishment from taly ; the person thus interdicted might go anywhere he chose provided he left Italy. 002 INTERIM INVESTITUBB Interim (The), or ' Formula ad In- terim,' 1548. When Charles V. saw that the pope removed the Council of Trent to Bologna, he believed that he only sought time to stave off a decision on the knotty points of the day ; and, in order to preserve peace in his kingdom, he made a provisionary arrangement with the Protestants appointed, which was to be in force till the council was actually summoned. By this ' Interim ' or provi- sionary arrangement, the cup was allowed to the laity in the Lord's Supper, and the clergy were allowed to marry. This con- cession pleated neither party, and the Interim fell through by the 'Treaty of Passan,' vhich secured full and perfect liberty to all in matters of religion (1552). Paflsau, pronounce Pat-tow ' ovt ' as In ' now.' International Law (Professor- ship of), 1867. Founded by Dr. Whewell, master of Trinity College. Salary 500Z. See ' Regius Professorship of Civil Law.' Whewell, pronounce You'-tl. Interregnum (The English). From 28 Dec., 1688 (the abdication) to 18 Feb., 1689, when parliament assented to the accession of William and Mary. William in. was son-in-law and Mary wai daughter of James II. Introit, or ' Introltus.' The psalm or passage of scripture chanted in the Catholic Church while the priest is enter- ing the chancel to celebrate mass. Such terms as Beminiscere Sunday, Ociili Sunday, Lcetdre Sunday, Quasimodo Sunday, , x), and the four added by Epichannos the Sicilian (f, >?, $, o>). Called Ionic, because the Ionian s were the first to adopt all the 24 letters. (N.B. The other 16 are called Cadmean letters.) Ionic Poets of Greece (The). Those poets who wrote in the Ionic dialect or the Greek of Asia Minor. Homer wrote Ionic Greek ; but of the lyrists the two most eminent are Ana- creon (B.C. 568-478) and Simonldes (B.C. 556-467). The elegy of the latter on Leomdas and his 800 has no superior in the world ; and his ' Lament of Danae ' is a model of pathos. As for Anacreon, his odes are quite unrivalled. There never were odes more inimitable than his 1 Cupid dripping wet ' (Ode 8), ' To my dove ' (Ode 9), and ' The Rose ' (Ode 58) (' Barnes's edition '). The following is a literal translation of the elegy. 'How glorious their fate who fell at ThermopyliB ! How beautiful their death ! Their tomb an altar ! We give them not our tears, but cherish them in immortal memory. The manner of their death is their funeral song. Bust nor de- stroying time shall efface the memorial of the brave. This mound is the archive of Grecian glory. Leonidas lies here ; Leonidas the king of Sparta ; Leonidas who left behind him a monument of araise, a trophy of glory -which no time shall the lyric poet must not be con- founded with Simonldes the satirist who wrote in Iambic Terse, and lived a century earlier. Ionic Sect (The) of ancient Greek philosopher*. Founded by Thalea, the sage, and father of speculative philoso- phy (B.C. 611-547). He taught that all bodies are compounded of atoms; that the earth is round; that the sun is a spin-re of fire ; and that the moon is lighted by the sun. His most noted disciples were Anaximander (B.C. 611-547) ; Anax- imgnes (B.C. 558-460) ; Anaxagnras (.c. 500-428); HeraclTtos of Ephesus (B.C. 543-188); and Diogenes of Crete (B.C. 639-465). Archelios of Miletus Joined together the two systems of Anaximander and Anaxag6ras. He held with the former that the elements of all things are eternal, and admitted with the latter the existence of a Supreme intelligence, inde- pendent of matter. V Diogenes of Crete must not be confounded with Diogenes of 8inop the cynic. I'owa (U.S. America). So called from an Indian tribe, and from a river of the same name. The inhabitants are nicknamed Hawkeycs. Iphicra'tians. The mercenaries of Ipliirrati'S the Athenian general (B.C. 419-848). Ille pedestria arma mutavit. Quum ante Ilium imperatorem maximls clypeis, brevlbns hnxtis, minutls gladiim uterentur ; ille, e contrario. pellam pro par ma fecit, ut ad motus essent lev lores. Hast* modum duplicavit. gladioa longiores fecit. Idem genus lorlcamm mutavit, et pro forrels atque aeneU linteas dedit.-NKi'u*. Iphicratft. Ireland (King of). Edward Bruce, brother of Robert Bruce, was crowned king of Ireland at Dundalk in 1816, but was slain by the English under Sir John Bermingham at Faughart, near Dundalk, 5 Oct., 1818. Henry VIII. was the first English sovereign who called himself 4 King of Ireland. 1 Ireland (Samuel William Henry). A literary impostor (1777-1 *:'.:,,. He published in folio, 1795, ' Miscellaneous Papers and Instruments under the haml and seal of William Shakespeare, includ- ing the tragedy of " King Lear," and a small fragment of "Hamlet," from the original,' price 41. 4*. On 2 April, IT'.i''-. he produced the play of ' Vortigern and Rowena ' from the pen of Shakespeare. It was actually represented, and drew a most crowded house. Dr. Parr, Dr. Val ] >y, James Boswell, Herbert Croft, and Pye the poet-laureate, signed a document certifying their conviction that Ireland's productions were genuine; but Malone exposed the imposition of the tragedy^ and Ireland publicly confessed that all his publications from beginning to eud IRELAND IEISH 456 were impositions. See 'Literary For- Society of United Irish- men. Tithe Agitatow. Tithe War. geries,' &c. Sons of Freedom. United Brotherhood For my own part 1 cannot Imagine how anyone Steel Boys. Tenants' Defence Asso- United Irishmen. V. C. ould bo deceived. Ireland of Austria (The). Hun- gary, which struggled long for home ciation. Tenants' Defence League. Terryalts. Vigilance Society. White Boys. Young Irelanders. Young Ireland's Ilia rule, and obtained it in 1867. In 1868 Threshers. Ing. the empire of Austria was designated the 1 Austro-Hungarian Monarchy.' Irish Church (The). The papal o.n t .Vi m*i f. v i*n Tr^lfl.nfl wtia Tp.anncmiap.r1 Vw f.lm Irish American Land League (The), 1879. Organised by C. S. Parnell and affiliated with the Irish National Land League (q.v.). See ' Irish Associations.' Irish Army of Liberation (The), 1848. The war party of Ireland, who had both commissions and uniforms to fight against soldiers of Great Britain on behalf of the Irish rebels. See ' Irish Associations.' Synod of Kells in 1152. The Catholic Church was abolished by Henry VIII. in 1539, and the English reformed liturgy was introduced in 1550. Catholic priests were expelled, under penalty of death, by James I. in 1G05 ; and the Articles of the Church of England were introduced in 1635. Intermarriages between Catholics and Pro- testants in Ireland were forbidden by William III. In 1697. Catholics were declared disqualified to sit on the grand jury in 1705. The disestablishment and disendowment of the Anglican Church in Ireland date from 1871. Irish Associai Agents of Captain Right. Aggregate Bodies. American Land League. Anti-Tory Association. Anti-Union Society. iions. See under Kilkenny Convention. Lady Clares. Ladies' Irish Land League. Ladies' Land League. Irish Church Temporalities Bill (The). A bill to abolish the col- lection of tithes and firstfruits, and to substitute a rent-charge, 80 July, 1833. Amended in 1834, and again in 1836. A Attacottic Rebellion, Ladies' Labour and In- Sustentation Fund was originated in Avengers. Black Foot. Land Grabbers. 1870, and its union with the Protestant Boys (The). Brotherhood of St. Pa- Land Grabbers League. Levellers. Church of England was dissolved in 1871. trick. Loyal Irish Brethren. The Act of iaS3 abolished the church-cess, Captain Right. Caravats. Loyal National Repeal Association. reduced the four archbishops and eighteen bishops to two archbishops and ten bishops, and Confederate Catholicg. Martyrs' Meeting. appropriated the revenues thus obtained to Confederation. Massacre of Scullabogue general church purposes. Cork Boys. Barn. Daisy League. Defenders. Democratic Labour As- Molly Maguires. Moonlighters, Captain Moonlight. Irish Confederation (The), 1845. The Young Ireland party headed by sociation. Emerald Club. Federalists. Fenians. Green Spectre. Hearts of Steel. M. W. S. National Association for the Repeal of the Union. National Association of Ireland. William Smith O'Brien, a split from the great Repeal party of Daniel O'Conneli. The Young Irelanders were for enforcing their charter at the sword's point, but Hillside Men. Home Rule League. Houghers. National Land League. National League. Nationalists. O'Conneli was opposed to any such mad measure. In 1848 they sent a deputation I. N. B. Invincible!. I R B. New Fenians. Night Boys. * No 1. to France craving aid for ' the oppressed nationality of Ireland,' and organised an Irish American Land Oak Boys. insurrection, but just before the time of League. Irish Army of Libera- tion. Our Boys. Orangemen. Peep o' Day Boy*. uprising O'Brien was arrested, and, being convicted, was exiled to Van Diemen's Irish Confederation. Irish Invincibles. Phenicians. Philadelphia Conven- Land for life. In 1856, having obtained Irish Labour and Indus- tion. a free pardon, he returned home, and trial Union. Irish Land League. Phoenix Park Murder. Phoenix Society. died in 1864. See ' Irish Associations.' Irish Loyal and Patrio- Redpath Boys. tic Union. Irish Massacre. Irish National Brother- Remonstrants. Repeal Agitation. Repeal Association. Irish Crisis (The), 1846, 1847. During the potato famine. hood. Irish National Land League. Irish Republican Bro- Repeal of the Union. Repeal Year. Revolver Boys. Ribbon Men. Potato famines have not been uncommon In Ireland : Thus in 1822 Parliament voted 300,0004. for relief purposes, and subscriptions to the amount of 310 OOOJ. were raised. In 1831 the crop In tku therhood. Irish Revolutionary Right Boys. Rockites and Captain Rock West of Ireland failed, and so on. Irish Tenant League. Rory of the Hillg. Irish Invincibles (The). An or. Irish Tenants' Defence League. Separatists. i tihanavesto. ganisation started in Dublin in Deo. IRISH IRISH 1881 (organised fully in the spring of 1882), the members of which bound themselves by oath to ' remove all tyrants from the country,' in other words, to ' assassinate the executive council of Ire- land, the chief secretary, and all govern- ment officers.' McCafferty, with others, established the society. It was limited to 250 members, and was under the con- trol of a committee of five Fenians, viz. James Mullett, Edward McCafferty, Daniel and James Curley, and James Carey, who were paid by the Land League. The first person on the list for removal was the Bight Hon.W. E. Porster, chief secretary for Ireland ; the second was Earl Cowper, the lord-lieutenant of Ireland. These gentlemen resigned and left the island. The first officials who fell to the assassins were Mr. Thomas Burke, perpetual under-secretary, and Lord Frederick Cavendish, who suc- ceeded Mr. Forster, 6 May, 1882. They fell on a Saturday, in full daylight, in Phoenix Park. The trial of these ' Invin- cibles ' took place in Dublin, 1883. See 'Irish Republican Brotherhood' and 1 Irish Associations.' Irish Land Acts. L An Act was passed in 1858 (21, 22 Viet. c. 72) to facilitate the Bale and trans- fer of land in Ireland. II. Deasy's Act, 1860, limiting the power of a landlord to the terms of his contract, but not giving a tenant any compensation for improvements on eviction. III. The Act of 1870 remedied this, and provided that a tenant on eviction might demand of his landlord just compensation for all improvements made by himself [the tenant] during his term of tenancy. IV. The Act 1881 set up a tribunal to fix a ' fair rent ' ; and legalised the tenant's interest in his holding, which was sale- able in open market, so that virtually the Irish tenant by this Act was a co- partner in the soil. V. The Ashbourne Act, 1885, placed five million pounds sterling at the dis- posal of Irish tenants who desired to purchase the fee simple of their holdings, the loan to be repaid by instalments in forty-nine years. In 1888 another similar sum was granted for the same object. And in 1890 Mr. Balfour introduced a bill for a much larger loan on very easy terms enough by principal and interest to buy up any number of farms whi .h the tenants would be likely to desire. VL The Act of 1887, subjecting the rents judicially fixed in 1S81-- revision, by which rents were again reduced about 10 per cent. ; and to x r ive county-court judges the power of ing eviction, and of spreading an. ; us over a discretionary number of years. These several Acts give to tenants In Ireland a) Compensation lor Improvements. (4) disturbance. (3) Security of tenure, subject to payment of rent. (4) A 'fair rent' tribunal. (5) The right of selling their interest. (6) The revision of judicial rents. (7] The right of having eviction stayed on oo* cause shown. (8] Facilities for acquiring the fee simple of k holding. V Lower Beltoney, In far-off Qweedore, IB now (under the Purchase Act) a real garden, wlul- Keeldrum. on the other side of the road [under the Plan of Campaign, q.r.], is a wa-: Again, the barony of Karney in Moimgh;. the most blood stained spot in all Ireland, hae. with the sale of the Mimjuls of Bath s property, become quite a model district (1890). Irish Legion (The), 1803. An army of Irish refugees in Paris raised by Bona- parte, with the intention of invading England through Ireland. Irish Liberator (The). Daniel O'Connell (1775-1847). Irish Loan (The), 1885. Five millions sterling set apart, to be lent to Irish farmers by government at 3$ per cent., to enable them to buy their farms of their landlords. See above, ' Irish Land Acts,' No. V. Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union (The), 1885. To unite the loyalist party into one body irrespective of class* party, or creed. This union was to counteract the ' National League ' (q.v.). See ' Irish Associations.' Irish Massacre (The), Oct. and Nov., 1641. Not the massacre of Irish- men, but the massacre of forty or fifty thousand Englishmen by the Irish secrei society called 'The Confederate Catho- lics.' In this massacre husbands were cut to pieces in presence of their wives, children's brains were dashed out in the face of their parents, women were bruUlly violated, and driven naked into the woods to perish. Some were burned to death, others were drowned, and many were buried alive. Nothing like it haa IRISH IRISH 457 baen known except the outrage of Cawnpore. The instigator of this massacre was Sir Phelim O Neil of Ulster. In July 1648 s Bull was re- ceived from the pope granting a jubilee and plenary absolution to all those who had taken up arms in the cause of the Catholic faith. Horrible and incredible as it may seem, Gregory XIII. proclaimed the slaughter of St. Bartholomew as the ' Year of Jubilee,' and went in full procession to celebrate a public thanksgiving service for the Irish National Brotherhood (2%e),1881.I. I.N.B. This was an offshoot of the Clan-na-Gael, or United Brother- hood. It began in 1880 under what was called the New Departure (q.v.). A union of the murderous violence of the Clan- na-Gael, the constitutional craft of the Land League, and the spoliation of the No Rent party. H. I.N.B., 1886, at Chicago. An off- shoot of the U.B. or ' United Brother- hood.' See ' Irish Associations,' Irish National Land League (The), Oct. 1879-1881. The object of this conspiracy was to establish the absolute independence of Ireland as a separate nation. To effect this object, agrarian agi- tation against the payment of agricultural rents was resorted to, in order to secure the co-operation of the tenant farmers of Ireland, and to impoverish and ultimately drive from the country the Irish land- lords, styled by the leaguers ' the English garrison.' Suppressed 1881. See ' Irish Associations.' The confederation was called the Land League, the Irish National Land League, and the Labour and Industrial Union. There were also Ladies' Leagues, and affiliated societies in Great Britain and America. Irish Night (The), 18 Dec., 1688, when a cry arose in London that the Irish (disbanded on the flight of 'James II.) were up, and were going to cut the throats of all Protestants. At one in the morning the drums collected the militia and the train bands, and 100,000 men kept the streets in a state of terror and anarchy. It was called the ' Irish Night,' though no Irish put in an appearance, the panic being created by a false alarm. Trenchard was brother-in law to the un- principled agitator Hugh Speke, who by his trumped-up lies had occasioned the ' Irish Night.' -HOWITT. Hit. ofEnyl. (Will, and Mary, p. 69). Irish Parliament (The), or Grat- tan's Parliament (1782-1800). Two in- dependent parliaments in the same king- dom being found pregnant with perpetual danger both from within and from wilh- 20 out, the Dublin parliament, by the Act of Union, in 1800, was abolished, and a large number of Irish representatives, out of all proportion to the rest of the kingdom, were admitted to the "Westminster parlia. ment. In England and Wales it is one in 6,000. In Ireland one in 5,000. To the Irish parliament no Catholic was ad- mitted. To the representatives admitted into the Westminster house no such restriction exists. The proximate cause of the abolition of the Irish Parliament was this : In 1789 the Prince of Wales was made regent. The English parliament restricted his powers, but the Irish parliament granted him the regency of Ireland without re- strictions. This was a warning of the mischief which might hereafter occur from two legislatures, and convinced the British cabinet that the Irish parliament, like that of Scotland, must be united to the one general house of legislature in London. The Irish rebellion of 1798, in which the French were invited over, brought the matter to ahead, and in 1801 the union was effected. See 'Parlia- ments.' Grattan stated in 1798 that of the 300 members of the Irish house, 200 were nominees of private individuals, and 50 were returned by con- stituencies of not more than ten electors hi each, and several boroughs had not more than one elector. In 1890 about 60 of the Irish deputies in the House of Commons were, for the most part, the nominees of C. S. Parnell. Irish Rebellion. I. In 1565 occurred the rebellion of Shan O'Neal, who applied to Prance for soldiers. O'Neal was assassinated in 1567. II. In 1594 occurred the rebellion of Hugh O'Neil, earl of Tyrone, who assumed the title of The O'Neil. This ' patriot ' (!) offered the crown of Ireland to the king of Spain in 1597, and the Spaniards actually sent an army into Ireland to obtain the promised crown. O'Neil, with his Spanish army, was defeated at Kinsale ; he sur- rendered to Mountjoy, was pardoned, and went to Rome, where he died in 1616. III. In 1608 occurred the rebellion of O'Dogherty, in Ulster. James I. then parcelled out the north of Ireland to Scotch and English settlers. This confis- cation is known as the 'Plantation of Ulster' (q.v.). IV. In 1641, while the English were in civil war, the Irish rose in rebellion under Roger More and Sir Phelim O'Neil, and massacred the Protestants to thw number of 40,000. IEISH IRISHMEN V. In 1649 Cromwell, having taken the cities of Drogheda, Wexford, and Clon- mel, left Ireton to carry on the war. Ireton reduced place after place, and soon after the death of Ireton the re- bellion was quite stamped out (1652). VI. In 1789 the Great Rebellion broke out. It was caused by the creation of numerous Irish societies hostile to England, especially that called the ' United Irishmen ' (q.v.). VII. In 1796 the Irish concluded a secret treaty with the French Directory, but the treasonable plot was utterly frustrated by the battles of Bantry Bay in 1796, and the battle of Camperdown in 1797. 1 Jan., 1801, the union of Great Britain and Ireland was effected, and since then the Irish have had no opportunity ot offering ' their crown ' either to France or Spain. VIII. 1848. The nation was more or less disturbed from April to the middle of Sept. William Smith O'Brien was the chief disturber, and his lieutenants were Meagher and M'Manus. All three being arrested were condemned to death, but were transported to Van Diemen's Land. Meagher and M'Manus escaped to America, and O'Brien, in 1856, having obtained a free pardon, returned home and died at Bangor hi 1864. William Smith O'Brien was joint deputy from the Irish Confederation to the French republic, 8 April, 1848. IX. The Home Rule faction, under the leadership of Charles S. Parnell, began in 1870, and disorganised Ireland with numberless disorderly associations, some of an anti-landlord character, others more criminal still. Boycotting (q.v.) was introduced. Shooting men through the legs, pouring hot pitch on the heads of women, maiming cattle, and the most reckless destruction of property, intimi- dated all who resisted the rebels. See ' Plan of Campaign,' ' Irish Associations,' &c. &c. In 1890 the disturbance was not wholly stamped out. When Ireland had its own rulers the civil and moral condition of the country was so bad that Pope Adrian IV. authorised Henry II. to under- take the conquest of it, hoping that a strong arm mifht do something to settle the country. AVhen Grattan had his parliament he passed fifty-four coercion acts, 1782, .>. bat yet they are not called Irregulars. In France the ' troupes irregulieres are those who do not belong to the line (q .c.. Ir'vingitea (8 syl.), 1826. Follow- ers of Edward Irving, a Scotch minister, whose most striking peculiarity was the expectation of the speedy advent of Christ and the beginning of the mil- lennium. His followers claimed the miraculous gifts of tongue- healing, and raising of the dead, though Irving himself never laid claim to such powers. He died in 1834. They call themselves the 'Apostolic Cathollo Church.' and have four ministries: (1) Apostles; : hots; (8) Evangelists; and (4) Pastors or Angels. Isau'rian War (The), 4:> TarcaliHsseus, or Zeno, invited over a formidable band of I saurian 8, but hio successor Anastasius suppressed pensions, banished them from Constanti- nople, and prepared war for their exter- mination. Some 150,000 headed by a fighting bishop, dethrone Louis XVI. and place the Duke of Orleans on the throne. Jac'obites (8 syl.). L Pilgrims to the shrine of St. James of Compostella in Spain (ad Jacoburn ComposteUanum). II. In Church history, 641. An oriental sect of Mon oph'y si tes called after Jacob Zanzale, surnamed Baradaeus (i.e. Al Baradas, the ragged) bishop of Edessa. They prevailed especially in Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Chaldcea. The chief of the sect is called patriarch of Antioch, and lives at Diarbekir, and the next in rank is the maphrian. They recognise only one nature in Jesus Christ, and they used to brand their foreheads with a cross. III. In British history. The partisans of James II. after his abdication in 1688, his son James called the Old Pretender, and his grandson Charles Edward (the Young Pretender). Many believed at the time in the divine right of kings, and that this right was inalienable. The un- popularity of the first two Georges, whose love was bound up with Hanover, con- tributed to popularise the Jacobite party. JacoTbyns. A word applied in news- papors to the ultra-radical party, first in 1889 when Mr. Jacoby was appointed their ' whip.' This will, of coarse, have the support of the Jacobyns, the Irish, and the peace at any-prica faction of the English radicals. Kewtpaper leader. 18 Feb., 1890. Jacquerie (La), 1858. A faction of the revolted peasants of Picardy, who for about six weeks went about in monster gangs attacking all the well to-do without distinction of sex. Their leader was Guillaume Caillet, the ' Jack Cade ' of France, and with 20,000 followers he destroyed thirty CM He led his gang to Meaux [Afo], where the Duchess of Orleans with some fifty ladies of rank had fled for security. The rebels reached the city gates, and prepared to break them down, when the Captal de Buch, with forty followers, sallied ont upon them. The insurgents fled 'in all directions; 7,000 of them were slain or trampled to death, and Caillet, falling into the hands of Charles the Bad, was beheaded summarily with a sword. Wat Tyler's Insurrection wan In 1M1. Jack Cade s was 69 years later, In 1450. Pronounce Zjah-ke-re. Caillet, pronounce JT-y". Jacques Bonhomme. The name assumed by Guillaume Caillet, leader of the revolt called after him ' La Jacquer i. ' (q.v.). Pronounce Zjark Dm* mm*; Gtot't/um Ki'gta. Jactitation of Marriage. A false pretension to marriage. The person who utters the pretence is called in law the 'boaster' (jactator). This pretence is now actionable at law. Jaffa Massacre (The), 1799. Bona- parte had taken about 2,000 prisoners in his Egyptian campaign ; they were a mixed body of Egyptians, Turks, and others. Thinking they would encumber his army, he marched them out to the sandhills, south-east of Jaffa (Joppa), had them all shot, and piled the dead bodies into a pyramid. Jagello (Dynasty of the), 1886-1572. Succeeded in Poland the House of Anjou. Hedviga, the youngest dMghtofof Louis the Great king of Hungury tuitl Poland, married Jagello of Lithuania, and thua the dynasty was founded. It gave six kings. Jagello was the thirteenth son of Qedymln dukf of Lithuania. JagO (Knights of St.). A Spanish military order instituted under Alex wider III., the grand-master. JAINA8 JANSENISM 46E Jain'as, A.D. 500. A very numerous heterodox sect of Hindus. So called from Jina (deified saint). Like the Buddh- ists, they deny the divine authority of the Veda; but, with the Brahmans, they i admit the institution of 'caste.' The Jainas declined in numbei s after 1200. Sometimes they are called ' Arhatas,' from arhat, another word for ' deified saint.' Jales. A borough and chateau of Languedoc. In Sept. 1790 was formed the Camp de Jales, consisting of French nobles whose object was to overthrow the Constituent Assembly. The chateau was burnt to the ground in 1792, and the ' camp ' was scattered to the winds. The camp, which was really 2,000 strong, boasted of being able to bring 70,000 men Into the field to put down the revolutionary party. CARLYLE, French Revolution, vol. ii. bk. v. James I. of Great Britain, first of the Stuart dynasty (1566, 1603-1625). Father, Henry Stuart lord Darnley. Mother, Mary queen of Scots, daughter of James V. of Scotland. James I. was great-grandson of the Princess Margaret, a daughter of Henry VII. Wife, Ann daughter of Frederic II. of Denmark. Court favourites, Robert Carr, whom he made duke of Somerset, and George Vil- liers, whom he created duke of Bucking- ham. HENRY VII. WM the father of HENBY VIII. and Margaret. HF.NRY VIII. was the father of his three succes- sors, EDWARD VI., MARY, and ELIZABETH (all without issue). Margaret married James IV. of Scotland the parents of James V. And James V. was the father Of Mary queen of Scots. V CHARLES I. succeeded his father JAMES I.; and Elizabeth daughter of James I., who married the Elector Palatine, was called ' queen of Bohe- mia.' Their daughter Sophia was the mother of Stuli' mid title : ' James D.G. of England, Scotland, Franco, and Ireland king ; Defender of the Faith ; and Supreme Head of the Anglican and Hibernian Church.' James II. (1633, began to reign 1685, abdicated 1688, died at St. Ger- mains 1701). Father, CHAKLES I. Mother, Henrietta Maria of France. Wives (i.) Anne Hyde, who died 1671 ; (ii.) Marie Beatrix d'Este, who died 1718. By Anne Hyde he had four sons and fou daughters, six of whom died young and two (vis. MARY and ANNE) wore queens of England. The Pretender, James Francis Edward, was the only surviving son of the second wife i ]OW-17fifi). His style ninl title was: 'James, D.G. of England. Scotland, France, and Ireland king; Defender of the Faith/ &c. Mtiry uaa hum 1662, married William prince of Oranae 1677, died 1694. Anne ucu bom 1664, married George of Denmark 1668, died lUi. James III. (of England). So Louii XIV. recognised the Old Pretender, James son of James II., who had been set aside by the nation over whom he ruled. Louis XIV. insisted that kings reigned ' by divine right,' and, being ap- pointed by God, only God could rightfully depose them. James VIII., 6 Sept., 1714. James the Pretender, son of James II. of England, was proclaimed at Castleton ' James VIII. of Scotland ' ; but he was never crowned, and the battles of Preston and Sheriffmuir in 1715 put an end to his hopes of supplanting George I. James of the Iron Belt. James IV. of Scotland, who fell at Flodden Field (1473, 1488-1513). James the Conqueror. James I. of Aragon (1206, 1213-1276). So called from his numerous victories over the Moors. James the Just. James II. of Aragon (1261, 1285-1327). So called from his just and strictly legal dealings with his subjects. James with the Fiery Face. James II. of Scotland, son of James I. So called from a fiery red stain on his face (1480, 1437-1460). Jane (Three Heroic Contemporaries named), 1342, &c. Jane wife of De Clia- son, Jane wife of De Montfort, and Jane wife of Charles de Blois. Three of the most heroic women that ever lived. All antagonistic to the French and allies of Edward III. The wife of De Blois was called ' Jane the Lame.' Jan'izary. A corruption of yengi- cheri, new soldiers. Ottoman infantry, who, in times of peace, acted as a police force, but proved a most unruly lot, their whole history abounding with conspira- cies and the assassinations of sultans and viziers. The force was dissolved in 1826. but 15,000 of them were executed and 20,000 were exiled. The new militia was consecrated and named by a celebrated dervish, who said: 'Let them fce called uengi-cheri ; may their countenance be ever bright; and, wherever they go, may they return with white [joyous] faces.-GiBBON, Ixiv. Jan'senism, 1640. The tenets of Cornelius Janaen bishop of Ypres, op- posed to those cl the Jesuits. Jansen was a disciple of St. Augustine, whose religious views were very similar to thoaa H B JANSENISTS JANUARY of Calvin. He wrote a book called 'Aagustmus,' published in 1640; and from this book the following five points were deduced : (1) It is not possible to keep some of God's commandments ; (2) Inward grace is irresistible; (3) Man has liberty free from restraint, but not free from predestination, or there could be no such things as sin and merit ; (4) The Semi-Pelagians were heretical, because they asserted the necessity of an inward preventive grace ; (5) It is heresy to say that Jesus died for all. The book was very severe against the Jesuits, who induced Urban VIIL to condemn it 1642. Jan'senists, 1640. Disciples of Cornelius Jansen bishop of Ypres (1585- 1638). Condemned by Innocent X. in 1653. Blaise Pascal wrote his famous 'Lettres Provinciales' in 1656, in their defence and against the Jesuits, whom he charged with immorality, equivocation, mental reservation, and simony. A for- mulary was issued by Innocent X. which the Jansenists were required to sign. This they refused to do. Alexander VIL in 1656 issued another bull of condemna- tion, and again commanded the Jansen- ists to sign the formulary. Still they refused, and to prevent a split in the church the next pope compromised the matter by withdrawing the formulary. This is called ' The Peace of Clement IX.' 1668. Clement XL in 1713 issued his bull called ' Unigenitug ' in condemnation of the Jansenists, who appealed to a gene- ral council, and were therefore called 'Appellants.' In 1720 the Jansenists were banished from France by the Re- gent Orleans. The Jansenista were CalYlnlstlc Catholics who maintained the doctrines of grace, predestination, and non-freedom of the will. Janua'rius's Blood (St.). Janu- arius bishop of Eenevento was beheaded ir> the tenth and last Roman persecution, about 803. It is said that a lady of Naples caught about an ounce of his blood at the moment of decapitation (!), and this blood, preserved in a phial, from that day to this has lost none of its weight. Three times a year this phial in Naples is brought near the head of the saint, and the blood, which before was con* gealed, liquefies. ( It appears to me that catching the blood [In the phial] was the greatest miracle. The liquefaction U a small affair. Any chemist could manage that. January 1. Made in England New Year's Day in 1761. (24 Geo. II. c. 23.) March Indubitably Is the proper beginning of the year. And our calendar still recognises it as such in the names of the last four months. January (Edict of), 1562. Which granted to the Huguenots of France full liberty of conscience, provided they held their meetings beyond the barriers of Paris. See ' Edict of Amboise.' The Judge pleaded the Edict of January. ' The Edict of January 1' said Guise, laying his hand upon his sword. 'This steel shall speedily cut asunder that edict, however tightly bound.' O. DK FKLICH, Hittorg oj UieProtettanltoJ Francs. . January 21 (1793). Memorable for the decapitation of Louis XVI. The place of execution was what is now called the ' Place de la Concorde.' II is a fete day with Napoleonists, He gave a Jovial supper to his companions on the 21st of January, the anniversary of the execu- tion of Louis XVI.-r/w Ciar. ch. xxxii. HIBTOKIOAI. COINCIDENCES :- 1. The number of letters In Charles I. and Louis XVI. Is In both canes ft. 2. The sum of the date* 1649 and 1793 is in both cases 'JO. 3. The ram of the Aajn 80 and 21 U in both A. The month In both COUPS Is January. 6. Both were Christian kings; both were tried by their subject*; aad both were decapitated by Judicial sentence. January 25 (The Manifesto o/), 1655. By Gastaldo, ' conservator . 71 by Ves- pasian. St. Augustine says: The gates of Janus were not the gates of a temple, but the gates of a passage called Janus, which was used only for military purposes. Shut,' therefore, in peace; open in war. The City of God, vol. i. p. 98. Japan in 1889 received a new con- stitution, two chambers being esta- blished on the German model. Japanese Martyrs, 5 Feb., 1597. A number of Franciscan friars crucified near Nagasa'ki. They were beatified in 1627, and canonised by Pius IX. in 1862. Japanese Perry of the United States, America, whose head is repre- sented on the 90-cent stamps, is Com- modore Matthew Calbraith Perry (1795- 1858), who made the treaty for the United States with Japan. Both he and his father were celebrated naval officers. See * American Postage Stamps.' There was another of the name, also an Ameri- can naval officer, vi. Oliver Hazard Perry (1785- 1820). Ja'redites (8 syl.). The first Ameri- can colony, according to the Book of Mormon. They were led from the Tower of Babel, at the dispersion, by Jared. The Jaredites were a wicked and bloody people, who utterly extirpated themselves by war. In B.C. 600 Nephi brought over a new colony from Jerusa- lem, and these new settlers were called Nephites. Jarvey (-4). A hackney coachman of the olden times. So called from Jarvis, one of the fraternity, who was hanged (BALLANTINE). Jasher (The Book of). Quoted twice in the Old Testament (Jos. x. 13, and 2 Sam. i. 18). Nothing more is known about it. See 'Literary For- geries.' In 1751 Jacob Hive published a forged book so called, but the forgery was exposed In the ' Monthly Review ' Deo. 1751. It wan republished by Don*Uon In 186i. Jasper. The first foundation of tha celestial city, represented the tribe of Gad in the pectoral of the high priest, and as a zodiacal sign it stands for Pisces. Symbolically it means s lucky,' or ' win at last.' . Jassy (Treaty o/), 9 Jan., 1792. A treaty of peace between Russia and the Porte, which fixed the Dniester as the boundary between Russia and Turkey. Jaunot. The European Chinaman. His real name is M. Lemaire. He was consul-general of Shanghai, and in 1884 was appointed minister plenipoten- tiary at Hue*. Lemaire was nicknamed Jaunot at school from his singularly yellow complexion. He married a Cochin-Chinese lady, and was appointed interpreter of the French Consulate. Pronounce Zjone-o. Jean I. Though enrolled among the kings of France, like Napoleon II., is a vox et prceterea nihil. Jean I. was the posthumous son of Louis X. by de- mentia his wife ; but the child died three weeks after its birth. Jean le Bon or John the Good. Jean II. of France (1319, 1350-1364). He was brought captive to England aftsr the battle of Poitiers, and remained in captivity from 1857 to 1361, when the French agreed to pay a million and a half sterling for his ransom. Jean re- turned to Paris and sent his two sons as hostages till the ransom was paid. The two princes violated their parole and escaped to France ; whereupon Jean returned to his captivity, saying, ' Good faith must never be violated by a king.' It was this which gained for him the name of ' Le Bon.' Jeanne d*Arc. The University of Paris condemned her on twelve charges : I. Her apparitiont, inspired by Belial, Satan, and Behemoth. II. Her sign to the king, a lie. III. The visits of St. Catherine, ft rash belief Injurious to the faith. IV. Her prediction*, mere superstitious divina- tion. V. Her wearing male attire by command of God, blasphemy. VI. The letter* written to the English to depart from France, traitorous, bloodthirsty, and blas- phemous. VII. Her leaving Chinon. filial impiety. VIII. Her attempt to escape from the tower at Beaurevoir, cowardice. IX. Her confidence in her salvation, presumption, X. Her assertion that St. Catherine and St. Mar- garet do not speak English, blasphemy, and viol uon of lov to our neighbour. JEDBURGH JEREMIE'8 'XI. Paying honour to uiinti, idolatry. XII. h'rfuxnl to tubmit to the Church (i.e. her tri- bunal), echism. The judgment was reversed In 124fi, and the Jbmer record of the University of Paris torn out cf the register and destroyed. j edburgh Justice ; also called 'Jeddart Justice' and 'Jedwood Jus- tice,' Jeddart and Jedwood being local variations of Jedburgh, in Roxburghshire, ocotland. A summary proceeding against Mosstroopers, who were punished with- out trial if taken flagrante delicto. Somewhat similar expressions are the follow- ing: Cupar Justice, Bradford Law, Jedliurgh Law, Halifax Law, Abingdon Law (q.t.), Buralem Club Law. Mob Law. Lynch Law. ic. Teddart Staff (A). A species of battle-axe, especially used in the ancient borough of Jeddart. The armorial bear- ings of Jeddart are an armed horseman brandishing a battle-axe. The tongue of a tale-bearer breaketh bones a* well as a Jeddart itaff.-Sir W. SCOTT, The Abbot. chap. Iv. Jeffreidos (4 syl.). A mock epic by William Davenant, the subject of which is the combat of Sir Jeffrey Hudson, the dwarf, with a turkey-cock. Jeffreys* Bloodstone. So the ring presented in 1684 by Charles II. to Chief Justice Jeffreys was popularly called, because he received it just after the execution of Sir Thomas Armstrong. Jeffreys' Campaign, 1686 So James II. called the circuit of Judge Jeffreys, through Dorchester, Exeter, Taunton, and Wells, after Monmouth'a rebellion. As many as 251 persons were condemned to death as partisans of Monmouth. Jefume, i.e. ' treading on the cruci- fix.' The Dutch were allowed to traffic in Japan provided they would trample on the crucifix bo show they were not Roman Catholics. From 1586 to 1687 Spaniards and Portuguese freely traded In Japan ; but at the latter date a Dutch- man revealed to the Emperor of Japan a conspiracy formed by the Spaniards and Portug aese to murder him . Both of these people were expelled, and no Roman Catholic was allowed to trade in the country. The Jefume was abolished in 1854, when the ports were thrown open. Jellale'an Era (The), 1074. The calendar of the Seleucides, reformed in che reign of Malek Shah by an assembly ?t iftga astronomers. At this epoch th Persian year was nearly 112 days before the sun, and to make the Persian oalendal coincide with the Julian the assembly commanded that the vernal equinox should always be on the fourteenth day of what we call March, and that the inter- calary days should be six instead of five every fourth year. Sir Harris Nicholas calls the word .Telaledln. and says he was a sultan. James B. Kraser rails the word Jellalcan, and says I tint thr calendar was reformed, not by a sultan, but by saga astronomers when Malek Shah was MI I tan. Jemmy Twitcher. John earl of Sandwich, one of the New Franci an obscene and impious club, of which Wilkes was also a member. Sandwich was especially forward in condemning No. 45 of the 'North Briton,' and in denouncing Wilkes the editor. As Sand- wich was just as lewd and blasphemous as Wilkes, this was like the pot calling the kettle ' Black-face.' Tin- Opera* was running at the tin Covent Garden, and when Machenth uttered the words, 'That Jemmy Twit chr should peach, I own surprises me,' all the theatre applied the words to Sandwich, amidst most tumult nous ap- plause, and ever after the earl went by the name of Jemmy Twitcher. Jenner'ian Institution (The Royal). Founded in London 1808. In 1808 it merged in the National Vaccine Establishment. Dr. Edward Jenner In 1?> published his : - ' An Enquiry Into the Causes and Effect* of the Tarlolre Vaccinia, ' afUr his first 'experiment of vaccination in May 1790: and la 1M received a (f*mnt of 10.0001. from parliament. Jenny Geddes (1 syl.). The namrof Robert Burns's mare. It was so culled after Jenny Geddes of Edinburgh, who took up her stool to throw at tin- bi-Jmp'a head when trying in the Hi^'h Church to introduce the Anglican service. Jenny mistook the meaning of collect for colic. And when the bishop from the pulpit implor. .1 the riotous cohtfregiitioii to hear the colli-ct. ^b.- '-\ claimed. ' Colic, d 1 you say T l'i-il ci.li.- tin- w.une o thee I ' ijt. the devil send the colic intu thy stomach. Je'ofail (Statutes of). Statutes for the remedy of slips or accidental errors in a law proceeding. ' Jeofail ' is corrupt torJ'aifailli, I have made a mistake (in Latin, Lapsus sum). Jer'emie's Prizes (Dr.). For pro- ficiency in the Septuagint version of the Old Testament and other Hellenistic JEROME JESUITS literature. Two prizes annually in books for undergraduates. Founded in the University of Cambridge by the Very Rev. James Amiraux Jeremie, D.D., dean of Lincoln, in 1870. See ' Regius Professor of Divinity. 1 Jerome of Prague (1378-1416). Jerome (2 syl.) was charged with heresy, and, asking what heresy, was told that, lecturing at Heidelberg, he had likened the Holy Trinity to a liquid in three states : water, vapour, and ice. ' Away with him ! Away with him ! To the stake ! To the stake! ' roared the council with one voice, and he was burnt to death. See ' Huss.' St. Patrick's Illustration, a leaf of shamrock, was quite as objectionable. Abelard and Jeremy Taylor were equally unorthodox in their attempts to illustrate the ' Three-in-One.' In all these cases the fundamental error is the assumption that the three hypostases are three personal ob- jects or phenomena, which would necessitate their creation. The whole of which supposition is bad philosophy and bad theology. Jerry-building. Worthless or in- secure building; cheap contract work, flimsy and showy. So called from the firm of Jerry, Brothers, Liverpool, house contra'ctors, notorious for their un- substantial edifices (19th cent., latter half). The falling In of two villas at Chalk Farm, while in course of erection, will, I hope, call attention to the system of jerry-building so muck in vogue. Truth, 29 Oct., 1886. Jerusalem (The Destruction o/). This epoch began with the taking ot Jerusalem by Titus, Sept. A.D. 70. Jerusalem Jump (The). A negro religious service, or ' awakening.' While the negro preacher is still ranting, two concentric circles are formed round him. The outer circle is of men, and the inner one of women, facing the men. Each man then takes hold of the opposite woman, and the two jump together violently, shaking hands and shouting at the top of their voices. After about a minute the two circles move, one one way and one another, so that each brother faces a different sister, and again the jumping is repeated. See ' Jumpers.' This really is not more absurd than the dancing Of dervishes. Jerusalem of Russia (The). Moscow, the ' sacred city.' Close by is the ' Mount of Salvation,' where the Datives, coming in full view of their beloved city, kneel and cross themselves. Jesids(T7^), or 'Devil Worshippers.' In Russian and Turkish Armenia, the valley of the Tigris, &c. Their holy city is Ba-Hasani. It is said their name is compounded of Jesu (their founder) and Jesid a town. They pray to the rising sun, worship Allah, reverence Mahomet, and deem Christ a gn at angel (' the son of light '). Their chief concern is to conciliate Shaitan, the devil, whose name they never utter. Thursday is their Sabbath, and they fast forty days in the spring of the year. Their children are baptized, and their ecclesiastical orders consist of sheikhs, fakirs, and djirs (elders). They abhor the colour blue, show the greatest respect to women, widows dress in white, and the dead are buried with their faces turned to the pole-star. Jes'uates (8 syl.), 1855. A religious order founded by St John Colombine, and confirmed by Urban V. in 1367. Suppressed in 1668, when all their pos- sessions were given to the Hospitallers of Italy. The object of the order was to administer to the sick and needy. They were suppressed because they were manufacturers of strong drinks. They had popularly the name of ' Aqua Vitaa Fathers.' Ainsi appelc parce quo sea fondateurs avaient toujours le nom de Jesus a la bouche. BOUILLET. Jesuits, founded 1538. A religious society founded by Ignatius Loyola, and confirmed by Paul III. in 1540. It was monarchical in its constitution and secu- lar, while all other Catholic societies are more or less democratic and regular. The head of the society is called the General, or ' Preepositus Generalis,' and holds his office for life. This General has absolute command over the whole society, and from his decisions there is no appeal. The four objects of the society are ; (1) the education of youth ; (2) the edu- cation of others by preaching, &c. ; (3) the defence of the Catholic faith against all heretics and unbelievers, and (4) the propagation of the Catholic faith among the heathen. The Jesuits wear no monastic garb, but dress like any other of the ' secular clergy ' (q.v.), and live in no religious house, but in private dwellings. Banished from England by 27 Eliz. c. 2 A..D. 1584, banished from France in 1594, expelled from Portugal in 1769, excelled 470 JESUITS JEWS from Spain in 1767, expelled from Naples 1767, expelled from Parma 1768, ex- polled from Malta 1768, dissolved by Clement XIV. in 1773, expelled from Russia 1820, expelled from Switzerland 1847, expelled from Genoa 1848, expelled from Naples, the Papal States, Austria, Sicily, 1848. Still they survive. They are accused of being accessories to the Gunpowder Plot, the Popish Plot, the Thirty Years War. and almost all the political troubles of Europe. Jesuits of the Re volution (The). The Girondins are so called by Da- mouriez, ' M&noires,' iii. 814. Jesuitesses (The), 1534. An order of religious women, founded by two Eng- lishwomen, Warda and Tuittia, in imita- tion of Loyola's foundation. Abolished | by Urban VIII. in 1681. These women were street preachers. Sorely Warda and Tulttla are not English names, but so U the record. Jesus College. I. In Cambridge University, founded by John Alcock bishop of Ely, in 1496. U. ID Oxford, 1571. Founded by Queen Elizabeth. The head-master is called the principal. Jesus Paper. Paper bearing the letters I.H.S. for the water-mark. It is of large size. Jeu de Paume (Day of the), 20 June, 1789. When the States-General assembled 5 May, 1789, to investigate the wrongs of France and adjust the finances, the nobles and clergy snubbed the Tiers Etat ; whereupon the Tiers Etat left the Salle de Menu, retired to the tennis court, and constituted themselves the ' National Assembly,' wholly ignoring tho nobles and clergy, who refused to join them. They then took an oath not to separate till they had given France a constitution. Seven days afterwards the Due d'Orle'ans, with forty-seven of m the noblesse and a large number of the clergy, joined the Tiers Etat in the tennis court, and declared themselves the national parliament under the name of the ' Con- stituent Assembly' (Assemblee Consti- tuonte). Jen de Pauline (Jeied pome), tennis. The Day of the Jeu de Paume (June 20) was the great holiday during the Revolution. Jeune (Le). Louis VII. was so called, not for bis youth, but for his puerile policy, as Etlielred of England waf called the ' Unready,' i.e. the impolitic. 1. Louts VII. began his reign with quarrelling with his clergy, for which be was excommuni- cated. 2, He interfered with the Count of Vermandois, whereby he got into hot wattr with the Count of Champagne, and setting flrn to the count s castle burnt down the whole town of Yitry. 8. He left his kingdom to conduct an absurd ex- pedition to the Holy Land, which failed through out. 4. He divorced his wife Eloonore, who married Henry II. of England, whereby France lost I'oilou and Aquitn.no. 5. He went to Palestino by land and not by sea. contrary to the advice of his best counHellors. 6. His wars with Knglaiid were perfidious and most short-sighted in policy. Though amiable enough, he failed in everything from want of worldly wisdom, manly energy, and state prudence. JeunesseDorde de Fre"ron (I/a), 1794. Those young men of the Therm i dorian faction who armed them^-hes according to the advice of Freron, given in his journal 'L'Orateur du Peuj.le.' These were violent against the Jacobin Club, with whom they had frequent skirmishes. JewofTewkesbury(2Vi)- This was Salomon, a Jew whom Richard earl of Gloucester, in 1260, offered to pull out of a cesspool into which he had fallen one Saturday ; but the Jew refused :!m proffered aid, saying: 'Sabbata nostra colo; de stercore surgere nolo.' Next day [Sunday] the earl passed again, and the Jew cried to him for help. ' No, no, friend ! ' replied the earl, ' Sabbata nostra quidem, Salomon, celebrubis ilti- dem.' This story occurs twice in the 'Chron. Monast. de Melsa,' ii. pp. 184. I: 1 . 7. Kodem tempore apnd Theokeabury, qtii.l mi Judiuus oecidit in latrinam. sod quia tu sabbutum, non permisit se extrahi. nisi sequ. ute die Dominica, propter reverentium sul - quamobrem Juduaum contigit mori in fcetore. RoUtStriet. Jews of Damascus (Persec ntinn of the), 1840. A Catholic priest named Thomaso of Damascus, having disap- peared suddenly in February, a Jew barber at whose house he was seen was examined by torture, when he accused seven of the most wealthy Jewish mer- chants of being concerned in the murder. The seven merchants were apprehended ; two died under torture, the other five pleaded guilty. A dreadful persecution of the Jews followed, and the absurd notion was confirmed that human blood was necessary for the paschal feast. The English and French interfered, repre- JEWS' j. 3. 471 sented to Mehemet AH the absurdity of the notion, and the persecution ceased. Jews' Parliament (The), 1243. Six of the richest Jews from each large town of England, and two from each small town, sent by the county sheriffs to meet Henry III. at Worcester, on Quinquage- sima Sunday 1248, ' to treat with him for their mutual benefit.' See ' Parliaments.' The king informed his Jewish advisers that they must raise without delay 20,000 marks (200.000J. of money at its present value), one half to be ready by Midsummer day, and the other moiety by Michael- mas day. Jewel of Europe (The). Sicily. According to legend, God plucked a jewel from his crown out of which he formed Sicily. Jewel of Seville (The). The Giralda is so called. It is the most beau- tiful and largest specimen of Oriental architecture of its kind. Jewish Disabilities Act (The). 21, 22 Viet. c. 49, 22 July, 1858. By this act the oath administered to members of parliament was modified to suit the re- ligious, faith of Jews. Baron Rothschild was member for Hythe, and Alderman Salomons for Greenock in 1858. Jewish Emancipation. Jews emancipated in the United Kingdom from disabilities of holding municipal offices and voting as members of parliament. I. Naturalised without being required to take the sacrament 1753 ('20 Geo. I. c. 26). 5. Admitted to the elective franchise 1832 (3 Wfll. IV. c. 45). 8. Liberty of religious worship granted as to dissenters, 1855(19 Viet. c. 86). 4. Made eligible to seats in parliament 1858 (21, 22 Viet. C. 49). 6. All disabilities removed, and the oath 'On the true faith of a Christian ' omitted I860. Jewish Mundane Era (The), B.C. Commences with the vernal equinox 8761. See ' Era.' Jewish Plato (The). Philo-Judseua of Alexandria, who endeavoured to weld Platonism and the Mosaic institutions together ; B.C. 20, died about A.D. 61. Jewish Sects. See each in loco. Chasidlm Hero'diang Beshters Karaites Essenes (2 syl.) Masboth'eans Galileans Meristea Gaulanltee (8 syl.), pro- Pharisees bably Rabbinlr.ts of Sad'dueees extreme views Shebsen Hellenians Therapeutso Hellenists Zealots or Zelotes Hem'erobap'tists * Nothing beyond the names is known of those Mota to which a * is attached. Jewish Soc'rates (8 syl.). Moses Mendelssohn, the modern Jewish philo- sopher (1729-1785). So called for his ' Phaedon,' a dialogue on the immortality of the soul in imitation of Plato. One would think the better appellative would be the ' Jewish Plato.' Jewry (Statute of). Forbade usury by Jews, and provided that the Jewe should live in ' the king's own cities and boroughs where the Chest of Chirographs of Jewry are wont to be.' They were permitted by this statute to buy houses and farms, and to hold them for fifteen years. Jezebel, Aunt of Dido. Sec 'Dido.' Jezre'elites (4 syl.), 1884, or 'The New and Latter House of Israel.' A religious sect founded by James Jershom White, a private of the 16th regiment, who compiled from the works of Joanna Southcott and John Wroe a book wnich he called : The Flying Roll.' He called himself Jezreel, and gave himself out to be the spiritual child of Joanna Southcott, the Joshua of Christ, arid the Immortal Spirit who held the last message of God to man. White erected a temple 144 feet in length, breadth, and height, at Gillingham, near Chatham. The great hall would hold 5,000 persons. He died 1885, but his wife gave her- self out to be Esther the queen, the virgin, and mother of Israel, sent to pre- pare the people for Christ's second advent in 1895. Jin'goes (2 syl.), 1877. Russo- phobists. Those who supposed that Russia would take Constantinople and then our Indian empire; but any Bobadil or warlike blusterer was afterwards called a Jingo. The word was adopted from ' M'Dermott's War Song ' that is, the song sung in music halls by M'Der- mott and very popular at the time. The chorus runs thus : We don't want to fight, but. by Jingo ! if we do, We've got the ships, we've got the men, we've got the money too. Jin'goism, 1877. Warlike bluster and Bobadilism. The French chauvin- ism (q.v.) is now used ir much the same sense. See ' Jingoes.' J. J. In Hogarth's 'Gin Lane/ written on * gibbet, is Sir J[osephj 471 J. K. L. JOHANNISTS J[ekyll], obnoxious for hia bill to increase the duty on gin. J. K. L. That is, Dr. Doyle, un- questionably the most accomplished polemical writer of his time, died 1884. The letters stand for James Kildare Leighlin that is, his Christian name and his see as Catholic bishop. He [Mr. Stanley] made an exception In favour of the then [!] celebrated J. K. L. He acknow- ledged a letter from Dr. Doyle . . . with warm >,xpressionB of thanks . . . and expressed a wish to Bee him on his arrival in Dublin.-HowiTT, Hittory >/ l-:i".lll iye:ir !* p. lilfj). Joan Makepeace, 1828. Joan sister of Edward III., who at the age of seven was affianced to David son of Robert Bruce, aged five. This betrothal was brought about by Mortimer (the paramour of Isabella the queen dowager), to cement the peace made between the English and Scotch in the year l:2s. Joan of Arc. Called 'La Pucelle,' 1 the Maid of Orleans ' (1412-1481). Her sword was the mystic s\\ >rd of St. Catherine. Joan of Kent. Joar. Bocher, an Anabaptist who was burnt at Smithfield 2 May, 1550. Some say she was con- victed and sentenced by Arehl>i.-hi.p Cranmer, and others say when KdwardVI. \MIS called on to sign the writ of her execution his eyes were full of 'tears. Others affirm that the writ was issued by the Court of Chancery and that Cranmer had no part in the matter. ' Sir Thomas Browne, who wrote against vulgar errors, influenced the jury to give their verdict against the woman ' (' Parr's Works,' iv. 181). See ' Van Paris.' Blunt ('Reformation in England,' p. -MO) says he was condemned, 'probably un> Uw against Anabaptists, who advocated community lit L;. i. iiis.' .1,1,1:1 //ic fair .Mii'd of Kent tea* quite another ;> ' Pope Joan.' Joanna and Isabella, 1468- 1479. Names which produced a civil war in Castile. The question was, which of these two should succeed Enrique on the throne. Isabella was his sister (wife of Don Ferdinand, who was son of Juan II. king of Navarre), Joanna was the natural daughter of Enrique. The Archbishop of Toledo took the part of Isabella, and undertook to dethrone Enrique, but war for ten years desolated the kingdom. Enrique died, his daugh- ter Joanna retired to a convent, and Isabella with Ferdinand became snve reigns of Aragon and Sicily, Leon and Castile. Joanna Southcott (1750-1814). The mission of this ' pro] ihetess ' began in 1792, when she declared herself to be ' the woman driven into the wilderness ' of Rev. xii. Her prophecies are in prose and wretched doggrel, and she gave her followers her seals that is, bits of paper sealed to insure them against the wrath of God. In 1814 she announced she was about to be the mother of Shiloh thb Prince of Peace, but she died the same year of dropsy. Joanna Southoott was born In Devonshire of humble parents, and was in youth a domestic servant. Joanna the Mad, Queen of Cas- tile (1479, 1504-1555). She murri.-.l Philip archduke of Austria, and \\ .. mother of Kaiser Karl V., emperor of the Romans, king of Castile, aftei of Spain, lar ship was united to Mrs. Denyer's two theological prizes, and formed into two scholarships called the ' Denyer and Johnson Scholarships ' (q.v.). Johnso'nians, as a religious sect are the followers of the Rev. John John S-1725), a nonjuring divine ol Liverpool, and author of 'The Unbloody Sacrifice.' They deny the pre-existenoe of Christ, the three Persons of the god- head, original sin, and the natural immor- tality of the soul. They baptize by immer- sion, and believe in the perseverance of the saints. John-William, or Jean- Guilla ume, the French Jack Ketch. Jean-Guillaume was the executioner of Paris under Louis XIII., and numerous allusions arc made to him by French author* both in prose and verse. Et personne de mon royanme Ne se fera pas Jean Quillaum*. Poor etrangler a belles mains Ce larron d.-s plus Inhumains T Virgilf travrtti. bk. Iv. (Dido speaks). V The French have the verb Jeany^MaatmfT, . to John-William [you]. Jomsvi'kings (The}. In Danish, Jomsvikingr. The piratical republic of Joms-borg, in the island of Wollin. It was a nest of pirates founded by Danish sea-rovers in the reign of Harald Blaatand (991-1014). This piratical re- public continued till the last quarter of the 12th cent., when it was put an end to by Valdemar L of Denmark {1182- 1202). Jongleurs. ' Joculatores,' instrumen- talists who accompanied the troubadours to fairs and gentlemen's houses in the middle ages. After the crusade against the Albigenses, the troubadours gradually disappeared, and the jongleurs joir.ed singing to instrumental music, and many danced, juggled, and made fun in all sorts of ways. Jonkoping (Treaty o/), 10 Dec., 1809. A treaty of peace between Sweden and Denmark. JORDAN JOURNEE 475 Jordan (Mrs.). The actress to whom the Duke of Clarence (William IV.) was virtually married ; eight children survived the king, four sons called Fitzclarence and four daughters. The real name of Mrs. Jordan was Dorothy Bland. Her connection with William was suddenly broken oft in 1811 ; she returned to the stage, but she subsequently retired to France, and died at St. Cloud 8 July, 1816. In 1880 William married Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, but her two children died before their father did, so the crown went to his niece Victoria, daughter of Edward duke of Kent. Joseph I. the Victorious. Son of Leopold I. kaiser-king of Germany, of the house of Austria (1676, 1705-1711). In this reign three great victories were won by Marlborough over the French : 1706 the battle of Raraillies, in 1708 the battle of Oudenarde, and In 1709 the battle of Malplaquet Joseph the Unfortunate, kaiser, son of Maria Theresa, who always tried to do right and was always disappointed in all his plans. He wrote, half in jest and half in earnest, what he termed his epi- taph : ' Here lies Joseph, unfortunate in all his undertakings ' (1741, 1765-1790). Josephs of Amida (The). One of the three branches of the Nestorians. The other two are the ' Elijahs of Mosul ' and the ' Simeons of Ormia.' The Josephs are now reconciled to the Church of Rome, and art called ' Chaldean Chris- tians.' Josephinism. Oppression of the Church by the State, BO-called from Joseph II. of Austria. Josephi'nos, 1808. Those Spanish grandees who had traitorously sided with Napoleon in his scandalous usurpation of the Spanish crown. So called because they supported Joseph Bonaparte, his brother's viceroy-king of Spain, and fled with Joseph to Vittoria for safety on the first reverse of the French arms, at the battle of Baylen, on 19 July. In this defeat Castaiios was the Spanish general pud Dupont the French. Jo'sephins, 1885. Followers of Jo- eph Chamberlain, an advanced Radical. Jos'ephites (8 syl.). The Mormons who disallow polygamy. So called from Joseph Smith, sou of Joseph Smith the founder of Mormonism. These are called the ' Reorganised Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints.' There ate now one or two other non-polygamous sects. Joshua of Scotland (The). Robert Bruce king of Scotland (born 1274, king 1306-1329, died 1329). Josiah of his Country (The), or 'The Josiah of England.' Edward VI. was generally so called in his own day. Joule's Equivalent. That if a pound of waterfalls to the ground through 772 feet, and is then suddenly arrested, its temperature will be raised one degree ; and, conversely, the heat that would raise the temperature of a pound of water one degree would (if applied to a steam engine) raise 772 Ibs. one foot high. Jour de Hois (Le). The Epiphany. (Twelfth Day), meaning the hypothetical ' Kings ' of Cologne. Voltaire has a satire on the three kings the Pretender (re- jected by England, telling his beads in Italy), Stanislaus (ex-king of Poland, smoking his pipe in Austrasia), and the emperor, or King Charles of Bavaria (liv- ing at an inn in Franconk), while Maria Theresa is laughing at this Epiphany. Journal de Paris (the first French daily paper), 1777. Journal de Tr^voux (Le). Pub- lished by Jesuits in 1701-1704. Journal des Revolutions de Paris (Le). A vile republican news- paper in the French Revolution, con- ducted by Prudhomme. If possible it was even more inflammatory than the ' Ami du Peuple ' by Marat. It advo- cated the murder of Louis XVI., and of all other crowned heads ; and recom- mended the organisation of 100 young men into a band, sworn to assassinate all tyrants, in emulation of Harmodios and Aristoglton of Greece, and of Sceevola and the Brutuses of Rome. Journal des Savants (Le). Com menced 5 Jan., 1655. Journals. Of the House of Lorda commenced 1509 ; that of the House of Commons in 1547. Journe'e des Dupes. See ' Day of the Dupea.' JOURNEE JUDGES Journe'e des Epe"rons, 1302. The bloody battle of Courtray, in which the French left on the field about 4,000 knights' spurs. Another Journe'e des Epe'rons was in 1518, the battle of Guinegate, in which the FrencL used their spurs in flight more than their swords in fight. Journe'e des Farines, 8 Jan. 1591. When the besiegers attempted to surprise St. l.enis, occupied by the troops of Henri IV. This was two days after the Bearnais had attempted to surprise Paris. It was called the ' Journee des Farines ' because the officers disguised themselves as millers leading horses, assec, carts, and so on, and demanded en- trruieo into the town. Their design was to enter the gates and keep them open till the arrival of the troops ; but entrance was denied them, and the alarm given. Journe'e dee Maubrul6s. ' The day of the unburned,' 27 April, 1562. Faveau and Mallart, two Protestants of Brussels, were condemned to be burnt to death. As the executioner was binding Simon Faveau to the stake a woman threw her shoe into the funeral pile. This was a preconcerted signal, and immediately the mob rushed forward, scattered the faggots in all directions, rescued the two victims, and succeeded in sending them out of the country. See 1 Rise of the Dutch Republic,' by Motley. Journe"es de Juillet. See ' Days of July.' Journe"es de Septembre (Les), 2, 8, 4, 5 Sept., 1792. See ' Massacre of September.' Journe"es des Barricades. See ' Barricades.' Jovinian, 4th cent. A heresiarch, and monk of Milan. He rejected fasts, penance, and celibacy, denied the virginity of Mary, and entertained other 'heretical views.' He was condemned by the Council of Milan in 890, and banished by Theodosius. Joyous Entry (The), ' La Joyeuse Entree,' 1480. The charter given by Philip the Good to the states of Brabant on his entry into Brussels. On this Charter nearly all their privileges rested. In 1789 Kaiser Joseph II. annulled this charter, because the States refused to grant a subsidy. On 20 Nov. Brabant threw off allegiance to Austria, and assumed the title of ' The High and Mighty States.' The emperor [Joseph II.] on 1 Jan.. 1787 (t), pub- lished several sweeping edicts, annihilating the most ancient municipal privileges, remodelling the courts of justice, and introducing a totally new system of judicature. In direct violation ol the celebrated compact made by Charles V. (?), called ' The Joyous Entry.' Ho WITT, Hut. of Eng. (Geo. III. p. 387). Joyous Science (The), or 'The Gay Science.' Minstrelsy (Joyeuso Science). The Joyous Science, aa the profession ol minstrelsy was called, had its various ranks, like the degrees in the church and in chivalry.-Slr WALTER SCOTT, The Betrothed, chap. xix. Jubilee (The), 21 June, 1887, when the 50th anniversary of Queen Victoria's accession to the crown was celebrated in the United Kingdom. The colonies and India, for convenience sake, celebrated the anniversary some weeks before 21 June. There was a Jubilee In the reign of Oeorgo III., as Oct., 1H09. He came to the crown 25 Oct., 1700. Queen Victoria succeeded to the throne 21 Juno. 1H87. Hence it will appear Ui it n.-.-ri;.- celebrated his jubilee at the coininem ... nl m>l Victoria at the completion of tin- .'"( h *.* There are scores of Jul>ili-<-> of divers sorts, as the Handel Jubilee, the Shakespeare Jubilee, the Jubilee of the Reformation, and the Julul.-e* of the Catholic Church first proclaimed by Itoui- face VIII. in laOO, Ac. Judaising Teachers. Compro- mising Jews who mingled the observance of the law with that of the Gospel. Tli.-y insisted on the rite of circumcision. Peter and John were for a time at leasl Judaising teachers. Judaists. Those Christians who insisted on the perpetual obligation of the Jewish law. All the apostles who were the companions of Jews were Judaists. Paul insisted that the Gospel was meant for all men, and those who thought with him were called Paulinists or Universalists. Judas (Th* Irish). Colonel Blood (1628-1680). Judge- Advocate-General ( The). The supreme judge, under the Mutiny Act and Articles of War, of the prt -.-. .1 ings of courts-martial. He receives a salary of 2,0001. a year, and is a member of the ministry. Judges. The ancient Carthaginians were ruled by a senate of 800, out of which thirty were selected for the JUDGES JULY 477 council, and two of the council were tuffetes or judges. So the Hebrews, before the appointment of Saul as king, appointed shofetim (judges or bret- waldas) in times of trouble, who were oometimes women. The judges or bret- waJdas were B.O. Othniel ,.-. 15541514 Ehud ... -... ... 1490-1416 Shamgar ^ ... 14161396 Deborah (a woman) . ^ 13061356 Gideon _ ... 1349-1309 Abimelech(hlBBOH)... . ... 1309-1306 Tola ',. 13061283 Jair _ ... 1-2831261 Jephthah ... ,,. 12431237 Abesan or Ibzaa ... 12371230 Ahialon or Elon ... _ ... 12301-220 Abdon _ . 12201212 Samson ^. ... 11721152 Eli (the hi^h priest) 11521112 Samuel (priest and prophet) ... 10921080 Judges of Assize. In 1284 super- seded justices in eyre (q.v.). Judges of the superior courts commissioned to hold courts or assizes in each county town twice a year. Judgment and Declaration (A), 1683. Passed in the Oxford Convocation, maintaining the doctrine of non-resist- ance, and enjoining : ' All and singular the readers, tutors, and catechists, dili- gently to instruct and ground their scholars in that most necessary doctrine ... of submitting to every ordinance of man for the Lord's sake, teaching that this submission and obedience is to be clear, absolute, and without exception of any state or order of men.' Judgment of the Cross (The). Introduced during the reign of Charle- magne. The plaintiff and defendant of a suit were required to cross their arms upon their breast, and he who could hold out the longest gained the suit. All ordeals and all oaths are appeals to the Judgment of God. Ordeals have been abolished in Kngland ever since 1219, but oaths are still administered (1890). The notion is that God will supplement man's ignorance and idleness by a miraculous interference on the side of what is ritfht Jn regard to oaths, as the law stands, to violate an oath is perjury, whereas to violate one's word is only a lie. Judicial Mass, ' Missa Judicii.' An ordeal mass, in which a person charged with an offence appealed to the 1 Judgment of God ' in proof of his inno- cence. See ' Mas.' Judicious (The). Richard Hooker, author of the 'Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity ' (1554-1600), Jugurtha (The Modem). Abd-el- Kader, bey of Mascara, afterwards sultan (1808-1883). He was no Jugurtha in his moral character, although there was some resemblance in his chivalry, bravery, and misfortunes. Jugurtha, taken captive by the Romans, was thrown into a dungeon at Rome and starved to death; Abd-el-Kader, taken captive by the French, was imprisoned first in the castle of Pau, then in the castle of Amboise ; but, instead of being starved to death, he was released by Napoleon III. in 1852, retired to Damascus, and died in 1883 at the age of 76. Jugurthan War (The). War between Jugurtha king of Numidia in Africa and the Romans (B.C. 111-104). Jugurtha, being taken prisoner, was sent to Rome and starved to death in the Mamertine prison, a horrible under- ground dungeon. Julian Period (The). Commenced 1 Jan., 4713 B.C. Julian Year (The). Began 1 Jan., B.C. 45. Julien the Apostate. Simon Julien, a French painter, pupil of Carlo Vanloo, at Paris. Called the ' Apostate ' because he forsook the French school of painting for the Italian. The Emperor Julian la called the 'Apostate* because he abandoned Christianity for the old religion ' (331, 361-363). July Cross (The). ' Croix de Juillet,' 1830. Instituted to decorate those Frenchmen who distinguished themselves in chasing Charles X. from the throne. It is a star of three rays, with the legend '27, 28, 29 July, 1830,' and the motto ' Patrie et LiberteY The ribbon is blue edged with red. July 4 (American history). Declara- tion of Independence, 4 July, 1776. A national holiday. July 14. Called, in French history, ' the great day,' in commemoration of 14 July, 1789, the day of the storming of the Bastille. This and June 20 (q.v.), the two great days of the Revolution, were made annual festivals. The disturbed state of Paris since that ' great day.' the 14th of July, had suspended the activity of the National Assembly. HowiTT, History oj England (George III., p. 459). *.* For 27, 23, 29 July, when Charles X. was driven from his throne (1880), let ' Days ol July ' JUMPERS JUNTO Jumpers, 1760. Welsh Methodists who jump during religious worship. They arc the followers of Harris, Rowlands, Williams, and others. The sermon being over, the preacher begins to jump and the congregation joins in sometimes for two or three hours. When quite ex- hausted, they take hold of hands, kneel down, and pray. See ' Jerusalem Jump.' David danced before the ark, and the lame man. on being cured, leaped and praised God. Jumping-cat School (The). Turn- coats who run on the winning side. A. B. ia ' one of the most notorious examples of the jumping-cat school . . . and is always on the winning side.' (Newspaper paragraph, March 1886). June 1, 1774. L In North American history, the day on which the Boston Port Bill (q.v.) was to take effect. Selected by the Virginians, Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson, as a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer, ' that the evils of civil war might be averted, that the American colonists might be inspired with firmness in support of their rights, and that the hearts of the British king and parliament might be turned to mode- ration and justice.' II. ' The Glorious First of June ' is 1 June, 1794, when Lord Howe gained a signal victory over the French off Brest. June 3 (Victory of), 1665. A great naval victory gained by James duke of York over Van Tromp,the Dutch admiral, near Lowestoft. The duke commanded the red, Prince Rupert commanded the white, and the Earl of Sandwich the blue. This was the greatest naval victory hitherto gained by the English. The Dutch lost four admirals, 7,000 men, and eighteen sail. The English only one ship and 600 men killed or wounded. June 5, 6, A.D. 1882. An meute in Paris by the republican faction at the funeral of General Lamarque, deputy of the opposition. Barricades were thrown up at St. Antoine, St. Martin, St. Denis (Sahn-dnee), and other parts of Paris. The troops were called out, and the com- bat was brought to a close on the Gth, after taking the church of St. Merry (or MeMeric). June 20. The anniversary of the foundation ot the National Assembly. This and the anniversary of 14 July (q.v.) were the two great festivals of the French Republic. June 23, 24, 25, 26, A.D. 1848. A bloody insurrection of the French re- publican faction called ' Democratique et Sociale' against the constitution of 24 Feb. the same year. It made for its pretext the dissolution of the ateliers nationaux, and was most rife in the fau- bourgs St. Jacques, St. Marceau, and St. Antoine. The garde nationals and garde mobile were employed to sup- press the insurrection under General Ca- vaignac. Seven generals were slain, two representatives, the Archbishop of Paris (Mgr. Affre), and an enormous number of citizens and soldiers. Those insurgents who were taken prisoners were trans- ported. June 26, and 10 April, 1846. The great Chartist festivals. On 10 April the monster petition was presented, and on 26 June the Corn-laws were repealed. JuniUS (Letter* of), 1769. A series of political letters signed ' Junius, 1 dis- secting the conduct and characters of public men the Duke of Grafton, the Duke of Bedford, Lord Mansfield, and others, not excepting the King hims. If. These letters caused the utmost con- sternation amongst the ministry, and were immensely popular for their caustic satire, just censure, clear reasoning, their great knowledge of the secret govern- ment movements, and tlie brilliancy of their style. It is not known who was the author of these letters, but perhaps the most weighty evidence points to Siv Philip Francis. The 'North Briton.' under the Auspice* cf \Vilkcs, and the commencement of the American War, increased the ferment. Th.- l.-tt. r lH.Mnr.-h. 17'-'. U> the Duke of Grafton on the 'mu r of Clarke, and the 14th letter (against Blackstone) are most scathing. Junto (The). I. 161)4. A Whig mini* try in the reign of William III., the chief members of which were Admiral Russell, the victor of the great battle of La Hogue; Soiners, who successfully defended the ' Seven Bishops ' ; Lord Wharton; and Montague, the great financier. This was the first ministry ever made of one and the same party politics. It was the suggestion of Ro- bert earl of Sunderland to William 111., who shrewdly said, if all the minister* JUS JUVENAL 479 were of one party they would pull toge- ther, and if that party represented the majority they would be able to pass their measures. II. 1727. A club formed by Benjamin Franklin for mutual improvement. Morals, politics, and natural philosophy, as well as the social well-being of man, were the main subjects discussed. It continued for about thirty years. Jus JElia'num. The law books of Sextus Mima Catus. These law books explained the meaning of the mystic ciphers employed by the lawyers to con- ceal the laws from the ignoble common people. Much the same as medical pre- scriptions are still written, sometimes by symbols, sometimes by contractions, sometimes by a single arbitrary letter, or per siglas. JElius wrote them out in full, so that all could read them. Gibbon, chap, xliv., gives some of these symbols : Fire and water=married life ; resignation of key* -divorce ; casting a stone=prohibition ; clenched fist a deposit ; broken Btraw=broken covenant, ( ). At the death of Alexander there warn an Interval from B.C. 838 to A.D. SW filled by the SeltucUit and OnAnaAUt. (Kalanldes. 8 syl.) Kaimacan. A deputy or pn-.-rM-r in the Ottoman empire. There are generally two, one residing at Constanti- nople, and the other attending the grand vizier as his lieutenant. Kainardji, or Kutchuk Kai- nardji (Treaty of), 21 July, 1774. A treaty of peace between Russia and Turkey, in which Turkey opened to Russia the Black Sea, ceded Azof and Ta.-mi- rog, and assured the independence of the Crimea. In 1784 the sovereignty of the Crimea waa confirmed to Russia (Catherine II). The Treaty of Kntchuk Kainardji gave to Rus- la the protectorate of two chapels In Tu " the protectorate of two i the Russian Legation, and one about to be chapels in Turkey, one and one about to be built in Oalata. It was on this treaty that, in lavs. Hussla claimed the protectorate of the holy places in Turkey, against France, who rested her right on a treaty as far back as 1740. This con- tention was made the pretext of the Crimean War (?..). Kaioma'rian Dynasty (The). Same as ' Pishdadian ' (q.v.). Succeeded by the Kaianian dynasty. Kai-Omar was the first of the Pishdadides, and the Pishdadiana were first of the mythic period of Persia, placed by some as far back as B.C. 2340, and by others as low down as B.C. 940. (Pishdadides, 8 syl.) Omar was the hypothetical founder of tho dynasty. Pishdad or Paishdad .just lawgiver) the title given to the third of the line, iai Huahuug or Iran. KAFFIRS KANT'S ill Kaffirs. So Mussulmans call unbe- lievers. Kaiser = Caesar. Used as a title. The Roman Empire in its decline was divided into east and west. The popes of Rome ignored the east, and assumed that the title of the old Roman emperor belonged exclusively to the west. Charlemagne restored Leo III. to the papal chsar, and out of gratitude Leo gave to Charlemagne the empty title of 1 Carolus Caesar Augustus,' or ' Karl Kaiser Augustus of the Romans.' Keyser is Low German for Caesar, and the title given by Leo becomes in Low German ' Karl, Keyser Wehzen desz Reichs.' So says Selden, ' Titles of Honour,' chap. v. p. 47 (1673). This title was continued in the German successors of Charlemagne till the death of Charles le Gros, when it fell into abey- ance for 74 years. In 962 Pope John XII. restored the title with a slight alteration, and crowned Otto I. the Great (king of Germany) 1 Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire ' ; and till 1056 his successors went to Rome, after their coronation as kings of Germany, to receive the additional title of ' kaiser ' [of the Holy Roman Empire, or of the West]. Heinrich III., just before his death, invented anew title, ' King of the Romans,' to be borne by the kings elect of Germany, and then the reigning king was kaiser or ' Emperor of the Romans,' and the king elect was ' King of the Romans.' In 1338 the electors decreed that it was not needful for a king of Germany to undergo a second coronation at Rome ; But inasmuch as from the moment of his election he was ' King of the Romans,' he became ex officio ' Emperor of the Roman a' or kaiser the moment he was crowned. From that time till 1508 the king regnant was ex officio ' Emperor of the Romans,' and the crown prince or king elect was ' King of the Romans.' In 1508 Maximilian intended to go to Rome to get crowned, but was prevented, and he assumed a somewhat new depar- ture. Being king, he called himself ' Emperor-elect of the Romans,' and henceforth the crown prince was ' King of the Romans,' but after the death of his father he became ' Emperor-elect of the Romans,' and as soon as he was crowned he became King of Germany and Emperor of Rome. In 1806 Napoleon, having mutilated the German empire, Francis II. was obliged to abandon the title of ' Emperor of the West,' and assumed instead the title of ' Emperor of Austria and King of Hun- gary,' and that dominion is now styled ' the Austro-Hungarian empire.' Kalandos Society (The], 1518. An Hungarian league which met on the kalends or 1st of every month. The object of the league was to depose John Szapolyai from the office of treasurer, and restore Stephen Verboczy. It succeeded, and Szapolyai fled to Transylvania. Kalapos King (The), the 'hatted king.' Kaiser Joseph II., son of Maria Theresa, was so called by the Hungarians because he refused to be crowned. Jamos V. of Scotland, in his famous gold coin, is represented as wearing a bonnet instead of a crown. Kali'lah and Dimnah. A Sanscrit book of fables, extant in 500. It was translated into Pehlevi about 550. A copy was discovered in 1870 by Dr. Socin in the monastery at Mardin. See ' Aca- demy,' 1 Aug., 1871. Kali-yuga. The 4th and last of the Yugas or ages of Hind ft chronology, corresponding to the 'Iron Age' of the Greeks and Romans. It consists of 482,000 solar-sidereal years, and began B.C. 3102. Kalpa. In Hindft chronology means a day and night of Brahma, equal 4g bil- lions of solar-sidereal years. Some geologists seem to think ' the evening and the morning' of Genesis i. mean a 'Kalpa.' Kant's Four Categories. Im- manuel Kant generalises the fundamental modes of conception into 1. Quantity, including unity, multeity, and totality ; 2. Quality, divided into reality, nega- tion, and ] imitation; 8. Relation, that is, substance and accident, cause and effect, action and re- action ; 4. Modality, subdivided into possi- bility, existence, and necessity. Regarding the outside world, he says our perception thereof is merely repre- sentative ; and it is not possible for man to know what any object really is. All he can possibly know is what his senses represent them to be. Of deity, immortality, oc:ime>on.' l:t4;i. Edward III. of England Instituted the order of the Garter. liVM. The Great Helvetic Confederation was In- stituted. 1854. Marino Falierl was elected doge of Venice t the age of 80. 1856. Karl IV. submitted to the Diet of Nilrnberg fee famous Golden Bull. U5& Sept. 19 was fought the battle of Poitiers. 1857. David Brnce was set at liberty. 1363. Timur the Tartar began his wonderful career 1871. The Stnart dynasty began In Scotland. 1874. The poet Petrarch died. 1376. Edward the Black Prince died. 1877. Edward III. of England died. Karl V. (Charles V.), called by the French 'Charles Quint,' son of Philipp and grandson of Kaiser Maximilian I. the Pennyless. His son Philipp married Mary queen of England (born 1500, reigned 1519-1556, died 1558). Father, Philipp. Mthfr. Juana, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile and Aragon. Wife, Isabella, daughter of Kmmanuel king of Portugal. HerfiVci at the convent of St. Juste in Snaln. Contemporary with Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Mary. *.* In this reign the reform under Luther oc- curred, and Magellan made the first voyage round the world. Karl VI., kaiser-king of Germany (1688, 1711-1740). He was brother of Joseph I. his predecessor, and son of Leopold I. of the house of Austria. As he had no son he drew up the ' Pragmatic Sanction' in favour of his daughter Maria Theresa. The Duke of Bavaria objected, but Maria Theresa succeeded her father notwithstanding. This was the last king of the house of Habsburg. Father Leopold I. ilothtr, Eleanor A n n . Elisabeth Christina, daughtro f Rudolf of P-runs- wick-WolfenbUtteL Contemporary with George L and George II. Karmathians. A Mohammedan sect which arose in Irak during the 9th cent. It took its name from Karmath, its founder, a poor labourer, who assumed the rank of a prophet. The Karmathians, who maintained bloody wars with the kalifs for nearly a century, advocated community of goods and wives, rejected all revelation, fasts, prayer, alms, and abstinence. Karmath died A.D. 900. The sect was stamped out in Katerfelto. A celebrated quack, and a generic name for a quack. He practised on the people of London in the influenza of 1782. In 1790 he visited Durham, and sent his coach round the town with trumpeters. His ptice de rt~ sistance was a solar microscope showing the animalcules in water, &c. Katerfelto with his hair on end At his own wonders wondering. COWPKR, The Task, bk. Iv. (Winter Evening.) Kaye Prize (The). For an essay connected with ecclesiastical history, biblical criticism, or the canon of scrip- ture. Given once in four years to a graduate of the University of Cambridge KEBLB KENSINGTON 488 of not more than ten years' standing. Value about 501. Founded by sub- scribers to Bishop Kaye's memorial 1861. See ' Kegius Professor of Divinity.' Keble College, Oxford, 1870. Founded by subscription in memory of John Keble, professor of poetry in the university. The head-master is called the warden. There are no fellowships (1890). Keel-hauling. A punishment prac- tised at one time in the Dutch and English navies, but now never resorted to. The offender was let down by ropes on one side of the ship, and after being dragged under the keel, was hauled up on the other side. Keening (A). An Irish word for that wild song of lamentation poured forth over a dead body during the ' wake ceremony ' by certain mourners employed in Ireland for the purpose. Keeper of the Forest (The). Chief warden of the forest, who has the superintendence over all the other forest servants (MANWOOD, ' Forest Law, part i. p. 156). Keeper of the Great Seal (The). A judicial officer, who used to be ap- pointed (6 Eliz. c. 18) in lieu of the lord chancellor. Abolished. Keeper of the King's Consci- ence (The). The lord chancellor. The early chancellors being ecclesiastics were probably the 'father confessors' of the sovereign. The lord keeper is now the officer who presides in the court of chancery. Keeper of the Privy Seal. Now called ' the Lord Privy Seal,' through whose hands all charters, &c., must pass before they come to the ' Great Seal.' Keeper of the Signet. An officer in Scotland, appointed by the crown, who appoints one of the Writers of the Signet (q.v.), and presides at the meetings of the society. Keeper of the Touch. The Master of the Assay in the Mint. Keepers of the Liberties of England (The). Custodians of the new great seal after the abolition of royalty 1648. The first three keepers were Whitelock, Keble, and Lisle. Kee-tan Dynasty (The). A Tartar dynasty which established a footing in the north of China during the 14th im- Grial dynasty. It gave nine kings and 5ted 211 years (907-1118). Kao-tsu II. purchased peace of this troublesome horde by giving to it 16 cities in the pro- vince of Pecheli'. Also called the Leao dynasty. Kellgrenism, 1889. Curing diseases by manipulation. So called from J. Henrik Kellgren. The idea Is that disease arises from a surcharge of some gaseous matter, which passes into the operator, and thus relieves the patient. Some- times the operator himself suffers, but for the most part the 'broach' passes through the operator, either into the air or Into the earth. Of course, the cure of diseases by the laying on of hands is mentioned in the New Testament, but whether this was a 'special gift' pro tempore IB beyond the scope of this Dictionary. Kempenfelt, 1782. The 'Koyal George ' was the finest ship in the British service, carrying 108 guns, and was the flag-ship of Admiral Kempenfelt. It was lying off Portsmouth, crowded with its own crew and a vast number of visitors, before starting for Gibraltar. On 29 Aug. the carpenters were busy caulking the seams, and the ship was laid somewhat on her side. Kempenfelt was writing in his cabin, and the bulk of the people were between decks. A sudden squall plunged the open port-holes under water on the lowered side, and the ship went down in a minute. The admiral, the officers, and all between decks, to the number of 1,000 persons, perished. Cowper has & poem on the subject. Kenilworth (Dictum of). See under ' Dictum.' Kennicott Scholarship. Two for Hebrew. Value about 60L, tenable for one year. Founded (1831) in the Uni- versity of Oxford by Anne Kennicott, widow of Dr. Benjamin Kennicott, canon of Christ Church. Kensington Martyr (The). Caro- line, wife of George prince regent. She was spoken of by the friends of the regent as the ' Dreadful Woman.' Married 1795, separated soon after the birth of her child in 1796, died 1821. The regent and his friends called her the ' Kensington Megsera.' She resided at Kensington, and was certainly persecuted to death by her royal husband, but she was no ' martyr.' US 18* KENT KEYS Kent (Holy Maid of). See 'Holy Maid,' &o. Kentish Fire. Vehement pro- tracted cheering. So called from the cheering in Kent in the ' No popery ' meetings, got up to oppose the Catholic Emancipation Bill of 1829. Kentish Petition (The), 29 April, 1701. Signed at Maidstone and pre- sented to the House of Commons 8 May. It prayed that the house would not waste their time in party quarrels, but attend to the public business. It was signed by grand jurors, magistrates, and freeholders. Those who presented it were sent to the Gate House, under the plea that the petition was ' scandalous, insolent, and seditious.' When parliament was pro- rogued they were liberated. The Tories . . . accused Thomas Bliss and Thomas Culpepper, two of the gentlemen con- cerned in the Kentish petition, of having been guilty of corrupt and scandalous practices in a contested election at Maidstone. UOWITT, Hut. ofEng. (William III. p. 166). Kepler's Laws. 1. The planets revolve about the sun in Moon Earl* ellipses, having the sun in one of the foci. 2. If a line is drawn from the centre of the sun to any planet, this line (as it is carried forward by the planet) will sweep over equal areas in equal portions of time. 3. The square of the periodic times of the planets are as the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. The second law is ' the radius vector sweeps over equal areas in equal times.' Keri-Chetib [Keri what is read, Chetib what is written]. Theie are some 1,COO passages in tho Hebrew Bible where the ' Keri ' differs from the ' Chetib.' Kennicott tells us in all these instances the false rendering is the one inserted in the text, or written [chetib], and the true one is that given in the margin. It is thought that Ezra made the marginal readings. ' Diosertatio Generalis.' Kesteven. The south-west part of Lincolnshire. The north-east part is called Lindsey, and the south-east part is called Holland. Kett (Bobert). A tanner of Wymond- ham, near Norwich, and a man of sub- stance, headed a rebellion in July ivr.i. His forces were dispersed by the Earl of Warwick, and Kett was handed in the same year [1549]. See ' Reformation Tree.' Wymondham, pronoun Kett's Rebellion, 1519. The sup- pression of monasteries had caused a great deal of temporary distro-s, ;mu -- siusdale, and Kett was hanged in chains on Norwich Castle. Norwich, pronounce Korridge, to rhyme with porridge. Mousehold, pronounce Uuule. Key of Russia (The). Smolensko. Taken by Svatoslas in 1232; taken l.y the Lithuanians in 1418; taken by Vassiii in 1514 ; taken by the Poles in 1(51 1 ; taken by the Russians in 1654 ; burnt by Napoleon in his Moscow expedition in 1812. Key of Spain (The). Ciudad Rod- ri'go, taken by Lord Wellington (the Duke of Wellington), 19 Jan., 1812. Key of the Mediterranean (The). The fortress of Gibraltar, which commands the entrance and exit of that sea. See ' Gates.' Keys ( The House of). In the Isle of Man. It consists of twenty-fou r whom all doubtful and important matters of law are referred. They are rh*en from the chief lauded proprietors of Lh KEYS KILEH-SHERGAT 485 island. If a vacancy occurs two names are sent to the governor, who nominates one of them. All freeholders, men and women, elect. Keys (The Power of the), ' Potestas ! Clavlum ' (Matt. xvi. 19). The supreme power of church government vested in the pope of Eome as the professed suc- cessor of St. Peter. Keystone State (The). Pennsyl- vania, one of the original thirteen states of North America. Called the Keystone State from its position and importance. Khan. A noble, a gentleman ; about equal to the Egyptian effendi and English esquire (Afghanistan). Khariz'mians (The), 1218-1223. A people of Western Turkestan, which from 994 to 1231 formed an independent prin- cipality. In 1193 they invaded Persia, but their power was overthrown by Ghengis Khan in 1225. A branch of the Kharizmians reigned at Delhi, Hindustan, from 1213, after having chased out the Ghorians ; but in 1398 they were superseded by the Patans. Khatta'bians (The). One of the numerous Shiite sects, disciples of Abdul Khattdb. They maintain that the prophet meant by paradise ' the good things of this world.' So they indulge in wine, music, and other things forbidden by the imaums. They may be called the Epicurean Moslems. See ' Imaumians,' 1 Zeyds.' Khilji (The House of). The second Gaurian dynasty of Delhi, founded by Jelal-u-din in 1288. It continued to reign till 1I-521, when it was overthrown by Tdglak. Khyber Pass (The), 1842. Has ob- tained great notoriety because a British army of 16,000 men was here annihilated in the month of January, during the re- treat from Kaubul. The only persons who escaped were Dr. Brydon (a regi- mental surgeon) and a private soldier. In 1838 Lord Auckland, governor- general of India, declared war against the Afghanifltana because their ruler, Dost Mohammed, had unlawfully at- tacked a British ally, and because Dost Mohammed had usurped the throne of Shah Sujah, who was under British pro- tection. On 21 July Shah Sujah was re- stored to the throne of Kaubul, and the British thought the matter was ended. This was a grand mistake, for at the be- ginning of winter Akbah Khan, the son of Dost Mohammed, attacked the British army in Kaubul, and slew several of the officers. A capitulation was made, and when the British army were in the Khyber Pass on their way home they were cut to pieces. (With women, chil- dren, and camp followers 20,000 were slain in the Pass.) Ki in Chinese history. There were ten of these races [Ki] before even the semi-historical period which began with Hia, B.C. 2205. The first Ki or fabulous age embraces a period of 300,000 years. The mythic period is the tenth Ki ; the three emperors were Po-hi, Chin-nong, and Hoangti. These were followed by five kings. The first Ki consisted of (1) Puon-ku (highest eter- nity) ; (-2) Tieu-hoang (emperor of heaven) ; (3) Ti- hoang (emperor of earth) ; and (4) Gine-hoaiig (em- peror of men). Evidently allegorical. The histori- cal period begins B.C. 256 -with the dynasty of Tsin. Kidnapping. Entrapping children, either for reward or to serve some object of the kidnapper. Also entrapping slaves or men to serve aboard ship. It is now a felonious act (24, 25 Viet. c. 100). Kiel, in Holstein (Treaty of), 14 Jan., 1814, between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, for the transfer of Norway from Denmark to Sweden. The 'War of Liberation' in Germany ends with this treaty. Kildare Insurrection (The), 23 May, 1798. The commencement of the great rebellion, not finally quelled till the following year. On 23 May Lieutenant Glfford of Dublin and 4 number of other gentlemen were assassinated by the insurgents. Kildare Place Society (The), 1833. See ' Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor.' In 1830 government with- drew its grant to this society, and the schools gradually declined. Kileh-Shergat Cylinder (The). The earliest historical document pertain- ing to Assyria yet discovered in Meao potamia. The characters are cuneiform, and the fifth king inscribed on the cylinder is the well-known name of Tiglath-pileser [Tukulti-pal-zira], ' son of Asshur-rish-ili, who reduced the Magiau world, gr uidaon 486 KILHAMITEB of Mutaggil-nebu, offspring of Asshur- dapal-il, who held the sceptre of Bel.' Kileh-Shergat IB the modern name of Asshur. Kil'hamites (8 syl.), or ' New Con- nection Methodists,' 1797. Secedersfrom the Methodists, led by Alexander Kilham. Their doctrinal views are those of Wesley, but their polity is Presbyterian. The people choose their own officers, and send representatives to all the synodical meet- ings of the denomination. Kilkenny ( The Catholic Confederacy of), 1641. Never to lay down their arms till they had obtained an acknowledg- ment of the independence of the Irish ; the repeal of all degrading disqualifica- tions on the ground of religion; the free exercise of the Catholic worship; and the exclusion of all but natives from civil and military offices within the king- dom. See ' Irish Associations.' If ' Home Rule ' is effected, what would the Irish Bay if no office of Great Britain could be held by an Irishman ? Kilkenny (The Constitutions of). Certain privileges granted by Edward III. to the Irish in a parliament held at Kil- kenny. Kilkenny WM the teat of Mreral Irish parlla- Kilkenny (Convention of), 1842. A parliament held at Kilkenny to remon- strate with Edward III. against his threat of excluding in future from all share in the government of Ireland those who held estates in Ireland or had marrit d Irish wives. It was thought that the allegiance of such persons would be weakened by their private interest in Ireland. See 'Irish Associations.' Kilkenny (Statute of), 40 Edw. in. 1866. For the abolition of the Brehon or common law of Ireland. Lionel the second son of Edward III., who married the heiress of the Earl of Ulster, and thus became entitled to the lordships of Ulster and Connaught, was made by his father lord-lieutenant of Ireland. In 1366 he summoned a parliament at Kil- kenny, in which this statute was passed. The object of this statute, passed by Edward in., was to prevent the amalgamation of the English and Irish chiefs, which would render them too for- midable to be controlled. It forbade any English- man, on pain of imprisonment and forfeiture of his estates, to use an Irish name, to speak the Irish language, to adopt the Irish dress, or to per- mit the cattie of an Irishman to graze on his lands ; and made it high treason to marry a native. Uieliou is the Irish tor a judge. KILMAINHAM Killala (Battle of), 28 Sept., 1798 The French, being invited over by the Irish insurgents, landed under Gen oral Humbert (22 Aug., 1798) from three frigates. Several battles were fought, aa those of Castlebar, Colooney, and Balli- namuck, but at Killala the insurgents were defeated with great slaughter. General Humbert surrendered to General Lake after the battle of Ballinajimck. s s-pt. Sumo French frigates on their way to Hid the Irish were captured, 1-2 Oct., by Sir J. B. Warren, and Wolfe Tone was among the prisoners. ' Killing no Murder,' 1657. A pamphlet printed in Holland, whii-h caused an immense si-nsation at the time. After an address to Cromwell and another to the army, it divides its.-lf into three parts : (1) Is the lord pro- tector a tyrant ? (Yes, because he has arrogated to himself regal power and state.) (2) Is it lawful to kill a tyra.it ? (Yes. Example: Brutus kilh-d ' and was deemed a patriot.) (8) Will the removal of Cromwell be for the w.-ll- being of the three nations ? (Yes. For his misrule is full of mischief.) It then concludes by warning Cromwell that his life is not worth an hour's purchase. This book created quite a furorr, :m.l was distributed by thousands. Sexby avouched that he was the author of it, but Clarendon tells us that Scxby was an illiterate man. Evelyn and others think the author was Captain Titus, who re- sided in Holland at the time (' Diary,' ii. 210). Some ascribe it to Willan, and others to Allan. There was a similar pamphlet pub- lished in France in 1658 cntitli-d ' 'I'm-r un tyran n'est pas un crime.' It was issued by Carpentier de Marigny, the avowed enemy of Mazarin. Kilmainham Treaty (The), 1882 A supposed compact made by Mr. Glad- stone, the prime minister, with Dillon, Parnell, and O'Kelly, when in April they were unexpectedly released from Kil- mainham jail, where they had been con- fined for exciting the Irish to resist the payment of rent, and to prevent new tenants from taking the farms from which persons had been evicted. The tale is that the three gentlemen pro- mised to exert themselves to pacify Ireland if they were set free, and so they were released; but most certainly they have done nothing since to pacify Ir land, but quite the contrary (18UUJ. KIN KING-MAKER 487 Kin (The], or the Golden Race. So the Niu-tchin Tartars of China called themselves (1188-1235). Kinconghish. A statute in Ire- land which provides that every head of a sept is to be charged with any treason, felony, or heinous crime committed by any one of the sept. King (The Black). Heinrich III. of Germany (1017, 1046-1056). King (The Bed). I. The king of Persia was so called from his red turban. Credo ut Persam nunc propter rubea tegumonta capitis Rubeum Caput vocant, ita reges Moscoviaa propter alba tegumenta Albos lieges appellari. SIGISMUND. II. William II. was called Rufus, or the Bed King, from the colour of his hair (1057, 1087-1100). III. Otto II. kaiser of Germany was called the Red King for a similar reason (955, 973-983). IV. Amadeus VII. count of Savoy was called ' The Red' also (1360, 1383-1891). Kaiser Friedrich I. was called 'Barbarossa' from his red beard. King (The Summer). Amadeus of Spain. King (The White). The king of Muscovy was so called from his ' alba tegumenta.' See ' King (The Red)'. Muscovy was called White Russia, and probably this was the reason why the Muscovite king was called the White king, or king of White Russia. Poland was Black Russia. See ' Russia.' King (The Winter). Friedrich V., the rival of Ferdinand II. of Germany. He married Elizabeth daughter of James I. of England, and was king of Bohemia one winter, 1619-20. His wife was called the ' Winter Queen.' King Becold. John of Leyden the tailor, who headed the Anabaptists of Germany, and arrogated to himself the name and title of 'King John of Leyden.' His name was John Becold (1510-1536). His name is sometime* written Boccold and Bockholdt. King Bomba. Nickname of Ferdi- nand II. of Naples, who bombarded Messina in 1848. ' Bomba ' is the noise made when the heeks are blown out and compressed by the fingers and thumb. Ferdinand II. of Naples was a great Vox et pra-terea nihil, and his son Francis II. was only ft ' Bombalino,' or Vocicuia, el prmterea nihil. King Edward's Law. The laws enforced by Edward the Confessor, and the mode of government which then prevailed. When the people clamoured for King Edward's laws, they meant that they wished to be governed in the same manner as Edward the Confessor governed the nation (1041-1065). King Henri's King. Chicot the jester (1553-1591), who ruled Henri III. ; but, to his honour be it spoken, he loved him and served him faithfully. It would be well if some wise ones took counsel from the ' fool.' King Hob. Robert Bruce was so called by Edward I., meaning ' king churl.' Hob was a common name for a villager or half-serf, as Hodge still is for a farm-labourer. Du Cange (art. ' Huba ') says Hovia means a village, German hof, and the following from ' Chron. Mortis S. Agnetis,' chap. xxvi. : ' Damnum mag- num habuimus in hovia nostra ex inundatione aquarum.' Perhaps 'Hob' is a mere variant of 'Rob,' or 'Bob,' i.e. Robert. King Hulan. King Alfonso XII. of Spain was called ' Roi Hulan ' in 1883, because he had recently accepted a colonelcy of a Uhlan regiment in Prussia. King James's Bible. See ' King's Bible ' and ' Bible.' ' King Jesus.' William Racket, in the early part of Elizabeth's reign, gave himself out to be King Jesus. His two 'prophets' were Arthington and Cop- pinger. Hacket was executed in 1592, Coppinger starved himself to death in prison, and Arthington was subsequently pardoned. King-Maker (The). Richard Ne ville earl of Warwick (1428-1471). When Henry VI. was king he defeated the Lancastrians, captured the king at Northampton (10 July, 1460), and pro- claimed Edward IV. king (4 March, 1461). Subsequently he quarrelled with Ed- ward, made a compact with Margaret (wife of Henry VI.), married his daughter Anne to Prince Edward (son of Henry VI. and Margaret), landed at Dover (13 Sept., 1470), drove Edward IV. from the throne, and restored Henry VI. Se next article. Richard Neville was slain by Edward IV. at tha battle of Barnet 14 April, 1471. when Edward be came king again. 488 KTNG-MAKEB KING King-Maker (The Roman). RicI- mer (* A.D. 472). In 456 he deposed the Emperor Avitus, and made Majorian emperor. As Majorian proved too inde- pendent and virtuous for Ricimer's liking, the Suevian put him to death (A.D. 461), and raised Libius Severus to the purple. On the death of Libius Severus in 465 Ricimer kept the government for sixteen months in his own hands, but in 4 67 the emperor of the east appointed the western emperor, and Ricimer acquiesced in the appointment. In 472 the new emperor was slain in battle, and Ricimer appointed Olybrius emperor. This was the third emperor which the barbarian made. King Matthias is dead. Thia Hungarian proverb is the greatest com- pliment ever paid to a crowned head. It means 'justice no longer holds the balance,' as it did when Matthias was king. It appears that Matthias son of Hunyadi was indeed a model king, who never had his equal on any throne (1448, 1458-1490). King Robert's Bowl. Said to be the bowl which the wife of Mark Sprotte set before King Robert. It is still preserved in the family of the Sprottes of Urr. One day King Robert was attacked by a Southron on the banks of the Urr, near the cottage of Mark Sprotte a shepherd ; the wife of the shepherd caught hold of the Southron, pulled him to the ground, and he was obliged to yield. She then set before the king a bowl of porridge. Bruce said he would give her for reward all the land she could run round while he ate it, and she ran round Sheeling Hill. The land was given her, she was called the heroic dame of Galloway, the hill was called the King's Mount, and the family has been called the Sprottes of Urr for about 500 years. King Smith. Louis Philippe of France, who escaped from France in 1848 under the assumed name of Mr. Smith. ' Mr. Smith ! ' exclaimed tho king, ' that ia curious indeed ; and it is very remarkable that the first to welcome me should be a Mr. Smith, since the assumed name by which I escaped from France was Smith. Look, this is my passport iU the name f Smith -'~ r/ "' nSm. King Tom. Sir Thomas Maitland, the first Lord High Commissioner of the United States of the Ionian Islands, so called from his arbitrary manners. He was an excellent governor, bnt rule 1 the islands as an autocrat, and left a full exchequer at his death. King of Arms. The title dates from the reign of Henry IV., but Henry V. created the Garter King in 1417, and George IV. the Bath King in 1725. The GABTEB King of Arms now serves the Order of the Garter, and the BATH Kin^ of Arms the Order of the Bath. The two provincial kings for England are CLARENCEUX (named after Thomas duke of Clarence, brother of Henry V.). with jurisdiction over all parts of En-lm-l south of the Trent ; and Norroy [North roy], with jurisdiction over all parts north of the Trent. The King of Arms for Scotland ia called LYON, and for Ireland ULSTKK. King of Bath ( The). King Richard [of Bath], Bean Nash, master of the cere- monies, or Social Premier of Bath (1674- 1761). King of Bourges. Charles VII. of France was so called by the Knglish in France because he returned to Bourges when he fled from Paris. On the death of Charles VI. the kingdom of France descended to Henry V. Charles VII. refused to allow the claim .-. time took refuge in Bourges. Jeanne d Arc t >mi,-,l the scale, and the King of Bourges became Charles le Victorleux. King of England. A title first assumed by Richard L See 'King of the English.' King of Fire (The), or Sultan Kebir. Napoleon was so called by the Orientals (1709, 1804-1814, 1821). " King of France (The}. So the monarchs of France were called till Oft. 1789, when the National Assembly or- dained that Louis XVI. should not be styled ' King of France,' but ' King of the French.' The royal title was al>i>lislied in France in 1792, but was restored in 1814. When Louis Philippe was invited in 1830 to take on liim>elf the government he was styled ' King of the I-'i. ni-li.' King of Ireland, 1541. A title assumed by Henry V11I. to combat a notion that the regal dominion of Ireland was vested ex officio in the pope, and that the king of England held from the pope his lordship of Ireland. In the re-'pi of Mary and Philip, Paul IV KINO KIN3 489 raised the lordship of Ireland into a kingdom, 1557. John was ' dominus Hibernlse,' and from John to 1541 the kings of England were styled ' lords of Ireland.' The Irish Ard-riijhs were undoubtedly kings; and Henry VIII. had no effective sway beyond the English pale. James I. of England was in reality the first king of all Ireland, when In 1603 Hugh O'Neill submitted to Mountjoy. King of Kent. Hengist, first of the kings of the Heptarchy, was king of Kent, A.D. 455. His dominion comprehended Kent, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Middlesex, fcc. In 526 the foundation of the king- dom of Essex diminished that of Kent. King of Paris (The), 1588. So Henri due de Guise was called by Henri III. after the day of the barricades (the 12th May), when the king fled disguised as a rustic to Chartres. After the murder of BalafrS Henri III. left the room and visited his mother, who was ill in bed. The King of Paris lives no longer, madam,' said he ; ' henceforth I shall reign alone. I have now no rival.' ' It is a clean cut, my son,' replied Cathe- rine, ' but it must be sewn up again.' FELICB, Z/i*i. of the Protextantt of France, xvii. King of Prussia (The First). FRIEDKICH I. son of the Great Elector (1G57, 1701-1713). See ' Prussia,' &c. King of Rome, 1811. A title given by Napoleon I. to his infant son at birth, when ' he associated the child in his em- pire.' Probably he meant to revive the title invented by Kaiser Heinrich III. ; if BO the title was a blunder; but if he only meant to imitate the kaiser, he was quite at liberty to adopt any title not already appropriated. King of Sion (The). John Becold, Boccold, or Bockholdt, tailor, the Ana- baptist (1510, 1534-1536). Better known as John of Leyden, the name he took alter his ' coronation.' He was sensual, vain, and bloodthirsty, fond of regal pomp, and introduced polygamy. John was executed by lingering tortures in 1536, at the age of 26. King ot Slops. Louis XVIII. of France (1755, 1814-1824). King of Suffolk. See 'Kings of Norfolk and Suffolk.' King ot 'Terror (The). Kobespierre was the ' King of Terror,' and the Com- mittee of Public Safety his executive for 420 davs, from 81 May, 1793, to 27 July, 1794. l>eath la poetically so called. King of the Barricades (3 syl.). Louis Philippe of France (1773, reigned 1830-1818, died 1850), so called because he assisted in the revolution of 1830 t barricade Paris and resist the royal troops. King of the Baso'cians (The). President of the clerks of the Basoche or Basilica of Paris i.e. the judges, the barristers, the proctors, and other officials of the Palais de Justice. He had his court, his great officers, his coin, and his armorial bearings. Henri III. suppressed the title, and transferred to the chancel- lor all the rights and privileges of this ' king of the lawyers.' King of the Butchers (The). The lad who at one time rode on the Boeuf Gras through the streets of Paris on Shrove Tuesday. He was a son of one of the three great butcher families (Gois, St. Yon, or Caboche), was dressed as an eastern monarch, carried a naked sword in one hand and a sceptre in the other, and rode on the back of the prize ox. He also enjoyed certain privileges in his year of office. The procession of Boeuf Gras had no king in my time i.e. the middle of the 19th cent. In New Orleans Rex Is still (1890) the central figure of the Mardi Gras festivities. Bceuf gras, pronounce Jhth-grah'. King of the English. A title assumed in 828 by Egbert. Every king from William to Henry II. called himself 'king of the English' (rex Anglorum). Kichard I. was the first to call himself ' kinfc' of England ' (rex A nglia), King of the French. So Louis- Philippe entitled himself in 1830. Simi- larly, the two Napoleons called them- selves ' emperors of the French,' and not ' emperors of France.' Of course, the notion was that the land called France belonged to the people, and that the king or emperor disavowed all right to it. There seems now (1890) a radical notion that all the land of the nation should be vested in the sovereign and not be held by private landlords. Strange hovr radicals should wish to roll back the tide of his- tory to the time of the Conquest I Funny ad vancement this I King of the Hills. Vincent the Chartist, 1839. The hill district of Wales is about five miles from Newport, and abounds in coal and iron. King of the Markets (The), ot 'LeRoi des Halles.' Francois de Ven- dome due de Beaufort (1616-1009), natural son of Henri IV. and Gabriella d'Estrees. So called because he was vei y popular with the French proletariat 490 KING KINQ'8 Lagrange-Chancel asserted, in the ' Anne Litte"raire,' 1759, that the due was the ' Iron Mask,' but this has been fully dis- proved. He was slain in a sortie at the siege of Candia. King of the Peak (The\ 1515. Sit George Vemon of Haddon Hall waa twice cited to appear in London for the murder of a pedlar hanged by his order on a tree. When in the court he was sum- moned as King of the Peak ' he vouch- safed no reply, but on the third summons as ' Sir George Vernon ' he instantly presented himself. The pedlar had com- mitted murder and Sir George ' lynched ' him. The case was dismissed. King of the Poor. William Fitz-Osbert, called ' Longbeard,' from the length of his beard. Executed with great barbarity in 1199. King of the Ribalds (The). 'Le Roi des Ribands' [Be-bo]. The captain of the militia created by Philippe n. Auguste of France in 1189. Charles V. united the captaincy of the Ribalds to the ' provost of the hotel.' King of the Romans, 1056. Hemrich HE. the Black King of Ger- many invented this title for the heir-elect of Germany, and the title was continued till he was crowned. Till 1889 the king of Germany went to Rome to receive from the pope the title of ' kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire,' but after that date the king at his coronation in Germany assumed the title ex-officio. If a father made bis son joint-king, the father vas kaiser and the son Kiiiti of the Romatu. The successor of a kaiser was only ' King of the Romans ' till he was actually crowned. In 1508 Maximilian, who failed to get himself crowned kaiser, called himself 'Emperor-elect of the Romans.' King of the Sea. Edward m. A title given him in 1858. He won the great naval battle of Sluys (3 syl.) over the French in 1340. and beat the Spanish squadron off Winchelsea in 1350. King's and Queen's Counties (Ireland). The territory belonging to the septs of Leix and Offaly, who resisted the forfeiture of their lands and took up arms ; but the septs were exterminated, and their territory formed into two counties named King's and Queen's, in honour of Philip and Mary, and the assize towns of the counties were called Philipstowu and Maryborough after the names of the king md queen. King's and Queen's Men, 1571 The factions of James VI. of Scotland and his mother Mary queen of Scots, a prisoner at the time in England. In 1578 the queen's faction was stamped out and the reign of Mary was virtually at an end. King's [or Queen's] Bench. An English law court where the sovereign is supposed to occupy the lit l- lowed the king in all his travels. By 1 Will. IV. c. 70 the number of judges was raised from fourtofive, viz. the chief justice and four puisne or younger judges. This court has control over all other law courts by a process technically called certior&ri, by virtue of which proceeding may be removed to it from inferior courts. It can also prohibit other courts from proceeding when it is thought that they are exceeding their jurisdiction. It has jurisdiction over every species of criminal offence committed in Middlesex. King's (or) Queen's Plates. Purses of money for races, not all the gifts of the reigning sovereign. In the reign of Queen Anne a gentleman left 1800 guineas for 13 plates or purses to be run for at such places as the crown should appoint ; the condition being that each horse shall carry 12 stone weight the best of three heats over a four-mile course. King's Bible (The), 1611. The 1 Authorised Version ' is so called because it was undertaken by the command of James I., to whom also it was dedicated. King James disliked the ' Great Bible ' (q.vj because of its annotations. He also extremely disapproved of the Geneva Bible (?..). See ' Bibles.' King's Bishop (The), 1317. Wil- liam Sinclair bishop of Dunkeld. Ed- ward II. sent a fleet to the Fritli <>f Forth ; and the sheriff, with 500 Scottish horse, seeing the fleet, retreated precipitately. On their road the bishop met them, and cried, ' Out on you for false knights, whose spurs should be knocked from your heels I Who loves Scotland follow me!' The bishop made a desperate charge against the English, who were driven to their ships with loss. When Bruce heurd thereof, he said Sinclair should be his bishop, and the Bishop of Dunkeld wiaa called ' The king's bishop ' for many years. KING'S KING'S 49] King's Book (The). I ' Liber Regis,' U>, 1534. A schedule of the valuation of all church property in England made after the separation of the English Church from the Church of Rome. H. 1548. 'Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian man,' a book published by Henry VIII. as a substitute for the Bible, which he forbade the general public to read. Teachers of religion, nobles, and those of gentle birth might read it, but if any artificer, apprentice, journeyman, labourer, or servant read it, the punishment was a month's imprison- ment. The ' King's Book ' was far more Catholic than Protestant. Indeed Henry was a Catholic in all things except his own supremacy. See ' Bishops' Book.' The 'King's Book' Is quoted In brief as the ' Erudition.' It is in great measure copied from the ' Bishops' Book (q.v.), but leans more to Roman- Ism. It explains the Creed, the Seven Sacraments the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, the Ave Maria, and finishes with an exposition of Free- will, Justification Good Works, and Prayers for the Dead. It accepts the Apocrypha, and the first four ecumenical Councils. See p. 277. King's Collection (The), 1823. The Royal Library of George III. given to the nation by George IV., and added to the library of the British Museum. The Royal Library consists of the library of Mr. Joseph Sihith, British consul at Venice, bought by the king in 1762 for 10,OOOZ. ; a collection of books bought up when the order of Jesuits was suppressed ; and the library of Charles II. The number of volumes added to the library by this royal gift is somewhat more than 50,000. King's College. I. Aberdeen, 1494. Pounded by King James IV. II. Cambridge, 1441. Founded by King Henry VI. The chapel was finished in 1530. The head of the college is called the provost. III. London. Incorporated 1828. King's Confession (The). The Scotch Covenant of 1580. So called be- cause signed by King James VI. (after- wards James I. of England). It abjured the tenets of the Church of Rome ; bound the subscribers to defend the tenets of the Reformed Church of Scotland, and to guard with goods and lives the person and authority of the king. King's Evil (The). Scrofula, so called because it was supposed to be cured by the king's touch. Touching for scrofula was practised by Edwaurd the Ct-nfessor (1043-1066) ; by Louis EX. of France in 1480; by the kaiser-king Karl VIII. at Rome and Naples in 1495 ; by Francois I. in 1527 ; by Charles II., and Queen Anne. It was attempted by Prince Charles Edward the Pretender, at Holyrood, in 1746; by Louis XVI. at Reims in 1775. King's Hall, Cambridge, 1337. Founded by King Edward III. In 1546 this college was, with other foundations, consolidated into Trinity College. King's Lieutenants (The). Noble- men commissioned by the three Lancas- trian kings to put into military order their respective counties, and levy fines on those incapable of bearing arms. These gentlemen are now called 'Lords Lieu- tenants of Counties.' King's Nominees (The). Thirty- six Irish noblemen and gentlemen, whose estates had been confiscated by Cromwell, named in the Declaration of Indulgence (1662) to be restored to their estates with- out further proof, by the special favour of the king [Charles II.] King's Pamphlets (The). 80,000 tracts and pamphlets relative to the history of England during the civil wars, bound in 2,000 volumes, of which 100 were printed (but never published). The pamphlets were commenced for the use of Charles I. by a clergyman named Thomason, kept in the collector's warehouses, and at length lodged at Oxford under the care of Dr. Barlow. They were bought for Charles II. by Samuel Mearke, stationer, but Mrs. Mearke, the widow, tried to dispose of them by the desire of Charles II. George III. bought them, and in 1763 presented the whole to the British Museum. King's Preachers. Six able di- vines appointed by Edward VI., four of whom were itinerant, publicly to main- tain the doctrines of the Reformation. King's Primer (The), 1546. Pub- lished by command of Henry VIII. It contained the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, the Litany, the * Venlte,' and the ' Te Deum,' with some few collects. It was twice revised in the reign of Edward VI., and again in the reigns of Elizabeth and Jamed I., being ultimately made into our present ' Book of Common Prayer.' King's Quair, i.e. King's Book. A I poem iu six cantos (197 stanzas of neves KING'S KINGS lines each) by James I. of Scotland. It is the story of hitf courtship of Jane Beaufort, who became his wife. King's Stone (The), 1518. An un- hewn column erected on Flodden Field to mark the spot where King James IV. fell. Kings. A Chinese word equivalent to books, but emphatically applied to five, as our word Bible (a book) is applied to our Sacred Scriptures. The five sacred books of the Chinese are: 1. Y-King (cosmogony); 2. Chi-Kinz (hymns); 8. Chou-King (annals) ; 4. Li-Ki (religious rites and ceremonies) ; and 6. Tchun- Tsieou (chronology of the kingdom of Lou, the country of Confucius). To these is sometimes added the Tao-te-King. Kings. The average length of the reigns in the three countries of England, France, and Germany. ENGLAND from the accession of the Conquest 28 A years. FRANCE from the accession of Hugues Capet 20 years. GERMANY from the accession of Charle- magne 18 years. The long reign of Queen Victoria will consider- ably raise the average of the sovereigns of Eng- land. The average length In Scotland from Malcolm I. to James VI. was 21 years. Kings and Popes. The era of im- pious kings and impious popes. See 1 Popes and Kings.' Kings and Queens of Eng- land. VICTORIA, who was the niece of WIL- LIAM IV., who was the brother of GEORGE IV., who was the son of GEORGE III., who was the grandson of GEORGE II., who was the son of GEORGE I., who was the cousin of ANNE, who was the sister-in-law of WILLIAM III., who was the son-in-law of JAMES II., who was the brother of CHARLES II., who was the son of CHARLES I., who was the son of JAMES I., who was the cousin of ELIZABETH, who was the half- sister of MARY, who was the half-sister of EDWARD VI., who was the son of HSNZ- VIII., who was the son of H.ENRY VII., who was the cousin of RICHARD III., who was the uncle of EDWARD V., who was the son of EDWARD IV., who was the cousin of HENRY VI., who r as the sow of HENRY V.. who was the son of HENRY IV., *ho was th cousin of RICHARD II., who WAS tk* grandson of EDWARD III., who was the son of EDWARD II., who v.as th- .,>n ol EDWARD I., who was the son of HKNKY III., who was the son of JOHN, who waa the brother of RICHARD I., who was tin- son of HENRY II., who was the co>< STEPHEN, who was the con *in of HKNKY I., who was the brother of WILLIAM RUFUS, who was the son of WILLIAM THE CON- QUEROR, who was the son of his im.tli'T. Kings Combatant (The). The kings of the Tsheu or Chou dynasty of China. The third Imperial dynasty, and the last of the semi-historic period. The ' fighting kings ' were the feudatories win . ruled overpetty neighbouring states, ami were continually at war with oach otlior. The most powerful of the kings combatant were the founders of the following states : Yen, Oey. Tchao, Han, Tsee, and Tsln. Kings of Arms, 1488. There are four in England: Clan-mvux (wl: power over all parts of England south of the Trent); Norroy, i.e. North-roy (who has power over all parts north of th.- Trent), and two other kings, call d < King of Arms and Bath King of Arms. See Heralds.' Garter is the principal King of \. rank than the others. He serve* the Order of the Garter. Bath King of Arms serves the Order of the Hath. Kings of France. Theirresidences. CLOVIS resided In what is now called the Palais de Justice, which be built in the He du , the Heine. i-mi.ii'pB II., Anguste, removed to the old Louvre. I is IX. rosldrd in the Bastille. PUILIPPB VI. de Vulols lived at Vinronnes. CIIAKLBS V. la Sage lived in tin- II 1. 1 de St. Paul. CHARLBS VL le Blen Aim lived in the Palais des Tournelles. CHARLKS IX. lived in the TuilTi>s. Louis Xlll.le Juste livid in the L'alaisdeLuxem bourg. Loi-ia XIV. le Grand Monarque lived at Ver Bailies. Louis XVI. le Mnrtyr lived at the P:l-xis Royal. NAPOLEON I. and III. li\.-.i in the '1 . The Presidents of the Republic have lived in the Palais delElysee. Kings of Loire. So the old Danish rulers were styled, because th-y resided at Leire, in Seeland. Kings of Norfolk and Suffolk, 1881. So Lester and Westbroom i themselves in the rebellion of Wat the Tyler and Jack Straw. Th.-y v.-re botfl executed in June the uaniu yciu. KINGDOM KISLAR 493 Kingdom of Al Garb, or Algarve. Pounded by Shahpoor about 1008; set aside in 1031 by the dynasty of the Af tas- ides (8 syl.), so called from Al Aftas. Kingdom of Italy (The). I. Lom- bardy was so called in the reign of Charlemagne, and when Charlemagne and his successors are called 'kings of Italy,' the meaning is Lombardy. II. 1806 ; the union by Napoleon Bonaparte of Lombardy and the Venetian territories. Though the title was so pre- tentious, the new state did not comprise above a third of the peninsula. After the battle of Waterloo (1815) this geo- graphical arrangement was set aside. The present kingdom of Italy was created In 1861. but Home was not added till 1870. Kingdom of Scone (The). Scot- land was so called so long as the ' Lia Fail ' (q.v.) remained in that city, and Scone was the Sedes Principalis of North Britain, Kingdom of Sion (The), in Miin- ster, set up by John of Leyden, and meant to be a theocracy. John appointed twelve judges over the ' tribes,' and Matthiesen the baker had before him sent out ' apostles ' to preach the Ana- baptist doctrines (1584-1536). Kingdom of Westphalia (The), 1807. Carved by Napoleon out of Hesse Cassel and part of Hanover, and given to Jerome Bonaparte, his youngest brother. Abolished after the battle of Waterloo in 1815. Kingston, in Surrey. So called because, in 901, Edward the Elder was crowned there. Kingstown (Ireland). So named in honour of the visit made by George IV. to Ireland soon after his coronation in 1821. The town had been previously called Dunleary, then a mere fishing village on the coast of Dublin Bay, about seven miles from the city. ' Kingstown is now a large and beautiful town, with commodious quays, magnificent piers, railway to Dublin, mail boats, &c., and handsome villas all about the neighbour- hood. Kirillit'za. The Russian alphabet is so called because it was arranged by Bishop Cyril. [The Bible] will BOOU be turned into Russ and put into a printed book which any poor man will be able to read If only be knows hia kirillilza. 'L'M Czar, cbap. xi. Kirk(TM- The Presbyterian Church of Scotland (1689). Kirk of Field (The Tragedy of the). The murder of Henry Darnley, husband of Mary queen of Scots, who was blown up with gunpowder in a mansion called Kirk of Field, belonging to James Ken nedy archbishop of St. Andrews. On the Monday before his [Darnley's] murder the queen passed the evening with him till it was time to attend a masque which was to be given In the palace. . . . About twc in the morning of Tuesday Bothwell, with a selected party of despe- rate men, opened the under apartments of the Kirk of Field by means of false keys, and laid a lighted match to a quantity of gunpowder which had been previously placed beneath the king's apartment.-SirW. SCOTT, Hist, of Scotland, xxviU. Kirk Session (The), 1689. The low- est judicatory in the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. It is composed of the parish minister and ruling elders, to assist in superintending the social, moral, and religious condition of the parish, judge of the fitness of those who wish to become members of the church, to exer- cise discipline on those guilty of scan- dalous offences, and to grant certificates to worthy members who remove to another parish. The other three courts are the Presbytery, the Synod, and the General Assembly. See * Presbytery.' Kirkland's Plot (Moses), 1776. Kirkland, a native of South Carolina, was employed by Stuart and other Royalists to concert measures with General Gage for a joint attack, by sea and land, on the southern states of N. America, while the savages fell on their rear. The plot was discovered, and the Americans endeavoured to win over the savages, but without success ; so the Americans entered their country, laid waste the cornfields, and almost extir- pated the Cherokees. Kirkpatrick Crest and Motto. A bloody hand holding a dagger, and the motto ' I make sicker.' When Robert Bruce had stabbed Comyn in the cloisters of the Minorites, Dumfries (1305), Sir Roger Kirkpatrick asked if he was sure the traitor was slain. ' I doubt BO,' replied Bruce. ' Aye ? do you doubt? 'exclaimed Kirkpatrick, 'then I'll make sicker.' So saying he thrust his dagger into Comyn's heart. Kislar Aga. Chief of the black eunuchs. About equal in patronage to our lord chancellor. The revenues, && 194 KISSING KNIGHT of all religious foundations are at the disposal of the Kislar Aga. Kissing the Pope's Foot. Kiss- ing the foot of a Roman emperor was a method of adoration paid to him as a god, and Diocletian (284-805) had his shoes studded with gems to render the ceremony less obnoxious. When popes assumed regal powers they adopted the same custom, and some had crucifixes wrought in their shoes as a salve to tender consciences. It is not possible to state with certainty when the custom began, but in the ritual ascribed to Pope Gelasius (492-496) mention is made of deacons ' kissing the pope's feet before they began reading the Gospel.' Not only were the feet of the pope kissed, but so were the feet of the mule or ass on which he happened to be riding. The Komans certainly kissed the feet of their idols, and thought it derogatory to touch their mouths. The Persian method of adoration, introduced by Cy- rus, was falling on the face at a prince's feet and kissing the ground on which he stood. Conon refused to perform this ceremony to Artaxerxes, and Callis- thenes refused to prostrate himself be- fore Alexander the Great. Kissing the cheek was a Jewish, Greek, and Koman custom of salutation, still continued in France and some other modern nations of Europe. Kissing the hand of a liege lord was a ceremony of homage, and subsequently was adopted by sovereigns as a part of court etiquette. ' Kissing hands ' or to ' Kiss-hands ' is a synonym of being Introduced to court in England, Spain, Russia, and Turkey. In Catholic cathedrals and other important churches on Holy Thursday the officiant who celebrates the mass washes and kisses the feet of thirteen old or thirteen young persons, in commemoration of the act of Christ mentioned in the Fourth Gospel. Kitchen Cabinet (The). The pri- vate advisers of President Jackson, who used to summon Francis P. Blair and Amos Kendal (editor of the ' Globe ') and others, to consultation by a back door, or the kitchen door, to avoid observation. The members of Jackson's Cabinet were not high-caste statesmen, but they were too high- caste to be congenial counsellors of Jackson. Behind them he kept a 'Kitchen Cabinet, of creatures selected for their servil devotion to his person, including a representative of the domesticated press. The A Utt'ts^itth Century, Aug. 1888, p. 272. Kit-Kat Club (The), or ' Kit-cat Club,' 1688-1720. Competed at first of thirty members, originated chiefly bj Dr. Garth the poet, autLor of 'The Dispensary,' in imitation of Boileau's 'Lutrin,' to ridicule th apothecaries, who were at war with the physicians about the establishment of dispensaries. The apothecaries strenuously opposed the design. Garth was a W ig and Hanoverian, and the club, which was held in King Street, Westminster, was supplied with pastry by Christopher Kat, a pastrycook near by. Its toasts were engraved on the drinking-glasses, that no Jacobite sentiment might bo insinuated. Dissolved in 1720. Addison and Steele were members of the club. Kit-Kat, or 'Kit-cat,' Pictures. Oil paintings of the members of the K it- Eat Club, by Godfrey Kneller. They were the natural size, but only down to the knees. These and all similar ' three- qnarter likenesses* are called Kit Kat pictures. Klephtes (1 syl.). Brigands of Thessaly, for a long time opposed to the Armatoles (8 syl.), but in the insur- rection of 1821 they united against the Turks for the independence of Greece. Knsarod (Treaty of), A treaty of peace, after the war of Calmar, signed in 1618 at Knaerod by Christian IV. kin^ of Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus kin - < >f Sweden. Gustavus Adolphus consented to ransom the provinces which the Danes had taken, and to abandon his claim to the island of Oesel, and to the coasts of the Arctic Ocean as far as the Bay of Waranger. Knife for the Academic Knots (The). Chrysippos the Stoic (B.C. 297). He was the keenest disputant of his age. It was said of him, ' If the gods make use of dialectics, it must be the logic of Chrysippos.' Knight Bachelor (A). The lowest grade of ^knighthood; conferred on civilians as well as on military and naval officers. The recipient kneels before the sove- reign, who says to him ' Sois cTicrnlit-r au nom de dieu,' and then adds, ' Rise, Sir ' (naming the Christian name). Knight Baronet. An English order instituted '2'2 May. li.ll. 1>\ I. Instituted in Ireland 80 Sept., 1(119; and in Scotland by Chailes I. in 1025. KNIGHT-ERRANTRY KNIGHT9 Knight-errantry- The practice of knights wandering from place to place to redress wrongs, and especially to re- lease young women taken captive by the unruly barons of England, Spain, France, and Germany. They engaged themselves to redress those wrongs which laws were too feeble to remedy, and for redressing which honour, plunder, or rich donations became usually their compensation. TURNER, History of England during the MiMle Ages, chap. xiii. Probably there is a basis of truth In this state- ment ; but, without doubt, the rules of knight errantry are gross exaggerations. Knight Service, or ' Knights' Ser- vice.' Serving the king on horseback in his military expeditions. This service was paid in consideration of lands held under the crown, and was at one time considered the most honourable of all tenures. Knight of Liddesdale (The famous). William Douglas (* 1353). Knights. Anglo-Saxon cniht, a military attendant who paid service to some chieftain as a rent for land. Called in French Chevaliers, and in German Bitter s y because they served on horse- back. It was common to create knights before and after a battle. Thus 500 French knights were created before the battle of Agincourt ; similar honours were conferred on great festivals, such as a coro- nation or royal marriage. The apprentice of a knight was called a squire, which means a shield-bearer (French tcuyer). Not only kings could create knights, but knights themselves could dub others. The chief ceremony was for the knight to touch with his sword the neck of the person as he knelt before him, saying these words : ' Arise, Sir Knight.' Alfred gave Athelstan a belt and robe, and girded him with a sword, A.D. 900. The women who distinguished themselves by preserving Tortosa from the Moors In 1149 were knighted. Knights Baronets of Nova Scotia, 1621. A title conferred by James I. on a number of Scotch ad- venturers whose object was to colonise North America. Knight's Fee, or 'Feodum Mili- tare.' A portion of land held by a knight for military service. William the Conqueror had an army of 60,000 knights in yirtue of such fees. Knights Hospitallers. 'Knights pf St. Jo)in of Jerusalem,' or ' Knights of Malta,' 1048. Organised to guard and entertain pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and hence called hospital- lers. Their monastery at Jerusalem was dedicated to St. John the Baptist, hence their second name. When expelled from Judeea they were allowed by Karl V. (1530) to settle in Malta, and hence their third title. Suppressed in England 1540, in France 1792, and dispersed by Napoleon in 1798. Knights Sword - bearers. Founded in 1201 by the bishop of Livonia for the defence of that see. They were originally called ' Knights of Livonia,' but received the name of sword-bearers from two cross-swords embroidered in red on the breast of their white mantles. These knights were masters of Livonia and Esthonia. Gothard Kettler, the 50th grand master, became a Lutheran, and in 1561 the sovereignty of the Knights Sword-bearers was split up into five parts : (1) One part went to Ivan Vassilievitch czar of Russia; (2) Esthonia and Revel swore fidelity to Eric XIV. king of Sweden ; (8) Livonia was attached to Sigismund II., called Sigismund Augustus of Poland ; (4) Arensberg and the isle of Oesel went to Magnus duke of Holstein; and (5) Gothard Kettler kept for himself the provinces of Courland and Semigaglia [Semigalia], of which he was created duke by the king of Poland. Knights Templars (The), 1118. A military order of monks organised to protect pilgrims on their road to the Holy Land. Subsequently their chief office was to protect the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem against the Saracens. They followed the Benedictine rule and took the vows of poverty, chastity, and obe- dience; but they became immensely rich, worldly, and tyrannical. The order was suppressed in 1311-1814, and in England in 1822. Called Knights Templars or Knights of the Temple because Baldwin II. king of Jerusalem gave them a house built on the site of Solomon's Temple. Their costume was a long white robe decorated with a red cross. Knights of GHyn and Kerry (Ireland). The heads of two ancient families named Fitzgerald. The titles still continue. Knights of Labour (The), 1834. United States. The trades union KNIGHTS KNOT committee which regulates the amount of wages to be demanded by workmen, the degree of skill to be exacted from them, and the length of time they shall work for a master. It enjoins when a strike shall be made and when workmen of the union may resume labour. THE KNIGHTS OF LABOUR. Philadelphia, 17 Jan. The 'Philadelphia Press' states that a gigantic scheme of general reorganisation, by which all coal miners and mine labourers in the United States will be placed under one banner, la being accomplished by the Knights of Labour, In order to secure concerted action in their inter este. Renter. Knights of our Lady of Mount Sion (The). Approved 1191 by Kaiser Heinrich VI. and Pope Celestine III. All of noble birth, bound to celibacy and to the defence of the Christian church. Their dress was a white mantle and black cross; their rule that of St. Au- gustine. Their original number was 24 lay members and 7 priests; subse- quently increased to 40. Conrad regent of Poland gave them the territory of Culm and all the country between the Vistula and the Druentsa. Knights of Rhodes (The), 1314. Villaret, grand-master of the Knights Hospitallers, removed from Jerusalem to Rhodes. Andronlcus urged the Saracens to drive him out of the island, but Vil- laret, by a succession of conquests, made himself master of it, and then changed the name of his order into that of the 1 Knights of Rhodes,' a title which was retained till 1580. The order was called that of Knights Hospitallers 1048-1120. Knights of St. John of Jerusalem 1120-1184 (driven out). Knights of Rhodes 1814-1530 (driven out). Knights of Malta 1580-1798. The order still exists, and its flag still flies on some Mediterranean vessels (1890). Knights of St. George in Ire- land (1472-1494), or 'Brotherhood of St. George.' Thirteen gentlemen chosen from the four counties of the Pale (Kil- dare, Dublin, Meath, and Louth). They met annually to choose a captain, and maintained 120 mounted archers, 40 horsemen, and 40 pages for the protec- tion of the English border (WALPOLE, 'Kingdom of Ireland,' 1882). Knights of St. Margaret, 1786. The mayors knighted for congratulating George III. on his escape from assassina- tion when Margaret Nicholson, a mad woman, attacked him as he descfixli.-J from his carriage in St. James's Park. Knights of the Dagger. See 1 Chevaliers du Poignard.' Knights of the Garter, i:'.ifi. An English military order foun-l. .1 ly Edward III. It is under the ) saint of England, ' St. George,' an iniM-.; of whom is attached to a blue riMxm, and the ribbon is passed over the left shoulder. Round the left leg is a blue garter containing the motto ' Honi soit qui mal y pense.' See ' Blue Thonge.' Edward III. only ' perfyted substantially what kynge Rlcharde hacf begunne at the Mge of the eyte of Acres, wher, in his great necenyte, there were but 36 knyghtes that firmly and sun ly abode with the king; when he caused all wear thongcs of blew leyther about the taggea: iiMdiifUTwiirdo th.'.v w.-r.-c:. i!r ^ln,-.-, of the blew-thonge.' KABTKL, Chronicle. Knights of the Round Table. Asser in his ' Life of Alfred ' says these knights were created by Arthur A.I The order was revived in 1844 by E were paid according to the Act 12 Rich. II. o. 12 (1388); but the payment of menil-rs has long been discontinued. By Act 9 Anne c. 6 (1710) no member whoso "inromo was under GOO/, a year was eligible for election. This restriction was abolished in 1858 (21, 22 Viet. c. 26). Knights of the Virgin Mary (TJie), 1190. The original name of the 1 Teutonic Knights ' (q.v.). Knighten-gild (The). The chi.-f of the London gilds, dating back t<> tho reign of Kin^' K\ who were working in his cause in Eng- KNOW-NOTHINGS KONRAD 49? land against the government of Crom- well. The head of the Knot was Sir Richard Wallis, who was proved to be a traitor to both Charles and Cromwell. Know-nothings (The), or 'Na- tives,' 1853. A political society in the United States of America who declared that the right of citizenship should be restricted to 'natives,' or those born of American parents in America. They were opposed to Catholicism, as incon- sistent with the spirit of republicanism. When asked any question respecting their society, their only reply was ' I k-iiow nothing.' They split on the slave question and died out. Knox's Blast. 'The First Blast of the Trumpet against the monstrous Regiment of Women' is the title of a tract published by John Knox in 1558 against Mary queen of England and Mary queen of Scots. The object was ' against the political government of women.' The words 'Regiment of Women' we should now call the ' Regimen or Rule of Women." Knox's Liturgy, or ' The Book of Common Order,' 1562. In 1564 its use was enjoined on the Scotch Kirk by the General Assembly. It was based on the Genevan Formula (q.v.), but soon went out of use when the living influence of Knox declined. Knoxians and Coxians (The), 1556. The followers of John Knox and Dr. Coxe dean of Christ Church, Oxford, who left England during the reign of Mary and retired to the Continent. Knox, backed by Calvin, objected to the English Liturgy, and insisted on the use of the Genevan service ; but Dr. Coxe insisted on the English Liturgy, and made a point of repeating the responses aloud. The altercation became so noisy that the magistrates had to interfere. Knox retired to Geneva, and Coxe settled in Strasburg. Kockbunds (The). The Thugg of Hyderabad. Also called 'Phanseegura.' Koh-i-noor (The), i.e. ' Mountain of Light,' one of the largest diamonds in the world. Came into the possession of Ala-u-din soon after 1300. It fell to liaber in 1526, and subsequently to Mahommed Shah, great - grandson of Aurengzebe, who kept it hidden in his turban ; but when Nadir Shah took pos- session of Delhi, Mahommed had to give the diamond to the conqueror. It passed in succession to Shah Shuja, and when driven from Cabul he carried it to La- hore, when Runjeet Sing got possession of it and had it set in a bracelet, 1813. After the annexation of the Punjaub by the English the crown jewels of Lahore were confiscated, and the Koh-i-noor was presented to Queen Victoria by the East India Company and delivered into her hands 3 June, 1850. In 1889, in a most insolent letter, Runjeet Sing demanded its restitution. Its weight was 186 carats. It was exhibited in the Great Exhibition of 1851, and valued at 140,OOOZ. By order of the Queen it was cut into a brilliant by Hcrr Voorsanger, whereby the weight was reduced to 100 ^ carats. If this diamond is the ' Great Mogul ' its previous history will be found under that name. See ' Diamonds.' Konrad I. First king of Germany after the Karlovingian race.. He was previously count of Fraiiconia (911-918). Contemporary with our Edward the Elder. Konrad II., founder of the second line of kings in Germany, was duke of Franconia. Heinrich III., IV., V. fol- lowed in regular descent. Konrad II. was crowned king of Germany 102-1, and kaiser of the Holy Roman Enn-ir- 1027; he died 1039, at the age of 53. lie was a descendant of Konrad the Wise, son-iu- law of Otto I. the Great. However, the kings of Germany were elected or chosen, originally by the great nobles, and subse- quently by a board called the ' Electors,' and were not kings by hereditary descent. Ftitltt-r, Heinrich duke of Franconia. Wife, Gisela, a widow. Contemporary with Canute and Harold Harefoot. Konrad III., founder of the House of Hohenstauffen, was grandson of Hein- rich IV. (of the previous dynasty called the ' house of Franconia'). He was king of Germany from 1138 to 1152, but never kaiser or emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (1093, 1138-1152). Konrad III. was the first of the kings of Ger- many who was elected by seven princes. In 1858 Karl IV. m;ide seven the legal number of electors by what is called the 'Golden Bull. 1 In 1048 th number of electors was raised to eight; in 1692 II was nine ; but in 1777 the number was again re- duced to eight. In ItiOO Napoleon swept away th whole system and introduced the law of Inherit uephe' KK KONRAD KURUCZ LABANCZ Kaiser Helntlch V. Mother, Agnes daughter of Kaiser Heinrich IV. tontemporary with Henry I. and Stephen. Konrad IV. Son of Friedrich II. and great-grandson of Barbarossa. He was ling of Germany between 1250 and 1254, but never kaiser. Konrad IV. was a roi faineant, and in him expired the royal house of Hohenstauffen. The mext dynasty was the house of Ouelf or D'Este. which gives only one king, Otto IV., wno abdicated. Ko'raichites (8 syl.). An Arabian tribe and the principal one of Mecca up to the time of Mohammed. This tribe in A.D. 460 acquired the custody of the Kaaba, or Temple at Mecca, and, of course, most violently opposed the pre- tensions of Mohammed (618-622). In 628 they were defeated by him at Bedr and Ohud, and again in the ' Expedition of the Nations 'in 625. They then con- cluded a truce, and in 629 surrendered to him the holy city of Mecca. The Ko- raichites professed to be the issue of Ishmael. Mohammed and his first wife (Kadi j ah) were Koraichites. Koran' (Al). The Mohammedan Scriptures. The scattered leaves of it were collected into a volume AJ>. 684 by Abubekr ; it was revised and sanctioned by the calif Omar in 652; was first printed at Rome in 1580 ; and was burnt by order of Pope Clement VIL Sale's English translation with numerous notes was printed in 1784, and a French trans- lation was made hi 1788 by Savary. The Koran la divided Into 114 sections, and con- tains 3,000 paragraphs or verses. Koreish (The Tribe of). See 'Ko- raichites.' Korner of Italy (The) that is, the Tyrtaeus or war-poet, Godfredo Mameli. His great song was composed in 1848, the refrain of which is Together we stand, or together we fall ; We are ready for either at Italy's call I The great war-song of KOruer la ' The Sword Song ' (1791-1813). Koscius'ko (Insurrection o/), 1794. He was leader of the Poles in revolt against Russia, and won the battle of Wraclawice, near Cracovia ; but (2 Oct.) four months later he was attacked at Maciejowice (about 50 miles from War- saw) and was taken prisoner, exclaiming, ' Finis Polonise.' He remained prisoner at St. Petersburg foe two years, when he was liberated by the czar Panl I. and! died in Switzerland in 1817. Kosclusko Indignantly denied ever uttering th words popularly ascribed to him. Kremlin, i.e. citadel. The palace and citadel of Moscow, at one time th residence of the czars. It was originally constructed of wood, but was rebuilt of stone by Dmitri Donskoi. In 1487 Pietro Antonio, an Italian, built the towers which flanked the enceinte. It was not set on fire by Rostopchin in 1812, and was occupied by the French. The Krem- lin also contains the palace of the arch- bishop, the Cathedral of the Assumption where the czars were crowned, the belfry of Ivan Veliki with 82 bells, one of which is the biggest in Europe. Kunc Coins. The earliest Moham- medan coins inscribed with Kufic (or ancient Arabic) characters. The first was struck A.D. 688 under Calif Omar. Kufa, in the pashallc of Bagdad, contained the most expert writers of the Koran', and hence the term ' Kufio writing.' to express ' old Arabic.' Ku-Klux Klan (The), 1868-1871. A secret society of ex-Confederate sol- diers in North America. ' Ku-Klux ' is meant to represent the click in cocking a rifle. The ' Klan ' was an offset of the 1 Loyal League,' and its ostensible object was to ' repress crime and preserve law hi the disturbed Southern States.' In 1871 Congress, resolved to put down the association, suspended the Habeas Corpus Act (under what is generally called 'The Ku-Klux Law') in nine counties of South Carolina. This law and the employment of the military brought the ' Klan ' to an end. Kuleev Dynasty (The). The third fabulous dynasty of Persia, the second being the Jy-anian and the fourth the Yassanian dynasty. The only three names of the third dynasty known are Shah Kuleev the founder, with Shah Aboul and Shah Mah-aboul, the last two of the line. Ku'risers. Irish refugees formed into two regiments, in the pay of the Duke of Savoy, to put down the Vaudois in Piedmont. The word is a corruption of cuirassiers (1655). Kurucz-Labancz Era (The), 1672-1C.81. The period in Hungarian history of the contest between the Kuruczes (i.e. the insurgents) and the Labanczes or Austrians. This was in KUTHANS LADDEB 499 measure a ' religious war,' the insurgents being the Protestant party and the Aus- trian s the Catholic faction. To cut tobacco on the bare back of the opposite faction, or to cut strips from his quivering skin, to drive iron spikes under the finger nails, and to bury an adversary in the ground up to the head and then fire at him, were everyday courtesies exchanged between these two belligerents. VAMB^RY, Hungary, oh. xiii. Kuthans, or 'Kuthe'ans/ The Samaritans were so called by the Jews because they were carried captive by Salmanazar to Kutha, a town of Susiana, not far from Babylon. It is said that the inhabitants of Kutha went to Pales- tine and colonised Samaria. L. The three L's, Lords, Levites, Lawyers. Hugh Peters said, It will never be well with England till the three fifties are abolished. L=50. Labourers (The Statute of). I. In feudal times forbade a husbandman, whose land had been bought by another, leaving the estate. He was obliged to remain with his family as a villein regardant (q.v.) to cultivate the land. H. 23 Edw. III. o. 1, A.D. 1349, for the regulation of wages, consequent upon the strife between labour and capital which resulted from the Black Death (q.v.). The act ordained that the wages of labourers shall be the same as they were 1 two years before the plague began ' ; but, as the price of food had risen enor- mously, thid law was a gross injustice, and led naturally to the ' Peasant Revolt ' (q.v.). Repealed 1826. III. Numerous acts of parliament from the reign of Edward IV. have been made to compel persons having no visible means of livelihood to go out to service either in husbandry or trade to gain an honest living. Labyrinth of Egypt (The). This most magnificent edifice had 8,000 cham- bers ; and the gallery containing the statues of the gods was entered by a flight of ninety marble ateps. The porch was of Parian marble. It was destroyed by the people of Heracleopolis, who wor- shipped the ichneumon or water-rat, the natural enemy of the crocodile, the great god of the Labyrinth. It was a theolo- gical war the god water-rat against the god crocodile. The former prevailed, and the beautiful Labyrinth was levelled to the ground. It seems like a satire on other religious wars. The Cretan and Samtan labyrinths are also Laced Shoe (The), 1502. In German 1 Bundschuh,' the peasants' rebellion hi the Rhine countries. So called from its cognizance. Lacedaemonian League (The), B.C. 481. The Lacedaemonian league, at the outbreak of the Peloponnesian war, comprised all the states of the peninsula except Argos and Achaia (which were neutral), and all northern Greece except Thessaly and Acarnania (which sided with Athens). See 'Athenian Confede- racy.' Lack-learning Parliament (The), 1404, from which all lawyers were excluded. See ' Parliament.' The Unready Parliament would be a better phrase ; that is, the parliament lacking counsel or advice (A.-S. rad, counsel, advice, as in ' Ethclred the Unready'). Lacp'nia, the country of the Lace- daemonians. The 4 ancient inhabitants were the Cynurians and Seleges, who were expelled by the Achseans. The Dorians subsequently invaded Pelopon- nesos, and became the ruling race. Laconisers, B.C. 458, &c. Those Athenians who supported the power of Sparta, after Athens by the confederacy of Delos was declared the head of Greece. Laconisms. When Philip of Mace don wrote to the Spartan magistrates, ' If I enter Laco'nia I will level Lacedae' mon to the ground,' the ephors wrote back the single word ' If.' In 1490 O'Neill wrote to O'Donnel, ' Send me the tribute, or else ; ' to which O'Donnel returned answer, ' I owe none, and if .' Lacustrian Period (The). An extremely remote period when human habitations, for the sake of security, were built in the midst of lakes. Remains of such habitations exist in certain lakes of Switzerland, Scotland, Ireland, &c. Ladan-Thora and Ladan Bareseid. The two readers of the Pentateuch on the eighth and last day of the Feast of Tabernacles. One reads the first hall and the other the latter half. Ladder of Acesius (The). See- tarian exclusiveness. Acesius was bishop of Constantinople and a Novatian. Con- etautine the Great excepted him from th KK 2 500 LADDER LADT tribe of 'heretics,' and invited him to attend the Council of Nice. Novatian taught that the lapsed (i.e. those who denied the faith through fear of persecu- tion) can never be received again into the communion of the faithful. This exclu- sion he afterwards extended to all guilty of ' mortal sins.' Constantino said jo- cosely to Acesius, ' Take a ladder, Acesius, and climb to heaven by yourself.' Ladder of St. John. Surnamed Cllmacus, or rather Kllmakos, 526. PARADISE. Faith, Hope, Charity. Peace of God. Prayer without ceasing. Solitude. Inner Light. Death of the Natural Man. fnj-'le-mindednoRR, or only one affection, and that for God. {Abandonment of false humility and doubt. Pride utterly crushed out. Self-glorification cast out. Conquest of fear. (Watchfulness; the lamp al- I ways burning. Psalmody. Death of the Carnal Mind. (Poverty, or loss of the love of I accumulating. Chastity. Temperance. (Conquest of Indolence of mind t and body. (Restraint of exaggeration and I false representation. Silence. Shunning slander and Idle talk. Forgiveness of Injuries. Equanimity. Borrow the seed of joy. Constant thought of death. Penitence. Obedience. Giving up father and mother. (Giving up all earthly goods ( and hopes. announcement of UK vrl THB WOULD. Ladislaus' Wagon (St.). A kw- wheeled cart drawn by men. I n 1 1 1 of Ladislaus IV. of Hungary (1'27'2-1'2.W) the country was so impoverished by do- mestic wars 'that the two-wheel- got the name of St. Lddisldux' truijun\ for, owing to the universal plundering of draught-cattle, the people them*.-l\e were compelled to draw the carts.' VAMBEBY, ' Hungary,' cliap. vii. Lady (The). Castlemaine me Barbara Villiers, wife of Mr. Pahuer, and in of Charles II., who created her duchess of Cleveland. The Duke of Buckingham had a qnarn-1 *ith the Lady,' and the Lady prejudiced th against him ; and UicdnkfWM determined his revenge by exposing'the Lady.' !<<>* in. //i-(. oj Eujl., Charles II., ch. xi. p. 440. Lady Bountiful. So Joanna Baillio the poetess was called 1851). Lady Clares (The). An Irish asso- ciation so called from the county of Clare, the nucleus being formed of Claresmen. They rose about the time as the Tcrryalts (.), and wero especially conspicuous in the sanguinary tithe war (1830-1882). See ' Irish Asso- ciations.' Lady Day. 25 March, the day of the Annunciation. Lady Huntingdon's Con- nexipn, 1770. A split from the Cal- vinistic Methodists, after the death of George Whitefield. It preserved sub- stantially the liturgy of the Church of England. Half Presbyterian and half Independent. Lady Belina countess of Huntingdon (17 Lady Jane Grey. Grand-daughter of Mary youngest daughter of Henry \ 'II. The Princess Mary and the r Elizabeth (though both illegitimated l,y their father Henry VIII.) were by his last will acknowledged, and would naturally succeed in turn their brother KdwanJ VI., provided there was no issue to pre- vent it. HENRY VII.-Hls son HENRY VIII. succeed.* him. The youngest daughter was Mary. llKNKV VIII.-EDWAI;l> \1.. MAUY. ttlld Kl.IX.4- 11 children of Hi-nry I Mary, daughter of 11. IMS \ 1 1 li.ul a daugl tnr named Frances, who married ll.nry drey marquis of ]>orset and duke of Suffolk. Lady Jane Grey was the daughter of Francos and her husband Henry Grey. LADY LAHORE 601 The pedigree runs thut : HBNRT VII. Frances, wife of Henry Qrey Lady Jane Qrey Lady Margaret Preacher (The) in the University of Cambridge, 1504. Founded by Lady Margaret, mother of Henry VII., with a stipend of 8Z. He has to preach one sermon on the first Sunday in Nov. in Great St. Mary's Church. Lady Margaret Professorship of Divinity (The) in the University of Cambridge, 1502. Founded by Lady Margaret mother of Henry VII. Original stipend 20 marks a year. See ' Regius Professorship of Divinity.' Lady of Christ College (The). John Milton, so called because he was fair and his features effeminate ; his hair was fine, light brown, and flowing, hia constitution delicate, and his health any- thing but robust. (1608-1674.) Lady of England. Matilda or Maud, daughter of Henry I. of England. She married the kaiser-king Heinrich V. of Germany hi 1114, but was left a widow 1125 (aged 23). She then married Geoffrey of Anjou in 1127, but was driven from Anjou by her husband in 1129. Her son Henry [II. ef England] was born in 1183. After the death of her father, Matilda made war on Stephen the usurper, and having obtained some advantages was recognised as ' Lady of England ' in 1141 ; but her imperious arrogance so disgusted the English that they drove her from London in five months, and her adherents were ex- communicated. She died at Rouen in 1165, aged 63. Lady of Mercia (The). Ethel- flseda daughter of King Alfred. She married Ethelred, and after his death continued to reign (913-918). She con- quered the ' Five Boroughs ' (q.v.). Ladies' Irish Land League, Ladies' Labour and Industrial Union (be- tween 1879 and 1888), formed in affiliation with the Irish Land League, the Land League, and the Labour and Industrial Union (q.v.). Its nominal object was ' the relief and sustentation of Land League prisoners.' See ' Irish Associations.' Ladies of the Queen's House- hold (The). They consist of the Mistress of the Robes, the Ladies of tho Bedchamber, the Bedchamber Women, and the Maids of Honour. The Mistress of the Robes has the superintendence of the personal attendants on the queen. Lady's Gown [Scotland]. A present made by the purchaser to the wife of the man who has sold to him his estate. Lastare Sunday. The fourth Sun- day in Lent. So called from the first word of the intro'it of the Mass (Isa. Ixvi. 10), ' Rejoice ye with Jerusalem, and be glad with her, all ye that love her' [Lastare Hierusalem . . .]. As on this day the Pope blesses the golden rose, it is also called ' Dominica de Rosa.' It U a day of rejoicing in the middle of mournful Lent. See ' Sundays.' The introit [introitus] is the passage of Scripture chanted while the priest is entering the chancel to celebrate mass. Lagenians. in Ireland. The people of Leinster Lagides (8 syl.). Egypt. See ' Lagos.' ThePtolemys of Lagoon (The), Venice, or rather the marsh round the city. Strictly speaking, the Gulf between the Piave and the Adige. The lagunas are the canals, too deep for cavalry and too shallow for In no place did the Inquisition obtain so little footing as in the Lagune. The Lagune, which cannot justly be considered either sea or land, is navigable only by skills drawing a few inches of water, The Rialto is the very centre of the Lagune. After the capture of 100 ships he returned to the Lagune with his booty. Petrarch had occasionally visited the Lagune, and was profoundly impressed with the singu- larity and beauty of Venice. History of Venic* (Murray, 1831). LagOS. Ptolemy I. king of Egypt, the adopted son of Lagos the Mace- donian. All his descendants on the Egyptian throne were called Lagldes. La Hire, i.e. the growler. So Etienne Vignoles [Vin-yole] was called on account of his deep baying voice [1387-1442]. One of the knaves on a pack of French cards is meant for La Hire [Here]. Lahore (Treaty of). (1) 26 June, 1888, between Great Britain, Runjeet Singh, and Shah Shuja. LAIKD LAMMAS-DAT (2) March 8, 1840, between Great Britain and Dhuleep Singh. Laird of Cockpen (The). The Duke of Buccleuch. Laish. While Othniel was judge (B.C. 1394-1854) the tribe of Dan, finding their mountain territory too small, made an incursion into the plain beyond Mount Ephraim, and seized the city of Laish. Here they established a priesthood of their own, because Shiloh was so far distant. This worship continued fur nearly 800 years, i.e. till the capture of the ark by the Philistines in Samuel's time. Lake Dwellings. Human habita- tions in the midst of lakes. Those in Switzerland were discovered in 1854. See ' Lacustrian Period.' Lake Poets (The). Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, who resided in the lake district of Cumberland and Westmoreland. They were so named by the ' Edinburgh Review.' Lali'ta Vistara. One of the nine chief works of the Buddhists. It contains the life and doctrines of Sakyamoni (.. St. Sak'ya). Lamaisni. Buddhism corrupted by Sivanism (. The war between Antipiiter and tlio allied Greeks after the death of ander the Great. So called 1> Anti pater threw himself into Lami.i, a strong fortress on the Malian Gulf, which was besieged by the allies. Antijcit. r succeeded in breaking up the alliai. Athens was left completely at his : Lammas-day, 1. Aug. The feast of St. Peter ad Vincula. The word is a corruption of loaf-mass, referring to tin firstfruits of harvest offered on that day . hlaj'imesse). LAMOURETTE'8 LAND Lamourette's Kiss, 1792. A mo- mentary reconcilement followed by greater hostility than ever, in the French revolution. When the Prussian army was on the move towards Paris Condorcet proposed to the Assembly a reconcilement of the Jacobins and Girondists. Lamou- rette (bishop of Lyons) seized on the idea and exclaimed : ' He who succeeds in reconciling you will be the real con- queror of Austria and Coblentz ! ' His words had a magic effect; the most hostile members threw themselves into each other's arms and kissed each other frantically ; but ere sunset the emotion had effervesced, and Jacobins and Gi- rondists were more bitter than ever against each other. This is sometimes called the Judas Kiss, but most improperly so, as no betrayal was eyen dreamt of by the excitable Frenchmen. Lamp of Lothian (The). The abbey church of Haddington was so called from the extreme beauty of its architecture. It was burnt down in 1356 on 'Burnt Candlemas' (q.v.). Lamp of Wisdom (The). Aben Ezra, called by the Jews 'Hechachan.' They used to say, if knowledge had put out her candle it might be lighted again at the brain of Aben Ezra. Lampeter (College of), 1822. Founded by Thomas Burgess bishop of St. David's, for the better and inexpensive education of Welsh candidates for ordi- nation. Lampeter Brethren (The), 1882. A society of young men, members of St. David's College, Lampeter, who met together as a praying and revival order. Henry James Prince was the most promi- nent of them, and he afterwards founded the Abode of Love, called AgapemonS (q.v.). Lancaster (The Line of). Part of the Plantagenet dynasty of England, con- sisting of Henry IV., V., and VI. Henry IV. dethroned Richard II., but was a usurper, for (on the deposition of Richard) the rightful heir was Edmund Mortimer. See ' York.' EDWARD III. His sons were(l) Edward the Black Prince, (2) William, (8) Lionel, (4) John o Gaunt. (5) Edmund Langley duke of York. Son of Edward the Black Prince was RICHARD II. (no issue, and deposed). Next comes Lionel (the third son), whose daughter Philippa married Edward Mortimer. Their son was Roger Mortimer, and tne children of Roger were Edmund and Ann. Edmund was heir on the death of Richard II. From Ann Mortimer proceeds the House of York Her son Richard duke of York was the White Rose He had two sons, both of whom reigned, viz. EDWARD IV. and RICHARD III. The fourth son of EDWARD III. was John of Gaunt duke of Lancaster, whose son was HENRY IV., grandson HENRY V., and great-grandson HENRY VI., the Red Rose. Lancaster Gun The). A species of rifled cannon invented by Mr. Lancaster, who dispensed with grooves, and instead of a strictly circular bore adopted an elliptical one. Lancaster Herald (The). One of the six heralds of England, and the second in point of seniority. See ' Heralds,' &c. Lancasterian Schools, 1798. So called from Joseph Lancaster. Not much known in our islands till 1808, but in 1818 they became very numerous. The idea was to save expense by means of mutual instruction. Joseph Lancaster was in- debted to Dr. Bell of Madras for the idea, and for a time Bell and Lancaster were rivals, the former being supported by churchmen and the latter by dissenters. Dr. Bell called his system ' Mutual In- struction,' Lancaster called his the ' Monitorial System.' See f Mutual In- struction.' Lancasterism, 1844. Destroying wheat-stacks in order to raise the price of wages. So called from Joseph Lancaster, who was arrested for firing corn-stacks, and pleaded in excuse that his object was to improve the rate of wages. Land. William the Conqueror nationalised the land, himself being the sole owner. TENANTS IN CHIEF' (OF THE CROWN) ' i ' ' MESNE TENANTS MANOR AND SUBTENANTS He let it out to king's or chief tenants, on certain conditions, and looked to these tenants only for the fulfilment thereof. LAND LAND WE HB The chief tenants subdivided their holdings among mesrie tenants on simi- lar conditions. The inesne tenants subdivided their holdings into manors, and the manors were parcelled into farms, with a certain portion called common. Land Bank (The), 27 April, 1696. A bank of England chartered by Wil- liam III. for the benefit of the landed gentry, according to a scheme projected by Hugh Chamberlayne. The Tonnage Bank (q.v.) lent William only a million, and that at 8 per cent This new bank lent him double the sum at 7 per cent., but it proved to be a mere bubble. Land-Grabber (A), between 1879 and 1890. In Irish history it means one who takes a plot of land from which a tenant has been evicted. See ' Irish As- sociations.' Prior to the establishment of the Land League, ' land grabbin* ' in Ireland was called ' Saintough ' (covetousness). ' one of the seven deadly sins.' . .'-A urrsliip of the soil by the occupiers of the oil. ALFRKD IlKXKY RUBOO, counsel for O Don- noil, in the 'Parnelllsm and Crime' libel case, S luly, 1888. Land Purchase Bill (The), 1890. A bill projected by Mr. Balfour, chief ecretary for Ireland, to enable Irish tenants to purchase their farms at the value of twenty years' rent, if they chose so to do. To enable them to make the purchase, thirty millions sterling wts lent by Government at 2 per cent, plm a fiftieth part of the principle, so that the purchase money and interest would all be paid off in fifty years. As ten millions had been hitherto advanced for the S.UUH purpose, the whole loan amounted to forty millions; and, as the money paid by tenants to the New Land Department was made eligible for the same purpose, the loan was virtually an 'endless band' available till every fanner hi all Ireland had become his own landlord. Land of Ireland (The). Froni 1280, for several centuries after, tl. trict occupied by the English, and known at a later period as the Pale. Edward I. In 1280 called upon the lords spiritual and temporal ... in the ' Land of Irel assemble and deliberate ui i, ittTM PHI vint to ) .-1,1,11:1 't, .1 to tin- pri'Ml.-^-j. of English liw. MOOSB. Hut. of IrdaMd, chap. xxxv. Land of Storms (The). Tierra del Fuego, an island-group at the south. m point of South America. It is separated by the Straits of Magellan. Few ships have ever passed it without observing the forked lightning playing on its cliffs, and hearing the most terrific thunders roll. Land o' the Green. Ireland, also called the Emerald Isle, from the ex.jui- site green colour of its meadows, &c. Lands of the Sacred Crown (The). Hungary. Each of its nobles was * Membrum Sacra Coronae.' Th i crown was the crown given by the Pope to St. Stephen king of Hungary (979, 997-1038). Landlord's Hypothec (Tlie). In Scotch law. A lien on the tenant's goods as a security for his rent. Landscape Gardening (Father of). Lenotre (1613-1700). He laid out the gardens of Versailles, the Tu. St. loud, St. Germain, Fontaine Mean, Clagny, Chantilly, Meudon, and Si- uux. Landseer (The Li> illiam Huggins, animal painter (1821-1844). Landseer of Sculpture (The). Alfred Gatley (1816-1863). Landwehr and Landsturm, 1805. Land defence and land assault levies. German militia, called into ser- vice in tunes of war. The most com- plete organisation was that of Prussia in LANE LAB8 1818. The landwehr consists of men from 26 to 40 ; the landsturm of men from 40 to 60. The former is part of the regular army, the latter is enrolled for home work. Napoleon restricted the Prussian army to 42,000 men ; so as soon as 42,000 men were well disciplined a new batch was brought to drill, and in this way all the people were trained for war, and the re- ttriction was evaded. Lane (The). Drury Lane Theatre. Whenever the Lane tried Shakespeare, I was one of the leading men. SIMS, Ballads of Babylon (' Forgotten ' &O.X. L'ang, or Le-ang' Dynasty (The). The tenth Imperial dynasty of China. Like the eighth, ninth, and sleventh dynasties, it had dominion only over the south of China, the court being at Nanking. It gave four kings, and lasted 65 years (502-557). Language of Canaan (The). Bible phrases .Vearnt by rote by the gay ladies in the suite of Catharine de Medicis, to be used in talking with con- sistorials, or Catholic malcontents who had joined the Huguenots. See ' Consis- torial Phrases.' Languages, A.D. 1890. It is esti- mated that there are 3,064 languages in tiie world ; and above 1,000 different re- ligions, including what are called ' sects.' English is spoken by above 180 millions of the human race ; German by 100 mil- lions ; Russian by 70 millions ; French by 45 millions ; Spanish by 40 millions ; Italian by 80 millions ; and Portuguese by 13 millions. Kn-ilish Is spoken by 4 million Canadians ; 3,700,000 West Indians; 8 million Australians; 1 million East Indians ; 3 millions in the British Isles, and 67 millions ia America : besides Africa, Jamaica, &c. (ii'nnan la spoken by 2 millions In the United States and Canada; 2 millions in Switzerland; 40,000 Belgians; 46 millions in the Gorman empire, and 10 millions in the Austro Hungarian empire. I-',, 'in -/tis spoken by 2J million Belgians; 1 mil- lion in the United States and Canada ; 1 : . million in Algiers, India, and Africa; 600,000 Swiss; 600,000 in ilayti; 200,000 In Alwco Lorraine ; and 36 mil- lions in France. Langue d'oc and Langue d'oil. When the Romans reduced Gaul to a pro- vince, the native language became imbued with Latin, and this mixed language was called ' Romance.' When the Franks and Germans poured into Gaul they also corrupted the language, and this mixed language was called ' Germanised Ro- mance ' or ' Walloon.' As far the larger number of Franks and other Germans settled north of the Loire, Walloon pre- 22 Tailed in the north, and was hardly known in the south of France, where Romance continued to prevail. Now the Romance or southern word for yes is ' oc,' but the Walloon or northern word was ' oil ' (i.e. ' o-e ' now oui (pronounce we) ; hence the Langue d'oc means that south of the Loire, and the Langue d'oil that used the the river. The Troubadours north of Langue d'oc, and the Trouveres the Langue d'oil. Lansdowne Collection of MSS. (The), 1807. Purchased by govern- ment, and added to the library of the British Museum. It is divided into two parts: (a) 121 volumes of state papers and correspondence of William lord Burghley, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; (6) 50 volumes of the papers and letters of Sir Julius Caesar, judge of the admiralty and master of the rolls ; the correspondence of Henry Cromwell, as chief governor of Ireland ; and numerous other historical, genealogical, and topo- graphical MSS. of great importance. Collected by the first marquis of Lans- downe. Lantern of Demosthenes (4 syl.). A shrine built by Lysicrates, the choragos, over the tripod which he re- ceived as a musical prize. It stood in the ' Street of Tripods ' (q.v.) t in Athens. Laodiceans (The). Those of no party ; ' neither hot nor cold ' in religious matters; the laisser-aller or indifferent (Rev. iii. 16). The rest were housed by Mr. Nesbitt and the local Laodiceans. E. LYNN LINTON, Under Which Lord, ch. xxL Lapsed (The). Those Christians who, to avoid persecution, made a com- promise with the heathen governors. They are divided into 8 classes : (1) The SACRIFICATI, who sacrificed at heathen altars; (2) the THUBIFICATI, who burnt incense to heathen gods ; and (3) the LIBELLATICI, who produced a libellus or certificate from a heathen magistrate of having abjured the Christian faith. The number of the lapsed was Immense, espeoi- ally in Alexandria. Larder Silver. A payment of money in lieu of provisions by the tenant farmer (14th cent.). Lars. The leader or over-king of the 12 confederate Etrurian states. The ROfi LASCARS LATIN tinder-king was railed Incnmo. Thus the sultan would be a lars and the khe- dive a lucumo. Similarly, the German emperor is lars and the king of Bavaria a lucunw (q.v.). Lascars. Native East Indian and Chinese sailors employed in European ships. Also camp-followers. There are gun-lascars in the British service at Hong-Kong. Lass of Richmond Hill (The). Miss Jansen. The song is by Leonard M'Nally. Last of the Barons (The). Richard Neville earl of Warwick, called 'the kingmaker' (1428-1471). Last of the Fathers (The). St. Bernard of Clairvaux in Champagne (1091-1153). He was the great promoter of the second crusade, as Peter the Hermit was of the first. Last of the Greeks (The). Philopoamen, to called by Plutarch (B.C. 252-188). Last of the Romans (The). Caius Cassius. At the battle of Philippi, B.C. 42, Cassias was defeated by Antony, and was killed by his freedman Pindarus. \Vli.-u Brutus was told of the death of his friend, he exclaimed, ' There lies the last of the Romans.' '1 hU \v M iir.-postorous prills. type of the Roman character, I with the Druid, In Cowper Boi If Casslus was s> then may we say , in Cowper's * Boadicea,' Rome shall perish, write that wora In the blood that she hath spilt ; PerUh, hateful, and abhorred, Deep in ruin as in guilt. Last of the Romans (The). Boethius (470-624). Gibbon (ch. xxxlx.) says, ' Boethius was the last of the Koinans whom Cicero would have acknow- ledged us his countryman.' Last of the Tribunes (The). Cola di Rienzi (1318-1354). Lord Lytton wrote a novel, In 1885, to entitled. Last of the Troubadours (The). Jacques Jasmin of Gascony (1798-1864). Last Poet of Rome (The). Juvenal, the satirist, died AJ>. 128, aged 80. His Tenth Satire Bishop Burnet calls ' a store- house of moral virtues.' Later Fathers (The Fifteen), 4th cent. See ' Greek Fathers,' and ' Latin Fathers.' Lateran (TM. The palace of Plan- tins Lateranus confiscated by the Em peror Constantine, and assigned for Christian uses. The church of St. John (Lateran) is styled ' tin- Mother and Head of all the churches in the city and the world ' ; and the first act of a new pope is to take possession thereof. Frmn the portico, on certain days, the pope blesses the entire world. The Chur.-h has been the site of five general councils (see below), and till the popes r. -turni-d from Avignon they resided in the I., palace; but in 1:578 the Vatican was made the pope's residence. In the piazza of St. John Lateran stands the Scala Santa, or staircase up which it is said that Jesus passed to Pilate's judgment hall. Lateran Councils (The}. Five general councils have been held at the Lateran in Rome. I. In 1128. This was the first g. council of the Western Church. Under Calixtus II. II. In 1189. To restore the union of the Eastern and Western Churches. Under Innocent II. III. In 117-.I. To vest the election of popes in the cardinals. War against the Albigenses authorised. Under Nicholas III. IV. In 1215. To sanction confession. The Albigenses condemned. Under In nocent III. V. In 1511-1517, convoked by Julius 11., and continued by Leo X. Acts of the Council of Pisa declared void. The concordat with France confirmed. Dan- gerous books forbidden. Lathy'ros. Ptolemy VIII. king of Egypt was so called from * wen on his nose (B.C. 80-86). It is said that the name of ' Cicero ' was given to an ancestor of the great orator for the same Laticlavian. A Roman sen-it. T, so called from the broad purple stripe (davits latus) which every senator was permitted to wear on his toga. Eques- trian knights wore a band of two narrow stripes called clavus amjustut. Latin (The Pronunciation of). Se* ' Ramists.' Latin (Professorship of). In the University of Cambridge, 18G9, founded by the pupils of Dr. Kennedy. It was intended to call it the Kennedy Profas- LATIN LAUGHING 507 Borship, but the doctor gave 500?. towurds tiifi fund, on the condition that his name was not attached to the foundation. Salary SOOZ. a year. Latin Church (The). The 'West- ern Church,' after its separation from the Greek Church. Latin Cross (The). 'Crux immissa.' A. cross with the lower limb considerably longer than the other three. See ' Cross.' Latin Empire (The). The name given to that portion of the Byzantine empire which, in 1204, was seized by the crusaders, who made Constantinople their capital. It was overthrown by the Greeks in 1261. Latin Father s (The Five). These with the ten ' Greek Fathers ' (q.v.) con- stitute the fifteen ' Later Fathers ' : viz. Lactantius, Hilary, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine (4th cent.). Latin Ulysses (The). Bohemond prince of Antioch, the crusader (died 1111). The Latin Ulysses, the artful and ambitious Bohemond, employed the arms of cunning and deceit. GIBBON, 58. Latin Union (The), 1873, consist- ing of France, Switzerland, Italy, Bel- gium, and Greece, compelled by law to coin, at a fixed legal weight and fineness, all gold and silver brought to them. Latin War (The). The peasants rebellion in Salzburg, in 1523; it was aimed against a very unpopular arch- bishop. Latin War (The Great), B.C. 840- 838, between the Romans and Latins. By this war all Latium was joined to Roman territory. Latitudinarians, 1660-1670. Fol- lowers of Jeremy Taylor, who insisted that a good life was better than an ortho- dox faith, and that a broad-hearted tole- ration was the most likely means of pro- ducing Christian unity. Far from be- lieving that salvation was limited to the Church of England, they inclined to admit the equality of all professing Chris- tians, and that even the heathen might be saved. Hales, Chillingworth, Which- cote, Tillotson, and Burnet were Latitu- dinarians; so was Hoadly bishop of Bangor. Latrocinium. So the fourth coun- cil of Ephesus held A.D. 449 was called. It was packed by Eu'tyches the heresi- arch, and condemned Theodoret, one of the Christian fathers, while it declared in favour of Eutyches, who maintained that the human nature of Christ was absorbed in his divine nature. Spelman calls the charta of Henry I. of England ' Latrocinium ' (fefffiodtt). St. Dionysius calls the charter of Louis VII., In 1144, ' Latronis Kedditio.' Latter-day Saints (The), or ' Mor- mons.' They nave apostles, prophets, pastors, teachers, and evangelists; they believe in the gift of tongues, prophecy, revelation, and visions, in healing and in the interpretation of tongues. They be- lieve the Bible to be the Word of God so far as it is correctly rendered ; they also believe the Book of Mormon to be the Word of God. They believe in the literal gathering-in of Israel and restoration of the ten tribes ; that Zion will be built on the American continent ; that Christ will reign personally upon the earth ; and that the earth will be renewed and receive paradisaic glory. Lauder (William). A literary im- poster, who published, in 1751, false quotations from Masenius, a Jesuit of Cologne, Taubmann a German, Staphor* stius a learned Dutchman, and others, to ' prove Milton a gross plagiarist.' Dr. Douglas demonstrated that the citations were incorrect, and that often several lines had been foisted in to make good the parallelisms. Lauder confessed the fact afterwards, in 1754. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Laudian Professorship of Arabic, in Oxford University. Stipend 800Z. a year. Founded by William Laud archbishop of Canterbury in 1636. Lauds. One of the eight daily ser- vices of the Catholic Church, and first of the four lesser ones. At dawn. See 1 Canonical Hours.' Laughing Philosopher (The). Democrltos (469-861) of Miletus. He laughed at the follies of man, whereby they were for ever involving themselves in difficulties. He was the originator of the atomic theory, taught the theory of gravitation, and that the milky way is A cluster of stars. LAURENTIAH LAW Laurentian System (The). A series of highly metamorphosed rocks (older than the Cambrian) covering the whole country north of the St. Lawrence. Law of Admonition (The], 1323, in Florence, by means of which the Ghibellines were excluded from the government. LawofGrermmal(T/wO- 18 Ger- minal Year X (7 April, 1802). The first consul (in order to secure authority orer Protestants) suggested that Protestant uld be salaried like the lie clergy. This was made law, and is known by the name of the Law of Germinal. See ' Decree of 8 Ventose.' Law of 22nd Prairial (The), 10 June, 17'.4. Couthon, the second day aft-r the Feast of the Supreme 1 proposed that the Law of the Suspects si i. .11 Id be extended, and that there should l.e f..ur revolutionary tribunals instead of one. Whereupon Robespierre with autocratic authority declared ' The Law of Prairial is law ' ; and 17 June a batch of :>1 at once were sentenced to death. The guillotine was then shifted from the de la Revolution to the south-east. Th.- Veait of Ou Suprerne Bfina was 8 Jon*. 1794 ; th>* / .nr of 1'rairial wa paaMd 10 Jane; and Ho- t>pierre wa guillotined *s July (8 Thermidor, An.ll.). Law of the Clan Macduff (The). Iiumunity for homicide anciently enjoyed by those who could claim kindred with M.u.luft earl of Fife within the ninth degree. Macduff's cross stood on the boiinilury between Fife and Strathearn, above Newhurgh, and any homicitlu of the clan who could reach this cross was safe. He hud, however, to give as a deodand nine cows and a young cow-calf to the lord of the clan. Law of the Eric (The), in Ireland, A.D. 104. Compounding for murder by a money fine. Spenser gives this example : Suppose a man commits murder and is prosecuted ; the murderer shall pay a fine to the friends of the murdered person, and this recompense is culled an ' Eriach ' (' Views of the State of Ireland '). Laws of the XII. Tables (The), B.C. 451. A famous body of laws drawn up by twelve Roman patricians at the instigation of Terentius Harsa the tri- bune. The commissioners were called the ' Decemviri,' appoint**! for one year, and during that year all other r. trates were suspended. Th.' two consuls (Appius Claudius and Tun were at the head of the commission. The original number of tables was only ten, but two new tables (respecting m.i. and religious rites) were added i second Decemvirate, and the whole, being engraved on tables of hung up in the Comitium or upper part of the Forum. Table I.. lawsnlta; II.. th-ft : MI., loins: IV.. HjjhU of the paterfamilias; V..righUof ou:u VI.. about property ; VII., trespasses and damages; ! twm regarding estates; IX., UK- i rii-h!*: X.. fuiicr.il ni,-. !* tVOMW !.. r XI.. religious duties ; and XII.. mar l:i-.v w.ih i:...-t l.n. -!lyov,.r, r. -.1 : ,1-. A ,1,-i t : be dhMectod by bis creditors; No one sli ill be interred or cremated witbln the city walls; and soon. Law of the 40 Sous (The), Aug. 1798. Danton induced the com mittee called the Saint Public to decree that there should be held in Paris two meetings of sections every week that the poorer citizens should 1 40 sous each day for attending them. This waa a great spur to sanstu and the extravagance of the Red Repub- lican party. Law of the Suspect (The), Aug. 1793. Introduced by .M- rim of i subsequently called M ri :. 'All are suspect (he says) who I actions, words, or writings, have 1 BO.' Chaumette, in bin 'Mir Placards and Proclamations,' says a 'Suspect 'may be recognised in tin and should be at once apprehend, d. Law of the White Water- lotus (The). A brotherhood in > associated at the close of tl. against the emperor Kea-King. It t-iu'ht years, and spread disaffection ic Shan-tung and three adjoining provinces. Kea king reigned 11W-189X Law Terms (The). All the year except term-time is called ' vacation.' By canon law certain seasons are set apart as holy viz. Advent, L>nt, Pei:' and Harvest and these seasons WT- to be kept free from for t turns. Tin- original term-times were: (1) Hilary, from 28 Jan. to 12 Feb.; (2) Easier % from Wednesday after Easter Day to Monday three weeks afterwards; (3) Trinity, beginning the Friday aft. r Trinity Sunday and ending Wednesday fortnight; and (4) Michaelmas, which LAWS LAZZARONI 009 began 6 Nov. and ended the 28th of the same month. Since 1873 the law ses- sions have been : a. HILARY, beginning 11 Jan. and end- ing the Wednesday before Easter. b. EASTER, beginning the Tuesday after Easter Week and ending the Friday before Whitsunday. c. TRINITY, beginning the Tuesday after Whitsun Week and ending 8 Aug. d. MICHAELMAS, beginning 2 Nov. and ending 21 Dec. Tjaws (Manx) up to 1417 were called breast laws,' because the Druids objected to have their laws, customs, and tradi- tions reduced to writing. Something of this etill exists In Freemasonry. Laws of Blood, B.C. 618. So the laws of Draco the Athenian legislator were denominated, because the same penalty that of death was awarded to every offence. This is quite in accord- ance with the Jewish axiom, ' Whosoever shall keep the whole law, and yet offend in one point, he is guilty of all ' (James ii. 10). Laws of 1790-1791 (The), in Hungarian history, mean those laws which confirmed the independence of Hungary and recognised it as a state. They declared Hungary to be subject to no other country, to possess her own constitution, and secured the liberty of the Greek and Protestant Churches. Lawless Court (The). An ancient court at Raley or Raleigh, in the parish of Rochford/ h !;iin. They proposed flrat to exterminate the Hugue- nots, then the Protestants of Holland, then to Invade England, then to overrun Germany. League against Charles VIII., 81 March, 1495. Between the pope, the kaiser, Venice, the duke of Milan, and the king of Castile. This powerful com- bination, which sent into the field 40,000 men, was dashed to pieces by Charles VIII. in the battle of Fornovo. The allies lost 15,000 men; the French, by their own account, not above 200. League of Argos (The], B.C. 421. Formed between Argos, Corinth, Eloa, Mantinea, and Chalcidice, immediately after the peace of Niccas. This league was meant to be a combination of Greek states against Athens and Sparta. Athena joined the league in 420. League of Augsburg (The), 16b7. A confederation of Holland, Germany, Spain, Sweden, and Savoy against France, to compel Louis XIV. to abide by the terms of the treaties of Westphalia and Nimeguen. By the former the balance of power in Europe was established, and Protestants were placed on the same platform as Catholics. By the latter the boundaries of France were settled, and the integrity of Holland assured. England joined the league in 1688. Nimeguen, pronounce Keem^en, with g hard. League of Cambray ( The), 10 Dec., 1508. Between the pope (Julius II.), the kaiser Maximilian I., Louis XII., and Ferdinand the Catholic (king of Aragon) against the republic of Venice. The idea was to parcel out the republic amongst the allies; but when Louis won the battle of Agnadello, and Venice fell into his hands, the pope, seeing that he had made a false move, broke from the league, and formed the Holy Alliance, the object of which was to dispossess Louis of every inch of land in the peninsula of Italy. League of God's House (The), 1401. First of the three leagues of the canton of the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny. The other two were the Orisons League, or Ligue Grlse, formed in 14J4 ; and the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, formed in I486. All three were admitted into the Helvetic Confederation in 1798. League of Malines (The), 1519. Between Leo X., England, Germany, and Spain against Louis XII. of France. After the 'Battle of the Spurs' (q.v.) Louis made a treaty of peace. LEAGUE LEAGUE 511 League of Marbach (The), 1376. Formed between Wiirtemberg, Baden, and seventeen towns. It was a dead set against the Suabian league (q.v.). In 1404 the league was joined by France and Poland, but in 1499 Wurtemberg joined the Suabian league. League of I^oor Conrad (The). A peasants' rebellion in Wurtemberg in. League of Ratisbon (The), 1524. ly the Catholic Powers of Germany to oppose the progress of the Reformation. League of Smalkald (The), or 'The Smalkaldic League,' 1530. An alliance of all the Protestants of Ger- many after the imperial decree at the Diet of Augsburg. By this league the Protestants bound themselves not to help the kaiser against the Turks, who threatened invasion unless he revoked the Augsburg decree. Charles V. had gone back to Spain, and appointed his brother Ferdinand regent of Germany. There was no escape, so the decree was withdrawn, and the Protestants were allowed full liberty of worship till the next imperial diet. This is called ' The Peace of Nurnberg." The League was dissolved in 1547 by the victory of the imperial army at Miihlberg. League of Virtue (The), called in German 'Der Tugend-Bund,' was organised by German students in 1818, and had for its object the total expulsion of the French from German soil. It was joined by students and professors, patriots and fanatics, and embodied the seething hatred of Germany for France. League of the Armed Neu- trality (The). Between Russia, Den- mark, and Sweden, ratified 16 Dec., 1800. The first convention for this league was held 9 July, 1780; the next was held 1 Aug., 1780. The States-General joined the League 24 Deo., 1780; the king of Prussia. 