BLVM ENTH EX A I UB as A. . _/ RIS SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. UNITED STATES N AT I O N A L M U S E U M . PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION OTIS TUFTON MASON, < 'urat. i . , >rf,i , r/rnt ,> < t-tlinolajty^ I'. .V. Natinnnl Museum. Krom the krport o( the 11. S. National Museum tor 1894, pagrx 337-593, .vith |i!iit-s i- 2<; ami fig\in-s i-a*o. WASHINGTON: GOVKKNMKNI CKINTINC OFFICE. 1896. ML TABLE OF CONTENTS. I. Introduction 239-254 II. Foot travel: Special costumes, head gear, rain protectors, etc 255-274 III. Aerial locomotion: Tree climbing, ladders, etc 275-280 I V. Snow goggles 281-305 V. Foot wear: ( ieneral tyj** 300-381 Snow-shoes 381-410 Ice creepers 410-414 VI. Man as a carrier: Carrying of baskets 415-489 Carrying of children 490-587 Carrying of adults 538-544 VII. Man and animals in traction: Domestication of animals, harne . - vehicles, etc ">44-57."> VIII. Roads and travelers' convenicin ,-. . . :>7.V5!t:> PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. By OTIS TUFTON MASON, Curator, Department of Ethnology, P. .S. National Muxeum. GENERAL STATEMENT. Invention has to do with the resources and forces of nature applied to human weal. In the earth, the waters, and the air, in the composite activity of the sun, in cosmic matter and powers little understood, are to be found the materials and servants by whose ministrations the cun- ning spirit of man effects those artificialities of life and culture which constitute the body of human industries, aesthetic arts, languages, social life, commerce, philosophies, and cults. The complete account of the human species acquiring the resources of nature and dominating and understanding her forces is the history of culture. The human species has approached, and in its best estate does now approach, the material resources of the earth under the impulse of five sets of motives, to wit: (1) To explore, secure, and domesticate them. (2) To change their form, to manufacture them. (3) To move them and themselves artificially. (4) To exchange, measure, and value them. (n) To consume or to enjoy them. The progress of the world started with these five primitive, funda- mental activities. It is the purpose of the present publication to con- sider the third class, in their earliest forms and in relation to the others, so far as they are illustrated in the U. S. National Museum. The manipulation of the material resources of nature involves in the second place the knowledge, the domestication, and the training of 239 240 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. force or power, which ma\y be thus set forth in its sources, epochs, and sciences. Power of 1. Man 2. Beast :t. Elastic springs 4. Fire... Epoch of The hand Domestication War and banting Mastery Science. 5. Wind The sail 6. Water Rude machines 7. Steam Machinery 8. Chemism ! Scientific industry 9. Electricity Ideal invention in speech light, and motion. 10. Light Cosmic invention AnthropokinetioH. Zookinetics. Elaterokineticd. Thermokinetius or pyrokinetics. Anemokinetics. Hydrokinetics. Atmokinetics. Chemykinetics. Electrokinetics. Photokinetics. Among these sources of motion or motors it will be quickly noted that the first two derive their activity from animal muscle, the rest through some sort of device that takes the place of the human body. It will also be understood that for the purposes of invention the pow- ers or forces may again be divided into two classes, the first being man power, the second class including all the rest enumerated. All artificial work goes back to man, all work is imitation of man's work, the primitive form of every moving device is the human body. 1 Nature furnishes ready motive power in moving air and water. All other forms of mechanical motion, not excepting muscular power, require the application of heat, and this is obtained through combustion. The mechanical nomenclature of all language is largely derived from the bodies of animals. Thus in English we have the head of a ship, river, lake, jetty, bolt, etc.; the brow of an incline; the crown of an arch; the toe of a pier; the foot of a wall; the forefoot, heel, ribs, waist, knees, skin, nose, and dead eyes of a ship; also turtlebacks and whalebacks; the jaws of a vice; the claws of a clutch; the teeth of wheels; necks, shoulders, eyes, nozzles, legs, ears, mouths, lips, cheeks, elbows, feathers, tongues, throats, and arms; caps, bonnets, collars, sleeves, saddles, gussets, paddles, fins, wings, crabs, horns, donkeys, monkeys, and dogs; flywheels, running nooses, crane necks, grasshop- per engines, etc.- The use of these natural forces and their application in the five great classes of industry above named gradually led invention to the discovering or devising of mechanical powers, to sacrifice time in order to overcome resistance too great for individual effort, to secure the co- operation of many persons or animals in one work, and to make effec tive the forces just mentioned in ways innumerable. The mechanical < T. J. II. Cooper, Iconographic Encyclopedia, vi, p. 193, and the author's work mi tlm "Origins of Invention," London, 1894. Cf. Jeremiah Head, Rep. Brit. Aasoc.. 1893, p. *<52. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 241 powers, in short, make possible the differentiation of employment and the organi/ed cooperation which constitute a higher grade of industry. The mechanical powers, as they are called, seem to have come into vogue in the following order: (1) The weight, for hammers, traps, and pressure; later on for machinery . (2) The elastic spring, in bows, traps, machines. (3) Inclined and declined plane, in locomotion and transportation. (4) The lever, of all kinds. (5) The wedge, in riving and tightening. (II) The sled, on snow or prepared tracks. (7) The roller, for loads and in machine bearings. (8) The wheel, in travel and carriage. (9) Wheel and axle in many forms. (10) Pulleys, with or without sheaves. (11) Twisting, shrinking, and clamping devices. (12) The screw. It will be observed that for working with the forces enumerated. \\itli or without the mechanical powers, tools and utensils are necessary in order to break, pierce, divide, unite, contain, move, and hold fast materials, and to make it possible for work to be done. In another publication the author will discuss the aboriginal American mechanic and his industries, so it is not necessary here to enlarge upon this intricate subject. Suffice it to say that not only every tool, but device for transportation and work, includes three distinct parts, to wit: (1) The working part, which does the moving, breaking, battering, chipping, abrading, polishing, cutting, perforating, and so on. This portion of all appliances maintains a remarkably conservative plan of functioning. In the sled, for instance, or the sailing craft, the line and curve of runners or the strakes have undergone little change. The material and manipulation of the mechanical powers have changed ama/ingly, but no one can alter the modus operand! or the equation of any one of them. (2; The manual part, or that connected with the human body or other prime mover that takes its place. The functioning part of a machine, to repeat, changes little, but the narrative of the harness of the motor or motive power constitutes the history of machinery. A very old-fashioned wagon differs from the latest freight train chiefly in the intricate engine and expensive track. The difference between a kaiak, with ribs of driftwood and skin of seal hide, and a cruiser, with ribs and skin of steel, is in the mode of pushing them through the water. (3) The attachment or attaching devices of tools and machines. In the woman's knife the blade is wedged, glued, or tied into the handle. In the sled the dog and the sled are maue one by hooks, toggles, frogs, etc. This subject of binding, uniting, attaching, detaching, H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 10 242 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. can not be overlooked in the study of travel and transportation. Its relation to progressive culture, to geography, and climate is most inter- esting. It will be seen in the progress of this study that environment, grades of culture, and tribal idiosyncrasies may be excellently differen- tiated thereby. Again, with each art goes a series of devices which may be classed under the general name of receptacles, their only functions being to contain other perishable or precious or fragile things. The sewing woman has her housewife, the artisan his tool chest, and every one his pockets. In the travel and transportation arts these containers go by a thousand names. The general term" pack- age," however, has been adopted to include them all. The carrying trade has intro- duced an enormous variety of devices for packing and enriched the vocabulary with such words as barrel, box, pint, quart, peck, bushel, cask, bag. sack, crate, hamper, hogshead, and tierce. Furthermore, the conveniences of packing, as well as strength for transport, has reduced many of these words to standards of measure and fixed the metrics of carrying; such words as barrel, tub, firkin, and load have definite meanings of contents gauged by the carrier and now by law. These devices are sometimes per- manent, but ofteuer thrown away at the end of the journey. Among the inventions upon which ethnic and geographic traits are fastened the pack- ages should be carefully studied. It is these that in the present enormous commerce are counterfeited for the purpose of gain and fraud. W. K. Carles represents a Korean peasant woman not only bearing a burden on the head, done up in somewhat local fashion, but she lias under her left arm a number of eggs wrapped in straw and looking not unlike strings of sausage 1 (fig. 1). The modifications of all human phenomena that are the product of invention are far-reaching. They include changes (1) In the things invented or products of invention, commonly called inventions. (2) In all the materials, processes, and apparatus involved. (3) In the mental condition and powers of the inventor. (4) In the rewards and benefits of the invention. (5) In society, resulting from the invention. Fig.l. KOREAN WOMAN TOTING MEAT. AM) CARRYING K(ipulation of Africa and in other savage commu- nities carrying is a fine art. Fletcher and Kidder represent a woman bearing at the same time freight on her head and steadying it with the right hand, while she sustains her child on the lumbar region, wrapped in her shawl, and supported by the left hand. All the changes of exploiting nature's resources, forces, and powers of the art of inventing have followed the laws of progress from (1) Naturism to greater and greater artificiality. (2) Simplicity or monorganism to complexity or polyorganism. (3) Clumsiness to delicacy and economy. (4) Discomfort to comfort. (">) Solitary work to cooperation. ((5) Individual weal to common weal. All of these laws apply to each class of work in the Patent Office, and it will be seen there that the number of patents concerned with the working out of this scheme in traveling devices is very great. From this point of view the climax of invention in any line of activity, individual or social, i* the, intentional and cooperative application of all knowledge to the production of new tools, machines, words, line arts, social structures, and philosophies. This purposeful and systematic devising is the climax of the process. !>nt in the beginning it was not so. Industries, fine arts, languages, social structures, and beliefs almost created themselves, but each had in its processes and results the germs and becomings of all future human achievement*. The relations of each element above mentioned in each class of notions to the earth as it is constituted rather than to the earth as a homoge- neous unit can not be neglected. In no class of human activities is the careful study of geography more demanded. This is so true that if the clothing, shoes, pack, and appliances of a traveler or porter be laid before a student of this subject, lie will be able to describe with 244 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. tolerable accuracy the region or culture area, its temperature, weather, geographic features, and productions. 1 Now every substance and thing before mentioned scarcely ever exists at h'rst where it is needed or is used up where it is first taken. The same is true of what is made out of those, and what is made out of these secondary, tertiary, and further products, the result of each activ- ity being the groundwork of another. None of them is wanted where it is produced. Hence the locomotive activity is a kind of middle trade in the most comprehensive and varied sense, a go-between and a carry- between for them all ad infinitum. Hence the endless running to and fro of men and women, covering in a single day fifty times the distance from the sun and back again. The miner, the quarry man, the gem collector: the gleaner, the lumber- man, and the farmer of every type; the hunter, the fisherman, and herdsman, all have to go and to haul all sorts of things to their work, before they deliver the goods to the manufacturer. After endless goings, carryings, and haulings about the establishment, the trans- portation has scarcely begun. The products must go away by land or by water, either to some other manufacturer to be further modified, or they must hie away to the centers of shipment; and thence, after having been lifted and lugged again and again, these products in new packages are ready for a journey to the seats of commerce; first of wholesale, then of retail. Now begin the little carryings of the endless procession of shoppers and porters. There would hardly seem to be anything else to do but to go and fetch. The carrying industry not only acts as middleman between all other activities, but in its operations it absorbs a great deal of the life of the others. The mineral kingdom is the roadbed of water, snow, and earth over which locomotion passes. 'The inventor has not been idle in changing them for the historic evolution of the carrying art. The vege- table kingdom, in its forms of textile and timber, have always been imltspensable to the mechanism of transportation. Animal products appear in receptacles, bone ware, rawhide lines, and a million kinds of leather bags. The building of baby cradles, carrying frames, wagons, boats, saddles, cars, not to mention clothing of special material and pattern for this industry, occupy thousands of men and women. Now in the primitive status the same person may in his life play many of these parts, or all the parts necessary. But these activities have to be performed by somebody always. !t would be perfectly safe to say that every trade on earth did some specialized work for the traveler and common carrier. The three kingdoms of nature have been man's teachers. The very conduct of the earth, the waters, the air has provoked him to move- ment and transporting. The powers of nature keep the solid earth on 'See Hahn'n Map of Plant InduHtrieH, Peterinann's Bllttheilnngen, ,J:m., 1X9L': Proc. liov. (it-og. 8oc., xiv, j). 182. 1'imfTTlVF. TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 245 the move. ;mli in th.- I'. -. Nnti.in.il Mum-urn. l,v ll.-v. K. K. \ ( I. v .-l.m.l. ca-tle draws water from a deep well by a treadmill arrangement just as well as a man could do it. He watches the rope on the barrel till the full pail rises above the parapet of the well, then slacks back a little to allow it to be rested thereon, and only then leaves the drum and retreats to the stable. 1 Bearing on the head had a different effect on the ceramic art from that of burden bearing on the back or on beasts (tig. 2). The former is illustrated in the modern pitcher, with handle on the side, with the bulge near the bottom to bring the center of gravity as low down as possible, with the bottom concave, and often fitted with an extra rim, the lineal descendant of the carrier's head pad. There are features of the pitcher which have been occasioned by other than carrying motives, but the forms had the origin here described. 'Rep. Brit. ASSM.-.. !*;;{, p. 861. 24f) REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. All handles and rims have their original motive in the carrying activity, and these elements when made decorative are survivals from the utilitarian epoch of the thing. Doubtless, carrying devices in dugout steins, in pottery, and in hard textiles had as their natural prototypes objects which could be utilized with little modification. But it is also true that the genius of modification is the most marked human characteristic. The gourd with the receding bottom may be the prototype of the jar of the same form. It is also doubtless true that Sandwich Islanders selected the seeds of those gourds that had the most convenient carrying form, and these seeds were planted as a matter of course. After the same motive there are examples from various peoples of tying strings about gourds to give attach- ment to the carrying strap. This form is imitated in pottery and basketry after it had been worked out in gourd culture. The illustration here given (pi. 1) is from a photograph in the U. S. National Museum, taken by Hillers, of the Geological Survey. The woman rests the water jar on the head, without the pad, and the concave bottom shows how at the behest of the woman's comfort the shape of the vessel has been modified. The dark band at the bottom is the boundary line of what would be the bottom ring of the sling if one were there. Upon this artistic side the history of human movements over the earth and of the journeys which its productions have taken at the bidding and for the comfort of our species is like an enchanted dream. It is as though many ages back a naked man had started out in the world and was now returning clothed in all the earth's finest fabrics, the winds, the ocean currents, fire and lightning rowing his boat or drawing his chariot. Through what experiences this one man must have passed to be in himself the epitome of all pedestrians, riders, and carriers and to have used every vehicle and sailing craft that ever existed. Traffic in its complexity ami changes is also characterized by its noises. Surely the quiet peon urging his way along his lonely path is very different from the roar, the din, the rattle, the bells, the whistles one hears on Cortlandt street. The latter is a kind of Wagnerian symphony of transportation, in whicli discord heightens the harmony. Primitive commerce and all the carrying and running involved in primeval arts connected with food, shelter, clothing, rest, enjoyment, news carrying, and war were accomplished on the heads or foreheads, shoulders or backs, or in the hands of men and women ; and civilization, while-it has invented many ways of burden bearing, finds also an end- less variety of uses for the old methods. How many thousands of our fellow-creatures are still in this condition of mere beasts of burden! It is, for instance, only a few years since the invention of the pas- senger and freight elevator began to supplant that train of "hod car- riers," who have been since the beginning of architecture bearing EXPLANATION OF PLATE 1. ZUNI WOMAN CARRYING WATER. The water jar among the Pueblo Indians performs a double function; namely, for carrying and for storage. Carrying water on the head, and not on a beast or in a sling or canteen, requires the bottom of the jar to be either round and accompanied with a sustaining pad for the head and for the ground, or to be concave on the bottom, as in this plate. In most examples of Pueblo pottery the decorations are pictorial and symbolical. Jars with concave bottoms are extremely rare in ancient American collections, but carrying with the headband is in vogue from Smith Sound to Patagonia. It is possible, therefore, that the method here figured is post-Columbian. The woman is partly dressed for the occasion in blankets of her own handiwork in dark blue, red, and white wool, and adorned with a silver necklace made by a native jeweler. Her leggings are for out-of-door work. The sole of the moccasin has attached to it for the "upper " an entire deerskin, and as the old footing wears out, it is renewed at the sacrifice of the top, which constantly decreases in size. The upper is neatly doubled and wrapped about the limb. The carrying of water for all purposes was an unremitting task with the ancient cliff and mesa dwellers. Report of National Museurr. 1894 - Mascn. PLATE 1. TV ZUNI WOMAN CARRYING WATER. From a photograph in the U. S. National Museum. I'KIMITIVK TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. 247 upward to its completion every wooden and brick structure in the world. To get something like an adeqn at ('conception of the enormous amount of lalor performed l>y human backs, calculate the weight of every earth- work, mound, fort, canal, embankment, wooden, brick, metal, and stone structure and fabrication on earth: These, have all been carried many times and elevated by hitman muscle. In the light of this contempla- tion. Atlas, son of Heaven and Karth, supporting on his shoulders the pillars of the sky. is the apotheosis of the human son of toil, and the gaping wonder of archa>ologists over the hand-made structures of Thebes, Palenqae, Oarnac, and Salisbury Plain subsides to the level of a mathematical problem. Indeed, the great majority of earthworks mounds, menhirs, cairns, cromlechs, dolmens, and megalithic structures now to be seen witnessed the exertions of no other artisan than the human carrier and mover. 1 The traffic by land and by sea has grown tenfold since 1850. The carrying trade is at present one of the chief occupations of men, as may be seen by the numbers employed on railways and in seagoing shipping. Railways. Shipping. Total. Europe 1,540,000 550, 000 2, 090, 000 United States 874,000 60,000 634 000 480 000 95 000 f>75 000 Total 2, 8SI4, 000 705, 000 3, 599, 000 The gross receipts of the carrying trade in which the above men are employed amount to about j<>~)0,000, well as the hands. A day's jour- ney for all this group combined is tlie family round of activity. Note, again, that this little group in the course of a year has a suc- cession of seasons, and then the circle returns into itself. There is the hunting month, the fishing month, the planting month, the hoeing month, the berry month, and so on, till the year is exhausted. The amount of going, no matter where, of the whole group is the circle of annual activity. In the third place, it is almost impossible for one of these little groups in its daily round and annual circle to be so shut oft' from the rest of mankind as not to come, in contact with other groups beyond their ter ritory, and they carry on war or trade with them, mutually invading and being invaded. The total of all contacts let us call the sphere of intluence or of contact. Again, there is an outside world, of which our group has heard, and in former years their ancestors moved in a part of it. Some of their own men have been there and relate marvelous stories on their return. The memory of the outside world is treasured up in story or myth or song, or acted in the tribal drama. They will tell in the southland of the place where there is neither sun nor trees and the people make their boats of sea- monsters' skins. Or perhaps there may be in western America the tale of a country where the trees are hollow. At any rate, ethnologists do not know of a time when there was not a deal of moving about over the earth and going away from home and returning, or of getting into a great highway or gulf stream of travel. These journeyings became world encompassing at the close of the fifteenth century of our era. These movings may be called the streams of human commerce and acquaintance. Finally, there is a heritage of experience and wisdom, a commerce of inventive thought, moving over the globe ever like the currents of the atmosphere. Temperatures, rainfalls, winds, hygienic conditions, depend upon the air currents. Hut here it is meant that there are tin nght movements into which and out of which our group may get themselves to modify or to crystalli/e their activities, their modes of travel and commerce especially. The social life of a people in its goings therefore includes (1) Their daily round of actions from bed to bed. (2) Their annual circle of activities from year to year. (3) The sphere of influence or outside relations. (4) The streams of commerce, their contact with them. (f)) The currents of intellectual force, more or less continuous in time and place. Mr. Ravenstein gives from Russian sources an interesting account of the manner in which the Orochons (Tungus stock) on the upper Amur spend their hunting year. In March they go on suowshoes over 250 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 18H4. snow, into which, at that season, cloven-footed animals sink, and shoot elks, roe, and umsk deer, wild deer and goats; the tent being fixed in valleys and defiles where the snow lies deepest. In April the ice on the rivers begin to move, and the huntsman, now turned fisherman, hastens to the small rivulets to net his fish. Those not required for immediate use are dried against the next month, which is one of the least plentiful in the year. In May they shoot deer and other game, which they have decoyed to certain spots by burning down the high grass in the valleys so that the young sprouts may attract the deer and goats. June supplies the hunter with antlers of the roe. These they sell at a high price to the Chinese for medicinal purposes. The Chinese merchants come north in this month, bringing tea, tobacco, salt, pow- der, lead, grain, butter, etc., so that a successful huntsman is then able to provide himself with necessaries for half the year. In July the natives spend a large part of the month catching fish, taken with nets or speared with harpoons. They are able also to ppear the elk, which likes a water plant growing in the lakes. It comes down at night, wades into the water, and, while engaged tearing at the plant with its teeth, is killed by the huntsman. In August they catch birds, speared at night in the retired creeks and bays of the river and lakes. Their flesh, except that of the swan, is eaten, and the down is exchanged for ear and finger rings, bracelets, beads, and the like. Thus they spend the summer months, afterwards retiring again to the mountains for game. In the beginning of September they prepare for winter pursuits. The leaves are falling, and it is the season when the roebuck and the doe are courting. The natives avail themselves of this, and by cleverly imitat- ing the call of the doe on a wooden horn entice the buck near enough to shoot him. Generally speaking, this is the plentiful season of the year so far as flesh is concerned; but, should the hunters not be fortu- nate, they live upon service berries and bilberries, which they mix with reindeer milk. They also eat the nuts of the Mauchu cedar and of the dwarf-like Cembra pine. The latter part of September and the beginning of October are again employed in fishing, for the fish then ascend the river to spawn. About the middle of October begins the hunting of fur-bearing animals, the most profitable of all game, and this goes on till the end of the year. 1 . Speaking of the town of Leh in Kashmir as a center and exhibition ground of travel and traffic, Mrs. Bishop says that great caravans en route for Khotan, Yarkand, and Chinese Tibet arrived daily from Kash- mir, Pan jab, and Afghanistan and stacked their goods in the place; the Lhasa traders opened shops for sale of brick tea and implements of worship; merchants from Annitsar, Cabul, Bokhara, and Yarkand opened bales of costly goods; mules, asses, horses, and yaks kicked and squealed and bellowed. There were mendicant monks, Indian fakirs, Moslem dervishes, Mecca pilgrims, itinerant musicians, and Buddhist 1 Lansdell, "Through Siberia," Bostou, 1882, pp. 509-510. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 251 ballad howlers. Women with creels on their backs brought in Income. Ladakhis, Ilaltis. and Lahulis tended the beasts. Lhasa traders exchanged te;i for Nuhra and Ilaltistau dried apricots, Kashmir sall'ron, and rieh stuH's tVom India. Yarkand nierehants on Ing horses of Turkestan oiler hemp for smoking in exchange for L'ussian stuff. 1 Speaking of globe trotting, Vainbery says: "We must mention tlie slender thread of (Correspondence maintained by single pilgrims or beg- gars from the most hidden parts of Turkestan witli the remotest parts of Asia. Nothing is more interesting than these vagabonds, who leave their native nests without a farthing in their pockets to journey for thousands of miles in countries of which they previously hardly know the names, and among natives entirely different from their own in physiognomy, laws, and customs." 2 For each one of these movements there is a center about which the activity revolves. At first it is a purely natural or supply center. Such a state of life could not long exist, so artificial centers take the place, of natural ones. A spring of water and not the hunting or fish- ing ground attracts the group. In higher life the civic center is the climax of this process. In the industrial world, as a whole, there are centers of supply or natural material regions and areas. These come to be, as every one knows, social centers of manufacture, of exchange, and even of consum- ing and enjoying. Transportation centers, distributing centers, cross- road centers of social structure and activity have always existed also. Now these civic centers grow more and more to be a reality, until the modern city has six /ones, not circular in their outline but having social and economical boundaries, namely: (1) The central nucleus or governing place and regulative body. The city hall, the citadel, the capitol, conveys the idea. (2) The busy mart, where going is the duty. In point of fact every- thing is in motion there. (3) The homes of the industrious, the thrifty, the well to do in short, the residence /one. There is more travel there and going to and fro about it than one might first suspect. (4) The slums, the aftermath of savagery, where a portion of society -m-^ to seed, to mill. (5) The garden /one, where the waste of the city and proximity to market makes it possible to get the best soil effects with least effort and greatest profits. (6) The farmer zone, in fact a zone of thrift, and outside of that a zone of unthrift, from which all natural supply, fertility, and resources are gradually exhausted and carried txj the industrial center to be used up. and little or nothing comes back to it. It is as though the soil had moved into town and left away out on the confines a broad ring of no 1 "Among the Tibetans." Chicago, 1894, p. 60. Travel iu Central Asia." New York, I8w, p. 45!. 252 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, ISfll. man's laud. This is what every eye gazes on at each moment of the day. All moving feet and beasts, trains, and boats are engaged in constructing one of these civic rings. The small centers are only like our little group; the large centers, like London or New York, are world-embracing. They rule the world, their trade is with all mankind, their good people are cosmopolitan, their vices are those, of the whole race from the birth of time; hundreds of smaller civic, centers minister 9 to them and are enriched by them, and the four corners of the earth concentrate their productions there. The map of the world has undergone wonderful changes in this regard in historic times in the location of these centers of commercial circula- tion, and the kind of roads that radiate therefrom, as well as in the character of the forces and vehicles involved. It would be an absorb- ing study for one to trace these centers, and to note the changes in roads and vehicles, but the subject of this paper relates entirely to the primitive centers and routes before there was a wheel conveyance on eai th. Burden bearing, in addition to this general participation in the creation of artificial industrial centers and great civic groups, has cre- ated special phases of society. Legislation has had no small trouble in regulating the laws of travel and trade, of interstate and interna- tional commerce. Citizens who go abroad and who traffic have been the occasion of no end of diplomatic correspondence and even of war. Those engaged in travel and transportation have themselves always had their rules, societies, corporations, organized service, and trades unions. Savage no less than civilized men travel and trade by route and by rule. The carrying activity and trade are most intimately associated with slavery. It is not time yet to say that it was thus allied more than with other arts, nor that it was most confined thereto. Looking at the movements of men and women, the porters, roustabouts, coal stokers, and carriers are even now the most abject and hardest worked of serv- ants. The women and captives in America did the carrying as the peons do now. In Africa the backs of slaves are the vehicles of travel- ers and of merchandise. The southern and southeastern Asiatic is himself a beast of burden, and so has it always been. The complete study of this topic is full 1 of interest to the ethnologist as well as to the technologist. It has had its ethnic elaboration as well as its industrial evolution. No less does each tribe and people of the earth have its bodily structure, manufactures, art, speech, and social life than it has its own artificial conveyances and ways of get- ting about and carrying. To speak after the manner of the naturalist, the species of such inventions are tribal, national, and racial. One can hardly fail to discover in a .study of this sort how much its phases enter into the aesthetic arts and pleasures of mankind. Going for the sake of going, sailing in unknown wateis, visiting new lauds PRIMITIVK TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 253 and ga/ing on new skies are now and always have been ruling motives in the wills of men. The landscape gardener constructs his varied effects about meandering roads and paths; the most stirring and costly music is martial; moving scenes of men and beasts and stately ships cover the painter's canvas and sculptor's slab; we ransack the earth fora new perfume or delicious fruit. I 'inally, mythology and the stories of all mysterious beings begin and end with recounting their works and travels. The sky is full of paths and trails. Charon's boat bears the souls of men abroad. The obsequies of the dead are a preparation for journeying barefooted. Atlas uplifts the world ever on his broad neck and back. The Caryatides arc the apotheosis of all patient women porters. An American example of Atlas type is the stone chair of Ciuayaquil (fig. .'$). A man on all fours supports a curved scat on his back. The whole is cut from a single block of stone. 1 In Polynesian phrase: "As I hope to escape perdition, Whakatauroa is the basket wherein rests the pillar of the earth. Its strap is Kangiwha kaokoa." ' This saying is ap- plied to the world. Its mean ing is: If the basket had not been placed as a support for the pillar, the earth would have moved to and fro over the surface of the waters, and would have sunk therein: there would have been no resting place for the being called man, or anything else, or for anything which lives. When the overwhelming earthquake comes, the pillar is there in the basket: however great the quaking, the pillar is firm. By means of the head strap the ba.-ket is able in carry the pillar: were it not for that, the end would not be attained. There are, however, other uses of the strap as well. 2 The activities here t reated embrace all that may be included in the word locomotion." or essentially all traveling, carrying, or being carried. The words traveler, freight, and passenger make the group of industries sufficiently plain. All human inventions begin with natural objects little modified, so the locomotive activities have their rise in merely going or carrying and being carried without inter- Fig. 3. CHAIR OK SANDSTONE FROM GUAYAQUIL, 1'KKC. Yr * fifiirf .n Wicncr'l ' ' ftrou rl Bolmr." 1 WienT. " IVron H Holivir." I'uris. pji. .V_'J H.-in- linn};!. " Control lirtwren Fiif ami \\:it-i.' N<>. ::, j>. 156. .loiirn. I'olvnoiiin 254 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. mediate apparatus. Furthermore, while the aboriginal mineralogist, botanist, and zoologist wander about at random and do not care ever to repeat the trail, this desultory and trackless wandering soon gives place to efforts to go over the same journey even upon the water. The uses of hands and head and shoulders, and especially the feet, for journeying and transporting, and all the inventions for making these convenient and cooperative, together with the fixing and preparing of ways to facilitate them, united constitute the industry of travel and transportation. This subject naturally divides itself into land travel and water travel. But these two cam not always be separated. In the present paper, however, attention will be given to the former, which may be thus classified : (1) Going afoot, including the study of special costumes and appli- ances occasioned thereby. (2) Man as a carrier and in drawing loads. This chapter will treat of the two aspects of carrying, namely, riding and freighting, and will consider the begin- nings of harness, as applied to the hu- man body. (3) The domesti- cation of animals for riding beasts, pack Fi s 4 ing beasts, and for MEN RIDING, LEADING. AND DRAGGING. From a figure in \Vh.viiiper'n "Grent Andes of the KrjuiHo .. (4) The origin of the road, of trails, routes, conveniences on the road, foot bridges and the beginnings of engineering. (.">) Subsidiary activities, signals, food, time keeping, receptacles, trade, stimulants, slavery. This study will be chiefly from an objective point of vie\v, and will be largely based on the collections in the U. S. National Museum and such other material as may be helpful thereto. Whymper gives a little figure which in a small space comprehends all that is included in this paper (fig. 4). In the rear, as he should be, is a man painfully bearing and dragging a number of poles burden and draft beast in one. His load is a sled without snow, a cart without wheels, a travois in which the man is the dog. Ahead of him a man is walking and leading a pack mule. This is a step higher in culture, in the epoch of domestication and breeding. In the man's hand is a whip, which bears the same relation to the firebrand that industrialism does to militancy. In front a man, possibly Mr. Whymper, rides on a mule, representing the highest grade in culture of the era of biological force, of the, hand and beast. 1 1 \V}ivmpr, ''(Jreat Ane required for the journey, as they carry little while traveling." ' The first consideration in this study of man as a traveler and a burden bearer is his body as an instrument or apparatus to this end. Struc- turally this investigation includes (1) The skeleton, its versatility and strength. (2) The muscular system. (.'i) The vital parts in reference to these. Functionally the .student would have to regard the activities <>f (1) Walking, running, swimming, diving, etc. (!') Lifting and carrying. (3) Pulling and hauling. (4) Pushing and forcing. In the case of migratory birds and nshes, the habit is explained by saying that they have endowments of locomotion that n't and impel them to be going. In harmony with this instinct of going, this irresist- ible attraction, are the exigencies of desire and supply. The environ- ment without and the nature within conspire. It is reasonable to suppose that in the conduct of men, the actual possession of the whole earth, their capabilities, attributes, wants, inher- ited proclivities are coupled with structure specially adapted to the conduct. When the cosmopolitan structure of man is considered, the domination of the earth is the legitimate functioning of his wonderful organism. 1 Professor Munro has said that, as the quadrupedal animals became more highly differentiated, it followed that the limbs became also modi- tied, so as to make them suitable not only for locomotion in various circumstances, but also useful to the animal economy in other ways, as swimming, living, climbing, grasping, etc. Hut no animal, with the exception of man, has ever succeeded in divesting the fore limbs alto get her of their primary function/ What a profound fact is this in the industry here considered, both in getting about and carrying at the same time. The erect position provides the diversified requisites for tin- versatile walker and burden bearer in one person. Indeed, it maybe said that theerect position \\ a- effected by and through the carrying art. 1 "Ueindeer, Iog8, and Siiowshoes." N<-\v Wrk. is? I. \>. IL'.".. - ft". Maker, "The Ascent of Man.'' Anieriran Anthropologist, Oct., 1890. 3 Cf. Rep. Brit. Assoc., Nottingham. 1SW. j. 886. 256 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. (1) In the very act of progressing and .supporting a load the erect position achieves the maximum of result with the minimum of effort. (2) The fore limbs are set free from walking, climbing, flying, swim- ming, and all sorts of leg work, so that they may have all their time to lift and carry, to push and pull, to move themselves and objects in directions innumerable. (3) The freeing of the fore limbs has thus been accompanied by such structural modification of them that they may hold on, balance, grasp, a handle or rope, put a burden on the head, or shoulder (fig. 5) or back, hold it in place, act singly and independently at diametrically opposite functions, or cooperate in a diversity of actions to produce and vary motion or overcome resistance. (4) The erect position and the modifications of structure .involved make it possible for so feeble a creature us man to bear great loads on the head, shoulders, back of the neck, hips, knees, breast, and arms, and to vary their position while him- self in motion. Upon this point Professor Munro says that everybody knows how much labor can be saved by atten- tion to the mere mechanical princi- ples involved in their execution . In carry- ing a heavy load the great object is to adjust it so that its center of gravity may come as nearly as possible to the vertical axis of the body, as otherwise force is wasted in keeping the mass in equilibrium. The continued maintenance of this unique position necessitated the turning of an ordinary quad- ruped a quarter of a circle in the vertical plane to render the spine perpendicular or in line with the posterior limbs. The osseous walls of the pelvis were modified to take the additional strain. Special groups of muscles gave stability to the trunk and conferred upon the body its freedom and grace. The lower limbs were placed wide apart at the pelvis; thigh and leg bones were lengthened and strengthened; the spinal column took on special curves; the skull was moved backward until it became nearly equipoised on the top of the vertebral column. The upper limbs became flail-like appendages, the shoulder blades receded to the posterior aspect of the trunk, having their axes at right angles to that of the spine. Further, like the haunch bones, they underwent certain modifications to afford pointsof attachment to the muscles required in the complex move- ments of the arms. The elbow joint became capable of movements of Fip. 5. JAPANESE MAN SHODLDERINIi A PACKAGE OF RICK. roin :, picture in the U. S. National Museum PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 257 complete extension, flexion, pronation, supination, in which respects the upper limits of man are differentiated from those of all other vertebrates. 1 In his sinew-backed bow, made of driftwood and sinew cord, the Eskimo ingeniously converts a breaking strain of the fragile wood into a columnar strain thereon, wherein it is strongest ami a tensile strain upon the sinew wherein it also is strongest. The erect position and the possibility of resting a load on vertical bones in a great variety of positions enables the carrier to get the greatest lifting result with the least danger to the body. So far this change to the erect position, with all that it implies, is just as serviceable to the exploitive, manufac- turing, and consuming activities as with those that are here studied. , There is no end of encomium upon the human hand, and it does a great deal in lifting and carrying, but the especial organ of the travel and transportation industry is the foot. 2 Upon this useful organ Dr. Munro may again be allowed to speak. It is in the distal extremity of the limbs that the most remarkable anatomical changes have to be noted. The foot is virtually a tripod, the heel and the ball of the great toe being the terminal ends of an arch, while the four outer digital columns group themselves together to form Uie third or steadying point. The three osseous prominences that form this tripod are each covered with a soft elastic pad, facilitating progression and acting as a buffer. Progression is performed by an enormously developed group of muscles, known as the calf of the leg. The walker is thereby enabled to use the heel and the ball of the great toe as successive fulcrums from which the forward spring is made, the action being greatly facilitated by that of the trunk muscles in simul- taneously bending the body forward. The foot is thus a pillar for sup- porting the weight of the body and a lever for mechanically impelling it forward. Man possesses, moreover, the power to perform a variety of (|iiick movements and to assume endless attitudes and positions. He can readily balance his body on one or both legs, can turn on his heels as if they were pivots, and can prostrate himself comfortably in a prone or a supine position. As the center of gravity of the whole body is nearly in line with the spinal axis, stable equilibrium is easily main- tained by the lumbar muscles. This combination of structures and functions places man in a category by himself, and yet preserves the homologies common to all the vertebrates. 