8 May, 1781 ; and the kaiser 9 Oct., 1781. League of the Lombard Cities (The), or 'Ligue Lombarde,' 1167, formed to resist the German emperors. The league was successful against Frederick Barbarossa (1175-1188), and against Frederick II. in 1225; but in the 14th cent, most of the cities sub- mitted either to the dukes oi Milan or to Venice. League of the Public Evil (The), or ' Ligue du Mai Public,' 1465. Applied to the 'League of the Public Good,' because the people for whose benefit that league was ostensibly formed were entirely ignored in the treaty. League of the Public Good (The), 'Ligue du Bien Public,' 1465. A league of the high feudatories of France against Louis XI. In this league were the dukes of Brittany, Burgundy, Alencon, and Nemours, St. Pol, Armagnac ; and at the head was Charles duke of Berry, the king's brother. A battle was fought at Montlhe*ry, and though the victory was indecisive, it was sufficient to bring about the treaty of Conflans (1465). In this treaty Ponthieu was given as a bribe to the Duke of Burgundy, of which he was deprived by the States-General ; Alencon was confirmed in his duchy, but it was confiscated from him by the States- General ; St. Pol was made Constable of France, but deposed by the same states, and suffered death on the scaffold; Charles was made duke of Normandy, but was obliged to flee, and died, it is said of poison, at Guienne. League of the Rhine (The), ot 'Rhinbund,' 15 Aug., 1658. Between France, the electors of Mentz, Troves, and Cologne, the king of Sweden, &c., for the maintenance of the peace of Westphalia League of the 3 Cantons (The), 14th cent. The Swiss cantons of Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden. After the battle of Morgarten in 1815 the league was joined by Lucerne, Berne, and other Helvetic cantons. League of the 7 Catholic Can- tons of Switzerland (The), called the Sonderbund. Formed 1846, to resist the federal diet, which had determined on the expulsion of the Jesuits, th Liguorians, and other religious congre- gations. Dissolved in Nov. 1847. League of the 10 Jurisdic- tions (The), 1486. The third league of the Grisons to secure independence. The first league was the Cadean, 1401, and tha second was the Grisons League, 1424. All three were admitted into the Helvetic Confederation in 1798. League of the 16 (The), or ' Conseil des Seize.' A Protestant league formed Rli LEAGUES LEFT-HANDED by Henri de Bourbon [Henri IV.] ;> the Catholic League or ' Holy Union ' of the Guise party. Henri III., who hated the Guises, joined the League of the Sixteen. Ultimately Henri de Bourbon prevailed and the Due de Mayenne con- cluded peace with him in January 1506. Leagues. See alto Achaean league. I Etolian league. Cadean Hanseatic Holy (Louis XII.) league. Smalkaldic league. See 'League of Smalkald.' Sonderbund (The). Leagues of the Orisons (The), <-r ' Ligues Grises.' They were three in number, viz. The Cadean League, formed in 1401 ; the Orisons League (Ligoe , formed in 14'24 ; and the League of the Ten Jurisdictions, formed in 1486. All three were admitted into the Helvetic < <>M federation in 1796. Leaguers (The). Adherent* and par- tisans oi the Anti-Corn-law league (q.v.). Learned Painter (The). Charles L.l.run of Paris (161&-1690), not. the great accuracy of his costumes. His masterpiece* we the ' Five Battles of Alexander.' Learning, says Giordano Bruno : First it stood in Egypt ; then, under Zorocwtor. in 1 . rhla; then among the OymnoeophUU off India ; then under Urpheua, among the Thra- klann : fifthly, among the Greeks at the time of their SatfoR ; thon. under Archy taa, Empedocles, mi. i l,ucretiu, in Italy; and aoveathl). . many. . . . Who is comparable to Albertu* Mag- mi- ' Who can bell).. had not the priest K , ! hidden and hemmed hte [Cusan R] genliu, I would acknowledge hit having been not similar to, but greater than, Pythagoras. Learning (Father of English). So Burke called the Venerable Bede (672- 785). He was the founder of mediaeval history, and the first English historian. Leather Apron (The). The tradi- tion is that Kavah, an intrepid patriot, h.'.i.i. 'I .1 n-bellion against Zonak, a cruel and impious tyrant ; and that he displayed his leather apron as a banner. The apron set with jewels was adopted as the national banner of Persia from that day, till it fell into the hands of Kudsiah. Historically the tale is of no more value thiiu an incident from Homer's epics. It is recorded in tin- histi i<- romance (' Shah Nameh') of Abul Casim Firdusi lU3'Jj. See ' Homer of Khorasau.' Le Bas Prize (The). For an essay on English literature. For graduates of the University of Cambridge, of not more than three years' standing. Value itnniv ally about KQL Founded by subwrilier* to the memorial of the Rev. Charles Wrl.b Le Bas of Trinity College in 1848. Lectisternium., A religious rere- mony observed by the ancient Romans. It consisted of a sumptuous banquet offered to certain gods, in which tlio images or statues of the saiu placed on tricliniary couches (lecti), and were bidden to ' eat, drink, and be Livy speaks of these feasts, xxii. 10, v. 3. In the terrible plague at Borne A.D. OPO-WS, the gods were bribed byiacb a fe*.t to abate the pert. Led a Bible (The). The folio Bi- shops' Bible of 1572 and 1685. See 1 Ril.l. .' Lee (General Charlet), 1731-1782. Second in command under Wellington. Ho lived and died in all the h>i; psAriotinm ; but in 1860 came to IL'ht hi-i papers detailing his plan for 1 American army to Gen. negotiations which ended with th pen den ce of the United States of America. Lee-Penny (The). A tal still in possession of the Laird of Lee. inon Lockhart of Lee brought it to this country from the left it to his heirs. It is said t murrain and hydrophobia. It is a stone of a dark colour and tri. shape, about & an inch each silver like a coin of Edward I. Tl is to be dipped in water, and th. riven to the diseased cattle or pers drink. The water is btill applied for 4 The Talisman,' by Sir W. Scott (Intro- duction). Left (Over ths). In some parts of Germany a person when he takes an oath which he does not intend to keep puts his left hand on his ci and this id suppose.] to neutralise the assert in ma.lo by putting the right hand on hi> Similarly a left-handed marriay base injustice to the woman so dis- honoured. Left-handed Marriage. SM ' Moryauatic Alarriu^e.' LEO LEINSTEB Leg of Mutton Maniacs. The founders of ' Punch,' the periodical, who held their meetings at the ' Crown ' tavern. So called from the frequency of a leg of mutton being served for their repast. The ' maniacs ' were Henry May hew, Horace Mayhew, Gilbert A Beckett Albert Smith, John Leech, Kenny Meadows, Ebenezcr Landells, George Smith, Frederick Tomlins, Charles Tom- kyns, and Joseph Allan. See ' Notes and Queries, 1 36 May, 1888, p. 401. Legal Tender Act (The), United States, 1862, making Treasury notes a legal tender. Proposed hy Thaddeua Stevens. Legantine Constitutions (The). In English history, 1237, 1268. Ecclesias- tical laws enacted by the Council of London, held under Cardinal Otho, legate of Gregory IX. ; and Cardinal Othobon, legate of Clement IV. in the reign of Henry III. Legem Pone, ready money. The portion of Psalm cxix. for 25 March is entitled ' Legem Pone ' (v. 83), and as Lady Day is the great pay-day, the words got applied to payment or ready cash, pone lay down, legem the legal due. It is, no doubt, a very free translation, but we have several similar perversions or adaptations. For example, 'Stir-up Sun- day ' (the first two words of the collect appointed for 25th Trinity) and applied by schoolboys to the rapidly approaching Christmas holidays. In this there Is nothing to be abated. All their speech is If gem pone (ready money, cash down). MIN8HUU, Essayes in Prison, p. 20. Legion, or ' The Legion Memorial,' May 1701. A memorial signed LEGION, ' for we are many,' delivered by a poor woman to Harley, speaker of the Com- mons, to read to the House, and profess- ing to be from 200,000 Englishmen, demanding justice and complaining of the Partition of Spain (q.v.), the ill-treat- ment of the king (William III.) and the Dutch by the House of Commons, and threatening vengeance unless the Com- mons behaved better. Of course the memorial was voted scandalous and seditious. The memorial excited at first a panic In the House, but when LEGION did not appear . . . the House began to recover its senses, and it, began to dawn upon them that they had been hoaxed by Borne clever wag. This wag was universally be- lieved to be Daniel Defoe . . . author of ' Kobinson Crusoe,' and one of the shrewdest political writers of the time ... he inus-t have luxuriated in the terror Into which he had thrown the Coimuuiia. HowiTT. liitt. oj ting. (William III., p. 166). Legion of Honour (The), in May, 1802. An order of merit, whether military, literary, commercial, scientific, or bene- volent, instituted by Bonaparte when first consul. It contained 15 cohorts, each of which had 7 grand officers, 20 commandants, 30 ordinary officers, and 350 legionaries (total 6512 members). The decoration was a star of 5 rays, white enamel, surrounded with oak and laurel branches. In the centre of the star was the figure of Napoleon Bonaparte. On one side was the legend Ho nneuretPatrie and the device was an eagle holding thunderbolts. It was suspended to a red-watered ribbon. Remodelled by Napoleon III. (22 Jan., 1853). Badge for a Chevalier, a bow of red ribbon in the buttonhole of the coat, with medal attached. Badge for an Officer, a rosette of red ribbon in the buttonhole of the coat, with medal attached. Badge for a Commander, a collar- ribbon. Badge for a Grand Officer, a broad ribbon under the waistcoat. Badge for a Grand Cross, a broad ribbon with a star on the breast, and jewel cross pendant. In the reign of Louis XVIII. the figure of Napo- leon was changed for that of Henri IV., and the eagle for 3 flours delis. In 1K30 the 3 flours de-lis were changed for 2 tricolour flags. In 184H the original device was restored. Napoleon III. Instituted a lower order than a c'lrvalier, called a lUfotlU Mililaire, distin guibhcd by a yellow ribbon. Legislative Assembly (The), 1 Oct., 1791. ' L'Assemble'e Legislative.' This assembly, consisting of 745 mem- bers, followed the Constituent Assembly. It sat till 21 Sept., 1792. It was specially appointed to alter the laws of France in conformity with the new constitution. No member of the Constituent Assembly was allowed to be appointed a member of the Legislative Assembly. The Legisla- tive Assembly was elected by the people. The right was occupied by the monarchy men chiefly Fruillauts ((/.?.), officers of the army, and some National Guardsmen. The left by Girondist! and Jacobins. Thecentrc by middle men. Leicester's Parliament, June 1265. When the Commons were first summoned by him to parliament. Thia was in the reign of Henry III. Edward I. restored the practice. See ' Parliament.' Leinster Declaration (The), 1828. So called from the Duke of Leinster, at LL 514 LEINSTEB L'fiTAT that time the only duke of Ireland. It was the declaration of s medium party between the Catholic Association and the Brunswick clubs (q.v.). The declaration vet forth that the ' disqualifying laws ' krere productive of endless mischief, and trere ruining Ireland ; and it prayed the government without further delay to adopt such measures as would restore peace, and unite the strength of the British Empire. Leinster Tribute. See ' BoromeY .Leipzig Conference (The\ 1519. Between Luther, Eck, and Carlstadt. This famous conference tended greatly to the i re motfcn of the Reformation. Leipzig Interim (The). A pro- risionary arrangement made at Leipzig, by order of Charles V., 22 Dec., 1648, between the Lutherans and the Roman Catholics, till the questions could be definitely settled by a general council. The ad interim compromise agreed to in this diet caused a split in the Pro- testant party. Leix, Ireland, now called Queen's County, and its chief town Maryborough, in honour of Queen Mary. At the same time Offaley was called King's County, and its chief town Philipstown, in honour of her husband Philip of Spain. Leman's Act, 1867. After the rat panic of 1866, to prevent gambling bank shares. Before this act bank shares were mere names of speculative stock, existing or non-existing, and ' bears ' by depressing the stock endan- gered the credit of the bank. Lemur ia. The supposed submerged equatorial continent which once covered the Indian Ocean. Lent. The 1st Friday is dedicated to the spear and nails. The 2nd to the holy winding-sheet. The 3rd to the five wounds. The 4th to the precious blood. The 5th to the seven dolours. The 6th is Good Friday. The crown ot thorns ' la the Friday after QulB- quagesima. Leonard's College (St.). See 'Andrews t I'nivtrsity of St.).' Litoni'his of Hungary (The). Nicholas count Zriny. When Solyman the Magnificent laid siege to Szi^vth, Hiul hud taken the outer circln, riuy, with 600 men, retired to the inner circle A mine was sprung and opened a gap in this rampart. Zriny and his 600 stood in the breach, and only two survived. Leonine City (The). Leopolis in Rome (on the right bank of the Tiber), built by Leo IV. and named after him A.D. 852. It is after this pop that Pope Joan is place* Leonine Verses, hexameter and pentameter. Verses which rhyme at the middle and end ; invented by Leonine or Leon, a canon of the church of St. Victor, Paris, in middle of liith cent. His replicans flare tres causas explico, quart More EMMM dicere metra lino. Let me explain to you, therefore, that there are three reasons irhrrefore Verses constructed like mine arc to be called IrfWtiM. Leonists. A branch of the Wal- denses in Leon. Sec ' Waldenses.' Leopold I. Son of the kaiser-king Ferdinand III. of the house of Austria (1640, 1658-1705); generally called 'the Little Man in Red Stockings.' He also wore a red feather. Leper Kings of England. Henry III and Henry IV. Leprosy was in the Angevin family. Queen Marguerite of Anjou died of the disease. Robert Brace of Scotland was also > leper. Lesbian or JEolian Poets (The). Terpander, a native of Lesbos (B.C. 700- 650) ; only a few fragments now r< of this poet. Alcaeos of Leobos (B.< 670) ; only a few fragments of his odes re- main, but Horace has rendered several of them into Latin verse. Arion of Lesbos (B.C. 640-600) ; no specimen of this poet is extant. Sappho of Lesbos (B.I 670) ; a few fragments of her poetry re- main. Horace. Book 1. Ode lx.. 'Videsat alta. Is translation of an ode by Alcaeos ; so is Book L Ode xiv., ' O navls.' Book i. Ode xxvil., Natis in usum, and lkx>k i. Ode xxxvii.. 'Nunc est biben- dmii.' are either translations or imitation- Called jKolian poets because they wrou> in the *:olic dialect. The other Greek dialects were Doric, Ionic, and Attic. Homer is in the Ionia dialect, and the best tragedies an in Attic Greek. ' L'Etat c'est moi.' So said Louis XIV. when requested to convene the States-General. This is the rule of an autocrut, but the constitution of Franca acknowledged at least three estates up to 1789. L'Etat de la Justice, 1658. A fourtli estate introduced in the State* LETTER LETTERS 515 General by Henri II. It consisted of the chief magistracy of the country. Letter of Attorney (A), or ' Power of Attorney.' A deed authorising the person named to act in your stead. Whatever is done by your legal substi- tute on your behalf has the same autho- rity as if done by yourself personally. Qui f acit per alium facit per se. Letter of Credit (A). An autho-' rity from one bank to another to credit the person named to a stated amount. In this case the person who gives the letter is responsible up to the amount stated in the letter. Letter of Licence. An instra- ment executed by creditors whereby one who cannot pay his debts is permitted to carry on his business under surveillance, in the hope of obtaining thus a better dividend. Letters (Father of). I. 'Peredes Lettres,' Francois I. of France (1494, 1515-1547). II. Lorenzo de* Medici the Magnifi- cent (1448-1492). Letters Conform. In Scotch law. A writ issued by the supreme court en- forcing the judgment of an inferior one. Letters Missive. An order from the lord chancellor to a peer to put in an appearance to a bill filed in chancery. Letters Patent. A writing under the Great Seal, authorising the party named to do some act or enjoy some privilege, or create some office mentioned in the letter. Inventors by letters patent have a monopoly in their invention for a stated term of years. Letters of Administration. The legal instrument granted by the Probate Court to a person appointed administrator to one who has died intes- tate. Letters of Exculpation. In Scotch law. A warrant obtained by a prisoner to subpoena witnesses in his defence. Letters of Ganganelli (Clement XIV.). Though spurious, these letters are certainly very interesting. They are said to have been the productions of Caraccioli ; but Caraccioli died protesting to the last that he waa only the translator of them. (Ganganelli was barn 1705, became por>e in 1769, and died 1774.) See ' Literarj Forgeries,' &c. Letters of Horning. Warrants for charging a person in Scotland to pay or perform certain debts and duties. Whar- ton says -they were so called because these warrants were originally proclaimed by sound of horn. Letters of Intercommuning. By an old law in England a man accused of any crime, who did not appear to take his trial, might be intercommuned or outlawed. These letters ran thus : ' We command and charge all our lieges and subjects that none pre- sume to reset, supply, or intercommune with any of the aforesaid, our rebels, nor furnish them with meat, drink, house, harbour, or victuals, nor any other thing useful or comfortable to them ; nor have any intelligence with them by word, writing, message, or otherwise, under pain of being repute and esteemed art and part with them in the crime loresaid.' LAINO, iv. 77. This was like the old Roman Aqu0, Levell.-ra were agrarian rebels, afterwards fall.'": "Whiteboys. They were called L> from their levelling the hedges of en- commons, and began their work in lip perary. Subsequently they enlarged then programme, and set up for the _ redress of agrarian grievances connected with the letting, buying, and selling o( land, hiring and eviction, tithes and rates. See ' Irish Associations.' 'Leviathan.' Hobbes's great work is an id -al Commonwealth, called by him ' the .Matter, Form, and Power of Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil. 1 It foarl' Bbly attacks early scripture au- LEX LIA 617 tho.ities, and has always been one of tLe strongholds of sceptics. Hobbes considered the philosopher Locke a sup- porter of his principles. Lex JEmilia Sumptuaria. A lr.*7 by Marcus JEmilius Lepidus, consul B.C 78, limiting both the quantity and kind of foods to be used at banquets and other entertainments. See ' Lex Licinia,' Lex Carolina, 1532. A law of the German Empire passed in the reign of Charles V., whence the name. It regulated the criminal procedure, and put an end to the arbitrary processes which had hitherto prevailed. It fur- thermore enjoined the publicity of debates and the publication of all judi- cial sentences. Lex Fabia de Plagiariis. A law against literary ' thieves ' or plagia- rists. The punishment was either a fine or being sent to the mines. Lex Hortensia ordained that mar- ket days (nundlncR) should in future be fasti or court days, that country people might get their lawsuits determined when they came to town for market. Non-court days were called by the old Remain neftisti ; i.e. not fasti or court days. Lex Licinia Sumptuaria, B.C. 55. A sumptuary law forbidding more than 8 Ibs. of fresh meat and 1 Ib. of salt meat to be served up at table on any one day. The Fannian law, B.C. 168, forbade that more than one fowl should be served at any one table, and that not a fattened one, qute lion altilis esset. Gel. ii. '24. See ' Lex ./Emilia, 1 Ac. Lex non Scripta. Common law in contradistinction to statute law. It may be written or printed, but does not derive its authority thus. The written document is a mere description or memorial of the customs which have prevailed. Lex Oppia, B.C. 213. That no woman should wear more than half an ounce of gold, nor wear a dress of two colours, nor ride in a carriage within half * mile of any city or town. Lex Papia Popprea, A.D. 9. To promote population. It gave rewards to marriage and imposed penalties on celi- bacy. Those who had three children had several privileges. See ' Jus Trium,' &c. Those who were bachelors could not succeed to auy inheritance except of their nearest relations, and even then & part was forfeit to the state. Lex Porcia prohibited the scourg- ing of a Roman citizen. Paul refers to this prohibition, Acts xxii. 25. Lex Regia of Denmark, 1665. A law to fix the order of succession in the royal house. Lex Talionis. The law of retalia- tion, as an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth. See ' Vendetta,' ' Rimbecco.' Lexington (The glorious Victory in the Battle of), 19 April, 1775. This was no battle, but a mere skirmish, in which the Americans had the advantage. Its sole importance is that it was the first fight between the colonists and the British soldiers. Governor Gage had sent a detachment of 800 men to destroy a depot of stores and arms at Concord, about twenty miles from Boston in Mas- sachusetts. The British reached Lex- ington at five in the morning, but were resisted there, and at one of the bridges near Concord by the American minute- men (q.v.). Some 20,000 Americans came rushing to resist, and the British had to retire with the loss of 60 killed and 186 wounded. The Americans had 30 killed and about as many more wounded. Lia Fail (The) of Ireland. The ' Fatale Marmor ' or ' Stone of Destiny.' So called from the tradition that wher. ever this stone was the people would be the dominant power. Hence the Latin distich : Ni fallat fatum, Scot!, quocunque locatum Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem. It was brought to Ireland by the Tuatha na Danaan (q.v.) and set up in Tara, the capital of Bregia. Upon this stone the ancient Irish kings were installed. Fergus, the leader of the Dalraidio colony (q.v.) in Argyllshire, brought it over with him to Albany (West Scot- land), but Kenneth II., the conqueror of the Picts, removed it from Argyll to Scone in 840, and Scotland was then called ' the Kingdom of Scone.' In 1296 Edward I. carried it to London, where ever since it has been in Westminster Abbey. Over it is a rude chair on which our mdnarchs sit to be crowned. According to Keating (' History of Ire- land '), ' Lia ' means a stone, and ' Fail' is for Falias, the city whence the stout si e UBELLATICI LIBERT&3 was removed to Tara in Ireland. The tradition is that this stone is the very one that Jacob used for his pillow when he had the vision about the ladder. The Fatale Marmor does not seem to be the same stone as the Lia Fail. The Lia Fail we are told waa a pillar nine feet high ; but the FaUlo ke Pompey's pillar at Alexandria), 20 Inches long. 10 inches thick, and Marmor syenite (lik about 17 broad. Libellatici. Those Christians who Dad a libellus or certificate from a hea- then magistrate to show that they had complied with the emperor's order in sacrificing or offering incense to idols. Libellus Pacis, 3rd cent. A cer- tificate of peace given by some con- fessor to a lapsed Christian procuring readmission into Christian communion. The form was as follows. 'Let * * be received into church communion, with all those who belong to him.' Liber Albus, 1419. The White Book of the city of London compiled by John Carpenter, town clerk of the city of London, and one of the four executors of the famous 'Dick Whittington.' It contains the various ordinances regulat- ing the internal trade of the city, its laws and customs. The book was edited by II. T. Riley, and printed in 1859 (' Mom - menta GUdhalloa Londoniensis '). Liber Censualis Angliae. The 1 Rate-book of England.' So Doomsday Book (q.v.) was sometimes called. Liber de Wintonia. The Bock of Winchester. Doomsday Book was so called because it was anciently pre- served under three locks and keys in the royal treasury of that city. Liber Niger Scaccarii (The). A roll of military tenants made in the reign of Henry II. of England. The tenants enrolled in this book held single knight's fees of the crown. See p. 95. Books of magic and necromancy were called l.iliri Nigri,' ' Librl sacra nU'redine colorati ' ; or rather, Books of the Black Art. Liber Regis. So Doomsday Book (q.v.) was called. See ' King's Book.' Liber Vitro, of the Middle Ages, was the Martyrology. Liber Viventium, of the Middle Ages, was the book in which the allow- ances or ' commons ' of the monks were registered. Liberal Union (T1i*\ 18W. An association of Unionists of all shades of 1 Liberal opinion ' for the dissemination of Unionist principles, i.e. against the separation of Ireland from England by giving to Ireland ' Home Rule.' Frorr 1886 they acted with Lord Salisbury's Conservative government and broke HU ay from Mr. Gladstone's party, which ad- vocated ' Home Rule ''(q.v.). Liberator (The). I. Daniel O'Con- nell, also called 'The Agitator* (1775- 1847). He began to take a leading piut in promoting the claims of Roman Ca- tholics in 1803. Daniel O'Connell with Sh.-il fotiml.-d the New Catholic Asso- ciation in 1823 ; set up the Repeal Asso- ciation in 1840 ; and held monster meet- ings in 1848. II. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882). The finest character for manly indep. i id ence, self-renunciation, military re- sources, and civil administration com- bined that ever existed. He liberated Sicily and Naples; and did much to unify the thirteen Italian states under the one sway of Victor Emmanuel. Liberator Clubs, 1828. Clubs established by Daniel O'Connell in \.-iy part of Ireland, in connection with the i Catholic Association (g.?-.). F.adi 1. ranch I had its own organisation and int'-rnal management ; and all the clubs were so knit together as to insure at any time a simultaneous movement. Liberators, 1828. A faction esta- blished in Ireland by Daniel O'Coni.. 11 to prevent the formation of societies, and to conciliate all Ireland in one brotherhood, having in view the two great objects, Catholic Emancipation and equal civil rights for alL The Liberators were bound to prevent riots and faction fights, to protect voters from the yen- geance of their landlords, to promote ex- clusive dealings with ' friends of religious and civil liberty,' and to use every effort to promote in Ireland the exclusive use of Irish growth, breeding, and manufac- ture. The force of O'Connell was moral force only. Libert^s Qallicanes. The Gallic Church insists that there are two distinct powers, one spiritual and the other tem- poral; that infallibility does not reside iu the pope but in the church or wholt LIBERTINES LICINIAN 619 body episcopal ; and that the judgments of general councils are authoritative. In 1682 Bossuet reduced the Libertes Gal- licanes into the following items : (1) The church must be ruled by the canons ; (2) the power of St. Peter and his successors is only spiritual ; (3) the laws and con- stitution of the kingdom are independent of the church ; (4) the decrees and judg- ments of the pope may be reformed. Hincmar, Gerson, Bossuet, the Abbe* Fleury, Cardinal La Luzerne, Bausset, Frayssinous, Guillon, Boyer, Affre, and others were great sticklers for this liberty of the Gallic Church. Libertines. I. Acts vi. 9. Jews manumitted bj the Romans, to whom probably were added those, like Paul.who were admitted to the Roman franchise. These Jews and proselytes had a syna- gogue of their own. II. 1525. A religious sect in the re- formed church founded by Quintin, a tailor of Picardy, and a man named Copin. Their disciples were at liberty to be either Calvinists or Lutherans. Their chief tenets were (a) that whatever is done, God is the doer of it ; and (b) that nothing is sinful but what you think to be so. III. Of Florence were those who cared neither for a republican form of govern- ment, such as Savonarola wanted to esta- blis^i ; nor yet an oligarchy ; nor yet for a tyranny in the hands of one of the Medici ; but only for a laissez-aller go- vernment where every one might do as he liked. These political quidnuncs had evidently gra- duated in the Abbey of ThtJleme, over the door of which institution was inscribed ' FAIS CE QUK VOULDRAS. 1 Liberty (The Feast of), B.C. 479. An annual festival held on the site of the battle of Platea, to commemorate the victory won over the Persians in that famous battle. Liberty of December (The). The Feast of Fools, 28 Dec., in honour of the slaughtered Innocents of Bethlehem. Monks joined in the supreme foolery of this festival (Dy TILLIOT, ' Memoires pour eervir a 1'histoire de la Fete des Fous). Liberty Tree (The), 1765. A tree in Boston, Massachusetts, on which the Boston insurgents hung the effigy of Mr. Oliver, the newly-appointed stamp-dis- tributor of the British government. The effigy was subsequently burnt in a bonfire. This was the commencement of the American revolt for independence. 'Trees of Liberty' (g.r.) were quite affairs. Libiti'na. The Roman goddess in whose temple was kept all the parapher- nalia required for funerals ; whence the word was used for funoral apparatus generally, and libitindrius in Latin means an undertaker. Libitince Ratio. The register of deaths. The name of every one who died was recorded by the Romans in a register so called. See above. Librarian of the Republic of Letters. John Albert Fabricius of Leipsic, who died 1786, aged 68. So called from his intimate acquaintance with books. ' Libri Symbolic! Ecclesisa EvangelicaB.' Books of faith and discipline were so called by the Lutherans. They consisted of the three Catholic creeds (viz. the Apostles', the Nicene, and the Athanasian), the Augsburg Confession, the Apology for that confession by Me- lanchthon, theArticles of Smalkald drawn up by Luther, Luther's Catechisms, and the Formula of Concord, called the Book of Torgau. See each of these in loco. Lichfleld House Compact (The], 1834. A caucus opposed to the govern- ment of Sir Robert Peel and the torie* generally. Lord John Russell met his chief supporters at Lichfield House to initiate them into his Reform measures ; and, after the fall of the Whig ministry on the resignation of Lord Grey, it is there that he laid down the tactics which the Whigs should adopt. Lichtmesse, or ' Festuni Candelsa,' The festival of a founder. LicinianRogations (The),B.c. 876. Three bills brought in by Licinius the tri- bune of the plebs, (1) authorising that the interest paid on loans should be deducted from the principal; (2) limiting the amount of public land held by any indi- vidual to 500 jugera (820 acres) ; and (3) ordaining that one of the two consuls should be a plebeian. By public lands was meant the lands of con- quered people taken possession of by the con- querors. Thus William the Conqueror parcelled the land of England into fiefs among his baron*. 620 LIEUTENANT-GENERAL LIMERICK Lieutenant-General of France. A temporary dignity conferred on the Due de Guise in 1558 and 1560 ; on Prince de Conde* in 1668 ; on the Due d'Anjou in 1567 ; on the Due de Mayenne in 1589 ; on the Due d'Orleans in 1648; on Comte d'Artois in April 1814 ; apd on Louis Philippe in July 1880. Light of Greece (The). Corinth is called by Cicero ' lumen toti is Grecise,' yet it is somewhat remarkable that Corinth has not produced one single author whose name has come down to our knowledge. Boeotia, proverbially dull and stupid, was the birthplace of Pindar. Light of the World (The). Sieg- mund (q.v.) t or Sigismund, kaiser-king of Germany (1868, 1410-1487), master of six languages. Jocosely called Supra Grammatical*, because on one occasion when he had blundered in his Latin he replied. ' Ego sum Imperator Komanorum, et upra grammuticam.' Light-armed Troops. The Bri- tMi cavalry is subdivided into light, heavy, and medium. The light-Armed. are the Hussars; the heavy-Armed are the 4th and 5th Dragoon Guards, and the 1st and 2nd Dragoons; the medium in- clude the Lancers, and the rest of the Dragoon Guards and Dragoons. Lightfoot Scholarship. For history. Oneevery year for und r<:r;tluut, ^ of the University of Cambridge. Value 45Z. a year, tenable for 8 years. Fouinl <1 by the Rev. Joseph Barber Lightfoot, D.D . Hulsean Professor of Divinity 1870. Lightning or Thunderbolt ( The). phen II. of Hungary (1100, 1114- 1181). So called from his impetuosity. II. Bajazet L sultan of the Turks was surnamed ' Uderim ' (the Lightning) for his fiery impetuosity (1847, 1889-1408). Light-Shot. A kind of Church rate. \\hon the Danes were overthrown at Ethandune Alfred allowed them to settle in a part of England assigned to them, on condition of their paying i ..iinvshot (I'l-teft pc-mv), Light shot, and plough-alms (.rent-charge). Liguorists (The), or ' Liguorians,' 1782. Disciples of Alphonso Maria de Liguori of Naples. His followers are called ' Redemptorists,' and his Institute is the 'Very Holy Redeemer.' The object of this foundation is to supply preachers and teachers in rural districts. 8t. Alphonso Maria Uguori (1696-1787). His in- stitution received the sanction of Benedict XIV and Clement XII. Ligurian Republic (The), 1797 Established by Napoleon Bonaparte. Genoa was the principal territory of that part of Italy called by the Romans ' Liguria.' Ligyan, i.e. Ligurian.' Lilacs and the Blues (The). Two rival parties in the court of Frain The lilacs were the partisans of Madame d'Etampes; the blues were the pa. ; of Diane de Poitiers. Madame d'Etampes was the mistress of the king ; Diane de Poitiers was the mistress of the dauphin, Henri II. Madame d'Etampes, to throw a flimsy veil over her anfours, was ' mar- ried ' to Jean de Brosse ; and Diane de Poitiers was the young widow of Louis de Bre*ze\ Both king and dauphin had a wife living at the tint.-. Madame d'Etampes was 9 years the younger. She died at the age of 67 ; lu-r rival dit-d at the age of 68. Lilburne Agreement (Tfa), 1 May, 1649. Lilburne's reformed pro- gramme of 'The Agreement of the People' (q.v.). "(1) It protested again -4 the convocation of parliaments only for six months every two years, the council ruling without restraint the other teen months; (2) itiusi>t.',l on an annual parliament, with a c-utnmitti-r Arslan, BOD of Togrul Bay, the Pereo- Turkish monarch, was called The Valia.nl Lion (, KMti : Arioch nl A tier was the ' Lion king of Assyria' (B.C. 11U7-18D7). Lion-hearted (The). Cceur-de-lion. Richard I. of England was so called (1157, 1189-1199). It ia said that a lyon was pat to kynge Klrharde, beying in prison ... to devour him, and when the lyon was gapynge he pat his anne in his mouth, and pulled the lyon by the harte so hard slewe the lyon; and therefore ... he to ciill.-.l Hicharde dr de Lyon. RASTAI.L, Chronicle (158-2). Lion Rouge (Le). Marshal Ney, famous for his large crop of red hair and - M! whiskers (1769-1816). Lion Sermon (The). Preached in 'October at St. Katherine Cree, London, in memory of Sir John Gayor's deliver- ance from a lion 'in the deserts of Araby,' during the reign of James I. or Charles L This was above 2CO years ago. At present there ' re no lions In Arabia. Sir John Oayor was a fxmdon inerchunt.. tni\ -ollintf about Asia, Ac. He . eqaeathed 3001. for the relief of the poor on condition that a commemorative sermon on his escape was preached at the time appointed. We ejre told that Sir John was on his knees in prayer when the lion came up, smelt about him, l>ro\\ li-d round and round him, and then ran off. Lion of Bohemia (The). A lion with two tails. Lion of England (The). Napo- leon said, ' Let us chase these leopards into the sea,' and Bertrand du Guesclin said that men 'devoyent bien honorer la noble Fleur-de-lis, plus qu'ils ne faisaient le felon leopard.' The English lion is what is called a lion leopard^. The leopard was the crest of the dukes of Normandy as Honore" Caille du Fourni (or Fourny) says, ' le le*opard ayant ete pris par ces princes et seigneurs iiormands qui etaiont souvent sortis hors mariage . . . pour represents leur naissance par le leopard, batard du lion '; and, continues < r\ plml Scriptures. A ].,, si, '.lu- Constitutions. A puMolicitl Canons. HHiiialian ;,);;<}/). UK in UAH, 'De Situ Bxi- tannim.' r.oK.i-K (Scotch Kings). Book of Mormon. Bruceiolinl. Cagllostro of Literature. Cha*lt Forgeries. CHATTKRTON, ' Rowley's Poems.' Christian Forgeries. Chronicle of Richard of Cirencester [X.v ' Monk of Westminster]. Church Forgeries. Clementina. Clementines. Codex Diplomaticus. 1't c petals. IMonvsluB the Areopa- gite. Donation of Constan- ttne. Kikon BasUlke. English Mercuric newspaper). False Decretal*. Gotpels. HecaUeus. History of Formosa. History of the Jews. {gnatian Controversy, rcland (playa of Shake- speare). Isiac Table, luidorian Decretal*. Jasher (Book of). L:i.i I. r d'hu.-hirisms of Sibylline V, rsos. Milton). SiMiiMDK.s ,i :,,,st,i Letter of St. Peter to Squire Letters. Pepin. Sff ' Peter,' ic. 8OKTO* ( Bui lad). (S) Phceneclan Stone. Pilati (A, tal PORPHYRY. 'Oracles of Philosophy.' Protevan;elium. PHALMANA/.AR, ' History of Formosa.' Riculfe archbishop of Mayence. Sanchoniathoand Sibyl- line Prophecies. Scriptures urioiu). Letters of Gangii Shi-lley. I Theodosian Code (one ol the, -.liCtK . Travels of C. F. I>aml>er- gcr [.s'r Damberger la Allitone ' I'irt. ]. VELLA, 'Codex Dlph> Monk' of Westminster, same as Richard of Cirencester (-i French). Seyssel (1450-1530), author of 4 The Singular History of Louis XJI.' and 4 The Great Monarchy of France.' Lithography (Inventor of). Sena- felder (1771-1 *:'.*2). Lithuania. Unclassical Latin for a dependency of Poland, divided into Wilna and eight other palatinates. Litterse Humaniores. A phrase introduced in the renaissance period to signify the literature which mainly hu- manises the world, or, as Ovid saya, 4 Emollit mores nee shut esse feros.' Little Battle of Chalons (The), May 1-274. On the return of Edward I. LITTLE from the Crusade the Count of Chalons requested the honour of breaking a lance with the crusader. Edward accepted the challenge; but, fearing treachery, he took with him 1,000 men. The count entered, accompanied with 2,000 men, and Edward saw at once he was in a trap. A furious fight ensued, in which the count's party was put to flight, and a large number of his men were left dead. Little Captain (The). George II. He was at the battles of Oudenarde and Dettingen, and when he came to the throne delighted in a sort of military precision. He was also very fond of soldiers. It was the Jacobites who nick- named him ' The Little Captain.' Little Corporal (The). Napoleon Bonaparte (1769, emp. 1804-1814, died 1821). Little Daughter of St. Mark (The). Brescia, which was the Vene- tians' stronghold in Lombardy. ' His- toire du Ch. Bayard,' xlviii. Little Doomsday Book (The). See the lesser of the two volumes. It consists of 450 double pages of vellum, in single column, and contains the counties of Essex, Norfolk, Suffolk, part of Rut- land, part of Lancashire, York, and Chester. It seems to be a transcript of the original rolls; and sets forth the number of horses, oxen, sheep, goats, and pigs in each manor, which details are left out in the great volume. Little Douglas. Cousin of George Douglas, a lad of sixteen years of age, who (2 May, 1568), while the family were at supper, stole the keys of the castle where Queen Mary of Scotland was con- fined under the charge of Sir William Douglas. The lad let Mary and her attendant out of the tower when all ths household had gone to bed, locked the gates to prevent pursuit, placed the queen and her waiting-woman in a skiff, fcnd rowed them with muffled oars to the opposite shore, throwing the keys into the castle lake. Here Lord Seaton and a party of the Hamiltons were in waiting, who placed the queen on a swift horse, hurried off to Niddry in West Lothian, and next day to Hamilton. LITTLE 625 Little Ease. I. A cell in Newgate into which prisoners were thrust who either could not or would not pay extra ' garnish,' i.e. entrance money. There is the Little Ease, for common fees of the crown, rather dark, and the common sewer runs below it. Some gentlemen object to the company, chiefly padders [footpads] and michers [skulkers, sneaks]. Sir W. SCOTT, Peveril of the Peak, chap. II. A kind of cage, too small for the person confined therein to sit, stand, or lie in. It is in the Tower of London. I have seen a similar one in the Castle of Loches, in which Cardinal Balue was confined for ten years by Louis XI. Little England beyond Wales. South Pembrokeshire, colonised by Fle- mings in the reign of Henry I. Welsh is not spoken in this district. Little Gentleman in Black Velvet (The). The mole which threw up the hillock against which Sorrel, the horse of William III., stumbled, an acci- dent which ultimately caused the king's death. This was a Jacobite toast in the reign of Queen Anne. Little John. John Nailor was so called by antiphrasis, because he was above seven feet high. He was the chief of Robin Hood's band, and is said to have lived between 1160 and 1220. Little Man in Red Stockings (The). Leopold I. kaiser-king of Ger- many, of the house of Austria, son of Ferdinand III. (1640, 1658-1705). Little Parliament (The). From 14 July to 12 Dec., 1653, the same as the Barebone Parliament (q.v.). It consisted of 140 or (as some say) of 156 members, six being for Wales, six for Ireland, and five for Scotland, all selected by Crom- well's privy council. Three months be- fore its expiry, which was fixed for 3 Sept., 1654, they were to nominate their successors ; but the house was dissolved because its reforms were too rapid and radical even for Cromwell and his friends. See ' Parliament.' Cromwell said : ' The Long Parliament brought their dissolution upon themselves by despotism the Little Parliament by imbecility.' LINGIRD, History of England, viii. 6. Little Rome. Montague House, Southwark. The cloisters of St. Mary Overy fell to the ILontagues at the Dis- solution, and took the name of ' Monta- gue Close.' Their house became th 626 LITURGI LITUEGT lefuge of persecuted Catholics, and gained hence the name of Little Borne. Liturgi, Anrovjryot. According to Pa- pias, Christian ministers were so called. St. Basil says they were the deacons, but that priests and bishops were called Aetrovpyoi rov 0eou. Liturgies, ATovpywu. The duties / the liturgi of Athens. These liturgi, v^iTovpyoi, were public officers selected from the most opulent citizens, who had to bear, at their own cost, the chief charges of public festivals, shows, and banquets. Every state elected 120. The expenses, B.C. 271, were transferred to the state. Liturgies (The Six Oriental). All in the Syriac tongue. 1. The Liturgy of Jerusalem (..). 8. of Antioch ,:- for the Queen and clergy were added, and the vestments forbidden in 1552 were re- stored (! !). 1604. (1 James I.). Born* few alterations were in- troduced. such as the Collects for Morning and Evening, and Intercession for tho Royal Family In the Litany. 1663. After the Restoration were added the Prayer for all Sorts and Conditions of Men, the General Thanksgiving, the Prayers for Ember Weeks, for Burial Servir.-. the Omce of Baptism of those of Rip. and the last translation of the Bible was adopted In the Gospels and Epistles (the old version of the Psalms, however, was retained). The Collects for Easter K\o, the Sixth Sunday after Epiphany, and the Third Sunday in Advent were also in- 1887. Was Introduced a Form of Prayer to be used June 00, the day of Queen Victoria's ac- cession to the crown. I860. The services for 6 Nov. [Gunpowder Plot], 80 Jan. [the execution of Charles I.], and * May [the restoration of Charles II.] were abolished. Liturgy (The Ambrosian). A Catholic missal, popularly ascribed to St. Ambrose, and used in the diocese of Milan. It is much like the Roman liturgy (g.t>.), but is especially interesting for its allusions to ancient Christian church customs. Liturgy (The Armenian). Dates from the introduction of Christianity into Armenia under Gregory the Illuminator. It is derived, for the most part, from the Liturgy of St. Chrysostom (q.v.). Liturgy (The Gallic). Of Oriental origin, probably introduced by the Greek colony which settled in Marseilles, &xreek, and it closely resembles the text of St. Cyril of Jerusalem in his ' Mysta- gogical Lectures.' Liturgy of Jesus Christ (The). One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but not countenanced by the patriarchs. Liturgy of Osmund (The). The Sarum Missal compiled by Osmund bishop of Salisbury, and adopted generally throughout England. It is in Latin, and our Book of Common Prayer is almost a translation of it. Liturgy of St. Basil (The), i.e. Basil of Caesarea. One of the liturgies of the Greek Church. It is the longest and holds pre-eminence in solemnity and antiquity. The Liturgy of St. Basil is used on the great festivals, such as Christmas Day, Epiphany, Lent, and Good Friday. The other chief liturgy of the Greek Church ia that of St. Chrysostom.' The ' Liturgy of St. Basil ' is also one of the twelve used by the ancient Coptic Christians. Liturgy of St. Chrysostom (The). One of the three liturgies of the Greek Church. It bears the name of St. Chrysostom, but is of much later date. It is used on all days of the year except Christmas Day, Epiphany, Lent, ana Good Friday, when St. Basil's Liturgy is used. See note above. Liturgy of St. Cyriac (The). One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but not countenanced by the patriarchs. Liturgy of St. Cyril (The). One of the twelve liturgies used by the ancient Coptic Christians ; but the only three sanctioned by the patriarchs are those of Basil, Cyril, and Gregory. Liturgy of St. Epiphanius (The). One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but not now countenanced by the patriarch. Liturgy of St. Gregory (The). One of the three liturgies of the Coptic Christians countenanced by the patri- archs. The other two are the ' Liturgy of St. Basil' and the 'Liturgy of St. Cyril.' Liturgy of St. James (The). One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians. LITURGY LLOYD'S Liturgy of St. John the Evan- gelist (The). One of the twelve litur- gies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but not sanctioned by the patriarchs. Liturgy of Theodore of Mop- suestia (The). One of the three Nes- torian liturgies (q.v.). Liturgy of the Anglican Church (Tlie\ 1548, in the reign of Edward VI. The Common Prayer Book, revised edition 1551. The introduction of it into Scotland caused a riot in Edin- burgh 23 July, 1637 ; withdrawn 9 Sept., 1638. See * Liturgy.' Liturgy of the Apostles (The). One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but not countenanced by the patriarchs. It is also one of the three Nestorian liturgies (q.v.). Liturgy of the Fathers of the Council of Nice (The). One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but not countenanced by the patriarchs. Liturgy of the Nestorians (The). The Nostorians have three litur- gies, viz. that of the Apostles, that of Theodore of Mopsuestia, and that of Nestorius. These, however, are com- bined into the Liturgy of the Nestorians and used on different occasions. They are all in Syriac. Liturgy of the Patriarch pioscorus (The). One of the twelve liturgies of the ancient Coptic Christians, but discountenanced by the patriarchs. Liturgy of the Prcesanctified (The), 7th or 8th cent. One of the three liturgies of the Greek Church. It is used on certain days in Lent. See ' Missa Prsesanctificatorum.' The other two liturgies are the ' Liturgy of St. Basil ' and the ' Liturgy of St. Chrysoetom. Livery (The Statute of). A statute to regulate and restrict the wearing of livery or the badge of the lord. In the 15th cent, these liveries became political bftdna different factions being known by their livery. In 1377 the Commons petitioned against ' the giving of hats by way of livery for maintenance,' and it was forbidden by 1 Rich. II. In 1389 a royal ordinance forbade any servant to wear the lord's badge. In 1 Hen. IV. c. 7, A.D. 1399, it was enacted that only the king should give either sign or livery t Livy (The Russian). Nirholaa Michaelovitch Karamzin (1765-ln-J Livy of Portugal (Tfie). Joao de Barroa (1496-1570), author of 'Asia Portugueza.' Livy of Spain (The). I. Juan Mariana, a Jesuit, born aft Talavera (1537-1024). He wrote a ' His. tory of Spain' in Latin, and a treatise entitled 'De Rege et Regis Institut IL J. Ginezde Sppulu-.lii ilt'.in : who wrote the ' History of C'harl. > Quint,' the ' History of Felipe II.,' the ' History of the War in India,' &c. Lloyd's, 1772. A set of rooms on the first floor of the Royal Exchange, London, frequented by merchants, ship- owners, underwriters, &c., for the pur of obtaining shipping intelligence and transacting marine insurances. Two enormous ledgers lie constantly open, one containing a list of vessels arrii-ed, and the other a record of disasters at sea. Lloyd's (Austrian), 1833. Founded in Trieste by Baron Bruck, to supply the want felt by maritime insni. panics of that port of a central admini- stration to attend to their common in- terests. Their 'list' is called she ' Giornale del I loyd Austriaco.' Lloyd's List. Shipping intelligence published every afternoon at Lloyd the Royal Exchange, London. First published in 1716, and daily since 1800. Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign Shipping. A volume published annually, and containing information re- specting vessels their age, their mak LOCAL LOI 629 rials, their repairs, their owners, captains, and so on. This information is supplied by salaried agents at the different ports. The office of the 'Register' is quite dis- tinct from Lloyd's rooms in the Royal Exchange. Local Government Act (The), 1888. Prepared by Charles Thomson- Ritchie, president of the Local Govern- ment Board, whereby London was con- stituted a separate county. The council hold office for three years, but the alder- men for six years (half to retire every third year). The County Council controls the borrowing of money, pays the county treasurer, and all the expenses of judges' lodging, assize courts, and county halls ; licenses music and dancing halls, race- courses, lunatic asylums, reformatories, and industrial schools ; has supreme power over bridges and roads, the appointment of coroners, &c. &c. Local Taxation Bill, 1890. For increasing the duties on beer and spirits. Lochlans, or Lochlanders (lake- dwellers). So the Irish called the Danes who in 787 first invaded the island. Locke King's Bill, 1859. See 1 Qualification (Property).' Loco-focos. Ultra-radicals in the United States of America. So called because in a grand meeting in Tammany Hall, New York, in 1834, the chairman left his seat, and the lights were put out under the hope of dispersing the dis- orderly assembly. But no: some of the radicals, expecting this movement, drew candles from their pockets, and lighted them by loco-focos (i.e. lucifer matches), and the hall being relighted, the business of the meeting went on. Loco-foco ' is said to be from the Latin loco-foci, tn lieu of fire. Locus PoenitentiaB. The time allowed in Scotch law for withdrawing from a bargain. Till the contract is finally settled either party may retract. Lodbrog, i.e. 'Shaggy Breeches.' Bo Regner of Denmark was called, ' be- ause, when he went forth to conquer an enormous serpent, he arrayed himself in lodbrogs.' Spite of the terrors of a groaning world at the ound of 'Shaggy breeches" name, his kingdom eould hardly be called other than the harbouring- 23 place of freebooters and pirates. PRINOB, History, vol. i. p. 403. Lodging-money. An allowance, in the British army, granted to officers and others for whom suitable quarters cannot be provided in the barracks.' It is about 8s. a week. Lodi (The House of). Founded in Delhi by Behlol Lodi in 1450. Ala-eddyn, last king of the 'government of the Seiads,' abdicated in favour of Lodi. Lodovico Sforza, duke of Milan (1479-1500), called 'II Moro ' because he adopted the mulberry tree for his device. He prided himself on his prudence ; and Pliny calls the mulberry the most prudent of all trees, because it waits till winter is well over before it puts forth its leaves. Logos (The). According to the school of Alexandria the Logos was a being be- gotten by God, and intermediate between Deity and man. This primary Logos was the first-born (6 ^pco-flu'repos vio?) of Deity, and from this first-born proceeded a second Logos (Ao-yos n-poc6s) which acted at the creation of the world. Of course the Lofios of the Fourth Gospel ! not suited to this dictionary. Logothete (A). A keeper of accounts in the Eastern empire. He put in order the despatches of the emperor, and was keeper of the seals. There was an eccle- siastical Logothete also, keeper of the seals of the patriarch. Even to the pre- sent day such an officer exists in the Greek Church. Nicephorus I. emperor of the East was ' Logotheta,' when he assumed the purple in 802. Loi G-ombette (La), 502. The Bur- gundian Code, published at Lyons by Gundibald or Gombaud, the third king of Burgundy. It was based on the Theo- dosian Code (q.v.). In 519 a second part was published by Sigismund, son and successor of Gombaud. By this code one- third of the conquered land was left to the conquered people, and it accorded to the Romans the same rights as to the con- quering people. Loi Salique (La), 1340. The exclu- sion of women from the throne because they are unable to be the leaders of armies in battle. Edward III. by a pun called the ' gabelle ' at tM on salt, the Sal-ic law of Franc*. MM LOI LONDON Loi des Suspects (La], 17 Sept., 1798. A law made by the Convention of France enabling the committees to seize and condemn anyone they suspected of being averse to the republican constitu- tion, or whose death would be beneficial thereto. Loi du Sacrilege, 20 April, 1825. Public profanation of the consecrated ele- ments, which was made a capital offence. Lola Montes (2 syl.). An Irish girl, native of Wexford, brought home from school to marry an old man whom she detested. She mentioned the cirrtun- stances to Captain James, who ran away with her and married her in India ; but one morning Captain James eloped with the young wife of an old gentleman in whose house he and Mrs. James resided. Mrs. James returned to Europe, changed her name to Lola Montes, and went on the stage. Here Charles Louis king of Bavaria, an old man in his dotage, became captivated with her, took her for his mistress, and made her a countess of Lansfeldt in 1848. He abdicated the same year. Lola Montes went to the United States in 1869, and died in New York 17 Jan., 1861. Lollard (Walter). Burnt to death at Cologne 1822. He was born in Eng- land, and was called the Morning Star of the Reformation in Germany. Lollard declaimed against the intercession of saints, the seven sacraments, the church ceremonies, and the evil lives of the clergy. Wyclif lived 1834 1884 ; and John HUBS 187ft-1415. Lollards. Religious reformers. The society was formed at Antwerp for minis- tering to the sick, in 1800. The name was probably taken from Walter Lollard the reformer, who was burnt at Cologne in 1822. In England the preachers were arrested by 5 Rich. II. c. 5 (1881), and the burning of them was enjoined by 2 Hen. IV. c. 16 (De hceretico combu- rendo). A party of them were executed by order of Henry V. in Jan. 1414. The statutes against Lollardism were repealed by 1 Edw. VI. c. 12 (1547). Wyclif was head of the Lollards in England (1824- 1884) and was protected and supported by John of Gaunt. Some derive the word from the Low German lollen. to sing slowly. Blunt, in his 'Reformation,' 9. 81, derives it from lolium, a tare, and reminds us that Euseblus calls heretics taret.-Ecf. Uiit. Iv O. 24, p. 137. Lombard League (The). I. 1175- 1188. A league formed by several of the petty republics of Lombardy, such as Milan, Pavla, Cremona, and so on, under the sanction of Pope Alexander III.), against Frederick Barbarossa. The league succeeded in driving Barbarossa out of Italy, and making him recognise the in- dependence of the cities of Lombardy. II. A second league was formed in 1225 against Kaiser Friedrich IL This league also was supported by the popes of the time being, and after many victories and defeats was at length successful in 1249. Milan was the chief power and strength in both these leagues. The league defeated Barbarossa at Legnano In 1167. Fried rich II. defeated the league at Corte nuova in 1287. London has several sobriquets, as 'The Little Village 1 (a lucus a non lucendo) ; the Modern Babylon ' ; * the City of Masts.' Aberdeen is the Granite City ; Bath, the Oner* of thr HVU ; Birmingham, the Midland Capita?; Brad- ford is H'orttfd<>iHJii$ ; Brighton, the Qurrn of Watrr- ing l'lact$, or London-tuper-Mer [mare] ; Edinburgh, the Modem Athrni; Liverpool, the tlodft: Manchester, CotionopWit ; WonoOaTTKi Faithful City. London (Treatiet of). I. 29 Oct., 1516. Between the kaiser elect and tho kings of England and Spain. II. 6 July, 1829. Between England, France, and Russia, regulatingthegovern- ment of the kingdom of Greece. This treaty really created the modern kingdom of Greece. HI. 22 April, 1884. Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal, for the pacification of the penin sula, expulsion of Don Carlos and Dom Miguel, &c. IV. 15 July, 1840. Between England, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Turkey, for the settlement of the dispute between the sultan and Mehemet Ali. V. 8 May, 1852. Between Denmark and the five Great Powers, respecting the due-hies of Schleswig and Holstein. VI. 18 March, 1871. Between the five Great Powers, for the deneutralisation of the Black Sea. London Adventurers, or ' South Virginia Company.' By the charter of James I. the London Adventurers were empowered to plant the east from the 84th to the 41st deg. This includes what w LONDON LOOKING-GLASS 631 now call Maryland, Virginia, and the two Carolinas. London Conference. 1st in 1826 &c. for the regulation of the affairs of Greece. 2nd in 1830 to arrange for the separa- tion of Belgium and Holland. To this the Dutch withheld their assent till 21 May, 1833. 3rd in 1840 on the Turko-Egyptian question. France refused to join. London County Council (The), 1889. London, having been erected into a separate county, has its County Council, which takes on itself the powers of the old Board of Works, and certain magisterial duties. To the County Council are con- signed all questions relating to metro- politan improvements, the price to be paid for property bought or sold in the metropolis, and compensation to be given for injury during disturbances. Its magis- terial work includes the three lunatic asylums; the Industrial School at Feltham ; licences granted to music and dancing halls ; appointment of coroners, public analysts, inspectors of weights and measures, &c., with all such miscellaneous work as relates to the Sessions House at Clerkenwell, the Guildhall at Westmin- ster, the militia barracks at Dalston and Bethnal Green, three county bridges, and petty sessional courts. See ' Metropolitan Board of Works.' London University. In the reign of Edward III., between the City and Westminster, and called the ' Third Uni- versity.' Edward III. built and founded St. Stephen at Westminster for a divinity college ; it was dissolved by Henry VIII. Archbishop Bradwardine founded a theo- logical lecture in St. Paul's Church. John of Gaunt founded a divinity college in St. Paul's Churchyard. Sir John For- tescue tells us the Inns of Court were law colleges ; and that there were ten called at the time inns of chancery, :n each of which there were at least 100 students. The present London University was incorpo- rated by royal charter in 1836, and the building wa* opened in 1870 by Queen Victoria. Long Brothers (The),i.e. 'tall,' viz. Dioscorus, Ammonius, Eusebius, and Enthyxnina (5th cent.). They were monks supposed to be tainted with Origenism (ROBERTSON, ' Hist, of the Christian Church,' vol. ii. p. 106). Long Knives (The Plot or Treachery of the). This was a treache- rous conference to which Geoffrey of Monmouth tells us the chief Britons were invited by Hengist at Ambresbury ; others say by Vortigern. Beside each Briton a Saxon was seated, armed with a long knife ; and, at a given signal, each Saxon slew the Briton seated by his side. Geoffrey tells us the signal was the utter- ance of these words : NEMET OUBE >SAXAS, and that the number massacred was 460 (book vi. 16). Of course Geoffrey's Chronicle Is only Geoffrey's Chronicle. Long Parliament (The). Met 8 Nov., 1640, and was dissolved by Crom- well, 20 April, 1653, but it was not legally dissolved till the Eestoration in 1660. This parliament, therefore, existed all through the civil war, and all through the protectorate ; but in 1659 only a fag end remained, which was called ' the Hump.' The Long Parliament voted the House of Lords to be useless, and passed a bill that even the king should be unable to dissolve or prorogue a parliament without the parliament's consent. See ' Parliaments.' Long Parliament of France. The Permanent Committee, 1789. Longbeard. William Fitz-Osbert, who assumed to be a Saxon, and was popularly called ' The Saviour of the People ' and ' King of the Poor.' He was executed with great cruelty in 1196. Long-haired Kings (The). The successors of Clodion are called in French history ' Les rois chevelures.' Clodion in- troduced this fashion into Gaul from Germany. See ' Hair.' It will be remembered that Homer calls the magnates of the confederate Greek army 'the long-haired Greeks.' Longiman'us. SoArtaxerxes was called, because his right arm was longer than his left. His proper name was Bahaman ; his regal name hi Persia was Kai-Ardeshir. Kai means mighty, ' Ard ' flour, and ' Shir ' milk. Bahaman was so called from an offering of flour and milk made to him in his cradle. ArtaxerKca is ' Arta-Ksathra,' honoured Icing. Lonsdale's Ninepins (Lord)' The nine members sent to parliament to represent nine pocket boroughs in the ex- tensive estates of Lord Lonsdale. Looking-glass Drops (The). A celebrated poison found hidden on remov- MM 9 532 LOOSEGIRT LORD ing the wooden lining of a looking-glais which belonged to Lucrezia Borgia. Loose-girt Boy (The). Juliua Caesar. (Supplied by A. Oldham.) Lord Almoner's Professorship of Arabic. Founded 1724, in the Uni- versity of Cambridge, by the lord al- moner. Original stipend 501. a year paid out of the Almonry bounty. The professor must give at least one lecture a year on Arabic history or literature. Lord Chamberlain (The). The officer who has the management of the chambers; the sixth high officer of the crown. He has the government of the palace at Westminster; disposes of the sword of state in royal processions, and on such occasions sits on the sovereign's right hand. The black rod and yeoman usher are tinder him. Thf Lord Chamberlain nf thf Ilmuv-hold Is quite Another person. This officer has the direction of all matter* pertaining to the chambers of the sovereign (except the queen's bod chamber). Lord Chancellor (The). The highest temporal lord, but his office is bound up with the ministry of the time being. He reads the royal speech for the prorogation of parliament and opening of parliament when the sovereign is not pre- sent, and stands on the right-hand side of the throne. He appoints all justices of the peace ; is patron of all crown liv- ings ; is guardian of infants, idiots, and lunatics; and has a retiring pension of 5.000/. a year. Lord Gawkey. Richard Grenville lord Temple (1711-1779). Lord High Admiral (The). First appointed 1405. Lord-Lieutenants of Counties 1545. The first permanent lord-lieu- tenants were the Duke of Norfolk, for arming the counties of Essex, &c. ; the Duke of Suffolk, for arming Surrey Sussex, &c. ; and Lord Russell, for arming Dorset, &c. The commissions sent to these nobles were to be acted upon, not pro re nata, but perpetually for keeping a due supply of militia in the several dis- tricts named in the commission. The main duty of lord-lieutenants is raising and organising the militia. Prior to 1545 the three Lancastrian kings sen commissions occasionally to experienced noble to put into military order their respective conn ties, and these noblemen were called 'The Mug 1 ! LUutenanU.' Lord-Lyon (The). Lyon king-of- arms, Scotland, head of Lyon Court, the Scotch office of arms. His appointment is or life. The office of Lyon runs back into very remote times, but the officer was not called lord-lyon till H>P>3. One of his pur- suivants is called Unicorn. The lord lion who brought her [the qnoen regent's] message was requested to wait for an answer.-HowiTT. Hit. ofEng. vol. ii. p. 407. V A thia waa ln 1K *' it is an anachronism to called him lord lion [lord-lyonl. Lord Mahon's Act, 1842 (5, 6 Viet. c. 46). Gives to an author and hi<;i the copyright of his books during life and for seven years afterwards. Wl alive or dead, the author or his as has a right for forty-two years from the time of publication. If the author lives for forty-two years after publication, then has right continues during his life and seven years after his death. If h- before the expiration of forty-two years, his assigns may claim a right for the re- sidue of forty -two years or for seven years, whichever is the longer period. A copy of the book must be went tfratultounly to flve libraries: vi. that of tl the Public r,l!.r:iry at Cambridge, the Bo Library at Oxford, the Library of the Far* Advocates a* Kdin burgh, and the Library of Tri- nity College. Dublin. Lord Mayors. There are three lord mayors in the Bri! /. the mayors of London, York, and. Dublin. I. LONDON. At the time of the Con- quest the chief magistrate of London was called port-reeve (i.e. pov.-rni.r of the harbour). He is called Geoffrey, port-reeve, in the charter granted by William to the city. In Stephen's reign Gilbert Recket. father of the archbishop, waa port-reeve of London. In the reign of Henry H. the Norman term moire was introduced, into mayor. The first mayor of I was Henry Fitz-Ailwin [son of .-1 wine]. He was a descendant of JKthd- wine, cousin of King Edgar, and one of the hereditary aldermen. Richard I. granted the citizens the right of electing their own mayor, 1 John granted them the right of electing a mayor annually. Henry III. permitted the corporation to use a common seal. In the reign of Richard II. the mayor of London took the rank of an earl. The prefix of ' lord,' and the style ol LOUD LORDS 533 'right honourable,' was granted by Edward III. in 1354. Sir William Walworth (In the reign of Richard II.) was the first mayor who had an official seal 0881). Sir John Norman (1458) was the^rst lord mayor who went in procession by water to be sworn in at Westminster, and then began the Lord Mayor s Show. The original seal of the corporation had Thomas Docket on the reverse, and St. Paul on the ob- verse ; but at the Keformation (1539) the reverse of the seal was changed for the present device, the obverse remaining as before. II. YORK. York received its charter from Richard II., and the mayor wa made a ' lord ' in 1389. The ex offici) title is ' the right honourable.' III. DUBLIN. The mayor of Dublin first appointed 1409. Styled 'lord mayor' in 1665 by Charles II. Lord Shaftesbury. Anthony Ash- ley Cooper, 1st earl Shaftesbury, Lord Chancellor of England (1621-1683). He began life an aristocrat; 1644 he went over to the parliamentary side, was com- mander-in-chief of their forces, and sat in the Barebone parliament ; in 1654 he severed himself from Cromwell's party, joined the Remonstrants, and was ar- rested as a royalist, but acquitted ; in 1660 he was one of the commissioners who sat on the trial of the regicides ; in 1670 he was a member of the Cabal ; in 16NO lie presented the Duke of York as a popish recusant in the court of King's Bench, was imprisoned for treason in 1082, and died at Amsterdam in 1683. In friendship false, implacable in hate, Resolved to ruin or to rule the state, To compass this the triple bond he broke. DUYDEN, Absalom and Achitophel. Lord of all under Heaven (The). The Emperor of China. One and all come to pay their respects and offer their tribute to the ' Lord of ali under Heaven.' J . N . JORDAN , Modern China (' Nineteenth Century,' July issc, p. 49). Lord of Ireland, 1177. T ohn, son of Henry II. of England. On the death of Strongbow the government of Ireland was committed to William Fitz-Adelm, allied by blood to the king; but his ad- ministration was so bad that he was re- called, and Henry made his youngest and favourite son John 'lord of Ireland,' tliough only twelve years old at the time. The boy-governor was so insolent that he was recalled, and the government en- trusted to De Lacy; but John retained the title of lord of Ireland to his death. Henry VIII., in 1541, raised Ireland from a lordship to a kingdom, styling himself ' King of England, France, and Ireland, Defender of the Faith.' The same style was adopted by his son Edward VI. Lord of Misrule (The). Called by the Scotch 'The Master of Unreason,' and by the French ' L'abbe de Liesse.' A person elected to superintend the diver- sions of Christmas. Discontinued since 1641. In the feast of Christmas there was in the king s house, wheresoever he lodged, a ' Lord of Misrule,' or ' Master of Merry Disports' ; and the like had ye in the house of every nobleman of honour or good worship, were he spiritual or temporal. The Mayor of London and either of the sheriffs had their several Lords of Misrule, ever contending, without quarrel or offence, who should make the rarest pastime to delight the beholders. These lords, beginning the rule at AlDiallows Eve, con- tinued the same till the morrow after the Feast of Purification, commonly called Candlemas Day. STOW. Lord of Regality (A). A noble- man in Scotland who held a regality, or sort of palatinate, where he exercised all the rights of a sovereign. Abolished by 20 Geo. II. c. 60. Lord of his Age (The), or Sahibi Kiran, Solyman I. the Magnificent, Ottoman sultan (1493, 1520-1566). Lord of the Golden Foot. The boa or king of Burmah. In 182G the state carriage of the boa, which fell nglish, was valued at 1-2,500*. Into the hands of the E Lord of the Manor (The). The owner of a manor having copyhold tenants. Lord of the Taps. An officer at Stourbridge fair appointed to taste the ale in the booths. This officer was characteristically dressed in a crimson coat decorated with taps, and provided at the time for the occasion. Appellants (The), 1886. Partisans of the Duke of Gloucester, whose object was to dethrone Richard II. They appealed of high treason a large number of magnates who opposed their authority, and constituted themselves into a permanent council to set in order the kingdom and the royal household. In 1389 the king, who was twenty-two yeais of age, took on his own shoulders the government, and all the lords ap- pellants, except Norfolk and Hereford, either died or -vere cut off. Norfolk aud Hereford were banished in 15*97. LORDS LOST Lords Justices of the Court of Appeal in Chancery (The). Ap- pointed by Act 14, 15 Viet. c. 83 (1871). Lords Lieutenant of Ireland. The first, appointed in 1861, was Lionel earl of Ulster. The second was Edmund earl of March, 3879. Richard II. was lord lieutenant in 1894, and again in 1399 ; Henry [VIII.], when duke of York, 1501 ; and Oliver Cromwell in 1640. Lords Marchers (The}. The knights and barons of the 140 lordships of Wales ; the rest of Wales was subject to the English crown. These lordships were detached parcels which had been conquered by certain knights and barons, who ruled somewhat like county pala- tines, each having his own laws, his own courts, and his own judges. Henry VIII., in 1536, abolished this separate juris- diction, and placed all Wales under the English crown. Lords Ordainers, 1810, 1811. A standing committee of 7 bishops, 8 earls, and 18 barons (28 altogether), appointed in full parliament in the reign of Edward II. to reform the government and king's household. They presented to the king u list of what they called the ' Articles of Reform,' amongst which were those : Parliaments shall be held at least once a year ; no war shall be declared without the consent of the Lords Ordainers ; the king shall never leave the realm without the lords' consent ; the choice of all the greut officers of the crown and wardens of the casties shall be made by the Lords Onlainers; the selection of sheriffs shall be left to the Continual Council. The Earl of Lancaster (a grandson of Henry III.) and the Earls of Lincoln, Leicester, Salisbury, and Derby were on the com- mittee. The king's infatuation for Piers Gaveston was the rock of offence. Lords of Erection. Laymen of Scotland, to whom the church lands claimed at the Reformation by the crown were given. These lords, who received a third part of the benefices, were nominally charged with the support of the poor, and were bound to provide competent stipends for the reformed clergy. When James VI. came to his majority the duties of these lords were abolished, and the lands were umexed to the crowu. The Lords of Erection were also called 'Titulars of Tithes.' As a Tulohan bishop t of his rflvonup. resented him, so t ft part of his revenue. U who prf-M'iit only Tulchan lords, shari th the Lords of the Articles (The). A kind of caucus begun in Scotland in the parliaments of 1868 and 1369. They were a kind of parliamentary grand jury who prepared and arranged in secret in what measures should be submit: parliament and what should be aband< >i i > 1 . Suppressed in 1090. In Scotland there was only one house for the three estate*. Lords of the Congregation (The], Dec. 1557. The leading Protest a n t of Scotland who pledged t ; carry out the ' Solemn League and Covenant' (q.v.) even to the knife. The chief were the Earls of Glem-airn, Argyll, and Morton, Lord Lorn, and Erskine of Dun. The reformers were called the 1 Congregation.' They agreed that Ml matters in debate bet* een the government and Lords of the Co n legation should be left to the consideration of th> ment [of Scotland). -Sir W. SCOTT, llittor; lo>ui.xxlv. Lords of the Justiciary. The judges of the court of justiciary, or criminal court of Scotland. Lords of the Masso'rah (The). Learned Jews who decided what parts i.f the vast pile of annotations called the Massorah (q.v.) should be accepted. They fixed by canon the verses, words, ! and vowel-points of the J ewi iliMriptares. The scholia approved of by these rabbis were printed (along with the Hebrew text) in the year A.D. 1526. There were two schools of Massoret io Lords from the llth cent. ; that of Tiberias and that <>' Ion. The principal of the former was Aaron ben Asher and of the latter Jacob ben Nanhth*lL *.* There were originally no vowels In Hebrew writings. As the Massorltes introduced \uu.-l points, Hebrew vowels are called Massoretio points.' Lost Tribes (The). The ten tribes which formed the kingdom of I The Rev. Dr. Joseph Wolff (1831) says they are in China. The Rev. J. Samuels says they are in the regions of the Caspian Si -a. Dr. Grant says the Nestorians are the lost tribes. Sir William Jones says they are the Afgh LOSTIC LOUIS 635 Mrs. Dixon thinks they are the Mexi- cans and Peruvians. Dr. Claudius Buchanan thinks they are still where they were taken captive, i.e. in ' Halak, Habo, Kara, and Gozan, cities of the Medes.' W. H. Poole, D.D., maintains that we of Great Britain and Ireland are the lost tribes. And some think the North American Indians, and others that the Gipsies, are Hie lost tribes. Lostic, or ' Loktek ' (a cubit). So Vladislaus III. of Poland was called on account of his small stature (1260, 1296- 1883). Lotharingia, or Lorraine, was the country over which Lothaire reigned. It included the south of Holland, all Bel- gium, and the north-east corner of France up to tho river Meuse. In 1044 this vast province was divided into Lower and Upper Lorraine, the former containing half Belgium, and the provinces of Bra- bant and Gelderland (in Holland); the rest forming Upper Lorraine. Louis (Knights of St.), 1693. A French military order instituted by Louis Louis I. le Debonnaire, emperor of the West and king of France (778, 814- 840). Father, Charlemagne ; Mother, Hilde- garde; Wives (1), Hermengarda, by whom he had three sons Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis, to whom he gave parts of his empire ; (2) Judith of Bavaria, the mother of Charles le Chauve. Contemporary with Egbert. Louis I. waa called le Pieux as well as le Dlbon- naive. He was the last surviving son of Charle- magne. Louis II. le Blgue, king of France (846, 877-879) ; he was son of Charles II. le Chauve, grandson of Louis I. le De"- bonnaire, and great-grandson of Charle- magne. His sister Judith was the second wife of Ethelwulf, Anglo-Saxon king of England. Louis le Begue had three sons, all of whom reigned, viz. Louis III., CARLOMAN, and CHARLES III. le Simple. Contemporary with Alfred the Great. Louis III. (879-882). Son of Louis II. le Begue (q.v.) ; his brother was joint king with him, and died 884. He was succeeded by Charles II. le Gros, who acted as regent during the minority of Charles III. le Simple, posthumous son of Louis II. le Bpgue. Contemporary with Alfred the Great. Louis IV. (d'Outremer) of France (921, 936-954). Son of Charles III. le Simple, who married a sister of Athel- stan. On the dethronement of her husband, in 922, she fled to England with her infant son, and remained there fourteen years. He was the fifth remove from Charlemagne. (1) Louis I. le Debonnaire, eon of Charlemagne (2) Charles II. le Chauve, son of Louis I. ; (3i Louis II. le Bcgue, son of Charles II. ; (4) two brothers Louis III. and Charles III. le Simple, sons of Louis II. ; (5) Louis IV., eon of Charles III. Louis V. le Faineant. Son of Lothaire, and grandson of Louis IV. d'Outremer (978, 986-987). The last of the Carlovingian kings. Lothaire, son of Louis IV. d'Ontremer, died 986, a little before his father. Louis VI. le Gros, king of France (1078, 1108-1137). Father, Philippe I. 1'Amoureux ; Mo- ther, Bertha; Wives, (1) a sister of Hugues de Cre*cy, divorced ; (2) Adelaide daughter of Hubert count of Savoy. Con- temporary with Henry I. and Stephen. His eldest son Philippe died before his father, leaving his succession to Louis VII. his brother. This was from the stem of HUGUES Capet, who was succeeded regularly by (1) Robert, (2) Henri I., (8) Philippe I., (4) Louis VI., (5), Louis VII., (6) Philippe II. Auguste, (7) Louis VIII. All sons of the respective preceding king. Louis VII. le Jeune (1137-1180). Not the young, but the impolitic or un- ready (i.e. unwise) son of Louis VI. (1) His leaving his kingdom to conduct an expedition to the Holy Land was puerile ; (2) his divorcing Eleonore and giving up the two provinces of Poitou and Aqui- taine was most impolitic ; (3) his going to Palestine by land rather than by se% contrary to the advice of his best coun- sellors, was most imprudent; (4) his wars with Henry n. of England were short-sighted, and he failed in every in- stance. Louis VII. was amiable enough, but ' what is mere good-nature but a fool'? Father, Louis VI. le Gros; Mother, Adelaide of Savoy ; Wives, (1) Eleonore of Aquitaine, (2) Constance of Castile, (8) Alice, daughter of Thibaud comte de Champagne, mother of his successor. Contemporary with Stephen and Henry 63 LOUIS LOUIS IQU1B VIII. (le Lion) of France (1187, 1228-1226). So called because he chose a lion for his device. Father, Philippe II. Auguste; Mother, Isabelle of Hainault ; Wife, Blanche, daughter of Alfonso of Castile, niece of Richard Coeur de Lion. Contemporary with Henry III. See ' Louis VL' Louis IX. (Saint Louis) king of France (1215, 1226-1270). Father, Louis VIII. ; Mother, Blanche of Castile; Wife, Marguerite daughter of Comte de Provence. Contemporary with Henry III. Before the Revolution the French Academy used to pronounce annually on 25 Aug. pane- gyric on this king. Louis X. (Le Hutin) of France (1289, 1814-1816). Called Hutin because he was sent by his father against the Jlutiiis, a seditious set of people in Navarre and Lyons. Similar to Africa- nuH, the name given to Scipio, &c. Father, Philippe IV. le Bel ; Mother, Jeanne of Navarre; Wives, (1) Mar- gucrite of Burgundy, and (2) Clementia of Hungary. Contemporary with Ed- ward IL LOUIH IX. la Saint WM followed by his Mm PHILIPPE III., whose son was PHILIPPK IV. le Uel. whose son was Louis X.: and Louis X. was the oldest of three brother* who succeeded each other. See ' Fatal Three.' Louis XI. ' Louis Onze,' king of France (1428, 1461-1488). Sixth of the Valois branch. Father, Charles VII. ; Mother, Marie d'An jou, daughter of Louis II. of Naples ; Wives, (I) Margaret daughter of James I. of Scotland, who died broken-hrartrd, and (2) Charlotte of Savoy, mother of his successor Charles VIII. Contempo- rary with Edward IV. His chief residences were Plessls les Tours, the Palais des Tournelles, and the Louvre. I.ouls X. was succeeded by hi* brothers PHILIPPE V. and CHARI.KS iv. PHILIPPE VI., first of the Valois branch, was the son of Charles de Valuta (son of Philippe III. and brother of Philippe IV.). From Philippe VI. came in regular succession JKAN le 1km. CHARLES V.. CHAKLES VI., CHAKLKH VII.. and Loi:i9 XI. V The maxim of Louts XI. was ' Qul ne salt pas dUsltnulcr, ne Bait pas n'-gner.' ills ;i/it/iri.Tii was Collier, who kept the kiiitf on tenter hooks of hope and fear, and received from him In 11 ve months M.OOO ecus (7.000U. Tho king once ask crt htm hoxv lout,' he had to live. ' I can- not toll exactly (said the wily doctor), but an astrologer told me I should die a few weeks before your majesty.' From this moment Louis watched over Ihc health of Coitier with the utmost con- cern, and submitted to all his humours. The /irrmi'f ha sent for was Francis of Faola, In Calabria, af tez ward* canonised. Louis would kneel before him In abject terror. Imploring him to prolong his life even for a few days or houjs Hl iiftrolfigfr wasG;liotti Martlvalle. a nuti.e of Narni In Italy. All his instrument* gold or silver, and his dress was a rich robe of Genoa velvet. His gotrip was Tristan 1 Ennlte, generally called the ' provost Tristan,' and his barter wa*> Olivier le Dam, born In Flanders. Louis XII. le Pere dn Peuple, first of the Valois-Orle*ans branch of France (1462, 1498-1515). So called on account of his wise regulations for the administration of justice, and his pru- dent expenditure of the public money. One day when a courtier represented to him that his economical habits were called parsimonious, he replied, ' Fur better my courtiers should laugh at my parsimony than that my people should mourn for my extravagance.' Father, Charles due d'OrleVuis, grand- son of Charles V. ; Mother, Bona daughter of Comte d'Armagnac ; . (1) Jeanne de France, daughter of Louis XI., divorced, (2) Anne de Bretagne, widow of Charles VIII., (8) Mary daughter of Henry VII. of England. His suc- cessor, Francois I., was the husband of his daughter Claude (by his Mvon Luynes, and then Richelieu. At last he gave up all show of royalty, and i to Chantilly, whore he spent his time in hunting, fowling, and falconry, with * little music ami painting. Father, Henri IV. Mother, Maria de' Medici; Wife, Anne of Austria His successor, Louis XIV., was not born till after he had been married twnty three years. Contemporary with .lanif* I. and Charles L See 'Henri IV.' for It Is said he was called le Juste because he was born under the sodlacaJ sign of LAm, the balance. Louis XIV. le Grand Monarque, third of the BourbwJine, and grandson of Henri IV. (1G38, 1043-1714). Father, Louis XIII.; Mother, Anne of Austria she had been married twenty- LOUIS LOUIS 657 three years before her first child was born ; Wives, (I) Maria-Luisa-Teresa of Austria, infanta of Spain, and (2) Mdme. de Maintenon [Francoise d'Aubigne, mar- quise de Maintenon], widow of Scarron the poet and cripple; Mistresses (I), Mdlle. de la Valliere [Louise-Francoise de la Baume le Blanc de la Valliere],- 1644-1661, (2) Mdme. de Montespan [Athenais marquise de Montespan, daughter of Gabriel de Rochechouart, due de Montemart], 1668-1687. She had several children, as the Due de Maine, the Comte de Toulouse, &c. Contem- porary with Charles L, Cromwell, Charles II., James II., William III., and Anne. His wife, Maria-Luisa, was well-nigh Imbecile, but was the mother of Louis the Dauphin, who died before his father, leaving a son named Louis (duke of Burgundy), the father of Louis XV. La Valliere retired to a nunnery in 1674, and died in 1710. In her retirement she was called ' Sueur Louise de la Misericorde.' V Louis XIV. was called ' the Great ' on con- cluding the Peace of Nimeguen. Signed by Hol- land 10 Aug., 1678; by Spain 17 Sept., 1678; and by Germany 5 Feb., 1679. This treaty put an end to the European war against France. By this treaty Franche Comte, and a part of Flanders, was added to France. This was the apogee of the fortunes of the grand monarque. The princess palatine in her ' Correspondence ' ays : ' I have often seen the king [Louis XIV.] consume at one meal four full plates of various Boups, a whole pheasant, a partridge, a large plate of salad, two large rashers of ham, mutton roast and pickled, a plate of pastry, and then fruit and hard-boiled eggs.' Louis XV. le Bien Aime*, the fourth of the French Bourbon dynasty, great grandson of Louis XIV. (1710, 1715-1774). How such a sensual, heartless volup- tuary, who boasted that the ' crazy old machine would last out his time, and he cared not what became of it afterwards,' could be well-beloved, is past under- standing. Father, Louis the little dauphin, son of Louis the great dauphin, and grandson of Louis XIV. ; Mo ther, Adelaide ; Wives, (1) the Infanta of Spain, arranged but broken off, (2) Maria-Charlotte Leczinska; Mistresses, (1) Mdme. de Mailly, (2) the Countess de Vintimille her sister, (8) the Duchess of Lauragais, another sister, (4) Mdme. de la Toumelle duchesse de ChateaurouxJ another sister, (5) Mdme. de Pompadour, and (6) Mdme Dubarry. Regent, Philippe due d'Orle*ans. Con- temporary with George I., II., III. ; Daughters, he nicknamed liis three daughters Loque, Chiffe, and Graille. Louis XIV. died 1715 : his son Louis, the great taupUin. died before his father, 1711; and the son of the dauphin, called Louis the little dauphin (due de Bourgogna), died 1712, before his grand- father, leaving a son, Louis XV. Again: Louis XV. died 1774; his son Louis the dauphin died before his father, 1763, leaving three sons, all of whom were crowned, viz. Louia XVI., Louis XVIII., and CHARLES X. Set; 'Fatal Three.' Louis XVII. son of Louis XVI. outlived his father, but was never crowned. Like Napoleon II. he was vox et prteterea niliil in kingship. Louis XVI. was guillotined 21 Jan., 1793. Charles I. was executed 30 Jan., 1649. It is somewhat strange 1. That Louis XVI. and Charles I. both contain eight letters. 2. That the sum of 21 + 1793 = the sums of 30 + 1649 (day of the month and fatal year}. 8. That the month in each case was January. Father, Louis the dauphin, and grand- son of Louis XV. ; Mother, Marie-Josephe of Saxony ; Wife, Marie - Antoinette archduchess of Austria, guillotined 1793. Contemporary with George III. Mis son Louis XVII. never reigned. Three brothers succeeded to the crown, Louis XVI., Louis XVIH., and CHARLES X. See ' Fatal Three.' V Louis XVI. was called ' Louis the Last ' by the red republicans of France ; but they were no true prophets. Louis XVI. (son of sixty kings). He died Monday, 21 Jan., 1793, aged 30 yrs. 4 m. 28 d. His executioner was Samson. Six men were employed to seize the struggling king and bind him to the plank. Hi|; dress was a puce coat, grey breeches, and whit* stockings. When his coat was pulled off it disclosed a sleeved waistcoat of white flannel. The whitesmith that instructed Louis XVI. in lockmaking,4 M. Corby; in 1795 Hcrr Miill.-r, under which name he travelled in the north of Europe; 1848 Mr. William Smith, under which name his passport to England was made out at Honfleur; but he and his wife fled from Paris under the name of M. and Mdme. Lebrun. LODIS XIII. had for sons Loris XIV. and Philippe de France due dOrKuns. Philippe s son w-i* Pbi lippo the Rfgrnt. tbo llo^ent b son whose son was Lools-PhlUppe, Lou is- Philippe s son wab Philippe l',jnlil,-, and Egalite s son wag King Louis-PuiLiPPR. Louis de Male, Louis II. of Flan- ders. So called from Male, Marie, or Malain, in France, where lie delighted to dwell. He succeeded his father in 134.',, and died 1884. Louis the German. See LUDWIO &c. Louisiana (U.S. America). So called by M. de la Sale in KJS'J, in honour of Louis XIV. In the minority of Louis XV. it was given to the Compagnie tin Mississippi. The inhabitants are nick- named Creoles. Louisville, a city of Kentucky, in the United States of North America, on the Falls of Ohio. It was nain-d, in 1780, in honour of Louis XVI. of Fnuu <, whose troops were at the time assisting the Americans in the War of Indepen- dence. Loup-Garou, a lyc'anthrope. A sort of hypochondriac who fancies himself to be a wolf, and under this impiv-sion goes about howling and at talking children. This mania occurred in Germany in the early part of the 17th cent. The celebrated Nlcolle tells us of a convent where all the nuns fancied they were cats, and at a certain hour every day ran about mewing and caterwauling. It was cured by threatening to quarter a regiment of soldiers In the nunnery. Nebuchadnezzar's madness, in which he fun. -i. d himself to be an ox, Is supposed to have been a species of lycanthropy. Louvestein (Dutch, Loevestein ; pronounce ' Loovestine,' 8 ayl.). A poli- tical or state prison during the time of the Dutch Republic. It is a castle at the con- fluence of the Meuse (Dutch, Maas) and the Waal (Rhine), and is opposite the town of Gorkum(Gorichem), about ten milesabovc Dort (Dutch, Dortrecht). Here Grutiui LOUVESTEIN LUCANIAN 539 was kept ; he made his escape in a box which had been employed to bring him books. Here, too, De Witt and some other republican leaders had been imprisoned, and hence the republican party was called the ' Louvestein.' They were discharged from the castle at the death of William El. the stadtholder. Louvestein Faction (The). The republican party of Holland, led by Jan and Cornelius de Witt, in opposition to the Orange policy, which was to uphold the office of stadtholder. The Louvestein faction succeeded for several years in ex- cluding the house of Orange from the stadtholdership in the person of William III. (afterwards king of England), but in 1072 both the brothers De Witt were murdered by an infuriated crowd. Louis [XIV.] sent Caillleres to Holland to tamper with the Louvestein faction, -which had always been hostile to William [III. of Holland and of Kiigl:md].-HowiTT, Hitt. of Eng. (William and Mary. 105). Love-feasts, or Agapa. Held in the early ages of Christianity after re- ceiving the eucharist. The rich brought provisions, but the poor were not expected to contribute. They continued to be held for three centuries, and were ultimately forbidden by the Council of Carthage, A.D. 397. The ' kiss of peace ' was changed for a sym- bolical ceremony. An Ivory tablet was first kissed by the minister and then circulated through the congregation for each one to kiss. Low Mass, ' Missa bassa.' A mass without singing, ' quee submissa voce cele- bratur.' See ' Mass.' Low St^ameB/ 'From low St. James's up*T;-107>, the third son. Joannes Hyrcanuswasthe father of ArlntobQlus (who assumed the title of ' king' B.C. UT-108). and Aloxnnder Jannreus (also called ' king. 1 Mfi 79). Alexander Jannceus was the father of Hyrc&nns II. (B.C. 79, deposed B.C. 40, and pat to d-u'h I y Herod B.C. HOi.-and of Aristobulus II. (dethroned by Hyrcanus II ) Aristol.f.lus was the father of Mariamne, who married Herod the Great. . Maccaby is probably the Inscription of the Maccahaaan banner. M.C.C.B.Y. (Mi Cimn-Co Be- flfihim \rhnvah-i*. 'Who Is like unto thoo, O Lord, among the gods? 1 Exod. xv. 11). After the same manner the Romans inscribed on their banners tho acrostic S.P.Q.R. (i.r. Sonatas Populus- que Uomanus). H,-e the Austrian A.E.I.O.U. MacCulloch (Cutlar). A corsair who made repeated incursions on the northern shores of the Isle of Man, carrying off all that was not ' too hot or too heavy '(10th cent.). Qod keep the good corn, the cheep, and the bullock, From Satan, from sin, and from Guitar MucCul- loch. MacDonald (Half-hanged\ 1772. MacDonald, a lad of 19 years, in the 42nd Royal Highlanders, being irritated in a public-house in Bigg Market, seized one Parker and slapped his face soundly. Parker and one or two others rushed from the public, and MacDonald, rushing after the fugitives, caught the wrong man, struck him, and he died. Being tried, ho was condemned and executed. The body was handed over for dissection, and left on the table while the students went to dinner. A young surgeon came into the dissecting-room and saw MacDonald sitting up. He begged for life, but the surgeon struck him with a In .ivy mallet and effectually dispatched the half-hanged man. Macedonian War (Tfie). The First, B.C. 211-205, Between Rome and Macedonia. Philip V. king of Maei-ilou not Alexander's father), thinking the disastrous battle of Cannae had esta- blished the Carthaginian supremacy, formed in B.C. 213 an alliance with Han- nibal ; but both Rome and Carthage were for the time being too busy with their own affairs to attend to other matter*, and left the war to allies. In this war Philip had the advantage. In the first Macedonian war the (Ktolinns. Athenians, Rhodians, and Egyptians, t with Attalus king of Pergamua, took part with the Romans. The Macedonians, Carthaini:ms. Aoarnnnians. with Antiochu* king of Syria, tided with Philip of The Second Macedonian war, B.C. 200-197. Also between Rome and I donia. Philip of Macedon laid siege to Athens B.C. 200 ; but as Athens was an ally of the Romans, the Romans < 1. war against him, and entrusted tin- con- duct of the war to Quintus Flainininun, who met the army of Philip in Tli- and gained a signal victory at Kynos- keph al (the Dogshead Hills) in 197. The terms of peace were these: (1) Philip was to restore all the Greek towns to independence; (2) he was to give up his fleet, and pay a tribute to Rome for ten years; and (8) he was to give his son among the hostages for the fulfilment of these terms. The Third Macedonian war, B.C. 172- 168, was between the son of Philip, named Perseus, and the Romans. About twenty- six years after the second war, Philip being dead, his son Perseus (2syl.), hoping to throw off the Roman yoke, made war with partial success for three years, hut was at length utterly defeated by JEmilius Paullus, at Pydna in Macedonia, n.i Perseus was led captive to Rome, and the kingdom of Macedonia was converted into a Roman province. The avarice of Perseus estranged from him all his allies, and though he behaved in the most abject manner to /Mmilius Paullus, he was east into a dungeon at Rome, and died of starvation and grief. His son Alexander gained his bread in Alba Long* as a turner. Macedonians, or 'Pneumat'ics, 1 4th cent. The followers of ICaeedon'iui patriarch of Constantinople (84 who denied the divinity of the Holy Ghost. He was condemned by the Second General Council, held at Constantinople in 881. The First General Council that of Nice. 8M - condemned Arlus. who denied the divinity o Christ' and the Second General Council con- demned Miioertonius, who denied the divinity Holy tiliobt. MACFARLANE'S MACROBIOTS 645 MacParlane's Lantern. The moon. The clan of MacFarlane occupied the fastnesses of the western side of Loch Lomond, and were great depre- dators on the low country. As their ex- cursions were made by night, the moon was proverbially called their lantern. Machiavelism. Crooked, per- fidious policy, in which expediency is the ruling principle and chicanery the chief instrument. So called from Niccolb Machiavelli of Florence, whose system is set forth in his ' Del Principe.' Cesare Borgia is his model of a perfect ruler (1469-1527). Both Tiberias of Home and Louis XI. of France are credited with the maxim, ' He who knows not kow to deceive, knows not how to rule.' Maclean's People. Scotch Bap- tists. Macmillanites (4 syl.). Members of the 'Reformed Presbyterian Church 1 (q.v.) ', so called from Mr. Macmillan, one of their most distinguished preachers. Macrea (Jenny), 1777. Abducted and murdered by Indians in the army of General Burgoyne. Miss Macrea was re- siding with Mrs. Macneil, a widow, close to Fort Edward, and her lover, Jones, was in Burgoyne's army. She was about 20 years of age, intelligent and charming. On 27th July a party of Indians assailed Mrs. Macneil's house, and carried her off with Miss Macrea. Being pursued by some American soldiers, Miss Macrea was fas- tened to a tree, tomahawked, and scalped. The elder lady seems to have escaped. The burning houses, the scalped and murdered Americans, and the innocent blood of Miss Macrea made the names of the Six Nations terrible in Europe. HOWITT, Hist, of Eng. (Oeo. III.), p. 190. Macrobiots. Age Exceeding 100 years. [Greek jtaxpos /KOTOS.] Year of death 102. Hastings (Henry) 1639 Forester to Charles L Chevreul (M.E.), French chemist 1889 aged nearly 103. 107. Laugher (Thomas) 1807 of Markley, Worcestershire. Macklin (Charlt*) 1797 the actor. 108. The mother of Thomas Laugher. 116. Alice of Philadelphia 1803 Up to 120 the name* are too numerous for insertion. There are etone 1,900 of then. IX. Dragonetti, the Jesuit ... ... 1626 Fournelle (Pierre de) ... ... 1819 Orou (Jean) ... ... 1668 Harp (Frederick) ... ... ... 1792 Jacot (Jacques) ... ... ... 1529 Levezier (Nicolas) 1645 Pledrede (Joanna Francesea de) 1790 120. A man of Rechingen 1791 A priest of Linhares ... ... 1620 121. Camoux (Annibal) ... ^ . 1759 Malcomson (Sarah) . ... 1R10 Ponce le Page ... . ... 1760 Spicer (Eleonore, tie.) . ... 1778 122. Jacob (Jean) ... ... . ... 1791 La Piole Munier . 128. Barnet (dame) -. . 1708 Countess of Arundel Guigiiard (Denis) ... 184. Kuono( Andre) Schmit (A mire) Wakley OraJiam) ... Wlshart (Thomas) ... .. ... 1753 . ... 1753 . ... 1714 ... 1769 he lectured at Rome when 120 years old. a physician of Paris. Died 5 Oct. a surgeon and famous anatomist of Paris. an Englishman. died at Neuchatel in Switzerland. an Augustine, who had been a priest for 91 years. Died In the abbey of Claire-Fontaine. lived at Mexapao near Coimbra, on the road to Porto, having lost all his teeth, he cut a new set at the age of 116. The Prussian doctor Ufland is the authority for this state- ment. in the Serra da Estrella of Portugal, of Nice, died at Marseilles. He was a great eater and drinker His likeness, by J. Vernet, is in the Louvre, an Englishwoman, of Hampre, in Luxemburg. A little before death he could walk 6 or 7 miles. He was a labourer, died at Accomack, in Virginia. Buffon says she never touched alcoholic drinks, an agricultural labourer of the Jura. He presented himself to the Constituent Assembly in 1791. a labourer of Usquiole, in Berne. He never had a day's illness, a schoolmaster of Paris, died at Charleston, in South Carolina. She spoke fluentlj English, French, Spanish, Italian and Moorish; and knew both Arabic and Hebrew, in the reign of Charles I. of Luchc, in the Maine. In 1787 hei white hair turned to a blond or golden yellow, a Spanish officer, died at Badajoz. died at Teschen, in Upper Silesia, born at Shiffnal, and buried at Adbaston. He lived in the reign of eight sovereigns, a Scotchman. It is said that Attila king of the Huns died at the age of 124, on (to night of Mi second marriage, A.D. 463. 196. Barnesley (IFiiiiam) Grande* Martha Hannah M M ... 1636 an Englishman. At the age of 100 he married a second wife. ... 1754 of Pradez d Aubrac, in Languedoc, a silversmith. He nevei touched wine, and worked at his trade within twelve days of his death. Till then he had never sirnered a day's illness. . 1608 an Irishwoman. NN MACROBIOT8 Tear of 1 Montgomery (Robert - T- Carollan (Owen) . . Hughes (William) ... M Innes (A/Viry) ... .. . . Neuwel (JoAn) Yatee(Afory)... ttB Evans (Henry) Melgham (Afr. Ifory) _ Roger (J>>wi) ... 180. Bayles (John)... Seattle (B'iJJtam) Cameron (David) Ellis (William) Lllley (Samuel) _ Macbrlde (Robert) _ .. Mestausa (Ptrr) _ _ Taylor (John)... ^ . WaUon (John) ... . 181. Garden (Peter) ... .. Taylor (Elizabeth) ... .. 182. Macculloch(.onnola was born about 1640. He was a car- pentiT. and became Mahdl in IHHM. The Mahdl of the Soudan In 18H1 was only a ' false prophet,' who pretended to be the sleeping imam come back to active life to overthrow the enemies of the faith and restore all things. Mahdl means the guided one, It must be remembered that the BMMttM are the 'orthodox' Moslems, and the Sultan of Turkey is the calif or head thereof. The Shiltes are the Persian Moslems, bated by the orthodox party. The Mahdl and his party which are now (1880) disturbing Egypt are hated by the official Egyptians, who are Sunnites (2 syDlike the Turks. Latterly even the Sunnites have been expecting a Mahdl, who Is to stamp out 'the infidels. In fact, the expectation Is almost universal among Moslems. Mahometanisin. The belief that Mahomet was a prophet sent by God, and that the Koran is a revelation made to him by Gabriel in the cave Hoia. Mahomet or Mohammed lived 571-C31. Of course Mahometans are deists. The sultan Is the calif of the orthodox Moslems or Bunmtrt (9 syl.), and the Mahdl is the head of the unortho- dox Moslems or Shiitcs 02 syL). The Turks and Egyptians are Sunnittt (or ' orthodox '), the Per- sians and some Indians are Sltiitet (3 syl.) or hete- rodox Moslems. Mahon's Act. See 'Lord Mahoa't Act.' Mahratta War (The), 1804-1818. The British declared war against Holkar 16 April, 1804 ; won the battle of Deig 13 Nov., 1804; of Bhurtpoor 2 April, 1805: of Mehudpoor 21 Dec.; and concluded peace with Holkar 6 Jan., 1818. Mai (A), or 'Arbre de Mai.' A tree, bush, or branch planted before a house on May-day by those who wish to pay a compliment to the inmates thereof. In some villages of France the custom still lingers, and sometimes the 'tree' is decorated with ribbons and flowers. The clerct de la basoche used always to plant and dress such a tree every May-day in the grand cour du Palais. In the revo- lution trees of liberty were called Mait. Meanwhile the 20th June is nigh, anniversary of that world-famous oath of the Tennis court, on which day certain citizens have in view to plant a Mai or Tree of Liberty on the Tulli-riea Teirace of the Feuillants. CAHLYLK. French invo- lution, vol. 11. book v. IS. Mai'atse (The). An ancient Scottish tribe. The Caledonians and Malatee, resuming cour- age, took unarms to recover the possessions they had lost. The enraged emperor (Soverus), com- manded his army to march Into their country and to destroy it with fire and sword. JSra of m no*. Maid(TM- Joan of Arc(1412-1431>. Also called ' The Holy Maid.' In French LaPucelle.' Maid of Brittany (The). Eleanor sister of Prince Arthur, and niece of Richard Coeur-de-Lion. Maid of Kent (The). Joan Bocher, who maintained that Jesus Christ was not truly incarnate of tin- V ir^in Mary, or he would have been born in sin. Fur this opinion Cramner condemned her to be burnt to death, but Edward VI. abso- lutely refused to sign the warrant for her execution. Cranmer insisted, and tho young king reluctantly gave way. She was martyred in 1549. Some time after a Dutchman was burnt to death by Cranmer for holding Incorrect Hews of the divinity of Christ. Maid of Norway (The). Mm daughter of Eric and Margaret of way, and grandchild of Alexander III. of Scotland. At the death of her grand- father she was the acknowledged queen of Scotland, and had been betroth. ,1 to Edward, son and heir of Edward I. king of England. Margaret died on her pass- age from Norway, and consequently was neither wedded nor crowned. At herd, atli thirteen claimants to the crown arose, I u t John Balliol was ultimately elected as the king. The claim was really between Rob John Balliol. and according to English Uw that ol Balliol was undoubtedly the superior. He was great-grandson of David earl of Huntingdon by Margaret, the tlder daughter ; whereas Bruoe was the son of David s younger daughter Isabella. It was the grandson of this Bruoe who was the great Scotch hero. Maid of Orldana (The). ' La Pu- celle d'Orleans.' Joan of Arc [Jeanne d'Arc], born atDomre'my 1412. Accord- ing to one account she was burnt as a witch at Rouen 80 May, 1431. Accoiding to M. Octave Delepierre she was m to Robert des Armoises in 1438, and ilit-d in 1444. Called the Maid of Orleans be- cause she compelled the English to raise the siege of Orleans. be remembered that the French had every moti to represent the English in France hi the black In regard to the burning of Jeanne d Arc It must membered that the French ackest colours. So Richard III. was represented as de- formed in body and mind to flatter Elisabeth. V M. Dolepierre cites a document discovered in the archives of Meti by Father Vignier in the 17th cent. In proof of the marriage of Hobertsieur* des Armolses with Jeanne d'Arcy. surnamed the Maid of OrK-aus. Maids of the Cross, 1265. A< inunity of young women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and ubedicuce. MAIDEN MAIRES Maiden (The). A rude sort of guillo- tine, introduced into Scotland from Hali- fax by Morton the regent. Morton him- elf was beheaded by this machine as an accessory to the murder of Henry Darnley, husband of Mary queen of Scots (1566- 1681). Maiden Castle (The). Edinburgh or Dunedin. In the engagement -which ensued at Camelon (now Abernethy) in Perthshire, Druskenus the Pictieh king was slain with the flower of his nobility. His chief fortress, the Maiden Castle, now that of Edinburgh, surrendered, and the main body of the Pictish people fled beyond sea (A.D. 884). PRINCE, Parallel History, vol. i. p. 401. Maiden Violin (The). A Stradi- varius (1709) called La Pucelle. It was exhibited at the South Kensington Exhi- bition in 1872 among ' antique musical instruments.' Maillotins (Let), 1882. Insurgents of Paris to resist the new tax on bread levied by the Due d'Anjou, regent of France in the minority of Charles VI. So called because they armed themselves with maillets de fer when they attacked the arsenal, put to death the officers, and set at large the prisoners. After the battle of Rosebecque, the same year, this sedition was put down. See ' French Brigandg.' Pronounce Lay May-o-idh'n. Mails. Mail coaches began to run 8 Aug., 1784 ; but 14 Aug., 1838 provision was made for the conveyance of mails, &c. by railways (2 Viet. c. 98). Main Conspiracy (The), 1608. Set on foot by Sir Walter Raleigh out of hatred to Lord Cecil, the chief minister of James I. The object was to depose Cecil, and induce James to ally himself with Spain instead of with France. Sir Walter Raleigh, with Lord Cobham and Lord Grey, were brought to trial and con- demned to death, but they were all re- prieved. It was called the 'Main* con- Hpiracy because it was simultaneous with another conspiracy called the ' Bye ' (q.v.). Sir Walter Raleigh, Grey, and Cobham were charged with participation in the ' Bye,' but they utterly denied that they ever contemplated the elevation of Ara- bella Stuart to the throne and the de- position of James. See ' Bye Plot.' Grey, after his reprieve, was kept In the Tower eleven years, Cobham was sent back to prison, and Kali igh was Bent back for twelve years. 24 Maine (U.S. America), Said to have been so called from Maine, in Frane (1638), of which Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., was the proprietor. The in- habitants are nicknamed Foxes. Maine Law (The), 1846. United States of N. America. The prohibition of the sale of intoxicating liquors in Maine. The original law was made more stringent in 1851, and is still in force as then amended. Maintainers. Bands of banditti in the reign of Richard II. who subsisted or maintained themselves by robbery. They assembled in great bands, seized people for their ransoms, and carried off the daughters of men of property. They abounded in Cheshire and Lanca- shire in about 1880. Maintenance. I. In History. The association of numbers of persons under some chief, whose badge or livery they wore, and to whom they were bound by oath to support him in his private quarrels against all other noblemen. Henry VII., after the conspiracy of Simnel (1487), insisted that the law against maintenance should be rigorously enforced. EL In Law. Intermeddling in suits of law, prohibited in lt40 (32 Hen. VIII. c. 9). Intermeddling by assisting either party with money, or otherwise, to prosecute or defend a suit. If Buch Intermeddling is to assist another to obtain or retain land it is called Rural is ; if it is to assist a suit in any law-court it ia called Cur tali*. Maires du Palais. 'Majdres domus/ officers of the crown who had at one time charge of the administration of the privy purse of the king and the general government of the palace. Sub- sequently they became a very great poli- tical power. From 575 Gogon maire of Austrasia was charged with the govern- ment of the country. In 614 Warna- chaire maire of Burgundy compelled Clotaire II. to grant that the maires should no longer be nominated by the crown at pleasure, but by the great vassals for life. From 677 there were no longer any kings in Austrasia, but the maires under the title of dukes or princes of France reigned supreme. After the triumph of Pepin d'He'ristal over the Neustrians, at Testry, in 687, the maire* became hereditary. And in 752 P6pin lo Bref deposed Childeric III., and pro- claimed himself king of the whole king- MAISON MALEFAMM1 dom, with the sanction of Pope Zacha- rias I. The office was abolished by Hugues Capet [ U Cap-pay], Maison de Dieu means a mon- astic hospital or almshouse. The second league of the Orisons was called La Ligue de la Maison de Dieu or La Ligue Caddee, 1401. Maitland Prize (The). For an essay connected with the propagation of the gospel in India. Given once in three years to graduates of not more than ten years' standing. Value about 80J. Founded by the friends of Sir Peregrine Maitland, commander of the forces in South India, 1844. Majesty, as a royal title, was as- sumed in England in 1527 by Henry VIII., and in France in 1559 by Henri H. Be- fore then the king or queen was addressed as 'Your Grace' or 'Your Highness.' Louis XI. and his successors were styled ' Most Christian Majesty ' by a papal bull. Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain were entitled by Pope Alexander VI., in 1491, ' Most Catholic Majesty.' The King of Portugal is entitled his 1 Most Faithful Majesty,' a style of ad- dress bestowed by Benedict XIV., in 1748. Stephen duke of Hungary and Maria Theresa were styled ' Apostolic Majesty.' The Emperor of Austria is now styled ' His Imperial Royal Majesty ' (' K. K. Majprtnt,' i.e. Kaiserliche. Kdnigliche). T'ne Sultan of Turkey is still ' Your Hyln T.niry IV. addressed as Your 'Grace.' U-iiry vr Your ' Excellent Grace.' KdwardlV. M ' High and Mighty Prince.' -lenry VII. w Your 'Grace' or 'High- Henry VIII. Your ' Highness ' till 1527. The Stuarts Your 'Most Jesty.' ost Sacred Ma- Majorats [Mah-zjo-rah], 1806. En- tail of property created by Napoleon. A majorat was annexed to the title of nobi- lity and passed with it to the next heir. Major's or Major Oak (The), in Birkland. A part of Sherwood Forest near Edwinstowe in the possession of the Earl Manvers. So called from Major Rooke the antiquary. It was formerly called the ' Cock-pen Tree ' (q.v.). An effort has been made by Lady Manvers to call it the ' Queen Oak,' but it is called generally 'The Major Oak' still. Its branches cover a space of 240 feet in cir- cumference. It has an opening into its hollow trunk through which a man can pass and fifteen persons can be ] i inside the trunk. Inside the trunk are the letters J. II., and it is fond belief of some that they stand for John Ilex. Mai de Siam, or 'La Maladie de Siam.' The yellow fever was so called when from 1094 to 1705 it desolated tho Antilles (2 syl.). Maladie Diplomatique (La). A feigned or exaggerated illness from motives of policy as when a member of the existing cabinet is invited to a a public meeting on a subject whi.-h the cabinet does not wish to be ventilated, he sends word that he is bidden by his medical advisers to eschew speaking for the present. Malakoff (The\. Malakoffwas the name of a man who once kept a tavern on the memorable spot which bears his name. He was a purser in the Russian navy, but, being kicked out of the service for drunkenness, swindling, and smug- gling, he started a drinkshop onuide Sebastopol. As he sold drink cheaper than other men, his place was greatly fre- quented by Russian sailor?, and, after a while, the stony hill where his shebeen stood became the Malakoff Redoubt. Mal'andrins (The), or ' The Grand Companies,' a band of 40,000 adventurers who, towards the end of the 14th rent., pillaged Altkirch and other part* of Alsatia. The English word is ' Mallen- ders' ('Acta Sanctorum,' Life of St. Morandus). Malcontents (The), or ' Politiques ' of French history in the reigns of Charles IX. and Henri III., when the nation \va* divided into Catholics, Protestants, and a third party called Malcontents who were in accord with neither of the other two. They advocated mutual tolerance, and tried to find means of uniting the two communions. On the death of Henri III. they sided with Henri IV. against Philip EC., a claimant of the throne of France. The chief of the Malcontents were KrancoU d'Alencon (the king's brother), the King of Navarre (afterwards Henri IV.), the Prince de Conde. aud the Montmorencys. Malefammi (TJie Baron). Corso Donati was so nicknamed. The Baron Male fain ml, or Do-me-harm, WM Corso's nickname among the populace. Mu. ce. D. 7. MALHERBE'S MAN 55 Malherbe's Canons, i.e. of French poetry. (1) Every word employed must be French; (2) a word ending with a vowel must be followed by a consonant ; (8) no one line may run into another ; (4) the rhymes must be alternately male and female ; and the caesura of every line must be rigidly maintained. Malignants. In English history a royalist, or adherent of Charles I., so called by the Roundheads or opponents of the king. Cromwell retorted on them [the Scotch] that, though they pretended to covenant and fi?ut against malignants, they had entered into agree- ment with the head and centre of the malignants himself [Charles II.]. HOWITT. Hitt. of England (Commonwealth, p. 817). Malignity. The political tenets of the malignants or cavaliers in the time of Charles I. and II. Namely, the divine right of kings, the supremacy of royal prerogatives, the obligation of passive obedience, and the sinfulness of treason. Malleteers, 1881. See Maillotins. No doubt the terrors of the democrats of Flan- kers now again In full action, of the horrible Jac- querie and the ruthless Malleteers, at this time paralysing Paris, were present to the minds of the royal party. HowiTT, Hist, of England (vol. 1. p. Malleus Ariano'rum. St. Hilary, bishop of Poitiers from 850 to 867. Malleus HEeretico'rum. I.Pierre d'Ailly ; in Latin Petrus de Alliaco (1350-1425). II. John Faber (1470-1541), so called from the title of one of his works. St. Augustine is called by Hakewell ' that re- nowned pillar of truth and hammer of heresies ' (395-430). Malleus Scoto'rum. Edward I. On his tomb in Westminster Abbey is the inscription : Edwardus longus Scotorum malleus hie est. Malt Silver. A payment of monoy instead of malt by the tenant farmer (14th cent.). Malta (Knights of), 1523. See 'John of Jerusalem.' Malthu'sianism. The doctrine of the Rev. Thomas Robert Malthus : That as population rapidly increases, but land is a fixed quantity, the time must come wheu the population will outgrow the means of food supply, and therefore government should make laws to restrict marriages and check the increase of man (1766-1834). Mam'ertine Prison (The). So called from Mamers, the Oscan god of war. It was constructed of unhewn stone, underground, and had no door. It con- sisted of two chambers, the lower one 27 ft. by 20 ft. and 14 ft. high ; the upper one 20 ft. by 10 ft. and 7 ft. high. The lower one was entered by a small hole in the ceiling, and the other one by a similar hole in the roof. Here Jugurtha was confined, and perished with cold and hunger ; and here, according to church chroniclers, both Peter and Paul were confined, A.D. 68, the last year of the reign of Nero. The Tullidnum, in which Catiline was confined and put to death, was probably the lower dungeon of the Career Mam'er- tlnus. Mam'ertines (8 syl.) A sort of free-lances or condottieri about 300 years i.e. These sons of Mamers or Mars were Campanian adventurers of Samnite ori- gin, who took military service with any government which would pay them. Man in the Iron Mask (The), 1 Masque de Fer.' A state prisoner who went by the name of L'Estang. In 1662 he was confined in the Chateau Pignerol. In 1686 he was removed to the He Saint Marguerite, and in 1698 to the Bastille, where he died in 1703. So that he was a state prisoner above 40 years. He was buried under the name of Marchiali. Voltaire says he was a twin brother of Louis XIV. ; some think he was the Comte de Vermandois, a natural son of Louis XIV. and Mdlle. de la Valliere, who was thus punished for boxing the ears of the dauphin ; others think he was the Duke of Beaufort, who disappeared in 1669 at the siege of Candia ; or the Duke of Monmouth, nephew of James II. ; or the Count Girolamo Matthioli, minister of the Duke of Mantua, who overreached Louis in a treaty for the purchase of Casal ; or John of Gonzaque, Matthioli's secretary; or an adulterous son of Anne of Austria (the king's mother) either by the Duke of Buckingham or the Cardinal Mazarin. Man of Blood (The). Charles I was so called by the puritans because lit MAN MANCHESTER made war on his parliament. The alluuion is to 2 Sam. xvi. 7. Prince Bismarck of Prussia, born 1*1.1, Is some- times called the ' Man of Blood and Iron.' Man of Chios (The). Homer. Chios [Ki-oss] was one of the seven cities which claimed to be the place of his birth (10th cent. B.C.). Smyrna, Rhode*, Colophon, Salamls, Chloa, Argos, Athen6. VARHO. Man of December (The). Napo- leon III. So called because he was made president 11 Dec., 1848 ; he made his coup d'etat 2 Dec., 1851 ; and he was made emperor 2 Dec., 1852. Man of Destiny (The). Napo- leon I., who looked on himself as an instrument in the hands of destiny, and that all his acts were predestined. The Man of Destiny . . . had power for a time to bind king* with chains, and nobles with fetters of Iron. Sir W. SCOTT. Man of Ghent (The). M. Guizot, who joined Louis XVIII. at Ghent in May 1815. Thin was looked on by the Liberals as political treason, and called forth much controversy. John of Gaunt was John of Ghent. The pro- nunciation la nearly GoAiT. Man of B.OS8 (The). John Kyrle,of Ross, in Herefordshire, noted for his benevolence and public spirit (1687-1754). Man of Sedan' (The). Napoleon III. who, after his defeat at Sedan, 2 Sept., 1870, surrendered his sword to William king of Prussia, and was sent to Wilhelms- hohe. Also called ' The Man of Silence,' and "The Man of December.' No man was honoured with more nicknames than Napoleon III. Man of Sedition (The). So Madame de Maintenon called Jean Claude, the last of the eminent pastors of Charen ton, who was born in 1619. At the Revocation he was ordered to leave France within twenty-four hours. Man of Silence (The). Napo- leon III. (born 1808, reigned 1852-1870, died at Chislehurst 1878). France? You must know better than I your position with the Man of Silence. For Sceptre and L'roirM, chap. i. Man of the People (The). Charles James Fox, the Whig statesman (1705- 1774). Man without a Skin (The). Ricluurd Cumberland (1732-1811) so called by Garrick from his irritable temper and dread of criticism. Sheridan satirised him as ' Sir Fretful Manchester (The American). Lowell, in Massachusetts, is so culled from its numerous cotton-mills. Manchester Martyrs (The). An utterly absurd political term applied to a man named Larkin a tailor, Allen, and O'Brien, who murdered a policeman named Brett, and after trial were duly hanged, 22 Nov., 1867. It was the bub Fenians who canonised these three felons. Manchester Massacre (The), 16 Aug., 1819. A most extravagant phrase to express the injuries received by the crowd which met in St. Peter's Field, Manchester, in defiance of the magis- trate's orders, to hear ' Orator ' Hunt, on parliamentary reform. About 80,000 persons assembled, and the military waa sent to disperse thorn. They used the flat of their swords, but about 100 }> r eons were injured, either being knocked down in their flight or cut accidentally. It is said that six persons died or were killed a very small number indeed in such a stampede. See ' Petarlco.' Hunt was arrested, tried, and Imprisoned for three years. After his liberation he startod in the blue king trade. Hunt wore a whit* bearer hat, and his admirers followed the fashion. Manchester Regiment (The), 1745. A miserable squad which joined Charles Edward in his halt at Man- chester. 'The mere scum and ra-/aniuf- finism of the place.' The Duke of Perth said of them ' If the devil would offer a shilling more than the prince, they would desert at once.' Manchester of Austria (The). Briinn. Manchester of Belgium (The). Ghent Manchester of Prance (The). Rouen. It is said to have contained 200,000 inhabitants when it was besieged by Henry V. in 1418. It does not now contain above 89,000. Manchester of Negroland (The). Kano, which exports annually 1,500 camel-loads of blue cotton cloth. Manchester of Prussia (The}. Elberfeld in Westphalia, one of th MANCHU MAP B57 greatest centres of industry in all Ger- many. Velvets, lace, silk fabrics, rib- bons, bed-ticking, cotton-goods, &c., are here manufactured in large quantities. Krupp's enormous works are at Essen. Manchti Dynasty (The). The 92nd imperial dynasty of China, also called Tae-tsing. Began to reign 1644, deposing the Ming sovereign (Tsang- ching), and placing Shun-chi on the Chinese throne, with Peking for the capital. This dynasty still rules. Mandarins. From the Latin man- dare, to command ; a Portuguese word given in Europe to the governors of pro- vinces in China and chief magistrates. The Chinese call them ko-hans. There are civil mandarins and military man- farins. Man'dates (2 syl.) or ' Expectatives.' Letters of request from the pope praying fliat the benefices named in the letters may be conferred on the persons nomin- ated therein. Mandats, 1796. A sort of paper money issued by the French Directory for the redemption of their ' Assignats,' q.v. An assignat of the nominal value of 800 francs could be redeemed for a mandat of the value of 100 francs. A mandat, like an assignat, was a ' promise to pay ' in land, with this difference : an assignat was a promise to pay, but a mandat enabled the holder to take pos- session at once of public lands to the value of his mandat or mandats. As these mandats soon fell to a seventieth part of their nominal value, but might be given to government in payment oil taxes, they were called in. They were called ' Mandats Territoriaux.' Mandrites (2 syl.) or Hegumeni. Superiors of convents in the Greek Church. General abbots are archiman- drites. ManichaBans (The), 8rd cent. Fol- lowers of Manes or Mani (215-276), who gave himself out to be the Paraclete or Comforter that Christ promised to send ; and maintained there were two souls or spirits in man, one good and the other bad. He taught that the soul at death went first to the moon, then to the sun, and then to God. His creed was a mix- ture of the Persian Parseeism and Chris- tianity. The Manichaeans took for food neither eggs, cheese, milk, nor wine. Mani was put to death by Varanes or Baharam. In fact Manes or Mani tried to weld together tho doctrines of Zoroaster, the metempsychosis of tho Hindus, and the tenets of Christianity. He was put to death by Baharam I., called by the Greeks Varanes. Manichaeism is also called dualism. A vast number of sects which believe in the two principles, one good and one evil, are called ManichaBans. Manifestation (The Writ of). The Habeas Corpus writ of Aragon (18th cent.), which provided that no per son should be secretly incarcerated, as in France, nor smuggled out of the way, but that the body of every prisoner should be ' manifested ' and publicly de- tained, till brought to trial publicly in a court free to all. Man'ikin (The). The man so mer- cilessly satirised by ' Junius,' under the name of Manikin and Grildig, was Welbore Ellis, ' a pigmy in mind and body ' who succeeded George Germaine, in 1782, in Lord North's ministry. Man-rent (Scotch history). A bond between chief and vassal, in which the lord stipulated to give protection, and the vassal agreed to give personal service and fidelity. The lords Sanquhar, Drnmlanrlgg, and others, finding him [Maxwell] thus indifferent, proposed to him that they should agree to grant him bonds of man-rent, and engage to follow him in hia quarrels, provided he would effectually protect them by discharging his duty as warden. Six W. SCOTT, History of Scotland, xxxviil. Mansard Ornament (The). Stone fretted like coral. So called from Fran- cois Mansard, the French architect (1698-1666). Mansard Roof (The). The roof broken into an elbow on each side, like the Tuileries, and not thus A. Mansfield College, Oxford 1889. The first Nonconformist college at Oxford ; for the education of young men for the Presbyterian ministry. Manx Bible (The). Translated by Dr. John Kelly in 1772. Map of Religion. A Christian society has published a map divided into squares, and the squares coloured differ- ently so as to catch the eye. It calculates the present number of the earth's inhabi- tants at 1,500 millions. The heathen ar MARABUT3 MARCHES represented by black squares, Christiana by white ones, and each square repre- sents a million people. Of the 1,500 squares, only one and less than a quarter [=1,200,000] represents the entire Pro- testant community, including all its multitudinous ' sects ' (1890). Mar'abuts (The). A corruption of marbuth (a Cenobite), of the Musulman faith. They still exercise spiritual power in Barbary and Guinea, in some parts of which The Great Marabut ' ranks next to the king. Marais (The Marsh), 1794. So the ' Plain,' or floor of the Convention, occu- pied by the Moderate party, was called in the ' Reign of Terror,' and its occupants were nicknamed Grenouillej and Cra- C(h, or frogs and toads. The Red . lublicans occupied the elevated seats, and were called the Mountain party (Montagnards) ; the Girondists sat on the right hand of the ministerial benches. Pronounce Mah'rai, Gruh-nno'-ye?, Kra'-po. Mar'athon of Switzerland (The). The battle of Morgarten, 1315, in which a few Swiss utterly discomfited their Austrian assailants, and confirmed the independence of the three cantons of Schwytz, Uri, and Unterwaklen. Marave'di (The). See 'Almora- vides'(4syl.). Marbach (The League of), i*J4. Formed by the electors of Mentz and Saxony, the duke of Bavaria, and the markgraf of Meissen, against the kaiser Rupert. Later on the king of France and the king of Poland joined the league. Marcel's Revolt. French history, 1857-1358. When Jean was in captivity, his son Charles acted as regent, and wanting money convoked a States- General. Etienne Marcel, the city pro- vost, said supplies should be granted if the regent promised to use them only for state purposes, and neither gave office nor pardoned crime for money. The regent made the promise, but re- fused to fulfil the conditions as soon as he received the subsidy. Civil war was the consequence, and the partisans of Marcel wore as their badge a chaperon or hood half red and half green. The revolters seized the regent, who escaped injury by adopting the provost's badge. No sooner, however, did he feel himself free than he collected an army together to avenge himself on the provost. Marcel proclaimed the king of Navarre ' king of France,' and when the regent, at the head of an army, came to the city gates and promised to come to terms, Marcel went to open the gates, and was trea- cherously struck dead with a battle-axe by one of the regent's immediate suite. This ended the revolt ; and the dauphin, entering the city on horseback, signalised his victory by a host of executions. Marcellus of Spain (The). John son of Ferdinand and Isabella. March and June Bills. K*. chequer bills were so called till l^l, because they were payable, together with principal, in March and June; but in 1861 the method of payment wast -han^t <1, interest being calculated half-yearly. :mn one day, one at the bridge of Taillc- bourg in the Lower Charente, and the other near the city of Saintes (1 syl.). The count was pardoned. Marches. Boundaries between two neighbouring kingdoms. The Sj Marches were from the Pyrenees to the Ebro. The boundaries between England and Wales, as well as those between England and Scotland, were cull. <1 marches from the Saxon mm re, a boundary. ' Beating the bounds ' of a parish is called in Scotland ' riding the marches.' Our Marchion-ru, the wife of a marchlon m.r qula), preserves the word The marchion 01 marquis was the officer st to guard a mar oh ot frontier. MAECHETTA MARGARET'S 559 Marchetta, or ' Marchet.' A money tribute paid to a feudal lord by a tenant on the marriage of his daughter. It prevailed in England, Wales and Scot- land. Sometimes called gwahr-merched (maid's fee). Earl Brant, one of the earls of Crawford, was the last who claimed the droit de jambage (16th cent.), Marching Watch. 'In 1547 Sir John Gresham, being lord mayor of London,' revived this picturesque and splendid pageant on Midsummer's Eve. It had been put down by proclamation in 1528 on account of the sweating sick- ness ; and again in 1539. Henry VIII. took his wife Jane Seymour to Mercers' Hall to see the pageant. Stow says it was finally discontinued in 1549. The march- ing watch in London consisted of 2,000 men decorated with flowers, wreaths, and ribbons. Kings, peers, and knights on horseback joined the procession. Cresset lights and bonfires turned night into day, and banquets in the streets were liberally supplied. The march began at sunset and continued till sun- rise next morning. Mar'cionites (4 syl.), 2nd cent. An heretical sect founded by Marcion of Sinope, in Paphlagonia, son of the bishop of that city. His system is veryimper- fectly known, but he taught that there are two principles, one the author of good and the other the author of evil. The soul, he said, emanates from the former, and the body from the latter. He re- jected the Old Testament, and retained only a few of the Epistles and a part of the third gospel in the New. Marcion had a large following, which subsisted as a distinct party till the 7th cent. Origen affirms that Marcion postulated three gods, viz. a God of the Jews, a God of Christians, and a God of the Gentiles. Tertullian makes him to have postulated ninn Gods, and adds that the heresiarch denied the resurrection of the body, condemned marriage, and maintained that the living might be baptized for the dead, V What is said by the Fathers about ' heretics ' must be received with great caution. Like the Church historians, they much distorted their lives and doctrines, looking at them only from their own standpoint. Marcus Aure'lius of the Base Empire (The). John II. (Comneuus), also called Calojoan'nes, i.e. John the handsome. Reigned 1118-1148. The Base Empire, i.e. the Eastern Empire after TheodoBlui. Mardi Gras [Mah f -de-graft*], or ' Fat Tuesday.' The last day of the carnival, when the prize ox of Paris is paraded in mock procession through the principal streets, and stops at the chief houses to gather contributions. The horns and hoofs of the ox are gilt, and the beast is decorated with ribbons ; beside it walk on each side men ii. mockery imitation of the Romish priests, and a long procession, representing in similar caricature a Roman triumph, follow with bands of music, the more grotesque the better. We are told that the procession represents a Roman saturnalia, but it seems very like those semi-religious processions of the middle ages, the Feast of Fools, the Fete of the Ass, the Fete of the Bottle, and the Fete of the Cornards or Cuckolds. In Venice for many centuries there was a similar procession of a fat ox and twelve hogs on the last Thursday of Carnival ; and there is still such a celebration at New Orleans, U.S.A. See ' Zobia-grassa.' Marfo'rio. An antique marble statue of colossal size, found in the Martis foro, and at one time placed near the Brasclu palace. As all sorts of placards, hand- bills, squibs, and satires used to be affixed to the statue, it was removed in 1784 to the Capitoline museum. Margaret Professorship of Divinity (Lady), 1502. Founded in each of our two universities by Margaret countess of Richmond, mother of Henry VII. The professor must be a graduate in divinity, or an M.A. of at least seven Stars' standing in priest's orders. In xford all gradjiates in divinity and all members of the congregation (in deacon's orders) are electors. In Cambridge the office is nominally for two years, but as the professor is eligible for re-election, it is virtually for life. The electors (in Cambridge) are the vice-chancellor, all doctors, inceptors, and bachelors in divinity who have been regents in arts. Margaret's Knights (The), 2 Aug. 1786. An attempt was made by a mad woman, Margaretf Nicholson, to assas- sinate George III. as he was alighting from his carriage at St. James's Palace. Addresses of congratulation on his escape came from all parts of the kingdom, and a very large number of mayors and other functionaries, deputed to present the addresses, were knighted. These were MARGARETS MARONITEB called 'Margaret's knights,' or 'Peg Nicholson's knights.' Margaret's Shift. The main standard of Margaret's army in the battle of Falkoping, 1397, in which Albert king of Sweden was defeated by Margaret queen-regent of Denmark and Norway. There is still preserved in the cathedral of Upsala a ragged strip of linen fastened to a staff which tradition says was car- ried at this battle, to animate the troops by reminding them of the martial spirit of their leader. Margaret of Calais, 1847. The daughter of Edward III. and Philippa, born in Calais, just after the termination of the siege. Margitds. Demosthenes called Alexander the Great ' another Mar- gltcs,' meaning a conceited superficial dolt. Margltcs was a man against whom Homer wrote a satire to ridicule hit superficial knowledge and affectations. I'll take to writing poetry, a mock epio in 73 hooks . . . and take Homer'* 'Margttes 1 (or my model. KiNORLBY, Ilypatia, oh. xill. Mar'grave or ' Mark-graf.' A Ger- man reeve or chief officer of a mark or march, i.e. a frontier ; like our marquis. The original function of this reeve was to defend a borderland from incursions. Stoj'Graf,' ' Pfalz-graf.' Marguerite des Marguerites (pearl of pearls). Marguerite de Valois queen of Navarre, sister of Francois I., born 1492, died 1549. It was her brother Francois who called her La Marguerite des Marguerites. It was not Marguerite the wile of Henri IV. who was BO called. Maria There'sa, 'mother of her country,' married Francis Stephan duke of Lorraire in 1786. Born 1717, suc- ceeded her father Kaiser Karl VI. in 1740 ; her husband was crowned Kaiser Franz I. 1745, and died 1765 ; the widow died 1780, aged 63, mother of three sons and six daughters. On the death of Franz I. the eldest son Joseph II. was made ' king of the Rdmans,' and associ- ated with his mother as ruler of Germany ; and at her death became kaiser-king. It was the daughter of Maria Theresa (named Marie Antoinette) who married Louli XVI. of France, and wu guillotined. Marian Persecutions of the Protestants began in January 1555. Instigated chiefly by Philip, the Spanish husband of Mary. In this persecution fell the Archbishop Cranmer, Hooper (bishop of Gloucester), Latimer (bishop of Worcester), Ridley (bishop of London), Ferrar (bishop of St. David's), and about 800 more. Hundreds of others were banished, imprisoned, and heavily lin.-.l It la much to be feared that religion und politics were so mixed up together tliitt it often morally Impossible to separate 'here*> treason. Marie- Jeanne (M a h'-re Zjakn'}. A 12-pounder of fine workmanship which the republican party (the llu *) took in the Vendean war from the Chfiteau de Richelieu, where it had been placed by the famous cardinal. It was heroically retaken by the Vendean B (17 Mariotte'S Law. The elastic force of gases and vapours increase directly with the pressure. Maristes (2 syl.), 1818. A religious congregation at Bordeaux found. the Abb<$ Cheminnde, docteur de 8or- bonne, the object being the education of the young. It has ramified into all parts of France, and into Switzerland, Ger- many, and the United States. Marischal College (New Aber- deen), 1698. Founded by George Keith, Earl Marischal, and united in 1858 to the University of Aberdeen. The motto of the college ' They say. Qvhat say they? Let them ay' is that of the founder. Market Crosses. Places under cover for the sale of country produce on market days. Chichester Market Cross stands at the point where North and South streets, East and West streets meet. There are several market crosses still standing besides that of Clm -hester, such as Winchester Market Cross, Malmes- bury Market Cross, Aberdeen Market Cross, dsm^htor of Homy VIII., but had been bastardised by him. Mary and Darnley. llr.NKY VII. (Tudor) was the father of Henry VIII., and Margaret Tudor, who nu.rii.-d t\\ire, first James IV., and then Archibtild I >ouKla*. HKNUY VIII. was ti. ' Uzabeth; hl sister Margaret (as \> IV.) was the mother of James V. Thus Klisabeth and J M were cousins. James V. was the father of Max* MAR* MASS 565 of Scots, who was second cousin to Eliza- By her second husband, Archibald Douglas, Margaret was the mother of Margaret Douglas, who married Lord Lennox, and their son was Lord Darnley (the husband of Mary queen of Scots). Bo Darnley was half cousin to Mary his wife. V Both Mary and Darnley were second cousins. of Elizabeth. Mary Hall (St.), Oxford, 1333. Founded by Oriel College, to which St. Mary's Church belonged. The head of fhe hall is called the principal. Maryland (U.S. America). So called in 1633 by Lord Baltimore in compliment to Henrietta Maria wife of Charles I. of England. The nickname of the Marylanders is Craw- thumpers. Masaniello [Ma-san-yel'-lo]. A contraction of Tommaso Aniello, a fish salesman of Amalfi who in 1647 raised a revolt in Naples against the Spanish viceroy, the Duke of Arcos, in consequence of a tax levied by him on fruits and vegetables. The insurgents were success- ful, and for seven days Masaniello was master of Naples, when he was assas- sinated and his body thrown into a ditch. The seven-days' king held Naples from 10 July to 17 July, 1647. Mason Prize for Biblical Hebrew. Value about 24Z. a year, given to the best of the Tyrwhitt Scholars. Founded in the University of Cambridge by the friends of the Rev. Peter Hamnett Mason, M.A., Fellow of St. John's, 1883. See ' Tyrwhitt Scholarship.' Maso'rah (The). A collection of traditionary observations (orthographi- cal, critical, grammatical, and exegetical) which had been made by Jewish rabbins during a period of 800 years, on the Old Testament. They began to be made by a college of Jews at Tiberias, in Pales- tine, and were originally written on the margins of manuscripts, but were ulti- mately collected into separate books. Constant additions were made from the 6th to llth cent. A.D. There was the Great and the Little Masorah. The Great Masorah means the entire mass given in full ; also called final, because these annota- tions \\ere udded to the end of the Scriptures as a supplement. The Little Masorah is an abridg. Bient, called the marginal Masorah. because it was inserted on the margins of the MSS. Masque de Per (Le). The Man in the Iron Mask. In the MS. memoirs of M. de la Reinterie we are told that while he was in command of the fortress of 1'i- gnerol, the Masque de Fer attempted to escape, but was recaptured- The officer who condurted him back drew his sword, when the Mask cried out in a very com- manding voice : ' Songez a ce que vous f aites, Monsieur ! Respectez le sang de vos souverains.' M. de la Reinterie adds that he told this to several persons about the court, and gives a list of the names to whom he told it. 'Detenu prisonnier en France plus de 40 ans, il portait sans cesse sur la figure un masque nolr, qui etait en f er selon les uns, en velours noir selon les autres. Mis sous la garde de St. Mars, il fut conduit au chateau de Pignerol en 1GGC, puis trans- fc-re en 1G86 a 1'ile Ste-Marguerite, et en 1698 a la Bastille, oil il mourut en 1703. II fut enterre sous le nom de Marchiali. Onadit quec'etait un frere jumeau de Louis XI V (qui est 1'opinion do Voltaire, et la plus vraisemblable), qu'on aurait fait dls- paraitre pour prevenir la rivalitu des deux freres. 2. Le comtt' dr r<'nutuiil<>is, (Us miturol do Louis XIV et de Mile de Valllere, qui fut enferme pour avoir donn6 un soufflet au grand dauphin ; 3. Le due de Beaufort, quidisparut au siege da Candle en 1669 ; 4. Le due de Monmouth, neveu de Jacques II, qua la France aurait soustrait au supplice : 5. Le comte Girolamo Maltliioli, ministre du due de Mantoue. qui aurait ete enlcvc- de Turin pour avoir empeche son maitre de vendre Casal au roi de France ; ou (6) Jean de Gonzague, secretaire de Matthioli ; ou (Tfwu.filsadnl.tirin d'Anne d'Autriche [the king's mother] et de Buckingham ou de Ma- zarln. La le hypothese est la plus vraisemblable ; mais 11 y a aussf des probabilities pour la 2e hypo- these. BOUILLKT, met. Universel (p. 1205 col. 2). Mass. See also Ambrosian mass. Annual mass. Aurora mass. Cardinal's mass. Chrie Dry mass. Golden mass. Gregorian : High mass. Hunter's mass. Judicial ms Low mass. Midnight ] Missa. Naval mass. Nuptial mass. Paschal mass. Peregrine mass. Sacrilicial mass. Votive mass. Mass. The celebration of the eucha. rist in the Catholic Church. The service- book, called a 'missal,' contains four parts : the Intro'itus, the Consecration, the Communion, and the Post-Com- munio. The Canon of the Mass was compiled by Gregory the Great in 599. The prayers of the mass are not generally In the vulgar tongue. In the Roman Church they are In Latin ; in the Greek Church they are in ancient Greek ; among the Maronites and Jaco- bites they are in Syriac. In some Eastern churches, however, and even in some Koman Catholic churches of the Eastern rites, the vulgar tongue is now used. Thus the Roumanians use the Roumanian language, and the (Roman Catho- lic) Melchites of Syria use the Arabic. This, how- ever, is by a kind of toleration, and not by official sanction. V Prohibited In England in 1548 (2, 3 Edw. VI. 0.1); in Scotland it was prohibited in 1560 undei penalty of death ! ! Low mass Is when a single priest simply readt the service In a low voice ; high mass Is C/mnte4 and several ministers assist the officiating priest. In the celebration of the mass the priest wears five special gwmanta, two of liueu and three of MASS MASSACRE tllk. The colour varies according to the occasions. Thej are white, red, green, purple, and black. * Pope Celefitine Introduced the fnfroi/ and the /.fin ; Gregory the Great ordained to lay the Kyrie Kleiton nine times ; Oelasiua ordained the Kpittle and the Gotpel ; Dam as us ordained the Credo ; Alexander Introduced this clause Into the canon, - Fr\ < Khan was 1,747,000 human l.ein. that it took twelve days to count the dead (PETIT LA CBOIX and HAHKKB AL SEVER). Massacre of Nismes [Neem], 1 April, 1703 (Palm Sunday). Mar-' Montreuil, being informed that some 800 Cami sards were assembled in a mill near Nismes for religious worship, hastened with a troop of soldiers to the place, burst open the doors, and put to the sword those assembled. The process being too slow, he set fire to the mill, and only one, a young girl, escaped, and she was hanged the next day. In 1791 and 1615 were bloody religious an* political massacre* at Nismes. Massacre of Otranto (The),uso. The slaughter of 800 ecclesiastics by Mahomet II., when he took Otranto. We are told that the corpses of these martyrs, though left unburied for thirteen months, showed no signs of corruption, and were never violated by bird or beast. They were ultimately interred at Naples ; but when Solyman the Magnificent, in 1587, threatened Otranto with assault, the ghosts of these ecclesiastics, with a host of angels, appeared on the ramparts and saved the city. Again, in 1644, th same ghostly army averted auotuei MASSACRE MASSACRE 6G9 Turkish assault, and those who pro- fessed that they could not see the army of martyrs were put to death. Massacre of Pa'via (The), Aug., A.D. 408. As the Emperor Honorius was passing through- Bologna, a mutiny of the guards gave Olympius a pretext for cutting off the friends of Stilicho, whom he sought to supplant. Accordingly, two praetorian prefects of Gaul and Italy, two generals of cavalry and infantry, the master of offices, the quaestor, the trea- surer, and the count of the domestics were massacred. The lives of many others were lost also ; many houses were plundered, and on the 23rd Stilicho him- self was basely put to death. The death of Eucherius the son of Stilicho followed; the Emperor Honorius had divorced his wife Thermantia daughter of Stilicho, and all the friends of Stilicho who had escaped the massacre were persecuted with relentless acrimony by Olympius. Even his wife Serena (niece of Theodosius the Great and foster-mother of Honorius) did not escape, being absurdly ac- cused of purloining the magnificent necklace of the statue of Vesta. When Alaric invested Rome he was strangled. Massacre of Peterborough (The), A.D. 870. The monastery of Peter- borough was the glory of the age, and its library unequalled; but the Danes, having destroyed Crowland Abbey, marched to Peterborough bent on its destruction also. They assailed the monastery gates, they attacked the walls, they forced their way in, slew the old abbot and all the monks. Every other inmate of the place was massacred. The much- admired monastery and its valuable treasures were ruthlessly set on fire, and the conflagration continued for fifteen days. Massacre of Rathlin (The), 22, 23 July, 1575. The island being taken by Essex, the Scotch were massacred. Massacre of St. George's Fields (The), 1768. Six men shot and fifteen wounded by the soldiers in the Wilkes riots. Wilkes had been cast into the King's Bench, and the mob, demanding his release, assembled tu- multuously in St. George's Fields. The soldiers being called out were violently assailed, and gave chase to a man with a red waistcoat. They shot a man with a red waistcoat, but it was not the right man. The mob became frantic, and the soldiers, being ordered to fire on them, killed six and wounded fifteen. Massacre of Savenay [Sahve- nay], 22 Dec., 1793. Here the Vendeana were massacred by the republicans under Kldber and Marceau. The Vendeans had fled to Brittany, but most of them returned, and on their route were at- tacked by the republicans. They re- treated to Mons, where they were defeated, and they then crossed the Loire ; but the republicans wedged them in at Savenay, between the Loire, the Vilaine, and the sea, overwhelmed them with artillery, and literally cut to pieces every man, woman, and child with merci- less fury. Kleber wrote to the Conven- tion, ' The Vendeans are not only quieted, they are no more.' This dispatch was an exaggeration, for they were in arms up to 19 Feb., m>, when they sub- mitted. Massacre of Scullabogue Barn (The), 1798. In the Great Irish Rebel- lion. This massacre by the rebels, and that at Wexford Bridge, were the most fearful of all the outrages in this terrible insurrection. Wexford was the head-quarters of the rebels. Massacre of September (The). 2, 3, 4, 5 Sept., 1792, when 300 assassins were sent by Danton, the ' minister of justice ' in Paris, to the different prisons to massacre all the prisoners ' suspected of being averse to the revolution.' The prisons they were sent to were Les Carmes, the Abbaye, the Force, the Ber- nardins, and Bicetre ; and the number of persons massacred was about 10,000 > chiefly ecclesiastics or gentry. Amongst the assassinated was the Princesse de Lamballe, the queen's friend, and super- intendent of her household. Ecclesiastics were confined in Les Carmes (a Carmelite convent). Aristocrats were confined in L' Abbaye. Among the ecclesiastics who fell were the Archbishop of Aries and the Bishop of Saintes. If the 'judge' said to the warder 'Convey the prisoner hence to some other prison,' which he named, it was a sentence of death. Massacre of Siniga'glia (The), 1502. Paolo Orsini, Francesco Orsini, Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, and some other of the great magnates of Italy conspired to assassinate Cesare Borgia ; but Cesare by craft contrived to assemble them, apart from their troops, in the castle of Sinigaglia, and there every one of them was strangled. Massacre of Smerwick (The), 1579. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth Felipe of Spain sent an army of 700 men 670 MASSACRE MASSACRE to Kerry, thinking that all Ireland would flock to his standard. They entrenched " emselves in the fort of Smerwiek ; but e fort was obliged to surrender to the queen's troops, and Lord Grey, the lord deputy, ordered the whole garrison to be massacred. Massacre of Stockholm (The). i^ten Sture, the administrator of Sweden, consented to the elevation of Gustavus Trolle to the see of Upsala. Gustavtta was a tool of Christian II. king of Den- mark, and promised to do his best to betray Sweden into his hands. His trea- son being found out, he was compelled to resign, and his castle was razed to the ground. Leo X. placed Sweden under an interdict, and confided to Christian king of Denmark the task of punishing the schismatics. Accordingly, the Danish king invaded Sweden and, having effected a landing, was publicly crowned at Stock- holm. During the coronation festival, Gustavus Trolle demanded of the king 'justice and revenge'; and on 8 Nov., 1520, at dawn, all the gates of the city being closed, 94 of the leading men of the city opposed to the invader were massa- cred. The victims consisted of ecclesi- astics, senators, knights, and burgo- masters. In this slaughter fell the father of Gustavus Vasa. Massacre of Thessaloni'ca (The), A.D. 81)0. The Thessalonians, being goaded into insurrection by being deprived of their favourite charioteer, Circus, slew Botheric, the Roman go- vernor, and several of his officers. Theo- dosius sent word to his ministers to avenge the death of his lieutenant, and they pro- claimed a grand show in the circus, given by the emperor. When the amphitheatre was full, and the trumpet sounded for the sports to begin, a number of soldiers rushed on the assembly, and put them indiscriminately to death. The massacre was estimated to be between 7,000 and 15,000 persons (Gibbon, chap, xxvii.). Massacre of Vassy (The), I March, 1502. A massacre of the Huguenots by the Guises. This was the beginning of that religious war which desolated France in the latter half of the 16th cent. About 1,200 Huguenots had assembled In a large barn, and were celebrating their worship under the protection of the edict of January ( > was seised, but subsequently escaped. i.SVc FKLICE, ' Hist, of the Protestants of France/ v.) Massacre of Wyo'ming (The). In Pennsylvania, June and July 177H. The whole colony was either butoheiv.l or driven into exile by the British ;m.l Indians under Colonel John Butler, during the American War of Independ- ence. Campbell has a poem on the sub- ject, entitled ' Gertrude of Wyoming.' Massacre of 1641 (The). Ireland, The Catholics of Ulster whose estat.-a had been confiscated entered into a general conspiracy to extirpate the English settled in Ireland. Roger Mora headed the insurgents, and Richelieu promised him a supply of French troop*. The plot was discovered and frust but O'Neale and his confederates were in arms and seized the houses, cattle, and goodsof the English in Ulster. A gen. Til massacre followed ; public buildings were burnt to the ground, private houses destroyed, the rebellion spread, and 40,000 persons perished before the onslaught could be stayed. It was ten years before the rebellion was stamp-,! out, because Charles I. was too much occupied with his own affairs to attend to those of Ireland. Massacre of the Albigenses (The). 1208-1224 (Philippe II. Auguste); 1227 (Louis Vm. le Lion); 1545-1547 (Francois I.). The Albigenses were re- ligious reformers, and the first massacre was entrusted by Philippe Auguste to Simon de Montfort, * the French Macea- baeus.' He massacred 20,000 of them at Beziers, and burnt 450 to death at Car- cassone (3 syl.). The second massacre was urged on by Pope Honorius III., who commanded Louis le Lion to ' purge hit land of heretics.' The third massacre was in the reign of Francois L, who com- missioned John of Oppidoto root out the accursed heretics, and the baron but too faithfullv executed this horrible commis- sion. All the inhabitants of 22 towns and villages were put to the sword or burnt to death at midnight in their own houses. How Catholics can declaim agatnst the peraeea- tiona of the Roman emperors is past understand ing. Oh ! for the beam uud the mot* . MASSACEH MASSACRE 571 Massacre of the Arabian Bri- gands, 1802. The emirs, the kadis, and fakirs' contrived a plot to extirpate the Arabian brigands. Having got to- gether four companies of men, they fell on the brigands north, south, east, and west simultaneously. ' And,' we are told, ' from the province of Djized on the west to that of Atfih on the east, every Arab, old or young, male or female, was ruth- lessly massacred. Of these 16,000 were ripped up ; and if a fugitive Arab took refuge in a town, the word dakik was put to him as a shibboleth, and if the Arabic word fca/was heard, instant death followed ' (Taki-Eddin Ahmad Makrizi, ' History of the Mamlook Sultans,' trans- lated by M. Quatremere). Massacre of the Armagnacs [Ar-ma-nyak], 11, 12, 13 June, 1418, by the Paris mob. The Parisians had been driven to madness by the Burgundian and Armagnac factions, increased by the in- vasions of Henry V., the scandalous con- duct of Queen Isabella, and the imbecility of the king. In their fury they fell on the Orleanists and Armagnacs, hoping to extirpate them, under the belief that they were in alliance with the English. We are told that 14,000 were slaughtered in three days, beginning with Sunday, 12 June. The constable, the chancellor, six bishops, 3,500 persons of rank, besides the common people, fell in this dreadful massacre at Paris. Massacre of the Benjamites (3 syl.). Judges xx. A Levite having lodged a complaint against the Benja- mites respecting a concubine, 400,000 Israelites took up arms to punish the offending tribe. The Benjamites in self- defence flew to arms, and brought to the field 26,000 men of war, and 700 men of Gibeah (v. 15). In the first day's conflict the Benjamites slew 22,000 Israelites, and on the second day 18,000 more (a total of 40,000). Finding they had no chance in open fight, the Israelites laid an ambush in the meadows of Gibeah, and pretend- ing to flee, inveigled the Benjamites to the meadow, when the ambush fell on them and slew 25,100 of them (v. 85). It is quite beyond the scope of this dictionary to reconcile these statements, which seem to re- quire some amendment. All that is here set down Is the fact that the Benjamites were almost extir- pated In this massacre. Massacre of the Ben-Ouffias, by the French, 6 April, 1833. The whole subjugation of Algeria by the French is marked by treachery ; but none of their acts was more disgraceful than the mas- sacre of the Ben-Ouffias by General Savary due de Rovigo. On 6 April, 1833, he sent a battalion of the foreign legion and a squadron of chasseurs to fall on these unsuspecting victims in the dark hours of the night, and at daybreak they were all dead men, who had been mas- sacred in their sleep. Savary returned to Paris death-stricken, and died the June following. This calls to mind the narrative of Lactantlus In his ' De Mortibus Persecutorum.' Massacre of the Blues. All Constantinople in the 6th cent, was divided into two factions, the Greens and the Blues. Anastasius the emperor was a Green (491-518), and the Greens, bar- ing concealed daggers, entered the hippo- drome, and massacred 3000 of the Blues. Justinian the Great was a Blue (527-565), and then the Blues were the nuisance of the streets, molesting, robbing, brawling, and even murdering those found In the streets after sunset. Massacre of the Burgundians in Soissons [Swossong], 1414. When the Armagnacs drove the Burgundians out of Paris they marched to Compiegne and laid siege to Soissons. When the gates were opened the Armagnacs rushed in and perpetrated one of the most frightful massacres in history. Men, women, and children were slaughtered without mercy ; the churches and monasteries were pillaged ; the sacred vestments and orna- ments were scattered; the relics and images demolished; the heads of the governor and his chief officers were cut off, and 200 Englishmen were hanged. Massacre of the Champ de Mars, 17 July, 1791. When La Fayette and the mayor Bailly dispersed the mob assembled in the Champ de Mars to peti- tion for the abolition of royalty. Brissot had prepared the petition, and the people were called upon to sign it on Sunday 17 July, at the wooden altar in the Champ de Mars. Brissot did not put in an appearance, and the mob, tired of waiting, drew up their own petition, still preserved in the archives of Paris. At 6 p.m. Bailly the mayor and La Fayette with hia national guards arrived to disperse the crowd. The mob assailed them, and La Fayette commanded the guards to fire. Several were killed and more wounded ; some say thousands; Desmoulim pub the 571 MASSACRE MASSACRE number at -100, but probably between 80 and 40 was the real number. A terrible panic ensued, and all the 'patriots ' hid themselves till the panic had passed away. Massacre of the Danes (The). St. Bryce's day, 18 Nov., 1002. On this night Ethelred the Unready caused ;:11 the Danes in the kingdom to be secretly murdered. This massacre was accom- panied with circumstances of shocking barbarity. Among other cruelties, the Danish women were placed in holes in the earth as deep as their waists, and then mastiff dogs were set on them. The sister of Sweyn was not spared. Her name was Gunilda, and she is said to have been married to a noble Dane settled in England, and named Paleng. Her children were first murdered in her pre- sence, and she herself afterwards. Her brother Sweyn (or Sueno) Fork-Heard (<7.t.) i revenge subjugat ' crowned king in 1018. In revenge subjugated all England, and Massacre of the Gothic Youths (The), A.D. 878. After the battle of Hudrianople, so disastrous to the Romans, and the death of Valens, Julius master- general of the troops proposed to the senate a general massacre of all the Gothic youths distributed for purposes of education through the different cities of the East. Having concerted his plans, the Gothic youths were invited to assemble n a given day in the forum ' for the pur- pose of receiving a grant of land.' They assembled according to the proclamation, and being assembled were all indiscrimi- nately slaughtered. Massacre of the Greens, A.D. 582. Justinian (527-565) was a Blue, his pre- decessor Anastasius (491-518) had been a Green. The two factions united for a few days in the ' Nika Sedition' (q.v.), but the Blues separated again, and the two factions were as fierce as ever. The Since of general assembly was the hippo- rome ; and one day Belisarius with his veteran troops entered the place to quell a disturbance. The Blues left in a body, and ' more than 30,000 Greens were mas- sacred.' Massacre of the Helots, B.C. 424. The eighth year of the Peloponnesian War was notorious for the massacre of 2,000 Helots by the Lacedaemonians. Alarmed lest 'these slaves should turn against them, the uphors proclaimed that all Helots who had distinguished them- selves during the war should come for- ward and claim their b'>dy appeared, out of whom '2.000 were selected as worthy of emancipation. Crowned with garlands, these unhappy Helots were seer- red by tho ephors, to rid the state of what mi Jit prove a future danger. Massacre of the Innocents (The). At the birth of Jesus Great, in order to destroy 'the in; me kin^' of the Jews,' massacred all the infant children of Bethlehem from two years old and under. Mlcah v. a tells us that Bethlehem was a little place; ltwasasul.\irl.ini village, s ttlned a thousand inhabitants, the male . under two years of age would be about half a dosen. Massacre of the Italians by Mithridates, B.C. 88. Mith king of Ppntus, during the solemn his marriage with a Greek w, Stratonicea, sent forth an edict to city in the province of Asia to put to death every Italian within its b< In one day as many as 80,000 Italians were massacred in compliance with tin* edict. This reminds us of the massacre of St. Bar- tholow's Eve, which was also executed during tho marriage festivities of Henri [Henri 1 the Princess Marguerite. Massacre of the Jan'izaries (The), 15 June, 1H26. The Jan. were organised (1326-1859) into the sultan's body-guard by Orchan sultan of Turkey. In 1800 they were in.-r. . 115,000 men, but became, like the Roman praetorian guard, too powerful, and Mahmoud II., who owed his throne to them, resolved to suppress such a dan- gerous power. A mutiny being ex the sultan unfurled the sacred standard, and tne soldiers cut down the janizaries with grapeshot in the narrow streets of Constantinople. At least 20,000 fell, uud the rest were disbanded. The Janisaries deposed Bajazet II. in 1.M2, and raised Selim to the throne ; in 1395 1 1 the death of Amurath II.; U posed and slew Othmanll.; the same year and deposed Mustapha; in 1649 li.rahim; in 1703 they deposed Mu l/:l> they procured the death of tho fjrann imprisoned Achmet III., and elevated Moh In 18J6 they slew Selim III. ; and in IH_'<> they re- belled against Mahmoud, and they re- ire stamped out. Massacre of the Ma'gians (The), B.C. 522. On the death of king of Persia, the Magiaiis, one of the MASSACRE MASTER 573 six tribes of the Medes, put forward one of their number, named Patizithes, to assume the name of Smerdis son of Cyrus, who had been put to death by his brother Cambyses. Darius Hystaspes. discovered the conspiracy and made a general massacre of the Magi. Massacre of the Mameluke Beys, 1811. At Cairo Egypt was governed by 800 Mameluke beys, but Mehcmet Ali, pacha of Egypt, supplanted these 800, and kept the government in his own hands. Fearful of a rising, the pacha invited all the beys to a splendid procession in honour of his son Tossun being created general-in-chief. They came in all their pomp, but being within the palace court, were fired on by the pacha's soldiery and killed. Mehemet then sent to the governors of his several provinces to send the respective beys in chains to Cairo, where they were put to death. The entire number of beys thus massacred was from 600 to 700. Massacre of the Mar'onites (8 syl.) or Christians of Syria by the Druses. It began 28 May, 1860; mas- sacre at Hasbeyd 5 June, 1860 ; massacre at Deir-el-Kammer, 21 June ; massacre at Damasus 9 and 10 July, 1860. The Druses inhabit the range of Mount Lebanon, and divide possession of some 200 towns with the Maronites. Their religion Is a mixture of the Jewish, Christian, and Mohammedan. The Maro- nites, since 1445, have been united to the Church of Rome. See ' Druses.' Massacre of the Mitylenreans (The), B.C. 427. A large number of pri- soners fell into the hands of the Athenians in the Mitylensean war. It was discussed by the conquerors how these prisoners should be disposed of, and Cleon advo- cated their instant massacre. After more than 2,000 had been put to death, the Athenians sickened with the whole- sale slaughter, and the massacre was stopped. Massacre of the Monks of Bangor, A.D. 607. Ethelfrith king of Northumbria attacked Chester. Hard by the city 2,000 monks assembled in the moiiastery of Bangor, and after a three days' fast, followed the British army to the field. Ethelfrith watched the wild i-os and outstretched arms of these monks as they stood apart invoking the vengeance of heaven on the foe. He took them for enchanters, and cried aloud, ' Bear they arms or no arms, they cry ! against us to their gods,' and as he spoke j his soldiers rushed upon them, and put them all to the sword. These monks were praying for the success of Brocmail king of Powys, but when his army saw the massacre, it fled, and the victory of Ethelfrith was complete. Massacre of the Paulicians (The). The Paulicians were the Hu- j guenots of the 8th and 9th cents., and Theodora was the Catharine de Medic is who ' hated them with a perfect hatred.' In a few years this zealous empress put to death by gibbet, stake, or sword 100,000 of these Christians. See ' Slaugh- ter,' ' Persecutions,' &c. This Is a long and sickening list, but by no means exhaustive. No mention, for example, is here made of the many massacres of the Jews, in which Russia of modern states stands sadly pre-eminent. Massil'ianism. The same as * Semi-pela'gianisin ' (q.v.) : so called from Massilia, the Latin for Marseille, whence the ' heresy ' arose. The doctrine was this : Man can go to the palace door, but must be ushered into the presence- chamber. In other words, man can repent, for- sake sin, and wish to be a Christian, but having thus come to the door, God's grace must then lead him all the rest of the way till he enters into the presence-chamber of God. Massoretes (8 syl.). Jews who helped to fix the vowel points of the Hebrew Scriptures on the authority of tradition (massora). The vowels added by these doctors are called the Massoretic points. The main authority for these points Is the school of Tiberius in the 5th cent. Master. In Oxford University, the title held by the head of three of the colleges, Balliol, Pembroke, and Uni- versity College. In Cambridge University the head of King's College is called the provost and of Queen's president, but of all the other colleges he is called the master. Master of Gray (The). Son of Lord Gray, employed by Queen Elizabeth to undermine the influence of Stuart earl of Arran in Scotland. In 1585 Arran was driven from the royal presence and his estates were confiscated. Master of Sentences (The), 'Magister Sententiarum.' Peter Lombard the Schoolman, who died 1164. So called from his book entitled ' Sententiarum Libri IV.,' a collection of quotations or sentences from St. Augustine and othei 674 MASTER MATHEMATICS Fathers on sundry points of Christian doctrine, with objections and replies. It was a manual for the scholastic dis- putants of the middle ages. Master of the Buckhounds. Who has control of all matters relating to the royal hunts, with a salary of 1,7002. a year, but he goes out of office with a change of ministry. Master of the Ceremonies, 1608. Instituted for the more ceremonious reception of ambassadors and persons of distinction. Beau Nash was called 'Master of the Cere- monies,' but all that this designation signified wan that he arranged dictatorial!}- the amusements at Bath, or vraa president of the Bath entertainments. Master of the Horse. The third great officer of the court, having the superintendence of the royal stables. He is master of the equerries, pages, grooms, coachmen, saddlers, farriers, and all artificers working in the royal stables. Ho is responsible for the disbursements in his department, but his accounts are audited. On state occasions he rides next to the sovereign. The salary is 2,6007. a year. Master of the Household. An officer in the lord steward's department whose duty it is to superintend the choice of servants. Salary 1,1587. a year. Master of the Rolls, in Chancery, 1'jst;. A judge of the Court of Chancery, who ranks next to the lord chancellor. Since 1888 he has been keeper of the public records; his salary is 7,0007. a year. He has a deputy-keeper, with several assistants and senior clerks. Master-singers, 1850-1570. The highest degree of the Guild of Rhetoric in Germany. The three degrees were apprentices, companions, and masters. The guild consisted of poets and musi- cians ; the former were, strictly speaking, master-poets, and the latter master- singers. These literary guilds were first established in Mainz, Niirnberg, and Str.istmrg. They held their guild every Sunday in the cathedral of the city, and Karl IV. gave them corporate rights and a corporate seal. By far themost eminent of these muster-singers was Hans Sachs (1494-1578), a cobbler by trade, but a true genius, and prince of satirists. Bach*, pronounce Sax. Master's Side (The), for murderer* and other capital offenders. When Newgate was used aa the chief convict pri on, the 'Master's side' was the part so appro priated. Masters (The Four) : 1. Michael O'Clerighe, who died 1648; 2. Cucoi- righe O'Clerighe; 8. Maurice Conry ; 4. Fearf eassa Conry ; authors of ' Annals of Donegal.' O'Clerighe ! sometimes Anglicised into Clerk ion and Cucolrighe into Ptrrgrine, Masters and Fraternity of the Passion and Resurrection (T)u-), 18th to 15th cents. A company of monka incorporated by Charles VI. of France to represent dramatically in churches religious mysteries. The most famous of their dramas were ' Tho Passion/ ' The Resurrection,' ' The In- carnation,' and ' St. Catherine.' The first two were performed before the king on his marriage with Isabeau of Bavaria See ' Ober-Ammergau.' Masters in Chancery, c 'hi. f officers under the judges hi the Court of Chancery, whose duty it was to tako minutes of the proceedings, and tax the bills of cost. Abolished Masters of Court. The chief officers under the judges. Their duties are to attend the sittings of the courts during term, make minutes of the pro- ceedings, and to tax bills of costs. Matemans. So the Lollards were called from their frugal lives and the poverty of their appearance. Also called ' Alexians ' (q.v.) t ' Brethren and Sisters of Alexius,' and ' Cellites ' (q.v.). They rose in Antwerp about 1800, and were admitted by Sixtus IV. amongst the religious orders in 1472. Materialists. Those who believe that man has only a material nature, and that thought, conscience, intelligence, (fee. are works of the brain. They deny the existence of soul or spirit, and deny also all that is supernatural, as the spirit god, miracles, and the resurrection. Mathematicians (2nd cent.). As- trologers, magicians, and diviners. In Justinian's code is a chapter headed De Maleficis et Mathematicis; and the Theodosian code enjoins the banishment of mathematicians from all Roman cities and the burning of their books. Mathematics (Professorship of). Ill the University of Cambridge. 16(18, MATHIA8 MAXIMILIAN B76 founded by Henry Lucas, and endowed with an estate in Bedfordshire worth 150Z. ; but the present stipend is 850Z. See ' Sadlerian Professorship, &c.,' ' Smith's Prizes,' ' Lucasian Professor,' 'Adams' Prize.' Mathi'as, brother of Rudolf II., and son of Maximilian II.; kaiser-king of Germany of the House of Austria (1556, 1612-1619). Having no child, he adopted his cousin Ferdinand, in whose reign was the Thirty Years' War against the Pro- testants. Contemporary with James I. Father, MAXIMILIAN II. [his brother RUDOLF II. preceded him on the throne] ; Mother, Mary, daughter of Kaiser Karl V.; Wife, Anne of Austria, no issue. Contemporary with James I. Mathurins (The), or 'Maturing 1191). A religious order instituted by St. Jean de Matha and Felix de Valois for the redemption of Christian slaves in Barbary. They were originally called Trinitaires, or Les Religieux de la Saints Triniti. The name ' Mathurins ' was given to them in France, because in 1226 they occupied a church built in Paris in honour of St. Mathurin. The order was suppressed in 1790. St. Mathurin (Maturinta) lived In the 4th and 8th cent. He was a confessor born in Sens and buried at Larchant, in the G&tinais, where a church was erected to his honour. Another was built in Paris, which was given to the Trinitarians. His relics are preserved in the parish church of Moncontour, in Brittany, and many pilgrims during Pentecost nock to the church every year. Matilda the Good, cousin and first wife of Henry I. of England, daughter of Malcolm king of Scotland. Married 1 100. died 1118. Matins, or ' Nocturns.' One of the eight daily services of the Catholic Church, and the first of the four great ones at daybreak. See ' Canonical Hours.' Matronalia, 1 March. The festival of the Roman matrons to commemorate the reconciliation of the Sabine women with their fathers and brothers after the *Rape of the Sabiues.' Matthew Parker's Bible, 1572. The second folio edition of the ' Great Bible ' (q.v.), with corrections and several prolegomena under the supervision of Archbishop Parker. See ' Bibles.' Matthews' Bible, 1587. A version f the Bible in English edited by John Rogers, superintendent of an English church in Germany, and published by him under the fictitious name of Thomas Matthews. It was based on the transla- tions of Tyndale and Miles Coverdale. ' Cranmer's Great Bible ' was a corrected edition of Matthews' Bible. See ' Bibles.' Mat'urihs (The). See ' Mathurins.' Matutinal Mass. ' Missa Matu- tinalis,' a mass ' quse post exactas matuti- nas dicitur.' The matutlnse follow the nocturns. See ' Mass.' Matutinae in profestis et domlnlcls, quibus tar- dius nocturnaa preces persolvebantur Do CANOE, vol. Iv. p. 607, col. 1. Matuti'nus Pater, i.e. ' Father of the Morning'; so Janus was called by the ancient Romans, and prayers were addressed to him by pious Romans every morning. Our word January Is derived from this mytho- logical deity. Mausole'um (The), B.C. 351, or Sepulchre of Mausolus of Caria,, built by his widow Artemis'ia, and considered one of the seven wonders of the world. A.D. 1500 the sculptures of this marvellous mausoleum were actually employed by the knights of Rhodes in fortifying Hali- carnassos 1 Some of the sculptures have been rescued, and in 1846 were placed in the British Museum, as the ' Budrum Marbles.' Max O'Rell. The pen-name of Paul Blouet, author of ' John Bull and his Island,' &c. His grandfather waa Max Blouet, an officer in the French army. Being taken prisoner he was sent to England, and fell in love with an Irish girl, named O'Rell, whom he married. Maxima CaBsariensis. One of the five provinces into which Britain was divided in the reign of the Emperor Severus. It included the northern part of England extending to the Wall of Severus, between the Tyne and the Sol- way. It had its own ruler, but that ruler was subject to the prsefect or governor-general of the island. Maximilian I., ' the Pennyless ' and ' Taciturn. 1 Second monarch of the house of Austria (or Habsburg). Like his father, he died from a surfeit of melons (1459, 1486-1519). Father, Kaiser Friedrich III. the Pacific; Mother, Elenore of Portugal; Wives, (1) Mary of Burgundy, only child 576 MAXIMILIAN MAYOR of Charles le Ttmiravre, and heiress of 17 provinces ; (2) Bianca Maria [Sforza] niece of Ludovico Sforza II Moro. Con- temporary with Henry VII. and VIII. His eldest son was Philippe the Handsome, who married the Infanta Juaua of Spain (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella), by which marriage Spain became united to the house of Austria. Philippe died leaving issue the famous Earl V. (Charlcs-quinti afterwards King of Spain, Austria, and America (the Qolden Age of Spain). It was the son of Karl V. who married Mary queen of Unwind. '.* It was a magnificent period of European his- tory -the period of Luther, the Humanists, print- ! Columbus. The popes were Alexander VI., I'ius III., Julius II., and Leo X. The first of these was the patron of Michael Angelo and Raphael. In Spain were Ferdinand and Isabella ; In Portugal Kmmanuel the Great, founder of the Portuguese navy, the Mtecenas of Arts and Sciences, and the Mend of Vasco da Oama. In England were Henry VIII. and Cardinal Wolsey: and In Turkey was Bajaset II., the conqueror of Constantinople. Maximilian II. Kaiser-king of Germany (1525, 1564-1676), nephew of Karl V. (Charles-quint), and of the house of Austria. He had fifteen children. Father, Ferdinand I. ; Mother, Anne ; Wife. Mary his cousin, daughter of Karl V. Contemporary with Elizabeth. May (The Maids'). There were four historic Mays in the eventful life of ' tho Maid ' (Jeanne d'Arc). 1. At Vaucouleurs the Maid announced her mission to De Baudricourt, governor of Vaucouleurs, in May 1428. 2. At Orleans she compelled the Eng- lish to raise the siege, 8 May, 1429. 8. At Compiogne she was besieged by the Duke of Burgundy and the English, May 1430; captured in a sortie against the Burgundian quarters, 24 May ; given up to the English ; and condemned to be burnt as a heretic by the University of Paris, 24 May, 1481. 4. At Rouen she was burned to death, 80 May, 1481. Some say she was not burnt, but married to Robert dcs Armoises about 1438; that she was living in 1444 ; and that her sentence was reversed by the pope 7 July, 1456. May Meetings (The). The great annual religious meetings held in Exeter Hall, Strand, London, during the month of M:iy. May 31 (The Day of), 1793. In the French Revolution, the commencement of the Reign of Terror, when the people of Paris, conducted by Henriot, invaded the Convention, compelled them to set Hebert at liberty, and to arrest the Girondins (q.v.). Tho Rolgn of Terror wns from 31 May, JTWJ, to 87 July, 17U4 i the fall of Robespierre). Maynooth [The Royal College of St. Patrick], in Ireland, 1795. Founded by Act of the Irish Parliament for the education of students designed for the Catholic priesthood. It was hkoacpontod and endowed in 1845 by Acts 8, 'J Viet. o. xxv. ; but in 1869 these acts were re- pealed, and the college received a hir<:e endowment in lieu of its previous annu.il subvention. Mayor (In England). The title of Bailiff was changed to that of ' Mayor of London ' in the reign of Henry II. 'Rich- ard I., in 1189, granted the citizens the right of choosing their own mayor ; and the title was changed to Lord Mayor in 1854 by Edward III. The chief magistrate of York was mad* Lord Mayor in 1889. The first mayor of Dublin was ap- pointed in 1409, and he was styled Lord Mayor in 1665 by Charles n. The Mayor of the Palace, in Fr existed as far back as 560, but m 1 into royalty on the accession of Pepin le Bref in 752. The title of ' Right Honourable ' was eonforrod on the Lord May or o f London by Edward III . His salary Is 8,0001. for the year of office. The first Lord Mayor's Show was In 14M. wh>n Sir John Norman went by water to be sworn in t Westminster. Mayor (The). Elected since the 'Municipal Corporations Act* (q.v.) in 1885, from the councillors. If any coun- cillor so elected does not choose to serve, he must pay a fine of 100 J. The qualifi- cation of a mayor is the fact that he is a councillor, and if any other person serves in the office the fine is 501. The mayor presides at all meetings of the council, and has (during his year of office) preced- ence in all places within the borough. He revises, with his two assessors, the burgess list, which he must sign in open court. He presides at the election of councillors, and is magistrate for the borough both during his official year and for the year following, when he is deputy mayor. He is also the returning officer at the election of members of Parliament. Mayor of Garrett (The), 1741. Garrett is a hamlet between Tooting and Wandsworth in Surrey. The first mayor was the chairman of a club organised to prevent encroachments on the comim.u. An encroachment took place not long afterwards, and the villagers won tlu-ir suit, with costs, during a general election MAYOR MEAL-TUB 577 after Walpole's resignation. The event was celebrated by the election of a 'Mayor of Garrett,' who held office so long as the parliament sat, and with, every new parliament a new mayor was elected, whose inauguration was cele- brated with a village feast. Foote wrote a farce entitled ' The Mayor of Garrett.' There have been several such' mockery mayors.' As the Seaside Mayor of Newcastle-under-Lyme ; the mock mayor of Randwick in Gloucestershire ; the mock mayor of Weston near Bath, &c. Mayor of the Palace (The). * Major domus ' ; in French ' Maire du Palais,' keeper of the privy purse and superintendent of the royal household in France. The Mayor of the Palace be- came the head of the aristocracy, and was the virtual ruler of France during the reigns of the Eois Faineants (638- 742). The office was curtailed by the Carlovingian kings and abolished by Hugues Capet. Mazarin of Letters (The). D'Alembert (1717-1783), French mathe- matician, philosopher, and encyclopaedist. Maz'arinades (4 syl.), 1649-1652. Political squibs during the Fronde war. 4 Pres de quatre mille Merits satiriques, la plupart dirige"s contre Mazarin, et dictes par la haine la plus acre.' Motte- ville says, ' Never man of equal authority pardoned so many of his enemies, and never man committed so few to prison.' Mazarine Bible (The). The Guten- berg (? Schb'ffer) Bible, the earliest book printed in movable metal type. It con- tains no date, but a copy in the ' Biblio- theque Mazarine,' formed in 1648 for the Cardinal Mazarin by G. Naude, and given to the public in 1688, contains the date of the illuminator Cremer, 1456, so that the Bible must have been printed before that date. Only seven copies in vellum exist, but there are known to be twenty-two copies on paper, some of them very imperfect. In 1855 Mr. Quaritch, bookseller, of Piccadilly (ac- cording to the ' Methodist Recorder '), gave 8,9002. for a copy at Sir J. Thorold's ; certainly in 1887 he gave 2,650Z. for the copy in the library of the late Earl of Crawford. One was sold in 1873 for 8,400., and a copy was sold in 1889 for 2,OOOZ. See ' Bibles.' A good vellum copy is worth 4,0002. Of course it was called the Mazarine Bible because the copy in the Mazarine Library, Paris, lives the approximate date. There is another 25 Bible called the Mazarine Bible, printed before 1466 by Eggestein. ** A Psalmorum Codex (Sir J. Thorold's sale) was sold for the unprecedented sum of 4,500J. Mazarin, a proper name ; Mazarine, the adjec- tive. Mazarin'ians. Those who sided with Cardinal Mazarin in the Fronde War (1648-1653). The opponents were called the Frondeurs. The cause of this contention was Mazarin's prohibi- tion of the Act of Union (q.v.), the 27 articles of demand by the Paris lawyers. Such as the abolition of monopolies ; the reduc- tion of imposts ; the prohibition to levy taxes without the authority of the States General, or of arrest without assigning the cause; the obliga- tion of bringing prisoners to trial within a given time, &c. Mazarin and the court party pro- nounced these demands an encroachment on royal privileges, and subversive to the govern- ment. Maz'daas'nanism or 'Mazdaism.' The ancient Persian religion. So called from Ahura Mazdao, the all-wise spirit or supreme god of the Persians. This supreme god was supposed to be creator of the world, god of light and truth, without beginning of days or end of years. Mazdaism was reformed by Zoro- aster or Zerdusht, whose disciples were called Guebres or Parsees. Mazdaasnan means worshippers of Ormuzd. Parsees mean people of Pars or Fars (i.e. of Persia) ; and Guebre is a proper name = Cheber or Jebah. The Persian gawr means an infidel. Mazzulo, 1503. A plague which desolated Italy It carried off Philip of Burgos in 1506. Machiavel tells us in his ' Political Correspondences ' that it especially attacked the head and chest, and was accompanied by a cough. It appeared in Padua in 1558, 1568, and 1580, and was most disastrous. See 1 Plagues,' &c. It appeared in France, and went there by the name of Coqueluche. M.C. Master of the ceremonies [in court] ; in the U.S.A. it means ' Member of Congress.' Meagher of the Sword. Thomas Meagher, son of a Waterford merchant, the orator of the Young Irelanders. He emigrated to America, and became General Meagher. He obtained his sobriquet because his speeches were warlike harangues, and he himself was a dashing cavalier. Meal-tub Plot (The), 1680. A sup- posed Presbyterian plot to seize the crown and prevent a popish succession. Revealed first to the Duke of York by a PP 578 MEDIATOR MEGALESIAN young man named Dangerfield. When the whole affair was proved to be false, and Dangerfield was committed to New- gate, he said with great seeming penitence that what he had told the duke was un- doubtedly a forgery to cover a real plot. The real plot he said was a popish one, and the notes of the sham one would be found in a meal tub in the house of Mrs. Cellier, a Roman Catholic midwife. The papers were found there, and the plot was called the Meal-tub Plot. This was the second of three ploU. The first was the popish plot revealed by Titos Gates, and the third was the Kyehouse plot. Mediator of the Helvetic League, 1803. A title and office as- sumed by Napoleon. By the treaty of Lune'ville it was stipulated that the in- dependence of Switzerland should be respected; but the French troops not being withdrawn, perpetual feuds were fomented by their instigation between one canton and another. Napoleon declared that this state of things must cease ; and assuming to himself the right of arbitra- tion, he reduced Switzerland to a kind of dep ndency under the military yoke of France. For this ' service ' the Swiss were ordered to supply 16,000 men to the French army. Medical Rose (The), or 'Rosa Anglica,' about 1492. The medical work of John Qaddesden. Gaddeeden was educated at Merton College, Oxford, and was thought to be the grand luminary of physic; but his prescriptions are a wonderful compound of superstitiong, theological injunctions, charms, and quackery. Medice'an Stars (The). Jupiter's satellites were so called by Galileo, who discovered them, but the term has not come into general use. Galileo's cele- brated work, ' The Sidereal Messenger,' is dedicated to Cosmo de' Medici II. fourth duke of Tuscany. Med'icis A huge standing collar propped up by a wire frame, and inclosing the whole back of the head. This ugliness superseded the ruff, and was introduced by Marie de Medicis, wife of Henri IV. of France. Mediaeval History close* with the invent-on of printing and the discovery of America, and modern history begins iphemistically ' wits and bum- bo assumed the name of ' Monks of St. with the Lutheran reformation. All these three events occurred about 1500. So that mediaeval history closes with the 15th cent., and modern history begins witli the 16th cent. Printing made generally known 1MO Columbus set sail for America 1492 Reformation begun In Germany by Lather 151T Mediaeval Schoolmen. For thosa bearing complementary titles seep. 2<>1. Medjidie, 1852. An order of honour instituted in Turkey by the Sultan Abdrtl- Medjid for foreigners as well as natives. Medmenham Club (The), 18th cent. It was held in Medmenham Abbey. The club consisted of wild spirits, called who Francis.' The inscription over the door was ' Fais ce que tu voudras.' Langley gives an account of it, and significantly suggests that it is wise to draw a curtain over it. Rabelais Bays the motto over the door of the Abbey of Th6Rm was FAIH OI QU VOCLDRAH.- Gargantua I. 53-67. Medon'tidro. The thirteen archons of Athens, so called from Medon son of Kodros the first archon. Meerut Massacre (The), 10 May, 1857. The native troops or Sepoys re- volted, shooting their European officers, firing the bungalows, and massacring the European inmates without respect to age or sex. See ' Indian Mutiny ' and ' Massacre.' Megacle'an (A). A pertinacious and obnoxious political opponent, so called from Megaclt-s the Athenian ar- chon. In the tune of Cylon and Pittaco* Megacles and his adherents were for ever striving to upset the government, and restore it to an archonate. Megale'sian Games (The), B.C. 206. In honour of Cybele, the great [megale] goddess. They commenced 4 April, and lasted a week. During the Second Punic War an oracle had declared that the Romans would conquer the Carthagini- ans if they carried off their palladium, a gnat aerolith, sacred to Idea or Cybele. The senate sent an ambassador to de- mand it, and it was transported to Roma in grand procession. A temple wa* erected and games instituted i iU honour. MEISTER-SANGEB MELLIFLUOUS 679 Me ister-s anger, 14th cent. A corporation of German poets and mu- sicians which succeeded the Minne- sangers. They were for the most part artisans, by far the most celebrated being Hans Sachs [Sax]. In 1878 Karl IV. gave them a charter and a seal. See 1 Mastersingers.' Mek'hitarists. So called from Peter Mekhitar (1676-1749) of Cappa- docia. While in Constantinople (1700) he joined the Armenians, and afterwards the Catholics. Being driven from Con- stantinople by religious persecution, Mekhitar took refuge hi Smyrna, then hi the Morea. To Mekhitar we owe an Armenian Bible (1738), an Armenian grammar, and an Armenian dictionary. His disciples, the MekhitaristB of St. Lazzaro (degli Armeni) are learned Benedictines whose publications have a European reputation. Melancholy Isle (The). Tobago, In which an English colony was planted in 1787. So called because, viewed from the north, it seems only a mass of lofty and gloomy mountains, with black preci- pices descending abruptly to the sea. It is under a lieutenant-governor, a council of nine, and a house of assembly pf sixteen members. Melancholy Jacques {The). Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1777). He was a misanthrope and a recluse, of morbid sensibilities and unhappy spirit. The phrase is from Shakespeare's 'As You Like It.' Melancholy Magyars (The), 955. The Hungarian fugitives in the great battle of Augsburg, on the river Lech. They were condemned by their country- men to servitude. Magyars, pronounce Mard'-yan. Melbour ae Ministry (The), 1835- 1841. Called by Sir George Trevelyan ' that melancholy period.' Mr. Torrens says that Lord Melbourne was neither an orator, nor jurist, nor financier, nor great legislator, nor great leader, nor consistent politician. This is true, but he was a man of most wonderful tact. Of the Melbourne Ministry Praed says their policy was To promise, pause, prepare, postpone, And end by letting things alone ; In short, to earn the people's pay By doing nothing every day. Melbourne's Six Acts, 1885- 1841. Corporation Reform (England), 1835. Corporation Reform (Scotland), 1836. New Marriage Law (by registration, &c.), 1836, 1837, 1840. Tithe Commutation, 1886, 1837, 1839. Poor Law Reform (Ireland), 1838. Municipal Corporation Reform (Ire- land), 1840. Melchites (2 syl.), or ' Imperialists.' Syriac, Egyptian, and Levantine Chris- tians generally so called in reproach on account of their implicit submission to the edict of the Emperor Marcian for the publication and reception of the doctrines and ceremonies of the Greek Church, and for submission to the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon. Their head is called the Patriarch of Antioch, and dwells at Damascus. They are Roman Catholics of the Eastern rite, and have a service in Arabic. The Copts of the Greek Church are called Melchites by their mo- nophysitic brethren. Mele'tian Schism (The), 4th cent. Caused by Meletius bishop of Lycopolis, who had been deposed for offering s<.cri- fice to idols to avoid persecution. When Peter of Alexandra died Meletius took on himself the power of ordination, and was most relentless in rejecting the lapsed. The Council of Nice, A.D. 825, decreed him to be schismatic. Mele'tians, 800-400. Follower of Meletius bishop of Lycopolis, in Egypt. See above. Melitine (The). A legion, also called the Thundering or Fulminant Legion from its dash and courage. It was composed of Christians, and it is said that the army of Marcus Aureliua was saved by its prayers in 174, when on the point of perishing in the desert. Mellifluous Doctor (The). St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux (1091-1158, canonised by Alexander III. in 1174). It was this St. Bernard who preached up the second crusade in 1146, and was the founder of the Bernardins (q.v.). Called the 'Last of the Fathers' and the ' Oracle of the Church.' St. Bernard procured the condemnation of Abelard at the Council of Sens, in 1140; was mainly instrumental in the death at the stake of Pierre de Bruys and Arnaud de Brescia, two religious reformers, who declaimed against the ill lives of the clergy, and vehemently opposed Gilbert de la Porree, bishop of Poitiers, who had Attacked the Nominalists (q.v.). However, whea MELON MENANDRIANS the monk Raoul proposed to mansacre all the Jews, St. Bernard resolutely opposed the suggestion. V The 8t. Uernurd who founded the hospice was 8t. Bernard of Mcnthon, and lived about a Mmtury earlier i930-100w. Melon Colic. The first three kaiser-kings of the house of Austria or Habsburg died from dysentery brought on by eating melons : Albert [Albrecht] II., Friedrich III., and Maximilian I. Melton Mowbray Hunt (The), established 1759. The four chief mem- bers used to form a sort of autli court in all matters connected with the chase in England. The three original packs were (1) the Duke of Rutland's ; (2) Mr. Osbaldeston's, or the Quorn hounds, Leicester ; and (4) the Earl of Lonsdale's, or the Cottesmore hounds, of Rutland- shire. There has been no such 'hunt' for many years, but the Leicester si lire hounds are still celebrated, and the Duke of Rutland's hounds, the Quorn, and the Cottesmore hounds are well known (1890). Member of the Sacred Crown (A). A nobleman of Hungary. Hungary was the Land of the Sacred Crown. The Sacred Crown was the crown given by the pope to St. Stephen, king of Hungary (979, 997-1088). Members' Prizes (The). Of the University of Cambridge. Two prizes of vhirty guineas each, one for a Latin essay and one for an English essay, on a subject connected with English history. Founded 1752, when there were four prizes, which in 1870 were reduced to two. Any student below the degree of M.A. may be a candidate. Memmia or Rernmia (Lex), or- dained that an accusation should not be admitted against those who were absent on the public service ; and if anyone was convicted of false accusation, he was to be branded on the forehead with the letter K (kalunmiu). As for those who have calumniated you by leasing-maklng, I protest to he:iven I think they have justly incurred the pouulty of the Mtmnnnia Lex, also called L.'i Kh.-mni the place of burial, as the memorial crosses of Eleanor of Castile, called ' Eleanor Crosses,' as those of Walthain, Northampton, and Geddington. Charing cross was destroyed in If- 17, but a model of it stands in front of the South-Eastern Railway station, Strand, London. Memphitic Version of the Scrip- tures in the dialect of Lower I Also called the 'Coptic.' Suji>< be of the 3rd cent. See ' Script mv-,.' The version In the dialect of I called the ' Sahidic ' or ' Thebaidic,' is supposed to be the older of the two. Men Of '89 (The). The leaders of the French revolution, such as Mirabeau, Dan ton, Robespierre, Marat, St. Just, &c. Men of the 14th of July. H. d republicans of France. The reference is to the taking of the Bastille, 14 July, 1789. A letter was banded In by Santerre to the president, stating that the petitioners wanted to be admitted to ... prove them-, hes still the Men of the 14th July. How i , ,. ( Geo. III. p. 617). Menageries (Les). The reunions of Mine, de Tencin in the regency of Louis XV. In these reunions one met with Montesquieu, author of the ' Persian Letters '; Helvetius, author of ' I/K-prit '; Fontenelle and Lamotte, Rollin, Vertot, the two Daciers, Voltaire, and Lord Bolingbroke. They were the nursery of the encyclopaedists. Menander, the Samaritan, who suc- ceeded Simon Magus, gave himself be one of the _*Eons, and that no one could be saved who was not of his ba: but that all who were so baptized should be subject neither to death nor to the infirmities of old age (Eusebius, bk. liL chap. 26). Menandriaiis. Followers of M uaudor. See above. MENDICANTS MERCHANTS 681 Mendicants or Begging Friars (The), Numerous orders which truly infested the church in the 13th cent. They broke in everywhere upon the parochial clergy, usurped their office, set up altars of their own, withdrew the people from communion with their parish priests, and became so rich that they raised stately palaces, and became the most famous and most contemptible of all the clergy. In 1274 the Council of Lyons restricted them to the four orders of Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, and Augustines. Menippean Satire (The). A poli- tical pamphlet, partly in verse and partly in prose. The object of the satire was to show up the perfidious intentions of Spain in regard to France, and the criminal ambition of the Guise family. The chief writers were Leroy (died 1593), Pithou (1544-1596), Rapin the poet (1540-1609), and Passerat (1534-1602). Called Menippean from Menippua, a cynic philosopher of the 1st cent. Men'nonites (8 syl.). Followers of Menno (called Stmonis, i.e. ' Son of Simon') of Holland (1496-1561). He was the founder of the reformed Anabaptist school, after the death of John of Leyden. Menno was a man of most gentle, earnest, modest, and spiritual nature, wholly unlike the wild fanatics known as Anabaptists. Like the Quakers the Mennonites will take no oath, nor will they hold office, employ force, or sanction capital punishment. They baptize by sprinkling, but only after a confession of faith. The New Testament is their only rule of faith; they object to the word ' person ' as applied to the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and disbelieve in original sin. In 1683 a following was established in America, where they number at least 250,000, and they are abundant in Southern Russia. They are divided into Mild and Strict Mennonites. Mensal Lands (The). A grant of land from each of the provinces of Ireland to enlarge the county of Meath. Exacted by Tuathal, son of Feredach the Just, A.D. 136. Merca'tor (Isidore). A Cenobite of the 8th cent, for many years supposed to be the author of the ' False Decretals ' (q.v.), now generally assigned to Bene- dict Levita of Mentz, or to Riculfe arch- bishop of Mentz, who introduced them into France in 811. Mercator's Projection. Maps BO constructed that the lines of longitude are straight and not curved. This de- vice of representing a globe in perspec- tive on a flat surface is due to Edward Wright, an Englishman ; but the chart so arranged by Wright was printed and published by Gerard Mercator, a printer of maps in Flanders, who died at the age of 82, in 1594. Mercator's real name was Kauffmann, but a foolish fashion prevailed of adopting Greek or Latin names, generally translations of the Ger- man. Thus Melanchthon's real name was Schwarz- erdt ; Desiderius Erasmus is a classical form of Gheraerd Gheraerd; (Ecolarnpadius is a Greek form of Hausschein. Nostradamus is a Latinised form of Notre-Dame (Michel de Notre-Dame); Joannes Stobn-.ua is John Stubbs. Other names not classical are Jacopo Robust!, known as Jacopo Tintoretto; Francois-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire ; Moliere was the as- sumed name of Jean-Baptiste Poquelin, &c. Merchant Ad venturer 8 (The), or ' Brotherhood of Sir Thomas a Becket,' 1296. A society established by John duke of Brabant, and sanctioned by Edward I., to promote woollen manufac- tures. Foreign merchants were allowed trial by jury, half the jury being foreign- ers, and they had a justiciary [consul] in London for their protection. See ' Merchants of the Steelyard.' It received a patent in 1505 from Henry VII., and was incorporated by Elizabeth in 1564. The clergy were called Sir, and addressed aa ' Sir-reverence,' in the ' good old times.' Merchant Queen (The). Venice. The Merchant Queen, in order to preserve in- violate the Levantine commerce, humbled her- self at the footstool of the Saltan. History oj Venice, vol. ii. p. 81 (Murray, 1888). Merchant Taylors' School, 1568. Founded by the Merchant Taylors' Guild. Merchants (The Statute of) 1 Statutum de Mercatoribus,' 1288. The statute of Acton Burnel is so called. It was passed at Acton Burnel, in Shrop- shire, in the reign of Edward I., and its object was the speedy recovery of debts due to merchants and traders. The security which the merchant obtained in 1285 by a seisin of the debtor's lands, &c., was called a 'Statute Merchant.' See ' Statute of Acton Burnel.' Merchants of the Steelyard. London Hanse Town merchants, formed into a company early in the 13th cent. MERCHANTS' MESSENIAN In 1235 they obtained privileges from Henry III., and received a charter in 1280 from Edward T., with further pri- vileges from Edward IV. and Henry VII. Finally abolished by Elizabeth in 1578. This company in 1505 was opposed by the ' Merchant Adventurers ' (q.v.). Merchants' Petition The), 1820. Drawn up by Mr. Tooke for free trade, especially in corn. Being signed by more than half the court of directors of the Bank of England, and a large num- ber of the chief London merchants, it was presented to the House by Alex- ander Baring [Lord Ashburton]. Mercia. The last formed and largest of the kingdoms, since called the Hept- archy. It was founded A.D. 682 by Crida or Creda, and included 17 counties and most of Herts. The counties were Staffordshire, Worcester- shire, and Warwickshire ; Cheshire. Derby and Notts; Gloucestershire, Oxfordshire, and Bucks; Shropshire and Herefordshire ; Leicestershire and UutUndHhire ; Lincolnshire, Norfolk. Hunts. Bedfordshire, and most of Herts. Mercian Province. So called from the river Mersey. Merciless Parliament (The), or ' The Unmerciful Parliament,' 8 Feb. to 3 June, 1388. A junto or council of 14, "the tools of Thomas [Plantagenet] duke of Gloucester, which assumed royal pre- rogatives, and attempted to depose the king [Richard II.], then nearly 21 years of ago. Sir Nicholas Brembre, thrice Lord Mayor of London, was condemned for siding with the king ; the Archbishop of York fled for his life ; the king's con- fessor was driven from the kingdom; several of the judges were condemned to death ; Blake the secretary, and Usk the under-sheriff, were put to death. Sir John Beauchamp, Sir James Berners, Sir John Salisbury, and Sir Simon Bur- ley were all executed. In May 1399 the young king took the reins of go- vernment into his own hands, and Glou- cester's power was shattered into dust. See ' Parliaments.' Sometimes called ' The Wonderful Parliament.' Mercu'rius Au'licus. A court Journal published in the reign of Charle* I. under the court's own direction. Mere des Peuples (La). Mar- guerite de France duchesse de Berry, daughter of Francois I. (1523-1574). Mer'inides or Merinites (8 syl.V A Saracen dynasty in Morocco ceeded the Almohades in l^Tn. in Morocco, and were overthrown by the sheriffs or cherifs in 1510. Descendants of Merin Abdallah king of Fss. Mermnades (2 syl.). The third dynasty of the kings of Lydia. So named from Mermnas son of Gyges, the llr-t king, B.C. 708-545. Croesus was thj last of this dynasty. Merovin'gians (T7/e),or the Mero- vingian dynasty (420-737). The first race of French kiiigs, called Merovingian from Mer-wig or Meroveus, the third of the line, presuming Pharamond and Clodion to have preceded him. an interregnum the second race, called the Carlovingian, succeeded. Merwtg is i*i>. great ; trig, warrior. If Prmra- mond ever existed, he was only L>uke of the Francs. He is said to have bean the son of Mur- comir, and to have died 4-28. His son Clodion is said to havs died 448, and Mereveus was his SON. Thou followed Chilperic (448 481), and then his son Clovia [-Louis]. Merry Monarch (The). Charles II. of England (born 1680, crowned li'.r.l, died 1685). Called by Uochester ' The Mutton eating King. 1 Mersen (Treaty of), A.D. 870. By which the eastern part of Lotharingia (Lorraine), between the Maaa and Rhine, was added to Germany. Merton College, Oxford. Founded in l-.ii 14, by Walter de Merton bishop of Rochester, at Maiden, Surrey, but re- moved to Oxford in 1274. The head- master is called the warden. Mesne Lords or Barons, t.. middle or intermediate lords ; who hold their lands, not from the king, but from some subject, who in this case was the mesne lord's overlord. The vassal of a mesne lord is called an ami-re vassal, the vassal of a vassal. Lands which owed no allegiance to a lord were called allodia (sing, allodium). See ' Land.' Messali'na of the North (The). Catherine II. of Russia (17*29, 1762- 1796). Messe'nian War (The First), B.C. 743-724. Between the Messenians and Spartans. By the terms of peace the Messenians were reduced to the condi- tion of helots, had to pay Sparta half the produce of their land in tribute, and to METHODISM METTEBNICH'8 send a deputation of women to the obsequies of Spartan kings. The Second, B.C. 685-662. The Spar- tans were again the victors. Aristo- menes was the Messenian hero. The Third, B.C. 490. The Spartans were again victorious, and banished the Messenians from the soil. Tyrtseus the Athenian poet inspired the Spartans with his lays. The Fourth, B.C. 465-455. The helots revolted, and found refuge in Naupactos. Methodism, 1729. Sprang up at Oxford under Mr. Morgan and Mr. Wesley. Whitfield joined the party in 1735. In 1738 Wesley and Whitfield separated on the ' five points.' Wesley took the Arminian views and Whitfield the Calvinistic. Wesley taught that, through the merits of Christ, man's sins are forgiven, and that conversion is a gift of God conveyed instantaneously, so that the converted know when the change takes place. The first Methodist societies were established in 1739. When in 1752 Whitfield separated from the Methodists, those who followed Wesley were called 'Wesleyan Methodists' or 'Wesleyans,' and those who followed Whitfield were called ' Calvinistic Metho- dists.' Called Methodists because the societies were governed by certain rules, and the members were required 'to walk orderly and methodically under their respective leaders.' There was a college of physicians In ancient Rome called MetkoditUe, from the strict regime which they enforced on their patients; probably this may have suggested the name to the Oxford scholars. Methodist Episcopal Church (The), 1784. A society of Wesleyan Methodists in the United States of America, first formed in 1766 by immi- grants from Ireland. Like Wesley, they regarded themselves as members of the English episcopal church. Wesley or- dained Dr. Thomas Coke, the first Metho- dist bishop. They accept Wesley's abstract of the 'Thirty-nine Articles,' and use his abridgment of the Common Prayer-book. The bishops are itinerant, and ordain bishops, elders, and deacons. Methodist Protestant Church in the U.S. of America (The),l830. Seceders from the ' Methodist Episcopal Church ' (q.v.). They objected to episco- pacy, and desired a popular and inde- pendent form of church government. Meth'uen (Treaty of), 6 May, 1703. A treaty of commerce between England and Portugal. By this treaty the duty on all Portuguese wines was one-third less than on French wines. Modified in 1810, and abolished in 1835. John Methuen was the English ambassador to the court of Portugal. The king of Portugal at the time was Pedro II. Metiers de Paris (Statuts des). From the ' Documents ine'dits sur 1'His toire de France,' recently published. These statutes are supposed to belong to the period of St. Louis (1226-1270). Meton'ic Cycle (The), 19 years. About B.C. 482 Meton discovered that 235 lunar months very nearly corre- sponded with 19 solar years ; but about a century later Callippus discovered that in a hundred years the Metonic cycle would be a day too long, as a solar year contains 865^ days, and not 865. So Callippus suggested that a cycle should consist of (19 x 4) 76 years, instead of 19. See ' Callippic Cycle.' Metropolitan Board of Works (The), transferred in 1889 to the London County Council (q.v.), had its standing committees and sub-committees. The former included the Bridges' Committee, the Building Acts' Committee (q.v.), the Fire Brigade Committee (q.v.), the Parks, Commons, and Open Spaces Committee (q.v.), and the Special Purposes and Sanitary Committee (q.v.), including gas and gas-meters, the Contagious Diseases Act Committee, and so on. The nine sub-committees were (1) the Artisans' Dwellings' Act; (2) the coal and wine dues, (3) the examination of accounts, (4) the municipal government of the metropolis, (5) officers, (6) over- head wires, (7) sewer emanations, (8) supplementary main drainage, and (9) tramways. Metternich's Maxim. 'All for, but not through, the people.' In other words, the king and his government, not the popular wish, judge what is best for the general welfare, and the people's interest. Of course, the king and his council must be absolute ; popular con- stitutions could in no wise be conceded according to Metternich's political maxim. In schools and private families Metternich'i maxim la acted on; but nations are clubi. ool 584 MEVELAVITE3 MICHELADE echoolH or families ; and In clubs the members, not the elected chairman, make the laws. Me vela' vi tea (4 syl.) Dancing dervishes, BO called from Mevela'va, their founder, who whirled round and round for four continuous days, without rest, food, or refreshment. While Mevelava spun round like a top, Hamsa played on a flute. After the fourth day the dervish fell into a trance, in which marvellous revelations were made to him. Mexican Re volution (The), 1822, by which the republic was converted into an empire. Augustine Iturbide, the leader of the coup d'ttat, wasproc-luinu <1 in the sun's rays ; and that heaven is a solid concave in which the stars are fixed as nails to prevent its falling. However, he taught that the earth is spherical. See Gen. i. 24, and compare with i. 20. Milesians (The). A Scotio [.. Gothic] colony which came to ire- land with Milesius and his eight sons. They landed in the south-west of the island, and dispossessed the dynasties of Tuatha-na-Danaan (q.v.). Five of the sons perished, and ultimately the entire island fell into the hands of Heremon or Erimhon, who furnished twenty succes- sors, all of whom resided at Tara in Meath. About B.C. 900 Ollav Folia [Ollamh Fodhla], of the family of Ir, a collateral branch, became king. The Milesian race is the glory of Ireland. Every Irishman loves to trace his line to the Milesians, and the chroniclers strive to outvie each other in heaping glory, honour, and antiquity on the race. The Milesian kings are called the Scotic a list of 136 is given before the advent of St. Patrick and the race lasted 2,000 years, according to tradition ; probably half that time would be more historically correct. An&stastus, the Sinaite, says: 'Those called by the ancients Scythians or Scot! are Goths and Danes. Many Irish chroniclers tell us that the Milesians came from Spain. The Celto-Scythne formed a part of the people of Spain.' Military Colours. Each British regiment has a pair of colours, the Royal and the Regimental. The latter contains the names of the most important engage- ments in which the regiment has taken part Military Knights (The). The title given by William IV. to thp ' Vi-r Knights ' (q.v.). He also allowed n-,il officers to share in the benefits of the brotherhood. Military Orders. See under ' Monks and Monastic Houses.' Milkwoman of Bristol (Thi\ Ann Yearsley, a poetess, died 8 May, 1 -M>.;. Hannah More took an interest in her, and raised 6001. on her behalf; but Ann Yearsley proved very un^nitrfnl to her benefactress. Mill-boy of the 81 ashes. Henry Clay (1777-1852). So called from ' The Slashes,' a swampy country in the neighbourhood of a place in Hanover County, Virginia, where he was born, and where he worked a* a mill-boy. Millena'rians, 2nd cent. Believers in the millennium. God worked six days and rested on the seventh. Psalm xc. 4 says, a thousand years are in God's si<_rht as one day, and therefore the working world will last 6,000 years, and then will follow the millennial rest for 1,000 years, which will be ushered in by a general resurrec- tion. Fifth-monarchy men. Paplaa, Irenwus, Justin Martyr, Tertulllan. Ltictantlua, N'epoa. and other* were believers In the millennium. Millenary Petition (The), 1C03. Presented to James I. of England on his accession by 800 clergymen, praying for a reform in the church courts, the provi- sion and training of godly ministers, and the suppression of ' popish usages ' in the Book of Common Prayer. James paid no heed to the petition, but con- vened the Hampton Court Conference (q.v.). The petition was preaented by a full tontr of an the clergy of the realm, and was called Millenary because, roughly speaking, it was signed by a thousand clergymen. The chief objections were the use of the cross in baptism, the interrogatories to Infants answered by sponsors, continuation. and a few minor particulars. Miller (A Joe). A pun, so called from Joseph Miller (1684-1788), an actor, noted for his suppers in which wit and pun sparkled. John Mottley compiled a col- lection of jests which he attributed to Joe Miller, and since then any jest ia called a Joe Miller, especially those anonymous and somewhat stale. Millerism, or ' Second Adventisra/ derives its name from William Miller, MILLIONI MINNESOTA 'the American Prophet ' (1781-1849), who fixed by minute calculation the end of the world 10 Oct., 1848 or 1844. Before his death he 'demonstrated from pro- phecy ' that, as 1844 had failed, the years 1857, 1867, 1873, and 1889 were indubit- ably fatal years between 15 and 25 Oct. In 1867 was the financial panic of America, and in 1878 the great financial crash. Between 1857and 1W57 occurred the 'great rebellion.' These, how- ever, were not the end of the world, nor did they bring on the millennial advent, and vet Miller had a following of at least 40,000 in the Western States, New England, Middle States, and Canada. Million!, the millionnaire. Marco Polo was called by the Venetians ' Messer Marco Millioni ' (1256-1323), and his house is still called ' La Corte del Mil- lioni.' It is on the canal of St. Giovanni Crisostomo. Mllioni, with one ' 1,' ! now the more common spelling. Milton of Germany ( The). Fried- rich Gottlieb Klopstock, author of ' The Messiah ' (1724-1803). A very German Milton Indeed. COLERIDGE. Milton of Painting (The). Fuseli (1706-1781) not only because, like Milton, he united terribiles visuformee with the molle att[ue facetum, but also painted and exhibited a ' Gallery of Milton.' Mind Ether, or ' Mind Atmosphere.' An ether which produces by its undula- tions on the nervous tissue the sensation of light and thought. A concentration of this nervous tissue forms ganglia, and the union of ganglia forms brain. This hypothesis is made to explain ' Thought Eeading ' : thus : Nervous surface, it is said, transmits sensation faster than the undulations of mind ether, and there- fore the thought of the thinker is com- municated to the reader, who is further off from the brain, simultaneously with the impression made on the brain, which is much nearer. Mind of the School (The). Aris- totle was so called by Plato (B.C. 884-822). Ming Dynasty (The). The twenty- first Imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Yuen or Y'en and followed by the Manchoo dynasty. It gave seventeen emperors, and lasted 276 years (1368- 1644). The seat of government was Nan- kin. This dynasty is celebrated for its princes, especially Hong- 700 and Tchin- TttU wen-tee. Minims (The), 1431. Founded by St. Francis de Paula. Often called 'Hermits of St. Francis ' [i.e. of Paula]. These are not the Minorites (8 syl.) or Frerea If ineurs of St. Francis [of Assisi] founded In 1221. Ministerial Whitebait Dinner (The). A dinner given to the cabinet ministers at Greenwich soon after Trinity Monday, that is, a short time before the close of the session. These dinners began with Sir Bobert Preston, M.P. for Dover, who invited his friend Old George Eose, secretary of the Treasury, to dine with him at Dagenham Lake, where he had a 1 fishing cottage.' After a year or two Pitt was asked to join, and subsequently Greenwich was selected as a more con- venient place of tryst. Lord Camden was next asked to join the trio, and then Mr. Long [Lord Farnborough]. The private dinner next became a ministerial dinner, in which each of the guests paid his quota, and the invitations were sent out by the private secretary of Lord Farnborough. Ministers; Bill (The), 1660. Passed by the convention parliament (q.v.). By this bill all ministers installed within a stated time were to be expelled from the pulpits of the Anglican Church. This bill did not give satisfaction, because it did not go back far enough, and many pulpits remained in the occupation of Presbyterians. Ministers' Money. A tax imposed on the householders of Dublin, Cork, &c. for the support of the Established Church. Abolished in 1857. Minnesingers (The). Minne means love ; the Minnesingers were love- poets, contemporary in Germany with the House of Hohenstauffen (q.v.), be- cause these kings spoke Suabian, the richest, smoothest, and most musical of the German dialects. Though called love-singers, some of their poems were national ballads, and some were extended romances. Walter of Vogelweide was by far the best of the lyrists ; Heinrich of Veldig was the most naive and in- genious; Hartmann the most classical; Wolfram the most sublime; and Gott- fried the most licentious. See * Wartburg Contests.' Minneso'ta (U.S. America). An Indian word meaniug ' Sky-tinted Water.' MINNINQ MI8B The state receives its name from the river. The nickname of the inhabitants is Oophera. Minning Day, i.e. 'Reminding day.' The anniversary of a person's death, when a mass is offered up for the repose of the soul. Mi'nors, Min'orites (3 syl.), or 'Grey Friars,' 1209. Founded by St. Francis d'Assisi ; confirmed 1210 ; and settled in England 1224. Minute Men, 1776. The militia of 12,000 men enrolled by the American congress adjourned from Concord to Cam- bridge. So called because they were to turn out at a minute's notice with musket and rifle. Soon augmented to 20,000. Miquelets, 1675. Spanish guerillas in the Pyrenees, on the frontiers of Cata- lonia and Aragon, who armed themselves to push back the French invaders led by Schomberg. So called from their leader Miquelet de Prats. To combat them Louis XIV. created 100 companies of fusiliers de montagnes, also called Miquelets. The mountain guides in the Pyrenees are called Miquelets. In 1808 Napoleon I. organised them to put down the Spanish guerillas. The country swarmed with Mlquelota, a sort of lawless Catalans, who declared for the Austrian*. HOWITT. llitt. of En0. (Anne, p. 212). Mirabeau of the Gironde(T7ie). Vergniaud, the most eloquent man of the Second Assembly. Mirabeau of the Sans Culottes (The). George J. Danton 1759-1794. Also called the ' Mirabeau of the Mar- kets,' and the 'Mirabeau of the Mob.' He was Mirabeau cast in a more vulgar mould. Pronounce Uf'-rah-bo ; Sahn [nasal] ku-lot.' Miracle of the Age (The). So Roger Bacon is called by Dr. Freind, in his ' History of Physic.' Miracles at St. M6dard, 1690- 1727. Referred to by Paley in his 'Evidences' as sufficiently grave to be worthy of his consideration. The Abb6 de Paris, a very charitable man, was buried in the cemetery of St. Me'dard, and miracles were said to be performed at his tomb. The crowd BO increased that government found it accessary to forbid anyone visiting the tomb. The abbe was a Jansenist, and all Jan- sen ists insisted that the cures were miraculous; but their opponents attri- buted the cures to excitement operat in-; on the nervous system. Convulsions were the general malady. A wag wrote over the gates a doggerel to this effect: The king henceforth forbids God s grace To show bin wonders in this place. Miraculous Campaign (T70, 1670. That of John Sobieski the Polish general, who triumphed over the allied Cossacks and Tartars, instigated : by Louis XIV. of France. Mirror of all Martial Men (The). Thomas earl of Salisbury (died 1428). Mirror of Courtesy (The}. Sir Pliilip Sidney, author of the ' Arcadia ' (1554-1586). Mirror of Justice (The). Queen Victoria. In 1882 prayers were offered in the mosques of Cairo and the pro- vinces for Queen Victoria under that appellation. Mirrpr of Salvation (The). A sacred picture book with Bible and sacred legends in rhymes, with illus- trative pictures. This book and the * Biblia Pauperum ' (q.v.) weru immensely popular before the Reformation. Mise of Amiens (The), 23 Jan., 1264. Louis IX. undertook to n between Henry III. of England and his barons, and gave his verdict wholly in favour of the king, cancelling the ' I'n>- visions of Oxford ' (q.v.) passed by the Mad Parliament. The verdict adjudged that the great officers of state should be appointed by the crown; and that pliena should be allowed to hold castles in land, and state offices if the king pi. &c. The decision of King Louis was in- dignantly rejected by the Londoners, and led to the battle of Lewes, in which Simon de Montfort and the Londoners proved the victors. Mlse, pronounce mftz. Mise of Lewes (The), 14 May, 1264. A truce after the battle of Lewes. By this mise [ineez] it was provided thai the king was to be supreme, but was to be assisted by a council nominated by the Earl of Leicester, the Earl of Gloucester, and the Bishop of ChichesUur. II WM MISHNA MISSA 689 &t this crisis that Simon de Montfort summoned for the first time two citizens from every borough to take their seats with the knights of the shires in the par- liamentary assembly. Mishna (The). A collection of the civil laws and traditions of the Hebrews. The Jews say that Moses on Mount Sinai received, besides the decalogue, many other laws which he taught the 70 elders. Judas, a learned rabbi, collected these floating traditions, and codified them. The Mishna was written in the 2nd cent. A.D. at Tiberias, and forms the first part of the Talmud (q.v.) The rabbi Judas was called ' the saint.' Missa Adventi'tia. A votive Missa Ambrosia'na. Instituted by St. Ambrose (874-897), and used in Milan Cathedral. Missa Anima'rum. High mass for the dead. Missa Annualis. Daily mass. Missa Audi'ta. Mentioned by Robert of Gloucester. Hora Bcxta pro grammatistis parva lectio flat, ut aptius congregentur in sacello, et hora septima precise celebretur Missa, ut loquuntur, ' Audita.' Missa Au'rea. An unusually grand mass celebrated in mediaeval times once a year in honour of the Virgin Mary. Missa Cardinalis. Mass cele- brated by a cardinal. Missa Cat'echumeno'rum. The mass up to the introitus, when all cate- chumens are dismissed by the deacon with these words, ' Si quis non communi- cat, det locum.' Missa Copeta'ta. A mass accom- panied by the striking of a bell on one side with several distinct strokes. ' Cam- pan 83 alterum latus divisis et distinctis ictibus pulsare.' Missa Die'i. The mass celebrated after the usual early mass, ' orto jam die.' Missa Familia'ris. A private Missa de Jeju'niis. The mass which is celebrated on fast days. Missa Judicii. A maaa which is an appeal to God of a man's innocence of some charge brought against him. This is of the nature of an ordeal. Missa Lu'minum, or 'Chande- leur.' In German ' Lichtmesse ' for the Feast of Purification (Candlemas), 2 Feb., in commemoration of the ' churching ' of the Virgin Mary after the birth of Jesus Said to have been instituted by Justinian in 542. Missa Lunat'ica. Mass celebrated on the day of the new moon. Missa Matutinalis, or 'Missa Minor,' 'quse post exactas matutinas dicitur.' Missa Nava'lis, or 'Missa Nau- tica.' Mass celebrated aboard ship. It is a missa sicca (q.v.), because the roll- ing of the ship might cause the wine to be spilt. Missa Nova. A celebrant's maiden mass. Missa Nuptialis. A mass cele- brated at a wedding. Missa Paschalis. The seven masses during the Easter festival. Missa Peregrino'rum. A masa for all except the ordained clergy. After the chapter the poor are summoned by a bell to the ' Missa Matutinalis,' and the celebrant for the week sings the Greater Mass. The alms being then distributed, he proceeds with the ' Missa Peregrino- rum,' which is said, not sung. Peregrin! dicuntur omnes qui non Bunt de epi- copatu ordinatis, give Bint clerici, sive laici. Du CANGE, vol. v. p. 246, col. 1. Missa Perfecta. A mass where both bread and wine are administered to the communicants. Missa PrsBsan'ctificato'rum. A mass without consecration, as on Good Friday, when there is no consecration of the elements. They are consecrated the previous day. The Greek Church cele- brates such masses in Lent, except on Saturdays and Sundays. See ' Mass of the Presanctified.' Missa Sicca. A mass without the elements. This may occur when a priest has already administered a previous sa- crament. ' Sacerdoa non potest conficere quia forte jam celebravit, vel ob aliain causam potest accepta stola Epistolaia et Evangelium legere, et docere Oratio- MISSA MISSISSIPPI nem dominicam, et dare benedictionem,' &o. DUBANDUS, ' Rationale divinorum officiorum libris viii. distinctum ' (Book iv. chap. I, n 28). Bacerdote agonto quee aunt celebrantis, cam In- troltu, Collecta, Epistola, Evangelic, et CanUois; c|ul tamen, quia non vult conimunicare, non con- M>crat Ua ut Missa bit sine corporc et Sanguia* Domini. ECKIUS. Missa Venat'ica. A short mass celebrated very early in the morning for persons about to follow the chase. Missa Voti'va. A mass ' quw ex proprio voto, sen motu, peragitur et dici- tur, ad differentiam Missae quae a Kalen- dario praecipitur (Monachns Milstatensis, in Miraculia B. Domitiani,' n 20). Missa de Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo is Spanish for ' New Year's gift.' Latin, strtna. French, ttrennes (2 syl.) This mass is offered before daybreak. Misses vero qnas HiBpanlce 'de Aguinaldo ' vocant, antoqaam dies llluxerlt, ne celebrentur. Concilium Mexicanum, 1C85. Missa de Excepta'to. In the Am- brosian Missal, is a mass celebrated the day preceding Christmas Day. ' Praepa- ratio ad vesperam Natal is Domini.' Missro Bifaciatse, Trifaciatro, &c. When the celebrant joins together two or more masses haying different objects. Miss Periales. Seven masses celebrated at the Festival of the Holy Trinity. First day in honour of the Trinity; second day in honour of the Logos ; third day in honour of the Holy Ghost ; fourth day in honour of Charity ; fifth day hi honour of the Holy Angels ; sixth day in honour of the Cross ; and seventh day in honour of the Virgin Mary. Missal (The), 6th cent. A book which serves for the celebration of the Roman Catholic mass. It contains the text of all the different masses used during the year. Pope Gelasius, who died A. P. 496, composed the first missal ; it was in 2 vols., which Gregory the Great reduced to one (died 604). Each diocese and each religious order has ita own missal. There are also the Greek, Spanish, Coptic, Ambrosial), and other Missals. The dally service book U called the ' Breviary ' *..). Missi Domin'ici. Eight commit sinners sent into the provinces to inspect the conduct of dukes and counts. They were first organised by Charlemagne, who divided the empire into ten Missa- tica. Charles le Chauve increased the Missatica to twelve. Each was visitcil in January, April, July, and October by two Missi (a count and an abbot). The custom was discontinued at the close of the Carlovingian dynasty. Missing Link (The). The link between man and the ape. According to the theory of evolution, the lower animals develop into the higher animals, so that tin- larvae of Ascidians (a marine molluscoid) developed gradually into apes, and pro- bably apes are only one link from man ; but hitherto no trace of that link has been discovered, unless, indeed, it be in the Neanderthal skull found in the Rhine province of Prussia, which seems to be between the skull of an ape and the skull of a human being. See ' Alali.' Evolution goes much farther back than this. The condensation of nebulous vapour may be called the first step. Mission (Prftrea de la), 1632. Established by St. Vincent de Paul. Also called ' Lazarists.' Mississippi (U.S. America). So called (1800) from the river. It is an Indian word meaning the 'long and great waters.' The inhabitants are nicknamed Tadpole*. Mississippi Scheme (The), 1716- 17*20. A financial scheme proposed by John Law to the French government, whereby he himself was to be the sole creditor of the nation, and was to DP allowed to issue paper-money to ten times the value of the national debt that is, he relieved the nation of '2ns millions sterling on the right of i- paper-money to the value of 2,ObO million pounds. The regent was so charmed with the scheme that he gave Law permission to open at once The Royal Bank of France, and to issue his notes. The bank received deposits, dis- counted bills, gave promissory notes, all in paper. It was a prodigious BII and the regent gave ' the lioyal Bank ' the exclusive right of coining money, transferred to it the old East India Company, and granted it the exclusive trade of Louisiana on the banks of the MISSOURI MOHAMMEDAN 691 Mississippi. A 5001. share was now worth 18,0002., and John Law was made Comptroller-General of France. In 1720 the scheme exploded, and 20s. would have purchased 160,000 pounds' worth of Law's notes. The nation was well nigh ruined. See ' South Sea Scheme.' Missouri (U.S. America). So called (1821) from the river of the same name (Indian). The inhabitants are nicknamed Pukes, or more commonly Pikes. Mr. Speaker. The office of Speaker dates back to the reign of Edward III. Sir Walter Hungerford, however, was the first to receive the title of 'Mr. Speaker,' 1414. The Speaker is addressed by members as ' Sir ' or ' Mr. Speaker.' Mithridat'ic Wars (The). Be- tween the Romans and Mithridates king of Pontus. 1 (B.C. 89-85). Fimbria defeated Mi- thridates at Pergamos. 2 (B.C. 83-81). Sulla took from Mithri- dates all the Ionian cities in Asia Minor. 8 (B.C. 74-63). Pompey defeated Mi- thridates VI., and the king of Pontus killed himself. A ' mithridate,' or antidote to all poisons, la named from Mithridates the Great, who knew the secret of such an antidote. Mitred Abbots. Lord abbots who Bat and voted in the House of Lords. So called because they wore mitres. Moal'lakats (The Seven). The seven most ancient sacred poems of the Arabians, a copy of which (according to Caussin de Perceval's ' History of the Arabs ') is always suspended in the Kaaba of Mecca. The authors are : Imroulcays, Tarafa, Labfd, Zohair-Abu Selma, Antara, Amr ibn-Kolthoum. and Harith. Armand Caussin has translated his father's book into French. Mob Monday, 8 Feb., 1886. So called from the riots of the unemployed which took place in Trafalgar Square, London. Model Prison (The). Pentonville, Caledonian Road, London. Moderates (Thf-). The Russell, Sydney, and Hampden factions, in the great republican plot headed by Lord Shaftesbury, in the latter part of the rfeign of Charles II. The more violent, auch as Lord Howard, Rumbold, and Colonel Rumsev, were more ' thorough,' and would have assassinated both Charles and his brother James in order to establish a Commonwealth. Moderates and Highfliers. 1885, in the Scotch Presbyterian Church. The Moderates were also called ' Intru- sionists.' That is, they did not considei the Veto Law (q.v.) an arrogant intru- sion of the patron's right of presentation, but only a moderate check on that right. A presentee could not be rejected from causeless prejudice, ,but only for adequate reasons. See ' Intrusionists.' The leaders of the Moderates were Dr. Bryce, Dr. Cooke, and Dr. Robertson. Modern Charlemagne (The). Napoleon I. (1769-1821). Modern History begins with the 16th cent. About which time occurred the invention of printing, the discovery of America, and the Lutheran Reforma- tion. Printing made generally known 1460 Columbus set sail for America 1498 Reformation begun in Germany by Luther. . . 1517 Modern History (Professorship of). In the University of Cambridge, 1724, instituted by George I. Present stipend 871Z. a year. See ' Prince Con- sort Prize.' Modern Nimrod (The). Napo- leon Bonaparte (1769-1821). Modern Scepticism (Father of). Bayle (1647-1706). Famous for his ' His- torical and Critical Dictionary.' Modhafferians (The). A petty dynasty of Turkomans, which reigned over Farsistan (1835-1894), when it was overthrown by Tamerlane. It gave four princes, the founder being Modhaffer. They were contemporary with the II- khanians, and were always at war with other princes in Persia. Modus (The), i.e. ' Modus deci- mandi.' A composition for tithes. It may either be perpetual or for the lives of the contracting parties. Mogh's Half of Ireland. The southern half; the other moiety was called Conn's half, from the sons of a king who divided the island into two parts. This was about half a century after the death of Tuathal. Mohammedan (A). This word is an insulting misnomer. The system of 693 MOHOCKS MONAD the prophet is Islam (submission to and faith in God), and a single adherent of that faith is a Moslem, a word from the same root as Islam. As well call a Jew a Mosaist as call a Moslem a Moham- medan. God Is most great, and there IB nothing else Croat, Is the Moslem's creed. Man must submit to Qod, and flnd In him his only true and greatest happiness In the Moslem's life. Almsgiving, taut- Ing, prayer, and pilgrimage are his four chief duties. Mohocks, or Mohawks, 1711- 1714. A set of disorderly people who infested the streets of London at nipht and to( k pleasure in wounding and dis- figuring those whom they met. In 1711 the government offered 100Z. reward for the apprehension of any one of the gang. The Coxe MSS. (in the British Museum) inform us that Marlborough was advised to suborn these ruffians in 1712, ' to scour the streets by night and strike terror into the population.' This seems to be a blunder, as the scourers who scoured the streets of the Mohocks were another set of street brawlers. These Mohawks were bands of young men, many of them of good families, who issued into the streets at nltfht and committed all sorts of riots and brutalities, even on women and children . . . whom they met with in the badly lighted streets. How ITT, Hittory of England, (Anne, 292). In 1712 Sir Mark Cole and three other gentlemen were tried at Old Bailey for attacking tha watch in Dovereux Street. They slit two per- sons' noses, cut a woman in the arm with a knife so as to disable her for life, and rolled another in a tub down Snow Hill. Gay, In his 'Trivia,' mentions these atrocities committed by the Mohocks. Mohocks or Mohawks were one of the five confederated nations of the Iroquols. Moidart. See ' Seven Men of,' &c. Moiley, i.e. Assassination, 1798. A word adopted by the ' United Irishmen."* A person obnoxious to the secret society was ' consigned to the Moiley ' that is, was doomed to assassination. When a murder became known, it was said that 'Moiley had had him,' or ' Moiley had eaten him.' See ' Irish Associations.' Captain Moonlight and Rory of the Hill were the phrases used in the last quarter of the 19th Mo'linism. The doctrine of Louis Molina the Spanish Jesuit. See ' Moli- nists.' Molinists. Disciples of Louis Molina (1585 -1600), a Spanish Jesuit, who attempted to reconcile Free Grace with Free Will. He taught that God's reprobation and election were conse- quent on God's foreknowledge ; that God gives to all sufficient grace for their salvation if they would but accept it ; but to the elect He does more with Una general grace He gives also co-operative grace. It is a shade of Pelagianism, from which, however, it differs in this : Molina distinctly presupposes the inability of man to turn to God without a super- natural act of grace. Mollniste, or the disciples of Molina, must r*.o be confounded with Mollnosltcs (QsMtM*), th disciples of MoUnos. See below. Moli'nosites (4 syl.). Disi-ipl-.< of Michael Mollnos (1627-105)6) of Spain, author of ' Perfect Contemplation ' or Quietism, for which he was imprisoned by the Inquisition in 1685. See ' Quietism.' Molly Maguires. Irish Ribbon- men, named Maguire from Cornelius Maguire, baron of Inniskillen.who in l;il took part with Sir Phelim O'Neil in the project of the Irish rebellion. Called Molly because the banded marauders conducted their forays in the guise of women's dresses. The association was planted also in Pennsylvania, where a charter was granted them under the name of ' The Ancient Order of Hiber- nians.' The Molly Maguires made them- selves conspicuous in the sanguinary Tithe War (q.v.), 1830-1885. They also perpetrated many dreadful crimes in the U.S., where numbers of them were exe- cuted. See ' Irish Associations.' Molly Magulres wen generally stout active young men, dressed up In women's clothes, with faces blackened or otherwise disguised ... In this state they used suddenly to surprise the un- fortunate grippers, keepers, and process servers, and either duck them in bog-holes, or beat them In the most merciless manner, so that Molly Maguires became the terror of our officials. TRENCH. RealitUt oflrithLife, p. 82. Momonians. Natives of Munster, in Ireland. The Irish for Munster it Mumha (pronounce Mooa). Cf. Estho- nian, Muhutna, 'rich land'; inuhn~ nestd, ' [men] from the rich land.' (De Kay.) His claims were admitted after a desperate battle was fought, In which 7,000 Momonians fell. 1161. O CONOB, Hittory of th? Iiith l'lt, p. 47. Monad. According to Pythagoras, is the impartible, a mathematical point without parts. Length is a duad, breadth a triad, depth a tetrad. Physically, he says, intellectual capacity which is im- partible is a monad ; scientific knowledge is a duad ; opinion is a triad ; and sense ia a tetrad, because it is apprehended by the MONADS MONITORIAL Monads (The Theory of). By Wil- helm Leibnitz of Germany (1646-1716). He says there are two kinds of proto- plasmsspiritual monads and material monads. The former make mind, and the latter body. Spirit monads, he says,- possess innate consciousness, material monads possess innate sensibility. Spirit monads are the protoplasms of the soul, material monads are the protoplasms of the body. A monad Is the Indivisible element of an element. An atom is the indivisible element of a simple substance. A molecule Is the indivisible element of a com- pound substance. A microbe is a minute living organism. Protoplasm is the physical' basis of life. V An atom of gold is gold, but a monad Is the Indivisible basis of the element of gold. Zeno, Leucippos, Democrltos, and Epicures preceded Leibnitz in this theory of created things. Monarchians, ' Monarchiani.' Those who maintained the monarchy of God (q.v.). Tertullian refers to them. Monarchy of God (The). A phrase used by anti-Trinitarians to express the one and only supremacy of the one God, the one Ruler of the universe. It is difficult to find words to express this one- ness, but it means that God has only one person- ality, not three personalities, according to the Athanasian Creed. Monarchy of the Barricades (The). Louis-Philippe of France, called 'Le Roi Citoyen' (1788, reigned 1830- 1848, died 1850). Made king after the Grande Semaine, when Charles X. waa driven from the throne of France. Louis- Philippe was ' King of the French,' not ' King of France.' Monastery of the Curses of Ireland (The). The monastery of St. Ruan was so called because in 554 the abbots and monks cursed those who dragged therefrom to Tara a fugitive criminal who had fled to it for sanctuary. The criminal was put to death, and the abbot and monks went in procession to Tara and cursed it. ' From that day no king ever sat again in Tara.' Monastic Orders. See under ' Monks and Monastic Houses.' Monatti. A class of men, professed attendants on the plague, ever ready for the most dangerous and disgusting ser- f ices. It was their duty to convey those sick of the plague to the hospitals, and attend them there ; to watch over those who remained at home while the plague lasted, and to carry away the dead for in- terment. Mondays (Unlucky). There are three unlucky Mondays in the year : (1) the first Monday in April, on which day Cain was born and Abel slain ; (2) the first Monday in August, on which day Sodom and Gomorrah were overthrown ; and (3) the last Monday in December, the day on which Judas was born. See 1 Egyptian Days.' Money. ROMAN *. t. y Bernon first abbot of Cluny. and reformed by Odo in 942 UT! UiUant *' founded ^ Jean de la Barrier* in FeuiUantirux (4syl.). reformed Feuillant nuns, 1.V30. Trapptstt, the most se vere of the Cistercian order, founded by Rotrou comte du Perche. in 1140. IV. CARMELITBS (3 syl.), those who follow the rule of Albert patriarch ol MONMOUTH MONSEIGNEUR 695 Jerusalem, who founded a monastery on Mount Carmel in 1209. The reformed order of Barefooted Carmelites was founded by St. Theresa in 1562. V. FBANCISCANS, those who follow the. rule of St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1228). Beguins, founded by Lambert Begg or Lambert le Begue.in 1170. Of the Third Order of St. Francis. Capucins, or 'Capuchins,' so called from their cnpuchon pointu, founded by Matthew Baschi in 1525. Claritsei, or 'Poor Clares' (1 syl.), a barefooted order of women, founded by St. Francis in 1224. Cordeliers, bound round the waist by a cord. Founded by Bernardoni in 1210. Fmticelli, founded by Father Maurato and Father de Fossombroni. Fratres Minor es, or ' Minorites, 1 a general name lor the Franciscans. Grey Sitters of Flanders. Minims, or ' Hermits of St. Francis,' founded by Bt. Francis of Paula, in 1431. Observants, or 'Fathers of the Observance,' barefooted Franciscans, founded by Paul of Foligno in 1363. There were other Observants. Pi,-pus. reformed Franciscans, so called from the monastery of Picpus, near Paris, founded in 1601. RecoUett, reformed Franciscans, founded in 1484. Urbanists, founded for women at Longchamps by IsabeUe in 1260. Named in honour of Urban II. %* Other religious orders. ANNUNCIADES in honour ot the Annunciation. 1. The Annunciadei of Savoy, founded by Ama- deus VI. count of Savoy in 1362. 2. The Annunciades of Bourye.s (1 syl.), founded by Jeanne de Valois, daughter of Louis XI., in 1500. 8. The Annunciades of Celt-stes (2 syl.), or ' Filles Rlcues,' founded by Maria Vittoria Fornari in 1G04. MILITABY OHDEB8. St. John of Jerusalem, or 'Knights Hospitallers' (11 th cent.). Same as ' Knights of lihodes ' and Knights of Malta.' Knights Tempter*, founded in 1118. Teutonic Knights, who established themselves in Germany, conquered and converted Prussia and Pomerania, organised by Frederick duke of Suabia JESUITS, or 'Clerks of the Order of Jesus,' founded by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534. V For Orderi, is a personal feature of the giant's wife in the story of Jack and the Beanstalk. Halliwell 8 edition of Mandeviile (or Maundevlle) has an engraving of a man with the eye in the forehead. Mont de Pie"te". A pawnbroker's shop, or rather a loan bank for the poor, where money is advanced on pawns. The loan is for a year, and if not then redeemed or renewed the pawn is sold by auction, and whatever remains over and above the interest and expenses i handed to the pawner. In Paris the interest required is 9 per cent., but in some departments as much as 15 pel MONTAGNARD3 MONTEAGLE 697 cent. 1 ntroduced 1778 ; abolished 1789 ; re-established by the Directory in 1797 ; and reorganised in 1804. There are forty-five monts de pie'te' in France, and all are under the authority of the ministre de 1'interieur. Monts de pie'te' were introduced into France from Italy, where they are called ' Monti di Pieta,' and were established as far back as 1450. Monts de piete were introduced Into Germany In 1766, the interest being fixed at from 8 to 12 per cent. Belgium and Holland have their monts de piete also, but England has no such institution, The needy in the British Isles are handed over to the mercies of pawnbrokers and money-lenders. Pronounce MOnt-d' pe-ey-tey. Montagnards. The party in the first French Revolution under the leader- ship of Robespierre. They occupied in the Convention the most elevated seats called La Montague, in opposition to the Plaine or the lowest seats occupied by the moderate party ca]led the Giron- dins. The Mountain party overthrew the Girondists on May 81, 1793, but was in turn overthrown ' le 9 Thennidor An II ' when Robespierre met with his downfall (1794). Both the Mountain and the Plain were left of the Speaker. Montalto (Louis de). The pen- name of Pascal in the famous ' Provincial Letters ' in defence of Antoine Arnauld the Jansenist. Monta'ni (Mountaineers). ' Heretics' similar to the Waldenses (q.v.), and pro- bably a branch thereof. So called, says Eberard of Bethune, ' because, in time of persecution, they concealed themselves in the mountains.' Another derivation Is that they were Waldensea of Liguria, the inhabitants of which were called Montani. Mon'tanists, A.D. 171. Followers of Montanus, a Phrygian who called him- self the Paraclete, and said that the two ladies who went about with him (Priscilla and Maximilla) were prophetesses. The Montariists looked on marriage as a spiritual union which would continue after life, and utterly condemned second marriages. They observed rigid fasts, advocated celibacy, encouraged martyr- dom, and observed three Lents every year. Monte Gibello, or Mongibello. Mount Etna is so called by the Sicilians. Monte, 2 syl. Monte de' Dodici (The), or Oligarchy of the Twelve. The Nine Oligarchs, or Monte de' Nove, having greatly abused their trust, were deposed, and the government of Siena was then committed to twelve men, also elected from plebeian families. Monte (2 syl.), Do'-dee-che. Nove (2 syl.). Monte de' Nobili (The). One of the five oligarchies which successively ruled in Siena. This was first of the five oligarchies, for Siena had originally been controlled by certain noble families to the exclusion of all other citizens from state offices. Monte (2 eyl.), No-be'-le. Monte de' Nove (The), or Nine. One of the five governing bodies which ruled Siena in succession. When the Monte de' Nobili split into parties among themselves, they agreed to re- linquish the government to nine plebeian families chosen from the most wealthy and influential of the non-privileged class. Nove, pronounce No'vy. Monte del Popolo (The). The last of the five governing bodies of Siena. These five were elected from all who were eligible to a seat in the great council of the State. In the 16th cent. Pandolfo Petrucci made himself what the Greeks would call Tyrant of Siena. Monte de' Sedici (The), or the ' Monte de' Riformatori.' Being tired of the twelve oligarchs, the Sienese next committed the government to sixteen men chosen from the very dregs of the people, who assumed the name of the Riformatori. Like all red republicans, they were too fond of bloodshed, and all parties joined together to depose them. Monte (2 syl.) Sey'-dee-clie. Monteagle (Lord). Sir Edward Stanley, 6th son of Thomas first Earl of Derby, was at Flodden Field. By a sudden feint he induced the Scots to descend a bill, which was their strong position, and thus very greatly contri- buted to their overthrow. About a year after the battle, as Henry VIII. was keeping Whitsuntide at Eltham, in Kent, he spoke of Sir Edward's exploits, and especially his ruse which drew the Scots from the hill. Sir Edward's crest was an eagle, and the king created him Lord Mont-Eagle or Baron Stanley, Lord Monteagle. 698 MONTHS MOONLIGHTERS Months (Anglo-Saxon), January. Se seftera Geola (the latter jrule). February. Sol-monath (the soil or mud month). March. Hreth-monath (the fierce month ?). Apri 1. Easter-monath. May. Thri-mylce (the three-milkings month). June. Se aerra Litha (the former Litha, or warm month. Litha = mild). July.Se seftera Litha (the latter Litha, or warm month). August. Weod-monath (weed month). September. Halig-monath (holy month or time of sacrifice). October. Winter-fylleth (winter fall). November. Blot-ruonath (sacrifice month). December. Se aerra Geola (the former yule). (' Notes and Queries,' 20 April, 1889, page 801.) Blot month ' probably refers to the custom of slaying animals for the -winter store. Hence ' Slay Fair ' in Chichester and other places in this month. Month, with no New Moon (The), Sept. 1752. This month, in con- sequence of the change of style, con- tained only nineteen days. The New Style began on 3 Sept., which was called the 14th. The first quarter of the moon was 15 Sept., at one o'clock in the afternoon, and the full moon was on the 23rd. All days from 2 to 14 (neither included) were annihilated, consequently there was no new moon in that month. The month ran 1, 2, 14, 15, 16, and so on up to 80. Montijoyeux, or * Monti jocrisses.' The party of the Empress Eugenie, wife of Napoleon III. of France. Before her marriage she was Eugenia de Montijo [Mon-te'-ho] of Spain. Monument (The London). Begun 1671, and finished 1677, to memorialise the Great Fire of 1666. Pope says : Where London's column pointing to the skies. Like a tall bully, lifts its head and lies. The following ill-worded inscription was written by Dr. Thomas Gale, afterwards dean of York. ' The burning of this Pro- testant city was begun and carried on by the treachery and malice of the Popish faction, in order to the effecting their horrid plot for the extirpating the Pro- kestant religion and English liberties, and to introduce Popery and heresy.' And the Latin inscription contained this sen ' Sed furor papisticus, qui tain dira jiatt.i- vit, nondum restin^uitur.' All tli erased by order of the city on t , Not a vestige of proof was ever found to justify Dr. Gale's calumny. (See Howeli, 1 State Trials,' vi. 807-866.) Monumental Figures. Those in armour rep its. Those with crosier, mitre, and tificals represent bishops. Those with hands on the breast and a chalice represent priests. Those built into the church wall represent founders. Those east of the altar and elevated represent saints; those not el- represent holy men not canonised. Moollah. A Turkish scribe, a kind of D.D. and LL.D. ; for Turkish law id based on the Koran, and therein differs from Christian law, which is wholly in- dependent of the Bible. A defendant would be laughed at who justified himself by a quotation from the Bible ; but a text from the Koran would be Indisputable law. Moonlight (Capt.\ 1878. The name assumed by some unknown Irish chief <.f the Land League and Fenians. 11 to write warning letters to those who refused to join the league, and th-'so letters were followed up by horrible mutilation of the person's cattle, or his being shot through the legs, or murdered, or boycotted. For several years 1 : was dominated by Capt. Moonlight, and every one was in terror of a visitation of the villain's gang. See ' Irish Asso- ciations.' Daniel Connell waa 'Lieutenant Moonlight la 1882, and was offered a Parnell medal for : Moonlighters. Adherents of the Moonlight gang. There were Moon- lighters in Scotland in the rebellion of 1745. In ' Redgauntlet ' Sir W. Scott makes Maxwell say to Fairford i xii.) that the passport at that moment was ' What is the age of the m.v.n ? ' If the interrogator was answered ' Not light enough to land a cargo,' he was answered, 'Then plague on Aberdeen alma upon which the person would hold free intercourse with the stranger. But, he adds, these moonlight lads do not take freely to lawyers. The Moonlighters of Ireland (1879) seem to have grown out of and succeeded MORA-STONE MORGANATIC 599 the White Boys. Their chief was called ' Capt. Moonlight.' There was an inner circle of Moonlighters called ' Our Boys.' See ' Irish Associations.' Mora-stone (The). In Swedish. Morasteen (the stone on the moor), on which the kings of Sweden were crowned. It was, in fact, a circular range of stonea in the plain of Mora, near Upsa'la. The coronation stone itself was a large round stone, but it was surrounded by twelve others of smaller size with wedge-shaped blocks. When Mr. Coxe visited Mora in 1782 he found ten of the stones, but the largest was only six spans long. Probably Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain was used for a similar purpose. The Lia Fail of Tara, in Ireland, was used as a coronation stone. It was removed to Scone in Scotland, and used as the coronation stone of Scotch kings. Edward I. brought it to London, and it is inclosed in our own coronation chair still. Moral G-ower (The). So John Gower, the poet, is called by Chaucer, from his ' Speculum Meditantis ' and ' Confessio Amantis,' the former ' treat- ing of the Vices and the Virtues, and of the various degrees of this age,' and seeking ' to teach by a right path the way whereby a transgressed sinner ought to return to the knowledge of his Creator.' No copy of this work is known to exist. The latter is a grave discussion of the morals and metaphysics of love. Pro- bably Chaucer referred to the solemn sententiousness of the ' Confessio ' more than to the ' Speculum.' Moral Philosophy (Professorship of), in the University of Cambridge, 1(583. Founded by John Knightbridge, D.D., Fellow of St. Peter's. Stipend 700Z., exclusive of fees. Moral Science Tripos (The). Three classes into which students in the University of Cambridge are classified who have passed with credit their final examinations in the Moral Sciences. The five Moral Sciences are : 1. PSYCHOLOGY (consciousness, feelings and movements, reflex action, instinct, sensation and per- ception, dreams, thought, desires and volition). 2. LOGIC and METHODOLOGY (as the laws of thought, syllogisms, induc- tion and deduction, &c.). 8. METAPHYSICS (as what is Being, Reality, Finity and Infinity, the Ego and Non-ego, &c.). 4. MORAL and POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY (pleasure and pain, desire and avenion, conscience, judgment, happiness the end of rational action, politics, jurisprudence, f orms of government, &c.). 5. POLITICAL ECONOMY (as capital and labour, rate of increase, land-rent, profit and wages, currency, monopolies, banking, &c.). See 1 Natural Sciences.' Moralities. Dramas of an allego- rical character to encourage good morals. They succeeded the Mystery plays (q.v.), the subjects of which were the Religious Mysteries, interdicted in the 16th cent. The dramatis personce of the Morality plays were such as Mr. Carnal-minded, Mr. Great-heart, Faithful, Hopeful, Despair, Youth, Age, and so on. Moran's Collar. A collar worn by ancient Irish judges, which gave warning by tightening round the neck when the wearer was about to give an unjust judgment. Hence the proverb ' I swear to it by Moran's collar.' Moran was the son of the usurper Carbre Catcan; on the death of his father he refused the crown and restored to the throne the royal race in the person of Feredach, who appointed Moran judge. It is the justice of Moran which gave rise to the fable of the lodhan Moran. Mora'vians, or 'The United Brethren.' Said to have existed in the 9th cent., when the kings of Bulgaria and Moravia were converted, and united in communion with the Greek Church, They are episcopal in constitution, and are attached to the Augsburg Confession of Faith. They still exist in large num- bers, and have exercised considerable influence on the Christian religion. It was In 1457 that Michel Bradacz, of Bohemia, united them under the name of ' The United Brethren.' In 17-21, after the Thirty Years' War, they found an asylum at Hernhutt, under Count Zinzendorf, and changed their name to [fenikiitter Morbus Anglious. The sweating sickness. Morden College, Blackheath, 1695. Founded by Sir John Morden, a Turkey merchant, for decayed Levant merchants. There are 40 pensioners, allowed 40. per annum each, and a treasurer. The pensioners have apartments, coals, candles, washing, and service found; and dine in a common hall. Morganatic Marriage. Legal. ised concubinage. It is a German fiction MORLEY MORVEN A person of rank ' marries' a woman of inferior social position, and gives her a dowry on the wedding day, called mor- gangina, Saxon for a 'morning-gift.' The offspring of this woman are not heirs, though legitimate, and the bride- groom gives her his left hand instead of his right, whence the phrase ' left-handed marriage.' A disgrace to common honesty, to say nothing of Christianity. Morley (Mr. and Mrs.). The Prin- cess Anne and Duchess of Marlborough mutually agreed to abandon all formality and court etiquette in their intercourse with each other. To this end, Anne was to be called ' Mrs. Morley,' her husband Mr. Morley,' and the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough ' Mr. and Mrs. Freeman.' Mormons, or 'The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,' 1880. A religious sect founded by Joseph Smith, of Vermont, who declares that he received his mission from an angel in 1823. This angel told him where to find certain plates containing the records of the ancient American prophets. These plates were about as thick as tin, and held together by three rings running through them all. The character employed was ' Reformed Egyptian,' and with the plates were deposited the ' Urim and Thummim,' or spectacles for deciphering them. The plates say that the Americans were a colony from the Tower of Babel at the confusion of tongues. The Mormonites receive their name from the prophet Mormon who wrote the plates called ' The Book of Mormon.' Their written Scriptures are called the books of Enos, Jarom, Zeuitf, Ether, &o. Morning Star of Reformation (The). 1. In England, John Wycliff (1324-1884). II. In France, Pierre Waldo (1120- 1170) of Lyons. He taught that the laity might conduct the offices of religion as well as the clergy ; that the doctrine of transubstantiation has no warrant from Scripture ; that it is wrong to invoke saints ; that there is no such place as purgatory ; that there are only two sacraments ; that the Pope of Rome does not hold the keys of heaven, and that he never received them from St. Peter. Mortar Boards. See 'Square caps.' Mortification, in Scotch law, means what the Englishman ' Mortmain.' Inf eftments of mortified lands are those which are granted to the kirk or other incorporation having no other reddendo than prayer and sup- plications. Bach were the mortifications of the kirk-lands granted by the king to klrkmen, ot by private men to provosts and prebendars.-Si AIT:, book ii. title 8, 80. Mortimer's Hole. A subterra- nean passage through the soft sand rock on which Nottingham Castle stands, and leading from the castle-court to the river Leen. Through this passage Ed- ward TTT. and his conspirators found access to the castle, broke open the door, seized Mortimer, and brought him before the parliament, by whom he was con- demned to death. He was hanged at the Elms, near London, 29 Nov., 1330, with three others, and the queen-mother was shut up in her own house of Risings, where she lived for 27 years. Mortmain (The Statute of). 1 Edw. I. c. 2, 15 Nov., 1279, forbidding the alienation in mortmain of real pro- perty to religious houses or other cor- porations. This statute was based on the ' constitutions of Clarendon ' (q.v.). Lands held by the clergy and corporate bodies were in dead hands (mortuit maniout) BO far as the overlord was concerned, because corpora- tions can neither fight (or their overlord, nor do they die, like individuals ; consequently the lord of the fee lost the fint which accrued to him on change of tenants. As Coke says, ' the lords lost their escheats, and the services for the defence of the realm, wards, reliefs, marriages, and so on.' As a dead hand yields the lord no service, so lands held by corporate bodies yielded the lord no services. Morton's Fork. The wealthy can pay because they can spare something out of their superfluity. The thrifty can pay because they do not squander thrir money in self-indulgence. The tale is that Henry VIL in 1507 wanted money- no unusual thing and levied a ' benevo- lence ' on the whole realm. Cardinal John Morton, archbishop of Canterbury, waa appointed chief commissioner to extort money from the clergy. The rich clergy, who tried to get exempt, he said could afford to give because they had abun- dance, and the poor frugal clergy could afford to give because they were thrifty. BACON, ' Life of Henry VIII.,' p. 486. Erasmus tells a similar tale of Richard Fox bishop ot Exeter 0487-1491). Ecclesiastes ii. Morven (Kings of). The following are said to have rule over the north-west of Scotland, called Morven. Tremnor began to rule . AJ>. 82 Fingal (father of Ossian) . . 210-246 Ossian I. (the poet) . . . 246-28? Oscar 287-800 Ossian II. (Picts and Scots first so named) .... 800 MOSCOW MOST 601 Moscow Expedition (The), 15 Sept. to 19 Oct., 1812. The disastrous invasion of Moscow by Napoleon. The loss of the French in the expedition and retreat is set down at the enormous total of 200,000 human beings. Some estimate the loss of life as very much greater. It was Rostopchln who set fire to the city. On the retreat Napoleon left his army at the Beresina, took his route towards Zen>lin, and reached Paris 18 Dec. Moses of Mesopotamia (The). Jacobus or St. Jacobus, a bishop who prayed that God would protect Nisibis when the city was besieged by Sapor II. (AJ>. 850). Whereupon a swarm of gnats attacked the Persian elephants BO fiercely that they ran away, and the city was saved. (See Gibbon, ' Decline and Fall,' xviii., and Theodoret, ' Eccle- siastical History,' ii. 26.) Mo slim (vulgarly ' Mussulman,' plu. ' Mussulmans '). A true believer in Mahomet's mission ; but Moslem or Moslemin means ' belonging to Islam or the creed issued by the prophet.' The adjective is Moslem. Moss (Treaty of), 16 Aug., 1814. A treaty of peace between Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Prince Christian Frede- rick had been proclaimed king of Nor- way, 19 May, 1814 ; but Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Great Britain interfered, and induced the prince to abdicate. As resistance would have been madness, he had no choice left, and Norway was con- firmed to Sweden according to the terms of the treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan., 1814. Moss Backs. The Victorians, or people of Victoria, are so called by the Vancouverites, ' because they move so slowly that moss is apt to grow on their backs.' Most Catholic King (The). The ruling king of Spain. The king of France was the ' Most Christian.' Most Christian Doctor, 'Doc- tor Christianissimus.' Jean Charlier de Gerson, chancellor of the University of Paris, born at Gerson (Reims) (1363- 1429). It is to this Gerson that many attribute ' The Imitation of Christ,' usually ascribed to a-Kempis, and cer- tainly Gerson's ' Consolation Internelle ' resembles it in an extraordinary degree. Most Christian King, or ' Chris- tianiBsimus,' was first applied to the 26 kings of France by Paul II. in 1469. It is very strange that Louis XI. should have been the king so honoured. Henry VIII. was called ' Defender of the Faith,' for his book against Luther; but the retention of the title after the Reforma- tion was a mere perversion of its original meaning. Some say that Pope Anastasius conferred the title on Clovis at his oaptism, because he was not an Arian as all or almost all the Christian princes of Europe were at the time. The Spanish king received the title of 'Catholic' for expelling the Moors ; the Portuguese kings were entitled ' Most Faithful.' Most Enlightened Doctor (The). Doctor Illuminatus, or Illu- minatissimus. Raymond Lully (1234- 1815). Most Methodical Doctor. John Bassol, a Scotch savant, who died in 1847. Most Profound Doctor, ' Doctor Fundatissimus ' and ' Theologorum Prin- ceps.' JEgidius de Colonna, i.e. Giles of Cologne (1247-1816), a disciple of Thomas Aquinas, and archbishop of Bourges. He was a zealous Realist (q.v.). It is said of this scholastic, ' Lux in lucem reducit dubia.' (He was the luminary who brought dark [or abstruse] things to Probably modern scholars would say he argued BO abstrusely that he did not himself understand his own expositions. Most Resolute Doctor (The). 1 Doctor Resolutissimus.' Guillaume Du- rand de St. Pour. viii 124. Muse of Tragedy (The). Mrs. Siddons the great actress (1755-1831). Mushroom Cities. Chicago, St. Louis. Music of the Spheres (The). The music produced by the seven plain-Is rolling in their orbits. Pythagoras noticed that different lengths of string, stretched like those of a harp, produce different sounds, and as the seven planets revolve in seven orbits of different cir- cumferences, they must, like an ^Eolian harp, produce different sounds a> whiz through space. The^e seven sounds or musical notes Pythagoras called the ' Music of the Spheres.' Musical Scale (The Greek). 1 Ut Hypate - Principal \ 9 Re ... Par hypate - I'.uH-principal I A Dlates ~Par- .. Lich saron. 8 Mi .. Lichanos - ( 4 Fa ... Mesa - M,;iium J 6 Sol ... Para-mese Pott medium 6 Re ... Trite - Third {. A Plate* 7 Mi . Para-net* - Am<--pfn*U l-u / (A Dlat saron MUSICAL M.W.8. 605 The ' Diaponte ' Is from Ut to Sol, and from Sol to Fa is the ' Diatessaron.' The ' Diapason ' = the Diapente plus the Diatessaron. Similarly, from Fa to Fa is a Diapente. In both cases there are three tones and one semitone in a Diatessaron. Musical Small-coal Man (The). Thomas Britton (1650-1714). An amateur' musician and antiquary, dealer in small coals in Aylesbury Street, Clerkenwell. The room of his gatherings, says Dr John Hawkins, ' was over the coal-shop, and his weekly concerts were attended by the highest order of nobility.' Dr. Pepusch and, later on, even Handel played the harpsichord at these concerts. Here used to assemble Mr. Needier, accountant-general of the 'excise, the poet Hughes, Woolaston the painter, and many others. Walpole says that Britton took money from his visitors. Musketeers (The). ' Lea Mousque- taires,' 1622. A company of gentils- honnnes d cheval who formed the garde du roi created by Louis XIII. There were two companies the Grey and the Black so called from the colour of their horses. Being dressed in scarlet, the part of the palace where they lodged was called the Maison-Rouge. Suppressed in 1791 ; restored in 1814, but not organ- ised again by Louis XVIII. on his second restoration. Mutiny Bill (The), or 'Mutiny Act,' . 1689 (1 William & Mary, c. 5). It enacted that any military offenders might be arrested by military authority, and tried and condemned by court-martial, in per- fect independence of the civil courts. This bill also provided (or the better payment Of the army, and for better quarters. Mutiny of the ' Bounty ' (The), 1789. H.M. ship ' Bounty,' commanded by Capt. Bligh, was sent to Otaheite for bread-fruit, and on the return voyage the crew rebelled, led by Fletcher Chris- tian, the master's mate. The rebels forced Capt. Bligh and 18 of the men into a boat and set them adrift, but they landed in time at a Dutch settlement, arid reached England. The British government sent Capt. Edward Edwards to seize and bring home the rebels, when fourteen were apprehended, but nine were missing. The captives were tried by court-martial, and three were sen- tenced to death. Twenty years after- wards the nine missing were heard of at Pitcairn's Island (1806) ; but only one viz. Alexander Smith (alias John Adams) was alive. He had become a religious man, and was farmer, schoolmaster, phy- sician, and pastor in the island, in which were 170 inhabitants, 88 being males and 82 females. He died in 1829. Mutiny of the Nore (The), 22 May, 1797. Suppressed in June. This mutiny was preceded by a rebellious dissatisfaction of the seamen of tho channel fleet at Spithead, who deprived their officers of command and threatened their lives. This uprising was quelled by an increase of pay ; but it was suc- ceeded by a mutiny of the fleet at the Nore, led by one Parker, and very ex- tra ragant terms were demanded. After a few weeks the men surrendered at dis- cretion, and Parker was executed. It was to encourage loyalty among our Bailors that, at this period, Charles Dibdin wrote his sea-songs, and was rewarded with a pension. Mutton-eating King (TJw). Charles II. of England (1680, 1659-1685). Here lies our mutton-eating king, Whose word no man relies on Be never said a foolish thing, And never did a wise on'. EAHL OF ROCHESTER. Mutual Admiration Society (The). In French, 'La Socie'te' d' Ad- miration Mutuelle.' A jocose appellative applied in Paris to the ' Socie'te' d'Ob- servation Medicale.' In England it has been applied to several sets ; as Shakespeare, Ben Jon- son, Beaumont and Fletcher, &c. Another consisted of contributors to the ' Spectator,' such as Addison, Steele, &c. A third was the famous 'club' of Johnson, Goldsmith, Burke, Reynolds, Beauclerc, and Boswell. Mutual Instruction, 1795. A system of education introduced by Dr. Bell in the Madras schools, where the more advanced pupils were set to teach the less advanced, whereby the numbei of the staff of paid teachers was very greatly reduced. Joseph Lancaster in 1798 caught the idea, and for a time the mutual instruction plan was largely adopted in our charity and parish schools. The only remnant now left is that of pupil teachers. M.W.S., 1798. The legend, on the black flags of the Irish rebels in the MYRMILLON3 NAG'S United Irishmen's sedition. The initials of Murder Without Sin. Myrmillons (The), or ' Mirmillones ' (4 syl.). Gladiators on foot who combated with the retiarii. So named from a fish, called by the Greeks /xop^vpos, which surmounted their helmets. Mysteries, 18th, 14th, 15th cents. Dramatic representations of the ' reli- gious mysteries,' such as the Incarnation, the Crucifixion, the Holy Trinity, and the Real Presence. They were acted by monks, generally in a cathedral. At their decline they were replaced by the Moralities (q.v.). The four best Mystery plays were the ' Passion,' the 'Resurrection.' the 'Incarnation,' and 'St. Catherine. 1 The ' Mystery of the Passion ' la still (IKK)) performed In the Tyrol during 'Passion Week/ Mystics. Those Christians who believe there is a natural and mystical meaning in Scripture, the latter to be gleaned only by particular inspiration and ' converse with heavenly habitants.' They are great in visions, dream revela- tions, and inward lights. ' Let there be light ' means, In a natural sense Let there be the light of day 'the light which now proceeds from the sun but mystically it means ' Let there be divine inspiration and the llk'ht of glrfry; let light illumine the soul; let light be difluBcd in the heart, that it may know the divine mysteries, and see what is hid from the natural understanding. 1 Mythical School (The) of Theo- logy in Germany was founded by Strauss, who tried to prove that the gospels are not real history, but beaux-ideals of ancient prophecies personified. His 'Life of Jesus,' in 1840, produced an immense sensation. His ' Christian Doctrine and Faith' enters on the struggle between science and the Bible (1808-1874). Naamans. A religious party founded by Alexander Knox and Rowland Hill, half churchmen and half dissenters. They were like Naaman in the house of Rimmon. Nab. To seize unexpectedly. Nabis king of Sparta (B.C. 206-191) made a statue resembling big wife, and clothed it hi magnificent apparel. "When any- one refused to deliver up his riches to the tyrant, he was led up to the statue, and the statue by secret springs seized the victim in her arms and squeezed him lo death against iron spikes secreted by her dress. If this is not tenable, it is at any rate an historical curiosity. See ' Bullies.' Similarly, to Burke, to Boycott, &c. The Nor- weglan ' nappe' (to seize) Is a cognate word. It may possibly be a contraction of apprehend (seise) Nabathaean Kingdoms (The). The kingdoms of the east. Arabia Felix is called Nabatheea from Nebajoth the son of Ishmael (Gen. xxxvi. 3). The i of Arabia Petraea are called the theeans, bat the term is very widely ap- plied. Euros ad Auroram Nabathssaoue regna recent* Persldaque. etradlis Juga subdita matutinis. Vesper et occlduo qu Qttora Sole teooscunt, Proxima sunt Zephyro; Scythiam septemqo* triones Horrlfer In vault Boreas ; contrarla tellas Nubibusaesiduls pluvUxjuu madeecit abAustro. OVID, ileUimorphotet, bk. 1. 61, Ac. Nabonassar. See ' Era of.' Naboth's Vineyard. A posses- sion coveted by others. Thus in when half the nations of Europe were swooping down upon pla.-i-s for < -..Ionics or annexation, it was said that ' Germany, France, and Italy were looking about for a Naboth's vineyard,' that is, a part of the world which they could appropriate. Of coarse the allusion is to King Ahab in 1 Kings xxi. Nag's Head Ordination (The). In 1559, 17 Doc., Matthew Parker wag consecrated archbishop of Canterbury. Pennant says the ceremony was to have been performed by Anthony Kitchen bishop of Llandaff, but Bonner interfered ; whereupon fourteen ecclesiastics mined to consecrate each other to the vacant sees. Scory, * deposed bishop, met the party at the Nag's Head Tavern, Cheapside, and consecrated Parker arch- bishop; this being done, Parker proceeded to consecrate the rest. Strype refutes this tale in his ' Life of Archbishop Parker,' and in Bennet College library is an in- strument said to have been used on the occasion, and being the consecration in Lambeth chapel by William Barlow (late bishop of Bath and Wells), John Scory (late bishop of Chichester), Miles Cover- dale (bishop of Exeter), and John Hop- kins (suffragan bishop of Bedford), of Parker and others. The Nag's Head tale is attributed to Father Talbot and an- other Jesuit named Holy wood. Dr. Doyle iu 1824-25, before a committee of the NAILS NANERISM 607 House of Commons, revived the Nag'a Head tale. The story is this : the Nag's Head Is the tavern where the dean of the arches and the civilians went to refresh themselves after the confirma- tion of a bishop, and while the ecclesiastics were there, one Neale (Bonner's chaplain) peeped through the keyhole to see what was going on. He saw Kitchen bishop of Handafl solicited to assist in the consecration service, but he stoutly refused to take any part therein. Scory (late bishop of Chichester) then made all kneel down, and said to Parker, 'Take thou authority to preach the word of God sincerely.' This tale was accepted as an historic fact for at least forty years ; but we are told that the Earl of Nottingham was present and contradicted it, and that Arch- bishop Abbot produced the register of Canterbury to disprove it. Of course Neale's tale, as well as that of the earl and archbishop, are so doubtful that no reliance can be placed on either of them. Nails (The), used at the crucifixion. Gregory Nazianzen asserts that there were only three nails used, but Cyprian maintains that there were four. The number of those said to have been found in the cave where the three crosses were buried is equally uncertain. One was sent to Rome, and is deposited in what was afterwards the Santa Croce; two others were sent by the Empress Helena to her son Constantine, one of which was welded as an amulet to his helmet that he might not be slain in battle, and the other was set in his horse's headstall ; a fourth the empress threw into the Gulf of Venice to allay a storm ; a fifth was beaten out into a thin band, and is set in the famous ' iron crown of Lombardy,' with which Charlemagne and Napoleon were crowned. So that the find of the empress did not settle the disputed point, but only made it more doubtful. See 1 Crucifixion, Belies of the.' Similarly the dispute about the wood of the cross was not settled by the discovery of the 'true cross.' Was it oak, pine, cedar, gopher wood, or what ? Some affirm it was made of three or more different kinds of wood. Certainly the relics which profess to be parts of the cross vary, so that the question Is still undecided. Calvin enumerates fourteen nails : one In the Santa Croce at Home, another In Siena, a third in Venice, a fourth in the church of the Carmelites In Paris, a fifth In the Holy Chapel, a sixth at Draguignan, a seventh at Trenaille, an eighth at Treves, a ninth at Monza, a tenth in the crown of Lombardy, one was thrown Into the Gulf of Venice, one was welded into the helmet of Con- stantine, one was set in the headstall of the em- peror s horse (Gregory of Tours says two of the nails were set in the headstall). This would make fourteen. Not the slightest reliance can oe placed on the genuineness of any of the relics of the cru- cifixion, or of the ' saints.' Nails found in Coffins. A nail was at one time placed in a coffin for luck, much as a horseshoe is nailed to a stable door. The Romans drove annually pii the ides of September a nail into the gide wall of the temple of Jupiter Capito- llnus (Livy, vii. 8). It is supposed that the nails were originally a sort of tally for marking the number of years, and were continued out of reverence to an old custom (Festus). The nail driven into the temple was technically called 'Clavus annalis.' Names Classicised. It was much the fashion, especially with German and Dutch authors who wrote in Latin, to convert their names into a Greek or Latin equivalent, or to give them a classic turn, Agricola (1492-1566) the reformer, and friend of Luther, whose real name was Schneider (a tailor). This was assuming another name. Bucer (1491-1551), a Doniinican and friend of Luther, whose real name was Kuhhorn (cow-horn), of which bucer is the Greek. Desiderius Erasmus (1467-1586), a Dutchman whose real name was Gheraerd Gheraerd, of which Desiderius is the Latin, and Erasmos the Greek. Melanchthon (1497-1560), one of Lu- ther's friends, whose real name was Schwartzerde (black earth). Melanchthon is the Greek for a ' heap of black earth.' CEcolampadius, the Latinised name of Johann Hausschein, the reformer (1482- 1581). Paracelsus (1498-1541), Grseco-Latin for bombast, the real name being A. T. Bombast. Porphyry, the Greeised name of Malk, the real name of the disciple of Plotin (233-804). Regiomontanua, a Latinised form of Kbnigsberger. So Johann Miiller called himself (1486-1475). He was born at Konigsberg in Franconia. Stobseus is Stubbs Latinised (5th cent.). Till after the reign of Frledrlch II. the Great (1740-1786) the Germans were ashamed of their language, and all their standard works were written in Latin or Greek. Of course this does not apply to Porphyry, though probably he dis- Nameless Finger (The). The 3rd finger of the right hand. The right- hand fingers are the pointer, long finger, nameless finger, little finger ; of the left hand they are the pointer, long finger, ring finger, and little finger. Nanekism. The religious system of Nanek, founder of the religion of the Sikhs, which is a fusion of Islamism and Buddhism. The Sikhs recognise ' both the Vedas and the Koran. His 608 NANTES NAPOLEON code is called the Adi-granth. Lahore is the centre of Nanekism. Nanek was born 14GO, and died 1589. N.B. ' Bikh ' is one of a Hind ft sect, and meana diiciple. ' Sheik ' is an Arab chief. Nantes (Edict of), July 1591, granted by Henri IV. to the Protestants of France, was only a revival of the Edict of Poitiers conceded by Henri in 1577. The difference was this: the Edict of Nantes was enforced, that of Poitiers was a dead letter. In 1597 the edict was extended, and the Huguenots were al- lowed the public exercise of their religion in all places in which it had obtained a footing in 1597, and in the suburbs of towns. Permission was given to lords of high rank to hold religious services in their castles, and to noblemen of second rank to admit thirty co-religionists to their private chapels ; the reformed were admitted to public offices, their children to schools, and the poor to a share of alms ; the right of pnnting books in cer- tain towns was conceded, equal represen- tation in some of the palements, four academies of scientific and theological instruction, and a certain number of places of security. Napier's Bones, 1617. A contri- vance by John Napier baron of Merchis- ton for saving the tedious processes of multiplication and division by shifting about slips of ivory or bone, and, after the slips have been arranged, merely adding or subtracting the figures on the slips. Thus a sum of multiplication by five figures would (after the bones are arranged) be per- formed by simply adding five lines of figures. Napoleon (The Code of), 1803-1804. The 'Code Civil,' consisting of three books, the first of persons, under 11 titles; the second of goods, under 4 titles; and the third of the ways of acquiring property, under 20 titles. The whole code contains 2,281 articles. Tronchet was ' the soul of the code,' but he was assisted by Roederer, Portalis, Thibaudeau, Cambaceres, and Lebrun. Though the Napoleon Code means the Code Ci- vil, yet there are several other codes for diilorcnt branches of the law, as the ' Code Penal, 1 the ' Code des Dclits et des Peines,' the ' Code d Instruction Criminelle, 1 Ac. Napol6on le Grand. Napoleon I. (1769, 1804-1814, died 1821). Banished to Elba 1814 (he was deposed 4 April, oid arrived at Elba 4 May). Flight from Elba 26 Feb., 1815 ; reached Paris 20 March ; defeated at Waterloo 18 June. He gave himself up to Capt. Maitland of the ' Bellerophon,' 15 July ; was bani>l u d to St. Helena, and arrived there in the 4 Northumberland,' commanded by Ad- miral Sir George Cockburn, 16 Oct. HP died 5 May, 1821. His remains were re- moved to Paris in 1840, and were de- posited in the Hotel des Invalides 15 Dec., 1840. His ' day of the Violets ' is 1 March, the day when he reached Cannes after hie escape from Elba. Set ' Violets.' Father, Carlo Buonaparte of Corsica; .IMJi.-r. Maria Letlsia Ramolina ; H'nvj (1) Josephine, widow of Beauharnais, divorced ; (2) Maria Louisa archduchess of Austria; Son. Francois Joseph Vi poleon Bonaparte. Contemporary with Qeorge III. Memoranda. Napoleon Bonaparte was sub-lieu- tenant of artillery 1785, captain IT'.'J. commander of the National Guards 17*1, brigadier-gene r Commander-in-chief of the army In Italy 1796. First Consul 34 Deo.. 1799. First Consul for life a Aug., MM, Emperor 18 If ay, 1804. He won fifty-two vic- tories. His life was attempted in Dec. 1800 by an ' infernal machine ' planted in the Rue St. Nlcasse. The intention was to kill him on his way to th opera. Ho was once wounded slightly in battle, and was excommunicated by Plus VII. in 1800. His abdications: I. Deposed by the senate, and abdicated at FontaineM- :ui 4 April, 1814. Sent to Elba in the British frigate called the 'Undaunted,' under the command of Capt. Usher ; went on board 28 April and arrived at Elba 4 May, 1814. n. After the battle of Waterloo he abdicated a second time, 22 June, 1815. He gave himself up at Rochefort to Cap- tain Maitland, commander of the ' Belle- rophon.' Accompanied by Count Ber- trand, Count Montholon, Count Lascases, Baron Gourgaud, a surgeon, and twelve domestics, he was then sent to St. Helena in the * Northumberland,' under the com- mand of Admiral Sir George Cockburn, and arrived there 16 Oct., 1815, Sir Hud- son Lowe being governor of the island. He lived in Longwood House, and died 5 May, 1821, amidst a phenomenal tempest. His crack regiments were the 80th, 43rd, and 96th. To belong to one of these infantry corps was a warrant of reck It >s courage and undaunted bravery. Napo- leon and all his staff uncovered and bowed low as any one of their tattered colours filed in review before them. Napoleon II. Son of Napoleon I. and his second wife Maria Louisa arch- duchess of Austria. He was created 1 King of Rome ' from the moment of his birth (20 March, 1811), and, when hi* NAPOLEON NATIONS 609 father abdicated in 1814, the Senate pro- claimed him Napoleon II., a title which the powers of Europe would not allow. On the fall of his father in 1815, the lad retired to the court of his maternal grand- father, the emperor of Austria, and re- ceived the title of ' Duke of Reichstadt.' He died of consumption at Schonbrunn in 1832. Napoleon III., Emperor of the French (1808, reigned 1852-1870; de- posed, and died 1873). Father, Louis Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon I.; Mother, Hortense de Beauharnais, daughter of Josephine by her first husband (her second hus- band wan Napoleon I.); Wife, Marie-Eugenie de Guzman, comtesse de Teba. Contemporary with Queen Victoria. ** His life was attempted six times. 1852, 24 Sept. An infernal machine was found at Marseilles designed to kill him. 1853, 5 July. His assassination was attempted as he was leaving the Op6ra Comique. 1855, 28 April. Giovanni Pianori fired at him hi the Champs Elyse'es. 1857, 7 Aug. Barcolotti, Gibaldi, and Grillo came to London to assassinate him while he was on a visit to Queen Victoria. 1858, 14 Jan. Orsi'ni (q.v.) attempted his life. 1863, 24 Dec. Greco attempted his life. Orslni organised his infernal plot in London, Pianori did the same ; Mazzini, Ledru-llollin, and Campanello in London supplied plotters with arms, Ac. The French ambassador complained to the British government ; and these plotters again; t the French emperor nearly dragged us into a war with France. Special Constable in London, 10 April, 1848. Louis Napoleon, with 170,000 noblemen, gentlemen, merchants, and tradesmen, volunteered to be sworn in as special constables to prevent disturbance of the peace by the Chartists when they presented their monster petition (q.v.). Louis Napoleon acted under the Earl of Eglinton. *,* Nicknames : COMTE D'ARENSBERG. So he called himself after his escape from the fortress of Ham. BADINGI'ET. The name of the man he shot in his Boulogne escapade. BOUSTBAPA. A compound of Boulogne], Stra- [Bbourg], and Pa[ris], the places of his noted esca- GROSBEO. So called from the rather unusual size of his nose. MAN or DECEMBER. So called because December was his month of glory. Thus he was elected president 11 Deo., 1848 ; he made his coup d'ttat S Dec., 1851 ; was chosen president for life by plebiscite 21 Deo., 1861 ; and WM created emperor I Do., ib&i. MAN OF SEDAN. So called because at Sedan ha surrendered his Bword to William king of Prussia, Sept. 1870. MAN OF SILENCE. See p. 648. Oui-Oui was the pet name given him by Hortense in his childhood. He was a quick, intelligent boy, beautiful as a girl. RATIPOLE (8 syl.). The same as the West of England word rant/pole, meaning a harum-scarum fellow, half Idiot and half madcap. SEDANTAIRE. A pun on Sedan. See above. SOULOUQCE (q.V.). The Little. Victor Hugo gave him this title, but the hatred of Hugo for Napoleon was a mono- mania. VERHUEL. The name of his supposed father. He was born whil " his mother was separated from her husband. Sc ondal says she had been sepa- rated thirteen months. V Whatever may be said of Napoleon III., two things deserve mention: (1) He was the only crowned head of France who'visited England as a friend ; and (2) all through his reign he knew his best policy was to remain friendly to England. From this wise policy he never swerved, although sometimes goaded to animosity by his military ad- visers. Our relations with France have certainly not improved by the substitution Of a republic. Napoleon of Peace (The}. Louis- Philippe king of the French (1773-1850, reigned 1830-1848). Also called 'The Citizen King.' Napoleon of the East (The). Mehemet Ali pacha of Egypt (1769- 1848). Napoleon of the Turf (The). Lord George Bentinck (1802-1848). Nassac Diamond (The). For- merly in the possession of the East India Company ; weighed 89f carats, but since the Duke of Westminster had it cut anew it weighs only 78$ carats. Its value is about 30,OOOZ. See ' Diamonds.' Nation of Shopkeepers (A). So Louis XIV. called Holland. Napoleon Bonaparte applied the phrase to Eng- land ; but whether England or France is the more given to trade would be hard to determine. Probably the proportion of men independent of trade would be in favour of England ; and without the least doubt the money-grabbing or commer- cial spirit in Frenchmen is very much stronger than it is in Englishmen. I lived eight or nine years in France, and mixed with all classes the court, tho military, the medical profession, tba literati, the bourgeois, and the proletariat. Nations (Expedition of the), A.D. 625. When the Koreish were defeated by Mohammed. They had been defeated by him ir. 628 at Bedr and Ohud. Se .Ditch/ 610 NATIONAL NATIONAL National Anthem (The) of Hun- gary is 'Rakotski's March.' See ' God save the King.' Prince Franz Leopold Rakotekl, a Tranayl vanlan prince, protector of Protestantism (died 1676). National Assembly (The). I. Of France, 17 June, 1789. ' L'As- semWe Nationale,' the tiers Hat, which withdrew from the States-General, while the nobles and clergy were debating how the votes were to be counted, and whether they should sit in the same house with the deputies. The nobles and clergy wanted to have three houses and to vote by booses. This, of coarse, would be simply to Ignore the tieri ttat. The deputies, who numbered 584 members, while the two other estates numbered both together only 661, insisted on voting per capita. n. Of Germany, 1848. It superseded the old German ' Diet ' (q.v.), which held its meetings at Frankfort. The National Assembly met at Berlin, and offered the imperial crown to William king of Prussia, but he declined the honour. It formed a constitution with two chambers ; the upper one was to contain 200 members and the lower one to consist of repre- sentatives of the people, one-third of the members to retire every two years. The kaiser was to have the absolute right of declaring peace and war, and of making treaties. Free municipal institutions were to be established ; and perfect free- dom in religion, education, science, and the press to be conceded. All this fell through in 1849, when a new legislative body was constituted, consisting of two chambers, which met at Brandenburg. The National Assembly of Berlin proved so refractory that the city was deserted, trade was paralysed, and Prussia was reduced to the verge of civil war. National Association for the Repeal of the Union (The),i.e. the union between Great Britain and Ireland. Or- ganised in Ireland 1840, and monster meetings were held on the Hill of Tara to promote the object 15 Aug., 1848. The subject of repeal has agitated Ireland ever since 1810, and in 1886 Mr. W. E. Gladstone brought in a bill with a view of putting an end to the ever-recurring agitation. In 1840 Daniel O'Connell was Ihe great agitator; and from 1881 to 1890, under the name of ' Home Rule ' and the leadership of Charles Stewart Parnell, the question of repeal obstructed almost all parliamentary business. See 'Irish Associations.' National Association of Ire- land (The), 1864. Formed to dim- establish the Irish Church, and to alter the land laws. The church was disesta- blished in 1869. See 'Irish Associa- tions.' National Board (The), Ireland. The ' Commissioners of National Educa- tion ' (q.v.). National Confederacy of Po- land (The). The dissidents under Prince Radzivil. They amounted to 72,000 noblemen and gentlemen, and were opposed by a Catholic association called the ' Confederacy of Bar ' (q.v.), which in 1774 conspired to assassinate the king (Stanislaus Augustus Ponia- towski), suspected of favouring the dissidents. The king escaped in a miraculous manner, lived through the two partitions of Poland, was compelled by Catharine of Russia to abdicate in 1795, and died in obscurity in 1798, aged 66. National Convention (The). I. Of Chartists, 1888. Up to 12 Aug. the delegates met at the Arundel Coffee House, in the Strand, London. It was declared illegal by the Convention Act Dec. 1839, but meetings continued to be held for ten years longer. The Chartists were strongly averse to the Anti- Corn Law League, because, they said, it would reduce the labouring man's wages, which were virtually regulated by the price of corn. II. Of France. ' La Convention Na- tionale' (from 21 Sept., 1792 to 26 Oct., 1795). The French legislature which succeeded the Legislative Assembly (q.v.). On the very first day of meeting it abolished royalty and proclaimed France to be a republic. On 17 Jan.,' 1793, it pronounced sentence of death on Louis XVI. On 6 Oct., 1798, it declared that all dates should be computed from the foundation of the republic (22 Sept., 1792). On 16 Oct., 1793, it brought Marie-Antoinette to the guillotine. On 21 Oct. it condemned to death twenty- one of the Girondists. On 5 April, 1794, it condemned to death Danton, Camille Desmoulins, and many others of the Cordeliers (q.v.). On 27 July, 1794, it condemned to death Robespierre. On 26 Oct., 1795, it declared itself dissolved. On the . -mht sat the Girondists, on the If ft the Montagnards. In the a-ntif the middle men. The number of members was originally 721; r*duo4 NATIONAL NATIONALISTS 611 to 500 In Year m. and to 800 In Year VIII. (21 Sept., 1792). National Covenant (The), 1688. A bond of union drawn up at Edinburgh by the leading Presbyterian ministers, embodying the Confession of 1580, and binding all who signed it to spare nothing in the endeavour to preserve their na- tional religion. The proximate cause of this bond was the attempt of Charles I. to enforce on Scotland episcopacy and the Common Prayer Book. National Debt (The), 1664. The national debt began in the reign of Charles II., to make up the deficiencies of the revenue. In 1672 he declared that the interest could not be paid, but in 1684 the payment of interest was re- sumed. In 1699 the rate of interest was fixed at 8 per cent. Future sovereigns increased the debt chiefly for war ex- penses. The debt was highest in 1817, when it was almost 841 millions. In 1888 the interest was reduced to 2| per cent. National Defects. The special plague of CHINA is leprosy, so was it of the ancient JEWS; of JAPAN and INDIA smallpox and cholera ; of SOUTHERN ITALY physical deformities ; of HOLLAND spinal diseases ; of GERMANY defective eyesight ; of SWITZERLAND goitre and rotten teeth ; of NORTH AMERICA rotten teeth and early baldness ; of FRANCE ' the French disease ' ; of ENGLAND consumption, especially among girls. National Gallery (The), 1824. The National Picture Gallery in Trafal- gar Square, London. The foundation was the collection of Mr. Angerstein, pur- chased by government ; enriched by the ifts of Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, "r. J. W. M. Turner, and others. The building in Trafalgar Square by Wilkins was opened 9 April, 1838, enlarged by Pennethorne in 1860. The eastern wing was granted to the Royal Academy of Arts for their annual exhibition of pictures, &c., formerly shown at Somerset House ; and the western wing was set apart for national pictures of ancient and modern deceased artists, formerly exhibited in Pall Mall. In 1868 the Royal Academicians removed their exhibition to Bur- lington House, and left the whole of the National Gallery for the exhibition of national works. National Land League of Great Britain, March 1881. To abolish rent altogether in Ireland ; and to make Ireland an independent nation, ' with its own flag among the nations of the world.' This league was in substitu- tion ot Michael Davitt's LAND LEAGUE gi M (q.v.), which was suppressed in 1882. Proclaimed as unlawful Aug. 1887. See 1 Irish Associations.' In 1885 there sprang up, In the U.S. of North America, the ' Irish National League of America.' National League (The), 1882, Ireland, had for its objects : 1. National self-government. 2. Land law reform. 8. Local self-government. 4. Extension of parliamentary and municipal franchise. 5. The development and encourage- ment of native industries and manufac- tures. The Land League, Instituted In 1881, was sup pressed In 1882. See ' Irish Associations.' National School Society (The) of England, 11 Nov., 1811. Parochial schools in connection with the Church of England, supported by voluntary contri- butions, school pence, and government grants. The schools are examined by government inspectors and are under diocesan inspection also. See 'Board Schools.' National Schools (The), of Ire- land, 1833. Introduced by Mr. Stanley, chief secretary. These schools are under a board called the 'Commissioners of National Education in Ireland ' (q.v.). The schools are strictly undenomina- tional, and no pupil need attend any religious instruction which the parents or guardians do not approve ; but any pupil may receive special religious instruction at a fixed appointed time. No book to be introduced without the express approval of the commissioners. National Subsidy (The English), 1770. The interest of the large subscrip- tions made in Great Britain for the aug- mentation of the pastors' salaries in the Piedmontese valleys. This was in addi- tion to the ' Royal Subsidy ' (q.v.). Nationalists (1886). An Irish party led by C. S. Parnell, M.P., which wanted to secure for Ireland a separate parliament, with the ulterior view oi separating Ireland from England, and making it an independent kingdom. In 1886 Mr. Gladstone brought hi a bill for Home Eule in Ireland. Those Whigs who favoured this bill were called Separatists, and those who opposed it were called Unionists. See ' Irish Associations.' BB9 Ill NATURA NAZOREAN8 Natura Naturans. ' Nature ope- rating is Nature's creator.' Bruno's phrase (1550-1000), by which he meant that it was not God who created all things out of nothing, but that ' energising Nature ' was the true creative force. Not ' Deus creavit omnia ex nihilo,' but ' Natura naturans naturavit naturam.' Spinoza taught that God and Nature are identical ; and Stahl taught that God is the anima mundi, or its vital prin- ciple, as the soul is of the body. Natura Naturata. Nature made Nature; or Nature is the outcome of natural energy. Natural Experimental Philo- sophy. See ' Jacksonian Professor.' Natural Science Tripos. Three classes into which students in the Univer- sity of Cambridge are divided who have passed with credit their final examina- tions in the Natural Sciences. The Na- tural Sciences include (1) CHEMISTRY (the laws of heat, and the laws of metallic and non-metallic bodies) ; (2) BOTANY (the structure, &c. of vegetable cells, the vessels of plants, the functions of their organs, their means of reproduction, and their classification); (8) ZOOLOGY (the genera of animals, their special forms and skeletons, nervous system, digestive system, circulatory system, organs of respiration, ova, and embryo); (4) GEO^ LOGY (the leading facts of Physical Geography, the order of the stratified rocks and their general character). And these six other subjects : Biology, Physics, Mineralogy, Comparative Anatomy, Hu- man Anatomy, and Physiology. Of course, no examination includes all these nine subjects. See ' Moral Sciences.' Nautch Girls (Tlit). See under ' Bayaderes ' (8 syl.). Naval Mass. The mass celebrated on board ship, when the rolling of the vessel might cause the wine to be spilt or the ' bread ' to be scattered. In this mass the oblation, the consecration of the elements, and the communion are all omitted. Navarrais(T/ie), 157-1364. Charles the Bad of Navarre, son-in-law of Louis X. of Prance, who conspired with the dauphin against Jean II. le Bon. He was imprisoned, but made his escape after the battle of Poitiers. In 1857 he joined the English, and while Jean was in captivity in London, laid claim to the crown of France (1868). At the death of Jean, his son and successor Charles V. sent Ber- trand du Guesclin against these invaders and marauders. He encountered them in Normandy, routed them utterly, and slew their leader the Captal do Booh. Charles the Bad met with a very singular death. He wan ad vised by hi* medical attendant to sleep In a nightdress steeped In spirits of inc. so, his dress caught Are. and he was burnt to death. Navigation Act (The), 1651. Pro- mulgated by Cromwell. Its object was to exclude all foreigners from English ports, and to secure to England and its colonies all the carrying trade. Hitherto Holland had been the great carrying state, but by this act it was ordained that no goods from Asia, Africa, or America should be imported to Great Britain except in ships belonging to Eng- land or its colonies. Abolished in 1849. See ' Reciprocity Act.' Nazarenes (8 syl.), or Nazarseans. A sect mentioned by Tertulhis in Acts xxiv. 5. The Cliristians were so called insultingly ; but the word was sub- sequently applied to Judaizing Christians, who demanded exact conformity to the Mosaic ritual. The only gospel they accepted was ' an heretical gospel ' ascribed to Matthew. In Evangolio juxta Hebrieos. quod Chaldaico quidom Syroque scrmone, sed Hebraiciu literii conscrlptum e*t, quo utuntur usque hodie Naza- reni. JKKOMK, Dialog, adv. Ptlagianoi, book 111. 2. Nazarites (8 syl.). Persons sepa- rated or consecrated to God (Numb. vi.). (1) They abstained not only from wine, but even from the grapes of which wine ia made ; (2) they were never allowed to cut their hair; (8) they were never allowed to defile themselves by contact with a dead body, not even if that body was the nearest and dearest, as husband or wife, father or mother, son or daughter, brother or sister. Nazoreans. ' Nazireans,' ' Naza- reans,' or ' Nousaieriens,' a sect (men- tioned by St. Epiphanius), and said to have been in existence before the Chris- tian era. They had a scripture called the 1 Book of Adam,' containing most of our ' Book of Genesis.' When Christ . they abjured his mission, and called thcii own founder the real Messiah (' Anaca- lypsis,' p. 657). NEBRASKA NEOLOGIANS 61 3 Nebraska (U. 8. America). So called from the nver Nebraska (Indian), now the River Plait e. The inhabitants are nicknamed Bug-eaters ; they are Baid to have once eaten locusts during a visitation of those insects. Necessary Doctrine or Erudi- tion (The), 1543. A book of directions drawn up in convocation by the bishops inclined to the reformation. This book was of authority in the English Church during the remainder of Henry VIlI.'s reign. Necessitarians. Those who deny the freedom of the will, such as Augustine and Calvin. Thus Augustine insisted that conversion is solely by free grace, independent of the human will ; and Cal- vin insisted that those saved were pre- destined to be saved. Pelagius and Arminius insisted that man is free to accept or reject the gospel. Negative Elements of our Belief (The). The Unitarian Confes- sion of Faith, contained in four articles (Martineau, ' Studies,' p. 77). The Positive Ones, as described by Dr. Beard, are About eight or nine. Negative Oath (The), 1641. An oath imposed on the clergy in the reign of Charles I., that they ' would not con- sent to alter the government of the Church.' The University of Oxford pro- tested against this oath. Neill of the Showers (King), 795- . So called because on the night he was born three showers fell in Ireland : a shower of honey, a shower of silver, and a shower of blood. Nelson (The Danish). Peter Torden- Bkiold (1691-1720). He was a tailor's ap- prentice hi Trondhjem, and raised him- self to the rank of vice-admiral. Trondhjem, pronounce Tron-yem. Nelson's Column, in Trafalgar Square, was erected in 1843 ; the four lions by Landseer were added in 1867. The design of the column was furnished by W. Kailton, who took for his model a column of the Temple of Mars Ultor at Home. The order is Corinthian, and the material Devonshire granite. Nelson's Eye. August 1794, at the siege of Calvi, a very strongly situated and fortified placo in Corsica, Nelson lost the sight of one of his eyes by gravel driven into it by a shot which fell neat him (age 86). He lost his arm in July 1797, tn an attack on Santa Cruz, Tenerifte (age 89). Neme'an Q-ames. Held in Neme'a, in Argolis. Instituted by the seven heroes on their return from Thebes; but historir cally B.C. 575. Philip of Macedon pre- sided at the opening games. They were held four times a year, and the original prize was an olive wreath. Eleven of the Odes of Pindar are in celebration of victors in these games. Nemedians (The). Invaders of Ireland under Nemedius, who compelled the subjugated Fomorians (q.v.) to build forts for them, and afterwards put the architects to death. They were driven out of the island by the natives, but a few left behind had a district awarded them (Keating, p. 121). Moore, in his 'History of Ireland,' says the Fomorians were African pirates who overcame the Nemedians, dispersed them, and destroyed them. Chap. v. 76. Nemours (The Treaty of), 1585, in which Henri III. of France engaged to deprive the Huguenots, not only of the public exercise of their religion, but also of liberty of conscience. It was ordered by this treaty that all the Calvinistic clergy should quit the kingdom within a month, and that all Huguenots, who would not abjure, should emigrate before six months under penalty of confiscation of goods and death. This term of six months was afterwards reduced to fifteen days. Neo-Fenians, 1878-79. Founded by John Devoy. His 'new departure' had for its object the ' uniting of the forces of revolution and constitutional agitation, with a view of advancing the aims of the separatist party.' See ' Irish Associations.' Neolo'gians, Neol'ogy. A ra- tionalistic form of Christianity introduced in the 18th cent, by Eichhorn and Paulus, who denied the divine origin of the Scrip- ture ; maintained that the Old Testament is like any other history; that clergy, men are mere professors of theology, as lawyers and medical men are profes- sors of their respective professions ; and that miracles, if worthy of any credit, are only natural occurrences. 314 NEOPLATONISM NETHERLANDS Neoplat'onism. This philosophy developed itself in Alexandria, and its object was an amalgamation of Plato's philosophy with Eastern mysticism. The Neoplatonists gave objective reality to abstract ideas. Thus Wisdom was made a person, and it is thought by some that 1 The Word ' referred to in the gospel of St. John is an instance in point. The Trinity of the Neoplatonists consists of Unity, Wisdom or the Word, and the Mundane Soul. The chief exponents are Ammonius Saccas, Plotlnua, Por- phyry, Jamblichus, Proclus, and Julian the Apostate. Neoplatonism, In Alexandria, originated with Phllo about A.D. 85 or 40 ; but was more definitely constituted by Ammonius Saccas about 190-240. Neph'ites (2 syl.). The second American race according to the Book of Mormon. The first were Jaredites, so called from Jared, who led a colony to America at the dispersion when God con- founded the tongues of the builders of the Tower of Babel. The first colony were all slain by internecine war. The Nephites were so called from Nephi (youngest of the four sons of Lehi), who led the second colony, and was appointed by God to rule over the colony settled in Chili. As the brothers of Nephl opposed this decree of Ood their skins were blackened, and they became the founders of the American Indian tribes. Nephi heard the earthquake at the crucifixion, and Christ himself appeared to him forty days and revealed to him the truths of Christianity. In A.D. 884 the race of Nephi was annihilated. See ' Book of Mormon.' Neri (The), 1294. A political faction in Pistoia, similar to the Donati of Flor- ence, and favourers of the Guelfs. Their opponents were the Bianchi (q.v.). The names were derived from two powerful families ; the Neri represented the high aristocratic class, and the Bianchi the rich merchant class. See the ' Blacks and Whites.' Nero of Persia (The). Sefi or Sophi, grandson of Abbas the Great (1628-1642). This tyrant had not one redeeming quality. Nero of the North (The). Chris- tiern IL of Denmark (1480, 1513-1523). Nero's Torches. Christians smeared with oil or tar, stuck in the ground, and set alight. It is said that the Emperor Nero threw on the Chris- tians the charge of setting fire to Rome, and thus tortured some of them in publv; thoroughfares A.D. 64. It must not be forgotten that religion and poli- tics were united in the Roman empire, and that the persecution of Christians was in all cases more a matter of civil policy than of aversion to Chris- tian dogmas. Nertschinsk (Treaty of), i.-.s-i. Between Russia and China, fixing the boundary line between the two countrit-s. The river Kerbeschi (the Gorbitza) was made the line of separation. Nestor of Europe (The). Leopold king of Belgium (1790, 1831-1865). Nestor of German Poesy (The). Christoph August Tiedge (1752-1841). Nestor of German Sculptors (The). John Heinrich Dannecker (1758- 1841). Nestorian Liturgy (The). No Nestorian liturgy has been printed, but probably the Anglican missionaries sent to the Assyrian Church in 1887 will make it a part of their duty to print these ser- vice-books. The Nestorians teach that there are two persons, not two natures, in Christ. Their chief bishop used to be called the Catholicos, but is now called the Patriarch. They do not accept the canon of Scripture as authorised in the Council of Rome 494. They have seven sacraments, but these are not identical with the sacraments of the Western Church. They are rigid Sabbatarians, and acknowledge three orders of the ministry. Nestorians, AJ>. 428. The follower* of Nestorius patriarch of Constantinople (died 489). He maintained that Jesus Christ was the union of two persons, the Divine Word and the man Christ Jesus. The former dwelt in the latter as in a temple, and Mary was not the mother of God, but only the mother of the man Christ Jesus, for ' God ' could not be born, neither could He die. This heresy was condemned by the General Council of Ephesus in 431. There is a Nestorian Liturgy. See ' Theophoron,' /< has been disused (in En/l.i n- and all trials, as a matter of course, take place on circuit. Nizam'-gedittes' (2 syl.), 1807. An army of 10,000 Turks raised by the Sultan Selim, clad in European costum*-, and officered by En chiefly French. The old Turkish janis- saries, jealous of these new posed the sultan and placed his cousin Mustapha on the throne. No. 1, organiser of the Iri*h In- vincibles, 1881, was a man named P. J. Tynan. He was a handsome man, about five and a half feet high, and wore spec- tacles. He went about in various dis- guises. All Invincibles were Fenians of the better class. See ' Irish Associa- tions.' No. 45 (of the North Briton), in which Wilkes said the words in the king's speech that the peace of Paris ' is honourable to the crown and ben to the nation' are false. This lu-ing deemed an msult to the king (< - HI.), Wilkes was arrested 80 April, and committed to the Tower. When brought to trial the bench declared that the arrest could not be sustained on account of Wilkes's privilege as a member of par- liament, for nothing short of treason could interfere with that privilege. Wilkes was accordingly at once dis- charged. His release was celebrated, NO. 61 NOLAN 421 especially in the cider counties, with processions, in which a jack boot, a petticoat, and the king led by the nose by Bute, were carried. See ' Jack Boot.' In 1772 George prince of Wales, having been chid for some boyish fault, stole into the king's apartment and shouted, ' Wilkes and No. 45 for ever ! ' George III. only laughed at the boy's impudence. No. 61. The 'Secret Select' (q.v.) of the Glasgow Trades Union, 1837. No. 90 (Tract). One of the ' Tracts for the Times,' written by John Henry Newman, D.D., Fellow of Oriel, Oxford. This was the last of these famous religious tracts issued 1833-1841. Dr. Newman subsequently joined the Church of Rome, was made a cardinal, and died in 1890. No. 290. The ' Alabama ' (q.v.). 'No Popery' Riots. In Edin- burgh and Glasgow, January 1779. In London, June 1780, called the 1 Gordon Riots ' (q.v.). Noach'idSB. Those proselytes who refused to be circumcised. They bound themselves to observe the precepts of Noah, but not the law of Moses. Noble Lesson (The), 1100. A metrical production consisting of 479 lines in the Romance or Vaudois language. It is chiefly an abstract of the Old and New Testament history. It refers to the corruptions introduced into the church since the days of the Apostles. It begins thus : O brethren, give ear to a noble lesson : (nobla lOMMM) We ought often to watch and pray, For we see this world is near its end ; . . . Eleven hundred years are fully accomplished, Hence it was written ' We are in the last times.' Noble Proclamation (The), 980. The proclamation of Malachy monarch of Ireland after his conquest of the Danes. It was in substance as follows: 'Let all the Irish who are now in servitude return to their respective homes, and enjoy themselves in peace and gladness.' The number released by the Northmen was upwards of 2,000. Nobles of the Genoese War (The),1381. When Venice was threatened with utter destruction by the Genoese, the Venetian Grand Council announced that, "at the termination of the war, The Forty (q.v.) would elect thirty of the citizens by ballot into their own council. These new nobles were to enjoy all the rights, privileges, and immunities of the original nobles. At the close of the war the promise was fulfilled, and among those aggrandised was 1 banker, 5 trades- men, 6 simple citizens, 1 merchant, 5 of the lower order, and 8 operatives. Four centuries later only eight of ' I Nobili della Guerra di Genoa ' had representa- tive survivors. Nobody's Club, 1800. A club con sisting of the friends of William Stevens (1732-1807), who assumed the pseudonym of ' Oudeis ' (nobody). They met at the Freemasons' Tavern, London, once a year. The original number was fifteen. Nobs [In the Glasgow Trades Union], 1837, were employers who had made themselves obnoxious to the work- men, and were appointed to be dealt with by the 'Secret Select' (q.v.). The names of these ' Nobs ' were enrolled in a book, and every sort of annoyance was offered to them. Nocturns. Same as Matins. One of the eight daily services of the Catholic Church, and the first of the four great ones at break of day. See ' Canonical Hours.' Noel's Catechism, or 'Newel's,' &c. 1563. Alexander Nowel or Noel, dean of St. Paul's, at the recommenda- tion of Cecil revised the ' Larger Catechism,' but his book was not pub- lished till 1570. Noetians. Heretics of the 2nd cent., also called Patripassians, whose doctrines resembled those of the Sabellians. Founded by Praxeas, who was succeeded by Noetus. If Jesus was verily the 'Everlasting Father,' then when Jesua suffered on the cross God the Fathei was crucified. (Pater-passus, the Father suffered.) I consider that he had Noetian tendencies. We Two, xxiv. No-flint General (The). Major- General Grey, afterwards Lord Grey of Howick, and finally Earl Grey, who in the American war, 1778, ordered his men to take the flints out of their guns and trust wholly to their bayonets ; also called No-flint Grey.' Nolan (The). Giordano Bruno (1550-1600), born at Nola in Naples. H was burnt to death as a heretic. NOLUMUS NON-INTRUSION Nol'umus leges AngliaB mut'- ari. This celebrated answer was made by the lay lords in the famous parlia- ment held at Merton the day after the coronation of Henry HI., and was given in answer to a motion of the bishops for legitimatising natural children provided, after the child was born, the father and mother married (1216). Nominalism and Realism. Terms used in scholastic divinity during the Middle Ages to express the nature of abstract ideas, such as circle, beauty, god, &c. The question was this : is there such a thing as abstract beauty, or must not our idea of beauty be allied to some object ? Nominalism is the system adopted by nominalists, and realism is the system adopted by realists. Ari- stotle was a nominalist, and Plato a realist. See next article. Nominalists. Those who believed in nominalism. They were the disciples of Roscelin (1040-1120), canon of Com- piegne, and denied the existence of universals. Take a tree in the abstract ; this is a universal, and a nominalist would say such has no existence. Take an oak tree, an elm tree, a fir tree, fcc. ; these are particular objects which stimu- late in us certain ideas. Well, say the nominalists, our id.ea of a tree must be limited to particular trees, and our con- cept of tree in the abstract must be derived from such particular objects. It is itniversalia post rent, tree in the abstract formed post rem, after the concrete has been formed. It is al- together d posteriori, an inference of a universal or abstract idea from particular objects cognised beforehand. Of course, according to nominalism, the abstract idea of God is impossible; all we can know of God is from his works, &c. In theology there is another sort of nominalism. We are taught that Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are one God. Well, as three persons cannot really be one, the nominalist contends that these ' three persons ' are only different names (nomina) of the same being, just as father, son, and husband may be three distinct names of the same individual. Abelard, William Occam, Buridan, Hobbes Locke, Bishop Berkeley, Condillao, and Dugald" Stewart were nominalists. St. Anselm of Canterbury, Albertua Magnus, Thomas AquiuM, aud Duiu Seotug were realUts *** D seems to have raised the qu< whether the personal distinction* of the Deity ax real or nominal only. Nominees (The King's), 1662. Thirty-six of the Irish nobility and gentry specially nominated by Charles II., after his restoration, to be restored to their Irish estates, from which they had been banished by Cromwell. About 6,000 of the restorable Irish were never restored to their estates. There were four classes, viz. Innocents, Articlemen. Ensignmen (, and the King s Nominees. Of the 7,778,000 acres for- feited in the Commonwealth, G8.860 statute acre* were awarded to the Nominees. Non-Catholics, i.e. Protestants. See ' Edict of Toleration.' Nonconformists, 1565. Those who refused to conform to the 'Book of Advertisements ' drawn up by order of Queen Elizabeth by the Court of Eccle- siastical Commission for the sake of securing uniformity of doctrine and disci- pline in the kingdom. Now nonconformist Is a synonym of ditsenter. one who does not conform to the State Church. Non-importation Act (The), 26 March, 1806. Passed by Congress to prohibit the importation of British manufactures into the United States. The immediate cause of tins prohibition was the annoyance caused by the British ship 'Leander' cruising off New York and insisting on searching American vessels under pretence of looking for deserters. In one of these searches an American sailor, named Pearce, was killed, and the hostility of the States, which had long been smouldering, burst into a blaze. Non-intercourse Act (The), U.S. Passed Congress 27 Feb., 1809, suspend- ing all trade between the U.S. and either France or England. The offence of England was its claim of the right of search, which compelled American vessels to surrender any British subjects who formed part of their crew. The offence of France was the Continental system (q.v.). Napoleon, having removed all obstruc- tions to American trade, Congress re- newed intercourse with France 2 Nov., 1810; but the breaking out of the second American war with Great Britain in May 1812 continued the i ion -intercourse till after the battle of Waterloo, when friendly relations were restored. Non-intrusion Controversy (The), 1838-1848. A controversy in th NON-INTRUSIONISTS N-RESISTANCE 62* Presbyterian Church of Scotland re- specting the right of the State to inter- fere in ecclesiastical matters. It began with the question, Have patrons the right of presenting to livings or does the choice rest with the congregation ? In 1833 Dr. Thomas Chalmers suggested that a patron should nominate, but the people should have the right of veto. This was accepted by the Assembly in 1834. In 1888 the Veto Act was ruled to be illegal, and the Assembly declared that the Church is wholly free and independent. Several appointments by patrons were made and disputed, and the result was a split in 1843, which gave birth to the ' Free Church.' Non-Intrusionists ( The). Those who separated from the Presbyterian Church of Scotland at the Non-Intrusion controversy. The split consisted of 470 ministers, with their office-bearers, elders, and communicants, and in 1843 the se- paratists formed the ' Free Church of Scotland.' They did not consider the veto proposed by Dr. Chalmers any in- trusion or illegal interference with the right of a patron. The chief leaders were Drs. Chalmers, Chand- ler, Candllsh, and Gordon, with Messrs. Guthrle, Cunningham, and Dunlop. Dr. Thomas Chalmers was elected president of the new ' Free Church.' V The law was that a congregation has the power of rejecting a presentee for 'adequate reasons. 1 Non-juring Clergy of France, 28 Jan., 1791. Those clergymen who re- fused to take the ' civil oath ' to accept the new constitution concocted by the Assemble'e Constituante. See ' Pretre InsermenteV The constitutional members of the late assembly .... drew up an address to the king [Louis XVI.], urging him to refuse his sanction to the decree against the non-juring priests. HowiTT, Hist, of England (Geo. III. p. 586). Non-jurors (The), 5 March, 1689. Those episcopal clergymen who refused to take the oath of allegiance to William and Mary, according to a clause in the Convention parliament that ' after 1 March no person shall sit or vote in either house till he has taken the new oath of allegiance to their majesties William and Mary.' The non-jurora comprised the Archbishop Bancroft, seven bishops, and about 400 of the inferior clergy. As they believed in ' the right divine,' and that the king was ' the Lord'g anointed,' they could not possibly believe that James was justly and lawfully sot aside. The six bishops were Ken bishop of Bath and Wells ; Turner bishop of Ely ; Frampton bishop of Gloucester ; Lloyd bishop of Norwich ; White bishop of Peterborough. The Bishop of Worcester and Bishop of Chichester died before the Act took effect. Dr. Tillotson was made primate of All Knglan ! In place of Dr. Bancroft. Non Obstante (The Bull). B' Innocent IV. sent to Robert Grosted or Grosteste commanding him to bestow a valuable benefice on an infant and that infant an Italian. The honest bishop tore up the bull, and wrote back to the pope that such practices were ' shaking the very foundations of the church.' At this time the money paid to Italian priests in England was 60,000 marks per annum, a greater revenue than that of the crown. The barons re- monstrated, and to that the words of the bull refer. Non obstante, i.e. notwithstanding [this remonstrance I require you to do what is set forth In the bull]. Won Possumus (^4). Something not possible to be done, either because the person is unwilling to do it or thinks it inexpedient. Your prayer or petition cannot possibly be granted. The words used by the pope when he negatives a suit or request. They opposed a non postumut to the Irish de mand. Newspaper paragraph, Jan. 1886. Non-Regents. Masters of arts and doctors in a university no longer bound to give lectures. Regents were at one time the lecturers or professors. The terms regent and non-regent were retained in the University of Cambridge till 1858, though the duty of lecturing had long before passed to professors. Non-Regent's House (The). The Lower or Blackhood House of the Uni- versity of Cambridge, consisting of mas- ters of arts of more than five years' standing and doctors of more than two Abolished in 1858. See ' Senate.' Non-resistance (The Doctrine of). That is, passive obedience to every ordin- ance of man and to the king for those ' who resist the power shall bring to them- selves damnation.' When the divine right of kings was maintained in the Stuart dynasty, those who took this view, of course, insisted on the doctrine of non-resistance. It was most clearly set forth in 1683 by Oxford, in what is called a ' Judgment and Declaration ' (q.v.). Enforced by the Homilies 15G9 ; by the Canong Of Convocation In 1609 ; the Oath of Non resist 624 NON-RESISTING NORTH ance was Imposed In 16m (13 Car . H. s. 8, 0. 1). Th act was repealed 1718 (6 Geo. I. o. 6). Non-resisting Test (The), 1675. To be taken by all members of parlia- ment, privy councillors, magistrates, and persons holding office under the crown : ' I [A. B.J do declare that it is not lawful on any pretence whatever to take up arms against the king ; and I do abhor the traitorous position of taking arms against his person, or against those that are commissioned by him according to law, in time of rebellion or war, and acting in pursuance of such commission. I [A. B.] do swear that I will not en- deavour any alteration of the Protes- tant religion now established by law in the Church of England ; nor will I endeavour any alteration in the govern- ment in church and state as it is by law established.' Nones (1 syl.). One of the eight daily services of the Catholic Church, and one of the four lesser ones. At 8 o'clock in the afternoon, the ninth hour of the day. See ' Canonical Hours.' Norbertines (8 syl.), 1119. An order of Canons Regular founded by St. Norbert. See ' Premonstratensians.' Nore (The Mutiny of the), 22 May, 1797. A mutiny of the fleet ; suppressed in June ; Parker, the ringleader, was exe- cuted at Sheerness 80 June, 1797. Norfolk Commotion (The), 1549. Bo Ket's or Kelt's Rebellion (q.v.) u called by the old chroniclers. Normal or Training Schools. To train teachers in the principles and art of teaching. First organised in Prussia. The following dates give the order in which they have been esta- blished : at Stettin, in Prussia, 1735 ; at Berlin by Frederick the Great 1748 ; at Hanover 1757 ; the Borough Road school for teachers founded by Joseph Lancaster 1805 ; French training schools for teachers 1810 ; in Holland 1816 ; Normal Schools for England and Wales 1888 ; at Framing- ham and Westfield, in Massachusetts, North America, 1889 ; Battersea training school for teachers, 1840. See ' Ecoles.' Norris'ian Prize (The). For an essay on some sacred subject. Prize given once in five years to any graduate of the University of Cambridge of not more than thirteen years' standing. Value 602., a part of which is to be ex- pended on a gold medal worth seven guineas. Founded, in 1777, by John Norris, who also founded the Divinity professorship, when 122. was given an- nually, altered in 1858. See '1; Professorship of Divinity.' Norris'ian Professorship of Divinity. Founded 1777 in the University of Cambridge, by John Norris, of Wittmi, Norfolk. Original stipend 1502. a but now considerably augmented. ' Regius Professorship of Divinity.' Norroy King-of-arms. English herald of the northern provinces, first appointed by Edward IV. The herald of the southern provinces is called Cla- renceux (formerly Surroy) King-of-arm (q.v.). Norroy. of coarse, IB Norfth]roy. We still speak of a Nor 1 West wind or Nor 1 Wester. Surrey U South roy. North Briton (The), a newspaper edited by John Wilkes ; was started in 1762. The printers and publishers were prosecuted for No. 46 in 1768 ; Wilkes was sent to the Tower in April, but discharged in May. The paper (15 Nov., 17G3) was ordered by the House of Commons to be burnt by the hangman. 19 January, 1764, Wilkes was expelled from the House of Commons ; but In March 1768 was elected M. P. for Middlesex. Ha was again arrested In the spring of 17GB, and his Imprisonment occasioned a riot in St. George s Fields. He was again expelled the House in 1769. bat was again re elected for Middlesex. He was made Lord Mayor of London in 1774, and Chamberlain of the City of London In 1779. North German Confederation (The), 1866. After the famous ' Seven Weeks' War ' and the ' Peace of Prague,' when Austria was entirely excluded from Germany. The confederation included Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort (all incorporated with Prussia), and the states north of the Main unit* d to Prussia in a bund. Strictly speaking, therefore, the confederation was 1' and the states north of the Main. In 1870, during the Franco- German war, the ' North German Confederation,' being joined by Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Bad.'n, and Hesse-Darmstadt, became the ' Ger- man Confederation,' and two months afterwards (18 Jan., 1871) the King of Prussia had the title of 'German Em- peror ' given him. Austria with Bohemia and Hungary form M part of the modern German empire. NORTH-WEST NOTTINGHAM 625 North-West Company (The), 1783. . The North- West Company of Montreal was formed in opposition to a French company confirmed in 1697 by the treaty of Ryswick, abandoned in 1713 by the treaty of Utrecht, but still con- tinued by adventurers, till the formation of the North- West Company. This com- pany in 1821 coalesced with the Hudson's Bay Company. Its great traffic was furs or peltry. North-West Passage (The). That is, a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific by way of the Polar Sea, to the north of America. Above 200 voyages have been made in search of such a pas- sage. Sir John Franklin reached N. Lat. 77 in 1847. Although much has been added to our geographical knowledge by these expeditions, they have clearly proved that such a passage is useless for mercantile purposes. Northampton (The Treaty of), 4 May, 1328, between Edward III. and Robert Bruce, whereby the independ- ence of Scotland was formally recognised, and Bruce was acknowledged to be its king. A marriage was agreed upon between the Princess Joanna (sister of Edward HI.) and David son of Kob^rt Bruce (both infants). Bruce re- nounced all intentions of aiding the rebels of England, and Edward of abetting the rebels of the isles of Scotland. All charters and documents carried from Scotland by Edward I. to be restored. Scotland to pay 20.000Z. to the King of England. Northern Tele'maque (The). Alexander I. of Russia, 1777 (1801-1825). Northmen (The). Came from Scan- dinavia (Norway, Sweden, and Denmark). Karl III. the Fat bribed them to peace ; but his nephew Arnulf attacked them boldly and drove them back. Norwich Rentys. The London house or place of the bishop of Norwich, known subsequently as York House. In 1535 Norwich House passed by a special act of parliament into the hands of Charles Brandon earl of Suffolk. The lands ran westward as far as Hungerford Market. No'sarites (3 syl.). A people of Syria so called from the town of Nosar. Their religious creed, like that of the Druses, is a mixture of Paganism, Judaism, Mohammedanism, and Chris- tianity. Their chiefs are entitled ' Me- k^ddem.' 27 Nose-tax (The). A tax of one ounce of gold from every householder of Ire- land, exacted by the Danes in the 9th cent., the non-payment of which was punished by slitting up the nose. Thie continued for thirteen years, when a general massacre of the Danes in Ire- land put an end to the tax. Probably the nose-tax was merely a poll-tax. We still retain the phrase to ' count noses,' and in Sweden the people paid Odin a 'scot-penny for each nose.' Nosey. Wellington was so called lovingly by his soldiers. * Notes and Queries.' A London weekly journal chiefly to furnish en- quirers with information by corre- spondents on literary, biographical, and heraldic difficulties. Commenced 8 Nov., 1849. Nothing from Nothing. 'Ex nihilo nihil fit.' The axiom of Xeno- phanes, founder of the Eleatic school (B.C. 619, died after 476). Notre Dame. In the ' Petits Bol- landistes,' by Mgr. Paul Gue*rin, chamber- lain of Leo XIII., there are 2,011 arti- cles headed ' Notre Dame,' one headed ' Jesus,' and one headed ' Christ,' and not a single one ' Notre Seigneur.' Notre Dame is called the ' Mother of God,' and Joseph the carpenter is called the ' Hus- band of God's Mother ' (epoux de la Mere de Dieu). This may be logical, but it looks more like Mariolatry than Christianity. Under the words ' Passion de Notre Seigneur Jesus Christ ' will be found the whole of ' Passion Week.' Nottingham (Peace of), 868. Be- tween Alfred and his brother Ethelred on one side, and the Danes on the other. By this treaty England was divided into two parts, one of which re- mained to Alfred and the other was assigned to the Danes. The Danish portion was Northumbria, East Anglia, arid the bulk of Mercia, called ' Dane lagh,' because this part was subject to Danish law. The Danish portion was the larger of the two, but Alfred kept London. Nottingham Captain (The), 1817. Jeremiah Brandreth, a frame- work knitter of Nottingham and fiery agitator, who collected some three hun- dred people, whom he persuaded to S S 626 NOUMENON NUMBER ' march from Derby to London and over- turn the government.' At Eastwood, about three miles from Nottingham, they were stopped by a troop of horse from Nottingham, and fled in all directions, but many were made prisoners, and three executed, viz. Brandreth, Ludlam, and Turner, 7 Nov., 1817. Nou'menon. What Aristotle called the hypoklmenon (vvoKtiftevov), an ima- ginary something which underlies all visible phenomena the ghost of a thing, immutable and unaffected by those logical accidents, colour, odour, growth and decay, shape, size, . 1838. Oath of Supremacy (The), l Eliz. c. 1, A.D. 1559 ; abolished in 1858. This was not an oath acknowledging the king's supremacy, as it was wholly silent on that point, but an oath against the non-supre- macy of the pope in England. The form established by William and Mary 1694 is as follows: 'I, * *, do swear that I do from my heart abhor, detest, and abjure .... that damnable doctrine .... that princes excommunicated by the pope may be deposed or murdered by their subjects. . . . And I declared that no foreign. . . potentate hath or ought to have any juris- diction .... ecclesiastical or spiritual Within this realm.' Oath of the Jeu de Paume (The), 20 June, 1789. Three days after the Tiers Etat formed themselves into the National Assembly (q.v.), several mem- bers of the two other estates joined them, and they all met in the tennis court, at Versailles. Having sent an invitation to the nobles and clergy to join them there, Bailly rose, bade the whole assem- bly follow has example, and then, raising their right hands, the entire assembly joined in the oath never to part till they had given France a constitution. Jeu de paume (the hand game) means tennis, and the oath of the Jeu de paume [ pome] means ' the oath taken in the tennis court.' Oath of the Vehmgerichte (4 syl.). Every person brought before the secret tribunal was sworn to profound secresy . . . . ' Not to divulge to wife or child, father or mother, friend or con- fessor, not to tell in words, or express in writing, or signify by symbols, or dress in parable, or hint at by sign, or commu- nicate by look, anything done or heard or seen in the tribunal, if he would sleep in an unbloody grave.' Obedience (An). The instrument containing the written precept of the superior in any religious order to the persons in subjection, to undertake a specific office, to proceed on a stated mission, to relinquish a certain appoint- ment, and so on. Obedience in canon law means the duty by which the various grades in the ecclesiastical system are held subject. Avignon Obedience during the great schism of the West meant the acknow- ledgment of the popes of Avignon. Human Obedience, during the same period, meant allegiance to the Roman pontiff. Obedience (Paytd'). The territory where the pope nominates to vacant bene- fices. During the great schism of the West, each contemporary pope had his own ' pays d'obedience.' Thus, in the 14th cent, we had 'The Obedience of Urban VI. ' (comprehending North Italy, Germany, Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and England), and the 'Obedience of Cle- ment VII.,' comprehending all the rest of Europe. Obedience of Benedict XIII. (The). Means, in the great schism of th OBEDIENCE OBLATES West, obedience given to Benedict XIII. by the supporters of the French pope, in opposition to the contemporary Koman pope(firstBonifaceIX.,then Gregory XII., then the double popes Gregory XII. and Alexander V.). ie death of Gregory XI. the Italians Insisted n Italian only could be pope, but as most of Atth( that an the cardinals were Frenchmen, they stoutly re- sisted this dogma. Neither would give way, so the Italians elected Urban VI., who resided at Rome, and the French elected Clement VII., who resided at Avignon (1378). As death occurred in either chair, the respective partisans elected a succes- sor ; thus Urban was succeeded in Rome by Boni- face IX. and Gregory XII.; while Clement, the Avignon pope, was succeeded by Benedict XIII. See Great Schism of the West. 1 Obedience of Gregory XII. (The). Means the acknowledgment of the authority of Gregory XII., the Roman pope, in opposition to Benedict XIII., the Avignon pope, in the great schism of the West (q.v.). Obelisk of Constantius (The), i.e. the Egyptian obelisk which Constan- tius II. presented to the city of Rome when he went to visit that ancient capital. It was 115 feet in length and had been transported from Heliopolis by Constan- tino the Great to adorn his new city of Constantinople, A.D. 854. Obelisk of Heliop'olis (The), or ' Matarieh,' erected by Osortesen I. about B.C. 1900. The oldest of the large obe- lisks. An obelisk which Rameses II. erected at Helio- polis was removed to Alexandria. The ' Flaminian Obelisk 1 begun by Sethos I. and finished by Rameses II. was removed to Rome by Constantius. In the pontificate of Gregory XIII. this obelisk was found buried 16 feet under the surface, and was set up by Fontana, the architect. Obelisk of Karnac (The), or large obelisk erected by Thothmes I. before the granite sanctuary of Karnac. His daughter Hatasu erected two obelisks betel* the second propylaeon of the same sanctuary. Obelisk of London (The), or Cleo- f atra'u Needle on the Thames Embank- ment. See ' Cleopatra's Needle.' The Arabs call obelisks ' Pharaoh's needles ' ; the Egyptian priests called them ' Sun fingers,' because they acted as gnomons to mark the hour on the ground. Obelisk of Paris (The). In the Place de la Concorde is one of the obe- lisks of Rameses II., originally erected at Luxor (Thebes). Removed to France in 1838, and called I'Obelisque de Louqsor. Obelisk of St. John Lateran (The). The highest in the world. It was removed from Thebes, and was erected by Thothmes IV., some 85 years after the death of Thothmes III. Obelisk of the Atmeidan (The), or of the Hippodrome of Constanti- nople. The oldest of the obelisks of Thothmes III., erected to record his con- quest of Naharania or Mesopotamia. Obelisk of the Upper Alps (The). Felix Neff, also called 'The Apostle of the Upper Alps' (1798-1829). Ober - Ammergau (Ammergow), in Upper BaAaria. Rendered specially famous of late for its Passion Play, repre- senting in 18 acts the last days of Jesus Christ. Act i. Entry of Christ into Jerusalem, and his purging of the Temple ; Act ii. The Sanhedrim ; Act iii. The Leave- taking at Bethany ; Act iv. The Last Journey to Jerusalem ; Act v. The Last Supper ; Act vi. Judas receiving the Blood-money ; Act vii. Jesus in the Gar- den of Gethsemane ; Act viii. Jesus be- fore Annas; Act ix. Jesus before Caiaphas; Act x. The Despair of Judas; Act xi. Jesus before Pilate ; Act xii. Jesus before Herod; Act xiii. Jesus scourged and mocked; Act xiv. Jesus condemned to Death ; Act xv. The Via Dolorosa ; Act xvi. The Crucifixion ; Act xvii. The Re- surrection ; Act xviii. The Ascension. History of the Play. As far back as the 12th cent, there had been a Passion Play performed in the little village, but in the 16th cent, a plague carried off 80 of the inhabitants, and the survivors made a vow, if the plague was stayed, to perform the Passion Play every ten years. Daisen- berger, a priest, converted the ' miracle play,' which was a farce, into the present drama. In 1890 it attracted great at- tention, and throngs from America and Europe went to the Tyrolean Alps to witness the performance. Obi, or Obe (2 syl.). Witchcraft or sorcery. An O'beah man is a wizard, an O'beah woman a witch, among the negroes of the West Indies. O'bit. In the Latin church means the service for the dead. One de die obitus, one on the day of the funeral, and a third on the 80th day. It consists of the matins and lauds of the Officium Defunctorum, and a mass for the dead. Oblates, ' Oblati.' I. Those who, on entering a monastic order, abandon their OBLATE3 OBSTRUCTIONISTS worldly goods for the benefit of the society, or who offer themselves for any work that may be put upon them. n. Those offered to God from birth, or consecrated from birth to a ' religious life.' m. Those laics who pay to live in an abbey. IV. Invalid soldiers who, before the foundation of the Hotel des Invalides, were quartered by the kings of France on religious houses. Oblates of Mary Immaculate (O. M. I.), 1815. A congregation of priests established by the Abbe Mazenod, whose special mission is the supervision of schools and prisons ; many are mission- ary priests. America, more especially Canada, is full of them. Oblates of St. Ambrpse, 1578. A congregation of secular priests estab- lished at Milan by Charles Borromeo, their special mission being the super- vision of schools and colleges. Oblivion (Bill or Act o/),12 Car. II. c. 11, 1660. An act of indemnity for treason and state offences committed between January 1, 1687 and June 24, 1660. Oblivion (The Committee of). When the American trouble began, in 1775, petitions from trading companies in the United Kingdoms poured into the House of Commons, urging the ministers to abstain from coercive measures against America. A committee was appointed to report on these petitions, but so long was the report delayed that the mer- chants thought their petitions were for- gotten, and the committee appointed to consider them was facetiously called 1 The Committee of Oblivion.' Obregons. Nurses of hospitals, ly have been expected ; and by their knowledge of business, and the exercise of a rigid economy, they brought the affairs into much better order than they had ever been during James's reign. Sir W. SCOTT, History of Scotland, xxxvlil. October 5, 6, 1789. Noted for the great insurrection of Paris, when a mob of men and women made their way to Versailles, massacred the guard, and compelled Louis XVI. with his wife and family to go to Paris. October Diploma (The), 1860. Introducing a constitutional form of government for Hungary, and vesting the power in the provincial Diets of Austria and the National Diet of Hun- gary- Octonary (The). A name given to the Calif Motassem. He was the 8th of the Ahbasside califs; he reigned 8 years, 8 months, and 8 days ; won 8 battles; left 8 sons, 8 daughters, 8 thousand slaves, and 8 millions of gold. (Gibbon, with notes, ch. 52.) Oculi. The third Sunday in Lent. So called from the introit which begins thus : ' Oculi mei semper.' See ' Sunday.' The ' Introit ' is the psalm or passage of Scrip- ture chanted in Catholic churches while the priest enters the chancel. Od Force. An all-pervading force. A term introduced by Baron Reichenbach to express that luminosity which is said to be manifested at the poles of magnets, and wherever chemical action is going on. It has negative and positive poles. In animal magnetism it is said that od force IB transmitted from the magnetiser to the mag. netted. Odal Tenure. In the Orkney and Shetland Islands. The right to land without any written deed, based solely on possession. Absolute possession before the introduction of feudalism. Odalisks. Female slaves of the Turkish harem attached to the service of the women. They are ordinarily eithe? Circassians or Georgians, and are gene- rally selected for their beauty. Odcomb'ianljegstretcher(Tfoj). Thomas Coryat of Odcombe, Sonu r> t- shire, traveller, and author of ' Coryat's Crudities ' (1577-1617). O'Donnell Rebellion (The), in Spain, 1841. The object was to restore the queen-mother, Maria Louisa, who had been compelled by Espartero to abdicate, that he himself might be regent. The revolt failed in its object, and in 1854 Espartero joined O'Donnell, who was made minister of war. O'Don- nell now effected Espartero's dismissal and was named president of the council. He resigned in l.st;<;, and died the follow- ing year (5 Nov., 1867). Odour of Sanctity (The). To die in the odour of sanctity. It was and perhaps still is a prevalent notion among Roman Catholics that when the body of a good man dies, God will not suffer his holy one to see corruption, and that it exhales a sweet odour; but that the body of the wicked gives forth at death a stench increasing in foulness in proportion to the scale of crime. Of course, there is a sort of truth in this notion, for the bodies of holy men were embalmed, and the swing- ing censers filled the room with sweet odour. Besides, monks and nuns liv.-d so in the odour of the censers that their clothes and skin got impregnated with the perfume. Bad men, on the other hand, were neither embalmed nor in- censed. Shakespeare speaks of the stench exhaled by Antiochus and his daughter, who were killed for their wick- edness by lightning : A fire from heaven came, and shrivelled up Their bodies, e'en to loathing ; for thoy BO stunk That all those eyes adored thrm ere their fall Scorned now the hand -which gave them burial. J\-i u-U-t 1'ruu-f (>/ Tyre. Odour of Nations (The). Maxim* du Camp says : Chaque pays a nne odeur apeclale qul le fail reconnaitre: 1'Egypte sent la flour des ftHeo, Tltalie sent la cire et Tencens. 1 Angleterre sent la fumee de houllle, la Grece sent 1 nruki. la France sent le pain de munition, la Hollaiide a anssi son parfum 4 elle et tout & fait distinct ell* sent la tourbe huruide. Certainly, a French crowd ' a une odeur spe'ciale,' unlike any crowd that I ever mixed in. ODYSSEY OIL Odyssey (The German). 'The Kudrun,' in three parts: (1) 'The Hagen ' ; (2) ' The Hilde ' ; and (8) The Hedel.' (Ecumenical Councils. Only seven are recognised by Russia. 1. The Council of Nice, A.D. 825, in which the Arian heresy was condemned. 2. The First Council of Constantinople in 381. 8. The Council of Ephesus in 481. 4. The Council of Chalcedon in 451. 5. The Second Council of Constanti- nople in 553. 6. The Third Council of Constanti- nople, in 680, against the Mpnoth'elites (q.v.), who recognize in Christ but one will in his two natures, the human will being merged in his divine nature. 7. The Second Council of Nice in 787. An (Ecumenical Council should be called by the pope, presided over by the pope, and attended by bishops from all parts of Christendom. (EdlpUS. Caracalla was so called because, like CEdipus, he married his own mother. The people of Alexandria gave him this sobriquet, and the emperor in revenge slaughtered many thousands of them. (Eil de Boeuf ('), 17th and 18th cents. A large reception room [salle] in the palace of Versailles, lighted by a round window [ceil de bceuf] from the king's bedroom. The ceiling had been decorated by Van der Meulen, and on the walls were represented the children of Louis XIV. Three short years ago there was still Versailles and an (Eil-de-Boauf. CA.RL.VU&, French Revolution, xol. iii. bk. L 1. CEillet (Chevaliers de F), or ' Knights of the Pink,' 1793. A society organised to rescue the queen Marie Antoinette and her young son (Louis the Dauphin) from the hands of the revolutionists. It had its ramifications in Austria and Prussia, but its headquarters were in Paris. Their attempt to save the queen failed, and the failure was announced to the Parisian conspirators by one of the members pulling a pink to pieces and flinging the stalk on the ground. Offa's Dyke. An immense trench and rampart extending from the estuary of the Dee to the mouth of the Wye. It was carried through marshes and over mountains and rivers for 100 rniles. Its remains are still visible. It was used for the boundary which determined the confines of England and Wales. Every Briton found with a weapon on this side of the dyke was to have his hand cut off (Sharon Turner, 'Hist, of the Anglo- Saxons,' p. 171). This dyke was made by Offa king of Mercla A.D. 777. Offal ey, Ireland, was called ' King's County,' and its chief town ' Philipstown,' in honour of Philip of Spain, the husband of Queen Mary. At the same time Leix was called ' Queen's County,' and its chief town ' Maryborough,' in honour of Queen Mary. Ogdoad, or Combination of Eight. Meaning the Good Principle and his 7 eeons (Mind, the Word, the Understand- ing, Power, Excellencies, Princes, and Angels), from each of which sprang other seons amounting to 865, the mystic number of the Gnostics. The Greek expression for the 7 aeons is Abraxas (7 letters), each eeon being supposed to govern a world. See ' Basilides.' Ogham Character (The). A species of old Irish writing. It seems to have been either a cipher or shorthand, consisting of certain lines and marks bearing a relative value to a principal horizontal line. The word is Irish. I shall certainly find you exerting your poetical talents In elegiacs upon a prison, or your anti- quarian researches in detecting the Ogham character. Sir W. SCOTT, Waverley, ch. xxviii. Ogy'gian Flood (The), B.C. 1759. A great flood said to have taken place in the reign of Ogvges, a mythical king of Attica and Bceotia. Boeotia was called Ogygia. Ohio (U.S. America). So called, in 1802, from its river of the same name (Indian). The inhabitants are nicknamed Buck-eyes. Oil (The Sacred). For anointing the kings of France. Kept in a phial of antique form, about an inch and a half high. The oil is reddish, not unlike thin liquid glue, and the phial is kept in the tomb of St. Eemi at Reims. When a king of France was to be anointed, the tomb was opened and the phial taken out. We are told that it shrinks visibly in quantity when a dying king is to be anointed, but assumes its normal volume when a new king is to be an Dinted with it. According OLD OLD to legend it was brought to St. Bemi by a pigeon when Clovis was baptized. Trained pigeons played a very prominent part both at the death and baptism of those whom the Catholic Church delighted to honour. Old and New Irish (The). The descendants of the Milesians and the Anglo-Irish settled in the Pale (q.v.). Old and New Learning (Men of the). So Catholics and the Reformer* were called in England after Henry VIII. broke from the pope. The leaders of the Old Learning were Lee, arch- bishop of York; Stokesley, bishop of London: Tunstall, bishop of Durham ; Gardiner, bishop of Winchester ; Sherbourne, bishop of Chichester ; Nix, bishop of Norwich ; and Kite, bishop of Car- lisle. These prelates were countenanced by the Duke of Norfolk, and by Wriothesley, the chief secretary. The leaders of the New Learning were Cranmer. archbishop of Canterbury; Latimer, bishop of Worcester ; Shaxton, bishop of Salisbury ; Hilsey, bishop of Rochester ; Fox, bishop of Hereford ; and Barlow, bishop of St. David's. These prelates were supported by Cromwell, the vicar-general. Old Bags. I. A nickname given to Nicholas Vansittart by William Hone in one of his political squibs, called ' The Political Showman,' published in 1821. In this satire Lord Sidmouth figures as the Doctor, his father having been a medical man. II. John Scott lord Eldon was so called because he carried home with him in sundry bags the cases pending his judg- ment (1751-1838). Old Bullion. Colonel Thomas Hart Benton, advocate of the gold and silver currency in the U.S. of N. America (1788- 1858). Old Catholics, 1870. Those Ro- manists who deny the ecumenical character of the Vatican Council of 1869, and reject the Vatican decrees, especially those concerning the pope's infallibility. Old Fox (The). Marshal Soult was so called from his strategic abilities and never-failing resources (1769-1851). Old Glory. Sir Francis Burdett (1770-1844). At one time the glory of the radicals, but subsequently he became a Tory. Old Gravity. Lord Chancellor Thurlow (1732-1800). So much for Old Gravity. PETER PINDAK, Great Cry and Little Wool, epUt. U. Old Grog. Edward Vernon t'-e admiral (1684-1757). So called by I '. sailors from his grogram cloak, which he wore in foul weather. Old Hickory. President Jackson of U.S. of America. So called because in hia contest with the Creek Indians (1813) on one occasion he was so destitute of pro- visions that he and his men fed en hickorv nuts. There can be no doubt that ' Old Hickory ' pos eased animal force and courage in a high degree . . . [but] it is not surprising to learn that his reign was a period of general lawlessness and rowdyism, outrages being committed in the streets of the capital of which Jackson refused to take notice. tiintteentk Century, August 1888, pp. TO. 878. Old Ireland Party (The). Tho followers of Daniel O'Connell, as opposed to ' Young Ireland ' led by Smith O'Brien. Both sought repeal, but the old party was Catholic, and the young party wanted to unite all Irishmen, irrespective of creed, into one union. The two parties hated each other. Old Learning (The). The Catholic faith, in contradistinction to the Re- formed faith. Old Man Eloquent. President John Quincy Adams (1767-1848). Presi- dent 1825-1829. Isocrates, the Athenian orator, is generally meant by ' The Old Man Eloquent ' (B.O. 496-888). It is to him that Milton refers .... that dishonest victory At Cheronoea, fatal to liberty, Killed with report that Old Man Eloquent When Isocrates heard of the defeat of the Athe- nians at Cherontea, it had such an effect on bis spirits that he drooped and died within four days. He was nearly 99 yean of age. Old Man of the Mountain (The). King of the Assassins, whose nume was Hussun Subah sheik ulGebel (1090-1258). He was a convert to the doctrines of the Ismaelians (q.v.). He ruled over a tribe called the Aschischi in the northern moun- tains of Persia. The word Aschischi is from haschish, an intoxicating substance that produced delirium, in whk-h the imagination had very enthusiastic views of eternal happiness. Hussun reared his young disciples into absolute obedience, so that they were fearless of man of any rank, and the greatest princes trembled at his name. Houlagou or Houlaku ex- tirpated the order in Persia in 1258, bul it lingered in Syria till 1280, when th Mamelukes stamped it out. Old Man of the North (The). Vistian Jacques Draluikeuiberg, of OLD OLD 685 Aarhuus, in Jutland. Died 1772, aged 146. See ' Macrobiots.' Old Noll. Oliver Cromwell (1599- 1658). Old Patch. A great banknote forger. In 1784, by making his own patter and ink, and working off the notes on nis own private press, he managed to get into circulation false notes to the value of 200,OOOZ. Other great forgers of Bank of England notes have been Muthison, 1783; Vincent Alessi (the Italian) ; and the Duke of Rovigoand Desnouettes (of Hamburg). Vincent Alessi was betrayed by a confederate ; the Duke of Rovigo and Desiwsu- ettes made their notes in Hamburg, and employed agents to circulate them in England. The name of Old Patch was Charles Price, but be had many aliases, as Wigmore, Wilmott, Brank, Bond, Parks, Powel, Schutz, &o. Old Pretender (The). Francis Edward James [Stuart] son of James II. He claimed the British throne by right of birth, but as his father had abdicated the right fell through (1688-1765). Old Public Functionary, or O. P. F. President James Buchanan (1791-1868). So called from the following words in his message to Congress in 1859 : 4 This advice proceeds from an old public functionary.' Old Rowley. Charles II. was so- called from his favourite racehorse (1630, 1660-1685). A part of Newmarket racecourse is still called the Rowley mile.' Old Sarum. Marchioness of Salis- bury, grandmother of the prime minister, burnt to death in 1835, at the age of 86. She used to drive in the park in a low phaeton with four black ponies and out- riders in splendid liveries ; always went to court in a sedan-chair, her footmen jarrying flambeaux at night ; she hunted till she was past 70, wearing a sky-blue habit with black velvet collar, and a jockey-cap ; was a bold rider, and no fence ever stopped her. Old Style and New Style (The). Old Style, computing according to the old calendar. New Style, computing according to the reformed calendar. Hence we have Lady Day 25 March, and Old Lady Day, 6 April. Midsummer Day, 24 June, and Old Midsummer Day, 6 July. Michaelmas Day, 29 Sept., and Old Michaelmas Day, 11 Oct. Christmas Day, 25 Dec. and Old Christmas Day, 5 Jan. Old Testament (The). The langu- age of the Old Testament is a composite of Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew. Ezra (who died B.C. 459) declared what books were to be considered canonical. The following portions are in Chaldaic, vil. : Ezra iv. 8, vi. 18, and vii. 12-26. Jer. x. 11. Dan. ii. 4 and vii. 28. The Hebrew Scriptures were translated into Greek in the 3rd cent. B.C. ; but parts seem to be as late as the time of AntiochusEpiphanes, who died B.0. 164. It was first printed in 1488, at Sonclno. In 1526 the Rabbinical Bible was printed at Venice. Esdras, i.e. Ezra, says . Behold, Lord, . . . thy law is burnt, therefore no man knoweth the things that are done of thee .... but if I have found favour before thee, send the Holy Ghost to me, and I will write all that hath been done in the world since the beginning, [all] that was written In thy Law. . . . And I took five men, as the Lord commanded me, and we went into a field and re- mained there. And the next day, behold a voice called me, saying, " Esdras, open thy mouth, and drink what I give thee." . . . So I opened my mouth, and, behold, he reached me a full cup, which was full as it were with water, but the colour of it was like fire. And I took and drank it. And when I had drunk of it, my heart uttered understanding, and wisdom grew in my breast, for my spirit strengthened my memory. . . . And the Highest gave understanding to the five men, and they wrote the wonderful visions of the night which were told [and] which they knew not. And they sat forty days, they wrote in the day, and at night they ate [their] bread. In the forty days they wrote 204 [margin says 904] books. And it came to pass when the forty days were fulfilled, that the Highest said to me. " The first [book] which thou hast written publish openly, that the worthy and the unworthy may read it ; but keep [back] the 70 last [books], and deliver them only to such as be wise among the people, for in them [i.e. the 70 books] is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom, and the stream of knowledge." And I did so.' 2 Esdras xiv.21, 22, 37-48. "." It is very difficult to understand what is meant by ' the first book ' ; still more what is meant by the ' 70 books ' ; and why should these books, in which were ' the fountain of wisdom and the stream of knowledge,' be kept back from the public eye 1 Old Testament. Books referred to, but not in the canon. The Book of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers xxi. The Book of the Covenant (Exodus xxiv. 7). The Book of Jasher (Joshua x. 13, and 2 Sam. i. 18). The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Khi,/s xi. 41). The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel (1 Kings xiv. 19 ; 2 Chron. xx. 34, xxxiii. 18 ; and 18 other places). The Chronicles of the Kings of Judah (1 Kinys xiv. 29 ; and 12 other places). The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel (2 Chron. xvi. 11 ; and 6 other places). The Book of Samuel the Seer (1 Chron. xxix. 29, and 2 Chron. ix. 29). The Book of Nathan the Prophet (1 Chron. xxlx. 29). The Book of Oad the Seer (1 Chron. xxtx. 29). The Chronicles of King David (1 Chron. xxvii.24). The Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilomite (2 Chron. ix. 29). The Visions of Iddo the Seer against Jeroboam & Chron. ix.29). The Book of Iddo the Seer concerning Genealo- gies (2 Chron. xii. 15). The Story of the Prophet Iddo (2 Chron. xiii. 22). The Book of Shemalah the Prophet (2 Cluun. xii. 16). OLD The Book of Jehu (2 Chron. TX. 84). The Memoirs of Hircanus (mentioaed In 2 Mac- edbees tl.). The Books of Jason (mentioned in 2 Mat*abee$ 11). The Acts of Uriah (2 Chron. xxvi. 'Z-2). The Three Thousand Proverbs of Solomon (1 Kings lv.3Z). A Thousand and Five Songs of Solomon (1 King* Iv. 82). The Prophecy of Jeremiah, torn in pieces by Jehoiakim (Jeremiah li.). The Prophecy about the city of Babylon (Jere- mia/tli.). The Memoirs of Jeremiah (mentioned In 1 Mac- cabees il.). The Prophecy of Jonah (Jonah). Old Testament. Books supposed to be lost. The Generation of Adam. The Revelation of Adam. The Genealogy of the Sons and Daughters of Adam. Cham's Book of Magic. A Treatise called ' Seth.' The Assumption of Abraham. The Jetsira, ascribed to Abraham. The Book of the Twelve Patriarchs. The Discourses of Jacob and Joseph. A Prophecy of Habakkuk, and some by Eieklel. The Prophecy of Eldad and Medad. The Treatise of Jannes and Jambres. The Book of Og. Jacob's Ladder, and several others. See 'Apocryphal Scriptures' (New Testament). Oldenburg (The House of). The present reigning house of Denmark, founded in 1448 by Christian I. of the house of Oldenburg. Ol'eron (Laws of). Maritime laws chiefly borrowed from the ' Consolato del Mare,' compiled in the middle of the 18th cent. The story runs that the Laws of Oleron were enacted by Richard I. vhile his fleet lay at anchor there on his ex- pedition to the Holy Land. The Ordi- nances of Wisby in Gothland were com- piled from the Laws of Oleron before 1400. Other traditions ascribe these laws to the Flem- ings, to Otto the Saxon, to the Seigneur of Oleron In 1196, to Eleonore of Gnyenne, and some others. Olim. The most ancient registers of the Parlement de Paris, from 1254 to 1318, comprehending the reigns of St. Louis, Philippe le Hardi, Philippe le Bel, Louis le Hutin, and Philippe le Long. These valuable registers contain, not only reports of the administration of justice in that period, but also the organisation of the parlement and con- temporary events of all sorts. They were published in 1840. Oliva (Peace of), 8 May, 1660, between Sweden, Poland, the kaiser, and the elector of Brandenburg ; signed soon after the death of Charles X This treaty, and that of Kardis (with the Czar of Russia), put an end to the wars in which Charles X. had involved the Swedes. The Peace of Oliva ensured the integrity of Poland, but in 1773 the first partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and Austria was effected. Olive Branch (The), 8 July, 1775. The petition of the American Congress to King George III. after the battle of Bunker's. Hill, expressive of an earnest desire for an honourable peace. The petitioners vowed that this petition if not successful should be the last Oliver Optic. The pen-name of William Taylor Adams, an American novelist. Oliver's Fiddler. Sir Roger L'Estrange (1616-1704). So called be- cause at one time he was playing a fiddle with others, in the house of John Kingston, when Oliver Cromwell was for a time one of the guests. Roger I/Estrange, who used to be called Oliver's Fiddler.' formerly In danger of beta* hanged for a spy. and about this time the admired buffoon of High Church. CALAMY. Olive'tans (4 syl.), or ' Brethren of Our Lady of Mount Olivet,' 1272. A religious order in the Catholic Chnn-h, an offshoot of the Benedictine* (q.v.), founded by Bernard Tolomei and others on Monte Oliveto in Tuscany, whence the name. Olmiitz (The Camp at), Sept., 1850 A military political display for the sake of averting the Crimean War. Austria assembled at Olmiitz 50,000 men 'for field exercise.' The Emperor of 1 ; the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, Count Buol chief minister of Austria, the British and French minis- ters, all met and conferred on the war. Russia suggested that the ' Vienna Note ' (q.v.) drawn up by Count Buol should bo accepted, and that the Four Powers should guarantee the good faith of Russia. Austria and Prussia agreed, bus England scouted such sponsorship after the deception of Russia during many months, and France stood firm beside England. It really was most unsatisfac- tory and unbusiness like, but Prussia and OLYMPIAD O. P. 6S7 Austria separated from the Western Powers. Russia has always adopted that vile maxim of Prince Metternich : ' He who knows not how to deceive, knows not how to rule.' As if lying was the divine right of kings, instead of being the pre- rogative ol ' the father of lies.' Olympiad. In ancient Greece meant the space of four years between one celebration of the Olympic games and another. As a system of chronology it began from B.C. 776. The games were held at Olympia, In Elis, dedi- cated to Zeus, called by the Romans Jupiter Olympus. Olympic Games (The). Said to have been instituted by Herakles. They were held on the plains of Olympia every fifth year, and constituted the most splendid national festival of the ancient Greeks. Dates were reckoned from these games, and the five intervening years made an Olympiad. Olyn'thiac Orations (The), B.C. 850. The three orations of Demosthenes against Philip king of Macedon, who had captured a town of ChalcidicS in the sacred war. Olynthus, the head of 82 Greek towns, trembled for its own safety. Demosthenes tried to arouse the Athe- nians to take part with the Olynthians against Philip ; but the Athenians made no great stir, and in 347 Olynthus fell into the hands of Philip. Olyn'thian War (The). I. B.C. 882-379, between Sparta and the Olyn- thians. II. B.C. 349-346, between Philip of Macedon and the Olynthians. The Olynthians were defeated in two battles, and their city taken. Ommi'ades (8 syl.), 661-750. An Arabian dynasty, so called from Ommiah grandfather of Abou Sofyan, chief of the temple of Mecca before Islamism was known. This Ommiah the Koreishite was father of Moaviah, who founded the dynasty. The seat of empire was Damascus. The Ommiades were de- throned by the Abbassides in 749 or 750. The Ommiade califs were Moaviah I. (661), Yezid I. 5SO), Moavia.h II. (683), Merwan I. (IW4), Abdel Malek (CW,), Walid I. (705), Soliman (715), Omar II. (717), Yezid II. (720), Hescham (724), Walid II. (743), Yezid III. (744), Ibrahim (744), Merwan II. (744). Omnibus, 1829. Introduced into London by Mr. J. Shillibeer. The first omnibus ran from the ' Yorkshire Stingo,' in the New Eoad, to the Bank of En- land, the fare being one shilling. In 1830 the fare was reduced to sixpence, and since then other reductions have been made. Omnibus Bill (An). A general bill in parliament promoted by some public body (such as the Ecclesiastical or Charity Commissioners, the Board of Works, &c.), who for economy sake in elude in one application to the legislature several schemes or projects, mostly by way of schedule. Omnibus Order (An), in law. A single order made by a judge for dealing with several applications pending before the court. All the applications are put in one omnibus or order. Omnibus Section of the Russian Penal Code. Eevised in 1885. Section 249 is so called from its wide scope and sweeping applicability. It drags into its clutches all revolutionists of every shade and degree ; even thoughts are not free ; and as to words, paragraphs in newspapers, advice, hints and expres- sions of discontent, they are all trea- sonable, and render the offender liable to exile for life and the forfeiture of all his goods. Omri (Statutes of), B.C. 920. King of Israel, founder of Samaria. He com- pelled by severe laws the worship of the Israelitish idols, and these laws are still called by the Jews 'The Statutes of Omri.' One-Sandalled Man (The). Jason was so called because on his way back to lolcushe lost one of his sandals in cross- ing the river Anaurus. One Thousand Eight Hun- dred and Sixty-seven (1867). A Fenian toast and catchword : as ' Three cheers for 1867 ! ' This was the date of the Fenian rising. Onion Pennies. Certain Roman coins found pretty abundantly at Sil- chester in Hampshire. So called from one ' Onion,' said to be a giant who dwelt in this city. On'kelos. The supposed author of an Aramaic version of the Pentateuch. O. P. Riots, 1809. Co vent Garden having been destroyed by fire during the OPEN ORACLE management of John Kemble, ft new house was erected in the course of a year, and the prices of admission raised. The theatre-going public took this in dudgeon, and night after night crowded the house with cries of ' O. P.' (old prices). They danced on the pit-benches and sometimes on the cushions of the boxes to the harsh music of cat-calls, and to tunes written for the occasion. O. P. music and dances were to be seen in every music shop. When at last the benches began to be torn up, the cushions demolished, and the decora- tions destroyed, the magistracy inter- fered. Sir Vlcary Olbbs, being employed to conduct the prosecution, convulsed the court with a happy quotation : 'Opes [O.Ps.] irritamenta malo- rum.' Open Sea of Kane (The). A sea supposed by Elisha Kane the traveller (1822-1867) to surround the North Pole. Oph'ites (2 syl.), 2nd cent. A Christian sect. So called from the Greek word 6is (a serpent). They maintained that the serpent (Gen. iii.) was the Logos or Christ, who came into Eden to deliver man from that ignorance to which the Creator or Demiurge had doomed him, and to make him 'wise unto salvation.' (From 2nd to 6th cent.) Oppian Law (The). ' Oppia Lex,' a law by C. Oppius, the tribune, forbid- ding any woman to wear more than half an ounce of gold, to have parti-coloured garments, or to be carried more than a mile except for the purpose of cele- brating some religions festival or solem- nity. Optimo (8 syl.). The second class of the Mathematical Tripos is called 'The Senior Optimes,' and the third class is called the 'Junior Optimes.' These phrases are derived from the ' Acts ' which used to be held in the schools before degrees were conferred. The compliment of the moderator paid to an opponent who had answered very well was Optime quidem disputasti, or Domine opponent, optime disputasti, and to the respondent who had disputed pretty well, Domine respondens, satis et optime quidem et in thesi et in dis- putationibus toto oMcio functut ea. Set * Wrangler.' Optimism. The doctrine tlmt whatever is is in its best possible state, for God would not have made anything otherwise. What we call evils are need- ful for our conservation, and all odds will be made even in the life hereafter. Malebranche taught optimism, and Leib- nitz in his ' Essais de Theodicoe ' ; Boling- broke adopted the same theory, and Pope in his ' Essay on Man ' says, ' What- ever is, is right.' See ' Pessimism.' Opus Majus [not' Opus Magnum']. The title of the great work of Roger Bacon the Franciscan. It contains the results of his researches, and he tells us that he spent above 2,0001. in twenty years on apparatus for his experiments [equal to 80,OOOZ. of our money at pre- sent]. His discoveries were in geometry, astronomy, physics, optics, mechanics, and chemistry. Opus Operan'tis, in theology, means that the effect is due not to the opus or act itself, but to the disposition of the operans or operator. See next article. There is no virtue in kissing the crucifix per if. but the mind of the devotee may by its fervour and devotion bring grace to the person who kisses it. Of course the Catholics never apply the term to sacraments, but the Anglican Church seems to imply it in the words ' feed on Him in thy heart by faith.' Opus Opera'tum, in theology, mean? that the rite or sacrament itself conveys grace independently of the mind of the recipient. The opus is the effi- cient cause of grace. Thus when the sacrament is administered in articulo mortit. though the recipient IB moribund, yet it conveys grace. Opus Triparti'tum (1614). The ancient customs and royal decrees of Hun- gary compiled by Verboczi, and divided into three parts. A second volume was added, and the whole was entitled ' Jos Consuetudinarium Regni Hungarise.' Or (gold). One of the colours in heraldry of the escutcheon, expressed by dots. There are seven colours employed in England, and nine by foreign heralds. See ' Heralds.' Oracle of Delft (The). Hugo Grotius was called the ' Oracle of Delft, the Phcenix of his Country ' (1588-1645). Oracle of Delphi (The). On tho south slope of Paruas&os ; founded ia OEACLB ORANGEMEN honour of Apollo, surnamed PytMos, because he slew the serpent python. The ravings of the priestess were due to a mephitic gas which issued from a hole in the earth over which the tripod was placed. Men held the woman down till the gas' had intoxicated her, and her ravings were then taken down by priests and turned into verse. The priestess was called the Pythla. Certainly some of the Delphic responses were most witty equivokes. Thus : 1. When Pyrrhos consulted the oracle respect- ing his war with the Romans, he received for answer: 'Credo te, ^iaclde, Romanos vincere posse,' i.e. 'The Romans, I believe, you will con- quer.' Which may mean either you will conquer the Romans, or the Romans will conquer you. 2. Another response was ' Ibis, redlbis nunquam per bella peribis.' [You shall return never by war shall you perish.] Whether the comma is placed before or after never makes all the difference. 8. When the allied Greeks demanded of the oracle what would be the issue of the battle ol Sal&mis, they received for answer Seed-time and harvest, weeping sires shall tell How thousands fought at SaJamis and fell; but whether the weeping sires were to be Greeks or Persians was not stated. 4. When Croesos demanded what would be the issue of the battle against the Persians headed by Cyrus, the oracle replied : ' Croasos will be- hold a mighty empire overthrown ' ; but which empire is left doubtful. 5. When Philip of Hacedon sent to inquire if his Persian expedition would prove successful, he received for reply : ' The ready victim crowned for sacrifice stands before the altar.' Philip took It for granted that the * ready victim ' was the King of Persia, but it was he himself. When Maxentius was about to encounter Con- stantino he consulted the guardians of the Sibyl- line Books as to the fate of the battle, and the prophetess told him : ' Illo diehostem Romanorum esse periturum ' ; but whether Maxentius or Con- stantine was ' the enemy of the Roman people ' the oracle left undecided. In the Bible we have a similar equivoke : When Ahab king of Israel was about to wage war on the king of Syria, and asked Micaiah if Ramoth Gilead would fall into his hands, the prophet replied, ' Go ! for the Lord will deliver the city into the hands of the king ' (1 Kings xxii. 15, 85). Ahab thought that he wag the king referred to, but the king into whose hands the city fell was the king of Syria. See p. 650, n. to ' Orleton's Message.' Oracle of Dodo'na (The), in Epiros. The most ancient oracle of Greece, dedicated to Zeus (1 syl.). Its responses were made by women called pigeons (q.v.), who derived their re- sponses from four sources: (1) The cooing of doves; (2) the bubbling of a spring of water which rose at the foot of the sacred oak ; (8) the rustling of the leaves of the oak ; and (4) the tinkling of a gong hung in the branches of a tree. The gong was struck by knotted cords hung on the branches of the tree. In B.C. 219 the ^Etolians destroyed the tern- pie and cut down the sacred grove. See 1 Pigeons.' Oracle of France (The). St. Bernard of Clairvaux. See ( Oracle of the Church.' Oracle of the Church (The). St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux (1091- 1158), also called the ' Mellifluous Doc- tor,' the 'River of Paradise,' and the 'Last of the Fathers.' He was the founder of the Order of Bernardines, but not of the Hospice. The founder of the Hospice was St. Bernard of Menthon, who lived about a century earlier (923- 1008). Orange (Prince of). Orange, a cor- ruption of Arausio, in the department of Vaucluse, some sixteen miles from Avi- gnon. The town was the capital of a principality from the llth to the 16th century ; its last sovereign being Phili- bert de Chalons, whose sister married William count of Nassau. This count was the father of William I. the stadt- holder of the United Provinces, and grandfather of William II. stadtholder. This William II. married Mary eldest daughter of Charles I., whose eldest son was our William III., who married Mary eldest daughter of James II. while he was Duke of York. William count of Nassau married Philibert'a Bister, and was the father of William I. stadt- holder. William I. the stadtholder was the father of William II. the stadtholder, who married Mary daughter of Charles I. William II. was the father of WILLIAM III. of Great Britain, who married Mary daughter of James II. Or'angeists (8 syl.), 1785. The Orange faction of Holland opposed to the French faction. The former stood by the stadtholder, and accused their opponents of democratic principles and a tendency to French influence. The democrats accused the Orange party of aiming at monarchy or oligarchy, and trampling on the ancient liberties of the people. The French faction prevailed, and the country was laid at the feet of France. Or'angemen (8 syl.). A develop- ment of the Peep-of-day Boys in Ire- land, consisting of rich and influential Irish Protestants in defence of Pro- testant ascendency in Ireland. So called from William of Orange, whose name and reign are associated with the Pro- testant ascendency in the island. The first Orange lodge was founded in the 640 ORATEUB ORDEAL village of Loughgall, county Armagh, 21 Sept., 1795. As many as twelve or four- teen Roman Catholics would be ejected in a single night by these Orangemen. By 1798 the Orangemen were a very powerful society, having a ' grand lodge,' extending over the entire province of Ulster, and ramified through all the centres of Protestantism in Ireland. In 1808 a grand lodge of Orangemen was opened in Manchester, in 1821 it was transferred to London, and in 1827 the Duke of Cumberland was elected Grand Master. In 1885 the number of members was 200,000. See ' Irish Associations.' There are Ore Colonies also. lodges in Canada and the Orateur du Genre Humain. See below, ' Orator of the Human Race.' Orator Henley (1692-1716). Called by Pope ' the Zany of his age ' (' Dunciad'), and introduced by Hogarth into two of his humorous pieces. In one he is christening a child, and in the other he is represented on a scaffold with a mon- key at his side, and the motto ' Amen.' His periodical called the ' Hip Doctor ' is a farrago of nonsense. Orator of Nature (The). Patrick Henry of Studley, Hanover, in Virginia, who advocated the cause of the people against the claims of the clergy of Vir- ginia. He was highly distinguished in the war of independence, and contributed greatly to the carrying of the Declaration of Independence. ' If we would be free,' he said over and over again, ' we must fight. Yea, I repeat it ; we must fight I we must fight 1 ' (1786-1799). Orator of the Human Race ( The). The not very modest title assumed by Anacharsis Cloots [Baron Jean Baptiste Cloots], a Prussian by birth, brought up in Paris, where he adopted the revolutionary principles (1755-1794). So called because he appeared at the bar of the National Assembly accompanied by deputies from all the nations of the civilised world who had chosen him for speaker. He was guillotined by the French republicans. The next day this deputation of all nations was found to be a hoax, and the deputies were merely vagabonds hired for the nonce at 12 livres apiece. One of the rascals went to the Marquis de linn court for the money, and said he had been the Chaldean. 'Mr. Chaldean,' said the Muruuis jou have OOOM to the wron person, 1 M. ack slaying a dragon at his feet. St. Alexander Newsky was grand-duke of Russia and son of Jaroslav II. (1218-1216), called Newsky from a oattle which he gained over the Swedes, Danes, and Teutonic knights in 1240. Newsky is a title derived from the name of the river Neva, Dear which the battle was gained. Order of St. Andrew (The), 1698. A Russian order founded by Peter the Great, and given only for high merit. The ribbon is blue, and the legend is 'Pour la Foi et la FideliteV For the Scotch order see ' Order of the Thistle.' Order of St. Anne (The), 1735. A Russian o. ur first instituted in Holstein by Duke Frederick in honour of his wife, who was daughter of Peter the Great. It was established in Russia by Paul I. in 1756. The ribbon is red edged with yellow, and in the centre of the cross is an image of St. Anne. Order of St. Basil (The), 858. Founded by St. Basil in Pontus ; intro- duced into the Western Church iu 1057. Order of St. Caroline (The), 181ft. Instituted by Caroline, the separated wife of George prince regent, afterwards George IV. It was founded for the sake of decorating Bartolomeo Bergami, an Italian, first her footman and afterwards her chief adviser. The Emperor of Austria objected to the cross of Malta which was the badge of the order. Of course the order was never recognised. Order of St. Christopher (The), 1517. Founded in Austria for the pur- pose of checking intemperance and pro- fane swearing. Order of St. Genette (2 syl.), 732. Instituted by Charles Martel after his victory over the Saracens, where a vast number of gennets, like Spanish cats, were found in the enemy's camp. The most ancient order of knighthood in France. Extinct. Order of St. George (The). BAVABIA. Instituted during the cru- sades, but refounded by Charles VII., 24 April, 1729. ENGLAND. See under ' Garter.' HANOVER, 1 January, 1840, founded by Ernest Augustus. LUCCA, 1 June, 1888, founded by Duke Charles Louis. RUSSIA, 26 Nov., 1769, founded by Catharine II. Similar to the 'Poor Knights of Windsor.' The cordon is yellow and black. SICILY, 1 January, 1819, founded by Ferdinand I. The following are extinct : The 01 der of St. George In Burgundy, Carinthla, Constantinople, Germany, Ravenna, and Home. See these under the national name. Order of St. Jago (The). A Spanish order instituted under Pope Alexander III. in 1175, the grand-master of which is next in rank to the sovereign. Santiago or St. James the Greater is the patron saint of Spain. Order of St. John of Jerusalem, 1120. Called 'John' from John the patriarch of Alexandria, and ' Jerusalem ' from the place of their abode. They subsequently resided at Rhodes (1310- 1523), when, being driven out by the Turks, they took up their abode in Malta, and were called ' Knights of Malta.' Order of St. Lazare, or St, Lazarus. The knights driven from Palestine who followed St. Louis to 644 ORDER ORDER France. Suppressed by Innocent VLLL. and united with other orders: to the order of St. John in 1490, and in France fco the order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel in 1608. Abolished in 1795. Order of St. Louis (The), in France, 1698. Founded by Louis XIV. Order of St. Magdalene (3 syl.). A French order instituted by St. Louis to suppress duels, 1270. Extinct. Order of St. Maria de Mercede (8 syl.) . A Spanish order for the redemp- tion of captives. Extinct. Order of St. Maurice (Tfce),1484. Created by Amadeus VIII. of Savoy. Having lost his wife, Maria Beatrix of Burgundy, he retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, on the Lake of Geneva, with six of his nobles, whom he created knights of St. Maurice. In 1572 the order was united to that of St. Lazarus. Order of St. Michael the Arch- angel (The). 'Ordre de St. Michel,' 1469, instituted by Louis XI. of France. ' St. Michel est regarde" comme le protec- teur et 1'ange tutelaire de la France.' BOUILLET. Order of St. Patrick (The), 1783. Instituted by George III. The ruling sovereign of Great Britain and Ireland and also the lord-lieutenant of Ireland are ex-officio members. Order of St. Stephen (The), 1764. Instituted by Maria Theresa of Austria for civil merit, but only nobles are eli- gible. The decoration is the Hungarian crown surmounted with a white cross. The motto is Publicum meritorum prce- tnium, Order of San Salvador' (The), 1118. Instituted in Aragon by Alfonso I. Order of the Amaranth (The), 1653. Instituted by Christina of Sweden. Order of the Annunciation. I. A religious order, 1500, instituted at Bourges by Jeanne de Valois, daughter of Louis XI., in honour of ' the Ten Joys of the Virgin Mary ' ; confirmed by Pope Alexander VI. and Pope Leo X. II. A religious order, 1604, instituted at Genoa by Maria Victoria Fornari, called the 'Celestial Auuunciades,' or Blue Nuns, from the colour of theit dresses. There WM an order of knighthood called 'An- nunciada 1 Instituted In 1862 by Amadeua VL; reformed In 1434 by Amadeus VIII. Order of the Augustines. See p. 60, ' Augustines.' Order of the Bath. See ' Bath.' Order of the Belgian Lion (The), 1815. Founded by William I. Order of the Benedictines (The). See p. 67, ' Benedictines.' Order of the Black Eagle (The], 1701. A Prussian order instituted by Frederick III. elector of Brandenburg. Also called ' The Order of Fidelity.' Order of the Blood of Our Saviour (The), 1608. Instituted in Mantua by Duke Vincent Goncaga. The name originated in the belief that in St. Andrew's Church, Mantua, drops of our Saviour's blood are preserved. Order of the Burgundian Cross (The), 22 July, 1586. Instituted by Charles V. Order of the Capucins (The). See p. 144, ' Capucins.' Order of the Carmelites (The). See p. 147, ' Carmelites.' Order of the Carthusians (The). See p. 149, ' Carthusians.' Order of the Cincinnati (The), 1783. Established in the United States of North America, it was originally designed as an order for American officers in the War of Independence (q.v.), and for their eldest sons, the title to descend by pri- mogeniture. Another purpose was the relief of the widows and orphans of those who fell in the war. The decoration is a medal representing the old Roman leav- ing his plough to serve the State. The order still exists. Order of the Cistercians (The). See p. 175, ' Cistercians.' Order of the Cordeliers (The). See p. 207, ' Cordeliers.' Order of the Crescent. 