3 The enormous multiplication of motions and methods of resistance, combining in one human body every variety of work ever done by animals, finds a correspondence in the increased size and complexity of Cf. R. Mitnru, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1893, ]>. 887, for an elaborate treatment of this subject. 'C*' J Cross, "On tbe Mechanics and Motions of the Human Foot and Leg.'' Glas- gow, 181'J, and J. 0. Plumer, "The M-< -haim-nl Affections of the Human Foot," Port- land, looO. 3 Cf. K. Munro, Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1H93. pp. H. Mis. DO, pt.ii 17 258 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. brain and nervous tissue the multiplication of nerve cells. It is vain to speculate upon the priority of development in the brain or in the body as a versatile instrument of locomotion and work. Wherever the remains of man have been found the characteristics of locomotion, of the erect position necessary to human work, are stamped thereon. Man, then, the carrying animal, the beast of burden par excellence, the mas- ter of all other burden bearers in the world, is the groundwork and support of the entire carrying industry. Jeremiah Head, in speaking of the mechanical principles of invention actually existing in the body of man and referring to some involving the carrying art, says that the human foot contains instances of the first and second and the fore arm of the third order of lever. The patella is part of a pulley; there are hinges and ball-and-socket joints with lubricating arrangements ; lungs are bellows, and the heart is a combination of force pumps; the wrist, ankle, and spinal vertebra form universal joints; the nerves form a complete telegraph system with up- and-down lines and a central exchange; the circulation of blood is a double line of canals, in which the liquid and the boats move together, making the circuit twice a minute, distributing supplies wherever required, and taking up return loads without stopping; it is also a heat- distributing apparatus, establishing a general average, as engineers endeavor to do in building. 1 Physiologists, in speaking of the functioning of the brain, sometimes overlook these wonderful facilities for blood supply and removal. Com- pared with the smooth brain of the lower vertebrates, the brain of man is as New York City of to-day with Manhattan Island of the sixteenth century. With accessories to his body, without aid of beast or physical power, man far outstrips all animal rivals. A skater at Haarlem, in Holland, went 3.1 miles at the rate of -1 miles per hour. One mile has been cycled in 1 minute, 54 seconds, and 900 miles have been made at 12.43 miles per hour, while Count Starhemberg's ride on horseback averaged only 5.45 miles per hour, and the horse died from the effort. The modern railroad is virtually a surrender of man's legs to his brains and the harnessing of physical force. 2 Under exceptional circumstances man has accomplished in walking matches over 8 miles in one hour, and an average of 2f miles per hour for one hundred and forty-one hours. In running he has covered about 11 miles in an hour. In water he lias proved himself capable of swimming 100 yards at the rate of 3 miles per- hour, and 22 miles at rather over 1 mile per hour, and he has remained under water 4J min- utes. He can easily climb the most rugged mountain path and descend the same. He can swarm up a bare pole or a rope, atid when trained 'Cf. Kep. Brit. As.sor., ix'in, p Sti '. 2 Ibid., p. 864. Locomotion in both air and water are also Hperially considered. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 259 can i>erfonn most wonderful feats of strength and agility. He has shown himself able to jump as high as 6 feet 2J inches from the ground, and over a horizontal distance of 23 feet 3 inches; and he has thrown a cricket ball 3S'JA fe< t. Tin- attitude and action of a man in throwing a stone or acricketball, where be exerts a considerable force at several feet from the ground, to which the reaction has to be transmitted and to which he is in no way tautened, are unequaled in any artificial machine. The similar but contrary action of pulling a rope horizontally, as in tug of-war competitions, is equally remarkable. The living mechanism, although fitted for an external atmospheric pressure of about l/> pounds per square inch, has been able to ascend to a height of 7 miles and breathe air at a pressure of 34 pounds per square inch. Divers have been down in the water 80 feet deep, entailing an extra pressure of 3<> pounds per square inch. Fasting operations are not less remarkable when we are comparing the human body as a piece of mechanism with those of artificial con st ruction. For what artificial motor could continue its functions forty days and nights without fuel; or, if the material of which it was con structed were, gradually consumed to maintain the flow of energy, could afterwards build itself up again to its original substance? The marvel is not that the human bodily mechanism is capable of any one kind of action, but that in its various developments it can do all or any of them, and also carry a mind endowed with far wider powers than those of any other animal. No animal burrows into the earth a greater depth than 8 feet, and then only in dry ground. By aid of the steam engine for pumping, for air compressing, ventilating, hauling, rock boring, electric lighting, etc., and by the utilization of explosives man has obtained complete mastery over the crust of the earth and its mineral contents down to the depths where, owing to the increase of temperature, the conditions of existence become dilncult to maintain.' As will appear, the physical man as a traveler and carrier takes on special ethnic peculiarities in this re-ard. The races of men do not walk alike, have not the same endurance in going, do not use the same part of the body in carrying and in locomotion artificially effected. Now many of these differences are mt racial, but physiographic. The burdens to be carried and the resistances to be overcome are dif- ferent. There are varieties of elevation, climate, expc^m,.. salubrity which modify the body. The apparatuses of riding and of burden bearing also have to conform to the nature of things. So we not only have types of burden bearers, hut types of burden hearing and of burden utensils. The American aborigines were chief of the races in this regard They had no ridin.u beast and were compelled to walk. 'C'f. Harley, "On the Recuperative I'.mlily Power f Man," .louru. Anthrop. Inst , Londou, 1887, xvn, pp. 108-118. 260 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Their helpful animals were the dog in the north and llama in the Andes; otherwise men and women had to work in traces and under great loads. The network of inland streams in both Americas devel- oped also the boatman class. The Africans of negro type, south of the Sahara, were also their own beasts of burden. Wherever the burden camel or ass appears it is a Hamitic introduction. In the chapter on burden bearing the special types of carrying will be shown. Carrying on the head, or toting, with the anatomical peculiarities that this implies, is common with the nappy haired tribes. The exigencies of food getting, of slave capture, of long reaches of uninhabitable country, of war made of the African a great walker and wanderer. This is manifest in the condition of the language problem. The Polynesian is a boatman, a swimmer, and makes, few foot jour- neys of any length. His carrying muscles are not developed and his rounded form is not suggestive of Atlas or Hercules. His paddling muscles are splendidly emphasized, and his agility with his hands is surprising. He has been the greatest of modern aboriginal travelers, the short distances that he could make afoot acting as an efficient impulse to the invention of seaworthy craft. His cousin, the Malay, lives on larger islands, and, having no domestic animal, must necessarily be a more wiry pedestrain, a better carrier and pack animal. Indeed, there are two kinds of him, land Dyak and sea Dyak, physically different as any one would suppose. The land Dyak is a walker, and is on his feet constantly. Books of travel invariably represent him barefooted, with a long staff' or spear and bearing on his back a load supported by a head band. The Sinitic group are in the South great watermen, have only a lit- tle to do with cattle, much for elephants to do, and hence are not addicted to carrying as the Chinese are. But the Celestials and the Japanese have marvelous backs. Later on the Chinese carrying trade and methods shall be reviewed, but here let it suffice to say that the" physical endowments of the Chinese coolie are not surpassed. China is in the hand and back epoch of culture. Pack beasts are common enough, but they do not enter into competition with the legitimate burden bearers. The Hamito-Semitic stock have taken to riding and to pack beasts and are not specially modified in body for beasts of burden. Layard long ago said that the Arab has no wheelbarrow muscle, and he might have added that his muscles for a long walk are likewise defective. India is somewhat like farther India. The aboriginal peoples are largely water folk. The long Piedmont of northern Asia is the home and special train- ing ground of most of the beasts of burden dog, reindeer, camel, horse, ass. ox. I'pon these the people lay their loads or exact the duty of dragging their vehicles. Walkers are not rare, but profes- PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 261 sional carriers are so. It is not, therefore, to be expected that the bodies of the people should have been specially changed. In this region, however, the process of domestication is in its infancy, and under such circumstances always man lias more than half of the walking and working to do. Within the areas called civili/ed, where local movements give place to world movements, all ancient forms of going and carrying survive and the active pursuit of them becomes professional. Roustabouts and porters are there a class. Their backs, limbs, and whole anatomy are greatly modified by their trade. \ ambery mentions in his company from Teheran one Hadji Kurban, a peasant by birth, who as a knife grinder had traversed the whole of Asia, had been as far as Constantinople and Mecca, had visited on occasions Tibet and Calcutta, and twice the Khirghi/ Steppes to Oren- burg and Tagaarog. ' Fi K .e. PERUVIAN ANKLE UANDH KOR TKAVK1.KKS Kr,,u, a lnurr in \\Vm-r'., " IVrc.u 'I Boliif." Bodily deformations result from the carrying art. Commencing with the cradle, the back of the heads of American Indian infants are said to be compressed by contact with the hard papoose frame in which they are carried. "Flattened or platycnemic tibias have often been mentioned as a pithecoid rexcrsioii and also as a racial trait. They are neither. Virehow has abundantly shown that they are produced in any race by the prolonged use of certain muscles, cither in constant trotting, in prolonged squatting, in carrying burdens, or in the use of peculiar toot gear. The proof that it is acquired is that it is never found in the tibias of young children." " The custom of belting the body and bandaging the legs (fig. , p. ll'. Hrinton, Am. Aiiihropulo>iit. YVusliinfftnn. I* 1 '!. \> ::*!. quoting L)r. Matthews, M. in. Nat. Arad. Sri., vi, p. 224. 262 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. especially among the negroes in the South, the opinion prevails that a strip of eel skin about the leg has a beneficial effect in preventing rheumatism, cramp, sprains, and the like. That this belief has a wide dispersion may be supposed from the frequency of bands about the ankles noted among primitive peoples. The ancient Peruvians Wore about the ankle bands of metal, cord, or textile. With relation to the elements in which man travels the species may be said to be terrestrial, aquatic, and semiaerial. Because he not only progresses on the ground, but moves freely in and under the water naturally and by his inventions, he also climbs into the air naturally on trees, and by his machinery ascends above the flight of any bird. SPECIAL COSTUME FOR TRAVEL. The special costume for going away from home became more and more differentiated with the extent of a journey of a day, with the annual circle of activities, with the sphere of trade and influence, and with the knowledge of those ever-widening currents of acquaintance and intercourse which quickened the pace and lengthened the excur- sions of travel. All these were extremely limited at first, as they are now limited among rustic and other folk, and consequently the travel- ing clothing little differed from that worn at home. The outfit of the primitive traveler, though not to be compared with that of his modern representative, was devised to meet his wants. It would include: (1) Special costume for the body; (2) special protection for the head; (3) protection for the eyes; (4) footgear; (5) snowshoes; (0) creepers for walking on ice; (7) stilts and other elevating devices; (8) staff and scrip; (9) climbing devices. In this connection should be considered runners and couriers of various kinds. Costumes of most useful patterns were invented for those who go away from home. It has often been asserted that men and women adorned their bodies before they clothed them. As regards clothing for the sake of clothing this may be true. But those who had to go away far from the accustomed shelter must need to take temporary shelter with them, and that is clothing. This useful apparatus must not be con- founded with that artistic and ceremonial toggery which in association with tattooing, cosmetics, and artificial deformation constitutes the cos- tume of staying at home and is never seen on the road. Traveling cos- tume was devised and perfected as culture widened. In the tropics, prior to the art of plaiting blankets or mats and weaving cloth, nature's textile, or bark cloth, was in vogue. The Africans used a very crude variety of this fabric, and in tropical America similar cloth is employed both for travelers' clothing and for the attachment of ornaments. The Polynesians were most expert in beating from the inner bark of certain trees a tough fabric which was protective and easily removed. In addition to the bark cloth, in all three tropical areas, specially good mat makers may be found. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 263 The aborigines of the three areas also rained the notion of the per- sonal journeying roof to tin- extent of inventing rain cloaks and umbrellas, which are no more than thatches to cover one man. The I . S. National Museum possesses examples from .Japan and middle or Latin America.' The temperate /one man found himself the possessor of a fe\v textiles and used them economically in clothing, hemp, tlax, cedar hark, cotton, andjnte. But his land abounded in ruminants, whose dressed hides and whose hair enabled him to house, his body for any journey. In America the tawed hides of buffalo, moose, caribou, deer, elk, and the pelts of buffalo, bear, and a great variety of carnivores and rodents were more than sufficient for the exigencies.* The going away from home was by both men and women, and there- fore the temperate region aborgines of North America were the best clad savages in the world. This is especially true of the hunter tribes, while the agricultural eastern tribes are represented by the old artists as <|uite devoid of clothing. The fragile and movable tents of the Plains Indians were supplemented by better garments more constantly worn. The buckskin, fur, and woven fur clothing in America reaches from Mexico to the Eskimo border. In the corresponding area of Europe in earliest historic times similar dress was worn by the primitive Aryan tribes. It may be that the Piedmont hordes of northern Asia were once so arrayed, but since the earliest records garments of wool woven and felted have been in vogue. Quite frequently the pelts of lambs and other domestic animals constitute a survival from an earlier period. The elevated regions of South Amei ica demand of thetravelerartiticial clothing and furnish him one of the best substances in the hair and the skins of the Auchenias. The spindle is a common object in all Peruvian collections, and all mummies are comfortably clad for their long journey/ 1 The Africans are good spinners and weavers of cotton and of palm liber. For this operation they use, looms only a few inches wide and sew together several widths of cloth, which they wrap around their bodies not only as a protection from the elements, but in its folds they carry both children and merchandise. The coolies, in south China, usually have on nothing but a pair of loose trousers, tucked up above the knees. They have jackets, but rarely wear them while on the road. They have the body above the loins naked while at work just as men here, go in their shirt sleeves. A straw hat and a pair of trouser* or simple loin doth is all the clothing most of them wear throughout the year. In the winter they put on thick jackets. This is on the testimony of Dr. If. N. Grave^. for many years a missionary in China. 'Illustrated in the "Capitals of South America." h\ \V. K. Curtis. 'Masou, "Aboriginal Skin Dressing." K>p. Smithsonian lust. (U, S. N.-it. MnO. 1889 (1891), p. 553. 3 Wiener, " PeYon et Bolivie." 264 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1*94. The traveling Chinaman and Japanese thatch the head and the body against the rain with broad hats and abundant rain cloaks, as will be specially shown further on. These two countries furnish the best examples of highest achieve- ment in the industrial epoch of the hand. More men are professionally carrying burdens, the distances between artificial culture centers are longer, the tonnage carried on backs of human beings is vaster, and the outfit of the carrier is more differentiated. The hyperborean man and woman go almost as naked in their hut or underground house as their congeners farther south. It is when they venture forth that they exhibit the highest invention in dress. It is possible though risky, for tropical or temperate region man to defy the elements, but the hyperborean man can not for one moment. So he constructs an air-tight nonconducting house of skin, whether of rein- deer, bear, hair seal, bird, or marten. Herein he is as safe as in his home. Omitting the inquiry how so many stocks of mankind, from North Cape to east Greenland came to be dressed substantially alike, it is true that they are dressed so harmoniously to the environment that the white man when he goes to live among them simply has to don their garb with few modifications. 1 The body clothing of the Kamchatkan traveler includes: (1) The kuklander, long tunic of deerskin, double, reaching to the knees, with hood; (2) torbossas, long fur boots with fur socks inside; (3) malachis, fur bonnet or nightcap worn inside the hood; (4) archaniles, long tippets held in the teeth to protect the face. These with mittens and deerskin trousers complete the costume. 2 Bush, at Ghijigha, speaks of his sleeping dress as follows: "My robe de nuit consisted of an immense fur kuklander of double thick- ness and extending to my ankles; a heavy spacious hood covered the head and was bordered with a thick fringe of wolf hair to keep the drifting snow out of my face while sleeping; fur sleeping socks, one of which was as large as a small-sized barrel. All else needed to com plete my comfort was to throw my bearskin on the soft snow for a mattress." 3 Among barbarous and semicivilized peoples travelers note some special form or attribute of dress, perhaps inexplicable at first but easily explained when the environment is known. The Yuma Indians put mud on tlieir bodies at night or in the morning to keep out the chill, but as the sun advances it wears off and leaves the body naked. The Latin Americans and all other Latin peoples don the poncho, which may be now a shawl, now a rain protector, or it may be doubled 'On the making of the Eskimo garment, see Murdoch, Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology. "Bush, "Reindeer, Dogs, and SuowshoeH," New York, 1871, ]>. 61. 'Ibid , p. 361. PKIMITIVK T1JAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 265 up and carried against an emergency. The Semito Hamitic girdle or sash, that may on occasion become a shawl, belongs to this general util- ity garment. The light shawl on the arm of the opera goer or evening visitor is a survival of this very old precautionary garment. HEAD GEAR. The second class of special costume demanded for the traveler chiefly was protection for the head. Not only is the head especially exposed and vulnerable, but it occupies an important place in the traveler's outfit. It is his watch tower from which he looks out on the track, his telegraph and telephone office into whose receiver the voices of nature whisper, his transmitter of messages to his fellows, his detective to advise and warn. The sun, the storm, the cold strike the head first and most, so aside from any idea of ornament dame nature has given to the negroid and other tropical peoples and to Arctic peoples an abundance of hair. The skin of the head lias a remarkably adaptive power, suiting itself to enormous differences of temperature. But for cosmopolitan man these did not suffice, and before he had any notion of adorning his head he covered it to protect it. Each culture region has its type of hat, each isothermal belt covers the head of the traveler conveniently. Elevation, temperature, rain- fall, wind, natural materials all tell upon the head cover. There are also among travelers race hats, national hats, and guild hats. There are in the U. S. National Museum a large collection of hats from all parts of the world which enables the student to make some interesting comparisons in this regard. Among the types of men the Australioid travel little and protect their heads less, either to keep them warm, to shade them, to shed the rain, or to defend the eyes. There- is not an Australian hat in the U. S. National Museum. In tropical Africa, both among the negroes and the Bantu, the head receives much adornment and no protection. The Africans are good braiders, however, and make excellent hats for others to wear. In America and other lands whither the African was borne as a slave, he disdains the hat and maybe seen working bareheaded in the fields. Hut in Latin America, as is well known, the negro and the Indian united their blood and their arts to such an extent that some of the excellent hat making of that region must be accredited to the influence of the former. The American aborigines of the tropics are: divided into highlanders and lowlanders. The latter wear no hats; at least in pictures they appear unclothed as to the head, and the U. S. National Museum has no specimen. In the upland or montagnais of the tropics the Indian carriers appear constantly with skullcaps woven from paco wool. The natives that have become Latinized wear the sombrero, both of vegetable fiber and of wool. 266 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. The Polynesians or, more properly speaking, the ludo-Pacific races, Malay, Negroid, and Polynesians, go bareheaded. They are a mari- time people largely, and ignore the hat as a protection in their canoe travel. In the temperate regions there has been most land travel always and more demand for head covering, and yet there is great difference of opinion evidently as to what kind of hat to wear. The heaviest hats and turbans regardless of heat belong to the traveling races the camel, mule, and horse riding stocks in America, in north Africa, and in western Asia as far east as the Mohammedan religions and mongo- loid peoples extend. The tnrban is also at home in India, and it is a perpetual wonder how in a land .of so much heat the human head can stand such bundling. It is a fact that this head gear belongs to an alien and conquering race, that it now stands for caste and there is no telling what mankind are willing to suffer for pride and vanity. The native peoples of India are pictured as bareheaded. The climate renders the headdress unneces- sary, and the noucaste people are not given to moving about. As soon as one approaches the Sinitic area and the land of rattan and bamboo the turban gives place to the umbrella and the parasol and to hats akin to them. The widest and most varied head gear belongs to China, Korea, and Japan. The distinctions of rank, locality, and sect are drawn on the hat. With these, further than they are survivals from earlier industrial forms, there is nothing to do here. The travel- ing hat of all these regions and of farther India, so far as it is related to China, the traveler's and the Coolie's hat is an individual roof, a defense against sun and rain. Says Bush : 1 could not help admiring the taste displayed by many of these Giliaks whom we passed in the manufacture of their hats. They are made of birch bark, shaped like, a low, broad cone, the outside covered with beautiful scroll-work figures cut from stained bark. 1 In the temperate regions there has been most traveling, but, aside from fur, hat material is scarce. Above the temperate, in the boreal regions, men are compelled to draw in the awnings for rain and sun shedding, to substitute a wind and cold proof material, and to encase the head in the hat to keep out the cold. In other words, the boreal man wears a hood rather than a hat. The distribution of the hood is as follows: (1) All Eskimo, of fur, attached to parka; (2) Athapascans, of buckskin, ornamented; (3) Koraks. '"Reindeer, Dogs, and Suowshoes," New York, 1871, p. 99. Compare Tlingit painted and overlaid hat, Aleut visor hats covered with carved ivory, painted bands, and figure.**, and east Greenland articles adorned with little figures, Albert P. Niblack, Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. S. Nat. Mus.), 1888; also G. Holm, "Ethnolo- gisk Skizice," Copenhagen, 1887, pis. xxvnr-xi.. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 267 SUNPROOF ANI> TRAVELERS' HATS ix THE r. $. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 5362 China J. Varden. 154249 167190 Hat, palm leaf r.ml rattan Hat Hoihow, China Mongolia Dr. Julius Neumann. \V. \\". Rockhill. 167188 167189 do Tibet Do. 167191 167193 do do Do 77061 Hat, coolie's Korea J. H. Bernadou. 77065 ..do Do. 60236 Hat, rain Southeast Alaska J. J. McLean. 73840 Alaska T Dix Bolles TJ S N 16267 .do W. H. Ball. 72447-72449 Hat, straw do J. J. McLean. 20884-20885 Queen Charlotte Island J. G. Swan. C70 Hat, basket Northwest Coast George Gibbs. 1782 Hat native do Dr Suckley. 2576 Hat, plaited straw do Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N. 2577 Hat, water-tight do Do. 2581 do do Do. 2695 Hat, straw .. ..do ... ... Do. 2719-2722 Hat do Do. 671 Ilat.'basket Strait of Fuca 1039 Hat, conical, Makah Indians . . Neah Bay, Washington . . . J. G. Swan. BAIN CLOAKS. The rain cloak is a roof of thatch for the body. It is found in regions where there is much going about, much rain, and suitable material for its manufacture. In its manufacture or plan of structure will be found not only provision for turning rain from the wearer's body, but that other omnipresent thought in the minds of manufacturers which com- pels them to make things easy of transportation in the least compass. There is more time and cost expended in making a parasol or umbrella easy to carry than in making it sunproof or rainproof. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 447, 448 73062 152534 36186-36137 49101 43337-43338 38817 153733 129816 129339 43283 127671 1276C8 56083 - Cfipp Japanese rain cloaks Rain coat Japan North Formosa. China. . Kiungchow, China C. East Siberia Commodore Perry. Koyal Gardens, Kew, land. Dr. Julius Neumann. K.\V. Nelson. Do. Do. Do. J. H. Turner. Mrs. M. McL. Ha/.an. L. M. Turner. E. W. Nelson. J. W. Johnson. Do. C. L. McKay. Do. Eng- Waterproof shirt, intestine .do C. Prince of Wales Golovina Bay ... .do . . Waterproof dress, lishsk in Waterproof dress, intestine do Mission, Alaska St. Michaels, Alaska 'do .. do . . ! <1" - - do Nushagag, Alaska Fort Alexander, Alaska. do do do do Bristol Bay, Alaska ...do.. ...do.. 268 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. RAIN CLOAKS IN THK 1'. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Muspum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed 20919 8943 G8134 Waterproof dress, iiitestine. ... do do I'nalaslika. Aleutian Islands. .... do Hudson Bay J. G. Swan. A. H. Hofi", U.S.A. J. T. Brown. 10170 do Igloolik C F Hall 74450 74451 do I, \[ Turner 3G944 128870 Kain coat of rushes Washington State 7G930 Palm -leaf rain cloak T'6583 Dr E Palmer 75054-75956 do 131050 America. W W Rockhill SUNSHADES AND UMBRELLAS. The sunshade aud umbrella are in effect hats. They do not exist in eastern Asia outside the bamboo area, the lightness and strength of the material invit- ing to their creation. In tropical America they may be an inno- vation (fig. 7). But in antiquity gor- geous examples are part of the travel- ing conveniences of royal persons. In the sculptures of Egypt, Nineveh, and Per sepolis umbrellas are frequently figured. In ancient Greece and Rome, in medie val Europe, they had reached the stage of art and effeminacy. Useful umbrellas were plentiful in London in the eight- eenth century, and we read of common examples for coffee houses and parishes. 1 Fig. 7. THE PRIMITIVE UMBRELLA IN GUATEMALA. i a figure in "The Capitals of South America," by VV. K. Curti; 'Cf. Gay, "Trivia," London, 1716; "Notes and Queries." London, series 5, vi, pp. 202, 313. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 269 KAR PROTKrTOKS. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 175101 Ear protectors I .eb Ladakh Dr W L Abbott 4508S 45089 K W Nelson 38694 55981 Ear flaps or protectors of fur Kon<;ig, Alaska Bristol I!a\ Alask'i Do. Charles L McKay 70724 .... do (4LOVKS AND 3IITTKNS IN THE I . S. NATIONAL MUSKfM. The defense of the hand is imperative in Arctic and boreal travel, hence, the glove is universal around the hyperborean region. The clothing of the band is bound by the conditions of (1) temperature, (2) piercing wind, (3) material most handy and eHertnal, (4) the use to which the hand must be put on the journey of fishing, hunting, paddling, trap setting, dog driving, etc. Hence will be found the mitten with and without thumb, the glove with each finger distinct, and the glove with other dividing of the fingers. As the student moves from Eskimo to Athapascan tribes in America he passes from the fur mitten to the buckskin glove. In an elaborative series the hand covering may be classified by material, by complexity of structure, and by function. The U. S. National Museum series divide themselves into mittens, divided mit- tens, and gloves. A II of these may be further separated into haired and unhaired, the former into hair inside and hair outside. The gloves in the series have the fingers sewed on all around where they join the hand and are not continuous as in the modern examples. Among the Eskimos gloves are essential not only against cold, but also in handling the vicious dog. In the Nelson collection (Nos. 1038, 5250) in the U. S. National Museum is a pair of gloves from the Kaviarigmnt, south of St. Michaels. The three compartments of the left hand glove are characteristic, of this region only. Uualeet name, aghe 'gaat, 'Malemut, ad the gaat. Museum number. Specimen. Locality By whom contributed. 129426 (Moves knit Norway Mrs. E. S Brinton. 128328 7:11 IK Tate Vama. Japan .... P. L. Tony. 150688 1439 38454 Mittens Mittens, Chukchi Yezo, Japan \ K.Asia r.criii" Straits Homyn Hitchcock. Commodore John Rodders. E. W. Nelson 48176,48177 153529 (i loves, embroidered Mitts ... . . .. SilH-ria North Siberia Do. Lieut G 15. Harber 1' S N 64271 K \V Nelson 43322 43324 Mittens, waterproof. ver\ loin; i nilo\ ina I'.av. Alaska . . do Do. Do 43341 4 Gloves, deer pelt Do 7600 72842 Gloves, summer, deerskin Mittens, buckskin, embroidered Mahlemuts, Alaska W. H. Dall. 21598 Dr J B White 73056 74433, 74434 Mittens, with strap to hang around the neck, ornamented with beads. Gloves, buckskin Bristol Bay, Alaska C. L. McKay. 153759 Mittens . .. do J. H Turner 127335 Mittens, fishskin Bristol Bay I. Applegate. 55967 Bristol Ba^ Alaska 55968 Mittens, woven grass do Do. 55970 Mittens, flshskiu do Do. 56066 Gloves do Do. 56067 Mittens .'.. do. Do. 36207 44145 Gloves, white fur on back Gloves, fingers sewed in 2 pairs Bering Straits Kotzebue Sound E. W. Nelson. Do. 48135 do .. do . Do. 89829 128398 Gloves, deerskin (two pairs) Gloves, boy's Point Barrow, Alaska. . . do . . Lieut. P. H. Ray, U. S. N. E. P. Herendeen. 128400 Gloves, infant's do Do. 153602 Mittens, winter do John Murdoch. 64289 Mittens, old bird skin. Diomedo Island. Alaska E. W. Nelson. 90461 Mittens, fishskin. . William J Fislnv 90462 Mittens, grass do Do. 49115 887 Mittens, buckskin and quill Mittens, woman's Xanana River Lower Mackenzie River E. W. Nelson. R. Kennicott. 1710 Gloves, deerskin, man's do R. MacFarlane. 1727 Mittens, bearskin, woman's Mackenzie River Do. 1728 Mittens, deerskin, man's. ilo Do 5131 Mittens, bearskin do Do. 5132 5133 do Do 1337 Mitten*, deerskin... Anderson River . . . <:. 1'. Uaudet. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 271 (iLOVK-s AND MITTKNS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MuSF-UM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 1338 Mitti-n iiiin-i I'olar ln-arkiii Anderson River . . . C. P. Gainli-t 1665 Gloves, bearsk in .... do R. MacKarlaiie. 1668 Mittens, fo\ skin do Do. 1680.1681 do Do 1682 Mitti us, di'erskin do Do. 1C84 Mittens, fox and deerskin . . . do 1704 Mittens, fox skin do I).. 1729, 1730 Mittens, deerskin do 2224,2225 Gloves do Do 7638 Do 7639-7641 Gloves, blackand white wolverine do Do. 7643-7646 do do 7647 Gloves (odd), fur-lined do Do 11008 Glovrs, chamois Ha Hi n Land Capt C F Hall 5212 Mittens Repulse Bay Do 68118 M its, sealskin Hudson Bay Charles G. Onbotirnr 68119 do Do 14254 Mittens Baffin Land Capt. C. F. Hall 13137 Greenland 13136 Mittens, woolen do Do. 37546 do N P Scndder 153519 Mittens Labrador Henry G. Bryant. 90071 Mittens, child's, beaded do L. M. Turner. 90074 Mittens, long, sealskin ... .do Do. 90194. 90195 do Do MOM ...do do Do. 90355 Mittens, toy do Do. 744S2, 74483 Gloves, skin do Do 74484 Gloves, white fur do Do. 23741 South Dakota Paul Beckwith 20794 do Sitka Alaska J G Swan 18911 Mittens, buckskin Northwest coast Do 131245 12080 Gloves, embroidered, Colvilles . . Mittens, Pai Ute Indians Southern Utah Dr. Geo.M. Sober, U.S. A. Maj.J. W.Powell. 14629 14634 Mit t. us, fur, Pai Ute Indians ... do do do Do. Do TRAVELERS' STAVES. The traveler is usually seen with some sort of stick or staff in his hand. This series of utensils find their artistic culmination in the modern costly cane and in many beautiful uses of the word in poetry. The magic staff and the crozier connect this class of objects with myth- ology, folklore, and ecclcsiasticism. The uses of the walking stick are as follows: For staff on which to lean and as a weapon; the walking stick, in the hand of all carriers; climbing stick, or alpenstock; rest for load, often forked; steering for skees, frequently shod; help in rising, a^- aiming the Papago, etc.; protection, culminating in the cro/ier. The frequency of the staff in the hands of Assyrian kings, shown on the ancient monuments, recalls t ho days when it was a necessity to every pedestrian, not only for support but for defense. 272 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. The staff of the Norwegian skee rider is a mere balancing pole, which may, and probably does, come by and by to be the alpenstock. Nan- sen, in his excellent chapter on the skee, to be noted further on, con demns the staff for the professional skee rider, and shows how the best prize riding is done without it. Practically, however, while on his journey across the inland ice, he is never seen without one in his hand. The indispensable accompaniment of the Indian and rude peoples on snowshoes is the pole or staff. It exists in two forms, the shod and the unshod. At the bot- tom of the shod staff a little wheel about 6 inches in diameter is made of wood in Norway, but in Fin- land or northeastern Asia or in Alaska the wheel is a hoop of bone with four or more spokes of raw- hide. Doubtless the STiowshoe staff is of recent Asiatic intro- duction. The snowshoe staff' of the Lapps, Finns, and Norwegians (fig. 8) is a pole 8 feet or more loug,shod atthe bottom with a strip of antler or bone. A very fe winches above this point or spud is a hoop aboutG inches in diameter, attached to the staff at right angles by rawhide strings radiating and forming a kind of suowshoe. Precisely this form is to be seen in Alaska but the Giliaks on the Amur at- tach a paddle to the upper end of the staff 1 (fig. 9). At Oudskoi, on the Okhotsk Sea, Bush figures l ' Hmie ' natives on skees carrying in hand the pole with a little wheel stop near the bottom. 2 'Schrenk, "Reisen nnd Forschungen im Aiuur-I.ande," St. Petersburg, 1891, K. akad. Wissensch., in, p. 476. -"Reindeer, Dogs, and Snovvshoes," Now York, 1871, p. 194. FINLAND SKEE STAFF WITH SNOWSHOK AT THE BOTTOM. Cat. No. 167889, U. S. N. M. Collected by .lohn M. Crawford. Fig. 9. THE SNOWSHOKR'S STAFF OF THE GIUAK. romn figure mSchrenk's " Reisen chiingen PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 273 Hooper speaks of a <; long, thiu staff of driftwood, shod at the foot with pointed ivory or seal's tooth, and furnished with a circular frame, generally of whalebone, sometimes 6 or 8 inches in diameter, attached to it 3 or 4 inches above the shoe; this frame is covered with a net work of hide cord, ami its use is intended to prevent the staff going deep in the snow and so tripping him whose support it should.be. It is a valuable acquisition, particularly with snowshoes" 1 (fig. 10). There are in the U. S. National Museum examples from Finland, western Alaska, and Schrenk figures them from the Amur country. 2 The only staff used by the young and vigorous at Point Barrow, according to Murdoch, is the shaft of the spear, when one is carried. The aged and feeble, however, support their steps with one or two staves about 5 feet long, often shod with bone or ivory. (The old man whom Franklin met on the Coppermine River walked with the help of two sticks. ) :t The walking stick of the Carrier Indian of British Columbia, which he uses in winter, is precisely like that seen in the hands of the hyper- boreans, with a little circular snowshoe fastened about the stock near the bottom. The Indian makes a novel use of his staff. Having a leather loop like the guard of a sword fastened at the top, he puts his left hand through it and lays his gun barrel on his hand for a rest. Father Morice figures a carrier kneeling and shooting with his gun thus sustained. 4 "Sometimes a man shall meet a lame man or an old Man with a Staffe; but generally a staff is a rare sight in the hand of the eldest, their Constitution is so strong. I have upon occasion travelled many a score, yea many a hundred mile amongst them without need of stick or staff'e, for an appearance of dan- ger amongst them." 5 Many of the market people (of Ayacucho) come on foot from consid- erable distances, the women carrying their babies on their backs in bundles called rcepi, and the young men using a walking stick for sup- port in passing up and down the wearisome ravines. 6 Fig. 10. SNOWSHOEB'S STAFF OF THE CAPE NOME ESKIMO. Cat. No. 45tt3, U. 8. N. M. Collet-ted by E. W. Nelson. 1 "Tents of the Tuski," London, 1853, Murray, p. 147. -"Reisen und Forschungen iin Amur-Lande," p. 476. 3 Murdoch, Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 352, quoting Franklin, " First Expedition." II, p. ISO. Trans. Canadian lust., 1894, iv, 155, figs. 144, 145. s See Coll. R. I. Hist. Soc., I, p. 76, for paper ly Roger Williams, " Key into the language of the Indians of New England.'' *>Markhaui, "Journey to Cuzco," London, 1856, p. 64. H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 18 274 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. TRAVELERS' STAVES IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. i By whom contributed. 167889, 167890 Finland . 11 on.. I W Crawford 45423-45425 46297 Staves used for supporting travel- ers on ice Bottom of snow cane Cape Nome, Alaska . . Alaska . . E. W. Nelson. W. H.Dall. 14953 Staff Aleutian Islands. .. W. H. Ball 151695 Staff with knob, Kaffirs. - Africa 165348 Cane walking ... do 165349 Staff walking .. do Do 166114 -do West Africa Heli Chatelain The stilt and the stilted shoe scarcely enter into this study. The latter is more for lifting the feet out of a wet environment, or in some countries to elevate the bodies of persons of high degree. There is an endless variety of stilted shoes in the Mohammedan areas, in Persia and in Japan. The stilt finds favor in certain parts of France, but here they serve chiefly to lift the shepherd to enable him to keep his eye on his flock. They are, in company with his staff, a kind of tripod watchtower or light-house. The Popular Science Monthly records a race between pedestrians, stilt walkers, and horses from Bordeaux, France, over a course of 400 kilometers. The pedestrians dropped out at 235 kilometers. At the end of sixty-two hours the race was completed, the horse reaching the goal twenty-eight minutes ahead of the best stilt walker. 1 One of the favorite amusements among these people (Washington Island, Marquesas,) says Langsdorff, is running on stilts over paved dancing places, children being thoroughly habituated to the exercise by the time they are 12 years old. 2 Carved stilts of the Marquesas islanders, attached to bambo handles, beautifully etched, are in the Christy collection and the Munich Museum as well as in the TJ. S. National Museum. 3 * LOCOMOTION AND BURDEN BEARING IN THE AIR. The serpent, having no limbs whatever, would seein at first sight to be terribly handicapped; yet, in the language of Professor Owen, "it can outclimb the monkey, outswim the fish, outleap the jerboa, and sud- denly loosing the close coils of its crouching spiral, it can spring into the air and seize the bird on the wing." Here we have the spiral spring in nature before it was devised by man. 'Popular Science Monthly, New York, 1891, xr.vi, p. 284; also (Juyot-Daiibes, " Stilts and Stilt Walking," ibid., XL, p. 467. Langsdorff, "Voyages," London, 1813, i, p. l(J9. 3 Figured by Ratzel, " Volkerkunde," n, pp. 133-134. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 275 Flying animals conform to this law of variety of gifts. Thus we have birds, like the penguin, which dive and swim, but can not fly; others, like the gannet, which dive, swim, fly, and walk ; others, like the ostrich, which run, but neither fly nor swim, and numberless birds which fly well, but have only slight pedestrian powers. 1 Those who enjoy the con- templation of nature, as the tireless pedagogue of man, will find innum- erable examples in this portion of the traveling art. Every kind of ascending and descending obtrudes itself on the human imagination as au example and a challenge. It has been previously remarked in this paper that through the exercise of the faculty of invention locomotion in the three elements, to wit, on the land, in the water, and in the air can be prosecuted fur- ther, longer, and more effectually by man than by any other living beings whatever. Traveling about and moving of things require not only horizontal motion, but movement upward, and in primitive life this may be considered under the general head of climbing. The inclined plane is the most simple of the mechanical powers. It exists everywhere in nature, and simply in following the lines of least resistance animals, especially the ruminants, have covered the earth in its elevated portions with a network of paths and trails which have been subsequently adopted by aboriginal peoples. The whole subject of the inclined plane, in its relation to travel and transportation, would better be considered after the division of roads; and even devices like stairways, such as may be seen in various parts of the world cut in the highways in order to facilitate locomotion and to get over difficult places, would also better come under the same division. The discouragement of travel is quite as great among the wealth of nature as amid its poverty; the magnificent forest, where there can be no track and where the traveler must cut and climb for himself, is just as tenantless as the dry and tliirsty land where no water is. But there is a small class of devices or inventions for mounting trees and other objects which may be considered apart from the general topic of roads. Nowadays the patent elevator carries freight and passengers to the tops of buildings over twenty stories high, but in the beginning men knew how to ascend trees by the simple use of hands and feet. To facilitate this operation, however, among very low savages will be found ;i small class of inventions which at once divides itself into two species; one leading to the perfection of the ladder, the other is attached to the human body, and renders more effective the grip of the hand and the feet in the ascent. This class finds its latest expression in the devices used ly those engaged in laying and repairing telegraph wires at the top of the long poles. The loops on the savage man's feet are the spikes on !. Schreuk, " Reisen und Forschungen im Amur-Lande," in. 3 Eighth Ann. Rep. liim-au <>t' Ethnology, fig. 46. 