1.1448. Instituted by Renatua of Anjou, king ol Sicily. The device of Benatu. wa. a oreMent ORDEB ORDER 645 II. Instituted 1799 by the sultan after the battle of the Nile. Rear-Admiral Nelson was the first knight-companion of the order. Order of the Dannebrog (The), 1219. Founded by Waldemar II.; re- stored in 1671 by Christian V.; recon- structed 28 June, 1808, by Frederick VI. Order of the Day (The). In par- liamentary usage is a method of supersed- ing a question before the house by moving that its attention be directed to the questions in the same order as they stand. Thus if the order is A, B, C, D, and the question before the house is C, a member who wants to burke the ques- tion moves that A and B be taken before C, or that the questions be taken accord- ing to ' the order of the day.' Of course, obstructionists can debate on A and B without committing themselves on C, and push C on one side. Order of the Dominicans (The). See p. 265, ' Dominicans.' Order of the Dove (The), 1379. Instituted by John I. of Castile. Order of the Dragon (The), 1410. Established by Sigismondof Hungary on his marriage with Barbara his second wife. The insignia was a red cross and a gold dragon with its tail twisted round its neck. Order of the Eagle (The), 1483. Founded by Kaiser Albrecht (Albert) II. See ' Order of the Black Eagle, Golden Eagle, and White Eagle.' Order of the Elephant (The), 12th cent. Instituted in Denmark by Knute IV. in honour of a crusader who in a battle against the Saracens slew an elephant (1189). The order was restored in 1478 by Christian I. The decoration is an elephant carrying a tower, and the ribbon is blue moire", passing from the right shoulder to the left side. It is reserved for princes and others of regal rank. Order of the Franciscans (The). See p. 843, ' Franciscans.' Order of the Garter. See p. 496, ' Knights of the Garter.' Order of the Golden Angel (The), 812. A military order of Con- stantinople, instituted by Constantine. Extinct. Order of the Golden Eagle (The), 1702. Instituted by Duke Eber- hard Ludwig at Wiirtemberg. United with the Order of the Crown of Wur- temberg in 1818. Order of the Golden Fleece (The). Founded by Philippe III. duke of Burgundy, 10 Jan., 1429. The grand- mastership of the order was disputed for twenty-four years (1700-1724) between Kaiser Karl VI. and Felipe king of Spain; but when Louis XV. of France sent back the infanta, to whom he was betrothed, the Spaniards were so indig- nant that they broke off their French alliance and joined Austria, and Felipe yielded to Karl the moot point. When the house of Burgundy became extinct, the grand-mastership of the order passed to the house of Austria Karl V. trans- mitted it to his successors in Spain. When the dynasty failed, Philippe of Bourbon, king of Spain, with a disputed title, claimed the mastership, but the kaiser refused to renounce his prior right. This was the sore point which was healed by the alliance of Spain with Austria. Order of the Golden Shield (The). Instituted by Louis II. of France (about 878) in defence of the country. Th motto was Allans 1 (a call to arms). Extinct. Order of the Golden Spur (The), 1534. A Roman order established by Paul III. ; or, as some say, restored by him, but founded in 812 by Constan- tine in honour of his victory over Maxen- tius. Gregory XVI. reformed the order in 1841 and called it ' The Order of St. Sylvester,' or the ' Golden Spur Reformed.' The decoration is a cross of eight points, suspended on a black and red ribbon, and between the arms of the cross is a little golden spur. Order of the Guelfs (The), or 1 The Guelfic Order,' in Hanover, 1815. Instituted by George prince of Wales, the prince regent of England. Extinct. Order of the Hare (The). Insti- tuted by Edward III. The French raised a tremendous shout, and Edward thought it was the shout of onset, but it was oc- casioned by a hare running between th two armies. ExtinoA 548 ORDER ORDER Order of the Holy Faith of Jesus Christ (The), 1221. A military order for a crusade against the Albi- genses. Extinct. Order of the Holy Ghost (The). I. NEAPOLITAN, 25 May, 1852, instituted by Louis of Anjou, king of Naples. II. FBENCH, 1198, instituted by Count Guy at Montpellier. Another, 1578, instituted by Henry III. Abolished 1789; re-established in 1816, and again abolished in 1830. Order of the Holy Phial (The), or ' Sainte Ampoule,' in the province of Champagne. The four barons of this order were entiusted with the care of the holy phial, in which the coronation oil of the kings of France was preserved. According to legend this phial was brought from heaven by the Holy Ghost in the form of a dove, and placed in the hands of St. Remy at the coronation of Clovis. The phial was smashed to pieces by Ruhl in 1793. Order of the Holy Sepulchre (The). I. In A.D. 828. Instituted by St. Helena on her visit to Jerusalem at the age of 80, when the three crosses of Calvary were said to have been discovered in a cave under the temple of Venus. II. 17 July, 1099, instituted by Godfrey af Bouillon. Order of the Iron Crown (The), 1805. Instituted by Napoleon when crowned with the iron crown of Lorn- bardy, in Milan Cathedral, king of Italy. This order in Italy corresponded with the Legion of Honour in France, also instituted by Napoleon. The number of members was at first 620, increased after- wards to 985. The badge was the iron crown (q.v.), in the middle the French eagle. The motto was Dio me la diede, guai a chi la tocca (God gave it me, woe to him who touches it). Order of the Jacobins (The). Beep. 464, 'Jacobins.' Order of the Jesuits (The). See p. 469, 'Jesuits.' Order of the Knights of Christ (The), 1317. Instituted by Dionysius king of Portugal. It acquired the posses- aions of the Templars in 1819, and the Grand-master was vested with the crown by Julius III. in 1551. See p. 641, ' Ordei of Christ.' Order of the Legion of Honour (The). See p. 618, ' Legion,' &c. Order of the Lily (The), 1048. Pounded in Navarre by Garcia. Order of the Lion and the Sun (The), 1808. In Persia, founded by Fcth AU Shah. Order of the Lion of Zahr- ingen (The), 1812. Founded in 1 by the Grand Duke Karl. Order of the Mathurins (The). See p. 666, ' Mathurins.' Order of the Polar Star (The). A Swedish order designed for cabinet ministers, ambassadors, magistrates, and literary celebrities. The decoration is a golden cross of eight points, with a blue pole star in the centre of a medallion. The motto is Nescit occasum. The origin of the order is not known, but it was reorganised in 1748 by Frederick I. of Sweden. Order of the Porcupine (The). A French order of knighthood. The original motto was Comimis et eminus, which was changed by Louis XII. into Ulttis avo Trojce. Order of the Premonstraten- sians (The). See 'Premonstratensians.' Order of the Red Eagle (The), 1705. Instituted as the ' Ordre de la SinceYite" ' by the margraf of Baireuth. Reconstructed as the ' Brandenburg Red Eagle ' in 1734. Made the second Prus- sian order in 1791. Order of the Red Staff (The), 1830. Instituted by Alohonso XL ol Castile and Leon. Order of the Seraphim (The). Sweden, 1834. An order of chivalry in- stituted by Magnus II., and renewed in 1748. It is the highest order in Sweden. The badge consists of the anagram I.H.S. and a cross decorated with the winged heads of seraphs. Order of the Servites (The). See 1 Servites.' Order of the Ship (The). Founded by St. Louis (IX.) on his expedition to Egypt. ORDER ORDINANCE 647 Order of the Southern Cross (The), 1 Dec., 1822. Created by Pedro I., first emperor of Brazil, to commemo- rate the independence of Brazil and the coronal ion of Pedro. The ribbon is light blue, and the legend Benemerentium premium. On the reverse is the por- trait of Pedro in a cross, enamelled in white, with the southern constellation in its centre figured by 19 stars. Order of the Star (The), ' Ordre de PEtoile,' 1850. Founded in France by Jean II. le Bon for those wounded in battle or tournaments. These knights made a vow never to retreat more than a mile before an enemy, when they were to turn at bay and either conquer or die. It was well nigh extinct in 1460. Order of the Star of India (The), 1861. Instituted by Queen Vic- toria for conspicuous merit and loyalty. The Viceroy of India is ex officio grand- master, and several native princes are knights of the order. Order of the Swan (The), 1448. Instituted by the elector Friedrich II. of Brandenburg, and restored in 1848 by Friedrich Wilhelm IV. of Prussia. Order of the Sword. I. Created in Sweden, 1522, by Gustavus I., and re- constructed in 1748 by Frederick I., for fidelity to the king and the Lutheran faith. The decoration is a St. Andrew's cross formed by two swords, and an azure globe with three crowns. II. An order of chivalry instituted in 1449 by Alfonso V. of Portugal. Order of the Theatins (Th*). See ' Theatins.' prder of the Thistle (The), 809. Said to have been instituted by Archai- cus king of the Scots. It was renewed in 1540 by James V. of Scotland ; again in 1687 by James II. of Great Britain ; and again by Queen Anne. The rue mixed with the thistles is a pun on the word Andrew. That is : ' Thistles and Rue.' Order of the Trappists (The). See ' Trappists.' Order of the Virgin's Look- ing Glass (The), 1419. Instituted by Ferdinand of Castile. Order of the White Eagle (The), 1825. Instituted by Ladislaus V. in Poland. Suppressed in 1688. Re- stored by Augustus II. in 1705. Included in the Russian orders 1832. Order of the White Falcon, 173'J. Instituted by Ernest Augustus of Saxe- Weimar. The idea is expressed in the motto Vigilando ascendimu*. See under ' OBDBE.' Orders (Holy). The profession of a clergyman. Every clergyman, aftei ordi- dation, is said to be in holy orders. In the Scotch and other Presbyterian churches ministers ' licensed to preach the gospel ' are called licentiates or probationers till they are ordained over some pastorate. Orders (Social), or ' Castes.' At one time it was well nigh impossible to rise out of the social order in which one was born, and marriages were, of course, re- stricted to castes also. In ancient EGYPT there were four social orders : priests, the military, the merchant class, and the artisans. In FRANCE [ancient rtgime] there were only three recognised orders: the clergy, the noblesse, and the tiers 6 tat. In INDIA the four great castes are: (1) the Brahman* or the sacerdotal order ; (2) the Chutria or the military order: (3) the Vaisya or the mer- cantile class ; and (4) the Sudrat or working class. In ancient ROME we find only three recognised social orders: senators, the equestrian order, and the plebeians. In SWEDEN the fear social orders are: the nobles, the clergy, tradesmen, and peasantry. Orders in Council are acts of the Privy Council made by the sovereign (who is personally present) by advice of the privy council. If the sovereign is not present, they are called ' Acts of the Lords of the Council.' Orders of Mendicants (The). See p. 671, ' Mendicant.' Orders of the Church. See under ' Church ' and ' Monastic Orders.' Ordinaires (Les). The French royal bodyguard which, in the reign of Henri III. (1574-1589), supplanted the Scottish Archers, and were by Louis XIII. (1622) changed into the celebrated Mus- keteers (q.v.). Of course the word haa other meanings, as th ecclesiastical superior who has ordinary jurisdic- tion ; the book which indicates the church service for each day in the year ; the ordinaire de la meue, and BO on. ' Ordinaires ' (8 syl.). Ordinance for the State of Ire- land (The), 1289. Vindicates the right of the English Parliament to bind Ireland (17 Edw. 1.). ORDINANCE ORDRE Ordinance for the Suppres- sion of Blasphemies and Here- sies, 1647. A statute passed with triumphant majorities after King Charles I. was made prisoner by Colonel Hamilton, governor of the Isle of Wight. It was aimed at Cromwell and his fa- vourers, and provided that any one who denied the doctrine of the Trinity, the divinity of Christ, or that the Bible is the word of God, or anyone who denies the resurrection of the body, or a future day of judgment, shall suffer death. Any- one who denies man's free will to turn to God, anyone who affirms that there is a purgatory, that images are lawful, or that infant baptism is unlawful, shall be com- mitted to prison. Anyone who denies the obligation of observing the Lord's Day, or that church government by pres- bytery is unlawful, shall be committed to prison. Ordinance of the 5th Septem- ber, 1815. Reducing the number of French deputies from 459 to 260, and declaring that no article of the ' Charte Constitutionelle ' (q.v.) should be revised. Ordinanze della O-iustizia, 1282. A law of Florence excluding all nobles from the government. Ordinary (The), in church matters means the bishop of the diocese ; but in emergency a rector or vicar of a parish may act as ordinary. It means one who in ecclesiastical matters has chief autho- rity in a parish. The word has several other meanings : &s the soldier who waits on an officer : a dally meal at a P10>0rPlaCe ^ '* * ^ ! "* Ordnance. A name given to what- ever concerns artillery. Board of Ordnance. In 1683 the board consisted of five principal officers, besides the master-general, a lieutenant-general, the surveyor-general, clerk of the ord- nance, storekeeper, and clerk of deliveries. It deliberates, regulates, and orders every- thing relating to the artillery and garrison. Master-General of the Ordnance. Commander-in-chief of the artillery corps. He used to have the sole command of the Royal Regiment of Artillery, but was assisted by a lieutenant-general. The office was abolished 25 May, 1855, and the duties transferred to the secretary of utate for wax. Ordnance Select Committee (The). A committee of officers who advise the secretary of state for war on alJ inven- tions submitted to them. Their office is at Woolwich, near the headquarters of the Royal Artillery. The committee con- tains 2 artillery officers, 1 officer of the engineers, and 1 officer of the line, with secretary and assistant secretary both in the artillery. Ordnance Survey. Tht utrvey of the British dominions by the Ordnance Department, who also prepare maps and plans both of the whole kingdom and also of its parts. Of Great Britain: England com- menced by Roy in 1784 ; Scotland in 1809 ; England and Wales completed January 1870. Of Ireland: commenced 1824, and completed in 1840. Of India, commenced by Lambton in 1801. Ordonnances. Laws made by the French king, beginning with the words, An nom du roi, and ending with the clause car tel est notreplairir. The three famous ordinances of Charles X.led to the revolution of 1880: (1) Abolished the liberty of the press; no journal might be issued before being submitted to government inspection ; (2) the chamber of deputies was dissolved; and (8) two- thirds of the electors were disfranchised ; and the number of deputies waa reduced nearly one-half. Ordre de Leopold ('), 1832. A Belgian order created by King Leopold for patriotic services. The decoration is a white cross. The motto is L 'union fait la force. The ribbon is red moire". Ordre de 1'Epio (L') t 1460. In- stituted by Francois I. due de Bretagne. The collar was of gold braid representing ears of corn in saltire, at the end of which hung an ermine, with the legend A ma vie. The order expired when Britanny was annexed to the crown of France. See ' Ordre de 1'Hermine.' ' Epic ' here means a spike or ear of corn. Old French 6pio=pta. Ordre de la G-eneste (2 syl.), 1284. Instituted by St. Louis (IX.) on his marriage with Marguerite of Provence. The collar was decorated with broom ORDRE ORLEANS 64'.' flowers and fleurs de Us in gold. See p. 643, ' Order of St. Genette.' Ordre de 1'Hermine, 1881. In- stituted by Jean V. due de Bretagne, on his reconciliation with the French and ' with Clisson. The insignia was a collar of gold charged with ermines, and the motto A ma vie. Ordre de la Toison d'Or. See p. 636, ' Order of the Golden Fleece.' Ordre de St. Michel (), 1 Aug., 1469. A military order instituted by Louis XI. at Amboise, in honour of St. Michael, the patron saint of France. At first the chevaliers were limited to 86, but they were subsequently increased to 100, the reigning king being the grand-master. It ceased to exist in 1830. Ordre des Humilids, 1184. A religious confraternityof Milan, instituted by St. John de Meda, of the rule of St. Benedict. Suppressed in 1571. Ordre du Me"rite Militaire ('), 1759. Instituted by Louis XV. to honour Protestants of the French army disqualified by their religious tenets for being 'Chevaliers de St. Louis.' Their decoration was a star of eight points cantonnee de fleurs de Us. The motto was Pro virtute bellica. It was abolished in 1830. Ordre du St. Esprit ('). 1578. An order of chivalry instituted by Henri III. in memory of his being elected King of Poland on the day of Pentecost. The chevaliers were limited to 100, of which 9 were ecclesiastics. The cross bore the image of the Holy Spirit, and was sus- pended on a blue ribbon. Every member must be a Catholic, and a Knight of St. Michael. Suppressed in 1789. Revived at the Restoration, but again suppressed in 1830. Orebro, in Sweden (Treaty of), 6 July, 1812, between Great Britain and Sweden. Its object was to circumvent Napoleon, who had invaded Russia with 450,000 men. Oregon (U.S. America). So called, in 1846, from its river of the same name. The inhabitants are nicknamed Webfeet nd Hard-cases. Oriel College (Oxford), 1826. Founded by Edward II. The head of the college is called the provost 28 Oriental France. So Germany was called in the time &i Charlemagne, still preserved in the name Franconia, a circle of Germany containing nearly 9,000 square miles. Orientation, in churches, means their position more or less correctly due east and west. Very few churches stand due east and west, but the deviation seems owing to the carelessness of the builders or to some local cause. It cannot be due to the position of the sun on the day of the patron and saint, as churches dedi- cated to the same saint do not occupy the same pi sition. Similarly it cannot typify the bending head of the crucified Saviour, because no uniform rule is observed in church orientation. Oriflamme (The). The flag of St. Denis, made by Philippe I. in 1082 the standard of France. A phonetic form of the Latin Auri-flamma, or flame of gold. The oriflamme was a large red banner mounted on a gilt staff, the loose end of the flag being cut into three tongues resembling flames, between each of which was a green silk tassel. When the counts of Vexin became possessed of the abbey of St. Denis, the oriflamme passed into their hands, but in 1082 Philippe I. united Vexin to the crown, and the oriflamme became a royal ban- ner. (St. Denis = Sahn Dnee.) The first time it was displayed in a battlefield was in 1119, when war was declared with England ; and the last time was at the battle of Agincourl in 1415. On both occasions the French were com- pelled to sue for peace. It was made of red taffelii., and was without device. Called golden from the gilt staff. Orkney Islands (The). The Or- kejar or Orkeyjar, the Northern Islands of the Norwegians, as distinguished from the Sudrejar or Southern Islands, now called Sodor (q.v.), and the Western, or Hebrides. Orkney, Latin Orcades, is probably connected with the Norwegian orcan or orken, a hurricane. Orkneyinga Saga (The). History of the men of Orkney. This saga was printed among the Icelandic Sagas for the Master of the Rolls in 1887. It is in Icelandic and not translated. Orleanists (The). See ' Armagnacs.' Orleans (House of). A youngei branch of the Bourbons represented in France by Louis-Philippe (1830-1848). The Orleans-Orleans was Louis XII. (1498- 151 5), and the Orleans-Angouleme consisted cf Fi-anQoia I., Henri II., Fraugois II., Charles IX., and Han XII. (1616-1689). 650 ORLEANS ORRY Orleans. The Plot of Gaston due tVOrUans, 163*2. This was a plot to murder Richelien, the obnoxious minister of Louis XIII. The duke induced Henri de Montmorency to join it, and they suc- ceeded in raising a revolt in Languedoc. The cardinal sent troops to quell the revolt ; a battle was fought ; the insur- gents were defeated ; and Montmorency, being taken prisoner, was beheaded. Orle ton's Message. Adam Orle- ton, bishop of Hereford, sent this am- biguous message to the keeper of Berke- ley Castle, 21 Sept., 1327: 'Edwardum occidere nolite timere bonum est.' This may be either a command to murder the king, or not to murder him, according to the way the words are pointed. Thus : 'Edwardum occidere nolite timere, bonum est ' (to kill Edward fear not, it is right) ; or, ' Edwardum occidere nolite, timere bonum est' (do not kill Ed- ward; it is right to dread doing BO). See p. 688, ' Oracle of Delphi.' Wolsey, in early life, was cautioned to ' beware of Kingston.' The warning made a great impres- sion on his superstitious mind, and he would never enter the town of Kingston (on the Thames). When he was confined to his cell by order of Henry VIII. a blare of trumpets announced the approach of armed officials, and Sir William Kingston entered. Then the warning of his younger days flashed across htm in a new light, and, bowing his head, he uttered those memorable words, ' If I had served my God as faithfully as I have served my king, He would not have forsaken me in my grey hairs.' HENRY IV. of England was told he should ' die In Jerusalem ' which he took for granted meant the Holy Land; but he died in the Jerusalem Chamber, London, the chapter-house of West- minster Abbey. CAMBYSES, son of Cyrus, was told that he should die in Ecbat&na, which he supposed meant the capital of Media. Being wounded accidentally in Syria he asked the name of the place, and being told it was called Ecbatana, he replied, ' Here, then, I am destined to end my life.' When in 1668 the Countess of Egmont implored Alva to spare the life of her husband, he replied, ' Certainly, madam, he shall be released to-morrow morning.' The countess thought the duke meant her husband would be released from prison, but Alva meant that he would be executed and re- leased from life. Jourdain the wizard told Somerset, if he wished to live, to ' avoid where castles mounted stand.' The duke died in an alehouse called ' the Castle,' which stood in St. Albans. V These punning prophecies are rery numer- ous, and somewhat amusing. Orloff Diamond (The). Weighs 194f carats, and ie set on the top of the imperial sceptre of Russia. It is of pure water, and about the size of a pigeon's egg. It is said to have been one of the eyes of an idol in a temple in India. Sub- sequently it came into the possession of Shah Nadir of Persia ; and, when the Shah was murdered, it was stolen by a French grenadier, who sold it to an Englif-1 captain for 2,OOW. The captain brought it to England, and sold it to a Jew mer- chant for 12.000Z. The Jew sold it to Shafras, an Armenian merchant, and in 1776 Catharine II. of Russia bought it of Shafras for 90,0002., and a pension for life of 4,0002. per annum. See ' Diamonds.' Ormond Crown (The). A silver 6*. piece coined in Dublin 1643 for circu- lation in Ireland. Called Ormond from the proclamation of the Duke of OriM<>nerary and Queen's County. Os'suary of Morat, Switzerland v fce), 1416. Made of the bones of the Burgundians slain by the Swiss in the battle of Morat, 22 June, 1476. It was destroyed by the French in 1798, and in 1822 a stone obelisk was erected on the spot. OstiariUS. St. Ignatius in his letter to the faithful of Antioch mentions this church officer. His duties were to open the book for the officiating priest ; to keep the keys of the church, and to be respon- sible for the cleanliness and good order of the church and its furniture ; to open and close the doors at the right time ; to maintain good order in the congregation ; and to prevent the entrance of any Jew or heathen. They were always elderly men. Our beadle has many of the duties of the more ancient ostiarius. Ostrogoth.8. Goths of the East, in opposition to the Visigoths or Goths of the West. They disappear from history in 653. Oswald's Law, A.D. 962. The law of Oswald archbishop of York that all collegiate chapters be turned into Bene- dictine fraternities, and if any chapter refused to make this change, then was an opposition church, under the special patronage of the Virgin, to be set up. Otrepieff the Pretender. Gre- gory Otrepieff, a runaway monk of Ischoudoff, in Russia, was the first of the impostors who impersonated Dmitri V. son of Ivan the Terrible, put to death in his infancy by Boris Godounoff, in 1591. Supported by Sigismund II. king of Poland, he overthrew Boris and reigned at Moscow in 1605. His mar- riage to a Pole and a Catholic led to his murder by the mob in 1606. See ' Pougatcheff.' Ottanta (The). See ' Eighty/ Otta'va Tlima. The stanza of the later Italian writers like Boccaccio. Byron's 'Don Juan' is an English ex- ample. Lines 1, 8, 5 rhyme, and lines S, 4, 6 rhyme, while 7, 8 rhyme inde- 552 OTTIMATI OUTBURGERS pendently. Called ottava because it is an eight-line stanza. See ' Terza Rima.' Ottima'ti (The), The aristocracy of Florence. Otto I. the LIOD, and 'the Great King ' of Germany. The second of the Saxon dynasty (912, king of Germany 936-978, emperor of the Romans 961- 978). Father, Helnrich I. the Fowler ; Mother, Mech. tildis ; Wives, (1) Eadgyth daughter of Edward the Elder, and granddaughter of Alfred the Great ; C.J) Adelheid widow of Lothaire king of Lombardy. Contemporary with Athelstan. Edmund, Edred, Edwy, and Edgar the Peaceful. Otto II. of Germany. 'The Red,' ' the Bloody,' ' the Pale Death of the Sara- cens ' (955, 978-983). Father, Otto I. the Great; Mother, Eadgyth granddaughter of Alfred the Great ; Wife, Thco- phania daughter of Komanus II. emperor of the East. Contemporary with Edgar, Edward the Martyr, and Ethelred the Unready. V Called ' the Bloody from the Bloody Ban- quet. See ' Otto's Bloody Banquet.' Otto III. the Wonder of the World. Born 980; king of Germany 983-1002; kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire 996- 1002. Father, Otto II.; Mother, Theophanla; Wife. Mary daughter of the king of Aragon, burnt to death for adultery. Contemporary with Ethelred. Otto's Bloody Banquet, 981. The Romans, desirous of freeing them- selves from the German yoke, formed a conspiracy to make Rome a republic. This conspiracy was revealed to Otto II. of Germany, and the kaiser, pretending to know nothing about it, invited the chief of the conspirators to a banquet. When the guests were seated, Otto stamped with his foot, and the hall was filled with armed men. The kaiser then deliberately unrolled a paper, and as he read aloud the names the victims were dragged from table and strangled. Ottoman Empire (The). The empire of the Osmanlis,' i.e. all those countries under the Turkish sultan. So called from Ottoman or Othman (1289- 1326), who had laid the foundation of the independent sovereignty of the Turks. Otway the poet, we are told, being in a starving condition, had a guinea given him. He went immediately and bought a loaf of bread, but died swallow- ing the first mouthful. Allusion to this tale is often made. Ouida. The pen-name of Miss Louise de la Rame. The name was suggested by a little girl who said Weeda for Louisa. Our Boys. An inner circle of Moon- lighters (g.u.), who had their own cap- tains, subservient to Captain Moonlight. They were armed, some with rev< and some with other weapons. Tl.eir objects were to compel men to belong to the Land or National League, to terror- ise those who took evicted farms or who dealt with persons boycotted. See ' Irish Associations.' Our Lady of Mercy. Mme. Tallien (1774-1881), daughter of Cabar- rus, a Spanish banker. Called ' Our Lady of Mercy ' because she was always plead- ing for the life of some one condemned to death by the revolutionary tribunal. Our Lady of Walsingham. An image of the Virgin Mary in the abbey of Little Walsingham, Norfolk. This was the most famous image in all England. Persons of all degrees paid their vows and made offerings to it, and the most extravagant miracles were ascribed to it. It was burnt at Chelsea in 1588. In the last age, whoever had not made a visit and an oflcringlo the Blessed Virgin of this place [Walslngham] was looked upon as inipious.- CAMDKN. Henry VIII., when a boy, walked from Barbara barefoot to the shrine, and presented to the Image a necklace of great value. Its secret springs were exposed to the public before it was Out in the '15, &. in the rebel army of the Pretender in 1715 (Geo. I.). See below. Anderson of Whltburgh, a gentleman whose father had been out In the '15. HOWITT, Hut. oj Eng. (Geo. I., p. 600). Out in the '46, >. in the rebel army of the Young Pretender in 1745. See above. Outburgers. Called in German ' Ausburgers.' Aliens who had been ad- mitted to privileges of citizenship, though resident at a distance from the city. In consequence of this ' privilege ' they claimed exemption from all dues to their feudal lord ; and if the lord resisted tjiia unreasonable claim, he had to do battle with the city which threw ita shield over the Outburger. OUTED OXFORD 663 Guted Prelates (The). The Scotch episcopate disestablished in 1689. Alexander Rose, tbe last survivor of the outed prelates. ROBERT CHAMBERS, The Threiplands of Fingask. Ovate. A kind of Druidical curate or deacon. The heads of the hierarchy were Druids, the next in rank the Bards, and the third order was that of Ovates. Old English ofydd, a sapling or young shoot. Overthrow of the Geraldines (8 syl.) in Ireland (The), 1535. The Geral- dines were great Norman lords in the south of Ireland. They had been suffered by Henry VII. to govern Ireland in the name of the English crown ; but when Henry VIII. was king, he resolved to be supreme in Ireland, and Lord Thomas Fitzgerald revolted. Skeffington, the new lord deputy, levelled to the ground Maynooth, the stronghold of the Geral- dines, and wholly extirpated the family, leaving only a single boy to preserve the name. Ovid (The French). Du Bellay (1524- 560). Also called the ' Father of Grace and Elegance.' Ovid of the English Nation (The). Michael Drayton (1563-1631). So called by Dr. Heylin in his ' Cosmo- graphia,' p. 803 (1637). Ovid's Tower. About two leagueg from Karansebes, upon a steep hill, stands a small square tower so called ; and tradition asserts that the Roman poet was confined there by Augustus for having written his ' Art of Love.' This is most improbable. No doubt the poet was banished from Rome for some offence, but not for writing shaky poetry, and the place of his banishment was most likely Tomi in Thrace. Owen Meredith. A pen-name assumed by Lord Lytton, British ambas- Bador in Paris ; under which name he published a number of poems. One of the windows in Knebworth Church is that of Owen Tudor, s-id the other is that of Ann Meredith. These windows are memorials of Lord Lytton's family on the paternal side. Lord Lytton, i.e. the Right Hon. Edward Robert Bulwer Lytton, created earl in 1880 ; son of Edward Lytton Bulwer 2nd Haron Lytton, the novelist, who died INVH. Owen Meredith was born 1831. Owlglass the Jester, 1493 ; but the earliest copy now known is dated 15 40. Thyl Owlglass was the son of a poor Bruns- wick peasant who lived by his wits, and was cramful of practical jokes half knavery and half fun. He was servant, charla- tan, lansquenet, artist, disputant, monk, blacksmith, cook, miller, and so on. He died 1350. Thyl was a little squat figure, with sharp keen eyes, red beard and hair. The American Clockmaker is not unlike Thyl Owlglass. Called in Germany ' Eu- lenspiegel.' Ox (The). Domenichi'no (1581-1641). When so called by his fellow-students on account of his plodding slowness, Anni- bal Carracci remarked that the ' Ox will plough a fruitful field.' See below. Ox (The Dumb). Thomas Aqulnaa the 'Angelic Doctor' (1224-1274). So called by his fellow-students at Cologne on account of his taciturnity and dulness ; but Albertus said, 'We call him the Dumb Ox, but he will one day give such a bellow as shall be heard from one end of the world to the other.' Also called ' the Great Sicilian Ox. 1 The family was allied to the kings of Sicily. He was also of unusual size, very tall and stout in proportion. Oxford Act of 1665 (The). The act of parliament more usually called ' The Five-mile Act,' which banished non- conforming ministers five miles from any parliamentary town. Oxford Colleges. (Those in italics are halls.) Head When founded Alban't (St.) Hall . 1650 All Souls ... Warden 1437 Balliol Master 1263 Brasenose Christ Church ... Principal ... Dean 1509 1525 Corpus Christ! Edmund (St.) Hall President .. 1516 1559 Exeter . ... Rector" 1314 Hertford Principal .. 1283 Jesus .. . ... Principal .. 1571 John's (BW . ... President ... 1557 Keble Warden ^ . 1870 Lincoln Rector ... 1427 Magdalen . President ... 1458 Magdalen Hall (disBol ved 1874) ^ 1487 Mary (St.) Hall ... . 1239 Merton Warden . 1264 New College _ New Inn Hall Warden .. 1886 1438 Oriel ... .. Procoit 1326 Pembroke ^. *. Master 1C24 Queens ^ . Trinity _ _ Provost ^ President ... 1840 1554 University ^ _ i/twter 872 restore d 1'240 Wadham ... Warden 1618 Worcester Provost 1714 And two private halls Charsley and Turrcll. V Magdalen Hall wa 1 incorporated with Hw ford College in 174. 654 OXFORD'S PACIFICATION Mansfield College, 1889. The first Nonconformist college at Oxford, The chief object of the college is the education of young men for the congrega- tional ministry ; the first ' Principal ' being Dr. To these may be added Lady Margaret Hall and Somervllle Hall for ladies. Oxford's Masterpiece (The Earl of). The monopoly of trade to the South Seas granted to a company of merchants incorporated as the South Sea Company. Oxford's Miss (Lord). Elizabeth Davenport, actress, called by Pepys ' Eoxalana,' from a favourite character in ' The Siege of Rhodes.' Oxford of Belgium (The). The University of Louvain founded 1884 at Malines for the onion of divine and secular knowledge. The following year it was transferred to Louvain. Oxford of Holland (The). Leyden. Oxford Tract Movement, 1838- 1841. A religious revival which originated at Oxford by the publication of certain pamphlets called ' Tracts for the Times,' chiefly by Pusey, Newman, and Keble. These tracts taught the dogmas of the divine origin of the church, the apostolic order of the clergy, and the high church doctrines. Church architecture, church renovation, clerical dresses, and all externals of religion were more carefully attended to ; but, at the same time, it must be confessed that an enormous accession to the Roman Catho- lic Church was the result, and a long disputation about such things as vest- ments, candles, genuflexions, and so on. Oxford University. The heads of the several colleges have the following titles . Of 1 he is called the Dean, viz. the head of Christ Church. Of 8 he is called the Master, viz. of Balliol, Pembroke, and University Col- lege. Of 4 he is called the President, viz. of Corpus, Magdalen, St. John's, and Trinity. Of 3 he is called the Principal, viz. of Brasenose, Jesus, and Hertford ; and of the 4 halls (New Inn, St. Alban's, St. Edmund, and St. Mary). To these add Mansfield. Of 3 he is called the Provost, viz. of Oriel, Queen's aud Worcester. Of 2 he is called the Rector, viz. of Exeter and Lincoln. Of 5 he is called the Warden, viz. of All Souls, Keble, Merton, New College, and Wadham. In Cambridge fniveralty the head of every college except two Is called the Hatter, that of King s Is called the Provott, and that of Queens' is called the Pretident. Oyer and Terminer, to hear and determine. A commission granted by the crown to judges of assize, &c., to ' hear and determine ' all cases of treason, felony, and trespass brought before them on their respective circuits. Pacata, or Pezade (2 syl.). Un impot de lapaix, 1040. Levied during the ' Truce of God ' for the establishment oi a militia to enforce obedience to the truce- Paccanarists, followers of Pacca- nari. Paccanari was a Tyrolean priest who died about 1802. He founded the order called ' Les Peres de la Foi ' after that of the Jesuits was abolished by Clement XTV. in 1778. Pacha of Egypt (The). A diamond cut on eight sides. It weighs 40 carats, and cost 700,000 francs [28,0001.]. See 1 Diamonds.' Paciferes (8 syl.), 14th cent. Armed peasantry of France, associated together to resist the Grand Companies which plundered and oppressed the people. Pacific Parliament (The). A triennial parliament dissolved 8 Aug., 1718. A Tory parliament noted for the treaty of peace signed at Utrecht after a war of eleven years. Bolingbroke and Oxford were its chief members. See * Par- liaments.' No assembly but one composed as this waa could have sat quiet under such a peace. BURNKT, Own Time. Paciflcateur de la Vendee (Le). Lazarus Hoche (1768-1797). So called because in 1796 he brought the Vende*an war to an end. Pacification (Edict of). The same as the ' Edict of Amboise ' (q.v.). Called the 'Edict of Pacification' because it closed the first religious war of France (19 March, 1568). Pacification of Dunse (The), 18 June, 1639. The arrangement nmdo with the Covenanters who had eucam) >i oo * hill called Duuae Law, when PACIFICATION PAINS 655 Charles I. tried to enforce episcopacy and the English Prayer Book on the people. Charles, fearing the result of a battle, proposed terms of peace, and agreed to leave to a convocation all church matters. By this convocation presbytery was restored, episcopacy in Scotland was abolished, and the existing bishops were deprived of their titles and Dunse Law Is an elevated spot some 680 feet high, north of the town. Pacification of Ghent (The). Signed 8 Nov., 1576. An accommodation between Holland cum Zealand and the Catholic states of the Netherlands, pro- viding that no foreign soldiers should be permitted in the states, and that all the signatories should help each other against all opponents. This treaty was known as ' The Perpetual Peace.' Pacification of Passau, in Bavaria (The), 7 Aug., 1552. Securing freedom of religion to Protestants. This ' pacification ' led to the ' Keligious Peace of Augsburg,' 26 Sept., 1555. Pasaau pronounce Pas-sow (ow as In ' now '). Pacification of Vienna (The), 23 June, 1606. Concluded between the Archduke Mathias of Austria and the ministers of Botskai of Hungary. By this treaty Hungary was split into three parts, of which Turkey possessed 1,859 square miles, Botskai in Hungary and Transylvania 2,082 square miles, and Austria 1,222 square miles. Pacificator of Europe (The). Benedict XIII. (1724-1730). He pacified the angry antagonists of the bull Uni- genitus (q.v.) by his bull Pretiosus (q.v.). He pacified the Sicilians, who were in contention about the 'Tribunal de Monarchia.' He settled the controversy with the king of Sardinia respecting the right of nomination to certain abbacies and benefices in Piedmont And he brought about the treaty of Seville in 1729 between England, France, Spain, and Holland, thereby settling the succes- sion of Tuscany and Parma. Pack-Monday Pair. Held the first Monday after 10 Oct. at Sherborne. It was held in the churchyard, and blow- ing cows' horns was a distinguishing feature of it. Said to be in commemc ra- tion of the completion of the church. Pacta Conventa. Polish covenants between the nobles and tl e person nominated for thl crown. Tl 6 first was in 1355, between the Polish nobles and Louis I. of Hungary, who was invited to accept the crown of Poland. These pacts made Poland virtually an oligarchy, and were the real cause of its downfall. Of 1573. Passed by Henry of Valow, securing freedom of worship and equality of rights to all Poles. Formally abolished in 1786. These covenants were signed by every king of Poland at his corona- tion. They not only disavowed all re- ligious distinctions, but also strictly limited and defined the powers and pre- rogatives of the crown. Pacte de Famille (La), 15 Aug., 1761. Signed at the instigation of the Due de Choiseul by the king of France, the king of Spain, and the duke of Parma, all of whom were of the Bourbon family. Its object was to break down the maritime superiority of England, but it was an utter failure. The king of the Two Sicilies refused to subscribe the treaty, and in 1789 other affairs super- seded it in interest. Pacte de Famine (La), 1765-1789. Monopolists of corn who brought great misery on France, especially in the years 1767-1769, 1775-1778, 1788-1789. The events of 1789 put an end to this abomin- able traffic. Psedagogy (The). See p. 27, 'An- drews (University of St.).' Psedobaptists. Those Protestant dissenters who practise infant baptism, in contradistinction to the Baptists, who allow adult baptism alone, and that after a personal confession of faith. The Church of England and the Presbyterians are Pwdobaptists, but applied to these churches the word only denotes a practical doctrine carried out by these Christians. As a distinctive title it Is opposed to Baptists, and applies chiefly, if not entirely, to the Independents or Congregation alists (q.v.). Pains and Penalties. Acts of parliament to attaint particular persons of treason or felony, or to inflict pains and penalties beyond or contrary to common law, to serve a special purpose. They are new laws pro re nata. When Queen Caroline wife of George IV. was tried, she was proceeded against by a 'Bill of Pains and Penalties,' but was acquitted. r,56 PAINTED PAIX Painted Chamber (The).Chambre peinte. Anciently St. Edward's Cham- ber. It was destroyed by fire with the houses of Parliament in 1834. When, at the beginning of this cent., the tapes- try and wainscoting were taken down, it was discovered that the interior had been originally painted with single figures and historical subjects, arranged round the chamber in six bands, somewhat like the Bayeux tapestry. Careful drawings were made at the time by J. T. Smith, and drawings by Charles Stotliard were engraved in 1819 for the ' Vetusta Monu- menta.' Painter of Nature (The). So the French called Belleau, one of their Pleiad poets (1528-1577). His chief poem is entitled ' Loves and Transforma- tions of the Precious Stones. 1 Painters (Father of Modern). John Cimabue of Florence (1240-1800). Paire de G-ants. Donne*~noui noire paire de gants. Famous royalist song during the ' Hundred Days ' in the mouths of all the dames des holies of Paris. It was a pun on ' Donnez-nous notre pore de Ghent,' referring to Louis XVIII., who was residing at Ghent Pairs de France (Let). Philippe Auguste fixed the number at twelve, half of whom were seculars and half ecclesiastics. The secular peers were the due. de Normandie, the due de Bour- gogne, the due de Guyenne, the oomte de Flandre, the cointe de Toulouse, and the comte de Champagne; the eccle- siastical peers were the archbishop of Reims, and the bishops of Laon, Langres, Beauvais, Chalons, and Noyon. Subse- quently, the number was unlimited. All princes of the blood were pairs-nts. Peers were abolished in 1798, but were re-established in 1814 at the Restora- tion. In 1831 the heredity of peerage was abolished, and all peers were nomi- nated by the crown. The Chamber of Peers was called the Cour des pairs, and at the Restoration formed a corps legis- latif with the House of Deputies, but in 1848 the House of Peers was superseded by the Senate. Paishdadians. 00 Pishdadian Dynasty.' Paix Boiteuse (La), 1570. Thera was signed at St. Germain in 1562 an edict which forbade the Calvinists to levy troops and preach against the Roman Catholic religion, but it authorised their holding religious services in country places. In 1570 a peace was - between the Catholics and Protestants; but it was neither sincere nor durable. It was called ' La Paix Boiteuse et Mal- aasise,' because its terms were drawn H. Mesmes and signed by Biron. was boiteux, and Mesmes was seigneur de Malassise, but the insincerity of the affair gave point to the puns boiteux and mal atsise (lame and unstable). Pair Fourre'e (La), 9 May, 1409. Between the children of the Due d'Or- le'ans (recently assassinated) and Jean- Bans-Peur due de Bourgogne. Paix Malheureuse (La), 1559, which closed the Italian war b> France and Italy (1483-1559). By this treaty Henri II. renounced all claim W Genoa, Naples, Milan, and Corsica. Paiz de Dieu (La), 1035. A sus- pension of arms brought about by thu clergy to put a stop to the depredation* of the borons. From every pulpit in France was read this command and malediction : May they who refuse to obey be aecurmed. and have their portion with Cain the first murderer, with Judos the arch-traitor, and with Dathan and Abiram who went down alive into the pit. May they be accursed in the life which now is ; and may their hope of salvation be put out, as the light of these candles is extinguished from their sight.' At the lost words the priests extin- guished their tapers, and the people responded, ' So may God extinguish the joy of those who violate this peace. Amen.' See ' Treve de Dieu.' Paix de Longjumeau (La), 1568. Between the Catholics and the Calvinists, preparatory to the Paix de St. Germain. This peace is called ' La Paix Fourree ' (q.?.), and sometimes ' La Petite Paiz.' Paix de Monsieur (La), 1675. Monsieur, the title of the king's eldest brother. This peace was signed at Loches in Touraine by Francois duo d'Alen<;on, the only surviving brother of Henri III. By this treaty the appanage of 'Monsieur' WM tripled, and he assumed the title of ' due d Anjou,' heretofore borne by hi* brother the kinf. PAIX PALATINE 65 p i Paix des Dames (La), or 'La Paix de Cambray,' 1529. The pope, jealous of the power of Charles V., formed a league with France, England, Venice, and Milan ; but Charles at once laid siege to Rome ; 8,000 Romans perished, and the. pope fled for safety to the castle of St. Angelo. A capitulation followed which was signed at Cambray 5 Aug., 1529, and was called ' La Paix des Dames,' because it was negotiated by Margaret of Austria aunt of Charles V.) and Louise de Savoie (mother of Francois I. of France). The hollow peace was broken in 1536. Palace of Ice (The), 1739. Built by the direction of Anne empress of Russia, to honour the nuptials of Prince Galitzin with a peasant girl. The bride and bridegroom had to pass their wed- ding night in a room the walls of which, all the furniture, and even the bed itself, were wholly of ice. Palais Bourbon. Now called the Palais du Corps Legislatif, between the Quai d'Orsay and the Rue de Bourgogne, and opposite the Pont de la Concorde. It was at one time the residence of the Bourbon princes, but was confiscated at the revolution. Under the Directory it was the Chamber of the Conseil des Anciens ; under the first empire it was the house of the Corps LSgislatif ; at the restoration it was the Chambre des Deputes ; under the republic of 1848 it was the seat of the Assemblee Nationale ; since 1852 it has been the seat of the Corps Legislatif. The Salle des Stances was reconstructed by M. de Joly (1828- 1832). Palais Cardinal (Le). Now called 1 Le Palais Royal ' of Paris. It was built by and for the Cardinal Richelieu in the reign of Louis XIII., and was divided into an outer and inner court. The gardens extended over several acres and were the wonder of Europe. Palais Royal (Le). See above, 1 Palais Cardinal.' Palais de Justice (Le). In the cite* de Paris. Here, at one time, dwelt the kings of France, up to the reign of Charles VII. (1422-1461), who resided at the Palais des Tournelles. It has often been reconstructed ; the last time was in 1787. The Salle des Pas-Perdus, origi- nally called the Grande Salle, was con structed by J. de Brosse in 1622. Pal'amites (3 syl.). The followers of Gregory Palamas, who maintained that there were two sorts of light, one increate and one create. The former the light of Deity, who said, ' I am the Light of the world,' the latter the light of the Sun. This distinction from 1341- 1851 caused a schism in the Greek Church. The monks of Mount Athos insisted that the light seen on the mount of Transfiguration was the increate light of Deity ; but Barlaam insisted, in that case that there must be both a visible and an invisible God. The upshot of the matter was this the synod presided over by the Greek emperor determined the opinion of the monks of Mount Athos to be an article of faith, and Barlaam was obliged to quit the country. Palatinate. ' Pfalz,' Germany. The ancient empire had two palatinates, the upper and the lower. The Upper or Bavarian Palatinate, in the circle of Bavaria; and the Lower Palatinate or Palatinate of the Rhine. At the Peace of Westphalia Karl Ludwig was made elector, which increased the number of electors from seven to eight. Palatinate (War of the), 1688-1697. It was occasioned by Louis XIV. in favour of the Duchess of Orleans, sister of the last elector-palatine, against Philipp Wilhelm prince palatine of Neuburg. The dauphin conquered the palatine in less than two months. In 1689 Marshal Duras made such brutal ravages in this country as called forth the indignation of all Europe, and caused a new coali- tion to be formed against Louis XIV. In 1697 the Peace of Ryswick gave posses- sion of the palatinate to Johann Wilhelm son of Philipp Wilhelm. Palatine. So the governor ol Poland was formerly called, and his dominion was a palatinate or vayvody. The crown was not hereditary, but elec- tive. Palatine (Count). 'Comes Pala- tlnus,' a high judicial officer, generally near a frontier, with jura regalia. The district over which he had jurisdiction was called a palatinate or coitnty pala- tine. L Li England there were three such UU 658 PALATINE PALLIKARS counties: Lancaster, Chester, and Dur- ham, frontier of Wales. Lancaster was made a palatinate by Edward III., but the crown is now ' palatine of Lancaster.' Chester was made a palatinate by William the Conqueror, but was annexed to the crown in the reign of Henry III., and is now vested in the prince of Wales. Durham was also made a palatinate by William the Conqueror, but in 1886 this also was vested in the crown. II. In France, under the Merovingian kings. III. In Germany the 'Pfalz-graf ' wai far more powerful than a simple graf. He superintended the royal revenue, and took part in the government. Originally the palatine was named by the kaiser, but in time the title and office became hereditary. The chief palatines were the counts of Lotharingia, Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia, and later on Burgundy. Of these the palatine of Lotharingia was the chief, being the first prince of Ger- many, and afterwards called the Pala- tine of the Rhine. In 1815 this noble- man was called the Elector-Palatine. Palatine (Princesses). Anna di Gonzaga (1616-1684); Elizabeth grand- daughter of James I. of England (1618- 1680) ; and Charlotte Elizabeth of Ba- varia (1652-1722). Palatine (The Great). Foremost of the Hungarian magnates; he was first minister of the crown, head of the army, lord chief justice, and regent when a regency was required. He was elected by the National Assembly, who sent up four names, from which the king selected one. Palatine of Heidelberg (The). A large library, museum, and botanical garden. Palatines of the County of Limerick (The), 1709. Some 8,000 Protestants, driven from their homes, and sent by the English government to Limerick in the reign of Queen Anne. They are generally called Methodists, and are supposed to have been driven from the palatinates by the remorseless persecutions of Louis XIV. Many emi- grated to America, and were called the American Palatines. Many Pala- tines and other continental Protestants had, before this, joined the army of William HL The Rev. MATTHEW HENRY In his 'Commen- tary ' refers to them (pp. H8, 89). ' When many of the poor Palatines, driven from their country by persecution, visited Chester in the year 1709. to the discontent of the High Church party, though only going to Ireland, I lent them my stable to sleep fa.' The editor adds this note: 'The num. her who arrived In Chester within three weeks was about 8.140. The women and children and goods travelled In 109 waggons, for which Mr. Henry was Informed by the mayor that the queen paid carriage, besides two shillings per week sub- sistence for each head. 1 HKNBY, IHarj/. Pale (The). In Irish history means that portion of the island over which the English rule and English law were acknowledged. It was an ever-varying quantity. In Henry II.'s reign it meant Dublin, Wexford, Waterford, and the chief part of Leinster. John distributed the Pale into twelve counties palatine, viz. Dublin, Meath, Kildare, Louth, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Tipperary, and Limerick. In Edward IIL'a reign, after the statute of Kilkenny, the Pale was limited to four counties (Dublin, Carlow, Meath, and Louth). Richard II. increased the pala- tinate to nine. In Henry VT.'s reijni it was again contracted. Roughly the Pale means Dublin, Meath, Carlow, Kil- kenny, and Louth. Except in the Pale the king's power was only nominal. Palestro (The Hero of). Victor Emmanuel II. king of Sardinia and after- wards of Italy (1820-1878). The Sardi- nians and French defeated the Austrian! at Palestro 81 May, 1859. Come, one and all, cluster closely round the hero Of Palestro.-GanfeaWi to hit tolditrt. 1860. Pali. A trans-Gangetic idiom from the Sanskrit in Burmah, Siam, and Ceylon. In this idiom the sacred writings of the Buddhists are written. Like Sanskrit, Hebrew, Latin, and several other sacred languages, Pali is not now spoken. Pall Mall Gazette (The). A London daily newspaper commenced 7 Feb., 1865. Palles'chi (The). The Medicean party devoted to the ruling house of Florence, or desirous of establishing in that city an oligarchy or tyranny. Pallikars. A national militia of Greece organised to stamp out the' Klephts (1 syl.) or brigands. The Ar- m a toll- s formed a principal ra^rt of th militia. PALM PANDECTS 65H Palm the Bookseller, shot by court-martial 26 Aug., 1806. This was a most unjustifiable murder. Napoleon wanted to overrun Prussia, and Palm published a pamphlet entitled ' L'Alle- magne dans son profond abaissement,' for which he was tried by court-martial, and, as he refused to give up the author, was ordered to be shot. Englanl, Kussia, and other free countries were loudly in- dignant ; and in 1813 when the Germans rose against Napoleon, many regiments emblazoned on their banners the bloody figure of Palm the Bookseller. Palm Sunday. 'Festum Bron- cherise,' or ' Festum Palmarum,' ' Domi- nica in Palmis.' The Sunday next before Easter Day, in commemoration of Christ's triumphal entry into Jerusalem, when the people strewed palm branches in the way. Instituted in 1106. In the Catholic Church palms, being blessed and sprinkled thrice with holy water, are distributed first to the clergy present and then to the laity, who receive them kneeling. A pro- cession is then made, and at the mass all the communicants hold palms in their hands during the ' Passion ' and the Gospel. See ' Sunday.' Dies palmarum, sive florum atque ramorum appellatur. BUPEKT, De Divin. Offi.c., chap. vil. Palmers. Pilgrims who brought home a branch of palm in proof of their having been to Palestine. This palm- branch was deposited in the church of the pilgrims' town. Sometimes the palm- branch was wreathed round the pilgrim's staff. Palmyra's Queen, or 'Queen of Palmyra.' So Lady Hester Stanhope was called (1770-1839). She took up her re- sidence at Djouni, in Syria. The last and one of the most noted queens of Palmyra was Zenobia. Palsgrave [Pfalzgraf J. The reeve or president of the pfalz or palace-co irt, the highest court of the realm, wh ch ori- ginally moved from place to place with the monarch. In France called ' Le Maire du Palais.' When the court became stationary, the presidency was given to a 1 judge ' ; but the king could, if he chose, confer the judicial honour on a ' man of a fief ' or province, who then became a pfalzgraf or vice-roi. There were two German reeves pos- sessed of this judicial power, and their districts or provinces were called ' pala- tinates.' There was the Upper Palatinate (which was Bavaria), and the Lower Pala- tinate on the Rhine ; but the word pfalz- graf, unqualified, always means the count- palatine of the Rhine. The pfalzgraf of the Rhine was one of the seven original electors of the German kings ; but in the tenth year of the Thirty Years' War he was deposed from the college of electors, and his place given to the duke of Bavaria. At the Peace of Wwiphalia, in 1648, it was settled that the dignity of elector could not be alienated, so the pfalzgraf was restored, and the number of electors raised to eight. When, in 1692, the elec- torate was conferred on Ernest duke of Hanover the electoral college contained nine members ; but in 1777 the number was again reduced to eight by the amal- gamation of the two palatinates of Ba- varia and the Rhine ; the duke of Bavaria being also pfalzgraf of the Rhine. The title was abolished (except for Hessen- Cassel) by Napoleon in 1806. Panard of the 19th century. Armand Gouffe", born at Paris (1775- 1845), founder of the Caveau Moderne. Panare'ton. The book of Ecclesia- sticus, by Jesus son of Sirach, an Alex- andrian, was so called because it was a complete breviary of all the moral vir- tues. It lays down rules for the daily re- gulation of life. Jesus died B.C. 150. Pan'athensD'a, B.C. 1495. A great Athenian fete in honour of Athene [Minerva], instituted by Erichthonios. Athene was goddess of all [pan] Attica. The Great Pan-Atheneea was celebrated every fifth year, and the grand ceremony was carrying the peplum or veil of Athene to the citadel. The prize in the games was a wreath of olives and cruse of oil. Panda'vas (The). The descendants of Pandu. Five princes whose contest for regal supremacy with their cousins, the Kurus, forms the subject of the great Indian epic poem entitled the 'Maha- bharata.' Pandu means ' white.' The elder of the two princes was excluded from the throne for his whiteness, probably some disease, but his five eons were the Pandavas. Pandects (The). The Greek word for the Roman Digest compiled in the reign of the Emperor Justinian A.M. 533, 660 PANDOUR8 PAPA The entire Corpus Juris Civilis contained (1) the Code in twelve tables; (2) the Digest or Pandects in fifty books; (8) the Institutes, a summary of the Digest to teach the elements of Roman law, in four books; and (4) the Novels or new laws, containing sixteen edicts and 168 laws published by Justinian. The Pandects or Digest are in fifty books: each book is subdivided into Titles ; each title into Lavt ; and sometimes a law is subdivided into para- graphs. Thus D 60. 17. 30 means Digest Book SO, Title 17, Law 80. D 12. 2. 5. 8 means Digest Book 12, Title 2, Law 6, Paragraph 8. The symbol ft for Pandects is a corrupt form of the Oreek (i.e. P. initial of Pandect). Pandours (The). The ferocious hordes of irregular troops by which Austria for a long time spread terror among her neighbours, and which, even so late as 1849, played an important part in the army of the Ban Jellachich. When leagued oppression poured to northern wars Her whiskered pandours and her fierce hussars. CAMPBELL, Pleasure* of Hope. Panic Sunday, 10 May, 1857. The day of the Sepoys' outbreak. It was about five o'clock in the evening when a rocket gave the signal of uprising. The Sepoys seized their arms and set upon their officers, released the convicts, and killed all the Europeans they chanced to meet. The bungalows were set on fire, the European dwellings were plundered. Ladies and children were brutally treated. The mutiny began at Barrackpore, spread to Delhi, Oude, Lahore, Lucknow, Jhansi, and Cawnpore. See ' Sunday.' Pan-ionia,B.c.777. Fetes in honour of the patron god of the Ionian cities, the object being to bind together the twelve confederate cities. See below. Pan-ionium. A confederation of twelve Ionian cities : Ephesus, Meletos, Smyrna, Phocsea, Colophon, Teos, Ery- thrse, ClazomensB, Priene, Lebedos, Samos, and Chios. The place of muster was a building on Mount Mykale. Panno'nia. Latin name for Hun- gary, the country of the Pannonii. Ancient Panonnla included, besides Hungary, the eastern part of Austria, a part of Croatia and Bosnia, with Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, and Blavonia. Pannus Nebula'tus. The veil used to cover the pyx containing the consecrated host. Panontism. The deification of instinct. It teaches that instinct ia the force of nature, and that creation wa the work of irresistible instinct and not of all-wisdom and all-power. All wisdom, power, and love would have provided against the evils which abound, but instinct is blind, and simply follows a masterless impulse. Panslav'ism, 1831. The confedera- tion or union of all the Slavic brandies into one great nation, including Russia, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, &c. This scheme was advocated by the Hungarian poet Kollar (1798-1852). Kattrrn Start: The Russian*, the Serb* and Hungarian Serbs, Bosnians, Hersegovinians, Montenegrins. Slavonians, Dalmatians, Croats, \\rnd*. mid lUll^arUns. Wrtter* Sine*: Poles. Slleslans, Bohemians. Moravians, Slovaks (of Hungary), and the Wends or Slavs of N. Germany. Pantheism. Either the ultimate absorption of all things in deity, when 'God will be all in all'; or else the identification of deity with the pheno- menal world, in which case God is simply the force behind everything, that which glows in the sun and blossoms on the trees. In India the Brahmins and Buddhists are Pantheists the latter teach the ultimate absorption of every- thing in God. In Greece the Stoics and Eleatics, and in Italy the Pytha- goreans, were Pantheists. In Alexandria the Neo-Platonists and Gnostics. In the 7th cent. John Scotns Erigena taught that ' God is everything and everything is God.' In the 12th cent. Amalric de Bena and David de Dinante taught the same system. Giordano Bruno was burnt to death in 1600 for Pantheistic notions; Spinoza of Holland followed in his foot- steps. In modern Germany Ficlite, Hegel, and Schelling were Pantheists. If God is everything, and everything is Ood, then all-worship is simply Qod worshipping himself. Pantisoc'racy. A visionary scheme of Coleridge of a society where all the virtues were to thrive, and all the vices to be rooted out. Papa Angel'ico. An ideal pope, emblem and impersonation of all virtues Dante not only advocated a Papa An- gelico, but also a Universal Overlord, who was to reign over the whole world, to redress grievances, punish offenders, administer justice, defend the weak, redeem all wrongs, be the father of the fatherless, and an ideal God on earth. PAPAL PARADISE 661 Papal Aggression, Sept. 1850. The establishment by Pope Pius IX. in England of a papal hierarchy. Dr. Wise- man was appointed vicar apostolic of the London district and lord archbishop of Westminster, with the title of cardinal. Dr. Ullathorne was appointed Koman Catholic bishop of Birmingham. In 1851 Dr. Briggs was enthroned bishop of Beverley, Dr. Brown of Clifton, and Dr. Burgess of Shrewsbury. Lord John Russell fumed furiously, and brought in ft bill to prohibit the aggression. His bill was pared down to a fine of 100L to any one who assumed such titles in England, but the fine was never en- forced. Pap'alins. Those of a papistic bias, little papists. Strype calls the two parties in England at the accession of Queen Elizabeth 'Evangelics and Papalins,' those who would drive post speed to Protestant doctrines and discipline, and those who would retain a spice of Ro- manism. Paper Duty. The paper duty re- pealed in 1861 was the tax imposed in the reign of Queen Anne (1711) to meet the expenses of Marlborough's wars. There was, however, a duty on paper BO far back as 1694. Paper King (The). John Law (1671-1729), the projector of the Mis- sissippi Bubble (1716-1720). Papy'ri. Rolls made of the papy'rus plant. The Egyptian papyri are of very great antiquity, some of them running back to B.C. 2000 or more. Some have been found deposited with mummies; others, of a civil nature, have been found in jars or boxes. 1. The Hi'eroglyph'ical papyri, ac- companied with pictures, are solar litanies, books ' of the empyreal gate,' or rituals. 2. The Hieratic papyri, written in the cursive Egyptian hand, are mixed civil and religious writings. 8. The Demotic papyri, in enchorial character, consist of rituals, contracts, and miscellaneous documents. The papyri of Pompeii and Herculaneum are numerous. They are rolled on a stick and placed in a cylinder. Papy'rus Prisse. The most an- cient MS. in existence, said to be before Abraham's time. It is occupied with a plaint on the degeneracy of the manners and rueful decadence of man since the good old times. The MS. derives its name from M. Prisse d'Avennes, by whom it was procured at Thebes and given to the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. It consists of eighteen pages, was published in 1847, and is the most per- fect specimen extant of the Hieratic writing. (' Notes and Queries,' 12 Feb., 1887, p. 127.) Paques Ve'ronaises (Let), 17 April, 1797. For political ends compared by Bonaparte to the ' Sicilian Vespers,' (q-v.). A considerable number of Italian and Slavonian troops, and mere armed peasants, made an attack on the French under the charge of Junot, sent by Bona- parte into Verona. As many as 600 French, scattered in different forts or lying hi hospitals, were put to death, while the citadel fired red-hot balls upon the town. A powerful reinforcement from the French head-quarters in Italy put an end to the fray, and Verona sub- mitted with humility to the French. Pronounce Lay Park Ver'ro-naze'. Parabola'ni (The), 6th cent. A charitable corporation of Alexandria instituted during the plague of Gallienus. Their duty was to visit the sick and bury the dead, but they were so mercenary under St. Cyril the patriarch that the emperor restricted the number to five or six hundred; even then they were a canker in the empire. Paracelsus. The knob of his staff was said to inclose the four elemental spirits Kobold (earth), Salamander (fire), Undine (water), and Sylph (air). See p. 607, ' Names Classicised.' Paraclete. The oratory erected at Troyes by Abelard after his condemna- tion by the Council of Sens. He made his paramour Helo'ise (3 syl.) head of the oratory, and there, at death, his ashea were deposited. In 1817 the remains at both Abelard and HeloVse were removed to Pere-la-Chaise, in Paris, and interred in one sepulchre. Paradise of Bohemia (The). The district round Leitmeritz. Paradise of Central Africa (The), Fatiko. (Sir S. Baker, '-Explo- ration of the Nile Sources,' laiitf ) PAKADISE PARIS Paradise of Europe (The). The valley of the Arno in Tuscany. Paradise of Holland (The), or 1 The Dutch Paradise.' The province of Gelderland. Paradise of Portugal (The), or 1 The Portuguese Paradise.' Cintra, north-west of Lisbon. Paradise of the Indies (The). Ceylon. Paradise of the Jews. Poland was so called before its partitions. Paraschistes. One of a low class employed in embalming, and, singularly enough, held in abhorrence by the Egyptians. They lived in the cemeteries or their neighbourhood. A scribe marked a line with a reed pen on the left side of the body of the corpse, beneath the ribs, down which line the paraschistes made a deep incision with a rude knife or Ethi- opian stone, probably flint. He was then pelted by those around with stones, and pursued with curses. The taricheutes or preparer removed the entrails and lungs, with the exception of the heart and kidneys. The cholchytee were the custo- dians of the mummies. As all classes were embalmed, including malefactors, the paraschistes, in spite of the disgust he inspired, was probably in as good case as the public executioners in Europe. Embalming cost from about 750Z. to a mere trifle. See 'Chambers's Encyclo- paedia,' and Rawlinson's ' Herodotus.' Paravail, or 'Tenants' Paravail.' The lowest tenant. The tenants of the king were the highest tenants. If these tenants let out their tenements they were overlords ; and if these overlords let out their tenements their tenants were mesne lords ; and the tenants of mesne lords were paravails (French per, avayler). The tenants of kings were overlord* to their own tenants; and these tenants were metne lord* to the tenants under them ; and the tenants of mesne lords were ' tenants paravail.' Parian Chronicle (The), B.C. 264. Certain pieces of marble containing in- scriptions in Greek capitals. These in- scriptions are chronological lists of Grecian events from Cecrops down to the archonship of Diognetos (B.C. 1556- 264), and supposed to have been exe- cuted about the year B.C. 264. They are the principal part of the Arurdolian marbles (q.v.), and are preserved in Ox- ford University. Called Parian because they were made in the Isle of Paros about A.D. 250. Paris (Francois de). A celebrated deacon born at Chntillon in France (1690-1727), and celebrated for the num- berless ' miracles ' saiu to have occurred at his tomb at St. MeMard, Paris. This cemetery was so crowded day after day, and the scenes of the convulsionists th.-re were so scandalous, that in 1732 the government closed the cemetery, and this epigram was by some wag attached to the gates: De par le rol defense a IMeu De faire miracle en oe lieu, It it forbidden to Gaff Grace To teork more vandert in thi* place. Paris (Little). Brussels. So called from its brilliant shops, its numerous cafe's, and its general gaiety. Paris (Patron Saint of). Ste. Gene, vieve (428-512). Born at Nanterre. Paris (Treaties of). 1. 13 April, 12. Between Raymond VII. count of Toulouse. St. Louis, and the Pope, for the ces- sion of Provence. 3. 10 May. 1808. Between France and England, for the restoration of Aquitaine to Edward I. 8. 34 May. 1415. Between Karl of Austria (sove- reign of the Netherlands) and Francois I. of F 4 an i5 < Aug.. 1761. (Called the FAMILY COMPACT.) Between the different branches of the House of Bourbon. 5. 10 Feb., 1768. Pfaee between France, Spain, Portugal, and Great Britain, By this treaty Canada was ceded to England. 6. 6 Feb., 1778. Between France and the United States of North America, recognising their inde- pendence after the British overthrow at Sara- 7. 20 June, 1784. Holland. Between Great Britain and 8. 15 May, 1796. Between the French Republic and the King of Savoy, for the cession of Savoy and Nice to France. 9. 10 Oct., 17-J6. Between Ferdinand IV. king of Naples and France. 10. 8 Oct., 1801. Between France and Russia. 11. 29 July, 1806. Between France and Russia : signed but not ratified. 12. 10 Nov., 1807. Between France and Holland by which Flushing was ceded to France. 18. 6 Jan., 1810. Between France and Sweden. 14. 14 March, 1813. Alliance between France and Austria. 15. 11 April, 1814. Between Napoleon I. and the allies. Napoleon was deposed and banished to Elba. 16. 33 April. 1814. Convention between the Comte d Artois and the allies for the cessation of hos- tilities and evacuation of French territory. 17. 80 May, 1814. Between France and the allies, whereby It was stipulated that France should return to Its ancient boundaries with the exception of Avignon, the CoratatVenaissln.Mul. house, and a small part of Savoy. Malta was con- firmed to England, and the three French colonies (viz. the Mauritius. St. Lucia, and Toba*o w.-rs ceded to our dominion. The French troops veis PARIS PARLEMENT 663 om fifty-three garrisons, and all for- ce restored to their respective claim- recalled from ti jsees wen ants. 18. 20 July, 1814. Between France and Spain, confirming previous treaties. 19. 2 Aug., 1815. Contention between Great' Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, charging the British government with the safeguard of Napoleon. 20. 26 Sept., 1815. The Holy Alliance. Between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 21. 20 Nov., 1815. Between Great Britain, Bus- la, Austria, and Prussia, defining the boun- daries of France, &c. 22. 10 June, 1817. Between Great Britain, France, Spain, Russia, and Prussia, to fulfil the articles of the Congress of Vienna. 23. 28 Aug., 1817. Between France and Portugal, for the cession of Guiana to France. 24. 25 Aug., 1818. Convention between France and the allies. 25. 25 April, 1818. Convention between Great Britain and France respecting debts to British subjects. 26. 1 Feb., 1856. Peace, after the Crimean war, between Russia on one part, and Great Britain, France, Austria, and Turkey on the other. It stipulated for the independence of the Ottoman empire; the neutralisation of the Black Sea, that no arsenal was to be maintained on the Black Sea coast, and that neither Russia nor Turkey should maintain more than six steam- ships of 800 tons. 27. 8 March, 1857. Peace between Great Britain and Persia. 28. 26 May, 1857. Between the Great Powera of Europe, respecting Neuchatel. 29. 19 Aug., 1858. Convention between the Great Powers of Europe, to constitute the Danubian principalities. 30. 25 March to 16 April, 1865. Congrett to ar- range terms of peace between Russia and the allies 81. Jan., 1868. Conference* between the Great Powers respecting the Turkish difficulty. Paris Club (The). Called the socieU mere or mother society of the Jacobin clubs. The Jacobin clubs con- tained 400,000 members, and their plat- form was ' anarchy and revolution.' As Michelet (' Hist. Fr. Rev.' pp. 476, 485) says, the Jacobin clubs ' soon became s vast committee of revolutionary police.' Paris Garden. A bear-garden on the bank of the Thames. Blount in his ' Glossographia ' says that Richard de Paris had a house and garden there in the time of Richard II., and he quotes as his authority the Close Roll 16 Rich. II. ; but the words of the Roll are ' domum Roberti de Parys.' It was originally a copyhold manor which fell to Robert Marmion, after the Conquest, and was given by his son to the monks of Bermondsey Priory. Paris of Japan (The). Osaka. Parishes. In England and Wales 14,610, of which 550 are in two counties. Benefices 11,728; of these 9,669 are in the province of Canterbury, and 2,059 in the province of York. In Ireland 2,500. In Scotland a parish is merely an ecclesiastical division. By the Poor-law Amendment Act, 13,964 of the parishes were amalgamated into 585 unions, but besides these there are 21 unions by Local Acts, 12 by Gilbert's Act (q.v.), and the 89 parishes of the Scilly Isles united. Parisian Wedding (The). The massacre in Paris begun on St. Bartho- lomew's Eve during the wedding festivi- ties of Henri of Navarre and Marguerite of France. Charles IX.. although it was not possible for him to recall to life the countless victims of the ' Parisian Wedding,' was ready to explain those murders to the unprejudiced mind. MOTLEY, Dutch Republic, iii. 9. Parker (Admiral). Richard Parker, an able seaman, was called by his com- rades ' Admiral ' because he was the ring- leader of the mutiny of the fleet in the Nore. He was hanged at the yard-arm of a man-of-war off Sheerness in June 1797. Parker Society (The), Cambridge. Established in 1840 for reprinting the works of the early English Reformers. Dissolved 1858 or 1854. Fifty-three works were published under its auspices, equal to four every year. Parker's Bible (The), 1572. The second folio edition of the ' Great Bible ' (64 Mongrel See ' ParUamentary.'&c. Parliament. Edward the Confessor called his witenagemotsjpartewf>J/s. 1164. Henry II. called together at Claren- don, in Wiltshire, the prelates and nobles to pass the famous 16 ordinances to limit the power of the church. 1265. Simon de Montfort, summoned, in the king's [Hen. III.'s] name, two knights for each county, two citizens for each city, and two burgesses for each borough, to a national council. 1274. The national council was first called a parliament (Edw. I.). 1330. (4 Edw. in. c. 14 ) Parliament* were ordered to be held annually. 1377. (Rich. H.) The frst Speaker elected. It was Peter Delamere. 1694. The Triennial Act was passed (6, 7 Will. & Mary). Similar acts had been passed by Charles I. & II. 1716. The Septennial Act was passed (1 Geo. I. c. 88). Bills in the form of acU were first introduced In the reign of Henry VI. In the reign of Edward V. there was no parliament. Parliament (Irish). The first regu- lar parliament of Ireland was held 1295, and the great officials of the Pale (q.v.) were summoned to England to consult on the crisis. In 1459 the Irish parlia- ment insisted on complete legislative independence and sovereignty. In 1780 Henry Grattan moved that 'the king, lords, and commons of Ireland are alone competent to enact laws to bind Ireland.' In 1782 Poyning's Act (q.v.) was repealed in the Irish parliament and Ireland was declared free. In 1800 the Irish parlia- ments were united with those of Great Britain. See ' Parliaments.' Mr. Gladstone and his party have pleaded for an ' Irish parliament for purely Irish affairs,' but Grattan honestly confessed that the Irish alone should make laws for Ireland, and that the Irish ought not to be subject to the laws of England. This is the true Irish doctrine for better or for worse. Parliaments (The Four Longest 1576-1686 (Q. Eliz.) ; by 18 proroga- tions it lasted 11 years. The ' Long parliament,' including the 4 Rump,' 19 years 182 days, from 8 Nov., 1640 to 16 March, 1660. The Rump began 1653, so that the original long par- liament was 12 years 168 days, from 8 Nov., 1640 to 20 April, 1653 (Charles I. and Cromwell). The ' Pensionary parliament/ 16 years 260 days, from 8 May, 1661 to 24 Jan., 1678 (Charles II.). The fourth Long parliament lasted 13 years 252 days, from 14 Nov., 1816 to 24 July, 1830 (George IV.). The Pension or Pensionary parliament was fol- lowed by the Ten-week parliament, from 6 March to 24 May, 1G79. The longest parliament np to the reign of Ed- ward IV. was convened in 1473 and lasted S.. years. Parliaments (The Eight Shortest). Days A.D. King From 7 1681 Chas. II. 21to28Mar.*(Oxfd.) 12 1625 Chas. I. 1 to 13 Aug. (Oxfd.) 14 1658 Cromwell 21 Jan. to 4 Feb.f 20 1640 Chas. L 18 Apr. to 3 May.f PARLIAMENT PARLIAMENTARY 80 1536 Hen. VIII. 8 June to 18 July. 30 1553 Edw. VI. 1 to 31 Mar. 33 1510 Hen. VIII. 21 Jan. to 23 Feb. 83 1554 Mary 2 Apr. to 5 May. The fifth and last convened by Charles n. t The last convened by Cromwell. t Called the ' Short Parliament.' It was the last dissolved by Charles I. and was followed by the ' Long Parliament.' %* The following may be added : 1806. 4 months 5 days. From 25 Dec., 1806 to 29 April, 1807 (Geo.IIL). 1830. 5 months 27 days. From 26 Oct. 1830 to 20 April, 1831 (Will. IV.). 1886. 5 months 14 days. From 12 Jan., 1886 to 26 June, 1886 (Victoria). This was the Gladstone ministry, broken up by his Home Rule Bill (Ireland). Parliament of Bats (The), 1426. During the regency in the reign of Henry VI. In consequence of the litigious character of the Duke of Gloucester the citizens were forbidden to carry arms; so when parliament assembled the mem- bers of the House of Commons came armed with bats or clubs. See * Parlia- ments. 1 Parliament of Dunces (The), 1404. Convened by Henry IV. at Coven- try. So called because all lawyers were excluded from it. See ' Parliaments.' Parliament of 1654. One of the most memorable parliaments in English history. It was the first in which Scotch and Irish members took part. There were no members for rotten and pocket boroughs. It was the freest of all elec- tions hitherto known. The ' Instrument ' (q.v.) or New Constitution was carried through, and Cromwell was acknowledged Lord Protector. It was dissolved by Cromwell in Jan. 1655. See 'Parlia- ments.' Parliament Oak. Within the ancient park of Clipstone Palace. As Edward I. with his retinue, in 1294, was chasing the deer in Sherwood Forest, a messenger arrived in breathless haste to announce that the Welsh were in revolt. The king instantly summoned his knights around him under this oak, and the unanimous voice was for war. The oak is still standing (1890). Parliamentary Candidate So- ciety (The), 1831. To supply informa- tion to electors of the political opinions of candidates, by extracts from their speeches, their votes, and their public conduct. If new candidates, their charac- ters and connections were given. Parliamentary Reform. The Bill passed 7 June, 1832, for the adjust- ment of the inequalities of the representa- tive system and an extended franchise. Fifty-six boroughs in England and Wales were entirely disfranchised; 30 which had previously returned two members were restricted to 1; 42 new boroughs were created, of which 22 boroughs re- turned 2 each, and 20 boroughs returned 1 each. Four members were assigned to the city of London, 2 to each of the Uni- versities of Oxford and Cambridge, and 1 to each of 133 cities or boroughs. Lan- cashire was allotted 5 members ; the West Riding of Yorkshire 4 members ; 25 coun- ties 4 members each ; 7 counties 8 mem- bers each ; 9 counties and the East and North Ridings of Yorkshire 2 members each; and 10 counties 1 member each. Total 658 for the United Parliament. The numbers for Scotland were increased from 45 to 53, and for Ireland from 100 to 105. The qualifications of electors were made to be 40s. freeholders, 102. general leases, and 501. annual rent. The old freemen were wholly set aside. Parliamentary Reform Agita- tion. 1776. (20 March.) The motion of John Wilkes for parliamentary reform negatived without division. 1782. (7 May.) 7 May, 1788, and 18 April, 1785, motions by W. Pitt negatived. 1784. Home Tooke and Mr. Hardy tried for high treason and acquitted. 1810. (21 May.) Brand's motion for parliamentary reform negatived. The same year Cobbett was fined 1,0002. and sent to Newgate. 1817. As many as 600 petitions were presented to the house in favour of reform. 20 May Sir Francis Burdett's motion in favour of re- form was negatived. 1818. (8 June.) Sir Francis Burdett was sent to the Tower for exciting to agitation. 1819. Hunt, a Wiltshire farmer, was sentenced to imprisonment for haranguing multitudes at Birmingham. 1822. (29 April.) Lord John Bussell's motion for parliamentary reform was negatived. 1826. Major Cartwright was fined for Inciting to agitation. 1829. (8 June.) The Marquis of Blandford's motion for reform was negatived, Parliamentary Session of 41 Hours. The longest session was in 1881, when on one occasion the hou&e sat continuously for 41 hours. The ses- sion began on Monday afternoon, 31 Jan., at four o'clock, and went on without a break till Wednesday morning, 2 Feb., 666 PAKMAMENTARY PARNELLITES after the clock had struck nine. Mr. Gladstone was prime minister. The subject was leave to bring in a bill for the ' Protection to Person and Property' in Ireland, against the Land League (?.r.), and Mr. Korster, the secretary for Ireland, moved for the petition. It was the Irish members who tried to weary out the house by obstructing business. The obstruc- tion was closed by the Speaker forbidding any more speaking on the subject, and the Bill was carried by 164 against 19. Parliamentary Trains. Trains established by Act of Parliament for the benefit of third-class passengers, at the rate of one penny a mile. In France the traine parlementaire means a train re- served for the use of members of both the houses of legislature (1840). Parliamentary Undertakers. The little group of nobles who, till William Pitt's administration, returned fully half the members of the House of Commons. More than sixty seats were in the hands of Lord Downshire, the Pon- sonbys, and the Beresf ords alone. ' They undertook to manage parliament in their own way and on their own terms.' Parnassus of Germany. Blocks- berg. On Blocksberg we'll find room enough; The wide Parnassus 'tis of Germany. GOETHE. Fautt (Dr. Anster). Parnassus of Japan. Pusiyama. (Gibson, ' Gallery of Geography,' p. 921 ; 1872.) Par nell Commission (The). Sat for 200 days in 1889, and its report was issued 18 Feb., 1890, consisting of 121 closely printed pages of the Blue Book. The Commissioners were Sir James Hannen and Justices Day and Smith, and the object of inquiry was whether and how far Charles Stewart Parnell and his Irish party were connected with the crimes of the Irish Land League, which Mr. Gladstone asserted 'dogged it throughout.' The report was divided into nine charges, and the general tenour was that Mr. Parnell and his ' lieutenants ' were at least morally responsible for much of the mischief, inasmuch as they did nothing to repress it, much to foment it, but adroitly avoided mixing up them- selves with the misdemeanants. Lord Selborne says the Irish members as Indi- vlduals and politicians are cleared of charges against them, but as a political body they are proved beyond a doubt of being agents of disturb- ance and centres of disaffection. The 'Standard' acknowledges that the de- fendants are exonerated from direct complicity with crime, but ' the report shows Mr. Parnell to have be^n the leader of men devoted to the trea- sonable" design of separating Ireland from Eng- land; to have been implicated in the whole system of crime, outrage, and lawlessness which has so long prevailed in Ireland; and to have been closely connected with foreign mercenaries who made no secret of their being the enemies of the Queen [Victoria].' 14 Feb.. 1890. Parnellism and Crime, 1888. A pamphlet published by the editor of the 1 Times ' newpaper to show that the Home Rule and Land League Irish party, of which Charles S. Parnell was the head, was, as Mr. Gladstone stated, 1 dogged by crime in all its steps.' It appeared anonymously, but was written by Woulfe Flanagan, son of the Right Hon. Judge Flanagan, who had been judge of the Irish Land Estates Court. This pamphlet was made the basis of a trial before three commissioners in 1889. Mr. Gladstone, 11 July, 1882, says of the Parnellite policy, 'It means the destruction of the peace of life ; it means the placing in abeyance of the most sacred duties, of the most cherished duties; it means the servitude of good men, and the supremacy of bad men ' ; and on 28 Jan., 1882, he said, ' With fatal and painful precision the steps of crime have dogged the steps of the Land League.' Sir William Harcourt said of the Land League, ' The doctrine BO expounded is the doctrine of treason and assassination. To-morrow the civilised world will pro- nounce its judgment on this vile con- spiracy.' Those who read the Report of the Commissioners will see clearly that the extreme party the party ruled by the Clan na-Gael-ha. been the^eal motive power, in the hands of which the Irish and Mr. Parnell and his friends motive power Land League have been n nothing but tools and puppeta. wherever the Land League has been most active in its operations, whenever what is called coercion has fallen into abeyance, the Increase of crime in Ireland has been something fearful. This has been proved to demonstration by the report of the Commissioners. While, therefore, it must be deplored that, in the matter of the forged letters, the authorities of the 'Times did not exercise more care and greater vigilance, and therefore are open to grave censure ; yet, in unearthing this great conspiracy which has prevailed BO long In Ireland, they deserve the sincere thanks of all good and all honest men in the United Kingdom. Nevtpaptr leader. 14 Feb., 1890. Parnellites. The followers of Charles Stewart Parnell, M.P., who in the election of 1885 contrived to bring to the English House of Commons eighty- five Irish members, who agreed to vote solidly with Mr. Parnell, member for Cork. This large contingent, thrown into either the Tory or Liberal side, WM PAROCHIAL PARTIS 667 sufficient to secure a majority, conse- quently the Irish party ruled the British parliament. The object of Mr. Parnell was to secure to Ireland ' Home Rule,' or the right of controlling the legislature of Ireland. The weak point was this: they wanted to establish a Dublin par- liament, and yet to sit in the British house at Westminster. Parochial Charities (The City), i.e. of London. In 1887 an act, passed in 1888, came into operation, which in- vested the money of these charities in the Ecclesiastical Commissioners in behoof of the more populous districts of ' Greater London ' for the following pur- poses : The education of the poorer inhabitants of the metropolis. The establishment of libraries, museums, and art collections. The preservation, &o., of open spaces for recrea- tion, &c. Provident institutions and convalescent hospitals. V A permanent Board of 21 Trustees was added to the Charity Commissioners. The charities were, in 1887, worth 118.00CU. a year, of which sum 85,4591. was applicable to ecclesiastical purposes. Parsee. A disciple of Zoroaster. A fire-worshipper is so called in the West Indies ; in Persia the Mohammedans call fire-worshippers guebres (Persian ghebr, infidel). In Bombay they are wealthy and influential. In 1852 an association was formed for the restoration of the creed of Zoroaster, which had been much cor- rupted. The Zend Avesta is the book containing the sacred writing of Zoroas- ter. The original, ' received from heaven,' is lost ; but copies exist. Parson Garlic. Joseph Tucker, D.D., dean of Gloucester (1711-1799), so called in the effigy burnt near his own door by a mob enraged against him for his essay in support of the Hessians who had come to settle in England. Par'tholanRace (The). A fabulous race of people said by the bards to have taken possession of Ireland at the be- ginning of the 4th century after the flood. Partholan was of the race of Japhet. He landed on Wednesday, 14 May, at Imber- sceine, in Kerry, and fixed his residence in the province of Ulster, on the island of Inis-Samer, in the river Erne. After holding possession of the island for 800 years his race was extirpated by a plague. Parthola'nians(Tfte). The second colony of Ireland, who came to the island some 2,200 years before Christ, and found it inhabited by the Fomorians. The chroniclers inform us that the Fomo- rians were a Basque or Iberian colony, and the Partholanians an Aryan colony, so named from Partholan, who came to Ireland with his four sons and a number of followers. The tradition is of small historic value, but the Irish boast of their Iberian descent, and scorn the notion of being Scotic. No doubt the dark complexion, the short stature, and gracefulness of manners give colour to their Iberian descent. Particular Baptists. Those Bap tist Dissenters who hold the Calvinistic views of election, predestination, and re- probation, in contradistinction to the General Baptists, who maintain the doc- trine of universal redemption. See ' Free Communionists,' ' Close Communionists.' Partidas (Las). A code of laws established by Alfonso X. 'The Wise,' of Leon (1203, 1252-1285). Partis en France, between 1793- 1795. A larmistes. Apitoyeurt, those who sympathised with the royal family. Britsotint (q.v.). Buveurs de Sang, those who revelled In blood and slaughter. Chevaliers du Poignard (q.v.). Chouans (q.v.), Compagnons de Jehu (q.v.). Contre-Revolutionnaires, the anti-revolutionary party. Crapauds du Marait. See ' Marals. 1 Egorgt'urs, those who were for death and slaughter without end. Emissaires de Cobourg, the ' Suspects ' supposed to be influenced by emissaries of Friedrich prince of Saxe-Coburg. de Pitt, those who attributed the anti-revo- lutionary movement to bribes given by William Pitt. This silly notion was very general. Endormcurs, poisoners. In ancient jurisprudence an Bndormeur was one ' qui pour depouiller Be* victimes, mele dans leurs alimeuts une drogue somnlfere.' Federa listet. See ' Federalism . ' Girondins (q.v). Habitants de la Crete. Hebertistes, partisans of Hebert .surnamed 'I* Pere Duchene ' (q.v.). Hommes d'Etat. de la Plaine, the Yea-nay party or Trimmers. du 10 A out. See ' August 10.' du 81 Mai, those who took an active part in ' the Reign of Terror. Jeunetse doree de Freron (q.v.). Maratistes, partisans of Marat Mininteriels. Moderes. Montagnards (q.v.). Muscadins (q.v.). Muscadins (q.. Partisans de la vie civile. Patriot** de 1789, those who had taken part In UM storming of the Bastille. Bans-culottes (q.v.). 8'ptembriseurs (q.9.). Kutpeclt (q.v.). PARTITION PASCHITES Terrorlitet (q.v.). Tkfrmidoriens (q.v.). V Veut on Bavoir, pendant ces deui ans, c'est- a dire de '98 a '96, combien 11 y a eu de partis en France? II y en a eu trente-trois. DUMA a, Let Blanc$etleilileiu. Partition (Treaty of). I. Signed at the Hague by France, England, and Holland, 11 Oct., 1698. It stipulated three things: (a) That at the death of Carlos II. the kingdom of Spain should not be absorbed by Germany, but should be given to the electoral prince of Ba- varia, son of the elector ; (b) that Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, the province of Guipuz- coa, Fontarabia, St. Sebastian, Ferrol, and certain towns on the Tuscan coast owned by Spain, should be settled on the Dauphin ; (c) that Milan should be settled on Karl the second son of the kaiser. Frustrated by the death of the electoral prince of Bavaria in 1699, aged eight years. II. The same contracting parties agreed to confer the crown of Spain, when vacant, on the Archduke Karl, son of the kaiser ; the Italian States were to be the dauphin's portion. Signed 13 March, 1700. Set aside by the will of Carlos II. of Spain in 1701, in which the whole Spanish monarchy was bequeathed to the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin. Partition of Poland (The). First Partition, 1772, planned by Frederick II., was between Hussia, Austria, and Prussia. Russia took 42,000 square miles, Austria took 27,000, and Prussia 18,000. The Second Partition, 1790, was be- tween Russia and Prussia ; Russia took 96,000 square miles and gave Prussia 22,000 as a sop, but left Austria in the cold. The Third Partition, 1795. Austria thought the Second Partition unfair, and a third spoliation was agreed upon, in which Russia took 48,000 square miles, Prussia 21,000, and Austria 18,000. In 1847 Austria occupied Cracow, and thua seized the last remainder of independent Poland. Altogether, Russia took 181,000 square miles, Prussia 56,000, and Austria 45,000. The nominal cause of this spoliation was a religious difference, the reigning powers being Protestants and the 'patriots' being Catholics. Party Volant (The). Those who, in the reign of Charles I., fluctuated in political principles from parliament to king. Nominally parliamentarians, they hankered after the court. The heads of the Party Volant were the Earl of Northumberland, the Earl of Holland, the Earl of Clare, the Earl of Portland, Waller the poet, and the widowed Countess of Carlisle (daughter of North- umberland). Parvula Evangel'ia. Extracts from the Gospels worn as an amulet. Quo loco [Jerome] comparat pharlMBoe certis uperstitiDBismulierculiB, qu inanl fide indue too, circumferebant turn temporis 1'amtla Evtutfettu, hoc eat, excerptas ex evangelic sentential. . . . Eadem euperstitio apud multoe ultimih HMWM in valuit, qui collo appeudebant Initium Evangelii J ohannis. SCALI'JKK. Pascal of Germany (The). No- valis, i.e. Friedrich von Hardenberg of Saxony, a lyric poet, and chief of the Romantic school (q.v.). He is so calK-il by Carlyle, but 'the Keats of Gem mm would have been more appropriate (1772-1801). Paschal Canon (The). A table of the movable feasts, showing the day of Easter, and all other feasts depending on Easter, for a cycle of nineteen years. Paschal Controversy (The), or ' Easter Controversy ' (162-673). A con- troversy about the time of keeping Easter whether the right time is the fourteenth day of the moon, or the Sun- day following the fourteenth day. The former is the practice of the Eastern Church, the latter of the Western Church. Victor bishop of Rome ex- communicated the churches of Asia in 190 for keeping Easter as they did. The two churches, however, continued to disagree upon the question. The Council of Nice '325) determined that Easter day should be the Sunday following the Jewish feast of the Passover, which was kept the fourteenth day (or full moon) of the month Nisan; that is the full moon . 325. PASHA PASTEURIENNE 66 Pasha is a ruler of a province in the Turkish empire. A three-tailed pasha is of the highest rank; his standard is decorated with three tails, which are its pennons. Pass of Brander (The). The famous dark gorge which narrows into the Pass of Awe, the scene of the despe- rate engagements between Wallace and the caterans of Macfarlane, and Bruce and the Macdougalls of Lorn. Pass of Plumes (The), 1599. A pass in Leinster, where the Earl of Essex was attacked by the O'Moores ; so called from the number of plumes of which the soldiers of Essex were despoiled. Pass under the Yoke (To). The yoke under which the Romans made a vanquished army pass, in sign of subju- gation, consisted of two upright spears stuck in the ground, with a third spear fastened transversely atop, thus II (Livy, iii. 28 ; Floras, i. 11, 18.) The custom was adopted by other nations with whom the Romans made war. Thus Pontius the Samnite, the Numantians, and Jugurtha the African, made the Roman army pass under a yoke. Of course the men laid down their arms before they passed tub juga. Passagins. So the Waldenses (q.v.) were sometimes nicknamed, meaning men of passage, or missionary vagrants. Passar'owitz, in Servia (Peace of), 21 July, 1718. Between the kaiser, the Porte, and Venice. By this treaty the Morea was confirmed to Turkey. Passau, in Bavaria (Treaty of), 22 May to 7 Aug., 1562. Moritz, the new elector of Saxony, rebelled against Charles V., drove him from place to place, till at length he signed the treaty of Passau, granting full liberty to all Protestants to worship in any way they chose, free of all interference and restraint. This is called ' The Religious Peace.' Passau, pronounce Pas-sow (ow as In now). Passion Sunday. The 5th Sun- day of Lent, 'Dominica in Passione Domini.' This Sunday began 'Passion Week ' (q.v.). See ' Sunday.' Passion Week, or the Great Week, was originally a parson's week that is, as many days as can be massed together with only one Sunday ; of course, this may be thirteen days. It began the Monday following the 5th of Lent, and ended on Holy Saturday (the day pre- ceding Easter Sunday). The last seven days of this period constitute Holy Week. The first day of Holy Week is Palm Sunday, the fourth day is Spy Wednesday, the fifth Maundy Thurs- day, the sixth Good Friday, and the last Holy Saturday or the Great Sabbath. When the Great Week is reduced to seven days, as it usually is by Protes- tants, then Passion Week and Holy Week are commensurate terms; but those who seek to restore the ancient ritual call Passion Week the period between the 5th of Lent and Palm Sun- day (not included), and Holy Week from Palm Sunday to Holy Saturday. Strictly speaking. Passion Week covers thirteen days, the last seven of which constitute Holy Week. Passionists, 1741. A religious order founded by Paul de la Croix. They dress in black and go about bare- headed and barefooted, but wear sandals. Passive Obedience, or 'Non- resistance,' is the political doctrine that subjects are bound to obey those in au- thority, whether right or wrong, good or bad. Applied to kings it includes also the dogma that the king, being the Lord's anointed, must not only be obeyed, but that he cannot be deposed. The doctrine is based on Romans xiii. 1,2:' Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God ; the powers that be are or- dained of God. Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the ordi- nance of God. And they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation.' It is hard to see how those who allow the authority of these words can resist the dogma of ' passive obedience.' Of course those who set aside the authority of St. Paul assert that *th powers,' being civil rulers, are the servants of the state, and like other servants can be dis- missed if they neglect their duty or are incompe- tent to perform it. This, however, is setting aside the dictum of St. Paul for the doctrine oi expediency. Pasteurienne Inoculation, 1885. Inoculation first suggested by M. Pasteur of Paris, to cure persons bitten by mad dogs or wolves, or to prevent their becoming rabid. In 1887, out of 3,020 patients treated by M. Pasteur, only 34 died, and out of 8,852 treated by M. Pas- teur and nine others, 54 died ; a little over 4 per cent. 670 PASTEURISE PATRES Pas'teurise (8 syl.). A verb de- rived from the name of M. Pasteur, the Parisian chemist, who introduced the process of and art of sealing up wines and beers in air-tight casks, to prevent the entrance of ferment or germs to deterio- rate the liquors. See ' Listerise.' Somewhere between 1880 and 1886. Paston Letters (The). A series of letters and other documents collected by members of the Paston family, to whom most of them are addressed (1564- 1700). The Pastons lived in Norfolk during the time of the Wars of the Roses, and these letters throw much light on the customs and incidents of the period. Four vols. were published be- tween 1787 and 1789 by Mr. [Sir John] Fenn of Norfolk, but the originals have not been discovered. A fifth vol. was published in 1828 by Mr. Serjeant Frere, the originals of which were presented to the Antiquarian Society, and 95 were discovered in Roydon Hall in 1875. These letters reveal to ut Carious modes by which the strong man was enabled to turn the scale against the weak one at law ; but the most extraordinary relation concerning the family it- self is one which occupies more than a volume, and details the actual war made upon them by the Duke of Norfolk. The celebrated general Sir John Fastolf left Sir John Paston the estate of Caistor In 1459 ; but the duke declared that Sir Johnhadptvtnittohim . . . and he laid siege to it . . . and took tt. HowiTT, Httt. oj England (vol 11. p. 44). Pastoral Poets of Greece (The). Theocritos of Syracuse, the father of pastoral poetry. Thirty of his idyls and several of his epigrams aie still extant (B.C. 800-280). Bion of Smyrna (B.C. 295-288), author of a poem on the ' Death of Adonis,' and Moschos of Syracuse (B.C. 289-200), the friend of Bicn. Pastoral Romance (Father of). Honord d'Ur (1567-1625), author of 1 Astrea.' Pastoreaux (Les), 1250. Politico- religious insurgents in Flanders during the captivity of St. Louis in Egypt. From Flanders the insurrection spread through France, and soon swelled to a mass of 100,000 men, divided into com- panies, with banners bearing a cross and a lamb. Their leader was a Cistercian monk named Job or Jacob, from Hun- gary, who gave out that he was commis- sioned by the Virgin Mary to preach a crusade to the poor against their oppres- sors. This Job was received at Amiens, Bourges, Orleans, and Paris as a prophet. His wrath was mainly directed against the idleness and corruption of the clergy, some monasteries were plundered by bum and their inmates put to the sword. In 1251 government interfered, and the rabble was dispersed or cut to pieces at Berry and Beaucaire. See ' French Brigands.' Seventy years afterwards another insurrection broke out. and these Insurgents called themselves by the same name. The object of this second ' crusade ' was the general massacre of the Jews. They were called Shepherds because they as- sumed to be the Shepherds of the Lord who pro- tected the ' lambs ' from the ' wolves.' Du Cange says: 'Pastoureaux, quod pastorera infimnque plebls hominem slgniflcat, cujusmodi nt plerique ex Pastorellis, at testator con tinuator NangU vernaculus sub 1251.' Pastoreaux, pronounce Pcutor-o. Patans (The). So the Afghans were called in the middle ages. A dynasty of Patans reigned in India from 1205 to 1898, and succeeded the Ganrides (2 syl.). Delhi was their capital. Tamerlane over- threw the Patans, and established the dynasty of the Timorides (8 syl.). Pat'erins, or Patarins (The). A branch of Paulicians who said that crea- tion was the work of the Spirit of Evil They were pretty abundant in Illyria and Bosnia in the 12th cent. Called Paterins because they taught that prayer should be addressed to the Father only. The Waldenses were sometimes called Paterins or Paterlni, as well as Cathari and Gazari (in Italy). In France they were called Albige rises and Vaudois. Condemned by the Council of Lateran in 1179. Da Cange says: 'A loco urbis Medlolanl, qul Patarea vel Pataria. vocabattar.' Apollo was called 'Paterlnus.' from Patara now Patera, a town of Lycia, which had an oracle of Apollo. Patre de Montalte (Le). The swineherd of Montalte, Sixtus V., the 'second founder of Rome.' Born at Montalte (1521, 1585-1590). Patres Conscript! [Fathers and Conscripts], The Patres of Rome were* the patrician senators ; but when some of these were slain at the expulsion of Tarqnin, Junius Brutus selected others to fill the vacant seats; and as these names were enrolled in the senate with the patres or previous senators, they were called the Conscripts, and the house was addressed as 'Patres [etj Coiiscripti.' PATKES PATRON 671 Pat'res Pat'riae, 1774. The dele- gates to the first American Congress which met at Philadelphia on 14 Sept. repre- senting twelve different states : The four New England states, with those of Vir- S'nia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, New ork, New Jersey, Delaware, and the two Carolinas. They assembled for business in Carpenters' Hall. The congress sat till 26 Oct., and then adjourned till 10 May, 1775. Patrician of Rome. A title con- ferred by Pope Adrian I. on Pepin le Bref, which made him the representative of the imperial power in the West. Charlemagne continued the title. Patrimony of St. Peter (The), Estates of the Church,' 1077. The dotation of the Countess Matilda of Tus- cany to the Jloly See of Modena, Parma, and Mantua. It was united to the new kingdom of Italy in 1870. Between Orvieto in the north, Umbria In the east, the champaign of Rome and the Tyrrhenian Sea. This dotation was only a part of the Papal States. The Exarchate of Ravenna was given to the Holy Church by Pepin king of the Franks: Benevento was given to it by Heinrich III. ; Forll and the Romagna were added in 1297 ; Bologna in 1364 ; Ferrara in 1598 ; Urblno in 1626 ; Orvieto [Or- vee-a'-to] in 1649. Patriot King (The). George HI. was so styled by Bolingbroke. Patriot Party (The), 1692. The 1 Ins ' or ' Let-alones,' formerly called the Court party. They were in opposition to the Country party or ' Outs,' called the ' Grumbletonians,' in Walpole'a ministry. See next article. Patriots (The), 1724. A political party organised by Bolingbroke and Pul- teney against Sir Robert Walpole, chief minister of state in the reigns of George I. and George II. Their organ was ' The Craftsman,' a journal which they started to air their opinions in. George II. hated ' the rogne (Walpole), but being henpecked he was a nonentity; and Walpole, who had gained the queen, remained in office for ten years after the accession of George II. Patriots of '89 (The). Those Frenchmen who assisted in storming the Bastille. Patriotic Brotherhood (The), 1881. A ' gang of murderous conspira- tors ' in Ireland, some of whom were brought to trial at the Antrim assizes in March. P. J. Sheridan was the chief organiser in Mayo, and took a leading part in forming the association. Patripassionists, or 'Patripas- sians.' Certain Monoph'ysites (4 syl.) who admit the divinity of Christ, but maintain that He was the indivisible God the Father, and that it was this God, the one and only God, who was crucified on Calvary. St. Augustine refers to them. They were also called Deipassionists. Patrius Sermo. The language of the fathers and of fatherland. Patron Saints of ABERDEEN, St. Nicholas (died 342) ABYSSINIA, St. Frumentius (died 360) ALEXANDRIA, St. Mark, who founded a church there (died 52) .. ALPS (The). Felix Nefl (1798-1829). ANTIOOH, St. Margaret (died 275) ... ARDENNES (The). St. Hubert (died 780) ARMENIA, St. Gregory of Armenia (died 382) .............. BATH, St. David, from whose bene- diction the waters of Bath received their warmth and medicinal quali- ties (died 644) ........... BEAUVAIS, St. Lucian (died 290) . BELGIUM, St. Boniface (died 755) ... BOHEMIA, St. John von Pomuk (d. 1893) BRUSSELS, St. Qudule (died 712) . CAOLIARI, in Sardinia, St. Eflcio (died 286) ... ... ... CAPPADOCIA, St. Matthias (died 62) ... CARTHAGE, St. Perpetua (died 208) ... COLOGNE, St Ursula (died 452) ...... CORFU, St. Spiridlon (4th cent.) ... CREMO'NA, St. Margaret (died 275) ... DENMARK. St. Anscharius (died 864) ... And St. Canute (died 1086) ...... EDINBURGH, St. Giles (died 550) ... ENGLAND, St. George (died 290) ..... ETHIOPIA, St. Frumentius (died 860) ... FLANDERS, St. Peter (died 66) ...... FLORENCE, St. John the Baptist (d. 82) FRANCE, St. Denis (died 272) . FRANOONIA, St. Kilian (died 689) ... FRIEBLAND, St. Wilbrod (died 738) ... GAUL, St. Irenwus (died 200) ...... And St. Martin (died 897) ... GENOA, St. George of Cappadocia (died 861) ......... ... GEORGIA, St. Ninian (4th cent.) .. GERMANY, St. Martin (died 897) ...... And St. Boniface (died 755) ... . GLASGOW, St. Kentigern (died 601) ... HIGHLANDERS (The), St. Columb(d. 697) HOLLAND, the Virgin Mary : For The Nativity ... Visitation ............ Conception ............ Purification ............ ,, Assumption ............ HUNGARY, St. Anastasius (died 628) ... INDIA, Francis Xavier (died 1552) ... IRELAND, St. Patrick (died 493) ..... ITALY, St. Antony (died 856) ...... LAPLAND, St. Nicholas (died 342) ... LICHFIELD, St. Chad (died 672) ... LIEGE, St. Albert (died 1195) ...... LISBON, St. Vincent (died 804) ...... LONDON, St. Paul (died 64) ...... MILAN, St. Ambrose (died 397) ...... MOSCOW, St. Nicholas (died 842) ... N APLE s, St. Januar lus (died 291) ... NETUBHLANDS, St. Amand (died 679).. Fit* day 6 Deo. 27 Oct. 25 April 20 July 80 Sept. 1 March 8 Jan. 5 June 16 May 8 Jan. 15 Jan. 24 Feb. 7 March 21 Oct. 14 Deo. 20 July 8 Feb. 19 Jan. 1 Sept. 28 April 27 Oct. 29 June. 9 Oct. 8 July 7 Nov. 28 June II Nov. 28 April 16 Sept. 11 Nov. 6 June 18 Jan. 9 June 21 Nov. 2 July 8 Deo. 2 Feb. 15 Aug. 22 Jan, 8 Dec. 17 March 17 Jan. 6 Deo. 2 March 21 Nov. 15 Sept. 25 Jan. 7 Deo. 6 Deo. 19 Sept. F*b. 672 PAUL PAULINISTS Mb 4* NORWAY. St. Anscharius (died 864) ... 8 Feb. OXTOBD, St. Frideswide (died 760) ... 16 Oct. PADUA, St. Justina (died 804) 7 Oct. PARIS, St. Genevi. vc (died 512) ... 8 Jan. PEAK {The), Derbyshire. W. Bagshaw (died 1702) PiCTsaVu"). St. Nlnian (4th cent.) ... 16 Sept. PISA. San Kanterl. POITIERS, St. Hilary (died Sf,7) 14 Jan. POLAND, St. Hedviga (died 1248) ... 18 Oct. PORTUGAL, St. Sebastian (died 288 ... 90 Jan. PRUSSIA, St. Andrew (1st cent.) ... 80 Nov. ROCHESTER, St. Panllnus (died 481) . 22 June ROUE, St. Peter and St. Paul (1st cent.) 29 June RUSSIA, St. Nicholas (died 842) ... 6 Deo. SARAOOSBA, St. Vincent (died 804) ... 83 Jan. SARDINIA, the Virgin Mary. See ' Holland.' SCOTLAND, St. Andrew (1st cent.) ... 80 NOT. SEBASTIA. in Armenia, St. Elaine (died 816) 8 Feb. SICILY, St. Agatha (died 261) 6 Feb. SILESIA, St. Hedviga (died 1243) ... 15 Oct. SLA vi (The), St. Cyril (died 868) ... 14 Feb. SPAIN, St. James the Greater (died 44) 34 July SWEDEN, St. Anscharlus (died H64) ... 8 Feb. SWITZERLAND, St. Oall (died 646) ... 16 Oct. UNITED STATES, the Virgin Mary. VENICE, St. Mark (died 62) 35 April VIENNA. St. Stephen (died 84) 86 Dec. WALES, St. David (died M4) 1 March (//. ,rat the uncle of King Arthur) YORKSHIRE. St. Paullnus (died 481) ... 33 Jane Paul (The German). Martin Luther (1483-1546). Paul (The Second St.). St. Remi or Remigius, 'the Great Apostle of the French ' (489-585). Paul Lorrain's Saints. Convicts said to have died penitent. Panl Lorrain was ordinary of Newgate, and died in 1719. He always represented his convicts as dying penitent. * The Tatler,' No. 68. See also Note to ' Spectator,' No. 888 (Morley's edit.). Paul Veronese of Prance (The), Delacroix (1799-1868). Sometimes called the Rubens of France from his rich colouring. Paul's School (St.), 1609. Founded by Dean Colet for the gratuitous instruc- tion of 158 boys in humane letters. This number was selected in accordance with that of the miraculous draught of fishes mentioned in the Gospel of St. John. This was the first public school in Eng- land in which Greek was taught. William Lilly was master of St. Paul's. Paul's Walkers. Loungers in St. Paul's Cathedral in the Commonwealth and afterwards. The young gallants .... used to meet at the central point. St. Paul's ; and from this circum- stance obtained the appellation of ' Paul's Walkers,' as we now say ' Bond Street Loungers.' -European Magazine (July 1807). Paulette, 1604. A tax imposed bv Henri IV. of France to supply him with ready money. It granted to members of parlement the right of transmitting their office to their heirs on payment of an annual fee ' au 60 rar de la valeur pre'sume'e de la charge.' It received its name from Henri's secretary the Chevalier Paulet, who suggested the impost. Faulianists (The). 260 disciples of Paul bishop of Samisat, and afterwards patriarch of Antioch. He denied the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus Christ. Condemned by the Council of Antioch in 270. Paulicians. The 'Waldenses' of the Greek Church (660-S45), so called because they formed their religious views from the Pauline epistles. They rejected the worship of the Virgin, disbelieved the intercession of saints, the sanctity of relics, and the material presence in the Eucharist. One Constantlne of Mananalls. near Samosata. had a Greek New Testament *** him by one who had been a captive among ihe Mahometan*. He studied it, and formed kU own religious views therefrom. The sect was almost stamped out by the persecutions of Theodora, who massacred 100.000 of them, if Porphyry Is to be believed. Paulicians (The). 'Heretics' of the 10th and llth cents. A branch of the Manicheans, who believed in two principles, a good one and an evil one. So called from Paul of Armenia (born 844). Petrus Siculns says the Paulicians believed in an evil and a good God ; the former they say was the Creator of the world, the latter is the author Of that which is to Come, Pauli'na Potio (Paulinus's draught). A deadly poison concocted by Paulinus, a Dominican monk, by which Kaiser Heinrich VII. was poisoned. In grand! stat trlstltla ExercituB militia, Qnam feritaVdamnabllis Manusquo deteetabilis Coagulat Paulina. Rl/thmi in obitum Henrici VII. Paulinists, or ' Universal ists. 1 Those who believe that the gosp. tern is meant for all, both Jew and Gen- tile. Those who insisted that it was meant for the Jews and Jewish prose- lytes only are called by Dr. Baur 4 Judaites ' or ' Apostolites.' By the latter word he means that the apostles were Judaites. The theory of the universality of the Gospel system is called ' i'uu- PAUPERES PEACE 878 linism ' by the Tubingen school of theo- logians. ' I am of Paul [a universalist], and I of Apollos [a Judaist],' a distinction which lasted till the close of the 2nd cent. When Christ told his Apostles to go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature, the Titbingenists tell us he meant the Jews and the Jewish proselytes scattered abroad. Pau'peres Com'milito'nes. Pauper soldiers of the Holy City, i.e. the ' Knights Templars ' (q.v.), or Red Cross Knights. Pauvres de la Mere de Dieu (Lee). S&e ' Piaristes.' Pawnees. A nation of North American warriors (Nebraska; now re- moved to the Indian territory). Their divinity is the planet Venus, which they call the Great Star ; but they are rapidly dying out. Pays de Franc-sale" (Lea). Pro- vinces exempt from the salt tax in France. See ' Gabelle.' Some were re- deemed provinces, having given Henri IL a large sum of money for the redemp- tion; others were maritime, in which it was not possible to prevent the smuggling of salt. The redeemed provinces were Angoumois, parts of Poitou, Aunis, and Saintonge, Limousin, parts of Auvergne, Quercy, Perigord, Guyenne, and the counties of Foix, Bigorre, and Cominges. The free provinces were Flanders, Artois, Hainaut, Calaisis, Boulonnaise, principalities of Sedan, Aries, Rancon, and Brittany, and the isles of Oleron and Re", with parts of Poitou, Saintonge, and Aunis. In the redeemed provinces salt was sold from 6s. to 12s the cwt. In the free provinces it was sold from 2s. to 9s. per. cwt. Pronounce Pay'-e d' Frahnk tah'-ley. Pays de Grande Gabelle (Let). Gabelle (q.v.) was the salt tax in France before the revolution. There were the provinces of Grande Gabelle, the pro- vinces of Petite Gabelle, the provinces of Quart-bouillon, and the free provinces or Pays de Franc-sale*. The Pays de Grande Gabelle paid the maximum impost. The capitation was 9 Ibs. per head yearly, and the price was 62 francs the cwt. or quintal. These were the He de France, Orleans, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, Berri, Bourbon- nais, Burgundy, Picardy, Champagne, 29 Perche, and part of Normandy. See 1 Pays de Petite Gabelle.' Pronounce Lay pay' -e d' grahnff Gah-bell'. Pays de Petite Gabelle (Les). Gabelle (q.v.) was the salt tax in France before the revolution. All France was sub-divided into four parts, those called the provinces of the Grand Gabelle, the provinces of the Petite Gabelle, the pro- vinces of Quart-bouillon, and the free provinces. The Pays de Petite Gabelle paid the minimum impost. The capita- tion was 11 or 12 Ibs. per head yearly, and the price was 33s. the cwt. or quintal. These pays were Lyonnais, Maconnais, Forez, Beaujolais, Bugey, Bresse, Dau- phine", GeVaudan, Languedoc, Provence, Roussillon, Rouergue, and parts of Auvergne. Les pays de'Grande Gabelle qui payaient le ma- ximum de I'lmput ; les families etaient dans ces pays taxSes & 9 livres de sel par tete, et le prix du quintal s'elevait & 62 liv. (or francs). Let pays df I J <>tits QabeGe, qui payaient le mini- mum : le prix du quintal y etait de 88 livres 10 sous (about 83 shillings), mais la consommatlon etait reglee i 11 ou 12 livres par tete. Pronounce Lay pay'-e duh teet Gah-beU'. Pays de Quart-bouillon (Les). Lower Normanday was so called in refer- ence to the gabelle or salt tax. There were salt-works here, 'ou Ton faisait bouillir un sable mouille d'eaux salines et versaient le quart du produit de leui fabrication [in return for this privilege] dans les greniers du roi.' The capitation was 25 Ibs. of salt per head yearly, and the price was 16s. a cwt. or quintal. See 1 Pays de Grande Gabelle,' and ' Pays de Petite Gabelle.' Pronounce Lay pay'-e d'kar' boo'-yone'. Peace (The Perpetual), 24 Jan., 1502. Concluded between England and Scotland, a few years after the battle of Flodden Field (q.v.). Peace of Antal'cidas (The), B.C. 887. Concluded by Antalcidas the Spar- tan and Artaxerxes. Peace of Clement IX. (The), 1669. An attempt to reconcile the Jan- senists and Jesuits by virtually abolishing the formulary (q.v.). Peace of Durham (The), 1139. After the battle of Caton Moor or North- allerton, in which the Scots under Prince Henry were routed by Stephen. In this peace Stephen surrendered to Prince Henry the whole ea -Idom of Northum- XX 674 PEACE PEARLS bcrland, with the exception of the two castles of Newcastle and Bamborough, as a bribe that he might use his influence with his niece Maude, who was in arms against Stephen. Peace of God (The), 1035. A com- mand by papal bull for all men to lay down their arms, under the expectation of the second advent of Christ, 'the Prince of Peace.' Five years later, 1040, the prohibition was modified by the ' Truce of God,' which did not forbid all military contentions, but commanded all men to cease from hostilities on Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday. After the Gospel of the day the officiating priest read from the pulpit these words : ' May they who refuse to obey oe accursed, and have their portion with Cain the first murderer, with Judas the arch- traitor, and with Dathan and Abiram, who went down alive Into the pit. May they be accursed In the life which now is; and may their hope of salvation be pat out, as the light of these candles is extinguished from their sight. 1 At which words the priests extinguished their tapers. Peace of Monsieur (The), 6 May, 1576. So-called because it was signed at Chastenoy by Monsieur, .. the brother of Henri III. It granted to the Hugue- nots the free exercise of their religion throughout the kingdom of France, Paris only excepted; admission to all public offices ; equal numbers with the Catholics in the various parlements ; eight places of surety ; the nght to open schools and to convoke synods ; and restoration of their estates, appanages, and govern- ments. The terms' of this treaty were never carried out. Peace of Nicias (The), B.C. 421. The fifty years' truce in which the Lace- daemonians engaged to give up Amphi- polis. Peace of Niirnberg (The), 1582. By the Diet of Augsburg, held in 1580, the Emperor Charles V. pronounced the Pro- testants contumacious heretics, and commanded them to return to mother church on pain of his groat displeasure. At the time Solyman II., at the head of a large army, was in Hungary, and threat- ened Vienna. The princes of Germany were asked to assist in driving back the Turkish invaders, but the Protestant princes united in a league (called the Smalkaldic league) not to stir unless the decree of Augsburg was revoked. In this dilemma there was no choice left, so the decree was withdrawn, and the Protes- tants were allowed 1 nil liberty of worship till the next imperial diet. This ad interim concession was called the ' Peace of Niirnberg,' because it was signed in that city. Peace of Religion (The), 1555. The treaty of Passau confirmed by the Diet of Augsburg the foundation of re- ligious freedom in Germany. Protestants were allowed the free exercise of their religion in their respective dominions (Karl V.). Passau, pronounce PoM-tov (ow as In no*). For others *<: under the MMN i most of these treaties are differently called by different writers. Sometimes they are called Tr,;itif, sometimes Trcatit* of Peace, sometimes only Truce*, 4c. Peacock of the North (The). Robert Neville,who beautified Middleham Castle in ' a very peacocky style.' Peacock's Feather. The badge of the Chinese general. Let the peacock's feather be plucked from the cap of Yihshan for his imbecility and tardiness in bringing aphis forces . . . and let every officer in the province of Canton ... be deprived of his offlcfal button.-TV* Emperor't detpatchft in Ovfirtt Chintte war. Pearl of Brittany (The). The Princess Eleanor, daughter of Geoffrey duke of Brittany, granddaughter of Henry II. and niece of King John ; con- fined in Bristol Castle because she was next heir to Arthur to the crown of Eng- land (1184-1241). She was starved to death. Pearl of Ireland (The). St. Bridget, born in Ulster, lived in a cell in an oak called Kill-dara, or the ' cell of the oak/ 6th cent. Pearl of Normandy (The). Emma, sister of Richard II. duke of Normandy, and wife of Ethelred the Unready (died 1046). Pearls are next in value to diamonds. The following are historic : ' La Pcregrina ' weighed 126 carats, and was pear-shaped. Gongibus of Calais brought it from India in 1620. When laid before Felipe II. of Spain, he said : ' How could you concentrate all your for- tune on so small a thing ? ' To which the merchant replied : ' Because I knew the world contained a king who would buy it of me.' This gem came into the posses- sion of Princess Youssopoff, and is valu.-d at 87,OOOJ. Felipe II. had another pearl, about the PEASANT PECULIUM 675 size of a pigeon's egg, and weighing 184 grains. It came from Panama, and was valued at 23,000 1. The Kaiser Rudolf II. possessed a pearl of 180 grains ; and Napoleon I. had one about the same size. The pearl which Louis XIV. gave to Ma- dame de Maintenon, and which was offered for sale in 1819, weighed 27g carats. The Shah of Persia has a pearl an inch in diameter. In 1633 it was valued at 64,OOOL The pearl in the possession of the Arabian imam of Muscat is valued at The Crown Prince of Prussia gave to the Princess Royal of England a necklace of thirty-two pearls valued at 20,OOOZ. The pearl which Cleopatra melted and drank In nealth to Antony was valued at 80,0001. The Romans called the large bell-shaped pearls Uiuoncs.ihe pear-shaped pearls they called Elenchi. the half-ball-shaped Tympania, and the whitest Exalumiuatce Margarita. .Peasant Bard (The). Robert Burns (1759-1796). Peasant Painter of Sweden (The). Peter Hbrberg, who died in 1814. Peasant Poet of Northampton (The). John Clare (1793-1864). Peasant Poet of Suffolk (The). Robert Bloomfield, author of 'The Farmer's Boy ' (1766-1823). Peasant Revolt (The), 1881. Under Wat Tyler, who had been a soldier in the French wars. A spirit of discontent had long been seething ; it was aggravated by the Statute of Labour, which most un- justly fixed the price of labour to what it was two years before the Black Death, although the price of food had risen greatly. The discontent came to a head by a poll-tax for the prosecution of the French war, and this poll-tax was the same to the poor as to the rich. All the eastern counties rose in revolt, but Kent took the lead. Wat Tyler being stabbed to death by William Walworth the lord mayor, the young King Richard II. by a happy address promised to be the new leader, and the revolt was easily put down Peasant of Cotignola (The). Bforza, whose name was Giacomuzo d'Attendolo, born at Cotignola, a village of Romagna. He was an agricultural labourer, but at the age of 12 entered the army as groom to Count Alberic, who gave him the pseudonym of Sforza, because he ' gained his own way by force.' His grand- son, Francesco Sforza, married the only child of Francesco Maria Visconti duke of Milan, and succeeded to that dukedom, thus transferring its crown to the line of 1 The Peasant of Cotignola ' [Co-tin' -yo- lah]. Peasant of the Danube (The). 4 Le Paysan du Danube,' Louis Legendre, a member of the French National Con- vention, famous for his ' eloquence sauvage ' (1755-1797). Peasants' War (The),in Germany, or 'War of the Rustauds,' 1524-1525. The grievances were these: (I) The people demanded the free election of their parish clergy ; (2) the appropriation of the tithes of grain, after deducting therefrom the suitable maintenance of the parish clergy this ' appropriation ' was to be set aside for the support of the poor ; (3) the total abolition of serfdom, hunting and fishing rights, and game laws ; (4) throw- ing open of forests and other lands tied up to secular and ecclesiastical nobles ; (5) equal administration of justice ; and (6) the abolition of certain odious exac- tions made by the clergy. In 1525 the rising was stamped out with terrible cruelty, and more than 150,000 of the in- surgents perished. Pecquigny (Treaty of), 147 5. Louis by bribes induced Edward IV. to sign this treaty, and withdraw his army from France. Pronounce Pe-keen'-yi. Peculiar Church, or Parish (A). Church or parish having special jurisdic- tion of its own, and exempt from the ordinary. There are royal peculiars, archbishops' peculiars, bishops' peculiars, and the peculiars of deans and chapters. Peculiar People (The). A Protes- tant religious sect who trust in Providence to cure their sick of all diseases. They anoint the sick with oil and pray over them, but give no medicine and call in no medical adviser. Pecu'lium. The plot of land given in feudal times to a slave, the produce of which helped to supply him and his family witli food. When the pecuhum was more than the mau could manage, XXI 670 PEDOBAPT1STS PELOFONNESIAN he might employ a drudge, who waa jailed Serous servi. Pedobaptists. See ' Peedobaptists. 1 Pedro the Cruel, King of Cas- tile (1819, 1850-1869). 'He began his reign by murdering his father's mistress, Leonora de Gusman ; daily his nobles fell his victims; he put to death his cousin and one of his natural brothers ; he caused his queen (Blanche de Bour- bon) to be cast into prison and there poisoned. A second queen suffered in the same way. Pedro, pronounce Pay-dro. Peel's Hundred Days. Sir Robert Peel held the seals of office from Nov. 1884 to May 1885, between the first and second administrations of Lord Mel- bourne. Peel's Velveteens, 1842. Vel- veteens containing as design wheat-ears on a scroll on which was the word ' Free.' A specimen was sent to Sir Robert Peel and accepted by him, but afterwards returned. See ' Velveteen Plot.' Peep-o'-day Boys. An Irish Presbyterian party, organised in 1790. In 1688 the whole Catholic property of Ireland was confiscated; and when in the 18th cent. William Pitt made some attempts to mitigate this injustice, the Irish Protestants took alarm, regarding 1 Protestant ascendency ' endangered. Acts of violence against the Roman Catholics were organised, and as they were perpetrated at the peep of day, the party was called ' The Peep-o'-day Boys.' See ' Defenders ' and ' Irish Associations.' The Peep-o'-day Boys In 1795 became the Orangemen, and the Roman Catholics the ' De- fenders. 1 Peers of France (The Twelve). There were six lay and six ecclesiastical peers. The lay peers were the duke of Normandy, the duke of Burgundy, the duke of Aquitaine, and the three counts of Flanders, Toulouse, and Champagne ; the ecclesiastics were the archbishop of Reims, the archbishop of Sens, and the four bishops of Noyon, Langres, Beauvais, and Chalons. All Brittany, for a time, did homage to the Duke of Normandy. Aquitaine Included Poitou, Limousin, most of Ouienne, and the feudal superiority of Angou- moia. The feof of Flanders stretched from the Scheldt to the Souime. The Count of Flanders possessed Languedoo, with Quercy and Rouergue, and feudal superl- ority over Auvergne. Peg Nicholson's Knights. See 1 Margaret's Knights.' Pegas'ians. In Latin Pegasiani. A law school so called from Pegasus, a jurist, and follower of the Procu'lians (q.v.) of the republican or popular party. Pehle'vi Dynasty. See 'Pish- dadian dynasty.' Peine Porte et Dure. Being pressed to death. Remanded to a low, dark chamber in a prison, the victim was laid on his back on the bare floor, naked; then on his body was placed a great weight of iron. On the first day he received three morsels of the coarsest bread : on the second day three draughts of stagnant water ; and so on alternately till he died. Abolished. Pronounce Pain fort a dun*. Pela'gian Heresy (The), or 'Pela- gianigm,' 5th cent. The doctrines of Pelagius, whose religious views were op- posed to those of St. Augustine. He denied the dogma of original sin, and de- clared man to be a free agent capable of himself, without the aid of the Holy Ghost, of receiving or rejecting the prof- fered salvation, and of performing good works. His doctrines were condemned by the two councils of Carthage anu Milevium or Milevia, in Numidia, A.I,. 416. Pelagius was anathematised by Innocentius in 417, and expelled from Jerusalem in 424. It Is said that Pelagius Is a Greek translation of the Welsh name Morgan (sea-born). He was a man of rank, and his life was most exemplary. It is generally supposed that he was a monk of Bangor in Wales, but it is far more likely the monastery was Bangor or Banchor, in Carrick lergus, Ireland. Pells (Clerk of the). From the Latin pellis, a skin [i.e. of parchment]. An officer of the exchequer whose duty it is to enter on the pells or parchment rolls every bill sent in for payment, with the receipt thereof when discharged, and all disbursements. Hence there are pells or rolls of receipts, and pells or rolls of disbursements. Peloponnesian War (The), B.C. 481-404. A war for supremacy bf Athens and Sparta, which lasted '27 years. It may be divided into three parts: (1) From the commencement of the Nician truce; (2) from the truce to PEMBROKE PENINSULAR 677 the Sicilian expedition; and (8) from that catastrophe to the surrender of Athens. The proximate cause of the war was this : The republican party of Epidamnus rose in rebellion against the rulers, drove them from the town, and then applied to Corinth for protec- tion. The exiled rulers applied to Cor- cyra. Whereupon the Corcyreeans laid siege to Corinth, and obtained aid from Athens. The Corinthians applied to Sparta for assistance, and thus Athens and Sparta were drawn into the quarrel, which ended in the ruin of Athens. Pembroke College. I. Cam- bridge, 1347. Founded by Mary de St. Paul, widow of Aymer de Valence earl of Pembroke, in honour of her husband, who was killed in a tournament soon *fter his marriage. It was originally called the ' Hall of Valence and Mary.' Subsequently Pembroke Hall ; and now Pembroke College. II. Oxford, 1624. Founded by James I. It was originally called Broadgates Hall, but was renamed after the Earl of Pembroke, chancellor of the university. The head of the college is called the master. Penal Laws (against Catholics). These existed before the Treaty of Limerick, 1691. An act subjecting all who maintain the supremacy of the Church of Eome to the penalties of prcemunire, and re- quiring the oath of supremacy as a qualification for office of any kind. An act imposing fines on absence from the parish church on Sundays. An act authorising the chancellor to appoint a guardian to the child of a Catholic. An act to prevent Catholics from being private tutors without a bishop's licence. These were added in 1695 (Will. III.): An act to disarm Catholics ; to banish Catholic priests and prelates ; to prevent the intermarriages of Protestants and Catholics ; to prevent Catholics from being either solicitors or gamekeepers. These were added in, Queen Anne's reign, 1703 : The father of a papist who conformed to the established religion was incapaci- tated from disposing of his property by sale, mortgage, or bequest. A papist was prohibited from being guardian even to his own child. The child on conforming .was to be given in charge to a Protestant. Papists were incapacitated for holding land for more than 31 years ; and if at any time the profit of the land exceeded one-third of the rent, the lease was to be transferred to the Protestant who made the discovery. Papists were not allowed to inherit the lands of Protestant relatives, nor to keep any horsea above the value of 51. each. In 1709 an Act was passed prohibiting Catholics from holding life annuities ; to assist in schools ; to act as sheriffs ; to sit on grand juries. Repealed 1861 (24, 25 Vict.cc. 95,101). Some mitigation had been made in 1778 (18 Geo. in. c. 60). Peninsular War (The), 1809- 1813. Against the French in the pen- insula of Portugal and Spain. Arthur Wellesley [duke of Wellington] was the British commander-in-chief who landed in Portugal 12 July, 1808, and by April 1814 had expelled the French from the peninsula. The following year he won the great battle of Waterloo. The battle of VIME'IBA (Portugal), 21 Aug., 1808. Marshal Junot was defeated. For this victory Wellington was highly censured by Sir Hew Dalrymple, the commander-in-chief, for fighting without orders. The battle of DOUBO, 12 May, 1809, in which Wellington defeated Marshal Soult. The battle of TALAVE'RA (Spam), 27, 28 July, 1809. Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Victor were defeated by Wei- 1 lington, who was made in April com-' mander-in-chief of the British forces in the Peninsula. Battle of BUSA'CO (Portugal), 27 Sept., 1810. Marshal Massena was repulsed by Wellington, and on 8 and 5 May, 1811. the French marshal was utterly foiled at FUENTES DE ONORO (Spain). 1812. Wellington invested CIUDAD RODRI'GO (Spain), and on 19 Jan. took it from the French by storm, and 6 April he took BA'DAJOZ by storm. Battle of SALAMANCA (Spain), 22 July, 1812. Marshal Marmont was defeated by Wellington. The battle of VITTOBIA (Spain), 21 678 PENITENT PENSIONERS June, 1818. Joseph Bonaparte and Mar- shal Jourdan were defeated by Wellington. Battles of the PYRENEES, 27 to 81 July, 1818. Marshal Soult was defeated by Wellington; and SAN SEBASTIAN was stormed 81 Aug., 1818. The battle of OBTHEZ (Pyrenees), 27 Feb., 1814. Marshal Soult again defeated by Wellington ; and again, 10 April, at TOULOUSE. General Graham defeated Marshal Victor (5 March, 1811) at Barossa in Spain ; and Marshal Beresford defeated Soult at Albufira 16 May, 1811. And 16 Jan., 1809, Sir John Moore fell at Corunna. In Nov. 1818 Sir John Murray defeated Soulfs army on the Nivelle. .Between 21 Aug., 1806, and 10 April, 1814 (lew than live and a-half years), Wellington had defeated B!X French marshals : Jourdan, Junot, Marmont, Massena, Soult, and Victor, together with Joseph Bonaparte. He had won the battle* of VimCira, Douro, TalavBra, Busaco, Fuente* de Ofioro, Salamanca, Vittoria, the battles of the Pyrenees, Orthei, and Toulouse, beside* the leges of Ciudad Kodrlgo, Bad&jos, and San Sebastian. % After the victory at the Douro, Sir Arthur Wellesley was created ' Baron Douro ' ; after the battle of TalavSra, he was made ' Viscount Wel- lington ' ; after the siego of Cimlad Rodrlgo. ha WM made ' Earl of Wellington ' ; after the battle of Salamanca, he was made ' Marquis of Wellington 1 : and for his victory at Vittona, he was created ' Duke of Wellington.' We had no honour left for his victory at Waterloo. Penitent (A). A man whose duty it was (before the introduction of safety lamps) to descend into a coal mine, early every morning, to explode the fire- damp which had accumulated during the night. So called because he was dressed like a religious ' penitent,' in a woollen dress, which covered his face and body. Penitents of Love (The), 18th cent. A fraternity established in Lan- guedoc consisting of knights and esquires, dames and damsels, whose object was to prove their Iwe by bearing the extremes of heat and cold. Many perished, but what matter ? ' They received the crown of martyrdom.' Penitentes. Fanatics of New Mexico, who, during Lent, not only fast, but subject their bodies to the most hor- rible tortures. On Good Friday they go in procession from their lodge to a cross, with their skin cut into furrows, and as they march scourge themselves or each other over the shoulders till their bodies are completely covered with blood. Sometimes one or more will then volun- teer to be crucified. They may be seen even in the streets on Good Friday with a huge wooden cross strapped on their back, their arms drawn up and fastened to the cross-bar, and a spear fastened tc their body, so that the point touches the arm, and if in walking over the road strewed with potsherds, sharp stones, and thorny plants the foot flinches or stumbles, the spear point wounds the flesh of the arms. Penitential Week. Hebdomada Pasnitentialis. The same as 'Hebdo- mada Pcenalis ' (q.v.). Penitentiary of England. A lucrative office for granting papal dis- pensations. Pennsylvania (U.S. America). The 'Penn Forest.' So called from William Penn, who in 1681 founded the colony. The inhabitants are sometimes called Pennamites, and were once locally nicknamed Leather-heads. Pennsylvanian Bonds. Kites, or waste-paper bonds. In 1848 Pennsyl- vania, the richest state in America, ivpu- diated its debt, having borrowed money for the construction of roads and canals. No transaction in history is more dis- graceful than this, as the state was well able to pay, but would not. Pennyless (The). Kaiser Maxi- milian I. (1459, 1493-1519). Called in Italian ' Massimiliano Pochidaniirio.' Pensionary Parliament (The). From 8 May, 1661 to 24 Jan., 1678, i.e. 16 years and 260 days. It was convened by Charles II., and was so called because it had so many pensions to grant to Royalists impoverished by the late troubles. See ' Parliaments.' Pensioners (The). All the or- dinary students of the University of Cambridge who are in statu pupillari. There are a few fellow commoners, either sons of the nobility, sons of men of fortune, or married men, who dine at the fellows' table (whence their name). These students wear a special costume, and have certain exemptions; and there are a few sizars, sons of men of small means, most of them clergymen's sons. The sizars have their Commons free, and have other emoluments which vary in different colleges. Like the fellow commoners, they are not called ' pen- sioners.' In Oxford the ordinary student* are called ' commoners.' Pensioners are those who pay a pension. Com- moners are those who 'common' or din at * general table. PENTAPOLIS PERFECTISTS 679 Pentap'olis. 1. The Five Cities of Cyrenaica, near Egypt: Apollonia, Arsinoe, Berenice, Cyrene, and Ptolemais. 2. The Dorian Pentapolis: Camlros, Cnidos, Cos, Ialy"sos, and Lindos. 8. The Five Cities of Italy in the exarchate of Ravenna: Ancona, Fano, Pesaro, Kimlni, and Sinigaglia. 4. The Five Cities of the Philistines : Ascalon, Ashdod, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. 5. The Five Cities of the Plain : Admah, Gomorrah, Sodom, Zoar, and Zeboim. Pentarchs (The). The French Directory, composed of five members. The astonishing man whom the 18th Brumaire had placed alone on the tottering throne of the Pentarchs, conceived the idea of detaching the emperor of Russia from the cause of his allies. DUNCAN, History of Russia, vol. i. p. 283. People of the Book (The) i.e. the Koran. The four ' people ' are Chris- tians, Jews,' Magians, and Sabians, who are more tolerantly treated by Mahome- tans than idolaters. The People of the Book were permitted to re- deem their adherence to their ancient law by the nment of tribute. HALLAM, Middle Aget, vol. ii. 57. People's Charter (The), 1838. Consisting of these six demands : (1) Universal suffrage; (2) annual parlia- ments ; (8) stipendiary members ; (4) vote by ballot; (5) equal electoral dis- tricts ; and (6) abolition of monetary qualification. The Ballot Bill passed in 1872. People's Friend (The). Marat. So called from his journal ' L'Ami du Peuple.' The People's Friend is evidently rising in im- portance as his befriended people rises. CAB- LYLE, French Revolution, vol. iii. bk. ill. 8. People's William (The). William Ewart Gladstone (1809- ). He began his political career as a Tory, but turned Whig, and became a Kadical towards the close of his life. Between 1885 and 1886, being nearly 80 years old at the time, his political views, especially in regard to the Irish Land League, the Plan of Campaign, Boycotting, and other revolutionary subjects, underwent a complete change. In 1885 he said that ' Crime dodged the Irish Land League in all its steps,' and Sir William Harcourt spoke still more strongly against the League ; but in 1886 both Mr. Gladstone and Sir William Harcourt defended the Parnellites through thick and thin, and found excuses for boycotting, the refusal to pay rent, and even for open resistance of the law. Thfey blamed the Irish Constabulary, which a few months before they most highly praised, and seemed politically to have made a volte face. Peppercorn Rent (A). A mere nominal rent, like the delivery of a grain of wheat or corn of pepper, in acknow- ledgment of the rights of the landlord. Perceval (Mr.) Assassinated Spencer Perceval, second son of Lord Egmont, prime minister of England, was shot in the lobby of the House of Com- mons 11 May, 1812, by Bellingham, who mistook him for Lord Leveson Gower, late ambassador to the court of St. Petersburg, who (he said) had refused him redress after acting in a diplomatic matter. He was executed for murder. Mr. Perceval was fifty years of age. Pere Duchene [Du-shane]. I. James Rene" Hubert, the French revolutionist, was so called from his obscene journal of that name (1755-1794). II. A journal during the French Revo- lution conducted by Hebert. This scan- dalous red republican newspaper con- tained the most exaggerated democratic sentiments, and circulated the most hor- rible innuendos against the queen. Pere des Lettres (Le). Francois I. of France (1494, 1515-1547). P&res de la Foi(Les). The French Jesuits, readmitted at the Restoration, so called themselves. They had flourish- ing colleges at Montrouge and St. Acheul ; but these were closed in 1828, and de- clared to be in violation of the law. Since 1848 there has been a slight revival of Jesuitism in France. See 'Paccan- arists.' Peregrine Mass. 'Missa Pere- grinorum.' After the chapter the bell announces the Matutinal Mass for the approach of paupers, and the priest, who had celebrated high mass for the last seven days, says the 'Missa Pere- grinorum.' See ' Mass.' Perfect! (The Perfect Men). So the Waldenses (q.v.) were sometimes ni'ck- named, from their professed puritanism. Perfectibilists (The), 1776. An order created by Adam Weishaupt, after- wards called the ' Order of the Illuminati.' A secret society, organised on the plan of the Order of the Jesuits. Persons of any religious creed were admitted members, but passive obedience was a sine qud non. It greatly flourished, but became political, and was interdicted in Bavaria in 1784. Perfectists (The). A sect of tha Independents which rose up during the 680 PERFIDIOUS PERSECUTION civil war between Charles I. and his par- liament. The Franciscans, Jesuits, and Mollnists believed in the perfectibility of man ; and the Wesleyan Methodists teach that Christian perfection is attainable, according to the exhortation contained in Heb. vi. 1. : ' Let us go on to perfection* ; and our Lord himself says : ' Be ye per- fect, as your Father in heaven is perfect.' Under the head of Independents . . . were the Arminlane, Millenaries, Baptists, Anabaptists, Fumillsts, Enthusiasts, Seekers, Perfectists, Socin- lana, Arians, and others. HowiTT, Hittory of England (Charles I.,ch. vl. p. 278). Perfidious Albion. A favourite expression of Napoleon I., but not of his . invention. Probably it referred originally to the homage paid by Edward III. to Philippe VI. of France in 1829 (see Rymer, 'Foadera,' i. p. 260). Edward paid the homage exacted of him, but re- solved upon vengeance, and executed it to the bitter end. Napoleon talking of 1 perfidy ' is like the pot calling the kettle black-face.' L' Angleterre, ah I la perfido Angleterre, one le rempart de sea men rendolt inaccessible aax Remains, la foi du Sauveur y est abordee.' BO88UET, A Sermon preached at Metz. Peripatetics (The). A sect of philo- sophers of ancient Greece, founded by Aristotle of Stagira in Macedonia, a pupil of Plato (B.C. 884-822). He used to lec- ture in a covered walk of the Lycean gymnasium in Athens, and hence his disciples were called the ' Walking Sect,' or Sect of the Walk.' His favourite pupil was Theophrastus (B.C. 894-287). Aristotle was called the Staglrlte (3 syl.) from BtagTra, his native place. The proper name of Theophrastus (thf dirine ;>.-. 182. The various edicts of Roman praetors, compiled and arranged by Salvius Julian, a lawyer, by order of the Emperor Hadrian. Previous to this C. Cornelius got a law passed to pre- vent praetors from altering their edicts. 1 Ut Preetores in Edictis suis Perpetuis yis dicerent.' A.U. 686 (B.C. 69). This WM the first general code of Roman law published by authority. H. The ' Pacification of Ghent ' (q.v.) t 12 Feb., 1577. By which William prince of Orange gained nearly all he asked for. See above. Perpetual Peace (The). I. 81 May, 1419. Between the French and Henry V. of England. It was signed at Troyes, and ratified by Isabella (wife of Charles VI.) and Philip the Good of Burgundy. Ik made Henry the successor of Charles VI. at death, and regent of France till then. It also gave him the Princess Catherine for his wife. H. ' La Paix Perpe*tuelle,' Sept. 1515, after the battle of Marignano, or ' Combat of the Giants.' Between Francois and the Swiss, signed at Freyburg. It formed the basis of all subsequent relations be- tween France and Switzerland till 1789. Perse Free Grammar School. For 100 scholars, now enlarged to admit 190 boys. Founded by Stephen Perse, M.D. Fellow of Caius College, 1615, reorganised in 1878 (Trumpington Road, Cambridge). Fees for the junior department W. a year, and 14J. a year for the senior department. Persecution in' Lyons (The), A.D. 177. Under Marcus Aurelius the Christians were hunted from their houses, expelled from the public baths and markets, insulted, stoned, and plundered. No distinction of nationality, sex, or age was made. Marcus Aurelius being applied to, gave instruction that all ' who con- fessed themselves to be Christians should be put to death.' Persecution of the Jews, in 1348-1849. I. During the prevalence of the Black Death (q.v.) the Jews were the scapegoats in Germany, and their treat- ment was revolting. The notion got abroad that the wells were poisoned, and that the Jews had poisoned them to extir- pate the Christians. Men bound them- selves by oaths to stamp out the cursed race which had crucified Jesus Christ. Some were torn to pieces; some were burnt alive. At Speyer the Jews in despair set fire to their own houses rather than fall into the hands of the mob. In Mainz 10,000 Jews were massacred. At Eslingeu the whole Jewish population burnt them- selves in their synagogue. At Strasburg 2,000 were burnt in their cemetery. Any- one who protected a Jew was put to the PERSECUTIONS PERSIAN 681 rack and executed without mercy. See also under ' Milan, Edict of.' The report was that the Jews obtained the poison from some remote parts of the earth and mixed it with the venom of spiders, owls, adders, and toads. No doubt the Flagellants (q.v.1 were the chief instigators of this horrible persecution. II. By banishment. From ALEXANDRIA, by Cyril, In 415. From ENGLAND, by EDWARD I., In 1290. From FRANCE, by Philippe Auguste, 1181 ; by Phii'ppe le Bel in 1301, 1306 ; by Charles VII. in 1894 ; by Louis XIII. in 1615. From MEDI'NA, by Mohammed, 628. From NAPLES and SICILY in 1504. From the PAPAL STATES, by Pius V., in 1669. From PORTUGAL, by Emmanuel the Fortunate, 1496. From PRAGUE in 1520. From ROME, B.C. 18. From RUSSIA, by the Czarina Elizabeth, 1795, and often since. From SPAIN, by Ferdinand and Isabella, 1492. III. By massacre. In ENGLAND, pillaged and massacred in 1264. In FULDA in 1^36. In GERMANY, pillaged and massacred by the Crusaders in 1096 : as authors of the Black Death in 1348, 1349. In JERUSALEM, by Florus, B.C. 16. In LONDON in 1189. In SPAIN, at the instigation of the Archbishop of Seville, in 1391. In YORK and other places 1190. Persecutions by Christians (The). I. Against the Albigenses, 1179-1235; most bitter, bloody, and relentless. II. Against the Moslems, in eight cru- sades, 1095-1274. These wars cost the lives of 5 millions of human beings. III. Against the Huguenots, in the Dragonnades, under Louis XIV., in 1685. IV. Against the Protestants of Ger- many, in the Thirty Years' War, 1618- 1648. V. Against the Waldenses, or Vaudois, 1179-1848. See Fe'lice, 'History of Protestants,' &c. VI. Against the Jews by Christians generally. VII. The Inquisition, 1203-1814, was a series of persecutions against ' unorthodox Christians. 1 VIII. The Reformation introduced a series of persecutions by Protestants against Catholics, and Catholics against Protestants. IX. St. Bartholomew massacre of the French Huguenots, in 1572, was a frightful affair. X. The Smithfield fires. Speed says, ' More bloud was spilt in that short time of [Mary's] raigne, than had been shed for case of Christianity in any kings time since Lucius the fi -at establisher of the Gospell in this realme.' ' Hist, of Great Britaine,' p. 1151 (1623). To these may be added the general persecutions of different sects, whether that between the Eastern and Western Churches, that between Catholic sects, or that between Protestant sects. All who think differently to the established or ' orthodox ' system being held ' heretics.' Buckle estimates the loss of life by these Christian perse- cutions at 140 millions of human beings. That would be about a tenth part of the entire present inhabitants of the earth, and most frightful to think of. See p. 585, ' Milan, Edict of.' Orthodoxy means simply the doxy of might. In one country it is Brahmanism, in another Buddh- Ism, in a third Zoroasterianism, in a fourth Druid- ism, in another Paganism; in the Eastern Church it differs from the Western; in England it is Protes- tantism, with the Jews Mosaicism, and so on. It is then divided into sects, and only that sect sanc- tioned by the state is orthodox. Hence the mutual persecutions of Arians and Trinitarians, the Jesuits against the Jansetiists, the Church of England and Church of Scotland, the Sadducees and Pharisees, and so on throughout. There is no such thing as absolute orthodoxy, it is simply the power to enforce certain religious views. Persecutions of Christiana ( The) , by Roman emperors. Called ' The Ten Persecutions.' (I.) under Nero, 64-68; (H.) under Domitian, 95 ; (III.) under Trajan, 106 ; (IV.) under Marcus Aurelius, 166-177; (V.) under Septimus Severus, 199-204; (VI.) under Maximinus, 235-238; (VII.) under Decius, 250-252; (VIII.) under Valerian, 258-260 ; (IX.) under Aurelian, 275 ; and (X.) under Dioclesian, 303-313. The last is called 'The Era of the Martyrs.' Christians were not persecuted by the Roman emperors for their faith in Christ, but for their ' lawlessness ' or infidelity to the state religion and national law. Of the religious creed, as Paley said, the Roman emperors and Roman senate were supremely Indifferent, but the religion of the country was an integral part of the law of the land, which it is not in Protestant England, Prus- sia, or America. Persia (Golden Age of), 1253-1335. From Hulaku to Abu Seyd, distinguished for those celebrated names Naser-ud-din, Jelal-ud-din, Sadi, and Hafiz. Persian Punishment (The). Flaying alive. See Rawlinson's note to 1 Herodotus,' v. c. 25 (vol. iii. p. 191). Persian War (The). I. A.D. 837- 860. In the reign of Constantius II., son of Constantino the Great. In this war the armies of Rome and Persia encountered each other in nine bloody fields, in two of which Constantius commanded in person. In all these battles the Persians were the superiorf. II. A.D. 502-505, between Cabades or K )bad the Persian, and Anastasiua emperor of the East The Huns and Ai ibs ma/ched under the Persian stan- PERSIC PETER-PENCE dard. AmTda stood a siege of three months, in which the Persian general lost 50,000 men ; but Persia expiated her loss with the slaughter of 80,000 of the adver- sary, and peace was concluded in 505 (Gibbon, ' Decline and Fall,' chap. xl.). Persic Version (The) of the Scrip- tures. A version of the Pentateuch by Jacob ben Joseph, 9th cent. See ' Scrip- tures.' Perspicuous Doctor (The). Walter Burley, born 1275, died 1838. Flourished 1820. He was preceptor to Edward III. Burley attacked the dogmas of Duns Scotus. Perth (Convention or Treaty of), 18 Aug., 1805. Between Edward I. and the regents of Scotland. This con- vention, which apparently settled the affairs of Scotland, was scarcely signed when Robert Bruce threw the two countries into war again by the murder of Comyn lord of Badenoch. Peschit'o (The), or ' Peshitto,' mean- ing literal or simple. An old Syriac ver- sion of the Bible, supposed to have been made in the 2nd and 8rd cents. A.D. by Jewish Christians. It omits the Book of Revelation and four of the Epistles. Ephrem Syrus (who died 878), is sup- posed to refer to this book when he speaks of ' Our Version.' See ' Bible.' Pessimism. The doctrine that nothing can be worse than things now are. The chiefs of this school are Schopenhauer, Lucretius in his poem ' De Natura,' and Voltaire in hia ' Can- dide.' See ' Optimism.' Pet'alism. Writing the name of a person on an olive-leaf. If 600 signa- tures were thus obtained in Athens the person was banished. Ostracism was exile by writing the name on a tile or oyster-shell. Peter (Letter of St.) to Pepin. Forged by Pope Stephen III., rendered desperate by the siege of Rome by Astolph the Lombard king. See Milman, 'Latin Christianity,' vol. iii. book iv. chap xi. pp. 21-28. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Peter ad Vincula (Saint), or 'Festum S. Petri ad Vincula,' 1 Aug. (Lammas), the day when, it in said, St. Balbina found St. Peter's Neronian chains. Peter Porcupine, 1784. A pen- name adopted by William Cobbect aft*r his flight from England to avoid ap- pearing before a court-martial for charging four of his officers with pecula- tion. He died 1835 at the age of seventy. Peter the Thaumatur'gus. Bishop of Argos (date unknown). Peter the Wild Boy. Discovered in the fields near 1 1 aim-In in July, 1724, and supposed to be eleven or twelve years of age. He was placed by C. III. under the charge of Dr. Arbutlmot. All the words he could utter were Ke Sho (King George), Que Kaa (Queen Caroline), and Horn Hen (Thomas Fen), the name of the farmer, at Northclnmh, Hertfordshire, under whose charge he was placed. He went about with a collar on his neck, bearing his name and ad- dress. Government allowed Mr. Fen 85Z. a year for his maintenance. Peter died 1785, being, it is supposed, about seventy-two years old. Peter's College (St.). Cambridge University, founded by Hugh de BaJ- sham bishop of Ely, 1257. This la the oldest foundation In the University. It used to be called Peter House. Peterloo, 18 Aug., 1819. The area before St. Peter's Church (called St. Peter's Field), Manchester, was so called from the monster meeting held -there on that day, and presided over by ' Orator ' Hunt, against the strict prohibition of the magistrates. The ostensible reason of the meeting was to favour parlia- mentary reform. Hunt had scarcely begun his speech when several troops of soldiers, with 400 special constables, and the Cheshire and Manchester Yeomanry, appeared. The crowd fled in disorder, many were thrown down, 100 were more or less injured, and six persons were accidentally killed. Hunt and nine others were brought to trial, and charged with treasonable conspiracy. Called 'Peterloo' from the words of Hunt, who said, ' The magistrates desired nothing so much as an opportunity of letting loose the bloody butchers of Water loo upon them.' Peter-pence, or 'Rome-scot,' 720. First paid by Ina king of Wessex, dis- continued by Edward III. in 18(55, and prohibited by act of parliament in 1534 PETIT PETITIONERS (25 Henry VIII. c. 21). It was one penny per family collected for the pope of Rome. An enormous tax, if we con- sider the value of money at the time, and to the poor almost crushing. Half-a-' crown would have bought a horse or cow, and about Is. would have bought a sheep. Wages for a labourer Id. a day. At present Peter-pence is a voluntary contribu- tion to the pope. Petit Fils de la France. Son of Philippe due d'Orleans, brother of Louis XIV. Philippe himself was entitled Monsieur, his wife Madame, and their daughter Mademoiselle (all without a proper name). Petit Manteau Bleu (Le). Edme Champion (1764-1853). A man of un- bounded benevolence, called Le Petit Manteau Bleu by the poor, from his habit of wearing a short cloak of blue cloth, fastened at the neck by a clasp, and reaching to the loins. Petit Roi de Bourges (LA. Charles VII. of France (1403, 1422-1461). Called afterwards 'The Victorious,' be- cause he reconquered France from the English. When he succeeded to the crown Bourges was about all that acknow- ledged his sovereignty. Petite Paix (La), also called ' La paix f ourree,' and sometimes ' La paix de Longjumeau,' 1568, between the Roman Catholics and the Calvinists. This peace was preparatory to the 'Paix de St. Germain ' (q.v.). Petits Maitres, 1649. The party of Conde was so called 'parce qu'ils voulaient etre maitres de l'e"tat ' (' Siecle de Louis XIV.'). Petition (The Monster), 10 April, 1848. Said to have been signed by six million Chartists. Some 50,000 Char- tists, led by Feargus O'Connor and Ernest Jones, intended to march to the House of Commons to present it. About 170,000 special constables were sworn in to prevent a disturbance. When the petition was examined it was found that it did not contain two million names. Many of these names were palpably for- geries, many were mere nicknames, and thousands were copied in the same hand from a directory. The petition altogether was a inonater swindle. Petition and Advice (The), or 'The Humble Petition and Advice,' 1657. Presented by the parliament to Cromwell, praying him to assume a higher title than that of Lord Protector, to govern, as had been done in times past, with the advice of two houses of parliament, and to abolish the odious existing insti- tution of majors-general. Cromwell re- fused to take the title of king, but consented to establish a second estate, the members of which he addressed as 'My lords,' although only two real peers attended the summons. The petition was first entitled 'A Humble Address and Remonstrance.' On former occasions he [Cromwell] had relieved himself from [money] embarrassments by the imposition of taxes by his own authority, but this practice was strongly reprobated in ' The Petition and Advice.' Dr. LINGARD, Hist. ofEng., viii. 7. Petition de Droit. One of the common law methods of obtaining pos- session or restitution from the crown of either real or personal property. It owes its origin to Edward I. Petition of Right (The), 28 May, 1628, made law by 3 Car. I. c. 1, 7 June, 1628. It prayed that no man hereafter be compelled to give any gift, benevo- lence, or tax without consent of parlia- ment. That the commissions for pro- ceeding by martial law be annulled. That the king will in future declare his will and pleasure to be that all his officers and ministers obey the laws and statutes of the realm. That no freeman be im- prisoned by the king's arbitrary will, but only according to established law. That no householder be compelled to receive any soldier or mariner into his house. See 'BUI of Rights.' Petitioners. By 18 Charles II. it was enacted that not more than ten per- sons should be allowed to approach the sovereign or either House of Parliament for delivering a petition, making a com- plaint, or suing for redress of grievances. Petitioners and Abhorrers, 1679-1(580. Two political parties in the reign of Charles II., the germs of the Whigs and Tories. Lord Shaftesbury, by intrigue, procured from the countiea a host of petitions to set aside not only James the brother of Charles II., but also his daughter Mary, who was a Pro- testant, married to William prinn ol R84 PETROBRUSIANS PHARAOHS Orange ; and to fix the succession on the Duke of Monmouth, a bastard son of the king (?) A strong party revolted at this injustice, and obtained a host of counter petitions declaring their ' abhorrence ' of Shaf tesbury's scheme. So that the ' Peti- tioners ' were for setting aside the Prince of Orange, and the ' Abhorrers ' were in favour of the prince. Petrobrusians. The disciples of Pierre de Bruys (2 syl.), who was burnt alive as a heretic at St: Gilles in 1147. They denied the doctrine of transubstan- tiation, rejected crucifixes, baptized adults who had been already baptized in infancy, and forbade prayers for the dead. The Henricians (q.v.) joined this sect in 1127. Petroleum Vesuvius Nasby. A pen-name of D. R. Locke. ' Nasby ' refers to the battle of that name ; ' Petro- leum ' to the rock-oil fever raging in Pennsylvania at the time when the 4 Nasby Letters ' were begun ; and ' Vesu- vius ' to the outburst of the petroleum fever. Pe-tse Dynasty -(The). The 2nd dynasty of the Goli Tartars in Eastern China. It gave five kings, and lasted 28 years (550-578), when both the Eastern and Western kingdoms were again united in the imperial line. Petticoat (A). Carried in the cider riots, 1763. See ' Jack Boot.' Petty Bag Office (The). In the common law jurisdiction of the Court of Chancery. So called because all ori- ginal writs relating to the business of the crown were, at one time, kept in a little sack (in parva baga). Peu'tinger'ian Table (The). 1 Tabula Peutingeriana.' A map of the Roman world constructed about AJD. 226, some say as early as 161. It was dis- covered at Spires (1500) in an old library by Conrad Celtes, who sent it to Conrad Peutinger the antiquary to publish ; but his death occurred before this was done. It was ultimately published in 1598 at Venice under the care of Marcus Welsen. The original is in the Imperial Library of Vienna, See ' Antonine's Itinerary.' Pezade (2 syl.). See 'Pacata.' Phalansterians. Disciples of Charles Fourier (17G8-1837), who grouped all men in phalanxes. Each phalanstery was to consist of 400 families or 1800 persons, to live under one roof in the centre of workshops, studios, places of amusement, and so on. The whole earth being grouped in phalansteries, the phalansteries themselves are to be united in larger groups under a unitary govern- ment. There is to be only one language and one government, and the only army is to be a great industrial army. Bellamy's 'Looking Backward.' or state of OBlHl in 9000, U a Blight modification of Fourier- ism. Set ' Communism.' Phal'aris. The famous controversy between Richard Bentley and Robert Boyle began thus : Mr. Boyle borrowed a MS. from St. James's Library, where Bentley was librarian. It was borrowed that Mr. Boyle might complete his 'Epistles of Phalaris.' Bentley was angry because it was kept so long, and Boyle taking offence, a paper war arose, noted for wit and satire. In 1699 Bentley published a book to prove that Phalaris was not the author of these epistles, to which Boyle replied ; but all scholars side with Bentley, who was appointed Master of Trinity for his admirable criticisms. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Phantastic System ( The). Taught by the Docetes (8 syl.). It was thia : that Christ was only a phantom, and not a real human being. Like the God which ap- peared to Adam and Eve, like the Moses and Elijah on the mount, the man Christ was palpable to the eyes, but not to the touch, and his words, like those of the beings referred to, were only ' airy words.' Pharaoh. Another spelling of Phra, Egyptian for the sun. Pharaohs of the Bible (The). Josephus ('Jewish Antiquities,' viii chap. 6) says : ' The title of Pharaoh wua applied to the kings of Egypt from Menes to Solomon, but not afterwards.' This does not correspond with the Bible ; for Jeremiah, xliv. 80, speaks of Pharaoh Hophra, and Pharaoh Necho invaded Judea in the reign of Josiali (2 Zings xxiii.). According to the tablets discovered in different parts of Egypt, the following iem to illustrate the Bible narratives : 1. Tre Good Pharaoh seems to U PHARAOHS PHILACTEBIANS 685 Sutapepe-Nubti, one of the Hyksos, or shepherd kings ; but some Egyptologists think it was Osirtesen II., and say there is a tablet in the sixth year of his reign which records the advent of several Se- mitics resembling Jews both in dress and physiognomy. Supposed to be Jacob and his household. 2. The Bad Pharaoh seems to be Amen'ophis III, of the nineteenth dy- nasty, who introduced the heretical worship of Typhor; but after Barneses II. the Great came a period of confusion, and the Exodus is supposed by many to have occurred in the reign of Arisu, a usurper and a Syrian, about B.C. 1314. No hint of the Exodus, however, can be traced by Egyptologists. 8. Solomon married Abra, the daughter of Pfusenes [Pisham] last of the twenty- first dynasty (1 Kings iii. 1). 4. Shishak (1 Kings xiv. 25), who came against Jerusalem in the reign of Be- hoboam, was obviously Shashank I., or Sheshouk, who with 12,000 chariots and 60,000 horse-soldiers invaded Judea. The record may still be seen on the portico of the Bubastis at Karnak. 5. 2 Chron. xiv. 9-15 and xvi. 8, &c., it is supposed, refer to Zerah, fourth of the twenty-second dynasty. 6. Hose<\ paid tribute to Shabak, founder of the twenty-fifth dynasty, B.C. 716. 7 Shabakok, called 'So' in 2 Kings xvii. 4, was the successor of Shabak. With this king Hezekiah formed a con- federacy against Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 2 Kings xviii. xix. ' So ' was succeeded by Tarach or Tirshatha. 8. Pharaoh Necho who invaded Judea in the reign of Josiah was Nechos II. He defeated Josiah, but was himself defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (617-601), 2 Kings xxiii. 29, &c. 9. Pharaoh Hophra is supposed to be A pries, which without the vowel points is PB or PhB (Jer. xliv. 80). The Sphinx was carved In the third dynasty, founded by Necherophes. The great pyramid was built by Khufu [Suphis or Cheops] who founded the fourth dynasty : his successor Khafra or Khafren [Cephren] built the second pyramid ; and his sue- cessor Menkara [Mycerinus] built the third great pyramid. Ramses II. the Great was the Sesostrls of Egypt whose reign is fixed by the calendars repre- senting the heliacal rising of the dog-stars, B.C. *,* Goshen was in Lower Egypt, nearer Palea- tirui than Upper Egypt. There was much marsh- land there, and both grass and corn would Pharisees (The), B.C. 160. An ancient Jewish sect who by their verbal criticisms, mystical interpretations and traditions, engrafted on the Mosaic law a host of precepts and observances. They believed in a resurrection, in angels, and spirits ; placed great reliance on fastings, ablutions, and long prayers ; and paid great attention to their gar- ments, especially affecting very large borders, fringes, or hems. Their chief was Hillel. Pharisee ' from pharash, to separate. Phenicians (The), about 1863. An Irish secret society, a branch of the Bibbon Societies (q.v.), their platform being similar to that of the Fenians. See ' Irish Associations.' Phenomenon, Woumenon (plu. Phenomena, Noumena). Kant used the two words to express object and subject. The Greek word ^aivonai means to appear, and phenomenon is what our senses cognise. Noumenon is from the Greek word vows, ' pure intelligence ' ; and a noumenon is an object pure and unbodied, that is divested of everything cognisable by the senses. Fichte used the words ego and non-ego for sub- ject and object. What the senses cognise as part of ourselves is, of course, part of ourselves ; but what exists Independent of our senses is no part of ourselves, and this he called non-ego. Phe'si, favi (It says). An ecclesiastical school. Hippolytus speaks of Basilides, and Isidore, with ^as 6 ^ovT as 'Phesi'; and again he speaks in the same manner of Valentlnus, Heracleon, Ptolemy, and cra ^ -rov-^v d himself in prison ; Cadoudal and twelve others were guillotined. Pici'nists, 1774-1780. A French musico-political faction, who contended that pure Italian music is higher art than the mixed German school. In other words, that music is the alpha and omega of opera, and the dramatic part of very minor account. This is the most cele- brated of all the contests in musical annals. Niccolo Piccini was the great ex- ponent of the Italian school, and Christo- pher Gluck of the German school, hig adherents being called Gluckists. Niccolo Piccini of Naples, 1728-1801 ; Christopher Oluok of Bohemia. 1713 1787. In this paper contest of the two parties at Paris, the ordinary question asked of everyone was 'Etos-vous Picclniste ou Oluckiste ? ' Arnaud and Suard were Oluckiste, but Marmontel and Laharpe were Piccinists. The con- test extended to England and raged with undimin- ished fury. Marie Antoinette, being a German by birth, patronised Oluck, and this was quite suffi- cient to raise up a host of opponents. Wagner renewed the contention of Oluck, Insisting that the dramatic part of opera ts quite as important as the Picpus (The), or 'Order of Picpus,' 1601. A religious society of the Third order of St. Francis ; so called from Picpus, anciently a part of the Faubourg St. An- toine. -The order was suppressed in 1790, but was re-established at the restoration PICTS PILLAR 691 iii 1814. The members are largely mig- sionaries in heathen lands. Picts. Ancient inhabitants of the north-east of Scotland. They were a Celtic race. Probably the word means much the same as Caledonians (dwellers in woods). The Scots were a Celtic colony from Ulster, in Ireland, which (about B.C. 400) settled in the south- western parts of Scotland, then called Caledonia. If so, the Picts were the more ancient inhabitants. As the people were called Picts before the Bo- mans called them Picti (painted people), the Latin word is merely a coincidence of sound, and is wholly without etymological value. The language of the Scoti was Earish (Erse),i.e. Irish or Western, still preserved in the Western Islands and High- lands. These Highlanders bear the same relation to Scotland generally as the Welsh do to the Eng- lish. Pietists (The), or' Separatists,' 1689. A Lutheran sect who preferred private to public worship. Spener of Leipsic was the founder, whose house was Collegia Pietatis, because his disciples met there. Ordained clergymen had no marked pre- cedence, but anyone was allowed to ad- dress the assembly, as among the Quakers. Among the Jews the Chasidim (q.v.) were called ' Pietists.' Pigeons. The priestesses of the oracle of Dodona (q.v?), so called by a play on the words peleiai (WAeiai), 'pigeons,' and palaiai (na\atai) old, aged [women]. It is said that Zeus (1 syl.) presented to his daughter Thebe two black pigeons endowed with the gift of human speech ; that one of them Sew into Libya, in Africa, and the other to Dodfina in Epirus ; and that he commanded the inhabitants of both places to raise a temple to his honour. Hence the temple of ' Jupiter Ammon ' in Libya, and that of Dodona in Eplros. The two black pigeons may have been two gipsies or Egyptian fortune-tellers. Pigeon's Blood. The poor nobility of Venice were called IBarnaboti from the quarter San Barnabo, where they dwelt. The wealthy nobles were called Blue Blood (Sangue Colombin and Sangue Bib). Pigott Diamond (The). Brought from India by Lord Pigott, weighs 82J carats. In 1801 it was sold in a lottery for 750,000 francs (80,OOOZ.) ; and in 1818 it passed into the possession of Messrs. Rundell and Bridge. See ' Diamonds.' Pilate (Mount), in Switzerland, has no connection whatever with Pontius Pilate. It is a corruption of ' Mons Pileatus,' the hatted mountain, or mountain with a cap of snow. Pilati (Acta). I. Said to be Pilate's despatch sent to the Emperor Tiberiup of the crucifixion of Jesus. It is a mere forgery. See ' Literary Forgeries.' fi. Eusebius (book ix. 6) speaks of another Acta Pilati ' full of blasphemy against Christ,' and sent by the emperor to every part of his dominion. Certain women who had once been Christians de- clared they had themselves been privy to criminal acts. These declarations (says Eusebius) were appended by order of the emperor to the ' Acts ' of the pro- curator. No doubt Pilate Bent a despatch to Borne, but whether either of these ' Acts ' is genuine is quite another matter. Pilgrim Fathers (The). 102 Puritans who went, in 1620, to North America, in a ship called the ' Mayflower,' and colonised what are now the North- Eastern States, called New England, and consisting of (1) Maine, (2) New Hamp- shire, (8) Vermont, (4) Massachusetts, (5) Ehode Island, and (6) Connecticut. This was the second English settlement in the New World, and was planted at New Plymouth near Boston. The tyranny of the Ecclesiastical Commission raised up a host of dissenters, and in 1580 they chose John Robinson for their leader. Their independence soon drew upon them the heavy hand of the law, and they left the kingdom. The larger part settled at Leyden, whence 102 of them went to America, and many others followed later. Pilgrimage of Grace (The). The insurrection of 1537 against the ' King's Supremacy,' headed by Lord Darcy and ' Captain ' Aske. Some 80,000 men, ' tall and well horsed,' demanded the redress of wrongs, reunion with Rome, the restora- tion of the Princess Mary to her rights aa heiress of the crown, dismissal of Thomas Cromwell the lord chancellor, and restora- tion of all confiscated church property. The leaders of this rebellion wore for a badge 'the Five Wounds.' The king, Henry VIII., sent an army of 10,000 men against the rebels, and quelled the insur- rection. Aske, Darcy, and a large number of others, both priests, nobles, and gentle- men, were executed as traitors. This rising was supported by the Archbishop of York, and hundreds of priests who marched in tha van with crosses, banners, and other ecclesiastical insignia. Pillar of Northern History (The). ' Rei historic columen.' Snorr* Y Y2 r.92 PILLAR PIPE son of Sturla, or Snorre-Sturleson (1178- 1241). His history begins with Odin and continues to his own times. Pillar of the Doctors (The). 'La Colonne des docteurs,' William de Cham- peaux (died 1121). Pillars of Hercules (The). Calpe" (now Gibraltar rock), and Abyla, opposite to it in Africa, which Greek story says were torn asunder and separated by Hercules about B.C. 1220 (while Gideon was Judge of Israel). Before Hercules tore these rocks or mountains asunder the Mediterranean was an inland sea, like the Caspian [hence the name Mediterraneum Mare]. Pilnitz (The Convention of), 27 Aug., 1791. To put down the French revolution by force of arms, restore the king, and dissolve the Constituent Assembly. The Kaiser-King of Germany, the King of Prussia, the Comte d'Artois, the Marquis de Bouille, and the ex-minister Calonne signed the convention, and threatened France with invasion, unless the demands were at once conceded. Of course the convention was mere waste paper. Pilot who weathered the Storm (The), 1801. William Pitt was BO called on his retirement from office. The nation in 1797 was almost reduced to bankruptcy by war, when Pitt introduced paper payment for the nonce, whereby the nation soon righted itself again. Pindar (Peter). The pen-name of Dr. John Wolcot (1788-1819). Pindar (The British). Thomas Gray (1716-1771). No more the Grecian muse unrivalled reigns ; To Britain let the nations homage pay : She felt a Homer's fire in Milton s strains. A Pindar 8 rapture in the lyre of Gray. Wettmimter Abbey (on the monument of Gray). Pindar (The Italian). Gabriello Chiabrera (1552-1637). Pindar of England (The). Abra- ham Cowley (1618-1667). The Duke of Buckingham preposterously called him ' The Pindar, Horace, and Virgil of England.' Pindar of Prance (The). I. Jean Dorat (1507-1588). II. Ponce Denis Lebrun (1719-1807). This title bestowed on Lebrun is simply absurd, but the French are not happy in their epouyms, of which they are especi- ally fond. Also called 'The Poet of Liberty.' Pindari War (The), 1817-18. The Pindaris attacked Madras 1817, the Marquis of Hastings marched against them, and a treaty of peace was concluded 6 Nov., 1818. Pinda'ris (The)ot India were exactly like the Grand Companies of Europe. They were bodies of mercenary horse who served any prince for hire, and in times of peace lived by plunder. In the early part of the 19th cent, the Pindaris aided Holkar, the Mahratta prince, against the British, but wholly without See ' Great Company,' 1853. Pinerolo, or Pignerolo (Th* Charter or Treaty of), Aug. 1656. A charter granted by Charles Emmanuel II. the duke of Savoy to his Vaudois subjects after the savage attack of the Marquis of Pianezza. The treaty defined where the Vaudois might exercise their worship without being molested, but reserved to the duke himself the right of celebrating mass where he chose. It also confirmed the prerogatives and privileges pre- viously granted, but in 1685 the Duke Victor Amadeus was made by Louis XIV. of France to extirpate, as far as possible, the ' heretics ' hi his dominions. Pink (Knights of the), or ' Chevaliers de I'CEUlet,' 1798. A society organised to save the queen and the young dauphin son of Louis XVI. It had its ramifica- tions in Germany and Prussia, but its headquarters, of course, were Paris. The attempt to save the queen failed, and the failure was communicated to the conspirators by one of them pulling a pink to pieces and casting the stalk on the ground. SM< Louis XVII.' Piombi (The). The terrific dungeons of Venice under the leaden roofs. Those under the canals were called I Pozzi (q.v.). If he relapsed he was to be Imprisoned for at least three years In the Piombi.-Hut. of VCHKX, vol. ii. p. 107 (Murray, 1838). Pipe Office (The). An English law office in which a person called the ' Clerk of the Pipe ' makes out leases of crown- lands and enters all debts to the crown in the ' Great Roll ' made of parchment and kept in the exchequer. Abolished by 8, 4 Will. IV. c. 99. PIPHLES PLACE Piphles (2 syl.). So the Waldenses (q.v.) of Flanders were called. Ety- mology unknown, but probably connected with the Greek TTIO-TIKO? and the Latin' pistis, meaning ' the faithful ' or ' true believers.' Sometimes called ' Pisti.' Pisa, Genoa. Those who want to tee Pisa must go to GenSa. (An Italian Bayiiig.) In 1282 began the fourth war between Pisa and Genoa. The Pisans were almost extirpated. 3 000 were slain or drowned, and 13,000 were carried pri- soners to Genoa, so that there were more Pisan captives in Genoa than there were left in the city itself. Piscine Baptism. 'La piscine baptismale.' A term derived from piscis, the Latin word for ix0v?, a fish, an ana- gram of 'lesous Christos Theou Uios, Soter ' [I-Ch-Th-U-Sj. A notarica used by the early Christians under persecu- tion. It is a secret way of saying ' Chris- tian baptism.' Pishdad'ian Dynasty (The), or 'Paishdadians.' The first dynasty of the Parsees. Firdusi tells us it lasted 2,450 years, and was founded by Kayomurz, who was succeeded by his son Hoshung ; Hoshung was succeeded by Tahmuras, who was succeeded by his son Djemshid, who reigned 500 years. After Djemshid came his son Feridoun. Those who seek to reduce mythical history within Bible limits place these kings thus : Kayomurz B.C. 1990; Hoshung B.C. 1960 ; Tahmuras B.C. 1920; and Djemshid B.C. 1890. Djemshid was dethroned by Zohak, an Arabian described as a most merciless tyrant, who was slain in a rebellion led by Kawan the blacksmith, who raised Feridoun to the throne. The Pishdadian kings were succeeded B.C. by the Kaianian dynasty, called by the Greeks the Achi- menides. It was preceded by the Maha- badiaii dynasty (q.v.). The Pishdads were mythical kings. Capital : first Balk, then Istakar, and then Segestan. Pisis'tratos of Rome (The). Julius Caesar (B.C. 100-44). Pitt Diamond (The), or 'The Regent Diamond,' found in Golconda, the most perfect brilliant in existence, about the size of a pigeon's egg. It was bought in 1702 by Thomas Pitt (grand- father of the great Earl of Chatham) for 20,4002., and sold by him in 1717 to the Duke of Orleans regent of France for 135,OOOL It weighed originally 410 carats, but was reduced by cutting to 186 g carats. This diamond decorated the hilt of Napoleon's sword of state, but now belongs to the king of Prussia. It was stolen by ' an honest factor,' and pawned to Thomas Pitt, who refused to give it back again, and the thief did not dare to vindicate his claim. It came from the mines of Parteal, near Golconda. Asleep and naked as an Indian lay, An honest factor stole a gem away ; He pledged it to the knight, the knight had vrl So kept the diamond, and the rogue was bit. POPE, &'ir Balaam. Pitt Scholarship for Classics, in the University of Cambridge. Founded out of a fund raised by subscribers to the statue of William Pitt, 1813. Sea ' Regius Professor of Greek.' Pitt's Bridge. Blackfriars Bridge, the foundation of which was laid in 1770, was so called originally, in honour of Pitt earl of Chatham. Pittsburg, when taken from the French by Brigadier Forbes in 1758, was called by him Fort Pitt, in honour of William Pitt (Earl of Chatham), but when it grew populous it was called Pittsburg, and is now the Birmingham of the United States. Placards, 1534. So the protestations of the reformers against the mass were called. They were disseminated by thousands by one Feret from Switzerland, and on 18 Oct. the inhabitants of Paris found them attached to every public place, in all crossways, on the doors of churches, and even on the palace walls. Francois I. was furious, and many re- formers were put to death. Place de G-reve (La). The place formerly used in Paris for executions, like our Tyburn ; it is in the vicinity of the Hotel de Ville. Greve means the bank of a river or shore of the sea where ' les eaux sont couverts de gravier et de cailloux roulds.' Place de Louis Quinze. See 1 Place de la Concorde.' Place de la Concorde. The spot where Louis XVI. was executed, then called the ' Place de la Revolution,' and prior to the revolution called the ' Place de Louia Quinze.' G94 PLACE PLAN Place du Carrousel (La). Apart of Paris where carrousels or mock tourna- ments were held, between the reign of Henri IV. and the 18th cent. Place of Oak-trees (The), in Preussen (i.e. ancient Prussia). The Holy of Holies of the Druids, into which none might enter but the Druid priests. When Adalbert of Prague, a zealous Christian missionary, forced his way into this sanctuary he was instantly put to death. Placemakers' Bible, or 'The Whig Bible,' so called because Matt. v. 9 is printed ' Blessed are the placemakers [peacemakers], for they shall be called the children of God.' See ' Bibles.' Placita, AJ>. 598. The first French parlements, convened by detain* HI., were so called. They were ambulatory ; that is, held sometimes in one town and sometimes in another. From ' Placita ' come oar word* plead, plead- ings. Ac. Plague of Florence (The). See 'Black Vomit.' Plague of London (The), 1665. Introduced by some Dutch merchants. It had been off and on in Holland ever since 1654 ; in Leyden 18,000 died; in 1655, in Amsterdam, 18,287 died of it. It was carried to London in bales of cotton, and 100,000 died in one year. Its symptoms were sudden delirium, when those attacked rolled about as if intoxicated, then fol- lowed profuse perspiration. In 1666 it spread to France, but died out in the winter. The Plague was followed in 1666 by the Great Fire, and when London was rebuilt the streets were made wider, the drainage improved, and thtttch for the roofs of houses was forbidden. Before then the Plague was constantly cropping up in London every few years. Plague of Marseilles (27*0,1720- 1726. Brought from Syria in a merchant vessel. It spread to Aries, Aix, and Toulon, and above 80,000 fell victims to it. Henri Francois Xavier de Belsunce, bishop of Marseilles, exerted himself day and night to comfort the afflicted and take them spiritual consolation. By his devotion he gained the appellation of the Good Bishop. After the plague pro- motion was offered to him, but he re- solved to remain bishop of Marseilles. He died in 1755, but it was not till 1853 that the inhabitants of Marseilles erected a statue to his memory. Plagues, Epidemics, &c. See undei Antony's Fire (St.) Belsunce Black Death Vomit Borromeo Burning Fever(FZ- low Fever) Coccoluccio (ee ' Coqueluche ') Coqueluche Cholera Morbus Convulsionists Dance of St. Gay Dancing Mania English Sweat Febris Flarama (Yellow Fever) Feu Ardent Great Plague Influenza (Russian) Loup-garou Mazzuolo Plague of London Plique Poitou Colic Scurvy M Sickness Tabardillo Tac Trousse-galant Vomito Prieto (Yellow Fever) Yellow Fever There have been thirty three different peste In Europe since the founding of Rome, but a pest of some kind has visited Kurope ninety-seven times since the birth of Christ. There were four- teen visitations in the 17th c.-nt.. and only eight In the 18th cent. Since then the visitations have Plaine (La), 1791. The floor of the hall occupied by the National Convention of France. From the floor benches were raised on grades. These grades were called the Mountain. The red-hot Jaco- bins seated themselves on the raised benches and were called the Montagnards or Mountaineers, and the Girondists occupied the seat below them, called the Plaine. Both these parties formed the cote gauche ; the cote droit was appro- priated by the Constitutionalists. In 1794 the ' Plaine ' was called the Maraia (q.v.), or the Marsh. Plaine des Vertus (The). This plain, which is in France, not far from Chalons-sur-Marne, is notorious for the review held there 10 Sept., 1814, of 160,000 Russian soldiers, before the diplo- matic corps of Europe. ' Vertus ' is the name of a town. It was taken by the English in 1422. Plan of Campaign (Th-e\ Oct., 1886-1889. A device adopted by the Irish ' National party ' for compelling Irish landlords to reduce their rents. The tenants were to offer what they thought proper for the rent of their holdings, and if the agents refused to accept their offer, the tenants were to lodge the money in the hands of trustees PLANETS PLATONISTS of the Land League. If evicted, they were, by boycotting, to prevent any other tenant from taking the farm. The plan was devieed by Messrs. Dillon and W. O'Brien. It gave place in July, 1889, to the ' Tenants' Defence League ' (q.v.). The Solicitor-General said, ' One of the principal objects of the Plan was to get wealthy tenants, who could pay their rents, to lodge their money under the Plan, and once having done BO they would not afterwards expose themselves to the risk which would follow its withdrawal. The meaning was this : The tenants were to fix their own rents, having first agreed among themselves the amount of reduction they intended to de- mand. If the landlord refused to grant the reduction, the tenants were to lodge the money as the Plan advised. If evicted, they were by boycotting to prevent anyone taking the tarm. 1 16 Feb., 1887. Forbidden by the Pope April, 1888. No greater swindle was ever openly propounded, and, strange as it may seem, there were gentlemen and landlords of England who coquetted with it to gain the Irish vote. Planets. See ' Bode's Law.' Plantagenet. Geoffrey son of Fulk earl of Anjou was so surnamed, it is said, because he bore in his helmet a sprig of yellow broom instead of a feather (Lat. planta-genistce) ; and this we are told was from penitential humility. Sorrfe say he was scourged with a rod of broom for his sins, as Henry II. is represented being scourged with birch-broom for the murder of Thomas Becket. This Geoffrey ma'rried Maud daughter of Henry I., and their son was Henry Plantagenet, who succeeded the Norman dynasty in England. The Plantagenet race was succeeded by the Tudor dynasty. Fulk was son-in-law of Baldwin II. king of Jerusalem, whom he succeeded in 1131. Plantation of Ulster (The), 1610. The colonising of the six counties of Ulster with Englishmen and Scotchmen. At the death of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Cahir O'Dogherty, chief of Inishowen, broke out into rebellion, but the rebellion was crushed in June 1608, when O'Do- gherty fell in battle. Almost all Ulster now lay at the disposal of the crown. The lands of O'Dogherty were given to the deputy, and all the rest was divided into 8 lots. Lot 1 contained 2,000 acres; lot 2 contained 1,500 acres ; and lot 8 contained 1000 acres. The parcels of lot 1 were sold to Englishmen and Scotchmen only ; the parcels of lot 2 were distributed among servants of the crown. Neither of these could be alienated to the Irish. The parcels of lot 8 were held by Irishmen. The lands of Tyrone and O'Donnell were given by the crown to the corporation of London to be sold to Englishmen and Scotchmen. Husbandry and the arts being introduced, Ulster, from being the most wild and disorderly province of Ireland, became the most civilised, the best culti- vated, and the most prosperous. The chief seat of this enforced colonisation was Londonderry, from the lands given to the Corpora- tion of London. This land is still managed by twenty-six of the Common Council. The charter dates from 1619. Tyrone [i.e. O'Neill], the largest chieftain of Ire- land, wanted to be made king of the whole island, and promised to give all Ireland to Philip II. of Spain, and hold under him as a tributary prince, if Philip would help him to drive out the English. Philip sent money, arms, and men, under Don Juan d'Aguila, but the allied Spanish and Irish army was completely routed. Tyrone and Tyr- conncll (O'Doiiell) soon quitted Ireland. Tyrone (O'Neill) settled in Borne, where the Pope and King of Spain allowed him a pension. O'Neill died there, and his son being assassinated, the race became extinct. Sir Cahir O'Dogherty the young chief of Inishowen now rose in insurrection, and was slain in battle. Thus the lands of O'Neill, O'Donell, and O'Dogherty all lapsed to the crown. Planters (The). The colonists sent in the reign of James for ' the plantation of Ulster ' (q.v.). Plantin Polyglot Bible (The), 1569-1572. So called because it was printed by Christopher Plantin of Ant- werp. It was edited by Arius Montanus. See 1 Polyglot.' Plato (The English). The Rev. John Norris (1657-1711). Plato (The German). Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1748-1819). Plato (The Jewish). Philo-Judaeus (flo. 20-40). Plato (The Scottish). Dugald Stewart, born at Edinburgh 1758, died 1828. Plato of the 18th cent. Voltair* (1694-1778). The sage Plato of the 18th cent. CABLYLH, Friedrich II. of Prussia (vol. ii. p. 597). Platonic Puritan (The). John Howe (1630-1706). Author of ' The Good Man the Living Temple of God,' which occupies one of the highest places in Puritan literature. Platonists. Dr. Joseph Priestley, in his 'Corruptions of Christianity,' main- tains that the doctrine of the Trinity is due to Platonism, and it is certain that the Platonists taught a sort of Trinity. There was first the Unity, that abstract existence without form or personality of any kind. From this ens proceeded what St. John calls Logos, and the author of * Proverbs ' calls Wisdom. ' By Wisdom God established the heavens and founded C06 PLATONIST8 PLUG-DRAWERS the earth ' (iii. 19) ; and from these two proceeded the Word-Soul, which consti- tute the Triad. So in Gen. i. we have first God in Unity, then the Word ' God said Let there be ' so and so, and then the Spirit which moved on the face of chaos to reduce matter, into order. Certainly the Christians of Alexandria were correct in tracing a striking resemblance between the language of Moses, the Christian Trinity, and the Platonic Triad. Platonists and Cartesians. The new departure in the Church of England in !('>()(>, led by Henry More, and supported by Cudworth, Wilkins, Tillotson, Stilling- fleet, Patrick, and others, who extended the principles of philosophy and divinity, and were the fathers of the Latitudinarian school of theology. Cartesians were followers of the French philo- sopher Descartes. Platonop'olis. The city of Plotin the neoplatonic philosopher, in Cam- pania, where he intended to carry out his socialistic ideas and philosophical system. It does not appear that he was able to complete his project, for we hear nothing more about it except that the Emperor Galen granted him permission to build the city. Plautus (The Portuguese). Oil Vicente (1480-1557). Plea (The Army's), 1659, was a paper drawn up by the officers of the army left by Cromwell to vindicate their con- duct in driving the Rump Parliament from power for a time, and endeavouring to place England under a military go- vernment. Pleas of the Crown (The Four). Murder, fire, rape, and robbery. Pleasant Willy. William Shake- speare (1564-1616). Pleiades, sing. Pleiad. Seven con- temporaneous poets. The Alexandrine Pleiades consisted of Lycophron, Theo- critos, Aratos, Nicander, Apollonios, Cal- limachos, and Philiscos (called Homer the Younger). The first French Pleiade in the reign of Henri III. was composed of Ronsard, Dubelbxy, Remi Belleau, Jodelle, Balf, Pontup de Thiard, and Amadis Jamyn *or else Dorat). The tecond French Pleiade, in the reign of Louis XIII., was composed of Rapin, Commire, . Larue, Santeuil, Me'nage, Dupdrier, and Petit. The Pleiades of Greek mythology were the seven sisters named Electra, Mala, Taygete (4 syl.). Alcyfine. Ceheno. Sterope. and Merdpe. who died of grief, and were afterwards placed as stars in the back of Taurus. Pliny (The German). Konrad von Gesner, styled by Boerhaave that ' Mon- strum Eruditionis.' He wrote the ' His- toria Animalium,' &c. (1516-1565). Pliny of the East. Zakarija-ibn- Muhammed, called Kazwinf, from Kas- win, the place of his birth (1200-1283). Plique (Le), or Plica Polonica, 1599. An endemic very common in Poland. ' Lea me*decins pre*tendent que le siege du inal est dans les cheveux, qui se mi-lent d'abord sans causer beaucoup de douleur; mais ensuite la suppuration s'etablit, et fait sortir une innombrable vermine qui cause des tiraillements et de picotementa insupportables. La chevelure ne forme plus alors qu'une masse compacte.' It was called by the Poles Gozdziec, and it is said to have been caused by drinking the water of the Borysthenes. This dis- ease is common in India. See ' Plagues,' Ireland. It hurried on the introduction of free-trade. It indirectly brought about the arterial drainage of many of the main rivers of Ireland. It created the Land Improve- ment Act. It brought into existence the Incum- bered Estates Court, one of the most important acts ever passed in Ireland. It drove some mil- lions of Irish to the other side of the Atlantic. It broke up to a great extent the very small farms of Ireland. It relieved the plethora of the labour market. It removed the needy country gentle- men, and forced them to sell their estates to capitalists. It brought over hundreds of Scotch- men and Englishmen, who have introduced more scientific farming than had been hitherto practised in Ireland. And, in short, it has pro- duced a revolution in the country which has continued to the present day. W. 8. TRENCH, Realitie* of Irish Life, p. 106. Potato Snuff-boxes. Snuff-boxes made of mashed potatoes ; the material resembled papier mdch&. They were adorned with paintings and designs. Such snuff-boxes were common enough in the first half of the 19th cent. Pothi (The). The Bible of the Sikhs (q.v.). Potsdam, in Prussia (Treaty of), Oct. 1805. A treaty of alliance solemn- ised by Czar Alexander I. and Frederick William III. of Prussia by an oath sworn on the tomb of Frederick the Great. The object of this alliance was directed against Napoleon. The result was the battle of Austerlitz on 2 Dec. Russia lost 80,000 warriors, buried under the ice of a lake which broke beneath their feet, and 15 of her generals were taken prisoners, or slain on the field of battle. Potteries (The). North Stafford- shire is so called from the numerous pottery manufactories established there. Potteries (The Father of the) Josiah Wedgwood (1780-1795). Pouch (Captain). The assumed name of John Reynolds, head of the Levellers in the Midland counties in tha May of 1607. Being captured, he wai executed the same year. ZZ 706 POUGATCHEFP PILETOR Pougatcheff the Pretender. Emilian Pougatcheff, a Cossack of the Don, who had served during the Seven Years' war in the armies of Russia, Prussia, and Austria. On his return to his own country he incited a rebellion in 1778, and assumed to be Peter III., who had been assassinated in 1762. Defeated in 1774 on the banks of the Volga, he was captured, and beheaded at Moscow in 1775. See ' Otrepieft' Powis Medal. See under ' Cam- den and Powis Medals.' Powys Land. One of the three divisions of Wales made by Roderick Mawr among his sons. Powys Land fell to the lot of Mawr's youngest son, Mervyn. (Powys, in Welsh, means ' the state of being at rest or peace.') Poyning's Act, or 'Poyning's Law,' or ' Statute of Drogheda,' 10 Hen. VII. c. 22, A.D. 1495, which declared that all general statutes before then made in England shall be of force in Ireland also; and that no Irish act shall be valid unless first submitted to the king and council of England. The Irish par- liament might reject a bill BO approved, but could not alter it. Repealed 1782. (Sir Edward Poynlng waa lord deputy of Iroland at the time.) He [Charles I.] therefore authorised him to grant the suspension of Poyning'B act. and to remove all the penal acts against the Catholics. How ITT. Hittory oj England, Charles I., p. 25S. Pozzi (The). Venetian dungeons beneath the level of the canals, in the hollow walls of the doge's palace. See 'Piombi.' . PrsBfectus PraBto'rio. In the old Roman Empire. Augustus created two ; but Tiberius reduced them to one : Com modus re-established the original number; but Diocletian created four, one for each quarter of his empire. The praetorian prefect was the commanding officer of the praetorian guard. In the second and third centuries they gradually usurped all authority and became virtu- ally the masters even of the emperors. Constantino reduced their civil power, but gave each prtefect authority in his own quarter, called his preefecture. The four were then called ' Praefectus praetorio per Gallias,' 'Praefectus preetorio per lllyricum,' 'Praefectus preetorio per Italiam,' and 'Prsefectus praetorio per Orientem.' There were many other officers called prefects : as prafectut annoiut, prtefectut clasti. priefectut kjicmilut, prafectut cerarlo, . 1358. An act of Parliament specifying what things are to be denounced as marks of contempt of the king's kingship, such as the pope presuming to appoint church dignitaries instead of the sovereign; holding a royal court in the realm it was for holding such a court as the pope's legate that Cardinal Wolsey was prosecuted main- taining that the sovereign has no right to the crown, or that someone else has a better claim to it ; to assist at the mar- riage of a royal prince or princess, con- tracted in violation of the established laws. The offences are short of treason, but show directly or indirectly a con- tempt for the king or queen. Martin V. called this statute ' execrabile illud Btatutum.' Prtemunlre ' Is dog Latin for prtemnneri. The writ begins thus: Prtemunire facias M or N ... (Le. you shall cause M or N to be forewarned that . . . Ac.) The Bta-utis are 85 Edw. I. 1808; 25 Edw. in. 1964; 16 liioh. II. 1893; 2 Hen. IV. 1401; 96 Han. VIII. 1533; 6 Elii. 1563, and many others. Some were repealed In 1648. The most important points of these statutes besides those stated above are these prohibitions : 1. To prohibit the introduction into England of papal provisions. 2. To prohibit the intervention of th pope in ecclesiastical elections. 8. To prohibit English subjects being called to Rome on points which may be settled in the royal courts of our own land. 4. To prohibit foreigners being pre- sented to English livings. Gregory XI. convened a conference aft Bruges in 1875 to discuss these statutes. PrSBtor. A Roman magistrate with the function of a supreme judge in one of the provinces. He was the chief military, civil, legislative, and financial functionary. His legislative manifesto was called edictum prcet&ris. There were always at Rome two praetors, the prcetor urbanua and the prcetor pere- grin ua, elected by the centuries. They were seated on a curule chair and arrayed with the toga pr lt ; The ' Bella curiilla ' was like a camp stool, used by kings, consuls, prtetors.andcurulo uxlllea, wbfl PE^TORIAN PEAGUE 707 carried their chair about with them. Originally they were made of ivory, but latterly they were inlaid with gold. The ' toga praetexta ' was a bordered robe worn by aristocratic children, chief magistrates, dicta- tors, consuls, prsetors, and cediles. Praetorian Guard (The). Ori- ginally the cohorts of the praetor, then the imperial guard. They received higher pay than other soldiers, and en- joyed several important privileges. There were originally nine praetorian cohorts; Vitellius increased the number to sixteen ; Septimus Severus still further increased the number. For many years they acted as dictators, and their insolence, want of discipline, avidity, and insubordination became proverbial. Pragmatic Sanction. 'Sanctio Pragmatica.' An ordinance relating to the State or to the Church. The Latin word sanctio means a decree or ordi- nance with a penalty attached, in other words ' a penal statute.' The word prag- maticus means relating to the state. Hence a pragmatic sanction is a ' penal statute relating to the state.' In civil law a 'pragmatic sanction' means the response of the king to his council ; the response to an individual was called a ' rescript.' Historically a pragmatic sanction means a statute limiting or denning the power of the pope in foreign countries ; or a statute fixing the succession of the crown in a certain line. What is gene- rally meant by the term is the arrange- ment made by Karl VI. in 1713, whereby the crown of Germany was made heredi- tary in the house of Austria. The most important pragmatic sanc- tions are the following : L That of St. Louis in 1268, forbid- ding the pope to levy taxes in France, or to interfere in the appointment of the clergy. This important ordinance did for France what the ' Constitutions of Cla- rendon ' did for England. The authenticity of this ordinance la doubtful, and certainly it is wholly out of harmony with the sainted king, who was canonised by Boniface III. only twenty-seven years after his decease. It is mentioned for the first time in the fifteenth cen- tury in the ' Bibliothdque des Conciles.'and is gene- rally supposed to be a forgery. II. Of Bense, in 1338, by which instru- ment an elected king of Germany was made ex officio kaiser or emperor of the holy Roman empire, independent of the pope's sanction, and without the neces- sity of going to Rome to be crowned by him. Kens or Rense will not be found in ordinary maps. It is on the Khine, five miles from Cob- lentz, and close by is the very famous Thronus Kegalis (?..). III. Of Bourges, called the * Palladium of France,' 7 July, 1438, published by Charles VII. of France. This also had for its scope the limitation of the power of the papal authority in France. It forbade the pope to present to any dig- nity or any church living in the kingdom. It is called the Magna Charta of the Gallican Church. It declares the authority of councils to be supe- rior to that of the popes. Insists on the free elec- tion of abbots and bishops by the chapters and monks. It suppresses aiinates or first fruits and other taxes claimed by Home. It greatly restricted the effects of excommunication and interdicts. Francois I. In 1516 suppressed this pragmatic sanction, and substituted ' The Concordat of Bologna ' Instead (q.v.), 1516. IV. Of the Emperor Karl VI. (17 Apr. 1713), to secure the hereditary suc- cession of the states of Austria in the female line. This was in order to trans- mit the crown to his eldest daughter, Maria Theresa. It was guaranteed by most of the great powers of Europe, but not by Spain till 1781. Karl VI. died in 1740. This is the pragmatic sanction of historic emi- nence, and is meant unless some qualifying date or word is added to restrict it to some other in- strument. V. 1723, whereby Hungary and the Austrian provinces were declared insepa- rable, and the ruler of both was always to be one and the same person and of the Habsburg dynasty, in the regular order of succession in the male and female lines; but, otherwise, Hungary was to remain perfectly independent, and was to be governed by its own laws. VI. Of Carlos III. of Spain (1759), to regulate the succession to the throne of the Two Sicilies. VII. Of Don Ferdinand, 2 April, 1767, declaring all papal bulls and briefs to be null and void in the duchy of Parma and Piacenza, unless sanctioned by a ducal exequatur. Declared void by papal brief 1 Feb., 1768. Our Constitutions of Clarendon. 1164, compelling the clergy to submit to the civil laws, were virtu- ally a pragmatic sanction. Prague (Peace of). I. 1685, between Kaiser Ferdinand II. and the electors of Saxony and Branden- burg. 708 PRAGUERIE PREACHING II. 23 Aug., 1866. At the close of the Seven Weeks' War, Austria was entirely excluded from Germany, and in 1870 the King of Prussia was declared German Emperor in addition to his other titles. Praguerie (La), 1440. A revolt and conspiracy in France to dethrone Charles VII. and place Louis the Dauphin (Louis XI.) on the throne. The con- spirators were Alexander, the natural son of Bourbon, Charles and Louis de Bourbon, Jean d'Alencon, La Tremoille, Dunois, La Hire, and Xaintrailles. Their head-quarters were Prague in Bohemia, whence the name; but the enterprise was badly conducted, and Charles, marching to Prague, crushed out the revolt before the end of six months. The conspirators tendered their submission, and were graciously pardoned. Prairial 1, 2, 3, An. III. i.e. 20, 21, 22 May, 1795. Noted for the insur- rection against the Convention, the last effort of the Jacobins against the Ther- midorian reaction. The populace of the faubourg seized the Salle de la Convention, presided over by Boissy d'Anglas, and assassinated the deputy Fdraud. The troops being called out dispersed the mob. The convention ordered the arrest of thirteen deputies who had taken part in the plot, six of whom were executed. Prairial 30 An. VII. '.. 18 June 1799. When the directors La ReVeilliere- Lepeaux and Merlin were turned out of office in favour of Roger Ducos and Moulins. Pras'inaFactio. The Green Coats, a faction of Byzantium ; so called from the green-coated charioteers in the circus. They were opposed to the Emperor Jus- tinian, who was a Blue Coat, or favourer of the Veneta Factio (q.v.). Proton is the Greek (or a ' leek,' and Prasinua means green as a leek. Prayer Book of Edward VI. (The First), published 1549. Compiled by Cranmer and Ridley, assisted by other divines. The Communion Service was drawn up for administration to the laity in both kinds ; offices for holidays as well as for Sundays, for baptism and confirma- tion, were included ; and tin- marriage ami burial services were considerably altered See ' King's Primer.' It began with the Lord's Prayer; It retained prayers for the dead ; It enjoined anointing of ths BicK . In 1550 the Ordination Service was added. The Second, 1552. The First Prayer Book, revised by Cranmer, Martin Bucer, and Peter Martyr. The opening sentences, exhortation, confession, and absolution were added. The use of oil in baptism was discontinued, so was anointing the sick, and the prayers for the dead were struck out. In 1559 the book was revised, and the Elizabethan version is sometimes called ' The Third Common Prayer Book.' After the Hampton Court Conference (q.v.) in the reign of James I. the book was again revised, and some prayers for special occasions were introduced. In 1662, after the Restoration, when the new authorised version of the Scriptures was adopted, except in the Psalms, where Coverdale's version was followed, the sentences in the Communion Service, the General Thanksgiving, the Form of Prayer to be Used at Sea, the State Services (viz. for Gunpowder Treason, 5 Nov.; King Charles's Martyrdom, 80 Jan.; for the Restoration, 29 Mny; and the King's Accession) were annexed. The first three of these State Seniors were omitted by an order in council given by Queen Victoria in 1859. Preacher (The). Jnan Grandd of Andalusia (1546-1600). Preaching Crosses. Generally either quadrangular or hexagonal, open on one or more sides, and raised on steps. They were used for the delivery of sermons in the open air. St. Paul's Cross was very celebrated, and the collection of sermons preached there is still known and highly appreciated. Queen Elisabeth, we are told, once went In state to St. Mary's Cross to hear one of the Reformers Beside* a Tast train of lords and ladles. ipanled by 1.000 soldiers, ten great cannons, hundreds of drums and trumpets, a party of morris-dancers, and two white bears.' She delighted in loud music, for even when she went to dinner twelve trumpets, two kettle- drums, and various other noisy instruments amused her with thundering uproar. Preaching Friars, 1215. The idea of this order was suggested by Dominic at the Council of Lateran, with a view of stamping out the Vaudois and other enemies of ' the Church.' At a later period these preaching friars were called Dominicans, from Dominic their founder. PRE-ADAMITK PREGADI 709 St. Francis of Assisi about the same time founded the order of Franciscans or Minor Friars, worthy rivals of the Domi- nicans. Pre-Adamite Sovereign (The). So the bankers of England nicknamed the Georgian sovereigns called in by Mr. Goschen in April 1890. The pre- Adamite sovereign is now very much in evidence, for everywhere there are notices posted up to the effect that they cannot be received. The Georgian gold is, in fact, as carefully avoided as were French coppers a couple of years ago. Neirsiaper paragraph in April 1890. Prebend, Prebendary. A prebend. is a provision in land or money given to a church inprceb&ndam, i.e. for the sup- port of a clergyman whose title is either prebendary or canon. There are nume- rous honorary prebendaries and canons without any stipend at all, but they are provided with a prebendal stall in the cathedral church of the diocese, and are expected to preach in the cathedral occa- sionally, or to supply a substitute. Preceptor. The master of a pre- ceptory, that is, a manor of the Knights Templars. His duty was to take care of the lands and collect the rents. Some- times the word preceptor is applied to the ' Magni Priores cujusque provincise, penes quos erat summa potestas.' Du Cange makes the word equivalent to * Dominus Princeps, Supremus Magistra- tus,' and in A.D. 950 to ' Abbas.' Prieceptories were benefices . . . possessed by the more eminent sort of the Templers [sic], whom the Chief Master by his authority created and called ' Preeceptores Templi.' STEPHEN. De Jurisdictione, bk. iv.chap. x. No. 27. Precious Blood (The Feast of the). The 1st Sunday in July. There are other days dedicated to the Precious Blood for example, the fourth Friday in Lent. Sometimes Corpus Christi (the Thursday after Trinity Sunday) is so called. Hence the hymn of St. Thomas Aquinas. See ( Sunday.' Pange lingua gloriosi Corporis mysterium Banguinisque pretioBi, quern in mundi pretium Fructus ventris generosi Ilex effudit gentium. Precis'ian (A), 1572. One of that ection of the Puritan party who con- sidered obedience to the civil government a matter of indifference. Or one who professes a precise or thorough puritan code of faith and conduct. Since that [the burning of Latimer and Ridley] Tony married a pure Precisian, and is as good a Protestant as the best. Sir W. SCOTT, Kenitwnrth, ch. ii. Here la what neither Pupiat) removed the king (Charles I.) to Windsor, resolved on his immediate trial for 'treason against his people,' and nominated a court of 150 commissioners with Bradshaw at their head to conduct the trial. See ' Parliaments.' Priest of Nature (The). Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Priests. ' Primi ordlnis sacerdotes,' bishops. 'Secundi ordlnis sacerdotes,' ordinary priests ('Pontificate Ro- manum '). Priests Of the BUDDHISTS are called Bonzes. Of the GAULS, BBITONS, . 287), when the emperor had no other title except pri Diocletian introduced the title of Augus- tus, which had been occasionally loosely applied before his time, but not defi- nitely. Principia of Newton (The). 1 Philosophise Naturalis Principia Mathe- matica,' in three books, by Isaac Newton. Book I. (1686). The motion of bodies in free space. Every particle of mutter attracts every other particle with a force which varies directly as the masses, and inversely as the square of the distance between them. Book II. (8 months later). Of motion in a resisting medium. Hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. With a confutation of the Cartesian theory of vortices. Book III. (1687). The solar system. The motion of the moon, the theory of the tides, the proof that comets belong to the solar system. It is an inquiry into the truth of Kepler's ' Lawi I of Motion PRINTER'S PRISON 715 Printer's Bible (The). Makes David pathetically complain that the 'printers [princes] have persecuted me without a cause.' See ' Bible.' Prior (A), or 'Prior of the Arts.' A magistrate in the republic of Florence who superseded the Anziani or seniors in 1282. At first there were three priors, then six, and finally eight. Priori (Six), 1293. The executive government of Florence placed in the hands of six presidents. Dante the poet was one of the six priori in 1800. Prisage of Wine (The). The right of taking two casks out of each ressel for the crown. Priscil'lianists (The). Followers of Priscillian (4th cent.). A learned Spaniard, bishop of Avlla in Spain. Their doctrines were substantially those of the Manicheeans, who taught that there were two principles, one of good and the other of evil. Priscillian said that the good principle in its descent from God to Earth fell into the power of the evil principle, and got corrupted. He also taught what is called Docetism ; that is, that the actions and sufferings of Christ were not real, but only phenomenal. Prison Authors and Litera- ture. BACON (Roger) Imprisoned In 1278 In France by order of Pope Nicholas IV. During confinement he wrote his treatise ' On the Means of Avoiding the Infirmities of Old Age.' BoETHICS (Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severlnus) wrote his ' De Consolatione Philosophise ' In his prison at Pavla, about 622; he was Deheaded In 624. BRIENNB (Le Comte de) wrote his 'Memoirs' during his eighteen years' Incarceration at St. Lazare. He died 1698. BUNYAN wrote his ' Grace Abounding ' (1666) and Part I. of hia ' Pilgrim's Progress' while confined In Bedford Gaol (1000-1672). *.* Part I. of ' Pilgrim' s Progreu ' tea* printed 1678, and Part II. in 1684. CARLILE (Richard), during his ten years' imprl- gonment, edited various journals, and won the right of a free press. COBBETT (WMiam) carried on his 'Political Register ' while In prison (1810-1812). COMBE ( William) wrote his ' Tour of Dr. Syntax ' during his twenty years' imprisonment In the King's Bench (1743-1823). COOPEB (Thomas), born 1806, wrote In Stafford Gaol the ' Purgatory of Suicides ' (1845) In Spenser- Ian verse ; published under the patronage ol Benjamin Disraeli ; and ' Wise Saws and Modern Instances.' DAVITT (Michael) while confined in Portland wrote ' Leaves from a Prison Diary, or Lectures to a Solitary Audience,' which was published in 1884. DEFOE wrote his celebrated ' Review ' in prison (1704), and again (1718). DIDEROT was imprisoned at Vincennes In 1749, when be began Liu famous ' Memoirea.' HALL (Thomas) wrote in the Debtors' Ward, Win- Chester, a volume of ' Poems ' towards the close of the 18th cent. HARPSFIELD (Nicholas), Regius Professor of Greek, Oxford, was imprisoned in the Tower in 1562, and died there in 1583. He wrote in the Tower his bulky controversial work entitled ' Dialog! ser contra summi pontiflcatus, &c., oppugnatores, &c.,' published 1566 ; and a ' History of the Angli- can Church,' published after his death in 1622. HETHERINGTON in prison composed political and poetical ephemera. JONES (Ernest) composed in gaol his political novel in which he attacked Feargus O'Connor, and parodied the Chartist agitation (1848-1850). LOVELACE (Richard) wrote some beautiful ditties to his ' Divine Althea' (Lucy Sacheverell) while in prison for presenting from Kent) a petition to the Long Parliament in behalf of the king (Charles II.). LOVETT composed in prison poetical and poli- tical ephemera. MIRABEAU was imprisoned In Vincennes three years and a half (beginning 7 June, 1777) ; during which confinement he wrote his ' Lettres it Sophie,' and ' Les Lettres de Cachet et les Prisons d'Etat.' He also translated in prison part of ' The Elegies of Tibullus,' ' Boccaccio s Decameron,' his ' Me- moires du Minist6re du Duo d'Aiguillon,' and several other works. OASTLER(/iio/iard) kept up a fusillade of pamph- lets in favour of the Ten Hours' Bill while in the Fleet Prison (born 1789, died 1861). O'BRIEN (William) wrote the main part of hia novel ' When We Were Boys while imprisoned for inciting to Irish disturbances. It was published in April 1890. ORLEANS (Charles d') comte d'Angoulemo during his twenty-five years' captivity in the 15th cent, wrote, among other poetry, his charming ode to Spring, beginning ' Le terns a laissie sou man- teau.' PAOANO (Mario) wrote his 'Saggi Politic!' In prison (1783-1792). He was executed at Naples to 1800. PAINE (Thomas) wrote the second part of hia Age of Reason ' while imprisoned in Paris by com- mand of Robespierre, 1794-C. PAMPHILUS bishop of Ceesarea composed hia ' Five Books in Defence of Origen ' during the two years of his imprisonment. Eusebius completed the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. PELLISON wrote his two ' Discours au Roi ' and a 1 Memolre ' of his friend Fouquet while a prisoner In the Bastille (1661-1666). PENN ( William), 1641-1718, while in the Tower, where he was confined at the instigation of the Bishop of London, wrote his famous ' No Cross, no Crown ' (1668-9). RALEIGH (Sir Walter) wrote his ' History of the World ' (down to B.C. 170) during his thirteen years' imprisonment to the Tower (1552-1618). He was beheaded 1618. SACY'S Bible, the Port Royal translation into French, was made by Isaac Lemaistre[Sacy]UG06- 1670) during his imprisonment in the Bastille. TAYLOR (Robert) composed his ' Devil's Pulpit 1 while in Oakham Gaol. THOMAS (F.) of Jesus, while confined in a dun- geon in Morocco composed his 'Sufferings of Christ ' (16th cent.). VINCENT composed in prison poetical and poli- tical ephemera. WOLLETT composed his ' Black Dwarf ' in prison. VOLTAIRE to 1717 spent eleven months in tha Bastille, during which time he wrote two cantoa of his ' Henriade,' and revised his tragedy of ' (Edipe.' .* Luther translated the Bible Into German while he was lying perdu in the old castle of Wartburg. This was not strictly speaking a prison, but it was virtually so. Similarly : The crypt under the church of St. Maria, to via Lata, is said to have been the place where Paul was held in captivity when he wrote his ' Epistles' to the Hebrews, Ephesians, Philip- plans, Philemon, and 2 Timothy. There la also a tradition that St. Peter dictated 716 PRISON PROCONSUL the ' Gospel of Mark ' while a prisoner at Rome ; and some say that Lake wrote his ' Acts ' In Rome. Prison Dress. A third-class man, that is, a man who has completed his first year satisfactorily, has black facing to his jacket, and begins to earn something. In twelve months more he is promoted to the second class, and his jacket is faced with yellow. In twelve months more, if still on the good-conduct list, his jacket is faced with blue. If still under prison discipline at the end of four and a half years, he may receive a distinctive blue dress which will entitle him to a bonus of 8Z. at his discharge. See ' Breeches Martyrs." A black facing may earn Id. for 20 good marks ; ft yellow facing 1 d. ; and a blue facing 2.d., credited to him, and given him at his discharge. Twenty good marks may be earned in about two days and a half. This allowance continues till it reaches the sum of M. Private Wars. Those everlasting and wretched contests of the middle ages, between different barons, such as our war of the Two Roses, those of the Capuleta and Montagues of Italy, the Armagnacs and Burgundians of France, the Guelfs and the Ghibellines, and so on. Charle- magne introduced a law to put a stop to these feuds, but it was powerless. The Church introduced the Paix de Dieu (q.v.), which suspended hostilities on cer- tain days; but St. Louis established the Quarantaiue-le-Roi (q.v.), and punished with death those who violated it. See Yendetta.' Privilege of Union in Aragon. A brotherhood or confederacy for obtain- ing redress of grievances by armed force, as the barons of England obtained Magna Charta from King John. This privilege was granted by Alfonso HI. in 1287, and confirmed by Alfonso X. as a right of the nobility. The law runs thus : ' The duty of subjects to- wards their king enjoins them not to suffer him knowingly to endangor his salvation ... or pro- duce mischief to his kingdom. This may be dune In two ways: one by good advice . . . and the other by preventing him from running to his own ruin.' Privy Council (TJie). The ' Curia Regis' existed under H*>nry ILL; the Concilium Privatum or Privy Council arose in the reign of Henry VI., but it was Charles II. who first appointed a cal>in< t of fifty members because he found the council unworkable. Its number now is indefinite, the members are ' Right Hon.* fox life. It works by committees, except when the sovereign issues 'orders in council.' In the reigns of James I. and Charles I., the ' Star Chamber ' was formed from the Privy Council. The chief committees of the Privy Council are the ' Committee of Trade and Plantations, loKs ' ; the Judicial Committee '; the ' Committee of Educa- tion, 1689 ; the ' Local Government Board, 1671.' &o. Privy Council of Ireland (The) consists of some fifty or sixty members. Almost all the judges are members. Processio Plenaria. Stent In ordlne sno singuli In eccleslam ex pec tan tea donee venlat pontifex cum processione plenarla ad Mlssam, sicutdiebussolemuibus solet cum septem diaconibns, totidemque subdia- oonlbus et oerofer&rils, et duobua thuribuiis cum Inceuao. Quoted by Du CANOE, vol. v. p. 407, col. 1. Procession of the Black Breeches (The), 20 June, 1792. Car- lyle says in the procession led by San- terre to the Tuileries were ' tricolour ribands streaming from pike-head ; iron- shod batons; a bull's heart tran.-ii\- wer Rhine and of Posen. Duke of Saxony, of Westphalia, of Kngern, of I'omerania. of Lune- berg, of Holsteln and Schleswig.of Magdeburg, of Bremen, of Oelderland, of Cleves, of Juliers, and of Berg, Duke of the Wends and of the Cassubes, I>uke of Crossen, of Lauenberg, and of Mecklen- burg. Landgrave of Hesse and Thurlngla, Mar- grave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of Orange, Lord of Uilgen.of Kastern Frlsla.of Pader- born and Pyrmont, of Halbrrstadt, MUnster, Minden, OsnabrUck and Hildeshelm. of Verdun, Kammin, Kulda, Nassau and Moers, Princely Count of Henneberg, Count of the Marches, and of Ravensberg, Hohensteln. Tecklenburg, Linp.-n, Mansfold, Sigmarlngen and Verlngen, and Lord of Frankfort. Prussian Boot ( The). Prince Bis- marck, chancellor of Prussia (1813- ), or more correctly the imperious domina- tion and insolent arrogance of the prince chancellor. In the course of these unfortunate discussions . . . Prince Bismarck himself has revealed a doubt whether all the states of Germanv rejoice In the domination of Prussia. The truth is ... a vast number of Germans do not share the Berlinese idolatry of the Prussian Boot. They know the Boot ; they are aware that It has been a service- able aid to diplomacy ; but they do not like it. nineteenth Century (Feb. 1889, p. 268). Prussian Evangelical Church (The), 1828. A union of Calvinism and Lutheranism. Frederick William III., assisted by Bunsen his minister, compiled a new liturgy for Prussia and a new church organisation. The Calvinistic and Lutheran ministers were then invited to conform on a given day, and so many agreed to do so, that the few dissentients were compelled either to conform or to abandon their pastorates. Prussian Orders. The highest ia the ' Black Eagle.' Pruth (Treaty of the), 23 July, 1711. A treaty of peace between Russia and Turkey, in which Czar Peter the Great was obliged to restore Azof and all of hia other dominions on the Black Sea to Turkey. Pryt'anes (Ssyl.). Officers in ancient Greece entrusted with the chief magis- tacy in Corcyra, Corinth, Rhodes, and MitylenS. At Athens they were of second rank, next to the archons,and acted with them as judges, sitting in the prytaneum or hall of the prytanes. Their number was fifty, and all lived at the public expense. Prytane'um. I. A common hall in a Greek state for a given district, con- taining (1) a law court for the prytanes ; (2) granaries; and (3) restaurants for citizens and strangers also. II. The Prytanie Fra-nqaise was the college of Louis le Grand set apart l>y the republic fora treasury office. In IH>:> it was transferred to St. Cyr ; and since 1852 to the military college of La Flcche. Psalmanazar (George). A literary impostor born in France in 1679. He pretended to be a Japanese, born in the island of Formosa ; and he wrote for the 'Universal History' what he called a 'History of Formosa,' altogether fabu- lous, but which thoroughly imposed on the learned world. The man died in Lon- don in 1763, but what was his real name nobody knows. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Psalmo'rnm Codex, 1457. The first book printed in movable metal type bearing a date\ the printing firm was Fust and his son-in-law Peter Schaeffer See ' Biblia Sacra Latlna.' Psalter naRann (The),\> is ahagiographyof the saints of all nations including British, Welsh, Irish, and even Egyptian (9th cent.). See p. 7, ' Acta Sanctorum.' Psalter of Cashel (The). A psalter is a provincial register of events, PUSHTU QUADRIVIUM Pushtu. The Afghan language, a dialect of the Persian, but very much changed by copious foreign elements. Putrid Plain (The). The plain or field in Provence where the battle of Aix was fought B.C. 102. In this battle Caius Marius, the Roman general, almost extir- pated the Teuton army led by Teutobod, and the people of Marseilles (we are told) employed the bones of the slain ' to make fences for their vineyards.' Pyrenees (Peace of the). L 7 Nov. 1659, between France and Spain. By this treaty it was stipulated that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united under one family. This stipu- lation was the pretext of the War of the Spanish Succession (g.t>.), 1701-1714. II. 1660. A peace made after the united armies of Mazarin and Cromwell had defeated the Great Conde* in the Dunes. This peace stipulated that Eng- land should retain Dunkirk ; that Spain should cede Roussillon and Artois to France ; and that France should restore CXtalonia to Italy. Pyrrhonists. The disciples of Pyrrho of Elis, who died B.C. 280, aged 90. He taught that nothing is what it seems to be, and therefore we know nothing as matter of fact. Pyrrhonism now means religious scepticism. Pyrrhonlsts have of late revived In Germany and England. Pythagore'anDiet (The). Veget- able diet. Pythagoras taught that it is cruel and unjust to put any animal to death for food. And the only animal foods that he would sanction are milk, butter, cheese, and eggs. Pythagore'an League (The). B.C.* overthrown B.C. 504. The only secret political society of ancient times known of. The ultras of the Carbonari of Naples, in the 19th cent., called them- selves Pythagoreans. The object of the Pythagorean league was to introduce the aristocratic element, but at the same time to make it an aristocracy of talent and not of birth only. Pythagorean Philosophers (The). Of ancient Greece, so called from Pythagoras (B.C. 481-411), a native of Samos, and often called the Samian Psge. His disciples were divided into two classes, the exoterics and esoterics. The latter must have attended hie lec- tures for five years at least. The ' exo- terics ' were also divided into two classes those who lived in the college, who were called ccsnobltcB and those who merely attended his lectures, who were called acusmatici. The average number of the former was about 600 and of the latter about 2,000. See ' Golden Verses.' Quaderno de las Leyes nuevas de la Herman dad. The laws of the Her 'man- dad (q.v.) compiled in 1485. Quadragesima of St. Martin (The). At Milan, in Spain, and in Gaul, the number of Advent Sundays used to be six, beginning on the Sunday after Mar- tinmas, from which it was styled the ' Quadragesima of St. Martin,' or 'Little Lent.' At Rome the number was originally 5. In the East it wa> 40 days. Quadrages'ima Sunday (1st Sun- day in Lent), the Sunday next to Ash Wednesday. Quadragesima originally meant the day on which the forty hours' fast is to commence. Gregory I. ex- tended the forty hours to forty days, and, including the four days from Ash Wed- nesday, the Sunday is forty days before Easter. See ' Sunday.' Quadrilateral (The). The four fortresses of Italy : namely, Peschiera and Mantua on the Mincio, Verona and Legnano on the Adige. Here the Aus- trian s entrenched themselves after the battle of Solferlno, 24 June, 1859 ; but hostilities were suddenly put an end to by a treaty of peace. Quadril'ogUS. A biography of Thomas Becket, so-called because drawn up from his four contemporary biogra- phers (bk. L chap. ii.). Quadrivium. In the 12th and part of the 18th cent, what we now call university students spent four years in the study of the ' Trivium ' (q.v.), when they took their degree of Baclieler. The next three years were given to the Quadrivium, which included 1. Numbers absolute, or arithmetic, chiefly confined to the abacus. 2. Numbers applied to music, chiefly church music. 8. Magnitudes at rest, or geometry, some five or six proposition? of Euclid. QUADRUPLE QUALIFICATION 727 4. Magnitudes in motion, or astronomy, which was only astrology, and the way of finding out the movable church festivals. Quadruple Alliance. 1666. 28 Oct., between the States-General of Holland, Denmark, the Grand Elector, and the Duke of Bruns- wick-Luneburg, for mutual de- fence. 1674. Between Denmark, Holland, Ger- many, and Spain against France ; because Louis XIV. had laid claim to Flanders and Franche- Comte. Finding the allies too Strong, Louis then abandoned hia claim on Flanders, but seized on Franche-Comte, which has ever since remained an integral part of the kingdom, empire, or repub- lic of France. 1718. 2 August, between England, Aus- tria, France, and the United Pro- vinces, against Spain. It was a continuance of the Triple Alliance (q.v.}, only with the addition of Austria, the fourth power. The immediate cause of this alliance r as the effort made by Cardinal Alberoni of Spain to bring about the union of Spain and France, contrary to the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht, and subversive of the balance of power in Europe. This alliance guaranteed the suc- cession of England in the house of Hanover, and that of France in the house of Bourbon; and it furthermore guaranteed that Spain and France should not be united under one crown. Spain accepted the conditions in 1720, when she resigned Sicily to Aus- tria, and Sardinia was settled on the Duke of Savoy. 1745. Between England, Austria, Holland, and Saxony, in support of Maria Theresa queen of Austria, who was attacked by the King of Bavaria and the King of Prussia (Frede- rick II. the Great). 1884. Between England, Belgium, France, and Spain ; to put down the Car- lists in Spain, and maintain Isabella on the Spanish throne. 1840. Between England, France, Por- tugal and Spain, to support Maria da Gloria on the throne of Portugal, Queen Isabella on the throne of Spain, and to compel Mehemet Ali pasha of Egypt to withdraw from an attack on Tur- key by the bombardment of Acre. QuaBSto'res Classic!. Roman ma- gistrates who had the charge of the public treasury. Called classics because they were originally elected by the centuries. Their number at first was two ; increased to four in B.C. 421 ; to eight soon after the Punic war; to twenty in the time of Sulla; and to forty in the time of Julius Ceesar. Quaesto'res Parricidii, ,i.e. track- ers of murder. The most ancient of the queestorial magistrates of Rome. They were, later on, made public assessors, and ceased to exist in B.C. 866, when their duties were transferred to the ' Triumviri Capitales.' Quaker Poet (The). Bernard Bar- ton (1784-1849). Quakers, 1650. A religious sect founded by George Fox. Their great doctrine is that all religion consists in the inward operation of the Holy Spirit. They have no sacraments, no ordained ministers, are very serious in deportment, sober in dress, reject oaths, refuse the payment of tithes, use thou and thee in- stead of you, and call the days of the week and the months 1st, 2nd, and 3rd, &c. instead of Monday, Tuesday, &c., January, February, March, &c. They call themselves ' Friends.' The word ' Quaker ' is used as a term of disrespect. See ' Nicolites.' It Is said that they were called Quakers because Fox, who had been imprisoned by the Puritans, when brought before Gervas Bennet, bade his judge 'quake and tremble at the judgments of God.' Be this as it may, no body of Christians even approach them in morality. Quakers' * Confession of Faith.' (The) contains twenty-three articles by Robert Barclay (Evans, ' Ex- position," p. 67). Quakers of Germany (The). The Moravians (q.v.). Qualification (Property). Before Locke King's bill in 1859 all members of parliament were obliged to swear that they possessed a clear estate in perpetuity of 501Z. a year (if a county member), and of 300Z. a year (if a borough member), un- less the son of a peer. The argument that the abolition of the qaaliflca- tion test would encourage men of straw to set up 728 QUALIFICATION QUARTODECIMANS aa candidates at elections was met by the fact that this did not happen in Scotland, where no qualification was required. HowiTT, History of Kiifllond (1KV.H, y. 62/6. Qualification Act (The). A bill passed in the reign of Queen Anne, oblig- ing every candidate for a seat in the House of Commons to show that he is worth 501 1. a year in land if for a county, 800Z. a year if for a borough. Abolished by 29 Viet. c. 22 (1866). There is another Qualification Act, but that la for killint/ yamf., 22, 23 Car. II. o. 26. Abolished by 1, 2 Will. IV. o. 82. Qualifiers. Officials in the 'Con- gregation of the Holy Office ' (q.v.), whose duty it is to report on each case of sus- pected heresy for the information of the cardinals. Quarantaine-le-Roi (La), 1245. An ordinance by St. Louis which ren- dered it a capital offence for an ' avenger of blood ' to seek the death of the offender till full forty days had elapsed. In other words, there was to be a truce of forty days between the offence and the license of the kinsmen of the murdered person to avenge the death. This ordinance put an end to the guerres privies of France. Quaranti. The forty. Three tri- bunals of Venice were composed of forty members: (1) The tribunal of appeal from the j udgment of the city magistrates ; (2) the tribunal of appeal from the sen- tences of the magistrates extra muros ; and (3) the criminal tribunal for all crimes except high treason. Quare Impedit. A writ to inquire why a bishop has refused to institute to a living a legal presentee. Pronounce Quai^-re irn'-pe-dit. Quarrel of Friars (The), 1518. So the Lutheran controversy was con- temptuously termed at Rome. Quarta Luna Nati. Born to ill- luck, like Hercules, who was so born. According to tradition Abel was born on the fourth day of the moon, and was slain by his brother on the seventh day of the moon. Quarter Licence (A). A marriage licence after banns, limited to three calendar months. After the expiration of thiee months new banns must be asked if marriage has not been solemn ized. Quarter Sessions. A court of justices of the peace held every three months in each county or borough for judicial and other business. The meet- ings are fixed by statute for the first full week after 28 Dec. (Epiphany), the first full week after 81 March (Easter), the first full week after 24 June (Trinity), and the first full week after 11 Oct. (Michaelmas) Sessions. The jurisdiction of the Court of Quarter Ses- sions Is confined to criminal business, not In- cluding treason, murder, capital felony, blas- phemy, perjury, forgery, arson, bigamy, abduction, bribery, sedition. Ac. Quarterings. Subdividing an ar- morial shield so that the son of an heiress or co-heiress at her death may marshal the coat of their mother or their own paternal coat. Beet les the maternal arms the arras of all those to which the mother was entitled may be quar- tered according to seniority. Quartermaster (The). An officer on the staff of each regiment, in which h< ranks as lieutenant. His duties are to superintend the quarters, barracks, and kits of the regiment ; to assign to each officer his rooms, and act as regimental storekeeper. After ten years' service he may retire with the honorary rank of captain. In the navy the quartermaster is appointed by the captain, and bis duties are to take charge of the stowage of ballast and provisions, coiling of ropes, keeping time by the sand glasses, Ac. The ship's quartermaster receives 411. 1*. ad. a year. Quartermaster-General (The). A staff-officer whose duty it is to arrange the marches, quarters, and internal ar- rangements of the army to which he belongs. His salary is 1782. Is. Gd. besides his pay. Quartermaster - Sergeant. A non-commissioned officer whose duty it is to assist the quartermaster. He receives daily 2s. 8d. in the infantry of the line, 8s. %d. in the cavalry, and 8*. 9\d. in the artillery. Quartodec'iman Pasch. The Easter of the Quartodeclmans (q.v.). Quartodec'imanism. The heresy of the Quartodecimans (q.v.). Quartodeclmans (The), or ' Pasch- ites' (2 syl.) 2nd cent. Christians who celebrated Easter on the fourteenth day of the first moon, whether Sunday or not, in imitation of the Jews. In 196 QTTASIMODO QUEEN 799 Pope Victor excommunicated all those who held Easter on any day but Sunday. The dispute was not finally settled till 325 in the Council of Nice, which pre- scribed the rule that 'the festival of Easter shall be held on the Sunday next after the fourteenth day of the first lunar month.' The Asiatic churches followed the quartodecu- man practice, which they traced to the apostles John and Philip. The Western churches supported their views on the authority of Peter and Paul. Keperimus quosdam . . . quartodeclma luna cum Hdbrajis celebrare nitentes [i.e. celebrate the 'immolation of Christ']. BEDE, 11. ch. 19. Quasimo'do Sunday. The first Sunday after Easter. The introitus (or beginning of the mass) commences with the word ' Quasimodo.' See ' Sunday.' Sometimes called 'Dominica in albis,' because the neophytes who had been baptized at Easter wore their white dresses for the last time on Quasimodo Sunday, the octave of Easter Day. Quatre Nations (Les), 1661. An ancient college of Paris founded by Mazarin for the gratuitous education and bringing up of sixty sons of poor gentle- men of Spain, Italy, Germany, or Flan- ders. It is now ' Le Palais de 1'Institut.' Quatre Premieres Filles de Citeaux (Les). The four chief Cister- cian abbeys of France, viz. La Forte", Pontigny, Clairvaux, and Morimond. Quatre Temps (Les). The three days' fast (Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday) at the beginning of each of the four seasons. These are ordination times. These fasts were introduced into France in 769, and Gregory VII. fixed the weeks in which the four fasts were to be held ; called also Ember-days. The Greek Church does not keep the Quatr* Temps. Queen (The White). 'La Heine Blanche.' Mary queen of Scots was so called by the French because she dressed in white mourning for her husband, Francois II. king of France. Queen Anne's Bounty, 2, 8 Anne, c. 11, 7 Feb., 1704. An act of par- liament by order of the queen to appro- priate her revenue arising from the tenths and first-fruits to the augmentation of small livings and to aid the poor of the clergy. The income was 17,OOOZ. a year, to which parliament added an annual grant of 100,0001!., and private individuals ha ye utill further increased the fund. These first-fruits and tenths were originally sent to Eome. Henry VIII. added them to the crown revenue. They are calculated according to the value set down In the ' Liber Regis.' Queen Anne's Dead. Addison announced this in the ' Spectator ' long after it was public property, and in 1889 his letter containing the announcement was sold by Sotheby & Wilkinson at a literary sale. Queen Bess's Day, 18 Nov., when the pope and the devil were burnt in effigy. In Queen Anne's reign the ' Pre- tender ' was added. Queen Dick. Richard Cromwell was so called from his want of spirit arid manliness (1626, 1658-16GO, died 1712). Queen Eleanor Crosses. Nine crosses erected by the executors of Queen Eleanor, the wife of Edward I. (1) Lin- coln, (2) Northampton, (3) Stony Strat- ford, (4) Woburn, (5) Dunstable, (6) St. Albans, (7) Waltham, (8) Cheap in Lon- don, and (9) Charing Cross in London. Of these the crosses at Northampton and Waltham have been restored, and the cross of Charing Cross, pulled down by the Long Parliament 1647, has been built in facsimile in Charing Cross Station. There are two other Queen Eleanor crosses not included in the nine, one at Geddington and one at Newark. Holinshed's story IB contradicted by the MS discovered In 1841. See p. 287, ' Eleanor Crosses. 1 Queen Henry. Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., was so prayed for in the royal chapel, her French name Hen' riette being distasteful to English ears. Queen Margaret's Cave, Northumberland. After the battle of Hexham in 1464, Queen Margaret and her son Prince Edward were concealed in a cave on the south bank of a little stream which runs at the foot of Block- hill. Here they lay concealed till they escaped to Scotland. Queen Sarah. The imperious Sarah Jennings duchess of Marlborough, the queen of Queen Anne (1660-1744). Queen Anne only reigned, while Queen Sarah governed. Temple Bar, 208. Queen Square Hermit (The). Jeremy Bentham, who lived at No. 1 Queen Square, London (1748-1832). Queen Victoria. Her name ac- cording to Lodge's ' Peerage ' is Alexan- 730 QUEEN QUEEN'S drina- Victoria, but according to ' Men of the Time,' Victoria-Alexandrina [Guelf]. Her husband's name was Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emanuel [Wetter]; whence the queen is sometimes jocosely called ' Mrs. Wetter.' Some add Busiri to the prince's name. Queen of Beauty (The). The Duchess of Somerset, grandmother of Lady Houghton, who died 1887. Queen of Hearts (The). Elizabeth Stuart, daughter of James I. of England, was so called by her friends, but her enemies called her the Snow Queen (q.v.). She was not only lovely, but of a most kindly disposition, and was by her own mother called the ' Good Palatine.' She married Friedrich, the elector palatine [king of Bohemia], by whom she had eight sons and five daughters. One of her sons was the famous Prince Maurice, and her youngest daughter was Sophia, mother of George I. (1596-1662). Queen of Heaven (The). I. So Kao-tsong emperor of China called his wife (Voo-chee). Kao-tsong reigned in China 650-684. Voo-Cheo was a most infamous woman, the Catharine de 1 Medici of China. II. The Virgin Mary is so called by Catholics, but not by Protestants. Queen of Sheba (The). Nicaulis ' is the name given in the church of All- hallows, London, where is a large paint- ing on cloth, with the effigy of Queen Elizabeth lying on her tomb. The first two lines of the inscription are : Read hat her reign, this princess might have been For wisdom called Nicaulls, Sheba's queen. V The Arabs call her ' Balkls ' or ' Belkis ' ; the Abysslniana call her ' Macqueda ' ; others call her 'Aacis.' It is said, on her return to Sheba [or Aial], that she changed her son's name ' Menllek ' Into David.' Queen of Tears (The). Mary of Modena, second wife of James n. of England, who was for ever weeping for the crown which her own ill policy con- tributed to lose (1658-1718). Queen of the Adriatic (The). Venice. Queen of the ./Egean. Lesbos. Queen of the Antilles [An-teel]. Cuba. Queen of the Desert. The foolish title which Lady Hester Lucy Stanhope tried to assume (1776-1839). Eft, Queen of the East. Zenobin queen of Palmyra (reigned 266-273). Queen of the Eastern Archi- pel'ago. Java. Queen of the Euxine (The). Sebastopol. Queen of the Lakes (The). Windermere, partly in Lancaster and in Westmoreland. The largest n England. Queen of the Mediterranean (The). Carthage, during her maritime supremacy that is, before the Punic Wars had discrowned her. Queen of the Mississippi Valley. St. Louis, Missouri. Queen of the North. Edinburgh. Queen of the Northern Seas. Queen Elizabeth was so called because of her powerful navy (1583, 1558-1608). Great Britain, for a similar reason, is called ' Queen of the Ocean ' or ' Queen of the Seas.' Hence the pun ' If Britannia rules the waves, I wish she d rule them a little stralghter.' Tyre was also called ' Queen of the Sea. Queen of the South. Queen of Sheba or Saba (q.v.). The qneen of the south .... came from the uttermost parts of the earth to hear the wisdom of Solomon. Matthew xli. 43; 1 Kings x. 1. Queens' College. I. In bridge University, founded by Queen Margaret of Anjou, consort of 1 r.-nry V I ., in 1448, and refounded in 14C>5 by Eliza- beth Woodville, consort of Edward VI. The head of Queens' College is called the president. II. Oxford, 1840, founded by Robert de Eglesfield, chaplain to Queen Philippa, wife of Edward III. The headmaster is called the provost. Queen's Day, 17 Nov. The day of the accession of Queen Elizabeth (1533, 1558-1608). Queen's Evidence, or 'King's Evidence.' The disclosure of a guilty transaction by one of the guilty party on the assurance of freedom from punish- ment. Such an impeacher of his accom- plices is said ' to turn queen's evidence.' Queen's Gap (The) at Hampden, So called because Griffith Hampden, Esq., cut this passage through his wood when Queen Elizabeth went to visit him. Evelyn did the same when Peter the Great Ylsited bis seat at Wotton, In Surrey. QUEEN'S QuiNI-SEXT 731 Queen's Herb (The). Snuff was BO called, at least in France, in the 16th cent, in compliment of Catherine de' Medici, who was passionately fond of it. Queen's Men (Scotch history). See p. 490, ' King's and Queen's Men.' Queen's Poisoner (The). Master Rene, employed by Catherine de' Medici, the queen-mother of Charles IX. He poisoned Jeanne d'Albret, mother of Henri [IV.] of France, on her visit to the court to be present at the marriage of her son Henri to the Princess Marguerite, the sister of Charles IX. Jeanne d'Al- bret arrived at the court on 15 May; fell ill 4 June, died 9 June, being poisoned by a pair of gloves sent to her by the Florentine perfumer. Queen's University (Ireland), 1850, founded by Queen Victoria. Queen's Ware, 1763. A durable earthenware first manufactured by Wedg- wood, and patronised by Queen Charlotte. Queenstown (Ireland), 1848. 1 Cove ' was so named from the visit of Queen Victoria accompanied by Prince Albert, the Prince of Wales, Prince Alfred, the Princess Koyal, and the Princess Alice. Just as ' Dunleary ' was christened Kingstown in honour of the visit of George IV. in 1821. Queries (Constitutional), 1750. Papers aimed against the Duke of Cum- berland, and distributed through the penny post to each member of both houses of parliament. These papers are generally attributed to Lord Egmont. Burnt by the common hangman. Horace Walpole says the imputations made in the ' Queries were : (a) that the Duke of Cumber- land had disgraced or dismissed old officers, men of family and property, to make way for slaves, boys, and beggars ; (b) that he had acquired abso- lute power over the army, and was trying to make himself master of the fleet ; (c) that he had shown in Scotland an army superior to law ; (d) that the right of succession was endangered by him. Queries (the second paper), 1751, respecting the imprisonment in Newgate of Mr. Murray, M.P., who was accused by the bailiff of threatening his life during the election. Murray refused to receive on his knees the judgment of the house, saying he would kneel to no mortal man or set of men, and was committed to Newgate for contempt, where he re- mained till the close of the sessions. The ' Queries ' condemned the Commons f 01 acting ultra vires. Qui tam. An action partly at the suit of the crown and partly at that of an informer. So called from the first two words, ' Qui tam pro domina reglna, quam pro se ipso, sequitur.' Quia Empto'res (The Statute of), 18 Edw. I. st. 1, c. 1, A.D. 1290. Making it lawful for every freeman to sell at pleasure his lands and tenements, or any part of them, under the proviso that the new feofee shall hold them of the chief lord thereof by the same service as the previous one held them. In other words, the sub-tenant was to hold of the lord or proprietor, not of the tenant. Emp tores (3 syl.). Qui'etists. Those Christians who consider the highest state of man is stoical indifference to all temporal matters, and an unremitted contempla- tion of religious subjects. Like the Buddhists they place perfection in divine repose. Mme. Guyon, the mystic, was the founder of Quietism in France in the reign of Louis XIV. See ' Molinos.' The Hesychasts or monks of Mount Athos would pass whole days looking at their own navels. Mme. Guyon of France was a very cele- brated Quietist, and so was Molinos in Spain. Quindecemviri. A college of priests instituted by Tarquinius Superbus to take charge of the Sibylline books, and they alone could consult them. It was Sylla who increased the number to 15 ; originally there were only 2, and the intermediate number was 10 ; they wore the toga prretexta, and were elected for life. This college continued to the time of Theodosius. Quini-sext. A supplemental coun- cil to the fifth and sixth general councils. The fifth was held in 558 on the subject of the ' Three Chapters ' ; and the sixth held in (560 to condemn the Monoth'elites (4 syl.) (q.v.). In 692 some 211 bishops met in a hall (called Trullus) of the im- perial palace at Constantinople. It laid down a law respecting celibacy which greatly displeased the Western Church, and prohibited fasting on Saturday even in Lent. The Pope of Rome reprobated the acts of the Quinisext Council, which pronounced the ' Apostolic Constitutions ' to be apocryphal. Quinque five, tex six. The council la by th 782 QUINQUAGESIMA QUORUM Greeks called the ncv#im? t from nvr five, and T; sixth. Quinquagesi'ma Sunday. The fiftieth day before Easter Sunday, or rather the "period when fifty special ser- vices will be held before Easter. In all such ecclesiastical terms as Septuagesima, Sexagesima, Quinquagesima, and Quadri- gesima, the week is reckoned as a ten-day week, because its octave and two eves are reckoned in. Quinquagesima Sunday precedes Ash Wednesday. See ' Sundays.' 1 Eve of Sunday, '2 Sunday, 8 Monday, 4 Tuesday, 5 Wednesday, 6 Thursday, 7 Friday, 8 Saturday, 9 Octave eve, 10 Octave. So in music 7 notes with the octave of the 1st we call an ' octave ' and the 8 days of the entombment were 1 eve of Sat '2 Saturday, 8 eve of Sunday. Quin'quartie'ular Controversy (The), 1618-1619. The controversy of the five points of dispute between Calvin and Arminius. The Synod of Dort was con- vened to settle this controversy, but, as it excluded all Arminians, it wot a one-sided ynod of no authority. Quin'quartie'ular Grace, con- sisting of five articles. That is the five articles representing justification and grace, and in which reformers did not agree, but which the Synod of Dort met to settle. The door waa thrown wide by a lackey In lace, Saying. What may you please to want with hii Grace T ' ' His Grace ! ' quoth Jerome, for posed was he To guess of what kind this Grace could be Whether Grace preventive, or Grace jwticular, Or Grace of that sort called quinquui . 759. A Saracenic sect believing in metempsy- chosis. Rawlinsonian Professorship (The) of Anglo-Saxon, in Oxford Univer- sity. Stipend 800J. a year. Founded by Richard Rawlinson, D.C.L., of St. John's College, in 1750. Rayleigh d'lsgustin (Sir). A punning toast (Really disgusting, Sir), by way of reproof. Re Qalantuomo, Victor Emmanuel II. (1820-1878), king of Sardinia 1849, king of Italy 1861. ' Here ' (said Garibaldi), ' In the presence of oar Be Qalantuomo, I must be permitted to speak my mlnd.'-HowiTT, Hittory of England (year 1869). p. 688. Readers = 'Lectores' in the Greek and Latin Churches, were young men studying for the priesthood. They served ae secretaries to the bishops, and were promoted according to merit ; some, how- ever, never graduated to any higher degree. Tertullian is the first who men- tions this office. The readers had charge of all the sacred books, and acted as messengers. By the Fourth Council of Carthage the bishop, on ordaining a reader, had to place a Bible in the hand of the candidate, and Bay : ' Receive this book, and be a reader of the Word of God. If tliou exercise thy ministry faithfully, Uiou wilt have part with those who ad- minister God's word.' The lectors used to read the Epistles till Inno- cent III. appointed the office of sub-deacon In the 10th cent. ; but after that the lector only read the lessons at matins. Reading (The Council of), 1279. It enacted that two representatives chosen by the clergy of each diocese shall attend the national synod, to consult respecting the redress of grievances, granting subsi- dies, and whatever else relates to the well- being of the Church. This is called the nucleus of ' Convocation.' Pronounce Red'-ding. Real Estate. Land and houses, in opposition to personal property, such as cash, jewels, and furniture. The Romans divided property into immovable (real) and movable (personal). Lands and houses are real because they cannot be carried away ; personal property can be moved by the possessor from place to place. Real Laws. Laws for the regulation of property without interfering with the state of persons. Les lols rtalles n'ont point d'extension dlrecte nl Indirecte bora la Jurirtiction et la domination du leglslateur.-STOBY. Conflict of Lout. 610. Real Presence. The dogma that the bread and wine in the eucharist, after consecration, become the veritable and real body and soul, humanity and divinity of Christ. This is called the doctrine of transubstantiation, and is held by the Roman and Eastern Churches. Luther taught the same doctrine with a difference. By transubstantiation is meant that the wine is no longer wine, and the bread is no longer bread after consecration; Luther taught that the bread and wine remained bread and wine, but that the body and soul, humanity and divinity of Christ were incorporated with those ele- ments. This is called the doctrine of con-substantiation. Calvin taught that the body and soul of Christ were taken only by faith, and not substantially by communicants in the eucharist. Lather's word was impanation. As Ood was incarnate in Christ, so Christ was impanated. or Introduced into the elements of bread and wine, and incorporated with them. Real Right. A jut in re or right in the thing itself, and not its equivalent ; in opposition to jus ad rem, or a right to enforce an obligation or the performance of something. A servant has a ju$ in re, a master a jtu ad rrm. A master most pay his servant VOQCI, and cannot instead of wages substitute work. A servant, on the other band, must give hU master iro. *. and cannot be allowed to pay money instead. Thus a nm*tor. by p:i> Inc n month b will's in advance. can dismiss a ser vant ; but a servant cannot, by f or felting a months wages, qulta The master's obligation to a servant is servant s obligation to a master is work. Realists. Those who believe in real- ism, or the independent existence of universals. Tree in the abstract is a universal ; an oak-tree, an elm, a fir-tree, are particular trees. Now realists main- tain that tree exists in the abstract, and is not the hypothetical creature inferred from particular objects. Nominalists say universalia post rem, universals are ti posteriori, and particulars come first. Realists say universalia ante rem, that universals precede sensible objects REALM REBELLION 789 In theology we are told that Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are one God. There wese certain divines who insisted that these three persons were only three names (nomina) of the same Being, as father, son, and husband are three names of the same person. Other theologians insisted that they are not only three names, but three real persons. Guillaume de Champeaux (1053-1120) was the tounder of the realistic school. There is yet a third sort of realism, or belief viz. that the phenomenal world has an objective existence, quite independent of our perception thereof. To me or you the phenomenal world is what our senses cognise ; but even if we were deprived of our senses, and there was no phenomenal world to us, still (say the realists) the phenomena would exist. This realism is opposed to Berkeley's ' Idealism.' Traced to its origin we come to Plato and Aristotle. Plato insisted that the divine idea is a real something, a mould or matrix in which creation was fashioned. Aristotle contended that the Divine word was enough ; ' he commanded, and it was done.' *.* We also speak of realism In art and letters, meaning an Imitation of nature, not a fanciful Ideal. Hosceline seems to have raised the question whether the personal distinctions of the Deity are real or only nominal. St. Anselm of Canterbury, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus were Realists. Abelard, William Occam, Buridan, Hobbes, Locke, Bishop Berkeley, Condillao, and Dugald Stewart were Nominalists. The Realist (as opposed to the Idealist) holds that the phenomenal world has an objective ex- istence. The Idealist contends that it has only a subjective existence. The -whole contest may be settled thus: To an individual every phenomenon is only subjective to him ; that is, his perception of a phenomenon depends upon his senses, but inde- pendent of himself the phenomenon is real, or there is a real phenomenon. Realm of St. Stephen (The). Hungary. Croatia is still a member of the realm of St. Stephen. VAMBERY, Hungary, chap. vil. Rebecca Riots (The), 1843. A crusade against toll-gates begun in Wales. See next article. Rebeccaites, or 'Children of Re- becca,' 1839. Welsh rioters who went about destroying turnpike gates. So called from Rebekah, the bride of Isaac. When she left home her father and friends said to her (Gen. xxiv. 60), ' Let thy seed possess the gate of those which hate thee.' See ' Rebecca Riots.' Also called 'Rebecca's Daughters,' and 'Re- beccas.' The word has been revived of late In reference to illegal fishing. * Rebekah's Camels ' Bible (The), 1823. So called because in Gen. xxiv. 61 the word ' damsels ' is mis- printed camels. Thus: 'And Rebekah arose, and her camels' [damsels]. See 'Bibles.' Rebel Crown (The). A silver 5s. piece struck at Kilkenny in the reign of Charles I. There are seven varieties, distinguished by the size of the crown, and the shape of the letter S. Rebellion (The Great). That of the Parliamentarians against Charles I. of England. It began in August, 1642, when Charles set up his standard at Nottingham, and terminated with the Restoration of Charles II., 29 May, 1660. Rebellion of Paraguay (The), 1750. The Spanish Jesuits succeeded in forming a flourishing colony, amounting to 200,000 individuals, in Paraguay and Parana, which for a century and a half enjoyed both peace and happiness ; then Spain gave up seven districts of Paraguay to Portugal in exchange for certain territory on the left bank of the river Plate, and ordered the colony to remove. The Indians resisted, and this resistance was called rebellion. Ultimately the matter was arranged, and the colony re- mained undisturbed. Rebellion of Shane O'Neil, in Ulster, 1561. On the death of O'Neil earl of Tyrone a dispute arose respecting the succession. England acknowledged the eldest son as heir to the earldom, while the sept maintained their right of choosing a chief from any of the family, and selected a younger son Shane O'rTeil made good his claim by the sword, and having defeated the lord deputy invaded Connaught. He was defeated by Colonel Randolph in 1566, took refuge in Antrim, and was hewn to pieces, June 1567, in a drunken squabble by his Scotch retainers. Rebellion of 1715 (The), when the Chevalier de St. George landed in Scotland. James Francis Edward, son of James II., was defeated at Preston Nov. 1715, and the cause was resumed in 1745 by his son Charles Edward. See below, ' Rebellion of 1745.' These were reasons which unquestionably operated to prevent [in l?0ttj that bloody retail*. 710 REBELLION RECUSANTS tlon which followed the rebellions of 1710 and 1745. HOWITT, Hilt. ofEna. (Anno, 246). Rebellion of 1745 (The), when Charles, afterwards the ' Young Pre- tender,' landed in Scotland. Charles Edward Stuart proclaimed his father ' James VIII. of Scotland,' and defeated the royal troops at Prestonpans (22 Sept., 1745), and at Falkirk (28 Jan., 1746), but was defeated at Culloden (16 April, 1746), and returned to France. At hia father's death (81 Jan., 1788) he became ' the Young Pretender.' Rechabites (8 syl.). The posterity of Jonadab, son of Rechab, who were forbidden to build houses, to plant vine- yards, to possess lands, to dwell in tents, and to drink wine. They continued to observe these injunctions for 800 years. (Jer. mv. 6, 7.) They were probably carried away captive by e title of Psalm Ixx. is ' Bang the Chaldeans, as th by the sons of Jonadab and the principal cap- tives. 1 They returned from captivity, and settled in the city of Jabes, beyond Jordan. Reciprocity Acts, 1828 (4 Geo. IV. c. 77 ; 5 Geo. IV. c. 1), empowering the king, by order in council, to authorise the importation and exportation of goods in foreign ships, provided the foreign country in whose favour the order is made places British ships on the same footing as its own ships. See ' Navigation Act.' Reciprocity Treaty (The), 7 June, 1854 (18 Viet. c. 8). Between Great Britain and the United States, regulating British American coast-fisheries, and the navigation of the St. Lawrence and the lakes. Terminated by notice from the United States 17 March, 18G6. Recluse of Edgbaston (The). John Henry Newman, created cardinal (1801-1890), author of Tract No. 90, the hymn ' Lead, kindly Light,' and a dramatic poem called ' Gerontius,' with numerous other works. Recognition (The Act of), 1581. That the king and not the pope is ' unicus et supremus doininus' of the English Church ; not in the same sense as Christ is head of the Church, but in the sense that he is head of all his subjects, with a right to their allegiance, obedience, and submission in all legalised matters. Thus the Convocation of York. 1684, unani- mously agreed that the Pope of Borne ha* no ' greater Jurisdiction In these realms ' than any other foreign bishop. In the Convocation of Canter- bury thirty-four assented, one doubted, and four denied the Act as interpreted by the Convocation of York. See Article XXX VII. N.B. The words quantum per Chrlstl legem licet ' were afterwards added. Recognitions (The). Quoted by Origen as a work of Clement's; was a romance in ten books embodying the Christian doctrines and history. It was translated by Rufi'nus into Latin and called 'The Acts and Travels of St. Peter.' Called Recognition* because it supposes Clement to recognise his father, mother, and brother, who had been lost. Re* collet 8 (Reformed Franciscans). Established in Spain in 1484, introduced into France in 1592, and into Paris in 1608. Like the Soccolanti they adopted sandals. Reformed Clares and Colettes are called ' Recollettines ' (4 syl.). The word is RecoUectt, that Is reeuHUii. It baa reference to spiritual rx>U*0-tht is. the complete devotion of all the powers to a spiritual life. Reconciliation (TheBillof), 1554. An Act of Parliament repealing the whole ecclesiastical legislation of Henry VIII. and Edward VL It, however, rejected all proposals for the restoration of church lands, and refused to change the succession from Elizabeth to Philip. Reconciliation (The Feast of the), 25 Jan. (St. Andrew's Day), 1555. To commemorate the return of England to the see of Rome in the reign of Mary. It was celebrated by a grand religious pro- cession, and ordered to be kept as an anniversary for ever. When the pope heard thereof he ordered jubilee In honour of the event. Recopilacion (The). The code of Castilian law. The deputies In 1626 obtained a general law. Inserted in the Recopilacion, enacting that the king snail answer all the petitions before he dissolves the assembly [Cortesj.-HALUM, Middlr Aget. voL 1L p. 48. Rector. In Oxford University ; the title of the head of Exeter College and Lincoln College. In the Church of England the rector has the great tithes; a vicar merely represents the owner of a living, and receives Cither an annual stipend or the small tithes. Recusants. Persons who wilfully absented themselves from their parish church on Sundays and other days ap- pointed by the ordinary. This absence was made a legal offence by 1 Eliz. c. 8, RECUSANTS RED 741 A..D. 1558. Popish recusants for wilfully hearing mass were fined 66Z. 13s. id. (100 marks) ; and for saying mass double that sum, with a year's imprisonment in both cases. They could inherit no real estate, purchase no land, teach in no school, hold no public office, were not permitted to have arms in their houses, could not appear within ten miles of London under a penalty of 100Z., could not travel above five miles from home without a licence, could bring no action at law or equity. These enactments were partly removed in 1791, and more fully by the Emancipation Act of 1829. Recusants (Statute of), 25 Henry VIII. c. 20, transferred the annates and tenths from the pope to the crown. Red and Black Lists (The). In the Irish parliament it was customary to publish lists of the Ayes and Noes on every important division. In the Union debates (1799, 1800) this custom was followed. These lists were printed in red and black. Hence the Red and Black Lists are lists of how the Irish members voted on the bills referred to. Red and Blue Cockade (The), 1789. The cockade given to the French militia at the outbreak of the great French Revolution. Red and blue were the Parisian colours. White was the royal colour. Before the militia (or national guard) was organised the insur- gents wore a green cockade (q.v.). The tricolour was adopted after the fall of the Bastille. Red and Blue Hoods (The). In 1356, during the captivity of Jean le Bon, the Commune of Paris, as opposed to the dauphin (afterwards Charles V.), wore party-coloured hoods, mi-partie (rouges et bleues) ; but at the death of the provost Marcel in 1358 this faction died away. Red or Cardinal Band (The), 1572. The companies of assassins organ- ized at Bordeaux for the massacre of the Huguenots at the general slaughter begun on Sunday, St. Bartholomew's Day. Red Beard. I. Friedrich I. kaiser of Germany, called Barbarossa (1121, 1152-1190). IT. Horush or Home sultan of Algiers (1474, 1516-1518). III. Khair Eddin sultan of Algiers (reigned 1518-1546). Red Book (The). I. In England is a register of all persons under government in every de- partment, legal, civil, military, and naval. This register in the American govern- ment is termed their ' Blue Book.' The words Red and Blue refer to the colour of the wrappers, but even those parts issued without wrappers retain the generic name. See ' Blue Book.' II. In China (so called from its red cover), contains the name, birthplace, and other particulars of the 14,000 officials of the Chinese empire. It is in six small volumes, and is printed quar- terly. No individual can hold a magistracy in his own province, and no public officer may make alli- ances with those under his own government ; nor can a son, brother, or other near relative hold office under a near kinsman. Red Book of Hergest (The). Includes the Mabinogion (q.v.), copies of some of the poems of Taliesin and of Llywarch Hen, a brief chronology from Adam to 1318, and a chronological his- tory of the English to 1376. The MSS. are preserved in the library of Jesus College, Oxford, and are of the 14th cent. Red Book of Maximilian I. of Ger- many (The). A manual which Maxi- milian always carried about him, and in which he set down all the injuries which he received from the French, a nation he hated with deadly hatred. Red Book of the Exchequer (The). ' Liber Rubens Scaccarii ' (in the Record Office), compiled in the reign of Henry III., 1246, by Alexander de Swere- ford archdeacon of Shrewsbury. It con- tains the returns of all tenants in capita in the reigns of Henry II., Richard I., John, and part of the reign of Henry III., certifying how many knights' fees they held, and the names of those who held them. It also contains much other matter from the Pipe Rolls and other sources. It has never been printed (1890). The other book is called the Black Book of the Exchequer, 'Liber Niger Scaccarii.' The Red Book derives its name from the colour of ita cover, ,'42 RED RED which was originally leather. pinkish-red The Red Book contains the only known frag ment of the Pipe Roll of 1 Henry II., and copies of the Important Inquisition returned into the Ex- chequer in 13 John. Bed Books of Spain (The). Similar to our Blue Books (q.v.). All sorts of official reports, papers, and docu- ments printed for government and laid before the legislative houses. Red and blue refer to the colours of the covers. See ' Yellow Books.' Bed Boots (A Pair of). A Tartar phrase referring to a custom of cutting the skin of a victim round the upper part of the legs, and then stripping it off at the feet. A Tartar will say, ' When you come my way again, I will give you a pair of red boots to go home in.' Bed Branch (Knights of the). An early military order of Ireland. So called from their chief seat, ' The School of the Red Branch,' in Emania, adjoining the palace of the Ulster kings. T. Moore refers to these knights in his 'Irish Melodies,' and subjoins a note of explana- tion : Let Erin remember the days of old .... When her kings, with standard of green unfurled, Led the Red-branch Knights to danger; Ere the emerald gem of the western world .W as-set in the crown of a stranger. Bed Button (A). A mandarin of the first class, whose badge of honour is a red button on his cap. An interview was granted to the admiral vishcn, the imperial commissioner, n in the empire, a mandarin of first [KlliotJ by Kishen, the imperial commissioner the third man in the empire, a mandarin of first class and red button. IIowiTT, Uiit. of England, 1841, p. 471. Bed Coat in Fox-hunting, flenry n. made fox-hunting a royal sport, and enjoined by mandate that all who took part in that royal sport should wear also the royal livery. Bed Columns of Venice (The). Two magnificent columns of red granite erected in the Piazzetta of St. Mark in 1180. They were brought in 1125 from Palestine by Dominico Michielli, the doge, but for more than fifty years were left on the quay because no one knew how to erect them. At length Nicolo Barattiero, a Lombard, succeeded in rearing them. One column is surmounted with the winged lion of St. Mark, and the other with a full-length statue of St. Theodore, armed with sword and lance, and tramp- ling on a serpent. The space between was the site of executions. St. Theodore carries his shield on his tight arm and his lance in the left hand. Between the pillars of St. Mark's, whore 'tis The custom of the State to put to death Its criminals. BYRON, Marine fulicro, v. 2. Recanati expiated his treason between the Red Columns. Iliitory of Venice, vol. i. p. 350. Bed Comyn (The). Son of John Comyn of Badenoch and Margery sister of John Baliol. David Earl of Huntingdon bad two daughters- Margery and Isabella. Margery s son was named Baliol. and Ballots son was BALIOL (the king). The kings daughter was Margery the mother of John, the * Red Comyn.' Isabella (Davids younger daughter < mother of BBUCB (the Competitor) ; the ' Compe- titor ' had a son named Bruce, whose son was ROBERT BBUCB, the great hero. Bed Cross (The). The Badge of the royal banner of England till those of St. Patrick and St. Andrew were added. The fall of Rouen (1419) was the fall of the whole province . . . and the red cross of England waved on all the tower* of Normandy. HOWITT, Hitt. of Bed Cross Knights (The). The Knights Templars, whose badge was a red cross on a white robe in contradistinction to the Knights Hospitallers, who wore a black robe with a white cross. See 1 Templars.' Bed Cross Society (The), 1870. For the relief of those wounded in battle. It recognises no distinctions of rank, friend, or foe. To be wounded is enough to call forth all its sympathy, all its skill, all its nursing care. The red cross on the field of battle is quite sufficient to command immunity from both belligeivnt armies. See ' Geneva Convention.' Bed Earl (The). Richard Burke or Burgo (12'27-1229), earl of Ulster. Bed Flag (.4). I. In the Roman empire signified war ; and when displayed on the capitol it was a call to arms. V As a railway signal It intimates danger, and warns the engine driver to stop. A green ft>? is displayed by way of caution, and a white flag sig- nifies that the rails are clear and all things in order. II. Hoisted by British seamen, it in- dicates that no concession will be made. Thus, previous to the mutiny at the Nore, the sailors at Portsmouth hoisted the red flag, and when Lord Bridport promised redress the crew of every ship hauled down the red flag. On the 23rd May [1797] the mutineers hoisted the red nag, and all the ships of war lying neat RED RED 743 Iheerness dropped down the Nore. HowiTT, Hist, of England, Geo. III. 1797, p. 158. III. In France. ' Le Drapeau Rouge,' since 1791, has been made the symbol of insurrection and terrorism. By a decree of the Constituent Assembly the red flag was unfurled to indicate that martial law was established, and that all gather- ings of the people would be dispersed by force of arms. Usually, a red flag signi- fies defiance. Black flag betokens a pirate ; -white flag, peace ; defiance; yellow flag signifies that " in quarantine. red fl vessel the IV. A symbol or synonym of radi- calism. Mr. Chamberlain sticks to the red flag, and apparently believes in its future success. News- paper paragraph, January 1886. Bed Flag with a White Flag (A) indicates that unless the besieged request peace without delay they will receive no quarter. De Feuquieres planted a cannon on a level with the castle, on the mountain of Quignevert, and then hoisted a white flag, and after that a red one. ANT. MONASTIEB, Hist, of the Vaudois Church, pp. 371-2. Bed Hand of Ulster (The). It is said that in an expedition to Ireland the leader thereof gave out that whoever first touched the Irish shore should be made possessors of the territory. One of the O'Neills, in order to be the first, cut off his hand and threw it on the coast. The badge of the O'Neills is the 'Red Hand.' Bed Hat. First presented by Inno- cent IV. to cardinals, 25 Dec., 1244, called ' the Sun's birthday,' and red is the sym- bolical colour of the sun. The notion that it indicates a willingness in a car- dinal to shed his blood for the church is mythical. David Beatoun was born of good family, had been made privy-seal by James V., and was raised to a red hat by Pope Paul III. PEINOK, Parallel History, vol. ii. p. 81. Bed Heads (The). The regular sol- diers of the Persian empire, so called from their red caps. The Persian word is ' Kuzzilbashes.' They were 80,000 in the reign of Shah Abbas, but were after- wards reduced to 30,000. Bed Hoods. The party colour of Paris. Blue hoods, the party colour of Navarre. Red and blue, the party colour of Charles [V.] when dauphin. White hoods, the party colour of the Burgun- Bed Hugh. Hugh O'Donell. So called from a red birth-mark on his face (reign of Elizabeth). Bed Indians of Newfoundland. So called because they daub their skin, garments, canoes, weapons, and almost everything with red ochre mixed with grease. Probably red has a religious significance, as the Maoris of New Zea- land regard red as a sacred colour. It will be remembered that when the banner of St. Ambrose, the sacred oriflamme of Milan, was taken to a battle-field, it was drawn in a red car by red bullocks har- nessed with red trappings. Whether it was merely a custom, or whether they daubed their skin with red ochre to protect it from the attacks of mosquitos and black flies, which swarm by myriads in the woods and wilds during the summer, it is not possible to say. Lady BLAKE, Nineteenth Century (Dec. 1888. p. 905). Bed King (The). I. Otto II. of Germany (955, 978-983). II. William II. \Eufus] of England (1057, 1087-1100). III. Amadeus VII. count of Savoy (1860, 1883-1891). See ' Red Beard.' Bed Land (The). The jurisdiction over which the Vehmgericht of West- phalia extended. The court was called a ' Free Session ' ; the judges were ' Free Grafs ' or * Free Burghers.' See ' Child of the Cord.' Bed Laws (The). The civil code. Juvenal says 'perlege rubras majorum leges ' (' Satires,' xiv. 198). The civil laws, being written in vermilion, were called rubrlca, and ' rubrica yetavit ' means ' it is forbidden by the civil laws.' The praetors' laws were inscribed in white letters, as Quintilian informs us (xii. 3), 'preetores edicta sua in albo propone bant.' Imperial rescripts were written in purple. Bed-Letter Days. Saints' days, Sundays, and festivals. Non-working days, printed at one time in red letters in almanacs. Bed Peter. Pierce earl of Ormond, deputy to the Earl of Surrey, lord- lieutenant of Ireland in the reign of Henry VIII. Bed Prince (The). Prince Fried- rich Karl of Germany (born 1828). So called because wherever he has made his appearance a red-letter day has been 744 RED REED added to the fasti of Fatherland'. His daughter Louise married the Duke of Connaught. Prince Friedrich Karl was one of the most successful generals of the age. Red Republicans. Extreme demo- crats who scruple not to dye their hands in blood. In France they used to wear red caps. This was taken from the old Roman custom of manumission. When a slave was manumitted a small red cloth cap, called pileus, was placed on his head. Their journals had red wrappers. See p. 406, ' Hats.' The red cap of the French Republicans waa a Phrygian cap, but the red cap given to the Roman lave was lack-shaped. See p. 140, ' Cap.' Red Scarfs (The). The party of Henri and Charles IX. White scarfs, the badge of the Crusader*. Ar- znagnaoB, and Huguenots. Green scarfs, the badge of Masarin, Isabella, and the Conde family. Tricolour scarfs, still worn In France by the municipal magistrates and the commissalres of White hood*, the badge of the Burgun- Red-Shanks, 1327. So the English called the Scotch, who covered their feet and shanks with the raw hides of the beasts which they looted from the Eng- lish, wearing the hair inside. In 1278 the Scots and Redshank? oat of the Highlands made a sudden Incursion Into Ireland, and. committing the most cruel murders and depredations, escaped with their booty before the inhabitants had time tc rally in their defence. THOMAS HOOKK, Hitt. of Ireland, ch. xxxv. Red Standard (The). This wan the Roman signal for battle. Red Triumvirate (The), 1849. Three cardinals sent by the pope from Gaeta to Rome after the Restoration to conduct the civil affairs of the Papal States during his voluntary exile. Delia Oenga was one of the Triumvirate. These commissioners robbed the people to the amount of 35 per cent, of all the money which bore the stamp of the republic, but promised liberal institutions so far as they were consistent with absolute power founded on divine right. Red Turbans, Green Turbans. The Shiahs or Shiites of Persia wear the red turban, as all the Fatimites of Egypt did, to distinguish themselves from the Sunie or Sunnites of Turkey. The de- scendants ot Fatima in Turkey, called ' emirs ' or ' sherecf s,' wear green turbans. Shiites the unorthodox Sunnitos the orthodox party. The former dc not allow the Kalifates of Aboubekr, Omar, or Othman. Reds and Blacks, or ' I Rossi,' ani 1 1 Neri.' The Signory or privy council of the Doge were termed ' I Rossi ' (the Reds) from their red robes of office. The Council of Ten was called ' I Neri ' from their black official robes. N.B. Red, white, blue, and green were livery colours worn in the chariot races of Constanti- nople, Just as light and dark blue are worn as distinctive colours in our university athletic con- tests, such as boat-racing, cricket, football, ) in the University Records. This officer, in the University of Oxford, is called the registrar (q.v.). Registration of Aliens Act (The), 6, 7 Will. IV. c. 11, A.D. 1836. This was the repeal of 7 Geo. IV. c. 54, A.D. 1827, which obliged all aliens or foreigners who visited the British Isles to present them- selves at the Alien Office to oe registered. By the new act, masters of vessels arriv- ing from foreign parts are required to declare what number of foreign passen- gers are on board, and every foreigner on landing is required to show his passport to the chief officer of customs at the port of debarkation. This registration and showing of passports is never exacted ; and no return is kept of vessels landing, nor have they been registered since 1842. Registration of Copyright (The), 5, 6 Viet. c. 45, A.D. 1842, autho- rizing the registration at Stationers' Hall of the title of copyright property. The omission to register will not affect the copyright, but will bar any action being brought for its infringement. Registration of Death (The), 1874. 87, 88 Viet. c. 88, s. 8 enacts that the death of every person dying in Eng- land shall be registered within five days of the decease, and the cause of death stated on a certificate to be handed to the officiating minister before interment. It devolves on the nearest relatives present at the doath or in attendance at the time to give the registrar notice and to sign the register. In default of relatives the duty devolves on the occupier and inmates of the house. Registration of Electors Act (The}. 2 William IV. c. 46, s. 26, A.D. 1882, making it requisite for a voter in the election of members of Parliament to be registered before exercising the fran- chise. This Is sometimes called ' The Registration of Voters Act. 1 Regium Donum. An annual grant of public money for the maintenance of dissenting ministers in Ireland. It be- gan in 1672, when Charles II. gave 6001. of secret service money to be distributed annually among the Presbyterian clergy in Ireland. William III. in 1690 increased the grant to 1,2007. a year. George IIL a 17b4 rained it to 2,200Z., and in 1792 to 5,OOOZ. In 18G3 the grant was 89/746Z.' and in 1869 it was abolished. In 1798 commenced an annual grant to dissent- ing ministers in England. A Regius Professor of Civil Law (The), in the University of Cam- bridge, 1540, founded by Henry VIII. Original stipend 40Z. a year. Present stipend 5842. 18s., and 10 guineas a head from each of the students who attend hi* lectures. See ' Downing Professorship of the Laws of England,' 'International Law, n Tara bill, 15 Aug., 10 754 REPEAL RESCRIPT under the auspices of Daniel O'Connell, and the last was at Mullaghmast, 1 Oct., 1848. See ' Irish Associations.' Repeal of the Union (between (treat Britain and Ireland). Resolutions in its favour passed by a meeting at Dublin, 1 Sept., 1810. Associations or- ganised to promote the repeal in 1829. O'Connell brought forward his motion for the repeal in 1834, but it was rejected by the House of Commons. The National Association for the Repeal was estab- lished in 1840, and monster meetings were held for the object on Tar a hill in Aug. 1848. In 1881-1890 the question again agitated Ireland under the leader- ship of Mr. Parnell. See ' Irish Associa- tions.' Representers (The), 1721. The twelve ' Marrow-men ' (q.v.) were so called because they signed a ' representation ' or protest against the judgment of the General Assembly on the subject of the book entitled ' The Marrow of Modern Divinity.' See ' Marrow Controversy.' Republica Parthenope'a, 1799. The republic of Naples was so named by Chain pionnet, who took possession of it. one of tho syrens who was said to have li of Neapolis, NeapollR WM anciently called Parthonflpe. from lived e. Napes, a contraction of Neapolis, mean* the New City, referring to the new city built by a colony of Cumaaans. Republican Calendar. L The Months, beginning 22 Sept. Each month 80 days. AuTtnm. Vendemlalre (Vintage month) _ Sept. * -Oct. . Rrumaire (Foggy month) ...... Oct. 23 Nov. - rrlmaire (Sleety month) ...... NoT.ai-Deo. 80. WINTER. Nivose (Snowy month) ... ... ... Dee.tt.-Jan.I9. Pluvloae (Rainy month) ...... Jan. 90 Feb. 18. Ventose (Windy month) ...... Feb. 19 Mar. SO. SPRING. Germinal (Budding month) ... If ar. April 19. FlorsaJ (Flowery mouth) ... April 90 May 19. I'rairial (Pasture month) ...... May 90 June 18. BUMMKR. Messldor (Harvest month) . ... June 19 July 18. Thormidor (Hot month) ...... July 19 Aug. 1? Fructldor (Fruit month) ...... Aug. 18 Sept. 10* From Sept. 16 to Sept. 22 are five days. These were called Stint ruMtidft'd syl.), and were national holidays ; 17 dedicated to Venus, 18 to Genius, 19 to Labour, 20 to Opinion, and 21 to Rewards. II. The Years. Year I. Prom 23 Sept., 1793 to 21 Sept., 1798. : & : : gf; ; (ft : l : : II: : it Year VII. From 23 Sept., 1796 to 21 Sept., 179a. VIII. 17 '' , 1800, IX. H ItOO 1801. X. 1801 , 1803. XI. ,. T 1*02.. " 103. XII. 1808 ,. , 1H04. XIII. m 1804 , 1806. XIV. 1805 to the close of t hs rear, when the reckoning was abolished by Napo Republican Calendar of Brazil, 1890, beginning with Sunday: Humanidi, Maridi, Patridi, Filidi, Fratidi, Domidi, and Matridi. This ridiculous list of names is called the ' Positivists' Calendar,' and the twelve months ur equally absurd. Charlemagne July I intite August Gutenberg-September Si.;iki^|..-aro ortuU-r Descartes November Frederick the Great-!**. Moses-Janoary Homer February Aristotle March Archimedes-April St. Paoi-June Republican Marriages, 1794. A device by Carrier for putting to death those persons in Nantes supposed to be disaffected towards the republic. It con- sisted in tying men and women together by their hands and feet and casting llu-m into the Loire. No people in the worM have shown such refinement of savage cruelty as the French. > ' Damiens,' aa one example out of many Republican Martyr (The). Jean Paul Marat, murdered in his Lath by Charlotte Corday (1744-1793). Requests by the Captain of the Great Assembly in Kent (The), June 1450. A paper of grievances and requests handed in by Jack Cade for the consideration of the king and his advisers. It demanded that the king should resume the crown grants, so that his subjects might be relieved of too heavy taxation ; that the false progeny of the Duke of Suffolk be dismissed from the king's council ; and that the Duke of York be restored. Jack Cade was an illegitimate son of the Duks of York. Rescessory Act (The), 1661. Whereby Charles II. revoked his oath taken in Scotland to be true to the 1 Engagement ' (q.v.). The revocation was grounded on the plea of moral com- pulsion. The Rescessory Act at one blow levelled with the ground every legal prop of the Scottish Kirk. Dr. LINOARD, Hittory of England, ix. 1. Rescript (A). The response of * king to Mi individual on some question RESCRIPTS RESTORERS 765 officially submitted to him. If the re- sponse is made to a council, corporation, or community, it is called a ' Pragmatic Sanction.' Rescripts (The) are replies of the Roman emperors to questions of law put to them by magistrates and colonial governors. They were written in purple ink. The edicts of praetors were in white, and the jus civile ir. red ink. Reservatum Ecclesiasticum. A provision of the religious Peace of Westphalia (1549), whereby the church claimed the territorial property annexed to any dignity if the holder thereof changed his religion. This enactment led to the Thirty Years' War (q.v.). Residences of the kings of France. See p. 492, ' Kings of France,' &c. Resolutioners (The), or 'Public Resolutioners,' 1650, who were inclined to treat the conduct of the deceased king, Charles I., with leniency in opposition to the Remonstrants, who 'protested' against his conduct in unmeasured terms. In Scotch law a resolutioner is one who does something prejudicial to an estate, and if found guilty the estate is forfeited and passes to the next heir. The kingdom of Scotland was divided Into Reso- lutloners and Protesters, the former of whom adhered to Charles II., after his father's death upon the scaffold, while the Protesters inclined rather to a union with the triumphant Republi- cans. Sir W. SCOTT, Old Mortality, ch. v. Respublica Binepsis, 14th cent. A social order founded by some Polish noblemen, and so called from Binepsis, the seat of its founder. It was a multum in parvo of Poland itself, with its king, council, chamberlain, master of the chase, and other officers. Any of the members conspicuous for a foible was created to some office or title in ridicule thereof. Thus a great lover of hunting was made 1 Master of the Chase,' a boaster was made ' Field Marshal.' But no one was allowed to chaff or ridicule these officers. At one time the order contained well-nigh all the court of Poland. The objects of the order were to promote charity, good feeling, and sociability, and to repress immorality and affectations of all kinds. Restitution Edict (The), 1630. Published by Kaiser Ferdinand IL, when the king of Denmark retired from the Thirty Years' War. It enjoined restitution to the Catholics of the two archbishoprics, the twelve bishoprics, and all the parish churches, lauds, and other properties which had been confis- cated by Protestants since the ' Treaty of Passau.' Compliance with this edict was well-nigh impossible, so the Pro- testants applied to Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, and thus began the second part of this long religious war. Restoration (The). I. In English history, 29 May, 1660. The restoration of monarchical govern- ment interrupted at the death of Charles I. by a Commonwealth. The old form was restored by the recall and return of Charles IL, who had been living in exile. II. In French history. The restora- tion of Louis XVIII. to the throne after the abdication of Napoleon and his banishment to Elba, 8 May, 1814. On 21 March, 1815, Napoleon broke from Elba, and Louis XVIII. fled ; but after the battle of Waterloo Louis was re- stored a second time, and entered Paris 8 July, 1815. Restorationists. A religious sect which believes that all persons will ulti- mately be restored, after a due time of purgation proportionate to their sins. Origen was a Restorationist. Restorer of Cities, and Father of his Country. Sancho I. of Portugal, who repaired the cities which had suffered greatly in the recent wars (1154, 1185- 1212). Restorer of French Liberty (The). ' Le Restaurateur de la Liberte* Francaise,' 18 Aug., 1789. A title con- ferred on Louis XVI. when he signed the 19 articles formulated on the 4th by the National Assembly. See ' August 4.' Restorer of Learning (The). Lorenzo de Medicis the Magnificent (1448-1492). Also called the ' Patron of the Fine Arts.' Restorer of Letters (The). Alex- ander Heigius of Westphalia (18th cent.}. Restorer of the Protestantism of France (The). Antoine Court (1696-1760). Restorers of Astronomy (The) John Miiller (better known as ' Regio- montanus,' q.v.), 1436-1476, and his pupil Georg Purbach of Austria (1423-1461). 760 RESUMPTION REVIVAL Resumption Bill (The), 1700 (11, 12 Will. III. c. 2). For the resump- tion of grants of land in Ireland by William III. to foreigners, as Keppel of Guelderland (Earl of Albemarle); William Bentinck, son of the Earl of Portland (a Dutch favourite of William's), created Viscount Woodstock ; Ginckel, another Dutchman, created Earl of Athlone ; and Ruvigny, a French Huguenot, created Earl of Galway. To these four foreigners William granted above 800,000 acres of land in Ireland. The land was sold to the highest purchasers, and the money em- ployed in paying the arrears of the army. He granted also to Elizabeth Villiers. his mis- tress, above 96,000 acres, valued at 25,9951. a year 1 1 The first duJte of Portland was Henry Bentinck, 17M. Resurrection (The). Tertullian ays the Crucifixion occurred on 25 March, and the Calendar of the Arbuthnott Missal places the Resurrection on 27 March. If BO the year must have been A.D. 29, when 25 March fell on a Friday. Tertullian says that Christ suffered under Tibe- rius Cwmir in the consulate of Hubelllus Oomlnus and Fuflus Gemlnus, in the month of March, at the time of the passover, on the 8th day before the Kalends of April [26 March], on the first day of unleavened bread, on which they slew the lamb at even. Adtxrnu Judttot, o. 8. The next year on which 36 March was Friday was A.D. 40, and not again till A.D. 119, 124, 214, 4t. Resurrection Men. Men who gtole buried bodies out of cemeteries and churchyards, and sold them to surgeons for dissection. They were also called 'body snatchers.' In 1829 Burke and Hare made themselves conspicuous by this infamous traffic, and added to it the suffocation [burking] of living persons by strangulation, or smothering them by pitch-plasters placed over the mouth and nose. Bishop and Williams, in 1881, burked a poor Italian boy named Carlo Ferrari, and were both executed. Retreat of the 10,000 (The), B.C. 401-899. Conducted by Xenophon, the historian, who had joined the expedi- tion of Cyrus. In the battle of Cunaxa Cyas lost his life, and the Greeks were left without a leader. Xenophon volun- teered to lead them back to Greece, and has left an hiotorical narrative of this famous retreat, called Xenophou's Anab- M* Return of the Heracli'd (The), B.C. 1108. The migration of the descend- ants of Heracles (HercuUt) and the Dorians to the Peloponnesus, wliich they conquered. Heracles was promised the land of Argos by Zeus, but was kept out by Hera (Juno). Five times the de- scendants of Heracles attempted to take possession of the promised land, but were driven out four times. The fifth invasion was 110 years after the first by Hylloa, son of Heracles, and 80 years after th siege of Troy. It was completely suc- cessful, and the peninsula was divided by lot among the three leaders (Mythic History). Revised Bible (The). Published in May 1885. The Revised New Testa- ment w-s published 17 May. l.ssi. The work was begun 80 June, 1870, by twenty- five scholars, ten of whom died before the revision was completed, 20 June, 1884. The revisers had eighty-five sessions, which extended over fourteen years. See 1 Bible.' There seems no likelihood that the Revised Bible will ever supersede the Authorised Ver- sion. Whatever it* critical value, it is sadly defective in style, and is not to be compared to the older book in rhythm and simplicity. It is equally defective In arrangement, and we greatly nilgj the tables of contents at the heads of the clmjiters. Revised Code of 1862 (The). By Lord Sherbrooke. The minutes of the Committee of Council established by government in 1846 on the education of the children of the labouring poor, with government grants based on ' results.' The three grades of the results are ' fair, Rood. and excellent,' as tested by government in-p.-f- tors on examination, and the grant varies accord- ingly. In IK.O a change was made in the grant by results, by which 'cramming' was greatly checked, and general Information was encour- aged. Revising Barrister (A). A bar- rister annually appointed by the English judges to revise the lists of voters for members of Parliament, and to settle who are qualified to vote. Revival in Belfast (The), A strange religious movement in which the preacher produced hysteria, esper i a 1 1 y among the mill girls. When any girl was 'struck* the preacher evoked from her a wild continued scream, which of course was catching. Those struck were removed from the church to a darkened room, and there told 'what they had seen and heard.' This experience was in all cases a rigmarole based more oi less on the Revelation REVOCATION REVOLUTION 757 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (The), 1$ Oct., 1685. It pro- hibited all exercise of the reformed reli- gion in the kingdom of France. Pastors were to quit France within fifteen days; if, however, they abjured, they were to be endowed with pensions one-third more than thoir previous salaries, with the reversion of one-third to their widows. If pastors wished to enter the legal pro- fession they might dispense with academic studies. Parents were forbidden to teach their children the reformed religion, and were to bring them to be baptized in the Catholic Church, under a penalty of 500 livres (20/.) Refugees who did not re- turn within four months were to suffer confiscation of all their property. Re- formers caught in the act of emigrating were to be sent to the galleys (if men), and if women to be imprisoned for life. By the Edict of Nantes granted by Henri IV. French Protestants enjoyed full freedom of their religion and were placed on the same level in all civil rights as Catholic subjects. It was Louis XIV. who revoked this Edict, whereby 80,000 Pro- testants fled the country, and 20,000 were slain or driven into the fields houseless and homeless. Revolt of Egypt (The), 1835. A large body of Egyptians having taken refuge in Syria in 1832, Mehemet A.li sent his son Ibrahim to punish the pacha of Acre for taking them under his protec- tion. Ibrahim was wholly victorious, and, being opposed by a Turkish army, con- quered it and took the vizier prisoner. The great powers now interfered, and Syria was added to the pachalik of Egypt, but in 1840 Syria was restored to the Porte by the intervention of the great powers. Revolt of Hugh O'Neill (The], 1597-1599. After the death of Shane O'Neill, Hugh obtained the title of Earl of Tyrone. He was brought up in the English court, and was apparently in the queen's interest ; but immediately he re- turned to Munster he took up an attitude of open defiance and offered Ireland to the King of Spain. In 1597 he defeated the English forces in Tyrone, but in 1601 he was obliged to surrender to Lord Mountjoy. Being brought to England, O'Neill was pardoned, retired to Brussels in 1607, and died at Rome in 1616. Revolt of the Desmonds, in Ireland, 1579. Rome and Spain thinking Ireland oppressed by Queen Elizabeth, and hoping, through Ireland, to overthrow the great heretic queen, landed on the shores of Kerry a force of 700 men, which was supported by the Earl of Desmond. The invaders were cut to pieces at Smer- wick, and Desmond declared a traitor. He w.is discovered in a hovel, and put to death by his pursuers. Tkere is a well-known legend that this old ma* is not dead, but keeps his state under the waters of Lough Gur, and that every seventh year he re- appears fully armed, rides round the lake early in the morning, and will ultimately return in the flesh to claim his own again. Revolution (The American), 1775. By which the United States of America threw off their dependence on Great Britain. Revolution (The Glorious), 1688, in English history means the accession of William III., whereby the Stuart dynasty was set aside, and a new dynasty intro- duced. William III. was grandson of Charles I., his mother being Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I. He married Mary, eldest daughter of James II. So that the choice of the nation fell on these two from their alliance to the Stuarts both by blood and marriage; but James II. was alive, and his eon and grandson were set aside. On the death of William without offspring Anne, another daughter of James II., succeeded. Revolution (The Great French), 1789-1794. A great reaction against absolutism, which began with the de- struction of the Bastille. The king, Louis XVI., was beheaded 21 Jan., 1793. The Christian religion was set aside, and the worship of Reason substituted in its place. The Revolution terminated with the death of Robespierre. Revolution (The Italian), 1859- 1860. In which the various minor sove- reigns of Italy were driven into exile, and the whole Italian peninsula (except the Roman and Venetian territory) was sub- jected to one ruler styled the 'King of Italy.' The Roman and Venetian territories were added subsequently the Venetian States in Oct. 1806, after the Seven Weeks' War ; and tbe Papal States in Oot. 1870. Revolution (Victims of the French). Prudhomme gives the following statistics: 18,603 nobles, priests, artisans, and others; that is 13,623 commoners, 1,467 wives of operatives, 1,278 nobles, 1,125 priests, 750 noblewomen, and 850 religieuses. Besides these 18,603 persons guillotined, we have 403,748 destroyed in various ways at Vendee, Nantes, Lyons, &c. Of these the victims of Vendee were 337,000, 758 REVOLUTION BHAPSODISTS of Carrier at Nantes 82,000, of Lyona 81,000 ; of women who died of grief, &o. 8,748. This does not include those mas- sacred at Versailles, the Abbaye, the Carmelites, the September victims, the victims of the Glaciere d'Avignon, of Toulon, of Marseilles, and the whole town of Badouin. Revolution of Denmark (The), 8 Sept., 1660. By this revolution the kings of Denmark, who had hitherto been feudal chiefs, elected and controlled by the barons, were made hereditary and unlimited sovereigns, both in the male and female line. By the constitution granted by Frederick III., in 1605, the monarch of Denmark was declared to be hereditary and absolute, holding the whole legislative, executive, and judicial power of the state. It vested in him the unlimited power of appointing all publio offices and dignities; of commanding the forces of the kingdom by sea and land ; of making war, peace, and alliances. It gave him the supreme jurisdiction in ecclesi- astical affairs, subject only to the obliga- tion of professing the Protestant religion as expounded by the Confession of Augs- burg. Revolution of February (The), 1848. By which the Orleans dynasty was overthrown in France. Eighteen years before (1880) the Bourbon dynasty in the person of Charles X. had been over- thrown. The revolution of 1848 occurred on 22, 28, 24 Feb. ; on the last of these three days Louis Philippe fled from Paris, and abdicated. See p. 588, 'Louis- Philippe.' Revolution of July (The), 1880, when Charles X. was obliged to flee from Paris, and abdicate. Revolution of the 17th Cent., 1G60, began with the restoration of Charles IL It transferred the crown from Cromwell and his party to Charles ; it transferred the power of the crown from the king to the House of Commons ; it overthrew Puritanism and introduced freedom of religious thought ; it changed the manners and customs of the nation ; it changed the fashion of dress and do- mestic life ; it even introduced the study oi experimental philosophy in place of dogmatism and tradition. Revolution Society (The), 1792. A society numbering many of the highest names in the Whig aristocracy, which met on the 4th Nov. to celebrate the anniversary of the landing of William III. This society sent a glowing address to the French National Assembly, which was carried over by Lord Stanhope and Dr. Price. In their address they vowed that they 'would never again fight with France at the command of any despot.' The 4th MOT. was William's day. He vas born 4 Nov., 1650 ; be took Bonn 4-12 Nov., im , he mar- rled the Princess Mary 4 Nov., li;?7 ; and the 4th Nov. was the anniversary of his landing at Torbay In 1C88. Revolutionary Army (The\ Sept. 1798. A Parisian guard, raised by the Convention at the instigation of Ba- rere, to clear Paris of all enemies of the Republic, or (in other words) to massacre all who differed in opinion from the leaden of the revolution. The property of these victims was seized and confiscated to the state. Revolutionary Committees (1798) were appointed by the Convention to act under the Committee of Publio Safety, to receive denunciations and re- port them. See ' Revolutionary Tribunal.' Revolutionary Parties in Prance between '93 and '95. See 1 Partis en France.' Revolutionary Tribunal (The), March 1798. A court of judgment insti- tuted by the French Convention (q.v.) to quash conspiracies against the revolu- tionary government. This infamous court sat in judgment on all persons accused of disaffection to the stat e. Dur- ing the Reign of Terror, when Fouquior Tinville was ' public accuser,' it acquired a horrible notoriety, being a mere official tool in the hands of Robespierre. Revolver Boys, about 1885. Irish moonlighters, land-leaguers, and others, supplied with revolvers to shoot at those obnoxious to the secret societies. ( - rally the legs were aimed at. See ' Irish Associations.' Rex Gtentis Anglorum. The over-king of the English heptarchs,the first being Hengist king of Kent (457), and the last Egbert king of Wessex (who in 827 became bretwalda or king of all England). Rhapsodists. Greek minstrels who wandered from place to place reciting in musical chant the epic ballads of Homer and other poets. After Peisistratos rev RHODE RICE 769 duced the Homeric ballads into a con- nected epic, the occupation of the rhapso- dists rapidly declined. A rhapsody means a single canto, ballad, or part, suitable for one sitting or entertainment. Rhode Island (U.S. America). So named, in 1668, from the isle of Rhodes in the Mediterranean. There seems no special reason for this name, but it is so called in the charter of Charles II. An old nickname of the people is Crunflints. Rhodian Law (The). The earliest known code of marine law ; it was com- piled by the Rhodians about B.C. 900. Probably the marine laws of Justinian were based on the Rhodian code. Rhodian School of Sculpture (The). Famous for (1) the Colossus, by Chares, one of the seven wonders of the world ; (2) the Laocobn group, by Ages- ander, Polydorus, and AthenodSrus ; and (3) the Farnesian bull, in the museum of Naples. This group represents Zethus and Amphlon binding DircS to a wild bull in order to revenge their mother. It was the work of Apollonius and Tauriscus, and was discovered in 1546. Called Farnesian because it was set up in the palace of Farnese at Rome. Rhone of Christian Eloquence (The). St. Hilary (A.D. 800-868), bishop of Poitiers. Rhuddlan (Statute of), 10 Edw. I. 1282. In Rhuddlan (North Wales) Ed- ward I. held a parliament, which secured to the Welsh certain rights ; and hi this town, in 1284, the infant Edward was acknowledged as ' the Prince of Wales.' The statute of Rhuddlan is the statute confirming to the Welsh the rights con- ferred on them by Edward I. Amongst other grants conferred by this statute, Anglesey was erected into a county. It la said that Edward was born at Carnarvon. Rialto (The) of Venice. A contrac- tion of Eivo alto, the deep stream. First the name of an island in the Lagune, called 'Isola di Rialto'; then of the bridge called ' II Ponte di Rialto,' con- necting the island with the opposite shore ; and lastly of the exchange called the Rialto "which stands on the island, and is so familiar from Shakespeare's 1 Merchant of Venice.' Ribalds (The), 1189. A militia raised by Philippe II. Auguste of France. The captain was called the ' king of the Ribalds,' united by Charles V. of France to the Provost of the Hotel.' Disbanded on account of their unbridled licentious- ness. Ribalds or Ribands, from the Latin ripalis, from ripa, a bank or border. The licentiousness of these soldiers gave birth to our word ribald, obscene. Prof. Skeat derives ribald from the French fiber, to dally with women. Ribbonism. The political prin- ciples of the Ribbonmen of Ireland. See next article. Ribbonmen, 1808. A secret asso- ciation among the lowest classes in Ire- land opposed to the Orange confedera- tion. It originated in Armagh, spreading into Down, Antrim, Tyrone, Mon'aghan, and Fermanagh (where Protestants most abounded), but either under the same or some other name it had affiliated societies in King's County, Queen's County, Meath, Louth, and Tipperary. The members had their secret signs and pass-words, and though at first confined to the lowest classes, embraced later on farm- labourers, artisans, and even clergymen and mer- chants. The main object of the society was to prevent landlords from evicting or changing their tenants, or new tenants from taking the farms of evicted tenants. ' Tenant right ' or fixity of tenure was also an essential part of their demand which they determined to carry out to the death ; and general interference be- tween employers and the employed. Rib- bonism was suppressed by Act of Parlia- ment in 1871, but only to break out again under some other name. From 1840 it was in the fullest operation. See ' Irish Associations.' It is supposed that the name refers to aoma badge worn by the members. The Ribbonmen apparently branched from the ' Defenders/ a Catholic counter-organisation to the Orangemen, who were Protestants, and are so still. The Defenders being proclaimed changed their name in 1806 into ' Threshers,' who for the most part appeared in Sligo, Mayo, Leitrim, Longford, and Ca'van. Next appear the Ribbonmen in 1808, first in Armagh, and thence spreading north and nortn- west. Other societies sprang up in other parts of Ira- land, i.e. The Garden In East and West Meath, Uos- common, and part of Mayo, The ShanavesU and Caravats in Tipperary, Kil- kenny, Cork, and Limerick. The Phenicians, the Brotherhood of St. Patrick, the Fenians, &c. follow In rapid succession. See each of these. Rice Christians. Hindus and Chinese who profess to be converted for 760 RICHARD BICHMONDISM the sake of the rice given by the mis- sionaries to converts. Followers of Christ, not for his doctrines, but for the loaves and fishes. Richard Cceur de Lion. See ' Richard I.' Richard of Bordeaux. See 1 Richard II.' Richard surnamed Crook- back. See ' Richard III.' Richard I., surnamed ' Coeur de Lion ' for his great daring and courage in the Holy Land during the crusade against Saladin. He was the third son of Henry II. of England, and married Berengaria, daughter of Sancho, king of Navarre, but had no lawful issue. Richard I. was the first to adopt the words ' Dei gratia ' before his titles. His style was ' Richardus, D.G. rex Angliae et dux Normandiae et Aquitaniae \Gu\enne\ et comes Andegaviee [Anjou].' When he travelled through Germany from the Holy Land, he assumed the name of Hugh the Merchant. The youth who shot him with an arrow dls- afcufM from the castle of Chalus was Bertrand de Gurdun or Gourdon. Being asked why he shot the king, the lad replied, ' Because he slew my father and two brothers.' Richard commanded that Bertrand should be let free, but Marcadee, leader of the Brabancons. flayed him alive, and then hanged him. Richard II., of England, called * Bordeaux,' because he was born there (1866, reigned 1877-1899, died 1400). He was the only son of the Black Prince and the Fair Maid of Kent (his wife). Richard II. married twice, but left no issue. His first wife was Anne of Luxembourg, daughter of the kaiser-king Karl IV., aged 15. His second wife was a more child of 7, viz. Isabelle, daughter of Charles VI. of France. His style was 'Richardus, D.G. rex Angliae et Franciae, et dominus Hibernise.' It is generally asserted that when Richard was deposed ho was imprisoned in Pontefract Castle, and murdiTcd thort> or starved to death; but it has been also said that ho made his escape, and lived many years disguised as an ordinary man. They say that the porsou exhibited to the people as the deceased king was his chaplain, Maudelain. This rumour was still rife in the reign of Henry V., when Thomas de Trumplngton, in 1415, was In- duced to palm himself on as the deposed king. In 1402 the French court sent Creton, the page of Richard II.. into Scotland to ascertain if Richard was Indeed alire, and Creton declared the Scotch Richard to be an undoubted impostor. The French ordinance for the payment of Craton still exists, and may be seen in the Archroologia. Sorle before he was executed confessed that the Scotch Richard was Thomas Warde, Richard's court fool. Richard III., of England, surnamed ' Crookback ' (1452, 1483-1485), was the younger brother of Edward IV., and uncle of Edward V., whom he succeeded. He married Anne, widow of Edward prince of Wales (son of Henry VI.), and was slain in the battle of Bosworth Field. His style was 'Richardus, D.G. rex Angliaa et Franciae, et dominus Hiberniae.' EDWARD III.'s third son was Lionel, who had a daughter named Philippa. Phllippa married Ed- ward Mortimer, and their son was Roger Morti- mer. Roger Mortimer's daughter (Lady Anne) married Richard (son of Edmund duke of York), and their Bon was the famous Richard duke of York, 'the White Rose,' slain In the battle of Wakefield. leaving behind him two sons, EDWARD IV. 800 Christmas Day a religious festival 876 Hells used In churches ... 890 The Nlcene Creed introduced 891 (Except the word 'Dead,' and 'Commn- nion of Saints. 1 ) MARY called the MOTHER OF GOD 4*1 Sprinkling of Ashes, In Lent (Felix IIL) ... 4-7 Canon of Scripture completed ... ... 494 Priests began to wear a distinctive dree* ... 600 Stone altars enjoined ... 608 EXTREME UNCTION introduced by Felix IV. 625 Lenten Fast extended to forty days (Council of Orleans) 647 PKAYERS addressed to the Virgin MABT ... 698 Worship In an unknown tongue 600 (It was In Latin as far back as 647.) The title of POPK first assumed by Boniface III. 606 PAPAL SUPREMACY assumed at the same time ~. 808 All-Saints' Day introduced ~ _ ... 625 Holy Bread first distributed _ 6M Athanasittn Cr.n>d introduced _ M. . 670 (Athanasius died 373) CRUCIFIXES used as talismans ... _ . 680 HOLY WATER introduced ... ... _ . 682 Kissing the Pope's toe introduced . .. 708 (Abolished In 1773) VENERATION OF IMAGES Imposed ~. 7 Tithes exacted ... ... ... .- 789 Rogation days established by Leo III. _ 801 ASSUMPTION FESTIVAL Introduced ~. . 818 Cardinals created ... _ _ .. _ &17 THE ' FILIOQUB ' DOGMA Introduced .. ^ 83C Baptism of bells Introduced 965 CANONISATION or SAINTS Introduced by John XVI. .. 993 All Souls' Day appointed 998 Advent Sunday appointed. . ... 1000 CELIBACY op PRIESTS made obligatory .. 1000 Prayers for souls in purgatory introduced ... 1000 INDULGENCES first bestowed by Ponce, bishop of Aries .. .. 1002 INTERDICTS introduced ... . 1073 INFALLIBILITY OF THE ROMAN CHUBCH taught ... ... . ... 107fl EXCOMMUNICATION introduced by Gregory VII 107T BALE o INDULGENCES sanctioned ... 1087 PLENARY INDULGENCE 'in this life and in the life to come,' authorised by the Council ofClermont ... 10!tt Office of the Virgin Mary appointed by dit: TRASSUBSTANTIATION made a Church dogma l-Ji.'t AURICULAR CONFESSION officially imposed ... 1215 ADORATION OF THE HOST enjoined ... The INQUISITION established ... _ The CUP WITHHELD from the LAITY ... Tha Angelus announced by a bell 1316 The dogma of PDBOATOHY officially recog- nised 1439 HOLY On. In chrism first used .. 1540 TRADITION declared authoritative 1540 VENERATION OF RELICS enjoined by the Council of Trent ... ... l.va Marriage made a sacrament i:.<-i Confirmation made a sacrament 1668 The Festival of the Seven Sorrows intro- duced by Benedict XIII. The festival of the Sacred Heart Introduced 17*2 The IMMACULATE CONCEPTION proclaimed PAPAL INFALLIBILITY proclaimed V A glance down this list will give a better history of the Catholic Church than many volumes, whether from the Catholic or Protestant standpoint. Roman Catholics, or, as they call themselves, 'Catholics.' Those Chris- tians who acknowledge the supremacy of the Church of Rome. They believe that St. Peter was appointed by Christ head of the Apostolic College, that this same apostle founded the Roman diocese, and that the present pope comes in direct line by ordination from the first founder. All Roman Catholics accept seven sacra- ments (q.v.), believe in the doctrine of transubstantiation, withhold the cup from the laity as unnecessary, admit the in- fallibility of the pope when he speaks ex cathedra, believe in the doctrine of pur- gatory, in the efficacy of masses and prayers for the dead, in works of super- erogation, the advocacy of saints, the sanctity of relics, and, above all, the power and exaltation of the Virgin Mary, whom they call ' the Mother of God ' and ' Queen of Heaven.' In the Eastern rite the cup is given to the laity. As the Roman Church seceded from the Eastern IChurch they are In reality schismatics. They Vent the robe in two. the Protestuuta merely tore fthe rent a little further. Roman Era (The). This era begau i4 April, B.C. 768. ROMAN ROMANCE 767 Roman Hercules (The). The Emparor Commodus (A.D. 161, 180-192). So he styled himself, and the club and lion's hide were placed by the side of his throne among the ensigns of sovereignty. Roman Literature (The Four Ages of). 1. The Golden Age, B.C. 217 to A.D. 14. It includes Plautus, Ennius, Terence, Cato, Catullus, Caesar, Cicero, Nepos, Sallust, Virgil, Tibullus, Propertius, Horace, Phsedrus, Ovid, and Livy. 2. The Silver Age (A.D. 14-117), in- eludes Celsus, Persius, Seneca, Lucan, Pliny, Juvenal, Martial, Quintilian, Statius, Tacitus, and Floras. 8. The Brazen Age (A.D. 117-476), includes Justin, Eutropius, Vegetius, Ausonius, Macrobius, Symmachus, Victor, Claudian, and Orosius. 4. The Iron Age, from 476, includes Sulpicius, Apollinaris, Boethius, Priscian, stus, Jornandes, and Cassiodorus. Fest Roman Liturgy (The). The oldest forms of this liturgy are to be found in the three Sacramentaries (viz. those of Leo, Gelasius, and Gregory the Great). That of Gregory the Great is most pro- nounced hi the modern Roman missal, brought into its present shape by a com- mission appointed by the Council of Trent (16th cent.). Revised first by Pius V., then by Urban VIIL, and thirdly by Clement VIIL Said to have been the work of Peter the apostle, but without a shadow of proof. The Roman, the Milan, the Gallican, and the Spanish liturgies are th four chief ones of the Latin Church. Roman Obedience. In ecclesias- tical history means adherence to the Roman pope in opposition to the Avignon pope in the great Western Schism (q.v.). Sometimes it implies adherence to Latin Christianity, instead of Greek, Anglican, &c Roman Republic (The). The name, after the transfer of the seat of government to Constantinople, was con- fined to the Latin provinces. Roman Tribes (The). The three original tribes were : (1) The ' Ram- nenses,' so called (says Livy, i. 18) 'a Roinulo'; (2) 'Tatienses,' from Tatius king of the Sabinos ; and (8) ' Luceres ' >le of the grove), i.e. those received the grove which Romulus turned into a sanctuary. (Virgil, ' ^ne, v. 842.) Ramnenses. Of course ' -enses ' Is a mere ter. min at ion, meaning ' a man or men of.' This leaves ' Ram- ' as the crude form. ' Rem-us ' is another variants. ' Ram-,' ' Rem-,' ' Rom-,' ' Romanns,' -with em, will explain the derivation of Livy. We have ' Catanensls ' for 'Caithness,' ' Elfin o.nsis ' for 'Elphin,' ' Imelacensis ' for 'Emley,' ' Mid- ensis ' for ' Midd,' i.e. ' Meath,' ' Osti-eiisis ' for ' Ostia,' ' Palensis ' for ' Palencia,' ' Sabi-eiisis ' for ' Siben,' ' Uticensis ' for ' Utica,' and hundreds of others. Roman Type. The upright type used in the printing of this book, first used at Rome in 1467 by Sweynheim and Pannartz. The type previously used was what is called ' black letter.' Sloping letters are called ' italics ' (q.v.\ and type used in the heading of these articles is termed ' Clarendon type.' Romans (Emperor of the), and 'Emperor-Elect of the Romans.' See under ' Emperor,' &c. Romans (King of the], and ' King of Rome.' See under ' King,' &c. Romans (Last of the). I. Cato, called ' Uticensis ' (B.C. 95-46). II. Caius Cassius was so called by Brutus. The last of all the Romans fare thee well I It Is impossible that over Rome Should breed thy fellow. SHAKESPEARE, Julius Casar, v. 8. HI. Rienzi, last of the Tribunes (1310- 1854). IV. Horace Walpole, Ultimus Roman- arum (1717-1797). V. Charles James Fox (1749-1806). Romance Languages (The) Languages based on the Latin. 1. Italian. 2. The Wallachian or Roumanian. 8. Spanish (mixed with Arabic). 4. Portuguese, a dialect of Spanish. 5. Provencal, south of France, called the Langue d'pc. 6. French, i.e. the northern portion, with Belgium and Switzerland. There are also minor Romance tongues, as Catalan, Valaque, Rhetian, Ladinique, &c. Valaque ' Is the Valacian dialect, ' Rhetian ' is the language of the Orisons, and 'Ladinique,' poken in the Engadine, is the Romance. Romance of the Rose (The). An allegorical romance in verse begun by Guillaume di Lorris in the latter part of the 13th cent., and continued by Jean de Meung in the former half of the 14th cent. The sequel alone is longer than 768 ROMANOV ROOT Homer's ' Iliad.' The part by Guillaume di Lorris contains 4,000 lines ; the sequel by Meung contains 18,000. The poet dreams that dame Idleness conducts him to the palace of Pleasure, where he meets Love, whose attendants are Sweetface, Courtesy. Youth, Jollity, and Competence, who lead the poet to a bed of roses. He singles out one, and was about to pluck it, when an arrow from Love's bow stretches him fainting on the ground, and he is carried off. When be comes to himself he resolves to seek out the rose of his choice, and Welcome promises to aid him ; but Shyness, Fear, and Slan- der obstruct him, and Reason advises him to give up the pursuit. Pity and Liberality now show him the object of his desire, but Jealousy seises the guide Welcome, and locks her In Fear Castle. Here the original poem ends. It Is called the French Iliad. Jean de Meung, pronounce Jahnd Muhng. Romanov (The Dynasty of). The second Russian dynasty. The first five of this line of czars were scarcely acknow- ledged. Boris Godounov usurped the throne in 1598, and till 1613 it was a con- stant struggle with Poland and Sweden. In 1613 Michael III. [Romanov] put an end to these troubles, and from him dates the third dynasty ; but it was still Romanov, and continued to 1762. Peter the Great (1619-1686) was the third suc- cessor of Michael, and there were four queens, Sophia, Catherine, Anne Ivanovna ( Joann a) , and E 1 izabeth Pe trovna. It was sn. , ,-oded by the dynasty of Holstein- Gottorp. Romantic School of Prance (The), or Romanticists, 188Q-1840. Le- mercier, Victor Hugo, and Alexandra Dumas are the chief exponents of the French Romantic School, which sought to free the stage from the Aristotelian unities, and to introduce the English, Spanish, and German freedom. Dela- vigne attempted a compromise, and founded the Classico-romantic school of French tragedy. The Romantic School was not confined to tragedy ; all poetry discarded the classic affectations intro- duced at the revolution evon into names and dress. Romantic School of Germany (The), 1800-1810. Its founders were Sohlegel, Novalis, and Ludwig Tieck. The next three names of the same school are Hoffman, De la Motte Fouque (author of ' Undine '), and Chamisso (author of ' Peter Schlemil, the shadowless man '). Novalis is the pen name of Friedrlch von Har- denborg of Saxony. Rome of the African World (The). Carthage, a long time the rival of Rome. Though Carthage might yield to the royal pre- rogatives of Constantinople, and perhaps to the trade of Alexandria or the splendour of Antioch, she still maintained the second rank In the west, as the 'Rome' of the African world. GIBBON. hap. xjudii. Romescot, AJ>. 720. When Ina king of Wessex abdicated he went to Rome, where he founded a Saxon school, to provide for which he imposed a penny on every family. This tax was called Romescot, and sometimes Peter-pence, because it was collected on the festival of St. Peter ad Vincula (Sharon Turner, ' History of the Anglo-Saxons ') It was also called Heurth-miwy, being a tax on each hearth or family. Ofla in 790 settled the tax on the pope. It was discontinued by Edward III., A.D. 1865, and prohibited by Act of Parliament, 86 Hen. VIII. o. SI. A.I>. 1684. Romorantin (The Edict o/), 1560. A law passed through the influence of Michel de 1'Hopital, chancellor of France, to keep out the Inquisition, which the Guises wanted to introduce. By this edict the crime of heresy was entrusted to the bishops, and parliament was for- bidden to interfere in matters of faith. Romulus (The Second). Marcus Furius Camillus, four times Dictator of Rome ; died in retirement B.C. SCO. After the Gauls had burnt Rome Camillus both repelled the invaders and restored the city. Ronsard School (The). A school of French poetry founded by Ronsard (1624-1584); his sonnets were modelled on those of Petrarch; his epic on the ' JEneid ' and his odes were in imitation of Horace, Pindar, and Anacreon. Pe- dantry was the characteristic of this school. Ronsard was the Cowle/ of France. Rood of Grace (The). At Boxley in Kent. An image of Christ on the cross, which hung its lip when silver was offered it, but shook its beard merrily when the offering was of gold. At the dissolution of the smaller monasteries in England Thomas Cromwell (1538) had the rood taken to Paul's Cross, and Hilsey bishop of Rochester, before a large crowd of the citizens of London, exposed the wires, wheels, and springs by which this was done, and the image was broken to pieces. See ' Darvel Gatheren,' ' Blood of Christ,' yean, the rulers of Germany were RUDOLPH BULB 777 promiscuous. After an interregnum of seventeen years came Rudolph I. of Habsburg, Adolph of Nassau, Albrecht I. of Austria, Heinricb VII. of Luxemburg, Friedrich III. of Austria, Ludwig V. of Bavaria, Gunther of Schwarzburg, Karl IV. of Luxemburg, Wenzel [Wenceslaus] the Worthless, Kuprecht the Elector Palatine of the Rhine, and Siegmund of Brandenburg, altogether eleven kings, besides the three nominal ones during the interregnum. Rudolph II. Kaiser-king of Ger- many of the House of Austria (1552, 1576-1612). Father, Maximilian II.; Mother, Mary. It was in honour of this monarch the ' Tabulae Rudolphinee ' were so named. Contemporary with Elizabeth and James I. Rudolphine Tables (The). 'Tabulae Rudolphmee,' 1627. Astrono- mical calculations begun by Tycho Brahe, and continued by Kepler under the immediate patronage of Kaiser Rudolf II., after whom Kepler named the work. See ' Ukanian and Alfonsine Tables.' Rudolph gave Tycho Brah6 an annuity of 1,5001. sterling. Ruel (The Treaty of), April, 1649. Terms of peace made by Mazarin and Anne of Austria with the Frondeurs or Parlementarians. Scarcely was the treaty signed when the Prince de Conde headed the party called ' La Jeune Fronde.' The queen-mother arrested the Prince de Conde, the Prince de Conti, and the Due de Longueville while assembled in council in the Palais Royal, and sent them prisoners to Vincennes ^18 Jan., 1650). All the nobility flew to arms. Anne of Austria stood out for a time, but Mazarin fled. In the autumn of 1651 Louis XIV. came of age, took the government into his own hands, and the nation quieted down. Rufus Stone (The). A stone, now enclosed in an iron casing, near a by-road to Bramshaw, to commemorate the spot where Purkis picked up the body of William II. after he was shot. The tra- ditional cottage stands some 100 yards off, in the hamlet of Canterton. Rule Nisi. An order of the law court that something stated shall be done, unless the opposite party, within a certain tune (say three or six days) show cause why it should not be done. Rule of Faith (The). The dogmas and doctrines binding on Christians : Dissenters say 'the Bible, the whole Bible, and nothing but the Bible is bind- ing as a rule of faith.' Catholics say the practices and doc- trines recorded in the ' Fathers ' show the rule held in their days, and this ' tra- dition' supplements the written Scrip- tures, the two together making the rule of faith. The Church of England adds to the Bible the decisions of the first four gene- .ral councils, and admits other practices ' not contrary to Holy Scriptures,' as the change of the Sabbath for Sunday, infant baptism, &c. Rule of Monastic Houses. Cer- tain laws to be observed by the order referred to. Originally there were but four orders (Augustine, Basil, Benedict, and Francis of Assisi) ; but these four have given rise to a large number of sub- ordinate orders. Every religious order was bound to the four vows of Obedience, Poverty, Charity, and Chastity; but history must very much wrong them if these vows were generally observed. I. Rule of St. Augustine (The). St. Augustine, bishop of Hippo, in Africa, lived 854-430, and founded a society of hermits ; but what is called ' Augustine or Austin Friars ' is a society organised in 1256 by Pope Alexander IV., who appointed Lanfrano the ' general.' The Augustine Friars wore originally a gray habit, but afterwards a black and white one, with a leathern girdle about the waist. There were also Augustine canons. In 1567 Pius V. made the Augustine friars one of the four mendicant orders, the others being the Dominicans, the Franciscans, and the Carmelites. In 1574 Thomas of Jesus, a Portuguese, founded the Barefooted Augustines (Augustins Dechausses). What is technically called c The Rule of St. Augustine ' is a set of laws ap- pointed to be observed by those who be- long to the order ; but who was the author of these laws nobody knows. There were, in fact, three sets of rules ; the chief items were : 1 CLASS : Absolute and holy poverty. To possess no worldly goods of any kind. Even articles of personal use to be in common. See TV. If any novice had property he must Bell it all, and give the proceeds to the 778 RULE BULE poor, before he could be admitted into the order. See IV. Never to receive money from anyone, nor any present except food, which must be taken untouched to the monastery for general distribution. See IV. 2 CLASS : Monastic duties. To recite daily the psalms and ap- pointed offices. To employ the first part of the morning and afternoon in manual labour. To wash their own clothes. To observe strict silence at meals ; to attend to what was read ; and never to eat out of the monastery. Whenever they left the monastery, to go two together ; and not even to go to the baths separately. See IV. Never to utter an idle word. Never to receive a private letter. Never to engage in a lawsuit. On a Sunday a little wine was allowed. 8 CLASS : lieligious duties. To love God and their neighbour man. To attend prayer at the canonical hours. To sing only what is appointed. To fast with discretion. To be modest in look, word, and deed. Never to look immodestly on any woman, or harbour an immodest thought. V Augustine himself, one of the four doctor* of tho Church, IB called, ' Le Mlrolr des prelaU, le Maltre de la theologle, 1 Ornement dec eveque*. 1 Eclat de tout 1'ordre sacerdotal, la Lumlere dec docteurs. le Solell de lAfrique. le Boucllcr de la foi. lo FK-au des hretlques. le Temple de la reli- gion, le Firmament de legllse, et la Colonne In6- Iranlable de la verite.' The following were branches of the Augustine order, and observed the same rule with a differ- ence vli. the Austin Friars, the Brigettlnes, DOMINICANS, OILRERTINBS, PrremonstratenBlaiw Or NORBKRTINES. TiBENMTKB, TRINITARIANS, iO. See those In capitals ' Rule of . . . ' each name. II. Rule of St. Basil (The). St. Basil lived 829-879. He retired into a desert in the province of Pontus, and founded there a monastery, for the better government of which he drew up a series of laws, called the ' Rule of St. Basil,' even to the present day universally fol- lowed by all Oriental monks, even by those who call themselves of the order of St. Antony. There were two sets of rules, the Longer and the Shorter. All that St. Basil himself enjoined are the following : No monk of this order to return to hia parents without express permission of his superiors. Use hospitality to strangers, but avoid dainty fare. Let even your hospitality teach your guests temperance and so- briety. Communicate your most secret thoughts to your superior. Never omit the service of prime, but always consecrate ' the firstf ruits of your thoughts to God.' St. Basil's day is 14 June. m. Rule of St. Benedict (The). Absolute and holy humility. St. Bennet or Benedict (480-542) was the founder of the Benedictine Order. Gregory the Great preferred the Benedictine Rule to all others. Some ascribe the rule to Gregory HI. (781-741). It contains twelve degrees of humility. The following are the chief items of the Benedictine Rule : The monks to serve by turns in kitchen and at table, and the monks in service to wash the feet of the other monks, and on Saturday to clean the plate and linen ; seven hours a day to be given to manual labour, four in the morning and three in the afternoon ; service seven times a day ; two hours to be given to pious reading. Total abstinence from meat and fowls. The allowance of bread per day to be 1 Ib. and a hemina of wine. Fast all Lent till 6 p.m. ; but no voluntary austerities allowed. Perfect silence to be observed at meals. Avoid singularity, never give way to loud laughter, and never at any time peak in a loud voice. Always to keep their eyes fixed towards the ground. Renounce your own will ; bear injuries patiently ; think meanly of yourself and most highly of God. Train yourself to continual penitence; do all lowly offices ; be modest in look, word, and thought. Know your own will ; obey promptly ; show your most secret thoughts to your director. See IL, IV. Never go abroad except in pairs ; all to sleep in one dormitory, but never two in one bed ; all to sleep in their day-dress and girdle, with a lamp burning in the dormitory all night. Small offences to be punished by loss of meals, great ones by expulsion from chapel. No vows to be perpetual. The dress to be a black gown with wide sleeves and a pointed cowl. Every mouk fcULE ETJLE 779 to have two of each, but to prefer old clothes to new ones. St. Bennet's Day is March 21. The following observed the Benedictine Rule with a difference viz. The Bernardines, Caraaldules, CARTHUSIANS, Celestines, CISTERCIANS, monks of Cluny or CLU- NIACS, Feuillanta, TRAPPISTS, &o. See those in capitals under ' Rule of . . .' each name. IV. Rule of St. Francis (The). Absolute poverty. St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) was the founder of three orders : (1) the Fratres Minores in 1206 ; (2) the nuns in 1212 ; and (8) what was far more important (in 1221) the secular order called Tertiaries that is, men and women who lived in ordinary life (married and given in marriage), but promised to live religiously, and to abandon frivo- lity of dress, needless extravagance, and self-indulgence. The Franciscans were allowed to have nothing they could call their own, not even the clothes they wore, their convents or churches. Their right extended only to the use of these things. (See I.) They had to work for their living, and, when provisions ran short, to beg alms ; but under no consideration were they allowed to take goods or money. See I. If a novitiate had property he was bound to sell all and give the pro- ceeds to the poor, not one farthing might be invested even for the convent or the order. See I. There are at present many conventual ter- tiariea. The following are the chief of the twelve articles of the Rule of St. Francis : Never to leave the convent except in twos. See I. Never to preach without permission of the ordinary of the diocese. Never to ride on a journey ; and never to go into any foreign country. Never to stand godfather to a child ; and never to enter a nunnery. To fast all Lent, and from All Saints' Day (Nov. 1) to Christmas Day. To confess to their superior their most secret thoughts. See II., III. This apostrophe of St. Francis Is given In the 'Petits Bollandistes,' vol. xii. p. 29: 'Seigneur Jesus, montrez-moi les voies de votre tres-chere pau vrete ! Ayez pitie de moi et de ma dame la Pauvrete; car je 1'aime avec tant d'ardeur, que je ne puis trouver de repos sans elle, et vous savez, O mon Dieu, que c'est vous qui m'avez donne ce grand amour.' When some persons complained to St. Francis that his rule was too austere, Mgr. Guerin says (p. 86), 'Ils furent surpris d'entendre la volx de Jesu-Christ meme qui lui dit en leur presence ces paroles distinctes : " Francois, cette Regie B'est point ton ouvrage, mail le mien; j'entends qn'elle soit garde i la lettre, & la lettre, & la lettre, sans glose, sans glose, Bans glose. 81 quelques- uns ne la veulent pas garder, ou'ils soient rejetes de la compagnie comme des dimclles, des mutins, des scandaleux, et des Incorrigibles. Je sals la capacite de Ihomme et je sals les graces et les secours que je veux lui donner." Ces superieurs, saisis de frayeur, tomberent par terre et n'ose- rent ouvrir la bouche. 1 Notwithstanding, the rule was greatly modified by Elias (the successor of St. Francis), and the society was split in two, those who were strict Franciscans and those who followed a greatly modified rule. St. Francis's Day is 4 Oct. The following were Franciscans, and observed the Franciscan Rule with a difference viz. The Capucins or Capuchins, Clarisses, Minims, Picpus, Hi'collets, &c. St. Francis of Paula, who founded the Minims, said that no monk who died without his cord of two knots would ever go to heaven. Rule of St. Chrodegand [Fran- ciscans], 763. By this rule canons were bound to manual labour, silence, and confession twice a year. Chrodegand'g day is 7 March. Rule of St. Dominic [Augustines]. St. Dominic (1170-1221) was the founder of preaching friars ; his rule of absti- nence and poverty was similar to that of St. Francis, with this exception the order might accept small rents in money. The motto of his order was ' Perfect self -distrust, but perfect trust in God.' Not only individual monks had no personal pro- perty, even the collective society had none. They entirely depended on alms. St. Dominic s great object was to multiply churches and train zealous preachers. The occupations of his monks were preaching, contemplation, severe study, and acts of charity. Retirement and self-denial were strictly enforced. St. Dominic s day Is 14 Aug. Rule of St. Fintan of Leinster. 6th cent. [Benedictines]. The Kule of St. Fintan and that of the Trappists are unusually austere. The monks of St. Fintan lived only on roots and vegetables, In many cases not even cooked. They tilled their own land. St. Flntan's Day Is 10 May. Rule of St. Macarius [Augustines] 804-404. The monks fasted every day except Sunday, and from Easter Day to Whit Sunday. They divided the day between manual labour and prayer. Hospitality was enforced by this rule. No monk was allowed to speak a word to a stranger without express permission of the superior. The abbots of this order wore no in. signia. St. Macariua's Day is 2 Jan. Rule of the Carthusians [Bene- dictines], 1170, composed by Guido, the 760 RULE fifth prior. They had nineteen articles in their rule : To fast all Lent till nix o'clock at night ; never at any time to eat flesh, fowl, or flsh. Their bread to be made of bran. Sunday and Thursday their diet to be bread and cheese ; Tuesday and Satur- day pulse ; all the rest of the week bread and water. Each monk to have a separate cell, where he was to sleep, work, and eat in silence his solitary meals. Each monk to have a hair shirt at all times. All to work at agriculture, to be hospitable, and given to hospitality. Rule of the Cistercians [Bene- dictines], an order of monks founded by Robert of Moleme (1018-1110). The Virgin Mary was the protectress of this order. The Cistercians were reformed Bernardines, who affected the severest simplicity. The rule enjoined four hours' sleep, four for choir Ringing, and four for manual labour in the morning. The diet was roots and herbs, which were not served on a table, but on the bare ground. They slept also on the bare ground. Rule of the Cluniacs, or 'Monks of Cluny,' founded by St. Hugues, abbot of Cluny (1024-1109). Reformed Bene- dictines. The rule was very austere. St. Hugues abolished the law of manual labour, but enjoined total abstinence from animal food, and restricted the diet to bread and pulse. Mcr. Paul Guerin, cam.'rier de sa Saintete Leon XIII.. nays in his ' Petit* Hollandlstes,' vol. v. p. 78. ' Un moine de Cluny, plusieurs dUent Hildebrana qul fut plus tard Or noire VII., vtt un Jour Jesus- Christ s'asseoir dans une stalle du chocur, a c6te de Hugues, et lui dieter lea decreta at lea regie* monaatlques.' Rule of the Norbertines [Au- gustines]. The monks who followed this rule were called Norbertines, Premon- stratensians, or White Canons. Robert Norbert lived 1092-1184. His rule enjoined total abstinence from flesh, constant fasts, and avoiding linen. St. Norbert's Day la 6 June. Rule of the Tabennites. Founded by St. Pachomius (2 stranger or to one another. They may never visit or even write to their lends or relatives, nor may they receive any communication whatever either from them or of frii-i them. If a father or mother, sister or brother, dies, the superior may be Informed of It. and all that he says is, ' The prayers of the brotherhood are requested lor the soul of one who has departed this life.' No monk of this order can possess any juopsalf of any sort, nor give any at any time to the monas- Thoy may never look on a stranger, but are bound to keep their eyes constantly on the (round. Their diet Is weak cider and herb soap, with a raw radish, oarrot.or a few lentils : but never meat, (owls, flsh, or eggs. On fast days their allowance is two ounces of the coarsest bread. They work In the fields and lie upon straw. These monks not only obey the superior, but must obey the slightest sign of a brother monk instantly, no matter how employed, even if their work is ruined by the interruption. The very slightest fault is most severely pun- ished, and yet withal they seem cheerful and Mil tn I ml In f.u-t, it is not self-denial but self-Indulgence, ambition, and uncertainty which are the chief seeds of man's nnhspnlnoai Rule of the Trinitarians [Au- pu.stinians]. Their special function was the redemption of captives. They divided thoir income into three parts: one for their own maintenance; another for the poor ; and the third part for the redemp- tion of Christian captives. V There are a multitude of sub-orders, but the Instances given above will suffice to show the nature of thuir rules. Rumfbrd Medal (The), 1796. In- stituted in the Royal Society of London by Count Rumford for discoveries in light and heat. Rump (The). The fag-end of the Long Parliament after 'Pride's Purge' (q.v.), 6 Dec., 1648. It was dissolved by Cromwell, 20 April, 1658. The members of the Rump were only 100, and the usual attendance did not exceed 60. It refust-d BUMPERS RUSSIA 781 to dissolve, and therefore on 20 April, 1653, Cromwell stationed 50 musketeers within call, and after sitting awhile as if listening to the debate, rose and said, 'Come, come, we have had enough of this. I will put an end to your prating.' The musketeers then entered, and the mem- bers rushed out. 'Takeaway this bauble,' he said, referring to the mace, and locking the door he walked away, and the Rump was dissolved. In 1849, from 6 to 18 June, was the German Bump Parliament in Stuttgart. We want a Cromwell to stop some of ' the prating ' In our present House of Commons (1890). Hampers. Members of the Rump Parliament (q.v.). Rundale (In). In patches: sale of land in small separate patches. Some- times, in Ireland, half an acre or an acre of land is held in thirty or forty little patches, too small to be enclosed, and thus subject to depredations from cattle. Sometimes the patches are so far asunder, it is no easy matter for a tenant to know what is his and what is another's. This is because he ' conacres ' (q.v.) to two or more different farmers. Running Footmen were footmen who ran in front of their master's coach, to help it out of ruts, and to serve as couriers. The costume was a light black cap, a jockey coat, white linen trousers, and a staff some six feet long. The staff had a ball at the top containing a hard- boiled egg and a little white wine, to serve as refreshment. The last in England was in the service of the Duke of Queens- berry (1810), but in Saxony there were running footmen even so late as 1845. Running Parliament (The). A Scotch parliament, so called from its con- stantly being shifted from place to place. See ' Parliaments.' Rupert tRuprecht] surnamed Klemm, i.e. pinched or straitened in circum- stances, last but one of the promiscuous kaiser-kings of Germany(1352, 1400-1410). He married Elizabeth of Nurnberg, and was contemporary with Henry IV. Rupert (Prince). Grandson of James I. of England. His mother Eliza- beth, daughter of James I., married Friedrioh V. the elector palatine. Charles I. was his uncle. I Rupert's Land (1670). All the lands that pour water into Hudson'8 Bay. So called from Prince Rupert, who, with certain specified associates, formed the original Hudson's Bay Company Rural Dean (A). A person (gene- rally a beneficed clergyman) appointed to supervise in a certain district, called a deanery, the condition of the churches, the church furniture, the glebe houses, the schools, the appliances of public wor- ship, and all other things pertaining to the church services, and to report on all to the bishop as occasion seems fit. RuralLabourers'League (The), 12 May, 1888. A society which super- seded the Allotments Association of 1882 ; its object being to deal with every prac- tical grievance of the rural population, such for example as footpaths, commons, local charities, allotments, rights of labour, and so on. Rurik (The Dynasty of). The first Russian dynasty, 862-1598. They were not kings of Russia, but rulers of a part of Russia, over-lords of other princes, and held their courts at Novogorod, Kiev (1154-1240), Moscow (1154-1240), Vladimir (1240-1339),Moscow again(1339- 1584). The seventh of the line, Vladimir L the Great, introduced Christianity ; the ninth, Jaroslav I., was a great legislator ; Ivan (or John) III. the Great unified the kingdom (1462-1505), and assumed the title of czar. This is called ' The Great Dynasty '; it gave sixty-seven sovereigns, and continued 736 years. Russell's Cairn. A spot on the farm of Auldton-burn, on the march be- tween England and Scotland, where Sir Francis Russell, eldest son of the Earl of Bedford, was mortally wounded in 1584 by a party of Scotch raiders led by Sir Thomas Kerr, of Ferniherst. Russia, four dynasties. 1. The dynasty of Rurik (862-1598) gives 67 sovereigns. 2. The dynasty of Godunoff (1598-1613) gives 5 sovereigns. 3. The dynasty of Romanoff (1613- 1762) gives 11 sovereigns. 4. The dynasty of Holstein-Gottorp (1762- *) 782 RUSSIA RUSSIA8 Russia. The Scythians, we are told, called the Scandinavians Busses, i.e. war- riors. This may be, but it is quite certain that the Norwegian Rus means a new or fresh-man; Rus-land the new-man's land ; Russia is the freshman's land. The notion that 'Russia' is derived from ' Rurik ' is absurd. Russia (The Seven Crowns of). Three in Europe : Russia proper, Poland, and Finland. Four in Asia : Caucasus, Trans-Caspian, Central Asia, and Siberia. Population about 105 millions. Russia Company (The). Formed in the reign of Edward VI., and chartered by Mary, in 1555, under the name of the ' Company of Merchant Adventurers of England for the Discovery of Lands, Territories, Islands, &c. unknown or un- frequented.' Their privileges were to have 'a governor, four consuls, and twenty-four assistants ; to make laws, in- flict penalties, send oat ships to make discoveries, take possession of them in the king's name, set up the royal banner of England, and enjoy the exclusive privi- lege of trading to Archangel and other parts of Russia, not yet frequented by the English.' The company still exists for social gatherings, but not for commer- cial purposes. Russian Afghan Treaty, 1881. A treaty between Alexander II. of Russia and the Ameer of Afghanistan, in which the Russian Government engaged to be the perpetual friend of the government of Afghanistan, and to assist it against any enemy which the Ameer might be unable to subdue. The Ameer, on the other hand, engaged not to make war on any foreign power without first obtaining the consent of Russia; and to report to Russia whatever goes on in Afghanistan. The secret object of the treaty was to win the Ameer from the British alliance, and make Afghanistan a standpoint to threaten our Indian empire, if at any time England and Russia should be at war. Russian Byron (The). Alexander Sergeivitch Pushkin (1799-1887). Russian Church Catechisms (The). The larger one was the Greek Church catechism prepared in 164-2 by Peter Mogilas. The shorter one was the catechism prepared by the order of Peter the Great. Russian History (Father of). Nestor, a monk of Kiev. His ' chronicle ' is from 862-1116. Nestor died in the 12th cent. Russian Influenza. 20 Jan., 1837, was called Black Sunday, because 1,000 persons died in London of influenza, and numerous churches were closed from want of a congregation. Of the London police force 800 men were incapacitated for duty. 1833 and 1838 were Influenza years. The next prevalence occurred in Jan. 1890. It was called The Russian Influenza,' and in France, where it was very fatal, it was called La Grippe. Russian Laws. The code was com- piled in 1497, by order of Ivan III. the Great. It was revised and completed in 1550 by Ivan IV. (the Terrible). Called Sudebnik. The New Code was compiled in 1649 by order of Alexis. It was called the Sobornoe Ulajenie. The corpus juris (Svod Zakonov) was published 1826-1833. Ivan III. the Great WM the first to assume the title of ' ciar. 1 Russian Messali'naCTta). Catha- rine, wife of Peter III. of Russia. Her paramour when Peter was alive was Gregory Orloff, officer of the guards. Russian Murat (The). Michel Miloradowitch (1770-1820). Russian Rebels. See 'Decem- brists,' ' Nihilists,' ' Propagandists," Ter- rorists.' Russias (All the). BALTIC RUSSIA, that part which borders on the Baltic Sea. BLACK RUSSIA, the western part of Lithuania, which forms the governments of Minsk and Grodno. Called black from the black caps and vestments which the inhabitants used to wear. GREAT RUSSIA, the north and middle portions of Russia in Europe; formerly called Moscovia when Moscow was its capital. LITTLE RUSSIA, the south-west region, the Ukraine. NEW RUSSIA, the southern region, com- Srehending the governments of Kerson, ekaterinoslav, Tauris, Bessarabia, the territory of the Cossacks of the Don, that RUSSO-GERMAN SABBATH 783 of the Black Sea, and all the parts re- cently added. BED RUSSIA, the part occupied by the Ruthenians (or Russniaks) and Poles of the Austrian frontier. It is said that they wore a red cap, like the Turkish fez. WHITE RUSSIA, that part of Lithuania detached from Poland in 1772, forming the governments of Smolensk, Moholev, and Vitebsk. It is said that they wore white caps and dresses; the Austrian soldiers wear white. Bus is Norwegian {or new, Russers=the new men ; and Rusland^the new man's land. Russo-G-erman Wa,r(The), 1812- 1815, against Napoleon Bonaparte. It began with the Russian campaign of Napoleon, and ended with the battle of Waterloo. Rustic War (The), 1525. Waged by the Elector of Saxony and the German princes against Munzer and the Ana- baptists. The battle of Frankenhausen put an end to the Anabaptist rebellion. Munzer, being taken prisoner, was igno- miniously put to death. Rye House Plot (The), 1688. After the failure of the Mealtub plot, James duke of York was taken into the king's councils, and directed the affairs of government without a parliament. The nation grew alarmed, and a plot was set on foot for the assassination of the king on his way home from Newmarket. As the house in which the king lodged acci- dentally caught fire, he left Newmarket Booner than was expected, whereby his life was preserved ; but the conspirators were hunted up, and amongst others Lord William Russell and Algernon Sid- ney were executed. Called the Rye House Plot, because the conspira- tors met at a farm belonging to Rumbold, a malt- eter, called the liye House, on the river Lea, nenx Hoddesdon, In Hertfordshire, to concert their plans. Whether Lord William Russell was guilty has been much disputed. Ryswick (Peace of), 20 Sept., 1697. Signed by England, France, Spain, and Holland ; 30 Oct., 1697, by the Emperor of Germany. To establish the peace of Europe disturbed by Louis XIV. The treaty consisted of four parts: (1) Be- tween France and England ; (2) between France and Holland ; (8) between France and Spain; (4) between France and Ger- many. By the 1st, Louis XIV. engaged to abandon the cause of James II., and to acknowledge William III. as lawful king of England. By the 3rd, Louis restored to Spain Garonne, Roser, Barcelona, Lux- embourg, Charleroi, Mons, Courtrai, and all the fortresses he had taken in Namur, Brabant, Hainault, and Flanders. This important treaty closed the conspiracy between Louis XIV. and the Stuarts, begun at Dover ; the object of which was to make England a dependency of France and to restore Catholi- cism. Sabathai Sevi (1625-1676). A false Messiah who went to Jerusalem in 1665, and, joining an ally named Nathan, gave out himself to be the Messiah and Nathan his Precursor. He collected a large following, but was arrested by Kiu- perli (minister of Mohammed IV.), and, being brought before the sultan, confessed his imposition, consented to embrace Islamism, and became a public laughing- stock. Sabbatarian Controversy (The), 1630. A controversy in the early part of Charles I.'s reign respecting the observ- ance of the Sunday and its being called the ' Sabbath ' or the ' Lord's Day.' The ' Book of Sports ' (q.v.), published in the last reign, and appointed by Charles I. to be read in churches, gave great offence. Prynne printed his ' Histriomastix ' in ridicule of Sunday sports, and spared neither king nor queen from his mercilesa castigation. For this he lost his ears, was fined, imprisoned, and struck off the Rolls. Sabbatarians. Those Christiana who observe the seventh day (our Satur- day) as the true Sabbath. They are chiefly Baptists, and are sometimes called the ' Seventh-day Baptists.' There are also Seventh-day Adventlsts both In America and in Europe. Sabbata'ti, 12th cent. The Wal- denses. Prat'eolus says 'quod qui inter eos perfections erant, signum quoddam in superiore parte sui sotularis, quod sdbbatem appellabant, deferra solebant.' Ebrardus Bethuniensis says : 1 Sotulares cruciant, cum membra potiua debeant cruciare ; calceamenta coronant, caput autem non coronant.' They wera also called ' Insabbatati ' (q.v.). It is quite certain that the word is not connected With Sabbath, though it may be with Sabot. Sabbath, or Day of Rest. 1st day, Sunday Christiana. 2nd day, Monday Greeks. 784 SABBATICAL SACHEVEREL 8rd day, Tuesday Persians. 4th day, Wednesday Assyrians. 5th day, Thursday Egyptians; Jesids (g.t>.). 6th day, Friday Turks. 7th day, Saturday Jews. Sabbat'ical Year (The). Every seventh year, when the Jews abstained from husbandry. Sab'batum in Albis. The Saturday following Easter Sunday. So called because on that day those bap- tized on Holy Saturday (i.e. Saturday preceding Easter Sunday) laid aside the white robes or stoles assumed on their baptismal day. Sab'batum in Traditio'ne Sym'boli. The Saturday preceding Palm Sunday. So called in the Ambro- sian ritual, because on that day the Mediolani gave the creed (or symbol) to the catechumens, who appeared in white stoles on Palm Sunday. Sabbatum Magnum, in the Catholic Church, means the Sabbath which occurs in the Paschal Week. The day when Christ lay in the grave, between Good Friday and Easter Sunday. Of course the day was the Saturday follow- ing Good Friday. Sabbatum Vacat. The fifth Sunday in Lent. ' Diem Dominicum ita dictum, qui Pascha preecedit ; quia pro- prio officio caret. Propterea quod papa, ipso die, occuparetur eleemosyna ero- ganda ' (Du Cange). See ' Sunday.' Sabbatum XII. Lectionum. ' Ita appellatum Sabbatum Quatuor Tem- porum, auctor est Amalarius ' (bk. ii. ch. 1). Sabeism. Worship of the sun, moon, and stars. So-called from the Sabeans, a people of Arabia Felix. Sabellianism, about AJ>. 252. The heresy of Sabellius of Libya, who main- tained that there is but one person of the Godhead. According to Sabellius, Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are not three dis- tinct persons, but only three functions or manifestations of the one God. Before the incarnation there was only the One God ; this One God descended into the Virgin and became the Son, and on the Day of Pentecost this son diffused him- self on the apostles, and that is the Holy Ghort. So that Father, Bon, and Holy Ghost are only three names of the one hypostasis. The Sabellians also believed in the eternity of matter. Condemned by the Council of Alexandria in 261. According to Sabellius the Son or Word and the Holy Ghost or Comforter are functions or opera- tions of Qod, as light and heat are emanations of the sun. V The Orthodox are those who accept the creed of the dominant state church. Heretics are those who choose for themselves their own reli- gious tenet*, or form their own opinions of reli- gions truths. (Greek, mid. voice of a^wo*, to select for one self.) Sabian'ism. The religious system of the Sabians. They prayed thrice a day, and the temple of the moon at Haran was the term of their pilgrimage. Their traditions of the creation, deluge, and patriarchs were very similar to the Bible stories; they appealed to the secret books of Adam, Seth, and Enoch; and had a slight infusion of Christianity. It was not, however, as Sale says, 'the primitive religion of the Arabs,' but a graft of Chaldeanism. They are now called Mandaaans, or St. John's Chris- tians. The sect still exists (1890). SaTrians (The). A people and sect of Turkey. The same as the ' Naba- theans.' Sabin'ians. In Latin, Sabiniani. A law school which derived its name from Massurius Sablnus, a jurist in the time of Tiberius. He was opposed to the Proculeans (<7-v.). The Sabinians were orthodox equity lawyers, attached to the court and aristocracy. The Procu- leans were radicals. Sacchnrissa. Dorothy Sydney if so called by Waller, who made love to her in vain. In the meantime Sydney paced to and fro with him [Hugo Warnclirfe] in the avenue which wa> called ' Saccharina's Walk ' In memory of Syd- ney's beautiful sister Dorothy, Immortalised by Waller under that name. EDNA LYALL, In Uie Golden Day$, ch. x. Sache'verel (Dr.), 1709-1710. He preached two sermons on passive obe- dience and non-resistance: one 15 1709, at the Derby assizes, before the judge and sheriff, and the other 5 Nov., 1709, before the lord mayor and corpora- tion in St. Paul's Cathedral, on the text ' Perils from false brethren.' The gist of these sermons was against toleration in religion. He was tried in Westmin- ster Hall in Feb. 1710, and condemned. But his sentence was suspension for two SACRAMENT SACEED 785 years, and the sermons to be burnt by the common hangman. There was a large mob of Sacheverelites (5 syl.), who went about London pulling down the chapels of Dissenters and burning the hymn-books, Bibles, and fur- niture. The whole of this disgraceful riot was as much political as anything, the object being to oust the Whigs and bring the Tories into power. Sacrament of the Mass, or Elevation of the Host.' That part of the mass in which the officiating priest holds up the consecrated bread and shows it to the people (A.D. 1373). Sacramenta'rian Confession (The). The confession of faith presented by the Sacramentarians (q.v.) in the Diet of Augsburg (1530). Sacramentarians, or ' Sacra- mentaries,' 1524. Certain reformers who separated from Luther on the doctrine of the eucharist. Luther believed in con- substantiation, but the Sacramentarians rejected the doctrine of a corporal pre- sence, and admitted only a spiritual pre- sence of Christ with the truly devout. Zwingli was a Sacramentarian ; so were Carlostadt, (Ecolampadius, Muncer, Storck, and Martin Bucer. M. Felice, In his ' History of the Protestants of France,' tells us that Lutherans were BO called. ' Many Lutherans, or Sacramentarians as they were then called, were cast into prison ' (iv. p. 34); but whether he means all Lutherans or some is not evident. Certainly Luther s ' impanation ' means something added to the bread, or incorpo- rated with it, or the word is senseless. Sacramen'tary, or ' Sacramen- tarian.' One who rejects the doctrine of the real presence as taught in the Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches [that is, transubstantiation and consubstantia- tion]. The only thing which he [the Duke of Norfolk] thought his enemies might bring against him was for ' being quick against such as had been accused for sacramentaries ' [1546], HowiTT, Hitt. of Eng. t T / ! The book used by Catholics in celebrating mass is called a ' Sacr amen tar y.' Sacred Art (The). Ars Sacra. Chemistry, which in Alexandria was limited to the priests. Sacred Band (The). A Theban band of 300 hoplites of the best families, enrolled under Epaminondas. The spe- cial duty of this iepb? A.OXOS was to defend the Cadmea. In 1821, 500 Greek tudents enrolled themselves into ' Sacred Band ' to resist the Turks. They fought most bravely, but, overpowered by numbers, they were all slain at Drage- schan. The motto of their standards was 'Death or Freedom,' or ' This, or Upon this ' (ij &% # M T. 811. The Roman Church agreed to appoint seventy of their clergy into a sacred college. The number was in imitation of the Jewish Sanhedrim and the seventy disciples appointed by Christ. It was composed of six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons, to be called ' car- dinals,' out of which one was to be elected chairman or head of the hierarchy. The assemblies of the college were called conclaves, and each of the members now wears a red hat. The full number Is not strictly kept up. Thus, In 1841, there were but 61 (88 instead of 60 being cardinal priests, and 11 instead of 14 being car- dinal deacons). Sacred Geese. Geese kept by the ancient Romans in the temple of Juno on the Capitoline Hill. These geese are especially noted in Roman story, because when a party of Gauls climbed stealthily up the steep rock, unobserved by the sentinels, and even without disturbing the watch-dogs, the geese gave the alarm by their cackling, and Manlius, being aroused, reached the rampart just in time to push over the foremost Gaul and thus saved the capitol. Sacred Heart (The). There are two fetes so called in the Catholic Church : (1) 'Le Sacre Cceur de Je'sus,' insti- tuted in 1698, from the revelations of Marie Alacoque, and celebrated the third Sunday after Pentecost, but in 1822 transferred to the second Sunday in July. And (2) the Sacri Coeur de Marie, insti- tuted in 1661, and celebrated 8 February. We are told as an historic truth that Jesus allowed this visionary to repose on his bosom, and one day said to her : ' Mary, my sacred heart Is full of love to man, but to thee especially, to whom I enjoin the privilege of making known the treasures of sanctiflcation and salvation, which alone can redeem from hell.' Then taking his heart, he put it into hers. She saw it distinctly, and says it was like a burning coal. Every Friday this was repeated, till she consented to establish the festival of the Sacred Heart (! 1). See ' Life and Works of Margaret Mary Alacoque ' : BRfi- TON, 'Instruction sur le Sacre Co3ur de Jesus,' and ' Les Petits Bollandistes,' vol. xil. p. 421. Sacred Island (The). Ireland was so called long before the introduction of Christianity into the island. Probably it B BACRED SACRED was the Beat of Spanish-Phoenician mis- sions. Festus Avienua Bays that two days will bring you .... In sacram slo Insolam Dlxere prlsci .... Eamque late gens Hibernorum collt, Plutarch refers to the Magi of Ireland, and Dlodorus Siculus to its sun-worship. Sacred Month (The), 1838, of the Chartists. In which the Chartists swore to abstain from all work and all drink, ' in order to secure the charter of their political salvation.' See ' Six Articles, &c.' In some places the ' Sacred Month ' began in July, in others in August. From the despatch of the Sacred Ship (g.c.) to Its return was a Sacred Month In Attica. Sacred Mount (The), or Mona Sacer, a hill about two miles from Rome, commanding the junction of the Tiber and Anio. Called the Sacred Hill because it was here that the Roman army encamped with the intention of forming themselves into a free and inde- pendent community when they found that Appius and the senate refused to fulfil the promises twice made to them when enemies were at the gates. Ulti- mately a compromise was effected, and two popular officers were granted to the revolters. The terms of this treaty were called the Sacred li&wa,OT Leges Socrates. Sacred Shields (The). Of the Salian priests, in the reign of Numa. These twelve shields, we are told, fell down from heaven, and became the pal- ladium of Rome. Sacred Ship (The). The ship in which Theseus (2 syl.) sailed to Crete to deliver Attica from the tyranny of Minos. It was preserved ever afterwards, and sent by the Athenians every year to the island of Delos with offerings. From the dispatch of the ship to its return no criminals were put to death. It so happened that Socrates was condemned to death the night before the sacred ship weighed anrhor, and consequently his death was deferred for thirty days, till the ship returned. Sacred Spring (A). Ver Sacrum, a dedication of all the produce of the spring to the gods. Even the children born during a sacred spring were devoted, and had to leave the city of their birth. It was a Sabine custom ; but when Han- nibal invaded Italy, Quintus Fabius MaximuB agvised the Roman senate to decree a ' Sacred Spring.' Sacred Standard (The). The 'standard of green silk,' unfolded by Mussulmans in times of imminent dan- ger, and said to have been borne by the prophet himself. When Selim I., in 1517, conquered Egypt, this standard went to the Osmanlis, and has ever since been regarded as a palladium. In 1595 it was displayed in the war of Hungary. Mohammed III. confided it to the cus- tody of 800 emirs. At present the sacred standard is enveloped in four coverings of green taffeta, and inclosed in a case of green cloth. . In the same case is a small Koran written by the hand of the Calif Omar, and the keys of the Caaba (g.v.). The pole of the standard Is twelve feet high, and Is surmounted with a closed hand. In time* of peace It Is preserved in the ' Hall of the Noble Vestments,' which also contains the prophet tunic, the sacred teeth, board, stirrup, sabre, and bow of the prophet. Sacred War (The]. There were two sacred wars in Grecian history the first from 595 to 586, and the second from 856 to 846, each therefore of ten years' duration. The first of these broke out in Phocis soon after the establish- ment of Solon's laws in Athens. The Crisseans levied grievous taxes on those who went to consult the oracle of Delphi, and even seized the sacred treasures of that temple. Solon induced the Amphio- tyonic league to avenge the sacrilege, so the lands of the Crisseans were laid waste. In the ninth year of the war the city of Crissa was taken, and the spoil consecrated to Apollo. As many of the Crisseans had taken refuge in Cirrha, that city was attacked and shared the fate of Crissa ; the whole territory of both Crissa and Cirrha was consecrated to Apollo, and was henceforth uncultivated. The cause of the second sacred war was that the Phociana cultivated a part of the Cirrhaean territory which had been dedicated to Apollo. The offenders were cited before the Amphictyons, and fined, but they refused to pay the tine. War broke out. Thebes, Locris, Thessaly, and several other states joined the Amphictyons; but Athens and Sparta joined the Phocians. At length Philip king of Macedonia joined the Amphio- tyons, and compelled Phocis to surrender at discretion, B.C. 852. It was on the Interterence of Philip of Macedoa In this war that Demosthenes spoke his Or* Philippic and Olynthiac oration*. BACRIFICATI ST. BARTHOLOMEWS 787 Sacrifica'ti (The). Those lapsed Christians who, to avoid persecution, consented to offer sacrifice to heathen gods. They were very numerous. Sacrificial Mass, or Sacrifice of the Mass. ' Missa Perfecta,' reAeia 0v Sal'adine Tithe (The), 1187. A general tax of the tenth of all movable estate, imposed by the kings of France and England upon all their subjects, whether ecclesiastic or lay, towards the expense of their intended crusade (the third). This tax was sanctioned by the pope and prelates as well as by the kings and barons. This is the first eminent instance of a general tax. Church property as a rule paid no tax, as it would have been doomed sacrilegious to take hurch property for civil purpose*. Salic Law (The). The code of the Salian Franks, introduced into France (Gaul) by the Franks. It contained 400 articles, chiefly concerning debt, theft, murder, and battery, the penalty in every case being a fine. The most famous article of the code is Title Ixii. 6, accord- ing to which only males could succeed to the Salic land or lod, i.e. to the lands given for military service. In 1816, at the death of Louis le Hutin, the law was extended to the crown, and continued to be observed to the end of the monarchy. Salii (The). Twelve priests of Mars chosen from high patrician families and appointed to guard the twelve sacred ancilia which were kept in the Temple of Mars on the Palatine hill. The great festival of Mars began on 1 March and continued several days. They were called Salii, from salio (to dance), from their dancing in procession. Their dance was called the ' Salic Dance,' and their hymns or chants the ' Salic Songs.' Varro says a teUitando. Salisbury, or Sarum Missal (The), or 'Salisbury Hours,' AJ>. 1078. A liturgy drawn up by Oswald or Osmund bishop of Salisbury in usum Sarum. It was in Latin and based on those of Rome. This Missal was used throughout the whole kingdom. Sarum is the better word, as 'Salisbury 1 U ' New Sarum.' Our Common Prayer-Book Is almost a translation of this Missal, and the Litany IB almost word for word the same. Sallust of Prance ( The). L' Abbe* de St. Real (1639-1692), author o! ' Spanish Conspiracies against the Re- public of Venice,' from which Otway borrowed his 'Don Carlos' and bis 1 Venice Preserved.' Salt. At the accession of James L the people of Grace Dieu (within the liberties of Waterford) closed their gates against Mountjoy, the English lord- lieutenant of Ireland; but Mountjoy warned the people if they compelled him to enter by force he would utterly destroy the town, and ' spread salt upon the ruins.' In allusion to an ancient custom of drawing a plough over the walls of a conquered city and strewing salt over the place. Thus when Abimelech took the city of Shechem he sowed the place with salt (Judges ix. 15). (See also Judgei ii. 9; Psalms cvii. 84; Jer. xvii. 6.) BALTERS' SAMSON TO1 Salters* Hall Controversy (The), 1719. A Baptist controversy on the question whether toleration is or is not to be extended to Unitarians. Salvation Army (The), 1878. A home missionary organization set on foot by William Booth, who was called the ' General ' of the army. The plan of operation is for a company to march about cities, towns, and villages, singing popular sacred songs and speaking between whiles for about five minutes. The army has also a large number of religious periodicals and small books. Mr. Booth was a minister of the Methodist New Connexion, which he left in 1861, and began ' revi- valistic services ' in a tent in Whitechapel. In 1865 his little band of followers called themselves 'The East London Christian Revival Society,' afterwards changed to ' The Christian Mission.' In 1869 the Mission made expeditions to provincial towns. Lastly, In 1873, the name was changed to 1 The Salvation Army.' Their literary organ, called 'The Christian Mission,' first appeared monthly in 1874. In 1879 it was called ' The Salvationist,' and in the same year its title was changed into ' The War-Cry.' Salvationism, Ecclesiasti- cism. Ecclesiasticism is dogmatic religion, the doctrine that the church is the ark, out of which there is no salva- tion. Salvationism is the doctrine that the church is simply a name for all be- lieving Christians, and that salvation is a gift wholly independent of an hierarchy or community of any kind called 'a church.' Ritualists are strong believers in ecclesiasticism ; Dissenters and what are called 'Evangelicals' are Salvation- ists. Samaneans (The), or 'Samaneei,' were distinct from the Brahmins and Gymnosophists (the latter were pro- bably Jains), yet equally austere and living in solitude. They were apparently Buddhist priests. All the worshippers of the Dalai-Lama have been also called Mot to be mistaken tor the Chamaneans. 8t Chamanism.' Sama'nides (8 syl.). A Persian dynasty while Persia was a province of the Califs. Founded by Ismail al Sa- mani. Lasted only 97 years (902-999). It succeeded the Sof'farides (8 syl.), and was overthrown by the Ghaz'nevides (8 syl.). It reigned only over Transoxiana, Khorasan, Balkh, and Seistan. The Samanides reigned over Seistan, Korasan, Balkh, and Tabaristan. The Bowides in 932 ob- tained a part of Persia. Gibbon (ch. Ivii.) says the dynasty lasted 125 years (874-999). Samaritan Pentateuch (The), 2nd cent. A translation of the Hebrew Pentateuch into the Samaritan dialect. It bears a strong resemblance to the Targum of Onkelos. See ' Scriptures.' It mast not be confounded with the ' Pentateuch of the Samaritans,' which is a copy of the Hebrew Pentateuch in Samaritan characters. The Sama- ritan Pentateuch is a translation. Samaritan War (The), AJ>. 529. A war carried on by Justinian against the Samaritans, who had risen in arms to retaliate their wrongs. In this war 20,000 Samaritans were slain and as many more were sold as slaves to the Arabs and Persians. Gibbon (xlvii.) says 100,000 Roman subjects were extir- pated in this war, by which the fruitful province of Samaria was converted into a wilderness. 'But,' he adds, 'in the creed of Justinian, the guilt of murder could not be applied to the slaughter of unbelievers.' Samaritans (The). Not Israelites, but Assyrian and Modish colonists sent thither by Shalmanezer, when he had carried the native population to Nineveh. They received 'the books of the law.' The division into Israelites and Judaeans had ceased long before the Incarnation. Sa'mian Sage (The). Pythagoras of Samos (B.C. 481-411). One of the most astounding geniuses ever born. Samnite Wars (The). A series of wars between the Romans and the Sam'- nites (2 syl.), which lasted, with few in- terruptions, for fifty-three years. The three great wars were : (1) 848-841 ; (2) 826-804; (8) 298-290. Samos'atans. Followers of Paul of Samosata, bishop of Antioch, who denied the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus the Christ. He was excommunicated by the Synod of Antioch in 270. His followers are also called Paulianists, or Paulinists. Samp'sicera'nus, Alabar'ches, the Jerusalemite. So Cicero desig- nates the haughty Pompey, the great eastern conqueror (B.C. 106-48). Sampsicerdnut was king of Emesa in Syria. Ala, barchet Is an oriental name for a tax-gatherer. Jerusaltmite refers to his taking Jerusalem, S.0. 63, when he entered the Holy of Holies out of curi- osity and found nothing. Samson (The Greek). Her'akles, called by the Romans Her'cules. 792 SAMSON SANS-CULOTTES Samson (The Italian}. MQo of Crotona, the athlete. Samson (The Turkish). Ozdemir or the Iron Ogli (16th cent.) So called by Cantemir. Sancho (The Crowned). Louis XVI. was so called by Camille Desmoulins, 'because he was always thinking of hia stomach, and at Varennes lost the time in which he might have escaped by stay- ing to eat pig's pettitoes.' So it is said. Sanchoni'atho. In nine vols. A literary forgery by "Wagenfeld of Han- over, published at Bremen in 1837. It was said that the MS. of this work had been discovered in the convent of St. Maria de MerinhSo by a Colonel Pereira in the Portuguese army; but it was ascertained that there was no such con- vent nor any such colonel, and that the paper of the MS. bore the water-mark of Osnabr iick paper-mills. See ' Literary Forgeries.' There was a ' history ' said to be by Sancho- nlatho published by Herennlus Phllon Rybllus, a translation from the original Phoenician work, fragments of which are preserved In Euseblus; but considerable doubt exists as to the authen- ticity of this work also. Sancy Diamond (The). Picked up on the field of battle near Granson. It belonged to Charles le Te'me'raire of Burgundy, who was routed there and fled. Sixteen years after the battle it was sold at Lucerne for 1.250Z. It fell into the hands of the house of Braganza; was subsequently purchased by Nicholas de Sancy [Sahn-se], and under the name of the Sancy diamond was set in the crown of France. During the Revolution it was sold, but Napoleon I. rebought it. In 182f> it was sold to Prince Paul Demidoff for 80.000Z. The prince sold it in 1830 to M. Levrat, administrator of the Mining Society, but, Levrat being unable to pay the money, it was returned in 1882 to the prince. We next hear of it in Bom- bay. In 1867 it was transmitted to Eng- land by the firm of Forbes & Co. In 1878 it formed part of the crown necklace worn by Mary of Sachsen-Altenburg on her marriage with Albert of Prussia. In 1876 it was worn as a pendant by the Maharajah of Puttiala; but in 1877 it belonged to the Czar of Russia. Sandal-wood Gates (The), or Sandal Gates ' of the temple of the great idol Somnat in Somnauth, in Guzerat. This temple was built in the 5th cent., and in 1024 the city of Somnauth was stormed, the idol was broken by the Sultan Mahmud, and the Sandal Gates were sent to Ghuznee. In 1842 the gates were carried off by the British. Lord Ellenborough, governor-general of India, wanted to restore them to Somnauth, but the British Government would not allow it to be done for fear of provoking religious strife between Mahrattas and Moslems. So they were taken to Agra, where they still are (1890). The stone idol, Somnat, an avatar of Siva or Mahades, was fifteen feet In height, six of which were sank in the ground. When Mahmud took the town of Somnauth and entered the temple he knocked off the noae of the idol with his laace, and ordered two pieces of the Idol to be sent to Qhuince. where they still are. His next stroke was against the belly of the idol, and the opening revealed an enormous quantity of diamonds, rubles, and pearls. Sora nat=Somalord. Boma was the sacred drink of the gods. V The old belief or prophecy wan that when the gates should leave Ghuznee the Sikh rule This proved true. Sandema'nians, 1728, or Glassists, from Mr. John Glass, the founder, ex- pelled from the Church of Scotland for maintaining that national churches are ' kingdoms of this world, 1 and therefore unlawful. The word Sandemanian is from Robert Sandeman, who published a series of letters on the subject in 1755. San-kou-e, or ' San-Kon,' (221-817). Three states of China, collectively so called. The source of Chinese romance, and the fount from which they draw their historical plays. In 265 the three states (after being divided for forty-five years) were united under one ruler, who lived at Honan, and the Salic law was introduced; in 416 the Honan state merged again into the Chinese empire. The ' Three states ' were a) the sixth Imperial dynasty; (2) 'the kingdom of Oey or Wei; and (3) the kingdom of Ou or Woo. Sanquhar Declaration (The), 1680. A deed renouncing the authority of Charles II., drawn up by Richard Cameron, Cargill, Douglas, and others. So called from Sanquhar, a town in Dumfries. Sanquhar, pronounce Sang-ker. Bans-culottes (Lea). A name of contempt given to the democrats in the French Revolution ; as much as to say, they were only the tag-rags or raga- muffins of society. Subsequently, like the Oueux (q.v.), they gloried in the nam, 6ANS-CTJLOTTB SANTONS 793 and even affected negligence of dress, going about in a blouse, red cap, and wooden shoes. The red nightcap adorned with a tricoloured cockade was called the 'bonnet-rouge.' Blouse = blooze. The Sans-culottes had a host of songs and a dance (called the Carmagnole) of their own. Pro- nounce Lay Sahn' ku-lof. Sans-culotte Cabinet (The), 1792. Consisting of Duranthon (minister of justice), De Grave (minister of war), Clavieres,adeaf man (minister of finance), Lacoste (minister of marine), Roland (minister of the interior), and Dumouriez (minister of foreign affairs). None of these men, except Dumouriez, was dis- tinguished, and the court called them the Sans-culotte Cabinet from their total insignificance. Pronounce Sahn 1 ku-lof. When Koland presented himself at court, the master of the ceremonies refused to admit him till Roland explained that he was minister of the Interior. The astonished master observed to Dumouriez, who entered next, ' Ah, sir, no buckles in his shoes ! ' To which Dumouriez in affected amazement replied, ' Bon Dieu t then all la lost ! ' Sans-culottides, 1793. The five supernumerary days of the Revolutionary Calendar. Romme divided the year into 12 equal months of 80 days, beginning 22 Sept., 1792. This gives only 860 days. The 5 days over were festival days 1 to Genius, 2 to Labour, 8 to Actions, 4 to Rewards, 6 to Opinion. In leap year a sixth Sans-culottide was added and called the Festival of the Revolution. The Convention Calendar ceased 1 Jan., 1806. The months, begin- ning with September, were called (Autumn) Vendemiaire, Brumaire, Fri- maire (wine-ary, fog-ary, frost-ary); (Winter) Nivose, Pluviose, Ventose (snow-ous, rain-ous, wind-ous) ; (Spring) Germinal, Floreal, Prairial (bud-all, bloom-all, mead-all) ; (Summer) Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor (reap-time, heat- time, fruit-time). No one, however, was allowed to hold any opinion on politics, theology, sociology, or indeed any other subject of public interest not in accord- ance with the Convention. Such is liberty ! The ancient Irish calendar contained only 360 days, the ot'ier five or six were days In which they celebrated their Taltine games, i.e. to the sun and moon. Sans Peur et sans Reproche. Chevalier Bayard is called the knight sans peur et sans reproche (1476-1524). Pronounce Sahn Puh'r a sahn R'proth'. Santa Casa (The). The reputed house of Joseph and Mary in Nazareth where Jesus was brought up. It was transported first in 1'291 by angels to Fiume, in Dalmatia, but in 1294 angels removed it to Loreto at midnight 10 Dec. In eight months' time it shifted its place from the laurel grove, which was infested by brigands, to the hill, and in four months more (1295) it again shifted its place from the hill to a heap of stones near the high road leading to Recanati, near the sea-coast, where it is still. See p. 149, ' Casa, &c. Pronounce SoAn'-toA Kah'-tah. Santa Fedis, 1799. Members of the Secret Association of the Holy Faith, organised by Cardinal Ruffo to extermi- nate all Jansenists, Molinists, Economists, Illuminists, Freemasons, and Carbona'ri. A deadly hatred existed between those societies and the Fedists [Fa-dists] ; and the Fedists, in 1816, committed most frightful slaughter, especially on the Car- bona'ri and their families. Santa Hermandad (The), or 1 Holy Brotherhood.' An association which executed summary justice on all offenders without distinction of rank. It was established in Spain by Ferdinand the Catholic (1481-1516). Santo Ben'ito. The robe worn by those who were punished by the inquisi- tors. It was a straight yellow coat with- out sleeves, with sundry devices. If it contained only a St. Andrew's cross, the wearer paid a fine and was discharged. If it was decorated with flames made of red serge, but without a cross, the wearer was discharged, but warned if ever he relapsed that he would be delivered to the flames. If besides the ' flames ' it was decorated with devils, the wearer was condemned to die. Santons. A mendicant tribe of Moslems which profess poverty and the complete sacrifice of all temporal interests to devote themselves to spiritual matters. Yet they have not unfrequently filled the chief offices of the state. When acting simply as ' prophets ' they live in retired grottoes, like hermits, or in tents. The Osmanli consider Abdal, called 'San- tone Kalenderi,' contemporary with Ma- homet, as the founder. He never pro- nounced the name of God, but sounded it on his pipe. See p. 186, ' Calenders.' 794 SAPPHO BAV10UB Sappho (The English). Mrs. Mary D. Robinson (1758-1800). Sappho (The French). Mdlle. Bcu- ddri (1607-1701). Sappho (The Scotch). Catherine Cockburn (1679-1749). Sappho of Toulouse. Cle*mence Isaure (2 syl.), who instituted in 1490 Let Jeux Floratix. She is the authoress of a beautiful ' Ode to Spring' (1468-1518). Sarabaites. Monks who live two or three together in one celL Hermits or Eremites live alone, CenoHtet 9 iyl.) live socially In common, in a monastery, or con- vent, . 862. The eparatioji of the Western Church from communion with the Greek Church. It was provoked by Photius, and consum- mated in 1058 by the patriarch Cerularius. Photius patriarch of Constantinople anathema- tised Nicholas I. ' pope of Borne, and Nicholas anathomutised the patriarch, who advised his clergy U separate from communion with Rom*. Photius was a man of extraordinary erudition. Cerularius positively refused all intercourse v.ith the Western Church. Schism of the Mohammedans (The), AJ>. 682, after the death of Ma- homet. The question was whether Ali, the son-in-law, or Abou-bekr, the father-in- law, ought to succeed the prophet. Those who thought Ah the proper successor were called Shiites (factious); those who thought Abou-bekr the true Imaum were called Sunnites (traditionists). The Turks, Arabs and Egyptians are Sunnites ; the Persians are Shiites. The califs are Abou-bekr, 632-684; Omar, 684 -till; Othman, 644-656 ; Ali, 656-661, &c. The Shiites reject the first three, and begin with Ali. In India the Moslems an partly Sunnite and partly Shiah. Schism of the Twelve Tribes (The), B.C. 962, when ten of the tribes re- volted from Rehoboam, son of Solomon, and formed the new kingdom of Israel. The tribes of Judah and Benjamin, which remained under Rehoboam, then formed the kingdom of Judah. Each kingdom hod its own kings. Schism of the West (The Great), 1878-1449. A period of seventy-one years, during which tune two popes, and some- times more than two, were elected one at Rome, and one at Avignon in France, or somewhere else. It began by the Italian cardinals electing Urban VI. in opposition to the French cardinals, who had elected Clement VIL The Roman clergy called the popes who were not of their own election 'anti-popes.' This ' schism ' Is not the same as the ' captivity ' of the popes, meaning the residence of the popes at Avignon instead of Home. The * captivity ' be- gan with Clement V., who In 13oa removed his court to Avignon, and ended in 1876 by Ore- gory XI. removing his court back to Rome. At the ,i, >> of (,r, . ry XI. :h.- I: iL.in MVdtattJ* lMM Urban VI. and the French chose Clement vn., and for many years there were two simultaneous popes. See p. &. 'Antl Popea. 