'Sipiicr, "The Mosquito Coast," London, 1857, p. 62. *H. C. Mercer, "The Hill Caves of Yucatan," Philadelphia, IX'.Mi. pp. 1. All these specimens were collected by Captain G. Holm, of the Koyal Danish Navy, and given to the U. S. National Museum by the Ethnological Museum of Copenhagen. In pi. xx of Holm's "Kthnologisk Ski/./e" will be seen a cap made of unborn seal skin and one of fox skin, and each of these has a visor, the former of rawhide, the latter of wood. Beneath these are two snow goggles, one of the Bristol Bay type hav- ing a thick, hollow visor with an elongated, rectangular wide slit in front and a notch for the nose. The other has two lenticular openings for eye slits, a nose carved in relief between the eyes, and a nose slit on the lower margin. These examples have slight re- lation with the Central Eskimo type in which goggles and visor are combined ' *te- 16 - F. Nansen figures an old man K9KIMO 8NOW QOQOLlt8 e K u i BT ' rBOM at Cape Bille, East Greenland, i n the Museum fur vaikerkund.-, it,-riin. wearing snow goggles, a simple Fromt -n crntr.iF..k,mo,"b y io,s.itbA.nu.iKrp,,r. , . . ^ , . . . of the Bureau ol Ethno'.ocy, block of wood with one long slit. 2 TheKaiak hat of this old man, consisting of a wooden ring, should also be noted. In Holm's pi. xxxvr are two visors beautifully ornamented with little Hat ivory figures common to East Greenland. His figure .'i is a hood for the face fitting against the forehead, projecting like a visor from which descends perpendicularly, a wooden curtain covered with ivory ornaments. This curtained visor is unique so far as the U. S. National Museum is concerned. If in any other museum exist like forms from other areas it will be interesting to know the fact. Of somewhat similar type to Holm's tray-shaped snow goggles is an ivory specimen found by I>oas in Idjorituaqtuin, Cumberland Sound (fig. 16). It is in the Museum fur Viilkerkunde, Berlin, and has the appearance of being very old. It is suggestive of light and neatly fin- ished specimens from Sledge Island southward, but there is no intima tion of a visor. Attention is called, however, to the two holes bored above the eye slits in precisely the spots where on the Bean specimen from ('ape Lisbnrne two holes are utili/.ed in fastening on a visor. Nordenskiold's Port Clarence specimen seems to ha\e holes for the '<;. Holm, " Kthnologisk Skizxe," Copenhu^f-n. 1**7. j.l. \\. 4 "Across Greenland," London, 1890, i, p. 361. 286 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. added visor in the same spot. But the little openings may have served as ventilators. The examples of snow goggles from Fury and Hecla Strait in the U. S. National Museum are such as have been worn by white men or explorers. The one here figured was worn by Captain Hall in his Arctic explorations. It is sharply angular in outline, as if made by machin- ery from a block of wood 2 inches thick. Especial attention is called to the deep excavations for the eyes, which are separated by an equally Fig. 17. SNOW GOGGLES USED BY THE ESKIMO OF FURY AND HECLA STRAIT. Cat. No. 10200, IT. S. N. M. Collected by Capt. C. F. Hall deep transverse cut for the nose. The eye slits are, therefore, entirely distinct in front and in the rear. In front, a visor projects squarely an inch over the eye slits, and is flat on top. The goggles are fastened on the head by a band of soft hide attached at the ends by means of sinew threads, sewed through holes in the wood. To further cut off' the light, the eye cavities are rubbed with some black substance. The specimen here figured (fig. 17) measures 5^ inches in length, and is to be seen among the relics of the Hall expedition. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 287 This angular form constitutes a type peculiar to the central region, where for centuries whalers have congregated, and through their trade as well as their mechanic-ill assistance, profoundly modified the native arts. Similar to the specimens figured, are No. 10292, collected by Captain Hall, Nos. 29970-77-78, gathered in Cumberland Clulf by Mintzer, and also, though much ruder and newer looking, Nos. 9017l to 90188, from Urigava, north of Labrador, collected by Mr. Lucien M. Turner. Captain Hall's collection also contains a specimen of the same gen- eral type carved from oak, but there is no information concerning the Fig. 18. SNOW ffOOOLBS USED BY THE KSKIMO OF UNOAVA, NOETHKBN LABRADOR. fit. No. 90188, r. 8. N. M. Collated by Lucira M. Turn-r carver. The wood is from a whale ship. The visor in this example is not flat on top as the other, but slopes downward right and left from the middle. 1 (Cat. No. 10292, U. 8. N. M. Length, 5 inches; height, 2 inches. Collected in Frobisher Bay.) Fran/ Boas says that the natives of Cumberland Gulf always use snow goggles in spring to protect them from snow blindness. In describing them he calls the vizor-goggle type here figured the modern variety. Lucien M. Turner brought home from UngaVB several >pccimens of snow goggles similar to those shown in li-. is. M 'at. No.'.'ol ^>. I . S. N. M.) 1 Cf. Parry, "Second Voyage,'' p. ~>47 and platw opposite p. ~>\*. lijr. -I, and plate opposite p. 14; Sixth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. ">7. r , fig. 529, p. 576. 288 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Tlie noticeable characteristics of this example are the short and wide eye slits and the shape of the visor, which is straight along its front border, making it quite shelving at its outer end and little projecting over the nose. There are buttons or knobs at the ends of the goggle for the strap of seal hide which is split along the middle so that one- half may pass above the occiput and the other half beneath it. These characteristics of the split headband and the buttons will be found elsewhere. Somewhat similar to this example with little or no Visor or projec- Fig. 19. SNOW GOGGLES USED SY THE ESKIMO OP CUMBERLAND GULF. Cat. No. 29978, V. S. N. M. Collected by W. A. Mintier. tion above the eyes sire Cat. Nos. 90184, 90185, U. S. N. M., from the same area. The length of this example is 5 inches. ' Nos. 29976-29978 in the U. S. National Museum are from Cumber- land Gulf, and conform to the eastern type illustrated in the fore- going figures. The only characteristics in this example to which attention should be drawn is the heavy form of the goggles, the cham- fered or sloped undersurface of the visor, and the additional little string between the two back portions of the head strap to prevent their spreading too wide apart. Length, 5% inches; height, If inches. Collected from Niautilik Eskimo, by W. A. Mintzer, U. S. N. (fig. 19). Cl'. Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 222, tigs. 46, 47. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 289 In regarding the relation between these eastern examples and the environment it is well to put them into comparison with another appa- ratus in the same region, say the Ulu, or woman's knife. Turner's Uugava ulus look like harness makers' knives made and riveted in England or tlie United States. The other Hudson Bay, Cumberland Gulf, and Fury and Hecla pieces, out of foreign woods remind one of the patched up compound bows, the poorly hatted ulus, manufactured under the overshadowing influence of the whaler. Between Fury and Heola Strait and Cape Bathurst, just east of the mouth of the Macken/ie is a region unknown to the U. S. National Museum. Through the great generosity of Messrs. Robert MacFarlaue, Fig. 20. SNOW GOGGLES USED HY THE ESKIMO OK ANUKKSOV KIVKR. CANADA. (HI. No. KV). U. S. V M Collected by R. Mu Krl>nr. B. H. Ross, C. P. Gaudet, Robert Kennicott, and others, especially the agents of the Hudson Bay Company, the Museum possesses rich treasures from the Mackenzie River district. There are two well-marked types of goggles collected in this region, that with a single continuous eye slit and no visor and that with two independent disks. Both of them are seen elsewhere, but neither of them occurs in the east, so far as the U. S. National Museum collection goes. The former is just as rude and primitive as it can be; the latter is seen in regions easily accessible to traders. No. lO) in the r. S. National Museum is from Anderson River, east of Macken/ie River (tig. L'O). It consists of a loug tray-shaped block II. Mis. (H), pt. 2 19 290 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. of wood, red on the outside and blackened on the inside. It is roughly blocked out to fit in front of the eyes and to rest on the bridge of the nose. The headband is a broad strip' of dressed skin sewed to the ends of the goggles. Especially should the student notice the continuous slit, for it is rare in Alaska on eye shades north of the Bristol Bay region. This specimen is 5 inches long, was made by the Kopagmut, and stands for the tray-shaped type of goggles to be noticed again. Example No. 2167, from Anderson River, is carved in the shape of a trough, neatly polished, shaved out on the lower margin to fit the nose, but furnished with two loug and quite neatly cut eye slits. The head- band is a strip of dressed hide. Length, 5f inches. Gift of R. Mac- Farlane. The second type, first appearing in the Mackenzie region and neigh- borhood going westward, is shown in fig. 21. The apparatus consists of two little wooden trays, with slits across their bottoms, attached to each other by being sewed upon a broad strip of dressed hide. Fig. 21. DOUBLE SNOW GOGGLES USED BY THE ESKIMO OF ANDERSON RIVER, CANADA. Cat. No. 2147, U. S. N. M. Collected by R MacFarlnne. To the ends of this strip are attached rawhide strings to complete the headband. This very simple device will reappear farther west in more elaborate form, and attention will be later directed to the incorpora- tion of the dish-like eyepieces into goggles made of one piece. Mr. MacFarlane sent also from Anderson River No. 1651, a visor cut out of a single piece of wood. In the Museum collections there is no visor coming from Canada east of the Anderson River. But the East Greenland specimens shown in Holm's plates 34-36 must noc be over- looked. This peculiar type abounds about Sledge Island (Aziak) and the Bering Strait. Length, 7 inches. It may be said here as well as elsewhere th'at other collections may contain different types from the regions named, and forms like the one just described may have been brought from Aziak to Anderson River in trade. The author can give his patient care only to reporting things as they are represented. Captain Herendeen, an experienced whaler, says that the gog- gles with separate disks are to be seen at Point Barrow. This is not strange, since the natives know their relatives at the Mackenzie PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 291 mouth and trade as far west ;is St. Lawrence Island. The Ray party brought to .the U. S. National Museum specimens of goggles from Point Barrow. These are of two kinds, the elongated dish-sha])ed variety, and a form soon to be described made of a single piece but suggestive of the style consisting of two disks. No. 89701 is from Point Barrow and is mentioned by John Murdoch. Some specimens seen by him are of wood, and he describes one taken from a gravel bed 27 feet under ground in the process of sinking a shaft to obtain earth temperatures. Hut the example here figured (fig. 22) is of antler following the natural curve, divided longitudinally, with the softer tissue hollowed out. Mr. Murdoch never saw an example of this kind in actual use. It was obtained from a native, and there wa> no account of it given. The second variety from Point Harrow, described by Mr. Murdoch, Fig. 22. OLD SNOW GOGOLBS OF ANTLER USED BY THE ESKIMO OK POINT BABBOW, ALASKA. Cut. No. 89701, U. S. N. M. Collect.-.! by C.pu P. H. Ray. U. S. A. have along the top a horizontal brim about one-half inch high. Above this are two oblique holes opening into the cavity inside, which are for the purpose of ventilation to prevent the moisture of the skin from bring deposited as frost on the inside of the goggles or eyelashes. Mr. Murdoch did not see these worn. He also calls attention to the appearance of airholes in specimens from Norton Sound and Ungava, and compares the visor with that on the eastern specimens' (fig. 23). Follow ing up the single-slit specimen from Anderson River, Dall -eni to Hi. I . S. National Museum from Cape Lisburne (68 50', 166 NW.) wooden goggles (No. 4>041) with a continuous aperture for vision. It is a compromise between the trough-shaped northern specimens and tin- hollo\\ visored type in the south. Indeed, it is a good example of the northern double visor, with wide continuous slit, over which the uppei Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 262, figs. 259-261. 292 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. side of the visor projects a little. Sinew cord is used to hold the appa- ratus on the head. Collected by William H. Dall and S. Bailey. It Fig. 23. SNOW GOGGLES WITH VENTILATORS USED BY THE ESKIMO OF POINT BARROW, ALASKA Cat. No. 89703, U. S. N. M. Collected t,y Capt. P. H. Ray, U. S. A. is of wood, and measures 5| inches in length and 2| in height. The Eskimo at this point are called Nunatogmut. Through the kindness of Lieut. G. M. Stouey, U. S. N., the U". S. Na- tional Museum, has goggles from Kotzebue Sound, north of Bering Fig. 24. DOUBLE SNOW GOGGLES USED BY THE ESKIMO OF KOTZEBUE SOUND, ALASKA. C:ii. N... 127907. U. S. N. M. Collerte.l by Lieut. G. M. Stiiney, V. S. N. Strait, No. 1137907. They consist of two little wooden disks or ( rays, ovai in' outline, with rather broad eye slits (fig. 24). These trays are joined PRIMTTIYK TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 293 together neatly by means of six strings of heads sewed into tin* margin of the disks and held in place in the middle by tin- threads passing through a "spreader" of rawhide. This device is coininon on head work farther south. The headband consists of sinew yarn and t\vo little thongs of rawhide for the back of the head. Example No. 638*25 is from Point Hope. It has a single wide slit between a visor-like part above and a receding portion below, on the rear of which the notch for the nose is cut. The specimen is in essen tial particulars like the Cape Lisburne example, No. HUH I. Passing south from Kotzebue Sound to Bering Strait. Diomede Island, audCape Prince of Wales, the r.S.National Museum does not possess an aboriginal specimen of goggles from this area. Instead, Nelson brought home a modern adaptation (tig. 2.~>). It consists of a rectangular block of wood, with a shallow nose slit in the middle. The back of the block is gouged out roughly, and further cut ting away provides two elliptical eye cavities. In front of the block is a rectangular bit of canvas, Fig. 25. MODERN SNOW UOOOLES KEOM IHOMKDK ISLAND, BRBINO STRAIT. Cat. No. 636S6, V. S. ti. M. Collected by K. W. NHon. doubled and fitted with colored glass in front of the eyeholes in the wood. It is raveled around the edges and effectively excludes the light and air. This is an interesting specimen, since it shows how thoroughly the most exposed places to foreign contact exhibit the greatest departure from the fundamental or primitive forms. The specimen tigured is No. r;W26, U. S. National Museum, and measures four and a quarter inches in length. Just south of Bering Strait is Port Clarence, always an important location in Eskimo life and now the point at which the United States (lovernment is making the experiment of introducing Siberian reindeer into Alaska. From this locality, through the kindness of Dr. Tarleton II. I Jean, the U.S. National Museum possesses a very elaborate ;int Russian and Federal occupation. Hereabout the cunning natives early became acquainted with steel knives, hammers, saws, tiles, and boring tools, and here their creative and adaptive minds were first cxeitcd and modified by seeing new objects and forms to copy. Turner, Nelson, and others have sent to the U. S. National Museum pretty specimens Fig. .'10. KSKIMo SN(iW OtXiOLES WITH VENTILATORS .NORTON rtOl'ND, ALASKA Cat. No. 3, f . S. N. M. Collected \>i E W. Hrltan. of goggles, consisting of two disks united by means of bead work, No. 24339. Leather thongs also replace the bead work as in No. i'4 inches. By the first named collector was secured a specimen on the same order, in which a narrow bridge of wood replaces the beadwork. In this specimen there is also a projecting ledge across the front above the eye slits. Length, .">', inches, Unaligmut. Nelson also contributes a double specimen from the Unaligmut, No. 32944. The specimen from Norton Sound, No. 32942 (fig. 30), is worthy of special study MI relation to this area as the southern limit of certain types. There are in it suggestions of the elon- gated dish or tray shaped body of the extreme north, of the two trays 300 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. fastened together by means of beadwork, of the separate eye cavities and notch for the nose, of the narrow ridge or visor, and especially to be noted is the occurrence of neatly cut notches above the eyes, appar- ently for'ventilation. It is a very daintily made specimen. No. 24340, from Uualakleet, resembles in front this example, the cavities are deeper in the rear, and there are no notches for ventilation. No. 32948 has also separate eye and nose excavations, but in front the visor is flat and the eye slits are similar to those farther north. Length, 5 inches. Example No. 24341 is from Norton Sound, and is a mixture of the Sledge Island example, with the quasi continuous eye slit, and the northern example, with disk like eyepieces. This specimen has a hood or visor over the eye slits, and is also remarkable for the projection or sharp curve outward, as much as 2J inches. Length, 5 inches. Example No. 5581, from the Yukon River, is trough-shaped, much curved outward, having no projections or decorations, and one contin- uous eye slit. Collected in 1868 by William H. Dall. This example is as primitive in form as those made from antler above mentioned by Murdoch. Length, 7 inches. Example No. 5579, from Yukon River, in fundamental form, like No. 5581, but notches for the nose above and below and a slight hood over the two eye slits give variety to the form. A slight furrow connects the eye slits in front, as in No. 45080. Length, 5 inches. Collected by William H. Dall. Example No. 44328 is cut from a single piece in form of two disks or dishes, connected by the nose piece. The slits are precisely along a median line, so that the apparatus could be reversed. The head string is of twisted sinew. Length, 5 inches. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. 72906, from the Lower Yukon, is cut out of a single piece of wood in general form of the Kuskokwiui specimen. The comparison ends there, for in the piece here described the block is hollowed out interiorly, a notch cut for the nose, and a long, wide slit with square ends separates the upper from the lower margin. The former does not project in the least. Length, 7 inches. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. 44330 is also a pair of goggles of two separate dish- like eye covers, united by means of sinew thread, decked with red and white beads. This is a very pretty specimen and has seen much use. Example No. 43929, from Yukon River, is made of two oval dish like pieces, with narrow eye slits in the bottoms, and fastened together by means of sinew twine; the headband of hide thong doubled. These and others of the same type are neatly made, and cut away very thin just behind the eye slit. Length, 6 inches. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. 30351 (fig. 31) is lorgnette shaped and was brought from Kushunuk, Bristol bay. The place where it was worn is unknown. A piece of wood is deeply hollowed in the rear so as to form two prolonged tubes. In front the wood is cut away in shape of the interior, and large openings are left for vision or for smoked glass. Collected by E. W. Nelson. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AXD TRANSPORTATION. 301 On the Lower Yukor. River, in tin- delta that forms the southern boundary of Norton Sound, reappears a type of goggle described from Sledge Island, No. 48724, U. S. National Museum. That is, the eye slit is uninterrupted in front, bu. across the nose it is cut in only one-eighth of an inch and there is interrupted in the rear by the piece that forms the bridge of the nose. With this should be compared No. 38251, both collected by E. W. Nelson. Length, inches. Collected from the Eskimo of Kushmmk. at the mouth of the Kuskokwim Ifiver, by K. W. Nelson. There is no evi- dence of glass having been used on this specimen. The long tultes in front of the eyes are blackened. 302 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Lately, Mr. I. C. Russell, of the International Boundary Survey between Alaska and Canada, brought to the U. S. National Museum two pairs of goggles, No. 153427, from the Athapascan tribes on the upper Yukon. They are evidently birch-bark makeshifts on the sugges- tion of the double goggles of the northern area. P^ach specimen is made of two "pill boxes," of birch bark with diamond-shaped holes cut in the bottoms. These are joined together by a strip of birch bark sewed on. Following up the idea that the Kuskokwim specimen was not designed for glass, the student comes to the typical Bristol Bay eye-shade (Ihug- ach-shu-duk). On top this apparatus is no more nor less than a com- mon visor, seen all about Bering Sea and over the northern arctic zone, where wood abounds. If a visor an inch thick were hollowed out, cut away a little for the nose in one place, pared away on its under edge in front, blackened on the inside, that would be the double visored eye shade or goggles of Bristol Bay. The figure here given is of No. 127781 (fig. 32), collected by W. J. Fisher. The U. S. National Museum contains a great va- riety of this type. With this example should be compared No. 55930 collected by C.L. McKay, Nos. 127477 and 127478 from Togiak River, collected by Apple- The last named is an Length of figure, Fig. 32. VI8OE SNOW GOGGLES FROM KUSKINAK, ALASKA. Cat. No. 127781, U. S. N. M. Collected by Vm. J. Fisher. gate, and No. 7251 5 collected by W. J. Fisher, oddity, and is probably of very modern manufacture. 5 inches. Example No. 55930 from Bristol Bay is in effect a typical double visor or a thick visor mortised through and painted black inside, the lower margin cut to tit the nose. In front the apparatus looks like the slightly opened mouth of a big fish. Most of the visor-like goggles are fastened with rawhide thongs. Length, 6 inches. Collected by C. L. McKay. The accompanying illustrations (figs. 33 and 34) exhibit the structure of the double visor or elongated goggles. It is here recalled that at the extreme north this form does not occur, owing to absence of wood, and that at the extreme south the goggles with slits for the eyes are not to be found. Indeed, while the goggles, the visor, and the double visor are all to be worn on the eyes, the first-named is to prevent ophthalmia in the hunter walking over the snow. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 303 The second is the Arctic form of the universal sunshade, hat brim, eye shade, having a different technical treatment for every people and culture region. The third is this likewise, and by its lower shelf is also ad'vic> tor look ing a long way down into the water. Many of Holm's Kast dreonhiml specimens having a visor top, and a deep curtain of wood around the margin enables a hunter lying on his stomach on the ice to see far down into the water and to guide the long-handled harpoon held by his companion. The wearers of the western examples are kaiak people who hunt their game with bladder harpoons, and it is essential that they should be able to follow them with the eye. Our modern deep sea fishermen use a com- rig. 33. moil bucket With a pane of VISOR SNOW GOGGLES USED BY THE ESKIMO or BRISTOL glass in the bottom for look- BAT - ALASKA - j . , , , Ct No. 1Z77M, U. S. N. M. Collected by Wm. J. Fuber. ing down into the ocean. The Aleut dress according to Strong was similar to that of the Koni- agas, with the addition of a high peaked hat made of wood or leather. This hat had a long brim in front to protect the eyes of the wearer from the glare of the sun upon the water and snow, and was ornamented at the back by hanging upon it the beards of sea lions. The front was usually carved to represent some animal and the surface was overlaid wit h ivory carv- ings. ' Nansen recommends the common goggles with slits, but objects that the snow shoer should be able to look vertically as well as hori/on- tally; but C. W. Reining ton figures a set of native snow goggles of the Barren Ground, in which M narrow T-shaped slit admits of both hori/ontal and vertical sight. 2 From Fort Mall. Idaho, the U. 8. National Museum possesses another Fin. 34. VISOR SNOW (JOOGLK.- 1'sKH H\ I II K ESKIMO OK BRISTOL BAV (-IDE VIEW). Pat. Nn 12T7H4. r. >. N M. Collected by Wm. .1. Fih-r. 'Strong. Wiili-kfc-iiah ami Her People." NV\\ Yurk. 1X!W. Putnam, |. 101. ' HIM-JMT'S M:rfj:i/inr, 1>M.\ M n. ji. _';. :nnl K. Nansou's "First Crossing of Green- land," London, 1890, i, p. 50. 304 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. aberrant specimen of snow goggle or eye shade, No. 153545, collected by Mr. Dahilson (fig. 35). This specimen is said to have been used by the Shoshones and Bannocks, who belong to the great Uto-Aztecan family; but the apparatus is made from harness leather, punched with a steel punch, cut out with a keen steel knife, and held on with worsted braid. The adjustable shutter is also a device somewhat above any- Fig. 35. SNOW OOOQLES USED BY THE BANNOCK AND SHOSHONE INDIANS OF IDAHO. Cat. No. 153M5. U. S. N. M. Collected by\V. H. Damlson. thing in the way of eye screens exhibited by savagery. It serves the purpose of emphasizing what has been many times repeated by the present writer, that civilization modifies the working principles of sav agery. This specimen furnishes a fitting close to the study of an imple- ment that the whalers and fur hunters modified and carried from place to place. Local forms are not nearly so fixed as those of the throwing stick. EVE SHADES AND SNOW GOGGLES IN THE U, S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 168938 Large wooden eye shade plain East Greenland Captain G. Holm. 1 68939 do Do 168940 90176-90188 10292 Tray-shaped, triangular eyeholes, large. Angular type, more or less visor do Ungava Do. L. M. Turner. Capt. C. F. Hall 29976-29978 W. A Mintzer 68141 10200 2167 Ko visor, machine made Angular type, flat visor Plain tray shape two slits Hudson Bay Fur y Strait Anderson River J. T. Brown. Capt, C. F. Hall. R. MacFarlane. 1650 do Do 1651 do Do 2147 Two small separate disks .. do Do 7733 Visor and goggle skin of seal's head do Do 7478-7479 Do 89701-89702 Tray shape two slits, antler P. H. Ray, U.S. A. 89703 do Do 89894 Goggles from gravel bed . do Do. 46041 63825 Double visor, ventilators Tray shape, single slit, visor Cape Lisburne Point Hope W. H. Da!l. E. W. Nelson. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 305 EYE SHADES AND SNOW GOGGLES IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MTSEUM Continued. Museum nnmber. Specimen. Localily. By whom contributed. 127907 63626 63269 46309 Two ovate disks separate Wood, canvas cover, glass eyes Dish -shaped, eyeholes for glass Large visor Kotzebue Sound . . . Diomede Island St. Lawrence Island Port Clarence G. M. Stoney.T. S.N. K. W. Nelson. Do. T H Bean 46191 Maskoid type, glass eyes do.... Do 46137 do do Do 45071-45074 Large, plain visors Sledge Island 45075-45077 Maskoid with visor do Do 45078 Maskoid, visor, ventilators do Do 45079 Double visor like, single slit do Do 45080 Tray shape, visor do Do 44768 Two disks and visor in one piece do Do 44769 Sledge Island ty pe do Do 44144 Plain visor Cape Darby Do 44256 Maskoid, visor, Sledge tvpe do Do 44257 do do Do 44329 Tray shape, one slit, reversible do Do 44328 Double disk, slits in visor Norton Bay Do 44330 Two separate disks do Do 44349 Plain visor do... . Do 24339 1 nalnkli t t 24340 United disks do Do 43929 Separate disks Norton Sound 24341 Double disk and visor do Do 24686 Two separate disks do L M Turner 33136 do E W Xelson 33137 Visor and headband do Do 32942 32944 Double disk, single slit, air holes. . . . do Do 32943 Trav shaped, slight visor do Do 37351-37353 do Do 37619 Plain visor do Do 49102 Visor and headband Pastolik Do 48684 St Michaels Do 153784 do .. do J. H Turner 5581 Plain tray, single slit Yukon River J. Y. Dyer 5579 Maskoid Sledge Island type W H Dall 11441 Visor Lower Yukon . . . Do 38251 38329 Slightly maskoid, two slits Visor do .do E. W. Nelson . Do 38704 Tray shape, one slit visor do Do. 38710-38712 Visor and headband do Do. 38837 do Do 38658 do Do 48724 do Do. 48996 Maskoid, no visor Sabotn isky Do. 49068 72906 Visor and headband Ka.sboi in ksk v Lower Yukon Do. Do. 16221 38659 Visor and headband Nunivak Kuskokwim W. H. Dall. K. W. Nelson. 55930 55931 Bristol Bay ('. L. McKav 36351 3635 W Nelson 37351 do Do. 36404 Conical viso" hat, ornament do Do. Min 00 ir *> 20 306 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. EYE SHADES AND SNOW GOGGLES IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 38713-38718 Visor hats, plain do E. W Nelson 127477 127478 90444 Conical visor hat, ornament Kadiak ... W J Fisher 72515 do Do 74720 Conical visor hat do Do 127780 127781 Double visor Kuskinak. Do 72515 Do 1131 Capt Bulkley USA 5772 Painted visor hat do Capt W A Howard 11377 ... do do 154073 do . do 153427 Birch -bark spectacles. 2 pairs Upper Yukon I C. Russell. 22286 131053 Goggles from harness leather Fort Hall, Idaho Northeast Tibet W H Danilson W W Rockhill 167159 Eye shades and case Lhasa Do FOOT WEAR USED IN TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Among the five typical classes of industries (page 237) the barefooted man and woman are common in the first two and the last two. The shoe is especially an accessory of travel; it belongs to the road. Even now- adays men wear their shoes to the field and work fn the field bare- footed. The same is true of women in all their drudgeries. Barefooted men and women are glorified in art, and in old religions both priest and worshiper remove the shoes. Ratzel has also noticed that sandals are rather peculiar to the road, and thinks they are more commonly made of hide than of wood or bast. He also calls attention to their wide extent. 1 Locations will be found where the traveling class are barefooted, but a close inspection of them will show that the people are maritime or that the climate is opposed to clothing the feet. Furthermore, it is difficult and seems useless to make the foot a decorative part of the body. Unclothed the foot is usually plain. Bush speaks of Giliaks whom he met as far north as the Amur mouth with naked feet and legs in September. 2 They wandered over the jagged stones on the beach as though their feet were soled with iron, while the cold seemed to have no effect upon them whatever. Upon a stump of driftwood 6 feet long, six of them sat with their feet drawn up under their bodies. But when these same people go away from home, they and all other hyperboreans exhaust their ingenuity on foot wear and foot gear. It is said that in southern China the chil- dren's feet are seared to harden them. 3 1 " Volkerkunde," Leipzig, 1887, i, p. 67. 2 " Reindeer, Dogs, and Snowshoes," pp. 81 and 104. 3 Chinese Repository, Canton, 1833, i, p. 29. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 307 As previously mentioned the anatomy of the foot has excited some attention, but it is a wonder that no one has dwelt upon the foot as an instrument of human industry. There are multitudes of able dfsserta- tions upon the foot as a characteristic in comparative anatomy, but here the organ is regarded in the light of an instrument of locomotion, whose place saddles, wagons, cars, and the like were invented to fill, and whose burdens dogs, reindeer, llamas, camels, elephants, asses, horses, and oxen were domesticated to share. In this light its power, versatility, adaptability, recuperative attributes, elasticity, and endur- ance are beyond our praise. But in this chapter the foot itself is the starting point of a wonderful series of inventions. In all countries where mere protection of the foot was the motive, those substances were chosen that were abundant and from which in a few moments new shoes could be constructed with a little knack and no special tools. Mackenzie says that the women who attended his Indians were constantly employed in making fresh moccasins of elk skin. Travelers in the tropics also note that when the foot demands protection, the material is always at hand, and that the natives have no trouble in providing themselves during their resting spells with an entirely new outfit. Under the general name of foot gear must be included aU that is attached to the foot and lower leg in walking, running, or carrying, for industrial purposes. Sandals, slippers, shoes, sabots, boots, stockings, greaves, snowshoes, ice creepers, and others to be mentioned, may be comprehended in a genus and treated as objects in natural history of which we may study : (1) The structure, materials, methods of production and of applica- tion to the foot, varying from region to region. (2) The elaboration, or evolution, or phylogeny, taking the more com- plex varieties and tracing them to their pristine forms, as a patent attor ney would proceed in showing the serial development of a modern machine. (3) Environmental influences. Since foot gear is devised for the double purpose of defending the foot from wear and tear, and of pro- tecting it from the cold or heat, on mountain, plain, and bog; on open sward, volcanic slag, thorny undergrowth, and burning sand; from poisonous plants and noxious creatures, each and all of these have claimed a hearing from the inventor and stimulated ingenuity, giving endless variety to what would else appear barefooted monotony. ' (4) Ethnic peculiarities. These are they that put the last finishing touches on all human productions. Anatomical form of the foot, tlie survival of old fundamental structures useful in their day and in some other region, the tribal art conceptions, stitches, knots, patterns, forms; the traditional and mythic emblems ; names that are repeated in things all these come out in an intensive study regarding any class of inventions. l Cf. The author's " Origins of Invention," London, 1894, Walter Scott, Chap. x. 308 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. The anatomy of the sandal includes the following parts or charac- teristics. Some of the parts may be absent, but that fact should be noted : (1) The materials and technique. (2) The sole, its form, material, and structure. (3) The toe piece, a thong or peg between the great toe and the next one or between other toes; a cap or cover or string over the toes that is, the vamp or the primeval device that answered its purpose. (4) The instep pieces or straps, rising from the sole in front of the heel and uniting over the instep. In many oriental varieties there are short loops attached to the sole, and the lacing performs this function. (5) The heel, wanting from sandal and slipper or is turned down, especially in lands where one has to remove the foot-wear quickly, for social, political, or religious motives. This is true in Japan, and notably in countries under Mohammedan influences. So there is an endless variety of thought expressed in the heels of sandals, as the material is vegetable or animal, according to the environment of the people and their work. Starting from the points on the margin of the sole just below the ankles, two short straps may run up to an ankle band, or a loop over the heel may join the sole at these points, or the lacing may run over the heel through loops at these points. (6) The thong or lacing. It seems to one giving heed to the matter, that the shoemakers of old were more troubled and racked their brains more over the lacing of the sandal than on the structure of the sole. The desiderata are, to have a sole securely and flexibly attached to the foot, not to lacerate the foot unnecessarily, and to get the object off with as little trouble as possible. The Turkish slipper, worn slipshod or down at the heel, and the Japanese sandal, with toe string and instep bands simply, fulfill the conditions of easy removal the former for ceremony, the latter for cleanliness. There are two theories of lacing a sole to the foot with toe strings and without them. In the last-named process a sole of leather has a number of slits cut about the margin and a sole of fiber has a number of loops woven in the same places. Through these slits or loops the lacing passes as on a skate or high shoe. By the first-named the toe string is the starting point of fastening, and the question whether there shall be any lacing at all is a matter of nationality. Example No. 22192, from Yokohama, Japan, stands for a very nuiner ous type of foot wear (fig. 36). These very coarse examples (sandals) are made from the bark of walnut, or some very dark-colored bast. They are woven on a warp of four strands of the same material. There are six loops for lacing in front, two on the margin at the arch of the foot and four at the heel. These loops are made in the course of weaving, and are, in fact, a part of the selvage. At the proper place the material is car- PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 309 ried beyond the outside of the warp aud doubled; the weaving then goes on as usual, but when the weft returns to form the next stitch on the selvage a half hitch is made around the loop to hold it fast in place, and then the weaving proceeds normally. The lacing is of coarse rope crossed over the toes, over the instep, and carried around the heel through the four heel loops as shown, and brought back over the instep and tied. Length of foot, 11 inches. Collected by Hon. Benjamin S. Lymau. A widely disseminated form of sandal consists of the following parts: (1) Sole of rawhide, single or double, cut rights and lefts. (2) A toe piece passing up through the sole between the great and the fore toe. This piece is fastened underneath by a toggle or frog, cut out of the leather or rawhide itself, and flattened parallel with the sole or by a single knot in the end. (3) Side strap : in this class of examples formed by cutting two slits about an inch long at the margins of the sole under the arch of the Fig. 36. SANDAL OF BAST KROM YOKOHAMA, JAPAN. Cat. No. M192, U. S. N. M. Collected by Benjamin S. Lyman. foot. A bit of rawhide passes down through one slit across the sole beneath and up through the other slit. The two ends extend 2 inches straight upward and are slit to receive the lacing. (4) The lacing: a thong of leather slit at one end. Commencing at the little toe it passes backward through the slit in the side strap on that margin, making a half hitch. Thence it passes back of the heel and through the other side strap, and makes a half hitch. Thence it passes through the slit in the toe piece and through the slit at its own starting point, and is fastened off. Length, 94 inches in the example (figs. 71, 72) from Bolivia. Collection of Mrs. Fanny B. Ward. Other examples from Bolivia are made of rawhide, and two thicknesses are pegged together, the rows of pegs mimicking the stitching on the better class of Turkish shoes. Under the term Baxeae in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, two sandals of vegetable fiber are figured one rounded in front, the other pointed, one woven 310 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. diagonally, the other in close wicker. These have three points of attachment one for the toe strap and two at the margin under the ankles. The shoe is a sandal that has grown up over the foot. The North American Indian moccasin is the simplest modern illustration of this. In a great collection of them it is hard to say where the sole leaves off and the upper begins. The evolution of this important element of clothing may be traced in two directions, forward or backward. Commencing with the first efforts to bring the sandal sole a little way over the foot or by dissecting a modern elaborate shoe and observing where, in what form, and from what motives each element made its appearance. Tristram says that the word used for shoe (in the East) is different from that for sandals. The latter are simply soles of undressed hide, with the hair on the upper surface, and fastened with thongs, always carried by the traveler, who walks barefoot on sandy or grassy ground, but who finds them absolutely necessary for the rocky and stony paths of the hill country. Shoes, or rather as we should call them, slippers, have upper leathers and heels, and are made of softer material. They are worn by horse- men, and for use in the house are frequently brightly colored. 1 It is more than probable that the rawhide sandals with single toe- string came to Latin- America from this region via Spain. The legging must next be studied in this connection. It may have a separate exist- ence, as in our modern examples. It may form an elongated portion of the shoe, as in Eskimo boots. It may be attached immedi- ately to a sandal and become a boot, as in northern Japan. It may extend uninter- ruptedly from a rawhide sole to the hip, being shoe top, boot leg, and breeches, as in the Pueblo country. Finally, shoe, legging, and breeches may be continuous, as in the woman's boots of the Eskimo and the Mackenzie River costumes, or in the modern night drawers of children. Example No. 24080 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 37) is a legging worn by a Klamath Indian in California, made of coarse rush and woven together by twined weaving precisely as in the Alaskan grass sock and the Tate Yama boot (fig. 44). The Klamath country as well as the Aleutian Islands having been more or less exposed to Asiatic influences during the past half century it is quite within the possible that both Fig. ST. LEGGING OF RUSHES IN TWINED WEAVING, KLAMATH INDIANS, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA. From A figure in Mason's " Ray Collection from the Ho pa Reservation," Reportof the Smithsonian Institution, 1886. 1 Tristram, " Eastern Customs in Bible Lands," London, 1894, p. 50. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 311 the socks and the leggings are late acculturations. Omitting this, the reader is left to decide the question of original suggestion in three separate areas. Examples Nos. 150645 to 150649 are leggings (hose) worn by the Ainos and collected by Romyn Hitchcock. They are made of Japanese white or blue cotton cloth, each embroidered with cotton yarn of the other color. Two pairs are of the ohiyo or elm bark ( Ulmua montana). The ornamentation is produced partly in the weaving with differently colored yarns and partly in the use of the embroidered < 'upid's bow or double line of beauty, so marked in all Aiuo ornaments. 