1 Schism of the Western Church (The), 824-334, in the reign of Constan- tino. The rivalry showed itself in 841. I. The two churches differed in respect to the doctrine of the Holy Ghost about 400, and in 589 the Latin Church intro- duced into the creed the phrase ' filioque ' (q.v.). EL In 484, Felix n. bishop of Rome and Acacius bishop of Constantinople excommunicated each other. In 648 Pope Theodore pronounced the patriarch SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN SCHOLASTIC 797 Paul II. to be deposed. In 867 Photius and Pope Nicholas I. excommunicated each other. In 1054 the legates of Leo IX. went to Constantinople to excom- municate Michael Cerularius, and then Cerularius excommunicated Leo IX. III. In 588 the Patriarch of Constanti- nople assumed the title of ' Ecumenical (or universal) Patriarch ' ; and in 835 the Pope of Eome, by the False Decretals, claimed the right of universal jurisdiction. Schleswig-Holstein Question (The), 1848. That is, did the two duchies belong to Denmark or Germany ? They were at the time parts of the kingdom of Denmark. Holstein belonged to Den- mart only as a fief, and, though the duke owed homage to Denmark, he was an independent ruler. In 1846 the King of Denmark, who was then Duke of Hoi- stein, declared the two duchies to be united to the crown of Denmark ; but Holstein objected, and appealed to the German Confederation, of which it was a member. In 1848 the king sent troops to put down a revolt in Holstein, and the German diet sent troops to defend the duchy. In 1852 the great powers of Europe signed in London a protocol guaranteeing to Denmark the possession of the duchies, but neither Holstein nor the German diet would consent to the protocol. The quarrel smouldered on till 1863, when Austria and Prussia sent troops into the duchies, and Denmark armed for war ; Denmark, of course, was powerless against these two great powers, was forced to crave peace and to give up the duchies. Prussia now quarrelled with Austria, conquered her in war, and the duchies fell to Prussia. Schleswig-Holstein War (The). I. 1848-52. On the accession of Frede- rick VII. to the throne of Denmark, the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein re- volted, and declared their independence. Prussia entered Holstein, and Denmark defeated the Prussians and Holsteiners near Flensborg, 7 April, 1848. The war continued till the Treaty of London, 8 May, 1852, when Holstein was transferred to the Danes, and Schleswig was declared independent. II. 1864-1866, Prussia and Austria de- manded that Denmark should evacuate Schleswig and abolish the constitution ; and Prince Frederick of Augustenburg was proclaimed Duke of Kiel, 80 Dec., 1863. Austria and Prussia both interfered, and hostilities continued till 1864, when, by the Treaty of Vienna, Lunenberg. Schleswig, and Holstein were ceded by Denmark to the two powers. Austria evacuated Holstein 12 July, 1866. After the Seven Weeks' War, 23 Aug., 1866, Schleswig-Holstein was added to the kingdom of Prussia. No war was ever more fruitful of consequences than this petty Schleswig Holstein -war. Out of it arose the war between Austria and Prussia called the ' Seven Weeks' War,' and the Franco-Prussian war or ' Seven Months' War,' by which Austria was severed from Germany, and Prussia was made the head of the German states. In 1870 the King of Prussia was declared to be the ' German Emperor ' also. Schola Palati'na. The school es- tablished by Charlemagne in his own household. It accompanied the court wherever it went, and was attended by the king himself, his sons and daughters, and the high officers of the realm. Transcribing MSS. was a fashionable occupation of the day, both in the schols palatina and In pri- vate families. Scholars, in the universities of Cambridge and Oxford. Students elected for the most part by competitive exami- nations in their respective colleges. They enjoy certain emoluments from their col- lege from the time of their election. At Merton College, Oxford, the 'scho- lars' are called Postmasters. At Magdalen College, Oxford, the ' scholars ' are called Demies [de-mize]. Scholastic Theology, ' Scholastic Divinity,' or 'Scholastic Philosophy,' may be divided into four periods. I. The Preparatory period, from the 9th to the llth cent. This period in- cluded Gerbert of Aurillac (afterwards Pope Sylvester II.), Berengarius of Tours, and Lanfranc archbishop of Canterbury. II. The First period of Scholasticism proper, 12th cent., opened by Roscelmus, who broached the dispute concerning Nominalism and Eealism. This period included Peter Lombard (* -1164) jAd Alexander Hales (* -1245). In this period it was pithy and logical. III. The Second and Golden Age of Scholasticism, in which Aristotelian me- taphysics were applied to the elucidation of Christian doctrines. This period be- gan with Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), who was contemporary with one of the greatest of the Schoolmen, Thomas 708 BCHOLEFIELD 8COTIST8 AquTnas (1224-1274). John Bonaventura died the same year as Aquinas. The great opponent of Thomas Aquinas was Duns Scotus, a realist (1265-1808) ; the followers of Thomas Aquinas were called Thomists,and those of Duns Scotus were called Scotists. In this period the school was subtle and sophistical. IV. The Third period dates from Du- randus bishop of Meaux [Afo]. Called 'scholastic ' because it was taught In the schools established by Charlemagne. Scholefield Prize for knowledge of the Greek Testament and the Septuagint. Value about 15L Founded in the Uni- versity of Cambridge by the friends of the Rev. James Scholefield [Skole-field\ regius professor of Greek, 1856. See 1 Regius Professor of Greek.' School Boards. The boards are due to the Elementary Education Act of 1870; the object of which act is to bestow elementary education upon every child in England and Wales. Where there does not exist a sufficient supply for the pur- pose, ' a school board shall be formed to supply the deficiency.' The boards are elected every three years, and the ex- penses of the education provided by these boards are defrayed partly by rates and partly by government grants. The ratepayers appoint the board, bat the directors are not paid. Schoolmen. Those who taught in the schools established by Charlemagne. See ' Scholastic Divinity.' Schwarz-gelber (Ein). In 1848 the Austrian Imperialists were called ' Black- yellows,' because the imperial cockades, sentry-boxes, and boundary posts were all black and yellow. Sciences. The six sciences, accord- ing to Comte (1797-1857), are mathe- matics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and sociology; of these six, according to Comte, the last is the chief. Sclavonic Version (The) of the Scriptures, by Cyril of Thessalonica and his brother Methodius, in the 9th cent. Translated for the Sclavonians of Mora- via. It embraced the whole Bible. See ' Scriptures.' Scorpion Stanley. So Daniel O'Connell designated Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, chief secretary for Ireland in 1880-1882, afterwards fourteenth eari of Derby. Very obnoxious to the Irish agitation from his great firmness in ad- ministering the law (1799-1864). No matter -who the chief secretary may be, If he resist* lawlessness, rebellion, and crime, he Is bespattered as a ' scorpion Stanley,' a ' malignant Forster,' or a ' bloody Balfour.' Such dishonour is the proof and the reward of eTen-handed Jus- tice. Scot and Lot include at the present day all parochial assessments for the poor, the church, lighting, cleansing, washing, roads, &c. Scot and lot are Swedish terms, both signifying tax, and originally were applied to assessments made for liquidating necessary debts of the crown, levied, not by an equal rate, but according to the capacity of the con- tributor. Scota. When the Scotch barons in 1820 answered the bull of Pope John XXII., they began by stating that the Scots were lineal descendants of Scota, daughter of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and were converted to Christianity by St. Andrew the apostle. Scotch Guard. See p. 857, ' Garden du corps.' Scotch Marriage (A). A consent to live together, without any legal or church ceremony. Consent makes marriage [In Scotland]. No form or ceremony, civil or religious, no notice before or publication after, no cohabitation, no writing, no witnesses even are essential to ... this con. tract. Lord DBA*. Scoti (The). Prehistoric invaders of Ireland, from whom the island was called Scotia. They conquered the five pro- vincial kings and became their overlords. O'Connor (' History of the Irish People,' p. 80) says they were Scythi of the Scan- dinavian race. See ' Scots.' Scotia. Applied exclusively to Ire- land from the 4th to the llth cent. The Scoti were a branch of the Teutons. North Britain was called Albany or Albania. It was not till the English, in the reign of Henry H^ invaded Ireland that the island forces were called ' Irish.' See ' Scotland.' FinlbuB occlduls describitur optima tellos. Nomine et antiquib Scotia dicta librls. DONATU*. Par westward lies an Isle of ancient fame By nature blest, and Scotia Is her name. Scotists. A theological school so called from [John] Duns Scotus (' doctor subtilissimua ' ' most subtle doctor '). This school was opposed to the ThomisU SCOTLAND SCOTTISH 799 or disciples of Thomas Aquinas. The Scotists were Realists, the Thomists were Nominalists (q.v.). Duns was a Fran- ciscan, and therefore the natural opponent of Aquinas, who was a Dominican. Scotland (Kings of). 1 Caledonia.' See p. 185, In the 9th cent. Kenneth II. (MacAlpin) united In his own person the two crowns of the Picts and Scots, and was, therefore, lii reality the first king of Scotland ; but the Scotch annalists count sixty-six kings before Kenneth MacAlpin, and head the list with Fergus, B.C. 850. Omitting all the names up to Fergus II., the list runs thus : CONSTANTINB IV. 994-995 FERGUS n. EUGENE I. DONGAED 410-427 4*7-449 CONSTANTINO L 458-469 CONGALl. ... 469-501 GONRAN 601-535 EUGENE II. CONGAL n. KlNATHAL AID AN 568-572 604-606 606-622 ... 572-580 ... 680-304 (Columba convert* the Scott). KENNETH I. .. EUGENE III. .. FERCHARDl. .. DONALD II. .. FERCHARD II. .. MALDWIN EUGENE IV. .. EUGENE V. AMBERCHELET EUGENE VI. .. (Amberchelet restored, 704-717 717 730 730-761 761 764 764-767 767-787 702-704). EUGENBVH. ... MORDAO ERFINIU8 EUGENE VIII. ... FERGUS III. ... 8OLVATIU8 ANCHAIUS CONGAL IIL ... DOUGAL ALPIN KENNETH H. DONALD V. CONSTANTINB II. 858-874 ETHEUS 874-875 GREGORY ... 875-898 DONALD VI. 893-904 CONSTANTINB III. 904-943 MALCOLM I. INDULPH DUFF CULEN 973-978 KENNETH m. ... 978-994 823-854 GRIM MALCOLM n. , DUNCAN.. MACBETH MALCOLM III. 995-997 997-1033 1033 1040 1040-1057 1057-1 DONALD VII. ... 1093-1094 DUNCAN II. ... 1094-1095 (Donald VI. restored, 1095 1098). EDGAK 1098-1107 ALEXANDER ... 1107-1114 DAVID I. 1114-1143 MALCOLM IV.... 1143-1157 WILLIAM I. ... 1157-1214 ALEXANDER II. 1214-1219 ALEXANDER III. 1219-1286 Interregnum. JOHN BALIOL... 1292-1806 EDWARD I. ROBERT L (Bruce) ... 1306-1829 DAVID II. (Bruce) EDWARD BALIOL (David II. restored, 1833-1870). ROBERT II. ... 1870-1890 ROBERT III. (called JOHN) 1390-1406 Robert the Regent, 1406-1409. Duke Murdoch, 1409-1424. JAMES I. ... 1424-1437 JAMES II. ... 1437-1460 JAMES IIL ... 1460 1488 JAMES IV. JAMES V. MARY 1488-1513 ... 1613 1542 ... 1542 1567 JAMES VI. ... 1567-1607 When he became JAMES I. of Great Britain (by royal pro- clamation). Scotland. Till the llth cent. North Britain was called Albany. The name Scotia from the 4th to the llth cent, belonged exclusively to Ireland. A.D. 258 a colony of Irish- Scots settled in Argyll- shire, and gave a line of Dalriadic kings. From the llth cent, we read of Irish- Scots and Albanian-Scots. The Romans called the southern part of Scotland Caledonia, a name which disappears in the 4th cent. Quod ut ante undecimum post Christ! natlvlta- tern steculum haudquaquam factum, in fine prso- eedentis capitis declaravlmus : Ita neminem, qul toto antecedentium annorum upatio scrips*!* produci posse arbitramur qul Scotia appellation* Albanian! unquam deslgnaverit. USHER, Ecclet. Primord. cap. xvl. Scotland a Fief of England. During the reign of Malcolm I. (successor of Constantino III.), Edmund king of Eng- land bestowed on him part of the Cum- brian kingdom [Cumberland and part of Westmoreland]. It was this grant which was the foundation of the claim of homage made by the English kings on the Scot- tish sovereigns. Scots, i.e. Irish. A prehistoric colony of Scythians which settled in Ireland about B.C. 400. Subsequently a colony from Ireland went to Argyllshire and reigned there as a race of Scottish kings. The famous Milesians were Scots, and as the Scoti conquered the five provincial kings, and became overlords, Ireland was called Scotia. The Scoti of Caledonia (Scot- land) spoke Earish (Ersh), i.e. Irish or Western. Totam cum Scotus lernen Movit et inf esto spumavit remige Tethys. CLAUDIAN, lul. Cons. Stilich. Book L When Scots came thundering from the Irish shores, The Atlantic trembled, struck with hostile oars. Scottish Crown (The). 'It cam'wi' a lass, and will gang wi' a lass.' So said James V. a few days before his death when informed of the birth of a daughter, afterwards Mary queen of Scots. The Stuarts descended from Margery (daugh- ter of Robert Bruce), who married Walter [the 6th] Steward or Seneschal of Scot- land. MALCOLM IV. was the father of WILLIAM the Lion (who succeeded him), and of David earl of Huntingdon. William the Lion had no issue. David earl of Huntingdon was the father of Margaret, Isabella (who married Robert Bruce), and Ada. First take Margaret ; she was the mother of Devoirgoil, and JOHN BALIOL was the son of Devoirgoil (great-great-grandson of Malcolm IV.). Now take Isabella (wife of Robert Bruce) ; their son was THE BRUCE (Robert I.). The Bruce (ROBERT) was the father of Margcary Bruce (who married Walter the Steward or Seneschal), and their son was DAVID II. (Steward or Stuart in French spelling). Scottish Petitioners (The), Aug. 1776, who prayed the Virginia conven- tion that they might be allowed to stand neutral in the war between America and Great Britain. The licence was first granted and then revoked, the Scots being largely enrolled in the royal militia. Scottish Plato (The). Stewart (175&-1828). Dugald 800 SCOTTISH SCRIPTORES Scottish Security Bill (The), 1704, for the separation of Scotland and England. Authorising the Scotch on the death of Anne to set up a monarch of their own choice, independent of the English choice of a sovereign. The Bill was brought in by Godolphin. The English torles printed and circulated the Scottish Security Blfi to show that the two countries were really separated In the most abso- lute manner. HOWITT, Hiitory of England (Anne, 194). Scotus (John), entitled Erigena [Erin-gen a], an Irishman by birth. Died 875. North Britain was not called Scot- land (g.v.) till the llth cent. Scourers. A set of dissolute young rips in London in the 18th cent., especi- ally in the reign of Queen Anne, opposed to the Mohocks, but quite as infamous and lawless. They were organised to ' scour the streets of Mohocks,' but like other street bullies they considered it capital fun to break windows, upset sedan chairs, beat quiet citizens, rudely caress young women, and make older ones scream with terror. See ' Street Bullies.' Who has not heard the Scourers' midnight fansf Who has not trembled at the Mohocks 1 name T Was there a watchman took his hourly rounds, Sale from their blows and n V The nephew of Prince Eugene, who accom- panied his uncle on an embassage to Queen Anne, was so savagely assaulted by these street bullies in 1712 that he died from the treatment he re- "itelfnam bottled up his wrath till he was out of Newgate; but then, finding It no longer control- lable. he joined a band of Scourers, and spent the evening in wrenching off knockers, assaulting defenceless shop signs, frightening the chapmen into tits, and hustling everything that was capable of being hustled (168.-EDNA LYAIX, In the Golden Dayt, xxxir. Scourge (The) used at the Cruci- fixion, we are told by Alexis Comnenus, was preserved at Constantinople. See ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' Scourge of Christians (The). Noureddin-Mahmud of Damascus (1116- 1174). Scourge of Europe (The). Napo- leon Bonaparte (born 1768, foreign wars 1796-1815, died 1821). Scourge of Germany (The). So the Swedes were called (1680-1685) for their extraordinary success in the Thirty Years' War. Scourge of Qod (The). 'Flagel- lum Dei.' So a Gaulish hermit called Attila, and the king delighted in the appellation (died 453). Genseric king of the Vandals was called ' Virga Del (reigned 429-477). Scourge of Princes (The). Pietro Aretlno of Arezzo, a merciless satirist of kings and princes (1492-1557). Thus Aretln of late got reputation By scourging kings, as Luclan did of old By scourging gods. Lord BKOOKK, InqiUtition upon Fame Scourge of Scotland (The). ' Scotorum Malleus.' Edward L (1289, 12T2-1807). Also called the ' Scourge of Wales.' Scourge of the Propagators Of the Faith (The). The pastor, Charles Drelincourt, who, in his ' Abre'gd des Controverses,' refuted the arguments brought forward by the Converters (q.v.) to turn Huguenots to the Catholic Com- munion (1595-1669). Scriptores Decem. A collection of ten ancient chronicles of English history in one folio vol. 1652, edited by Roger Twysden and John Selden. 1. Simeon Dunelraensis (of Durham). 1 Historia.' 2. Johannes Hagustaldensis (John of Hexham). ' Historia Continuata.' 8. Richardus Hagustaldensis. ' De Crestis Regis Stephani.' 4. Ailredus Rievallensis (Ailred of Rieval or Rievaulx). 'Historia,' being a genealogy of the kings. 6. Radulphua de Diceto. 'Abbrevia- tiones Chronicorum' and 'Ymagines Historiarum.' 6. Johannes Brompton. ' Chronicon.' 7. Gervasins Dorobornensis (Gervais of Dover). ' Chronica,' is derived from <5/>aa>, to be active, and the Welsh dragon is allied to the word . 82. The seventy sent forth by Jesus to spread his mission. They were to go two by two, without purse, scrip, or change of shoes, but were endowed with the power of working miracles. ELI. The seventy elders who were ap- pointed to assist Moses in the wilderness (Num. xi. 16, 17). Seventy Years* Captivity (Th*). I. B.C. 584-515. The captivity of the Jews in Babylon, which lasted seventy years. They were carried into captivity by Nebu- chadnezzar, and released by Cyrus. Also called ' The Babylonish Captivity.' II. 1305-1876. The time when the popes fixed their chair at Avignon, in France. It began with Clement V., and led to the Great Schism of the West (1878-1429). Seventy Weeks (Daniel's). Sup- posing it to begin with the decree of Darius given to Ezra B.C. 491, and seventy weeks to mean 70 times 7 years (i.e. 490), this would bring us to the birth of Christ, ' when a finish was mado to transgression, and an end put to sins by the reconciliation of the Messiah, the prince.' Several Lands, lands enclosed, and separate from common lands. ' Nos pascua et campos seorsim ab aliis sepa- rates Severelt dicimus' (Minsheu, Dic- tionary, 1617). My lip* are no common, though several they ba (i.#. Aly lips are not common property, though they are not Inclosed or hedged in). SHAKKSPKARB, Love'i Labour'* Lott, li. 1. Severians, a religious sect of the 2nd Christian cent. So named from Severus their leader. They were exag- gerated Encratites (8 syl.) who abstained from marriage, animal food, and wine ; denied the salvation of Adam and Eve, and taught the existence of eeont (Eusebius, book iv. 29). Seville (Treaty o/), 9 Nov., 1728, between Great Britain, France, Holland, and Spain. In 1731 the kaiser joined, and the five powers coalesced in the Treaty of Vienna. Sex Viri ( The). In the University at Cambridge. There are two courts, one to hear accusations against meiuburs of SEXAGESIMA SHAKESPEARE 819 the University not in statu pupillari ; and the other a court of discipline for those who are in statu pupillari. The latter court consists of the chancellor and six heads of houses appointed by grace of the Senate. The former, also elected by grace, held office for two years. The Sex Viri can deprive of a degree, but there is the liberty of appeal to the Senate. Sexages'ima Sunday, 60 days before Easter. In all such ecclesiastical terms as Septuagesima, Sexagesima, Quinquagesima, and Quadrigesima (Sun- day), the week is reckoned as a ten-day week, because the octave and the two eves equal ten. See ' Sunday.' Thus : 1 eve of Sunday, 2 Sunday, 8 Monday, 4 Tues- day, 6 Wednesday, 6 Thursday, 7 Friday, 8 Satur- day, 9 Octave Eve, and 10 Octave. So in music, 7 notes with the octave of the first note we call an ' Octave,' and the 3 days of the entombment were 1 eve of Saturday, 2 Saturday, 8 eve of Sunday. Sext (The). A continuation of the Decretals of Raymond de Penafort. Like the Decretals, the Sext is in 6 books. It was compiled by order of Boniface VIII., and contains the rescripts from Gregory IX. to Boniface VIII. See 1 Decretum.' The 8rd part of the Corpus Juris Canonicl la the Extravagantes Communes, containing the Clementines and Extravagantes Joannls (i.e. Clement V. and John XXII.). Sforza the More, or 'Moor.' Ludovic* Sforza was called ' the More,' from morus, a mulberry. Either from a mulberry-spot or stain on his right arm, or from his armorial bearing (1451-1508). Sforzes'chi (The), 1409. The parti. Bans or company of Sforza, formed after the death of Barbiano. See ' Bracces'- chi.' Shade wer (The). Apollodorus, the Athenian painter ( * -440 B.C.). Zeuxig was his pupil. Shah (The). A diamond about half the size of the Orloff, given to the Empe- ror of Russia by Prince Gosroes, younger eon of the Abbas Mirza, when he was in St. Petersburg. It weighs 86 carats, but IB without a flaw or cloud. Shah-zada, a king's son (Afghani- stan). Shakers, 1747. Reformed Quakers, led by James Wardley and his wife. They believe that the second coming of Christ is at hand. They are Unitarians, deny the doctrine of original sin, and the eternity of punishment. They say that baptism is the resurrection, and after baptism there is no marriage or giving hi marriage, hence the married are then divorced, and the single must remain so. Anne Lee was their apostle, whom they called ' Mother' that is, the mother of all living in the new creation. They are called Shakers from the shaking of their bodies in religious exercises. ' The fundamental principles of Shaker- ism are virgin purity, non-resistance, peace, equality in inheritance, and un- spottedness from the world.' The Lord promised He would shake the earth with terror (Isa. ii. 19). .' In that day there shall be a great shaking in the land of Israel ' (Ezek. xxxviii. 19, 20). ' I will shake the heavens and the earth.' ' I will shake all nations, and the desire of all nations [Anne. Lee} shall come.' ' Yet once more I will shake not the earth only, but also heaven ' (Heb. xii. 26). Shakespeare (The Spanish). Hal- deron [de la Barca], 1601-1687. Shakespeare Cipher (The), in 1886 Mr. Donnelly, of Hastings, Minne- sota, U.S., gave out that he had dis- covered by ciphers that Lord Francis Bacon was the author of the plays attri- buted to Shakespeare. The ' cipher ' he referred to consisted of the blunders in pagination, hyphenation, bracketing of the great Folio edition of 1623, to which must be added capitalling words without any ostensible reason (thus the word Bacon is capitalised even in such com- pounds as ' Bacon-fed '), and in the use of italics. In regard to italics he says : In ' 1 Henry IV.' there are 7 italic words in the first column, p. 53; by multiplying these 2 ciphers we get 53 x 7 = 871, and the 371st word is ' Bacon.' Again. On p. 67 of the same play the first column con- tains 6 words in italics, and 67 x 6 = 402, which word is ' St. Albans.' In this sort of way Mr. Donnelly reads a minute history of Lord Bacon in cipher, and affirms that all the blunders and irregu- larities of the printed plays were designed. The secret writing was adopted out of fear of the jealousy of Queen Elizabeth, who looked on some of the plays, as for example ' Richard II.,' as no better than high treason. Shakespeare du Boulevard, Guilbert de Pixe're'court (1773-1844). Shakespeare of Divines (The). Jeremy Taylor, bishop of Down (1618- lei 62C SHAKESPEARE SHEEPSHANKS 16(17). So called by Emerson from the fertility of his mind and the extent of his imagination. Shakespeare of Eloquence (The), the Comte de Mirabeau (1749- 1791). So called by Barnave. Shakespeare of Germany (The). August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotze- bue (1761-1819). We may parody the words of Coleridge on Klopstock, the Gorman Milton, 'A very German Milton indeed.' Certainly Kotzebue is a very German Shakespeare indeed. Shakespeare of Harmony (The). Richard Wagner (1813-18G4). This is a very exaggerated comparison. Shakespeare of Painting (The). Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). So called by Garrick. Shakespeare of Prose Fiction (The). Richardson the novelist (1689- 1761). So called by Disraeli. Shaking Hands. To confirm a bargain, mentioned 2 Kings r. 15. As a salutation, mentioned by Homer, by AriBtoplmnt's ('Nubes,' 18), and by Virgil ('/^n.' i. 403). In modern times the custom is English ; most continental nations salute with kisses. Shalmaneser, that is, Shalman of Assyria, son and successor of Tiglath Pileser. He reigned 14 years (A.M. 8276- 8290, i.e. B.C. 724-710). Sham'anism. The religious doc- trines of the ancifiit Hungarians, and of many modern North Asiatics. The Shaman wonhippen adored one supreme god called Istcn with sundry inferior spirits, as the gods of the mountains, the woods, the springs, the rivers, fire, thun- der, and so on. They offered sacrifice, especially white horses. Their priests were called Tdltos, Kam, or Shaman, who were like the Roman augurs. Shan'avests and Car'avats, 1808, the Ribbon-men of Tipperary, Kilkenny, Cork, and Limerick. They were rival factions. See ' Irish Associations.' Neither the persons executed for these outrages nor anyone else could tell what was the dispute. It was notorious who were Caravats and who were Shonavests, and this was all.-ARXOLB. Shang pynasty. Se ' Chang.' ' Sharp Knife.' So General Jack son was called by the Indians against whom he fought in 1818 (1767-1845). Shas'tras. A compilation of books in Sanskrit, containing the Upa-Vedas, the Up-Angas, and the Ved-Angas (q.v.), books upon the religious tenets of the Hindus, their laws, the sciel ces, and the Sanskrit language, with two heroic poems. The Shastras teach that there is one supreme god called Brahm, but a triad deity consisting of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. She - majesty - generalissimo (The). Marie Henrietta, wife of Charles I., so called herself in 1643. At the' death of Charles she married Lord Jermyn, and died 1669, at Colombo Castle, near Paris. It is said she had a child by Lord Jermyn while Charles was alive. She-wolf of France! I. Isabelle, wife of Edward II.. who, according to a tradition, being in love with Mortimer, murdered her husband by thrusting a red-hot iron into his body. Hence Gray says, ' She- wolf of France, who tear'st the bowels of thy mangled mate.' She was the daughter of Philippe IV. of France. II. Margaret wife of Henry VI. is so called by Shakespeare, '8 Hen. VI.' act i. sc. 4. She was the daughter of Rene le Bon, titular king of Sicily, but was brought up in the French court. In the war of the Two Rosee she sided with the Lancastrians or Red- Rose faction. She is generally called Marguerite d'Anjon. As a rule the French wives of our English sovereigns have not turned out well. Sheb'sen. A Jewish sect founded by Sabathai Sevi of Smyrna (1625- 1676). He proclaimed himself to be the Messiah, and found numerous fol- lowers in Germany, Poland, Italy, and Holland; but Sultan Mohammed IV. cast him into prison. They put a mys- tical meaning on the Bible and rejVc-tcd wholly the Talmud. The last of the sect died in 1791. Sheepshanks Exhibition. As- tronomy. For undergraduates in the University of Cambridge. Value about GO/, a year, tenable for three years. The successful candidate must be or must become a student of Trinity College, Founded by the Rev. Richard Sheep- shanks, fellow of Trinity, 1858. SHEFFIELD SHERTFF 821 Sheffield Trade Outrages, 1866- 1867. Mainly connected with the Saw- grinders', Saw-makers', and Saw-handle- makers' Unions, and brought to a head in Oct. 1866 by the murder of one Fearne- hough of Hereford Street, whose house was blown up with gunpowder because he refused to conform to the rules of the union of his trade. A reward of 1240?. was offered for the discovery of the per- petrator of this outrage, but without effect. At length the government sent down three Koyal Commissioners to in- quire into the matter, and they sat for twenty-five days, from 8 June to 8 July, 1867. Their report states that there were sixty unions in Sheffield, thirteen of which encouraged outrages. Several centuries ago the artisans of Sheffield had their trade laws, which in 1624 were revised. By these laws Every artisan was bound to contribute to the union of his trade. The number of men allowed to be employed wag stated, their wages fixed, and the masters allowed to be employers were named. The enforced holidays were every Monday, a month at Christmas time, and twenty-eight days from 8 Aug. No person was allowed to work without serving a seven-years' apprenticeship. The chief of the gang of outragers was William Broadhead, an innkeeper, at whose house the committee met, and his cools were Samuel Crookes (employed to shoot people and throw gunpowder into obnoxious houses) and James Hallam, who revealed the whole matter. Charles Reade, in his novel ' Put Yourself in his Place,' gives a most powerful and graphic descrip- tion of the organisation, management, and doings of these unions. Sheik ul Gebel (The). Hussun Subah, called the 'Old Man of the Mountain ' (q.v.). Sheldo'nian Theatre (The), 1669. Erected by Gilbert Sheldon, archbishop of Canterbury and chancellor of the University of Oxford. It corresponds with the Cambridge Senate-house (q.v.). Shemham-phorasch (The). A talisman made of parchment on which the sacred names were written. A jnegler came to Albert duke of Saxony and offered to impart to him the gift of infallibility. 1 Well,' quoth the duke, ' that I may make sure of It, I will make the first trial on you. 1 So saying, he drew his sword and so hacked the Impostor that not even the Shemham-phorasch could cure him. Shepherd Earl of Cumberland (The). Henry de Clifford, the tenth baron by writ (died 1523). His mother, to save him from the Yorkist?, sent him to be brought up by a shepherd ; but in 1485 Henry VII. 'restored him in blood and honours,' and he was summoned to Parliament the same year (15 Sept.). His son and successor was the first to discontinue the de before the name. Henry de Clifford was not earl of Cumberland The first Clifford who bore that title was Henry Clifford his son, created earl of Cumberland 18 July, 1525, 'uppon the joyefull newes of the Emperours victorie at Pavie, in Italy.' Shepherdess of Dauphiny (The). Isabeau Vincent, who was only sixteen when she first appeared as a Camisard prophetess. She could neither write nor read, but was believed to be a worker of miracles, and prophesied ' without the slightest appearance of convulsion, and with a scarcely per- ceptible movement of the lips.' Shere or Sheer Thursday. Maundy Thursday, or day preceding Good Friday. The Northern ' Skyre Thursday,' Icelandic ' Skfri-^drsdagr,' Maundy Thursday. Anglo-Saxon scir, sheer ; Icelandic sMra, to cleanse. See SKEAT, 'Etymological Dictionary,' ar- ticle Sheer. Miles Phillips (1583) quaintly says : ' In olde fader's dayes the people wolde that day shere theyr hedes, and clyppe theyr berdes, and pblle theyr hedes, and so make theym honest ayenst Ester day.' Sheridan's Begums Speech, 1787. One of the impeachments of Warren Hastings, governor-general of India (1774-1785). This speech lasted five hours, and produced such an effect that the house arose and adjourned till the next day. It is said that Sheridan wrote the best comedy (' The School for Scandal'), made the best speech (the third charge against Warren Hastings), and composed the best convivial song (' Here's to the Maiden of Bashful Fifteen ') in the language. See ' Hast- ings ' and ' Begums.' Sheriff is a 'shire-reve' and the chief officer of the county, who does all the crown business thereof. The judges, on the morrow of St. Martin (12 Nov.), meet in the Exchequer and propose three persons for each county, whose names are presented to the sovereign, who pricks one of them, and the person selected remains in office for one year or till a successor is appointed. The sheriff superintends the election of knights of the shire, coroners, and verdcrers. He ig in the commission of the peace, and ia ex-officio the first man in tht county. 622 SHERIFF-TOOTH SHIP Every sheriff appoints a deputy or under - eheriff. It is customary for the high sheriff to receive and escort the ju'V'-s to the assize court ; and in cases of dis- turbance it is his duty to summon the posse comitatits (i.e. all the people of the county) to assist him in keeping the peace. Some cities (like Norwich) are both cities and counties, and then the borough sheriff is part of the municipal corporation (addressed as Mr. Sheriff So and-so). The county sheriff is termed the high sheriff.' Sheriff-tooth. A tenure by the service of providing entertainment for the sheriff at his county court. A tax for the sheriff's diet. Obsolete. Sherrardian Professorship (The) of Botany in Oxford University. Stipend 200/. a year. Founded by Dr. Sherrard in 1728. Sherwood Forester (The). Dr. Spencer T. Hall. Shibboleth. When the Ephraimites, after their defeat by Jephthah, tried to pass the Jordan, a guard stationed on the banks of the river tested everyone who came to the ford by asking him to pronounce the word ' Shibboleth,' which the men of Ephraim called sibboleth, Everyone who said * sibboleth ' was immediately cut down by the guard, and there fell in one day 42,000 Ephra>mites (Judges xii. 1-6). Shield of Rome (The). Quintug Fabius Maximus, died 203, called the Lingerer (Cunctator), and the Lamb (Ovicula) for his mild apathetic dis- position. Shi'ites (2 syl.), or 'Shiahs.' A Musulman sect opposed to the Sunnites. They recognise Ali as the real successor of Mahomet, and his descendants as the true imams. The word means heretics, and of course was given to them by the Sunnites, who call themselves the Ortho- dox party. The Musulmans of Persia, and some of those in India, Mesopotamia, Syria, and north of Asia are Shiites; but those of the Ottoman empire, Arabia, Egypt, Afghanistan, Malaya, &c., are Bunnites. In India the majority are Sunnltes. Shin'toism. A religious system which prevails, side by side with Buddh- ism, in Japan. It is a ' religion of reason,' requiring no temples, but having a sanctuary into which nobody but tha Mika'do and his priests ever enter. The Shintos profess to worship nature, an- cestors, and the Mikado. Their code of duty is to obey natural instincts and the laws of the state. Since 1868 Shintoism has been restored in Japan, and now overpowers Buddhism. Shintoism is a sort or Agnosticism, which it resembles in many respects. Neither doctrine nor dogma can find place in either system, uur anything that does not commend itself to reason. Ship Money. A tax to supply and fit out ships to protect our const and our merchant vessels from corsairs and hostile states. In 1007 all proprietor? of 810 hides of land were taxed to equip a fleet against the Danes. Queen Eliza- beth required various ports to fifc out a certain number of ships against the armada. Charles I. levied ship money to restore the palsgrave to his throne. The attorney-general Noye put the king up to the dodge, and it was given out that our commerce needed protection from pirates, Turkish corsairs, and the French and Dutch mariners ; so all the counties were taxed without consent of parliament, and the king was furnished with 218.600Z. for his personal us<-, the tax being a money ^nyment of 8,you/. p-r ship, instead of : t >s themselves. It was first levied on London in May, 1684 ; in the spring following on other maritime counties ; later on it was demanded from the inland counties. In 1C86 the judges determined it was legal, but so great wa the outcry that it was abolished (17 Car. L c. 14). Ship of Fools (The), or ' Naren. Bchiff,' 1494, by Sebastian Brandt, a Stras- burg lawyer (1458-1520). An allegorical satire in verse, in the Suabian dialect, and divided into 110 chapters, immensely popular at the time. It does not attack religious and moral delinquencies so much as social gaucheries. The tale is, a transport-ship of this world, laden with fools, and bound for Fools' Paradise (Narrgonia), was capsized by Anti- christ. The voyagers, tossed on the sur- face of the waves, sought safety, some by prayer, gome by scrambling into a crazy boat, and some by clinging to parts of the wreck. The sea was also strewn with books of an heretical character. The moral to be drawn from this allegory is that the abuse of printing will wreck the earth. The superstitious, he Bays, 8HIREMEN SIBYLLINE waste their lives -watching the jumps of grasshoppers, knights enter church with hawk and hound, tradesmen have no honesty, manners at table are most gauche carvers choose the best parts for themselves, some eat too fast, some talk too loud, and some engross the general conversation. In I860 an English translation by B. H. Mao- kenzie was published, with illustrations by Crow- quill, and in 1880 another by Thomas Roscoe. Shire'men (2 syl.)., now called earls. In Saxon times they had shires com- mitted to their supervision. Shire-mote was an assembly in Anglo-Saxon England of the county or shire, held twice a year, and presided over by the shire-reeve or sheriff. In this court all the rights of the crown and church, connected with the shire, were settled, and all disputes about land were adjudicated. Our county courts are shire- motes, and the judge or presiding magis- trate of these courts is a shire-man. The shire- motes were often held under a tree in the open air. In these motes the king's writs were published; demands of aid were announced, the presentment of criminals was received, local jurors were pricked, the taxes of each district were adjusted, and appeals from the 1 soke,' or lesser courts of the hundred, were heard. It was inferior to the Witenagemote, but superior to the Folk- mote (q.v.). Shorn Moss (The), in Weardale, Scotland. A pathway eut through a great bog, which was filled with fagots, over which the Scotch army made a backward movement when they wished to retreat from the army of Edward III. in 1827. Short Parliament (The), or the Three-week Parliament. From 18 April to 8 May, 1640. There were three shorter ones, but this Three-week Parliament was called the ' Short Parliament ' be- cause it was followed by the ' Long Parliament.' See 'Parliaments, the Six Short.' The Scots had made demands for triennial parliaments and for freedom both of elections and of debate, but the Earl of Strafford advised that the rogues should be whipped back Into their senses, and the king summoned a parliament to raise money to stamp out ' the Scotch treason.' The new parliament distinctly declared that redress of grievances must precede a grant of supplies, and the parliament was summarily dis- solved. It was the last that Charles I. dissolved. Short Swords of Livonia (The), or 'Order of Christ,' 1205. Instituted in Livonia by Albert bishop of Riga, and incorporated with the Teutonic Knights in 1237. Shortest Parliament (The). 7 days, from 21 to 28 March, 1681. The fifth and last of Charles n. It was held at Oxford. See ' Parliaments.' Shrove Tuesday. The day before Ash Wednesday, the first day of Lent. So called because Catholics confess on that day and obtain absolution. To shrive is to absolve from sin. Sibylline Prophecies. Twelve in number, manifestly a clumsy forgery of the 16th cent. They are as follows : 1. The Agripplnan, Sibylla Agrippma : 'Jesus Christ shall be outraged and scourged.' Emblem, a whip. 2. The Cumcean, Sibylla Cumrea: ' God shall be born of a pure virgin, and commune with sinners.' Emblem, a cradle. 8. The Gumidnian, Sibylla Cumana: 'Jesus Christ shall descend from heaven, and live in poverty on earth.' Emblem, a crown. 4. The Delphic, Sibylla DelphTca: ' The prophet born of the virgin shall be crowned with thorns.' Emblem, a crown of thorns. 5. The Erythraan, Sibylla Erythrsea: ' Jesus Christ, son of God, the Saviour of the world.' Emblem, a horn. 6. The Europcean, Sibylla Europcea. 'A virgin and her son shall flee into Egypt.' Emblem, a sword. 7. The Hellespont^, Sibylla Helles- pontica : ' Jesus Christ shall suffer shame upon the cross.' Emblem, a T (tau). 8. The Libyan, Sibylla Lib^ca : ' The day shall come when men shall see the universal king.' Emblem, a lighted taper. 9. The Persian, Sibylla Pcrsica; ' Satan shall be subdued by the tru prophet.' Emblem, a lantern, and a dragon under th sibyl's feet. B24 SIBYLLINE 8ICYONIAN 10. Phrygian, Sibylla Phrygica: 'Oar Lord shall rise again.' Emblem, a cross and a banner. 11. The Samian, Sibylla Samia: 'The rich one shall be born of a pure virgin.' Emblem, a rose. 12. The Tiburtine, Sibylla Tiburtlna : ' The Highest shall descend from heaven, and a virgin shall be shown in the valleys of the desert.' Emblem, a dove. See below. Sibylline Verses. These go back probably to the 2nd cent., when enthusi- asts of Alexandria ' prophesied ' oracu- larly. Whatever merit might be attached to the originals, it is quite certain the ' prophecies ' were interpolated and falsi- fied to assist the views of those interested in the propagation of the Christian faith. The utterances of these sibyllists form a special department of early ecclesiastical literature, and are a mixture of Jewish, Pagan and Christian doctrines. SibyllistB. Those Christians who corroborated the Christian religion by references to what they termed ' Sibylline prophecies.' These verses were the for- geries of a Jew of Alexandria, added to from time to time by Christians, as they wanted to corroborate certain doctrines. It IB most regretable that for many centuries the Catholic clergy and their learned adln-r.-nu thought It no Bhame to Interpolate, falsity books at pleasure, in order to make : trunionUof ecclesiastical dogmas and traditions. But so it was, and they actually defended the practice, as it 'caught men by guile,' as St. 1'aul did. Sicilian Expedition (The), B.C. 415-410. In the seventeenth year of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades induced the Athenian* to send a powerful arma- ment to Sicily in order to re-establish the Ionian interest in the island. A magnificent fleet was equipped, and a large land force prepared, but the expe- dition was most disastrous ; the fleet was ruined, and most of the land forces were either slain or taken prisoners. The Lacedaemonians joined the Syracusians against the Athenians. This terrible affair was the Moscow of Athenian great- ness. Sicilian Ox. (The). Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274). Called ox from his great size, and Sicilian because he was a native of Naples and allied to the Sicilian kings. Sicilian Table (A) A table spread with aldermauic luxuries, Mithuacos tells us that the Sicilians were as remarkable for their luxurious living as the Spartani for their simplicity of diet. Sicilian Vespers (The), 80 March, 1282 (Easter Monday). The massacre of the French in Sicily out of hatred to Charles of Anjou, king of the Two Sicilies. A Sicilian bride, going to vespers, hap- pened to pass with her train by a house where some Frenchmen were holding the festival of Easter. One of them, named Drouet, advanced towards the bride under pretence of seeking for arms (which no Sicilian was allowed to carry), and in so doing behaved rudely to her. A young Sicilian instantly stabbed him with his sword. This led to a riot, in which the Sicilians put to death 8,000 of the French. A war ensued in which Charles of Anjc defeated, and he died in 1285. It is somewhat remarkable that a similar outrage occurred on the 4th of April, the same year, at Catania. In this case the young Frenchman was Jean Viglemada. the young lady was Julia Villa- melll. whose husband was slain by the libertine. Sicilies (The Two). The island of Sicily is one, and the kingdom of Naples is the other. United under Roger II. 1130. In 10G2 Robert Guiscard and his brother Roger commenced the subjuga- tion of Sicily, and in ten years drove the Saracens out of the island, when Roger was made count of Sicily (1072). He died 1102, and was succeeded by his son Roger II. Meantime Robert Guiscard, as sovereign of Naples, Pnglia, and Ca- labria, added Corfu and a great part of H.nn.inia to bis dominions. He died 1185, leaving big son, Roger Bursa, hie successor. Roger Bursa died 1130 without issue, when his cousin Roger II., count and king of Sicily, succeeded to the king- dom of Naples, and called himself king of the Two Sicilies. After the Sicilian Vespers in 1282 Sicily was sovc-red for a tinre from Naples; but the kingdom of the Two Sicilies wait restored, and was al last destroyed by Garibaldi in is the Dufcp of Leignltz died without Issue, but Kaiser Leopold I. claimed the dukedom as a forfeited fief At the death of Karl Elector of Brandenburg (then Friedrich II. the Great, king of Prussia) claimed Silesia as his right, and this led to the three Sllesian wars U74j-17ui>. Sile'sian Poets (The), of the nth cent. Martin Opitz (1597-1689), 'the father of modern German poetry ' ; Paul Flemming (1609-1640), the 'German Herrick ' ; Andrew Gryph (1616-1664), the ' father of the modern German drama ' ; and Gaspar Lohenstein (1685-1683), the ' blood and thunder ' dramatist. Sile'sian Wars (The). Three war* between Maria Theresa of Austria and Friedrich II. the Great of Prussia, for the possession of Silesia. First war 1740-1742, when, by the treaty of Berlin, Silesia was handed over to Prussia. Second war : Prussia having made alliance with France broke the treaty, and a second war broke out in 1744. This was concluded by the treaty of Dresden, 25 Dec., 1745, when Silesia was again confirmed to Prussia. The Third was the Seven Years' War, and consisted of seven campaigns (1756-1768). By the Peace of Hubertsburg Silesia was finally confirmed to Prussia. Field-Marshal Daun was by far the best general on the Austrian side, and Friedrich II. the Great on the Prussian side. Silk Armour. A sort of armour worn by timid magistrates in the troub- lous times of Charles IL It consisted of a doublet and breeches of quilted silk, so closely stitched, and of such thickness, as to be proof against either bullet or steel ; while a thick bonnet of the same materials, with ear-flaps attached to it, and resembling a nightcap in shape, com. pleted the equipment, and assured the wearer security from head to knee. Roger North describes this sort of armour, and Sir W. Scott avails himself of North's description in 'Peveril of the Peak,' chap, xxxii. Silken Lord (The). Lord Thomat Fitzgerald (1518-1586), son of the Earl of Kildare. So called from the richness of his caparisons. He threw up his office of vice-deputy of Ireland in 1534, and was hanged at Tyburn for treason 8 Feb., 1535. Also called ' Silken Thomas.' During his confinement he was lacking in the commonest necessaries of life; and the 'silken lord.' bare-footed and bare-legged, was Indebted to the charity of his fellow-prisoners for the few tattered garments that hardly covered him. ' I have never had since I came Into pryson ony other farmentbut asyngyll frysegowne. nothyr hosya, SILL* 81LVEH 827 dablet, ahoyi. no* sfcjnrt but on and BO I go bare- foote and barelegyi. and shuld have don styll, but that som pore prysoners have geven me old hosyn and shoys and Bhyrtes.' Letter to RotM, Silly. Nickname of the Duke of Marlborough, from his constant use of this word when he disapproved of a sug- gestion: as 'Will your Grace besiege Lisle ? ' 'Oh, silly.' ' Will you besiege '7pres ? ' ' No ! silly, silly ! ' (1650-1722). Silly Billy. I. The nickname of William IV. of Great Britain, sometime* called The Sailor King, because he was lord high admiral of the navy (1765, 1880-1837). II. William Frederick duke of Glou- cester, chancellor of the university of Cambridge. He was the son of William Henry, a younger brother of George III., and died 1884. He married his cousin Mary, a daughter of George III. It la said that William duke of Gloucester was shown one day over an asylum, and one of the in- mates eaid ' Why, here is Silly Billy.' The duke In arraaement said to the keeper, ' The man knowe me. 1 'Yes' said the keeper, 'like all lunatics he has his moid intervals.' Silver Book (The). The MS. of the four gospels in Mseso-Gothic by Ulfilas bishop of the Goths in the 4th cent., pre- served in the library of Upsala, in Sweden. All the letters are silver except the initials, which are gold. The leaves are vellum; some purple, and others of a violet colour. Silver Captain (The). Admiral Sir Henry Digby, who, 14 Oct., 1790, fell in with a Spanish vessel while shaping his course for Cape St. Vincent. It is said that each captain received 40,OOOZ., and each seamen 200Z. as his share of this prize, and 68 artillery wagons were employed to convey the treasure to Ply- mouth citadel. Another account states that each midshipman leceived 10,000!. as his share of this rich prize. Silver Casket (The), 1568. A casket found in Edinburgh Castle after Mary (queen of Scots) delivered it up to Murray and Sir John Balfour. This casket con- tained letters of the queen to Balfour, and love sonnets. When Mary fled to Eng- land, and was in the hands of Elizabeth, commissioners were appointed to examine into the recent murder of Lord Darnley (Mary's husband), and this casket with its contents was laid before them. The originals have disappeared, but copies of the letters and sonnets are still extant. Whether these copies have been tampered with is a question subjudice, but they certainly are most discreditable to Mary Silver Code (The), or 'Codex Ar- genteus ' (q.v.). See ' Silver Book.' Silver Crown (The). The crown of the King of Germany. As king of Lom- bardy, he was crowned with the iron crown (q.v.), and as kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire he was crowned with the imperial crown, which was a small episcopal mitre cleft in the front and not at the sides. He was crowned with the silver crown at Aix-la-Chapelle ; with the iron crown at Monza ; and with the imperial crown at Rome. The kings of Germany did not go to Rome to be crowned latterly. Karl V. was the last kaiser who received his Imperial crown from the hands of the pope. Silver Hand. I. Nuad, the chief- tain who led back the tribe of the Da- naans from Scotland to Ireland, from which they had migrated. Nuad of the Silver Hand had an artificial hand madn of silver by Cred the goldsmith, to sup- ply the loss sustained from a wound received in the battle of Moytura. Miach son of Dian Kect set it on the wrist. So says O'Flaherty, 'Ogygia,' part iii. chap. x. The battle of Moytura was long a favourite theme of Irish song. In the library of Stowe are five metrical chronicles of this famous fight. IL An order instituted by Abd-el-Kader for 'the most worthy.' The hand was fastened to the camel's bridle. The order contained three ranks or degrees, the highest having seven fingers, and the lowest five. See * Golden Hand.' Silver People (The). So the Araba call the inhabitants of the Tell, or culti- vated lands of the northern slope from the Mediterranean to the Atlas moun- tains ; the inhabitants of the towns they term the Gold people ; and those of the Sahara they call the Camel people. Silver Stick. AJI officer of the Second Life Guards, who carries an ebony staff surmounted by a silver head, and relieves Gold Stick when on duty in attendance on the royal person. For particulars see p. 871, ' Gold Stick.' Silver Tongue. Daniel Finch 2nd earl of Nottingham (1647-1730). S28 SILVER-TONGUED BINGH Silver-tongued (The). Spranger Barry, the Irish Roscius (1719-1777). Simcha Thora (joy for the law). Last of the eight days of Succoth, or Feast of Tabernacles, held by the Jews in the month Tisri (Sept.). This day was, and still is, a day of joy. Simeons of Van or Ormia (The). One of the three branches of the Nes- torians. The other two are the ' Elijahs of Mosul," and the ' Josephs of Amtda.' Simmes* Hole. Hole.' See 'Symmes' Simnel Conspiracy (The), 1486. A plot concocted by Richard Simons, a priest of Oxford, to palm off his ward, Lambert Simnel, a lad of about 11 years of age, and the son of an Oxford joiner, as Edward earl of Warwick, son of George duke of Clarence, and heir to the throne of England. Supported by many of the Anglo-Irish lords in the Pale, he was crowned in St. Mary's Abbey by the Bishop of Meath, with a diadem bor- rowed for the occasion from a statue of the Virgin Mary, as 'Edward VI., king of England and France, and lord of Ire- land.' He invaded England, and was made prisoner by Henry VII. at the battle of Stoke near Newark ; but, instead of being put to death, he was made turn- spit boy in the royal kitchen, and after- wards falconer. Simon the Righteous (Sir). Simon de Montfort earl of Leicester, and brother-in-law of Henry in. (1200-1'2<;:,). He was very popular, and his death was deemed almost a martyrdom, for few kind's have been more detested than Henry III. and his father John. Simo'nians (The). So called from Simon Magus, who believed that the body of Jesus Christ was not a real body, but a mere phantom, like any other visible form of God or angel spoken of in the Old Testament. Sim.oriides(Constantine L.Philip). A literary impostor (1824-1867). While on a visit in the monastery of Khosos in Mount Athos, he fell in with some Greek MSS. greatly damaged by mildew, and taught himself Greek manuscript writing. He soon afterwards succeeded in imposing spurious MSS. on the learned of Athens and Constantinople, but, being detected, he fled to England. In 1854* he o some genuine MSS. to the British Mu- seum, and then tried to pass off hia forgeries; but was found out by Sir Frederick Madden, and of course foiled However, Sir T. Phillips bought of him a spurious MS. of Homer on serpent's skin, which he professed to have belonged to Chios Hipparchos, son of Pisistratos. He then sold some genuine MSS. to the Bod- leian, but was again detected when he offered his forgeries. Some time after he Bent to Berlin a palimpsest MS. in Or. -. k of Egyptian kings, said by him to be the work of Uranios of Alexandria. Profes- sor Dindorf began to publish this work, but Elirenberg discovered that it was only a bad translation of the writings of Bun- sen and Lepr ius. Sim. mules was now imprisoned, but, being released, retired to Alexandria, where he died of leprosy. See ' Literary Forgeries.' Si'nait'ic MS. (The) of the Bible. So called from the place where it was discovered by Dr. Tischeridorf, al Catherine Convent, foot of Mount in May 1844. On his first visit the monks allowed him to take away eleven sheets. At his second visit only one sheet re- mained, the rest having been used foi lighting fires. Fifteen years later he was shown a bundle of waste paper, which to his delight contained parts of the Old Testament and all the New. This MS. is now preserved in the library of St. Petersburg. The date is supposed to be the middle of the 4th cent. See Vatican MS.' and 'Alexandrine MS.' Singeing the King of Spain's Beard, 1587. So Sir Francis Drake called his raid upon Spain when the Ar- mada was in active preparation. On 18 April he entered the road of Cadiz and destroyed upwards of 80 vessels ; he then ran over to Cape St. Vincent, and demolished above 100 more, with 4 foru ; and he next captured in the Tagus the magnificent ship called ' St. Philip.' All these vessels were designed to take part in the invasion. Singh (a lion). An Indian titte of royalty. In 1695 Govind abolished tho a of castes, and changed the feiftia of sikh (deist) into 'uiigk,' as Runjeet Singh of Lahore. SINGLE SIX 82'.) Single Bill Session (4). The autumn session of the British parliament in 1884, called by Mr. Gladstone to pass his Franchise Bill, rejected by the House of Lords in the preceding session the same year. Single-speech Hamilton, I75i5. This speech was delivered by William Gerald Hamilton upon the king's (George II.) speech demanding subsidies for Hesse and Russia. Legge and Pitt ranged themselves against the king, and even against their colleagues in the ministry. In the Commons the debate began at 2 and continued till 5 next morning (15 hours), the longest except one up to that period. The longest was on the West- minster election in 1741. Hamilton spoke in favour of the subsidies, and in 1761 was made Secretary of State (Ire land), and in 1763 Chancellor of the Exchequer in Ireland. His speech in 1768 against Lord Townshend's Eroposal to tax America by import duties was both ir-seeing and eloquent. Singular and Invincible Doc- tor (The). William of Ockham or Occam, who died 1847. Sinking Fund (The), 1716. Es- tablished by Sir Robert Walpole. It was to consist of the surpluses of the other funds, and to be employed in reducing the national debt. The other funds were the South Sea Fund, established in 1711 ; the Aggregate Fund, estab- lished in 1714, and the General Fund, established in 1716. Sino'pe (8 syl.), 30 Nov., 1853. The Russian admiral Nachimoff signalled to the Ottoman squadron to surrender. The Russian force was ten times as strong as the Turkish, and, as the Turks did not surrender, NachimofE set the whole fleet on fire, and then, entering Sinope, set that on fire also. This butchery was called by the Russians a 'brilliant victory, 'for which they 'thanked the Lord of battles ' in solemn religious thanksgiving. Sintu'ism. The primitive religion of Japan. It recognises a supreme deity (Tien) i.e. heaven or the sun and a host of inferior gods ; deifies great men, and renders divine homage to virtue. The priests abstain from animal food. The Sintu religion teaches that there is a supreme god from whom issued two creator gods. Then succeed seven gods, the last of which created a part of Japan by dipping his spear in the ocean. Sintuism existed 600 years, at least, before the advent of Christ. The word Sin means a 'hero,' and SintA-ism means ' hero-worship.' Sir Bullface Doubleface. Sir Norton Fletcher, for eleven years Speaker of the House of Commons. Sir Dynamite, 1885. The signature of threatening letters issued by the Irish Land League. See 'Irish Associations.' Sirdar (India). A general, a chief. The generalissimo is the Sirdar-i-sirdar. Sirventes (2 syl.). Lays of war and chivalry by the Provencals or troubadours. The erotic poems were called ' Chanzos.' Sister Reform Association, 5 July, 1819. A society of women at. Blackburn to co-operate with the men in bringing about parliamentary reform. These associated women took upon themselves to instil into the minds of children what we now call radical ideas. Sisters of Charity (The), 1634. Unmarried Christian women associated to nurse the sick, and relieve the suffer- ings of all inmates of hospitals. The society was founded in France by Vin- cent de Paul and the widow Legras. It was suppressed at the revolution, but restored by Napoleon in 1807, under the presidency of the empress-mother. Si'yanism. The religion of the votaries of Siva. One of the three great divisions of the Hindu sects. Six Acts (The), Nov. and Dec., 1819. The first by Lord Eldon, the last by Castlereagh, and the others by Lord Sidmouth. [Castle-ray.] 1. 29 Nov. An act to prevent delay in the administration of justice in cases of misdemeanour. (Eldon.} 2. An act to prevent the training of persons to the use of arms. (To con- tinue till 1822.) 3. An act to punish blasphemous and pernicious libels. (Sidmouth. Aimed at W. Hone. To continue till 1822.) 4. An act to authorise magistrates to seize arms collected and kept for pur- poses dangerous to the public peace. (Sidmouth. To continue till 1822.) 5. 17 Dec. An act to prevent seditious assemblies (like those in St. Peter'i 880 SIX SIXTEEN Field, Manchester see ' Peterloo '). (To continue for five years.) 6. An act for stamping newspapers. Six Articles (The). A statute enacted in 1541 (83 Henry VILE.) com- monly called ' The Bloody Statute.' Its object was to compel all British subjects to a uniform profession of six church dogmas, viz.: (1) The real presence of Christ in the eucharist ; (2) the all-suf- ficiency of communion in one kind only ; (8) the unlawfulness of the marriage of priests; (-1) the indissoluble obligation of vows of chastity ; (5) the propriety of retaining private masses ; and (6) the obligation of auricular confession. Re- fusal to subscribe to these six articles was punished by death or imprisonment at the king's pleasure. Repealed in 1549. See p. 48, 'Articles on Theology.' Six Articles of the People's Charter (The), 1888. (1) Manhood suffrage ; (2) voting by ballot ; (3) equal electoral districts; (4) annual parlia- ments; (5) no money qualification for members ; (6) paid members. Six Chroniclers (The). Dr. Giles compiled and edited six Old English Chronicles for Bonn's series in 1848. 1. Ethelwerd's ' Chronicle.' 2. Asser's ' Life of Alfred.' 8. Geoffrey of Monmouth'i 'British History.' 4. Nennius's ' History of the Britons.' 5. Gildas Badonlcus (i.e. of Bath). 6. Richard of Cfcencester, 'On the Ancient State of Britain.' The last three belonf to Dr. Bertram's ' Scrip- tores Trea ' (.). Six Days' Battle, A.D. 827. The battle between Colla usurper of Ulster and Mim-ilarh Tiry the rightful successor. ' Six successive suns went down on this fight.' Muredach was the conqueror. Six Errors, 1418. The ' Six Errors ' ascribed to John Huss, and exposed to public view at the chapel of Bethlehem. (1) That he denies to the priesthood the power of absolution; (2) he condt-inns the doctrine of absolute obedience in all things to a superior; (3) he maintains that an unjust excommunication is not binding ; (4) he condemns as heretical all simony, of which offence he charges many of the clergy; (5) he asserts that prayers for Uve dead are useless ; ami (0) that money charged for ransoming souls from purgatory, for prayers for the dead, and for the sale of pardons are simply devices invented by the avarice of tha clergy. Six Nations (TJie), or ' The Indian! of the Six Confederated Nations on the South-East of the Great Lakes,' called by the French the ' Iroquois,' viz. : The Mohawks, Oneidas, Onandagos, Cayugas, Sennekas, and Tuscaroras. In 1783 the flight of the Mohawks and Cayugas to Canada broke up the confederacy, and rendered the name no longer applicable. The British, after the battle of Banker s Hill, secured the Six Nations aa allies. GRKEN, 1/ut of ike Lngluh People. Six Sages of Venice (The). The doge's privy council. Every matter was first submitted to this grand jury, and, if approved, was next sent to the Forty, who were the council of state ; and was finally sent to the 450 representatives who formed the legislative assembly, the members of which were annually chosen in the six quarters of the city. Six-stringed Whip (The). The Six Articles (q.v.) were so called from their severity. Penalties were imposed for writing or even speaking against them. Six unlucky to Rome. See p. 808, ' Semper sub Sextis, &c.' Three Is the French Fatal Number. R'f p. SIS. ' Fatal Three. 1 To which might be added : Louis III. the JHind. Had his eyes put out b Berenger, who UPll liml the c r CHARLES III. If .simj,/.-. W deposed In W7; reigned a short time with Kudes, but at the death of that prince had to abandon Normandy (Neuatria) to Rollo; was imprisoned In the Chateau dc IVroime. and died there (879 OB. 1'HiLiPPE III. le Hardi. Went to Sicily to avenge the Sicilian Masnacre (,j.r.\ was attacked by an epidemic, and died (1246-1285). HENRI III. le Mignan. Beneath contempt, was assassinated by J. Clement 40 millions sterling. Total, 1,400 millions sterling. It was abolished in Vermont in 1777, In New York 4 July, 1827. Slavery in Ancient Greece. I. ATHENS. If they lived under the government of a master slaves in Athens were called ofee'row (domestics) ; but after their freedom was granted them they were called Sov\oi, and sometimes v6Qoi (bastards, i.e. not genuine free-born citizens). Slaves in Argos were called Oymnitce. .. Crete were called Clarotae and Mnoltaa. ,, Sicyon were called Coryncphor 4<*, to work for one's living, whence >"x. a day la- bourer. *.* Our English word ' slave,' we are told, meant Slavonian, and come* to mean a bondman because the Italians at one time bought Slavonians for serfs. Vosslus derives the word from S'.-i.-f, now Bklave. one of the Slavonic tribes reduced to slavery by Charlemagne. Probably, however, It is connected with the Latin terciu (one who serves), Ital. tchiavo, French ttclare. II. SPABTA. Slaves in Sparta were called 'Helots.' The talc is that the people of Helos, B.C. 888, refused to pay the Spartans tribute, so the Spartans in vengeance destroyed their city, reduced all the inhabitants to abject slavery, and degraded their name by calling all slaves ' Helots.' This is most Improbable. The town was called EXo(, which could not possibly be perverted into EiXo.T { , Helots. The verb l\n* (an infinitive of lfna>) means to teizt, to r.Uv caste*, and the tale referred to Is most likely an etymological myth. There are thousands ot such lik.' et vindicates. V In the PeloponncMitn \Vnr the Helots be- haved with such bravery that they were rewarded with liberty, B.C. 424. But, alas ! for the villainy of the Spartans, 3,000 of the bravest and h.-st were murdered. See p. 672, ' Massacre of the Helots ' Slavery in Ancient Rome. Men became slaves among the Roman >" in three ways : (1) being taken captives in war ; (2) by sale and purchase ; and (3) by way of punishment. The children of slaves were all born slaves. Slaves were always sold naked. Those not warranted sound wore a cap, and were called Those from beyouA seas bad their feel SLAVERY SMALLEST 883 blV.ed and ears bored. Some slaves were do- ffiestio servants, some followed trades, and some w ere instructed in literature and the arts. Masters had absolute power over their slaves ; they might scourge them, and even put them to death. We are told that C. Pollio threw such slaves as offended him into his fish-ponds, to his lampreys, B.C. 42. They were extremely numerous. Indeed Ccilius Isidfirus left 4,116 slaves to his eldest son, 9.0. 12. Slavery in England. Captain [Sir] John Hawkins was the first Englishman who made a traffic of slaves. He procured negroes on the coast of Africa, and sold them in the West Indies, Oct. 1568. In 1786 England employed 130 slave ships, and carried off annually some 40,000 slaves, and in 1833 the number of slaves in British colonies exceeded 770,000. European avarice has been glutted with the murder of 180 millions of our fellow creatures. For every slave procured 10 are slaughtered in their own land by war, a fifth die on ihe passage, and a third in the seasoning. COOPER, Letters on the Slave Trade. Lord Mansfield's Judgment. The famous judgment of Lord Mansfield, 22 June, 1772, that ' slavery cannot exist in England.' The case tried in the court of King's Bench was this : a poor slave named Somerset, brought to England, was, from ill-health, turned adrift by hia master. Mr. Granville Sliarpe took pity on him, fed him, housed him, and restored him to health. His old master now came forward, and claimed his slave as his own, but Mr. Sharpe resisted the claim, and law proceedings were taken by the master for the recovery of his property. Lord Mansfield was the judge, and gave judgment in favour of the slave, as English law does not recog- nise such a status. Abolished in the British Colonies, 28 Aug., 1833 (8, 4 Will. IV.). By this Act slavery was abolished in British colonies, and the slave-owners were com- pensated for their loss by a grant of 30 millions sterling voted by the British Parliament. 1 Aug., 1834, as many as 770,280 slaves were bought off and set free. Slavery in France. The holding of negro slaves was regulated in the reign of Louis XIV., 1685, by Colbert's ' Black Code.' Abolished in the French Colonies. Slavery was abolished in French colonies by the National Assembly, 15 May, 1791. It was restored by Napoleon I. in all French colonies except Hayti, 1804 ; but was again abolished by the Provisional Government, 1848. Slavery abolished in other Colonies. In Danish colonies in 1848. In Dutch colonies in 1860. In Swedish colonies in 1746. The trade In slaves was abolished by Austria la 1782. Slavon'ic Liturgy (The). The Liturgy used in the Eussian and Russo- Greek Church. It is also called the Liturgy of Constantinople. Slavon'ic Nations (The). Poland, Russia, and Bohemia. See ' Celtic Nations,' ' Teutonic Nations.' Slingsby Lawrence. The pseu- donym adopted by G. H. Lewes in his play called ' Speculation ' (or the ' Game of Speculation '). Sloane Collection (The), in the British Museum Library, consists of 4,100 volumes, chiefly MSS., on natural history, voyages, travels, and medicine. Also thirty volumes of Dr. Sloane's corre- spondence. Some of the drawings of animals are both rich and accurate, and two volumes of the insects of Surinam are from the pencil of Maria Sibylla Me"rian, the great Swiss artist and naturalist. Collected by Dr. Hans Sloane. Slobodisza (Battle of), 1665. Won by Sobieski, the Polish general, over the Cossacks. Smalkal'dic League (The), 1530. A league signed at Schmalkald in Ger- many by the Protestant princes, by which they bound themselves and their heirs, for ten years, to assist each other by arms and money in defence of the reformed re- ligion, and to act unitedly in all religious questions and movements. Smalkaldic War (The) t 1546-1547. Charles V., being threatened by the Turks, tried to win over the Protestant states to support him in the war, but they thought this a ripe time to stand at bay, and raise the standard of revolt. Charles put the Smalkaldic League to the ban of the empire, raised a new army, and marched against the revolters. In April 1547 was fought the battle of Miihlberg, in which the Protestants were defeated, and the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse were taken prisoners. This is called ' The First Religious War of Germany.' Smallest Bible (The) in the world was one printed 1875. In 1889 was printed at the Oxford Press the ' Finger Prayerbook,' weighing only three-quarters 8H 334 SMALLPOX SNEEZING of an onnce. A ' Finger New Testament ' t.'-hed in 1890. i pub- Smallpox, called by the French 'la petite verole,' is said to have ap- peared in Europe in the 10th cent., being introduced from the East by the Saracens ; but it was not common till the 16th cent., when it was introduced by a negro slave in the suite of Panfilo de Narvaez, who commanded the expedition against Cortez in Mexico. Robertson reports that it proved fatal to fifty per cent, of those attacked. Dr. Guy, 'Public Health, 1 p. 197, says, ' Smallpox certainly attacked the Arabian army at the siege of Mecca in 569, and soon after reached Alexandria. By the 8th cent, all Europe was infected by it. ... Anglada proves that the disease had shown itself in France and Italy as early as 570.' It appeared in England and in Rouen in 1521. In Normandy four men called marquera were employed to look after the sick of each house. They wore a blue gown with a white cross. In 1520 and 1528 it broke out afresh in Italy, and was especially fatal in Rome. Paul Jove and Theodor Zwinger tell us that a Greek, named Demetrius, authorised by the magistrates, had an ox led through the streets, one horn being cut off, and a filet hung on the other horn. Alter it had promenaded the town, it was slain, and the smallpox disappeared. See ' Plague,' &c. This was evidently a parody of the Jewish scape- goat. Severe attacks occurred in 1174, 1865, 1440, 1556, 1564, and 1613. In 1720 there died In Paris of smallpox 90,000 per- sons ; in 1733 the Inhabitants of Greenland were reduced by it from SO.OOO to 7.000 ; in 1788 it com- tnitted great ravages in Russia : In 1743 as many as 75.000 died of it in Messina (Sicily). Baldwin king of Jerusalem died of it. V The Chinese tried Inoculation in the llth cent. ; and Timotheus, a Greek, in 1713 communi- cated this safeguard to the fiiiversltiesof Oxford and Padua. It was first tried in England in 1721. Smectym'nuus, 1641. An anagram of the five Puritan divines who contro- verted Bishop Hall's two books, entitled ' Episcopacy oy Divine Right,' and ' An Humble Remonstrance.' Their names are Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcome, William Spurstow. Smith (Kiny). Louis Philippe of France, who assumed the name of Smith when he fled to England. Mr. Smith ! ' exclaimed the king. ' That is uriouB Indeed, and very remarkable that the tint to welcome me to England should be a Mr. SmRh. lince the assumed name by which I escaped frorm France was Smith ; and look ! this is my passport made out in the name of Smith. 1 The Time*, 6 March, 1848. Smith's Prizes for mathematics. Two of 28^. each for commencing bachelors of arts in the University of Cambridge. Founded by the Rev. Robert Smith, D.D., master of Trinity, 1768. Smiths and Artists (Patron Saint of). St. Eloi (588-659), master of the mint in the reign of Clotaire II. Eloi Eligius. There was also a Nonne, a prioresse, That of hire smylyng was ful symple and 007, Hire grettest ooth nas but by Seynt Eloy. CUAUCEB. Canterbury Taltt (Prologue, 118, &O4. Smock Marriages. Marriages in which the bride divested herself in church of all her clothes except her 'smock,' under the notion that the husband would not then be responsible for any of her debts. When a man designs to marry a woman who Is In debt, if he take her from the hands of the priest clothed only in her shift, it is supposed he will not be liable to her engagements. BBAND, Popular Antiquitift (\\i\t&i Errors). Sneakers, 1741. Those lords who refused to vote on the motion for the re- moval of Walpole from the ministry and counsel of the king. The motion was made in the Commons by Pulteney, and in the Upper House by Carteret, sup- ported by the Dukes of Argyll and Bed- ford, the Earls of Sandwich, Westmore- land, Berkshire, Carlisle, Abingdon, and Halifax ; and the Lords Haversham and Bathurst. Sneezing and Yawning. The European custom of saying 'God bless you ' when a person sneezes, and the Catholic custom of making the mark of the cross on the mouth when a person yawns, dates from A.D .589, when a plague broke out in which people expired either sneezing or yawning. Pelagius died of the affection in 590. The Catholic custom of making the sign of the cross when a person sneezes or yawns Is attri- buted to Gregory of Tours (544 596). The ancient Romans considered sneezing a bad omen, and to avert the threatened evil cried Abtit omen. Ari- stotle tells us that sneezing was accounted sacred among the Greeks is fifty times a better language than 1 and quite able to express the mystic phrase ' tenes le baton de notre i ' Steward of the Marshalsea (Court of the). For the trial of treason murder, manslaughter, and blows b? which blood was shed in any of th palaces or houses of the king during hit, rebideu :e there (Henry VIII.). STEWART STONEWALL 853 Stewart Diamond (The). A South African diamond discovered in 1872, and weighing 288| carats (nearly 2 ounces Troy). It is of a light yellow colour. See ' Diamonds.' * Stir-up' Sunday. The last or 25th Sunday after Trinity. So called from the first two words of the collect. See p. 858, ' Sunday.' Still Christmas, 1525. The fes- tivities of this Christmastide were for- bidden on account of the illness of the king (Henry VIII.). Stockholm (Treaties of). I. 11 Sept., 1640, of alliance between Sweden and the States-General. II. 20 Nov., 1719, an accommodation between Sweden and George I., in right of his Hanoverian dominions. George agreed to pay a million crowns on con- dition that Bremen and Verden were ceded to him in perpetuity. Bremen and Verden had been ceded to Sweden by the Peace of Westphalia (1648). III. 21 Jan., 1720. By this treaty, enforced by Great Britain, the King of Prussia got the town of Stettin, with the Isles of Usedom and Wollin, and a part of Pomerania. Stettin was occupied by the Swedes 1630-1648, and after much contention was restored to Sweden in 1679. Stoic Sect (The) of ancient Greece. Founded by Zeno of Cyprus (B.C. 858- 260). He lectured in the ' Stoa Pcecile ' of Athens, whence his disciples were called stoics, or frequenters of the porch. The main doctrines of this sect were fatalism, perfect subjection of the pas- sions, and the freedom of the will. Zeno considered the earth to be a sentient animal, of which God is the living soul. His contemporaries were Persseos, Aristo, Herillos, and Sphseros. Their successors were Cleanthes, Chrysippos, Zeno and Athenodoros of Tarsus, Panoelios, Dio- genes the Babylonian, and Posidonios. The New School consisted of Epictetos of Phryeia (A.D. 50-120), Arrian the his- torian (A.D. 90-182), and Marcus Aurelius the Roman emperor (A.D. 130-180), author of ' Meditations ' written in Greek, and for style, humility, and piety unrivalled among heathen writers. The poet Seneca was a Stoic. Stolbowa (Peace of), Feb. 27, 1617, between Sweden and Russia, by which Russia gave up Carelia, Ingria, Novgorod; and Narva to Sweden ; renounced all pretensions on Livonia; and paid Sweden 200,000 roubles (8,OQOL). Stone Age (The). The period oi stone implements, preceding the bronze age. See p. 14, ' Ages.' Stone Staircase (The), Venice. A flight of forty-five stone steps leading up to the doge's palace. See p. 866, 1 Giant's Stairs.' Stone of Destiny (The). The Lia Fail of Ireland, better known as the Scone Stone, removed by Edward I. from Scotland and enclosed in our coronation chair, in Westminster Abbey, where it still remains. It was called the ' Fatale Marmor,' or ' Stone of Destiny,' from the notion, inscribed on it, that wherever this stone is, the Scots shall be the dominant power ; and the succession of the Stuarts is thought to be sufficient to justify the prophecy. See ' Lia Fail.' Nl fallat fatum, Scotl, quocunque locatum Invenient lapidem, regnare tenentur ibidem. Where'er this stone may be, such is the Fates There the Scottish race will fill the highest place. It is a great pity it was not sent back again, for a worse dynasty than that of the Stuarts could not be easily found. Stone of Infamy (The). A large flagstone on which bankrupts were bumped on Shrove Tuesday. There is still one to be seen in Venice near St. Mark's church, another in Verona, a third in Florence in the old market place. One by one the bankrupts were brought to the stone, partially stripped, and then, being lifted into the air by two or three stout men, bumped twelve times ' in honour of the twelve apostles.' At each bump the creditors crowed like cocks. Stone of the Swede (The). Gus- tavus Adolphus was slain at Liitzen 16 Nov., 1632. His body was found the next day not far from the great stone between Liitzen and the canal. This stone has ever since been called ' The Stone of the Swede.' In 1832 the German nation erected a noble monument to the memory of the Swedish king. Stonewall Jackson. Thomas Jefferson Jackson, general of the southern or confederate army in the great Ameri- can Civil Wax. He contributed to the 154 8TONY STORTHING defeat of the federals at Bull Run 21 July, 1861 ; distinguished himself in the battles of Chickahominy June, 1862 ; de- feated General Banks at Cedar Mountain 9 Aug., 1862 ; captured Harper's Ferry 15 Sept., 1862 ; fought in the battle of Antietam 17 Sept., 1862 ; contributed to the defeat of Hooker at Chancellorsville 2 May, 1863, and here he received his death wound. It was General Bee who said, in the battle of Bull Run, ' There is Jackson, standing like a stone-wall.' See p. 119, ' Brazen Wall.' Stony "Waste (The). Between Mar- seilles and the mouths of the Rhone, ' about 100 furlongs from the sea.' Here Hercules, passing through Gallia, en- countered Albion and Bergion, who hod united their powers near the mouth of the river Rhosne (Rh6ne), and a great battle was fought. Hercules, seeing that his men were worsted, commanded them to pick up stones and cast them against the foe. This did they, and gained the victory, leaving Albion and his brother dead on the field. Stool of Repentance (The). An ecclesiastical punishment in which the offender was placed ' directly over against the pulpit, there to stand bareheaded with a sheet, or other accustomed note of difference, on a board raised a foot and a half at least above the church floor, that they may be in loco editiore, et eminen- tiores omni populo. This was repeated sonn times for 'six preaching days,' or even more, and the preacher spoke at the ' penitent ' or to the penitent as he thought proper. The satisfaction being finished, the offender put on his usual clothes and entered the church purified ' and absolved. Storm (The Great), 26 Nov., 1708. The most terrible that ever raged in Eng- I land. It was this storm which supplied ! Addison with the celebrated lines So when an angel by divine command With rising tempests shakes a guilty land, Bach as of late o'er pale Britannia past, Calm and serene he drives the furious blast ; And pleased the Almighty's orders to perform, ' Rides on the whirlwind and directs the storm. Storm of Nov. 14 (The Memor- able), 1854, in the Black Sea, where an English fleet was moored during the Crimean War. It blew down six of the minarets of the Grand Mosque, tore off many roofs, blew down almost all the tents, dispersed the men's clothes in all directions blankets, hats, great-coats, tables, chairs, tubs, bed-clothes, flew through the ah* like autumn leaves. Several ships were wrecked, and all the fleet more or less injured. In the ' Prince ' were lost 2,600 watch coats, 16,000 blankets, 3,700 rugs, 53000 woollen frocks. 19.000 lambswool drawers, 86.700 socks. 1*2,880 pairs of boots, 1,800 pain of shoes, besides drugs of all sorts In 14 wrecked transports were lost 850.714 Ibs. of biscuit, 74,880 Ibs. of salt meat, 137 head of cattle. 645 sheep, 8,000 gallons of rum. 73.986 Ibn. of rice, 11.200 Ibs. of coffee, 1,116,173 Ibs of forage corn, 800,000 lb, of pressed hay. With the ' Resolute ' were lost several million rounds of ball cartridge, and all the reserve ammunition for the artillery. Stormy Petrel (The). John Scott, Earl of Eldon (1751-1888). So called because he was in the habit of hastening up to London, when any rumour of a dissolution of the cabinet reached him. He did so at the death of Lord Liverpool, under the expectation that the king would call on him to form a ministry, but the task was assigned to Canning. Again, when Canning died, he was in full ex- pectation of being sent for, but the king applied to Lord Goderich. Again, when Goderich resigned, Eldon felt sure of being sent for, but the king asked Wellington to form a ministry. Stormy Petrel of Politics (The). Lord Brougham. In a H.B. sketch, No. 694, 22 June, 1841, Lord Brougham is represented as a stormy pet'rel flying over the Channel. The words ' Prance ' and ' England ' appear on opposite sides of the picture, and his lordship's flight is towards England. Stormy Petrel of European Politics (The). Giuseppe Ma/xini (1808-1872). Storthing, or Storting (Th*i). The two legislative houses of Norway com- bined. It is elected once in thi e years, and for business purposes divides itself into two chambers the Lagthing and the Odelsthing (the legislative house and ' house of commons '). All bills originate in the Odelsthing, and are sent up to the Lagthing for approval or disapproval. If assented to they are submitted to the king. If the king dissents, they are re- turned to the Storthing (or combined house), and whatever passes the Stor- STRABO STRUCK 865 thing thrice becomes law, whether the king approves it or not. Thing, or tinwn lodging-house. JAMBS I. of England died, not without suspicion of being poisoned by Lord Buckingham. (His I aughter Elizabeth Stuart was the Ill- starred ' Winter Uueen of Bohemia.) (His cousin Arabella died Insane In the Tower of CHARLES I. wae beheaded. CHARLES II. passed many years in exile after the fatal battle of Worcester. (The slave of Louis XIV.) JAMES II., being driven from his throne, died in a foreign land, a pensioner of Louis XIV. The two Pretenders, James and Charles Edward Stuart, vainly tried to recover the throne, and both died In exile. MARY, daughter of James II., died childless. ANNE, sister of Mary, lost all her seventeen child- ren in Infancy. HENRY the cardinal called himself Henry IX. ' by the grace of God, but not by the grace ot It has been facetiously said that ' a cousin of Queen Anne ' may be found in every family of maiden ladies In every cathedral city of England. Sturm und Drang Period, 1750 to 1800. The volcanic era of German literature, when French and Latin patches were banished from the language, and German was left unadulterated. The Storm und Drang period of life is between 90 and 25. all enthusiasm and cram full of radical reform. All abuses are to be swept away, and a I'toplan millennium Is to be introduced. So in this literary period the language was to be purified, and German literature was to be made the model literature of the world. Old things were to be done away, and all things to become new. Styli'tes (8 syl.). Sancti Columna- r.'-s' (Latin), 'Pillar-saints' (English). Religious enthusiasts who followed the example of Simeon the Syrian, who lived 47 years on the top of a pillar, and died 460, aged 69, of an ulcer. He first lived on a pillar only 12 feet high, then on one 22 feet high, then on a pillar &6 feet high, and lastly on one 40 feet in height. This foolery continued in the East for 600 years. When Vulfllaclus erected a pillar near Treves, the bishop had it pulled down. Suabian League (The}. ' Schwab- ischer Bund,' 1376, opposed to the ' League of Marbach'(o.t).). In 1884 it was extended and converted into the Grand Union at Heidelberg. In 1499 Wiirtemberg joined, and thus formed the Great Suabian Con- federation. It was dissolved in 1533. At first It contained 83 towns, afterwards as many as 41. Suabian Mirror (The], or Schwab- enspiegel (13th cent.). The local laws of Suabia compiled into a digest. See ' Saxon Mirror.' Suabian Poets (The). The Minne- singers (111,0-1250). The modern school is headed by Uhlund (1787-1862), uni- versally known by his song called ' The Lad of the Mountain.' Su'adee Medulla. The Marrow of Persuasion; irresistible persuasion. So 8UBDEACON SUCCESSION 857 Ennins calls Marcus Cethegus, the curule, edile, and poiitifex maximus, B.C. 218. Persuasion is here personified. Subdeacon. He does not receive from the bishop imposition of hands, but receives from him the patera and cup empty, and from the archdeacon the cruises of wine, of water, and the towel. He must be 22 years of age. His duties are (1) the custody of the sacred vessels used in the mass ; (2) to pour out the wine and the water; (8) to intone the epistle; (4) to hold the book of the Gospels while the priest reads; (5) to carry the cross in solemn processions ; (6) to pour water for the priest's washing of his hands ; and (7) to assist the deacon in receiving the offerings of the congrega- tion Subjectivity of Knowledge (The}. The question whether our know- ledge of phenomena is merely subjective v. mental. Does the outward world (in relation to any individual) really exist, except in the brain of that individual ? "?"rotagoras (B.C. 480-411) said, 'Man is the measure of all things to himself ' ; HeraclTtos believed the same ; so did Aristippos of Gyrene. This was the pre- vailing belief in old Home at the close of the 2nd Christian cent., and has cropped up again in Germany, France, and England within the last few years. The argument is this : If man cannot get out of himself, all he knows must be in him- self. Even his thoughts can never be divorced from his ego, but must be al- ways a part of himself. Sublapsa'rians, Supralapsari- ans. The Supralapsarians maintain that God decreed the fall of Adam and its consequences before the ci'eation of Adam (supra lapsum, before the fall). The Sublapsarians maintain that God did not decree, but only permitted the fall, and after man had fallen, God's judg- ments against disobedient Adam were carried out (sub lapsum, after the fall). Illustrate thus. I lay a log over a rail, and the train is smashed ; that is one thing. The passen- gers tnemselves lay a log over a rail, and 1 do not interfere to prevent it ; that is another thing. In bot'u cases the train is smashed, but in one case 1 am the active agent of the mischief, in the other I am the passive permit ter of it. Sublime Porte (The). French for ''he ' Lofty Gate.' Name given to the Turkish governmsnt. Bagdad, the capi- tal of the caliph, was called ' the Porte' (q.v.). Constantinople has 12 gates, and near one of these gates is a building with a lofty gateway (called 'Bab-i-humajun). In this building resides the vizier, and in the same are the offices of all the chief ministers of state. The French phrase has been adopted because French was, at the time, the language of European diplomacy. Sublime Society of Beefsteaks (The). Established in London 1785. Submission of the Clergy (The), 1531. Henry VIII. insisted on being acknowledged supreme head of the Church and clergy of England, next immediately after Christ. Convocation objected, but at length submitted, with the limitation ' quantum per Christi legea licet.' The Convocation of York gave in, and offered a subsidy also. It was then agreed that no new canons or constitu- tions should be enacted without the king's authority. The king agreed to the limi- tation, and the clergy were restored to royal favour. The Submission of the Clergy was confirmed by Act of Parlia- ment in 1534 (25 Hen. VIII. o. 19). Subtle Doctor (The Most). Doc- teur Subtil. So Duns Scotus was called by the French. He was regent of the theological schools of Paris from 1304 to 1310, when he died of apoplexy in the 84th year of his age. Succession (The Acts of). Acts of Parliament to authorise a change in the hereditary succession of the British or English sovereigns. (1) Henry IV. who possessed himself of the crown to the prejudice of Lionel duke of Clarence (second son of Edward III.), declared the succession should run in his own son Henry [V.] and his de- scendants. (2) Henry VII. had no hereditary right to the crown, but Parliament passed an Act whereby his son Henry [VIII.J was made heir, and the succession was placed in his regular heirs. (8) Henry VIII. changed the succession first from Mary to Elizabeth and then from Elizabeth to Edward VI. (4) Charles II. was by parliament held to succeed Charles I., by which Act the Commonwealth was wholly ignored. (6) On the ' abdication ' of James II 858 SUFFAVEAN SUNDAY the succession was settled on William and Mary; and if they died without issue, on the Protestant line, or issue of the Electress Sophia of Hanover. Suf'fave'an or Soft dynasty (The), lasted 237 (1499-1786). A Persian dynasty founded by Ismail, third son of Hyder, fifth in descent from Sheik Son or Suffee, a very holy man. It was over- thrown by Nadir Shah. Suffolk Resolutions (The), 9 Nov. 1774. That is the county of Suffolk in Massachusetts, of which Boston is the capital. They were made against the attempts of Great Britain ' to enslave America.' They enjoined officers who had public money in their hands to retain it till the wrongs of the people were redressed; and called on all public officers appointed by the British Government to resign before the 20th of Sept., or to be held as enemies of the American colonies. They called upon all Americans to attend military drill and prepare themselves for war. Tuey advised the people to imprison all govarnment servants if Government attempted to lay hands on the insurgents. Suffragan Bishops. Assistant bishops. Twenty-six were appointed by 26 B>n. VIII. c. 14, A.D. 1584. So called because they were allowed the jut tuffragii or right of suffrage in the synods. Discontinued and the Act re- pealed by 1, 2 Phil. & Mary o. 8, A.D. 1664. Revived by 1 Eliz. c. 1, A.D. 1559. Su'liots. A number of families who fled from their Turkish oppressors to the mountains of Suli in the 17th cent. They were in origii in Greece. partly Hellenic and partly Albanii jrin. Their descendants mostly li ts mostly live Sulpic'ians. The company of priests founded at Vaugirard by J. J. Olier, cure* of St. Sulpice. The object of this college is the instruction of young ecclesiastics. The great seminary at Montreal, Canada, is conducted by tho Sulplclans, but their main esta- blishment Is In Paris. Summer King. When Robert Bruce was boasting of his sovereign rank and great success, his wife said to him, ' You are, indeed, a summer king ; but you will scarcely be a winter one.' Summer Lieutenants. In the Prussian army are officers of the Land- wehr and reserves summoned for duty ir their respective regiments for six weeks in summer. Summoned (The). Ferdinand IV. of Castile and Leon (1285, 1295-1812), so called because the brothers Peter and John Carvajal, being condemned to death without trial, ' summoned ' him to appeal before the tribunal of God within thirty days. Ferdinand was quite well on the thirtieth day, but was found dead in his bed next morning. Sun of Austerlitz (The). A pro- mise of success, a good omen. Napoleon I. remembered that the sun broke out just before the battle of Austerlits ( Dec. 1805), which he won over the Emperorg of Austria and Russia ; and in subsequent campaigns looked on sunshine as a good omen. Quolques Instants avanfc la batallle de la Moa kowa. fe Boleil se montra dans son eclat : ' Sold.Ua (Aerie Napoleon) c'est le solell d Austerllti ! ' at seals mot* electrim rent la graude armes - LA Rou , Dictionnaire Univenel. Sunday. See under ADVF.NT four weeks before Christmas. : Sunday after the EPIPII Archltrlcllnl. Third Sunday before Lent. SEPTUAGESIMA Sun- Sunday before Lent, SEXAOKSIMA Sun First Sunday before Lent. QUINQCAOESIMA hun day; Dominica Hrandonum ; Sunday next before Lent. 1st Sunday of LENT, Quadragesima Sunday, next to Ash Wednesday ; Day of the Burns. 2nd Sunday of Lent. Keminiscere Sunday. 8rd Sunday of Lent. Oculi S. 4th Sunday of Lent, Laatare Sunday. Dominica de Rosa, Refreshment Sunday. Mothering Sunday, ftUd-Lsnl 6th Sunday of Lent, Passion Sunday, Carl Sun. day, Sabbatum vacat. 6th Sunday of Lent, Palm Sunday; Festum BroncherUe ; Festum Oil varum ; Sunday next before Easter. KABTKR DAY. 1st Sunday after Easter, Quasimodo Sunday, Low Sunday, Alb Sunday. 2nd Sunday after Easter. Balaam's Ass Sunday 9 8rd" Sunday after Easter, Fete du Patronage de St. Joseph. Sunday after ASCFV a ion Sunday, the Sunday next before Whit Sunday. Sunday after the Octave of Ascension, File of the Holy Relics. WHIT SUNDAY or Pentecost. TRINITY SUNDAY, called Stately Sunday. Sunday next after Trinity Sunday, Fete Itieu, la 25th. or Last Sunday of Trinity, called ' Btir up ' Sunday and Fragment Sunday. Sept. (Second Sunday in). Ft te du saint now * B.V Marie. Oct. (Fifth Sunday In), Fete da Patronage de la Sainte Vierne. See alto ' Panic Sunday,' ' Precious Blood ' (Feast V For explanation, see each word under ft| proper letter. SUNDAY SUPREME 859 Sunday Fine (The). A fine of 1. levied upon all the Irish who neglected to attend the Protestant church. This levy was made first in the reign of Elizabeth, and, with fees, amounted (says Hume) to 201. a month. The shilling was supposed to go to the poor, but this was evaded, at least in the case of the Catholic poor, who (it was said) ought to pay and not receive the shilling. Sunday Sabbath, 821. It was Constantine who, by an imperial decree, consecrated the Sun-day [dies solis], as the Christian sabbath, to be observed throughout'Christendom as a day of rest and religious observances. And from this decree it was called ' The Lord's Day.' See ' Day of Rest.' TT)V q/uepar, ?ji' icai livered*by the sur- renderor to the steward or some other person taking the surrender in the name of seisin. In practice a pen or penholder, a walking-stick or umbrella., or, more commonly still, an office ruler is employed for surrenders and admissions to copy- hold property. Surtees Forgeries (The), 1806. Mr. Surtees palmed off on Sir Walter Scott certain ballads of his own composi- tion as ancient ballads discovered by him, and Sir Walter Scott inserted them in his ' Border Minstrelsy.' One was ' On a feud between the Ridleys and the Featherstones,' which Mr. Surtees sayt he took down from the recitation of an old woman on Alston Moor. Another was a ballad of ' Lord Ewrie,' which lie says he took down from an old woman : Rose Smith of Bishop Middleham 91). A third was ' Barthram's Dirge,' obtained from Ann Douglas, ' a withered crone who weeded in his garden.' A whole series of legends were professedly obtained from a Mrs. Brown of Falkland, and another series from Mrs. Arnut of Arbroath. See ' Literary Forgerie*.' Suspension of the Habeas Corpus. In old Rome the phrase was, Videant Consules, ne quid detrimenti capiat Respublica (Let the Consuls see that the Commonwealth suffers no in- jury), by which the appeal to the Cen- turies (in the empire to Castor) was held in abeyance, and dictatorial power was vested in the consuls without appeal. This suspension of appeal was enforced against the Gracchi and against the Cati- line conspirators. When habeas corpus is suspended suspected persons may be arrested SUSSEX SWING 661 without assigning any reason, and per- sons arrested are not allowed bail. Sussex (Kingdom of}. Founded A.D. 491 by Ella, who came from Hoi- stein, the land of the Saxoni, landed at West Wittering near Chichester (477), and in 491 took Anderida, the capital of the Regni. Chichester is a phonetio spelling of Cissa-ceaster, the camp-' ground of Cissa, son of Ella. Sutin'ians. Same as Photin'ians (q.v.). Sutras. Aphoristic rules in Sanskrit. The word means strung together, be- cause the leaves on which they were written were strung together on a thread. Suttee. The voluntary immolation of a HindA widow on the funeral pile of her husband. Declared illegal by the governor-general of British India in 1829. Swan. ' By heaven and the swans,' an oath of Edward I.'s. On the day when King Edward I. conferred the dignity of knighthood on his son, the Prince of Wales, 300 others were also knighted. In the course of the high festival two swans richly adorned with gold network were placed on the table, and the king made a vow to God and the swans that he would start forthwith to Scotland and never sheathe sword till he had avenged the death of John [Ked] Comyn. Edward, in fulfilment of his romantic vow to heaven and the swans, advanced as far as Carlisle .... but was detained there by .... dysentery. Sir W. SCOTT, History of Scotland, viii. Sweating-sickness (The], in 1485 (Henry VII.'s reign), first appeared in England. It lasted a month and carried off 20,000 persons in London. Persons died from extreme exhaustion caused by profuse perspiration. It appeared a second time in England during the year 1506 (Henry VII.) ; again between July and Dec., 1517; for a fourth time in 1528 (Henry VIII.), and lastly in April and Sept., 1551 (Edward VI.). It raged in Holland, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, and Russia, 1525-1580. Swechat, near Vienna, is the place where in 1848 the Hungarian patriots were defeated by the Austrians, led on by Jellachich. Sweden. Nine dynasties. 1. The race of Ivar and Sigurd, * - 1056, gives twelve sovereigns. 2. The race of Stenkill, 1056-1129, gives seven sovereigns. 8. The races of Sverker and Eric, 1129-1250, gives eight sovereigns. 4. The Folkungians, 1250-1889, gives seven sovereigns. 5. The period of the Union of Calmar. 6. The dynasty of Vasa, 1523-1654, gives seven sovereigns. 7. The dynasty of Deux-Ponts, 1654- 1751, gives five sovereigns. 8. The dynasty of Holstein-Gottorp, 1751-1818, gives four sovereigns. 9. The French dynasty, 1818- *. Swedenbor'gians, or 'The New Jerusalem Church ' ( Rev. xxi.10), followers of Dr. Emanuel Swedenborg (1688-1772). They hold peculiar views respecting sal- vation, inspiration, and the Trinity. In regard to the Trinity, they believe it to bo centred in the person of Jesus Christ. Swedes' Stone (The). A large stone placed by Jacob Erichsson on the night after the battle of Liitzen (17 Nov., 1632) to mark the spot where Gustavus Adolphus fell. In 1830 the German nation replaced the stone by a noble monument in memory of this ' Star of the North.' Sweet Singer of the Temple (The). George Herbert, the poet, who wrote ' The Temple ' (1683) and ' The Priest to the Temple ' (1652). Born 1593, died 1633. Swi or Sooy Dynasty (The). The twelfth imperial dynasty of China, in which China was again united, after being divided for 167 years (420-587). It gave three emperors, and lasted thirty-seven years (587-618). The city of the court was Ho-nan. It was succeeded by tht Tang dynasty. Yang-kien, who assumed the name of Went the founder of this dynasty, was prince of Swi. Swing (Captain). 1880-1833. A name assumed by certain persons who sent threatening letters to those whc used threshing machines. The letters ran thus : ' Sir, if you do not lay by youi threshing machine, you will hear fro'Ti SWING.' Swing and his myrmidons were abroad In th* counties, and could scarcely be kept down by Uu, 86* SWING-PIKES SYMBOLS yeomanry and poor-law guardians. T. H0GHE8, Tom Brown at Oxford, chap, xxxlx. Swing-fires. Incendiary fires for the burning of machinery. So called from ' Captain Swing ' (see above). 3e [Mr. Gladstone! quoted the Swing-fires as an example of an evil which may have averted great*!-: evil. The World, 2 May, 1888. Swiss Blood, or Sang des Suisses.' Wine of St. Jacques, near Basel, where 1,600 Switzers resisted 22,000 French commanded by the Dauphin (afterwards Louis XI. of France). All the Swiss but ten were slain. This is called the ' Swiss Thermopylee,' A.D. 1444. Swiss Thermop'yl (The), 1444. See above. Sword, in the arms of the city of London. The usual hypothesis is that this emblem was adopted on the first quarter of the arms of this corporation to com- memorate the act of Sir William Wai- worth, who cut down with his sword the rebel Wat Tyler in the reign of Richard II. We are told in ' Notes and Queries ' (28 July, 1887) it had been adopted some ' few months previously.' Another solution is that it is the sword of St. Paul, the patron saint of London. A third is that Stow mistook the letter L in the first quarter for a sword. Sword (Order of the). I. Created 1522 in Sweden by Gustavus I. as the ' Star of the North,' and reconstructed in 1748 by Frederick I. for ' fidelity to the king and the Lutheran faith.' The deco- ration is a St. Andrew's cross formed by two swords, c. II. An order of chivalry instituted 1449 by Alfonso V. of Portugal. Sword-bearers (Knights), or En- sifori, 1204. An order of knighthood in Livonia. Their habit was white, with two swords crossed, in red. They acquired sovereign power in Livonia. The order ceased in 1562. Also called ' Brothers of the Sword.' Sword Of God (The). Khaled, ahomet's lieutenant (582-642) ; also sailed 'The Scourge of Infidels.' It was oy the valour of Khaled that the empire ot the califs was founded in Arabia and Syria. He used to say, 'As long as I vv,ar this cap, which has been blessed by the prophet himself, I am in vulnerable to all the darts and swords of the infidel. 1 Sword of Mars (The). Attila (died 453). Sword of Rome (The). Marcui Claudius Marcellus, B.C. 270-280, famom in the second Punic war. Sydrack. A philosopher and astrono- mer, who lived 847 years after Noah, of ' whose book of astronomy he held pos- session.' He converted King Boccus to the Christian faith (! !) and was invited by him to build a mighty tower against the invasions of a rival king (' The History of Boccus and Sydrack '). Symbol (The Twelve Articles of the), i.e. the twelve articles of the Apostles' Creed, said, in legend, to have been suggested by the apostles themselves in a grotto of Mount Olivet, before their final separation. It was received into the Latin church, in its present form, in the llth cent., but there was a formula extant in the 2nd cent. ; items were added in the 4th and 5th cent., and verbal alterations much later. It has as much right to be attributed to the apostles as the twelve sibylline 'prophecies' to the ancient sibyls. Tradition assigns the items thus : To 1. PETER: 'I believe In God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, 1 2, JOHN: [And] ' in Jesus Christ, his only Boa. 8. JAMES, the Greater : [who was] ' conceived of the Holy Ghost: born of the Virgin Mary ;' 4. ANDRKW: 'Suffered under Pontius Pilate;' 6. PHILIP: 'Was crucified and buried.' 'Dead' it a modern innovation, and it very thakjf Englith. ' Mortouuetf meant 'died,' and ,> dfad.' ' Wat crucified, teat dead, and va* buri.-.l.' Wat dead t when t We thould hardly tay ' Charlet I. ' -*-**' *. older it --is .*'ltA*l*Z L HeU' it not in 6. THOMAB: The third day he rose again from the dead.' 7. JAMBS the Less : ' He ascended into heaven, and 8itteth on the right hand of God the Fathe* Almighty.' 8. MATTHEW: [From thence] ' He shall come to O^NATHAI^IEL 1^1 believe in the Holy Ghost ;' 10 SIMON : ' The Holy Catholic Church ;' The Communion of Haintt' it ttat in the ol4 : ' The forgiveness of sins;' 12. JUDB f The resurrection of the dead.' The life everlasting ' was added in the 4th cent. Symbols (The Four). I. The symbol of the apostles, called by us the ' Apostles' Creed,' because each of the twelve clauses is attributed by legend to one of the apostles. IL The Symbol of Nicsea, called by ni 8YMMES SYNOD 863 fche ' Nicene Creed,' because it was for- mulated in the Council of Nice A.D. 825. III. The Symbol of Constantinople, so called because it was formulated at the Council of Constantinople in 831. It is nearly the same as the original Nicene Creed. This is the creed recited by the priest in the mass. The phrase ' and the Son ' (filioque) was added by a Council of Toledo in 589. N.B. The original creed has been condensed in some parts and expanded in others. IV. The Symbol of Athanasius, called by us the ' Athanasian Creed,' directed mainly against Arianism. It did not exist till 670, nearly three centuries after the death of Athanasius, who died in 873, but it is supposed to express his teaching. Symmes' Hole. The hole about the poles. Captain John Cleves Symmes propounded the theory that the earth about the poles is hollow, and his theory in ridicule is spoken ot as Symmes' or Symmes's Hole. Sym'pathi'sers, 1837-1888. Fili- bustering citizens of the United States of North America who ' sympathised ' with and joined the democrats of Canada in the rebellion. They issued proclamations in the name of the Provisional Govern- ment, oftering 100 dollars and 800 acres of the best land in Canada to everyone who joined the republicans. Their head- quarters were on Navy Island, in the Niagara river, about two miles above the ' falls.' Syncretists. I. In philosophy. So the Eclectics are called in contempt. II. In theology. The Calixtines (q.v.) are so called. Syndics, of the Cambridge Uni- versity, are the members of special com- mittees. They must be members of the Senate and are appointed, when re- quired, by grace of the Senate. Synergists, in theology. Those * heretics ' who maintain that man co- operates with grace, as a ' fellow-worker together with God ' in salvation, and that good works must be joined to grace. Melanchthon was a Synergist, so was Pfeffinger, and BO was Strigel. This dogma caused a echism in the Lutheran party. Synod (The), 1689, of the Scotch kirk, is a superior court to the Presby- tery, and consists of ministers and elders of contiguous presbyteries. It is a court of review. The four ecclesiastical bodies are ; 1. The Kirk Session; 2, The Presbytery; 8. The Synod; and 4. The General Assembly. The first Is limited to one parish, the next extends to contiguous parishes, the third to contiguous presbyteries, and the fourth to the entire body In all Scotland. Synod convened by Pole (The), 1555. A legatine synod convened in London by Cardinal Pole for the ' cor- rection of abuses and making of car ons,' I. The Feast of Reconciliation (f[.v.) was to be strictly observed. II. Instructions were to be issued to the clergy for the proper administration of the eucharist. III. Ecclesiastics were to resign ail pluralities, and not engage in secular cares. IV. Bishops were to restrain their ostentation and luxurious living. V . Bishops were to examine candidates for holy orders personally. Simony was forbidden, schools were to be established, and visitations enforced. Synod of Dort (The), 1618-1619. A synod convened at Dort, to which James I. sent deputies to decide upon the five points of difference between Calvinists and Arminians. As the synod excluded the Arminians their judgment was one-sided. See ' Five Articles of Dort.' Synod of Gap (The), 1603, is re- markable for giving out ' we believe and maintain that the pope of Rome is properly the Antichrist, and the " son of perdition " prophesied of in the Word of God. under the emblem of the scarlet Synod of Lambeth (The), 1291, Convened for the correction of eccle- siastical abuses. Canons were passed in this synod against pluralities and non- residence, for the better teaching of the people, for enforcing the doctrine of Transubstantiation, and for communion in one kind only. Synod of Merton (The), 1286. An assembly which attempted to introduce into England Roman Canon Law, in order to legitimise natural children by a subsequent marriage, and to prevent the interference of the secular power in ecclesiastical matters. The legitimation SYNOD SYRIAN of children was warmly supported by the clergy, but was overruled by the barons. Synod of Presbyters. A general council composed of two or more pres- byteries, convened for religious purposes. 1. Of Antrim, 1727. This 'presby- tery' was an offshoot of the 'Synod of Munster.' 2. Of Munster, 1660. The same as the ' United Presbytery ' (g.v.). 8. Of Ulster, 1642. Formed originally at Carrickfergus. This was the first pres- bytery of Ireland. A ' Presbytery ' IB a religious court formed ol the respective pastors of a given district, and a ruling elder, or the dittrict Itself BO represented. Synod of Ulster (The). See above. Synod of the Oak (The). A villa near Chalcedon, to which Theophilus summoned Chrysostom to appear. The president vas the bishop of Heraclea, and a long lidt of charges was brought iipiinst the archbishop, relating to faulty a rostrum, rictus.' Tatian. A name common to several persons, but especially noted in church history for two authors often confounded together. One was a Platonic philo- sopher, born in Syria, converted to Chris- tianity by Justin the Martyr. He lived in the 2nd cent., and was the author of a ' Discourse to the Greeks.' In 172 he became a Gnostic, and was the founder of the Encratistes. The ' Discourse ' of this Tatian was published la 1546 by C. Gessner, and by Otto ot Jena in 1851. The other Tatian was a native of Me- sopotamia, and lived a century or more after the Platonic philosopher. He wrote in very inferior Greek a book called ' Diatessaron.' The original is lost, but there is extant a Latin translation by Victor of Capua, inserted in the ' Biblio- theque des Peres.' M. Bouillet says this latter Tatian ' vivait au Y siecle,' but this is an error, as the ' Diates- garon ' is mentioned by Eusebius. The ' Diates- earon ' is an heretical book supposed to be based on the Gospels. During the lifetime of the second Tatian Syria belonged to Persia ; and the Emperor Julian went thither to prepare for his war against the Persians. Tavernier*s Diamond. The first blue diamond known in Europe was bought by Tavernier in India, in 1642, and sold to Louis XIV. in 1668. It is described as d'un beau violet. It was flat and ill formed. The cut given is from an ? ld French en - 242' carats. (N.B. i5iv graving. It was ap- carats = i ounce.) pare ntly cut after it came into the possession of ' Le Grand Monarque,' for we read of a blue diamond in the regalia of 67 carats. In August 1792 this 'blue diamond 1 was seized and deposited in the Garde Meuble. Of course it was abstracted and never heard of again. However, in 1830, a Daniel Eliason was in possession of a blue diamond weighing 44 ^ carats, without a history, which afterwards became the property of Henry Hope, and was called the ' Hope Diamond.' Probably the Great Table Diamond was made into two brilliants. A model of the blue diamond was shown in the first French Exhibition, 1862. See p. 254, 'Diamonds.' The other part of the great diamond was sold at the sale of the Duke of Brunswick's jewels in 1674, 4ud ia called the ' Brunswick Diamond.' Its weight ia from 6 to 7 carats, and it was purchased In Geneva. Taylor Institution (The). In the University of Oxford, 1848, erected from the bequest of Sir R. Taylor. It consists of a library and reading-room supplied with the chief periodicals of France, Germany, and Italy, accessible to all members of the university. It is well supplied with atlases, dictionaries, encyclopaedias, biographical dictionaries, and reviews. There is also a Taylorian scholarship, and Taylorian scholars havfc. certain privileges similar to graduates. Taylor Scholarship and Ex- hibition, for modern languages. The Scholarship is worth 50Z. a year and the Exhibition 25Z. Called ' Taylor ' because the candidates will be examined accord- ing to what is taught in the Taylor Institution, Oxford. Tchew or Chow Dynasty (The), B.C. 1122-256. The third imperial dynasty, and last of the semi-historic period. It was preceded by the Chang dynasty, and followed by the Tshin or first historical dynasty. It gave thirty- four emperors, and the seat of govern- ment was Yn. This was the dynasty ol the ' kings combatant.' Tcin Dynasty (The). The seventh imperial dynasty of China. It gave fif- teen emperors, and lasted 155 years (from 265 to 420). The seat of govern- ment was Ho-nan. It followed the San Kuo (or three States) period, and waa succeeded by the Woo-tae, or five races. Most of these rulers were bad emperors and met with violent deaths. Te Deum of Handel was composed to commemorate the wonderful escape of George II. at Dettingen 15 June, 1748. The Earl of Stair had led the English into a trap, in which there seemed no escape ; but George cut his way through the French, and ultimately drove them 870 TE IGITUR TEN across the Main. The whole affair seems more like romance than sober history. The 'Te Deum* IB called the Ambrnsian Hymn from a tradition that St. Ambrose composed it by sudden inspiration at the baptism of St. Augus- tine. Te igitur. One of the service- books of the Catholic Church, used by prelates and other church dignitaries. So called from the first words of the canon Te igitur, clementisaime Pater. Tearless Victory (The), B.C. 8C7. The victory of Archidamos III. king of Sparta, over the Arcadians and Argives. So called because not one of the Spartans fell in the battle. Not one of the British army fell In the Aby. Flnian expedition under Sir Charles Napier. 1867- IM*X Tellers. In the division lists of the House of Commons are a remnant of the old tallicrs, officers who kept one part of the tallies in the public archives, the corresponding part being given to the claimant. The tally system existed in England till 1826 in our public accounts. The tally was a wand cut with notches to represent certain sums. In 1834 the old tallies, of which there were two cart- loads, were burnt in the stores of the House of Lords, and it was this confla- gration which set fire to and destroyed both Houses of Parliament, with their offices and a large part of the old palace a* Westminster. Temperance Movement (The). The movement in Scotland began 1828. John Dunlop J.P. formed the first tem- perance society in 1829. The first English total abstinence society was formed 1830. A temperance society was formed in Ire- land by the Rev. G. W. Carr in 1829. In England the first society was formed in 1830 by Henry Forbes, a merchant of Bradford, and the first total abstinence so- ciety, at Preston, in 1832. In 1838 Father Mathew began his crusade at Cork. In 1806 a total abstinence society (which still exists (1890) was formed in Greenfield (New York). The American Temperance* Society was founded in 18*26. Templars, or 'Knights Templars,' 1118. A secret society founded by Hugues de Payens and eight other knights then in Syria, and uniting the monastic with the military character. Its nominal ob- ject was to dafeud the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem, and the pilgrims who caine to visit it. The red cross was assigned to them in 1146byPopeEugenius III. They were organised to defend the Holy Land and protect pilgrims ; but on the loss of Palestine, in 1192, they took refuge in Cyprus. Their dissolution in England, France, and other countries occurred in 1812, when their lands were transferred to the Hospitallers, but in Spain to ' Our Lady of Montesa.' ' Le crime des Tern- pliers est encore un probleme.' Lejeune in 1789 wrote a history in their defence, but Raynouard, in 1813, wrote a history in their condemnation. Their dress was a white mantle with a red cross. In 1814 the master of the Order. James da Molay. was condemned to the stake. Temple of Glory (The). Paris. See p. 548, ' Madeleine/ Temporalisti, 1870. Those who advocate the temporal power of the pope, like M. Thiers; and after Rome had been added to the kingdom of Italy be- lieved in the possibility of its being restored to the pope. M. Thiers to his last hoar was unable to under- stand why the abolition of the pope's civil autho- rity should be an Irrevocable fact: and be died belonging to the sect of the Tamporallsti.-Atne- tcentli. Century. Sept. 1889. p. 885. Temporary Relief Work, 1847. Ireland, during the potato famine. This relief was given in the spring to a large number of labourers employed on ' pub- lic works,' such as rood-making, that they might go and cultivate their own plots of land for ensuing crops. Ten (The), or 'I Dieci,* 1810. A criminal court of Venice invested with plenary inquisitorial powers, and entire sovereignty over every individual in the State from the doge downwards. At first the tribunal was appointed for 10 days, but was prolonged first for 3 months, then a year, then for 5 years, then for 10 years, and in 1825 for per- petuity. They were called I Neri (the black), from the colour of their official robes. The ten controlled every branch of government, were despotic in and war, had sole control over all fiscal enactments, annulled at pleasure even the decrees of the Grand Council, and were in power for five centuries. Long before the invasion of Napoleon, in 1796) TEN TEN 871 the government of The Ten had become a veritable Reign of Terror. The actual number of this council was seven- teen, because the signorla (consisting of the doge and his six councillors) was associated with it. Ten Articles (The), 1586. Agreed to by the Convocation to settle the reli- gious differences of the Protestant party at the reformation: (1) The Christian faith as comprised in the Bible, the three creeds, and first four general councils to be accepted ; (2) baptism is essential for salvation; (8) penance is a sacrament; (4) the real corporal presence in the eucharist is to be believed ; (5) justifica- tion and remission of sins is a gift of God, through the merits of Christ ; (6) saints are to be honoured as examples of holy life ; (7) prayers may be addressed to saints as intercessors ; (8) vestments, holy water, candles, palms, ashes, &c., are excellent helps to devotion; (9) images aid devotion; (10) prayers for the dead are useful, though purgatory is uncertain. See p. 48, ' Articles. 1 Ten Kings of Darkness (The), or the She-ming-wang, the ten judges of hell in Buddhism. Ten Men's Tale, or ' Tenmentale.' So the freeborg was called in Yorkshire. Tenmentale consisted in the responsi- bility of ten men for the good conduct of each other. If one of the ten committed a fault, the other nine were bound to produce him, and stand bail for him. If he fled from justice, and his estate proved insufficient, the nine had to make good the penalty. Everyone above the age of twelve was required to be enrolled In some tythlng according to the laws of Canute. Ten Numerations (The). A cabalistic doctrine. Three are called the superior, and seven the inferior numera- tions. The three superior are the supreme diadem, wisdom, and under- standing. These existed from all eternity. The seven inferior numera- tions are mercy, severity or might, beauty, victory, glory, stability, and sovereignty. Ten per cent, and K"o Sur- render, 1854. The watchword of the trades-unions who commenced the great wages movement (%*).) Ten Persecutions (The), Undei the Roman emperors. ' The ten horna are ten kings which shall make war with the lamb ' (Rev. xvii. 12-14). First century, 1. Under Nero 64-68, in which Peter and Paul are said to have been slain. 2. Domitian, 81-96. Second century. 8. Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius, 107-161. 4. Marcus Aurelius, 161-181, in which Justin Martyr, Polycarp, and Pothlnus were put to death. 5. Septimus Severus, 202-211, in which Trenseus was put to death. 6. Decius, 250-251. 8. Valerian, 257-260, in which Cyprian was put to death. 9. Aurelian, 272-275. 10. Diocletian, 298-805. Before the Roman persecutions were those 1. By the Zealots, A.D. 84, in which Stephen was stoned. 2. By Herod Agrlppa, A.D. 44, In which James son of Zebedee was oeheaded. 8. By Annas the High Priest, A.D. 62, In which James the Less was put to death. See ' Persecu- tions,' and ' Milan, Edict of.' Ten Thousand (The), B.C. 870. A confederation of Arcadians, a synod of which met periodically at Megalopolis. See p. 756, ' Retreat of the 10,000.' Ten Virtues of the Virgin (The). In Catholic theology. (1) Chastity. Because she is the queen of virgins. (2) Prudence. Shown in the Annun- ciation. (8) Humility. Even when chosen for the mother of the Messiah, she called herself ' the handmaid of the Lord.' (4) Faith. She believed and doubted not what the angel announced. (5) Piety. Shown by her retirement, silence, and submission. (6) Obedience. She submitted to the will of God. (7) Poverty. She despised, the gran- deur and wealth of the world. (8) Patience. In bearing the pain of her travail. (9) Charity. In offering her son a sacrifice for the salvation of man. (10) Compassion. In that a sword pierced her own heart out of compassion to her son. 879 TEN TENTH Ten Years' "War (The),or ' Sacred War,' B.C. 850-846. This was fhe second of the sacred wars. The first, called the Cirrhaean War, was B.C. 595-586; and the third, or Amphissian War, was from Feb. to Aug. of 888 B.C. Tenaille (The). In fortification, a low work in the main ditch before the curtain (q.v.) and between the flanks of the half bastions of s front of fortifica- tion (q.v.). Usually about 16 yards in thickness, and riveted with masonry all round. Tenant at Will. One who occu- pies without a lease, whose occupancy may be terminated at any time the pro- prietor thinks fit. Proper time must be allowed for removal, and If crops have been sown tho outgoing tenant has a right to them or can claim compensation. Tenant in Fee Simple. An absolute owner, who by a fiction of law ia a tenant of the crown. Tenant-right, in the north of Ire- land, was either the custom ensuring a permanence of tenure in the same occu- pier, without liability of any increase of rent, except such as might be sanctioned by the general community, or else the right of the farm-tenant, on the transfer of his farm to another, to receive pur- chase-money, amounting to 10Z. or 12Z. an acre. In this latter case a schedule of the tenants' debts is made out. His back rent is first paid, and then the different creditors as far as the money goes. The reason of this custom is this. Large tracts of land, the property of absentees, were let, but the owner did nothing whatever either for the land or for the tenant ; so the tenant claimed the right of selling his tenancy. The legality of tenant-right In Ulrier was established by 88. 84 Viet. o. 46 (1870). Tenants' Defence Association (The), 1885. A society in connection with the anti-landlord platform and the ' Plan of Campaign ' (q.v.). As the banks refused to renew the bills which the Irish tenants had taken out to pay their rents, the tenants formed themselves into a society, each contributing to a fund for defence of the whole tenantry. Bee ' Irish Associations.' Tenants' Defence League (The), July 1889. An Irish League the object of which is ' by litigation and other con- stitutional methods to make the lives of Irish landlords as miserable as possible.' It is a tenants' protection league and an agrarian trade-union with an executive and sustentation fund. See p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' Tenants'-right, in Ireland. The right of a tenant to his improvements, and giving him a property in his holding and a saleable interest. A provision of the Land Act. This was a deadly blow to professional agitators, who did all they could to thwart the sale and purchase by denouncing the transaction as ' land- grabbing.' Tenants in Socage. Tenants by hereditary right, Tennessee (U.S. America) means a ' Curved Spoon,' an Indian name for its river. The state received its name in 1796. The inhabitants were at one time nicknamed Whelps (a nickname now seldom heard). Tennis-ball of Fortune (The). Pertinax, the Roman emperor. He was first a charcoal-seller, then a school- master, then a soldier, then emperor of Rome. Within three months he was dethroned and murdered (126-198). Tenson (meaning a contention). A poetical dialogue, not unlike those c loLTties of Virgil in which two or more shepherds contend in song. Spenser, in his eclogues, has several tensona. The word is applied to a class of Troubadour poetry. Tenth Mazarine (The). One of the twelve diamonds set in the French crown. It was a brilliant, and was so called because Cardinal Mozarin in 1660 was the first person who had the diamond polished. Tenth Muse (The). I. Sappho of Lesbos, who flourished B.C. 600. II. Margaret queen of Navarre, sister of Francois I. of France. Tenth of April (The), 1848. The day when the Chartists determined to present their monster petition to parlia- ment, and carry it to the house by a procession. The Chartists met on Ken- nington Common under the leadership of FearguB O'Connor, but the idea of a procession was abandoned, and the peti- TEPHILIM TERTIARIES 873 fciou was sent in tiiree cabs. The term ' Tenth of April ' became proverbial of an apprehended danger averted by judicious forethought. The 10th of April, 1848, has been a beneficial crisis, not merely In the temper of the working men, BO called, but In the minds of those who are denominated by them 'the Aristocracy.' C. KINGSLEY, A lion Locke (Preface addressed In 1854 to the Working-men of Great Britain). Tephilim (The) or Frontlet. Four pieces of parchment containing four texts of scripture, worn by the ancient Jews on the left wrist or middle of the forehead. The texts are Exod. xiii. 10 ; Exod. xiii. 11-16; Deut. vi. 4-9; and Deut. xi. 18-21. The Tephilim which these old pedants wore on their left wrists, and the Mezuzah which they fixed on the right side of their doors to keep on devils. KING SLET, Hypatia, ch. xxi. Ter Sex, aut Tres Tessera. Three sixes or three aces. The Romans played dice with three tesseroe, marked like our dico, and the highest throw was three sixes, the lowest throw was three aces. Technically the highest throw was caLed ' Venus ' or ' king ' (basiKcus), and the lowest ccmes, caniculce, vulturii, or ' tres tesserae.' There was another game played with four foW. in which the highest throw was when all four of the dice came different, and the lowest throw was when they all came alike. Terminable Annuities. Sums of money borrowed and so paid back that both interest and principal are cancelled in a certain number of years, and the obli- gation terminates. Suppose I buy 1,OOOZ. 3 per cent, of the Treasury Stock. If the government pays me only 30Z. a year, it merely pays the interest, and the capital sum (1,OOOZ.) remains unreduced; but suppose the government pays 60Z. a year instead of SOL, then it pays back every year both interest and part of the prin- cipal, and in about twenty years it would have paid back the entire interest and principal, so that the obligation would terminate. Between laso and 1904 more than 70 millions of our National Debt will be thus cancelled. Termors. Persons having only a chattel interest in their estates. Terra Firma, applied to the former territories of Venice, means those pos- sessions in Italy not in the Lagune, as the provinces of Bergamo, Brescia, Crema, Verona, Vicenza, and so on. Terreur Blanche (La), 1815. The bloody reaction of the Royalists. Marshal Brune was massacred by a Royalist mob at Avignon; Marshal Berthier committed suicide ; Labedoyere was executed ; Fouche* and Talleyrand were dismissed; Marshal Key was shot ; Murat was shot ; and 4,556,000 Frenchmen were slain in battle. Terrible Tenth of May (The), 1857, when the British in India were fearfully massacred in Delhi during the Indian Mutiny. Terror (The). A period in French history between the extirpation of the Girondists and the death of Robespierre, 1793-1794. Terror of the Greeks (The). Dominico Michieli, or Micheli, the 36th doge of Venice (died 1130). His tomb bears this inscription: ' Terror Gnecorum jacet hie.' Terrorists. I. 1793. The party headed by Robes pierre after the death of Marie Antoinette. Those who tried to check the sanguinary fury were nicknamed the ' Moderates.' II. 1879. Revolutionists of Russia who in 1881 assassinated Czar Alexander II. See ' Decembrists,' ' Propagandists,' and 'Nihilists.' Terry Alts, in Ireland. Insurgents of Clare, who appeared after the Union, and committed great outrages. They were similar to the ' Thrashers ' of Con- naught, the ' Carders,' the ' Rockites/ the ' Fenians,' &c. They made themselves very conspicuous in the sanguinary tithe war 1830-1835 (q.v.). See p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' Tertiaries, or Tiers Ordre. Seculars who followed their ordinary callings, and lived the ordinary life, but promised to conform to certain religious and moral rules drawn out by the order under which they lived. The Tertiaries of St. Francis were founded in 1221. Those of St. Augustine were founded in 1401. Those of St. Dominic were founded in 1422. Others have been founded since, sucli as the Carmelites, Servites, &c. At present many tortiariea live in conventa 674 TERTIARY TETRARCHY Tertiary Canons. Such as re- ceived only a third part of the revenue of the canonate. Tertium Quid, which Abelard called ' Conceptualism.' The realists, like Plato, insisted that there is a real some- thing in abstract ideas ; thus beauty is not a mere notion, but a reality. No- minalists, like Aristotle, insist that abstract words are merely names of abstract ideas, that beauty is nothing ver se, but simply expresses our general idea of the beautiful in objects. Abelard held a third or intervening theory, that after our conception has oeen formed, then there is reality in abstract ideas, but not before. Thus when we have made up our mind on what makes beauty, that conception of beauty is a reality, a reality post rem (after the conception), and not ante rem. It is a 1 conceptual ' reality, or tertium quid. Teschen, in Silesia (Peace of), 18 May, 1779, between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony, terminating the war of Bavarian succession. Test Act (The). I. 1662. The first of a series of penal statutes which weighed on the Roman Catholics of England for about 200 years. By these acts the oath of allegiance and the abju- ration of the temporal authority of the pope was exacted of all persons holding office, whether lay or spiritual, with the exception of peers. What is popularly known as the Test Act IB not this statute of ElUabotb. but tho one below. II. 25 Car. II. cc. 1, 2 (1673), an en- largement of the Corporation Act (q.v.), obliging all persons whatsoever, before being allowed to accept any place of trust under the crown, to take the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, to subscribe a declaration against transubstantiation, and to receive the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in a parish church. Repealed 628. After 'The Popish Plot 1 (Oct., 1C78) another Tost Act was passed to exclude all Roman Catholics from the House of Lords as well as from the House of Commons, and to declare the Church of Rome to be Idolatrous. Testament (King Robert's), in Latin leonines. Thus given by Mr. Tyler : On foot should bo all Scottish weire [war] By hill and moss themselves to bear : Let wood tot walla be ;-Bow and epear And battle-axe their fighting gear. That enemies do them no drear [harm]. In strait place cause to keep all store, And burn the plain land them before ; Then shall they pass away in haste When that they nothing find but waste'. With wiles and wakening of the night, And mickle noises made on height. Them shall they turn with great affray, As they were chased with sword away. This la the council and Intent Of good King Robert's testament. The Scots kept King Robert s [Bruce] testament In recollection, and lurking among the -woodi and valleys they foil upon such English u- rated themselves from the main body.-Sir \V. SCOTT. Hiit. of Scotland, xlll. Tete Morte of Wiirtemberg (Order of the), 1806. Established by Frederick William duke of Brunswick, on the death of hi? father, in 1806. When the duke's father had received his death-wound Napoleon refused to allow the dying man to be conveyed to Brunswick, to die there. He wrote these words in reply to the request : ' Qu'il s'en aille en Angleterre, y chen -her son salut. Je veux 1'ecraser lui et toute aa famille.' The young duke then arrayed all his soldiers in mourning, as members of the order of the Tete Morte. He placed on their military caps, in front, the device of a skull and cross-bones, and instead of a feather adopted flowing black horse-hair. This gloomy costume was to be continued till the death of Napoleon. It was called 'The Black Legion.' Tetrad, according to Pythagoras, ia the fourth mathematical quantity, viz. depth. The monad is the indivisible and impartible point; length is the dnad, and breadth the triad. Physically, in- tellectual capacity is the monad, scientific knowledge the duad, opinion the triad, and perception through the senses the tetrad. Tetrapolitan Confession (The), 1581. The confession of faith of the four cities, Strasburg, Constance, Lin- dau, and Memmingen. This was the Sacramentarian confession presented in the diet of Augsburg, 1580. See p. 785, ' Sacramentarian.' Tetrarchy (A). An independent fourth part of a kingdom. Thus at the death of Herod the Great the kingdom of Judsea was divided into four parts, of which Judaea, Galilee, and Iturea were given to his three sons, Arohelaus, Anti- pas, and Philip. Samaria waa the r*> TETRARCHY THANES 875 maining part. In 56 the division was abolished again, and Herod II. (Agrippa) was made sole king of Judsea. Herod II. was great-grandson of Herod the Great. His father, Herod Agrippa, ruled over three of the tetrarchies, Judsea, Galilee, and Samaria, but resided at Borne. Herod the Great and Mariamne the Aunontean Aristobulus tetrarch of Judaea , Agrippa, who put James to death Herod II. (Agrippa), who heard Pan! make his defence. Tetrarchy (The Boman), 804-811. Constantly s Chlorus (the pale) was maximus imperator, and died at York A.D. 806. The four then were Constan- tius, Galerius, Severus, and Maximinus. Severus put an end to his life in 307, and Maxentius became a tetrarch. Constantino put an end to the te- trarchy, and became sole emperor A.D. 811. Maximinus killed himself 818. He dispossessed Galerius in 308. Teutonic Knights (The), or 'Order of Teutonic Knights,' 1190, JL confirmed by Celestine III. in 1192. They wore white robes with a black | cross of eight points. Suppressed by Napoleon I. in 1809. Called the ' Knights of the Virgin Mary,' or 1 Brothers of the Teutonic House of Our Lady of Jerusalem,' or the ' Teutonic Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem,' or 'German Knights of the Cross.' Teutonic Knights (The), 1190. Organised by Frederick duke of Suabia, in Palestine, and invested in 1192 with the privileges of the Hospitallers and Templars. In 1237 incorporated with the Short-swords of Livonia. Prussia was given to them in 1243 by Innocent IV., and in 1255 they founded Kbnigsberg. They lost Prussia in 1525, which was given to Albert of Brandenburg by the peace of Cracow. The order was abolished by Napoleon in 1809 ; but still subsists in Austria as an honour. Teutonic Nations (The). The Germans, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Frisians, Dutch, Jutes, and Normans. England was Celtic, but after the Saxon and Danish invasions it became largely Teutonic, and the Normans (after the conquest) added to this predominance. See p. 154, ' Celts.' Wales and Ireland are Celtic, and the north of Scotland, and Cornwall largely BO. Teutons. So the German races are called, from the Teutones or Teuton!, an ancient horde of Germany which, with the Citnbri, invaded the Roman do- minions B.C. 118. Tewkesbury Mustard Pills. Seven hundred fire-balls, which Titus Gates asserted the Roman Catholics had employed to set fire to London. Gates furthermore asserted that these Roman Catholics had made a good thing out of the conflagration by carrying off dia- monds to the value of 14,009Z. Ten years afterwards, in 167C, said Oates, the same persons had set fire to Southwark, by which they gained 2,000?. above their expenses. Texas (U.S. America). It was so called (it is believed) from an Indian confederation called Texas, Tejas, or Friends. The inhabitants were once nicknamed BEEF-HEADS. Texerans or Tesserands (weav- ers). So the Waldenses (q.v.} in the south of France were called, because they were for the most part weavers. Thaborit'ic Light (The). A heavenly light supposed to emanate from the ' navel soul.' Certain quietists seat themselves on the ground and fix their eyes on their navel (the seat of the soul). After a time a light beams forth upon them which fills them with rapture and ecstasy. This is the Thaborit'ic Light. See 'Tabor, Light of, 1 because it was believed to be identical with the light seen on Mount Tabor at the Transfiguration. Thalami'tsB. The lowest bank of rowers in a Greek galley ; the uppermost bank were the Thranlta, and the middle bank the ZeugitcB. Thames Tunnel (The), 1824-1841. Constructed by Marc Isambard Brunei to connect Rotherhithe with Wapping. A bridge was not practicable, not so much on account of the width of the river as the obstruction it would offer to our shipping. The Tunnel is 1,200 feet long, and 63 feet below the bed of the Thames. It has two arched ways and two footways, one for those going from Wapping and Rotherhithe, and one for those going in the opposite direction. Thanes (1 syl.) were of two sorts, Messe Thegnes and World Thegnea. Bishops were 'Messe Thanes/ and by 876 THANNAIM THAUMATURGISTS the laws of King Athelstan ranked with earls or secular Thanes. Other priests were ' World Thanes,' and hence were subsequently entitled ' Sir.' The bishop still retains the title of Lord, but the wife of a bishop has no title, not even that of a common knight's wife. Thannaim (The). Jewish doctors, authors of the ' Mishnah.' They lived from the time of Malachi to B.C. 21. See p. 291, ' Emoraim.' The ' Mislmah ' was closed by Rabbi Judah the Nochl four years before. The annotations, &o., form the ' Gemara, 1 and both together the 'Talmud.' Thaumaturga of the Nine- teenth Century (The). Filumena, of whom nothing is known except thai three tiles were disinterred in 1802 in the cemetery of Priscilla, inscribed thus: | LVMENA | [r\ By changing the position of the tiles we get PAXTE CUMFI LUMENA, and by dividing the worda Pax tecum Filumena. The miracles, of course, were those attributed to the disinterred bo'dy. We are gravely told as an historic fact that the Virgin Martyr 1 took the trouble to reveal to a priest and a nan In a dream that her name wai really Filumena, because she was Fi[lia] Lumena, the daughter of the ' Light of the World.' In con- flrmation of this revelation, when her bonce were taken to Magnano, she repaired her own skeleton, made her hair grow, and performed many other wonderful works 1 This Billy blurt Is told as an historic fact In the 19th cent., and Is actually be- lieved by many. Filumena Is duly registered In the haglography of the Petite Bollandibtes. Thaumaturgists. Workers of miracles. (Greek 0av/xaTovpytu t to work wonders, or perform tricks of jugglery.) From the Old Testament the greatest wonder-workers were Moses, Jannea and Jambres (Pharaoh's magicians), and Elisha. Dositheus, who taught Simon Magus, was a great thaumaturgist. Simon Magus was called ' The Great Power of God ' (Acts viii. 10). A most graphic account of the ascent of Simon Magus, in Imitation of that of Elijah, Is given in ' Notes and Queries,' 8 Dec., 1883, pp. 441-2. It wan In the presence of Nero and an Immense crowd. Simon Magus applied to himself many of the words uttered by Christ, such as ' Behold I go to the Father. . . I will prepare a seat for you at the foot of my throne. ... I will pour out upon my elect people my celestial treasures.' And again, 'Verily, verily, I say unto you, whoso bellovcth in me shall not see death ; for in me Is eternal life.' And again, 'Remember that yoi.: have seen the Word of God. I am the Beautiful One, the Paraclete, the Omnipotent, the great Pan, the divine AIL' Fite Day. I. Apolloniu* of TySna. ' Life ' by Philostratos in 8 books Philoetr&tos says : ' He raised the dead, healed the sick, cast out devils, ut t. red prophecies, and saw at Ephesus the assassination of Do- mitian. Plotlnus, the Neo-Platonic philosopher. 'Life' by Porphyry Gregory, bishop of Neocaesarea, in Cappadocia. Called em- phatically ' The Thaumaturgus ' 17 Nov. Dionysius, or Denys, patron saint of France . 9 Oct. Quintu* of ^Eolia, in Asia Minor 2 March liomdnus of Antioch, martyr 9 Feb. Asclepias, the Sabine. Martyred at Antinoe, in Egypt . . 28 Jan. Nicolas, bishop of Myra, in Lycia 6 Dec, Macarius the Elder, of Egypt. Solitary of Scete . . .16 Jan. Mtirtin of Tours, who divided his cloak with a beggar. 'Life' by N. Gervais 11 Nov. Titus, martyr, while Rome was under the Goths . . .1C Aug. (It ruidnus, bishop of Auxerre, ctnfessor . . . . . 81 July 1 'rod us. ' Life ' by Marlnus, and by Ennapius . . . 24 Oct. Brigit, or Brigida, of Ireland. Her cell was called ' Kill-Dara' 1 Feb. Linus, pope and martyr 23 Sept. Cuthbert, the 'British Thaumaturgus' 20 March Jonas, priest of St. Sabas, in Palestine. Of the Greek Church 21 Sept. Hcsychlus, solitary of St. Andrew's, in Bithynia. Of the Greek Church 6 March John, bishop of Polybotos, in Asia . . . . . . 6 Dec. Isaac of Cordova, martyr ........ 8 June Aldric, bislvop of Mans ........ 7 Jan. Bernard of Clairvaux, called ' The True Thaumaturgus of the Weal' . 20 Aug. 8-98 205-270 212-270 8rd cent died 808 died 811 died 842 810-895 816-897 di.d410 880-448 412-485 486-528 670-667 died 668 7th cent 8th cent. 8th cent. died 861 800-856 1091-llft THAUMATURGISTS 877 Fete Day. Isidore of Seville, farm labourer. 'Life* by John of Da- mascus 10 May 1110-1170 Dominic, founder of the Dominicans 22 Jan. 1170-1221 Francis of Assisi, founder of the Franciscans . ... 4 Oct. 1182-1226 Hyacinth, called ' Thaumaturgus of the Thirteenth Century' . 16 Aug. 1182-1256 Anthony of Padua, who preached to the fishes . . . . 18 June 1195-1281 Catherine of Siena. (Not the Catherine famous for the wheel) 80 April 1347-1380 Vincent Ferrer, a Spanish Dominican 5 April 1357-1419 Francis of Paula, founder of the Minims . . . .2 April 1416-1507 Francis Xavier, apostle of the Indians 8 Dec. 1506-1552 Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan 4 Nov. 1538-1554 Vincent of Paul, founder of the Lazarists and 'Sisters of Charity' 19 July 1576-1660 II. Of these neither the time of birth nor of death is known : Fete Day. Aninas, or Ananias, anchorite and prophet. In Greek menology . . . .17 Feb. Attains, honoured in the Greek Church . . . 6 June Dius, archimandrite and thau- maturgist of Constantinople 19 July Elisabeth, virgin of Constanti- nople . . . .24 April Eustratiut of Nicomedia. Honoured in the Greek Church . . . 2 & 18 April Felix of Spoleto . . .16 June . Filumena, called 'Thauma- turga of the Nineteenth Century,' of whom nothing whatever is known . . 10 Aug. In 1802 three tiles were found which made this name ; and since then her ghost has told her story. L'Abbe Migne says : ' Ces revelations particu- lleres paraissent r<':unir soul les caracteres d une source divine' ! ! (' Encyclopedic 1'heo- loglque,' vol. xli. p. 719). Oeorgius the Younger. Hon- oured at Constantinople . 28 March Georgius-Theoph&rus, of the Greek Church . . .11 March Illyrius, of the Greek Church 8 April Jashnus, of the Greek Church 4 Feb. Maurus of Sopeto. (Not the great Maurus of Glanfeuille) 16 June Memnon, of the Greek Church 28 April Onesimus, of the Greek Church '. . . . 14 July Peter, bishop of Argos . . 8 May Peter of Gallia Cisalplna . * Philotheus, founder of the monastery of Mermeciurn, on the Bosphorus . .15 Sept Fete Day. Ritza, a virgin of Coblentz . 80 Aug. Rufinua, deacon of Sinope, martyr .... 7 April Sebastidna, Greek Church . 7 June Stephen, Thaumaturgus of the laura of St. Sabas, in Palestine .... 18 July Tharasius of Lycaonia. (Not the patriarch of Constanti- nople) 25 Feb. Theocleta, Greek Church . 21 Aug. Titus, of the Greek Church . 2 April Zanais, called* Thaumaturgus of Constantinople ' .6 June III. The following were miracle workers, but not entitled ' Thaumaturgi ' by the Catholic Church : Prince Alexatider of Hohenlohe, titular bishop of Sardica. His miracles made a great nolaa In 1820-1821. He healed by prayer only. J. Joseph Gassnerot Bratz, in the Tyrol, who exor- cised the sick. His cures were considered to be miraculous (1727-1779). Jamblicus. When he prayed, we are told, his body ' rose in the ah? at least 10 cubits, and his face became luminous ' ; so says Eunapius (4th cent.). Jannes and Jambres, Pharaoh's magicians, who Imitated the miracles of Moses. Moharmru'd is said to have performed no miracles, yet rode he to heaven on the back of Alborak, made the moon pass up one sleeve and down the other, and took a scroll of the Koran out of the horns of a bull (570-632). Blaise Pascal, philosopher and mathematician (quite sufficient to account for his ' deeds of wonder '), 1C23 1662. Simon Magus of Samaria, called ' The Great Power of God ' (Acts viii. 10). Bospitra, who, says Eunapius, ' had the power of seeing what was done in any part of the world. 1 Vespasian, the Roman emperor, we are told, ' cured a blind man and a cripple by his touch while staying at Alexandria.' ** Gaspar Schott published a treatise on natural magic, entitled ' Thaumaturguii Physicus ' (1657-9). Apparently thaumaturgy did not hold a very high place in the Christian Church. It was extremely common, and nothing 678 THAUMATURGU8 THEOPHTLANTHROPIST9 whatever is known of many thauma- turgists beyond the name and/ete day. Thaumaturgus. The following are given as thaumaturgi by Mgr. Gudrin, 'Petits Holland istea,' xvii. p. 757. Antony of Padua . . . 1195-1281 Bridget or Brigit of Ireland 486-528 Francis de Paula . . 1416-1507 Gregory of Neociesarea 212-270 Hyacinth (of the 18th cent) 1182 -1257 Martin of Tour* . . 816-897 Vincent Ferrier . . 1857-1419 Francis Xavier . . 1506-1552 Hundreds of others are said to have worked miracles, but the eight given above are recognised thaumaturgi. Thaumaturgus of the West (The). St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1091- 1168). The before a proper name in Scot- land and Ireland means the head of a clan, as : The MacLeod, The Chisholm, in Scotland; The O'Donoghue, The O'Connor Don, in Ireland. The assump- tion of ' the ' was forbidden and declared treasonable because the head of a clan, like The O'Neill, also claimed a right to sovereignty. Thus when O'Neill threw off his allegiance to Queen Elizabeth, he called himself 'The O'Neill of Ulster/ meaning that he was king of Ulster. The'atines(8syl.),1524. Confirmed by Clement VII. in 1524. Settled in France by Cardinal Mazarin in 1644, and suppressed in France in 1790. The order was founded by the Archbishop of Ch ; eti(in Latin, The&te),vrlio afterwards was pope (Paul IV.). The object of the order was to reform the lives of the clergy, and restore the priesthood to apostolic purity. They wore a black soutane, and black robe with white sleeves. Theatiiies of the Congrega- tion, 1588. An order of nuns founded at Naples by Ursula Benincasa. Made subject to the Theatines by Clement IX. in 1668. Theatines of the Hermitage, 1610. Founded in Naples by Ursula Benincasa, and confirmed by Urban VIII. in 1624. Thebaidio. See p. 787, ' Sahidic. 1 Thellusson Act (The), 89 & 40 Geo. Ill c. 98. For checking the dispo- sition of testators to restricting the use of their fortur.es till they had accumu- lated to very large amounts. So called from Mr. Thellusson, who had directed in his will that his personal property should be left to accumulate during the lives of his three sons, and the lives of their sons, and then to be inherited by the eldest male descendant of his three sons. No testator can now tie up his property for more than twenty-one years, dating from the death of the testator. Mr. Thellasson died 21 July, 1797. It was decided in the House of Lords that his 'stock' might accumulate for 120 years, when it would amount to 140 millions sterling. Should no heir then exist, the whole should Be applied to the discharge of the national debt. Themistians, 685. Monophysites, originated by Themistius, deacon at Alexandria. Also called Agnoites (q.v.). Themis'tocles of Modern Greece. Constantino Kanaris (1795- 1855). Theodor'ioi Infernum. The crater at Lipari. Theodosian Code (The). Said to have been compiled by command of Theodosius the Younger, Emperor of the East (401, 402-450). The reputed date -of the code is 488 ; but nine years later the 'Novell Constitution^' were promulgated in the Western empire. The codex consists of 16 books, sub- divided into titles and sections. The 262 laws are imperial Rescripts (q.r.) consecrating the wisdom of Christian princes from the reign of Constantine to the year 447. One of the edicts ascribed to Constantine, extending the jurisdic- tion of bishops to all causes, has been proved to be a forgery, it is, however, inserted in the capitularies of Charle- magne. See p. 624, ' Literary Forgeries.' Anolhor edict, ascribed to the same emperor [Coiistantlne], and annexed to the Theodosian code, extended the jurisdiction of the bishops to all causes which either party chose to refer to it, even where they had already commenced in a secular court, and declared the bishop's sentence not subject to appeal. This edict has clearly been proved to be a forgery. HA LLAM, Middlt Aget. vol. li. p. 211. Theodosian Table (The). Same as the Peutingerian Table (q.v.). Theoph'ilan'thropists (Lovers of God and man), 1796-1800. Philan- thropic deists who rose in France during the revolution. They believed in God and the immortality of the soul, but not THEOPHORON THERMOPYK 870 in the Christian scheme of salvation through faith or by the atonement. They considered that the duty of man is doing good, and their rule was, ' Worship God, cherish your kind, and render yourself useful to your country.' Thomas Paine was one of the founders of this society, and one of its most active members. These Theophilanthropists superseded the so- cial circle of Paris. Its chief authors were Auber- inesnil, Chemin, Mandar, and Valentin Hatty. The cult was professed hi many of the French churches, but was forbidden in 1800. Theoph'oron, Christot'okos, and Theot'okos. Nestorius (5th cent.) declared that Mary was not 6for6Kos (mother of God), but only xP lffror ^ K05 (mother of Christ), for God cannot be born of a woman. Jesus of Nazareth he called Ofo(f>6pov (possessed of God). These distinctions were condemned by the Council of Ephesus in 431. Theos'ophy; 1889, means ' the wis- dom of the gods,' or the divine wisdom which underlies all religions. It pro- fesses to pick out the grains of wisdom from all the divers religious systems of the world, and to amalgamate them into one consistent whole. Theot (Catherine), 1725-1798. A French visionary, who called herself sometimes the Mother of God and some- times the new Eve. Theotokos. See ' Theophoron.' Therapeut8D (The), Greek ecpairev- rah Greek Jews of Egypt, more rigid than the Essenes, as they avoided towns and dwelt only in deserts or ' commons,' where they gave themselves up to contem- plation. Like the Essenes they had all things in common, but unlike the Es- senes they abjured all possessions beyond the barest necessities. When anyone entered the society he ' sold all that he had and gave to the poor.' The Thera- peutae were all celibates, like the Essenes, although women were allowed to join their society. On Sabbath days all dined together, the women on one side, the men opposite, and the fare was bread and salt, with a little hyssop (Philo, 'De Vita Contemplativa '). The Therapeutic believed that God is the author at all good, but not of evil. That the soul is Immortal. That the good are rewarded after death, and the wicked punished. They objected to animal sacrifice, as no man could be justified in taking life. geven wag their sacred numbw. Ther'midor (The Mh\ Year II 27 July, 1794. The day when Robes pierre was accused by Tallien in the Con- vention, and arrested in the H6tel-de- Ville, Paris. He and 22 of his partisans were guillotined next day (10 Thermidor, Year IL). Amongst these partisans were St. Jast, Lebas. Henriot, Kobespierre jeune, &o. The month called Thermidor was from 19 July to 18 Aug. Thermido'rian Government (The), 1795-1799. The French Directory was so called because it was established in the month Thermidor (July). Thermido'rian Reign of Terror (The), 1795. The period which immedi- ately succeeded the fall of Robespierre, when the Anti-Jacobins were in power, and guillotined the Jacobins with the same relentless vengeance as Robespierre had shown against the Anti-Jacobins. Thermido'rians. Partisans of the 9th Thermidor. See ' Thermidor.' Origi- nally applied to Tallien, Legendre, Le- cointre, Fre"ron, Thuriot, Bourdon de 1'Oise, and Barras, but afterwards (1794) applied to all the Anti-Jacobin party, which rose into power on the downfall of Robespierre (9 Thermidor, Year II.), i.e. 27 July, 1794. There were a host of young Thermidorians called ' Fre*ron's Gilded Youth.' See ' Jeunesse DoreV Generally speaking, the term Thermidorians was applied to those who wanted to restore the monarchy. Thermopyl of France (The), 1792. The Forest of Argonne, which Thouvenot was assigned by General Dumouriez to hold against the army of Brunswick, who was marching on to- wards Paris. Whilst planning how ho was to prevent the allied Prussian and Austrian armies, which had just taken Verdun (2 Sept., 1792), from advancing on Paris, he wrote to the French min- isters, 'Grand-Prey and Islettes are our Thermopylae.' He meant that the enemy would be penned up in the deso- late, muddy, and sterile fields of Cam- pagne, if his army held Grand-Prey and Islettes. If not the enemy would winter in the fertile country of the Troia Eveches. [Dumouriez] beckons a certain young Thou ve. not, the fire of whose looks had pleased him, to wait a moment. Thouvenot waits : ' Votta (sayi Polymetis, pointing to the map) that is the Forest of Argonne, that long strip of rocky mountain and wild wood 40 miles long . . , this migb* one . . . MiM . . . [and] once seized . . . [it] might be th K80 THESMOPHORIA THIRTY Thermopylae of France.' CARI/TLR. French Revolu- tion, vol. E, book 1., 8. Thes'mophor'ia. A festival of the ancient Greeks in honour of Demeter, the thesmoph'oros or law-giver. It lasted three days of October, and only married women could take part in the ceremonies. The last day, called Kalligenei'a, was spent in jollity and raillery. Tillers (Mons.). His nicknames were 1 Attila le Petit,' ' Tamerlan a lunettes,' 1 Cameldon,' ' Ge'ne'ral Bonne,' ' Le Eoi des Versailles*.' Louis Adolphe Thiers, born at Marseilles 1797 ; first president of the French Republic 1871-1873 ; died 1877. Thiggers ana Sorners of Scot- land. Similar to the ' sturdy rogues ' of England. Vagabonds who preferred begging to work, and collected almg by menacing the timid. James 1. of Scotland tried to put them down, and ordered licensed beggars to wear a badge. These licensed beggars were called ' Gaberlunzies.' To thlg Is to beg. Ancient German tti0m. Thlg. ger alo written ThlRster*. A Borner. In Scotch law, IB one who take* meat and drink from other* by force or threat*. Born or Sorehon wa* an arbl- trary exaction or mervile tenure In Scotland ana Ireland. Purveyance was a similar exaction In Kntfland. that is food and free quarter* for king or chief and all his retinue on passage. Thimble League (The), 1886. To provide work at fair wages for women whose only means of livelihood is needle- work. Thinre. An hypothetical city of ancient geographers, situated, as Ptolemy tays (book vii., 8), ' on or near the vast ocean which bounds Asia. It is enclosed by brazen walls.' The following is the description given in the Periplus of this city : ' It is situated under the Lesser Bear, and is reported to border on the opposite part of Pontus and the Caspian Sea, by which the Meeotis Palus flows into the ocean ' (' Periplus Maria Ery- thrsei,' ap. Hudson, ' Geogr. Vet. Scrip- GreBci Minorca,' vol. i., p. 86). Some identify Thlnns with China. Third Pounder of Rome (The). Cains Marius, the victor of the Teutons and Cimbrians (B.C. 101) ; the second founder was Camillus, who overthrew the Gauls that invaded Rome under Brennus (B.C. 867). Romulus is called the original founder (B.C. 758). Third Order of Religionist* (The). See p. 873, ' Tertiaries.' Third Romulus (The). See above, 1 Third Founder of Rome.' Thirl wall Prize (The), for original historical research. A prize given every alternate year. Part of the prize is a bronze medal. Open to all graduates ol the University of Cambridge of not more than four years' standing. Founded out of the Thirl wall memorial fund 1884; first award 1889. Thirteen United Colonies (The), 1775. The style assumed by the Ameri- can Congress after Georgia sent in her adhesion. For the other twelve colonies, see ' Patres Patriae. 1 See also ' Congress of the United Colonies.' Thirty (Battle of the), 1351. The defiance of Jean sire de Beaumanoir to the English chatelain Bemborough to decide a contest by thirty Bretons pitted against thirty Englishmen. It is suid by French historians that after eight of the Englishmen had been slain, the rest surrendered ; and that Jean sire de Beaumanoir quenched his thirst with a draught of blood. The fight took place between the castles of Josselin and Ploennel in France. Thirty Tyrants (The). I. Of Athens, B.C. 404. After the battle of jEgospotamos, the government of Athens was changed into an oligarchy. The poli- tical clubs named a committee of five who called themselves the Athenian ephors; and this committee nominated thirty persons to draw up the new constitution and to undertake the temporary admi- nistration of the city. The chief names were Theramenes and Critlas. The com- mittee thus appointed soon obtained the unenviable name of the Thirty Tyrants. II. Of Borne, B.C. 200. A term loosely applied to a number of usurpers who assumed the rank and title of Augustus in different Roman provinces after the death of Valerian. The phrase applied to a list of independent rivals, only nineteen in number, is ridiculous, and these rivals in no wise resembled the council of thirty set by Sparta over Athens. The nineteen pretender* to the Roman throna were Cyriade*. Macrt&nu*. Balista Oden&thu*. ad Zeiiobla (in the Ea*t); Pocthomtu, Lollau THIRTY THOMISTS 881 Victorfnus and his mother VictSria, Marfus, and Tetrlcus (in Gaul and the western provinces) ; Ingennus, Regellianus, and Aureolus (in Illyricum and the confines of the Danube) ; Saturnlnus, in Pontus ; Trebellian, in Tsauria ; Piso, in Thessaly ; Valens, in Achaia ; jEmilian, in Egypt ; and Gel- SUB, in Africa. They all died a violent death. Perhaps the thirty was made up of the wives and children involved hi the deaths of the pretenders. Thirty Years' Peace of Venice (The). From 1538 to 1570, when Selim II. sultan of Turkey declared war againsi Venice wholly without provocation. Thirty Years' Truce (The), B.C. 445-415. This truce preceded the great Peloponnesian war. Thirty Years' War (A). The War of the Roses lasted thirty years; and in this civil war more than 100,000 Englishmen lost their lives. The first battle was that of St. Albans 22 May, 1455, and the war ended with the death of Richard III. in Bosworth Field 22 Aug., 1485. The other historic battles were : Northampton, in which Henry VI. was made prisoner a second time 19 July, 1460 ; Wakefield, in which Richard duke of York was slain 31 Dec., 1460 ; Towton, in which Henry VI. was a third time made prisoner this was one of the bloodiest domestic battles ever fought, 29 March, 1461. Hexham, won by the Yorkists 15 May, 1468; Barnet, in which the Earl of Warwick was slain, fought Easter Day, 14 April, 1471 ; Tewkesbury, in which Margaret and her son were taken prisoners 4 May, 1471. Altogether eight noted battles. Thirty Years' War (The), 1618- 1648. A war to extirpate the Protestants of Germany set on foot by Kaiser Fer- dinand II. It may be divided into four parts, thus I. From the commencement to the Danish intervention. A period of seven years (1618-1625). II. From the beginning of the Danish intervention to the peace of Liibeck, when Christian IV. of Denmark retired from the contest. A period of five years (1625-1630). III. From the intervention of the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus to the battle of Nordlingen. Another period of five years (1630-1634). IV. From the French intervention to the peace of Westphalia, a period of thirteen years, in which the character of the war was wholly changed. It was no longer religious war, but a fight by France and Sweden for German ascend- ency (1635-1648). Thistle (Knights of the), 809, said to have been founded in Scotland by Archaicus. Revived by James II. of Great Britain in 1687 ; again by Anne 81 Dec., 1703. The badge is a collar composed of sixteen gold thistles interlaced with golden sprigs of rue ; and a small golden image of St. Andrew in a gold badge attached to the collar. The motto is ' Nemo me impune lacessit.' The ' rue ' is a pun. Thistles And-rew (rue). Thistlewood's Conspiracy, 1820, to assassinate all the ministry. Arthur Thistlewpod had been arrested for taking part in the Spa Fields riots (q.v.), Dec. 1816. He challenged Lord Sidmouth (secretary of state for the Home Department) 1817. Sixteen of the ministers were to die at Lord Harrowby'a house in Grosvenor Square on 19 Feb. One of the conspirators was to call with a note, and when the door was opened the rest were to rush in and murder all the ministers, bringing off in bags the heads of Sidmouth and Castlereagh. They were then to throw fireballs into the straw-sheds of the cavalry barracks and set them on fire ; and then to take the Bank and the Tower. Edwards informed against the conspirators, so the whole affair ended in smoke. Thistlewood and four others were executed 1 May, 1820. The four others were Ings, Brunt, Tidd, and Davidson. Cautlereagh, pronounce Castle-raj/. Thomas (Christians of St.). A very early sect settled on the coast of Malabar, and said to have been planted by Thomas the apostle. They lapsed into the Nes- torian heresy ; that is, they believed in the co-existence of the two natures of Christ, but not in their union. At present they are chiefly Monophysites, but many are Romanists of the Eastern rite. It is certainly remarkable that the churches said to have been founded by apostles were, as a rule, not what is now called ' orthodox. 1 These were the Seven Churches of Asia, the 8t, Thomas Christians, the Church of Pella presided over by James and his brother, and BO on. Thomasites. See p. 169, ' Christ- adelphians.' Thomists. Disciples of Thomas Aquinas (1224-1274), who applied the Aristotelian philosophy to Christianity. Auuiuas was a Dominican, and therefore L THOMITES THREE-CORNERED was hated by the Franciscans, their na- tural enemies. In the 14th cent. Duns Scotus, a Franciscan, came forward as the avowed opponent of Thomas Aquinas, and hence arose the two sects, the Thomists and the Scotists. The Thomists leaned to 'Nominalism' (q.v.)' t the Scotists to ' Realism ' (q.v.). The Tho- mists, like Augustine, denied the ' Im- maculate Conception ' ; the Scotists maintained it. The Thomists believed in the doctrine of Condignitism (q.v.); the Scotists were Semi-pelagians (q-v.). The points of grace and predestination were always bones of contention. See ' Christians of St. Thomas,' a large body of Christians In Malabar. Bee p. 170. Thomites (The) of Kent, 1888. Fol- lowers of John Nicholl Thorn, a native of Cornwall, who went to Kent, assumed the name of Sir William Courtenay, gave out that he was the Messiah, and wholly invulnerable by fire or steel. This luna- tic had a large following of respectable middle-class men and women, who were guilty of rioting. The military being called out, Thorn was shot, and buried at Herue Hill 6 June, 1838. Mr. Wyse referred to the Ignorance revealed In the county of Kent by the delusion of the Thomlte*. HOWITT. Hilt, of ny. year 1889, p. 441. Thorn (Treaty of), 1466, which closed the wars between the Poles and the Teu- tonic Knights of Preussen. By this treaty all the western part of Preussen was ceded to Poland, and the rest of Preussen (or ancient Prussia) was held as a fief by the knights. Thorough ( The). A system adopted by Wentworth and Archbishop Laud, which would (by the aid of the church) have rendered Charles I. the most abso- lute of all monarchs. It was the ' tho- rough ' subjection of all law to the royal will. The hearers bad not forgotten the ' Thorough,' nor the utter suppression of all forms of religion but his own, the sweeping away utterly of the faith of Scotland, and the substitution of Arininianisra and the liturgy. HOWITT, Uitt. of Engl. (Charles I., ohap. Iv. p. 349). Thoulounides (8 syl.). A Turcoman dynasty of Egypt (869-905), so called from Tliouloun of the tribe of the Oi'gours. He was a slave, but made Egypt inde- pendent. Thrani'tse, the uppermost bank of rowers in a Greek galley. The lowest bank was called the TktXmMm and the middle bank the Zeugltce. As the oars of the Thranltse were the longest, their labour was greatest, and they had higher wages. Three Articles (The), 1584. The three things which Archbishop Whitgift required the clergy to subscribe to, viz. (1) the royal supremacy in matters eccle- siastical as well as temporal ; (2) the legality of the Book of Common Prayer and the Ordinal ; and (8) the Thirty-nine Articles. See p. 48, ' Articles.' Three Branch Men (The). A term applied to those politicians who in the reign of Charles I. used to speak of the king, lords, and commons as the three estates, or the three branches of the legislature. The phrase originated with John Reeves at the close of the 16th cent Lord Clarendon says: ' The three branchrt Is no* only unsound In point of law, bat Is wholly false a* a metaphor. Nobody talks of branches, but relatively to something else. If you speak of branches of a canal, you always have In your mind the grand trunk; but If king, lords, and commons are throe branches, where Is the trunk ? ' (Of course the three estates of the kingdom arc the nobility, the clergy, and the commons.) Three Chapters (The). In Greek Kt^dAaio. Schedules setting forth the heresies of Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and Ibas of Edessa, accused of the Nestorian and Pelagian taint. They had been cut off and restored to church communion, and were dead and buried, when Justinian revived the controversy and submitted the ' Three Chapters ' to the fifth general council held at Constantinople in 558. The three ' heretics ' and all their de- fenders were then delivered over to the prince of darkness. Dean Miltnan (vol. 11. p. MS) says : ' The contro- versy Of "the Three Chapters" was Idle and frivolous; yet how many pages of church history does it not fill ! ' Gibbon says: ' The dispute has filled more volumes than it deserves lines.' &'< ROBERTSON, llai. of the Christian Church, vol. U. p. 801. Three-cornered Constitu- encies. A political device for repre- senting minorities. In 1867 it waa enacted that if any place returned more than two members, the constituents should be allowed to vote for one less than the entire number : thus if, as in the city of London, there are four mem- bers, the constituents could vote for only three. By this arrangement the three THREE THEEB most popular candidates would represent the majority, and the fourth choice would lie between the least popular of the majority and the most popular of the minority, and in almost every case the latter would be elected. Three Days of July (The}, or 1 The Three Days,' July 27, 28, 29 (Tues- day, Wednesday, and Thursday) of 1880, in which the revolution of France cul- minated in the abdication of Charles X. The famous Three Days of July had as thrilling an effect in Transylvania as elsewhere. GODKIN, Hist, of Hungury. Three Emperors (The}, B.C. 2953- 2598. The 10th ki of Chinese ' history.' This mythic period followed the alle- gorical. The three mythic emperors were Fo-hi, Chin-nong, and Hoang-li, i.e. son of heaven, divine husbandman, and em- peror of earth. Three Fatal to France. The fatal number to Rome has been six ; and three has proved singularly fatal to France. I. Take the kings. The third of any name has been uniformly either worth- less or unlucky : Childebert III., Clotaire III., Clovis III., Dagobert III., and Thierry ITT, were rois faineants. CHELDERIC III., the last king of France of the first race, was confined in a cloister that Pepin ie Bref might reign in his stead. PEPIN le Bref was the third Pepin : (1) Pepin de Landen ; (2) Pepin d'Heris- tal, his grandson, and (3) Pepin le Bref, grandson of Pepin d'Heristal, who was succeeded by the Carlovingian dynasty. CHARLES III. le Simple was wholly under the thumb of favourites, and after a most inglorious reign was poisoned by the Comte de Vermandois. HENRI III. le Mignon, 'weaker than woman and worse than harlot,' was assassinated by Jacques Cldment. Louis III., joint king with Carloman, reigned about a year and was killed by an accident at the age of 22. PHILIPPE III. le Hardi was singularly unfortunate, and singularly misnamed ' The Bold.' This tool of Labrosse went on a crusade, and brought home the dead bodies of five near relatives : his father, his "wife, his son, his brother, and his brother-in-law. The 'Sicilian Vespers' (q.v.) occurred in his reign. He died of an epidemic at Perpignan. NAPOLEON HL lost his imperial crown at Sedan, and died in exile at Chisel- hurst, in Kent. n. The succession of three brotheri has always proved fatal : The CAPETIAN dynasty terminated with the succession of three brothers: Louis X., Philippe V., and Charles IV. .(sons of Philippe le Bel). The VALOIS line came to an end by the succession of three brothers: Francois II., Charles IX., and Henri HI. (sons of Henri II.). The BOURBON dynasty terminated with the succession of three brothers : Louis XVI.-, Louis XVIII., and Charles X. (sons of Louis the Dauphin). III. The monarchy of France was brought to an end by the third of these triplets. The empire of France consisted of Napoleon I., Napoleon II., and Napo- leon III. Tit dicitnr. semper sub sextis perdita Roma, Slo quoque sub numero tros perdita Francia semper. It six to Rome hath always brought mischance, Three hath a fatal number proved to France. See p. 796, ' Semper sub Sextis.' Three Glorious Days, or 'La grande semaine.' The insurrection of 27, 28, 29 July (1830), in Paris, which drove Charles X. from the throne. The days were Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. The political world was shaken by the three glorious days in Paris. J. A. FKOUDB, Thomat Carlyle, vol. ii. p. 124. Three Great Military Orders (The}. The Knights Templars, the Knights Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights of St. Mary of Jerusalem. Three Hundred (The), of Milan. The band in charge of the banner of St. Ambrose, the sacred oriflamme of Milan, sworn to die in its defence. The three hundred were supported by a guard of three times three hundred, the elect sol- diers of Lombardy. Three was a sacred number, and three times three was thrice sacred. Three in English history. Our line of kings never exceeds three reigns without interruption or catastrophe. William I., II., Henry I. A uturper, Stephen. Henry II., Richard I. A uwrper, John. 91.1 884 THREE THREE Henry HI., Edward L Edward II. murdered. Edward III. Richard II. deposed. Henry IV., V., VI. Lino of Lancaster changed. Edward IV., V., Richard HL Dynasty changed. Henry VII., VIIL, Edward VL Lady Jane Qrey. Mary, Elizabeth. Dynasty changed. James I. Charles I. beheaded, Charles II. James II. dethroned. William HI., Anne. Dynasty changed. George I., II., ILL Regency. George IV., William IV., Victoria. Indirect successions. V Except In one case, that of John, we hare never had a grrat-gi -andfhiU as sovereign In direct descent. See ' Three Fatal to France.' Three Kings (The). The three Kings of Cologne are the supposed Magians who offered gifts to the infant Jesus in Bethlehem. The ' Feast of the Three Kings ' is the Feast of Epiphany or Twelfth Night. There was a famous dramatic spectacle so called, once ex- tremely popular. The representation in 1836 by the monks of Milan is historic. The name* usually given in Cologne Cathedral are Caspar, Melchlor, and Balthazar ; but other traditions give other namas, as Apellioa, Ameros, and Damasoos; Magalath, Oalgalath, and Sara- sin, Ator, Sator, and Perat&ras, Three Kings* Day. Twelfth Day, so called because the visit of the 'Three Kings' or wise men of the East who came to honour the infant Jesus is commemorated on that day (the Epi- phany). Three per cent. Reduced Annuities (The), 1747. Several funds borrowed at a higher rate of inte- rest reduced to a three per cent, interest. In 1749 by Act of Parliament it was declared that all such holders of the fund as did not choose to accept the reduced interest should be paid off in lull. Very few embraced the alternative. Three Popes. I. In the llth cent, there were three simultaneous popes : Benedict IX. (1038 -1048), Silvester IIL (1044), and Gre- gory VI., who bought the pontificate (1044-1046). Kaiser Henry HI. in 1046, having set aside Benedict and Gregory, appointed Clement II., a German, who died the following year. Benedict still held on, and in the two nezt years two other Germans were appointed by the kaiser. n. In the 15th cent, there were three simultaneous popes : Gregory XII. (1406 -1415, died 1417), held his court at Friuli : Benedict XIII., the Avignon pope, held his court at Peniscola, in Spain (1394- 1424); and Alexander V., the Roman pope (1409-1410), succeeded by John XXIII. (1410-1415). While Gregory and Benedict were still alive the Council of Pisa appointed Martin V. (1417), and at the death of Benedict Clement VIIL took his chair. Three Questions (The), 1687. The lords-lieutenants of counties and mayors of boroughs were requested by James II. to make a return of persons who answered the following questions in the affirmative : (1) If chosen to sit in the next parliament will you vote for the repeal of the Test Act and of the Penal Laws ? (2) Will you give your vote to candidates favourable to those repeals ? (8) Will you support the declaration for liberty of conscience by living peaceably with Christians of a different creed to your own? The answers received were not favourable to the king's views. Three Rejected Articles (The). The original number of the articles of the Church of England was 42, drawn up in 1551, but the present number is 89, three having been omitted by Convo- cation, 29 Jan., 1568. The three articles rejected are these : (1) The resurrection of the dead is not passed already; (2) the soul does not perish with the body ; and (8) not all men will be saved. Three Sacraments (The). I. 1520. Luther acknowledged only three sacraments, viz. baptism, the eucbarist, and penance. Roman Catho- lics have seven sacraments, but English Protestants since 1553 have admitted but two, baptism and the Lord's supper, as may be gathered from the church catechism published that year. II. In ' Cranmer's Catechism ' (q.v.) three sacraments are authorised : 1. Baptism, the bath of regeneration, THREE THRONE 885 or instrument of the second birth (pp. 182, 206). 2. Absolution, or the authority of the keys, by virtue of which pardon is obtained for sins after baptism. 8. The holy communion, which sup- plies fresh grace to the worthy recipient, and enables him to go on from strength to strength. Three States or Stages (The). Comte says the mind passes through three stages, the theological, the metaphysical, and the positive. In the infancy of thought the mind attributes phenomena to the arbitrary will of some spirit, fairy, or pervading providence, which says and it is done. In the second stage it attributes the causes of phenomena to some abstract or hypothetical principle, as law and force. In the third stage it relies on science and data. Thus plague or famine by the first is attributed to God ; by the second to eclipses or some other hypothesis ; by the third to bad sanitary arrangements. Most educated men are in all the three stages : on some subjects they are in the theological stage ; on others in the metaphysical; and on others in the positive. Thus Faraday was remarkable for his theological and positive stages. Three States (Period of the), called by the Chinese San-kuo (221-22G). The states were (1) Heou-Han, or Sho-Han, the continuation of the Han or 6th imperial dynasty. It gave two kings, and lasted forty-four years. The seat of govern- ment was Shen-see ; (2) the kingdom of Oey or Wei, which gave five kings, lasted forty-five years, and had Honan for the seat of government ; (3) the kingdom of Ou or Woo, which gave four kings, lasted forty-four years, and had its seat of government first at Ou-chang, and after- wards at Nankin. Three Tailors of Tooley Street (The). Only two of these busybodies were tailors. They were John Grose (tailor, Tooley Street), Thomas Satterley (tailor, Weston Street), and George Sand- ham (grocer, Bermondsey Street), who met after business at a public-house, to Bmoke their pipes and talk politics. During the movement of Catholic Eman- cipation they resolved to petition par- liament, and commenced their document with these words : ' We, the people of England.' Canning was prime minister. A correspondent of 'Notes and Queries' (21 Jan., 1683, p. 55) avouches this to be a fact. Three Test Articles (The), 1554, introduced in the reign of Mary in proof of orthodoxy, were : 1. Is the natural body of Christ really present in the elements after consecration, or not ? 2. Does any substance, except the body and blood, remain in the eucharist ? 8. Is the Mass a propitiatory sacrifice for the sins of the living and dead, or is it not ? See p. 48, ' Articles.' Three Theological Virtues (The). Faith, Hope, and Charity. Three-way Leet. A three-way road, a cross-road where suicides used to be buried with a stake thrust through their body. These cross-ways were the terror of ' old women and old maides.' Leedan, zelsedan- Idd, geliid. Junius says, ' Trivium, quadrivium, ita dicimt, In quibusdam Angliea tractibus. 'Three Ws' (The), 1837. Three great American houses in London. The amount paid from June to December by Wilson & Co. was 935,3002. ; by Wigan & Co. 674,7002.; and by Wildes & Co. 505,0002.; total acceptances in six months, 2,116,0002. Three Writers (The). See p. 801, ' Scriptores Tres.' 'Five Writers,' tee 'Scriptores Quinque'; 'Ten Writers,' see 'Scrip tores Decem'; the ' Six Chro- nicles,' see ' Six.' Threshers (The), 1806. An Irish secret treaty formed by Roman Catholics of Ireland in opposition to the Orange- men or Protestant association. They appeared in Sligo, Mayo, Leitrim, Long- ford, Roscommon, and Cavan. One of their articles was the resistance to the payment of tithes, even when voluntarily paid to Roman Catholic priests. Their chief called himself ' Capt. Thresher,' and his gangs used to thrash or beat unmer- cifully all collectors of tithes and their clerks, as well as those who paid tithes. See p. 455, ' Irish Associations. 1 Throne and Altar (The). 'Le Trone et 1'Autel,' the motto of the Legiti- mists and Carlists. It really means the divine right of kings and priests, both ' the Lord's Anointed.' The absolute king and infallible Church. THRONE TIEN-TEH Throne of Jamshed (The). Per- Bepolis is BO called because founded by Jamshed (shed means illustrious). This mythical king of Persia began to reign B.C. 2240 and reigned twenty years. The Blue-ribbonites will be glad to know that the art of making wine IB ascribed to this king. Throne of the Barricades (The). That of Louis Philippe of France (1830- 1848), founded on the Kevolution of July, when Paris was barricaded for three days. Thronus Regalis (Kbnigstuhl). A round vault on the Rhine, five miles south of Coblentz. The vault is built of freestone, and rests on nine stone pil- lars, one of which stands in the middle. It is eighty feet in circumference, furnished above with seven seats, one for each elector. The ascent to it is by stairs consisting of twenty-eight stone steps, and it has two stout doors. On this thronus regalis the original electors consulted respecting their choice of a king. Heinrich VII. in 1808 was elected in this manner, and in 1338 the electoral league was established here. Maxi- milian I. was the last of the kaisers brought to the thronus regalis. Thugs (The). A religious fraternity in India in honour of Khali, wife of Siva, but addicted to murder. In some pro- vinces they are called Phanslgars or stranglers. Phanslgara means those who 'employ the noose ' or phanti. Thug means deceiver or cheat. Thunderbolt of Italy (The). Gaston de Foix, nephew of Louis XII., who fell at Ravenna in the moment of victory (1489-1612). Thunderer (The). The 'Times' newspaper, so called from an expression used by Captain Edward Stirling while Thomas Barnes was editor : ' \Ve thun- dered forth the other day an article on the subject of social and political reform.' Thundering Legion (The), A.D. 174. In Latin 'Legio Fulininatrix.' While Marcus Aurelius was engaged in a war with the Quadi and Marcomanni his army suffered severely from want of water. Eusebius says the 12th legion (Legio Melitina) fell on their knees and trayed for rain, when forthwith a storm bioke overhead, supplying the Roman army with water, and dealing destruction to the foe. From this storm the Legio Melitlna was ever after called the Thundering Legion. The assertion of Eusebius (v. 5), be It remem- bered, is only one-sided, (or others ascribe the storm to the prayers of Marcus Aurelius to Jupiter, and under this impression the emperor raised a pillar In gratitude to ' Jupiter the Thun- derer.' Others ascribe it to the incantations of Arnuphia, an Egyptian magician. Then, again, Dio CaesiuB informs us that the twelfth legion had been called Legio Fulininatrix ' ever since the time of Augustas (Book vli., v. 33). Thurificati (The). Those lapsed Christians who, to avoid persecution, .>n- sented to burn incense to heathen gods. Tiara (TJie). The triple crown of the pope, symbolising his civil rank, as the keys symbolise his ecclesiastical power. The most ancient head-dress of the bishop of Rome was a high round cap. In 1058 Pope Damasus II. adopted a cap more like that of the Jewish high-priest or a mitre. In 1276 Pope John XIX. encompassed his mitre with a crown; in 1295 Boniface added a second crown; and in 1411 John XXII. added a third crown, completing the tiara or triple crown to signify the power of the pope over the church ' souffrante, militante, et triomphante,' or else his power over three parts of the world (Europe, Asia, and Africa). Barely the pope cannot claim power over the Church triumphant. Tiberius (The French). Louis XL (1428, 1461-1483). Both were cruel, crafty, and deceitful. Their rule of government was, 'He who knows not how to deceive knows not how to rule.' Tibullus of France (The). Eva- riste Desire" Desforgos Parny (1753- 1814). The ' dame de sa plume ' was a Creole, who, however, preferred in mar- riage a rich planter to a poor poet. Tiedge Verein (The), 1842. An institution founded in Berlin in honour of Christoph August Tiedge, ' the Nestor of German poesy' (1/52-1841). It gives every fifth year a literary prize to some youthful candidate, and makes provision for needy meritorious authors. Tien-teh. The pretender to imperial power in China, and leader of an insur- rection which lasted sixteen years. Tbere were five chiefs, all of ^-trrrc acknow- ledged his supremacy (ISSfl- 184). His proper name was Httg-*Um-t >n* H* TIEN-TSIN DIMES' 887 was a native of Quang-sl of low origin, and as- sumed the titular names of Tien-teh (celestial vir- tue) and Tae-ping-wang (prince of peace). Tien-tsin (Treaty of), 26 June, 1858, between Great Britain and China. Ratified 24 Oct., 1860. Provided for ambassadors on the part of the two con- tracting parties to reside at each other's court ; for the establishment of a British minister at Pekin, and the liberty of trading without restriction. Tierce. One of the eight daily ser- vices of the Catholic Church, and third of the four lesser ones. At nine in the morning the third hour of the day. See p. 140, 'Canonical Hours.' Tiers Consolide', 1797. A name given in France during the Directory to the public debt, ' dont le tiers seul Itait garanti,' the nation being bankrupt at the time. Tiers liitat (Le), or ' Le Tiers.' The third order of the state, the other two being the noblesse and the clergy. The three orders combined form the Etats Generaux. In the reign of Louis le Gros (1108-1137), the commons were admitted into the legislative assembly, which then took the name of the ' As- semblee des trois e"tats.' 27 Dec., 1788, it was determined that the deputies of Le Tiers should equal those of the other two orders combined. This is called 'Le doublement du Tiers.' The name of Tiers Etat was abolished in 1789, and the Etats G6n6raux became the AssembUe Nationals. Pronounce Teart-a-tcM. Tiers Ordre, or ' Tiercelins,' or ' Tertiaries.' Seculars of a religious order who observe the rules of the order to which they attach themselves without renouncing their civil life. The ' Third Order of St. Francis ' was founded in 1221 ; the ' Tertiaries of St. Augus- tine ' in 1401 ; the ' Third Order of St. Dominic ' in 1422 ; &c. Some tertiarles who live in common. Tigernach. The oldest of the Irish annalists (died 549). His annals were published in O'Connor's Eerum Hiber- nicarum Scriptores Veteres at the ex- pense of the Duke of Buckingham, 1814- 1826. Tiglath-pileser. 5eep.485,'Kileh- Bhergat.' Tigretier. The dancing mania of Abyssinia, which occurs most frequently in the Tigre" country, whence its name. Tilsit (Peace or Treaty of), 7 July, 1807, between France and Russia. This was a most disgraceful affair, as Russia was at the time an ally of Great Britain, and they were acting together against Turkey and the French. Napoleon by this treaty won over Alexander, and secretly provided that he should make common cause with France against Great Britain, and sign the Berlin Decree (q.v.). It was secretly agreed between the two signatories that France should be allowed to make itself master of the Danish fleet and Russia to seize Finland. Turkey was to be divided between them : France to have Macedonia, Dalmatia, and Greece ; and Russia all the rest of Turkey. 9 July Prussia signed the treaty, but was not informed of the secret provisions above referred to. 'Times' (The), newspaper. Corn* menced 1 January, 1788. 'Times' (The) and the Irish Land League, 1889. The ' Times ' newspaper had used its gigantic influence to put down the crimes committed in Ireland for several past years connected with the Land League. The Irish were com- pelled by the leaguers to join the league on pain of death or personal injury, and those who joined the league were for- bidden to pay their rents or to occupy a holding from which a defaulting tenant had been evicted. In 1889 three judges, called Commissioners, were appointed to examine into the merits of these charges made by the ' Times.' Whatever may be said respecting the position taken up by the 'Times' in 1888-1889 against Charles S. Parnell and the Irish party, one thing is indisputable, the motive was noble and patri- Gladstone as prime minister had said the Parnellite party in every movement, ana 11 so, the movement ought to be put down. In fact, the phrase 'Parnellism and crime' is only Gladstone's dictum in another form. The conduct of the ' Times ' in seconding Mr. Gladstone was a most disinterested act, with only one fault the editors trusted too implicitlyto an adventurer named Pigott, who betrayed them. 'Times' Fund (The), 1854. A sum of 10,OOOZ. raised by private sub- scription and sent to Printing-house Square for the relief of the sick and wounded in the hospitals of Scutari, tended by Miss Florence Nightingale and a staff of lady volunteers in the Crimean otic. that ' crime dog 988 TIMES TITHE war. The 'Times' newspaper under- took to superintend this fund. ' Times' Memorial (The), 1841. Mr. O'Reilly, the ' Times ' correspondent at Paris, having received secret informa- tion of a gigantic fraud projected on the continent, exposed it in the ' Times ' newspaper, and saved the bankers the loss of a million sterling. A testimonial was set on foot, and the ' Times ' declin- ing any money recompense, a ' Times ' scholarship was founded at Oxford for boys educated at Christ's Hospital, and another at Cambridge for boys educated in the City of London School. The rest of the money was spent on four tablets, to be set up in the Royal Exchange, in Christ's Hospital, in the City of London School, and in the ' Times ' printing office. The swindle was to have been a simultaneous Issue of forged letters of credit on the chief bankers of Europe. The attempt to expose the Irish Land League was equally noble, but mis- tarried through the villainy of one Plgott. 'Times' Testimonial (The), 1842. The Bishop of London headed a sub- scription to the 'Times' newspaper for the interest taken by that journal in the School of Christ's Hospital. The money collected was funded to create exhibitions in that school to either of the Universi- ties, and to found ' Times' Scholarships.' See above ' The " Times " and the Irish Land League.' Timothy Sparks. The now de guerre of Charles Dickens in his pam- phlet of ' Sunday under Three Heads ' : (1) As it is; (2) As Sabbath bills have made it ; and (8) As it might be made (1880). Timothy Titcomb. The pen- name of Josiah Gilbert Holland, an American author. Tineman, i.e. lose-man, the man who loses his men. So Archibald Douglas was called, because after the death or murder of the Duke of Rothesay, for- tune deserted him, and he lost most of his followers in each action he under- took (died 1424). Tintamarresque. Burlesque his- tory : as ' Le Trocade*roscope, Revue Tintamarresque de PExposition Uni- verselle.' Paris, 1878. Par Touchatout. ' Histoire de France Tintamarresque.' Par Touchatout. Paris (to the flight of Louis-Philippe in 1848). 4 Histoire Tintamarresque de Napoleon El.' Par Touchatout. Paris, 1877 (from 1848). ' La De*gringolade Impe*riale ' (a second part to the above). Paris, 1878. ' Grande Mythologie Tintamarresque. 1 Par Touchatout. ' Histoire Populaire et Tintamarresque de la Belgique.' Par F. Delisle. Brussels. Tintoret of Switzerland (The). John Rudolph Huber (1722-1790). He painted 8,065 portraits, besides other subjects. Tippling Act (The). 24 Geo. H. ch. 40. So called because it allowed no action to be maintained for the sale of spirituous liquors, retailed on credit, unless the debt amounted to 20s. or upwards at one time. Now in part repealed. Tire'sias. Milton is called 'the blind Tiresias of modern times ' (1608- 1674). Tirshatha. A governor appointed over the Assyrian kings. Tirzah (The House of). In the language of the Roundheads, the Epis- copalians were of the house of Tirzah. Any persons who differ from our own religious faith. Tirzah was the royal city of the revolted tribes of Israel. He liked not this going to feast In high places with the unclrcumcised in heart, and looked on the whole ... as a making merry in the house of Tlrsah. Sir W. SCOTT, PeverU of Ou Peak, chap. 4. Tisserands (weavers). The French name of the Cathari, or Puritans of the 12th cent. See p. 150, ' Cathari.' Tithe Agitation (The). In Ire- land, 1881. The Catholic Irish combined to resist the payment of tithes to Pro- testant clergymen. The rebellion was stirred up by Daniel O'Connell, who hated Mr. Stanley, the chief secretary. Many of the clergy in Ireland were reduced to pauperism. At Newtown- barry, in Wexf ord, cattle were impounded by a tithe-proctor, and the peasantry who went to release them came into collision with the yeomanry, who fired and killed twelve. At Carrickshock, however, there was a more frightful tra- gedy. The peasantry armed with scythes and pitchforks killed eighteen of the police, including the commanding officer. At Castlepollard, in Westmeath, the police fired on the peasants and ahol TITHE TITLE 889 fcen. At Gortroche, near Rathcormack (Cork), Archdeacon Kyder, supported by a number of the military, ordered the soldiers to fire, when eight were killed and thirteen wounded. Among the slain was the son of widow Ryan. Government now took the matter up. Mr. Stanley, chief secretary, insisted that the law must be respected ; Daniel O'Connell sided with the tithe recusants. It was found that the amount of arrears was 104,285^ but all that could be collected was 12,0001., and the cost of collecting it was 15,OOOZ., so the contest was given up, as the game was not worth the candle. See ' Irish Church Temporalities Bill.' Tithe Bill, or Commutation Act, 1886. As a tenth of the produce of land would in many cases swallow up the profits of improvement, the bill enacted that a rent-charge should be levied equal to the average amount received for wheat, barley, and oats, during the seven preceding years. The rent-charge removed the vexatious custom of taking tithes in kind. The measure was devised by Mr. Jones. Many landlords let their lands tithe free, and pay the rent-charge themselves. This should always be done under all circumstances. When tithe was collected in kind, a green bough was stuck into every tenth shock ol corn on the field to mark the property of the tithe-owner. Tithe Commissioners of Eng- land and Wales (The). 