1 It is only one step to the boot. By uniting the legging to the moccasin and sew- ing the sandal on to tbe bottom of that, the modern boot is in progress. There is not yet the complete outfit of sole and welt and insole; of vamp and quarters;' of heel with a series of lifts; of top and extension top and straps; besides a dozen ornamental parts. But it will be seen that most of these parts, or something more elaborate and quite as effectual, have been thought out by downright savages. As previously mentioned, the moccasin is of little or no use in a wet country, in bogs, or on the seashore. The high-heeled shoes of actors and of palaces had their origin in a necessity. The aborigines of America above the Arctic circle had recourse to sealskin cured without sweating and fish skin to keep the feet dry. The clumsy sole of the Asiatic Pacific Coast is the result of a struggle in the same direction. But the sabot, the clog, the chopine show how western Europe wrestled with the problem and thousands of persons still find employ- ment in their manufacture. In England, the clog or patten is one step in advance of the sabot. A sole of maple or ash has an upper of leather riveted or nailed on. The survival of the clog is seen in great establishments like tanneries, where it is desirable to keep the feet above wet and muddy floors. Professor Morse draws my attention to the thousand and one styles of stilted sandals or quetta in use among the Japanese, and these point westward to the Caspian drainage for their congeners. No one fails to remark the extreme roughness on the inside of most primitive foot gear. Now, since the sole of the foot, like the back and the neck of a horse, is the vital point to the footman and the carrier, it is reasonable to suppose that this was an object of constant care. In fact, the foot itself has wonderful adaptedness and the sole of the barefoot man becomes extremely callous. This is nature's contribution. In the U. S. National Museum are wooden sandals adorned on the sole with rows of brass-headed upholsterer's nails and the tough feet of the owners have actually worn furrows in the wood between the nails. But the inventive faculty has not been idle. The Japanese weave a neat and smooth little insole of rushes or other soft fiber to fit above the regular sole in the common or diagonal Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. S. Nat. MOB.) 1890, pi. 312 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. pattern seen in chair bottoms. In a large series of shoes the student gets a good notion of inventive progress through these insole devices and the method of their attachment. The wearers of sabots are in the habit of eking out the foot by pad- ding of some kind to prevent chafing. In every case the remedy is made effective with the best help of the environment. These devices are provisions simply against hurt or bruises. Temperature is not con- sidered. In most regions under consideration the foot would be injured by bandaging or covering. A little further on it will be seen that pack- ing the foot in soft grass is a provision for warmth and to prevent mak ing that member too delicate. But there is a zone, an isothermal belt, between the complete double boot and the sandal, where the tempera- ture for at least a part of the year is not cold enough for the hyper- borean boot and packing, but where it is too cool for the unprotected foot. Here was elaborated the stocking or the double shoe top, or something to keep the foot and lower leg warm. It is interesting to note how exactly elevation above sea level tallies with latitude in determining this special article of dress. The middle and western Asiatics, for religious and other considera- tions, holding on to the use of the sandal (easily removed), worked out the mitten sock with divided toes, the regular sock or stocking, and the inshoe or boot, over which the other shoe fitted. One may imagine such people moving northward or higher up and developing the double boot and the overshoe by simply thickening the material or adopting the thicker material supplied by nature. In Korea, as well as in China, the stocking turns out to be a very complicated affair. A double bag of coarse cotton or other fabric is stuffed with a mass or waste half an inch thick. This is doubtless a luxury for those who do not travel, rendering the foot entirely too tender for work. (Oat. No. 167711, TJ. S. N. M., from Korea, collected by H. B. Hurlbert.) The Samoyed men and women both wear the lieup thieu, or skin stocking, and the pimmies, or long deerskin boots. The only difference in the latter is that the crossbar is just above the instep in the woman's pimmies and just below the knee in the men's. In wet snow unsweated sealskin pimmies are worn. The Samoyed woman, it is said, is very careful of her husband's skin boots, turning them inside out, hanging them up to dry and putting grass into them in the morning. 1 Eskimo men at Point Barrow, according to Murdoch, wear stockings of deerskin with the hair in. He figures the pattern of this sock, and says that they are made of very thick winter deerskin and substituted for the outer boots when the men are out deer hunting in winter in the dry snow, especially when snowshoes are used. 2 The same device is to 'Jackson, "The Great Frozen Laud," London, 1895, pp. 27, 64. 2 Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 129, fig. 74, showing patterns; also F. Nansen, " First Crossing of Greenland," n, p. 275. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 313 be seen in other fur wearing regions, and the selfsame custom projects itself into northwestern Canada, only tin- buckskin has been tawed. Nansen describes the double sealskin boot of the Greenland Kskinio. The Eskimo also have a fashion of placing little bundles of di ied fiber or fur in the boots, especially where the foot is chafed. The East Greenland Eskimo use grass iu their shoes, according to Nansen. He gives an amusing account of this in speaking of his Lapp companions, Hal to and Ravna, who had the selfsame custom. 1 The straw socks in the national collection (Nelson. N<>. I'.MI- are said by him to be made along the lower Yukon and adjacent tun- dra to the south, perhaps to the Kuskokwim. Unaleet name. Athl uk shat. Example No. 8784 is a pair of grass socks worn by the Premorska Indians of Alaska, collected by William H. Dall. They are regularly constructed by process of twined weaving; the warp is vertical, and the stocking is made to fit the foot by the insertion of extra-warped threads where they are needed. Beginning at the middle of the sole a series of twined weavings proceeds in a spiral around the bottom and the top of the foot for about an inch, when the lines begin to extend from the heel over the top of the instep. Separate lines of weaving are inserted across the back of the foot between" the toes and the instep. This kind of weaving is very common all over the world, but its particular application to foot gear should be compared with No. 73091 from Tate Yama, Japan (fig. 44). Length of foot, 10 inches. Precisely similar weaving is to be seen on the numerous grass wallets collected at St. Michaels. STOCKINGS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 49200 Alaska K.W. Nelson. 4869C Salmt nisky, Alaska Do. 38813, 38814 Lower Kuakoquim Do. 55972 Bristol Hay, Alaska Charles L. McKay. 1693 Socks fox skin Anderson River R. Mac Farlane. 68143 Hudson Bay, Eskimo J. T. Brown. 5136 Mackenzie River R. Mac Farlane. 70999 Arizona Maj. J.W.Powell. 153045 Persia I'liikaM Manuka 76386 do do Otis Bigelow. 164943 Kashmir India Dr. W. L. Abbott. 167711 Korea H. B. Hurlbert. 151396 126875 do Wenchow, China China Dr. D.J. MoGowan. Mias Doll U Leech. 558^6 Manchuria, China Chinese Centennial Com- 49082 49083 Lower Yukon, Alaska.. mission. E. W.NeUou. 49199 Alaska Do. 8784 ..do Fremoraka Indian* W. H. Dall. 1 F. Nansen, "First Crossing of Greenland," London, 1890, i, p. 362. 314 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. The iuteroceanic area, with its Australian, Negroid, Polynesian, and Malay peoples, is par excellence the barefooted region. On the shore the wet sands would render any foot clothing for which nature there furnishes material very uncomfortable. Life in the boat or canoe and in the shallow waters creates no demand for shoes. In recent pictures of the Malagasy army the soldiers are barefooted. These islands are volcanic and the coasts are lined with coral reefs. For walking over the one or for fishing along the other, some protection is necessary. The Polynesians, therefore, wore a tufted sandal of bast of the Hibiscus 1 in fishing on the coral reefs (fig. 38). Or, as in example No. 92884 in the National Museum, from the Sandwich Islands, leaves of pandanus are braided into a poor sandal for walking over the warm slag. The thick butt ends of the leaves are imbricated under the soles so as to leave quite a thick pad between the feet and the rough, hot ground. Example No. 130639 is a sandal from New Zealand made of cordyline fiber, and consists of three pieces the sole, the selvage or series of loops extending quite around the sole, and the lacing. The sole is of very coarse fiber, woven in diaper pattern diagonally. The selvage consists of a coarse vine fastened at the heel, and at intervals of 3 inches looped into the edge of the sole. Along the margin a small vine is carried and tied to the joints of this selvage by a clove hitch at each junction SANDAL OF BAST OF HIBISCUS FROM SAMOA. . " From . <*ure in RaUel', Vo.kerkunde." ^itll the SOle, and tllO laClttg paSSCS backward and forward across the foot, and around the heel through these selvage loops. The heel is made by a series of bands of very coarse fiber, passing backward and forward from one selvage loop to another, and tied with a single knot at each turn. The noticeable points in this specimen are the diaper weaving, the complicated selvage, and the curiously built-up heel. This specimen must have belonged to a very large man (fig. 39). Length, 13 inches. Collected by the Royal Gardens of Kew, England. This type of sandal exists elsewhere, and it must not be understood that it is a native New Zealand product. The absence of the string or strap between the first and the second toe will help to suggest certain culture centers from which it was not derived. In Korea and among the Ainos it is found, especially the border loops for the lacing. But an interesting similarity will be noted between this specimen and the figure of a cliff-dweller's sandal drawn by Nordenskiold. 2 1 Figured by Ratzel in " Volkerkunde," n, p. 165. 2 Cf. Hitchcock, Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. S. Nat. Mus.), 1890, pi. xcvn. Wiener does not figure anything of the kind in " P6rou et Bolivie." PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 315 Example No. 130640 is a pair of very primitive sandals of taromba spathe (Arenga saccharifera) from Borneo. The strings are made of the bast of the timbarua tree. This is the simplest form of shoe that can possibly be constructed. A bit of the spathe of the arenga is cut out in form of the foot, one hole is bored at the toe and two under the heel. A bit of twisted bast of the artocarpus is knotted and drawn through the front so as to pass between the toes, after the manner of the Caucasian or Mediterranean stocks or the Japanese ; this is the lacing. Another bit of the same material doubled passes through the two holes under the heel to form loops. The lacing passes between the toes, across the back of the foot to the loop on the outside, around the heel through the loop on the inside, and across the instep to be fastened. Length, 11 inches. Collected by Eoyal Gardens of Kew, England. In tropical America below the Piedmont regions, that is in the east- ern portions and on the lowlands, the aborigines were barefooted. Indeed, though the question of origin is not here at all discussed, it will be further seen when the shod Amer- ican is studied that it is very difficult nowa- days to distinguish the New World from the Old World sandal in that area. Look- ing through such careful works as Von den Steiuen's one sees Fifr ^ no picture OI lOOt SANDAL OF CORUYHNE FIBER FROM NEW ZEALAND. gear and no allusion c.t. NO. \yx&, u. s. N. M. coii-t*d by Rn 7 >i Bounic r,r^.. K-, to it in the index. 1 What has been said concerning the Indo- Pacific peoples and America may be repeated of negroid Africa, that is the part south of the Sahara. The^e is no climatic reason for shoes, the country is not volcanic, and the noxious animals are less able to injure the unclothed foot. There is an enormous amount of going about and of trading along beaten and cleared paths, hundreds of thousands of natives are all the time tramping to the trading center and to the coast, and yet we are told that they never cover the feet. In all books of travels and in photographs the natives are represented barefooted. This has given rise in Africa, and in Bor- neo as well, to a peculiar weapon, the foot-path splinter, small splints of cane sharpened, cut nearly in two, and stuck in the trail or public highway, a kind of aboriginal caltrop. The U. 8. Rational Museum, though well supplied with African material and specially rich in foot wear, is extremely poor in examples from negroid Africa. An interest- l liter f raw hide, curved up, and formed while wet so as to fit around the mar-in of the foot and over the'toes, where the two edges are united to form a point decorated with an insertion of red / morocco. The nar / row upper margin, of black leather, is sewed on all around and doubled under Fig 40 at the edge. The I-KUI-VIAN SANUALS OK LLAMA HIDE AXD TEXTILES, FROM ANCON AND string or strap passes , . From a (lnrH in Wiewr' ' IVmn -I Rot.vi." through slashing in the heel and at the sides of the ankle. The noticeable features are the sole made of one piece and the simple manner in which the pointed toe is formed. Length, 10 inches. Example No. 72716 is a shoe from Morocco, the gift of the .Museum fur Volkerkunde, Leipzig. It is made of light-brown leather, which has been stretched over a last when wet and permitted to dry into shape. The toes are pointed, and into them are inserted strips of red leather bound with black. They are secured to the foot by a leather thong, which ties across the instep. Length, !>^ inches. The pointed toe is ornamental and leads away from the road. Its distribution in time and place is not difficult to trace. The Mohammedan influence in west Soudan, added to the North 'Afri- can propensity for fine leather, is expressed in embossed and bedecked slippers. Symmetry overcomes the desire to follow the shape of the foot. The toe strap is attached to cross straps rising from the arch of the foot. There are no heel straps, and the sandal lias only a slipshod attachment to the foot. 2 The stilt sandal, with toe peg, exists among 'Rat/el. 'Vr.lkerkun.l.-, ' Leipzig, 1887, 1, p. 328. fur Volkerkumle, Hrrlin. I'i^un-d hy Rut /. a distinct quarter over the heel and a top reaching up and constructed much as in the Athapas- can moccasin. 1 In the U. S. National Museum there is an interesting pair of san- dals (example No. ?> { M), which have been in its possession a great many years. The locality given is Arabia, but many of the older num- bers of the collection are not absolutely reliable. The notable features are the sole, the lacing, and the ornamentation. The sole consists of four thicknesses of leather, the middle one being the thickest. These are sewed together by means of a leather thong passing backward and forward, so as to make the alternation of stitches and vacant spaces quite regular around the upper border. No care is bestowed upon the bottom in this particular. This form of sewing or running bits of leather together is a type to be observed. The lacing is thus applied: the toe strap consists of three thicknesses which pass down through the sole and are fastened oft' below. Two of these thicknesses serve this function and no other. The third strap passes up between the toes, turns to the outer side of the foot, is attached to a loop or lug on the side by a single half hitch, passes across the instep down to a lug on the opposite side where it is again fastened, and then up over the side of the foot above the great toe, where it passes through the three thicknesses of leather and is fastened oft' by a s >rt of Turk's- head knot. The ornamentation consists of diagonal patterns and lines in white and green leather formed by sewing or back-stitching with a very nar- row thin filament or thong of leather. The top of the sole, a broad band going across the foot, and a little narrow tongue of white, green, and brown leather on the instep over the lacing are all decorated after this fashion. Length, 10 inches. Bare feet are very common in Chaldean and Assyrian sculptures, but foot gear is not uncommon. Boottees, high shoes, a little difficult to make out, and sandals with borders turned up, are worn in proces- sions and about the royal palace.-' Assyrian sandals shown in sculptures have (1) sole of leather, single or double, flat generally; (2) heel inclosed by "quarter" piece, sloping down frontward ; (3) cross straps and lacings from the quarter piece over the back of the foot and to the margins frontward ; (4) loop over great toe, alone or attached to lacing. Three kinds of foot gear are shown at Khorsabad. Two of them are sandals and one is a laced boot. In one form of sandal the heel and plantar arch are closed in, the instep and toes are bare, and three straps or three turns of a lacing connect the heel piece or low quarter across the instep. In the second sandal this heel is prolonged forward. The toes are strapped down and lacings pass across the metatarsals and over tlic instep. The laced boot has a sole curved up all round like 1 William Wrijjlit, " Empire of the Hittites," New York, 1884, pis. i, n. 'Perrot et Chipit-/, "Chaldea," London, 1884, u. H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 L'l 322 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. that of a Canadian lumberman and the top is sewed to this and laced all the way up the front. The Eskimo boots and the lauparsko of the Lapps are on the same model. The Assyrian of high rank wore a saudal with sole of wood or thick leather. The upper consisted of a heel piece, sloping forward and reaching to the ball ot the foot, where it runs out and leaves the toes and back of the foot uncovered. Lugs, or eyelets, on the margin of this piece served for lacing, passing two or more times over the instep. The lacing also crossed on the instep, and was passed round the great toe and between it and the adjoining toe. For the common people the sandal was a sole, with a sloping heel band extending to the ball of the foot, laced over the instep with a thong passing through eyelets. Between the lacing and the instep a pad was held in place by the lacing running through slashes in the pad. This kind of sandal, reaching only to the toes and held on by a heel band, occurs in hundreds of figures in the Mexican codices. It is a little difficult to understand how a bare foot would be benefited by such gear. In the finest American snowshoes the open space in the netting for the accommodation of the toes also suggests itself. Layard also tells us that the enemies of the Assyrians differ from them in foot gear. On some feet the sole is attached by bands passing over the instep and around the heel. In other examples there seems to be a sole turned up and the upper rim united by crossbands, the upper part being left exposed. The warriors' boots in the Khorsabad sculptures are not so difficult to comprehend. The sole was turned up all around the margin, the vamp and legging were, perhaps, in one piece, and sewed to the sole. The legging was doubtless open in front, as may be seen in a great many northern examples in our day. 1 See figure boot of the Tate Yama hunter. Mr. Rockhill brought from Tibet a long scroll, covered with painting of the various western barbarous nations coming to pay their tribute to the Emperor of China. The foot wear in most of them agrees with the specimens brought home by him. The primitive efforts at boot making with the toe well curved up and the typical Turkish slipper predominate. The Assyrian sandal shown in the bas-reliefs has a leather sole of several thicknesses sewed together. The toe string passes between 1 and 2, is bifurcated and reaches the margin of the sole under the arch of the foot, as in the Japanese sandal. There is also a band across; all toes well in front, in a side view seeming to be looped only over the first toe. Frequently the heel cover is a solid leather quarter slop- ing forward and giving out at the margin under the ball of the foot. In the Cesnola collection, Metropolitan Museum, New York City, several pieces of pottery from Cyprus show the boot or shoe form, or 1 Cf. Layard, "Nineveh and its Remains," New York, 1849, II. See figure opposite p. 236. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 323 the ornamented moccasin. In one or two examples the toe string between 1 and 2, and the additional band across all toes appear. " Some idea of the foot gear of the Caucasian in his ancient culture may be gained from carvings and sculptures or monuments and from ornaments on vases. The lesson is the same. The soldier is shod, for he is the man of the road, and whether he is portrayed in combat or idealized in sculpture or apotheosized in temple adornment, he knows no holy ground where he must take the shoes from ott' his feet. A modern officer of high rank when borne to his grave, accompanied by his horse, has the boots still attached to the stirrups. The Greek xptjnis, Latin crepida, occupied a middle position between a closed boot and a plain sandal. Its simplest form was a high and strong sole often studded with nails. Other forms had a low upper creeping up over the foot and becoming a shoe. In .the dramatic cos- tumes the xptjiris assumed the form of a soft shoe worn by women. 1 The crepida belonged to working people and soldiers, chiefs among roadsters. About the heel there was a series of loops into which the thong was laced across the top of the foot and through the toe strap. One form of Assyrian sandal has the same suggestion of an upper. The Roman mndalium BXavrai or GotvdaXiov in Greek were orig- inally wooden soles secured to the feet with thongs. During the Homeric age they were worn only by women; later in Italy and in Greece they were used by both sexes. Solea was the military sandal. A sandal with a leather toe piece, uraftp/ur, was the ancestor of the now universal sandal of the world. By a regular transition the lower form became the shoe, calceua. Indeed, the last term covers vnodrinct, the laced sandal, shoes, and boots. The baxer. W. L. Abbott. In Dr. Abbott's collection the moccasin like sole with puckered margin is common on boots. The Museum is further indebted to Dr. Abbott for a pair of woman's low boots from Leh Ladak, N<>. 175104, woolen throughout, in many colors and patches, toes turned up and pointed; a pair of children's pabboos, same materials and style, No. 175105; boots or chirroks from Yarkand and worn by both sexes, No. 175118. These last have white leather soles turned up two inches, the long, brown legs are inserted and blind stitched to the sole. There is a loop on the back of the sole for a lacing. The leg and sole unite without intervention of an upi>er. From Baltistan Dr. Abbott sends 326 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. boots of like type but wretchedly made with leather soles patched and coarsely puckered, the tops being of the coarsest kind of woolen fab- ric, No. 164978. The chapli, or shoe of Bombay, is a mitten for the foot, having a sep- arate stall for the first toe. This shoe exists as a stocking in the Himalayas and the Kashmir and also in Japan, where the sandal with toe string demands such inside wear. Example No. 16695 is a leather shoe worn by the Telugus, in south- ern India, consisting of three layers of very coarse leather sewed together with a white leather thong in the same stitch as most of the examples from this region. The great toe is inclosed in a separate loop. Two small straps pass from the front backward between toes 1-2 and 4-5, and a broad band is attached to the sole on either side of the arch of the foot and passes over the instep ; the two narrow straps from the front are inserted through this band. This is a very ".oarse piece of work. Length, 8 inches. In this connection it should be noted that in the sandals from East Africa there are two toe straps, one between the first and second toe and one between the fourth and fifth. The collections of Hon. W. W. Rockhill in the U. S. National Museum admirably show some of the transitions of the Tibetan foot wear. In the rudest form there is a clumsy combination of the turned-up and puckered sole with the vamp, just as in the Eskimo sealskin boot. Above the vamp is the boot leg with fore and hind seam and any number of transverse seams. This part is coarsely lined with woolen cloth. The Koko Nor boot, on the contrary, pro- ceeds upon another plan. Coarsely it is a boot in all essential points, in fact a Chinese shoe with thicker soles and leather top and an additional sole of leather beneath (fig 42). This type may be seen in various parts of the Chinese Empire and represents the climax of the art there. Other specimens in this same collection are worthy of study. Example No. 167179, No. 5 in Rockhill's plate in his "Mongolia and Tibet," page 14, is a llama boot with top of red russian leather stamped with small checkerwork. Only one seam, and that in the back ; but on one side of the front half a vamp is inserted, making a seam on top of the foot and down diagonally on one side. The toe is the regular Chinese form, with projection. To unite this top with the sole the lower edge of the top is bound with a strip of green leather, like a welt, only the margin turns out instead of in. The sole consists of two parts, a thick upper layer of felted yak hair quilted together an inch thick and bound also Fig. 42. KOKO NOR BOOT. Cat. No. 131072, U. S. N M. Collected by W W. Rockhill. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 2, BOOTS OF TIBET AND NEIGHBORING REGIONS. In examples brought to the United States National Museum by Mr. W. W. Rock- hill and Dr. W. L. Abbott are to be studied the endeavors of the bootmaker to secure warmth, protection, and durability in relation to environment. The Chinese com- pound and padded sole, the hyperborean turned up and puckered sole, the uppers of cloth, felt, and leather, the legs with several tops, and the garters are in great variety. Some elements are original, some Siberian, and others are derived from China, Mongolia, and from Turkestan. Fig. 1. TIBETAN BOOT AND GARTER. Sole of stiff, white yak leather, turned up all around as in Siberian and Eskimo boots and puckered very little. Upper of several thicknesses of white cotton cloth, closely quilted together and attached to the sole by running stitches, short on the outer side and long on the inside. There are three parts to the leg; one of very coarse, garnet, woolen cloth called " truk;" one, of gaudy striped flan- nel; and the other, of blue cotton cloth. Continuous with a gore in front of the upper, there is an opening along these three tops, and into this is inserted an ornamental stripe of different-colored woolen stuffs. Lining, of very coarse woolen cloth, woven diagonally. Length 10 inches. Col- lected by W. W. Rockhill. (Cat. No. 131045, U.S.N.M.) Fig. 2. TIBETAN BOOT AND GARTER. Similar in design to the specimen shown in fig. 1 , with sole of white yak hide whipped on to the upper, which is of black leather run on to the woolen top. In this specimen also is a series of tops in different colors, with insertion or embroidery worked into the slit in front of the leg and upper. Length 10 inches. Collected by W. W. Rockhill. (Cat. No. 131045 (a), U. S. N. M.) Fig. 8. TIBETAN BOOT. Made of cowhide, after the Chinese pattern. Sole, of sev- eral thicknesses, attached by an ingenious sort of welt which is sewed to the upper and joined to the under layers by another row of sewing deeper in. The parts are generally fastened together at the heel and front by enormous nails which are clinched on the inside. The upper is attached to the leg by a double piping of leather between them. In the seam that extends from the front of the toe, far up on the leg, occurs also a double piping, and the edges of the leather are turned outward in the seam. Worn on the borders of Koko Nor. Length 11 inches. Col- lected by W. W. Rockhill. (Cat. No. 131072, U. S. N. M.) FIG. 4. TIBETAN BOOT. SIBERIAN TYPE. The sole is of yak rawhide with the hair on. It is turned up and slightly puckered, pointed and bossed in front. The upper is of dressed leather and fitted inside the margin of the sole and attached by blind stitching. The leg consists of three tops; the first is of yellow leather fitted inside the upper and backstitched; the second is of light-brown leather,inserted inside the first, and sewed over and over: the third is of coarse leather with the flesh side out. The upper and ail of the tops are split for the insertion of several narrow bands or pipings of colored leather. In this regard the specimen should be compared with many beautiful examples from Alaska, secured by E. W. Nelson. One of these is mentioned on page 340 (Cat. No. 43:545). The lining is of coarse woolen cloth. Collected by W. W. Rockhill. (Cat. No. U.S.N.M.) Report of National Museum, 1894.- Mason PLATE 2. BOOTS OF TIBET AND NEIGHBORING REGIONS. Kockhill " Notes on the Ethnology of Tibet," PI. 2, Report of the Smithsonian Institution (U. S. National Museum), ]-:>:;. TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 327 about the margin with green leather. The under sole is a thick piece of hard leather, attached to the upper sole and the top by a stitching of stout twine that passes down through all and back, holding the parts together. The ornamentation is worked on the surface in various colors of narrow silk braid. There does not seem to be any originality in the Tibetan foot clothing. Here Mongol elements obtrude; there Chinese and frequently Russian influence obscures all the otheis. One may see in Lapland and Finland characteristics of boots suggestive of Tibet, and again among the Eskimo other marks call them to mind. As this desert land can not have been the prolific source of cultures, it must be the desolate suburb into which they have been driven. Example No. 131045 is a pair of Tibetan boots (pi. 2, fig. 1). The sole is white yak rawhide, puckered as in the Eskimo boot. The upper con sists of two pieces of white cotten cloth doubled several times, united at the toe and at the heel, about 2 inches high. On the top of this upper a rectangular space has been cut out from the instep down. The top of the boot is of red woolen cloth called truk and is sewed on the margin of this upper, and also fills the rectangular space adorned with insertions of white and green and red. The red truk top is continued in a strip up to the margin of the boot leg. Above the red top is a broad band of green woolen material, and above this a baud of blue cotton stuff. Inside of this complicated top is sewed a lining of very coarse woolen blanketing in diagonal weaving. The boot leg is split open at the back down as far as the upper margin of the red top. Length, 11 inches; height of upper, 2 inches; height of red flannel top, 4 inches; height of green top, 5 inches; height of blue top, 4 inches. 1 Example No. 131202 is a pair of shoes from Mongolia, made of leather and puckered in front, drawn and sewed together in a T-shaped seam at the back of the heel, a flap being turned up and fastened down. The vamp is a piece of leather fitting under the margin of the crimped portion and bound to it by the puckering string. This rude example must be compared with the example (No. 20797) from Sitka, being sim- ilar to it in the puckering of the front and the peculiar formation of the heel and the vamp. There is no heelpiece sewed on above, as in the Sitka specimen. Length, 11 inches. Collected by W. W. Rockhill. Example No. 131044 is a pair of sandals from Sechuan, made of bast upon four warp cords, with filaments of straw. The sole is woven in wicker-work. In passing across, the outer threads are finely twisted, but across the middle of the sole above and below they are left plain, and on the bottom are cut off at each turn just below and parallel with the margin all around, leaving a sort of fringe work or tuft. At the heel and toe the cords forming the outer margin of the warp are turned up for an inch or two and wrapped with twine or with braid. Upright strands to the number of three or more extend for an inch or two along the outside -of the great toe, the little toe, and at the sides of the heel. Figured in Rockhill's "Journey through Mongolia and Tibet." 328 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Through these are rove the long lacing which is tied above the instep. As regards the upper lacing, this shoe should be compared with No. 131198 from Kansu, China, collected by W. W. Rockhill. Length, 11 inches. In most respects these two examples are like No. 116211 (p. 331), from Yokohama, Japan, collected by S. Kneeland. Mr. Rockhill brought from Kansu, in northwestern China, a pair of shoes (No. 131198, U. S. N. M.) that represent a type. The sole is made of sennit or braid of hemp strands, half an inch or more wide. Beginning in the central line of the sole the sennit is coiled backward and for- ward six or more times. The whole fabric is held together by sewing through from side to side with stout twine. Sailors make the same kind of soles from manila yarn braided into sennit and the very same sole exists in Spain and Peru. The upper part of the shoe is a very complicated affair, but the style is common. At the toe and the heel stout cords are inserted between the last two turns of the sennit and extend in front up over the middle toes, dividing on the back of the foot below the instep. In the rear these cords, to the number of five or more, extend well up on the heel. Both sets, front and rear, are sewed together with a common weaving finer cord. The lacing of the shoe is rove through loops at the ends of the upright cords. At the sides of the toes and of the heel a series of small cords pass from the sole up to the lacing, which is doubled and are neatly woven into it. In many Chinese and Korean shoes this system of upright cords like a delicate balustrade is common. In the U. S. National Museum there is an Athapascan Indian moccasin upon the bottoms of which a sole of coiled sennit has been securely sewed. Mr. Rockhill says that you rarely see Chinese go barefooted. The poorest of them wear straw sandals. This is for northern China, but Dr. Graves says that many of the coolies go barefoot. Many wear sandals, which on the road do not last very long, but they are cheap and may be found at stalls and shops by the roadside. Others wear leather sandals that are more lasting. Example No. 55864 is a pair of shoes from China, each consisting of two parts, the sole with its lacings and the upper. This is a very important specimen in connection with No. 116211 and No. 131044 (fig. 43) because it explains the use of the pointed portions at the heel and at the toe. The sole part is built up of rice straw upon four twines laid down in tlie same way as No. 116211 and the warp is of coarsely woven rice straw. The projection at the toe, the loops at the sides of the toes and at the sides of the heel are precisely as in the examples mentioned, but the upper part of the shoe is a slipper made of plantain leaf folded together ingeniously to tit the foot. This slipper also tits into the straw sole and is lashed on by means of lacing passing over the toe, through the loops, and above the heel. In looking at the ordinary sandal of this kind it is difficult to see how it could be made comfortable on the EXPLANATION OF PLATE 3. KOREAN SHOES AND SANDALS. The intermediate position of Korea with reference to Mongolia, China, and Japan, as well as the geological and social conditions about the people, produce a great many kinds of footwear. In the U. S. National Museum are the following varieties: 1. The Chinese low shoe with thick sole made fine or coarse, and often foxed with leather or cloth of different colors. 2. The stilted shoe with endless variety of form in Japan, but having an upper more like a sabot, modeled after the Chinese low shoe. :5. The straw openwork low shoe (chip-seki). This is shown in three examples on the plate. The woven sole is similar to that of the Japanese and Chinese. The upper never has strings between the toes nor loops about the margin of the sole, but is built up of any number of vertical twine filaments united at the top by means of a horizontal twine. As will be seen in the plate, rags cooperate with the straw twine to form a padding. The rope on the back of the foot is attached to upright ankle loops and a rope heel-band wrapped with bast or cloth. There are several examples in the U. S. National Museum, collected by Ensign J. B. Bernadou, U. S. N. Rep'.*, of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 3. i-_. I i 9 QI co ~z u = r O X | LJ - tr ~ O - PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 329 foot, but this example explains all the parts of the sole. It is :ilso to be noted as a very coarse, first step, in the invention of the stocking. Length, 13 inches. One of the Korean sandals shown in pi. .'* has the sole made of a warp of six coarse cords upon which is woven in wicker style a weft of twisted rushes. Two of the twines extend up and back of the heel. From the top of this extends quite across the upper margin of the foot a cord, like a rail about a boat. From this descend to the sole stout lashing on each side of the arch of the foot, and a close arrangement of par- allel cords all around the front half of the foot. There are no ladings. A child's sandal of this type (No. 15114IJ, U. 8. N. M., 6 inches long; Seoul) is identical with Chinese specimens before described. Dr. Hough describes and figures the following types of Korean shoes : (1) Rain clogs or sabots, with stilts beneath. This feature may be traced in western Asia; the stilted shoe, beautifully inlaid and adorred, abounding in Persia and India. (2) Felt shoes, lined with leather, Chinese types. (3) Travelers' sandals, with straw soles, upper border like a balus- trade connected with the sole by many parallel twines. This class exists in many styles, 1 and is perfected in China. The Japanese sandal with single toe string and padded bands over the back of the foot will be referred to as of Tartar origin. The Japanese laced sandal, based on Chinese motives, involves two types of manufacture, one for the sole and one for the upper. The weaving on the sole is based on four warp filaments, ropes, or bundles of straw. The weaving on the sole is done with long, coarse filaments in wicker style. The warp being rigid, the weft presents a coarse appearance as in corded goods. Practically, the shoemaker takes two bundles of filaments or two small ropes more than twice the length of the foot, doubles them at the middle, and unites the bends at the toe; or he takes one long rope or twine, and at its middle forms a couple of loops 3 or more inches long. The two halves of the cord are carried forward to the toe and beyond it. Here they are doubled back and the four strands securely and neatly wrapped together. This forms the projecting portion at the toe, to be later mentioned again. The two ends are carried back to the heel and crossed at the starting point. The weft of the sole is then woven in; the extended end> \ the warp ropes, a foot or more long, will serve for lacing. In the simplest sandal the sole constitutes the chief part of the object. But in the development of the most beautiful examples there has been improvement in two directions simultaneously, to wit. in the workmanship and material of the sole and in the creation and perfect mg of the upper. In the coarsest sandals the soles are of bark or 'Hough, "The Bernatlon, Allen, aud Jony Korean Collection* in rtu- I . s. Vition.il Museum," Rep. Smithsonian I nut. (U. 8, Nat. Mns)., IfeJU, jil. \\. 330 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. bast, evidently made in a few minutes. They are as ugly as a gar- ment could well be. In the finest examples, the bundles of warp fila- ments are nicely laid cylinders and the weft is a neat and uniform cord of rushes or straw. The provision of what in the modern shoe corresponds to the welt, or middle piece between sole and upper, has evidently been the occa- sion of much thought among shoemakers in all ages and regions. The material at once drives welt makers apart the workers in hide, felt, and the like taking one road, the workers in fiber quite another. The Japanese maker of fiber shoes has two expedients ready at hand; he can utilize the loops and ends of his warp filaments in securing the top of the shoe or he may, as he goes on weaving, gather into the sel- vage along its upper margin loops of bast or rush with the free ends projecting upward any distance desired. Indeed this is done. So that at the finishing of the sole there would be projecting from its margin upward a fence or hedge of fiber ready to become twine of an open upper or warp of a closed texture. Let us suppose that a closed upper is in mind. Of these there are many varieties, but they may be divided into two, namely, those with heels, becoming slippers or low shoes, and those without heels. In the example with heels as many rows as are desired of twined weaving in rush or straw or bast are worked around on the warp filaments rising from the soles. In a great many examples this weaving is boustrophe- don, and in the best specimens in colored and uncolored fine filaments the effect is that of chain stitch in embroidery ; but even in the coarse sandals for road work the effect of the weaving is always pleasing. There are examples of this variety in which the rows of twined weaving forming the heel equal in number those across the front. In such examples the effects of the twining are in bauds and lines of colored and uucolored material, varied with geometric and diaper patterns, to which this style of technique cleverly lends itself. But in most examples in the TJ. S. National Museum the heels are low. In such, four or five rows of twined weaving pass entirely around the sandal, then the vamp is woven boustrophedon, and finally a finishing row passes entirely around. There remain now the whole set of warps of the upper, sticking up an inch or more. These are braided to form an ornamental border and then turned down flat inside the shoe. The braiding is done in three ply; at each braid one filament is laid down and one taken up until the entire border is completed. The heeltess sandal or slipper without lacing is for house wear chiefly, and resembles the other except in the treatment of the heel, and may be dismissed with a brief mention. In a pretty example in the U. S. National Museum (No. 92861) the first row of twined weaving in rather coarse twine is carried entirely around the margin of the sole, but at the heel it passes down and under the sole a little way, and four short rows of this weaving border the heel, the last scarcely rising to PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 331 the level of its upper surface. The upward projecting element* at tin- heel are then inclosed in a pretty Hat falrie of twined weaving bou- strophedon. In many fine examples the tip is a circular insertion like a projecting transom, the weaving is tin- same, however, only this hooded or projecting tip is always plain colored. As hinted above, the motive in this type of shoe is from the Chinese and Korean area. Example No. 116211 is from Yokohama, Japan ii. 15). These san- dals are built on a warp or foundation of coarse stiau cord. A single cord 10 feet long is doubled in the middle around the front of the foot, the two ends are carried back the length of the foot and 4 inches to form the heel loops. Here they are both doubled and carried back between the outer border cords over the first loop, and extend out ward "<> inches to form the lacing. With the four warp strands thus provided for. the Fig. 43. WICKKK SANDAL OF STRAW KBOM YOKOHAMA, JAPAN- Gil. No. 11(121 1. r. S. N. M. Collected by S. Knrvlimd. weft consists of a close wicker weaving of very slightly twisted bunches of straw fiber packed closely together at the margins of the heel and just in front of the arch of the foot. On each side loops are formed in the course of the weaving by extending the weft filaments a little way. These loops extend about an inch beyond the border of the san- dal. The lacing proceeds from the tip of the sandal across the foot, through the loops on the side, passed back through the lieel loops, and back again through the side loops and over the instep, where it is tied. These cheap sandals carefully studied form the type or foun- dation characteristics of the more refined foot gear of the Japanese. Length of sandal, 9 inches; of foundation twine, 5 feet. Collected by S. Kneeland. Example No. 73084 is a pair of sandals brought to the U. S. National Museum from Nikko, Japan, by P. L. .lony. They are each made of two thin and one thick piece of ox hide, closely sewed together by a flat thong of the same material near the edge. The hair has been left 332 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. upon the upper layer as a protection to the foot. Under the heel is a thin semicircular plate of iron, which receives the wear as the sandal is dragged along the ground in making the forward stride. The sandal is secured to the foot by a round, soft strap, which passes from the sides near the heel up over the back of the foot to an upright piece of hide secured to the sole and passing between the first and second toe. This style of attaching the sandal by means of two round, padded bands passing from the thong between the toes over the back of the foot to the margin of the sole under the ankle joints has a restricted area in space, and it also has social characteristics. Those of this type in the IT. S. National Museum collection are mostly for house wear, although the specimens here described are for hard service, and this style of sandal is universal on the road. The trailing heel may also be remarked as an incident in shoe wearing which finds its more exaggerated occurrence in the action of the snowshoe and skee. The language of Japan is believed to be Tartar. Certainly, the divided stock- ing, the sandal with toe string, and the high-posted shoe are not of eastern Asia. If the collection in Washington speaks truly and comprehensively, none of these are used there outside of Jap- anese influence. The chapli, the high wooden slices, and the sandal with a single toe string or peg are not seen again after leaving Japan until the ex- plorer reaches the Caspian and Aral drainage. This statement is subject to modification, being based merely on the specimens in hand. Example No. 73091 (fig. 44) is from Tate Yama, Japan. This interesting specimen of footwear worn by hunters is made of rice straw, and shows precisely how the sandal and the legging unite in a very primitive fashion to form a boot. The sole of this boot is, in fact, a sandal, with five loops for the lacing or attachment, one at the back of the heel, two at the side of the heel, and two opposite the instep. It is built upon four longitudinal warped cords with small ropes, and wisps or bunches of rice straw are woven backward and forward over this warp and form a sole a half inch thick. These four warped cords, continued outward from the heel, form the two long heel loops. The top of the boot is also woven of bunches of rice straw, forming a checkered pattern over the foot and around the heel, in which the meshes are about half an inch square (see figs. 45-47), just on a level with the instep. These straws are left free for the boot top, excepting in four places they are Fig. 44. SANDAL AND BOOT TOP OF STRAW UNITED, FROM TATE YAMA, JAPAN. Cat. No. 73091, U. S. N. M. Collected by P. L Jouy. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AXD TRANSPORTATION. 333 gathered together, and held in place by single rows of twined weaving, absolutely identical with the stitch common all over America and in certain parts of Africa. The lacing on this foot gear is worthy of study. The loop at the heel is formed of two long bends braided together and fastened oil in the sole. There is a lacing of two-ply coarse twine, made of straw, on each side; the long, loose end passes first through the loop on the side of the heel, then through the long loop at the back of the heel, then back again through number one, then through the loop below the instep, then twined with the extended end of tin- lacing belong- ing to the other side of the boot. The two lacings form a tour-ply cord or rope across the foot knotted into the fabric just below the instep on the back of the foot, and extending down to the loops below the instep on the sides where it is fastened off into the sole. This knot on the back of the foot is the extremity of a toe string passing down through vamp and sole, and in the simple Japanese sandal is to be found under the tip of the toe. The loose ends, after being drawn tight through the loops, are brought together and tied at the instep. Length of sole, 11 inches; height of boot, 14 inches. Collected by P. L. Jouy. Example No. 150644 in the U. S. National Museum is a pair of sandals (shntukeri), made of walnut bark, from the Ainos of Piratori, Yezo, collected by Romyn Hitchcock. They are woven on the plan of the Japanese sandal, with loops on the side and no toe strap. In most of the specimens of Aino sandals in the U. S. National Museum, and shown in their photographs, there is a flat sole of textile or hide and a toe strap connected with two padded bands passing over the top of the foot and attached to the sole just under the arch of the foot after the manner of the Japanese. 1 Example No. 150637 in the U. S. National Museum is a pair of Aino boots from Yezo, collected by Romyn Hitchcock. They are made of tishskin. The foot is not unlike that of a moccasin. The leg is of several upright strips sewed together in all but one seam to admit the foot. Around the top is a band of material doubled. It is interesting to note that they are fastened about the ankles by a cord attached to a loop on the back of the boot precisely where the loop occurs on the sandal in figure 43. 2 The U. S. National Museum possesses a large collection of Finnish ethnographic material collected by Consul -General Crawford. Among the specimens are a number of shoes in braided or woven birch-bark strips or splints. Dr. Gustave Ret/ius contributed to the Revue d'Ethnographie a memoir on the uses of birch bark among the Finns. In this memoir are figured :I three forms or fashions of foot gear that : Hitchcock, " The AinoB of Ye/.o, Japan. " Ur|>. Mmtlis," New York, 1871, p. 161. 'Lansdell, "Through Siberia," Boston, 1882, pp. 58-59. * 3 Bush, "Reindeer, I>ogB, and Snowshoea," New York, 1871, p. 61. 'Nordenskiold, "Voyage of the Vega," 1881, II, pp. 98-99. Murdoch, "Ethnological Reunite of the Point Barrow K\|M-ditimi." Ninth Ann. Rrp. Miircau of Ethnology, tigs. 72-82. 336 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. (3) Waterproof soles of oil-dressed walrus, bearded seal, polar bear, or best of all white whale. 1 The cutting out and making of the boot, as well as the process of turning up and crimping the sole, are minutely worked out by Murdoch. Example No. 74042 (fig. 48) is a pair of woman's pantaloons (kumuii) from Point Barrow, Alaska, collected by Captain Ray and carefully illus- trated by Murdoch. They may be thus described : Soles of white tanned seal skin turned up and puckered or crimped about the margin. Uppers of deerskin in two pieces (vamp and quarter), trousers of deerskin, made from the short-haired skin from the deer's legs. The pantaloon in America is found only among western Eskimo and Athapascans. Murdoch says that these pantaloons are always worn with the hair out, and usually over a pair of underpantaloons of the same shape but of softer skin with longer hair, worn next the skin with stocking feet. In summer the inner ones are worn, the feet being protected by sealskin waterproof boots, shown in pi. 4. 2 Example No. 56750, from Point Bar- row, is a man's boot (fig. 49) with deer- skin leg and seal-skin sole. The leg and upper are in four pieces back, two sides, and front. There are strings attached to the sole on the margin below the ankle joint. These are brought up above the heel around in front and laced about the lower part of the leg. Collected by the Eay ex- pedition. Murdoch, in describing the structure of this specimen, says that this is a type of the everyday pattern. The bottom is cut off' accurately to fit the sole; there is no insertion of orna- mental bands or piping, but they are often made of a pattern like that of the lower part of the women's pantaloons, that is, with the uppers separate from the leg pieces, shown in fig. 48 and in pi. 4, fig. 6. Tig. 48. WOMAN'S PANTALOONS, USED BY THE ESKIMO OF POINT BAREOW, ALASKA. From a figure in Murdoch's " Ethnological Kesults of the Expedition," Ninth Annual Report of the ology. Point Bi Bureau of F.th Cat No. 74042, U.S.N. M. 1 Of. Murdoch, " Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition," Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 130, referring to Crant/., i. ]>. 167, and Simpson, pp. 242-266. "Ibid., p. 127, with references to Petitot, Bessels, Egede, Crantz, Parry, and Franklin. Report of National Museum, 1894. - Mason. PLATE 4 ESKIMO SHOES AND BOOTS FROM NORTON SOUND REGION AND MACKENZIE RIVER DISTRICT. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4. ESKIMO SHOES AND BOOTS FROM NORTON SOUND REGION AND MACKENZIE RIVER DISTRICT. Fig. 1. SrMMEK BOOTKKS. Puckered sole of white sealskin: upper and leg of SKAI.SKIN. Puckered well up over the foot. These shoes have a gore and tongue piece on the top of the foot and drawstrings about the upper margin, suggestive of Athapascan mocca- sins. Collected from Anderson River. Mackenzie District, Canada, by R. MacFarlane. i Cut. Xo.LlKiii.r.s. X.M.i Fig. :?. WINTKR BOOTS. The sole and footing are of sweated seal hide, bleached on the snow, hair sid" out and neatly puckered. Above this a band of dark hide, with the hair side out . is s -wed in a water-tight joint. This is attached to the deerskin top by means of a puckered seam. The top is ornamented with tabs and strips of hide neatly inserted vertically. Collected from the Anderson River Eskimo by R. MacFarlane. (Cat.N>.:WKU'.H.N.M.) Fig. 4. WINTKK BOOTS. These are similar to those shown in tig. :{. but are more ornamental. Iwnds of skin with hair on ln-ing inserted vertically. Gift of R. MacFarlane. (Cat. No. 3979, U. S. N. M.) EXPLANATION OF PLATE 4 Continued. Fig. .">. MAN'S SEALSKIN* WATERPROOF BOOTS. The puckered soles of sealskin are cured with the hair on and are unhaired l>y friction. The uppers are of unhaired oiled hide. The seam across the instep is the joint of the two edges of the top, made almost of one piece. There is a drawstring in a hem around the upper margin. Gift of C. P. Gaudet. From Anderson River, Canada. i Oat, No. IXtt.T. S. N. M. I Fig. fi. MAN'S WATERPROOF BOOTS. Sole, of black seal hide puckered and run on to a narrow strip of soft white hide all aroTind; top, of deer pelt in two pieces: leg, of vertical strips of deer pelt; border, of several strips of variously colored pelt; all from parts of the Caribou skin, selected for ornamental effect. Between this border and the boot top is a fringe of wolverine fur. The connection between Tipper and top should be com- pared with tig. 48. The lacings proceed from the margin of the sole below the ankle bones, and are wrapped about the heel and the ankle. Eskimo of Anderson River. Canada. Gift of R. MacFarlane. < Cat. No. 3980. U. 8. N . M. ) Fig. 7. ESKIMO WOMAN'S WINTER BOOTS. These boots have (1) a sole and foot- ing of white sweated sealskin, bleached in the snow, and puckered nearly all around; (2) a narrow upper of seal hide, flesh side out; (3) tops of deerskin, having the seam ornamented with a strip of embroidered hide. There is a drawstring in a hem on the upper margin. Anderson River Eskimo. Gift of R. MacFarlane. (Cat.No.3983,U.S.N.M.) Fig. 8. WATERPROOF SEALSKIN BOOTS. These boots are from Yukon River and consist of six parts the sole, upper, leg, extension top, ornamental band, and lacings. The sole is of black dried sealskin from which the hair has been carefully removed by shaving. It is turned up and molded into shape so .that the crimping has almost disappeared. The upper is of brown oiled leather, its lower border is turned up all around inside of the margin of the sole, and the two upturned edges are run together, the stitches being caught over a cord on the inside, as in birch- bark sewing. The two vertical edges of this upper are joined together by a diagonal seam, as shown in fig. 5 of this plate. This diagonal joint is sometimes sewed only on one side, as in fig. 58. In specimens from Greenland, collected by Dr. C. Hart Merriam, the seam extends on both sides of the instep. Above the upper, the leg consists of a broad band of white sealskin cured by sweating and bleaching in the show. On top of this band, or between it and the extension top, is a pretty insertion of brown and white sealskin with piping. The extension top is of white sealskin. Collected by J. T. Dyar. (Cat. No. 10486, U. S. N, M.) PRIMITIVE TKAVEL AND TRANSPORT ATION. 337 Example No. 56759 is a pair of man's dress hoots of deerskin. These differ from the common hoot in the insertions of different colored hide alternating along the horizontal and vertical scams. The soles are of white sealskin, neatly crimped, with the edges coming to a point at the toe. Between the upper and the sole are live bands of seal hide, the hair black and white alternately. The leg is hemmed at the top for a drawstring, and there are lacings at the ankles (fig. 50). Example No. s<>s;5l (ijo. 51) is a pair of man's dress boots from Point Barrow, Alaska. The tops are made from the skin of the mountain sheep (O/-/.s nion- tana). The soles are much turned up all round, and, like the last described pair, recall the crimped moccasin of the Atha- pascans. There are three ornamental bands of sealskin black, white, and black between the sole and the upper. Strips of mountain sheepskin and dark brown deerskin, tagged with red worsted, fringe the side seam of the leg. Little tags are also cut in the edge of the side piece on its hinder margin. Mr. Mur- doch says that this pair of boots was brought from the east of Point Barrow by one of the Nuwuk trading parties in 1882, and this may account for the ma- terial and the shape of the sole. Mis con jecture is confirmed by comparing the specimen here described with figures 3, 4, and 7 in plate 4. Kxample No. 56749 is a pair of man's dress boots from Point Barrow, with soles crimped high up. The ornamental bands are inserted in the same manner between sole and upper, and similarly pointed above the phalanges. There is a differ- ence in the side seam, and the insertion of a larger piece to increase the size of the leg above, let in by an oblique sea in across the calf. 1 These, according to Murdoch, fairly represent the style of full dress boots worn with loose bottomed breeches, as in his figure W, page 1-5. They all have drawstrings just below the knee, and often have no lacings about the ankles. He calls attention to the drawstring as an eastern fashion, but prefers the Point Barrow style of tying the breeches down over the tops of the boots. The Smith Sound 'Murdoch, "Ethnological Results of the Point Burrow Expedition," Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 133. H. Mis. J0. pt. L' L'L' Fig. 49. MAN'S BOOT AND TROUSEHS I'.MTEP, HV THE ESKIMO OF POINT HARROW, ALASKA. From .1 Agurr in Mur.l.x-b'- " Ethnoloftrnl RMult* of the Point -Burrow Expedition." Ninth Annual Import of the Bumu of Ethnology. Cut. No. 66TSO, f. S. N. M 338 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. natives are said to tie the boots over the breeches. The boots are all joined with reindeer sinew by fitting the edges together and sewing them "over and over" 011 the "wrong" side (fig. 52). Example No. 153892 is a very pretty speci- men of the Eskimo boot from Point Barrow, with the sole puckered in front and at the heel after the manner of the Athapascan shoe. The vamp and heel are separate, as in a modern boot; the upper margin of the vamp, the heel, and the outer leg of the boot are sewn together. The leg consists of alternate strips of white and brown reindeer hide. The upper part of the boot is made of eight rows of deerskin having different col- ored hair, bordered below with a strip of skin of the arctic fox (Vnlpes lagopus). Length, 10 inches. Collected by John Murdoch. Example Xo. 7618:! (fig. 53) is a pair of woman's waterproof boots. The tops are of black dressed seal- skin reaching to the knee. Murdoch says that they are made full at the instep and ankles to reduce the number of seams and the chances of leaking. This single seam on one side of the instep appears in Greenland. No. 151668, collected by C. H. Merriam. Soles of white whale skin; leg and upper all of one piece, having one double, water-tight seam in front of the leg and across the instep to the sole at the ankle joint. The upper is joined to the sole in such manner that the in- sides of both come together; the two are then run together with fine stitches. A band of white seal- skin run on ornaments the top, and a drawstring is inserted in a bind- ing of black sealskin. Lugs or loops of white whale skin for lacing are attached to the margin of the sole on either side at the ball of the foot and beneath the ankle joint. Murdoch says that the ends of the string are passed through the front Fig. 50. MAN'S LONG BOOT, USED BY THE ESKIMO OF POINT BARROW, ALASKA. From a figure in Murdoch's " Ethnological Re- sult; ol the Point Barrow Expedition," Ninth Annu 1 Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Cut. No 56759, U. S. N. M. Fig. 51. MAN'S ORNAMENTAL BOOT. USED BY THE ESKIMO OK POINT BARROW. ALASKA. L figure tiw Expedition.' ology. Cat. N ;lorh'.< "Ethnological Results of the Foil " Ninth Annual Report >>f the Bureau < . 89834, IT. S. X. M. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 339 loop so that the bight comes across the bull of the foot, then through the hinder loops, and are crossed above the heel, carried once or twice around the ankle and tied in front. The waterproof boots from Alaska have the seam on both sides of tlu> instep. Murdoch describes the manner of sewing a waterproof seam among the Kskimo: "The two pieces are put together, flesh side to flesh side? so that the edge of one projects beyond the other, which is then blind stitched down by sewing it over and over on the edge, taking pains to run the stitches only part way through the other piece. The seam is then turned and the edge of the outer piece is turned in and run down to the grain side of the under with fine stitches that do not pass through to the tlesli side of it. Tims in neither seam are there holes through both pieces at once." 1 This same notion of blind stitching may be seen on Atha pasean shoes, even among the Hupas in California. Lieutenant Schwatka says that a certain kind of boot for use in the water is found among the Alaskans, made of seal or h'sli skin, which is almost if not fully as impervious as those made of rubber by more civil ixed people.'' His travels were about the Yukon River. Kxample No. 43.'345 is a pair of shoes or boottees from Golo- vina Bay, consisting of three parts the sole, the vamp, and the heel piece. The soles are of black seal skin, turned up all around and puckered in front and in the rear, looking like an old man's chin. The vamp is of white sealskin and is quite ornamental. Its lower edge, where it is attached to the upper margin of the sole, con sists of seven bands of sealskin of different colors and varying widths, making an extremely elaborate device. From this the vamp extends upward quite well on the foot. The heel is a piece of plain white seal skin, which is sewed to the margin of the sole and extends to the top of 'Murdoch, " Ethnological Result* <>f the I'oint Marrow Expedition." Ninth Ann. Rep. Hurcaii of Ethnology, p. 1->1- 2 Schwatku, "Military Reconnoisttuucu in Ala-Ua." p. 105. Fig. 52. MAN'S DRESS BOOTS OF DEERSKIN, USED BY THE ESKIMO OK POINT BAKROW, ALASKA. From ii ftun? in Murdoch'. Kihi,..|,,,. :,l Hr-ult. of the Po.nl Borrow Expedition." Ninth Annual Krport <>f Ihr Bun-mi of Ethnolocr. Ci. N.I. .'16749. U. .. S. M. 340 KEPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. the boot. The border at the top is of the same color and has below it a little band of sealskin with the hair on. All the parts aie united by means of cording or piping- of different-colored leather. The lacing- is attached to the front loops on the sole by sewing. They are crossed above the back of the foot, passed through two lugs of white leather at the side of the heel, then across the instep, where they are tied. Length, 9 inches. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. 129822 is a pair ot'boots from St. Michaels, Alaska. The sole is made from sealskin, turned up and puckered; the margin on the toe and heel turned out so as to form the profile of a human chin. The lugs consist of straps, as on a boot, and the front pair are sewed on to the lacing. The top is of brown dressed sealskin and is run on to the margin of the sole more than half way round in front by a piping or welt. This top consists of a front, or vamp, and the heel, which extends from the border of the sole to the upper margin of the boot. Between the vamp and the leg is a gore or insertion of white skin, and a band of white skin is let in between the sides of the vamp and the leg; on that two nar- row borders of dark leather have been run. From this vamp to the upper margin the front of the leg is decorated in the following man- ner: A piece of hide is inserted between the two margins of the top, and between these margins a piece of white leather doubled up for a piping, then the other parts are sewed together with a thong of leather string. The upper bor- der is decorated with a piece of white hide; this is adorned with a narrow strip of dark hide run on, and at the juncture of this band with the top the second row of stitches has, alternating with the white, little bits of dark leather one half inch wide sewed on. Length, lOi inches. Collected by General Hazen, U. S. A. There is in the National Museum a shoe similar to No. 43345, but the strips of different colored skin inserted between the vamp and the sole are wider, more numerous, and are decorated with geometric figures Fig. 53. WOMAN'S WATERPROOF SEALSKIN BOOT, USED BY THE ESKIMO OP POINT BAHHOW, ALASKA. From a figure in Murdoch's " Ethnological Results of the Point Barrow Expedition," Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau <>! Ethnology. Cat. No. 76182, U.S. N. M. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION- 341 effected by running narrow strips of leather into the texture of the body of the shoe, a very common style, of ornamentation in Greenland. This specimen is from Norton Sound, and i* one of the most beautiful examples of the shoemaker's art. Length, .si inches. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. 104(57, from the Yukon Kiver district, has the fol- lowing marks: First, the sole is a stout pirn- of seal hide, dressed with out the hair; puckered around the toes and heel in exactly the same fashion as the sole of the Navajo shoe, No. 0549. To this margin is sewed a strip of red sealskin, flesh side out, about an inch wide all around, and to this is whipped the top of the boot made up of twenty- five pieces or bits of deerskin sewed together. Just above the ankle there is a dividing line between the shoe proper and the leg. This latter part is very ornamental, consisting of skin from different parts of the deer's leg, with patches of wolverene skin front and back; the u i >per part consists of several bands of skiu from the leg of the deer, the hair being white and trimmed close above the seams. Drawstrings are inserted between the sole and the red strip, just below the ankles, and these are brought up over the heel and instep and around the ankle to bind the shoe to the foot. Length, { inches. Collected by J. T. Dyar. I Example No. 38771 is a pair of boots from Unalakleet, Yukon district, Alaska, consist ing of a heavy black sole turned up all around and puck- ered at the ends. The upper part consists of the vamp, the heel in a single piece, and the upper border. The vamp, before being back- stitched to the upper margin of the sole is ornamented more than half way round with a pretty band of brownish leather, into which two rows of narrow stitching of rawhide thread are run making a web-like orna- ment; it extends well up above the instep and the heel. A little higher still, and the two join together by a very neat seam, in which piping is introduced in leather of a different color. The border of the boot is a separate strip of leather run on to the top, and a very narrow band of brown leather is inserted at this point. Around the top is a little strip of deerskin with the hair on. The lacing consists of two straps sewed on to the upper margin of the sole opposite the ball of the foot. These are crossed over the instep and passed down to the sides of the heel through two loops of leather; they are then brought around the back of th" heel and tied in front over the instep. Length, 10 inches. Col- lected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. 7012 is a pair of shoes from Nunivak Island. Soles made of sealskin turned up and crimped. The upper part consists of ;: broad strip passing entirely around the foot, with the leg attached above that. The tongue is inserted between the leg and the vamp and the lacing. The lacing ami the tongue are ornamented with embroidery in quill work, which shows a little contact between the Indian and the Eskimo. Length, 10 mches. Collected by W. H. Dall. 342 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. In the early spring the Eskimo women, of Ungava, north of Labrador, are busily engaged in making boots for summer wear. The skins of the seals have been prepared the fall before and stored away till wanted. The method of skin dressing is the same as practiced by Eskimo else- where. If it is designed to make boots for a man, the measure of the height of the leg is taken. The length and width of the sole is meas- ured by hand, stretching so far and then bending down the middle finger until the length is measured. 1 The foot wear of the Hudson Bay Eskimo, collected by Lucien M. Turner, has the following characteristics: The boots and shoes differ in material and pattern for different sea- sons of the year. In all the styles the stout soles turn up an inch or two all round the foot, a tongue piece covers the top of the foot and above the sole and the tongue the top varies in height, either being long enough to reach the knee or else rising a little above the ankle. The low-top half boots are worn over fur stockings in warm weather. These stockings are made of short-haired deerskin with the hair worn inside. These low-top boots are worn outside the long boots in severe weather. The Hudson Bay Eskimo also wear Indian moccasins, some- times over a pair of inside shoes and sometimes as inside shoes.. The Indians in proximity with the Eskimo here are the Nascopi and Mon- tagnais Algonquiau, and features of Algonquiau moccasins are to be seen in the more northern boots. The wearing of overshoes, of stock- ings and overshoes must not be overlooked in primitive life, and may be kept in mind in the interpretation of ancient pictures and sculptures. The Hudson Bay Eskimo use for waterproof soles the skin of the beaver or of the harp seal, and prefer the former. For indoor shoes or for those to be worn in cold, dry weather, the skin of the white whale was chosen. The skins of the smaller seals are made into soles, either with the flesh or the hair side out. They are comparatively waterproof if the black epidermis be allowed to remain. The creamy white leather made by allowing the skins to ferment until hair and epidermis may be scraped off' and then stretching and drying them in the cold air does not exclude the water and can be used for soles only in perfectly dry weather. Buckskin or deerskin soles are worn with snow shoes, as the feet are not so liable to slip, and the porous skin allows the moisture of the feet to escape more readily. The tongue and the heel baud of the Hudson Bay shoe are generally made of dressed sealskin; the legs or uppers are of sealskin with the hair on. Example No. 90359 (fig. 54), collected by Lucien M. Turner, is a pair of boots with buckskin feet and tongue and sealskin tops. The combina- tion of Eskimo and Indian is noteworthy. Throughout Mr. Turner's Ungava collection there are many specimens of this character. As in 1 Cf. Turner, " Ethnology of the Ungava District, Hudson Bay Territory," Eleventh Ann. Eep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 206. PKIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 343 Fix.54 SHOUT BOOTS OK VMIAVA IJAV l>KI\ln. - Alaska the arts of the Yukou pass insensibly from Indian to Eskimo, so here. Example No. !H)3."><> (tig. ~>o) is a ]>air of low shoes lioin Hudson Kay Eskimo, with white sealskin soles, Mark sealskin tongue and heel hand, and deerskin tops. The tawed and smoked reindeer skin for the tops was purchased from the Nascopi In- dians. The noticeable features of these speriinens are the similarity of the while skin sole with those of tlie western Eskimo, the pointed tongue or upper, and the narrow inserted heel band between sole and top. In some of the more elegant western forms of boots half a do/en band welts and pip- ings of parti colored skin and fur are in serted. One kind of foot gear of these Eskimo consists of a bird skin short sock with a padding of grass nicely distributed over the sole. Outside of this comes a bearskin leg sewed with great skill to the natural sole of the plantigrade and abun- dantly wadded about the foot with dry, noucon ducting straw. 1 Stearns thus minutely describes the process of boot making by Indians of Old Fort Bay, Labrador: "From a lot of sealskins one is selected, either from a harbor seal with the hair on or a large harp seal from which the hair hasall been scraped oil'. In either case the skin, to be the most serviceable, must be well scraped of fat on the inside and dried for two or ir- in Till Bay Ttr of Klhnoli I !..> ..I ih,- I iidavi, y,,tnct, nlli Annual Krpurt of *he CM. No. (nav.i. I". - \. M. Kin. .V.. LOW SHOE OK I M.AVA KAY KSKIMO. Buy T-rnt,,ry. rurii-r'-" Kthnolncy i-l Ih.- Cnnva District, Hnd-mn vi,nuiilKf|.ili>l th- Kurt-ail of Ktbnolix;. . VOM, I v \ M. three months on some frame on which it has been stretched to its fullest extent in the sun, exposed on the wood pile or roof of the house (after the hair has been taken off, if a harp seal, and with IT. E. K. Kan-, AK IK i:\ploi. it ions," Hiiliululpliia, 185<3, pp. 344 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. the hair on, if a harbor seal). These dry skins will not shrink, and for every purpose of wear are infinitely better than the shoes sold in large numbers, made of quickly dried skins, sewed upon wooden forms, which shrink and tear, while they soon wear useless. Out of them the boot leg' is cut from a pattern of any kind the wearer may choose. All or nearly all bottoms are cut from like patterns to fit a foot of any shape, but invariably from the dried skin of the harp seal, the drier and older the better, since they stand more wear the older they are. The pattern of the sole is an oblong oval, while the tongue or top piece is more or less lance shaped. After soaking over night in water to soften it, the sole is taken and the whole edge for about an inch and a half is bent inward; then the toe is puckered in creases, as is also the heel, while the tongue fits the space left after the boot leg is tem- porarily fastened on, all the pieces overlapping enough to allow for sewing. These puckerings are made by simple creases of the needle at the time of sewing. All seams are made if the sewing is done in a skillful manner, and not simply to sell the boot by the simple overlapping of the two pieces and sewing each edge tightly to the part beneath, while the ridge thus made by the seam, if rubbed with a piece of wood, shoemaker fashion, will be hard and shiny as well as very tight. In all sewing the skin is so thick that the needle can be run through it and out the same side without perforating the skin ; thus a seam admits no water through the sewing if the thread and overlapping pieces are drawn tight. The upper border of the boot leg has a doubled p'ece of cloth sewn around its edge, though sometimes sealskin replaces it, through which a piece of tape or braid of any color to suit the wearer, about a yard and a half long, is threaded, and the skin being quite flexible when on the foot is drawn tightly about the leg, the braid wound about twice and tied with the string end hanging outward. This secures the boot firmly and yet not painfully to the foot by the leg, and, though the string often gets loose and the boot leg often slips down, it seldom gives much trouble to the wearer. A noteworthy opera- tion that might escape one's attention, as well as a curious fact in con- nection with this operation, is that the puckeriugs of the heel are held together by running two, three, or four small threads at about equal distance from each other, the stitches being taken through the bend in tho creases on the inside of the boot from side to side around the heel, where they are drawn tight and fastened to the seam above; another fact is that the creases of the toe are not thus fastened." l The types of the Eskimo foot wear are: 1. The straw shoe or stocking, between Bering Strait and Kadiak., 2. The moccasin-shaped low shoe. 3- The moccasin sole with boottee top. W. A. Stearns, "Labrador," Boston, 1884, pp. 162, 163. The boots of the east Green- landers are of similar make, and arts described by Holm and by Nanseu, "First of Greenland," II, p. 272 et seq. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 345 4. Boottee with sole; vamp and legging separated from the sole by one or more bands or welts of different color and width. 5. Crimped soles united immediately to the seal or other skin tops. These are winter boots. G. Waterproof boots with crimped soles united immediately to the vamp and quarter. These two parts are joined, sometimes with a seam on one side and sometimes with a seam on both sides, and above the vam]> and heel piece are tops, and sometimes extension tops, either of waterproof Oft of white sealskin. 7. Double boot (outer boot with crimped sole united to a long leg of sealskin or deerskin with the hair side out and inner boot or stocking with the hair side in toward the foot). NY here the Eskimo have been in contact with the Russians, the whalers, and with the Scandinavians, various foreign elements have been introduced, as the welt in the seams, additional strips and deco- rative piping between the different parts, and the addition of bead work and tine embroidery on the surface. While certain elements and materials characterize various culture regions, the going about of the Eskimo themselves and the accnlturations above mentioned have greatly mingled the characteristics of the foot wear. On leaving the Eskimo region in America and traveling southward one passes from the laud of sealskin foot gear into that made from the dressed hides of laud mammals. This class of foot wear goes by the generic name of moccasin, from an Algouquian word having a similar sound. Some features of the moccasin may be seen in Eskimo land, and Eskimo features will appear in Athapascan and Algonquian shoes especially; so also on the south border of the moccasin areas there is no sharp line dividing it from the sandal and the bare foot. Moccasins have their dispersion in those areas of North America where the great mammals were in abundance, and where the ground was adapted to their usage. The people were ever on the move. In the Canadian region where the caribou was the prevailing mammal and no good thick hide could be found for soles, the shoe was cut from a single piece. The eastern Canadian Indians cut the skin from the heel of a caribou or moose with extensions above and below, for the leg and the foot of a rude moccasin, called botte sativage. The land of the buffalo and of the elk, because of the quality of the hide and the exigencies of region, occupation, and climate, had another set of types. On arriving in the cactus country the Indian had to guard his feet and his legs as well, and found in the ample folds of an entire deerskin for each foot, and a thick sole well turned up in front, the protection he needed. The patch of leather on the Mexican sandal lacing is for the same end. In point of fact there were and are three principal classes or species of the moccasin : 1. The Athapascan type, a soft gaiter coming well up on the ankle, 346 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM. 1894. made of a single piece with decorated tongue in front, lapels of flannel and buckskin over the lacing behind, and the gaiter top. Found in Canada and on the west coast. 2. The low, much- decorated slipper moccasin of the plains and of the United States east of the Kockies, with endless tribal varieties. 3. The boot, with long top to wrap about the limbs. There were, in addition to the environmental suggestions, fashions of moccasins that were purely trib :il. For instance, among the Siouan tribes the Ponka moccasin sole was nearly symmetrical, broad across the ball of the foot, and bluntly pointed in front. The Oiuahas made a moccasin the sole of which was almost straight along the inside of the foot and pointed like our latest fashion, while the Pani style was curved very irregularly along both edges and sharply pointed. But styles were mixed from tribe to tribe. Moccasins were generally made in summer, since the hides of buffalo slain during that season were without thick hair. In the making the women pulled out the hair, as they did in the manufacture of leggings. They were cut out by a pattern, made over a rude last, and sewed with thread made of sinew from the leg or the fiber from the muscular fasciae of the back and the shoulder. Before the introduction of beads dyed porcupine,nd bird quills were employed in ornament, and it is worthy of notice that now the old patterns are repeated faithfully in beadwork. The making of the moccasin is a matter of ethnical and geographical study, as will be observed in the drawings and descrip- tions. They are white, yellow, brown, black, or green ; they are very low, with margin turned down, or fitted closely to the foot; they are plain or covered with symbols of toteuiisin and mythology; they have trailers differing in pattern, number, and length. In a region so vast as all Canada south of Eskimo and all the United States excepting the southwestern corner, the resources and exactions of nature would in the same tribe effect many varieties and styles. Commencing at the far north, example No. 7013 is a pair of moccasins of the Kutchakutchin Indians on the Yukon, consisting of three parts, the covering of the foot, the tongue, and the heel (fig. 56.) The first- named piece is cut out in rectangular form, rnitered in front and the two edges sewed together or joining a tongue piece. In the heel the two edges are brought together and sewed downward about 3 inches, then for the rest of the way ihe leather is doubled so as to form a T-shaped seam, and this provides for the flattening out of the sole. The tongue, like that of a modern shoe, is sewed in with a piping, but the heel cur- tain is here omitted from the margin of the shoe. The edge of the bot torn of the heel is cut off square and leaves no trailers whatever. No 1336, collected by C. P. Gaudet (fig. 57), is similar to this, excepting on the top of the shoe a piece of white leather or false tongue is added for ornament, and the seam gathered with beautiful quill work of red and blue. Also on the back of this example the inserted leather hangs an PRIMITIVE TRAVEL A\l> TRANSPORTATION. 347 MOCCASIN OK KfTCHAKlTCIlIX INDIANS. AI.A>KA. Cut, No. '.613. I . S. s. M. O.lliftiil by \\ .Ilium II. l>ilL inch below the seam like a curtain aiid is cut out neatly into a castel- lated ornament. Length of foot. 10 inches; height of boot, 9 inches. Collected by \V. H. Ball. Kxample No. 16G9G4 is a shoe of the Athapascan form worn in the interior of Alaska on the Yukon. de.-eribedalsounderNo. 1330, but to the bottom of this Indian moccasin is sewed a thick sole, made of sennit << nstructed out of old manila rope, frayed and braided after the manner of the Tibetan shoe No. 131 IDS. The union of the Indian moccasin with the Chinese and Tibetan sole in the same specimen is an excel- lent example of the way in which one people borrow the . inventionsof another. This shoe is evidently an adaptation made by an American sailor or by a Chinaman recently living in Alaska. Length, 104 inches. Collected by J. H. Turner. In winter, according to Mackenzie, the dress of the Chippewyan is composed of the skins of deer and their fawns, dressed as line as any chamois leather in the hair. In summer the same, except without the hair. Their shoes and leggings are sewed together, the latter reaching upward to the middle and be- ing supported by a belt, under which a small piece of leather is drawn, the ends of which fall down both before and behind. In the shoes they put the hair of the moose or reindeer with additional pieces of leather as socks. The shirt or coat when girted around the waist reaches to the middle of the thigh, and the mittens are sewed to the sleeves or are suspended by strings from the shoulders. A ruff or tippet surrounds the neck, and the skin of the head of the deer forms a carious cap. A robe made of several deer or fawn skins sewed together covered the whole. This dress is worn single or double, but always in winter the hair within and without. The dress of the women differs little from that of the men. 1 The U. S. National Museum, through the kindness Fig. 57. M'r\slN <>K ATHAPASCAN INDIANS, ANDKHSON HIVKIi. NORTHERN CANADA. Cut. No. 1336, V. S. N. M r,,llrrtril liy C. I', e are worn by horsemen and that the Cheyennes believe the trailer to be a protection from the rattlesnakes. Examples IMS7 and 9SS are buckskin moccasins made in one piece, cut out so that the seams extend down the back of the heel and over the top of the foot, with puckering. This form of moccasin is peculiar to the Caddo of Texas. Collected by Edward Palmer. Frequent reference is made in this paper to the "trailer,* or hi"-be- ga ceg-che, of the Sioux. It consists of one or more little rawhide strings about an inch long trailing: behind the heel of a certain type of Indian moccasin. When the woman cuts out the skin for the shoe she leaves hanging on the edge of that part which forms the horizontal seam at the bottom of the heel the little tags, strings. <>r tassels that will form the trailer. Each tribe had a different number and order of this part, so that a good scout is said to have been able to tell the tribe to which an Indian belonged by the mark of his trailer in the snow. .Mr. Dorsey once told the writer that the Omahas had a habit of omit- ting or disguising the trailer as a part of their strategy in war. For many examples of the low, beaded moccasin of the East, Catlin's and other works should be consulted. Turning away from the Atlantic to the Pacific drainage, it will be necessary to commence at Mount St. Elias. The Kwakiutl and other tribes of the British Columbia coast go barefooted the year round, according to Boas. This might be declared of all primitive maritime peoples in regions where the want of warmth did not stimulate the invention of waterproof foot gear. In maritime Europe the sabot lifts the foot above the wet sand and mud. This maritime or barefooted region stretches from Mount St. Elias to the Columbia River. It is the home of the Koluschan, Skittagetan, Chimmesyan, Wakashan. and coast Salishan families; the route of the Pacific gulf stream; the region of abundant sea food and great forests; the culture region of the great dugout canoes. Example No. 20797 (tig. 59) is a moccasin from Sitka, consisting of three pieces the footing, the vamp, and the leg piece. The sole is prob- ably of soft elkskin cut into long rectangular form and rounded in front. In the rear two wedge-shaped gores are cut out at the corners, leaving a right trapezoid extending as in a dovetail. When the two edges of the rear are brought together they are doubled so as to form a I shaped seam and the trapezoidal piece extends outward to form the trailer of the shoe. The horizontal seam of the T provides for I he tlat sole, and the vertical part provides for the extension of the material well up around the heel and the front of the foot as in an ordinar> 352 REPORT 01' NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. slipper. The front of this shoe is gathered and puckered so as to cover the ends of the toes and the margin of the foot. The vamp or back piece is sewed to the margin of the footing and extends well upward on the leg; the seam connecting this with the sole, and also the two edges of the sole in the rear, have inserted between them a narrow piece of buckskin acting as a piping. The heel portion of the leg is whipped on to the upper margin of the sole in such a way that a small portion of it extends below the seam like a lapel. The vamp and the heel piece extending well up on the leg are wrapped around it and held in place by cord or some kind of a garter. Length, 10 inches. Col- lected by J. G. Swan. Example No. 23854 is a pair of moccasins said to have been worn by a Nez Perc6 Indian, consisting of two parts; that which covers the foot and a short legging around the ankle. The body of the shoe is made of a single piece of hide cut out like the finger of a glove, sewed around the toe and along the outer margin of the foot to the heel where the two edges of the rear end of the pat- tern are sewed together to form the upright portion of the heel and also a hori- zontal seam with trailers at least 1 inches apart. The upper border or leg ging is sewed on to the upper margin of the shoe, and a portion of the leather of the shoe extends back- ward to form a tongue. The top of the foot is orna- mented with beadwork in white, black, and blue beads. Around the ankle is a strip of red flannel ornamented with blue and white beads. The strings are formed of buckskin thong. The formation of this shoe should be especially observed, as it differs from those in the regions about in the manner in which the seam is carried around from heel to great toe. Length, 10 inches. Collected by J. B. Monteith. Example No. 673 is a pair of shoes from the Chinook Indians at the mouth of the Columbia River. This shoe consists of three parts the sole, the upper, and the legging. The sole is of thick rawhide and sewed on to the upper by a series of blind stitches, just as in a modern, cheap slipper or eastern moccasin. The upper is of buckskin and has only one seam at the back. At the lower end of this seam is a trailer, in which a single rawhide string, one-eighth of an inch wide, is Fig. 59. ATHAPASCAN TYPE OF MOCCASIN, FROM SITKA, ALASKA. Cat. No. 20797, V. 3. N. M. Collected by J. G. Swan. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 353 supplied nearly all the way. The upper is extended into a long tongue, passing to the top of the legging. The legging is a band of buckskin about 4 inches wide, sewed to the top of the upper. The shoe string passes through slashes in the upper on either side of the heel, and at the instep as in the Athapascan and after passing once or twice around the ankle, is tied in front. They are ornamented by beadwork in red, white, green, blue, and pink beads. The designs are entirely European. They are rights and lefts. Length, 9 inches; height, 7 inches. Col- lected by George Gibbs. The moccasin of the Shoshone is of the deer, elk, or buffalo skin, dressed without the hair, though in winter they use the buffalo skin with the hair side inward, as do most of the Indians who inhabit the buffalo coun- try. Like the Ne/ Perc6 moccasin, it is made with ;i single seam on the outer mar- gin and sewed up behind, an opening be- ing left at the instep to admit the foot. It is variously ornamented with figures wrought with porcupine quills, and some- times the young men most fond of dress cover it with the skin of a polecat and trail at their heels the tail of the animal. 1 Example No. 105147 is a Shoshone moc- casin, from Wyoming, made of smoked deerskin. As described by Lewis and Clarke, this specimen, collected by James Mooney, is all in one piece, with the seam at the side, instead of having a separate sole like the moccasins of the prairie tribes. Example 165148 from the same tribe has the T-shaped seam on the toe. Example 22018 is a buckskin moccasin made in one piece cut out so that the seam extends down the back of the heel and around the outer margin of the foot quite around the toes. The edges are sewed together with a piping in the seam. Short tongue sewed on as in a modern slipper, lacing through slashes about the heel. Long trailers from seam 2 and short ones from horizontal seam of the heel. Length, 9 inches. Wind River Utes, collected by Major J. W. Powell. The shoes of the Hupa (Western Athapascan) and of the other Indians of northern California are made high like gaiters and arc rut I ruin a single piece of buckskin sewed up at the back rather carelessly by a buckskin cord, as in basting. Down the instep a curious scam is formed as follows (fig. 60): The two edges of the leather are slightly '"History of the Lewis and riarki- Expedition," 189:;. n. N. u V,,rk. pp. 5W-568. H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 23 Fig. 60. PATTERN ANIJ BLIND STITCHING OK HUPA MOCCASIN. 