6, 7 Will. IV. c. 71 appointed to convert the tithes into a rent-charge payable in money, but varying in amount, according to the average price of corn (i.e. wheat, barley, and oats), for the seven preceding years. Tithe Commutation Act (The), 1832. Ireland. This act enabled the tenant to pay a yearly sum of money in lieu of tithes, if the rector was willing to accept the commutation. Above 1,000 parishes accepted the change, but some rectors stood out, and this led to the Anti-tithe War (q.v.). Tithe Composition Bill (The), 1882. Introduced by Lord Stanley. In 1838 composition for tithes in Ireland was changed for a fixed charge, which was only three-fourths of the former composition, to be paid by the landlords and not by the tenants (1, 2 Viet. o. 109). Tithe War (The). In Ireland (1830-1835). A most sanguinary rebel- 38 lion ostensibly for the abolition of tithe& The Whitefeet, the Blackfeet, the Terryalts, the Lady Clares, the Molly Maguires, and the Eockites overran Ire- land during these years. And in 1842, 1846, the Repeal movement roused the country to a state of enthusiasm border- ing on frenzy, if not actual revolt. See p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' Tithes (Commutation of). In Eng- land and Wales, 1886 (6, 7 Will. IV. c. 71), whereby the tithes hitherto collected in kind were commuted for a fixed sum of money. Amended by 1 & 2 Viet. c. 64 (1837), and several times since. Titi (Prince). Frederick prince of Wales, eldest son of George II. Seward, a contemporary, tells us that Prince Frederick was a great reader of French memoirs, and that he wrote memoirs of his own times under the pseudonym of ' Prince Titi.' These memoirs were sub- sequently found amongst the papers of Ralph the historian. Correspondents of ' Notes and Queries ' in 1884 inform us that there is a political fairy tale by St. Hyacinthe (1684-1746) called the ' History of Prince Titi,' the four chief characters of which are KINO OINGUET, mean, stingy, and hating his son (like George II.); the QUEEN TBIPASSE, his wife, haughty, very fond of money, and also hating her son (like Queen Caroline); PRINCE TITI, a good, kind-hearted, affable prince, handsome and brave, but ill-used by his royal parents (like Frederick prince of Wales); and PRINCE TRIPTILLON, a younger brother, made much of by both his parents (like the Duke of Cumberland). Ralph also wrote a ' History of Prince Titi,' in which the page L'Eveille by fairy help gets to know all that passes in royal councils, and keeps the prince advised of everything. The page made a Journal in cipher of these matters, which was printed in 1736. Titian (The French). Jacquea Blanchard (1600-1688). Titian (The Portuguete). Alonzo Sanchez Coello (1515-1590). Titian (The Spanish). Juan Fer- nandez Ximenes, generally called 'El Mudo ' (the Dumb), 1598-1666. Title, or ' Titulus,' means ' pastor,' as the ' Title of St. Mary,' i.e. the pastor of the church so called. Title of Accusation, (The), nailed to the cross, we are told, is deposited with one of the nails in the Santa Croce of Eome. Bozio asserts that it was found in the cave where the three crosses were buried. The letters are red, and the slab of wood. Lipsius informs us that the slab shown to him was 9 incJieg TITULARS TOLOSA long ; bat, as it contained only a small part of the inscription, the entire slab, he thinks, must have been about 4 feet. See p. 281, ' Crucifixion, Belies of the.' Father Durand (1232-12%) tells OB that he saw In Parit the title of the accusation in full. The monk Antonine (1389-14. r >9; asserts that he held in his own hands the slab bearing the full accusation when he visited the Holy Sepulchre at Jcrutalrm. The title on the Roman slab contains two Latin words. NAZARINVB RF.[x], and one Greek word written backward! and spelt with two blunders, iYoNEPAZAN, where K should be H, and -OYl should be -us. Surely this must be a most clumsy forgery, for the writer Ignorantly supposed that (Ji-cek was written like Hebrew from right to left. Tit'ulars of Tithes. Scotchmen to whom the king made grants of abbey lands and tithes, on condition of their providing suitable stipends to the re- formed clergy. Also called the 'Lords of Erection.' Titus of Germany (The). Joseph II. (1741-1765-1790), son of Maria Theresa. So called because hardly a day passed which was not. distinguished by some act of munificence, some private deed of charity, or something done for the good of others; yet was he almost always unfortunate. Titus, or the Delight of Man- kind of Germany (The). Maxi- milian n. Coxe, in his 'House of Austria,' says : ' If ever a Christian and philosopher filled the throne, that Chris- tian and philosoper was Maximilian II.' (vol. i. part ii. p. 649). Born 1627, reigned 1564-1576. Tityre Tus (pronounce Tit'-e-re tuze). The name assumed in the 17th cent, by a clique of young blades in London, of the upper class, whose delight was to break windows, upset sedan-chairs, rudely caress young women, molest the watch, and annoy quiet citizens. See ' Street Bullies.' The reference is to the first line of Virgil s first ' Eclogue,' Titure, tupatulte recuban* tub trgmine fagi, implying that they were men of leisure who delighted to 'recline at ease under their paternal beechea. 1 To Remain Bible. In Gal. xxiv. 29 an editorial note in the margin, ' to remain ' [stet], is inserted in tbe text : ' But as then he that was born after me flesh persecuted him that was born after the spirit to remain, even so it is now.' See p. 90, ' Bible,' and ' Scriptures.' Tobacco Revolt (The), 1848. Ses V. 82, ' Anti-tobacconists.' Toeplitz, in Bohemia (Treaty o/), Sept. 1818, between Austria and Great Britain. This treaty of alliance was effected between the battle of Dresden and that at Leipsic. A few days pre- viously (9 Sept.) Austria, Russia, and Prussia had entered into an alliance against Napoleon. Toga'ted Nation (The). Th* ancient Romans, whose distinguishing dress was a toga or white robe bordered with purple for magistrates. Women ai well as men wore the toga. The children who were free-born wore a toy a prtrtexta (white bordered with purple) till they were seventeen, when they changed it for the toga rtrUit, made of white wool without ornament or border. Toga'ti et Pallia'ti. The Romans and Greeks. The dress of a Roman was {he toga, 6f a Greek the pallium, whence the Romans were called the gens togdta, and the Greeks the gens pallidta. Toghlak (The House of). Founded in Delhi by Tdghlak in 1821. This line of kings succeeded the second Gaurian dynasty, which reigned from 1288 to 1321. The house of Toghlak was suc- ceeded in 1414 by the government of the Beiads. Toleration Act (The), 1 William & Mary, c. 18 (24 May, 1689). For the relief of Protestant Dissenters. All persons dissenting from the Church of England (except Papists, Unitarians, and Ariana) were allowed to assemble for religious worship according to their own forma, provided they took the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and also subscribed a declaration against transubstantiation. The exception of Unitarians and Ariana was repealed by 63 Geo. III. c. ICO. The Roman Catholics were relieved by the Emancipation Act, 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, 1829, and 1844. Tolosa (Gold of). Toldsa i.e. Tou- louse was a large and wealthy city with a famous temple, where great riches were deposited. In this temple was pre- served the booty taken by ' Brennus ' from Delphi. In 106 this temple waa plundered by Quintus Servilius Csepio on his way to meet the Cimbrian army. Csepip was utterly defeated by the Cimbri, and it was said that his defeat was a judgment of the gods for his sacrilege. Hence the Latin proverb Aurum Tolo- TOLTECAfl TONSURE 69) tdnum habet ('Ill-gotten wealth never prospers '). Toltecan Nations (The). The Mexicans and Peruvians are so called by Morton. The Toltecans, he says, were the builders of that series of mounds found throughout North America. Tom Moore of France (The). Chaulieu (1639-1720). Called 'The Anacreon of the Temple.' Tom of Ten Thousand. Thomas Thynne, of Longleat Hall. So called not only from his great wealth, but for his unbounded hospitality. He married Elizabeth Percy (countess of Ogle), heiress of Joscelyne earl of Northumber- land, and was murdered on his wedding day (12 Feb., 1682) by three assassins hired by Charles count Konigsmark, a disappointed suitor of Lady Ogle. In Dryden's ' Absalom and Achitophel' Thomas Thynne is introduced as ' Issachar.' Tome of St. Leo (The). That is his 'Dogmatic Letter' 449. Leo set aside the Council of Ephesus, which had pronounced in favour of Eutjfehes, and summoned a new council of Chalcedon, in which his ' Tome ' was accepted ' as the voice of St. Peter,' and adopted as the orthodox exposition of the doctrine of the person of Christ. It declared that his body was not a celestial body, as Eu- tyches maintained, nor yet a mere human body into which the Godhead descended at baptism, as the Nestorians taught, but a human and divine nature like the union of body and soul. This of course led to the dogma that Mary was the mother of God, and to the more modern dogma of the Immaculate Conception. Tomlins Prelector of Ana- tomy in Oxford University. Founded by Eichard Tomlins in 1626. Now an- nexed to the Linacre professorship of Physiology, the stipend being 200Z. a year. Tong-Han. The last fourteen kings of the Han dynasty (B.C. 25 to A.D. 220). The first 1C kings of this dynasty were the west- ern or Si-Han. The second half the eastern or Tong-H&n. Tong-Oei Dynasty (The), A.D. 534. The northern empire of China was split into the eastern or Tong-Oei, and the western or 8i-0ol. The first dynasty of tho eastern kingdom had but one sove- reign, who reigned 16 years (534-560). Tonnage and Poundage. A duty per ton or per pound on goods im- ported into England. First imposed by Edward III. by vote of parliament for a fixed number of years, and renewed at the expiry of the time. It was to furnish the sovereign with ready money for the defence of his realm. In the reign of Henry V. the grant was made for life, but on the accession of Charles I. the parliament limited the grant to a year, and when the grant was not renewed, as was usual, Charles levied it without the authority of a grant. The amount was about 8s. per tun on imported wines, 10 per cent, on goods sold by the pound of less value than 100Z., and 5 per cent, on goods above that value. In the reign of Queen Anne these imposts were made perpetual, and mortgaged for the public debt, and in 1787 (27 Geo. III. c. 18) ton- nage and poundage was abolished, a duty being substituted according to tariff on each article subjected to duty. Of course, since 1846, when free rade In corn was established, the principle has spread to the free importation of well-nigh every article of commerce ; but no nation in the world follows the example (1890). The United States of N. America, lu Oct. 1890, ran to the extreme of protection. And now the nations will learn whether Free Trade or Protection is the true principle of na- tional prosperity. Tonnage Bank (The), 1694. So the Bank of England was called when it was first established in the reign of William III., because the Bank com- pany was to lend government 1,200,0002. at 8 per cent., and to receive in repay- ment the proceeds of a new duty on tonnage. Tonsure. The shaven part of the head indicative in the Catholic Church of holy orders. Probably it represents the halo of sanctity, or else the crown of the royal priesthood. 1. St. Peter's tonsure. The shaven part is the whole crown of the head, with a fringe of hair left to represent the crown of thorns. This is the tonsure of the Latin Church. 2. St. Paul's tonsure, when the whole head is shaven. This is the tonsure of the Greek or Oriental Church. Simon Magus's tonsure. A semicircle shaven from ear to ear above the fore- head, but not reaching to the hinder part "91 TOOM TORYISM of the head, where the hair was suffered to remain. This is sometimes called St. James's tonsure. It was adopted by the Irish missionaries. * Tonsures are mentioned by St. Dionyslus the Areopaglte, who died A.D. 95, ' De Hlerarchia,' p. 2 ; and they were general In the 4th and 5th cents. See Bede, ' Church Hist.,' book v. ch. 22. Toom Tabard (Empty Jacket). So John Baliol was called by the Scotch for his silly opposition to Edward I. (Baliol born 1259, king 1292-1296, died 1814.) ' Vox et prsetera nihil.' Torch of Pengwern(IVie). Gwen- wyn, prince of Powysland, was so called from his constantly laying Pengwern in Flintshire, part of the 'province of Shrewsbury, 1 in conflagration. Torches, Links, and Lanterns. In the reigns of James I. and Charles I. courtiers (proceeding home after dark) were conducted with torches, merchants with links, and mechanics with lanterns. Torgau (The Book of), 1574. A celebrated confession of faith, the object of which was to establish unanimity between the reformers. Torgau is in Prussia (Saxony). Also called the ' Formula of Concord.' Torgau, pronounce Tor-gov (ov aa in 'now'). Tories (in Irish history), 1653, rap- parees, or freebooters. They were the Irish Catholics driven by Cromwell from their homes into Connaught, who, instead of settling down, lived by blackmail, or by plundering those planted on their estates. Tory-hunting was a regular bu- siness after the Restoration, and was con- tinued to the latter part of the 18th cent. In 1695 a law was made that any Tory killing two other Tories, ' proclaimed and on their keeping,' should be entitled to pardon for all former offences, except murder. In 1718 it was declared a suffi- cient claim for pardon if a Tory could plead that he had killed one Tory. These acts expired in 1776. The word is from toruighim, to pursue for the sake of plunder. The word Tory has completely changed its mean- Ing: it no longer means the anti-government party, but the Church and State party. So in Italy the Guelfs and Ohibellines fc (on Mr. Goschen s visit to Dublin), 8 Dec., 1887. Treaties, Conventions. &c. See also Aarau Blois Abo Abrantes SST Adrianqple Ainsilv C.ivak Bretlgny Bromsberg Aix la Chapelle Afghan Akerman Bucharest Cambray Campo Formic Aloacebas Caprlano Almorah Ctirlovitz Altenberg Cateau Cambresli Altmark Chaumont Altdna Cloetcr Seven Amboise Cognac Amiens Conflans Anagni Constantinople 4.ncenis Constance Andelot Andrussow Copenhagen Edinburgh B-ag g dad r * Bartensteia Kuloiy Ferrara Fontainebleav Bergen Frankfort Treaty of 1841 (The), signed 29 Aug., 1842. Made with the Chinese after the war with that country. Its pro- visions were : The payment by the Chinese of 21,000,000 dollars (about 4& million sterling). The opening of the new ports, Canton, Amoy, Foo-Chow, Ningpo, and Shanghai to British mer- chants ; the cession of the island of Hong Kong to England; correspondence to be opened and continued between the Chinese and British Governments, and the islands Chusan and Kolangsoo to be held until the money was paid. Treaty of 2 Dec., 1854 (The). Between Austria, Great Britain, and France, against Russia. Austria engaged to defend the frontier of the Principali- ties against Russia ; if Russia made war on Austria the three powers would act in concert; if the Crimean War lasted beyond 1 Jan., 1855, the three powers would unite to bring it to an end. Treaty of Partition (The), B.C. 205. At the peace of Dyrrhachium Philip V., king of Macedon, made a bar- gain with Antiochus, king of Syria, to divide the dominions of Ptolemy Epi- phanes, the boy-king of Egypt. Thii scandalous treaty induced Ptolemy fa TREATY TEIAL place himself under the guardianship of Rome. Treaty of 1696 (The). In this treaty it was secretly stipulated at Loretto: (I) That the Vaudois valleys should have no communication or con- nection with the subjects of the great king [Louis XIV.] in matters of religion ; and (2) that the subjects of his most Christian Majesty [Louis XIV ], who had taken refuge in the valley, should be banished. This was a mere evasion of the famous Edict of 13 May (q.v.), to which Victor Amadeus (whose daughter was betrothed to the heir of France) was forced by Louis XIV. Treaty Stone (The), 8 Oct., 1691, Limerick, Ireland. A large stone on which the capitulation of Limerick was signed by General Ginkell and the leaders of the Irish insurgents. It still stands near Thomond Bridge, in the county of Clare, beside the river-bank. Trecentisti. The Italian worthies of the 14th cent. See ' Cinquecentisti ' and ' Seicentisti.' This was the golden period, o! which Dante was the representative. Tree of Feudalism (The), 14 July, 1792. An immense tree erected in the Champ de Mars, Paris, on which were hung crowns, blue ribbons, tiaras, cardi- nals' hats, St. Peter's keys, ermine mantles, doctors' caps, law-bags, titles of nobility, escutcheons, coats of arms, and BO on, to which the king (Louis XVI.) was to set fire. Louis refused to do so, saying there was no such thing as feudalism in France. Champ de Mars, pronounce Sharnd Mar (r of ' Sharnd ' silent). Trees of Liberty. Trees or green boughs set up as symbols of liberty. The idea came from America. In 1790 the Jacobins planted a tree of liberty in Paris, and soon every village in France had its tree, crowned with the cap of liberty, round which the people danced singing revolutionary songs, as English villagers used to sing and dance round the May-pole. In the Reign of Terror thousands were guillotined for injuring these trees. During the empire the trees were suppressed, but in July, 1830, they were again set up, and again in 1848. These trees were adorned with rings as symbols of unity, with triangles as sym- bols of equality, with tricoloured ribbons as the revolutionary badge, and a cap of liberty. The last was rooted up hi 1872. In Italy, during the revolution of 1848 and 1849, numerous trees of liberty were planted in the peninsula. Trent (Council of), begun 1545 and closed 1563. Its object was to correct, confirm, and fix for ever the doctrines and discipline of the Catholic Church, and to reform the lives of the Catholic clergy. Hence Catholics are called Tri- dentines (3 syl.), from Tridentum, the ancient name of Trent, in Lombardy. Treve de Dieu (La), 1040. Sus- pension of arms during sacred days, divine service, and the intervals between Advent and Epiphany, Quinquagesima and Pentecost. Triad, according to Pythagoras, is the third mathematical quantity; the monad or point is the first, length is the duad, breadth the triad or third mathe- matical quantity, and the fourth or tetrad is the solid. Physically, intel- lectual capacity is the monad, scientific or certain knowledge is a duad, opinion a triad, and perception by the senses a tetrad. Triad Society (The). A secret society in China during the reign of Kia- king (1796-1820). Organised for plunder. Ostensibly, however, for the expulsion of the Manchoos from the throne and country. Triads (Welsh). Mythological tea- ditions, moral rules, historic fragments of the British, &c., in the Welsh Ian- guage, disposed in groups of three. Trial by Battel, or 'Wager of Battle.' Recognised in the laws of Liutprand, about 720. In use in Eng- land before the reign of Henry I., and not abolished till 1819. The combat- ants fought on horseback, fully armed. Being duly marshalled, they entered the lists saying, ' May God defend the right ' The king presided: if he threw down his warder, the combat ceased ; if not, it went on till one of the combatants was vanquished or slain. The notion was that God would defend the innocent party. Abraham Thornton in 1818, charged with the murder of Mary Ashford, refused to be tried by a Jury, and insisted on a ~wager of battle. Lord Chief Justice Ellenborough allowed the appeal, and as Thornton was a. very strong and athletio |M TRIAL TRIBUNE man, and his accuser a mere stripling, the trial was declined, and Thornton released. Trial of the Pyx (The). A very undent ceremony, spoken of in the reign of Edward I. as 'a well-known custom.' It is the final trial, by weight and assay, of the gold and silver coins of the United Kingdom prior to their issue. The proceedings, which now occur every year, are conducted by the Lords Com- missioners of the Treasury with much solemnity, and constitute a public attes- tation of the standard purity of the coin. The wardens of the Goldsmiths' Com- pany act as the jury, and after making a careful examination, deliver to the king's or the queen's remembrancer a verdict that they can discover no variation from the standard specified in the Coinage Act, 1870. Triarchy (The Roman), 837-361. Constantino the Great, at his death, divided his empire into three parts between his three sons : To his eldest son, Constantino [II.], he left Gaul, Spain, and Britain. To his second son, Constans, he left Italy, Illyricum, and Africa. To his third son, Constantius, he left the East. Constantino attacked bis brother Con- stans, and was slain A.D. 840, aged 25. Constans was slain by Magnentius A.D. 850. Constantius died at Tarsus A.D. 8C1, aged 41. And the empire came to Julian. Tribes (Roman). The original fol- lowers of Romulus were called Ramnes, or Ramnians. After the Sabine war the Sabines had a share in the new state, and were called Titles, or Titians, And after the conquest of Rome by Porsgna, the Etruscans had a share in the state, and were called Luceres. Ramnes, the original Romans. See Ramnes. Titi,-s. BO called from Tatlus, the Sabine king. Luceres, BO called from Luc&rum, a town of Etrurla. It has been suggested by modern scholars thai these are primitive clan-names long before Roma was founded. Tribunal Extraordinaire, or 'Tribunal Rdvolutionnaire,' 1792. De- creed by the Mountain for the trial and dispatch of suspects. It had five judges and a standing jury, was subject to no appeal, and was virtually free from any law ion lib. Tribunal R6 volutionnaire (Li), 10 March, 1793. An 'exceptional tri- bunal* created by the Convention of France, and consisting of three judges at least, a jury, and a public accuser. Its decisions were without appeal. Tribunal de Premiere In- stance (Le), 1810. A jurisdiction established in each arrondissement of France for ' toutes les affaires civiles et correctionnelles ' which are not specially assigned to other tribunals. Tribunal of Blood (The), 1567. The organisation under Margaret, governor of the Netherlands, under which 18,000 persons were put to death in three years. Also called ' The Council of Trouble.' Tribunal of the Faith (The), 1823. A revival in Spain of the ' Holy Inquisition.' Extinct in 1868. Tribunal of the 17th of August (The), 1792. A French revo- lutionary tribunal demanded of the Con- vention by Robespierre, for the trial of 1 traitors against the people.' It con- sisted of one deputy from each section. This tribunal was succeeded by the more awful ' Tribunal Revolutionnaire ' (q.v.). Tribunal (Le), 1799. In France, established for discussing the merits of the laws presented by the government. Orators were appointed to speak pro and con, and the corps le'gislatif decided. The tribunat entered on its functions in 1801. It was originally composed of 100 members, not above 25 years of age. In 1802 the number was reduced to 50, and in 1807 it was wholly suppressed. Tribunaux Correctionnels (Les), 1810. Under this title the tribu- nals of ' premiere instance ' take cogni- zance of appeals from the decisions of the police court, and all minor offences limited to five days' imprisonment or a fine not exceeding 15 francs (12s. 6(2.). Pronounce Tre-bu-no cor'retf-te-o-neL Tribune of the People. So Francois Noel Babeuf called himself (1764-1797). He assumed the name of Gracchus, and tried to make himself * second Robespierre, but his rebellion was soon crushed by the Directory, and B- beuf was guillotined. TRIBUNES TRIEES 899 Tribunes (French), 1799. In the Consulate 100 tribunes formed part of the government. Their sole province was discussion. The first consul submitted a motion to the corps legislatif ; where- upon the state councillors advocated its adoption, and the tribunes pleaded against it. In 1807 the tribunate was abolished, and the c Corps Legislatif ' was addressed by the Conseil d'Etat. Tributum was the Boman property tax, an extraordinary levy in times of war. The censors made the assessment, and it was called tribute because it was exacted from all the tribes. The col- lectors were called Tribuni ^rarii. Tricolour (The), 1789. Clovis, after his baptism, adopted the blue standard of St. Martin de Tours for the national banner. The successors of Hugues Capet, who made Paris their capital, changed the blue standard of St. Martin for the red standard of St. Denis. As red was the English colour, Charles VII. discarded it, and cLose white (in honour of the Virgin Mary), for the national colour. Hence blue, red, and white have all in turns been the national colours of France. In the revolution, 1789, blue and red were adopted, being the colours of the commune of Paris, and Lafayette added white (the lilies of France), to represent the French nation. Long before this, Mary Stuart, wife of Francois II. (afterwards queen of Scotland), had adopted the tricolour as the livery of her Swiss guards: white for France, blue for Scotland, and red for Switzerland, in compliment to the nationality of the guards themselves. There is no reason to suppose that Lafayette Introduced white (the monarchical colour) to con- ciliate the Bourbon king. Tricolour Scarfs. Still worn in France by the municipal magistrates and commissaires of police. Tricolours (European). Indicative of national liberty : In FBANCE : Blue, red, white, divided vertically. In ITALY : Green, white, red, divided vertically. IN BELGIUM: Black, yellow, red, divided vertically. IN HOLLAND : Red, white, blue, divided horizontally. Tricoteuses (Les). Women who frequented the public clubs and revolu- tionary tribunal in Paris, where they sat knitting, while they listened to what was going on, and expressed audibly their approval or disapprobation. With the fall of the Jacobins in 1794 they ceased to appear. They were called ' The Furies of the Guillotine.' Pronounce Triek'-ko-ieuze. No combination of letters in the English language can convey the Bound of the French eute. It almost rhymes with hers. Tricoteuses de la G-uillotine (Les). Knitters of the guillotine. Women of Paris who daily went to the Place de la Revolution, Paris, to witness the executions, and passed their time there knitting. Tridentine Catechism (The), 1566. Prepared in accordance with the decrees of the Council of Trent by Arch- bishop Leon, the Bishop ^gidius Fosco- rari, and the Portuguese Dominican Francis Fureiro. It was revised by the Cardinals Borromeo, Sirlet and Antonian, and sanctioned by Pius V. Tridentine Council (The), i.e. the Council of Trent, called in Latin Tridentum,' 1545-1563. Tridentine Decrees. Decrees issued by the Council of Trent (16th cent.). See above. Tridentines (8 syl.). Bigoted Roman Catholics whose religious views are rigidly circumscribed by the decrees of the Council of Trent [Tridentum], 1587-1563. Triennial Bill (The), 1694. It provided two things : (1) That no parlia- ment shall continue longer than three years, and (2) that a new parliament shall always be called within three years of the dissolution of the preceding one. Triennial Parliaments, 1694 to 1715. Appointed to be held by Act 16 Car. I. c. 1 (1641), by 16 Car. II. o. 1 (1664), and by 6, 7 Will. & Mar. c. 2 (1694). Septennial Act was passed 1716 (1 Geo. I. c. 88). See 'Parliaments.' Triers of Petitions. Edward I. granted leave for everyone who thought himself unduly assessed, rated, charged to aids, subsidies, or taxes, to deliver a petition to receivers who sat in the Great Hall of the Palace of Westminster. The petitions were forwarded to the king's council. This gave rise to the ' Triers of Petitions ' at the opening of every new ma 900 TKIMMERS TR1NODA parliament by the House of Lords, a usage which is still continued. See 1 Tryers.' Trimmers, in the reigns of Charles II. and William III., were those whose political opinions were neither hot nor cold. Charles Montagu (earl of Halifax) called himself a ' trimmer ' or medium man, half Whig and half Tory. They were friendly to the monarchy, but opposed to .James duke of York ; and pleased neither party. Trimurti is the inseparable unity in the three gods Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva in one person. The Christian dogma is the inseparable unity of three Persons (Father, Son, and Holy Ghost) in one God. Son, husband, and father may be one and the mamo person, or trlmurti ; and Antony, Octavl- ]>. r-uim, to I ;,- an anus, and Lopldus may be three separate but one triumvirate. This is not meant to be an explanation of the Trinity, but merely to show the difference between three gods equal to on* person, and three persons equal to one god. Tringlo (A). A soldier of the Arab commissariat and baggage trains in Algiers. Trinita'rian Controversy (The), 17th and 18th cents. This controversy had many phases : (1) The Arian, an- swered by Dr. Bull in his ' Defensio Fidei Nicense,' 1685-1688. This is termed the 'Patristic' phase. (2) The Meta- physical phase, controverted by Dr. Thurlock and Dr. South. (3) The Scrip- tural phase, set forth by Dr. Samuel Clarke, Sykes,Whitby, and Jackson, and answered by Dr. Waterland in his ' Vin- dication of Christ's Divinity,' 1719, 1723. (4) The Free-thinkers led by Lord Shaftesbury, Collins's 'Free-thinking,' Woolston's 'Discourse on Miracles,' Tindal's 'Christianity'; replied to by Waterland, Zachary Pearce, and War- burton. Trinitarians. Those who believe that there are three distinct Persons (Father, Son, and Holy Ghost) in the one undivided Godhead. The word ' persons ' is very misleading applied to deity, as we use the word to signify an objec- tive individual, and cannot divest our thoughts of Home such idea. In no sense is God an indi- vidual or objective person, but simply an entity, or, to use the Hebrew phrase, an ' I am.' No one on earth would call the human soul a perton, Trinity (Confraternity of the), or 1 Fathers of the Oratory,' 1550. A reli- gious order founded in lioine by Philip Neri to aid and succour pilgrims. When it undertook to instruct the young the brotherhood changed their original name to Oratorians. In 1611 P. de Be'rille instituted a branch of the society in France, and called it 'L'Oratoire de Je'sus,' a normal school for young priests. Suppressed in 1790, but re-established in 1858 under the title of L'Oratoire d V IminacuMe Conception. Some of the greatest Christian orators of France were Oratorians; as Malebranche, Massillon. Mascaron, Richard Simon, Lelong, La Blettorie. Foncemagne. Dotteville, Daunou, Ac. Cardinal Newman was an Oratorian. Trinity College. I. Cambridge University. Is the con- solidation of several foundations : (1) Of 8t Michael house, founded by Hervey of Stanton in 1824; (2) of King's Hall, founded by Edward HI. in 1887 ; (8) of Phiswick's Hostel and Ovin^'s Inn ; (4) augmented and largely endowed by Henry VIII. in 1546, when its present name was given to the College. It is the largest and richest foundation in the University. The head of the coll called the Master, and is appointed by the crown. II. Dublin University, 1591. For by Queen Elizabeth Statutes revised 81 June, 1855. III. Oxford University, 1654. Founded by Sir Thomas Pope. It was originally called ' Durham College,' being endowed by the priors and bishops of Durham. The headmaster is called the ' president.' Trinity Hall. A college in the University of Cambridge, founded by William Bateman, bishop of Norwich in 1350. William Bateman was the aecond founder ol Con villa and Caius ColUge also. See ' Caiui College. 1 Trinity Sunday. Instituted in 1287. It is next to Whitsunday, and is called ' Stately Sunday.' See ' Sunday.' Statuimus quod Festum Trinitatis Dominica post octavam Pentecostes, quae vocatur octava Trinitatis, cum ix leotionibus et debita solemnl- tate flat. The Hull for it* itutitutwn. Christmas Day is the day of the birth of Jesus Whitsunday is the day of the outpouring of the Holy Ghost, and Trinity Sunday is the day dedl- cated to Father, Son, and Holy Qhost, 'One la Three and Three in One.' Trinity Week. Hebdomada Trini- tatis, the week which begins with Trinity Sunday. Trino'da Neces'sitas. Three im. posts or taxes to which all lands (not TRIPARTITE TRIPOS 901 excepting church lands) were subject in Anglo-Saxon times : (I) Bryge-b6t, for keeping bridges and highways in repair ; (2) Burg-bot, for keeping the burgs or fortresses in repair; and (3) Fyrd, for the payment of the military and naval forces of the kingdom. Fyrd means an army, or the military force of a country; fyrdung means military service; and fyrd-wite the fine for neglecting to join the fyrd. Tripartite (The). The Jus ^lianum (q.v.). Tripartite Decree (The), or ' De- ere turn tripartitum juris consuetudinarii,' by Verbbczy of Hungary, 1514. I. It established equal rights to all the Hungarian nobility, who were exempt from all taxation. II. It limited the authority of the clergy, and deprived the pope of the disposal of church benefices in Hungary. III. It took from the peasantry all liberty and every species of property, reducing them to the state of serfs. Tripit'aka, or 'Three Baskets.' The sacred books of the Buddhists ; the books altogether being between two and three thousand. A complete series was presented to the India Office by the Japanese ambassador, Iwakura-Tomomi, from the Mika'do, some years ago. The collection was originally published by the Emperor Wan-lich of China, at the close of the 16th cent., and it was re- produced in Japan in the sixth year of Nengo Impo (i.e. 1679). Triple Alliance (The). I. 28 Jan., 1668, between Great Britain, the Nether- lands, and Sweden, against France. It was a ruse of Arlington's to force Louis XIV. to accept the peace of Aix-la- Chapelle. William HI. was king of England, and his heart was bent on checking the conquests of Louis that his beloved Holland might be aggrandized, and to this end he wanted to protect from France the Spanish Netherlands. II. 4 Jan., 1717. Between Great Britain, Holland, and France, against Spain, or rather against the designs of Cardinal Alberoni of Spain, whose object was to re-establish the monarchy of Charles V. In order to annoy the English the Spanish cardinal favoured the pre- tender, and in order to annoy France he favoured the Huguenots, He tried to induce Charles XIL of Sweden and Petei I. of Russia to join him; to plunge Austria into a war with Turkey, to stir up insurrection in Hungary, and actually effected the arrest of the regent Due d'Orle'ans. The platform of the alliance was (a) that the Pretender should be made to quit France ; (b) that the forti- fications of Dunkirk should be abolished according to the treaty of Utrecht ; and (c) that the Protestant succession of Great Britain should not be disturbed. III. 1789, between Great Britain, Holland, and Russia, against Catharine of Russia, in defence of Turkey. Triple Tree (The). The gallows, which was a permanent erection resting on three posts ; first at Smithfield, then at Tyburn. See ' Elms.' Tripod of Life (The). The brain, the lungs, and the heart. All natural death in the human animal proceeds from one of these three organs. Tripos, in the University of Cam- bridge. In the 15th cent, an 'ould bachelour,' as representative of the uni- versity, had to sit on a three-legged stool ' before Mr. Proctours ' to test the abili- ties of the candidates for degrees by arguing some question with the ' eldest son' of them as their representative. There were three occasions on which questionists were admitted to degrees : (1) the Gomitia priora on Ash- Wednes- day, for the best men ; (2) the Comitia posteriory a few weeks later, for the second-best men ; and (3) the Comitia minora for the 'poll-men.' Hence the word tripos meant the stool and the ' ould Bachelour,' then the three classes of questionists, and lastly the examination ^ system. The Classical Tripos was established in 1824, and the Historical Tripoa, the Science Tripos, &c., in 1858. %* The word now means the classifi- cation into three classes of graduated merit adopted in the University of Cam- bridge, Class I. being the highest. The Triposes are : The Classical Tri- Cthe Historical Tripos, the Indian guages Tripos, the Law Tripos, the Mathematical Tripos, the Mediaeval and Modern Languages Tripos, the Natural Science Tripos, the Semitic Languagei Tripos, and the Theological Tripos. 002 TRISAGION TRIUMVIRATE Trisag'ion (The], or ' First Religious War,' A.p. 608-518. The Trisagion is the repetition of the word ' Holy ' three times, as ' Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of Hosts,' supposed to indicate a Trinity. The Greeks maintained that it is the song sung by the angels before the throne of God, and that it was miracu- lously revealed to the church at Con- stantinople in the middle of the 5th cent. The Manichseans objected, and a sedition was caused which filled the streets day and night with men, women, and chil- dren, shouting and fighting. Churches were destroyed, the statues of the Emperor Anastasius were thrown down, and at length Vitalian, with an army of Huns and Bulgarians, interfered for the Catholic party. Such, says Gibbon (xlvii.), was the event of the first religious war waged in the name of the God of peace. Triumphal Arches. The most celebrated are the following: Constantino's Arch, in Borne, to com- memorate the triumph of Constantino over Maxentius. The Arch of Septimus Sevtrus, at the foot of the capitol. Oallienus's Arch, erected AJ>. 260. Titus's Arch, to commemorate his taking of Jerusalem. Arc de Benivent, in honour of Traj'an. A copy of Titus's Arch. Another, dedi- cated to the same emperor, called the 1 Arch of Ancona.' The Arch of Rimini, dedicated to Augustus. This is the most ancient of the Roman arches. Another, dedicated to the same emperor, at the foot of Mont Cenis, and called the 'Arch of Suza.' In PARIS there is an arc de triomphe at the Porte St. Denis, erected in 1673 to commemorate the passage of the Rhine by Louis XIV. There is another dedicated to the same king at the Porte St. Martin, to commemorate his con- quest of the Franche-Comte". The arch in the Carrousel was raised to the honour of Napoleon in 1806. The splendid Arc de Triomphe in the Chumps Elyse'es was begun in 1806 and finished in 1885. It is the work of Chalgrin and Huyot. Triumvirate (The). I. The British Triumvirate (1708), consisting of George Grenville and the Lords Egremont and Halifax, who succeeded the Earl of Bute and Sir Francis Dashwood. Grenville took both Bute's and Dashwood's office (lord of the treasurer and chancellor of the exchequer), while Egremont and Halifax were the two secretaries of state. In the reign of Queen Anne the triumvirate was the Duke of Marlborough, Lord Oodolphin, and Sarah duchess of Marlborough. The lu-.-t controlled foreign affairs, the second controlled the council and parliament, and the third con- trolled the Court and queen. II. The First French (1501). The Guise family leagued against the Hugue- nots. The triumvirate was the Due de Guise, the Constable de Montmorency, and Marshal de St. Andre*. This league was supported by the Pope, the Cardinal de Lorraine, and the clergy generally, the people of the north and west, and by Philip II. of Spain. III. The Second French Triumvirate {1685) for the extirpation of Huguenots in the reign of Louis XIV. The trium- virate was Father la Chaise (the king's confessor), Madame de Maintenon (the king's wife), and the Marquis de Louvois. See below, No. IV., ' Triumvirate ' (Th. Thermidorian),' and ' Reign of Terror.' IV. The Thermidorian Triumvirate (1795), consisting of B arras, Rewlx-11, and La Rdveillere. As in all other triumvirates one of the three is dominant, so in the Thermidorian Triumvirate Bar- ras was infinitely more powerful than the other two. V. First Roman (B.C. 60). A cabal formed by Crassus, Pompey, and Caesar. Crassus was the wealthy partner, Pom- pey the most powerful, Caesar the most popular. VI. The Second Roman Triumvirate (B.C. 48-81). Lepidus, Antony, and Octa- vianus. After the assassination of Caesar. VII. Of the Commonwealth (1659). General Lambert having put down the Rump Parliament, after the death of Cromwell, introduced a military form of government. Its three heads were Lam- bert, Fleetwood, and Monk, In April, 1660, the king (Charles H.) was recalled. Fleetwood was Cromwell's son-in-law, and Monk was governor of Scotland. VIII. Of the Reign of Terror (1794). Robespierre, Couthon, and St. Just. IX. Of the Roman Government (80 March, 1848) Mazzini, Armellini, and Buffi. These representatives of tli TRIUMVIRATE TRUCE 903 people formed a constitutional assembly, with a design of converting Italy into a republic like France ; but it was re- publican France which prevented it by an army of occupation. Triumvirate of England (The). ^Gower, Chaucer, and Lydgate (poets). Triumvirate of Italian Poets. Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch. Boccaccio is now known chiefly as the ' Father of Italian Prose.' His ' Decameron ' has outlived his poetry. Triv'ium. The three sciences: Grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The QUADRIVIUM were the four sciences: Music, arithmetic, geometry, and astro- nomy. Up to the 14th cent, called the seven sciences or seven liberal arts, and all taught in Latin. Trois Chapitres (Les). Three theological works on the Incarnation of Christ and his dual nature, by Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and Ibas of Edessa, condemned as heretical in 553. Trojans and Greeks in the Uni- versity of Cambridge. Partisans of Sir John Cheke, regius professor of Greek in the University, and of Gardiner the chancellor. Sir John introduced a new pronunciation of Greek, against which the chancellor protested. As Sir John was a Protestant and Gardiner a Catholic, the feud was more than half of a religious character. Those who took the side of the Regius professor were called 'Tro- jans'; those who sided with the chan- cellor called themselves ' Greeks.' Many a street row ensued, till at last the king in council commanded the innovation of Sir John to be discontinued. See p. 735, ' Ramists.' Troppau, in Silesia (Congress of), horn 20 Oct. to 20 Dec., 1820. Its object was to resist the revolutionary movement in Russia, Austria, and Prussia. Trottiera (La). The bell which summoned the ' riders ' or nobles to the Grand Council in Venice. Trou'badours (The). Minstrels of Southern France in the llth, 12th, and 18th cents. They were the first to dis- card Latin and use the native tongue in their compositions. Their poetry waa either about love and gallantry or war and chivalry. See ' Trouveres/ The poetry of the proven?als or troubadour* was of two sorts : cansos, or poems of love and gal- lantry, and sirventesft, or lays of war and chivalry, politics and morals. The word is from troubar, to Invent, as ' poetry ' is from the Greek verb mean- ing ' to make ' or ' create.' Trousse-galant (Le), 1445. An epidemic which ravaged France, and was so called *de la rapidite" avec laquelle elle enlevait les malades. Elle affectait surtout le bas-ventre et la tcte.' See 1 Plague,' &c. Trouveres (The). Minstrels of the north of France in the 12th, 18th, and 14th cents. The language they employed was the ' Walloon ' or ' Langue d'oil ' (q.v.). The subjects of these minstrels were satires and romances, tales of knavery and adventure, legends and his- torical traditions. It had three periods. In the first period the subjects were Gothic, Frankish, and Burgundian heroes. In the second period the subjects were Charlemagne and his paladins. In the third period they were traditions of British story, such as the fabulous Brute, King Arthur and his knights, King Horn, and so on. Sir Walter Scott's ' Marmion,' 'Lady of the Lake,' 'Rokeby, &c., are excellent imitations of the old Trouv6re minstrelsy. The word is the Walloon verb trouver, to find out or invent. The same as troubar. See ' Troubadours.' Troy (The Destruction of). Thig was 12 June, B.C. 1184. Troyes, in France (Treaties of). I. 21 May, 1420. Between Charles VL of France, Henry V. of England, and Philippe le Bon of Burgundy, for the marriage of Henry V. with the Princess Katharine of France. By this treaty Henry was declared regent and heir of France. II. 1 April, 1564. A treaty of peace between England and France. Truce of God (The), 1040. A modification of the ' Peace of God ' (g.y.), The latter was an ecclesiastical prohibi- tion of war altogether, under the general expectation of the Second Advent of Christ, the Prince of Peace (1085). The truce limited the prohibition to Thurs- day, Friday, Saturday, Sunday, and Church festivals, such as Easter, Lent, and Christmas, and absolutely forbade anyone to molest a man working in th 904 TRUCK TSHIN fields. The penalty of breaking the truce was death or outlawry. Truck Act (The), 1, 2 Will. IV. o. 87 (1881), forbids employers to pay wages in whole or in part by goods in- stead of money. Orders on a truck- shop or store are likewise forbidden as a set-off against wages. ' Truck ' IB the French troquer, to barter. Truck System (The). The mode of paying wages in part or wholly either by goods or by an order on some store. Very common before it was prohibited by law in 1831. True as Bicknell. Bicknell wag a hosier who supplied George III. with gloves. In the Gordon riots, 1780, a notion got abroad that the Roman Catho- lics designed to kill the king by poisoned S loves, as Catherine de Medicis killed eanne d'Albret, mother of Henri IV. of Prance, and many others. The ' London Courant ' and other newspapers, to lull this suspicion, inserted the following paragraph : ' We are authorised to assure the public that Mr. Bicknell, his majesty's hosier, is as true and faithful a Protestant as any in his majesty's dominions.' True Blue, in a theological sense, means a Presbyterian in contradistinction to an Episcopalian. Butler says that his knight Hudibras was ' Right Presbyterian true blue.' In the tune of George I., and probably before that reign, ' True Blue,' in a political sense, meant a Whig in contradistinction to a Tory. Lord George Gordon, in 1780, and his adherents ap- peared in the House of Commons with blue cockades in their hats. True Blues'; so the Palatines of Limerick imselves when they mustered into the service. ' True Blues ' have always called themselves when they mustered into the yeomanry service. 'True Bluet bean associated with Orangelsm. Trumpet (Murder of the), 1403. This refers to an incident in Venetian history. A Venetian trumpet (herald) appeared before Vicenza and announced to Francesco Terzo that the city had placed itself under the protection of Venice. Francesco ordered the trumpet to retire, and not return without a safe conduct. In the evening he returned, bearing the pennon of Vicenza, and com- manded the Paduans to raise the siege. Francesco denied the authority of the trumpet, and said if he had been sent by the Venetians he would have borne the Venetian pennon. Next morning the trumpet again appeared, this time with a Venetian pennon. The guards seized him, cut off his nose and ears, and sent him back with a declaration of war. 1 Let us make this trumpet,' said the guards, 'the Lion of St. Mark.' The point was this : the Lion of St. Mark has both nose and ears, but shall henceforth be mutilated like this trumpet by the indignant Paduans. Trumpet of Sedition (The). So George III. spoke of William Pitt, the statesman, afterwards the earl of Chat- ham, because he protested so strongly against the American war, which George as strongly desired. While Britain was glorying in the victories of Lord Howe, he said : Ton cannot conquer America. If I were an American, as I am an Englishman, while a foreign troop was landed In my country. I never would lay down my arms never, never, never.' Trumpets (Feast of). A Jewish festival held the first day of the civil year, which was in September, and insti- tuted in commemoration of the thunder heard on Mount Sinai at the giving of the Law. Tryers, or Triers, 20 March, 1654. Commissioners appointed by Cromwell and his council to examine into the 1 Bufferings of the clergy.' Francis Rous, with thirty-seven others, part laymen and part ministers, were appointed. A list of the names is given by Neal in his ' History of the Puritans,' iv. p. 93 Sea p. 899, ' Triers of Petitions.' Tse Dynasty (The). The ninth imperial Vynasty of China. Like the eighth, tenth, and eleventh dynasties, it had dominion only over Southern China, the court being held at Nankin. It lasted twenty-three years (479-502), and gave five sovereigns. Tshin Dynasty (The). The first historic dynasty of China (B.C. 256-201). Also called the fourth imperial dynasty. It gave five emperors who held their court at Yn ; and lasted fifty-four years. It was succeeded by the dynasty of Han. It was Tchao, the first of this dynasty, who built the great wall of China. This dynasty must not be confounded with thai of J'tin the seventh), nor with that of TcHin (th eleventh), nor with that of Tting 'the twenty second). It la spelt and pronounced dUJereoUy. TSIN TUDORS 905 Tsin Dynasty (The), 266-420. The seventh imperial dynasty of China. It was preceded by the San-kuo or Three States, and succeeded by the duplex em- pire called Southern and Northern. It gave fifteen kings, all of whom wero either dethroned or put to death. This dynasty is known by its exoduB or grand migrations. It is thought that the word China is derived from Tsin, but Fo-hi was said to hold his court at Shensi or the country of Tsin or Chin, whence Tsin a, Sina, China, and this was B.C. 2958, the mythic period of the empire. No dates are intro- duced in the Chinese annals till B.C. 827. Tsing Dynasty (The) of China (1644-*) succeeded the Mings, founded by Choun-tchi. This is sometimes called the Manchou dynasty. The present reigning family of China is of this dynasty. Tsong Dynasty (The) or Pih Sung. The eighth imperial dynasty of China, and first of the Woo-tae or ' five races.' These five races ruled only over the southern empire, and held their court at Nankin. The eighth dynasty gave seven emperors and lasted fifty-nine years (420-479). The founder, Noo-tee, was a cobbler. Tuatha-na-Danans (The), a semi- historical very early Irish dynasty. It is said that the five sons of Dela esta- blished in Ireland the five principalities of Leinster, Munster, Ulster, Connaught, and Meath, and this pentarchy con- tinued for eighty years, when the three sons of Danan invaded the island and established themselves there, till they were driven out by the eight sons of Milesius, who came from Spain. Five of the sons perished, and the whole island was divided between two of the surviving sons, Heremon and Heber. Heremon took Connaught and Leinster, and fixed his residence at Tarah, in Meath. Heber ruled over the southern provinces, but being slain in battle, Here- mon became sole monarch of the island. Tubingen School (The), of theo- logy in Germany, also called ' The His- torical School,' founded by Baur, to investigate the historical correctness of the New Testament. Baur wrote a book to prove that the Gospel of .St. John was not written till some considerable time after the other three gospels ; and another to show that St. Mark's Gospel was not written till many years after the supposed date. The bases of his criticisms are the undoubted historic facts of the New Testament. Tuchins, or Touchins, 1885. Peas- ant rebels of France who committed' most frightful massacres. The verb tuchinare (rebellare) and the noun tuchi- natus (rebellio) are used in ancient French charters. La villo de Nismes est bonne ville . . . les habl- tans sont . . . obeissans au roy, et ils ne furent onques Tuchins, maisont toujours eu lesfleurs de lys sur les portes de la ville. Placitum, 21 Jan., 1387. Tudor, a corruption of Theodore. Owen Tudor, a yeoman in the guards in Bedford's army, married Catherine, widow of Henry V., and had three sons. The eldest son Edmund, who was made by Henry VI. earl of Richmond, married Margaret Beaufort, heiress of the house of Somerset. He died at the age of 20, leaving one son, afterwards Henry VII. Catherine fell in love with the Welsh guards- man while he was keeping guard at Windsor. It is said that he stumbled and fell upon her lap at a dancing party, whence their acquaintance began. He had but 4(M. a year. No proof of the marriage was ever traced. The Duke of Glouces- ter, lord protector, seized Tudor and committed him to Newgate, whence he escaped, and after a while Henry VI. made him keeper of his park in Denbigh, Wales. Tudor Rose (The), or ' Union Rose,' a combination of the Lancastrian red rose and the Yorkist white rose. The red rose has two rows of five alternate petals; the white rose is represented with three rows of five alternate petals ; the Tudor or Union rose has four rows of alternate petals, one containing 10, one 8, one 7, and one 6 (counting from the exterior), with centre. The Tudor rose, between sprigs of shamrock and thistle on one stalk, forms the badge ol England. Tudors (Line of the). Henry VII., Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. Henry VII. descended from John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, 4th son of Edward III. (q.v.). He married Eliza- beth of York, daughter of Edward IV., son of Richard duke of York slain at the battle of Wakefield, 1466. See ' York.' Henry VII. had no hereditary right to the crown. He was the illicit and adulterous son of Edmund Tudor by Margaret Beaufort, daughter of the Duke of Somerset. Elizabeth of York waa heir to the crown, but even in the Lancastrian line there were many who had a much cleaner title than Henry. It is not even certain that be 90fi TUDORS' TUMULTS was born In wedlock at all. He was a despicable money-grubber, and very ' indifferent honest.' Tudor s* Crest (The), A crown in a bush of fruited hawthorn to comme- morate the incident of a soldier finding the crown of Richard III. hid in a haw- thorn bush on the day of battle. It was given to Lord Stanley, who placed it on the head of Richmond, saying 'Long live King Henry 1 ' Tugendbund (Der), or ' League of Virtue,' 1813. A secret society set on foot by the Prussian minister Von Stein, and supported especially by the students. It had for its object the total expulsion of the French from German soil, and embodied the seething hatred of Ger- many for France. It gave umbrage to the allies and was dissolved in 1815. Tulchan Bishops, 1574. Bishops who took a small part of their stipends and gave the rest to their patrons. When a cow had lost her calf, it was customary in Scotland to flay the calf and stuff the skin with straw, that, being placed before the mother, she mipht be induced to part with her milk freely. This stuffed calf was called a Tulchan, and the stipendiary bishop parted with his revenues to the patron freely, his see being only nominal. The first skimmed-milk bishop was John Douglas, appointed archbishop of St. Andrews by the Earl of Morton, who claimed the cream. The re-Rent Morton, affecting seal for the Pro- t.--: i 'it doctrines, disobliged the Church of Scot- land )>y a device which he had invented to secure to the secular nobility the lands and revenues of the Catholic clergy. To this end he nominated to the archbishopric of St. Andrews a poor clergy- man named Douglas, taking his obligation to rest satisfied with a very small annuity out of the re- venues of the see. and to hand over the rest to his patron, the rcxent himself. This class of bishops . . . was facetiously called Tulchan prelates. Sir W. 800TT, Hit. of Scotland, zxxl. Tuileries (The), a garden and palace in Paris, built on the site of an ancient fabrique de tuiles. It was composed of three great pavilions, called Le pavilion de Marsan (north), the pavilion de Flore (south), and the pavilion de I'Horloge (centre). It was joined to the Louvre by Napoleon III. (1851-6). The land was bought by Francois I. in 1564, and the original palace was made for Catherine de Medicis, after the design of Philibert Dslorme. Louis XIV., Napoleon I., Louis-Philippe, and Napoleon III. made great improvements, especially the last. In the republic the convention held their meetings there, afterwards it waa used by the Conseil des Anciens. The First Consul made it his residence in 1800. In 1848 it was converted into an asylum for invalid workmen ; it was the imperial residence of Napoleon HE. from 1S.V2; and was burnt by the Communists 24 May, 1871. Tulip Mania (The), 1631-1087. An extraordinary rage for tulip-bulbs, which prevailed in Holland and spread through Europe. The tulip called the Viceroy fetched 250Z., and the Semper Auguv'na as much as 1,700Z. Thousands were sold on Exchange merely as articles of specu- lation, and when the rage subsided thou- sands of persons were ruined. Tullia'num (The). A loathsome dungeon in Rome. This dismal sub- terranean dungeon was built by Servius Tullius, and was a part of the Career MamertinuB built by Ancus Martius on the slope of the Capitoline hill. The Tullianum is especially noted, as it was in this dungeon, twelve feet underground, that several of the Catiline conspirators were put to death. Mamers la the Sablne form of Harm, and Ancug Marcius was a Sablne. Jngurtha was starved to death in the Career Mamertlnos. Tully, i.e. Cicero. The Tullii were of Alban descent, transplanted to Rome In the reign of Tullus Hostilius. Cicero made the word a generic name for a legal orator. Tumble-down Dick. Richard Cromwell, son of the Projector. He was proclaimed Protector after his father's death, but resigned office within seven months. 'Tumble-down Dick' was a common public-house sign affected by royalists. Tumults and Disorders (Act against), 1661. This Act made it an offence punishable with a fine of 100Z. and three months' imprisonment to solicit a signature to a petition to king or parliament which had more than twenty names signed, unless the petition waa sanctioned by three justices of the peace, or by the majority of th grand jury of the county. Whoever presented such petition was liable to the same punish- ment also ; and whoever was present al the presentation of a sanctioned petition, TUEANIAN TWELVE 907 if there were more than ten persona attending it. Turanian Languages (The). The agglutinate orders of languages, divided into North and South. The Northern division falls into five sections, viz. the Tungusic, Mongolio, Turkic, Finnic, and Samoyedic. The Southern division comprises the Tamulic, the Gan- getic, the Taic, the Malaic, and some' other Polynesian tongues or dialects. See ' Semitic ' and ' Aryan/ Turcomanchi (Peace of), Feb., 1828, between Persia and Russia, making the river Araxes the boundary of the two kingdoms. Persia had also to pay the expenses of the war. Turcos (The). The native Algerian foot- soldiers. The horse-soldiers are called Spahis. Cf. SEPOY. Turin (Treaty of). I. 8 Aug., 1881, terminating the war of Chiozza between the Venetians and the Genoese. The turning-point of Genoa's greatness, from which she began to decline. II. 29 Aug., 1696, for separate peace between France and Savoy. Turin Papy'rus (The), or 'Book of Kings.' A fragmentary list of Egypt- ian kings brought from Thebes by an Italian named Drovetti. At one time it was supposed that this was a complete list in chronological order, but it does not point out contemporary or double kings. A facsimile is preserved in the Royal Society of Literature, 21 Delahay Street, London. Turkish Trilateral (The). Silis- tria, Shumla, and Varna in Bulgaria and on the flank of every possible line of operation upon the Balkan. Turkish War of 1683-1697. Prin- cipally noted for the siege of Vienna by Mustapha, the Turkish vizier, in 1683. When, on the eve of success, Sobieski, king of Poland, arrived with reinforce- ments, Mustapha decamped, leaving behind him the sultan's standard, many splendid dresses, and the harnesses of several Turkish horses adorned with silver, gold, and precious stones ; besides the money for the siege, the pay of the soldiers, the baggage, tents, cannons, and chariots. The war dragged on after this till 1697, and was brought to an end by the ' Peace of Carlovitz.' Turlupins, 1372. Heretics analo- gous to the Begards (q.v.). They taught the perfectionability of man; and, it is said, went about nude. They were excommunicated by Gregory XL in 1872, and were extirpated by the order of Charles V. of France. They called them- selves the Fraternite des pauvres. Called Turlupins ' quod ea tantuni habi- tarent loca, qusa lupis exposita erant.' (An etymology most unsatisfactory.) A turlupin means a sorry jester, a fool. Whence turlupinaJe and the verb turlupiner, to play the fool. Turneys, 1839. A base coin made in Ireland and circulated ' to the injury of the king's sterling money.' See p. 99, 1 Black Money.' Turpin's Chronicle, 'Chronique de 1'archeveque Turpin.' Turpin was a monk of St. Denis, and afterwards arch- bishop of Reims, contemporary of Charle- magne. The chronicle referred to is an historic romance having Charlemagne for its hero, and is full of marvels, such as enchanted castles, winged horses, magical horns, incantations, and so on. Historically it is worthless, and probably Turpin had no hand at all in it. Some say it was the work of Gui de Bourgogne (Calixtus II.) in the 12th cent.; others ascribe it to a monk of St. Andre de Vienne, in Dauphine", who lived in the llth cent. Tweeddale's Act (The Earl of), 1668. It restored to their livings those ministers who had been ejected, provided they would accept collation from the bishop, and would attend the presby- teries and synods. ' Collation ' means induction and institution, or investing a clergyman with the temporalities and spiritualities of his living. Twelfth (The), i.e. the 12th August. The commencement of grouse-shooting. Twelve Articles of the Symbol (The). Said to have been suggested by the Apostles in a grotto of Mount Olivet just before their final separation. 1. PETER : I believe in God the Father Almighty, maker of heaven and earth. 2. JOHN : [And] in Jesus Christ, his only son, our Lord. 8. JAMES the Greater: Who was con- ceived of the Holy Ghost, bom of the Virgin Mary. 908 TWELVE TYNDALE'S 4. ANDREW: Suffered under Pontius Pilate ; was crucified and buried. ' Dead ' was subsequently added, and is bad English. \Vo Rhould not say (A B) was hanged, dead, and buried. ft. PHILIP : He descended into hell. 6. THOMAS: The third day he rose again from the dead. 7. JAMES the Less: He ascended into heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty. 8. MATTHEW : [From thence] He shall come to judge the quick and the dead. 9. NATHANIEL : I believe in the Holy Ghost. 10. SIMON : The Holy Catholic Church. ' The Communion of Saints ' wad added in the 6th cent. 11. MATTHIAS : The forgiveness of sins. 12. JUDE : The resurrection of the dead, and the life everlasting. The twelve Apostles were anciently delineated, each holding a banderole inscribed with the words attributed to him. Of course the tradition IB historically worthless. The Apostles had no hand whatever in the creed. See ' Articles.' Twelve Brethren (The). The Twelve ' Marrowmen ' Twelve Fruits of the Holy Ghost (The) in Catholic theology. (1) Chastity; (2) faith; (3) gentleness; (4) goodness; (5) joy; (6) longsuffering ; (7) love or charity; (b) meekness; (9) modesty; (10) patience; (11) peace; and (12) temperance. Compare these with Oal. v. 22, 9*. Twelve Peers of France (The). Philippe Auguste fixed the number of peers to six seculars and six ecclesiastics. The secular peers were : (1) the Duke of Normandy ; (2) the Duke of Burgundy ; (8) the Duke of Guyenne ; (4) the Count of Flanders ; (5) the Count of Toulouse ; and (6) the Count of Champagne. The ecclesiastical peers were : (1) the Archbishop of Reims ; (2) the Bishop of Laon; (8) the Bishop of Langres; (4) the Bishop of Beau vais ; (5) the Bishop of Chalons; and (6) the Bishop of Noyon. Twelve Remembrancers (The). (1) Unity of the Godhead ; (2) the hypo- static union of God and man ; (8) the Trinity; (4) the Evangelists; (5) the pounds of Christ, two in the hands, two In the feet, and one in the side ; (6) the ix days of creation; (7) the seven words uttered on the cross; (8) the Beatitudes; (9) the heavenly host; (10) the com- mandments; (11) the Apostles after Judas the traitor had 'gone to his place'; (12) the Apostolic college when com- pleted. Called ' The Twelve/ Twelve Tables (The), or Leges DlMUdm Tabularum. The Magna Charta of Old Rome drawn up by the Decemvirs. Ten of them B.C. 451, and the other two B.C. 450. Twenty (The). See p. 867, 'Giunta.' Twenty Years' War (The), 1794- 1815. The wars against Napoleon. 1 June, 1894, the French fleet was defeated and crippled by Lord Howe off Brest, and 18 June, 1815, the battle of Waterloo gave the coup de grace to the great dis- turber of nations and enduring enemy of England. Twenty-two (The), 80 Oct., The twenty-two Girondin deputies were sentenced to death, with confiscation of goods. Two Hundred (The). On the day of subscription to the Bill of Uniformity, in the reign of Charles II., 200 of the Scotch Presbyterian clergy relinquished their livings. Calamy, Baxter, and Rey- nolds, chief of the Nonconformist leaders, were offered bishoprics, but only Rey- nolds accepted the bribe. See ' Seven Bishops.' Charles II. said to Lauderdale that * Scotch- man s religion 'is not fit for a gentleman.' It is much to be feared the king's religion was not fit (or any man, gentle or simple. Two Thousand (The). See ' Me- morable,' &c. Tyburn Dick. Richard Savage, lord Rivers ; made by Queen Anne lieu- tenant of the Tower in 1710. Tyndale's Bible. English trans- lation of the New Testament, published at Wittenberg in 1526. English trans- lation of the Pentateuch, published at Hamburg in 1530. This translation was the basis of the Great Bible (1539- 1541) in the reign of Henry VIII. ; of the Bishops' Bible (1568-1572) in the reign of Elizabeth ; of the King's Bible (1611) in the reign of James I. ; and of the Re- vised Version (1870-1884) in the reign of Victoria. See ' Bible.' TYNWALD TY RT^EOS 909 Tynwald (The Court of). The lourt of the three estates cf the Isle of Man, consisting of the governor, the council of ten, and the House of Keys. It is the supreme court of the island. 411 new Manx laws must be proclaimed in English and Manx, in the presence of the people, at the Tynwald Hill. The laws of Man still retain much of their an- Oient peculiarity of character, though modified by xicasional acts of the Tynwald. PRINCE, Parallel History, vol. iii. p. 285. Type (The), A.D. 648. An edict pub- tiahed by Constans II. of the Eastern empire under the hope of burying in silence the dissentient viewc cf the ortho- dox Christians and the Monothelites (q.v.). It imposed silence on both parties on all points of religious differences. Tyran de Blanc. Frederick baron Grimm (1723-1807). So called from hio free use of cosmetics to repair the ravages of increasing age in his face. He was so called when he took up his abode in Paris. Tyranny of the Thirty (The), B.C. 404, lasted eight months. After the overthrow of the Athenians at JSgospo- tamos the Lacedaemonians insulted them by setting over them thirty magistrates, called ' Tyrants.' These magistrates be- haved with such arrogance ana cruelty that Thrasybulus easily got possession of the city and expelled the tyrants. To the honour of the Spartans be it said, when they were Informed of the rebellion, Instead of punishing the conspirators, they passed a bill of amnesty, and re-established in Athens the demo- cratic form of government upon its ancient foun- dation. Tyrant Basili'des (The). Ivan IV. of Russia, surnamed the ' Terrible ' by She Russians. ' Basili ' is only another spelling of ' Vassili,' and Ivan IV. was the fourth of the Vassili who had reigned in Russia. ' Basili-ides ' or ' Vassili-ides ' means ' a descendant of Vassili.' Among the writers of the history of the north, Ivan IV. is famous as ' The tyrant Basilides.' DUNCAN, Hist, of Russia, vol. i. p. 89. Tyrants of Sparta (The), B.C. 219-192. They were, first, Lycurgus, nine years ; then Machamdas, four years; and lastly Nabis, fourteen years. Called tyrants because they did not belong to either of the royal dynasties, but were usurpers. Tyrconnel now Donegal, Tyrone, Derry, Fermanagh, Armagh, and Ca'van (500,000 acres) was the land planted by James I. The lands were portioned- out into estates varying from 1,000 to 2,000 acres, and the proprietors were bound to build substantial houses in the English fashion, and to people them with English and Scotch tenantry. A company of London merchants, called ' The Irish Society,' contracted (1619) for large tracts of land, which are still held under this tenure. Tyrian Era (The). This era began 19 Oct., B.C. 125. Tyrolese Insurrection (The), 1809. Tyrol had been 442 years under Austria, and was happy and prosperous ; but Napoleon placed it under Bavaria, with a promise that nothing should be changed. Immediately, however, Maxi- milian changed its name to South Ba- varia, and conformed its laws to those of his own kingdom. Andre" Hofer, proprie- tor of the inn of Sand, now induced Austria to join them in freeing the Tyrol ; battle after battle was won by the insur- gents, and then Austria made peace with France. Hofer was taken prisoner by the French and shot 20 Feb., 1810. Tyrtaeos (The English}. Laurence Minot, who celebrated the exploits of Edward III. in English verse (died 1352). In 1878 the music hall jingo-song, 'We don't want to fight,' almost roused England into a war Tyrteeos of Attica in the second Messenian War was by command of an oracle appointed leader of the Spartan army, and by his war-songs led them to victory. The following is a free transla- tion of the first of his three extant elegies : Oh ! 'tis joyful to fall In the face of the foe, For country and altar to die ; But a lot more ignoble no mortal can know Than with parents and children, heart-broken with woe, From home as an exile to fly. Unrecompensed travail, starvation, and scorn, The fugitive's footsteps attend ; Dishonoured his race, and his children forlorn, Himself by temptation and shame overborne, Never hear the sweet voice of a friend. To the field, then ! Be strong, and acquit ye like men ! Who shall fear for his country to fall ? Ye younger, in ranks firmly serried remain ; Ye elders, though weak.look on flight with disdain, And honour your fatherland's call. Tyrtseos of Prance. Rouget de Lisle (1760-1836), whose ' Marseillaise ' stirred the French revolutionary party 910 TYRT^OS ULSTER almost to madness. The refrain of this spirit-stirring hymn runs thus : Aox armes, citoyens ! Formes vos bataillons 1 Marchona! marchons! qu'unsanglmpur abreuve nos Billons. Tyrtseos of Germany (Th* Youthful). Karl Theodore Kbrner (1791- 1818), killed in a skirmish with Walmo- den's outposts at Godebusch. His ' Lyre and Sword Songs ' stirred his country- men like a trumpet. Perhaps the ' Wacht am Rhein,' by Max Schneckenburger, who died 1851, may be called the German ' Marseillaise.' The fifth verse runs thus: Wbile there's a drop of blood to run, \\ tiili- there's an arm to bear a gun, While there's a hand to wield a sword, No foe shall dare thy stream to ford. Dear fatherland, no fear be thine, Thy sons stand firm to guard the Rhine. Tyrtfflos of Spain. Manuel Jose* Qu in tana, whoso odes stimulated the Spaniards to vindicate their liberty at the war of independence (1772-1857). Tyrwhitt Scholarships, for Hebrew. Two for bachelors of arts of the respective values of 801. and 20/., tenable for three years. Founded in the University of Cambridge by the Rev. Robert Tyrwhitt, 1818. See 'Hebrew Prize,' ' Mason Prize.' U and V. The ancient use of these two letters was this: U before vowels, especially the vowels a, e, and t ; V be- fore consonants, especially the consonants n, r, p, a. As meruailed, aduantage, conuaye; leane, haue, gaue, moued, reueal, gouern, deserues, diuers, forgiue ; deuise, hauing, deuil, sauiour, seruice. vnto, vnite, vnmannerly, oovntry ; dis- eovrse, Oedipvs. It must not be supposed that u was never set before consonants, nor v before vowels. In the book now before me. dated 1604, hundreds of ex- amples might be gathered, as very, rule, mouse, foure, houre, Ac. Ubiqua'rians (The). A social club which existed in Barbadoes, and probably elsewhere, in the latter half of the eighteenta cent. Their tenets were called Ubiquarianism. Ubiquita'rians or TJbiquists (The), 1560. A small German religious sect, originating with John Brentius, who maintained that the body of Christ was present everywhere (ubique), in the uoharist, by virtue of his divine ubi- quity. They were opposed to the Sacra- mentarians (q.v.). Udaller (.4), an allodial possessor of Zetland. A Udaller holds his possession under an old Norwegian law, instead of the feudal tenures introduced from Scot- land. Hence a Udaller had no feudal lord or superior. Icelandic odal, an hereditary estate. Uhlan King (The). King Alfonso XII. of Spain was so called in contempt by the French, in 1883, because he ac- cepted a colonelcy in Germany of a Uhlan regiment. Uhlans, Prussian hussars, 1818. They are mounted on fleet horses, are lightly clad, and armed with sword, pistol and lance. Every battalion of the Landwehr (q.v.) has its squadron of Uhlans. In the Franco-German War, 1870, these Uhlans did admirable service, especially as scouts. Ukase (Emanoi), that is, a 'personal order,' meaning an edict signed by the czar. These edicts, as various as the opinions, whims, or prejudices of the czar, are the laws of Russia. Alexei Michailowitz (1645-1676) had a selection of such edicts for the preceding century made into a digest called the Sobornoe Ulajenie, which is the common law of Russia. In 1670 he collected all the royal ukases held by private individuals as per- sonal licences, and burnt them, so that one and the same law prevailed through his whole dominion. Ukase = Ou'-kase. Ulaj'enie(ZVie). A Russian code of jurisprudence, amended and codified by Alexei Michailowitz, czar of Russia (1646). See above, ' Ukase.' Ule'ma, a powerful corporation in Turkey, consisting of the Mufti, who presides, the Imaums, the Mollahs, and the Kadis. Their functions extend to the religion of the country, the adminis- tration of justice, and the general govern- ment. It serves as an equipoise to the despotism of the sultan. Ulid'ia, in Ireland, comprised the present county of Down and part of Antrim. Ulster Custom (The), 1870. 14 was a custom up to 1870, but was then made a law. It is a sort of ' free sale ' ULSTER UNCEOWNED 911 which prevails in Ulster. Suppose A is the tenant of B, and does not wish to continue so, instead of throwing up his tenancy, he can sell it to C, and then is the tenant of B. Certain restrictions are made. For example, the landlord can prevent A's asking an exorbitant price, because this would be to the pre- judice of the landlord. The new tenant C must be accepted by the landlord be- fore the transfer is made. And, lastly, A (the old tenant) must pay up all rents and taxes before G can take his place. Mr. Lowther, chief secretary of Ireland, in 1879, protested against the extension of Ulster custom to the rest of Ireland ; but in 1881 this demand, together with ' fixity of tenure ' and ' fair rent,' was duly recognised. Ulster King-of-arms, chief of the Irish staff of heralds. The first was ap- pointed by Edward VI. (1 June, 1552). That of Scotland is styled Lord-Lyon. See p. 415, ' Heralds.' TJTtimus Anglo'rum. William Bedell (Protestant bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh), who died 1642, aged 70. The Irish insurgents fired a volley over his grave in Kilmore churchyard, and parted saying 'Requiescat in pace ultimus Anglorum.' Ul'timus Romano'rum. Dr. Johnson was so called by Thomas Carlyle. I think he might be more aptly called the last of the Catos (1709-1784). Sometimes Horace Walpole is so called (1717- 1797). Ulto'nian Kings (The). The kings of Ulster, in Ireiand. E mania, the seat of the old Ultonlan kings. T. MOORE, Hist, of Ireland, vii. p. 148. Ultramontane Doctrines, or 1 Ultramontanism.' Extreme views of papal supremacy and the rights of the popes. These partisans of the pope are so called in France because the pope resides on the other side of the Alps, ultra monies. They are opposed to the Galileans (q.v.). Ultramontane Party (in Ireland), 1825. The anti-English and anti-Pro- testant party. The Duke of Wellington made a great distinction between ' Orangemen and Papists ' [Ultramon- tanists] and ' Protestants and Catholics.' Ultramontanes. So the Vaudois who settled beyond the Apennines, after they were driven from their valley homes in the 13th cent., were called by the na- tives, because they originally dwelt on the other side of the mountain range. They first founded, in the vicinity of Montalto, the town of Borgo d'Ultra- montani, subsequently the walled town of Guadia. O Florence, what does the word Florence mean ? The flower of Italy. And so thou wast till these Ultramontanes persuaded thee that man is justi- fied by faith and not by works ; and herein they lie.-GU.LBS, p. 20. Ulysses of Brandenburg (The). Albrecht III., elector of Brandenburg. Also called the ' German Achilles ' (1414- 1486). Ulysses of the Highlands. Sir Evan Cameron lord of Lochiel. Also called ' The Black ' (died 1719). It was the son of Sir Evan who was called the ' Gentle Lochiel. 1 Umbrella (Mr. Gladstone's). Mr. Gladstone's policy. When in September 1885 he issued his manifesto to the electors of Midlothian it was said that he ' opened his umbrella.' His ministry were said to take shelter or stand under his umbrella. In caricature he is often drawn with a ' Sarah Gamp ' under hia arm. Unam Sanctam, 1802. The fa- mous constitution of Boniface VIII., setting forth that ' the church is one body and has one head. Under its sway are two swords, one spiritual and the other temporal. The former to be used by the supreme pontiff himself, and the latter by temporal powers at his bidding, but at all times the lesser sword must be in subjection to the greater, the temporal power to the spiritual . . . Every human being on the earth is the subject of the see of Rome (' Extravagantes,' book i., title viii. c. 1). This constitution ends thus : ' Dicimus, deflnl- mus, et pronunclamus, omnino ease de necessitate fldei. 1 Uncorruptible Commoner (The). Andrew Marvell, also called ' The British Aristides ' (1620-1678). See p. 48, ' Aristides,' n. Uncrowned Monarch (The), of Ireland. Daniel O'Connell, also called ' The Agitator.' With Sheil he founded the new Catholic Association in 1825 ; he began the agitation for the repeal of the Union in 1842, held monster meetings in 1843, was arrested for. sedition in 1844 and found guilty, but the sentence passed 912 UNDER UNIFORMITY on him was reversed by the House of Lords. He lost his supremacy, and died at Genoa, on his way to Rome (1775- 1847). Under the Yoke (Sent). In Roman history to be sent under the yoke was a sign of subjection. The yoke consisted of an arch made with three spears, two upright ones, and one forming a transom. The conquered army was made to lay down their arms, and march subjugum in token of subjugation. Undertakers. I. In English history, 1614. Men of influence who undertook for a consideration to get such persons returned to parliament as would prove submissive to the royal will [James I.]. Bacon, Somerset, and Neville were the three chief, and are sometimes called 'undertakers' because they undertook by bribes to win over the chief speakers and men of influence in the parliament of 1614. A generation about the court that, to please and humour greatness, undertook a parliament, as men presuming to have friends in every county and borough, who by their power among the people would combine to return such members as should comply solely to (tic) the king s desires. WILSON. In his [James I.] opening speech he n laslttoi turdily denied befo what he had so sturdily denied before, the ence of Vnilrriak,T In the last parliament, ' s> strange kind of beast which had done mischief. HOWITT, Hist, of Eng. (James I., vol. lii., p. 68). II. In Irish history, 1608. Those English or Scotch colonists sent by James I. in the northern counties of Ca'van, Fermanagh, Armagh, Derry, Tyrone, and Tyrconnell, who were allotted 2,000 acres each. They were men of capital, and undertook to pay a mark a year for every 60 acres, and to admit no recusant for tenant. James confiscated 2,000.000 acres In those coun- ties. and divided thorn in lots of 2,000, 1,500, 1,000 acres. Elizabeth tried to plant Ulster with an English colony. V In the early part of George III. s reign a party which played off the British Government against the Irish Parliament were called Under- takers. They had two objects In view: (1) To make the crown, so far as Ireland was concerned, dependent on themselves : (2i To check the spirit of liberty in the people, but throw the odium on the government. This party was broken up by making the lord-lieutenant reside in Ireland and distribute the patronage himself. Undertakers (Fife), 1600. An association of gentlemen, chiefly proprie- tors of Fife, who undertook to settle in the Lewis', Uist, and other isles conveni- ent for the fisheries, in order to bring these islands into a more civilised state. They expelled the natives, built towns, and introduced manufactories. The attempt did not succeed, and three yean later was tried again, but with no better Unfair Preacher (The). Isaac Barrow, D.D. (1630-1677). So Charles II. called him ' because his sermons were so exhaustive that he left nothing for others to say who came after him.' Unfunded Debt (The). Loans to the British government which are paid off in a given number of years. Some times these loans are for a few months only, and sometimes for a few years. Thus a war, such as that in Egypt, may increase the government expenditure, say 10 mil- lions, more than the Chancellor of the Ex- chequer has provided for, and instead of adding this sum to the National Debt, the Treasury may think proper to borrow the money at 8 per cent., and pay ofl 2 millions every year for 5 years, and so cancel the debt. Such a debt is not 4 funded,' but is only temporary. Unicorn. One of the pursuivants of Scotland. See p. 415, ' Heralds. 1 Uniformity (Statutes of), 8 Edw. VI. c. 1 (1549) ; 5, 6 Edw. VI. c. 1 ; 1 Eliz. c. 2 ; 18, 14 Car. II. c. 4. Dissenters relieved of all penalties of nonconformity by the Act of Toleration (1689). Uniformity (Act of), 1661. En- acted that the revised Book of Common Prayer shall be used in all places of public worship; that the ordination of ministers therein prescribed shall be alone lawful; that all beneficed clergy- men shall read the service therein con- tained within a given time, shall sub- scribe to the 39 articles, and shall profess in a set form of words their unfeigned assent and consent to these Articles and to everything else contained in the said Book of Common Prayer. Above 2,000 ministers refused to be bound by this act. All schoolmasters, all who entered our universities, and all persons who took any office, civil or military, were required to give on oath their assent and consent to this act. By the Act of Uniformity all ministers who re- fused to comply were to be Imprisoned for six months for the first offence, to lose their livings for the second offence, and to be Imprisoned fox life for the third ofleuos. UNIGENITUS UNION 13 Unigen'itus (The Bull), 1713, passed by Clement XI. in condemnation of the Jansenists. This bull condemns 101 passages extracted from the famous book of Quesnel, called ' Moral Reflections on the New Testament,' and set the whole kingdom of France in an uproar. The Jansenists were Calvinlstic Roman Catho- lics who maintained the doctrines of free grace, predestination, and the non-freedom of the will. Union (The), 22 July, 1706. The union of Scotland and England under the name of Great Britain. The terms were: (1) The succession to the throne of Great Britain shall be vested in the Princess Sophia and her heirs; (2) All the subjects shall enjoy the same rights and privileges ; (8) the court of session and all other courts of judicature in Scot- land shall remain as at present consti- tuted ; (4) Scotland shall be represented in parliament by 16 peers and 45 com- moners, &c. Union (Act of), 1799. An Act of Parliament by which Ireland was united to Great Britain. It came into opera- tion 1 Jan. 1801, when the Dublin parlia- ment was suppressed. Union (L'Arret d'), 18 May, 1648. The abolition of the Act of Union. Mazarin proposed to keep back for four years the salaries of all the crown courts of France except those of the Paris par- lement. The Paris parlement refused to be made an exception, end immediately passed the Act of Union, declaring that all crown courts should be treated alike. Mazarin stopped the Act from passing, declaring it to be illegal, and this was ' 1'arret d'Union.' The parlement would not give way, and civil war broke out. This civil war was called la guerre de la Fronde, which was between Mazarin and the Paris parlement. Union (The Edict of), 1588. An Act proclaimed at Blois, by which Henri III. was declared chief of the league or confederation of the Catholics in France against the Huguenots. See 'Holy Union.' Union (The Evangelical), 1608. An alliance formed at Auhausen in Bavaria, and confirmed at Halle in 1610, between the Protestant states of the Palatinate, Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Cassel, and Baden- Dourlach, against the Holy League formed in 1609 at Wurtzburg. Union Brigade (The), at Waterloo, 1815, was composed of the 1st Royal Dragoons [England] ; the 2nd Dragoons [the Royal Scots Greys] for Scotland ; and the 6th [Inniskillings] for Ireland. Union of Calmar (The). The union of the three crowns of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, agreed to in the Conference of Calmar in Sweden. From the overthrow of Albert king of Sweden in the battle of Falkoping, Margaret queen-regent of Denmark and Norway had acted as regent of Sweden ; but the Diet held at Calmar on 17 June, 1897, conferred the crown of the three king- doms on Eric, her grand-nephew, because no woman could reign. The union was only nominal at any time, and was for- mally abolished in 1528. Margaret had the provinces of Wermland, East and West Gothland, with several contiguous de- pendencies, assigned to her as a life settlement. V From 1471 to 1523 Sweden had separate ad- ministration, bat Wasa or Vasa united the two kingdoms. Union of Public Qood (The). The reorganised ' Association of Russian Knights.' A Russian secret society in the reign of Czar Alexander I. Their ostensible object was the welfare of Russia, but all their schemes were to be worked secretly to prevent envy, hatred, and opposition. There were several sections ; the duty of the first was phil- anthropy ; it had to watch over all chari- table institutions, and report abuses. The business of the second section was educational ; it had to keep watch on all schools and colleges, and see that the scholars were taught to love Russia and hate foreigners. The third section was devoted to the law-courts, and reported all grievances. The fourth section was to study political economy, the sources of national wealth, and the development of industry. Union of Safety, or the True and Faithful Sons of the Coun- try (The). A secret society organised in Russia in 1816 by young officers who had served in the campaigns of 1813, 1814, 1815. The members were divided into (1) Brothers, (2) Men, and (3) Boyars. The Boyars were superior in grade to the Men and Brothers, and from them three directors were chosen monthly, viz. a president, a superintendent, and a secre- tary. Solemn ceremonies were observed 8N 914 UNION UNITED at their meetings, and all members were sworn to absolute secrecy. Dissolved 1821. Union of Scotland and Ireland (The), 1651, effected by the Hump Par- liament. Eight commissioners were sent to Scotland, and in spite of much oppo- sition, procured a vote in favour of the union, and 80 members were admitted in the parliament of 1654 for Scotland, and 30 for Ireland. But the legislation of the Protectorate was ignored by Charles II., and the permanent Union was effected in the reign of Queen Anne, 1707, when the Scotch parliament was abrogated, and the nation was permitted to send 16 lords and 45 commoners to the British parliament. Union of Utrecht (The). 1579. A league under the influence of William (prince of Orange-Nassau), aided by Count Hoorn and Count Egmont, to throw off the Spanish yoke. It was joined by seven of the South Belgian provinces, which succeeded in 1594 in erecting themselves into an independent state, called the ' Republic of the Seven United Provinces.' The seven province* were Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Geldorland with Zutphen, Over-Yuel, Prlesland, and Qronlngen with Drenthe. Union with Ireland (The). The act passed for this Union 2 July, 1800 (89, 40 George HI. c. 67). Unionists, 1885, Liberal-Unionists who voted with the Con- ervatives=s;8. The opposition consisted of 20f eiadstonians and 8f> Nationalists, chiefly Irlsll xnembers=291. Conservative majority 67. ofbaa Increased to 100 and more. Unitarians, 16th cent. Protestant Dissenters who believe in the monarchy of God, and disbelieve that the one God has three persons. Arians, Sociniana, Mussulmans, and Jews are in one sense Unitarians, but, of course, the sect so called disavow the identity of the five creeds. Unitarians disbelieve the doc- trine of the Trinity, the vicarious atone- ment of Christ, the doctrine of original and transmitted sin, and everlasting punishment. They baptize, however, and celebrate the eucharistic sacrament as a memorial of the crucifixion. Milton. Newton. Priestley, Locke, and Dt. Lardflfer were Unitarians. U'nitas Fratrum, The Moravian brotherhood (1500). United Armenians (The). A sect in Italy, Poland, Galicia, Persia, Russia, and Marseilles, which recognise the spiritual sovereignty of the pope and hold the doctrines of the Catholics, bat have their own church government. United Brethren (The), or, u they call themselves, * Unitas Fratrum.* More generally called ' Moravians ' (q.v.) or Moravian Brethren,' 1500. The ' Unltod Brethren In Christ (1800) arc Qm- man Methodists ol North America. United Brotherhood (The). The American Irish League. They were called 'V.C.' (q.v.). The object was to bring about an Independent Irish Re- public in Ireland by force of arms. Called in Ireland ' I.R.B.' (Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood). The Irish, In their Jargon, were called ' JsJU,' and Ireland was called ' Jsfraboe.' The executive body waa known as 'P.C.' which was merely removing the Initial letters (like V.C.) one letter in advance. F.C. for E.B., and V.C. for U.B. The secretary was known as ' Y,' the treasurer as ' Z, 1 and the chairman as ' X.' Letters were addressed ' To the P.O. of the V.O,* i*. the 'Executive Body of the United Brother. hood. 1 See ' Irish Associations.' United Diet of Prussia (The\ 1847. A union of the provincial diets created in the previous reign. It was no organ of the national will, like the British Parliament. It levied taxes, except in UNITED UNITED 915 time of war, but the kingdom of Prussia tvas ruled like a military camp by the king as commander-in-chief, and his diet took the place of field officers. United East India Company (The), 1708. The original company chartered in 1600 by Queen Elizabeth, and granted a monopoly for fifteen years of trading to India, united with a rival company chartered in 1693. In 1759 the united company obtained from parlia- ment the political management of the acquired countries, subject to certain re- strictions, and was denominated the : East India Company,' and twenty-four members were appointed directors, their acts being subject to the revisal of the Board of Control. In 1858 the govern- ment of India was transferred to the crown. The original company was formed In 1599, and consisted of four ships. The charter had to be renewed every fifteen years. United Empire Loyalists (The), 1788. Those lovers of Old England who gave up everything they had rather than abide in the revolted American colonies under a new and alien flag. They settled in Nova Scotia, the wilderness of Ontario, the West Indies, New Bruns- wick, and elsewhere. The centenary of their departure from the United States was held in the Dominion hi 1883, when the quaint costumes and old coaches of the previous century were paraded. United Free Church Metho- dists (The), about 1850. The Wesleyan Association and Wesleyan Reform As- sociation united. United Free Gospel Churches, or ' Band Room Methodists,' 1806, who first met in the Band Room, Manchester. They do not pay their ministers, they ignore class meetings, and they admit non-members into their society. United Irishmen (The). I. In 1793. Projected in 1791 by Samuel Neilson, a draper of Belfast, to unite Protestants and Catholics in a Constitutional agitation for reform and Catholic emancipation. The principal 1' -adore of the people were Wolfe Tone, Hamilton Rowan, and James Napper Tandy, whose violence was so great that they were obliged to expatriate them- selves. When the Earl of Cumden, who succeeded the Earl Fitzwilliam, returned to the old system of coercion, the United Irishmen advocated a separation from England and the establishment of a re- public in Ireland in alliance with the French Republic, and a well-organized system of secret confederacy was spread over the country, the heads of which issued orders for enlisting, combining, and arming their adherents. In the northern and midland counties were two associations at the same time, one of Catholics called 'Defenders,' and the other of Protestants called* Orangemen.' The Defenders joined the United Irish- men, and the Orangemen were the op- ponents. See ' Irish Associations.' II. In 1846. An Irish newspaper edited by Mr. Mitchel; the organ of a party which split from the Young Irelanders, whose organ was called the ' Nation.' The ' Nation ' advocated the ' combination of all classes, and the exercise of all poli- tical and social influences ' to carry Ke- peal ; the United Irishmen advocated revolution, bloodshed, and civil war. Mitchel every week addressed the lord lieutenant as 'Her Majesty's Execu- tioner-general and Butcher-general of Ireland ' ; and women were exhorted to throw vitriol on the police and the Queen's soldiers. United Kingdom. That of Ire- land added to Great Britain. The Act of Union took effect 1 Jan., 1801. The union of the four kingdoms, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland, added to England, make the ana- gram W.I.S.B. United Kingdoms (The Four). England, the Heptarchy united under Egbert .... 802 Ireland, united under Anlaf . . 858 Scotland, one kingdom under Ken- neth MacAlpin . . . .850 Wales, the several princes of Wales and Powisland united under HowelDha 907 England and Ireland, Henry II. . 1172 England and Wales (with Ireland), Edward 1 1288 Great Britain (England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland), under James VI. of Scotland, called 1 James I. of England ' . . 1G08 United Methodist Free Churches (The), 1857. An amalga- mation of the Protestant Methodista Sxl 911 UNITED UNIVERSITY (formed 1828), the Wesleyan Methodist Association (1884), and the Wesleyan Reform Association (founded in 1849). The Wesleyans have 7,810 chapels, the Primi- tives 4.486, and the United Methodist Free Churches 1,242. Their chief differences are the disapproval of a theological seminary, the exclu- sion of Instrumental mueic, the place they give to laymen in church administration, which is much larger than in the original body, and the greater freedom from control In the circuits. United Presbyterian Church (The), 1847, is composed of the ' Seces- sion ' and the ' Relief,' the former insti- tuted in 1783 and the latter in 1752. United Presbytery (The), or ' Synod of Munster,' formed in 1809 by the junction of the Southern Presbytery of Dublin with the Presbytery of Mun- ster. It is one of the three non-subscrib- ing Presbyterian bodies of Ireland. The other two are the ' Remonstrant Synod of Ulster ' (<7.r.), and the ' Presbytery of Antrim ' (q.v.). These three bodies subsequently united and formed the 'General Non-subscribing Presby. terian Association of Ireland ' (?.*.). United States (The). There are somewhat more than 2,700 counties. Of these 10 per cent, are named after presi- dents, and 85 per cent, after Americans who have not been presidents (1890). 1. Counties, &c., named from presi- 27 counties named Washington, besides cities and towns innumerable. 21 Jackson. 17 Lincoln, Madison, and lionrc*. 12 Polk. 10 Grant. 9 Adams and Harrison. 4 Garfleld, Pierce, and Van Boron. 2. Counties, &c., named from Ameri- cans who have not been presidents : Boone. Putnam. Calhoun. Randolph. Clay. Scott. Hancock. Webster, and many more. 8. The following names are enough to Nicodemus any place from ever rising into a bishopric. Only fancy a dignified clergyman signing himself 'Yours faith- fully, John ....,' followed by one of the following names : llkaliburg. Bleeder s Gulch. Bloody liend. Boanerges Kerry. Breeches Fork. Bludgeonsville. Bugville. Butter's Sell. Burled Pipe. Cairoville. Clean Deck. Daughter s Los*. EuchreriUe. Eurekapolis. Eurekaville (!) Fighting Coda. Good Thunder. Hell and Nails Cross- ing. Hozekluhvllle. Hide and Seek. Jack Pot. Joker. Murder villa. Kettle Carrier. NumaviUe. Starvation. Stuck-up- Canoa. Thief 8 End. Tom be tone. Ubet. Villa Realvllle. Yellow Medicine. Tuba Dam. Peddlecaka. Poker Flat. Pottawat tomleville, Plumpville. Roaring Fox. Sharper's Creek. Skeletonville Agency. Soaker s Kanche. SpottedvUle. United States (The), 4 July, 1776. At the 'Declaration of Independence' the name of the American Colonies was changed into ' The United States.' At that time eleven of the states signed the declaration, and formed the nucleus of the United States. The War of Independence did not terminate till 1782. Unitive Life. Quietism. Ifollnos In 16R1 published his ' Spiritual Guide/ In which he spoke of bringing the soul to a degree of por.'ection which ho called ' Unitive Life ' ; and ' Quietism' became the appellation of his mystic doctrine. PHISCK, Parallel Hitiory (vol. 1L p. 890). Universal Agent (The). That subtle and all-pervading something of which light, heat, electricity, and life are the phenomena and sensible manifesta- tions. t She struggled to take her eyes from his, but 1 was of no use. The subtle power of the Universal Agent had got hold upon her, and she was riveted to the spot so long as he kept his aye* upon her.- - CRAWFORD, Zoroatler, chap, zviil. Universnlists, or 'The Universal Christians,' Srd cent. Those who believe that Christ died for all, and that no one will ultimately be cast away for ever. He shall see of the travail of his soul and be satisfied. The wicked shall be cast into hell only till they are purified, when (cleansed from sin) they will join the saints in light. The Phlladelphlan Unlversalists are the fol lowers of Mr. James Kelly, who was Conner tod with Mr. Geo. Whit field. His congregation met in the PhiUdelphian Chapel, Windmill Street, Flnsbury Square, London, There are a goodly number of these Christians at Boston, Philadel- phia, and other parts of the U. 8. of America. See Paulinists.' University. Paris, founded about 1109 ; its degrees were recognized 1200. Oxford, founded about 1150; it* de- grees were recognized 1214. Cambridge, founded about 1209; its decrees were recognized l'J;'.l. Cilusjjow, founded about U50. Aberdeen liiOG. Edinburgh Ifuvi Dublin 1591. London 1823. UNIVERSITY URBANISTS 917 University College, 872. The oldest in the University of Oxford, founded by Alfred the Great. Probably the real founder was William of Durham, rector of Wearmouth 1249. The head of the college is called the Master. University Counsel (The), Cam- bridge. These officers have no con- nection whatever with the Council of the University (q.v.). They are coun- sellors-at-law consulted upon occasions of doubt, and appointed by grace of the Senate. University Fight (The). In the reign of Elizabeth, when that queen in 1564 visited Cambridge, the public orator declared in his harangue that Cambridge was the older University. Oxford at once took up the cudgel, and when in 1566 the queen visited that university, Bhe was told that Oxford, not Cambridge, was the older foundation. Cains in 1574 published a goodly quarto In defence of Cambridge. He countenances the pre- posterous assertion that the first stones of Cam- bridge University were laid 178 years after the flood !1 and gravely tells us that Cambridge derives its name from Cantaber, a royal Spanish emigrant, who in the 4th Christian cent, sent for Greek philosophers from Athens as professors in the Cantaber or Cambridge University. Brian Twyne in 1608 published a similar folio on behalf of Oxford, stating its foundation was laid when Brute came to the island. This ' Trojan ' colony laid the university at Cricklade i-e. Bello Situm where Oxford now stands. And as for Cambridge, it was a mere offshoot of Oxford in the reign of Henry I. University Museum (The), 1855, erected for the study of natural science. There are lecture-rooms, work-rooms, and laboratories, a dissecting-room, a library, and a reading-room. The keeper has SOI. a year (University of Oxford). The nearest approximative institution of Cam- bridge is the museum in the old Botanical Gar- dens ; but there are other museums, as the Wood- wardian for geology, another for zoology, others for comparative anatomy, botany, mechanics, optics and astronomy, chemistry, . 198. Heretics, so called from Valesius, an Arabian. They admitted only eunuchs into their society, insisting that this crucifixion of the flesh is essential to salvation. Valley of Death (The). Balaklava, famous for the charge of Lord Cardigan's Light Brigade, consisting of 607 sabres, which advanced right into the Russian centre with the view of taking thirty Russian guns directed against them. When Lord Raglan perceived the mis- take, he ordered a retreat to be sounded. 25 Oct., 1854 Certainly a worse choice than Lord Raglan M leader of a great war could hardly have been made. He had neither the enrrny, the dash, nor the lightning speed of a military hero. Valley of Heroes (The). So the Persians call the Plain of Oujan, the famous royal hunting-ground. Valley of Waters (The). The Mediterranean Sea. The Valley of Waters, widest next to that Which dot h the earth en garland, shape* its cootOl Between discordant shores [Europs and Africa}. DAA-TK, Paradite, ix. Valley of the Shadow of Death (The). The Koord Cabul Pass, where in 1839 the Afghans annihilated the British army. See p. 485, Khyber Pass,' and p. 18, ' Afghan War.' Valois Branch (The). The younger branch of the Capetian race of French kings (1828-1498). In 1498 came a branch of the Valois called the Orleans- Orleans, and in 1515 a branch called the Orleans- Angouleme. Called Valois from Philippe VL de Valois (1S23-1350). Valois-Angouleme Branch ol the Capetian dynasty gave to France five kings : Francois I., Henri H., Fran- cois H., Charles I3L, and Henri IIL (1515-1589). Valois-Orleans Branch of the Capetian dynasty gave to France one king, Louis XII., le pere du peuple (1462, 1498-1615). VALOB VEDAS 21 Valor Ben'eflcio'riim, 1512. Drawn up by the clergy in council at Edinburgh, and known by the title of 1 Bagimont's ' or ' Bajimont's Boll.' See p. 66. Vandyck (TfteCafedontan). George Jameson (1586-1644). Vandyck (The English). William Dobson, painter (1610-1647). Vandyck of France (The). Hyacinthe Bigaud (1659-1748), the founder of the Pre-Baphaelites. Vandyck of Sculpture (The). Antoine Coysevox (1640-1720). Va'nists. Followers of the religious opinions of Sir Harry Vane (1612-1662), which were almost identical with Anti- nomianism. He detested episcopacy, and though he promoted the Solemn League and Covenant, he abhorred both it and the presbytery. Vane was a fifth-mon- archy man, and a great believer in ' un- known tongues,' so that his prayers were utterly unintelligible. He wrote several theological treatises, but all mark him out as a wild visionary. Varan'gians. All Northmen were so denominated by the Greeks; but, strictly speaking, the Varangians were the Norse bodyguard of their emperors. Varela (Peace of), 8 Aug., 1790, be- t ween Sweden and Bussia. Vasa (Order of), 1772. A Swedish order instituted by Gustavus III. in honour of Gustavus Vasa, founder of the dynasty. Vassy (Massacre of), 1 March, 1652. Some 1,200 reformers had assembled in a barn on Sunday morning, when Francois due de Guise with sixty horsemen and bowmen rode by, and all began to insult the worshippers by calling them ' rebels ! dogs 1 heretics ! ' &c. Some of the re- formers shut the doors, when the duke shouted ' Mort-dieu ! slay the vermin 1 ' A scuffle ensued, in which a stone struck the duke on the cheek. His horsemen now fell foul cutting and slashing. Sixty were slain and above 200 wounded. When called upon to answer for this un- provoked attack, the duke declared that the reformers were the aggressors, and that he only acted in self-defence. He died the following year, and the matter ended for a time, but it led to the long * Beligious Wars of France.' A Bible was shown to the duke, and be handed It to his brother the cardinal, who said, ' There is no harm in this book. It is the Holy Scriptures. 1 How ! (cried the duke) sang-dieu 1 Call you that the Holy Scriptures ? Why, they were written more than 1,500 years ago, and this was written last year, as you may see by the date.' Vatican (The). 'Vaticanus Mons' is a hill at Borne; but is now chiefly noted for its magnificent palace of the popes, with its superb gardens, its mu- seums, celebrated library, and basilica of St. Peter. The palace was constructed in 498, but has been often enlarged, es- pecially by the popes Nicolas V., Paul II. and in., Sixtus IV., Leo X., Sixtus V., Benedict XIV.. Clement XIV., Pius VI., &c. In the Vatloan are the celebrated Slxtine Chapel, the Pauline Chapel, and the Raphael room. Vatican (Council of the), 1870, to render the dogma of the Immaculate Conception an article of faith. Of course the New Testament does not give the remotest hint of such a dogma, nor docs it remove the difficulty of ' bringing a clean thing out of an unclean,' or, in other words, the entail of sin. It merely removes it one stage further back, and helps to destroy the proper manhood of Christ. The dogma is a grand theological mistake. Vatican MS. (The) of the Bible. See p. 184, Codex Vaticanus.' Vauban de la Marine (Le). Baron Sand, the shipbuilder, born at Brest (1740-1882). Vaudois (The) must not be con- founded with the followers of Peter Waldo, or ' Poor Men of Lyons,' who were a revival of the Paulicians ; but the Vaudois, mentioned by Jerome, were Valentinians, and were confined to the Cottian Alps. Ved-Angas (The), revealed by Hindu inspired saints, are devoted to astronomy, grammar, prosody, pronun- ciation, charms, incantations, religious rites, and religious ceremonies. Written in Sanskrit. See ' Shastras.' Vedas. The sacred books of the Hindus written in Sanskrit. They are four in number : (1) The Rig, containing hymns, and in verse ; (2) The Yadjour, prayers in prose ; (8) The Sama, designed to be chanted; and (4) The Atliarvan, containing formulas for consecration, VENDETTA expiation, and imprecation. Said to have been written in the 15th cent. B.C. Of the commentaries the most celebrated are fthe Pur&nai and the Sutrat. See these word*. Veduto. See p. 286, ' Eighty ' (The). Vehmgerichte (The), 'The Holy Vehm.' A secret tribunal of Germany, death being the penalty of a betrayal th lt had its origin in Westphalia in the 18th cent. The members consisted of the initiated and the ignorants, but every member must be free born and in lawful wedlock. There were secret signa of recognition. The names and charges of persons brought before the tribunal were entered in the ' Blood Book ' toge- ther with the sentence of the tribunal. There were three modes of proceeding the summary, tke secret, and the open. Death was by hanging on the nearest tree, but a knife stuck in the tree an- nounced to the world that the victim was not hanged by highwaymen. Towards the close of the IGth cent, the Vehm- gerichte dwindled and died. See p. 748, Bed Land.' Bee Walter Scotf B 'Anne ot QeierBteln ' and Bar- Holds B ' Bronze Statue.' Vella (Giuseppe), an abbot and lite- rary impostor (1751-1814). He confessed his frauds and was sentenced to fifteen years' imprisonment. His books are * Codex Diplomaticus Sicilise,' 1791, and Libro del Consiglio di Egitto,' 1798. See p. 524, ' Literary Forgeries,' &a Velvet. The little gentleman in velvet, the mole. The Jacobites used to drink to the ' little gentleman in velvet,' meaning the mole which threw up the mound against which Sorel (King William III. 'a horse) stumbled, whereby, being thrown to the ground, he broke his collar- bone, which caused his death. Velvet Book (The). The Russian peerage and official lists. Velveteen Plot (The), 1842. A trick played upon Sir Robert Peel by a Lancashire manufacturer in order to for- ward the anti-corn law interests. It was the present of a piece of cotton velvet so dressed as to look like silk velvet, and ostensibly made in New York. Sir Robert thanked the donor, and said thai Lady Peel would have part made into a cloak and he himself would have the rest made up for his own use. After more careful inspection Sir Robert found that She design consisted of wheat-ears about a scroll on which was inscribed the word FREE. So he returned the present, stat- ing that he was unaware of ita political aymbolism. Vende"an Massacres (The), or Vendean war, May 1793 to 19 Feb., 1795. That is the resistance of the Vende'ans to the republican Jacobins. Prudhomme aaya the alaughter of the Vendeans in this conteat was 887,000, distributed thus : Women killed In La Vend* U.OOO; children killed 22.000 ; men killed 800.000. Vendean Wars (The), 1798-1800. Divera ware between royalists of the west of France and the republicana. The insurgents were the noblea, priests, and peasantry combined. The first encoun- ter was in March 1798 in the Bocage Lazarus Hoche brought the contest to an end in 1796, and was called the Pacifica- teur de la Vendee. In 1799 the Vendeans again took up arms. Brune brought tlua insurrection to an end in the early part of 1800. In 1815, during the Hundred Days (q.v.), the Vende'ans would have taken up arms if General Lamarque had not interfered to prevent it. In 183' insurrections were again planned, but came to nothing. Prudhomme estimates the death of the Vende'ans in their resist- ance to the republican Jacobins at 837,000, of which 87,000 were women and children. See ' Chouana.' Vend6miaire (Daya 12, 18), Year IV. That is 8, 4 Oct., 1795 ; the days when the troopa under Barraa and General Bonaparte triumphed over the insurgent! against the Convention. The combat before the church of St. Roch was moat murderous. Vendetta. The blood-feud, or duty of the nearest akin of a murdered man to alay the murderer. The custom prevails in Corsica, Sicily, Sardinia, Calabria, among the Montenegrins and Albanians, the Druses, Circassians, Arabs, natives of Australia, and in central Asia. In the - 1 -- of 'Romeo and Juliet' the two houses of Montague and Capulet ' suffered the vendetta.' Mosea appointed cities of refuge to break down the vengeance of the vendetta. The rendetta U called by the Bedouins Tar = ra VENDETTA VENICE 028 tallatlon. It existed In ancient times among the Greeks. In the summer of 1889 in Corsica both the slayer and the avenger In a blood-feud were slain In i duel fight with each other. Vendetta Transversale, a cross blood-feud. That is, each set of two re- latives has a murder to avenge, A has a blood-feud with B, but B has a blood- feud with A. Vendidad Bade. A sacred book of the Parsees attributed to Zoroaster. It forms part of the Zend-Avesta, and is in the form of a dialogue between Orinuzd and Zoroaster. Venerable (The) Bede, the author of an ' Ecclesiastical History.' A native of Wearmouth. He died 735, aged 62. Ven'eta Factio. The Blue Coats. A faction in Byzantium, so called because their livery was Venice blue. The Veneti were simply charioteers in the circus dressed in blue, but the blue coats ulti- mately formed into a political party of royalists, opposed to the Praslna Factio (q.v.), which were opposed to Justinian, and tried to assassinate him. See ' Blues and Greens.' Veneti is Latin for Venetians, Venice is Vene- tise,' and Venetus, the adjective, means 'of Venice,' or ' Venice Blue,' the livery of the com- mon soldiers and- seamen of Home. Vengeance de Jeanne de Cas- tille (La), a box on the ears. Jeanne de Castillo out of jealousy boxed the ears of a maid of honour she had brought from Portugal, and who developed into a rival. Vengeance for the Lamb torn by the Wolf. The war-cry and motto of Capobianco, the leader of the Carbo- nari. Vengeur (Le), 1 June, 1794. A French man-of-war immortalised by a romantic fiction. It was one of the fleet tugaged against the English fleet under Lord Howe. The English gained a signal victory, but Jean Bon St.-Andre, the Jacobin commissioner on board the ' Ven- geur,' announced to the Convention that the French had won a most splendid victory, and the ' Vengeur ' went down all the men shouting ' Vive laRepublique ! Vive la France ! ' and continued these cries even at the bottom of the ocean. Barere added to the fiction that the 1 Vengeur ' was not sunk by the English, but was engulfed by the waves. Chenier the revolutionary poet wrote a panegyric on the 'Vengeur,' containing these lines : Les voix dea braves explxans Qul chantent an fond des ablmes I The sinking of 'Le Vengeur' described by Barere, and Napoleon crossing the Alps, A paint- ing by David, are what Carlyle would call ' master- pieces of blague.' Napoleon, who really crossed the mountains on a plodding mule, and buttoned to the chin in a grey greatcoat, is represented in lull military costume spurring a prancing charger, and pointing with his right hand towards Italy. But strangely the wind blows the tail and mane of the charger one way, and the military cloak of the rider in an opposite direction. The ' Vengeur ' was one of the ships of the French Convention, which encountered Howe in the Brest waters. Six of the French fleet had been taken, and the battle was lost. The ' Vengeur,' disabled, sank with all its crew, to the number of 200. The men were picked up by British boats, and saved from a watery grave, for which they were very grateful. This is how Barere describes the incident (the translation Is by Carlyle, who Bpells the name Barrere) : Twelve hours of raging cannonade ; sun no* sinking westward through the battle-smoke. Six French ships taken ; the battle lost ; what ship soever can still sail, making off ! But how is it with ' Le Vengeur ' ? she neither strikes [sail] nor makes off ? She is lamed: she cannot make off. [and] strike she will not. Fire rakes her fore and aft from victorious enemies : the ' Vengeur ' is sink- ing. Strong are ye, tyrants of the eea ; yet we also, are we weak ? Lo I all flags, streamers, jacks, every rag of tricolour that will yet run on rope, fly rustling aloft. The whole crew crowd to thp upper deck, and with universal, soul-madden' ing yell, shouts ' Vive la Kepublique I ' Sinking, sinking. She staggers, she lurches, her last drunk whirl. Ocean yawns abysmal. Down rushes ' Le Vengeur,' carrying ' Vive la Republiques ' along with her, unconquerable, into eternity. (He gives as authority Barrere, 'Choix des Kapports,' xiv., 416-421, and refers to Lord Howe's report for the Bimple truth, 'Annual Register,' 1794, p. 86). 8e* p. 868, ' Glorious First of Jane,' and ' Fire First.' Veni, Vidi, Vici, B.C. 47. Ctesar't despatch to the Roman senate when he vanquished Pharnaces, king of the Cim- merian Bosphorus in the battle of Zela. Karl V. imitated this despatch when he an- nounced his victory at MUhlberg, in April 1647. ' I came, I saw, Ood conquered.' Venice of the East. Bangkok, capital of Siam. Venice of the North (The). L Amsterdam, built on 95 small islands, and its canals are crossed by 290 bridges. II. Stockholm, capital of Sweden. Venice of the West. Glasgow. Another element in the blazon of the Venice of the West is the fish laid across the stem of the tree. BUKTON. Venice Sketch-Book (The), or ' Raphael's Sketch Book,' preserved in the Accademia delle Belle Arti, in Venice. Long considered to be a collection of sketches by Raphael, but proved by Morelli to be sketches by Pintoricchio, 924 VEB VERSAILLES A the Umbrian artist, and executed before Raphael was born. Ver Sacrum. When the whole pro- duce of a spring-time was devoted to the gods. This was done by the Sabellians in times of famine and public calamities. Even the children born during the ver sacrum were devoted to Mamers, the war god, and had to leave the city of their birth. Verbena'lia. Annual rites held by the Romans when the altars were deco- rated with verbena or vervain, called the herba sacra. Verdun (Treaty of), AJ>. 848, by which the empire of Charlemagne was divided into three parts. Lothaire L, as emperor, received Italy and Lorraine ; Charles the Bald re- ceived France ; and Louis or Ludwig re- ceived Germany. So that by this treaty Germany was created into a separate kingdom. Vergobret [VergoVretus]. A tem- porary king chosen by the Druids in times of danger. Like the Roman dictator a vergobret laid down his office whe n the war was ended. VergOgnosi (I). ' The Shamefaced,' or begging nobles of Venice, 16th cent. Many of the nobles of Venice from the 16th cent, were so utterly penniless that ' begging licences ' were granted them. These begging nobles assumed a particu- lar dress, viz. an old black linen frock falling to the feet. The head was covered with a hood, and a thick veil fell over the face with two eye-holes. They carried in their hands a little conical box made of paper, for alms. See p. 84, ' Begging Licences.' yeriss'imus. So the Emperor Ha- drian used to call Marcus Aurelius [An- toninus], a pun on the name of his adopted son, Lucius Verus. Lucius the son was Verus ; Marcus the father was Verissimus (the philosopher). Vermilion Pencil. The pencil used by the Chinese in royal edicts and despatches. On the 25th day of the 1st moon [16 Feb.], and 21st year of Tao-Kwang [1841], the following despatch, -written with the vermilion pencil, was received In reply [to Commissioner Keshen'i despatch]. Firtt Chine* War. Vermilion Towers. To the right of the Alhambra in Granada. So called from their very ruddy hue. Built by Mohammed II., who reigned 1278-1302. Vermont (U.S. America), means Green Mountains.' So called in 1777 from a range of mountains which tra- verses the state (French Verd-mont). The inhabitants are called Green-moun- tain Boys. Verner's Law. The law of the interchanges of and r in the Teutonic languages. Vernier. A sliding scale by which linear and angular magnitude may be read off with much greater accuracy than by mechanical division and subdivision. A B is part of a scale ; a b is the vernier made to slide along the edge of the scale, Ten divisions of the vernier = eleven of the scale. Invented by Pierre Vernier, a Burgundian, who died 1637, aged 59. Verona (Congress of), from 25 Aug. to 15 Dec., 1822. It waa a congress of European sovereigns. Versailles (Congress of), opened 8 Dec., 1784. Between France and the States-General of Holland. Versailles (Treaties of). 1. 9 March, 1701, between the elector of Bavaria and Louis XIV. 2. 5 April, 1715, between Louis XIV. and Charles XII. of Sweden. 8. 5 June, 1744, between Louis XV. and Frederick II. the Great of Prussia. 4. 1 May, 1756, of alliance, between France and Austria. 5. 80 Dec., 1758, of alliance, between France and Austria. 6. 16 July, 1782, between France and America. 7. 8 Sept., 1788, of peace, between Great Britain and the United States of America, admitting the Independence of the United States. 8. 26 Feb., 1871, of peace, between France and Prussia, after the Franco- German War. VERSAILLES VICTIMS Versailles (The German). Cassel in BO called from its gardens, conserva- tories, fountains, and colossal statue of Hercules. Versailles of Poland (The). The palace and grounds of the counts of Braniski, which now belong to the municipality of Bialystok. Versailles of Prussia (The). Potsdam. Vervins (Peace o/), 2 May, 1598, between Henri IV. of Prance and Felipe IL of Spain. Vespers. One of the eight daily services of the Catholic Church, and one of the four greater ones. At eventide or sunset. See p. 140, ' Canonical Hours.' Veto (Monsieur). Louis XVI., so called in mockery by the revolutionists, because at one time he had the power of annulling by a simple veto the decrees of the National Assembly. His queen, Marie Antoinette, was nicknamed Ma- dame Veto (q.v. p. 548). Veto Law(T^e) or 'Veto Act,' 1884, in Scotland. The General Assembly gave it out as a fundamental principle of the Scotch Church that no minister shall be placed in any parish against the will of the congregation i.e. against tho consent of the majority of the male communicants. This law was based on the practice of the 'minister's call,' or invitation of the people to become their pastor. Viasma (Peace of), 1684, between Russia and Poland, in which Russia, on one part, renounced all pretensions to Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland; and Vladislas of Poland, on the other part, abandoned his rights to the throne of Poland, and recognised the dynasty of Bomanov. Vicar of Bray. ' Let whoever will be king, I will be Vicar of Bray.' Several vicars have held their livings through shifting creeds. Some say the vicar re- ferred to was Simon Alleyn; others tell us it was Pendleton. Ray says Simon Symonds lived under the Protectorate, Charles II., James II., and William III., and that he was at one time Independent, then Anglican, then Papist, then mode- rate Churchman. The vicar referred to in the song lived in the reigns of Charles II., James II., William III., Anne, and George L Vicars Apostolic (of England). Catholic dignitaries appointed by the Pope over the ' Vicariates ' (g.t).). Vicar 'iates (4 syl.). Divisions of England into Catholic governments, pre- sided over by ' Vicars Apostolic.' From the revolution of 1688 up to 1840 there were four vicariates ; but Gregory XVI. doubled the number. They were the London, the Western, the Eastern, the Central, the Welsh, the Lancastrian, the York, and the Northern districts. In 1850 Pius IX. re-established in England the regular episcopal system of the Church of Rome; and since then the converts from the Anglican to the Roman rite have been very numerous indeed, especially in the upper classes of society. It looks very much as if Catholicism was about to become dominant in England again. What else can be expected with the wretched organisation of the Anglican Church ? No autho- rity to appeal to, powerless bishops, curates without any certain promotion, vicars taxed far higher than the squirarchy, and their wldowa vir- tually turned out of house and home the moment their husbands cease to breathe. It Is a most pitiful system, hardly possible to be worse. Vice-Chancellor (The). In our universities. The deputy of the chan- cellor, by whom, in Oxford, he is chosen annually from the heads of the colleges ; but in Cambridge he is chosen annually by the Senate from two heads of colleges nominated by the council. In 1855 the stipend of the vice-chancellor, at Oxford, was fixed at 600Z. a year from the uni- versity chest. At Oxford it has been nsual of late to hold the office for four years, and the first vice-chancellor was William Farrendon (1400-1403). In Cam- bridge the office is an annual one. In Cambridge the vice-chancellor is elected Nov. 1 or 8, and enters on his function* Jan. 10 or 11. Victims of the Unstamped (The). Persons imprisoned or heavily fined for publishing unstamped news- papers. The duty was 4d. on each paper, and the Government stamp was in red, at one corner of each sheet. Stamp abolished 1855. The prisons of London and the provincial towns of Manchester, Liverpool, Leeds, Hull, Birmlng. ham, Bri&tol, Edinburgh, and Glasgow were seldom unbenanted by some of the persons popu< 926 VICTOR VIENNA larly called the 'Victims of the Unstamped.' Large numbers of women and very young persons were put In prison lor selling by retail papers without a stamp. HOWITT, Hittory of England, year 1841, p. 618. Victor (Canons Regular of St.), 1118. Established in Paris by Guillaume de Champeaux. See f Victorins.' Victor of a Hundred Battles ^The). Napoleon the Great (born 1768, emperor 1804-1816, died 1821). Victoria. Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress of India. The 5th sovereign of the house of Hanover. Born 24 May, 1819, began to reign 20 June, 1837. Proclaimed Empress of India 1 January, 1877. Father: Edward duke of Kent, 4th son of George IEL; Mother: Louisa Victoria of Saxe-Coburg; Consort : Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; Children: 1. Victoria, the princess royal (who mar- ried Frederick William, crown prince of Prussia); 2. Albert Edward, prince of Wales (who married Alexandra of Denmark) ; 8. Alice Maud (who married Louis of Hesse-Darmstadt), she died 1878 ; 4. Alfred duke of Edinburgh (who married Marie-Alexandrovna of Russia) ; 5. Helena (who married Christian of Schleswig-Holstein) ; 6. Louise (who married the Marquis of Lome); 7. Arthur duke of Connaught (who married Louise Margaret, daughter of Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia); 8. Leopold duke of Albany (who married Helen, daughter of the Prince of Waldeck), died 1884 ; 9. Beatrice (who married Henry Maurice of Battenberg). Style: Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India [Kaisar-i-Hind]. Or Victoria, Dei Gratia, Brltan- nlarum Regina, Fid. Def. [Empress of India la added only to documents which extend to India.] *,* The Queen Victoria is lineally descended from Egbert. Omitting the Normans, we come to Henry II., whose mother was Maud wife of Geoffrey Plantagenet. Maud's mother was Matilda wife of Henry I. of England. Matilda's mother was Margaret wife of Malcolm ILL of Scotland. Margaret's father wag Prince Edward, son of Edmund. King Edmund was son of Ethelred, Ethelred of Edgar, Edgar of Edmund, Edmund of Edward the Elder, Edward the Elder of Alfred, Alfred of Ethelwolf, and Ethelwolf of EGBERT. From Henry IL the PlantageneU continued to the Tudors. Henry VIL descended from John of Gaunt, 4th son of Edward III., and he married Eliza- beth of York, daughter of Edward IV. Henry VIL's daughter Margaret married James IV. of Scotland, and their son was James V. of Scotland. The daughter of James V. wfca Mary Queen of Scots, whose son was James I. of England. Elizabeth, daughter of James I., married Frederick king of Bohemia, whose daughter Sophia was the wife of Ernest Augustus duke of Brunswick. And their son was George I. Victoria and Albert (Royal Order of). Instituted 1862. Inl878wai instituted 'The Imperial Order of the Crown of India.' Victoria Cross (The), 19 Jan., 1856. A Maltese cross of bronze, with the inscription FOB VALOUR. It is given to any person who has performed au act of distinguished courage, such as rescuing from fire or water, acts of great bravery in battle, and so on. V.C. Victorious (Le). Charles VIL of France (1408, 1422-1461). So callod because in h^s reign the English lost all their possessing in France except Calais, He won the battle of Gravelle in 1423, and of Montarges in 1427, and, by the aid of Joan of Arc raised the siege of Orleans in 1429; he took Metz, con- quered the English at Formigni, got possession of Normandy and Guienne. and in 1451 drove the English out of France, leaving only Calais in their power. Victorins (The), or Canons of St. Victor,' 1118, Paris ; especially those of them who accepted and extended the mystical views of Hugo of St. Victor. St. Victor contended that the objects of reli- gious contemplation are partly above reason and partly contrary to reason (e.g. the dogma of the Trinity). The Victorina were opposed to dialectical theology. Victory of Victories (The). So the great battle of Nehavend (AJ>. 687) is called by the Arabs. In this battle Yzdegerd III. king of Persia was de- feated and afterwards murdered by the* Saracens. Vienna Conference (The). L 6 Jan.-21 April, 1858. Between VIENNA VILLA FRANCA 927 Great Britain, France, Austria, and Prussia, on a device of Count Buol, chief minister of Austria, to prevent war with Eussia. Great Britain and France could not agree to Count Buol's plan, and the conference fell through. See ' Vienna Note.' II. in 1855. Between Austria, Great Britain, France, and Russia, for the pur- pose of bringing to an end the Crimean war. It came to nothing. Vienna (Congress of], from 1 Oct., 1814, to March, 1815, of the allied princes, to distribute the spoils of the French empire, after the banishment of Napo- leon I. to Elba. It was found impossible to satisfy the greed of the different powers, and probably war would have broken out between the allies had they not been startled by the alarming news that Napoleon had escaped from Elba and was gathering around him the best strength of France (1 March, 1815). In this congress England was represented by Lord Castlereagh, Russia by Czar Alexander, Aus- tria by Prince Metternich, Prussia by Baron Ilardenberg, and France by Prince Talleyrand. It was arranged to give to England the Cape of Good Hope, the Mauritius, Malta, and Corfu ; to Russia was assigned Finland and Poland: to Austria was assigned Lombardy and the Venetian States ; to Prussia was allotted Saxony, Fran- conia, and Swedish Pomei ania ; to the Archduke Ferdinand was allotted Tuscany ; to the King of Sardinia was allotted Genoa; to Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon, was assigned Parma and Ma- centia; to Sweden was assigned Norway ; and to Ferdinand IV. of the Bourbon line was allotted the Two Sicilies. Vienna (Treaties of). The treaties of Vienna are numerous. The three subjoined are the most important : I. 18 Nov., 1738, which gave Lorraine to France after the death of Stanislaus, Tuscany to Francis husband of Maria Theresa, and Naples to Don Carlos. It concluded the War of the Polish Succes- sion (q.v.). IL 14 Oct., 1809, which put an end to the war carried on by the fifth coalition against Napoleon I. By this treaty the em- peror of Germany ceded the Tyrol and Dal- matia to France, and agreed to adopt the ' Continental System,' i.e. to hold no com- mercial intercourse with Great Britain. IIL 9 June, 1815, in which the boun- daries of France were defined by the allied powers of Europe. The other treaties of Vienna were : 27 May, 1657. An alliance between the kaiser, Poland, and Denmark, against Sweden. 16 March, 1781. An alliance between the kaiser, Great Britain, and Holland, to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction. 8 Oct., 1785. To agree npon preliminaries of peace between France and Germany. 20 June, 1800. To agree upon subsidies betweea Austria and Great Britain. 23 March, 1815. Between Great Britain, Austria Russia, and Prussia, confirming the Treaty ol Chaumont and effecting the union of Holland and Belgium. 81 May, 1815. Between the king of the Nether- lands, Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia, agreeing to the enlargement of Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty of the Netherlands In the House of Orange. 4 June, 1815. Between Denmark and Prussia, for the cession of Swedish Pomerania and Rflgen to Prussia in exchange for Lauenburg. 2 Dec., 1854. A treaty of alliance between Great Britain, France, and Austria. 80 Nov.. Ii4. Between Denmark, Prussia, and Austria, for the cession of thaducbies of Schleswig- Holstein to the allies. 11 Oct., 1866. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia. Vienna Note (The), 1858. A scheme of Count Buol to prevent war with Russia. It proposed a compromise between the czar and the sultan. Russia claimed a protectorate over the Christian subjects of Turkey. This, of course, the sultan could not and would not concede. Count Buol suggested that the Christian subjects should have protection not only as Ottoman subjects, but over and above that as Christians. The Vienna Note was as huge a diplomatic blunder as could possibly have been devised. ' Such a concession [wrote Lord Stratford 20 Aug.] would leave Russia nothing to desire as to the means of exercising a powerful influence on all the concerns of the Greek clergy, and of inter- fering on behalf of the Greek laity, subjects of the Porte. 1 HOWITT, Hist. o/ntf.(year 1858, p. 153). Vigilance Society (The), 1885. A secret Irish society, similar to the Moon- lighters, Fenians, &c., for the murder, mutilation, and destruction of the pro- perty of those who refused to obey the league. Bee p. 455, ' Irish Associations. 1 Vigilants (The). Irish rebels simi- lar to the Invincibles. Bee p. 455, ' Irish Invincibles.' Vigin'ti-viratofRome. The office of the Vigin'tivirs or Committee of Twenty. They had charge of the public ways, the minting of money, and the prisons. It was a most honourable office. Villafranca, in Italy (Treaty of), 11 July, 1859. Between Francis Joseph emperor of Austria and Napoleon III. emperor of the French, for the creation of the Italian Confederation and the ces- sion of Lombardy. Austria ceded Lom- bardy to France, and France gave it to Sardinia. Lombardy and Sardinia soon afterwards formed parts of the kingdom of Italy (14 March, 1861). VILLEINS VIRGINIA Villeins in Gross. Villeins were farm labourers and domestic servants, not exactly slaves nor yet exactly free- men, but something between the two. ' Villeins in Gross ' were, for the most part, domestic servants, who moved irom place to place with their master and his family. See ' Villeins Regardant.' Villeins Regardant. Farm la- bourers who could not be shifted from place to place, but had a fixed habitation. If a master died or his tenement changed hands from any other cause the villeins remained, like other fixtures, with the new lord. Villeins In Gross' were those attached to the person of the lord, and, like personal property, might be sold or otherwise transferred. ' Villeins Regardant ' were attached to the land, and were Vtuxes. Vinegar Bible (The), 1617, Claren- don Press. In this Bible the 'Parable of the Vineyard ' was printed the ' Parable of tfw Vinegar.' See p. 90, ' Bibles.' Vinegar Hill. An eminence near the town of Enniscorthy in Ireland, famous for being a station of the rebels called 'White Boys' and 'Peep o' Day Boys,' &c. Here was fought what is called the 'Battle of Vinegar Hill' in 1798. Vinerian Professorship (The) of English law, in the University of Ox- ford, 1758. Founded by Charles Viner. The professor is called the ' Vinerian Reader.' Vinerian Scholarships. Three for law. Of the value of 801 a year for three years. Founded in the University of Oxford by Charles Viner in 1755. Vinzaglio (Battle of), 80 May, 1859, in which the allied army led by Victor Emmanuel and Napoleon III. defeated 200,000 Austrians. The honour of this day was due to General Cialdini. Violets, wop by partisans of the French empire in compliment to Napo- leon I. He was called ' Father Violet,' because he said, when leaving France for Elba, 'I will return with the violets.' Those partisans who were in the secret of his return wore a violet on their breasts^ and always toasted Napoleon as ' Caporal la Violette.' Prints containing profiles of Napoleon and Maria Louisa IB two violets were common in 1814, and beneath was written 'En printemps fl reviendra.' In 1815 a popular song refers to Napoleon as ' Le pore de la Violette.' Farewell to thee, France ; hot when liberty rallies Once more in thy regions, rememb- r me then The violet still grows in the depth of thy valleys, Though withered, thy tear will unfold It again. BTBON. Violets (The Day of the), 1 March, 1815. The day when Napoleon I., having escaped from Elba, landed at Cannes, and with 800 soldiers began his march towards Paris. Virgil of the race of Scota (The), Flann MaoLonan, ' chief poet of all Ireland ' (ninth cent.). It mast not be forgotten that Scota Is Ireland North Britain was called Albany till the 12th cent. Virgin City (A), or ' Maiden City.' One which has never changed masters or been conquered. Bayonne, in France, boasts of being a ' Virgin City.' Metz was a ' Maiden Fortress ' before it fell into the hands of the Germans in the Franco-German War, 1870. Virgin Mary's Guard (The). The Corps Ecossais, or 'Gardes du Corps duRoi,' organised in 1448 by Charles vn. of France. Louis XI. made the Virgin mary their colonel. Disbanded in 1830. See ' Gardes du Corps da Roi.' Virgins (The Eleven Thousand). Ursul TUrsula], or Hb'rsel, in Suabia, means the moon, and her eleven thousand virgins are the stars. But in Cologne Cathedral is shown a pile of bones of all sorts, men, women, and children, taken from an old Roman cemetery, acros- which the wall of Cologne ran. Thes*. bones are exhibited as the veritable bones of St. Ursula and her eleven thousand virgin companions, said to have fallen martyrs to the Huns. Virgins offered to dragons. When, in 786, Abdalrahman of Cordova entered the Astnrias in the reign of Mauregato, he utterly defeated his army, and would make peace only on condition of an annual tribute of 100 Spanish virgins. Alfonso II., ' the Chaste,' has the credit of compelling the Moors to relinquish this tribute, about 800. Virgins of the Shield. In Danish Skioldmeyar, female warriors of ancient Denmark. Virginia (U.S. America), so called, in 1584, by Sir Walter Raleigh in con> VIBI VOLUNTARY 029 610613 612-GJO 631JW6 636-642 642.649 64D-G72 pliment to the ' Virgin ' queen Elizabeth. The inhabitants are nicknamed Beadiea. Viri G-alilaei. The north summit of the Mount of Olives, about three furlongs from the middle summit, from which Christ ascended. So called from the words of the angels, ' Ye men of Galilee.' It is also called Galilee. See Matt, zxviil. 16. Virtuous Genevese (The). Jacques Necker, the French statesman and financier (1782-1804). Visigoths (The). The Western Goths, who came from Scandinavia, and settled in Mcesia, A.D. 876. They esta- blished themselves in Gaul, A.D. 412, and, passing into Spain, founded a kingdom there in 414, which was overthrown by the Moors in 712. The names of the kings were Uaulfus to 414 , Gundemar . Wallia ... 415418 Sisobut... Theodores ... 418- ? Recar6d H. . Theudis 681-548 ' Suintolla Theudisele 648-550 Sisenand Agila (at Merida) 550-556 Tulca ... Uharagild . 656-567 Chlndasvinde (Toledo hit capital) Recosvindd . Liuva (at Nar- Wamba ... bonne)_ ... 667-568 Ervigd ... Leovigild ... 668572 Egiza Uecared 67^-586 Witiza Liuva li. ... 686-608 Roderlo... Vitterio 608-610 Visitandines (4 syl.), or 'Keli- gieuses de la Visitation,' 1610. An order of females instituted by St. Francis of Sales and the Baroness of Chantal, in commemoration of the visitation of the Virgin Mary. They wore a black dress and a silver cross. Visitation (The), or ' Festum Visit*, tionis,' 2 July, instituted 1268 in comme- moration of Mary's visit to her cousin Elizabeth (Luke i. 89-56). The 'Con- gregation of the Visitation ' was founded in 1610 by the Baroness de Chantal at Annecy, and the order was confirmed by Urban VIII. in 1626. Vitry Disaster (The), 1148. Louis VII. (le Jeune) persuaded the Comte de Vermandois to divorce his wife and marry the princess (Louis's sister). The Comte de Champagne, father of the divorced countess, to resent this interference, stirred up a rebellion against the king, and Louis, to punish the revolt, set fire to the castle of Vitry. The flames spread to the town. The inhabitants fied to the church, which also caught fire, and 1,800 persons were burnt to death. The king, 687- 7i '1 701-710 710-711 horrified by the shrieks of the sufferers, gave up the war, and made peace with the count. Vizier of Sultan Selim. The greatest curse which a Turk can utter against a foe is this, ' May you be vizier of Sultan Selim 1 ' Few of his viziers lived more than a month (1512-1519). Volpone (8 syl.), 1709. So Dr. Sache- verell called Lord Godolphin in his two sermons, one at Derby and another in L.t. Paul's, London. For this offence he was brought to trial before the Lords, and suspended for three years. The mob took the doctor's side, and shouted 'High Church and Sacheverell I ' and Queen Anne gave him the living of St. Andrew's, Holborn. The first sermon he preached there was sold for 100Z., and 40,000 copies were sold in a few days. 'Volpone' is the title of a comedy by Ben Jon sou. It means ' old fox.' Voltaire. His name was Marie Francois Arouet. He was confined in the Bastille for satirising the Duke of Orleans, and on his release from prison assumed the name of Voltaire from a small property left him by his mother. He retired to Ferney, a little village near Geneva. At one time he lived for fifteen years with Madame du Chatelet at Cirey, in Champagne, a lady of for- tune, the wife of a marquis, and here he composed his best works. He set up reason as the guide and rule of every- thing, and whatever could not be squared with human reason he rejected in religion and politics. Voltaire of Germany (The). I. Christoph Martin Wieland (1788-1818), author of ' Oberon ' and the romance of Agathon.' II. Johann Wolfgang von Gbthe (1749- 1838), also called 'The German Voltaire.' VOLTAIRE (The Polish). Ignatius Krasicki (1774-1801). VOLTAIRE (The Russian). Alexander P. Sumorokof (1727-1777). Voluntary Controversy (The), 1834, in Scotland. One of the most in- tensely pronounced controversies that Scotland ever witnessed. The question was this : Is a congregation to exercise the right of giving a ' call ' or invitation to its pastor, or has the kirk the right of presenting any minister it thinks proper? The question was tried on the celebrated &O 930 VOLUNTEERS WAGES 1 Auchterarder Case* (g.tf.), *&& termi- nated in the great schism of the Free Church. Volunteers (The), 1852. The Vic- torian movement sprang into existence, and Dr. J. C. Bucknill of Exeter was the originator. The corps first mustered in uniform 6 Oct., 1852, when the oath of allegiance was taken. Consolidated 21 July, 1863, by Act 26, 27 Viet. c. 65, which Act was amended 9 Aug., 1869. Rifle corps organised 1859. Volunteers as volunteers have no re- gimental colours, but several of the Vo- lunteer corps have had special colours presented to them by persons interested in the movement. Thus the Duchess of Gloucester and her daughter Sophia presented colours to the Kensington Volunteers. First raised In Great Britain March, 1794 : again In the spring 1808. George HI. reviewed them in Hyde Park, 26 and 28 Oct., 1303. Vordingborg (Peace of), 1485, ter- minating the long war of twenty-six years between the counts of Holstein and the Hanse Towns. By this treaty it was sti- pulated that the Hanse republics should continue to enjoy all their immunities in the Sound and in the harbours of the three united kingdoms of Scandinavia ; and that Adolphus count of Holstein should be secured in the possession of the duchy of Sleswig during his life and his heirs two years after. Votaries of Celestial Reason (The), or Tien-le, a brotherhood in China during the reign of Kea-king (1796-1820). They broke into the palace and kept possession of it for several days. Vote of Non-address (Tfce), 1647. After the escape of Charles I. from Holmby House, a vote was passed in both houses that no further application or ad- dresses to the king should be permitted under the penalty of high treason, and that neither the House of Lords nor House of Commons should receive from him any letter or message. i. Tho ^ vote of non-address amounted to a declara- tion that all attempts at reconciliation -were at an end, and that the Independents meant to proceed to put the doctrines of the army in force, and put the king to death, HowiTT, Hitt. of Engl. (Charlea I., chap. vi. p. 290). Votive Mass. 'Missa Votlva,' a mass ' quae ex proprio voto dicitur.' See P. 565, l ~ Vow of the Swan (The), or Vow of the peacock, heron, pheasant, or some other bird. A fantastic vow made during some banquet in Mid-Lent to perform some feat during the year. The bird, profusely ornamented, was brought into the banquet-room in great ceremony, a herald trumpeted its approach, and a body of knights, squires, and pages at- tended it. The person who made the vow stood up, laid his hand on the bird, and vowed before the year was out to perform some feat in honour of the bird and some lady. 10 Feb., 1806, Edward I., then an old man, rising at the royal board, wore on the dish before him (a twan) to avenge on Scotland the murder of John Comyn by Robert Bruce. Edward III. said. ' Hey 1 the White Swan I By God's soul I am thy man I ' Henry V. vowed fa a similar manner to traverse France from sea to sea with flying banners. Vulgate (The). A Latin version of the Scriptures by Jerome, the third of the Latin Fathers (q.v.), sanctioned by the Council of Trent. It was translated from the Hebrew, and received the ap- proval of Gregory the Great. See p. 801, ' Scriptures.' There was a ' New Latin Version ' execu- ted by Jerome, 890-405. Wiclif rendered it into English, 1824-1884. See ' Bibles.' There was an earlier version called the Itala, 1 of which some few fragment* remain. Jerome in the 4th cent, revised part* of the Itala, but his 1188. are lost. The Vulgate is quite a new trans- lation. "Waddington Scholarship. Clas- sics. For undergraduates in the Uni- versity of Cambridge, tenable for five years. It is the interest of 8,OOOZ. in the 8 per cent, consolidated Bank annuities. Founded by Miss Waddington and her sister in memory of their two brothers, 1870. Wadham College, Oxford, 1609. Founded by Nicholas Wadham of Mary- field, Somersetshire. The headmaster ' called the ' Warden.' Wager of Battle. In thia ordeal the challenger faced the west ; the one challenged faced the east. If the defeated party craved his life he was a craven, but had his life spared. Wages in England. 1869. a thresher day !..-_ than 8A in 1445. .advanced tofci in 144*. WAGES WALDENSES 981 Ifi20, 1647, -7, lew, rpenter a day 2, advanced to 44. in 1446. istcr mason ... 4 cklaver's ) abourer J " 1J, bricklayer, id. ' in 1445. rm labourer ... 4 g 4) 6 10 6 p 8 Q M 9 10 12 18 r.'. from 9s. to 15. a week. ','. ... 12. to 15*. Wages Movement (The), 1854. A combination of artizans for a sliding scale of wages equal to a tenth of the profit of their production. The men went out on strike only in one or two places at a time, and those employed subscribed to support those on strike. The woollen manufacturers of Preston and Burnley led the way. The movement came to an untimely end in April 1854. The loss to workmen was 500,OOOZ., and to masters many millions. Wahab'ites (3 syl.), or ' Wahabbees,' or 'Wah'abees,' 1759. Reformed Mos- lems, founded by the son of Abd-el Wahab. and dominant over the greater part of Arabia. The'y are firm believers in the Koran, and want to bring back the faithful to the primitive precepts and practices of the first kalifs. They deny the sacred character of Imaums, advocate the perfect equality of man, and call their muftis ' brothers.' These strictest and straitcst of the Moslem sects are great brigands and pirates. Mohammed Abd-el Wahab was born In Arabia 1696, and died about 1764. He preached universal toleration, and taught that Moses, Christ, and Mahonu t were three gifted men who taught the will of God, and that the faiths of all three are reconcilable. "Waits. Musical serenaders, who play or sing between midnight and four or five in the morning about Christmas time, and call afterwards on the in- habitants for a Christmas-box. They used to wish greeting to the master, mistress, children, and all, before part- ing. The thing has now dwindled down to a carol or popular tune or two. Ori- ginally they were musical watchmen. Rymer, in the ' Foadera,' tells us they 'piped the watch nightly in the king's court from Michaelmas to Shrove Thurs- day, and to make the bon gayte at every chamber-door and office, for fear of pyckeres and pillers.' Wakes and Lyke-wakes. These are very different things. A lyke or liche wake is a watching of a dead body (Ang.-Sax. lie) all night by the friends and neighbours of the deceased. It used to be a scene of revelry and mourn- ing, the object being to watch the body from being interfered with by evil spirits. The other 'wake' is about equal to 1 vigil,' and every church had its wake on the anniversary of the saint. A religious service was given, but, as the crowd became great, hawkers and minstrels assembled, and the wake became a fair, held in the churchyard. In 1285 Ed- ward I. forbade fairs to be held in church- yards, but the practice continued to the Reformation. Walburgis. See ' Walpurgig.' Wal'cheren Expedition (The), 1809. Under the charge of the Earl of Chatham and Sir Richard Strachan. The design was to destroy the French fleet in the Scheldt and take Antwerp ; but the expedition was so ill-planned and executed that only the fortress of Flush- ing was taken and the isle of Walcheren. When the British seamen landed in the pestilential marshes of Walcheren they died by thousands. Napoleon said we might as well ' have thrown our men into the sea as land them at Walcheren.' It was a magnificent fleet, consisting of 87 men- of-war, 23 frigates, 115 sloops, &c., and carrying 41.000 men. The Earl of- Chatham resigned to prevent being brought before a court-martial. .* Strachan, pronounce Strawn. Waldemar (Knights of St.), 1788. A Russian order conferred on both military men and civilians for merit. The ribbon is red, edged with black. Waldenses (The), or 'Vaudois,' 9th cent. By Mosheim traced to Peter Waldo of Lyons, who died 1197 ; but this is an error, as they are mentioned as early as 1100, and had a regular confes- sion of faith in 1120. They seem to have been early reformers dwelling in the valleys of the Cottian Alps, called Vaux, and the inhabitants Vaudois in Latin Vallenses. These were the ancient ' Subalpini.' The Lyonists or ' Poor Men of Lyons ' seem to have followed in the same footsteps, and therefore the two are very often confounded. The Wal- denses, the Wiclifites, and the Lutherans 8o2 WALE3 WALPUBGHS were very similar in their reforms. Their original limits were the districts of An- grogna, Villaro, Bobbio, and Borata. See ' Lyonists.' They were condemned by the Council of the Lateran in 1179, and Innocent VIII. in 1487 en- joined their extirpation. The crusade included the Waldenses and Lyonists (or Poor Men of Lyons) in one general slaughter. The sim ilarity of Valdo and Valdenses led to the mistake, but the Waldenses were the followers of Claudius of Turin, who died 883 that Is, 858 years before the death of Waldo. The Waldenses or Valdenses were also called : Apostolicians (in the 12th cent.) Arnaldists, Arnoldists, Bagnolens, Ca- thari (after the 12th cent.), Consolati, Good Men (in Germany), Insabbates, Lionists, Montani, Passagins, Patarins or Paterins, Perfecti, Petrobrusians, Piphles (in Flanders), Poor Men of Lyons, Poplicans, Purists, Texerans or Tesserands (in some parts of France}, Ultramontanes, Vaudois (in France), Xabatatenses. See each of these words. A Miss Jane Waldo, of Clapham and Hever Castle, daughter of Sir Timothy Waldo, died 1841, aged ninety- six. This was the last of the direct descendants of Peter Waldo of Lyons. Wales (The Statute of), 12 Edw. I., A.D. 1284, which abolished the most bar- barous of the Welsh customs, established guilds, introduced English jurisprudence, and divided the land into shires and hundreds after the English model. Walker Exhibition ( John Lucas), for discoveries in pathology. Value 501. a year ; in the University of Cambridge. Founded by John Lucas Walker, 1887. Walker Studentship (John Lucas). Original research in pathology. It may be held by either sex, and not necessarily a member of the University. Value 200Z. a year, tenable for three years, and the holder eligible for re-election for two more years. Founded in the University of Cambridge by John Lucas Walker, 1887. Wall of Seve'niS, the Roman em- nr, extending from the German Ocean he Solway Firth. This was built because the emperor, when he visited Britain A.D. 208, viewed with alarm the enormous encroachment of the Scots southwards. This emperor died at York in 211, aged sixty-six. The Wall of Severus was for the most part, but not invariably, parallel with Hadrian's rampart. It was further north, and extended somewhat further at each end. Wallace of Switzerland (The). Andreas Hofer, the Tyrolese patriot (1767-1810). He was a man of gigantio stature and strength; brave as a lion, but gentle as a lamb. Wallace of Wales (The). Owen G-lendower (1850-1415). Wallach Rebellion (The). In Hungarian history, 1784. The Wallachs are a people of Hungary, but chiefly of Wallachia in Roumania. These insur- gents, led by Hora and Kloska, assassi- nated the government commissioners, destroyed six villages and 182 private houses, killed 4,000 Hungarians, and did other acts of violence before they could be put down. Wallingford, in Berkshire (Treaty of), 7 Nov., 1158. Between Stephen king of England and Henry (afterwards Henry II.), son of Matilda, r the Lady of Eng- land.' Henry, by the death of his father, having succeeded to Normandy and An- iou, and holding Aquitaine in right of his wife (Eleanor of Poitou), was invited by the archbishop of Canterbury to make his appearance in England. On his arrival the treaty of Wallingford was agreed to by the rival claimants. The castles were to be fazed, the crown land* resumed, the foreign mercenaries dis- missed, Stephen to continue on the throne during life, and Henry to succeed as his heir. Stephen died within twelve month* of this treaty. Walloons (The). The French-speak- ing inhabitants of Artois, Hainault, Na- mur, Luxemburg, Flanders, and Brabant. These six provinces constituted Catholic Netherlands. The seven united province* constituted Protestant Netherlands. There are speakers of the Walloon dialect of French in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Germany. Walpurgis Night. The eve of May-day, when the old pagan witch- world was supposed to hold high revelry under its chief on certain high places. The Brocken, in Germany, was an especially favourite spot for these revelries. Wal- purgis was a female saint concerned in the introduction of Christianity into Germany. Walpurgis or Walburgis was the daughter of St. Richard, king of the West Saxons, and was edu- catra in the monastery of Wimborne in Dorset- shire. She was sent to Germany in 752 to assist in the conversion of the Germans, and in 754 was made abbess of Hcldenheim. She died 35 Feb.,77, and the day of her death Is held In bet honour. WALTER Already do I feel the pcrwer, The fun and frolic ol the hour ; The advent of Walpurgis NiJht Bids every limb thrill with delight. Another night, another day, And then the glorious First of May. QOBTHE, Faust (Anster). Walter the Pennyiess. ' Gautier Bans avoir ' of Burgundy, joint leader of the First Crusade with Peter the Hermit in 1096. Wapentake. A term in Yorkshire similar to ward or hundred. The word means weapon-touch, and refers to the vassals touching the spear of their feudal lord in token of homage. The word passed from the assembly to denote the district tenanted by the vassals. Wappenschaws. The feudal array of a county, when each crown-vassal was required to appear with such muster of men and armour as he was bound to make by his fief, under high penalties. War Cries. L Of ENGLAND, in the Middle Ages, ' St. George 1 ' m FKANCE, ' Mont joy e St. Denis 1' [pronounce Sahn Dnee]. Mont- joye referred to the little mounds surmounted with a cross between Paris and St. Denis, either to guide travellers or to console the pious wayfarer. In the French empire it was Vive I'Empereur 1 GERMANY, during the long conten- tion between the Dukes of Ba- varia and the House of Hohen- stauffen, it was Quelf and Ghibelline I See p. 894. SCOTLAND, it was frequently the name of some clan or chief, as A Douglas ! A Home t w SPAIN, ' St. Jago ! [St. James] and close, Spain 1 ' Cervantes says it was ' St. Jago ! and charge, Spain ! ' or ' Santiago mata moros 1 ' (II. ii. 4.) Mount, chivalrous hidalgo ! Not In Tain Bavive the cry, ' St. Jago ! and close, Spain I BYKON, Age of Bronte, vlL the IRISH, ' Aboo I ' the WELSH, ' Alleluia 1 ' Loud shrieks of 'Alleluia!' blended with those of 'Out! Out! [Ouctl Ovctl] Holy Cross.' LORD LYTTON, Harold. IL Of the BOUBBONB, the word ' Bour- bon !' m the CBUSADEBS, ' Dieu le vent I ' Not of the First Crusade. WAS 088 Of the Counts of HAINATJLT, Ham. ault the Noble 1 ' JEHOSHAPHAT, in his war against Ammon, Moab, and Seir, 'Praise the Lord, for His mercy en- dureth for ever 1 ' (2 Chron. xx. 21.) the Dukes of MILAN, 'Milan the Valiant!' the Lords of MONTMOBENCY, ' Dieu aide au premier Chre'tien 1 ' HI. In battle of MABKFELD, 1278. Of the Bohemians, ' Praga 1 ' of the Germans, ' Christ 1 ' battle of NASEBY, 1645. Of the Koyalists, ' God and Queen Maryl' of the Parliamen- tarians, ' God our strength I ' battle of PHABSALIA, B.C. 48. Of Pompey, 'Hercules InvictusI' of Caesar, ' Venus Victrix 1 ' At Serilac the English had two war cries, 'God Almighty 1' and 'Holy Cross!' The latter was the cry of Harold's own men, and referred to Walt- ham Cross, which he held in special re- verence. The Norman shout was ' Dieu aidois nos ! ' (God help us /). Of Capobianco, leader of the Carbo- nari, it was ' Vengeance for the Lamb torn by the Wolf 1 ' Nelson's mot at the battle of the Nile was 'Victory or Westminster Abbey.' At Trafalgar it was ' England expects that every man will do his duty.' Several others are given in loco. War Poet (The). G. H. Boker, ren- dered famous in the American anti- slavery war. See p. 100, 'Black Begi- ment.' War Songs (National). AUSTRIAN, Haydn's Hymn to the Em- peror. BELGIAN, the patriotic Brabangonne. DANISH, the Song of Danebrog. The danebrog is the flag with a white cross which fell from heaven in the 18th cent, at the prayer of Waldemar II., and which ensured him the victory. ENGLISH, Rule Britannia. Words by Thomson, music by Handel. FBENCH (ancient), the Chanson de Bo- land. FEENCH (modern), the Marseillaise and the Chant du Depart. GERMAN (modern), Arndt'sDesDeutschen Vaterland and Hail Dir ion, Sieges- 984 WAB WAB kranz, Watch on the Bhine, Sword- 8ong of Korner, &c. HUNGARIAN, the Bakoczy March. ITALIAN, Garibaldi's warlike hymn, com- posed by Mercantino, and Godfredo Mameli's Italian brethren, Italy has awaked I EUSSIAN, God, protect the Czar I SCOTCH Jacobite Songs : The king shall enjoy his own again, and When the king comes o'er the water. The Lilli- buiero of 1688 created a most marvel- lous furore. War in Algeria (The), 1827-1847. France owed two Jewish merchants of Algiers 100,OOOZ., the balance due for the Egyptian expedition. Hussein dey of Algiers pressed for payment, and asked the French consul why his master did not reply to the letter sent. The consul insolently replied, ' The king of France holds no correspondence with the dey of Algiers.' Whereupon the dey struck him on the face. This insult could not be overlooked, and war ensued, which ended in France taking Algeria, and annexing it to France. War of Calmar (The), 1611-1618. This war was carried on between Chris- tian IV. king of Denmark and Charles IX. of Sweden, and, after the death of Charles, with Gustavus Adolphus. The real cause of the war was jealousy with Sweden, which had broken away from the ' Union.' The ostensible reason was interruption of Danish commerce in the ports of the Gulf of Riga. The war con- sisted in destroying each other's towns and ports. It was brought to an end by the mediation of James I. of England. War of Candia (The), 1667-1668, between the Venetians and the Turks. So relentless was this war, that the ex- pression ' Una Guerra di Candia ' became in Venice synonymous with ' war to the knife.' In this terrible siege 80,000 Christians were slain, and although the Turks ultimately became masters of the island, yet they lost in the siege more than 120,000 men. War of Chiozza (The), 1878-1881, between Venice and Genoa. Chiozza was taken by the Genoese under Pietro Doria 16 Aug., 1879, but recovered by the Vene- tians June 24, 1380. The recovery of Chiozza is one of the most marvellous of fell the romances of history. WarofDevolution(TJte).'Gaerr de Devolution,' 1667. The war proclaimed by Louis XIV. against Spain to enforce his pretension to a part of the Spanish Netherlands, founded on an old custom of the Netherlands called ' Le droit de Devolution.' The law was this: 'Lea immeubles apporte*s en mariage par 1'un des e*poux devinssenb la propridte" dea enfants du premier lit lorsque le pcre ou la mere contractaient un second mariage.' Now Maria Theresa was the daughter of the first wife of Philippe IV., but Carlos II. of the second wife. The war was brought to a close by the Treaty of Aix la-Chapelle, 2 May, 1668, by which treaty all Flanders was ceded to France. Louis XIV. married Maria Theresa of AnstrU, daughter of the King of Spain. War of Honain (The), AJ>. 629- 682, between Mahomet and the Arabian idolaters of Mecca. So called from the Valley of Honain, where the great con- flict was decided. The battle was first lost by Mahomet and then recovered by hi* uncle Abbas. After this victory and the siege of Fayef, Mecca was lastingly con- verted to the winning side of the Koran, War of Independence. I. In North America (1774-1782), tee p. 24, * American War of Independence.' H. In Scotland (12D7-1828). The wars carried on by Wallace and Bruce to liberate Scotland from the English crown. Bands of Scotch insurgent* rose against Edward I. before 1297, but in that year the insurrection became general. The independence of Scotland was recognised in a parliament at North* ampton, 4 March, 1328. This recognition wus due to the great Scotch victory at Bannockburn (24 Juno. 1314'. the defeat of the army of Edward II. at isiland Abbey, in Yorkshire, in 1323, and a victory over Edward ILL. in 1827. HI. In Hungary (1848-1849). Through the treachery of General Goergey this struggle terminated fatally to the Hungar- ians. Austria called in the aid of Russia. War of La Radde (The), 1573. A war against the Vaudois by the French. The Vaudois showed so determined a front that the French were glad to come to terms of peace. La Radde was the officer who commanded the French troops. This was a continuance of the St. Bartholomew slaughter, begun in Aug. 1572. War of Liberation (The). The war between Germany and Napoleon L WAR WAR to throw off the French yoke. It began in 1813 and ended in 1815. First Prussia and Russia made an offensive and de- fensive alliance, 27 Feb., 1818. Sweden joined on 14 March, and on 16 March Prussia declared war on Napoleon. Austria joined the alliance 27 June, and declared war with France on 12 Aug. Bavaria joined 8 Oct. (all in the year 1813). It terminated with the Treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan., 1814, in favour of national independence. The French won the battles of Lfltaen, 2 May ; Bautzen, 19-21 May ; and Dresden, 26, 27 Aug. ' They were defeated at Grossbeeran, 28 Aug.; Katzbach, 21 Aug. ; Kulm, 29, 80 Aug. ; Dennewitz, t> Sept.: Wartenberg, 2 Oct.; and at Leipsic. 16-19 Oct. War of Mityle'ne (The), B.C. 606, between the Athenians and Mitylenians. Phrynon the Athenian attacked Mity- lene, which was defended by Pittacos. The two leaders agreed to decide the battle by single combat. Pittacos threw a net over his antagonist, and while Phrynon was struggling to extricate him- self, despatched him and won the victory. Mitylene (4 syl.). War of Proclamations (The), be- tween General Burgoyne on the side of the English and General Schuyler on the side of the United States. 1. General Burgoyne issued in June a pompous proclamation threatening to punish with the utmost severity those who refused to side with the British government. 2. At Skenesborough, in July, he issued a second proclamation summoning the people to send deputies to deliberate on the measures to be adopted to save from destruction those who had not yet con- formed to his former proclamation. 8. General Schuyler issued a counter- proclamation assuring the people they would be accounted traitors if they obeyed the proclamations of General Burgoyne. War of Schmalkald (The), 1547, by the Kaiser against the ' Schmalkaldio League ' (q.v.), under a plea made to the pope of extirpating heresy, and to the German s of putting down rebellion. The real object of the war was the lust of dominion. The Protestant princes, alive to the danger of this alliance between kaiser and pope, assembled at Ratisbon and determined on resistance, but were overthrown. War of the Amorous (The), or ' The War of the Lovers,' 1577-1578. The seventh religious war of France ; so called because it arose out of some scandalous intrigues of the French court. In fact, Catharine de Medicis, in order to break up the Huguenot party, invited many of them to balls and fetes, where she surrounded herself with maids of honour more beautiful and fascinating than moral. Gallantries and intrigues naturally took place. One effect of this was to detach the Due d'Alencon from the court party and ally him to the reformers. It is said that the real motive of this change was the hope of marrying the English queen, Elizabeth. He died in 1584. War of the Austrian Succes- sion (The), 1740-1745. On the death of Kaiser Karl VI. the question was who had a right to succeed him. Properly. females could not occupy the throne of Austria ; but Karl VI., by a decree called the ' Pragmatic Sanction,' made his only child Maria Theresa his heir. Ba- varia, Saxony, Prussia, Sardinia, and Naples all made rival claims, but Karl Albert elector of Bavaria had the best claim, and next Frederick Augustus elector of Saxony. Prussia demanded Silesia, Sardinia demanded Milan, and Spain demanded Bohemia and Hungary. Ultimately the war was left to Bavaria and Prussia ; the Elector of Bavaria was crowned kaiser in 1744, lost his electorate, and was kaiser only in name. He died in Jan. 1745. Maria Theresa agreed to restore the electorate of Bavaria to his son Maximilian Joseph, and the elector agreed to give up all claim to the crown of Austria. This being settled, the hus- band of Maria Theresa was crowned kaiser 4 Oct., 1745 (the same year). In 1756 broke out the Seven Years' War between Maria Theresa and Frederick H. (the Great) of Prussia. War of the Bastards ( The). ' La Guerre des Batards,' 1324. A war be- tween Charles IV. of France and Ed- ward IE. of England, supported by the Gascons. ' Dite La Guerre des Bdtards, les batards de la noblesse. War of the Cam'isards (The). 1702-1704. The Count de Broglie began it with horrible savagery, but in 1703 lie WAB WAB was recalled, and the war was conducted by Marshal de Montrevel. War of the Giants (The), B.C. 1842. The third revolt of the Titans or sons of the earth. These revolters were ultimately overcome by Herakles (Her- cules). The battle of Marlgnano, 161B, la called the battle of the Giants,' from the great valour displayed by the combatants. It was won by Francois I. War of the Mercenaries, B.C. 241-288. A terrible war which Carthage had to sustain in Africa with the mer- cenaries because they were not paid. It occurred between the first and second Punic Wars, the leaders being Mathos and Spendius. Hamilcar was sent against the insurgents, and massacred gome 40,000 entrapped in a defile. War of the Peasants (The), 1625. Waged by the Elector of Saxony and the German princes against the Ana- baptists, headed by Munzer, Stubner, Storck, and others. Munzer was taken prisoner and beheaded. War of the Polish Succession (The), 1733-1738. The case was this: On the death of Sobieski king of Poland, in 1674, Frederick elector of Saxony was chosen king. At the death of Frederick, in 1788, two claimants were put forward, Stanislaus, a Pole, and Frederick Au- gustus elector of Saxony. As Stanis- laus was the father-in-law of Louis XV. his claim was backed by France, but Germany took the side of the elector. The war ended in a compromise: Ger- many gave up Lorraine to Stanislaus, and agreed to exchange Naples and Sicily for Tuscany and Parma. This being done, Frederick Augustus wag allowed to keep the throne of Poland. War of the Rustards (The), also called ' The War of the Peasants,' 1525. A rising of the peasants of Alsatia, excited by the Anabaptists. The leader was Erasmus Gerbert of Molsheim. Chased from Alsatia by the Due de Lor- raine, they took refuge in Germany and amalgamated with the Anabaptists. War of the Sacramentaries (The), 1524. The paper war or contro- versy between the followers of Luther and those of Zwingli, the Swiss reformer, oo the subject of the Eucharist. Luther maintained that, though the bread re- mained bread and the wine remained wine after consecration, yet the body of Christ was transfused into the elements and was taken into the mouth by com- municants. Zwingli maintained that no guch transfusion took place at all, but that the bread and wine were simply symbols of the body and blood of Christ, well calculated to remind communicants of the sacrifice of Christ and nothing more. Oarlostadt. (Ecolampadlns, Monoer.Btorck.and Martin Bucer sided with Zwingli. War of the Spanish Succes- sion (The), 1700-1714. Carlos II. had no child, and at his death four claimants to the throne of Spain arose viz. the King of France, the Emperor of Ger- many, the Elector of Bavaria, and the King of Savoy. The last two retired and left the field to the other two. Louis XIV. wag the cousin of Carlos and son- in-law of Philip IV., whose eldest daughter he had married. Carlos had recognised this claim by leaving the crown to Philippe d'Anjou second son of the dauphin, but Louis XIV. by the Treaty of the Pyrenees had renounced all claim to the Spanish crown. Leopold of Germany claimed the crown for his second son Karl, whose mother was also a daughter of Philip IV. War succeeded, and lasted for twelve years. England opposed France, and wag joined by Hol- land, Portugal, Savoy, Brandenburg, and of course Germany. The French won the battles of Almanza. Fia- vicw.ii, and Dtnain ; bat lost those of Blenheim. Ramlllles, Turin. Oudenarde, and Malplaqnet. The Treaty of Utrecht left France in possession of Spain. War of the Three Henris (The), 1584-1589 i.e. Henri III. of France, Henri of Navarre, and Henri due de Guise. On the death of the Duo d'Alencon in 1584, Henri of Navarre was leader of the Protestant party in France ; whereupon Henri due de Guise put himself at the head of the Catholic league; Henri III., jealous of both parties, resolved to bring them to obedi- ence. The king was driven from Paris, the Due de Guise was assassinated, Henri III. was also assassinated, and Henri of Navarre succeeded to the crown of France, under the name and title of Henri IV , but he also wag sinated. WAB War of the Uscocchi (The), or ' Uskoks,' 1592-1617. The Uskoks were pirates who for a century infested the Adriatic. They first settled in Clissa, then removed to Zara, and finally to Segna. They were Dalmatian fugitives who gave sanctuary to the proscribed of all nations, and were both numerous and formidable. By the treaty of Madrid, 16 Sept., 1717, the Venetians and Austrians stipulated to extirpate the Uskoks, and the horde disappeared. Uskoks means fugitives. The Russian lukakat, to run away, is the key to the word. Wars of Cappel, 1529-1531. See p. 143, ' Cappel.' Wars of the Hoses (The), 1455- 1485. Between the Houses of York (white) and Lancaster (the red rose). It began with the battle of St. Albans, 23 May, 1455, and ended with the battle of Bosworth Field, 22 Aug., 1488. The chief battles were Wakefield, 1460, won by the Lancastrians (in this battle fell Richard duke of York, claimant of the crown), and those of St. Albans, North- ampton, Towton, Hexham, Barnet, and Tewkesbury, won by the Yorkists. A. white rose formed the badge of the House of York, and a red rose was the cognizance of the House of Lancaster. The political effects of the war were (1) the ruin of the ancient baronage ; and (2) the growth of monarchical power, being relieved of the baronial check. Wars of the Silesian Succes- sion. Between Frederick II. of Prussia and Maria Theresa of Austria for the possession of Silesia. The first war (1740-1742). Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederick II. of Prussia by the treaty of Berlin. The second war (1744-1745). Maria Theresa confirmed Silesia to Prussia by the treaty of Dresden. Between the first and second Silesian war WM (ought the battle of Dettingen, 27 June, 1748. The third war (the ' Seven Years' War,' 1756-1763), when Silesia was finally ceded to Prussia by the treaty of Hubertsburg. Wars of the Tributary Princes (The). An intestine commotion of China, which lasted with short intervals 450 years (B.C. 770-320); called by the Chinese the Chen-kuo (fighting kings). The most powerful of these states were GET, founded by Nang-lee-wang; TCHAD, by Heao- tchlng-wang; HAN, by Huon-hocj ; TSEE, by Wang, kiit and TSIN, by Tchao-siang-wang. Wars with the Albigenses (The). The first was from 1208 to 1229, WARDSHIP 987 in the reign of Philippe Auguste. It was entrusted to Simon de Montfort, called ' The French Maccabasus.' The second was in 1226, in the reign of Louis VIII., the Lion. Louis himself was the leader, instigated by Pope Hono- rius III. to ' purge the land of heretics.' The third was from 1545-1547, in the reign of Francois I. Warbeek Plot (The), 1490-1499, of which Margaret duchess of Burgundy was the prime mover. The person she selected to personate her nephew, Rich- ard duke of York, second son of Edward IV., who (she said) had made his escape from the Tower, was a Flemish lad named Peter Osbeck, generally called Perkin Warbeek. The lad was invited to the French court, but soon abandoned. He then made his appearance in Ireland, in what is termed the Pale (q.v,), and in 1495 started for Scotland. He was re- ceived by the Scotch king James IV., who gave to him in marriage Catherine Gordon, granddaughter of James I. In 1497 he returned to Ireland, fled to Corn- wall; and in 1499 was executed at Tyburn. Warbeek of the North (The), 1598. Otrepieff, who personated Deme- trius, the prince murdered by Boris. As Warbeek married Catherine Gordon, so this mock Demetrius married Marina, daughter of the Palatine Sandomir. He was murdered in an insurrection in 1605. Warbeck was hanged for insurrection. See 'Richard IV.' Warden, in Oxford University. The title held by the head of five of the colleges : All Souls, Keble, Merton, New College, and Wadham. Warden of the Cinque Ports. The custodian of Dover Castle was cre- ated by William the Conqueror warden of the Cinque Ports (q.v.). The juris- diction of this office was very greatly abridged by 18, 19 Viet. c. 48. Warden of the Stannaries (Lord). An officer who has the adminis- tration of the metal mines of Devon and Cornwall. When Edward in. created his infant son ' prince of Wales,' he con- ferred on him these stannaries. Wardship. Custody of the body and estate of minors holding under the king, till the minor, if a male, was 21, and, if a female, was 16 years of age. 988 WARMING-PANS WATCHE9 The lord gave no account to anyone of his stewardship. Introduced by William the Conqueror, and abolished by 12 Car. IL o. 24. Warming-pans. Jacobites, so called because Mary d'Este, wife of James II., says rumour, never had a living child of her own, but, wishing for an heir, she had a male child brought to her in a warming-pan, which she substi- tuted for her own still-born babe. This ' warming-pan heir ' was James HI. the Pretender, called 'The Warming-pan Hero.' See Macaulay, ' Hist, of England,' ii. 808; and Miss Strickland, ' Queens of England,' vi. 218, 248. What gave Borne colour to the scandal are the facts that the chUd was born at least a month before its time, and at its birth none of the per- Hons most interested in the matter were present. Thus the Princess Anne was not present, nor yet the Archbishop of Canterbury, nor yet the Dutch Ambassador, nor any one of the Hyde family. William of Orange, in his manifesto, openly refers to ' the son and heir ' of James II. as spurious ; but yet the probability is that there was really no collusion. Warren's Cay airy, 1887. Mounted London police. Sir Charles Warren was Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Force. '"Warren's Cavalry" armed to the teeth. 1 Newspaper paragraph, 80 Jan., 1888. Warrior Lady of Latham (The). Charlotte countess of Derby, daughter of Claude de la Tremouille (peer of France) and of Charlotte daughter of William I. prince of Orange. Born 1601, died 1664. The earl joined the king's troops, and left his house at Latham in charge of his wife. The Parliamentary army de- manded its surrender, but the countess returned answer, ' It does not suit me.' For eight months she held out, when Sir T. Fairfax retired, leaving Colonel Rigby in command of the besieging troops. At length Prince Rupert came to the rescue, and Rigby raised the siege. Warrior of Freedom (The). Giu- seppe Garibaldi (1807-1882). Wartburg Contests (The), or ' Battles of the Minnesingers.' An annual prize given by Hermann margraf of Thuringia for the best minne-song. It was given in honour of his wife Sophia, and all the best minstrels attended. About 150 of these prize-songs are still extant. Those by Walter of Vogel- werde are the best. See ' Minnesingers.' There is a poem so called. It is by Wolfram, and records the contests of the Thuringlan and 8o bian poets. Wasa (The Dynasty o/), or ' Vasa. 1 Gustavus Vasa broke off Sweden from Denmark, to which it had been united for 126 years that is, from the ' Union of Calmar' (1497-1523). Norway still remained in the union till 1818, when it was taken from Denmark by the allies and attached to Sweden. Wasa (Knights of), Sweden, 1772. Decoration is a gold sword hung on watered blue ribbon. The name of the founder is inscribed in a purple cartouche. Wat Tyler's Insurrection, 1881. A rising of the peasantry against serf Age. It was a servile war produced by oppres- sion and misery. John Ball, a Kentish priest, was the stump orator of the day, and told the people that as all men came from Adam and Eve all men had equal rights, and it was gross oppression that some should be gentlemen and others serfs. The real cause of the insurrection was a poll-tax to defray the expenses of the war in France. The insurgents mus- tered in great force on Blackheath, where they had an interview with Richard IL The king invited Wat Tyler to a confer- ence in Smithfield, when Sir William Walworth, lord mayor of London, despatched him with a dagger, and the king induced the rioters to disperse. The tax especially objected to was one to enable John of Gaunt to dispute with Henry of Trastamare the crown of Castile in right of his wife Constance, a natural daughter of Pedro the Cruel. The mayors of London were created ' lord mayors' by Edward III. Walbingham calls Wat Tyler ' Wat the heller ' (Ang.-Sax. hel-an,' to cover '). Watches. It is said that Robert L (Bruce) had a watch about 1810. Watches were used by Purbach in astronomical ob- servations in 1 500. Those made at Nurem- berg in 1477 were egg-shaped. Cornelius van Dreble and James Torrianellus introduced great improvements in 1580. Henry VHI. (1509-1547) certainly had a watch. In 1572 the Earl of Leicester presented one to Queen Elizabeth. It is thus spoken of : One armelet or shakell of golde all over fairly garnished with small diamondes and fower score and one smaller poeces fully garnished with like diamondes, and hanginge thereat a ronnde clocke fullie garnished with dinmoudee and an appendant of diamondes banging thereat. Pretty common in Shakespeare's time, and often alluded to in plays. WATCHWORDS WELLINGTON'S 89 Watchwords. Of course military watchwords are frequently changed ; still, it is interesting to know the watchwords of great military men. The following are well known : Brutus, Liberia* ; Caesar, Venus genitrix ; Marius, Lar deus ; Sylla or Sulla, Apollo Delphicus. Waterlanders (The). Mild Men- nonites, who split off from the general body in 1554, and are BO called from Waterland, in Holland. Watling Street. A great Roman road running from Dover to Caernarvon- shire in Wales. A hranch ran to Scotland. It passed through Canterbury and Rochester to London, then ran to Uriconium and Chester Into Wales. From Uriconium a branch ran to Manchester, Lancaster, and Kendal. Wattier's Club, at the corner of Bolton Street. In the time of the regency this was the club for all the marriageable young heirs to ancestral honours, and all the penniless younger sons whose dowry was their animal spirits. It is best known to fame for the masquerade at- tended by the prince regent, into which Caroline forced her way and created a fresh scandal. Waynflete Professorships (The). One of moral philosophy, and one of chemistry, in Oxford University. Formed from three prselectorsliips of Magdalen College in 1854. Annual stipend 6001. each. William of Waynflete, bishop of Winchester, founded Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1448. Waywode (2 syl.). 1. A farmer of the revenue of a district in the Ottoman empire. 2. A former military title of Russia and Poland. 8. A former ruler in the Danubian pro- vinces of Turkey. Weapons of War and Armour. Battle axes : the beat were Danish. Casques : M of Poitiers. Hauberks: of Rouen. Swords : * of Damascus, Cologne, and Toledo, in Spain. Wec'habites (8 syl.). Generally called ' Wahabites ' (q.v.). Wedmore, in Somersetshire (Peace of), 878. Between Alfred king of Eng- land and Guthrum the Dane, settled in East Anglia. This treaty followed Alfred's great victory at Edington, and by its terms Guthrum consented to be baptized. Week of Expectation (The). ' Hebdomada Expectations.' The sixth week after Easter, when pur Lord said to his apostles : ' Manete in hap civitate, et expectate usque dum induamini virtute ex alto ' (Luke xxiv. 49). Week of the Cross (The), or 1 Hebdomada Crucis,' is Rogation week. Weeping Crosses. So called be- cause, in Catholic tunes, penances were finished before them. Weeping Philosopher (The). Heraclltos the Ephesian, who died B.C. 495, aged sixty. So called because he was ever mourning over the follies and frailty of man, and the vicissitudes of all human affairs. See p. 630, ' Obscure Phi- losopher.' Weliki-Iiuki (Treaty of), 20 July, 1812. Of alliance between Spain and Russia. Well-beloved (The). 'Le Bien- aimeY Louis XV. (1710, 1715-1774). The contest was carried into the reign of the Well-beloved.'-Hisi. of France. How such a licentious, heartless, and Bin- gularly Unmoral man could be ' well-beloved ' if past all human understanding. Wellington Administration (The), 1829-1830. That of Prince Poli- gnac was so called by the French. It was a retrograde Tory administration, con- temporary with the administration of the Duke of Wellington in England. Wellington Statues. I. By Boehm at Hyde Park Place, unveiled 21 Dec., 1888. The figures round the pedestal represent the four nationalities engaged in the battle of Waterloo in 1815 viz. (1) The British Guardsmen; (-2) the 42nd Highlanders; (3) the Inniskilling Dragoons; and (4) the 23rd Welsh Fusiliers. n. The bronze statue of Achilles, 18 June, 1822, by the women of England, and made of the cannons taken at Sala- manca, Vittoria, Toulouse, and Waterloo. It was originally placed in the south-east angle of Hyde Park, near Apsley House. III. Equestrian statue of the Dtfke of Wellington surmounting the Marble Arch. Hyde Park Corner, set up in 1846, taken down 24 Jan., 1883. See p. 181, 1 Burton Arch.' Wellington's Assassin. Can- tillon, to whom Napoleon I. left a legacy for his base attempt, and to whom Napo- leon HT, paid the legacy. Whether Napoleon hired this villain or not to do 040 WELSH WESTERN the damning deed is not of the slightest moment. He certainly set his hand and seal to the full approval thereof, and it is but charity to believe that both Napo- leon I, when he made the legacy and Napoleon III. when he paid it were ' po- litically insane.' Cantillon was alive and in Paris in 1859. WelshCalvinisticMethodists, 1748. Organised by Charles of Bala, a clergyman of the Church of England. They believe in the ' Thirty-nine Articles ' taken in a Calvinistic sense. In church government they are Presbyterian. Welsh Mortgage (A). A pledge of land in which there is no day fixed for redemption. Such a mortgage is redeem- able at any time on payment of the loan. A'vif fiago' (rtrum radium) Is a conveyance of property to a creditor and his heirs till be baa (out of the profits of the estate) satisfied the debt with interest. As neither debt nor interest is lost, neb a gage is living i.e. does not lapse or (all. Wenceslaus the Worthless. One of the promiscuous kaiser-kings of Ger- many (1857, 1878-1400, deposed and died 1419). It was a frightful period. In Germany wa Wencenlaus the Worthless, In France Charles VI. the idiot, in England Richard II. the fop. There were two popes anathematising each other, one at Rome and the other at Avignon. Werela (Peace of), 14 Aug., 1790. Between Sweden and Russia. In this treaty the limits of both states were re- established according to the provision* of former treaties. Wesleyan Conference (The), 1744. The original conference consisted of six Methodist clergymen of the Church of England and four lay preachers, who met together in London to consult on the continuance of the work. Subsequent conferences have been annually held since. Wesleyan Methodist Associa- tion (The), 1835. Seceders from the old Methodist Connection from an objec- tion to the Conference, which they thought to be tyrannical, especially in excluding laymen from any share in the general management. Wesleyan Methodist Reform- ers (The). Seceders from the Methodist Connection, who object to the overbearing authority of the Conference, and espe- cially to the exclusion of those who dared to censure their proceedings. (19th oeufc.; about 1840.) Wesleyan Methodists, 1788. The Arminian Methodists organized by John Wesley. The Calvinistic Methodists led by Whltfleld separated In 1752. The ' Wesleyan Methodist Church,' 1843, was formed at Utica, and object to Episcopal titles. Wesleyan Reform Union (The), 1849. Those Reformed Methodists who did not join the United Methodist Free Church. Western Church (The), or 'Latin Church ' ; as they call themselves, ' The Catholic Church ' ; as others call them, 'The Roman Catholic Church,' separated from the Eastern Church about 324-384. In 600 the word ' pope ' was limited to the Bishop of Rome ; the Bishop of Constan- tinople being called ' patriarch ' since 588. Of course the Eastern Church was established before the Western, and the Western Church sepa- rated on the moot point whether the bishop of Rome or patriarch of the East vrere the hl.) slanged the fi'titionert (7.0.) as Whigs. The term was not used in Kngland as a political designation ?111G80. Tory is about equal lo Rapparee. As Ab- liorrers called tho Petitioners by way of contempt ir/iif/.cc me Petitioners returned the contumely l>y calling the Abhorrers Toritt . Tory is trom an Irish verb, meaning to pursue "r plunder. Whig of the Revolution (A). So George III. called himself. Not the French but the English revolution. He abhorred the former, but owed his crown to the latter. Whig Bible. See ' Placemakers' Bible ' and ' Bible.' Whig Club (The), 1798, in Irish history, was instituted to promote reform by pressure from without, through the agency of voluntary associations. It was afterwards superseded by the society of the United Irishmen (y.v.). See p. 465, 1 Irish Associations.' Whigs* Vault (The). A subter- ranean dungeon in the castle of Dunnottar where the Privy Council of Scotland, in 1685, shut up a number of prisoners sup- posed to be hostile to the government. In this prison .... still termed the Whigs 1 Vault, several died of the diseases incidental to uch a situation. Sir W. SCOTT, Old Mortality (Introduction). Whigamores (The). The rigid Presbyterian party, under the leadership of the Marquis of Argyll. After the de- feat of the Duke of Hamilton, leader of the Engagers (q.v.) or moderate Presby- terians, the Marquis of Argyll, witli 6,000 followers, marched to Edinburgh and made himself head of the government (1648). The word contracted into ' Whigs ' was applied to the Presbyterians of Scot- land opposed to the Royalists or Mulig- nants, and was subsequently applied to all those who denied the divine right of kings, the supremacy of royal preroga- tives, and the dogma of passive obedi- The etymology of the word is doubtful, derive it from I'tjfmm-morf, pack-saddle thieves; others from uhig. in horse language, meaning ' get on ' ; others more wittily than truly from an anagram ' We Hope In God.' In the 'Encyclopedia Hrltannlca 1 we read: The Whigs were so denominated from a cant name given to the Presbyterian conventlclors : "whig," milk turned sour; and Tories received that honourable appellation from the Irish ban* dittl ao called the Irish word toree being equal to " stand and deliver I " ' Whig or Whey is butter- milk. Whigamores* Inroad (The), or 1 The Whigamore Raid,' 1648. Cromwell with 8,000 men having defeated Lang- dale, whose army amounted to 20,000 men, made his way into Scotland, when the Marquis of Argyll, and the Earls Cassilis and Eglintoun, at the head of the Presbyterians of the west country and the Highlands, marched to Edin- burgh, and conducted Cromwell to the metropolis in triumph. This expedition of the Covenanters to Edinburgh gave the finishing blow to the royal cause in Scotland, and is known in history as the 'Whigamore's Inroad' or 'Whigamore Raid. ('Encyclop. Britannica,' v. 411.) The Duke of Hamilton supported what is called ' the Engagement ' (4.0.) in the Scotch parliament. Tho Marquis of Argyll opposed it. The Duke of Hamilton was defeated at Warrington (1648), and surrendered to Cromwell. Whip with six strings (The\ 81 Hen. VIIL o. 14, AJ>. 1539. 'The Bloody Statute.' See the ' Six Articles. Whipping Boy (A). A boy kept to be whipped when a prince deserved chastisement. EDWARD VL Barnaby Fltipatrlck stood fo Edward VI. HKNRI IV. of France. D'Ossat and Du Perron, afterwards cardinals, were whipped by deim-nt VIII. for HenrilV.-FULLKH, Ckurch Hiti^ CHARLES I. Mungo Hurray stood for Charles L JAMBS I. of England. We are told that Goorge Buchanan would not punish tho Scotch by hu Insti- tution , and when the Countess of Mar corn ; i of his whipping tho prince, he stoutly confi-hHod It. and said he would do it again if the boy blun- dered over his Latin declensions. Ixwage, in his 'Oil Bias 1 makes Raphael to be flogged for the son of the Marquis de Leganes ; but Raphael, not seeing the justice of this arrange- nient. ran away (v. I). Whipping Post (The), to which Jesus was fastened at the scourging, is now shown at Rome through iron railings in a little chapel in the church of St. Praxede's ; and over it is inscribed worda to the effect that John de Colonna brought it to Rome in 1223. The socle of the post, however, is in St. Mark's Cathedral, Venice. The post is of erey marble, a foot and a half long, one fo )t in diameter at the base and eight inches at the top, where an iron ring is inserted, to which the victim was tied. See p. 281, ' Crucifixion, Relics of the.' White and Black Face, in Turkish phraseology, are terms of praise WHITE WHITE 948 and reproach, meaning bright and down- cast. M hen the Janizaries were enrolled, a dervish blessed the now levies and said, ' Wheresoever they go, may they return with white facet.' Olbbon tella us that the Romans had the sentence ' Hie niger est, hunc tu, Eomane, caveto.' Decline and Fall, chap. Ixiv., and nate. We also speak of a downcast leaden look. And Bay he looked black In the face ; looked black at me ; you need not look BO black. White and Black Factions (The). The Ommiades (whose colour was white), and the Abbassides (whose colour was black). Green was the colour of the Fatimites (8 syl.). From the Indus to the Euphrates the east was convulsed by the quarrels of the White and Black factions. GIBBON, chap. 111. White and Crimson. In the Valois-Angouleme dynasty Protestant soldiers wore white jackets and scarfs, but the Catholic soldiers wore crimson jackets and scarfs. The Swiss guard wore a grey uniform. White Battle (The), 20 Sept., 1819. The battle of Mytton, in Yorkshire, was so called from the number of clerks who fell. It was between the Scots (under Douglas and Randolph) and the forces of William of Melton archbishop of York. It is said that at 1< a,t 300 men in holy orders were slain, and many were taken prisoners, among whom was William de Ayremyn (afterwards bishop of Norwich). Bishop Hotham of Ely narrowly escaped being taken captive. The battle is some- times jocosely spoken of as ' The Chapter of Mitton.' Of tha yhet thro hundreth war Prestis that delt [died] intill that chai I Tharforo that bar^ane callit was ' The Chaptour of Mytouii,' for thar* Slain so many preatis war. BAKBOUB, The Brut. White Books. The official reports of both Germany and Portugal are etitohed in white wrappers. See ' Blue Books,' 'Black Books,' 'Bed Books,' ' Yellow Books.' White Brotherhood (The). The adventurers led by John Hawkwood (14th cent.). An English mercenary, John Hawkwood, with a band of adventurers, the White Brotherhood, had i Italy from the Alps to Calabria. GIBBON, chap. xlvl. White Camisards, 1703. Catho- lic volunteers, under the name of Cadets of the Cross or White Camisards, joined the regular troops of Marshal Montrevel aw auxiliaries to extirpate tbfc Camisards of the Cevennes, called by Pope Clement XI. ' a cursed brood from the execrable race of the Albigenses.' See p. 96, ' Black Camisards.' A military night surprise la a cami$ada. Thus the taking of Pontoise in 1419 was a carulsade, and the battle of Pa via in 1521 began with a camlsade. White Canons. Canons, like the Premonstratensians, who wore white habits. See ' Canons,' ' Black Canons.' White Caps were worn by the Volones or volunteer slaves as a token of liberty. Then Qracchus fulfilled his promise to the Volones, and celebrated their enfranchisement by a public festival, In which they all appeared wearing white caps In token of liberty.- 'i fie iStu- dent't Home, p. 256. White Caps (in the U.S., 1889-1890), bodies of self-constituted 'regulators' and correctors of morals. White Caps (The), 1768. A sedi- tious faction in China put down by the Emperor Kien-16ng. They were zealous Mahometans. See p. 120, ' Brethren of the White Caps. 1 White City (The). Belgrade, called Alba Grcecia by the Franks in the 9th cent. White Coats (The). I. The train- bands, as the 'Bed Coats' were the regular soldiers, and the ' Blue Jackets ' the sailors. II. The Earl of Newcastle's pikemen. chiefly Roman Catholics, in the time of Charles I. They woie white coats. White Company (The). A com- pany of adventurers which, after the wars of Edward III. in France, passed into the service of the Marquis of Mont- ferrat. When they were employed by the Pisans against Florence the famous Sir John Hawkwood was their commander. White Cross Knights (The). The Knights Hospitallers, who had a white cross on their black robes. The Knight* Templars were the Red Cross Knights, their badge being a red cross on a white robe. See ' Poor Brothers of St. John.' White Eagle (Knights of the), 1825. A Polish order instituted by Ladislaa king of Poland on the marriage of his son Casimir with Anne, daughter of the Grand Duko of Lithuania. The ribbon was blue. Extinct. White Flag (The). Emblem ol legitimacy in France. The flag of the 044 WHITE WHITE Bourbon monarchs. Ordinarily, the white flag craves for truce and peace ; a black flag indicates a pirate ; a red flag, defiance ; a yellow flag, that the vessel is in quaran- tine. Those who reverence the symbol of the White Flag may feel that its latent upholder [the Comte de Chambord] did nothing to bully its purity. Daily AVi/-, Sept. 8, 1888. / A white flag as a railway signal means the rail is clear, and everything in order; a red flag Bonifies danger, and means stop; a green flag intimates that caution is required. White Flagellants (The). So called from their white mantles. See 1 Flagellants,' and ' Blancs Battus.' White Friars (The), 1171. The Carmelites. So called from the colour of their dress, as the Dominicans were called ' Black Friars ' and the Franciscans 1 Grey Friars.' White Hats (The). L In Flandert, were in the 14th cent, the badge of the democratic party, led by Jacob van Arte- velde, the great brewer of Ghent, who was elected their captain in 1338, and was assassinated in 1845. Their next captain was John Lyon, who was sup- posed to be poisoned by the court party in 1381. Philip van Artevelde, son of the great brewer, next assumed the white hat of the party. He was slain in the battle of Rosebeque, Nov. 1882. II. White hats were used in England to denote radical proclivities, because Orator Hunt (1773-1885), the great dema- gogue, during the Wellington and Peel administration, used to wear a white hat. Lord Liverpool, who was prune minister for fifteen years (1812-1827), rendered the badge no longer distinctive by adopting a white hat himself. White Hood House (The). The Regents' or Upper House of the Univer- sity of Cambridge. So called because the Masters of Arts wore hoods lined with white silk. It consisted of Masters of Arts of less than five years' standing, and of Doctors of less than two. If of loiiLrcr standing, they belonged to the Black Hood House (q.v.), called the non- regent or Lower House. All this was abolished in 1858. See ' Senate.' Regents originally meant tutors, lecturers, and professors. Members of the University having served their time were exempt from these duties, and Masters of Arts took off the white lining of their hoods to show they were non-regents. White Hoods (The), or ' Les Chaperons Blancs.' I. 1879. The work- men of Ghent, when they revolted against the Duke of Burgundy, adopted as their badge a white hood. n. 1407-1415. All Paris, on the assassination of the Duo d'0rle"ans, was divided into two factions the Burgun- dians under Jean-sans-Peur duke of Burgundy, and the Armagnacs, who were partisans of the Orleanists. The Bur- gundians adopted for their badge a St. Andrew's cross on a white hood, the Armagnacs adopted a St. George's cross. After a tune the Cabocians were enlisted by Jean-sans-Peur, and wore as their badge white hoods. So violent were these rowdies that they compelled the doctors of the Sorbonne to wear the white hood, and, having got the dauphin into their power, made him also adopt the same badge. See p. 848, 'French Brigands.' White Huns (The), or the 'Hia- tilla.' The Huns of Sogdiana. Called White Huna by the Greeks. ' a cause da leur civilisation et de leur douceur.' BotJlLLET. Gibbon says, chap. xxvi.. they were called White Huns from the change of complexions. The BUBS of the North are the black Calmucks. White Knight (The), or 'Chevalier Blanc de Valaigne ' (i.e. Valachia), John Corvlnus Hunniades, the Hungarian general (1400-1456). The Turks, who employed his name to frighten their perverse children, called him Jancus Lain (or the Wicked). The white knight fought with the hand rathe* than the head. GIBBON, IxvlL White Knight of Wallachia (The). Same as the preceding. White Laws. The Jus Honora- rium, or Edicts of the Roman praetors. Red Laws or Rubrics were the Civil Law. Alii se ad Album [i*. jus prntorlum, qula Prsetores edlcta sua In albo proponebant] ao Rubricas [.. Jus ciyile] transtulerunt. QUINTI. LIAN, xil. 8, 11. The Imperial Rescripts were written in purple Ink. White Mantles (The). I. The Servites (2 syl.), or 'Servitors of the Virgin.' A religious order founded in Florence in 1232. So called from their white mantles. The order was suppressed in France in 1274, but still subsists in Italy. II. Williamites (8 syl.), or ' Guillem- ites' (8 syl.), were also called 'White Mantles ' from their large white mantles. This was a religious order founded by WHITE WHITE 015 William of Malavalle, which spread through all Italy, Germany, and France. White Monks. The Bernardines or Cistercians. So called from the colour of their habit. The Dominicans wore a bloc* habit, the Fran- cisoans a grey one. White Penitents, 1899. These were men, women, girls, boys, townsfolk and countryfolk, nobles and burghers, laity and clergy, all with bare feet and dressed in white sheets from head to foot, who visited in succession the towns and villages of every district of Milan. Whenever they came to a cross road or to a cross, they threw themselves on the ground, crying ' Misericordia ' three times ; then recited the Lord's Prayer and the Ave Maria. On entering a town or city, they walked singing the ' Stabat Mater.' Corio, in his ' History of Milan,' assures us that the number was between 10,000 and 15,000 at a time. 'However (he adds), the people returned to a worse course of life than ever after the excite- ment was over.' White Poet (The). Olaf, younger brother of Sturla, and nephew of Snorro the historian (18th cent.). White Rent. Rent paid in silver or white money instead of corn. Quit- rents were so called. Anglo-Saxon, Hwit-rent, white-rent. White Rose (The). Elizabeth of York ; she married Henry VII., and thus united the rival houses of York and Lancaster. White Rose of England (The), 1490. So Margaret duchess of Burgundy called Perkin Warbeck, appointed by her to personate Eichard duke of York, younger son of Edward IV. White Rose of Scotland (The). Lady Catherine Gordon, daughter of the Earl of Huntly, and grand-daughter of James I. Her first husband was Perkin Warbeck the pretender, her second hus- band was Sir Matthew Cradock. Called the ' White Rose ' because Warbeck pre- tended to be the representative of the House of York (the White Rose party). White Russia. Muscovy. The king of Muscovy was called the ' White King ' from his alba tegument*. White Scarfs and White Hoods (The), 1407-1415. The Armagnac and Burgundian factions, after the assas- sination of the Duo d'Orle'ans. The Orleanists or Armagnacs adopted as their cognizance a St. George's cross on a white scarf. The Burgvmdians, led by Jean-sans-Peur duke of Burgundy, adopted a St. Andrew's cross on a white hood. The Crnsaders, the Armagnacs, and the Hugue- nots all adopted as their badge the white scarf: but the Burgundian badge was a white hood. A red scarf was the badge of Henri III. and Charles IX. ; a green scarf of Mazarin, Isabella, and the Conde family. A tricolour scarf ia still worn in France by municipal magistrates and the com- mibsaires of police. White Sheep (The), 1468-1497. Certain Turkomans who on the decay of Timur's dynasty fixed themselves (under the leadership of Uzun Hussun) in Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Asia Minor. They afterwards drove out the Black Sheep and made themselves masters of all Western Persia. They were utterly stamped out by Ismael, a native prince, who founded the Suffavean or Son dynasty. At the decay of the Timur dynasty the domi- nions of Timur were divided Into three parts: Hussein Mirza, a descendant of Timur, had Khorassan, and held hia court at Herat; the Black Sheep acquired Azcrbijun, Irak, Fars, and Kerman ; and the Turkomans of the White Sheep held the third part. Called the White Sheep from the effigy displayed on their standard. White Ship (The). La Blanche Nef, the ship in which Prince William, son of Henry Beauclerc, embarked at Barfleur, and was wrecked with 140 pas- sengers and 50 sailors, by striking on the Ras de Catte (now Catteville), 25 Nov., 1120. It is said that the king fainted when he heard the news and 1 never smiled again.' White Staff (The). The staff of office presented by the sovereign to her privy council. Thus the premier, the lord chamberlain, the treasurer of the household, the lord steward, &c., bear white wands or staffs. Shrewsbury refused to take the white wand [of chief minister], except from her majesty's own hand. It was therefore handed to her [Queen Anno], and she extended it towards Shrewsbury, saying, ' For God's sake, use it for the good of my people.' Shrewsbury was already chamberlain, and ho presented the staff of that office in resig- nation of it, but the queen bade him retain both. HOWITT, Hist, of Kngland (Anne, p. 322). Lord Harloy of Wigmore will have the white stall given him to-morrow by the queen herself, and be declared lord high treasurer. DEOK (29 May, 171D. P WHITE WTIITEBOY8 White Standard, that of Charles Edward the Young Pretender. The white cockade was the badge of his fol- lowers. The Bourbons also adopted the white cockade and standard. When the white standard IB again displayed, It hall not be turned back so easily. Sir W. SCOTT, Kedgauntlft, chap. xxii. White Strangers, or * White Gen- tiles.' Norwegians, who took possession of Dublin in 838. Dublin and north- wards was the territory of the White Strangers. From Dublin southwards was the territory of the Black Strangers. Dublin and settlements in Lelnster constituted the territory of the Fin-gall or White Foreigners. Called by the Four Masters Flonn-gentie (White Gentiles). White Town (The). Belgorod, the third circle of Moscow. So called from the white wall with which it was encom- passed. Moscow had four concentric circles. Beginning with the innermost they were (1) the Kremlin, CD Kilaik'orod or the Chinese Town, (8) Belgorod or the White Town, and (4) Semilangorod, which wu defended by ramparts. White Water-flower (The), or Pe-lien-kaou. An association at the close of the 18th cent, formed in China against Kea-king, the emperor. This brotherhood excited in Shan-tung an in- surrection, which spread over three of the neighbouring provinces. The leader was designated San-hwang, and main* tained his ground for eight years. Or White Water Lotos. Kea-king reigned 17M- Whites and Blacks (The), 18th cent. Rival factions in Italy at the close of the 13th cent, and the first four years of the 14th. The Blacks were the noblesse, the Whites the rich bourgeois. The Whites were Guelfs, the Blacks were Ghibelins. Dante in 1802 was exiled for being a White. Whites and Blues (The}. 'Lea Blancs et Bleus* in the great French Revolution mean the royalists, whose flag and livery were white; the republi- cnn troops wore a blue uniform. Whites, Reds, Blues, and Greens wefd colour factions of Constantinople, being the liveries worn. In chariot races, and party colours as formerly In our elections for members of parliament ; but the Whites merged into the JUues, and the Reds into the Qreena. 6 p. 106, ' Blues and Greens. 1 Whites and Reds (The). ' Albati and ' Russati.' The original liveries of the Roman charioteers, in the chariot races. Afterwards two more liveries, the Green and the Blue, were added, and the latter ultimately absorbed the original colours. In Rome, the colours were a Capulet and Montague standing faction, which led to street brawls and not un- frequently death ; and such emperors as Caligula, Nero, Vitellius, Verus, Corn- modus, Caracalla, and Elagabalus, were Greens or Blues, and made their livery party questions as we do Whig and Tory, Church and Dissent. The same rage prevailed in Constantinople; the Greens were the partisans of Anastasius. the blues of Justinian. In fact, the whole empire was divided into Greens and Blues. Even religion had its Orthodox Blues and Heterodox Greens. Whiteboy Acts (The), 1762. Laws against the Whiteboys, many of which are still in force. Whiteboy Riots. It would oe difficult to tabulate all the riots of these turbulent Irish since the formation of the society in 1760. Lord Drogheda was charged in 1762 with the task of suppress- ing the society, but he only scotched it. Outrages were renewed in 1822 ; and in 1828 Queen's County, Carlow, and Kil- kenny were scenes of disgraceful ' White- boy riots.' These rioters robbed and murdered in every direction, much the same as the Moonlighters, as agents of the more secret leaders of the Land 01 National League, Home Rule, and Plan of Campaign (q.v.). See p. 455, 'Irish Associations.' Whiteboys (The). I. Protestant rioters in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. See ' The Abbot,' chap, xvi., by Sir W. Scott. 11. 1760. An illegal association of Irish- men, so called because, in their nightly expeditions, they disguised themselves in white smocks. Their object was to resist the enclosure of commons, in order to increase the number of cattle required by the murrain which began in Germany and spread to England. They existed some time before 1760 under the name of Levellers (q.v.), and soon after 1760 be- came noted for agrarian aggressions. In 1762 Lord Drogheda was charged with the suppression of this riotous society. Outrages were renewed in 1807, and in WHITEBOYISM WHITSUNTIDE 947 1811, 1812 spread to Tipperary, Water- ford, Kilkenny, Westmeath, Roscom- mon, and Queen's County. The White- boys called themselves the agents of Captain Right. In 1784 and the three following yean houghing, tarring and feathering, and other personal moles- tations prevailed to a great ex tent. The Protestant clergy, especially in the south of Ireland, were subjects of especial persecution by the Whiteboys. Riotous assemblies were next organised, BO that in 1787 an act was passed to prevent tumultuous ansemblies.' In 1822 the rioters became so violent that the ' Insurrection Act ' was passed, and continued In force for three years. Similarly in 1807 an Insur- rection Act had been passed which remained in force for four years ; when withdrawn, two years of turbulence ensued of a very aggravated cha- racter. See p. 455, ' Irish Associations.' *,* Parnellism and crime have had a long spell of late years. In 1890 it was thought ' patriotic ' to insult the judges, slang the ministers, defy the laws, ruin the landlords, and obstruct the police in their attempts to keep order. Whiteboyism. The political and agrarian platform of the Whiteboys of Ireland. In 1762 the outrages of this association were greatly repressed, but they reappeared soon afterwards in the south of Ireland. See ( Whiteboys.' Whitefeet (The). One of the dis- turbing factions of Ireland in the Tithe War (q.v.). They were associated with the Blackfeet, Terryalts, Lady Clares, Molly Maguires, and Rockites. See each of these in loco, and ' Irish Associations.' Whitefeet and Blackfeet. Il- legal associations formed in Ireland during the sanguinary Tithe War (1830- 1835) (q.v.). The names were in con- formity with the colour of their shoes, assumed as badges of the associations. WhitefielditeS (8 gyL), 1789. Followers of the Rev. George Whitefield [Whit-field], an ordained clergyman of the Anglican Church, who separated from that communion and established a hyper-Calvinistic system of religion in opposition to Wesley, whose tenets were Arminian (q.v.). Whitefield insisted on the doctrines of predestination and un- conditional election. Wesley founded the Wesleyan Methodist connexion. Whitehall Preachers (The), 1724. Established by George I. One from the University of Oxford and one from the University of Cambridge. Appointed for two years. Originally there were twenty-four preachers, twelve resident fellows of each university. The two are now appointed by the Bishop of London, as dean of the royal chapel. White-hood House I The), in Cambridge University, is the Regent or Upper House of the Senate, composed of masters of arts of less than five years' standing and doctors of less than two years' standing. See ' Black-hood House.' Abolished 1858. So called because the hood of a Cambridge H.A. Is lined with white silk. Called ' regent ' because they were the tutors and professors, and as such were the 'rulers' of the university. After the time stated they were released from these duties, and stripped off the white lining of their hoods. This has been discontinued for many years. Whit-Sunday. The Sunday which commemorates the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost on the disciples, in the form of ' tongues of fire,' after which they were all inspired to speak hi foreign tongues, as the Spirit gave them utterance. Verstegan says: 'We yet say hallowed for halih-wied\ also we hereof retain the name of Whit- sonday, which more rightly should be written Weid-Sonday, i.e. " Sacred Son- day." So called by reason of the de- scending down of the Holy Ghost . . . .' ('Restitution of Decayed Intelligence,' p. 188). Robert of Gloucester, under the article ' Wytte-Sonetyd,' says : ' Good men and wymmen, this day is called Wyt-sonday, because the Holy Ghost brought wytte and wisdom into Cristis disciples, and so by her preching after in all cristendom, and fylled hem full of ghostly wytte.' Another derivate is ' White- Sunday,' from the white dresses anciently worn by the newly baptized catechumens, to whom the sacrament of the Eucharist was ad- ministered on the vigil of Pentecost. Whitsuntide includes the white octave, but is now in England almost restricted to Whit-Sunday, Whit-Monday, and Whit-Tuesday. Whitsuntide Dancers. AtEch- ternach, in Luxemburg, thousands of pilgrims take an active part in a ' sacred' dance, singing at the same time litanies in honour of St. Willebrod. The dancer a take three springs forwards and one backwards, or five forwards and two backwards, to bands of music. The space traversed is about a mile and takes above an hour. Le mardi de pentec6te one procession de sau- teurs parcourt encore les rues d Echternach da pont de la Sure & 1'egllse, et cela, dit-on, pour con- jurer la danse de St.-Ciuy. qu'une tradition local* 948 WHITSUN WILLIAM dlt avoir dt6 tres-commane dans le pays vers la huititime siecle.' REGLUB, KouveUe Geographie UnirertfUe. ('St. Guy' or 'Ool' Is the French form of oar St. Vitas.) Whitsun Week. * HebdomSda Pentecostes.' Beginning with Whit- Sunday ; the week which commemorates the descent of the Holy Spirit. Whyte'a Professorship of Moral Philosophy (Dr.), in Oxford University, at 100Z. a year. Founded by Thomas Whyte, D.D., in 1621. The stipend has been raised to 400Z. a year. Wicked Bible (The), 1682. Printed in London by Richard Barker and Martin Lucas, the king's printers, in the reign of Charles I. The printing was bad, the paper bad, and there were two monstrous errors. The seventh commandment, by the omission of not, ran thus : ' Thou shalt commit adultery'; and in one case 'greatnesse' got converted into 'great asse.' The printers were fined 600Z., and the edition of 1,000 copies was ordered to be burnt. See p. 90, ' Bibles.' When the case was brought into tho Court of High Commission, Laud said : 'The printelng Is oo bad and the paper too, that. I/it be not mended shortlie, they wilbo put downe by those of Amsterdam, and the trade apoylod.' See ' Haw. llnson MS., printed by the Camden Society, M.S. 80. Wicked Street (The) of ancient Rome, at the foot of the Esquiline HilL Bo called because here Tullia, the daugh- ter of Servius Tullius, drove her chariot over the murdered body of her old father, who had been king of Rome forty-four years. Wic'lifltes (8 syl.). Disciples of Wiolif. Also called 'Lollards.' They denied the dogma of transnbstantiation. Wiclif lived 1824-1384. Wigs. In the middle of the 18th cent, there were thirty-three different sorts of wigs in use : The Artichoke wig. The Half-natural. Bag wig. Barrister's wig. Bishop B wig. Brush wig. Bush wig. Buckle wig. Chain wig. Chancellor's wig. Corded wolfs paw. Count Sax o smode. ruteh wig. it bob wig. -h a i.uokla Jiinsrnist bob. Judge 8 wig. Ladder wig. Long bob. Louis' wig. Periwig. Pigeon's wing. Rhinoceros wig. Rose. Scratch wig. She dragon. Siirtll black Wig. Spinage [i<-] seed wig. Staircase. Welsh wig. Wild boar's back. His periwig was large enough to hare loaded camel, and he bestowed upon it at least a bushel of powder. BROWM, tetteri (time Charles II.). Sing [' singe] old Rose and born the bellows (burn HbfUnt). Wigs were worn by bishops in the House of Lords till 1830, when Blomfleld bishop of London obtained permission of William IV. for bishops to discontinue their use. The oldest wig in the world is of ancient Egyp- tian manufacture. It was found in a tomb at Thebes, and la now in the British Museum. Wilburites (8 syl.). A new sect of Quakers of great strictness, founded by John Wilbur, who insisted most rigidly on the traditions and peculiarities of the society. This movement was the counter- action of the Hicksite movement in 1827. Wild Scots of Galway (The). The Galwepians, a mixed race, partly Irish-Scots of Argyllshire, partly Picts. Wilfrid's Needle (St.). The crypt of Ripon Cathedral. The eye of this ' needle ' is a hole in a wall through which women suspected of unchastity were required to ' thread themselves,' at evidence of their innocence. There is a ' Wilfrid s Needle ' in BelYotr Castle, spoken of by Bishop [Joseph] HalL Others are also referred to occasionally. Wilkes's Riots, 1768. In No. 46 of the ' North Briton,' conducted by Wilkes, member for Aylesbury, tho king was charged with telling a deliberate lie in his speech from the throne. The royal party was so infuriated that Wilkes fled to France, but returned in 1768, and was sentenced to imprisonment for twenty-two months. The mob rose in insurrection on behalf of their champion, and resolved to conduct him in triumph to Westminster. The yeomanry were called out. Wilkes was expelled from the house, but was re-elected by an over- whelming majority. Soon afterwards he was made a London alderman, lord mayor, and eventually member for Middle- sex, and chamberlain of London a very lucrative office. William I. ' Wilhelm ' king of Prus- sia and German emperor; born 1797, died 1888. King of Prussia, 1861-1888. German Emperor, 1871-1888, Father, Friedrich Wilhelm III. (second son): Mother. Louisa Augusta of Mecklenburg_Strelits; Witt, Louisa Augusta, daughter of KarlVriedrlob. of Saxe Welmiir. ( VmfeMOfM? with Victoria. V His son. Kriedrlch Wllhehn [Nicholas], born 1881, married Victoria princess royal of England In 1888. He succeeded his father in Maroh, bat WILLIAM WILLIAMITES 949 William I. the Conqueror (1025, 1066-1087). First of the Norman dy- nasty of England, which supplied four sovereigns viz. William I., William II. (his son), Henry I. (brother of William II.), and Stephen (brother-in-law of the last two kings). Father, Robert le Dlable duke of Normandy (William was a natural son). His mother was Ar- lete, Harlotta, or Herleva=' beloved, 1 and her father was a tanner ol Falaise. Wife, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V. count of Flanders. Hte daughter Adela married Stephen count of Blols, and it was their son Stephen who usurped the crown. Style and title : Qulielmus rex Anglorum, comes Nprmannorum et Cenomanentium. '.* The Cenomanl were a people In what is novr called Mans, in France. "William II., Rufus, or The Bed King ' (1056, 1087-1100), the second king of England from the Conquest. He was the second son of William I. (q.v.), and usurped the crown of his elder brother Robert. Father, William I. ; Mother, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V. count of Flanders. Never married ; hot in New Forest while hunting by Sir Walter Tyrell, whether by accident or design was never known. Hit style and title: Qulielmus rex Anglorum. Sometimes ' Gulielmus monarchlcas Britanniaa.' William III. and Mary. Fifth of the Stuart dynasty of Great Britain. William III. (1650, 1689-1702). Mary (1662, 1689-16J4). No issue. Father of William, William II. of Orange ; Mother, Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I. ; Wife (see below). Father of Mary, James II. of Great Britain ; Mother, Mary d'Este of Modena; Husband (see above). Style and Title: William and Mary, D. G. of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, King and Queen ; Defenders of the Faith, &c. After the death of Mary in 1694 the needful alterations were of course made. The horse on which William III. was riding when he received his fatal accident was named ' Sorrel.' Pope says : Angels who watched the guardian oak so well. How chanced ye slept when luckless Sorrel fell ? *. The principality of Orange consisted of a part of the present department of Vaucluse ; and the House was founded in the 9th cent. In 1530 Nassau was added by the marriage of Otto of Nas- sau with Claude de Chalon of Orange. In 1599 William of Orange and Nassau was elected Btadtholder of Holland. After the death of Wil- liam III. of England the line of Orange and Nassau became extinct, whereupon Louis XIV. claimed the principality of Orange and added it to France. William IV. (1765, 1830-1887). Third son of George III., and brother of George IV., the preceding king. His brother, Frederick duke of York, the second son of George III., died in 1827 William was duke of Clarence. Being brought up in the navy service, he became Lord Admiral of England, and was called 1 The Sailor King.' By Mrs. Jordan he had eight children : George Fitzclarence, Frederick Fitzclarence, Augustus, and the five daughters Sophia, Mary, Eliza- beth, Augusta, and Amelia. Father, Qeorge III. ; Mother, Charlotte Sophia of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; Wife, Adelaide, daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen; two children, both died in Infancy. Next heir to the crown, Vic- toria, daughter of his brother Edward duke of Kent. Style and title, William IV., D.G. of England, Scotland, and Ireland, King, Defender of the Faith, &o. William the Bad (, 1154-1166). William I. of Sicily. William the Conqueror. W* liam I. (q.v.). So called because he con- quered Harold in the battle of Senlac, and thus became king of England. He had four sons and six daughters. Hla ions were Robert (twice supplanted by his younger brothers) ; WILLIAM II. (Uufus), who succeeded his father ; Richard, who was killed by an accident ; and HENRY I., who succeeded his brother Wil- liam II. His daughter* were Cecilia, Constance, Adela who married Stephen count of Blols (whose son STEPHEN succeeded Henry I.), Adellxa, Agatha, and Qundrod. William the Conqueror's Comet, 1066. This comet was visible in China from 2 April for 67 days ; it was visible in Europe from May for 40 days. Never comet excited such attention. In the famous tapestry of Queen Matilda several figures are represented gazing at this comet, and the inscription below is ' Isti mirantur stellam.' William the G-ood (1154, 1168- 1189). William II. king of Sicily, son of William the Bad. William the Lion of Scotland (1166-1214). So called because he was the first who introduced a lion in the armorial bearings of Scotland. The chief of the Scottish heralds is called Lyon king of arms. William the Silent (1538, 1644- 1584), prince of Orange. Assassinated by Balthasar Gerard at Delft. Williamites (8 syl.), in French ' Guillemites ' (3 syl.), in Italy ' Guglielm- otes,' 1153. A religious institution founded by St. William of Malavalle, which rapidly spread through all Italy, Ger- many, and France. They were called WMte Mantles because they wore large white mantlea. 060 WILLIAMS WINDSOB Williams Prize (Th George). Theology. Given to the best student in the theological tripos. Value about 9l. Pounded in the University of Cambridge by friends of the Rev. George Williams, formerly fellow of King's College, 188S. Will's Coffee House. In the reign of Charles II. near Covent Garden, at the western corner of Bow Street. It was the great emporium of libels and scandals, but was one of the best in London, and had acquired the sobriquet of 'the Wits' Coffee-house.' Here the frequenters heard the talk of the town about the poets, authors, and other cele- brities, and here was the ' Observator,' and all the Tory and Whig journals of the day; and here would be found Matthew Prior, John Dryden, Betterton the tragedian, and other celebrities. Wills and Uses (The two Statutes of), 1684. Passed by the Irish parlia- ment, giving to the crown of England a share and interest in the education of the heirs-apparent of the great families of Ireland. Of course, the object was to bring them up Protestants, like the son of the Earl of Ormond, formerly the king's ward. Winchester. Henry HI. of Eng- land was surnanied Winchester from the place in which he was born (1206, 1216- 1272). Winchester (Tins Statute of), 1285. A renewal of the ' Assize of Anns ' (q.v.), i.e. basing the preservation of public order on the strict enforcement of the local system of frank-pledge. By this statute every man was bound to hold himself in readiness for the king's ser- . vice, every man was to join in the hue and cry after felons, every district was held responsible for all crimes committed within its bounds, the gates of every town were required to be closed at nightfall, every stranger was required to give an account of himself to a magistrate, and all brushwood and cover for thieves was to be destroyed for 200 feet on each side of a high road. Winchester Book (The). The register of King Alfred's survey of England drawn up by his council at Winchester. Winchester College [Seinte Marie College of Wynchestrel 1687. Founded by William of Wykeham, bishop of Win- chester. The famous duler domum Is still sung In th oonrts of the college before the breaking up of the school for long vacation. It is very funny that the solecism should have so caught the fancy. Winchester Reading Prizes (The). For reading classical English poetry and prose, the scriptures and liturgy. Two prizes of the value of 40^ two-thirds to be given to the best reader, and one- third to the second best. Founded in the University of Cambridge by an anonymous donor in 1886. Wind, Protestant and Popish. See p. 718, ' Protestant.' Windsor Prophecv (The), 1712. A scurrilous set of ve" ( 8es by Swift, after- wards dean of St. Patrick's, Dublin. In thia I prophecy ' Elizabeth duchess of Somerset is called ' Carrots ' for her red hair, and is accused of assassinating Thomas Thynne of Longleat, her second husband. She waa daughter and heiress of Jooeline duke of Northumberland, and married Lord Ogle, son of the Duke of Newcastle, when only II years old. She was a widow at 13, and married Thomas Thynne, who waa shot by Count Konigsmark, a German adventurer. Being thus a widow again at the age of 14, she took for her third husband the Duke of Somerset, who died 1748. But England, dear England. If I understand. Beware of Carrot* from Northumberland (daughter of . . .) Carrots, however Thynne, a deep root may fat (tecond hutband). If so be they are In Summer tft (third hutbanrTi. Their Cunning t^mark thou, for I have been told (thot Thynne) They astturine when young and poison when old. Root out those Carrots, thou whose name Spelt backwards and forwards is always the same (Anna or Queen Anne), And keep close to thee always that name Which backwards and forwards is almost the same (Mrs. Meuhami. And England, wouldst thou be happy still. Bury those Carrots under a Hill. (Mrs. Masham s maiden name was Abigail Hill). When Swift's name was given to the queen for the vacant see of Hereford the Duchess of .- set set her face against the appointment, and i wift lost his bishopric. The Obtensible plea against him was his tale of a Tub.' Windsor Soap. 'Soapy Sam,' Bishop of Oxford. Called * Soap ' from an inscription on the porch of Cuddesdon College. S. Oxon was the founder and Alfred Potts the first principal The bishop himself observed the curious com- bination of letters S.O., A.P. ' Windsor ' waa added because Samuel Wilberforc* WIND"? WINTERS 951 was a great favourite with the conrt at Windsor (1805-1878). Samuel Wilberforce was transferred to Win- chester. Windy Cap. Eric king of Sweden, second to none, says Olaus Magnus, in magical arts, was so familiar with evil spirits that what way soever he turned his cap the wind would presently blow that way. Historia de Gentibus Septen- trionalibus, Romee, 1555. Wines of Africa and Asia. Bithynian wine from the Mersites grape was of a very choice quality. The wines of Byblos, in Phoenicia, vied in fragrancy with Lesbian wine. The white wines of Mareotis and Tcenia, in Lower Egypt, were of unrivalled excellence; the former was sometimes called Alex- andrian. The wine of Merde resembled Falernian (Lucan, 'Pharsalia,' x. 161). Tceniotic wine was greenish, luscious, and aromatic. The wine of Antylla, in the vicinity of Alexandria, and the Sebennytic wines were also commended. On the mountain of Tmolus, in Lydia, was produced a brown wine, described as first rate by Virgil and Galen. The Scybellites of Galatia was thick and sweet. The Aliates of Cilicia was a sweet red wine. The Tibenum, the Arsynium, and the Titucazenum were of lighter growth, the first two being dry red wines, and the last a sweet wine of paler colour. Wines of Ancient Greece. The earliest wine was the Maronlan, a sweet black wine, so called from the district t?here it was made, which was on the coast of Thrace. Usually mixed with twenty parts of water; in Pliny's time with only eight parts of water; Sciathos, another black wine of lighter quality, being drunk half and half. Pramnian, a dry red wine, made from grapes grown on the Pramnian hill, in the island of Icaros. Corinthian wine, so astringent that Alexis declares it was real torture to drink it ('Athen.' i. 24). The luscious sweet wines were Lesbian, Chian, Thasian, Corcyrian, Cyprian, Cretan, Cnidian, and Bhodian, all white wines. The Saprian (qy. Chian) wine was famous for its aroma; the Lesbian had less aroma, but was very delicious. Pliny places the Clazomenian wine of Ionia in the first rank. Virgil calls the Phanean the king of wines. Of light wines we have the Mendean (from Mende, in Thrace), a white wine; the Argitis (' Georgics,' ii. 99), and Omphacites. Winter King (The). Frederick V. (who married Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England), who was crowned at Prague king of Bohemia, 25 Oct., 1619, and was driven from the throne by the Catholics, 8 Nov., 1620. He was king for one winter and no more. Frederick, elector palatine, was made king of Bohemia in opposition to Kaiser Ferdinand II. Winter Queen (The). Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of Great Britain, and wife of Frederick V. the 'Winter King.' Winters (Cold}. 1709, the severest winter on record. The following were cold winters : 1067. Thousands of travellers In Germany were frozen to death. 1188. Wine casks in France and Spain were frozen, and many trees in Italy were split by the frost. 1179. The snow up to Easter was eight feet deep In Austria. 1233. The Po was frozen over. 1236. The Danube was frozen to the very bottom. The Cattegat between Norway and Jutland was also frozen. 1281. Many houses in Austria were actually buried In snow. 1292. Travellers passed on the Ice from Norway to Jutland. The Rhine was frozen over. 1814. All the rivers of Italy were frozen. 1323. Travellers passed on the ice from Dantilo to Denmark. 1864. The sea at Venice was frozen. 1408. Travellers passed on the ice from Norway to Denmark. 1484. It snowed forty days and forty nights In Germany without intermission. 1468. Wine in casks and bottles throughout all Europe was frozen. 1580. The Great and Little Belt were frozen over. 1622. The Hellespont was frozen over. 1658. Charles X. led his whole army ovez the IM from Holstein to Denmark. 1692. The Zuyder-Zee was entirely frozen over. 1684. Coaches plied on the Thames. 1709-10 was Infinitely colder than any of the pre- ceding. The frost penetrated three yards (!) Into the ground. The olive plantations in France -were utterly destroyed. Birds died by thousands, and trees \vith vegetables were killed In all directions. The Adriatic was frozen over, so was the coast of the Mediterranean about Genoa. 1729 was a continued frost from October to May 1730. 1740 was the coldest winter known except that Of 1709. 1744 was a severe winter. 1770. Wine was frozen in the cellars in France and Holland. And in England the destruction of birds and fishes was frightful. 1794 was a continuous frost from 24 Dec. to 14 Feb., 17S)5. 1796. Dec. 25 was the coldest day ever known in London. Fahr. thermom. was 16 below zero(!). 1814. A fair was held on the Thames. 952 WINTON WIVES 1848. On one occasion the mercury In the thermo- meter was uozon. J860 was ono of the severest winters ever known In Britain. On Christmas Day the thermo- meter on the grass stood 18 below oro Fan- n-nlii-it. Tho throe coldest days were 24, I >oc. . Remember 82 is freeilng, BOthat-ie- of frost. Apparently a correct observation. Winton Domesday (The). Con- taining two surveys of the city of Win- chester: one mode between 1107 and 1128, and the other made in 1148. Published by Sir Henry Ellis in the second of the supplementary volumes of Domesday Book, 1816. Wire Age (The). The Golden Age, the Silver Age, the Age of Bronze, and the Iron Age have had their day, and we now live in the Wire Age. Every street and almost every road is crowded with telegraph wires, which are stretched over our houses and sunk under our seas. Our books are stitched with wire, our clocks set by wire, our watches run by wire, our politics are managed by wire ; we announce our wants, our news, our going and coming by wire ; use wire covers for our meat, wire sieves, and wire pulls for our gongs; we sleep on wire mattresses, and indeed in every department of life wire is our slave (1890). Wisconsin (U.S. America). So called in 183G from its river of the same name. The inhabitants are nicknamed Badgtrs. Wisest Fool in Christendom (The). James I. of England was so called by Sully, the French politician (15C.G, 1C03-1G25). Witch of Eye (The). Marjory Jourdemain, with whom Dame Eleanor Cobham, the mistress and afterwards wife of the ' Good duke Humphrey [Duke of Gloucester], protector of the realm in the minority of his nephew Henry VI., Dame Eleanor was accused of sorcery with intent to bewitch the king and raise her husband to the throne.' Marjory was burnt as a witch at Smithfield, 1441. Witchcraft. So late as 1805 a woman was tried at Kirkcudbright for witchcraft, and actually sentenced to a year's imprisonment, and to be set once a quarter in the pillory. Elspeth Rule in 1709 was tried in Dumfries in the Court of Justiciary, and condemned for witchcraft to have her cheek branded with a hot iron. Documents referring to Elspeth M'Ewen, who was burnt to death in a tar-barrel for witchcraft in 1697 at Kirkcudbright, have recently been unearthed, in which is this item 1 Payed to Robert Creighton ... 8 shill Scots for beating the drum at Elspet M'Queen's funeral, and to James Carsson his wife threeten shillings drunken by Elspet's executioner at seall times.' That In, James Caisson's wife. Witches' Hammer (The), 16th cent. An infamous document drawn up by John Gremper, an ecclesiastic, laying down with great minuteness the charac- teristics of witches and wizards, the skin-marks to be sought for, the familiar which clung to them in the shape of cat, dog, goat, or other pet animal, and the questions to be asked in order to convict them out of their own mouths. Pope Innocent VIII. led the way to this witch persecution by hla bull of 14H4. which charged the Inquisitors and all true Catholics diligently to search out and put to death all who practised tin diabolical art* of witchcraft, magic, sorcery, and enchantment. Wit'ena-gemote (The). Themot. or council of wise men. In Saxon times each kingdom, before 827, had its sepa- rate gemote, but after that date there was one general assembly composed of ecclesiastics, aldermen, and large land holders, held every Christmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide. In the year 984 the gemote (2 syl.) was attended by Kinj: Athelstan, 4 Welsh princes, 2 archbishops, 17 bishops, 4 abbots, 12 dukes, and 62 thanes. The Witena-gemote ordained the king's succession, made laws and treaties, levied taxes, regulated military and church affairs, and was a supreme court of justice. See ' Shire-mote.' Witena Is the gen. plural of the Anglo Saxon vita, a wise man (verb iritan, 'to know' our 'wit'), and gfmoU IB an assembly, from the verb m^-tan, ' to meet together.' The king hit robes of state. presided in Witling of Terror (The). Ber trand Barere de Vienzac, president of the National Convention in 1792. So called from the flowery language in which he spoke on all measures of the reign of terror. Also called the 'Ana- creon of the Guillotine.' Wives of the English Kings. I. Before the Conquest : Egbert ... Lady Redbnrga. Ethelwol! ... . Lady Osburga. whose father was the Great Butler of England (mother of Alfred theQreatX WIVES WOMAN-FLOGGEB 058 Alfred _ ~ Edward th Elder Edmund ... .. Edgar ... *. Ethelred Edmund Ironside Edward the Con- fes&or 1. Judith daughter of Charles the Bald of France. 2. Ethelswitha or Answlnta daughter of the Earl of Mercia. 1. Lady Eguiaa. 8. Edgiva* mothet Of Kd> mund. Lady Elglva. 1. Ethelfled. 8. Elfrida daughter of Ord- gar us duke of Devon- 1. Elgiva* daughter of Duke Thored. 2. Emma daughter of Rich- ard II. duke of Normandy. Algitha widow of Segeforth, a Dane. Edgitha daughter of Earl God wine. IL Since the Conquest : William I. the Con- queror Henry I Stephen ... ... Henry II. ... *.. Richard Coour de Lion John... -. ~. Henry III. Edward L Edward II. Edward III. Richard IL... Henry IV. ... Henry V. ... ... Henry VL Edward IV. Richard III. Henry VIL... _ Henry Vm. ... James I. _ ... Matilda daughter of Baldwin V. count of Flanders. Matilda or Maud daughter of Malcolm III. of Scotland. Matilda daughter ol Eustace count of Boulogne. Eleanor of Q uienne, divorced wife of Louis VII. of France. Berengaria daughter of Sancho VI. of Navarre. L A daughter of the Earl of Mortagne. $. Avitsa daughter of William earl of Gloucester, mother of Henry III. 8. Isabella of France. Eleanor daughter of Bay. monet earl of Provence. Eleanor sister of Alfonso **, king of Castile. Isabella daughter of Philippe IV. of France. Philippa of Halnault. 1. Anno daughter of Kaiser Karl IV. of Germany. 3. Isabella, aged seven, daughter of Charles VI. of France. 1. Mary le Bohun daughter ol the Earl of Hereford. 8. Jane daughter of Charles the Bald of Navarre and widow of John duke of Brittany. Catherine daughter of Charles VI. of France. Margaret daughter of the Duke of Anjou. Elizabeth daughter of Sir Richard Woodville of Graf- ton, Northamptonshire. Anne Neville widow of Ed- ward prince of Wales. Princess Elizabeth daughter of Edward IV. L Catharine of Aragon mother of Mary, who married Philip [II.) of Spain. 8. Anne Boleyn mother of Elizabeth. 8. Jane Seymour mother of Edward VI. 4. Anne of Cloves. 6. Catharine Howard. 6. Catharine Parr. Ann of Denmark. Henrietta daughter of IV. of France. Charles EL* James IX. _ William m. The Infanta Katharine of Portugal. 1. Ann Hyde daughter of the Earl of Clarendon, mother of Mary and Anne. a. Mary d'Este of ModSna. Mary daughter of James IL and Anne Hyde. (Anne married Prince George of Denmark.) George I. .. Sophia daughter of George William duke of Brunswick and Zell. George EL . ... Wtlhelmina daughter of John Frederick margrave of Anspach. George HL^. . Charlotte of Mecklonburgh- Strelits. George IV. _ ... Caroline princess of Bruns- wick. William IV. ... Adelaide daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen. (Victoria married Albert second sou of Ernest duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.) Cromwell married Elisabeth daughter of Sir James Bouchler of Essex. Wizard of the Sea (The). Capt. Kidd, 17th cent. Executed for piracy 12 May, 1701. Wolf of America (The). Mont- gomery, who led the attack on Quebec in 1775r The English Wolfe took Quebec, and fell in the hour of victory; Mont- gomery tried to take it, but failed, being killed in the hour of defeat. Wolf of Badenoch (The). Sir Alexander Stewart, fourth son of Robert II. by his first wife Elizabeth, daughter of Sir William Mure of Rowallan, who was related to him within the prohibited degrees and was divorced. Sir Alexander, who was earl of Buchan, was fierce and savage as a wolf. Some say he was grandson of Robert IL, and third son of Robert duke of Albany. Wolf of Plinlimmon (The). Gwenwyn prince of Powys Land during the reign of Henry II. Wolsey of Hungary (The). Tb Cardinal Martinuzzi (16th cent.). Wolsey's Foundation at Ox. ford, 1524. Called ' Cardinal College.' In 1546 the name was changed to 1 Christ Church College.' Woman-flogger (The). Julius Jakob baron von Haynau (1786-1853). An Austrian general who signalized him- self during the Italian campaigns of 1848-1849 by ruthless cruelty. His flogging of women refers to his treatment of the defeated Hungarians, and his infamy excited the detestation of all Europe. In 1850 he came to England and visited the brewery of Barclay & 054 WOMEN WONDERFUL Perkins in London, when he was as- saulted by the draymen and narrowly escaped with his life. He afterwards visited Belgium and France, and was received with strong demonstrations of popular hatred. Women (The Four Perfect). Miriam sister of Moses, Mary mother of Jesus, Cadijah the first wife of Mahomet, and Fatima his daughter. "Women's Rights. A political movement first started in 1851 by the 1 Westminster Review.' It includes the right of suffrage, for which a petition was presented to parliament in 1866. Their industrial rights include admission to the Universities and the right of en- gaging in the higher professions. The third claim is the right of married women to hold and bequeath property. In 1869 the municipal franchise was conferred on women. Several colleges for women hnv been opened in Cambridge and Oxford ; and the Women's Property Act enables them both to hold and bequeath property. Wonderful Boy of Devizes (The). Sir Thomas Lawrence, born at Bristol, the great painter of portraits. Died 1830 at the age of sixty. Wonderful Boys. BABATIER (Johann Philip), 1721-1740. German. At the age of five he knew Greek, Latin, and French, besides his native German. At nine he knew Hebrew and Chaldee, and could translate Ger- man into Latin. At thirteen he could translate Hebrew into French, or vice versd. His life was written by Formey, and an account of him is inserted in most biographical dictionaries. BASSLE (Gustavo Adolph). In the first half of the 19th cent, exhibited his wonderful powers at Willis's Rooms under the patronage of the Duke of Sussex. About 20,000 questions had been prepared by the duke's authority, and were circulated amongst the audi- ence. These questions were in sacred and profane history, chronology, physical science, mythology, statistics, arithmetic, geography, cosmography, and natural history. Any one of the audience might put any question to the boy, or as many as he pleased, in any order, and the boy instantly answered without a mistake. Several members of the British Associa- tion were present, and took part in the function. It was eald that ranch of this was due to the science of ' sunemonics,' a predecessor of ' mne- monics.' BETTY (William Henry West). Made his debut in London as an actor in 1808, being about twelve years of age. In fifty-six nights he realised 84,OOOZ., and with wonderful sagacity retired into pri- vate life. He died in 1874 at the age of 84. The greatest mark of genius was his retirement in the full tide of his popularity. BIDDER (George Parker). At the age of six amused himself by counting up to a million. He became an engineer, and baffled the parliamentary counsel on contested railway bills by confuting their statements of figures before the words were out of their mouths. In 1866 he showed to the members of the Institution of Civil Engineers that these calculations were not made by dodges, but seriatim, only w.tli inconceivable rapidity (b. 1800). BUXTON (Jedediah), son of a school- master. On hearing a sermon he would tell at once how many words the preacher had spoken. If a period of time was mentioned, he would instantly calculate how many seconds had elapsed since then to the time. He was taken to see Garrick in ' Richard III.,' but his sole amusement was to count the number of words he uttered. He once set himself to reckon how much a farthing would amount to if doubled 140 times; the answer contained thirty-nine figures re- presenting pounds. In 1750 he reckoned now many grains of eight different kinds of corn and pulse would cover 200,000 miles, and how many hairs would make an inch. What is strange is this he could suspend a calculation at any mo- ment, and take it up again hours or days afterwards. (1704-1775.) CANDIAC (Jean Louis Elizabeth de Montcalm de), we are told, knew his letters when an infant in arms. At three years he could read fluently both Latin and French either in print or MS. At four he could translate Latin. At five he could translate the most difficult Latin authors. At six he could read Greek and Hebrew, was good at arithmetic, history, heraldry, geography, and the science of medals. At seven years of age he had read the chief poets, orators, historians, philosophers, grammarians, &c. But he died before he had com- pleted his seventh year. (1719-1726.) IHctionnaire d'Education, 1819, and most biogra- phical dictionaries, under the word Montcalm. 1 WONDERFUL WOOD His elder brother Louis .Joseph marqnla de Monk calm (born 1712! commanded the French army in Canada and defeated Abercromby ; but was mor- telly wounded in 1759 under the walls of Quebec. COLBUBN (Zerah). A native of Vermont, in the United States ; came to London in 1812, being eight years old, and an- swered most complicated problems, such as raising 8 to the sixteenth power; giving the square root of 106,929, the cube root of 268,836,125 ; and how many seconds in fifty years. He never re^ quired above a second or two for bis answer, but knew nothing of arithmetic. Zerah had more than the usual number of fingers and toes, so had his father and brothers. Later, his mathematical powers disappeared to a great extent. (1804-1840.) HEINECKEN (Christian Heinrich}. At one year old knew the chief events of the Pentateuch ! At thirteen months he knew the history of the Old Testament I At fourteen months he knew the history of the New Testament! At two-and-a- half years of age he could answer any ordinary question of history or geography. And at three years old he knew French and Latin, as well as his native German. The life of this boy was written by Schceneich, his tutor, and his name, like that of Baratier, is inserted in most bio- graphical dictionaries. (1721-1725.) MANOIAMETE (Nito). A Sicilian, son of a shepherd. At eleven years old (July, 1839) he was examined by Arago, Lacroix, Libri, Sturm, and others, sent for the purpose by the Academy of Science in Paris. He was asked to give the cube root of 3,796,416, which he answered in one minute ; he gave the 10th root of 282,475,249 in three minutes. He was then asked by M. Arago, ' What number has the following proportions: if the cube is added to five times its square, and then 42 times the number, and the number 42 be subtracted from the result, the remainder will be ? ' Before M. Arago had finished his question the boy answered 5. VISCOUKT (Ennius), we are told, could 4 read Greek and Latin, as well as his own language [Italian], before he was four years old. He was exhibited as a prodigy between the age of four and five, and submitted to a public examination. Viscount died in 1818, aged sixty-seven. Wonderful Castle (The). The palace built of stone at Tuam by Koderio O'Connor (1161). Castles were till the 12th cent, built of wood in Ireland. Probably there were stone or brick structure* In Ireland before the 12th century, as, for example, the Bound Towers, but they were so rare that the palace of Tuam was called ' Wonderful.' Wonderful Doctor (The). ' Doctor Mirabilis,' Roger Bacon (1214- 1292). A Franciscan monk, born at Ilchester, in Somersetshire. His chief work is called ' Opus Majus.' He looked with contempt on ' Scholastic Theology.' Wonderful Parliament (The), or ' Wonder-making Parliament,' 8 Feb., 1888. Convened by Thomas [Plan- tagenet] duke of Gloucester in the reign of his nephew Richard II. The chan- cellor, De la Pole, having been impeached in 1886 by the commons, the duke pro- ceeded to establish a permanent council of fourteen, consisting of his own par- tisans, to inquire into everything in the king's household, the ministry, the law courts, and the condition of the people. Gloucester was at the head, and the king, now nearly twenty-one years of age, was virtually deposed. All sove- reign prerogatives for five months lay with the council. The king protested, the judges declared the proceedings un- constitutional and the parliament guilty of treason. The king impeached the chief members, but Gloucester, at the head of 40,000 men, compelled the king to give way, and resolved to depose him. Several of the king's friends were arrested, and some were put to death. Strangest of all, it declared that its judg- ments should never be reversed, nor its acts repealed. It was dissolved 8 June, 1888. See p. 664, ' Parliament.' Wood of the Cross (The). There is an ingenious legend that when Adam was buried at Hebron three trees sprang from his dead body. David trans- planted these trees to Jerusalem, where they amalgamated into one. Solomon felled the tree, intending to use it for the principal of the Temple, but being too short it was laid on one side. The Jews used this very tree for the Cross, and after the crucifixion it was buried for more than 200 years, when it was discovered in a cave during the visit of Helena, the emperor's mother, to Jeru- salem. This can hardly be called a legend ; It Is a mer allegory, to connect the first with the second 956 WOOD WORM9 Adam; the trinity with nnlty ; and the short coming of the law with the everlasting gospel. Wood Silver. A payment of money instead of wood for the manor fires by a tenant farmer (14th cent.). Wood's Halfpence, 1724. Half, pence coined for Ireland by William Wood, an iron and copper founder of Wolverhamptom. There had long been a deficiency of copper coin in Ireland, and the government contracted with Mr. Wood to supply 108,000 pounds' worth of halfpence and farthings, of stated weight and fineness. Sir Isaac Newton, master of the mint, was fully satisfied with the way the contract had been carried out, and said that, although the weight of the Irish coin was a trifle less than that of the English copper money, yet Wood had fully compensated for this difference by superior fineness. Dean Swift, for poli- tical purposes, ran down the new coin both in prose and rerse. One of his verse* runs thus The halfpence are coming, the nation'! undoing. There's an end of your ploughing, and baking, and brewing, In that you must all go to rack and to rain. See ' Drapler's Letters.' Woodland Party (The). The Bianchi faction (q.v.), so called from the Cerchi, who lived in woodland ( = rural) districts when Dante in exile waa thrown amongst them. Woodstock Ghost (The), 1649. A trick played on the commissioners sent by the Long Parliament to take pos- session of the house. The ghost was one of the commissioners' clerks, named Giles Sharp, who played his part so well that his companions fled from Woodstock in terror. The secret was kept till the Revolution. The real name of Giles Sharp waa Joseph Col- lins, a concealed Royalist, who had lived at Wood- stock and knew every hole and cranny inti- mately. Woodwardian Professor of Geology. Value 600Z. a year. Founded in the University of Cambridge by Dr. Woodward, 1727. See ' Harkness Scho- larship,' ' Sedgwick Prize.' Woo-tae in Chinese history means ' The period of the Five Races.' During the first part of this period the empire was divided into southern and northern; the imperial line reigned in the southern empire, with Nankin as the seat of government. The Beat of government of the northern empire was Ho-nan. In A.I). 534 the northern empire was split into the eastern or Tong-Oei, and the western or Si-Oei. In 687 the three empires were united again under the 12th imperial dynasty, that of Swi. The founder was a cobblor named Lieu-yu, and when he usurped the throne he waa named Voo-tee III. The contemporary kings of the northern empire were Tao- Voo-tee and Ming-yuen-tee. The capital of the southern empire was Nan-kin, and of the northern empire Ho-nan. The five races were Tseng, Tsee, Leang, Tchtn, and Swi. Including the 8th, 9th, 10th. llth. and 12th imperial dynasties. V Voo means warrior, and tee means ruler. Worcester College, Oxford, 1714. Founded by Sir Thomas Cookes. The head-master is called the Provost. It was originally called Gloucester Hall, and was used by the monks of St. Peter, Gloucester. Working-men's Association (The), 1888. A title assumed by the Chartists (q.v.). Works of Supererogation, 1274. The belief that our Saviour'* Bufferings were more than sufficient for the sins of the world, and hence good works were an extra stock which might be applied to balance off evil works. As saints abounded in good works they accumulated a stock of merits which could be applied for the benefit of others or for redemption of souk from purgatory. Workshop Regulation Act (The), 1867 (80 & 81 Viet. e. 146), pro- vides : 1. That no child under the age of 8 shall be employed in any handicraft. 2. That no child under 13 shall be employed for more than 6 hours a day, between 6 a.m. and 8 p.m. 8. That no young person under 18 and no woman shall be employed more than 12 hours, between 5 a.m. and 9 p.m., with an hour and a half interval at least for meals. 4. Except in retail business no child or woman shall be employed after 9 o'clock on Saturdays. 5. No child under 11 shall in any WIM be employed in grinding or fustian cutting. Worms (The Diet of), 1521. Con- vened by Earl V. to put down the WORSHIP YANKEB 057 new opinions in religion. Luther was summoned, and defended himself; but the diet convicted him of heresy, and issued an edict for his apprehension, and the committal of his books to the flames. The Elector of Saxony concealed him for nine months, and he escaped. Worship of Reason (The), 1793. A substitute for Christianity in the first French republic. It was the beauty of virtue and the arbitrament of reason. 7 Nov., 1793, Mgr. Gobet, archbishop of Paris, with a multitude of other ecclesi- astics, went to the Hall of the Convention, and there solemnly resigned their func- tions and renounced the Christian reli- gion. It was then decreed that the deities of France should thenceforth be Liberty, Equality, and Reason. The word ' God ' was prohibited, and all Christian rites were abolished. A pro- cession was then made to Notre Dame, where an actress was seated on the altar to represent the Goddess of Reason. Worsley's Act (Lord), 1836 (6 & 7 Will. IV.). The General Enclosure Act. Nine years after came a more general Act for the enclosure of commons (1846). Wranglers, 1753. In the Univer- sity of Cambridge. Originally the Tripos consisted of Senior Optimes (8 syl.), Junior Opttmes, and the Poll-men, or 01 vo\\ot But in 1753 the first class was divided, and the best men were made into a new division called Wranglers. The Poll-men were then cut off, and the Tripos consisted only of the three honour classes called Wranglers, Senior Optimes, and Junior Optimes. The first word referred to the disputations, or acts held in the school, which, being highly satis- factory, the moderator complimented the respondent by saying to him Summo myenii acumine disputasti (' You have wrangled excellently'). To the other honour men he said Optime disputasti (for Junior Optimes), and Optime quidem disputasti (for Senior Optimes). 'Wright of Derby.' Joseph Wright (1734-1797), a celebrated land- scape painter born at Derby. His land- scapes are noted for elegance of outline and judicious management of light and shade. Writ of Habeas Corpus (16 Car. I. e. 10). AJ>. 1641. It enacts (1) that any person arrested for a bailable offence shall be set at liberty upon giving the awarded bail, with an assurance to appear and answer the charge when duly called upon BO to do; (2) that officers shall not evade this law by shift- ing about the custody of a prisoner under a penalty of 100Z. for the first offence and 200Z. for the second ; (8) no person delivered by habeas corpus shall be re-committed; (4) every person charged with an offence shall, if he re- quires it, be tried hi the next session ; (5) no prisoner shall be sent out of his own country to be tried. Thus an Eng- lishman cannot be sent to Scotland, Ire- land, the Channel Isles, or to any of the Colonies. There are four other provisions, bat they ratbec pertain to the legal profession than to the general public. Writer to the Signet, or 'Clerk to the Signet.' A Scotch attorney of the highest class. At one tune the clerks so called were in the office of the Secretary of State, where writs that passed under the royal signet were prepared. Wiirzburg (Patron Saint of). St. Kilian, an Irishman, who converted a duke of Wiirzburg, and was assassi- nated by Geila, who was his brother** wife. Kilian told the duke it was un- lawful to live with Geila, and the exasperated woman sent an assassin to murder Kilian while he was celebrating midnight service. Geilah = Gy-lah. Wyatt's Rebellion, 1553-1554. Sir Thomas Wyatt the Younger formed a confederacy to oppose the marriage of Queen Mary with Philip II. of Spain. He marched on London, and the train- bands who were sent against him under the command of the Duke of Norfolk deserted in a mass to the rebel. Wyatt pushed on to Temple Bar, which was closed against him. He surrendered to Sir M. Berkeley, was committed to the Tower, tried, convicted, and beheaded. Xabatatenses (Wooden shoes), so the Waldenses (q-v.) were called from xabatata (a wooden sandal), worn in imi- tation of the apostles. Yankee. A name of badinage ap- plied to the North Americans by the English, but accepted with pride and satisfaction by all true-hearted Ameri- cana. II waa originally the corruption YANKEB of the word Anglois by the American Indians. Jonathan Hastings, a farmer of Cambridge, in New England, in 1713, used the word as a synonym of excel- lence. ' It is Yankee good,' or good as if English made ; and the people of the other colonies jocosely called the New Englanders 'Jonathan Yankees,' and sometimes shortened the phrase either into Jonathan or into Yankee. Yankee Doodle. The name of a well-known tune, one of the ' national airs ' of the U.S. ; also a doggerel song set to that tone. Yassanian Dynasty (The). The fourth of the fabulous dynasties of Persia. The two names given are Shah Yassan the founder, and Yassan Ajem the last of the race. It was preceded by the Kuleev dynasty, and followed by the Paishdadians (q.v.). Yatagan, a Turkish sabre worn in the sash. Year I. of the Revolutionary Galen- dar, from 22 Sept., 1792, to 21 Sept., 1793. The French Convention announced that in future the Christian era was to be abolished 1 , and all dates were to be taken from the Revolution era. The Republican calendar wa* first used 26 Nov., 1798, and was discontinued 81 Dec., 1805. Royalty abolished, 2-2 Sept., 1792. The King Louis XVI. guillotined. 21 January, 1798; and the Committee of Publlo Safety In- muted. Fall of the Girondist*. 9 June. 1798. Assassination ol Marat by Charlotte Corday, IB July. 1793. New constitution proclaimed, 10 Ang., 1798. Year II. of the Revolutionary Calen- dar, from 22 Sept., 1793, to 21 Sept., 1794. The Queen Marie Antoinette guillotined, 16 Oct., 1798. The Girondists put to death, 31 Oct., 1798. Worship of the goddess of Reason introduced, 10 Nov., 17'.>:t. The nrtiiadrs of Nantes in Dec., 1798. 1 'Miiton and others guillotined. 5 April, 1794. Robespierre president of the convention, 4 June. Revolution of 9 Thermidor and end of the Reign Of Terror, 27 July, 1794. Year III. of the Revolutionary Ca- lendar, from 22 Sept., 1794, to 21 Sept, 1795. Jacobin Club closed, Nov.. 1794. Revolt in La Vendee, July, 17 ">. New constitution (the Directory) appointed, a Aug., 1796. Year IV. of the Revolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1795, to 21 Sept., 1796. ClOM Of UM convention. M Oct.. 179ft. TEAB Napoleon marries Josephine Beauharnal*. March, 1796. Napoleon defeats the Austrian* at Montenotte, 12 April. 1796. Napoleon defeat* the Pledmontese at Mllleslmo, 18 April ; at Dego, U April ; at Mondovl, 22 April, 179o. Napoleon defeats the Austrian* at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 1796. Napoleon enter* Milan, 15 May, 1796. Napoleon defeats Wurmser at Castigllone, 5 Aug., 1796. Napoleon defeats the Austrlans at Roreredc 4 Sept., and at Bassano, 8 Sept., 1796. Year V. of the Revolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1796, to 21 Sept., Alvlnii defeat* Napoleon at the bridge of Arcola 15-17 Nov., 1798. The Cispadane Republic formed, Deo., 1796. Napoleon defeat* the Austrian* at Rlvoll, 14 January, 1797. Treaty of Tolentino, 19 Feb., 1797. Napoleon defeats the Archduke Charle* on the Tagllamento, 16 March, 1797. Year VI. of the Revolutionary Ca- lendar, from 22 Sept., 1797, to 21 Sept., 1798. Year VII. of the Revolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept, 1798, to 21 Sept., Napoleon take* Jaffa by storm, 6 March. 1799. Napoleon orders the massacre of hi* prisoners. Napoleon 'win* the battle ol Abouklr, 95 July. Year VT1T. of the Revolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept, 1799, to 21 Sept., 1800. Napoleon abolishes the Directory and seise* the supreme power, 9, 10 Nov.. 1799. Napoleon made first consul, 24 Deo., 1799. Napoleon passes over the Alps, May, 1800. ^Napoleon win* the battle of Marengo, 14 Juno. Year IX. of the Revolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1800, to 21 Sept., 1801. ^Th e Infernal machine directed again** Napoleon, Treaty of Lunevllle, 9 Feb., 1801. Concordat concluded with the pope, Sept., 1801. Year X. of the Revolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept, 1801, to 21 Sept., Peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. Napoleon first consul for life. 2 Aug., 1801, Piedmont annexed to France, Sept., 1802. Year XI. of the Revolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1802, to 21 Sept, 1803. Napoleon <1e*l*JOi wa* aalnst England, 22 May, TEAB Napolron establishes the censorship of the press, Sept., 1803. Year XII. of the Eevolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1803, to 21 Sept., 1804. The Dae d'Enghien shot at Vlncennes, 21 March, Napoleon assumes the title of Emperor, 18 May, Napoleon prepares for the invasion of England daring the summer of 1804. Year XIII. of the Eevolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1804, to 21 Sept., 1805. Napoleon crowned by the pope, 2 Dec., 1804. Napoleon crowned at Milan as king of Italy, 26 May, 1806. Napoleon breaks Up the camp of Boulogne, 1 Aug., 1805. Year XIV. of the Revolutionary Calendar, from 22 Sept., 1805, to 81 Dec., 1805. This was a year of 466 days, i.e. nine extra days in September, with the three months of October, November, and De- cember, which, of course, were dupli- cates. But Napoleon, who abolished the calendar, returned to the old system on 1 Jan., 1806. Napoleon wins the battle of Austerlita.2 Dee., 1PC5. Peace of Presburg, 25 Deo., 1805. Napoleon dethrones the King of Naples, Feb. Napoleon makes his brother Joseph king of the Two Sicilies, March, 1806. Napoleon makes his brother Louis king of Hol- land, 6 June, 1806. Napoleon defeats the Prussians at Jena and Auerstadt, Oct., 1806. Napoleon publishes his Berlin decree, 21 Nov., 1806. Year Books. Reports. These year- books are extant in an unbroken series from Edward II. to Henry VHL, and were made by the court scribes (protho- notaries) at the expense of the crown, and published annually. Year of Confusion (The), B.C. 46, which consisted of sixteen months (445 days). It was the year A.U.C. 708 when Julius Caesar inserted (beside the inter- calary month of twenty-three days) two extraordinary months between Nov. and Dec., one of thirty-three days and the other of thirty-four days, in order to ad- just the year according to the course of the sun. To prevent the recurrence of any future confusion, he reformed the calendar, making it to consist of 865 days and a leap year of 866 days, instead of 855 and the mensis intercalaris attri- buted to Numa. Tkw reform was the work of Soslgenes of Ala. TEAB andria, who Introduced the terms kalends, nones, and ids, to designate certain divisions of the Roman month. Kalends the first day of the month, when the priest called out or announced to the people the day of the new moon. Nones, nine days before the Ides. The Ides were the 16th of March, May, July, and October, but the 18th of the other eight months. Year of Death (The), A.D. 687, is so called by the Arabian historians be- cause of the terrible plague which deso- lated Syria. As many as 25,000 men of the army of the Kalif Omar, encamped before Jerusalem, fell victims. Next year it desolated Aleppo and Antioch. Year of Destruction (The), A.D. 689, is so called by the Arabs from the dreadful plague which broke out at Medina. It was preceded by violent hailstorms which destroyed enormous quantities of corn. Year of Jubilee (The). Every fiftieth year among the Jewish race, when all lands returned to their original owners and all slaves were set free. Year of Liberty (The), 1648. After the execution of Charles I. his statues in the Royal Exchange and in other places were taken down, and the following in- scription was substituted by Act of Par- liament: 'Exit Tyrannus, Regum ulti- mus, Anno Libertatis Anglies restitutse primo, AJD. 1648, Jan. 80 ' (old style). Year of Revolutions (Tfo),1848. The Chartist demonstration in this country; the third of France; the in- surrections of Italy; revolutions in Hun- gary and Austria. Year of the Deputations (The). The eighth of the Hedjrah (AJ>. 680), when, after the victory near Taif, deputa- tions flocked from various tribes to pay homage to Mohammed. Year of the Revolutionary Calendar. 1. Prom 22 Sept., 1792, to 21 Sept., 1798 2. 8. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9 10. 11. 1798 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1794 1796 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1808 960 YELLOW YELLOW 12. Prom 22 Sept., 1803, to 21 Sept., 1804 13. 1804 1805 14. 1805 to 81 Dec., 1805 When the practice was discontinued. Yellow and Blue, in China. The followers of Lamaism wear yellow robes, the imperial colour, because Lamaism was promulgated in China by a son-in- law of the emperor. The other twelve sects wear blue. Yellow Book (The). Reports of the inspectors of schools for England, Wales, and Scotland. So called from the yellow cover. Yellow Books (The). In France, the government reports, papers, and other official documents are stitched in yellow covers. So are the government reports of foreign affairs. See p. 106, Blue Books.' Yellow Caps. The caps worn in France before the 15th cent, were round ai of a yellow colour, like the stockings mr Blue-coat boys. In Italy uews were obliged to wear yellow caps as a badge. And Shylock ought to have such a head-dress. Yellow Caps (Rebellion of the). In China in the reign of Han-ling-tee (168-189). This formidable insurrection, headed by Tchang-keo, received its dis- tinctive name from the caps worn by the insurgents, which were all of the imperial colour. Till 220 rebellion followed re- bellion in quick succession, and between 220 and 266 China was divided into three states, called the San Kuo period. Yellow In China Is the imperial colour, which these insurgents adopted. Yellow Division (The), or Brigade of Pentonville Prison. A convict goes through three grades during his sen- tence after the probation : (1) the third class, when he wears black facings on his jacket; (2) the yellow division or second class, when he can, if he likes, have tea for supper instead of ' skilly ' or gruel ; and (3) the first class, when he may have roast instead of boiled beef. Yellow Dress (The). A dress worn by convicts who have attempted to escape, but have been captured and brought back. One half is a bright canary yellow Mid the other bjjf ft sombre drab. If the man has used vio lence, the penalty is a ' yellow dress and stangs' [irons], while the drab half is changed to deep black. Yellow Fever (The). So called from the yellow tint which extends over the whole body, varying from a pale lemon to a deep orange colour. Havan- nah and Vera Cruz may be termed nur- series of this fatal disease, which attacks Europeans in Sept. and Oct. It seems to reappear in Europe about thirty times in a century. It ravaged Antigua in 1810. Barbados In 1647 and 1891. where was called the ' New Distemper.' m Barcelona In 1*21. Above 5.000 died. v Cadiz for the first time in 1706, brought by a ship from America ; since then in 1780. 1733. 1744,1763, 1764, 1819, when It also attacked the dogs, oats, cattle. birds (even canaries), and was mos* fatal. Oarthagena In 1792, where It prodnoe* dreadful havoc. . Domingo .St.) in 1780, 1740, 1791. 1792-S. 179H. when 15,000 Englishmen and nearly the whole French garrison fell Tic-Urns to it. m Gaudeloupe In the autumn of UU-f> 1819. Gibraltar in 1*04, 1814, 1828. m Guayaquil in 1740 and often sine*. Havannah Is its nursery. m Islade Leon in 1*1 > in-28-9. Llvorno in 1W8, where It carried ofl 1.A60 persons out of 6,600 who wen attacked by It. m Main** In 1741. 1808, when 6,884 died; in 1*04. when 18,683 were attacked. m Massachusetts In 1618, but not sever*. Mauritius in is 1.1. Mexico in 1545. 1570, 1788-T, 1761 , 1MT. _ New York in North America eight times betweea 1T.W and 1M06 (sundry parts). Philadelphia In IKW. 17S. when Its rl. 1818. Ordered that all black money (noir monnoie) lately current in the realm be excluded. This base coin was intro- duced from foreign countries, and pro- bably from Ireland also, for in 1889 black money, called turneyt, wag current in York (Trial of the DuJee of), 1809. Colonel Wardle accused the Duke of York in the House of Commons of promot- ing improper persons to military rank through the influence of a Mrs. Clarke. An inquiry was made and the duke acquitted. Such things were common enough till the middle of the nineteenth century. ' Douceurs ' [to mistresses] were even advertised in the daily press. I well remember when the ' Times ' dis- continued these advertisements. This was Frederick duke of York, Moond son of George III. York Prize (The) for an essay on the law of primogeniture. For any graduate of the University of Cambridge of not more than seven years' standing. The same person may receive the prize more than once. Value about 90L Founded by Edmund York of St. Catha- rine's Hall, 1875. Young Chevalier (The). The Prince Charles Edward [Stuart]. Also called the ' Young Pretender ' [.. to the British throne], 1720-1788. Young Clerical School (The\ 1890. To draw more closely together the religious party and the masses. M. de Mun (in France), M. Decurtius (in Switz- erland), and a large number of German and Austrian Catholics have made nume- rous journeys to Rome, and have suc- ceeded in forming a very influential party at the Vatican. The pope (Leo XIII.) is in favour of the movement, and hopes thereby to solve the great labour question. A man who styled himself ' General ' Booth, because he was head of a religions society termed by him the Salvation Army,' said. In the autumn of 1890, that if ho was entrusted with 100,0001. he would solve the great 'labour question. 1 In December, 1890. above 80,0001. had been sub. scribed. Mr. (General) Booth Issued a book to explain his scheme, but It has not yet been put In operation (1891). Young England, about 1840. A group of clever politicians with fantastic ideas who for a time commanded consider- able attention. The chief of the party were Benjamin Disraeli [Lord Beacons- field], Lord John Manners, George Sydney Smithe HJord Strangford], Cochrane- Wishart-Baillie [Lord Lamington], and many others distinguished in oratory and literature. Their platform was laughed at by practical men as Utopian, and quietly sank out of notice. Young Englanders. A set of young men who tried to revive the for- mality and court manners of the Chester- field school. They wore white waistcoats, patronised the pet poor, looked down upon shopkeepers, and were altogether Red Tape Knights. In 1682-8 Oscar Wilde made himself ridiculous by trying to Introduce the ' esthetic foolery ' both In taste, dress, and manners. Young Europe, 1834. An Italian journal which took the place of 'Young Italy ' (q.v.), and tried to propagate the same Utopian system. Young German School (The) of literature followed the emancipation of Germany from the Napoleonic yoke. YOUNG YUEN-OEl 061 Headed by Karl Gutzkow. The other chief authors of this school are Theodor Mundt, Gustav Kiihne, Heinrich Laube, Ludolf Wienberg, Robert Heller, Ernst Kossak, and Heinrich Heine (the best of all). Young Germany. A secret so- ciety mentioned in the report of the Government of Zurich, 1844, and said to be then in existence in Switzerland. This society aimed at a United Germany with a republican form of government. Young Ireland, 1848. A party nursed by the newspaper called the ' Nation.' It differed from the Old Ire- land party headed by Daniel O'Connell chiefly in this respect. The old party was a religious one and sought the su- premacy of the Catholics; the young party wanted to unite both Protestants and Catholics in the great object of the severance of Ireland from the British crown. Though the Young Irelanders disclaimed warlike intentions, many of their speeches were very inflammatory. O'Connell headed the old repealers ; the young repealers were led by William Smith O'Brien. The Young Irelanders gave birth to the United Irishmen (q-v.) t a war party. See ' Irish Associations.' In December, 1890, the Irish ' Nationalists,' who hip of Charles 8. Parnell for ten years, -were split up into two had been under the leadership of Che parties, because Mr. Gladstone refused to co- operate with Mr. Parnell. Those who fell off from Mr. Parnell placed themselves under Justin M- Car thy, and the two Irish 'Nationalist' parties went by the name of Parnellites and M'Carthyltes. Young-Ireland Rising (The). 1848. This was the sequel of Daniel O'Connell's repeal agitation. The mem- bers called themselves the ' Patriots of the Nation.' They were quite ripe for active rebellion, but the ravings of Mitchel were of a piece with the stump orations of a music hall ; and the Young- Ireland rising was easily suppressed. The ' Nation,' an Irish newspaper, was their organ, but the ' Nation ' never had the slightest influence on public opinion. See ' Irish Associations.' Young Italy, or ' The Young Italian Party,' 1831. Formed by Mazzini. The object of thia party was ' the unification of Italy,' or ' Italy under one ruler.' At the time spoken of part of Italy belonged to Austria, part to France. Genoa and Lucca were a republic, Tuscany a grand duchy, Parma and Placentia were under a duke of the Bourbon line, Naples and Sicily were a kingdom, the States of the Church were under the pope, and so on. Young Italy wanted all the several parts to be united under one ruler, to be called the ' king of Italy.' In 1860, by the arms of Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel was hailed 'king of Italy'; in 1866 Venice was added, and in 1870 Rome was made the capital of the new kingdom. Mazzini lived till 1872; Garibaldi died In 1888; and Victor Emmanuel in 1878. Young Pre tender (The). Charles Edward, after the fatal battle of Culloden in 1746, made his escape to France, and his adventures resemble those of Charles II. after the battle of Worcester. The heroic lady who assisted him was Miss Flora Macdonald ; and Charles Edward, dressed in woman's clothes, went by the name of 'Betty Bourke.' When Miss Macdonald left him, his guide was Mai- colm Macleod ; and the prince, as Mac- leod's man servant, assumed the name of ' Louis Caw of Crieff .' Ultimately he arrived at Roseau, near Morlaix, in Bre- tagne, and died at Florence in 1788. Young Boscius (The). William Henry West Betty (1790-1874). He made his dtbut in 1803, and in fifty-six nights realised 84,OOOZ., when he wisely withdrew from public life. Young Switzerland, 1885. An association in Switzerland organized by Joseph Mazzini on the same platform as ' Young Italy ' (q.v.). Mazzini was banished from Switzerland in 1836, and his association melted into air. Mazzinl's motto was not the French ' Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality,' but the word 'Hu- manity.' Abstract humanity is not a workable quantity. Yuen or Y'en Dynasty (The). The twentieth imperial dynasty of China. Founded by Kubla'i Khan, emperor of the Mongols. It gave ten emperors, and lasted ninety years (1278-1368). Pekin was rebuilt and made the seat of govern- ment. It was succeeded by the Ming dynasty. Yuen-Oei Dynasty (The). The first dynasty of the Northern Empire of China. Founded by the Goli Tartars. Chief city Ho-nan. It gave eleven kings, when the Northern Empire was split into 964 SADIGISM ZOLLVEREIN two, called 'Tong-Oei' and 'Si-Oei,' or 'Eastern and Western Oei' ' (886-584). Oel ' la written ' Goel ' by many authors. Zadigism. The science of observa- tion, or the practice of observation in scientific research. ' Zadig ' is the hero and title of a novel by Voltaire. He de- scribes a lost camel, which he had never seen, as blind of the left eye, as having lost two of its front teeth, and being slightly lame in the near fore-foot. When pressed to explain how he knew all this, never having seen the animal, he replied : I knew it was blind of the left eye because I noticed it browsed only on the right side of the road. I knew it had lost two of its front teeth because some of the leaves and some of the grass was bitten and some not. I knew it was lame of the near fore-foot because the marks of this foot in the sand were shorter than those of the other feet,' . 547, won by Urien over Ida the Saxon in- vader. Arques (Battle of), 21 Sept., 1589, in which Henri IV. with 7,000 men defeated the Duo de Mayenne at the head of 30,000 men. Ascalon (Battles of). I. 12 Aug., 1099, In which Godfrey of Bouillon defeated the Sultan of Egypt. H. 1192, in which Richard I. defeated the Soldan's united army, numbered at 300,000 men. It is said that 40,000 of the Saracens were left dead on the field. Aschaffenburg (Battle of), 16 Sept., 1796. The Archduke Karl of Austria defeated Moreau, the French general. This was hit third victory since August. Ashdown (Battle of), or ^Jscesdun, or Ash-tree Hill, AJ>. 870. The great battle in which Ethelred and Alfred overthrew the Danes and slew their king, Bacseg. This via tory is commemorated by the famous White Horse. The town now called Ashbury used to be called Ayshesdown. The downs are still called Ashdown, and not far off is Ashdown Park. Aspern (Battle of), 21 May, 1809, In which the Archduke Karl of Austria was de. feated by Napoleon. Galled by the French the battle of Essling. Assandun (Battle of), 1016. A decisive victory of Canute over Edmund Ironside. The death of Ironside left Canute master of th realm. Assaye, in India (Battle of), 23 Sept., 1803, in which Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington) defeated Scindia and the Rajah of Berar. The forces opposed to the English were fully ten times the more mime- 970 ATHENRY BEATJGfl tons. This battlo la especially noteworthy as being the first great victory of the Iron Duke. Athenry' (Battle of), 1318, In which Ferd- lim Connor was utterly defeated by William de Burgh and Richard de Berraingham. It is said that 11,000 Irish fell in this battle, which gave a final blow to the restless O'Connors. Audelay* (Battle of), 1118, In which Henry I. (Beauclero) defeated Louis VL of France. The object of this battle was to regain the dnkedom of Normandy, which Henry had taken, for William, son of the deposed Robert. Aue Stadt (Battle of), 14 Oct., 1806, won by the French Marshal Davoustover the Prus- sians the same day as Napoleon won the battle of Jena. [Pronounce Ya-nah.] Aughrim, In Ireland (Battle of), IS July, 1691. Same as Aghrim (?..). Augsburg (Battlet of). I. 855, won by Otto I. (the Great) of Germany over the Hun- garians. II 24 Aug., 1796, won by Korean, who com- manded the French army, over the Imperialists. III. Again 2 Sept., and again 7 Sept., 1796, won by the same general (Moreau). Austerlitz, In Moravia (Battle of), S Dec., 105, in which Napoleon defeated the Emperors of Austria and Russia. This great victory led to the treaty of Presburg. It is called ' The Battle of the Emperors.' The Emperor of Austria was Francis, and the Czar of Russia was Alexander I. It was won by Napoleon on the anniversary of his coronation. Aylesford, In Kent (Battle of), A.D. 449, between the Angles and the Britons. Horsa fell in this battle, and the victory gave Kent to Hengist the invader. The massacre which followed the battle was merciless, and drove the conquered Britons over sea or to lurking- places in the forests, where many were out down and many were made slaves to the conquerors. Badon, <.. Bath (Battle of Mount), 620. Called in Latin Mont Badonteiu. This legen- dary battle was the 12th won by Arthur over the West Saxons, and checked for a time their progress. Ballinabinch. (Battle of).lt June, 1798, against the insurgent Irish. The royal army was, of course, victorious, but suffered very everely. Baltimore (Battle of), 12 Sept, 1814, won by General Ross over the Americans, but Ross was slain, and the attack on Baltimore failed. Bannockburn (Battle of), 24 June, 1314, in which Robert Bruce of Scotland defeated Edward II. In this battle the flower of the English knighthood fell into the hands of the conquerors, while the Irishry and foot soldiers were ruthlessly cut down as they fled. For centuries afterwards, the rich plunder of the English camp left its traces on the vestment rolls of Scottish castle and abbey. Banos di Toloso (Battle of), 1210, In which Alfonso IX. of Leon, . 657. The first civil war of the Moslems. In this battle All, the calif, defeated Ayesha, Telha, and Zobeir. % Generally pronounced Bassorah, but it should be called Bas'sorah or Bas'rah. Bath. See' Badon.' Batowitz (Battle of), 1653, in which the army of John II. of Poland suffered a crushing defeat from Bogdan the Cossack and his son. Battlefield (Battlt of), 1402, won by Henry IV. over Percy, surnamed Hotspur. Bautzen (Battle of), 21 May, 1818, won by Napoleon over the allied Russian and Prussian armies. Pronounce Botcl-tn. Baylen (Battle of), 19 July, 1808, in which the Spanish General Oastanos utterly defeated Dupont and his French army. Bazabde (Battle of), AJ>. 860, In which Sapor the king of Persia repulsed Constantius Beachy Head (Battle nf), SO June, 1690, in which the English and Dutch allied fleet was defeated by the French. Beauge" (Battle of). 1420, won by the French over the Duke of Clarence, brother of Henry V. In this battle Clarence was slain, and the Earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Hunt- ingdon were taken prisoners. The victory is ascribed to a contingent of Scotch mercenaries. BEAUMONT BOUVINES 971 Beaumont (Battle of), 28 Aug., 1870, In the Franco-German war. Won by the Prus- sians. Bedr (Battle of), A.D. 624, the famous battle in which Mahomet defeated the Koreishites. He ascribed his victory to Gabriel, who fought on his white horse for the ' prophet.' Belgrade (Battle of), 1456, in which the Turks were defeated by a German army. The famous Siege of Belgrade was in May, 1717, by Prince Eugene. The Turks went to relieve the city, Aug. 5, with 200,000 men, and, after a very sanguinary battle, Belgrade surrendered. ** This city has often been besieged. Bellair, or Moorflelds (Battle of ), in Mary- land, 30 Aug., 1814. A small British force under Sir Peter Parker attacked the town, but, after an obstinate fight, were repulsed with loss, Sir Peter being slain. Belle Isle (Naval battles of), 25 Oct., 1747, in which Admiral Hawke well nigh annihilated the French fleet. In 1759 Admiral Hawke obtained a second victory over the French near the same spot. Benacus (Battle of Lake), 268, In which Claudius defeated the Alemannl. Benburb (Battle of), 5 June, 1648, in which Owen O'Neill the Irish chieftain com- pletely defeated the Scotch and English, led bv Monroe. Of the Scotch and English, 3,243 were slain in battle and many more on the road ; of the Irish army, only 70 men were slain and 200 wounded. Owen Boe O'Neill died soon after the battle, the last of the Irish chiefs. Bennington, Vermont, U.S. (Battle of), 16 July, 1777. Here the Americans defeated the Germans in the American War of Indepen- dence. These Germans were British merce- naries. The American general was Stark. Bensington, in Oxfordshire (Battle of), in which Offa king of Mercia defeated Cyne- wulf king of the West Saxons. Bereslna (Battle of), 28 Nov., 1812, In which the French were attacked by the Rus- sians, and lost 20,000 men. It was a most terrible disaster on their retreat from Moscow. Bergen (Battles of). I. 14 April, 1759, won by the French over the allies. II. 1 9 Sept., 1799, won also by the French over the allies. IIL 2 Oct^ 1799, won by the French over the allies. Biberach (Battle of), April, 1799, in which Marshal Moreau, the French general, defeated the Austriats. Bibracte (Battle of), B.C. 68, in which Julius Ceesar overthrew the Gauls. Bibracte is Autun, in Burgundy. Bicocf o (Battle of), 1521, in which Charles V. defeated Lautrec, the French general. This defeat involved the loss of Milan to the French nation. Bilbao (Battle of), 25 Dec., 1836, won by Espartero over the Carlists. (Christmas Day.) Blackheath (Battle of), 22 June, 1497, in which the Cornish insurgents led by Lord Audley, Michael Joseph, and Thomas Flam- mock, met a crushing defeat from the army sent against them by Henry VIL Above 2,000 of the insurgents were slain and 1,500 taken prisoners. Bladensburg (Battle of), 24 Aug., 1814, in which General Ross defeated the Americans commanded by General Winder in the second American war. Blenheim, in Bavaria (Battle of), 13 Aug., 1704, in which Marl borough and Prince Eugene defeated the French and Bavarians. The great benefit of this victory was that it broke the spell of French invincibility. The many victories that the French had won induced Europe to believe they were irresis- tible ; but the fate of Blenheim dispelled the delusion and raised the fame of England in proportion. This is one of Sir Edward Oreasy's Fifteen Derisive Battles of the World. Borodi'no, in Russia (Battle of), 7 Sept, 1812, between the French commanded by Napoleon, and the Russians under Kutusoff. This was one of the most sanguinary battles on record, and both sides claimed the victory ; but as the Russians retreated, the advantage was with Napoleon, to whom the road to Moscow was left open. This battle is also called ' The Battle of Moskwa.' Boroughbridge (Battle of), 16 March, 1323, in which the royal troops of Edward H. led by Sir Simon Ward and Sir Andrew Barclay defeated the Earls of Lancaster and Hertford, two of the lords ordainers who had risen against the royal favourites Hugh le Despeuser and his father. Lancaster, being taken prisoner, was hanged, drawn, and quartered as a traitor. Fourteen bannerets and fourteen knights bachelors were hanged, drawn, and quartered, with the earl. Borysthenes (Battle of the), 1508, won by Sigihiiiund I. of Poland over the Muscovites. It is said that the Muscovites lost 80,000 men in this battle. Pronounce Bo-ris'-then-eze. B OSWOrth Field, in Leicestershire (Battle of), 22 Aug., 1485, in which Richard III. was defeated and slain by the Earlof Richmond (Henry VII.). This batt.e brought the Plan- tagenet dynasty to an end, and established that of Tudor. The Tudors were descendants of John of Gaunt's il egitimate offspring, born of Cathe- rine Swynford. The last of this line, called Beaufort, was Lady Margaret, who married Edmund Tudor, and became the mother of our Henry VII. Bouvines, in Flanders (Battle of), 27 July, 1217, in which Phi ippe Auguste king of France defeated the Kaiser Otto and his aliiei, 973 BOXTEL OADESIA the Flemish and English. The Flemish were the first to fly, then the German centre gave way, ami lastly the English on the right wing, led by the Earl of Salisbury. This was a very important battle. If Philippe had lost it, France would have been partitioned among the conquerors. As King John was one of the de- feated allies, his vengeance against the English barons was powerless, and hence the grant of Magna Charta. Boxtel (Battle of), 17 Sept., 1794, In which the British allied army commanded by the Duke of York was defeated by the French re- publican army. The Duke retreated across the Meuse. Boyne, in Ireland (Battle of the), 1 July, 161H), where William III. defeated James IL, who the parliament declared had abdicated. Bradford on the Avon (Battle of), AJ>. 657, in which Cenwalh defeated the Britons. Brandywine, a river in the U.8. (Battle of the), 11 Sept., 1777. Won by Lord Ho we over Washington, in the American War of Inde- pendence. Philadelphia fell to the possession of the victors. Breslau. Between 1757-60, in the Seven Years' War,' it was taken and retaken by the Prussians under Frederick the Great and the Austrians ; but in 1763 Silesia passed defini- tively into the hands of the Prussians. It was besieged and surrendered to the French 6 Jan., 1807 ; and again 31 May, 1813. Pronounce Bret-low (ow as in now). Bretigny (Treaty of), 1380, after the battle of Poitiers. It stipulated that Edward III. should renounce all claim to the crown of France ; but should retain Calais, and be the independent lord of Poitou, Aunis, Angoumois, Baintonge, the Limousin, and Guyeuue. The French also paid in money 366,000*. and gave 40 hostages. Briar's Creek, In South Carolina (Vaults of). I. 16 March, 1779, won by the English army led by General Prevost over the Americans commanded by General Ashe. II. 3 May, 1779, by the same belligerents and with the same results. Brienne (Battle of), 89 Jaiu, 1814, won by Napoleon over the allied Russian! and Prus- sians led by Bllicher. Brooklyn. U.S. (Battleof), 87 Aug., 1776, where General Howe defeated the Americans in the American War of Independence. This U sometimes called ' The Battle of Flatbush,' Brunanburh (Battle of), 937, won by A thelstan king of England over a confederacy organised by Anlaf king of Ireland. The con- federated chiefs who joined Anlaf were from Scotland, Cumberland, together with some Welsh or British chiefs, and some of the Danes settle. 1 by Alfred in the Five Boroughs. Bull Bun, Vlrguw (Battlet of), 31 July, 1861. I. The first of the conflicts iu the American Civil War. The Federals, under General Irwin M'Dowell, were successful at first ; but whea some Confederate reinforcements arrived, being seized with a panic, they fled to Washington, leaving their baggage and ammunition behind. The Confederate generals were Beauregard and Jackson. IL 30 Aug., 1868. A desperate conflict which also ended in the triumph of the Confederates, commanded by General [Stonewall] Jackson. The Northern army was under General Pope. It was General [Bernard] Bee who gav Jackson this cognomen at Bull Bun. Bulla (flttle of), 15 Sept^, AJ>. 533, in which Bi-lisarius defeated Gelimer, last of the Vandal kings of Carthage. Gelimer was made captive, and Carthage became a Roman pro- vince. Bunker's Hill, near Boston, TJ.(BattU of),\7 June, 1775, two months after the battle of Lexington. Nominally the result was favour- able to Lord Howe and the British troops, but the real victory was on the side of the American insurgents, led by Colonel Prescot. The British loss of men was double that of the Americans. Burford, Oxfordshire (Battle of), 752, in which Cuthred king of Wessex defeated Ethel- bald king of Mercia. In a second defeat at Secandum, in 755, Kthelbald was slain. This battle between Wesaex and Mercia was one of the best contested battles of the hep- tarchy. Burkersdorf (BatOt of), 81 July, 1762, in which the Prussians drove the Austrians from their entrenchments. (In the seventh cam* paign of the Seven Years' War.) Burlington Heights (Battle qf), 8 June, 1813, won by the British, who carried the heights, but the Americans defended them with great valour. Busac'o, in Portugal (Battb tf), 87 Sept^ 1810, in which Lord Wellington, the British commander, defeated the French, commanded by Massena. After the battle, Wellington re- treated to Torres Vedras. Buttington, in Wales (Battle of\ AJX 894, in which Ethelred defeated the Danes. Byland, in Yorkshire (Battle of), 1328, la which Robert the Bruce routed the chivalry of England and of France under Edward III. Cadesia (Battle of), JU>. 636, in which Ysdegerd (king of Persia) was defeated by Khaled, commander of the Saracen army. The battle lasted three days. The first was called the Day of Succour, from a reinforcement of 80,000 which arrived on that day. The second day was called the Day of Concustion, from the conflict of the two armies on that day. The third day was called the Day of Barking, from the discordant noises of the Persian camp when a high wind drove clouds of dust into their f acea. In this battle the famous standard called 'Durufsh e Kawanee,' better known aa the Blacksmith's Apron,' fell into the hands of the Saracens. CAMBUSKENNETH CHARFORD 78 Cambuskenneth (Battle of), 10 Sept., 1297, in which William Wallace defeated the English army under the Earl of Surrey. By this victory Scotland was lost to Edward I. Cambuskenueth is close to Stirling Bridge. Wallace allowed half the English army to cross the bridge, then fell on them, and, taking posses- sion of the bridge, prevented the rest of the English from crossing it. Camden, South Carolina, U.S. (Battles if). I. 16 Aug., 1780. Here Lord Cornwallis defeated the American General Gates in 'the American War of Independence. II. 25 April, 1781, won by Lord Rawdon, the British general, over General Greene of Ame- rica. III. 13 May, 1781, won by the same general prer the same opponents. Camden was burnt. Camperdown (Battle of ),ll Oct., 1797, In which Admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch. Cannre (Battle of), 2 Aug., B.C. 216, In which Hannibal the Carthaginian utterly de- feated the Romans led by the Consul Varro. This was one of the most disastrous defeats ever suffered. At least 40,000 Roman foot and 3,000 horse were left dead on the field. Gape St. Vincent (Battles of). 1. 17 June, 1693, in which Sir George Rooke was defeated by Tourville the French admiral. II. 14 Feb., 1797> in which Sir John Jervis defeated the Spanish fleet. Caravaggio (Battle of), 1448, In which Sforza defeated the Venetians, took all their stores and 15,000 prisoners. Caristo (Battle of), 29 Aug., 1351, a great naval victory of Venice over the Genoese. Carthage n a, South America (Naval battle of), 1747. It was seized by the French in 1544 ; taken by SiifFrancis Drake in 1585 ; retaken by the French in 1697; and unsuccessfully besieged by Admiral Vernon in 1747. Casal Secco (Battle of), U July, 1426. This was scarcely a battle. It was rather an affray between the Venetians led by Carma- gnuola and the Milanese under the leader ship of Francesco Sforza. It was not decisive, but the Venetians had the advantage in that they com- pelled the Milanese to retire to their lines. Casalecchio (Battle of), 26 June, 1402, in which Visconti signally defeated the Bolognese. Cassa'no (Battle of), 28 April, 1799, in which Suwarrow, the Russian general, defeated Marshal Moreau and took 5,000 French prisoners. Cassel (Battle of), 1677, won by the Duo d'Orleans over the Dutch. Castel Nuovo (Battle of), 29 Sept., 1806. in which the Russians were defeated by the French. Castiglione (Battle of), from 2 to 5 Aug., 171)6, in which Bonaparte defeated the Aus- trians under Wurmser. Here Marshal Augereau greatly distinguished himself, and was created Duo de Castiglione (6 syL). Castillon (Battle of), 17 July, 1453. The most signal defeat suffered by the English. Here the Earl of Shrewsbury and his son were slain. This victory put an end to the dominion of the English in France. Castlebar, in Ireland (Battle of), 27 Aug., 1798. This was not strictly a battle. In 1798 the Irish rose in revolt, and were suppressed on Vinegar Hill, near Wexford, by General Lake, 21 June, 1798. Scarcely was this done, when General Humbert landed with 1,000 French soldiers, and defeated Lake and Hutchinson. who had some 3,000 men under them, at Castle- bar. The lord-lieutenant, Lord Corn wallis, now marched against the invaders and Irish re- yolters, at the head of 30,000 men, and compelled Humbert to surrender. Catalaunian Plains (Battle of the), A.D. 451. Here Attila king of the Huns was van- quished by the Gallic Mer-wig, or Meroveus, who united with the Roman army. Cattraeth (Battle of), A.D. 547, won by Ida the Saxon over the British Confederacy. In this confederacy there were 363 Britons distin- guished by golden torques. Cerign61a (Battle of), 1503, won by Oon- alvo of CordSva over the French. Chseroneia (Battles of). I. B.O. 447, in which the Athenians were defeated by the Boeo- tians, and their general Tolmidas was slain. II. 2 Aug. B.C. 338, won by Philip of Mace- don over the allied Theban and Athenian army. This battle made Greece a province of the Macedonian monarchy. It was in this battle that Demosthenes the orator served as a foot-soldier, and fled. IIL B.C. 81, in which Sylla, or Sulla, over- threw Archelaos, the best general of Mithri- dates VL king of Pontus, sent to aid the Athenians who had revolted against Rome. The army of Mithridates (4 syl.) consisted of 100,000 men, with 10,000 horse, and 90 scythed cars. The whole army of Scylla did not exceed 30,000 men. Pronounce Ke-ro^ne'-aJt. Chalgrove, In Oxfordshire (Battle of), 18 June, 1643. This was a skirmish between the parliamentarians and royalists, which is only noteworthy because it was here that Hampden was mortally wounded. Generally called ' Chalgrove Field.' Chalons (Battle of), A.D. 451, in which Aetiusand Theodoric utterly overthrew Attila This is one of Sir Edward Oreasy'a Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. Champ- Aubert (Battles of), 10 Feb 1814, won by Napoleon over the Prussians led by Bliicher. And again 14 Feb., 1814. Chancellorsville, U.S. (Battle of) 2 May, 1863, won by the Confederates under Lee and Jackson. The Northern army was commanded by General Joseph Hooker. Charford (Battle of), A.D. 519, in which a band of Saxons under Cerdic defeated the Britons. This victory s0t the crown of the West Saxons on the conqueror's head. 974 CHARMOUTH CORUNNA Charmouth (Battleof), A.D 850, in which Ethelwulf king of Wesser was defeated by the Danes. Chair (Battle of), B.C. 63, in which the Roman army under Grassus the triumvir was defeated by Surenas, a principal officer of UrOdes, ' king of kings.' Crassus was treach- arously seized in a conference, and killed by molten go id being poured down his throat. Charrce is Haran [Harran] where Abraham once dwelt. Chateau Thierry (Battle of), 13 Feb., 1814, won by Napoleon over the Prussians led by BlUcher. Chesapeake (Battle of the),l781, in which the British admiral, Graves, was repulsed by the French admiral, De Grasse, fighting for the Americans in their struggle for independence. Set ' Shannon and Chesapeake,' . 981, in which Geoffrey count of Anjou was defeated by Conan comte de Rennes. IL A.D. 992, in which Conan comte de Rennes was defeated and slain by Foulqnes Nerra duke of Anjou. Copenhagen (Battle of), 3 April, 1801, won over the Danish fleet by Admiral Lord Nelson and Admiral Parker. Corinth (Battle o/), B.C. 894, won by the Lacedaemonians over the allied Corinthian army. Coronea (Battlet of). I. B.C. 447, won by the Haitians over the Athenians. This great disaster caused the death of Isoor&tes, 'the old man eloquent.' II. B.C. 394, in which Agesilios kin? of Sparta defeated the allied Athenians, Thebans, Argivea (2 syL), and Corinthians. Corrichie (Bttle of), between the Earl of Huntley (a Catholic) and the Earl of Mar (a Protestant). The bone of contention was the earldom of Murray, which Mary the Queen first gave to the Earl of Huntley, and tln-n ro- called, that she might give it to her brut her, tin- K.url of Mar. The feud culminated in the battle of Corrichie, in which the Earl of Huntley fell. The houses of Huntley and Murray were mortal enemies. The fatal battle of Corriohie was an event not to be forgotten nor forgiven. Sir W. SCOTT, Hitt. of Scotland, xxiviii. Cortenuova (Battle of), 17 Nov., 1237, in which Kaiser Frederick IL defeated the Milanese. Corunna (Battle of), 16 January, 1809. This was not a battle, but a fight to keep the enemy at bay while the British troops were safe'y embirked. Sir John Moore had to retire before a French force, and repulsed the foe, which pressed hanl upon him. The British 1'ir.s \\-us very great, ami amongst the slain was Sir Johu Moore. The French say, ' H y perdit le 16 Jan., 18u9, la bataille,qui luicoflta la vie, et qui forga 'ses troupes a abandouner toute 1'Espagne,' Of course, after the British troop* ha 1 set sail, Marshal Soult occupied Corunna, and therefore claimed the victor/. CORUPEDION DENNEWITZ 975 Corupedion, near Salamis (Battle of), B.c. 281, in which Lysimachus was defeated, and Macedonia, with most other parts of Alex- ander's vast empire, fell under the hands of Seleucus. Courtray (Battles of). I. In 1302, in which the French were defeated by the Flemings, com- manded by Count John of Namur [Na-moor'~\ and William de Juliers. This was ' The Battle of the Spurs,' so called because more than 4,000 gilt spurs were picked up on the field. These were the spurs of French knights slain in the battle. H. In 1793, in which the French defeated the English. * Courtray has been often lost and won. Coutras (Battle of), 20 Oct., 1587, in which Henri (afterwards the IV. of France), at the head of the Huguenot army, utterly routed the Leaguers or Catholics led by the Due de Joyeuse. Cowpens, South Carolina, TJ.S. (Battle of), 11 Jan. 1811. Here the Americans de- feated the British, in the American War of Independence. The English troops were led by Colonel Tarleton, the Americans by Colonel Morgan. The colours, cannons, and baggage waggons fell into the hands of the victors, and the loss of the British amounted to at least 600 men, while that of the Americans was trifling. Cran'on ( Kattle of), B.C. 322, in which the Macedonians led by Antipater and Orat&ros defeated the confederated Greeks both by sea and land. We are told that Hypertdfis, being taken prisoner, was put under torture, and bit or cut off his tongue that he might betray no secrets. Cray ford (Buttle of), A.D. 457, in which the Saxons triumphed over the Britons, who abandoned Kent and fled to London. Probably the same as the battle of the Darent. The river Cray runs into the Darent. Cressy or Crdci, in France (Battle of), Saturday, 26 Aug., 1346, in which Edward III. of England defeated Philippe VI. of France. The victory was mainly due to the Black Prince, who in this battle won his spurs. In this great victory 1,200 French knights and 30,000 foot- soldiers (a number equal to the whole English army) lay dead on the field. The siege of Calais followed, and its surrender to the vic- torious king. This is the greatest victory ever won. The French were at least four times more numerous than the English, but they lost two kings, eleven great princes, eighty bannerets, 1,200 knights, and 30,000 rank and file. The English lost three knights, one squire, and an insigni- ficant number of inferior rank. After the battle, King Edward sent Lords Cobham and Surrey, with a number of secretaries and heralds, to take a record of the slain ; and their record is still extant. Cropredy Bridge, near Baubury (Battle qf), 29 June, 1644, in which Charles I. defeated Sir W. Waller, one of the Parliamentary officers. Cullod'en, near Inverness (Battle of), 16 April, 1746, in which the Duke of Cumberland completely overthrew the Young Pretender, Charles Edward, and stamped out Jacobitism for ever. Charles Edward escaped to France, three Scotch nobles were beheaded, fifty of Charles's followers were hanged, and forty per- sons of rank attainted. Cunax'a (Battle of), B.C. 401, between Cyrus the Younger and his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon. Cyrus was slain. This event has been rendered especially famous by 'the retreat of the 10,000' Greeks, led by Xenophon the historian, who also wrote an account of it in his Anabasis.' Cunersdorf (Battle of), 12 Aug., 1759, won by the Russians over the King of Prussia. Cunobizza (Battle of), 1444, won by Hunyades over the Sultan Amurath n. the Dogheads (Battle which Philip V. of Macedon Of), B.C. 197, was utterly defeated by Flaminius the E,oman consul. By this defeat Macedonia lost her .supremacy in Greece. Cynossema (Naval battle of), B.C. 411, won by the Athenians over the Lacedaemo- nians. Cynossema means 'dog's tomb,' so called from being the traditional tomb of Hecuba, who had been metamorphosed into a dog. Cyzicum (Battle of), B.C. 410, won by the Athenians over the Lacedaemonian fleet com- manded by Miudaros and assisted by Pharna- basus the Persian. Czaslau (Battle of), 17 May, 1742, in which Frederick II. of Prussia defeated Prince Charles of Lorraine. In the War of the Austrian Suc- cession. Pronounce Tshat-low (ow as in now). Deegsaslan, north of the river Tees (Battle of), 603, won by Ethelfrith over the forces of the Northern Britons. By this great victory the rule of Northumbria, from the Humber to the Forth, was established. Dsegsaslan is Dai- ton, in Yorkshire. D anbury. Connecticut, U.S. (Battle of), 26 April, 1777, won by the English, who set fire to the town. In the American War of Independence. Dego (Battle of), 15 April, 1796, in which Bonaparte repulsed the Austrians. Delium (Battle of), B.C. 424, won by the Boeotians over the Athenians in the eighth year of the Peloponnesian war. This battle was the most disastrous and most decisive of all the battles fought in the first eight years of the war. Denain (Battle of), 1712, won by the French, commanded by Marshal Villara, over Prince Eugene. Dennewitz (Battle of), 6 Sept., 1813, won by Marshal Bernadotte [afterwards Charted 376 DEORHAM EDGECOTE XIV. of Sweden] over Marshal Ney. The loss of the French was 16,000 men, Napoleon's de- feat at Leipsic the following month (16, 18, 19 Oct.) closed his reverses in this disastrous year. Deorham, in Gloucestershire (Battle of), 577, in which the West Saxons conquered the Britons. Gloucester, Cirencester, and Bath, which had leagued under the British king in this contest, became the spoil of the conquerors. Three British kings, viz. Connuiil, Condidan, and Farinmail, fell in this battle. Dessau (Battle of), 1626, won by Wallen- stein in the Catholic interest. This was one of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. Pronounce Det-sow (ow as in now). Dettingen (Battbtof) L 27 June, 1743, In which George II. defeated the French, under Marshal Nouilles. In a military point of view tliis battle was a very small matter, consisting of extricating Lord Stair from a position in which his blundering had placed him. George II. cut his wity out. The effect of this success was considerable, for the French evacuated Germany, and the fortunes of Maria Theresa revived. This battle, which was in the War of the Austrian Succession, was the last in which an English sovereign en gaged in person. II. 26 July, 1866, in which the Prussians defeated the Bavarians in the Austro- Prussian war. Diamond (Battle of the), Sept., 1795. A battle in Ireland between the Orangemen and Catholics ; so-called from the place where it was fought, county Antrim. Dolabella (Battle of), A.D. 24, in which Tacfarinas the African freebooter was defeated by a Roman army and slai u. Donningtpn (Battlet of). I. In 1643, In which the parliamentarians were defeated by Colonel Cavendish. II. in 1645,in which the royalists, led by Lord Ash ton, were defeated by Colonel Morgan. These are not the same places. The former is In Lincolnshire ; the latter in Gloucester- hire. Douro (Battle of the), 12 May, 1809, won by Sir Arthur Welles'ey (duke of Wellington) over Soult, the French marshal. For this exploit Sir Arthur was created Baron Douro. Dresden (flattlesof). 1. 28 Oct., 1806, where Napoleon defeated the Prussians. II. 2G, 27 Aug., 1813, won by Napoleon over the allies, led by the Prince of Schwarzenberg. Marshal Moreau was slain in this battle. Dreux (Battle of), 1562, between the Ca- tholics and Huguenots, in the first religious \v:ir of France. Marshal St. Andre, one of the French Triumvirate (q.v.), was slain ; but the Catholics claimed the victory as Prince Conde was taken prisoner. Drvfe Bands (Battle of), 1593. Between the Maxwells and Johnstones, the former of whom was left dead on the field. This was the last graat clan battle fought on the border*. Dunbar (Battlei of). I. 27 April, 1296, in which the English, under John Earl of Warrenne, defeated Baliol's army with great slaughter. II. 3 Sept., 1650, in which Cromwell utterly defeated the Scotch, led by Leslie. After this victory, Edinburgh Castle and several other strong fortresses fell into the hands of Crom- well. Ten thousand prisoners fell into Cromwell's hands in this victory, with all the baggage and guns ; and as many as 3,000 were slain. Spain instantly recognised the commonwealth, and Holland offered its alliance. Dunes (Battle of the), 4 June, 1658, in which the English and French defeated the Spaniards. Dungan Hill (Battle of), 10 July, 1647. in which the Irish were defeated by "Colonel Jones. Dunsin'nane (Battle of), 1057, won by Seward over the army of Macbeth. Macbetk fled and was slain at Lumphanan, in Aber- deenshire. Called by Shakespeare Dnnsinane. Dupplin Moor (Battle of), 1332, la which an army of 40,000 Scots was utterly defeated by some 3,000 Englishmen. Above 13,000 of the Scotch were slain, and not above 80 of the English. Durham (Battle of), 17 Oct., 1348, in which Queen Philippa defeated David Bruce king of Scotland, who was taken prisoner. Durham Station, North Carolina, tbe ' Sedan ' of the American Civil War. Here (10 May, 1865) General Johnston, who had the chief command of the Confederates, surrendered to General Sherman, and thus brought the war to an end. The war began in 1861. Durren stein (Buttle of), 11 Nov., 1801, in which the French were defeated by the Russians. Ebersberg (Battle of), 13 May, 1809, la which the French Marshal Massena defeated the Austrians. Eckmuhl in Bavaria (Battle of), 22 April, 1809, won by Napoleon over the Archduke Karl, leader of the Austrians. All the Austrian artillery, fifteen standards, and 20,000 prisoners fell to the French in this battle. April 23, Napoleon was wounded in the heel. Ec'iiomus (Natal battle of), B.C. 256, in the first Punic war. The Roman fleet was victorious over the Carthagini;ui. % Ecnomus, now Monteserrato. Eddington or Etlmndun, near Westbnry in Wilts (Battle of), May 11, A.D. 878, in which Alfred completely overthrew the Danes and recovered hia throne. Finding it impossible to drive the Danes out of the kingdom, he allowed them to settle in East Anglia, Ao, provided they became Christians. Edgecote (Battle of), 26 July, 1469, in which the royal forces were defeated by Lancastrian insurgents. KDGEHILL FKEDEKICKSBURO 977 Edgehill (Battle of), 23 Oct., 1642. An Indecisive battle between the royalists led by Prince Rupert and the parliamentary party led by the Earl of Essex. This was the first battle between Charles I. and his subjects. The king himself was personally present in this battle. Elchingen (Battle of), 14 Oct., 1805, in which the French under Marshal Ney defeated the Austrians. Elian dun (Battle of), 823, in which Egbert defeated Beornwulf of Mercia. Ellandun is Wilton, close by Salisbury, a little to the south-east of Ethandun or Eddington, famous for one of Alfred's victories. Elster (Battle of), 5 Oct., 1080, won by Heinrich IV. of Germany over Rudolf, the pseudo-emperor appointed by the diet of Forscheim. Rudolf died of his wounds. Emmendingen (Battle of), 19 Oct., 1796. The Archduke Karl of Austria defeated Moreau the French general. Engen (Battle of), April, 1799, in which Moreau the French general defeated the Austrians. En.gh.ien (Battle of), 3 Aug., 1692, won by the French under Marshal Luxembourg over William III. Enghien (3 syl.). Epila (Battle of), 1348, in which the Union of Aragon was overthrown. This was the last battle of Aragon fought in defence of public liberty. The ' Privilege of Union ' was abolished, Peter himself cutting to pieces with his sword the original charter. Espierres (Battle of), 22 May, 1794, in which the French were repulsed by the allied English and Austrians. Essling (Battle of), 21, 22 May, 1809, won by Karl archduke of Austria over Napoleon. This was the greatest defeat that Napoleon himself had hitherto sustained. Marshal Lannes fell in the fight, and 30,000 French were made prisoners. _ Here Kaiser Rudolf, in 1276, overthrew Ottokar king of Bohemia. Eurymedon (Baffle of), B.C. 470, won by Oimon, son of Miltiailes, over the Persians. Eutaw Springs, U.S. (Battle of), 8 Sept., 1781, in which Colonel Stewart and General Arnold (a renegade American) defeated the Americans in the American War of Indepen- dence. Evesnam (Battle of), 3 Aug., 1266, In which Simon de Montfort and his son were defeated and slain by Prince Edward son of Henry III. It is said that at one period of the battle the king was on the point of being cleft down by a common soldier, and saved his life by exclaiming, ' Don't kill me, soldier ; I am Henrj of Westminster, the king.' See Hexham. Eylau (Battle of), 8 Feb., 1807, a doubtful battle between Napoleon and the combined Russian and Prussian armies. Napoleon claimed the victory because the allied army decamped during the night. It was a most bloody fight. The French were 54,000 strong, the allied Prussians and Russians were 72,000. ** Pronounce Ey-low (ow as in now). Falkirk (Battles of). I. 22 July, 1298, in which Edward I. defeated Wallace, who was afterwards captured and beheaded. II. 17 Jan., 1746, in which the ' Young Pre- tender ' defeated General Hawley. Farnham, in Surrey (Battle of), A.D. 894, in which Alfred defeated the Danes under Hastings their leader. Fere - champenoise (Battle of), 25 March, 1814, in which Marmout's French army was defeated by the Anstrians led by Schwartz- enberg. Ferozeshah (Battle of), in the Punjab, 22, 23 Dec., 1845, in which Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs. Hugh Gough was created a baronet in 1842 and a baron in 1846. (Gough =0off.) Flat-bush (Battle of), Long Island, 27 Aug., 1776, in which the Americana were defeated by the British forces. Fleurus (Battle of), 17 June, 1794, in which the allied army, consisting of 100,000 men, under the command of the Prince of Coburg, marching to the relief of Oharleroi, was signally defeated by the French revolu- tionary army commanded by Jonrdan. In this battle the French made use of balloons to reconnoitre the enemy's army. Flodden Field (Battle of), 9 Sept., 1513, In which the Earl of Surrey defeated the Scots. Fontenoy (Battle of), 11 May, 1745, In which Marshal Saxe defeated the Duke of Cumberland at the head of an allied army of English, Dutch, and Hanoverian troops. Formigny, in Normandy (Battle of), 18 April, 1450, in which the Constable of Riche- moiit defeated an army of 3,000 Englishmen. This battle was the coup de grdce of our claim upon France. A monument on the field of battle records the victory. Fornovo (Battle of), 6 July, 1495, in which Charles VIII. of France defeated the Italian allies. This was a most marvellous victory : the French did not number above 9,000, the allies exceeded 40,000. Yet the loss of the French was only 200, but that of the allies 3,500. Paulus Jovius terms this battle 'the extinction of Cisalpine military glory, an igno- minious rout which made Italy contemptible, and the beginning of countless miseries.' This battle is also called ' The Battle of the Taro.' Frankenhausen (Battle of), 1525, in which the Elector of Saxony utterly defeated the Anabaptists, and took their leader, Munzer, prisoner. Munzer was ignominiously beheaded. Fredericksburg, in the United State* (Battle of ), 13 Deo., 1862, in which the Con- federates under General Lee defeated the Northern army led by General Burnside. IB 978 FKEIBUBO HALIDON HILL Freiburg (Battle of), 1844, In which the French led by the Great Oonde defeated Francois de Merci, a general in the service of the Elector of Bavaria. It was in this battle that Oonde flung hit baton into the enemy's trenches. Friedland (Battl* of), 14 June, 1807, wop by Napoleon orer the Russian army which had fought atEylau, 8 Feb., 1807. The peace of Tilsit was the result of this victory. Friedlingen (Battle of), 1703, won by the French commanded by Marshal Villars over the imperialists commanded by the Prince of Baden. Frithern (Battle of), AJ>.584, won by the Saxons over the Britons. Cealwin was the Saxon chief. Fuentes de Onoro (Battle of), 6 May, lall, between the British and Spanish forces under Wellington and the French under Mas- sena. It was an indecisive battle, but the French retreated out of Portugal on the 10th, and therefore the advantage was on the side of Wellington. The Anglo-Spanish loss was 1,500, the French loss nearly 5,000. Gallip'oli (Battle o/), 1294, a great naval victory won by the Genoese over the Vene- tians. Garigliano (Battle of), 37 Dec., 1503, won by Gonsalvo, the great captain, over the French. Oaugamela (Battle of), I Oct*, B.C. Ml. Same as the ' Battle of Arbela ' (?..). Gemblours (Battle of), Jan., 1578, in which the Dutch were defeated by Don John of Austria. QenestreUo (Battle of),20 May, 1859, the first of the battles fought by the Sardinians against the Austrians. The allied army, con- sisting of Sardinians, Italians, and French, defeated the Austrians. Gennantown. UJ3. (Battle of), 4 Oct, 1777. Here General Howe defeated the Ame- ricans in the American War of Independence. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania (Battle of), 3 July, 18G3, in which the Confederates under the command of General Lee were defeated by the Northern army. This was one of the great battles of the Civil War. Ghuznee (Battle of ), 33 July, 1839, won by the English, led by Sir J. Keane, over the Afghans. The citadel was attacked at 2 A.M. ; at 3 the gates were blown in, and at 5 the English colours were flying on the towers. Glenlivet (Battle of),3 Oct., 1594, a trial of strength between the Highlanders and the Lowlanders. The Earl of Argyll led the Highlanders and the Earl of Huntley the Lowlanders. Victory rested with the latter. The encounter came to resemble that of Har- law(. 79 or 82, in which the Romans, under Agricola, utterly defeated the Caledonians led by Galgao. Grani CUS (Battle* of the). I. May B.O. 134, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius Oodoman'us. II. B.O. 78, In which Lucullus defeated Mith- rldates. Granaon (Battle of), 1476, in which the Swiss fell upon the army of Charles le Teme- raire duke of Burgundy, and put it to utter rout. Gravelotte (Battle of), 18 Aug., 1870, In the Franco-Prussian war ; won by the Prus- Grochow (Battle of), 20 Feb.,1831, won by the Poles over the Russians. Gross Beeren (Battle of), 33 Aug., 1813, when the French were repulsed by the Swedes. Guildford, or Guilford (Battle tf), 1781, in which Lord Oornwallis with 1,600 men utterly defeated Greene, the American general, who had 6,600 or 7,000 men. Marshall, in his 4 Life of Washington,' says : 'No battle in ch whole course of the war reflects more honour OB the courage of the British troops than this of Guildford ' (in North Carolina). Guinegate, near Calais (Battle of), 19 Aug., 1513, won by the allied armies of Henry VIII. of England, the Kaiser Maximilian, an* the Swiss, over the French. Called the ' Battle of the Spurs,' because the French used their spurs in flight more than their swords la fight. Guzerat. 'See GoojeraC Gwenystrad (Battle of), A.D. 47, ww by Urien over Ida the Saxon invader. Hadriano'ple (Battle* of). L 3 July, A*. 323, in which the Roman emperor Licinius WM defeated by Constautine. II. 9 Aug., A.D. 378, in which the Roman em- peror Valens was utterly defeated by the Goths, and lost his life. No battle, except that of Can 11 SB, could be compared to this in its fatal consequences on the Romans. Halidon Hill (Battle of), near Berwick, 19 July, 1333, in which Edward III. defeated the Regent Douglas (brother of the famous 4 Good Sir James '). By this victory Berwick- npon-Tweod remained to the English, and Baliol was restored to the throne as sub- king to the English crown, but the wars with France drew Edward out of the country, Baliol fled, and David Bruce returned to his kingdom. It is said that 30,000 Scots were killed ; bat only 1 knight, 1 esquire, and IB privates Edward's aid*. HALLE ISUP 70 Halle (Battle of), 16. 17 Oct., 1806. Here Bernadotte defeated the Prussians. Hanau ( Battle of), 29 Oct., 1813. The French claim the victory because the Austrians were compelled to retreat. The French were led by Napoleon and the Austrians by General Wrede. The affair was doubtful, though the French army was double that of the adversary. Harlaw (Battle of), 24 July, 1411, a trial of strength between the Gaels and Saxons. The Saxons, or Lowlanders, were led by the Eaxl of Mar ; the Gaels, or Highlanders, by Donald of the Isles. The latter army was considerably more in number, but all the benefits of victory remained with the Saxons. On 3 Oct., 1594, a similar trial occurred at Glenlivet, when the Earl of Argyll led the Highlanders and Huntley the Lowlanders. In this case also the victory rested with the Lowlanders. Hastings (Battle of), 14 Oct., 1066, where William duke of Normandy conquered and slew Harold IL, and thus won, by conquest, the throne of England. Also called the ' Battle of Senlac.' Hatfleld. in Yorkshire (Battle of), 14 O 633. Called the Battle of Hatfield Chase,' in which Edwine king of Northumbria was de- feated and slain by Penda of Mercia. Havenfeld, or Hefenfield (Battle of), 634, in which the Welsh under Cadwallon were utterly defeated by Oswald king of Northum- bria. Haveuf eld means ' heaven's field,' so called because Oswald just before the battle threw himself on his knees in the midst of the army, and asked God to give him the victory. Cad- wallon fell fighting in this battle. Havenfeld was in Durham, not far from Hexham. Hefenfleld. -Sec Havenfeld. Heights of Romainville (Battle of the), 30 March, 1814, in which the French army under Joseph Bonaparte, Marmont, and Mortier was defeated by the allies, who entered Paris the next day. Heilsberg (Battle of), 10 June, 1807, in which the Prussians were defeated by the French. Hengest esdun (Battle of), 835, in which Egbert king of England defeated the Danes. Hengestesdun is now called Hengston Down, in Cornwall. Heraclea (Battle of), B.C. 280. In which the Romans were defeated by Pyrrhus. Heracl&um (Battle of), B.C. 38, where Ventidius (Antony's legate) defeated the Par- thians under PacSrus. Herara (Battle /), In Aragon, 24 Aug., 1837, in which Don Carlos of Spain defeated General Buerens. Hermanstadt (Battle of), 1442, won by Hunyades over the Turks. Hexham, in Northumberland (Battle of), 15 May, 1464, in which the Lancastrians were defeated by Lord Montacute. There is a current legend that after the battle Queen Margaret, in her flight, encountered a -brigand, and said to him, ' Man, I trust to your loyalty the son of your king.* We are furthermore assured that Margaret and her son escaped over the border under this robber's guidance. See Evesham. Hobkirk's Hill. South Carolina, U.S. (Battle of), 25 April, 1781, where Lord Rawdon defeated the American General Greene in the American War of Independence. Hochkirchen (Battles of). I. 14 Oct., 1758, when Marshal Daun defeated Frederick II. the Great of Prussia. (In the Third Cam- paign of the Seven Years' War.) II. 22 May, 1813, when Napoleon defeated the combined Russian and Prussian armies. Hochst (Battle of), 11 Oct., 1795, in which the Austrians defeated Marshal Jourdan, and compelled the French to cross the Rhine. Hochstadt (Battle of), 19 June, 1800, won by Marshal Moreau, the French general, over the Austrians. Hogue (Naval battle off Cape la), 1692, in which the French were defeated by the League (consisting of England, Germany, Holland, Spain, and Savoy). Hohenlinden (Battle of), 3 Deo., 1800, won by Marshal Moreau for the French over the Austrian Archduke John. In this battle he took 100 pieces of cannon and 11,000 prisoner*. Holmedon Hill (Battle of), 14 Sept^, 1402, between the Scots headed by the Earl of Douglas and the Percys. Hotspur, one of the Percys, was the victor ; Douglas was taken prisoner, and so were the earls of Angus, Fife, Murray, and Orkney, with many more of the Scotch nobility and gentry. Iconium ( Battle of ), 1387, won by Amurath the Turkish sultan over the Caramanians. Here Prince Bajazet greatly distinguished him- self, and acquired the epithet of Yilderim (Lightning). Ingolstadt (Battle of), SO April, 1809, won by Napoleon. Inkermann, in the CrimSa (Battle of) } 5 Nov., 1854, won by the allied British and French armies over the Russians. Inverlochy. in Scotland (Battle of\ 2 Feb., 1645, in which the Marquis of Montrose, commander of the royal army in Scotland, defeated Argyll. Ipsus (Battle of), B.C. 301, a decisive battle which closed the great contest between the generals of Alexander the Great for the succes- sion to the empire. Antigonus being defeated and slain, Seleucus was confirmed in his king- dom. Irun (Battle of), 17 May, 1837, in which the Oarlists of Spain were defeated by the British auxiliary legion under General Evans. Islip Bridge, Oxfordshire (Battle of), 22 April, 1645, in which Cromwell routed four regiments of cavalry convoying the king's artillery from Oxford to Worcester. issua KOSSOVA lasxia (Bittletof), NOT. B.C. 333, won by Alexander the Great over Darius Oodornan'us king of Persia. The Persian army consisted of 600,000 men. Alexander's army did not amount to 30,000 men. In this battle Sisygamia, the mother of Darius, and Statira his wife, fell into the h;uids of the conqueror. A.D. 194, Severus conquered Pescennius Niger in a decisive battle on the same plains. The loss of Pescennius Niger was 20,000 men and his own life. His head was sent to Rome. Ivry (Battle of), 1590, in which Henry IV. gained a brilliant victory over the Duo da Mayenne. Jalula (Battle of), A.D. 637, won by the Saracens over Yzdegerd kiug of Persia. Janvilliers (Battle of),U Feb., 1814, won by the French over the Prussians under BlUcher. Jarnac (Battle of), 13 March, 1569, in the third religious war of France. The Catholics were victors, and the Prince de Conde, the great Huguenot leader, was killed in cold blood by Moncontour. Jemappes, in Belgium (Battle of), 6 Nov., 1792. Tliis battle lasted four days; it was between the French revolutionary army led by General Dumouriez and 28,000 Austrians en- trenched in woods and hills. Dumouriex was the victor ; but he lost 12,000 men, the loss of the Austrians being 10,000. Jena, in Saxe-Weimar (Battle of), 14 Got, 1806, in which Napoleon defeated the King of Prussia and advanced at once to Berlin. Here the Duke of Brunswick lost his life. On the same day Marshal Davonst routed the Prussians at Auerstadt. Jena pronounce Ya-*ah. Jsaszeg (Battle of), 8 April, 1849, in th War of Indeixjndence. It was won by the Hungarians. With this battle the demoralisa- tion of the Austrian army was complete. June 1st (Battle of), 1794, a naval victory in which Lord Howe defeated and crippled the French fleet off the coast of Brest. The battle is called that of the 'First of June.' The French admiral was Villaret-Joyeuse. Kadesiah. (Mottle of), or 'Eudseah,' A.D. 636, won by the Mahometans over the Per- sians. This battle decided the character of the Persian empire. Kainardji.or Kutschuk-Kainardji (Treaty of), 21 July, 1774. A treaty of peace between Russia and Turkey. By this treaty the Azof was ceded to Russia, and the freedom of the Black Sea. The Crimea was severed from Turkey and declared free. Kaiserlautern (Battle of), 30 Nor., 1793, won by the Duke of Brunswick over the French. Kalitsch(. 578, In which Ohosroes L king of Persia was defeated by Justinian, general of Tiberias emperor of the East. This was the last conflict of the .TVi'dini with the Romans. Meloria (Battle of), 1284, In which the whole navy of Pisa was utterly destroyed by the Genoese, and Pisa ceased to be a maritime power. Merseburg, In Saxony (Battle of), 934, In w hid i Hei n rich I. the Fowler of Germany conquered the Hungarians with great slaughter. M6ry-sui> Seine (Battle of), 84 Feb^ 1814, won by Napoleon over the Austrian army under Schwartzcnberg. Mctaurua (Buttle of), B.C. 207, in which the consuls Livius and Nero utterly cut to pieces tho army of ITasdrubal sent to reinforce Hannibal in the south of Italy. This is one of Sir K.hvsinl Creasy'a Fiftet* Decisive Battletof the World, Mexico (Battle of), A.D. 1521, won by the Spaniards, because St. James on his white horse fought for them. Bernal Dial, who was pre- sent and saw the mysterious rider, tells us he thought it was Francisco de Morla, but it might be St. James notwithstanding. Meyenfels (Battle of),9 Oct., 878, where Louis the Younger of Saxony defeated Charles the Bald of France. Milazzo. or Melazzo (Battle of\ 20 June, IMGO, in which Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitan General Bosco. Millesimo (Battle of ), 14 April, 1796, In which Bonaparte repulsed the Piedmoutese. Minden, in Prussia (Battle of), 1 Aug., 1759, in which Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick with six English regiments defeated the French under Marshal Contades. (In the fourth cam- paign of the Seven Years' War. Ferdinand's army consisted principally of British and Hano- verian troops.) Marshal Contades said : ' I have seen this day what I never thought possible, viz. a single lite of cavalry break through three lines of cavalry ranked in order of battle, and tumble them all to ruins.' Oontades (2 syL). Minorca (Naval battle off), JO May, 1766. This was no battle, but a shameful retreat of Admiral Byng, who had been sent to the relief of Port Man on. Byng was shot for his cowardice by sentence of court-martial 14 March, 1757. Mockern (Battletof). I. April 1813, in which the Prussian army was defeated by the French under Eugene Beauharnais. II. 14 Oct. 1813, between the French and the allies. The town of Mockern was taken and re- taken five times in this conflict. Mohatz (Battlet of), in Lower Hungary. I. 29 Aug., 1526, in which the Turks under Solyman II. defeated Ludwig of Hungary, with the loss of 23,000 men. Lud wig after the battle was suffocated with his horse in a muddy brook called Csele. II. A.D. 1887, In which a Christian army, commanded by Prince Charles of Lorraine, de- feated the Turks, who lost 10,000 men. Mohilo w (Battle of ), 23 July, 1811 A san- guinary battle between the Russians under Prince Bagration and the French under Mar- shal Davoust. The Russians were defeated, and their loss in killed and wounded was immense. Moinmor (Battlenf), 1151, in which Tor- delvach O'Connor utterly defeated Thomond king of Munster with great slaughter, and be- came king of Ireland. MolwitB (Battle of), 30 March, 1741, won by Friedrich III. of Prussia over the Austrian army sent against him by Maria Theresa. This was the first battle in the War of the Austrian Succession. MoncontoUT (Battle of), 1570, in the third religious war of France. The Hugue- nots were defeated by Henri duo d'Anjou, bro- ther of Charles IX. Monddvi (Bnttlt of),39 April, 179, In which Bonaparte defeated the Piedinontese. Monmouth Court House, U.S. (Battle of), 28 June. 1778. Here Washington won his third victory over the British in the American War of Independence : (1) Trenton, (2) Prince- ton. At Brandywine he was defeated (?.*.). Mons en Puelle, in Flanders (Battle of \ 18 Aug., 1304, In which Philippe le Bel defeated the Flemings. Mont St. Jean (Battle of), 18 June, 1815, called in English history the 'Battle of Water- loo ' (?..). Montebello (Battleof),* June, 1800, won by Napoleon Bonaparte over Ott, the Austrian general. General Lannes for his valour in this battle was created Duo de Montebello. Montenotte(J5fl//fe of), 11 April, 1796, In which Bonaparte defeated the Austriaus, com- manded by Beaulieu. This was the first of his series of brilliant victories. MONTEREAU NAtSSUS 985 Montereau (.Battle of), 18 Feb., 1814, In which the allied armies were defeated by Napo- leou. Montlhgry (Battle of), 1465, between Louis XI. and the ' League for the Public Weal.' The battle was indecisive, but led to the treaty of Conflans, and the league waa soon broken up. Montmirail (Battle of), 11 Feb., 1814, won by Napoleon over the Prussians led by Bliicher. Moodkee, In Hindustan (Battle of),- 18 Dec., 1845, in which Sir Hugh Gough defeated the Sikhs. Sir Robert Sale waa mortally wounded in this battle. Hugh Gough was created a baronet In 1842, and a baron in 1846. ** Gough, pronounce Goff. Mooltan (Battle of), 7 Nov., 1848, won by the British over the Sikhs. The town was taken 2 Jan., 1849, and the citadel 22 Jan. Mopsuestia (Battle of), A.D. 838, called by Arabian writers ' Mamuriyah,' in which 30,000 Greeks were left dead on the field. Morat, or Murden, Switzerland (Battle of), 22 June, 1476, in which the Swiss defeated the brilliant army of Charles leTemerai re. The celebrated Ossuaire of Morat was made of the bones of the Burgundiaus slain in this battle. Moravian Town (Battleof), 5 Oct., 1813, won by General Harrison over Proctor. Morgarten (Battle* of). I. 25 Oct., 1315, between 1,300 Switzers and 20,000 Austrians under the command of Duke Leopold. The Swiss army was made up of 600 men of Schwitz, 400 of Uri, and 300 of Untenvalden. These 1,300 slew 15,000 Austriaus, and not a few of the army of Leopold were drowned in the Egrer See. This and Marsala (q.v.) are, per- haps, the most extraordinary battles of history, if we except that of Gideon, who with 300 men put to night the allied Midianites and Amale- kites. Gideon's victory, however, was from panic, the other two the result of indomitable valour. . II. A.D. 1798, between the French and the Switzers. The French loss was 2,754 dead, ex- clusive of wounded ; the Switzers' loss was 431 men and women ; but the Assembly thought it prudent to come to terms with the French and not renew the fight. III. In 1799 the French defeated the Aus- trians on the same battlefield. Mortemer, in ancient Normandy (Battle of), 1U54, where William (afterwards called the Conqueror) defeated Henri I. king of France. Mortimer's Cross, near Hereford (Battle tf),'2 Feb., 1461, in which Edward duke of York defeated the Lancastrians under the com- mand of Jasper Tudor earl of Pembroke. Moskirch (Battle of), April 1799, in which Marshal Moreau, the French general, defeated the Austrian*. Moskwa (Battle of), 7 Sept., 1812, between the French under Napoleon and the Russians led by Kutusoff. Each claimed the victory. It was one of the most sanguinary conflicts in history. Also called the Battle of Borodino. Mosul (Battle of), also called 'The Battle of Nineveh,' 1 Dec., A.D. 627, won by Heraolius emperor of Constantinople over Chosroes II. of Persia. Elmacin says 500,000 Persians fell in this battle, but Gibbon thinks 50,000 too high a number. Twenty-seven standards were taken by the victorious Romans. Motta (Battle of), 7 Oct., 1513, In which the Venetians led by D'Alviano were defeated by the Spaniards. Mount Tabor (Battle of), 1799, won by Bonaparte over the Mamelukes. Muhlberg (Battle of), 1547, In which the Smalkaldic League was utterly defeated by Karl V. The Elector of Saxony and the Land- grave of Hesse were both taken prisoners. Muhldorf (Battle of), in Bavaria, 1322, between Friedrich the Handsome and Ludwig V., rivals for the throne of Germany. The latter was victorious, and Friedrich was taken prisoner. Munchengratz (Battle of), 28 June, 1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. The Prussians defeated the Austrians. Mursa (Battle of), 28 Sept., A.D. 351, in which Constantius II. defeated the usurper Magneutius. Constantius lost 30,000 men out of an army of 80,000 ; and Magneutius lost 24,000 men out of an army of 36,000. Muta (Battle of), A.D. 629, In which Khaled, commander of the Khoreish cavalry, saved the army of Mohammed. MycalS (Battle of), 22 Sept., B.C. 479, in which the Persians were completely defeated by the Greeks. On the same day Mardouius was defeated at Platea. Naas (Battle of), in Ireland, 24 May, 1798, in which the Irish rebels were defeated by the king's troops. Nachod, in Bohemia (Battle of), 27-29 June, 1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. The Crown Prince of Prussia defeated the Austriaus. NafelS (Battle of), 6 April, 1388, in which 350 of the men of Glaris withstood 15,000 Austrians with such terrible slaughter that the Austrians were obliged to retreat. Nahavund or Nehaveud (Battle of), 637, in which Yzdegerd HI. king of Persia waa defeated by the Saracens, and subsequently murdered. His loss is stated at 100,000 men. This battle, called by the Arabs ' The Victory of Victories,' brought to an end the famous dynasty of the Sassanides (3 syL) and also the religion of the Magi, which had existed in Persia more than 1,200 years. Naissus (Battle of), A.D. 270, won by the Emperor Claudius over 320,000 Goths, of whom 60,000 were left dead on the field. For this great victory Claudius was called Oothieut. NAJARA KICOPOLI3 Najara. In Rpafn (Burnt of), 3 April, 1367, in which Heury of Trastamare wag defeated by his brother Pedro the Cruel assisted by the Black Prinoe. In this battle Duguesclin constable of Prance was taken prisoner. Narva (Battle of), 30 Nov., 1700, in which Peter the Great of Russia was defeated by Carl XIL of Sweden. While dictating despatches, a bomb fell through the roof of the house, whereupon his secretary dropped his pen in a fright. ' What's the matter?' asked Carl. 'The bomb, the bomb, sire 1* said the secretary. ' The bomb ? ' replied the king, 'what have we to do with the bomb ? Pray write on.' Naseby (Battle of), north-west of North- ampton, 14 June, 1645, in which Charles I. was defeated by Cromwell and Fairfax. The main body of the royal army was commanded by Lord Astley, the right wing by Prince Rupert, and the left by Sir Marmaduke Lang- dale. The king himself headed the reserves. In this battle the king lost all his cannon and baggage, and 5,000 of his army were made prisoners. This battle ended the war. Fairfax led the centre of the parliamentary army, Ireton the right wing, and Cromwell the left. Ireton was therefore opposite Rupert, and Cromwell was opi>osite Sir Marmaduke. Ireton was routed, Fairfax fell back, but Cromwell overthrew his opponent! and redeemed the day. Navarete (Battle of). Same as 4 Najara' (?.*.). The battle was fought between Najara and Navarete. Navari'no (Battle of), 20 Oct., 1827, won over the Turkish navy by the combined fleeta of England, France, and Russia, under the com- mand of Lord Codrington. The Turkish navy was well-nigh annihilated. This 'untoward event* occurred under Canning's administration. The weakening of Turkey and an alliance for such a purpose with Russia was certainly one of the greatest blunders ever committed. Navas de Tolosa (Battle of Leu), 1214, in which Alfonso III. of Castile defeated the Almohades, and destroyed one of the largest armies that ever crossed the Straits of Gibraltar. Naxos (Naval battle of), B.C. 376, won by the Athenians, led by Chabrias, over the Lace- daemonian fleet. This victory restored to Athens the supremacy at sea. Nechlansmere, in Scotland (Battle of), 20 May, 685, in which Bgfrith king of Northumbria was defeated and slain by the Picts. ' A solitary fugitive alone escaped the slaughter to tell how Egfrith and the flower of his nobles lay dead on the field.' With this battle fell for ever the supremacy of Northum- bria; and Mercia succeeded to the overlordship. Neerwinden (Battlet of),1. 19 July, 1C93, in which the French Marshal de Luxembourg dcfoat.-d William III. II. 18 March, 1793, In which the Austrian* defeated General Dumouriex. Nehavend. S'Nahavund.' Neresheim (Rattle of), 10 Aug.. 179. in which the Archduke Karl defeated Marshal Moreau, the French general. Netad (Battle of), A.D. 453, a great battle won by various dependent nations over the sons of Attila, after his death. Ellak, his eldest son, and above 30,000 of his people were slain. The great empire of Attila soon after this defeat crumbled away. Neumarkt (Battle of), 22 Aug., 1796, in which the Arohdnke Karl defeated the French. Neville's Cross (Battle of), near Durham, 12 Ock, 1346, in which David IL of Scotland was both defeated and taken prisoner. Aug. 26 the same year is noted for the battle of Cressy. This battle was won by Pbilippa while Bdward III. (her husband) was in France. King David was taken prisoner, and between 15,000 and 20,000 Scots were slain. Of the English, only one leader (Lord Hastings) felL New Orleans, in Louisiana (Battle of), 8 June, 1815, in which the American general Jackson defeated the English, and their gene- ral, Sir Edward Pakenham, was slain. This, of course, was not the General Jackson who was one of the Confederate leaden in the American Civil War, 1861-1865. Newark (Battle of), 21 March, 1644, ia which the royal army, under Prinoe Rupert, was defeated by the parliamentarians. Newburn (Battle of), 28 Aug., 1840. This was no battle at all, but a stampede. Lord Conway with 6,000 English troops was sent by Charles I. to resist the Scotch covenanters, but immediately the covenanters crossed the river the English fled without offering any resistance. Newbury, in Berkshire (Battle of). SO Sept., 1613, in which Charles I. repulsed the Earl of Essex, commander of the parliamentary army. Next year (27 Oct., 1644), was an indecisive engagement at Newbury between Charles L and the Earl ol Manchester. In the former of these battles fell Lord Falk- land. NewtOWn Butler, in Ireland (Battle of), 1689, between James IL aided by French troops and the army of William ill. The Protestants were besieged in Londonderry, and had food only for two days, when the men of EuniskiUen came to their relief, and drove the besiegers before them like wild geese ; the panic spread through Hamilton's whole army, which took refuge in Dublin, where James lay helpless. His French ally, Comte d'Avaux, advised the general massacre of a!l Protestants in the districts which remained still in James's interest ; but James revolted from the proposal, whereupon the Frenchman sullenly replied, 'Mercy to Protestants is cruelty to Catholics.' Nicop'olis, in Turkey (Batllft of). I. 29 Sept., 1396, in which Kaiser Sigismund was defeated by Bajazet. NILE PARRET 087 II. A.D. 1799, In which the French were defeated by the Albanians. Nile (Battle of lite), 1 Aug., 1798, In which Admiral Nelson defeated the French fleet. This victory obtained for the admiral a peer- age, under the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile. Hia battle cry was Victory or West- minster Abbey I * The French admiral was Brueys. Often called, especially In French history, the Battle of Aboukir (q.v.). Nineveh (Battle o/),l Dec., A.D. 627, won by Heraclius the emperor of the East over Chosroes II. the Great King. The slaughter was very great. Nisbet (Battle of), 7 May, 1402, won by the English over the Scotch. It is said that as many as 10,000 Scots fell in this encounter. Nordlingen, in Franconia (Battles of). I. 6 Nov., 1634, won by Ferdinand, son of Kaiser Ferdinand II. over the Protestants. This was one of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. n. 6 Sept., 1645, won by the Due d'Enghien over the imperial German army. (Ferdinand III. was kaiser.) This also was one of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. Noreia (Battle of), B.C. 113, in which Cneius Papirius Carbo the consul was slain by the Oimbrians and his whole army was cut to pieces, Northallerton (Battle of), in Yorkshire, 22 Aug., 1138, in which David I. of Scotland was defeated by Stephen king of England. The battle is generally called ' The Battle of the Standard.' Northampton (Battle of), 10 July, 1460, in which Henry VI. was defeated and captured by the Yorkists. Margaret the queen fled to Scotland. Novara (Battle of), 23 March, 1849, in which the Sardinians (under Charles Albert) were defeated by the Anstrians led by Marshal Radetzky (a Bohemian). Novi (Battles of). 1. 15 Aug., 1799, in which Suwarrow, general of the allied Russian and Austrian armies, defeated Marshal Joubert and the French army. Joubert was slain in this battle and 4,000 French were taken prisoners. IL 8 Jan., 1800, in which the French were defeated by the Austrians. Ntirnberg (Battle of) t 1456, in Bavaria, between the barons and the townsmen. Eight times the barons were victors, but in the ninth contest the townsmen were the conquerors and NUrnberg vindicated its freedom. In this battle Albrecht the Achilles and Ulysses of Germany was taken captive by the citzen soldiers. CEnoph'yta (Battle of), B.C. 456, won by the Athenians over the Breotians. The Athenian general was Myronldes. Ohud (Battle of), A.D. 623, in which Kha- led, commander of the Koreish cavalry, de- feated Mohammed, Olmiitz (Battle of), 15 July, 1866, the last battle of the Seven Weeks' War, won by the Prussians over the Austrians. Oltenitza (Battle of), 4 Nor., 1853, won by Omar Pasha, the Turkish general, over the Russians. Orthes (Battle of), 27 Feb., 1814, In which the French nnder Marshal Soult were defeated by the Marquis of Wellington, commander of the allied British and Spanish armies. Ostrach (Battle of), 20 March, 1799, in which the Archduke Karl defeated Marshal Jourdan, the French general. Ostrolenca (Battle of), 26 May, 1831, be- tween the Russians and the Poles. It was a most sanguinary affair, and both sides claimed the victory. Otford (Battle of), on the Derwent, 773, in which Offa king of Mercia defeated the Kentish men. By this victory Offa became lord of Kent and all East Anglia. Otterburn (Battle of), 10 Aug., 1388, In which the Scots under Sir William Douglas defeated the English under the Earl of North- umberland and his two sons. Douglas was slain by Henry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, but both the Percys were made prisoners. See p. 165, ' Chevy Chase.' Oudenarde (Battle of), in Belgium, 11 July, 1708, in which the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene defeated the French under the Dukes of Burgundy and Venddme. -Louis XIV. gave up ten Flemish fortresses to the Dutch, surrendered to the empire all that France had gained since the peace of West- phalia, acknowledged Anne, offered to banish the pretender from his dominions and to de- molish the fortifications of Dunkirk. By the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, Louis XIV. agreed to recognise William m. ; but on the death of James II. in 1701 he recognised James the pretender as the lawful king of England, under the name and title of James III. This, in fact, involved him in the wars with Marl- borough, so disastrous to France. Oulart (Battle of), 27 May, 1798, in which the North Cork Militia were cut to pieces by the Irish insurgents. Ourique (Battle of), 25 July, 1139, in which Alfonso of Portugal defeated a pro- digious army of Moors, in which were five Saracen kings. Palestro (Battle of), 31 May, 1859, in which the Austrians were defeated by the allied army of Sardinians and French. Panormus (Battle of), B.C. 254, in which the Romans conquered the Carthaginians. Metelluswasthe Roman general and Hasdrubal the Carthaginian. This was the chief battle of the First Punic War. Parret (Battle of the), 845, in which Eal- stan (bishop of Sherborue) and Osrio defeated the Northmen. 988 PATA1 PRAGUE Patay (Battles of). L 18 Jane, 1429. Talbot defeated by the Maid of Orleans and taken prisoner. This was the first battle lost by the English since their victory at Gressy in 1346. Talbot was taken prisoner. II. 1 Dec., 1870, the Bavarians were repulsed. Pa'via (Battle of). I. A j>. 774, where Charle- magne overthrew Desiderius, whom he after* wards confined in the monastery of Corbie, in France. IL 24 Feb., 1525, in which Francois L of France was taken prisoner, and all the flower of his army was cut to pieces. Francois, it is said, wrote to his mother, 'All is lost, Madam, except honour* (Tout at ptrdu, Madame, fort Fhonneur). Peterwaradin (Battlct of). L 1691, won by the Austrians over the Turks. Kaprioli, son aud brother of two former vizien, fell in this fight. II. A.D. 1711, in which Prince Eugene de- feated the Turks with great slaughter. Pfaffendorf (Battle of), 16 Aug., 1760, In which the Austrians were defeated by the Prussians. Pharsalia (Battle of), 12 May, B.C. 48, won by Julius Caesar over Pompey the Great. This victory made Cteesar the foremost man of Rome. Philiphaugh. in Scotland (Battle of), Sept., 1645, in which Montrose, called 'the Great Marquis,' commander of the royal force* in Scotland, sustained a crushing and irre- trievable defeat. This was ten mouths after the defeat of Charles at Marston Moor. Philippi (Battle of), Oct., B.C. 42, in which Brutus and Cassius both met their death, and Antony and Ootavian became musters of Rome. Pinkie, in Scotland (Battle of), 10 Sept., 1517, in which the Lord Protector Somerset de- feated the Scotch with such great slaughter that the day was called ' Black Saturday.' Plains of Abraham (Battle of rv\ IS Sept., 1759, in which the French of Canada were defeated by the English under General Wolfe, who fell dead at the moment of victory. Plassey ( Battle of), in Hindustan, 23 June, 1757, in which Colonel Clive defeated Surajah Dowlah, and laid the foundation of our empire in the East. Olive's army consisted of 1,000 Englishmen and 2,000 sepoys; the Surajah'a army numbered 50,000 foot and 14,000 horse. The victory was complete, and Surajah Dowlah was one of the slain. Plata (Battle of), 22 Sept., R.C. 479, in which the Grecian army (110,000 men) under Pausaiuas utterly defeated the Persian army, wbich amounted to 3(H),tiOO men, under the com- mand of Mardonius. Mardonius was slain at the very onset, and it is said that 200,000 of the Persians were left dead on the field. On the ame day was woo the battle of Myoalft. Plattsburg (Battle of), 11 Oct., 1814, won by the Americans, under Gen. Macomb, orer the English under Sir George Prevost Podaio (Battle of), 1672, won by Sobieakl, the Polish general, over the Tartars. Poitiers (Battlet of). I. Oct., AJ>. 732, in which Charles le Martel utterly defeated the Saracens under the command of Abd-el-Rah- mah, viceroy of Spain. IL 19 SepU 1356, in which Edward the Black Prince defeated and took captive Jean II. le Bon of France. The English force was 8,000, the French 60,000. It is almost incredible, but we are assured on good authority, that 8,000 of the French were slain and 2,000 taken prisoners. Never was victory so unexpected, never was victory more complete. Fola (Battle of). May, 1379, between a fleet of 22 Genoese galleys commanded by Luciano Dpria and 20 galleys of the Venetians under PisanL Doria was slain, but the Genoese won the victory, taking 1ft galleys aud 1,900 pri- soners. Pollentia, in Italy (Battle of), 29 March A.D. 403 (Easter Day). In this battle Stilicho attacked Alaric, and caused him to retreat. Polotsk (Battle of), 30, 31 July, 1812, in which the Russians, under Wittgenstein, de- feated the French under Marshal Oudinot. Portlevoi (Battle of), 1016, won by Fulo, called the Black Count, over the Count of Blow. This great victory crushed the rival house of Blois. PortO Bello (Naval battle of), 1739, won, with six ships, by Admiral Vernon over the Spaniards. All the fortifications of the port were demolished. PortO Novo (Battle of\l July, 1781, In which Sir Eyre Coote defeated Hyder All regent of Mysore. Also called the battle of Cuddalore (3 syL). Potsdam (Battle of), 25 Oct, 1806, when Napoleon defeated the Prussians. Pr&ga, (Battlet of). 1. 10 Oct., 1794, In which 80,000 Poles were butchered by the Russian general Suwarrow or Suwarof. II. 31 March, 1831, won by the Poles, led by Skrznecki, over the Russians under the com- mand of General Giesmar. Above 6,000 Rus- sians were taken prisoners. Prague ( Battlet of), in Bohemia, I. 8 NOT- 1620, when Maximilian of Bavaria defeated Frederick V. the Elector Palatine. This was the first of the battles of the Thirty Tears' War. Prague (1 syL). II. 6 May, 1757, when Frederick EL(the Great) of Prussia defeated Prince Charles of Lorraine. This victory was followed (June 18) by a crushing defeat at Kolin by Marshal Daun. (Second campaign of the Seven Years' War). This is the great and memorable battle of Prague. PRESCOTT EIGOMAQO Prescott (.Battle of), In Upper Canada, 17 Nov., 1838, in which the Canadian rebels were defeated by Lieutenant-Colonel Dundas. Preston (Battles of), in Lancashire. I. 17 Aug., 1648, in which Cromwell defeated the Scotch royalist army, led by the Duke of Hamilton. II. 12, 13 Nov., 1716, after the ' clap of Sheriff - muir.' A very poor affair, where the Jacobites were cooped up, and driven to a most cowardly surrender. (Reign of George I.) All that is known of James the Pretender only confirms the wisdom of setting him aside. Preston-pans (Battle of), In Scotland. 21 Sept., 1745, in which the ' Young Pretender * Charles Edward (grandson of James II.) de- feated Sir John Cope. Never was a battle so quickly decided. It ia said not to have lasted more than five or six minutes. Never was a defeat more absolute. Ho WITT, Hitt. of England, George IL p. 501. Princeton. New Jersey, UA (Battle of), 2 Jan., 1777. Here Washington defeated Lord Cornwallis in the American War of Indepen- dence. This was Washington's second victory. See Battle of Trenton.' Pultowa or Pultawa (Battle of), 9 July, 1709, in which Czar Peter the Great utterly defeated Charles XII. of Sweden. This is one of Sir Edward Oreasy's Fifteen Decisive Battle* of the World. Pultusk (Battlet of). LI May, 1703, iu which the Saxons were defeated by the Swedes. II. 26 Dec., 1806, between the French under Napoleon and the allied Prussians and Rus- sians. Both sides claimed the victory. Pydna (Battle of), B.O. 168, in which Per- seus, last of the Macedon kings, was utterly defeated and his army annihilated by 2Emilius Paulus, the Roman consul. Perseus was taken captive, and Macedonia was made a Roman province. Pyramids (Battle of the), 21 July, 1798, in which Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes. Pyrenees (Battle of the), 28 July, 1813, won by Lord Wellington over the French under the command of Marshal Soult. Soult was sent by Napoleon to supersede Jourdan, who had been utterly defeated at Vittoria on the 21st, and to drive Wellington across the Ebro, but the French marshal met with a series of defeats between 25 July and 2 Aug., with the loss of 20,000 men. Quatre-Bras, in Brabant (Battle of), 16 June, 1815. Two days before the battle of Waterloo. It was a combat between the British allied army and the French under Marshal Ney. The British under the Duke of Brunswick, the Prince of Orange, and Sir Thomas Picton, held their ground, but the Duke of Brunswick was slain and the Prince of Orange was taken pri- soner. At the close of the day the French marshal withdrew his men. Quebec, in Canada (Battle of), 13 Sept, 1759, where General Wolfe defeated the Marquis de Montcalm, commander-in-chief of the French armies in Canada. The taking of Quebec was the conquest of Canada. Wolfe died on the day of battle, and Montcalm the day after from his wounds. See below * Quiberon Bay.' Queenstown, Upper Canada (Battle o/X 13 Oct., 1812, in the Second American War, where General Sheaffe defeated the Americans commanded by Van Rensselaer. Quesnoy (Battle of), 11 Sept, 1793, in which the British forces defeated the French. %* Pronounce Keen-wah. Quiberon Bay (Naval battle of ), 20 Nov., 1795, where Lord Hawke defeated the French fleet, which was utterly ruined. The commander of the French fleet was Marshal Conflans. In one year the English won three great victories over the French, viz. Minden, Quebec, and Qui beron Bay. Baab (Battlet of). 1. 1 Aug., 1664, won by Montecuculi, general of the imperial army, over the Turks. n. June, 1809, in which the Austrian Arch- duke John was totally defeated by Eugene Beauharnais, and the country bordering on the Adriatic was annexed to the French empire. Raab (1 syL). Baclawice (Battle of), 4 Aprfl, 1794, In which Kosciusko the Polish general defeated the Russians. Ram-hormua (Battle of), B.C. 228, in which Artaxerxes (called by the Persians Arde- Bhur Babegan, or Ardeschir ben Babek) utterly defeated Artabanes IV., shook off the Parthian yoke, and restored the empire of Persia Proper. Bamillies, in Belgium (Battle of), 23 May, 1706, where the Duke of Marlborough defeated the French and Bavarians. The French general was Marshal Villeroy. France lost Flanders, and soon afterwards Italy. ** This word is often called Ramf-e-liz in English, but it is called by Belgians Ra-mel-ya'. Bathmines (Battle of), 2 Aug., 1649, be- tween Ormond the royalist and Colonel Jones governor of Dublin. The royalists were de- feated, and 2,000 of them were taken prisoners. Bavenna, in Italy (Battle of), 11 April, 1512, between the French under Gaston de Foix (nephew of Louis XII.) and the combined Spanish and Papal armies. De Foix won the battle, but was left dead on the field. Gaston de Foix was called 'The thunderbolt of Italy.' Begillus (Battle at the Late), B.C. 499, be- tween the Romans and the allies who sought to restore Tarquin. In this battle it is said that Castor and Pollux on their white horses fought for the Romans and won the battle. Bigomago (Battle of), 1447, lost by Hunyadi, governor of Hungary through the treachery of the roivod of Wallacbia. This was one of the bloodest battles evet (ought. EIVOLI BALAMIS Biv'oli (Battle of), 14, 15 Jan., 1797, where Bonaparte defeated the Austrians led by Wurm- ser and Alvinzy. Rocroy (Battle of), 1643, in which the French, led by the Great Conde, sustained a most crushing defeat. Rolica (Battle of), 18 Aug., 1808, the first encounter 01 Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington) with the French in Por- tugal The French under Delaborde were de- feated. Ronces voiles (Battle of ), A.D. 778. It was here that the rear-guard of Charlemagne's army on their return from Spain were attacked by the Moors and annihilated. Among the s'ain was Roland, the famous paladin, the king's nephew. Roland in Italian romance Is called Orlando. Rosbach, in Prussia (Battle* of). I. 17 Nor., 1382, in which 40,000 insurgent Flemings were cut to pieces by the French. II. 6 Nor., 1757, where Frederick IL defeated the allied Austrian and French armies. This defeat was so disgraceful to the French that the * Rout of Rosbach ' is still a proverb and a by- word. The loss of the Prussians was only 300 men, that of the allies was 1,300 slain and 6,000 prisoners. (In the second campaign of the Seven Years' War.) Roabecque (Battleof), Nov. 1382, in which Charles VI. of France defeated the republican army of Flanders, and re-established the earl who had been deposed. Philip van Artevelde, leader of the democratic party, fell in this battle. Ross, in Ireland (Battleof), 4 June, 1798, in which the Irish insurgents, commanded by Oeneral Beauchamp Bagenel Harvey, were de- feated by the royal troops under the command of General Johnston. RothieTe (Battle of), 1 Feb., 1814, won by Napoleon over the combined armies of Blucher and Schwartzenberg. ROUCOUX, or RaucOUX (Battle of), 11 Oct., 1746, in which the French, under Marshal Bare, defeated the allied English and Dutch armies. Roundway Down, near Devizes (Battle of). 13 July, 1643, inwhioh the royalists under Prince Rupert defeated Sir W. Waller, a parlia- mentary officer. Roveredo (Battle of), 4 Sept., 1796, l which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians. S&&lf eld (Battle of), 10 Oct., 1806, won by Napoleon over the confederates. Saarbriick (Batik of), 2 Aug., 1870. In the Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Prus- sians the same day as they won the battle of Worth. 31 July, 1870, it was seized by Napoleon III., and here the young Prince Imperial received his 'baptism of fire;' a battle was fought t Aug., in which the French were dislodged, and on 6 Aug. it was occupied by the German allies. Sadowa, in Bohemia (Battle qf),S July, 1866, in the Seven Weeks' War. King Wil- liam L of Prussia defeated Benedek, the Aus- trian general St. Albans. Hert(Z?ofe of). L 23 Hay, 1455, in which Richard duke of York defeated and took prisoner Henry VI. of England. II. 7 Feb., 1461 (Shrove Tuesday), in which battle Queen Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick. St. Denis (Battle of), 1567, in the Second Religious War of France. Here Anne de Mont- morency, the last of the French Triumvirate (q.v.), lost his life, but the Huguenots were defeated. St. Denis, pronounce Sahn Dnee. St. Dizier (Battle of), 27 Jan, 1814, won by Napoleon over BlUcher. Pronounce Sahn De-te-a. St. Jacob's (Battle of), in the vicinity of Basle, 1444. Here 1,600 Swiss kept 32,000 French soldiers at bay for ten hours, and would not surrender till their number waS reduced to ten men only. St. Quintin (Battle of\ 10 Aug., 1657, won by Philip II. of Spain over the French. This was their most severe defeat since the battle of Agincourt. Pronounce Sahn Kahn-tohn (nasal). St. Sebastian (Battlet of). I. I May, 1836, won by General Evans, commander of the English Auxiliary Legion, against the Carlists of Spain. II. 1 Oct. 1836, the Carlista wen repulsed by De Lacy Evans. St. Vincent, in Portugal (Battlet of ). I. 17 June, 16-J3, In which Admiral Tourville marshal of France defeated the allied English and Dutch fleets under the command of Sir G. Rooke. The allies lost 12 men-of-war and 80 merchantmen in this great naval battle. H. 18 Jan., 1780, in which Admiral Rodney defeated Juande Langara the Spanish admiral, who was also taken prisoner. III. 14 Feb., 1797, in which Admiral Jervis defeated and won a great victory over the Spanish fleet, for which he was raised to the peerage under the name and title of John Jervis earl of St. Vincent IV. 2 July. 1833, in which Admiral Napier captured the Miguelite squadron. Salamanca (Battle of), 22 July, 1812, won by Lord Wellington over the French forces led by Marshal Marmont. This was the seventh French marshal defeated by Lord Wellington in four years. In this battle 7,141 prisoners foil into the victor's hands, 11 cannons, 6 stand of colours, and 2 eagles. Sal'amis (Naval battle of), 80 Oct., B.C. 480, In which the Greeks, under Themistocles, with only 371 triremes, defeated the Persian fleet, which consisted of 928 sail of much larger size. Of thifl formidable fleet only BOO ships escaped 6AMINARA SHANNON destruction. The Persian loss must have been very great indeed, that of the Greeks was only 40 men all told. Xerxes, who was a spectator of the fight, re- turned at once to Asia. Saminara (Battle 2, in the American Civil War. Won by the Federals. Shrewsbury (Battle of), 23 July, 1403, in which Henry IV. defeated the Percys, Shropshire (Battle of), A.D. 51, in which the Britons were completely subjugated to the Romans, and Caradoc [Caract&cus] king of the SilurOs was made a prisoner. Silverhausen (Battle of), 1553, in which Maurice elector of Saxony was slain. His ant;i '.'iiM was Albert of Brandenburg. Sin'gara (Battle of), A.D. 348, between Oon- tantius II. the emperor of the East and Sapor the 1'ersian. The Romans had won the battle, and had given themselves up to joy and revelry ; but Sauor crept upon them in the darkness of night, recovered the victory, and made most dreadful havoc of the panic-stricken Romans. Sinope (Naval battle of), 80 Nov., IMS, won by the Russians over the Turks. Sluys (Naval battle of), in the Netherlands, 24 June, 1340, in which Edward III. defeated the French fleet, which for a time was utterly ruined. (Pronounce Xlu-iz). Smolensko (Battle of), 17 Aug., 1812, won I'.v tin- French over the Russians, led by Barclay dc TollL Sobraon (Battle of), in the Punjab, 10 Feb., 1846, won by General Gough and Sir Henry Hardingcover the Sikhs. In this battle a bridge of boats over the Sutlej broke, and thousands of the Sikhs in their flight were drowned. It was the greatest battle ever fought in India. Gough =Qoff, Soczawa (Battle of), 1678, won by John IIL (Sobicski) of Poland over the Turks. Soissons (Battle of), A.D. 486, in which Clovis, founder of the French monarchy, de- feated Syagrius, son of ^Sgidius. After this victory Clovis made Soissons the capital of nil kiu-i'loni. In 607 he removed to Paris. Solebay (Naval battle of), 28 May, 1672, in which the Dutch were defeated by the English under the command of James duke of York [James II.]. Solferi'no. In Italy (Battle qf) t 24 June, 185a, iu which Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel defeated Francis Joseph emperor of Austria. Solonium (Battle of), B.O. 61, in which 0. Pomptlnus the praetor defeated the Allo- brSges. Sol way Moss, in Cumberland (Bo*- of), 25 Nov., 1542, in which the Scots under Oliver Sinclair were defeated by the Duke of Norfolk. Somerton {Battle of), A.D. 733, in which the royal town of Somerton was captured by Ethelbald king of Mercia. This great victory ended the war with the West Saxons. Sommershausen (Battle of), n April, 1648, won by Turenne and WrangeL Thi? was the last of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. Spurs (Battle of the), 18 Aug., 1513, won by the English over the French, who used their spurs in flight more than their swords in fight Stamford Bridge, near York (Battle qf), 25 Sept., 1066, in which Tostig, son of Earl Godwin, was defeated and slain by Harold IL king of England, his brother. Steinkerke (Battle of), 4 Aug., 1692, in which the French Marshal de Luxembourg defeated William m. and his allies. Toe lou on both sides was about equal Stillwater (Battle of), 19 Sept and 7 Oct., 1777, won by the British over the Americans. The loss of the British was 350 killed and wounded, of the Americans 1,600 slain. Stillwater is a town on the river Hudson, belonging to the State of New York. Stirling Bridge (Battle of), 10 Sept, 1297, in which William Wallace utterly defeated the English under the command of Warenne earl of Surrey. Stockach (Battle of), 25 March, 1799, in which Marshal Jourdan, the French general, was defeated by the Archduke Karl, ana Germany was lost to France. Stoke, near Newark (Battle of), 1487, in which the conspiracy of Simnel was utterly crushed by Henry VIL Stonar (Battle of), A.D. 466, In which Vortimer defeated Hen gist, and drove the Saxons to their ships. They did not return till the death of Vortimer, five years afterwards. Stony Greek, U.S. (Battle of), 6 June, 1813, where General Vincent surprised and defeated the American General Winder, in the Second American War. Stony Point (Battle of), 1779. Stony Point, in New York, 30 May, was taken by Clinton. An engagement took place 20 June at Stone Ferry. General Wayne recovered Stony Point 1 5 July, but abandoned it to the British next day. Stowe, in Bucks (Battle of), 1645, in which the Irish royalists, under the command of Lord Astley, were defeated by the parlia- mentary troops led by Colonel Morgan. Lord Astley was taken prisoner. Straaburg (Battle of), Aug., AJ>. 887, won bj Julian over the AlemannL IB this battle STHATTON HILL TOGGENBURd 993 Chnoilomar or Gundomar, the huge leader of the Germans, was taken prisoner. Stratton Hill (Battle of), in Devonshire, 16 May, 1C43, in which the royalists defeated the parliamentary army led by the poet Waller. Strom'boli (Naval battle of), 1676, won Jyy Duquesne over the Dutch. Duquesne= Duh-kSnn. Sukoro (Battleof), 29 Sept., 1848, between the Croats led by Baron Jellachich, and the Magyars, led by Moga. The former numbered 50,000, and were well armed ; the latter not above 5,000, armed with scythes, pitchforks, and old muskets. The Hungarians, however, were completely victorious. This was the first battle in the War for Independence. Tagina (Battle of), July, A.D. 552, In which Totila the Gothic king was defeated and slain by Narses the eunuch, commander-in-chief of Justinian's army. Tagliamento (Rattle of), 16 March, 1797, in which Bonaparte defeated the Austrians, led In which Bonaparte clet by the Archduke Karl. Talavera, in Spain (Battle of), 27, 28 July, 1809, won by Sir Arthur Wellesley (Duke of Wellington), commander of the united British and Spanish forces, over Victor and Jourdan, marshalsof France. The French loss was 10,000 men and 20 pieces of cannon ; the allied British and Spanish forces lost 800 killed and 4,000 wounded or missing. For this victory Sir Arthur (already Baron Douro) was created Viscount Wellington of Talavera. Taillebourg (Battle of), 1242, In which St. Louis of France defeated the insurgents under the Comte de la Marche. Taliacot'a, or Tagliacozzo, in Italy (Battle of), 23 Aug., 1268, in which Charles of Anjou overthrew Oonradin. Tara (Battles of), I. 980, in which Malachy monarch of Ireland defeated the Danes. This was the most decisive of all the battles fought by the Irish against the Danes, except the battle of Clontarf in 1014, (II.) 20 May, 1789, in which the Irish rebels were defeated by the royal troops. Tarbes (Battle of), in France, 20 March, 1814, in which the French army under Marshal Soult was defeated by the Duke of Wellington. Tarbes (1 syL). Taro (Battle of the), 6 July, 1495, won by Charles VIII. with 9,000 men over an allied Italian, German, and Spanish army of 40,000. Of the French not above 200 fell, of the allies 15,000. The Venetians called this a victory, and erected a tablet to one of the Proweditori with this barefaced lying inscription : ' Here lies Melchior Trivisano, who fought success- fully against Charles [VIII.] king of France at the battle of the Taro.' Tchernaya (Battle of the), 16 Aug., 1855, in which the French and Sardinians defeated the Russians. This was one of the great battles of the Crimean War (?..). Tel-el-Kebir (Battle of), 13 Sept., 1882, won by the English under General Wolseley over Arabi the Egyptian rebel Temesvar (Battle of), 1849. One of the battles of the War of Independence. The Hungarians were utterly routed by the allied Russian and Austrian armies. Tenna (Battle of), 9 Nov., 1439, in which the Venetians led by Sforza utterly defeated the Milanese under the command of Piccinino. Tewkesbury (Battle of), in Gloucester- shire, 4 May, 1471, in which Edward IV. defeated and took prisoner Queen Margaret. Her son either fell on the field or was stabbed after the battle ; and the death of Henry VI. in the Tower, some eighteen days afterwards, left Edward IV. of the House of York the undisputed sovereign of the kingdom. Thapsus (Battle of), 4 Feb., B.o. 46, in which Julius Caesar utterly defeated Juba king of Numidia and the senatorial army which befriended the cause of Pompey. Thermop'yl (Battles of), I. 1 Aug., B.C. 480, between the Greeks and the Persians. Leo- nidas king of Sparta was sent with 300 Spartans to withstand the whole Persian army at the defile of Thermopylae. He held his ground for three days, when Ephialtes perfidiously led the enemy by a secret path to the rear of the Greeks, who were thus hemmed in between two forces. All but one man perished fighting gloriously, leaving 20,000 Persians dead in the pass. This was one of the most heroic acts in all history. II. B.C. 191, In which Antiochns IIL king of Syria was utterly defeated by the Romans. TMonville, or Diedenhofen (Battle of), June, 1639, one of the minor battles of the Thirty Years' War. General de Feuquieres was defeated by Ottavio Piccolomini. Pronounce Te-on[g]-veel. Thrasymenus (Battle of), B.C. 217, In which the Romans under Flaminius wer defeated by the Carthaginians under Hannibal. Of the Romans, 15,000 were slain and 10,000 taken prisoners. Till (Battle of the), A.D.556, in which the Asiatic Turks slew the Khan of the Ogors with 300,000 of his subjects ( 1 !). Tincb-ebrai (Battle of), 28 Sept., lioe where Robert duke of Normandy (son of Wil- liam the Conqueror) was utterly defeated by his younger brother Henry I. king of England. In consequence of this victory the duchy became a dependency of the English crown. Tippermuir (Battle of), Sept., 1644, in which the Marquis of Montrose, commander of the royal forces in Scotland, defeated the Covenanters. Toggenburg or Tockemburg, in Switzerland. This has been the site of two contests, called the ' first' and second war of 83 994 TOLBIAO VASCAPE Tockemburg. 1 The first in 1436 was a contest between the Coant of Ziirich and the Count of Schwitz for the succession. The second, in 1712, was the revolt of the Tockemburgera against the abbot of St. Gall their ruler, end- ing in favour of the revolters. Tolbiao (Battle of), AJ>. 496, In which Clovis, founder of the French monarchy, repulsed the Alemanni, a Teutonic league, with great slaughter. Tolbiao la now called Zulpich ; It la nar Cologne. TdplitB (Battle of), 1762, In which the Prussians were defeated by the Austrians. Torgau (Battle of), in Prussia, 3 Nov., 1760, in which Frederick IL of Prussia en- countered Marshal Daun. The battle was in- decisive; but Frederick claimed the victory, because Marshal Daun decamped during the night. (In the fifth campaign of the Seven Years' War.) Pronounce Tor-gow (ow as in note). Torres Vedras, in Portugal. The French marshal arrived before the ' Lines ' constructed by Wellington In Oct., but retreated Nov. 14, 1810. See p. 621, Lines of Torres Vedras.* Toulon, In France (Battle* of). I. 22 Feb., 1744, when Admiral Matthews was repulsed by the allied French and Spanish fleets. II. 15 Nov., 1793, a conflict between the English and the French, In which the French were repulsed. Toulouse (Battle of), 10 April, 1814, won by the Duke of Wellington over the French, led by Marshal Soult. This was the last of Wellington's peninsular battles. Tours (Battle of), 10 Oct., AJ>. 732, In which Charles Martel, mayor of the palace, leader of the Franks, utterly defeated the Saracens under Abderahman. This was one of the most important and decisive of victories. If the Saracens had succeeded, without doubt they would have planted in France the reli- gion of Mahomet, mid there, as in Spain, it would have dominated, at least for a time. It was the battle between the Orescent and the Cross. This is one of Sir Edward Creasy's Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. Towton (Battle of), in Yorkshire, 29 March, 1461 (Palm Sunday), in which Edward IV. defeated Henry VI. This was one of the most terrible struggles in English history, second only to the battle of Hastings or Senlac. The number brought into the field on either side was about 60,000 men, and for six hours the fight lasted in the midst of a severe snow-storm. The loss on each side was more than 20,000. The Lancastrians lost six barons, the Earls of Devon and Wiltshire were taken prisoners and beheaded, the Lords Oxford and Aubrey were subsequently executed. An enormous number of the Lancastrians were charged with treason, and all their lands were confis- cated. Trafalgar (Battle of), 21 Oct., 1805, won by Admiral Lord Nelson over the combined French and Spanish fleets, commanded by Admiral Villeneuve (French) and two Spanish admirals. All the three admirals were taken prisoners. Nelson commanded in the ship called the Victory,' and lost his life in i,he battle. It was in this engagement he is credited with the signal, ' England expects every man to do nil duty.' This is our most glorious naval victory. TrasimenS (Battlt of Lake), same u Thrasy menus (q.v.). Trautenau (Battle of), 27 June, 1866, la the Seven Weeks' War. Prince Frederick Charles defeated the Austrians. Trautenau, pronounce Trou'-ta-now. TreTria (Battles of the). I. B.C. 218, in which Hannibal the Carthaginian defeated Publim Scipio and Sempronius. This great battle ended Hannibal's first campaign. II. 17-19 June, 1799, Suwarof, the Russian general, defeated Macdonald and his French army. Trenton, in New Jersey, U.S. (Battle of), 26 Dec., 1776. Here Washington won his first victory over the British and Hessian troops in the American War of Independence. Tricamarum ( Battle of), A.D. 634, in which Belisarins defeated Qellmer, last of the Vandal kings of Africa. Turin (Batll* of), 1706, won by Prince Eugene over the French commanded by La Feuillade. TJshant (Naval battle of ), V July, 1778, in which the British fleet under Admiral Keppel defeated tl. French fleet commanded by the Comte d'Orviiliers. It was not a defeat, but the French withdrew their ships under cover of the night. Val-es-Dunea, near Caen (Battle of), 1047, in which William duke of Normandy de- feated his revolted nobles. y*. In France (Battle of), 20 Sept 1792, in which the French Marshal Kellermann defeated the Duke of Brunswick. The duke looked on the French revolution as a contemp- tible riot, and was thunderstruck with the re- ception he met with at Valmy. This is one of Sir Edward Creasy'B Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. Varna (Battle of), 10 Nov., 1444, won by Amurath II. sultan of Turkey over the Hun- garians, led by Ladislaus and Hunyidi. Ladis- laus had sworn to preserve peace with Amurath for ten years, but, persuaded by Cardinal Julian and other churchmen, had scandalously broken his oath, and the defeat of Varna was the fruit of his perjury. Vasag (Battle of), 1422, won by Hunyadl the Hungarian general over the Turks under Amurath II. Vascape (Battle of), 1441. The greatest of all the victories of Hunyadl, won over th VEECELL.E WARSAW 99S Turks under the command of Sciabedln Bey. .The Turks were 80,000, the Hungarians not (15,000. VercellfiB (Battle of), 30 July, B.C. 101, in which the Oimbrian host was annihilated by Marlus the R' *nan consul. Verneuil, in France (Battle of), 16 Aug. 1424, in which the Duke of Bedford defeated the allied French and Scotch. This battle was hardly less disastrous to the French than that of Agincourt, for full one-third of the knigjit- hood were left dead on that fatal field. The loss of the French was 4,000, that of Bedford's army 1,600. Among the slain were the Earl of Buchan, Earl Douglas, Lord James Douglas (the earl's son), Sir Alexander Meldrum, &o. Verona (Battle of), 30 March, 1799, in which the Austrian General Kray defeated the French. Veszprem (Battle of), 997, won by St. Stephen king of Hungary, soon after his bap- tism, over Kopan, a nobleman of the old Shaman faith. By this victory Christianity was estab- lished in the land. Vienna (Battle of), 12 Sept., 1683, in which Sobieski king of Poland, with a relief force of 40,000 men, utterly defeated Kara Mustapha vizier of the Sultan Mahomet II., whereby the siege of Vienna was raised. This is one of the most important and decisive victories ever won. If the Turks had been victorious, probably Vienna, like Constantinople, would have been subject to the Crescent, and the Eastern and Western empires would have been united again, but under the power and religion of the sultan. Villa Viciosa (Battle of) t 1710, won by the French, commanded by the Duo de Ven- d6me, over the Archduke KarL Villafranca, in Sicily (Battles of), 1. 1718, in which the Spaniards won over the Austriana. II. 10 April, 1812, in which the British cavalry, led by Sir Stapleton Cotton, defeated Marshal Soult. Napoleon greatly blamed Soult for this defeat Villingshausen (Battle of), 15 July, 1761, in which Ferdinand duke of Brunswick defeated the French. (In the sixth campaign of the Seven Years' War.) Vimeira. in Portugal (Battle of), 21 Aug., 1808, in which Sir Arthur Wellesley (afterwards Duke of Wellington) defeated the allied French and Spanish forces under Marshal Junot. This was the first of his peninsular victories. Vindalum (Battle of), B.C. 121. in which Cn. Domitius the pro-consul defeated the AIlo- br6ges. Vinegar Hill, near Wexford (Battle of), 21 June, 1798. This could hardly be called a battle. The Irish had risen in revolt, and mus- tered 15,000 strong on Vinegar Hill. General Lake was sent to put down the revolt. He took their camp, and utterly suppressed the rebel- lion. In the autumn 1,000 French soldiers, under General Humbert, landed in Mayo, and defeated Lake and Hutchinson, who had about 3,000 men under them, at Castlebar, 27 Aug., 1798 ; and then Lord Cornwallis, the lord-lieu- tenant, with 30,000 men, forced Humbert to surrender. Vionville (Battle of), 16 Aug., 1870, in the Franco-Prussian war, won by the Prussians. Vittoria (Battle of), 21 June, 1813, won by Lord Wellington over the French army com- manded by Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Jourdan. This was one of the most brilliant victories in the British annals. Marshal Jour- dan lost 151 pieces of cannon, 451 ammunition waggons, all his baggage and treasure, and even his marshalle baton. Voglade. See below Vougle.' Volturno (Battle of the), 17 Sept., 1860, woo by Garibaldi over the Neapolitan troops of Francis II. Vougle", near Poitiers (Battle of),AJ>. 607, in which Clovis, founder of the French monar- chy, overthrew Alario II. king of the West- Goths. Alario himself was slain on the field. Wagram. in Austria (Battle of), 6 July, 1809, in which the French, led by Napoleon, overthrew the Austrians, led by the Archduke Karl. This battle led to a treaty of peace, in which Austria ceded all her sea-coast to France ; the kingdoms of Saxony and Bavaria were also enlarged at the expense of Austria. Wakeneld. in Yorkshire (Battle of), 31 Dec.. 1460, in which Queen Margaret defeated Richard duke of York. This was the only great victory of the Lancastrians in the long War of the Roses. Walcourt, in Holland (Batik of),27 Aug.. 1689. Here Marshal d'Humieres was defeated by the Prince of Waldeck. Marlborough was present in this battle, and laid the foundation of his future fame. Wandewash, in Hindustan (Battle of\ Jan., 1760, in which Thomas Arthur comte de Lally, the French governor in India, was de- feated by Sir Eyre Coote, and Pondicherry fell into the hands of the English. Wareham (Battle of), A.D. 876, in which the Danish fleet was repulsed by King Alfred. The Danes then allied themselves with the Welsh. Being hard pressed, the Danes swore to leave Wessex, but reappeared at Chippenham in the winter of 878. Warna (Battle of), 10 Nov., 1444, in which Amurath II. defeated Ladislaus V. king of Hungary, who was also slain. "Warsaw (Battles of ). I. 10, 12 Oct., 1794, in which the Poles were defeated by the Bus- sians. II. 20 Feb., 1831, in which the Russians were defeated. This is also called the battle of Growchow. III. 7, 8 Sept., 1831, won by the Russians over the Poles. 896 WARTENBURQ YERMUK "Wartenburg, in Prussia (Battle of), 3 Oct., 1813, won by the allies over the French. "Waterloo (Battle of), IS June, 1815, the most momentous victory ever won by the Bri- tish arms, and the most happy in its results. Napoleon commanded the French and the Duke of Wellington the British and their allies. The battle lasted from seven in the morning till nine at night. Napoleon's career ended with this battle. He delivered himself into the hands of Captain Maitland, 3 July, and was banished to Longwood in St. Helena, where he landed, 16 Oct., 1815. The Duke ot Marlborough won a battle orer the French at Waterloo, 17 Aug., 1705. * The battle of Waterloo, 18 June, 1815, was exactly six centuries to a day of the signa- ture of Magna Charta by King John, 18 June, 121 5. Sff Colonel Gurwood's 12th voL Creasy'g * Fifteen Decisive Battles.' Wattignies, near Lille (Battle qf), 15, 16 Oct., 1793. The Austrian* defeated Jounlan, the French marshal, here. Waws (Battle of), 31 March, 1831, in which the Russians were defeated by the Poles under the command of Skrzy neck i. "Weissenburg (Battlei of). L A.D. 1620, won by the Roman Catholics over the Protes- tants of Bohemia. Maximilian duke of Bavaria affirms that his success was due to the aid of St. John Nepomuk. IL 4 Aug., 1H70. The first 'battle* of the Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Crown Prince of Prussia. Wertingen (Battle of), 8 Oct., 1805, In which the French defeated Mack, general of the Austrian army. "White Plains, near New York, U.S. (Battle of), 28 Oct., 1776, where General Howe defeated the Americans in the American War of Independence. Wig'an (Battles of). L 1643, in which the royal forces, under the Earl of Derby, were de- feated by the parliamentary army led by Sir John Sineaton. IL 1651, in which the Earl of Derby was again defeated by the parliamentary army, led by Colonel Lilburne. Wilhelmsthal (Battle of), *4 June, 176J, won for Prussia by the two Dukes of Bruns- wick. This was the last battle of the Seven Years* War. "Wilton (Battle of), A.D. 823, which Egbert king of Wessex won over Beornwulf king of Mercia. This victory led to the absorption of Mercia into the kingdom of Wessex. Winceby-on-the-Wolds, Lincoln- shire (Battle of), 1643, won by Cromwell and Fairfax over the Marquis of Newcastle. Here Cromwell had a horse shot under him. Winwced, near Leeds (Battleo/), 665, also oalled Wiuwidfcld. In this battle Penda was lain by Oswi of Northurobria. Win wood it Wwwood in York. In this battle Oswi vowed, if God gave him the victory, he would dedicate his daughter to the Lord and build twelve monasteries. Witepsk (Battle of), 11 Nov., 1812, in which the French, ujider Marshal Victor, were defeated by the Russians commanded by General Wittgenstein. WittstOCk (Battle of), 4 Oct., 1636, won by the Swedes, in the Protestant interest, over the German Catholic League. This was one of the battles of the Thirty Years' War. Wodensfield (Battle of), A.D. 910, in which Edward, son of Alfred, defeated the Anglo-Danes with great slaughter. Wodnesbeorgh (Bailftof). I. A.D. 591, In which Cealwin the Saxon was defeated l>, his nephew Ceolric, who had allied himself with the Cymryand Sooti. The death of Ceahviu soon followed, in the thirty-third year of his reign. II. 714, in which Ina, the greatest of the kings of Wessex, defeated and slew Ceobred king of Mercia. Wodnesbeorgh is Woodbury In Devonshire. Woerden (Battle of), in Holland, Jane, 1672. Marshal de Luxembourg defeated the Hollanders. Worcester (Battle of), 8 Sept., 1651, in which Cromwell utterly routed Charles II. Some 3,000 royalists were slain and lo,ooo were taken prisoners, who were sent as slaves to t lie plantations. Charles made his escape to France, ami his adventures make one of the most mar- vellous romances of history. Cromwell says for four or fire hours this battle was 'the stiff eat contest he had seen.' The Scotch lost all their baggage and artil- lery, with 6,000 men, amongst whom was the Duke of Hamilton, their leader. W6rth (Battle of), 6 Aug., 1870, in the Franco-Prussian war. Won by the Prussians over MacMahon, the French marshal. Wurtschen (Battle of), 1813, in which Napoleon defeated the allied Russian and Prussian armies. The carnage on both sides was terrible. Wiirtzburg (Battle of), 3 Sept., 17%. Archduke Charles of Austria defeated Moreau, the French general Wyppeds Fleot (Rank of), AJ>. 465. won by Henj,nst over the Britons. Xeres (Battle of), A.D. 1237, won by Al- fonso, 'infant' of Ferdinand III., over Al>en- hud, the Moorish king of Seville. In this battle, we are told, St. James on his white horse fought for Spain. Ximera (Battle of), 10 Sept., 1811, in which the Spaniards, under General Ballasteros, defeated the French under the command of General Regnier. Yermuk, in Syria (Battle of the), NOT. A.D. 638, in which KhaJid and Abu Obeiilah, with their Saracen troops, defeated the Greeks under Hcracliua. YORK ZUTPHEN 997 York (Baffle of), A.D. 867, in which the two sons of Ragnar Lodbrog the Dane defeated O.sbert and Ella, the Saxons, with great slaugh- ter. Both Osbert and Ella fell Yvres (Battle of), 1591, won by Henri FV. king of France over the Catholic League. Zalaca, in Spain (Battle of), 23 Oct., 1086, In which Alfonso VI. of Castile was defeated by Jussef ben Taxfyn or Taschfin of Morocco. Zama (Battle of), B.C. 202, in which Scipio defeated Hannibal, and ended the Second-Punic War. Zama is called the Waterloo of Han- nibal, as Cannas is called his Austerlitz. Zella, or Zeleia, in Mysia (Battle of), B.C. 47, where Caesar defeated Pharnaces IV. king of Pontus. Caesar announced his victory in the famous despatch VKNI, Vroi, Vici. Zelichow (Battle of), 6 April, 1831, In which the Russians, led by General Diebitsch, were defeated by the Poles with great slaughter. Zenta, in Hungary (Battle of), 1697, won by Prince Eugene over the Turks. The prince fought contrary to orders; but so judicious were his plans and so well carried out, that he received a written licence from the kaiser to act ever after entirely on his own judgment. Certainly a most extraordinary licence. Zingara (Battle of), A.D. 350, between the Persians, led by Shapur Zoolaclaf, and the Romans, led by the Emperor Julian. The Romans won the field, but Shapur recovered his advantage in a night attack. Zlotzow (Battle of), won by John IIL (Sobieski) of Poland over the Tartars. Zorndorf (Battle of), 25, 26 Aug., 1758, in which Frederick II. of Prussia defeated the Russians under General Fermor, who retreated into Poland (in the third campaign of the Seven Years' War). This was one of the most tenaciously contested fields ever fought. It began at 9 A.M., and continued long after the moon had risen. As many as 19,000 Russians and 11,000 Prussians were slain. Zutphen, in the Netherlands (Battle of), 22 Sept., 1586. Zutphen was under the power of Spain from 1572, but the States twice be- sieged it, in 1584 and in 1586, but without suc- cess. The second of these sieges is well known, because it was there that Sir Philip Sidney, ' the Marcellus of England,' and author of the prose- poem called ' Arcadia,' met his death. This was a mere skirmish, not a battle, Lord Leicester, with 8,000 men, being sent to assist the Flemish. The tale is that he was mortally wounded in this battle; and, as he was raising a small bottle of wine to his lips, he cast his eyes upon a common soldier dying beside him. ' Poor fellow 1 ' said Sir Philip, ' thy necessity ia greater than mine;* so saying, he handed to the man the bottle, and died. % For battles named incidentally, or circumstantially as the ' Battle of the Standard,' th ZUttU of the Forty, 1 dw.-*nd not geographically, see tht word Battle,' pp. IB, 79, 80, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 27Jur5C(JF 3COct5lRC 160c' %*, REC DElJ 1 6 19 LD 21-100m-ll,'49(B7146sl6)476 24777