354 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. split. They are then brought together as in joining the edges of a carpet. A loose cord of sinew is laid along the two edges and a whipped stitching of sinew made to join the. two inner margins of the edges of the buckskin, inclosing at the same time the loose cord of sinew. When the shoe is rounded out, the two outer margins of the leather come together on the outside of the shoe and conceal the sewing alto- gether. A coarse sandal of the thick portion of the elk hide or of twined matting is worn by some tribes (fig. 61), and also a nicely woven leg- ging of soft basketry. The latter, however, belong to full or ceremo- nial dress. 1 Example No. 24079 (fig. 62) is a sandal of rushes worn by the Klamath Indians of northern California (Lutuainian family), collected by L. S. Dyar. It is only half finished, and shows the method of construction. 26. Fig. 61. MOCCASINS OF CAHROC AND HUPA INDIANS, NORTHERN CALIFORNIA. Cat Nos. 21437 and 79197, V. S. N. M. Collected by Stephen Powers and Capt. P. H. Ray, U. S. A. The foundation is laid on eleven twine warp strands, as in the Japanese sandal of thread, spreading apart toward the toes. The weft, however, is in twined weaving, and the work is carried up to cover the toes as in a light slipper, as will be seen on Korean and Chinese examples. Along the margin of the sole loops have been left, as in the Asiatic spe- cimens figured and described. 2 Especial notice must be taken of this specimen occurring in northern California because-itis the first intima- tion at the north of the sandal, which will a little later on usurp the place of the moccasin. Example No. 9549 (fig. 03) is a pair of Navajo moccasins from New Mexico (Southern Athapascan), consisting of three parts sole, vamp, and heel. The sole is of rawhide turned up in front of the great toe and about the foot for a half inch or more around the entire margin. 'Mason, "The, Kay Collection from Hupa Reservation," Rep. Smithsonian lust., 1886, p. 210. 2 Ibid, pi. vi. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 355 The vamp is of brown deerskin, or smoke-cured deerskin, very neatly sewed to the margin of the rawhide sole all the way around, and the stitches are all finely puckered. This work is suggestive of the Eskimo shoemaker. The heel (or what is commonly called the quarters and legging) consists of a broad strip of buckskin attached to the sole back of the arch of the foot, having a long, wide flap which passes from the inner side of the foot across the instep, ami is buttoned at the ankle on the outside. No. O.ViO !ig. M] is of the same character, excepting the quarter piece is fastened with a thong rather than with buttons. Length, 10 inches. Collected by E. Palmer. It is worth noticing, in passing, that the Baiter tops of the Navajo, who are Athapas can, H here modified to a modern style, and that the soles are of such primitive fashion that they may be said to stand for the lirst of all rawhide foot wear. The Apache boot, as a protection against the thorny plants of their desert country, resembles the classical onlroniis, figured in the third edition of Smith's Dictionary. But it is after all the Athapascan legging and moccasin, combined with the addit ion of a rawhide sole having a broad point turned up in front. Now. the Apache is also an Athapascan. The long seam down the inside of the leg is made by turning one margin down for half an inch, laying the other margin against the crease and whipping the doubled and the single edge together with sinew thread. For at- taching the upper to the sole the raw edge of the former is doubled, the upper margin of the latter is beveled, the two are whipped together, and then the sole projects out- ward to conceal and protect the seam. The following types of moccasins may be noted: 1. Athapascan type, with gaiter or extension top. Footing of one piece, with seam at the heel and straight up the back or top of the foot to an ornamental tongue piece. The extension top is sewed to the footing so as to extend downward in a curtain to conceal the lacing. l*. Tlingit type, like the Athapascan. l>nt without seam in front, the tongue piece covering almost entirely the back of the foot. Top not extending downward to cover the lacing. Trailers are present. 3. Algonquian type, very similar to the Athapascan, but having a cross seam in front of the toes, meeting the seam from the front of the tongue piece. These three forms merge into the Eskimo at the north and the low moccasins at the south. Kip. 62. WOVEN <;KASS SANDAI. OK KLA.MATH tl.ni'AMIAN) INDIANS. NORTHERN CAUKOHMA V M. r..ll-t-J by Oupt. I'. H. RT, L'. B, x 356 EEPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. 4. Iroquoian pattern. Footing slipper like, with lapels at the side; embroidered. The tongue piece is set into the puckered border of the footing. In modern examples linings are introduced. 5. Siouari pattern. In recent times with rawhide sole, beaded top, and lapels. The Shoshonean variety of this type has a seam from the heel around the outer margin of the foot, quite to the inside of the great toe, and this was doubtless the earlier Siouan form. Frequently heavy buckskin fringes adorn the heel seam and the top of the foot. 6. Desert type. Found in the Great Interior Basin from Utah to Mexico ; charac- terized by a heavy rawhide sole turned up in a peculiar manner to protect the end of the great toe from thorns. 7. The Caddoan type. Gaiter form, with straight seam all the way up the heel and entirely across the top or back of the foot, with seams often elegantly puckered on the toes. At this point it is neces- sary to make an abrupt stop on the borderland of the Spanish territory. Passing the moccasin, the student arrives at the land of the sandal, just on the southern boundary of Colorado and Utah. Here he, encounters two radically different types of sandal, the one now in common use throughout Latin America, having, as in Japan, a single toe string between the first and the second toe, and the older, aboriginal, and now quite disused type having a toe loop or two toe strings, one be- tween 1 and 2, the other between 3 and 4. Through the courtesy of Prof. F. W. Putnam, Mr. Marshall Saville, and Mr. Stewart Culin, I am able to extend the rather meager collection of the U. S. National Museum. Example No. 13013, Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, is a sandal from the cliff dwellings of Arizona. It consists of sole, lining, and lacing. The sole is in yucca leaves, diagonally woven or plaited six ply. On top of the sole is an insole or lining of corn husk. Figs. 63 and 64. MOCCASINS OF NAVAJO (ATHAPASCAN) INDIANS, NEW MEXICO. 0:it. Nos. 9549 and 95M, U. .. N. M. Collected by Edward Palmer. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 357 The lacing consists of a series ol' loops around the margin of the sole, through which a tie of yucca string passes, as in the Indian cradles and sleds. The heel loops pass from two of those before men- tioned around the heel and down to the sole under tin- ankle. (PI. 5, tig. I.i Sandals from the Kentucky caves should be studied in this connection. Example No. 12155/>, in the Pea-body Museum, is a coarse sandal of yucca fiber, collected by Edward Palmer in an abandoned camp in I'tah. It is in the form of an openwork slipper, made up of a fore-and- aft warp held in place by nine rows of cross-twined weaving at varying distances apart. The lacing is gathered into the outer margin of the sole. The Utes are adepts at the twined basketry, and in this example possibly have attempted to imitate a low shoe or moccasin after their own fashion. (PI. ">. fig. 2.) Kxample No. 22192, in the IT. S. National Museum, is a sandal from Ye/o, worn by the Ainos, and here introduced for comparison with American examples, devoid of toe strings and fastened on entirely by lacing through loops on the side and heel loops. (PI. ~>, tig. 3.) Example No. 12155c, in the Peabody Museum, is a sandal of yucca fiber found in an old Ute camp. It is much dilapidated, but shows elements of twined weaving, side loops, and cross lacing. Inside is stuffed an old rag, part of a knit stocking. (PI. 5, tig. 4.) In an old abandoned camp in southern Utah, in the cedar forests near Mount Trumbull, Edward Palmer found a number of Pah-Ute sandals which, by the kindness of Professor Putnam, I am privileged to describe. All of them are of yucca fiber, and are as coarsely made as sandals can be. Two of them, examples Nos. 12155 and 9439, are of Asiatic pattern, and two of them are in coarse-twined weaving. These will be better described. Example No. 20929, U. S. National Museum, is an old sandal from Utah, made of coarse yarn of yucca fiber, woven .on a warp of two strands of the same material in figure of 8 pattern, the loose ends always left underneath. The toe strings that projected from the end of the sole are gone, and there is left of the lacing only the loop that encir- cled the heel. (PI. 6, fig. 1.) Example No. 12155a, in the Peabody Museum, 'is an extraordinary specimen. The double warp is the same as in fig. 4 of this plate, and so is the heel covering and overloe lacing arrangement, but there is in addition a series of loops on the side between the toe and the ankle as in other sandals. We have here a combination sandal, all t lie elements of which are to be seen in the Japanese types. (PI. 6, fig. 2.) Example No. 128173, U. S. National Museum, precisely similar to example No. 11(5211, figured and described on page 331 of this paper, is here introduced for comparison of the overtoe string, lugs on the sides, heel loops, and especially the wicker weaving. All loose ends 358 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. are iii this shaved oil' on the bottom. This specimeii was presented by the Japanese department of education. (PI. <>, fig. 3.^ Example No. 9439, in the Peabody Museum, is a sandal from southern Utah, built after one of the Japanese patterns. A coarse bundle of yucca fiber 3 feet long is doubled in the middle, and on this as a warp the sole of the sandal is woven from other bundles in a figure of 8 wickerwork, the coarse ends always appearing underneath. At the heel the fiber is wrapped around the bend of the warp. The sole is 9 inches long. At the tip the two ends of the warp are tied in a single knot, the remainder serving as lacing. For heel and instep strap a bundle of twisted fiber 2 feet long is doubled in the middle back of the heel, the two ends drawn down and passed inside the warp strands beneath the ankle and are then brought up over the instep and tied. The lacing is attached to this, but passes over the toes instead of between them, just as in some Eastern examples. (PI. 6, fig. 4.) Example No. 22717, Peabody Mnseurn, is a child's sandal from Aca- tita Cave, Coahuila, Mexico, made from unsh redded yucca leaf. Tlie warp is a leaf bent in the middle, the two ends projecting at the heel and shredded. The weft is a very coarse wicker of yucca leaf. The whole is bound together by a leaf brought up through the sole near the heel (a), down again near the toes (6), forward and up around the front, spliced througli itself at ft, under the sole and spliced through itself at a. The two toe strings have their front ends tied together in a square knot underneath, are spliced through the binding piece to go between toes 1 and 2, and 3 and 4, are attached to the margin under the ankle, and then pass up and around the heel in the usual manner. (PI. 7, fig. 1.) Example No. 45610a is a sandal from Mexico. It is built upon two yucca leaves bent double in front, the one overlying the other. In each, the under half is warp ; the upper half is doubled down on top and used to strengthen the whole. The toe strings inclose I and 2, and 3 and 4, and do not cross on the back of the foot. Heel strap missing. (PL 7, fig. 2.) Example No. 45610, U. S. National Museum, is a child's sandal from a cave near Silver City, N. Mex. It is in figure of 8, or wicker weaving on two- warp filaments. All lashing is absent. (PL 7, fig. 3.) Example No. 22833, in the Peabody Museum, is an old sandal from Coyote Cave, Coahuila, Mexico. In this specimeii the yucca warp is carelessly laid along and held together by means of cross sewing with the same material. On top of all a spliced wide leaf occurs, as in tigs. 1 and 2. A neat two-ply cord forms the toe string, doubled in the middle, rove through the fabric near the front, so as to go between toes 1 and 2, and 3 and 4, back to the sides of the sole under the ankle, where the ends pass through the heel string and are fastened off with a single knot. The heel string is a very pretty piece of square plaiting, as in whip lashes. Its ends are attached to the ends of a separate twine EXPLANATION OF PLATE 5. SANDALS WITH MARGINAL LOOPS FOR LACING. CLIFF-DWELLERS OF ARIZONA. Fig. 1 . $ANI>AL OF YUCCA FIBEK. Insole of corn husk and lacing of yucca strips. Lent by Mr. Stewart C'ulin. (.Cat. No. 13013, Museum of the University of Pennsylvania. > Fig. ','. SANDAL FROM AN OLD CAMP IN SOUTHERN UTAH. The warp is of shred- ded yucca fiber and the weft in twined weaving of the same material. (Cat. No. 12155 (b), Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. ) Fig. :{. SANDAL OF BAST FIBER WOVEN IN WICKER PATTERN. Lacing of straw. twined. (To be compared with fig. 1.) Worn by the Ainos of Yezo. (Cat. No. 22192, U. S. N. M.) Fig. 4. SANDAL FROM SOUTHERN UTAH. This is similar to the specimen shown in fig. "2. Inside is a portion of a knit stocking in cotton yarn. The lacing is the same as that shown in the other figures of the plate. The specimen was found in an abandoned camp. ("Pat Xo. 12155 tr\ Poabody Museum. Cambridge, Mans.) Report of National Museum, 1 894. Mason. PLATE 5 SANDALS WITH MARGINAL LOOPS FOR LACING. Cliff-dwellers of Ari/.una. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 6. SANDALS WITH OVERTOE LACING. Fig. 1. SANDAL OF SHREDDED YUCCA FIBKH. Made on a. warp of two strands. Southern Utah. < Cat. No. 20929, U. S. N. M.) Fig. >. SANDAL OF SHREDDED YUCCA FIBER. Based on a string of the same material doubled, the ends of which, drawn over the toes, serve as lacings through the loops along the margin. The loop over the heel is of the same material. (Cat. No. 12155 (a), Palxxly Museum, Cambridge, Mass.; Fig. :>. JAPANESE SANDAL MADE OF STRAW. The foundation is a long twine of the same material, twice doubled, to form at its middle two loops extended at the heel and at its ends to constitiite the lacing, which passes over the two toes, through the loops or lugs at the sides, through the heel loops and over the instep, where they are fastened. From the Japanese Department of Education. i ( 'at. No. 128173, U. S. N. M.) Fig. A. SANDAL OF SHREDDED YUCCA FIBER. This sandal is built up. like those shown in figures 1 and 2, by wicker weaving on a warp of coarse twine of the same material, the ends of which form the overtoe strings. After l>eing laced around the heel they are tied over the instep. CCat. No. !MJW. Pealxxly Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 6. SANDALS WITH OVERTOE LACING. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 7 SANDALS WITH DOUBLE TOE-STRINGS. Fig. 1 . CHILD'S SANDAL OF YUCCA LEAF. This sandal is based on a single leaf, doubled. The wicker weaving is held together by another leaf doubled and spliced over all longitudinally. A lacing of strips of yucca leaves passes between toes I and 2, and 8 and 4. The heel band is missing. From Acatita Cave, Coahuila. Mexico. (Cat. No. 22717. U. S.N.M.) Fig. 2. CHILD'S SANDAL. This specimen is of similar construction to that shown in fig. 1, but is much \vorn. No lacing is shown. Mexico. (Cat. No. 45610 (a), U. S.N.M. > Fit;. :!. CHILD'S SANDAL. This specimen is from a cave near Silver. City, New Mexico, and is of the same material and construction as the specimen shown in the preceding figure, i Cat. No. 45610, U. S. N. M.) Fig. 4. SANDAL OF SHREDDED YUCCA FIBER. The specimen is similar in original design to fig. 1 in warp, weft, and spliced binding, but it has been much worn and repaired. The lacing is of fine twine and braiding. It consists of the toe strings between 1 and 2, and 3 and 4. The heel strings are of braid, and the ankle strings of the same material. All of these are attached to one another just below the ankles. From Coyote Cave, Coahuila, Mexico. (Cat. No. 22833, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mas-s. > Fig. 5. SANDAL FROM A MUMMY. Constructed precisely like th specimen shown in fig. 4, and found in the same cave. (Cat. No. 22850. Peabody Musourn, Cambridge, Mass. . Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 7. SANDALS WITH DOUBLE TOE-STRINGS. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 359 rove- through the fabric of the sole, the latter being tied with the clove hitch. (PI. 7, fig. 4.) Example No. 22850, Peabody Museum, is a sandal from a mummy in Coyote Cave, Coahuila. Mexico. This example shows very clearly the carelessly laid warp and the cross weaving and sewing, which are doubtless repairs of a much worn sandal. The toe string in this case is continuous, passing between 1 and 2, and 3 and 4, back through the sole; the ends make half hitches and are continued to form the heel string. (PI. 7, fig. 5.) The sole of the cliflf dweller's, the Utah man's, the New Mexican mound and eave man's sandal, as may be seen by the plate, is of vege- tal fiber, Indian hemp (Apocynum), yucca of many species, and hene quen, sisal, or agave (Ixtli). l'or the most part, they are rights and lefts, but not a few of them that are built on a warp are quadrilateral. In texture, they are either in corded weaving, with warp and.weft variously treated; or if the material be coarser, they are in wicker- work, or they are plaited or woven diagonally, but one and all have a toe loop or string that pierces the sole in two places and passes up between toes 1 and 2, and 3 and 4. This forms the basis of a lacing, and is variously treated, but a description of the figures will make the matter perfectly plain. Example No. 13014 is from a clift' dwelling in Arizona. The warp and weft are of a fiber strongly resembling that of Apocynum cannabinum. The weft is finely spun, laid close, colored in narrow stripes, and on the under side the meshes are caught into a continuous loop or coil of coarser thread, making that part more durable. At the front the projecting ends of the warp are concealed in a continuous braiding of a single thong of buckskin. Two perforations show where the toe loop came through. Unfortunately, this part is wanting, but the rest of the lacing down to the ankle loops and up over the heel, returning to the knot on the instep, make the whole treatment plain. (PI. 8, fig. 1.) In the collection of Mrs. T. T. Childs, of Washington, is a sandal woven in wicker pattern from a two-ply twine of AIHH-I/IUOH. The heel strap and lacing are administered precisely as in fig. 1, but the loop in front of agave liber, twined, seems to have included the first and second toes. This is an uncommon form of toe loop. The under side of this sandal also is worthy of study, for the weaver has tied single knots in her cord all around the under margin, and also at proper places under the heel and under the ball of the foot where the strain would come. This ingenious device stands for the hobnails in peasants' shoes of more advanced peoples. The selvage of the Childs specimen is formed by an ingenious turning in of the twines in the course of the weaving or plaiting. A woven heel also is somewhat turned up. Example No. 13015 is from a din" dwelling in Arizona and is perfect in all its parts, which are four the sole, the toe loop, the heel loop, 360 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. and the lacing. The sole is of yucca leaf ( Yucca angustifolia) woven or plaited diagonally, and needs no explanation. The toe loop is a sepa- rate part, gathered at its ends into the texture of the sole, and is double. The heel loop is precisely like it, caught into the margin under the ankles and hooked over the heel. The lacing starts from the instep, and from this point makes three loops, to wit, about the toe string and about each side of the heel string, returning to the starting point, where it is knotted, (PI. 8, fig. 2.) Example No. 45609 is of yucca fiber coarsely plaited, from a cave near Silver City, N. Mex. All the lacing above is in one continuous string, starting on the back of the tees, passing down through the sole, and up, where a single knot is tied. The long end then makes an excursion to the ankle loops and around the heel, coming back to the single knot over the toes, where an additional square knot is tied. The treatment at the heel can not be made out, owing to the torn condition of the specimen. (PI. 8, fig. 3.) Example No. 13016, from a cliff dwelling in Arizona, is of shredded yucca fiber. The under side shows the structure better. There is a warp of four ropes, and the weft is woven into this like wicker, all the loose ends being purposely left long on top to afford a soft bed for the foot. The great majority of Japanese straw sandals happen to be woven in precisely the same manner, only in Japan the loose ends are cut off underneath. All the lacing is gone from this splendid specimen save the well-defined toe loop. (PI. 8, fig. 4.) Example No. 22716 in the Peabody Museum is a sandal from Acatita Cave, Coahuila, Mexico, an old and exceedingly interesting form. The thick sole is closely woven in twisted yucca fiber in checker pattern and the bottom is soaked in pitch or gum. There are two toe strings, knotted on top and passing between 1 and 2 and 3 and 4, crossed, per- haps, over the top of the foot, hitched into the sole at the margin below the ankle and passing behind the heel. This should be compared with example No. 10119. (PI. 9, fig. 1.) Example No. 22718 in the Peabody Museum is a substantial sandal from Acatita Cave, Coahuila, Mexico, made of yucca fiber, and loaned by Professor Putnam. The underside is shewn in the photograph. The structure is a little obscure, but there seems to be a mass of fiber felted, and sewed together with coarse yucca yarn, long stitches beneath and short stitches above, precisely as on the compound soles of the Orient. The border is strengthened by stitching all round. The speci- men is not ancient and may have been constructed under European motives. (PI. 9, fig. 2.) Example No. 22183 in the Peabody Museum is a sandal from Coyote Cave, Coahuila, Mexico, loaned by Professor Putnam. The outline is that of a modern round-toed shoe. The fabric is of yucca fiber, the warp laid along loosely in wisps, little twisted, but the loose ends are all underneath. This warp is held in position by a continuous boustro- phedon twined weaving of two-ply string in crooked rows from half an EXPLANATION CF PLATE 8. SANDALS WITH STRINGS INCLOSING SECOND AND THIRD TOES. Fig. 1. SANDAL, MADE OF INDIAN HEMP. The specimen is closely woven after the pattern of California basketry. The toe string is missing. The heel string and lacings 011 top of the foot show the method of adminis- tration. From a cliff -dwelling of Arizona. Lent by Mr. Stewart Culin. ('Cat. No. 13014, Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, t Fig. ~. SANDALS OF YUCCA LEAF IN DIAGONAL WEAVING. Toe string, heel string and lacing of the same material and in the same pattern as fig. 1 . From a cliff-dwelling of Arizona. Lent by Mr. Stewart Onlin. (Cat. No. 13015. Museum of the University of Pennsylvania, i Fig. :5. SANDAL OF COARSE YUCCA FIBER IN DIAGONAL WEAVING. Toe string, heel string, and lacing of the same material. CCat. No. 45609, U. $: N. M.> Fig. 4. SANDAL OF SHREDDED YUCCA FIBER. Wicker weaving based on ;i warp of four ropes, the shredded ends on top; toe string, of double twine: heel string and lacing missing. From a cliff-dwelling of Arizona. Lent by Mr. Stewart Culin. (Cat. No. 13016. Museum of the University of Pennsylvania.) Report cf National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 8. mm- & SANDALS WITH STRINGS INCLOSING SECOND AND THIRD TOES. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 9. ANCIENT AND MODERN SANDALS FROM MEXICO. Fig. 1. SANDAL OF YUCCA FIBER. Checker weaving, double toe string. Acatita Cave, Coahuila, Mexico. Collected by Edward Palmer. (Cat. No. 23716, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) From Fig. ~>. SANDAL OF SHREDDED YUCCA FIBER. Woven so as to leave a portion of the long pile on top. Perforations for double toe string. From Acatita Cave, Coahuila, Mexico. Collected by Edward Palmer. i Cat. No. 23718, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) Fig. :}. SANDAL OF SHREDDED YUCCA FIBER IN TWINED WEAVING. This sandal is made in the shape of the foot and has a double toe string. From Coyote Cave, Coahuila, Mexico. Collected by Edward Palmer. ('Cat. No. 33813, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) Fig. 4. MODERN SANDAL OF BAST FIBER. Plain weaving, with double toe string crossing over the back of the foot, fastened to the ankle string on either side beneath the ankles and looped over the heel. Worn by the Mohave (Yurnan) Indians, Arizona. Collected by Edward Palmer, i Cat. No. 10119, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) Fig. ">. TYPICAL LEATHER SANDAL. European pattern, with single toe string. Worn by Indians of Coahuila, Mexico. Collected by Edward Palmer. (Cat. No. 22803, Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass.) Reporter" National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 9. ANCIENT AND MODERN SANDALS FROM MEXICO. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 361 inch to an inch apart. The border is further strengthened by sewing all round with a yarn of yucca fiber. The sandal is nearly worn out, and the toe strings have been set back as though for a smaller toot. Enough of the lacing remains to show that two toe strings passed between 1 and 2 and 3 and 4. (PI. 9, fig. 3.) Example No. 10119 of the Peabody Museum is a quadrilateral sandal of the Mohave Indians, Yuman stock, in southwestern Arizona, loaned by Professor Putnam. The sole is a coarse example of checker weav- ing in strips of cotton wood bark. The warp consists of a series of strips doubled at the toe, so that all ends project at the heel. In finish- ing off these are turned up and folded on top where they are held in place by whipping. The whole lacing is of one strip of bast, doubled in the middle, which is beneath the sole at the toes. The ends are brought up through two holes in front to inclose toes 1 and 2, and 3 and 4, crossed over the top of the foot, rove through the margin of the sole under the ankle and then twisted onto the other to make a heel band. In older forms farther south the toe-strings do not cross on the top of the foot. (PI. 9, fig. 4.) Example No. 22863 in the Peabody Museum is a rawhide sandal from Coahuila, Mexico, consisting of two parts: (1) A simple flat sole with a hole in front for the toe string and two gashes under the ankle for the lacing; (2) the lacing, a strap half an inch wide, knotted underneath the sole, passing up for a toe string over the foot and down to the gash under the outside of the ankle, making a half hitch there, passing around the heel to the gash on the inner side and making a half hitch, and thence up to the instep, where it is tied. Collected by Edward Palmer in 1880. (PI. 9, fig. 5.) If the reader will consult the illustrated works of Charuay, Maudslay, Schmidt, and the earlier travelers to Mexico and Central America, he will find that in every case where the artist has not erred, there are two toe-strings or a loop between toes 1 and 2, and 3 and 4. Imagine the knot in the third figure of my plate to be drawn further up toward the instep on the back- of the foot, and the thing is done. Mr. Alfred P. Maudslay writes that in all cases the strings pass between toes 1 and 2, and 3 and 4. In the codices, the sandal on the feet of the men is not easily made out. The sole seems to recede and to leave the toes free, but in no case is the single-toe-string visible. Example No. 41828 (fig. 65) is a shoe worn by the Wolpi Indians of northeast Arizona (Hopi or Moki pueblos). The sole is dish shaped, well turned up around the foot. The upper is sewed to this, and is wrapped around the ankle precisely as in the modern "uppers" or false gaiter tops. This gaiter top is made fast by knots at three sepa- rate points, and, in addition, a thong passes about the heel through lugs or loops on the sole just in front of the aivli of the foot, and is tied over the instep. At once the similarity will be noted between this example and those from the Navajo encamped in the same region. Example No. 68657 is a shoe from the Zuni pueblo, New Mexico, col 362 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. lected by J. W. Powell, Director of the Bureau of Ethnology. It is made from the fronds of the Spanish bayonet ( Yucca data) split and woven diagonally. As this form of moccasin is not common in the region and is unique in the national collection, it stands for an innova- tion by the Zuili in imitation of modern shoes. Length, 8 inches; height, 6 inches. A very similar form is example No. 70999, from the Moki or Hopi pueblo in northeastern Arizona. Indeed, these seven towns have preserved to us all the types of basket weaving in the United States. In seeking to trace the southern limit of the moccasin or shoe, as against a plain sandal, it is well to remember Vaca's saying that the Pueblo Indians also wore shoes. He had not mentioned the shoe before and was surprised at their appearance, so it is evi- dent that from Florida to west- ern Texas people went bare- footed. The cactus desert may account for the change. 1 The Papago and other Yuman tribes in southwestern Arizona and in northwestern Sonora are sandal wearers now, and their foot-gear is akin to that of the South and of Spain. Ex- ample No. 174450 (fig. 66) is one of half a dozen pairs col- lected by W J McGee, of the Bureau of Ethnology, and may be thus described : (1) Soles of cow rawhide, hair beneath, pointing indifferently ; rights and lefts, cut around the foot. (2) Pierced for toe string and slit in two places below the ankles for the ankle strap, as in a skate. (3) Toe string buttoned under the sole by a ratchet produced by leaving a portion of hide to be turned down. The other end of the toe string is slit and provided with loose toggle. (4) Ankle strap, a strip of hide with ends passing up through the slits. These are perforated for the fastening of the lashing, which passes over the foot, through this ankle strap, behind the heel, through the other ankle strap and back to the toe string, where it is fastened oft'. The peculiar button or ratchet beneath the sole, to keep the ankle strap in position, is worthy of a cultured brain. Examples 19703 and 73001 are. sandals of Diegenos and La Costa Indians, California. They are made of Agave deserti fiber woven in coarse filaments over a warp consisting of two strands of coarse twine Fig. 65. MOCCASIN OF WOLPI PUEBLO INDIANS, ARIZONA. m a figure in the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Cat- No. 41828, U. S. N. M. 'Davis, "Spanish Conquest of New Mexico," p. 101. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 303 of the same material. There are two loops at the heel and one loop at the ball of the foot passing from side to side over the top of tin- toot. Tin- warp strands are tied together at the toe, drawn up over the foot under the loop back of the heel, then come in front and tie around the ankle. Length, 12 indies. Collected by Edward Palmer. One type of Mexican sandal sole has live points of attachment for the lacing one between the toes, one on either side opposite the mcta tarsals. and one on either side under the heel. The lacing passes around . 66. BAWHIUK SANDAL <>K 1-Al'AMO (I-IMAN) INDIANS, SOfTHWESTKUN AKI/.ONA. Cat. No. 1744M), U. S. N. M. Collrrtrtl by \V J Mr (irr. the heel and below the instep across the front part of the foot, connect- ing with the five attachments above mentioned. This is very important in the study oft lie .Mexican shoe. In theclitt'dwellers and in the K la math examples the side lacings also appear. Kxample No. 17698, in the 1'eabody Museum, is a pair of sandals from San Luis Potosi, Mexico, consisting of sole and lacing. The former is a strij) of harness leather worn smooth side up. They, like most other Mexican specimens, are cut rights and lefts. There are three slashes along either margin, between the ball of the foot and the point l>eneath 364 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. the ankle. The lacing is a strap half an inch wide, looped into the front gash on the inside and passing diagonally to 2 on the outside, to 2 on the inside, to 1 on the outside, to 3 on the inside, and around the heel. A sandal from Puebla, Mexico, has a sole of rawhide cut to fit the foot roughly, the margins of which are turned up. Along each side six good-sized holes are cut. Beginning at the front left-hand hole a strap one-fourth of an inch wide is woven backward and forward from margin to margin, passing under and over. The last three pairs of holes on each side are devoted to forming a heel by a system of half hitches. Pieces of soft leather slashed and woven onto the lacing protects the back of the foot and the heel. Length, 10 inches. Collection of Mrs. Fannie B. Ward. Example No. 152732 is a pair of sandals from Colima, Mexico (fig. 67). These consist of a sole and upper lacing. The sole is a piece of tanned leather, cut somewhat in the shape of the foot. Five holes are pierced Fig. 67. MODERN LACED SANDAL OK LEATHER. FROM COLIMA, MEXICO. C;it. So. 1527IS2. U S. N. M. Pullerf-ii by Kdwarii P:iln through each side margin of the sole for the lacing. The lacing con- sists of a continuous leather string one-eighth of an incb wide, which is attached to one side of the sole, and is woven backward and forward through three pairs of holes in the margin of the sole, on the fourth round a half hitch is made and the string carried backward to form the heel, forward by a half hitch through the sole, and then over the foot to the other side, where another half hitch is made, and another string, passed around the sole through a hole in the margin and back again, is fastened off in a pad on the top of the foot. The lacing at each excur- sion passes through three slits cut in a soft piece of leather, which lies between the toot and the lacing. This shoe should be compared with patterns in South America collected by Mrs. Fannie B. Ward. Length, 9 inches. Collected by Edward Palmer. Example No. 30382, in the Peabody Museum, Cambridge, is a pair of sandals worn by the Maya of Yucatan, which are rights and lefts; sole double, with extra heel lift beneath; sewed together with single thong; lugs, or loops on the margin under the ankle. The tapering rope lacing PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 365 passes up between toes 1 and 2, and then through the loop over the instep and heel as usual. Length, 9 inches. These are modern and Latin American, doubtless. But Mandslay figures elegantly in Biologia Cen- tral Americana Archaeology statues of gods wearing sandals. In the photographs, so far as they can be made out, and in the lithographs, where the artist has followed the original, the double toe strap passes down between toes 1 and 2, 3 and 4, or 1 and 2, 2 and 3.' In the American Museum of Natural History are two portions of jars showing the strap between toes 1 and 2, 4 and 5. One from Orizaba (No. 300) has the inclosed heel, shown on the Codices, with separate strings running between the toes to the ankle band. The other example (No. 207), from Guerero, is more complete. The leg is incased like a Zuiii woman's; strings pass from this leg band down between the toes. An examination of any collec- tion of pottery from Middle America re- veals the fact at once, if the human foot is portrayed, that the single toe string was not anciently known. 2 In one of the sculptured monoliths of Copan, figured by Dr. Julius Schmidt, the feet of the god are incased in sandals very much like those of the Codices, con- sisting of a sole and the quarters of a shoe without the vamp (fig. 68). In the monolith, however, the thong passes be- tween the first and the second toe. 3 In the succeeding monolith 4 the left toes are broken off, but the right limb pre- sents a square front view. The thong passes between the first and the second and the third and the fourth toe, and is apparently looped or concealed in a ring or horseshoe- shaped object, though this may be only an artist's flourish, the two ends approaching each other, turning outward and terminating in braids in which a loop is caught which descends from a highly ornate rosette in front of the ankle. Accord- ing to Meye's drawing, the sandal is unfastened by detaching the last- named loops from the braids on the ankle ring. The Eskimo fashion of attaching a similar device is to bring the upper loop under a ring a iu I over a nail head or stud. Mr. Saville confirms these statements from original drawings. 'Cf. Part ii, pis. 34, 37. ir>. and 46, and Part iv, pis. 77, 79, and 82. Charnay, "Ancients Villcs," p. 49, and elsewhere. Meye and Schmidt, " Stone Sculptures of Copan and Quirigua," New York, 1KH.S, Dodd, Mead &, Co., pi. HI. 'iliid, pi. III. Fig. 8. KOOT OF STATUE AT ' ,T I K I< , r A . GUATEMALA, SHOWING DOUBLE TOE 8TBINO. FruniH figure in Meye nd Schmidt ' "stone Sculpture* of Copan and Quingua. " 366 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Iii pi. iv of Meye and Schmidt's work the feet of the image are turned sidewise, and the sandals exhibit only the heels attached to the soles. The feet of the figure in pi. V are said in the description to be clothed in thick-soled shoes fastened with bows, but the appearance is of a moccasined foot resting on a sandal. The squntting figures in the suc- ceeding plates are barefooted and wear bandages of some kind about the ankle. PI. xin (fig. 19 b) shows a masked figure, wearing bands wrapped four times about the lower leg, suggesting the leggings of the pueblo women. In pi. xv, depicting a monolith in Quirigua, the feet are gorgeously covered, either with a shoe consisting of sole, vamp, and dec- orated quarters, or, in what would be more American, they are clothed in moccasins that rest on a heeled sandal. The thickness of the sole in these figures leaves one puzzled whether this feature is only a sculptor's decoration, but the heel band is still worn in Moki dances. 1 Mr. im Thurn says of the Guiana Indians that they make sandals from the leaf stalk of the ta palm (Mauritiaflexuosa), to be worn in travel- ing over stony ground. The string passes between the great toe and the next, and when the sandal is much worn the skin is made callous by the string. In a few hours the sandals are worn out and new ones cut from the nearest aeta palm. 2 Mr. im Thurn also speaks of the neat- ness with which they fit the foot. This form is of Spanish introduction. Fray Simon, speaking of the In- dians encountered on the Orinoco by Aguirre's party, says that they were naked, but had on the soles of their feet pieces of deerskin, fastened like the sandals worn in Peru or like those seen by him in the provinces of the Government of Venezuela. 3 In Whymper's "Great Andes of the Equator," page 143, is a figure of a sandal, with sole of sennit sewed together, and the upper made of woven stuff (fig. 69). There probably would be no doubt in the mind of any student that this foot wear was actually made in Spain. The National Museum possesses a great number of examples of this peculiar type, and the following description of the Spanish example may be com- pared with the Whymper specimen. 4 1 Very great caution should be used in the practical interpretation of sculptors' and painters' costume and implementa. In Catlin's drawings and paintings of moc- casins the very decorative features of the sandals on the statues here referred to are produced, though they have no existence in fact. -" Indians of British Guiana," London, 1883, p. 195, quoted by Mason, in his work on the " Origins of Invention," Chapter x. "Bollaert, Publications of the Hakluyt Society, 28, 1861, p. 105. 4 For the sennit sole, cf. Wiener, " Pe"rou et Bolivie," p. 680; also Reiss and Stiibel, "The Necropolis of Aucon,'' pi. 88, ng.4. Fig. 69. PERUVIAN ALPARGATA OR SANDAL WITH BRAIDED SOLE.'' From a figure in Whymjx?r'8 "Great Andes of the Equator." PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 3G7 The braided-sole sandal of Spain has in it some noteworthy Hun ; teristics. The sole nowadays is made of esparto grass. l>nii. Whymper draws attention to a curious economic distinction in Kcua dor, where the carriers "were paid in advance and had to be provided with shoes. Although natives of all sorts were continually met with 368 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. trudging barefoot along the roads, whenever one was hired, he found himself unable to walk without shoes." 1 Wiener relates that the Indians who dwell on the high plateaus of South America, obliged to walk at times over the snow, are in the babit, when they skin a llama, to cut out a piece of the green hide, to fit it upon the foot and to keep it bandaged there during twenty-four hours or more to dry into shape and take the form of a low slipper. The wool is left on the outside. Mummies have been found wearing similar foot gear, the foot also enveloped in a sock-like cover. The Indians of the Ceno de Pasco preserve this custom. 2 Example No. 127572, from Pachacamac, Peru, is a pair of sandals (fig. 70) from a mummy. These are of a very simple pattern; each one con- sists of a single piece of rawhide of the llama. When the hide was in a wet or green condition it was stretched over the toe and up about the margin of the foot, slightly rising to a height of 2 inches. Back of the heel a series of slits were then cut all around the upper margin and a draw- ing string of rawhide passed through all of these slits, begin- ning at the left side of the heel, passing across to the right side, then around the margin through the holes, back across the heel and through the left side. The loose ends of this rawhide form the string which passes around the instep, where it is tied or looped. Length, 9 inches. Collected by W. E. Curtis. Wiener figures the following foot gear from Peru, partly industrial and partly ornamental (pi. 10) : (1) Cord, metal ring, broidered stuff, about the ankles, said to pre- vent cramps and accidents. (2) Sole, with toe strap, joined with two straps passing in front of instep down to the border of the sole in front of the heel. (3) Toe strap, or cord, meeting cord passing around the instep, which is looped onto a heel cord. (4) From the border below the instep two loops extend, one about the heel, one over the lower instep. (5) Sandal of braided, in Maguey fiber, coiled like a chenille mat. (6) Eegular sandals and slippers, European models. Fig. 70. RAWHIDE SANDAL WITH PUCKERED MARGIN, h ROM PACHACAMAC. PERU. Cat. No. 127572, U. S. X M. Collected by Willinni E. Curtis. 1 Whymper, "Great Andes of the Equator," New York, 1892, p. 39. 'Wiener, "Perou et Bolivie," Paris, 1880, p. 679. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 10 10 FOOTWEAR FROM PERU. Fig. 1. FRINGED ANKLE BAND, Embroidered material. Ancon. Fig. 2. LEATHER SANDAL FROM ARICA, PERU. Single toe strap, bifurcated on the back of the foot and attached to the margin of the sole half way back, as in Japanese specimens. Fig. 3. SANDAL OF LEATHER. Found at the foot of the Cerro de la Horca, Para- monga. Single toe string passing through a broad loop in each end of the heel band and fixed at the margin of the sole beneath the ankles. Fig. 4. LEATHER SANDAL FROM CHIMBOTE. Single toe strap bifurcated on the back of the foot. Attachments not shown. Rosette at the joining of the straps. Fig. 5. LEATHER SANDAL FROM SANTA. Sole held on by two loops fastened under the instep, one passing over the back of the foot, the other behind the heel. Fig. 6. SANDAL FOUND IN THE ARENAL OF PARAMONGA. Single toe cord bifur- cating an inch or two from the toes and passing to the middle of the heel loop on either side. The extreme variation of this form is in the Mediterranean sandal, in which a band clasps the lower leg, the ankle strings are perpendicular, and the toe string i carried singly across the back of the foot to the leg band. Fig. 7. SANDAL FOUND IN THE NECROPOLIS AT GRAN-CHIMU. The especial fea- tures are the absence of the toe-string, and the wrapping about the ankles of a series of straps attached to the margin of the sole at various points. Fig. 8. ORNAMENTAL SANDAL FOUND AT CHANCAY. This sandal is of little use in travel, but is of the same general style as that shown in fig. 7. Fig. 9-12. SANDALS FROM CAJAMARCA,CA.TABAMBA. AND VIRACOCHAPAMPA. These specimens all have slashed tops. Report ol National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 10. FOOTWEAR FROM PERU. From Wiener, " 1'erou et Bolivie. ' PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 369 Fig. 71. MODERN LEATHKK SANDAL FROM BOLIVIA. Collection of Mr-. Knnm- B. Wur.l. In Mrs. Ward's collection from Bolivia is ;i sandal (tigs. 71 and 72) worthy of close study. The leather sole is double, and sewed or "run" together by means of leather thongs after the most approved Moham. medan style everywhere seen south and east of the Mediterranean. The toe strap is separate, passing up through the sole, keyed or tog- gled under the bottom and slit at the upper end for the passage of the thong. A "quar- ter "or arch strap just beneath the ankles, gashed at each end, passes down through the sole at one margin and rises through the other side. The lac- ing of hide slit at one end at the toes passes back to the quarter strap, where it takes a half hitch about and through the slit. The lacing thence passes about the heel to the quarter strap on the other side, where it is fastened by another half hitch and thence is continued through the slit in the toe strap and is fastened off in the slit at the beginning. Baudelier sent to the American Museum, New York, four sandals from Arica, Peru, having rawhide soles slashed similarly and provided with looped short straps, gashed at the four ends for receiv- ing the lacing. In Mrs. Ward's collection there may be seen another type of sandal from Bolivia (fig. 73) in which there is no strap between the first and the second toe. On the other hand, the quarter or heel strap is repeated under- neath the ball of the foot, and its gashed ends come up over the toes as does a skate strap. The lashing is practically the same as in the last example. The Patagonians (Tehuelche stock) wear potro boots made of the skin stripped from the knee and hock of a horse or large puma not unlike the bottes sauvages of Canada mentioned on page &45; over these they H. Mis. 00, pt. 2 24 Fig. 72. BOTTOM OF BOLIVIAN SANDAL, SHOWING ATTACHMKN I *. Collection of Mr. Fannie B. \Vr,l 370 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. sometimes wear overshoes made of the skin from the hock of the guanaco. The footmarks made by them when thus shod would be abnormally large, which gave rise to the name Patagou, or big foot. Example No. 55800 is a pair of man's shoes from Portugal. Uppers and soles are in one piece finished at the top with a softer leather; the upper border in front is puckered. The top is sewed together at theheel in a T-shaped seam, but the extra piece of leather is turned up inside. This shoe must be compared with the Eskimo shoes for the puckering, and with those of the interior Indians for the man- ner of joining the edges at the heel. The same style of foot wear made of very similar material, namely, thick uncolored hide, is in general use among the Canadian and New England lumbermen. The history of Portu- guese foot clothing is not well enough known to enable the student to decide whether this style was adopted from the American moccasin. The road would be a round about one, since the Portuguese in Amer- ica were very far away from the north- ern moccasin made all in one piece. Example No. 1280<>9 (fig. 74) is a wooden shoe from Minnesota (called sabot). It is made from poplar wood and is atypical example of the wooden shoe of northern and western Europe, especially in the Netherlands and Scandinavian countries. This example Fig. 73. BOLIVIAN LEATHER SANDAL, WITHOUT TOE-STRAP. Collection of Mrs. Fannie B. Ward. Fig. 74. SABOT OR WOODKN SHOE, FROM MINNESOTA. ':it. N.,. 128(169, U. S. N. M. Collected liy Reuben Wrmht. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 371 was made and worn in Minnesota by a Dane. Excellent wood for these shoes is found throughout the Mississippi Valley from the Gulf north- ward, and factories have been established for their manufacture, whence they are shipped to supply the European market. Length, 13 inches. Collected by Eeubeu Wright. The sabot in modern Europe has two or three motives of geographic expansion. In the Netherlands it lifts the foot above the wet ground. It is found in the countries where extremely light wood abounds. It is durable, and above all, in modern econom- ics it is cheap, a man being able to shoe his whole family a year for what it costs for a single pair of leather foot wear in one of our cosmo- politan cities. The antiquity of the sabot is difficult to trace. SANDALS. SHOES, AND BOOTS IN THK U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 75051 Sandals, clogs with toe bands . ... England 75052, 75053 Shoes, wooden do : Bo. 126956 Clogs, shoes for laborers do Do. 126957 Shoes 1 do Do. 126958 .. do Do. 150876 Wooden clogs do Edward Lovett. 175473 Do 76381 13144 Shoes, lauparsk o Norway Otis Bigelow. 76635 128069 Shoes, wooden, Swedish (fig. 74) ... Michigan R. E. Earll. Reuben Wright 75055 do 7505>~75059 Shoes do 76491 Shoes, carved, wooden .. .do Max Potachak. 76492, 76493 do do Do. 12M17 Holland Mrs E. S BrintoTi 151282 W. W. Rockhill. 55859, 55860 55857 Leather leggings do Do. 73124 Spain Do. 167007 167008 Child's sandals Man 's sandals Madrid, Spain do Walter Hough. Do. 129414 Child's rag shoes Mrs. E. S. Brinton. 129418 Slippers Germany and Italy Do. 129416 Red shoes Turkish pattern . . .. Do. 129415 Do. 168(509-168611 126937 Shoes, thick soled Slippers, felt and fur lined Bulgaria Russia Sophia Museum. State Department. 126940 . do Do. 126941 Men's felt boots do Do. 126942 . . <|o Do. 126944 Child's cloth shoes do Do. 126945 .. do Do. 43073 Sandals Afghan type (p 318) Hon. J H Snivth 168052 168876 Stilted clogs, toe string Mandingo, Africa J. F. Cook. 174689 Boots, red legs . Kongo, Africa Dorsev Mohnn. 174767 Wooden sandals with toe pegs . . . . do Do. 151741 SliDDers. Portairuese . . Angola. Africa... Heli Chan-lam. 372 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. SANDALS, SHOES, AND BOOTS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 175213, 175214 Sandals, types with toe strings Somali, Africa . . . . 76383 72716 Shoes, colored leather (p. 317) .... Morocco 5500 Yellow embroidered morocco slip- do de, Leipzig. 129412 pers. 129413 Slippers, slipshod do Do. 76409 Wooden clogs with toeband .... Tripoli 5499 76385 74636 Sandals, type (p. 521) Lady's outer shoes Arabia Cairo, Egypt J. Varden. Otis Bigelow. Dr. G. W Samson 76973, 76974 Red leather shoes, embroidered do State Department 76382 Shoes, red morocco Syria . . Otis Bigelow 76470 Boots do 76471 Half boots, children do Do. 76472 Half boots, yellow leather do Do. 79473 Shoes, worn over 76472 do Do. 129411 Slippers. Damascus do Mrs. E. S. Brinton. 926 Outer shoes, types Turkey Charles Laszlo. 927 Shoes, types do Do. 5498 Slippers, types do J. "Varden. 5502 do do Do. 76384 Slippers, yellow morocco do Otis Bigelow. 4830-4832 Man's Turkish slippers . Isaac Y. Westervelt 130614 Mud sandals, Chirrok Kerkook, Kurdistan Rev. A. H. Audrus. 130605 Shoes with nails, Koords Eastern Turkey . . Do. 130835 Sandals, over toe string (fig. 41) . Daniel Phillips. 164944 Chapb'es (p. 325) W. L. Abbott. 164978 Shoes (p 326) Do. 175117 Woman's boots Eastern Turkestan. . . . Do. 175118 Boots Chirrocks (p. 325) .do Do. 175119 do Do. 175104 Woman's boots, Pabboos (p. 325) . . Leh, Ladakh , Do. 175105 Child's boots, Pabboos (p. 325) do Do. 153044 Shoes Persia Pinkes Hanuka. 150877, 150878 do do Ed. Lovett. 126834 Slippers, types India W. H. Daii. 93150 16693 Wooden sandals with toe peg Calcutta Burma Do. Burma Mission. 16696 Leather sandals (p. 326) do Do. 76465 76467 State Department 153347 Sandals (p. 325) do R. Wildman. 108760 Ceylon Commission of Ceylon. 154158 R. Wildman. 168223 World's Columbian Ex- 130640 Sandals (p. 315) Borneo position. Royal Gardens. Kew, 130639 New Zealand England. Do. 3919 China Lieut. Wilkes, TT. S. N. 4800 Shoes do 4826 ...do ... ...do.. U. S. X. Dr. G. J. McGowau. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 373 SANDALS, SHOES, AND MOOTS IN THE I', s. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 5497 Shoes China 15674 do do Chinese Centennial Com- 34764 Shoes small do mission. 55827 Amoy China 48*7 Canton ... mission. (! \v Robinson 55847 55848 A Mm , China 55849 Straw shoes, men's do mission . Do. 55828 Cheefoo, China G. W. Bobinson 55399 do Do 55830 55831 Felt shoes men's do Do. 55833 do Do. 55835 Cotton cloth boots do Do. 55836 do Do. 55837 Sinn t ii m; Province Do. 55838 Riaug Su, China Do. 55839 Straw shoes, woman's ....do Do. 55841 Shanghai, China Do. 55842 Sandals, men's do Do. 55843 Shantung, China Do. 55844 Wooden shoes, boy's do Do. 55845 China Do. 55846 do Do. 55850 Shanghai, China Do. 55851 do Do 55852 . do Do. 55854 boots, man's. . do Do. 55855 Leather boots half do Do. 55856 do Do. 55863 China Do. 5.- 864 do Do. 55865 S5866 do Do 76476 do State Department. 131044 \\" \V Rock hill 131198 Sandals sennit (p 328) do Do 151 9 81 Shoes China Do 151383 do do Mrs. E. J. Stone. 131045 Boots (pi 2) Tibet W.W. Rockhill. 131085 Boots, felt do Do. 167179 Lama boot (p. 326) do Do. 167181 do Do. 167303 do Do. 55832 Manchuria China Do. 55840 . .do Do. 131072 77011 Hoots and garters (fig. 42) Shoes grass Mongolia Seoul, Korea Do. Ensign J. B. Bernadon. 77012 77013 . do Do. 77014 do Do. 77015 .. do Do. 77016 Blue felt shoes do Do. 77081 Child's shova.. . ...do. Do. 374 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. SANDALS, SHOES, AND BOOTS IN THK U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 151146 Child 's sandals (p. 329) Korea W. W. Rockhill. 167706 do H. B. Hurlbert. 167707 do Do. 167708 do Do. 167709 do Do. 167710 Clogs, child's do Do. 73107 73986 do Col. Alex. Johnston. 116211 do Bureau of Ethnology 128161 128173 Tokio and Yokohama. 150487 Rornyn Hitchcock. 150637 . do Do. 150644 5797 (p. 333). Sandals (p. 333) G-aiters...- Yezo, Japan Do. Perry expedition 22192 73082 Sandals (fig. 36) . Ainos, Japan Benjamin S. Lyman. P.L. Jouy 73084, 73085 Sandals Do. 73091 Boots straw (fig. 44) Do. 73092 Straw boots, hunter's .. do Do. 167961 Moccasins, woman's, birch bark Finland Hon. J. M. Crawford. 167968 167969 (figs. 45, 47). do Do. 167970 Shoes, child's do Do. 167976 Slippers, woman's do Do. 73026 Leonhard Stejneger. 153524 Boots Siberia Lieut. G. B. Harber, 2438 Chukchi U. S. N. 2440, 2441 Water-proof boots ..do Do. 73025 Dressed-skin boots, soles of sea- Leonhard Stejneger. 44686 49167 lion flippers. Summer boots, many insertions Cape Nome, Alaska E. W. Nelson. Do 44347 Toy sealskin boots Do. 43344 Boottees, waterproof . . Do. 43345 Boots, sealskin (p. 340) do Do. 7581 Boots, deerskin, winter TJnalakleet Alaska .... W. H. Dall. 17591 36194 Boottees, sealskin (pi. 4) Boots, dressed sealskin Norton Bay do Do. E. W. Nelson. 38771 Boots, waterproof (p. 341) .do Do. 49063 "VT m' funny hr>nt.s , T do Do. 76338 Fishskin boots Do. 7583 W H. Dall 38703 Grass shoes do E. W. Nelson. 129344 Shoes, high, elegant do L. M. Turner. 129821 Woman's boots do General Hazen. 129822 do Do. 38697 38699 Fort Yukon, Alaska . E. W. Nelson. 38700 Shoes toy ..do Do. 38370 Boots, flshskin Lower Yukon, Alaska . . Do. 153737 J H. Turner. 8784 Straw shoes, Eskimo Premorska W. H. Dall. 38794 Boots, flshskin Anvik, Alaska E. W. Nelsoi 43903-43906 ...do.. Do. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 375 SANDALS, SHOKS, AND BOOTS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSKUM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 481 :tO, 48131 .'.."'.14, 5595 Moots, tislmkin Boots, child's Anvik, Alaska Yukon Kivcr Uask.i K. \V. Nelson. W H Dall 5591 Boots, salmon skin do Do [MM Boots, sealskin Ipl. 4 ' do J T Dyar 10487 do do Do 11440 .. do \V ]{ D a i| 36200 Shoes, rli i Id s, liin Alaska E. W. Nelson 15.'!735 Boots waterproof Y iikon, A laska . . I 11 Turner I5I7M Mouis half do Do 16339 Kuskuk wim Alaska E. W. Nelson 7954 Moots, reindeer skin Moots, winter, deerskin Nii.sliaiia;:. Alaska do I>r.T.T. Miner. E. W. Nelson 4T'*li 43281 Do. 20921 Boots, winter, decorated Aleutian Islands .1. (1. Swan. 48102 Moots, waterproof t'nulaska. Uaska.. E. W. Nelson 168295 \ttn Alaska 127332 Togiaknmiit, Abtska . . . J. Applegato 90400 William J Fisher 55971 Boots, waterproof, fishskin . Bristol Bav, Alaska Charles L. McKay. 56061 ... do Do 72503 72504 Moccasins, women's Kenai Indians William J. Fisher. 49104 Boots, deerskin Kotzebue Sound E. W Nelson 129061 129662 Boots, sealskin bottoms do Lieut. G. M. Stoney. 127950 Boots Putnam River, Alaska Do 50749, 50750 I'm its. men's (figs. 49, 52) Point Barrow, Alaska . . Lieut. P. H-. Ray. 74042 do Do 70182 limits, woman's waterproof (fig. do Do 89834 53). Moots, skin of mountain sheep do Do. 128409 (fig. 51)., Boots, roan's winter do E. P. Herendeen. 153892 Boots, reindeer (p. 338) do 912 915 do 910 do Do. 1332 Boots, sealskin, waterproof (pi. 4) . do C. P. Gaudet. 1333 Boots, deerskin ..do ... Do. 1669 Moots, fox skin do Robert MacFarlane. 1683 Boots, deerskin do Do. 1692 do do Do. 1718 Boots, sealskin do Do. 2056 Shoes, child's do Do. . . do Do. 2060 Shoes, man's (pi. 4) do Do. 2001 Shoes, child's do Do. 2219 Boots, Eskimp ....do Do. 2220 Boots, without tops do Do. 2222 2223 Shoes, child 'tf ... do Do. do Do. .,.,.,- ( ) vershoes. fur ... .do Do. 3979 Boots, woman's winter (pi. 4) do Do. 3980 Boots, man's winter (pi. 4, fig. 6). do Do. .do Do. 3982 do Do. MM Boots, man's summer (i>l. 4) .. ...do... Do. 376 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. SANDALS, SHOES. AND BOOTS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Museum 11 umber. 3985 7723-7725 7648 2053 3977 864 865 1717 1720 1721-1723 127951 10189 10379 68115 68116 68117 68121 68122-68124 68142 553, 554 558, 559 567 13133-131381 13152> ^6966 36967 127137 127138 151668 151665 168921, 168922 168933, 168934 74487 90062, 90063 90066-90070 90076-90081 90189-90193 90356, 90357 90358-90365 90366 150890 151667 153507 153516 74435 129354 153865 839 840,841 5651 577 Specimen. Soles, man's sealskin boots I '.out s. deerskin Bouts, part of deerskin do...; Shoes, child's Boots, Eskimo Boots, Eskimo Boots, men's deerskin . Shoes, child's Boots,, men's deerskin and fox skin. Boots, man's Models of Eskimo shoe Boots, sealskin, waterproof Boots, sealskin, fur do Overshoes, sealskin Boots,woman's,deer Boots, waterproof.. Shoes, child's, waterproof. Boots Boots, long, double Boots, man's Locality. By whom contributed. x>ts . . do Do do Do . do Do do It. Kennirott Mackenzie River Do do Do do do Do. , .sealskin, do Do. ... do Do s roof Repulse Bay Hecla Strait Capt. C. F. Hall. Do Hudson Bay . do ... Do do Do. a,fnrinside do Do. do Do. K)f. do Do. Upernavik, Greenland Dr. 1. 1. Hayes. ...do .. Do. .do Boots, sealskin Greenland , Do. . Y. ('onamagere. Boots, fur lined Shoes Boots, long, ornamented Slippers, sealskin Boots (four pairs) Boots, sealskin, double Boots, man's .do Boots, woman's Gaiter shoes Ungava, Labrador Moccasins, Tinn6 type do Shoes, child's. T-shaped toes(p.348) do do do Shoes, corrugated soles do Shoes, child's, winter (p. 343) do Boots, type set, models (p. 342) do Boota, toy, hair inside do Shoes, child's, waterproof do Boots, outside ....do Southeastern Alaska. . . Moccasins Boots Moccasins, Tlingit Indian . . . do Interior Alaska Moccasins, child's do Moccasins, man's Fort Good Hope Shoes, man's do Moccasins ' do Shoes, por(MipiiiP<|uill work Fort Simpson, Canada do Governor Fenckner. do Do. South Greenland Mrs. Octave Pavy. do Do. Greenland Dr. C. H. Merriam. do Dr. F. M. Hoadley. East Greenland Royal Museum of North- ern Antiquities, Copen- hagen, Denmark. Do. L. M. Turner. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Miss Anna L. Ward. Dr. C. H. Merriam. Henry G. Bryant. Do. J. J. McLean. L. M. Turner. J. H. Turner. R. Kennicott. .do .do Do. Do. B. R. Ross. PRIMITIVE TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. 377 SANDALS, SHOES, AND BOOTS IN THE U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locali t \ By whom contributed. 678 Shoes, OTHunntf' ......... B R 1; 1336 Moccasins (p. 346) C )> tiuiiil.-t 2221 Moccasins, child's do K. MacFarlane 7612 Yukon River W H Dall 7613-7615 Moccaaina (p. 346) do Do 166962-166905 Mm rasins (p. 347) do J H Turner 11390 Southeast Alaska 20920 Bootx, I nil iun do... 21580 do . I>r .1 it White 2018 2043 Moccasins Chippewavan B R ROSA MM Moccasin* Fort (i>od Hope R. Kennicott 131095 Moccasins bear's feet Fort St. J unieH Canada 674 Geo Gibbs 30842 Moccasins low, with laprlx Cognowaga, Canada Dr. 6 Brown Goode 76562-76565 Canada 151388 M occa-ins < hieidas New York Mrs. K. J Stout- 74201 North Carolina ... . K H Cushing 130478 ... do 153506 30837 Dr. G Brown Goode 30838 .. do Scotia. ... .do Do. 30839 Moccasins heavy bead work do Do 30840 30841 Moccasins, bead and porcupine w ork do Do. 8544 Nebraska Medical Museum USA 151934 do do Capt J G Bourke. USA 153052 do Oklahoma Km ilf Granier 165140 do Wyoming Bureau of Ethnology. 165786 do ... Indian Territory H. R. Voth collection 165804-165811 Moccasins, Arapahoe (p. 350) Do. 6988 E. Palmer. 8350 do Medical M nsrnm. I ".S. A . 130797 do Mrs J. G. Brutf 165914 Indian Territory H. R. Voth collection. 165981 165982 iir.'M" do Do. 165093-165998 do Do. 166008 ... .do Do. 166009 do Do 10110 Fort Randall AKst.Surg. A. J. Comfort, 151991 do do r.s. A. Capt . J .G.Bourke, U .S. A . 7090 ... do Lieutenant Id-Men 1 65022- 16, r >026 do do U.S. A. Bureau of Kthnology I.MMIU Leech Lake, Minn Dr. W. J. Hoffman. MM) Kansas :.... M' tllr.il Mum-inn, 1" S.A. 154354 Montana I>r \V J Hoffman 154355 do Do. 3060 Missouri Dr R Mueller 1897 Moccasins. Siou x . . . ...do ... I. it-iii. Bnrr> IN 1111 IT. 8. \\IINAI. MrsKi'M Continued. M ii -fii in number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 56748 7955 11386 Woman's pantaloons, hurkskin Boot*, reindeer skin Kfluui Indian- Chilcat Alaska Wrangell AhiHka Win. J. Fish-r. Dr.T. T. Minor. 20815-20817 Moccasins, Stikine Indian* 1" .1 (r Swan 20795 20796 sitka Alaska . . Do 20797 McM-rasins (p 351) do Do mi tin America. do v . Do '.MI.'I'.I Kurl Colvillt- Wash 673 l!407:i-'J4078 .40711 "insii Moccasins. Chinook (p. 352) Moccasins. Klamatli C'olunihia Hivt-r. Oregon do George ClliliM. I,. S. Dyar. Do 23855 J 1'. Monteith ItiTTL'ti 167727 Moccasins child's, Bannock ... .do Kil. Palmer 131243 ,|,, do 151715 do do I'rof. ' . II. Hit. h.-ci.-k 165147 M i M'I :i -i n - Shoahone \V\ niniug 22011 Moccasins Northern Wyoming .... Maj.J. W. I'owell. 22018 do do Do. 22020 do do Do, 1197, 1198 Moccasins plain do Do, 12tHi 12(167 Southern Utah Do. 12068 12069 do Do 14384-14391 .. . do Uo. 17LM7. 17218 Morcasins Utah Do. 19831 do do Do. 19836 do ... .do Do. 19841 do do DM. 165148 19628 Moccasins, child's Walker Lake, Colo S. Powers. 21347 J17J1 Moccasins. Iliipa Indiana California ... do Do. 21722. '2 1 TIM . ... do do Do. 10778 10779 Moccasins, Ute Indians Moccasins liradi-d. lie Indians.. Colorado ... do Maj.J. W.Powell. Do. 10780 Moccasins, with long loggings .... do ; Do. 10788, 10789 Moccasins, lite Indians do Hi. 11105,11196 Moccasins, Moki Arizona . Do 11193,11194 Boots, hide solos do Do. 45607 Sandals straw Silver City, N. Mo\ Henry 11. Husliy 45609 Sandals, largo (a fragment) (pi. 71) . do Do. 45610 Sandals child's (pi. 7) do Do. 20929 Sandals yucca fiber (p. 357) St. George Utah BH6 Boots, Apai hr Arizona Do. BOM 1 ii ii ii -. Ton to Apache' ...do Dn 7314 11321 Moccasins and leggings. Apai In- P>i >ots, long, Apache do Maj.W. H. Mills. W F M Arnv 21533-215:15 27824 Moccasins, with legs, A pa. -In- Moccasins, girls' Shwn USA 152519 do Capt J G Bourki' 1 v \ 153566 8356 Moccasins, woman's. Apache. Capt, R. H. Pratt, U.S.A. 9549 9550 Moccasins, Navajo Indians (tigs. do 16503 63 and 64). do Gov W F M Vriiv 17347 17348 do New Mexico Lieut. G M Whreler 128114 Arizona A M Stephen 166593 Moccasins and loggings, Navajo do 73908 73909 Indians. 175185 Venezuela 32091 Hun K K Hart H2W2 Lima Do. SNOWSHOES AND DEVICES FOR TRAVELING OVER THE SNOW AFOOT. The snowshoe is a device for sustaining the body of one traveling on the top of the snow. It will be seen at a glance to be absolutely neces- sary to the welfare of hyperborean peoples in walking, hunting, pulling a sled, or in driving a team attached to the sled. Every Arctic cul- ture area has its own use for this article. According to the timber supply and the life to be led, the snowshoe varies from place to place. In association with its kindred implement, the sled, the snowshoe was the apparatus for most rapid land transit known to man before the age of steam. Snowshoes are of two kinds: (1) Those of wood, the skee or its equivalent; (2) the netted snowshoe. The wooden snowshoe varies from people to people, but there are, in a general sense, but two kinds, the skee proper, or wooden skate (fig. 75), useful in rapid transit, and the compound skee, lined beneath with pelt, useful in draft and also for uphill work (fig. 77). The smooth skee is to be seen in two forms, one having grooves beneath acting as a keel or keel board, the other being perfectly flat and smooth beneath. The netted snowshoe grows out of two needs, that of timber suffi- ciently large and strong from which to make them, and the demand for a footgear that will help the wearer in an emergency to draw a heavy load. There is a great variety of netted snowshoes, the differences 382 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. among them depending partly upon the form and quality of the frame, and partly upon the material the kind and fineness of netting. (1) The simplest form of frame is a hoop of wood, made from a scion or sapling, trimmed very little, and bent into a form more or less round, without crossbars. Examples of this type are shown in pis. 17 and 21. In the Caucasus and in the Aino country a nearly round frame is made by telescoping one half hoop into another and binding the ends together. In the Adirondacks the wealthy hunters wear a very pretty and costly kind with circular frames. (2) An advance upon the first form is a hoop or ellipse, with two opposite points drawn toward each other, more in shape of the foot or like an hour glass; also without crossbars. This form has a restricted area and is shown in fig. 76. (3) A third type does not differ essentially from No. 2, except that the outline is oval and the rear part occasionally constricted, as in a hand glass. The oval form is illus- trated by an example in the U. S. National Museum from the northwest coast of Amer- ica, collected long ago by Captain Wilkes. No. 2728, fig. 92, is the type specimen. A type slightly differing from No. 3 is from CJugava, eastern Canada. The ellipse is the fundamental form; the rear is con stricted into three local varieties, described by Turner, to wit, the beaver tail, the swal low tail, and the round end forms. The Ungava specimens are neatly made, as if by machinery, and they have crossbars and tine webbing of thong and provision for the toes inclosed in a soft shoe. (4) This type has a frame in one piece, but the front end is bent sharper and the rear ends lashed together, forming a trailer. All of this looped variety in the National Museum have crossbars set in after the man- ner to be described. The variations in this class of frames are in the turning up or not of the front, the length of the trailer, and, in the latest voyageur and Canadian examples, the curve of the front. Fig. 75. WOODEN SNOWSHOES USED BY THE OILIAKS ON THE AMCR. From a figure in Schrenck's "P r-I.nndp ' PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 383 (5) The Chukchi and the natives of St. Lawrence Island make a frame of two pieces of wood bowed and lashed together at tin* ends in lenticular form. Anciently, all Eskimos wore this sort of snowshoe. These specimens are necessarily provided with crossbars. Then- is one example in the National Museum in which a two-part frame is rounded in front and trailed behind. In the Iroquois and Sioux country, and also among the voyageurs, the two-part frame readies its perfection. being neatly made and gracefully turned up in front. In order to give room for all questions that may arise in separating snowshoes into their species, and varieties on ethnical, technical, and geographical grounds, the following characteristics must be examined: 1. Material. Driftwood, lumber, sapling, bone, antler, etc. 2. Outer frame. Number of parts, relation to symmetry and the man- ner in which they are bound together. 3. Cross section of the frame. Round, squared, pointed oval, etc. 4. Outline and shear. Circular, elliptical, oval, pointed oval, lentic- ular ; also flat, warped, turned up, etc. 5. Crossbars. Number, material, form, and attachment. . 6. Netting. Rude or woven; wrapped, rove, or worked on a border line; of thong, babiche, twine of sinew, twine of babiche, vegetable twine; toe netting, heel netting, foot netting. 7. Measurement*. The netted snowshoe maybe traced into the United States quite well to the southward in the States east of the Plains; but it practically dis- appears from the horse tribes or regions. Old frontiersmen say that the horse Indians were not fond of snowshoes. and did not care to use them. The snowshoe line southward is on the isotherm of northern New York in winter. There was an abundance of raw material for making them, and the question was one of demand. If the snow was too soft to sustain the wearer, it mattered not how deep it lay, that only made matters worse. There was also a northern limit of good snowshoes. It lay within the Arctic Circle, where the snow became hard enough HI the long winter nights to sustain. the hunter without them. There, it will be seen, they became poorer as we get farther north. Snowshoes are not known to have been used south of the Klauiath River in California. They are not spoken of as occurring in South America. Here and there further south netted and fur overmoccasins occur. Nan sen ' mentions in his matchless chapter on the Skee the use of mud boards on the feet for crossing a marsh, and contrasts the lifting of them in stepping with the gliding of the Skee and the peculiar motion of the skater. The Guaraon. of the Orinoco, run with extreme address on muddy lauds, where the European, the Negro, or other Indians except them 1 "First Crossing of Greenland, " London, 1890, 1, p. 76- 384 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. selves would not dare to walk ; and it is, therefore, commonly believed that they are of lighter weight than the rest of the natives. The ease with which they walk in places newly dried without sinking in, when even they have no planks tied to their feet, seemed to me the effects of long habit. 1 The Norwegian snowshoe, skee (called she, pi. skier, skilober, snow- shoer; skilobning, snowshoeing), is a strip of hard wood from 5 to 8 feet long, 4 or more inches wide, and not more than an inch thick, on the average. Many of them are ornamented, but essentially they are pointed and turned up at both ends, having a strap back of the middle for the foot. On the underside may be a groove, acting like a keel or centerboard. The skee was formerly accompanied with the staff, useful especially in steering or guiding the traveler. This type is found in Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, and on the Amur. In Kamchatka the sled rests on skees. The Norwegian truger is the counterpart of the netted snowshoe, worn by men and horses and also by Alpine peasants. It is made of an oblong osier hoop, 12 to 16 inches in length, bound to the foot with the simplest lashings. 2 Nansen devotes a chapter to the spread of the skee argued on philo- logical grounds. The origin is found thereby in the Altai from Baikal Lake southwestward. He names four types : 1. Sok, tok, hokh, from Japan Sea to Lapland. 2. Sana, tana, hana, among Buriats and northwest Samoyeds. 3. Solta, tolde, among Golde, Tungus, Ostyak Samoyeds. 4. Lysha, gola, kalku, etc., of Aryan parentage. In northeastern Siberia outstanding names are given. The interesting fact is also stated that the transition from the fur- lined to the smooth skee is not abrupt. In Osterdalen, Norway, the one on the left foot is long and smooth ; the other short and lined beneath with skin. With this may be compared the skater on one foot. 3 The great dexterity shown by professionals on this apparatus and its introduction into civilized sport must not be noticed here except to call attention again to the universal tendency of old drudgeries to become by and by pastimes and fine arts. Nor does the skee escape the common lot of apotheoses, since in the Norse mythologies heroes are made to travel on this wise ; and it is the boast of a northern chieftain that he could traverse the snow upon skates of wood. 4 In 1865 Henry Elliott and the Intercontinental Telegraph party traveled 25 miles in two hours across Stuart's Lake, Canada, on skates made from cedar boughs, using blankets for sails. 1 Humboldt's Travels. London, 1852, Bohn., I, p. 332. *F. Nanseu, " First Crossing of Greenland," London, 1890, Longmans, I, pp. 3, 10, 39, with figure; also Illustrated London News, 1895, 106, p. 172. 5 "First Crossing Greenland, "London, 1890, i, Chap. in, pp. 73-114, with figures and map. 4 Olai. Worm. Lit. Run., p. 129, cited by Strutt, " Sports and Pastimes of the Peo- ple of England," p. 153. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 385 Bone skates from Iceland are figured in "The Reliquary," 1 made from the radius, metatarsal, inetacarpal bones of the ox or horse, shaved off to fit the foot on one side and trimmed at the ends on the lower side. Holes are pierced through the ends and a cord is looped through the front hole by its middle. The two ends cross on the instep, pass down to the hole through the heel, where they cross and are brought up to the ankle and fastened around the limb. The bone skate is only a kind of skee. The forward motion is obtained by means of a rod shod with iron or by sailing before the wind. A Scandinavian, far from home, at Meadow Lake, Nevada County, Cal., has reproduced the skee with a longitudinal groove underneath from end to end, and has sent an example to the Museum of Natural History, in New York. Rasmus B. Anderson speaks of the . Laplander making snowshoes, and also as being expert in the use of the skee, or long wooden snow- shoe. 2 The kinship of the skee to the sledge, shown in the traveling appara- tus of Kamchatka and the Canadian toboggan, is also illustrated by Conan Doyle in a pleasure trip over the Alps: "The guides undid their skier, lashed their straps together, and turned them into a rather clumsy toboggan. Sitting on these, with our heels dug into the snow and our sticks pressed down hard behind us, we began to move down the precipitous face of the pass." 3 Hendrick Hamel says that the cold was so intense in Korea in 1662, and there fell such a quantity of snow, that the people made ways under it to pass from house to house; and to go on it they wore small boards like battledores under the feet. 4 Batchelder must be thinking of still another style used by these northern aborigines of Japan. He says the snowshoes of the Aino are of wood; each consists of a single piece neatly covered with sealskin. They are 5 feet 7 inches long, 7 inches in breadth, and fastened to the feet by means of a rawhide thong. 5 They are almost identical with those of the Amur. Whales abound in the Channel of Manchuria, but are only got by the natives of Saghalin when washed ashore. They sell the oil to the Jap anese, and make use of the whalebone for their sledges, bows, and snow- '.!. Romilly Allen, The Reliquary, London, 1896, n, pp. 33-38, quoting Leland's Itinerary. London, 1772, vin, p. 45 ; Strutt, "Sports and Pastimes of the People of England," and C. Roach Smith, Archseologia, xxix, ]>. 397. See also R. Mnnro, Proc. Soc. Antiquaries of Scotland, xxvn, p. 185. -Senate Ex. Doc. 73, 53d Cong., 2d sess., p. 148. See illustration in Frank Leslie's Monthly. Feb. 2, 1894. Mi ('lure's Magazine, New York, 1895, iv, p. 352. 4 Quoted l>y W. E. Griffis in "Korea, Without ami Within," Philadelphia, 1885, p. 114. 5 Batchelder. "Ainu of Japan," Chicago, 1893, p. 187, with figure. L'f. sdm-nrk. H. Mis. 90, pt. i !'.- 386 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. shoes. 1 All the Japauese snowshoes in the U. S. National Museum are of the hooped variety. Examples Nos. 22195 and 2219G are snowshoes sent from Yokohama, Japan, by the Hon. Benjamin Lyman. The frames are hoops of wood drawn together in the shape of a long oval constricted in the middle. The lashing under the foot is made of rawhide thongs. Length, 18J inches; greatest width, ID inches. Worn by the Aino, of northern Japan. One of these specimens is shown in fig. 76. In the collection of Romyn Hitchcock, No. 150643, U. S. National Museum, is a pair of Aino snowshoes made of wood and lashed with thong of bear- skin. The general shape is an oblong oval. The frame consists of two bent sticks, rounded at the bends and squared along the limbs. The one forming the heel portion "telescopes" into the other, and the two are lashed together by the webbing of bearskin. This is all of one piece, and passes around the two side sticks by a double loop, as in many Ameri- Fig.76. can specimens. The knot is the SNOWSHOE FROM YOKOHAMA, JAPAN. same Commencing at one mar- cat No. 22196, U. S. N. M. Collected by Hon. Benjamin S. Lyman. gin near the toe the loop is made. The thong passes diagonally across and makes another loop, then across again and back, so that when completed it makes a monogram of M and W. The toe strap or loop is simply the fastening of the remaining thong. These are worn with fishskin boots. 2 In Brockhaus's Atlas of Ethnography, there is figured a snowshoe of the telescoped form used by the Swanen, in the Caucasus, and Hitch- cock brought from Tate Yama a telescoped frame with wooden wedges beneath, without foot netting (fig. 93, p. 411). The Samoyed skees are wider and shorter than the Norwegian, being about 6 feet long and 6 inches wide. They are made of light wood, and have deerskin stretched over the sole. They can make 35 miles a day on their "olen lojgia" or "kammus loegia." 3 The Giliaks have two kinds of snowshoes small, lahk ; and large, enj. The small snowshoe is made from a thin board without covering, U feet long and 5 to 6 inches wide, bent up and more or less pointed in front. In different regions it assumes modifications of form in the end. These are of universal use as sleds, as shovels, and even as dishes, on a pinch. The large snowshoe is longer, wider, and covered on the bottom with hide of the seal, the hair pointing backward 4 (fig. 77). 1 Ravenstein, "Russians ou the Amur. " London, 1861, pp. 323-324. Rep. Smithsonian Institution (II. S. Nat. Mus.), 1890, pi. xvu. Miickson, "The Great Frozen Land," London, 1895, p. 69. ^Schrenck, "Reisen nnd Forechungen im Amur-Lande," St. Petersburg, 1891, K. Akad. d. Wissensch., in, 475, pi. xxxv, 9 flgs. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 387 On the Usurithe Yupitatze or Fish Skinshuntouly during win- ter. The snowshoes are planks cut from the pine trees, one- fourth inch thick, Sinches broad. feet long, sloping upward at both ends, lined beneath with deerskin, and bound tightly to the feet by means of two straps. On tin-set he Yupitatze will skim lightly over the snow, follow the track of the game, and go L'O to 25 leagues in a short winter day. He climbs the mountains with ease. Thedeerskin is set on with the hair pointing backward, and this serves as a ratchet. 1 The Tungusian snowshoe is a skee, about 5 feet long and 10 inches wide, hewn very thin and bent up at the toes. They are soled with skin from the seal or the legs of the deer or horse, witli the' hair on and pointing backward. 2 At Oudskoi men and boys slide down hill on them, descend- ing steep declivities at almost lightning speed. The snowshoer always carries a staff as a rud- der, a brake, and a balance or fulcrum. 3 The snowshoes of the Koraks, about Ghijigha, are different from those farther south. They consist of wooden bows, rounded and raised in front, and pointed at the rear, over which a net- work of seal thongs is inter- woven, but very clumsy, and not as buoyant as those used by the Yakuts and Tungus. 4 This change of snowshoe is the result of natural causes. 1 Ravenstem, "Russians on the Amur," London, 1861, p. 94. -Bush, "Reindeer, Dogs andSnowshoes," New York, 1871, p. UJ. : 'Cf. John Bell, "Lives of Celebrated Travelers." Harper's Maga/inc, 1NH5, n. p. I I.".. Cf. Bush, "Reindeer, Dogs and Snowshoes," New York, 1871, p. 356, 388 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. There is not enough good, tough wood in all northeast Siberia to make one skee. The Kamchatkaus hunt sable on snowshoes with trained dogs, drive them into holes which they surround with nets, and then, forcing them out with fire and ax, kill them with clubs. 1 The Kamchadale snowshoes are really a necessary accessory to the sled driver to enable him to quit the vehicle for hunting or working about it, and for the protection of the road. They are made of thin board, 4 feet long, 7 inches broad, sloped to a point at both ends, curved up in front, and arched up a little in the middle. On the under- side sealskin is fitted with the hair pointed back- ward, to serve as a ratchet. The straps are nearer the front. Langsdorff speaks of them as extremely useful in going up and down hill. 2 u The Chukchi snowshoes are 2 feet long, broad and flat, front 8 inches wide, tapering to a point behind, where to prevent sinking in the snow a piece of baleen 4 inches wide and 18 inches long is attached. This widening out of the trailer by in- serting a wedge-shaped piece is to be seen on New England examples. The nettings are of seal or walrus hide." 3 Examples Nos. 2442 and 2443 are two pairs of Chukchi snowshoes from northeast Siberia, col- lected by Commodore John Rodgers, U. S. N. The frames are of oak roughly squared, the ends are pointed, the fronts turn up, and there are braces or crosspieces of wood and bone. The netting over the central space is of coarse caribou skin, rove through the sides and wrapped about the cross- pieces. There is ho toe or heel netting. Length, 35 inches ; breadth, 6f inches. One of these specimens is shown in fig. 78. The wide Amur type of snowshoe reaches the northern border of the Chukchi country. Of this, Nordenskiold says that a Chukchi man drove past his vessel in February, and offered him a pair of immensely wide skates of their wood, covered with sealskin and raised at both sides. 4 Of the Chukchi with whom he came in contact, Nordenskiold says that both men and women use snowshoes in winter. Without Fig. 78. COARSE S.VOW8HOE WITH POINTED TOE AND HEEL, WORN BY THE CHUKCHI OF NORTHEASTERN SIBERIA. Cat. No. Z442, U. S. N. M. Collected U. S. N. 1 Kennan, "Tent Life," p. 159. - Langsdorfl', "Voyages," London, 1814, n, p. 291. :i Hooper, "Tents of the Tuski," London, 1853, p. 184. *" Voyage of the Vega," New York, 1882, Macmillau & Co., p. 475, with li PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 389 them they will uot undertake willingly any long walk iu the snow. The frame of tin- snow shoe is of \voo3<>01> to 605isasetof three snow- shoe frames from Ponook, a little island east of St. Lawrence Island, Bering Sea, collected by Henry W. Elliott. They are short, made of two pieces, thin and straight, in cross section. The braces are broad and flat, ends pointed and sharply curved up in front. The lashing is with thongs of seal or walrus hide. Length, 21 inches; breadth, 9 inches. Other examples, col- lected by E. W. Nelson (Nos. 63236, 63242), are nearly flat, the frame coarsely made in two pieces, the netting of walrus-hide thong. An average length is 4 feet. 2 The Inuuit snowshoe is small and nearly flat, seldom over 30 inches long. They are always rights and lefts. Ingalik, larger; Kutchin, same Fig. 79. NETTED SNOWSHOE FBOM ICY CAPE, ALASKA. Cat. No. 63604, U. S. S. M. Collected l.v K. W. Nelson. 1 "Voyage of the Vega," New York, 1882, Macmillan & Co., p. 47:.. See also Whymper, "Travels and Adventures in tin- Territory of Alaska/' p. 183. 390 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. style ; Hudson Bay, 30 inches in length. ' They are from 2 to 3 feet long, 1 foot broad, and slightly turned up in front. 2 Example No. 48092 (fig. 80) is a pair of snowshoes from Cape Darby, Alaska, north of Norton Sound, collected by E. W. Nelson. Frame in two pieces, rounded in cross section, and cut small in front. The toe is rounded and sharply curved up ; heel pointed. The foot netting, strong seal-thong rove through the frame. Both shoes are alike. Length, 36 inches ; width, 10 inches. This coarse shoe is a connecting link between the ruder Asiatic and the finer Athapascan forms. In this one the round toe has taken the place of the pointed toe, and there is a trace of toe netting. Example No. 48103 is a pair of snowshoe models from Norton Bay, Alaska, collected from the Mahleinut Eskimo by E. W. Nelson. The frame is rounded, in section, wide in front, and strongly curved up. The netting is of deerskin thong twisted into twine. Length, 19 inches; width, 4J inches. Example No. 45400 (pi. 11) is a pair of snowshoes from Norton Sound, Alaska, collected from the Ingalik Indians (Kai yuh kha tana) by E. W. Nelson. The frame is made of two pieces spliced in front and rounded in section. The netting is made of deer sinew twisted and attached to loops rove through the frame; strongly curved up in front and pointed at the heel. They are rights and lefts, a slight dif- ference being made in the frames. The method of attaching by the toe and heel loop is described by Murdoch, page 391. Length, 46 inches; width, 10 inches. In the transition from the rectangular and shapeless meshes to hexagonal meshes in the three spaces, this specimen fills a gap. The toe netting is tolerably good hexagonal weaving. The foot net ting is still as poor as any of its square- woven type, and the heel space is filled with a warp of thong converging at the trailer, held in position by a line of "bird-cage" weaving athwart its middle. The Kai yuh kho tana of Dall and Ingalik of the Russians (acorruptiou of the native or Eskimo word meaning Indians) occupy the low tundra on and about the Yukon and the Kuskokwim. They are Athapascan. Dall says that their habits vary with their environment, some being fishermen, others hunting the moose and the deer. On the Yukon the southernmost settlements trade dry fish and wooden ware, in making 'Dall, "Alaska ami its Resources," pp. 190-191. - Seemari, in "The Zoology of the Voyage of H. M. S. Heralddurmg theyears 1845-51," London, 1853, n, p. 60. Fly. 80. NETTED SNOWSHOE FKOM CAPE DARBY, ALASKA. Cat. No. 48092, U. S. N. M. Col- lected by E. W. Nelson. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 11. NETTED SNOWSHOES. These specimens are somewhat short and wide. The frames are of two pieces of wood, spliced in front, round in cross section and turned up at the toe, having pointed heel and crossbars let into the frame. The perforations of the frame for the cord to which the netting is attached, are in pairs, separated on the inside and coming together on the outside just below the surface, so that the foundation thong may be tied in a series of single knots, concealed on the outside and forming a line of loops on the inside of the frame. The netting or filling in front is in hexagonal weaving through the foundation thong above mentioned. The netting in the rear space consists of ten filaments passing through the vertical holes in the rear of the hindmost crossbar, and converg- ing toward the heel^where they are fastened off in the thong that binds the frame together. Midway of these longitudinal filaments a cross thong is wrapped in bird-cage style to hold them in place. The netting in the foot space is of stout thong, rove through the frame at the sides and running parallel. It is wrapped twice abovit the front crossbar and four times about the rear crossbar or cross lashing, making meshes which are a compromise between rectangular and hexa- gonal weaving. Norton Bay, Alaska. Collected by E. W. Nelson. (Cat. Xo. 45400, U. S. N. M.) Report of National Museurr, 1894. Mason PLATE 1 1, NETTED SNOWSHOES. Norton M-\y. Alaska. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 12. NETTED SNOWSHOES. These shoes are broad in front. The frames are made of two pieces of rounded wood, spliced and turned up at the toe, pointed at the heel, and having three crossbars let into the frame. There are perforations in the frame around the front space and hinder spaces passing vertically through a keeled projection, as in lacrosse sticks. The frame alongside the middle of the foot space has six holes bored quite through for the cross lashing. The main crossbars have vertical per- forations on the margins away from the foot space. The short crossbar is not perforated and the frame sticks do not bulge out at this point. The netting, front and rear, is of babiche in hexagonal weaving, done into a set of loops around the inner margin of the frame and tied by single knots into V-shaped perforations. The foot netting is of stout rawhide in parallel or rectangular weaving, the fore-and-aft lines being doubled and twisted about the transverse set. This speci- men is a transition form between the irregular and the hexagonal style of footing. Ingalik of Nulato, Alaska. Collected by E. W. Nelson. (Cat. No. 49099, U. S. N. M.) Report of National Museum, 1894.- Mason. PLATE 12. /- I -f/ft NETTED SNOWSHOES. Inpnlik of Nulato, Alaska. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 391 which they are very expert, ami strong birch bark canoes with the upper Yukon and Shageluk people. Example No. 38873 is a pair of snowshoes from the mouth of the Yukon River, Alaska, collected from the Eskimo by E. W. Nelson. They are nearly flat, the frame rounded in section and roughly made. Toe rounded, heel pointed. Toe and heel netting destroyed, but forim-rlv made of sinew twine; the foot netting of hide thong. Both shoes alike. Length, 36 inches; width, J inches. The noteworthy feature in these specimens is the manipulation of the foot thong, which is rove through the front crossbar and the sides of the frame, and is carried around the hind crossbar. The first meshes in the rear are suggestive of hexagonal weaving, but this design is arrested by the second cross line, and the six fore and aft strands are made parallel in pairs. These by simply rising and falling as in a common warp hold the cross lines from sagging. The rest under the ball of the foot is simple and effective, and affords an explanation of the more elaborate construction of this part else- where. Example No. 49099 (pi. 12) is a pair of. snowshoes from Nulato (64, 40', 158, NW.), Alaska, collected from the Ingalik Indians (Athapascan) by E. W. Nelson. Bound toe, strongly curved up; long, pointed heel. Toe and heel netting of twisted deer sinew; foot netting and foot loop of thong. Rights and lefts. Example No. 8812, collected by Dall, is similar to the foregoing. The short crossbar near the trailer should be noticed as leading up to a similar device further on with a new function. Example No. 127941 is a pair of snowshoes from Putnam River, Alaska, collected by Lieutenant Stoney, U. S. N. The frame is in cross section, rounded at the toe and curved up; the heel is long and pointed; toe and heel netting of twined deer sinew; the foot netting and loops of strong walrus-hide thong. Length, 54 inches; width, 8^. Simpson, in his journal, says that snowshoes are so seldom used in the North where the drifted snow presents a hard surface to walk upon that not half a dozen pairs were in existence at Point Barrow at the time of his sojourn ( 1853-55), ' and those were of an inferior sort. Mur- doch thinks the Point Barrow Eskimo learned to make the finer sort from the people of Kuwuk River, who have trading relations with the Indians, and in Simpson's time the Kuwuk people used the Indian shoe. Murdoch thus describes the present Point Barrow shoe: Snowshoes (tuglu) of a very efficient pattern and very well made are now uni- versally employed at Point Barrow. Although the snow never lies very deep on tin- ground, and is apt to pile up in hard drifts, it is sufficiently deep and soft in many places, especially on the grassy parts of the tundra, to make walking without snowshoes very inconvenient and fatiguing. I have even seen tnem used on the sea ice for crossing level spaces when a few inches of snow had fallen. Kach shoe consists of a rini of light wood bent into the shape of a pointed <>val. about live times as long as the greatest breadth, and much bent up at the rounded end, which is the toe. The sides are braced apart by two stout crossbars 1 Simpson, "Narrative of Discoveries of the North Coast of America," p. 243. 392 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. (toe and heel bar), a little farther apart than the length of the wearer's foot. The space between these two bars is netted in large meshes (foot netting), with stout thong for the foot to rest upon, and the spaces at the ends are closely netted with fine deerskin ''babiche,' 1 or sinew thread (toe and heel netting). The straps for the foot are fastened to the foot netting in such a way that while the strap is firmly fastened round the. ankle the snowshoe is slung to the toe. The wearer walks with long, swinging strides, lifting the toe of the shoe at each step, while the tail or heel drags in the snow. The straps are so contrived that the foot can be slipped in and out of them without touching them with the fingers, a great advantage in cold weather. /tV.W.t/my^, /illlpt WW^^wB. '( i . .' 1 1 4 i ,-. . JV , , , , t .,*//. | . 1 1 . .'. * 1 1', .t-T.f.f .'A*" , i jrtVfA.:/Av W/AW.V.W Example No. 88912 is a pair of snowshoes from Point Barrow collected by Captain Bay and described by Murdoch. (Fig. 81.) The rim is of willow, 51 inches long and 10 inches wide at the broadest part, and is made of two strips about 1 inch thick and three-fourths of an inch wide, joined at the toe by a long lap- splice, held together by four short horizontal or slightly oblique stitches of thong. Each strip is elliptical in section, with the long axis vertical, and keeled on the inner face, except between the bars. Each is tapered off consid- erably from the toe bar to the toe, and slightly tapered toward the heel. The two points are fastened together by a short horizontal stitch of baleen. The tip is produced into a slight trailer, and the inner side of each shoe is slightly, straighter than the outer that is to say, they are "rights and lefts." The bars are elliptical in section, flattened, and have their ends mortised into the rim. They are about a foot apart, and of oak, the toe bar 9.2 inches long and the heel bar 8.5. Both are of the same breadth and thickness, 1 inch by one-half inch. There is also an extra bar for strengthening the back part of the shoe 10 inches from the point. It is of oak, 4.8 inches long, one-half inch wide, and three tenths of an inch thick (fig. 82). The toe and heel nettings are put on first. Small equi- distant vertical holes through the frame run round the inside of each space. Those in the rim are drilled through the keel already men- tioned, and joined by a shallow groove above and below. Those in the bars are about one-half inch from the edge and joined by a groove on the FIG. 81. FINELY NETTED SNOWSHOE FROM POINT BARROW, ALASKA. From :i figure in the Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. I':, i. No. 89912, U. S. N. M PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 393 under side of the toe bar only. Into these holes is laced a piece of babiche, which is knotted once into each hole, making a series of beck- ets about three-fourths of an inch wide round the inside of the space. There are no lacing holes in the parts spliced at the toe, but the lacing passes through a bight of each stitch. At the toe bar the lacing is carried across from rim to rim about three times, the last part being wound round the others. On the left shoe the end is brought back on the left-hand side, passed through the first hole in the bar from above, carried along in the groove on the underside to the next hole, up through this and round the lacing, and back through the same hole, the two parts being twisted together between the bar and lacing. This is continued, "stopping" the lacing in festoons to the bar, to the last hole on the right, where it is finished off by knotting the end round the last "stop."' Kxample No. 89913 is a pair of snowshoes from Point Barrow, shorter and broader than those just described. The hinder bar is of walrus ivory. They are 48 inches long and 11 broad. The two shoes are not perceptibly different in shape. The lacing, which is of sinew braid, is put on in the same way as on the pre- ceding pair, except that it is fastened \ / \ I. directly into the holes on the toe bars. \\ I / The whole of the heel netting is in one ^ /J IT ( piece, and made precisely in the same \ _ I I _ II _ \ way as the point nettings of the first pair, the end being carried up the KNOT ON REAR CROSS BAR OK ESKIMO SNOW- middle to the point of the heel, and SHOE. again tO the bar, aS On From a &tr a in the Ninth Annual Report of the Bur.au of Ethnolony. the toe nettings, but fastened with marling hitches. The number of strands is the same in each shoe twenty-three in each set. The toe nettings follow quite regularly the pattern of the preceding pair. The shoes are not quite the same si/e, as the right has 35, 35, and 28 strands, and the left 33, 33, and 25, in each set, respectively. There is no regular rule about the number of strands in any part of the netting, the object being simply to make the meshes always about the same si/e. The foot netting is made of stout and very white thong from the bearded seal. These shoes have no strings. No. 89!>14 [1738] is a pair of rather small shoes from Utkiavwln, one of which is shown in fig. 83. They are rights and lefts, and are 42 inches long by 10 broad. The frame is wholly of oak, and differs from the type only in having no extra hind bar, and having the heel and toe bars about equal in length. The points are fastened together with a treenail, as well as with a whalebone stitch. The heel nettings are put on with perfect regularity, as on the pair last described, but the tor Cf. Murdoch, Ninth Aim. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 344-352, liga. 350-354, for minute details of making and weaving. 394 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. nettings, though they start in the usual way, do not follow any regular rule of succession, the rounds being put on sometimes inside and sometimes outside of the preceding, till the whole space is filled. The foot nettings are somewhat clumsily made, especially on the right shoe, which appears to have been broken in several places, and "cobbled'' by an unskillful workman. There are only five transverse strands which are double on the left shoe, and the longitudinal strands are not whipped to these, but interwoven, and each pair twisted together between the transverse strands. There is no wattling back of the toe hole, and one pair of longitudinal strands at the side of the latter is not doubled on the left shoe. The strings are put on as on the type, except that the ends are knotted instead of being spliced. This pair of shoes was used by Mr. Murdoch during the winters 1881-82 and 1882-83, while serving on the International Polar Expedition as naturalist and observer. Example No. 38874 is a pair of suowshoes from Lake Iliamna (59, 154, NW.), Alaska, between Bristol Bay and Cooks Inlet, and at the eastern extremity of Alaskan Peninsula, collected from the Kenai Indians by E. W. Nelson. Frame rounded in section, netting of deer-sinew twine rove through the frame. Toe round and strongly curved up; heel pointed. Rights and lefts. Length, 51 inches; width, 12. Examples Nos. 72240 and 72241 (pi. 13) are suowshoes from Bristol Bay, Alaska, collected from the Indians (Tinne'). The frame is square in section, toe rounded and strongly curved up, heel long and pointed. Toe and heel netting of twined deer sinew, foot netting of strong raw- hide thong, all rove through the frame. They are rights and lefts, and have the typical toe and heel straps. Length, 44 inches; width, 9$. Example No. 63558 (pi. 14) is a pair of suow- shoes collected at Sitka, Alaska, by J. J. McLean. It must be remembered that Sitka is the marine entrepdt for all the surrounding region. Trade goes to the interio of the continent up Lynn Canal and Chilkat River, and over the passes to the headwaters of the Yukon River. The snowshoes here described, and others, therefore, are Tinm' 1 , or Athapascan. The long, slender frame, rounded section, round toe bent up, and long, tapering heel are typical. Toe and heel netting of babiche close and fine. Foot Fig. 83. SMALL NETTED SNOWSHOK FROM POINT BARROW, ALASKA. From a figure in the Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Cut. No. 89914, IT. S. N. M. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 13. NETTED SNOWSHOES. These specimens are not mates. They are spatulate in form, each space having its peculiar shape. The frame is in two pieces neatly spliced in front, round in section, much turned up at the toe, long pointed at the heel, and has three cross- bars let into it. In this example each crossbar modifies the outline. There are V-shaped perforations about the front and rear spaces, in the middle of the long crossbars, as well as in their outer margins, and quite through -the frames along- side the foot space. The short crossbar is not perforated. The netting is hexagonal in front, built up on a thong knotted into V-shaped perforations of the frame and into the vertical perforations of the crossbar. In the rear space, owing to its elongated triangular form, the weft, as it might be called, is twined once from warp to warp, 'which is neatly let into V-shaped bor- ings through the frame. In this Bristol Bay type the foot rest is in rectangular weaving with double and twisted longitudinal filaments. The rest for the ball of the foot and opening for the toes is formed by neatly wrapping the rawhide thong at this point. Bristol Bay, Alaska. Collected by Charles L. McKay. (Cat. No. 72421, U. S. N. M.) Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 1 3. NETTED SNOWSHOES. Bristol Bay, Alaska. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 14. NETTED SNOWSHOES. These specimens are leaf -shaped, suddenly tapering at the heel, and are not mates. The frames are in two pieces, spliced and neatly wrapped in front, pointed oval in section, and well turned up at the toe. This is much more the case in one specimen than in the other. They are bluntly pointed at the heel and have three crossbars. The perforations of the frame run vertically through a keel on the inner side of the front and hind space quite through at the sides of the foot space, while there are none whatever in the crosspieces, except a long slit for obvious rea- sons in front of the toe openings. Netting, hexagonal, front and rear, and quadrangular in the foot space. The leaf-shape and the abrupt heel curve should be noted. Sitka, Alaska. Collected by J. J. McLean. (Cat. No. 63558, U..S. N. M.) Report of National Museum, 1394. Mason. PLATE 14. NETTED SNOWSHOES. Sitka, Alaska. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 15. NETTED SNOWSHOES. These specimens are long and irregular. The frames are in two pieces, spliced and lashed together in front, pointed oval in section, and much turned up at the toe. having three crossbars and being wedge-shaped behind the third. The perfo- rations of the frame around the front and rear spaces are vertical. There are no perforations for the foot lashing in the frames or crossbars. A slit is cut in the front crossbar before the toe space. Netting, in hexagonal weaving, done on a thong knotted into the vertical perfo- rations and about the long crossbars. Foot netting, in coarse hexagonal weaving wrapped about the crossbars and frame. Extra thong and wrapping form the rest for the ball of the foot and toe space. Sitka, Alaska. Collected by ,T. G. Swan. (Cat. No. 20783, U. S. N. M.) NOTE. Snqwshoes are not worn in Sitka. Specimens brought there are from the Chilkat country and the head waters of the Yukon. rteport of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 15. NETTED SNOWSHOES. Sitka, Alaska. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 16. NETTED SNOWSHOES. The frames are of two pieces of wood squared and tapered, spliced and lashed together in front, nearly sharp and much turned up at the toe, pointed at the heel with short trailers. There are four crossbars, three of which are in front. The perforations of the frame are V-shaped in front and rear, and wanting about the foot space, excepting three in the crossbar in front of the foot lacing. The netting in all the spaces is hexagonal, and of different fineness. In the front arid rear spaces, by omitting cross threads and twining the diagonals, a beautiful lace-work effect is produced. The lacing of the foot rest is about the framework, excepting the two front cross lines under the ball of the foot. Those are rove through the frame, doubled and twisted. The decorations 'are tufts of red yarn gathered into the knots of the thong into which the network is done. The device to prevent the toe of the moccasin from wearing the loops of the front netting is noteworthy. Fort Simpson, Mackenzie River District. Collected by B. R. Ross. (Cat. No. 5647, U. S. N. M.) Report of National Museum, 1894 Mason PLATE 16. NETTED SNOWSHOES. 1 i nil- iii Bay Coiniwiiy'H i>atU-ni. Fort Siniiison, Mackenzie River District. Canada. PRIMITIVK TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 395 netting of raw hide rove through the frame. Painted and ornamented with beads. Rights and lefts. Length, 49 inches; width, llf. A second pair, collected by McLean from the Chilkat, has the netting of sinew twine instead of babiche (No. 724(i2j. Example No. 20783 (pi. 15) is also Chilkat, collected in Sitka by James G. Swan, the lacing being of sinew twine. Paymaster Webster collected here a specimen, NO. 127614, of the three-brace type, the netting of babiclie. The Emmons collection in the Museum of Natural History, New York, contains an excellent example of the Chilkat transitional type of sno\\ shoes. The frame is in two pieces, Athapascan in type, much curved up at the toe, and even incurved or emarginate at the extreme front. The toe and the heel netting are of babiche, and not of sinew thread. The foot netting is of coarse rawhide thong, but is woven with hexagonal mesh. Underneath the inner margin of each shoe the black tip of a goat horn is lashed so as to incline backward and catch in the snow. It is in this respect unique. Kxaniple No. 20783 is a pair of suowshoes procured in Sitkaby J. G. Swan. They are of great interest in this connection. The frame and crossbars conform to the customary plan of the Kutchin snowshoe. AC the heel the crossbar marks, as in other examples, a sudden change in the curve. The toe is properly turned up. But in one particular the shoe is typical. The network is not of coarse rawhide laid in quadran- gular meshes, but is coarsely woven in the hexagonal mesh. The speci- men is in fact a transition between the Eskimo foot netting and the refined hexagonal netting of the interior, which grows more and more delicate and. symmetrical as the Siouan, Chippewa, and Iroquoiau areas across the boundary between Canada and the United States are reached where steel knives are in vogue. Example No. 1974 is a pair of snowshoes from the Chippewayan Indians, Mackenzie River, collected by B. R. Ross, used as far as the Arctic Coast. The frames are squared in section, in two pieces, pointed at both ends, sharply curved up in front. Netting of babiche, close and tine, the foot netting being wrapped about the frame and coarser than the rest. The frames are painted and ornamented with tutts of worsted on the outside. Length, 33 inches; width, 74 inches. Mr. Ross also collected examples Nos. 2046 and 5647 (pi. 16), model of Chippewayan shoe used as far north as the Arctic Coast by the Hudson Bay Com- pany's voyageurs. Robert Kennicott collected among the Yellow Knife Indians at Fort Resolution, Canada, a pair of the pointed models just described, exam pie No. 2045, and examples Nos. 860, 861, and 5646 at Fort Good Hope. Of these he says that those of smaller size are for walking behind dog sledges. He also says that the voyageurs sometimes use the round- toed shoe, but that they prefer the pointed kind. In the Catlin collection, example No. 73310 National Museum, is another example of this type. The foot lacing wrapped about the frame 396 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. is protected by an additional seizing of cloth. The shoes are fastened to the feet by a soft strip of deerskin instead of the hard thong. Mackenzie says of the Chippewayan that their snowshoes are of superior workmanship. The inner part of the frame is straight, the outer one is curved, pointed at both ends, and turned up in front. They are also laced with great neatness with thongs made of deerskin. 1 Especially noteworthy in this connection is the squared frame, lentic- ular outline pointed at both ends, the number of crossbars in front, the close netting in the foot space, and the soft band of the foot straps. An old, worm eaten specimen in the National Museum from the Catliu collection exhibits the ingenious manner in which the frames are bored for the cord or line to sustain the toe and heel netting. It will be remem- bered that in the Athapascan type the holes are usually vertical through a keel or molding on the inside of the frame. But in the Voyageur specimens, which are an Algonquian intrusion into an Athapascan area, two small holes are made in the frame, at the middle of the inner face, near together, and so inclined as to meet about the middle of the wood on the outer face. One of the holes continues on through to enable the workman to push the thread through and back, coming out at a hole other than the one in which it entered. The thread is then pulled tight and tied in a single knot. This laborious process is repeated at intervals of an inch on the frames for the foot and heel netting. The holes in the crossbars are bored down straight through. The sort of weaving practiced on all the Athapascan and Algouquian snowshoes is paralleled in the cedar bark weaving of the north Pacific Coast and in Japan. The filaments pass in three directions, crossing- each other at an angle of 60 degrees and leaving hexagonal interstices. But in the old example now considered, features of textile work are introduced that are seen in the net work of the Yuma tribes of southern California, and thence southward, also in grass work from the Aleuts, and occasionally in bark work from the Pacific Coast. The regular three direction or hexagonal weaving is interrupted here and there by the omission of a cross filament. In such case the two diagonal filaments make a half turn, a whole turn, a turn and a half, and so on about each other, leaving elongated hexagons flanked by twine. By an alteration in the spacing along the crossbar, rows of wider spacing are carried diagonally across the netting. 2 The Cree snowshoe is flat, squared off in front, sharp behind, has two broad crossbars, and is finely netted in the three spaces. The Chippewayan snowshoes are of superior workmanship, and are rights and lefts, pointed at both ends, turned up in front, and laced with thongs of deerskin. Example No. 1975 is a pair of snowshoe models. Frames rounded Mackenzie, "Voyages from Montreal through the Continent of North America," Philadelphia, 1802, p. cxx. "Compare figures of carrying baskets from Japan and figure 92. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 397 in cross section, toe rounded and slightly curved up; long, broadened heel, terminating in short, sharp point. Toe and heel netting of babiche, or fine line cut from deer hide. Foot netting of rawhide thong, painted red by rubbing with earth and ornamented with beads. Length, L'l inches; width, 4f ; collected on the Yukon River from the Koyukon Indians (Athapascan) by B. R. Ross and W. L. Hardisty. Example No. 5569 from the Koyukon, collected by W. H. Dall, differs little from the above. Examples Nos. 7470 and 7471 are snowshoe models from the Kutchin Indians, Fort Anderson, northern Canada, collected by R. MacFarlaue. Frame rounded in cross section; toe round pointed, sharply curved up; broad heel, terminating in sharp, short point. Net- ting of babiche, close and fine, rove through frame. Foot net of babiche, but coarser and more open. The frames are painted and the netting is ornamented with bead work in blue, red, and black. Length, 33 inches; width, 9. Especial attention is asked to the fact that east of the Yukon drainage the foot netting changes and becomes like that of the toe and the heel space, while those already described have the foot netting like the Eskimo and Aino types. Kxample No. 1330 is a pair of snowshoe models from the Kutchiii Indians, on the Yukon River, collected by Robert Kennicott. The frame is rounded in cross section. Toe rounded and slightly curved up; heel abruptly tapered from a short crossbar. Toe and heel net- ting of babiche, close and fine. Painted and ornamented with line of blue and red beads in middle of toe and heel netting. Length, 29 inches; width, 5i. Another example, No. 89U, from Peels River, col- lected by R. Kennicott and C. P. Gaudet, possesses the same characters. Example No. 877 is a pair of snowshoes from La Pierre House, Rocky Mountains. Frames rounded in section ; toes round and strongly turned up; heel terminating abruptly from short crossbar. Toe and heel net- ting of babiche, closely woven ; foot netting of rawhide rove through frame and about the crossbars; they are rights and lefts; collected by Robert Kenuicott. They are worn by the Loucheux Indians, of Canada. None of these people use the voyageur pointed shoe. Accord- ing to Kennicott the small amount of underbrush in the woods renders the pointed shoe unnecessary. The type of snowshoes is essentially Athapascan. They are found in Alaska, inland all around the coast, but they are essentially Indian, though found with Chilkats or with Eskimo on the Yukon or at Point Barrow. The framework is not of driftwood, but of alder, birch, or willow, cut green and seasoned into shape. Kadi frame is in two parts, rounded and spliced at the toe, pointed at the heel and held into form by flat oval crossbars let into the sides. The number of bars varies, and it is quite common to notice a short bar near the heel let into a gash or "saw cut," at which point the frames are abruptly bent toward eah other. The amount of npcurveat the toe varie ^leatlv. In some localities the shoe is nearly 398 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. flat, in others the toe stands up more than 6 inches. The cross section is well noted by Murdoch, being an elongated ellipse standing verti cally, with the middle of the inner side angular or keeled to admit of the vertical perforations through which is rove and knotted the line or thread on which the netting is built up. Of the netting of these shoes the toe and heel fabric is similar in all. The foot webbing is partly Eskimo or Asiatic, and partly of Southern type. The reason is plain. The thinner the shoe sole, the finer the webbing must be. The moc- casin is the occasion of the finer and finer web of the South under the foot. The material in some examples is of sinew thread or twine, in others of babiche or finely cut deerskin dressed. In those areas where the deerskin is not depilated the sinew thread is used. Snowshoes in the Barren Ground country of Canada are made of birch wood and babiche. The former is cut wherever and whenever opportunity offers, the trapper never losing a good specimen. The wood is worked into shape at leisure. The babiche is cut by the women, who spend their leisure thereat, very much as our women do at knitting. C. W. Whitney, in Harper's Magazine, figures a pair of snowshoes from the Saskatchewan, 1 which are a compromise at the toe between the Athapascan round toe and the Hudson Bay sharp toe. The carriers on Stuart Lake, British Columbia, are Athapascans, and are said by Father Morice to have four styles of snowshoes (aih) under different names, (1) Khe la pas (moccasin end rounded). Frame in one piece, pointed oval, long with trailer, similar to the Algonquian and Iroquoian shoes about Quebec and Montreal ; the frame of Douglas pine (P. murrayana), mountain maple (Acer glabrum), or mountain ash (Pyrus americana). Cross sticks of willow or birch, fine lacing of caribou babiche, foot lacing of moose-hide thong. (2) Let'lu (stitched together). This is the voyageur and the typical Sioux snowshoe. Frame in two pieces, turned up in front, pointed at both ends, additional crosspieces used, and a line from the toe to the long crossbar. The frame is bent by wrapping strips of willow bark around it and heating, by cooking it in boiling water, or by pouring boil ing water on it. (3) Aih za (snowshoe only). Frame of two pieces, spliced, rounded and turned up in front; crossbars, two. In fact, it is the typical Athapascan shoe of the North, more commonly used than the others. (4) Seskhe (black bear foot). Frame of a single hoop spliced at the heel, elliptical, crossbar inserted into a hole through either side. In this shoe the elements of weaving are reproduced with coarse thong in a clumsy manner. 2 Father Morice asserts that the double-pointed snowshoe was little known among the Tacullies, or Carriers, until thirty or forty years ago. 1 New York, 1895, xcn, pp. 10, 364. -Morice, Traps. Canadian lust., 1894, iv, j>p. 152-155, figs. 141-145. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 399 but they were worn by the Tse'keh ne from time immemorial. He also says that before Mackenzie (179.'?) snowshoes were unknown in the western Dene country, except among the Sekanais and Xah'anes. 1 From Point Barrow around to Bristol Bay, as has been seen, the Eskimo wears Indian snowshoes. The same is true of the 1C a stern Eskimo, as will be seen in the Turner collection. Of the Cumberland Gulf Eskimo, Kumlien says that in traveling over the frozen wastes in winter they use snowshoes. These are half-moon shaped, by which is meant that they are asymmetrical, or rights and lefts, and made of whalebone; that is, the bones of the whale, not baleen, with seal-thongs drawn tightly across. They are 16 inches long. Another pattern is merely a frame of wood, about the same length and 8 or 10 inches wide, with sealskin thongs for the feet to rest on. 2 This form associates itself with the rude types about Bering Strait. Turner describes five varieties of snowshoes about Ungava,but reduces the forms to four: (1) Swallow tail, with tail or trailer ; (2) beaver tail, kite shaped, with nipple-like projection be- hind; (3) round end kite shaped, without trailer; (4) single bar, frame oval, crossbar in front. The single bar specimens have also round end. Of these there are two varieties, that in which the crossbar comes in the mid die of the foot and that in which it is in front of the toes (tig. 84). I n addition to these there comes from Little Whale River a snow shoe of spruce wtfod, No. 9014"), IT. S. National Museum (fig. 85). It is shaped like the single bar or round end pattern and looks as though it might have been cut out of a toboggan or flat sledge, common in all Canada. Two pieces of thin board are fitted together along their mar- gins and sewed together with thong. Across them near the front and the rear a batten is sewed by a continuation of buttonhole stitches or half hitches. Just behind the front batten is the hole for giving free action and grip to the toes. In use the shoe is turned smooth side down and battens up. Turner says that this variety is used on sott Fig. 84. NETTED SNOW8HOE, SINGLE BAB, WORN BY THE NENENOT INDIANS, LABRADOR. From H figure in tlw Klrventh Annual Iteport of the Bureau of Kthimlciiy. Cat. No. 90023, IT. S. N. M. 1 Proc. Canadian Inst. (Series 3), vn, p. i::i. Bull. U. 8. Nat;. MUB., No. 15, 1879, p. 4J?. 400 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. snow. In the spring the netted shoe becomes clogged. These may be made in a few hours, while the ne'ted shoe requires several days of arduous labor. 1 The reader must look in the hyperborean region of the Old World for the skee or snowshoe made of boards. Example No. 90151 is a pair of snowshoes from Ungava, Canada, collected by Lucien M. Turner (fig. 86). In the specimen here studied, two staves of pine, whittled into rectangular cross section, were spliced in front and bent into a kite shape, with somewhat square body and three rounded corners. At the fourth or hinder corner or heel the ends, Fig. 85. WOODEN SNOWSHOE WORN HV THE INDIANS OF LITTLE WHALE KIVER. LABKADOU. From H figure in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Kthnology.. Collected hy L. M. Turner. instead of being spliced, are pushed outward to form a tail, or trailer, and sewed together through countersunk holes. This framework is not of uniform thickness, but is thickest at the sides, somewhat smaller at the toe, and much thinner at the trailer. There are two crossbars mortised or let into the frame, flat oval in section and curved outward from the foot slightly. This specimen, like all others in Mr. Turner's collection, lies flat on the ground. 2 1 Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 312. "For the detail, Qf. Murdoch, Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 401 The babiche netting of toe and heel is attached by regular hexagonal weaving to a border cord which is rove through the frame and obscured in countersunk cavities on the outside. Along the crossbars the toe and foot netting are laced into a border cord laid under the loops of the foot netting, excepting in front of the foot space where the border cord is rove through the crossbar. The netting of the foot space is woven hexagonally out of coarser babiche. Especially noteworthy is the tough band of hide forming the front border of this network, pass- ing straight from either side of the frame to the foot space, where it is curved backward and held in form by stout bracings of hide. Under the toes it is sewed with balm-he. On the right and left margins the network does not pass entirely out- ward to a border cord rove through the frame, but the bends make double loops about the frame at each ex- cursion and are gathered into a straight selvage. This central web is also looped to the crossbars. The shoe is attached to the foot by a soft band of buck- skin forming toe and heel loop. 1 Example No. 90149 (fig. 87) is a pair of snowshoes collected in Ungava, north of Labrador, by Lucien Turner. In most particu- larsthis specimen resembles that last described, except- ing that the width is still more disproportionate to the length and near the heel the frame on either side bends outward and then sharply inward, forming a tongue-shaped end, and quite aptly called a beaver tail. Many of the long, slender Athapas- can shoes reverse the process and near the heel begin suddenly to narrow. In this example the shoe is made of two pieces of wood in form of a loop or oxbow spliced together on the sides of the foot space, the hinder bow laid inside the forward bow precisely as in the Aino specimen. The spliced portions are held in position by the loops of the Fig. 86. NETTED SNOWSHOE, SWALLOW TAIL PATTERN, WORN BY THB NENENOT INDIANS, LABRADOR. From H fifure in the Elf Tenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Kthnolofj. Cat. No. 90151, U. S. N. M. Collected by L. M. Turner. 1 Turner, Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, pi. xi. H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 26 402 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. foot netting passing around them. Examples Nos. 90145 to 90153, collected by Turner, are also of the same general form and finish. One of these is shown in fig. 88. They are from Ungava, and were used, as were the others just described, by the Nenenot. In these examples the frames are made in one piece, spliced at the side of the foot space and held fast by the loops of the .netting which encircle it. In all of the specimens gathered by Lucien M. Turner the mechan- ical work is excellent. The babiche is very white and clean and uniform in each space. The attractiveness is in the uniformity. ]STo. 90022 (fig. 89) is called by its collector a single-bar snowshoe. The frame is of a single piece of wood. For these birch is preferred, but spruce and larch are generally used. The frame- work is rectangular in cross section, with rounded cor- ners. The crossbar is a wide piece of wood mor- tised at its ends into the framework and rounded up along its middle. Foureye- lets are worked in the tex- ture for the lacing. The arch of the foot of the walker rests on the bar. This is a novel idea in American snowshoes. Example No. 90023, as in fig. 84, is another type of Nenenot single-bar snow- shoe collected by Mr. Tur- ner. The framework is of two pieces spliced at the front and rear. The cross- bar is mortised into the frame near enough toward the front to allow the foot to rest on the network in the middle of the shoe. It will be noticed by the drawing that the lacing of deerhide thong is rove through the frame in front and looped around the frame in the rear portion, which is both foot space ami heel space. The Eskimo name for the round shoe is ablakatautik. The Montagnais of Labrador wear clothing of tawed deerskin. As nearly all the skins of the reindeer are used for garments, the northern stations about Fort (Jhimo furnish great numbers of these skins in the Fig. 87. NETTED 8NOW8HOK, BEAVER TAIL PATTERN, WORNBYTHENENE- NOT INDIANS, LABRADOR. From a figure in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Cat. No. 90149, -17. S. N. M. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 17. NETTED SNOWSHOES. Fig. 1. MODERN ELLIPTICAL FORM USED BY HUNTERS IN THE ADIRONDACKS. Broad, short type. The frame is of one piece of squared and tapered wood. bent. It is spliced and lashed with rawhide at the heel, perfectly flat, slightly oval, and has two broad crossbars let into the frame. There are 110 perforations in the frame, but eight holes are bored through the front crossbar for the twisted thongs that support the footing. The foot space occupies nearly all the interior, the front and the rear space being insignificant. The netting is of tough rawhide in hexagonal weaving, the thong being fastened at each round by a loose knot or double half hitch around the frame, crossbar, or footing. The thong is rove through the front crosspiece, and twined between it and the footing. The shoe is fastened on with buckled bands and straps. Collection of Maj. Charles Bendire, U. S. A. (Cat. No. 126839, U. S. N. M.) Fig. 2. NETTED SNOWSHOE OF ALGONQUIAN INDIANS OF NORTHERN LABRADOR AND UNGAVA. Broad, oval type. The frame is of one piece of squared and tapered wood, bent, spliced, and lashed together at the side, per- fectly flat, oval or kite shaped, having two stout, curved crossbars let into the frame. The curves are set to take the strain of the foot netting. There are V-shaped perforations in the frame around the front and rear spaces, and three holes are bored through the front crosspiece over against the footing. The lacing is of very fine babiche or deerskin thong, woven in hexag- onal pattern over a selvage thong, knotted into the V-shaped holes continuously about the frame, and caught under the foot-space loops along the crosspieces. The netting of the central space is caught around the frame and crossbars by double half hitches, as in the foregoing speci- men, but also neatly looped about the footing thong. This example is fastened to the foot by a soft buckskin thong. Collected by Lucien M. Turner. (Cat. No. 90147, U. S. N. M.) Repoit of National Museum, 1894.- Mason. PLATE 17. NETTED SNOWSHOES. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 403 parchment condition to be purchased by the mountaineers, who cut them into fine lines for snowshoe netting and other purposes. 1 Mr. Henry G. Bryant, of the University of Pennsylvania, brought from the interior of Labrador a pair of Montagnais snowshoes almost circular, conforming to the pattern of those figured by Turner. There are two strong braces and a short trailer. In this same connection should be introduced a modern snowshoe, example No. 126839 (pi. 17, figs. 1 and 2), collected in the Adirondacks by Major C. E. Bendire, U. S. A. The frame is of hard wood, probably oak, bent interval form, a little wider in front, and spliced at the heel by a series of half hitches. It lies flat on the ground, as in theNenenot examples from Uugava. The crossbars are- very near the toe and the heel, and thereisno attempt at net- ting. The netting of the foot space is of the best rawhide laid on by hexagonal weav- ing, as in all the other speci- mens from Canada. The net- ting is not worked about the space for the toes,butthe stout thong of the foot-rest passes straight across and is sus tained by continuing the diag- onal filaments of the network and reeving them through the crossbar. At the heel they form double loops about the crossbar, and at the side the fastening is by half hitches. The foot is held in place by a leather band with buckles, an adjustable strap passing around the heel. The principle of attachment is the same everywhere. According to Lewis H. Morgan, the Iroquois wore a wide snowshoe, as will appear in the following description : The suowshoe, ga-weh-ga, is nearly 3 feet in length by about 16 inches in width. A rim of hickory, bent round with an arching front, and brought to a point at the heel, constituted the frame, with the addition of crosspieces to determine its spread. Within the area, with the exception of an opening for the toe, was woven a network of deer- skin strings, with interstices about an inch square. The ball of the Fig. 88. NETTED SNOWSHOE, KODND END, WORN BY THE NKNENOT INDIANS, LABRADOB. From a figure in the Klerenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ktnnolou. Cut No. 90147, U. S. N. M. 1 Turner, Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 181. 404 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. foot was lashed at the edge of this opening with thongs which passed also around the heel for the support of the foot. The heel was left free to work up and down, and the opening was designed to allow the toes of the foot to descend below the surface of the shoe, as the heel is raised in the act of walking. It is a very simple invention, but exactly adapted for its uses. A person familiar with the snowshoe can walk as rapidly with it on the snow as without it upon the ground. The Senecas affirm that they can walk 50 miles per day upon suowshoes, and with much greater rapidity than without them, in consequence of the length and uniformity of the step. In the bear hunt, especially, it is of the greatest service, as the hunter can speedily overtake the bear, who, breaking through the crust, is enabled to move but slowly. 1 Examples Nos. 24788 (pi. 18) and 24789 are modern snowshoes used by hunters and trappers of St. Law- rence Valley and manufac- tured by Renfrew & Co., of Quebec. The frame is made of a single stave of hickory, rectangular in cross section. The two braces are of beech or oak. In form the shoe is elongated, kite-shaped, with a trailer 9 inches long. It is broad across the middle, bluntly rounded at the toe, and slightly curved up. The netting is said to be of the stripped and untwisted sinew of the Caribou (Ran- gifer tarandus). The foot netting is looped about the frame at the sides and passes about the braces by single turns. At the distance of an inch or more from the framework there is a selvage where the weaving commences, and outside of this the filaments are twined and act as a series of slings. The same is true of the toe and heel netting. There is first a border cord rove through a series of double holes in the frame, countersunk on the outside, but not so well concealed as in the old voyageur specimen. This border cord passes along the outer margin of the crossbars, between the wood and the loops of the foot netting. Indeed, both sets of network hang on this Tig. 89. NETTED SNOWSHOE WITH CENTRAL BAB, WORN BY THE NENE- NOT INDIANS, LABRADOR. From a figure in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology Oat. No. 90022, U. S. N.TM. 1 Lewis H. Morgan, "Le&gue of the Iroquois," 1851, pp. 376-377. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 18. MODERN CLUB SNOWSHOES FROM MONTREAL. The frame is of one piece of squared and tapered wood, bent at the toe, and united at the heel by a thong rove through two perforations, quite flat, abruptly rounded at the toe, with two crossbars let into the frame. The perforations in the frame are V-shaped, but in the front crossbar three holes are bored for the netting thong or selvage. The netting is of fine rawhide thong, woven hexagonally about the knotted thong or about the framework. The netting does not in any one of the spaces reach the woodwork, but at the end of each excursion the filament is twisted a definite number of times. The edge of the woven space is afterwards whipped around with a separate thong. This makes a neat and pretty ornament. Gift of Renfrew and Company, manufacturers. (Cat. No. 247H8, U. S. N. M.) Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 18 MODERN CLUB SNOWSHOES. Montreal, Canada. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 19. NETTED SNOWSHOES. This is an old pair found in the Varderi collection, United States Patent Office. The frame is of one piece of squared, and tapered wood, bent, and joined at the heel, forming a short trailer. It is quite flat, and is provided with two crosspieces let int< > the frame. The perforations in the frame for the selvage thong of the netting, are V-shaped, and. as in all the other examples, they meet a little way within the outer side of the frame, so that the bend in the thong is countersunk or concealed. There are no holes at all about the central space, hence this was a very strong shoe. The netting is ail of buckskin thong, thicker in the foot space. The weaving is done immediately through the selvage thong about the frames, but it is twisted and looped around an additional thong athwart the crosspieces. On the hinder bar this added thong is caught winder the double ends of the central space weaving, and furthermore is held in place by an extra winding of thong. The netting of the central space is looped about the frame and crossbars by a curious knot, consisting of a half hitch, and a plain wrap instead of the conven- tional loop knot. (See plate IS. fig. 1. rear crossbar.) The cross thongs that form the footing are swung to the front crossbar by six stout thongs, doubled twice, and neatly wrapped with the same. Instead of perforations in the front crossbar, ;i stout thong is wrapped about the middle, to hold the front netting and prevent abrasion by the moccasin. Canada. Collected by ,1. Yarden. (Cat. Xos. 1755, 175T>, II K. X. M. ) Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 19. ^SH& mtmniiitiiitni NETTED SNOWSHOES. ( 'aiiucla. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 405 cord. At the ends of the crossbars and in the middle of the front bar the cord is rove through and knotted with a single tie. The footband is a broad strap of soft buckskin, under which the toe of the moccasin passes. The ends of this band pass through eyelets worked in the netting and then are laced about the heel and ankle. These eyelets appear on one of Turner's single-bar snowshoes from Ungava. Length, 42 inches; width, 12 inches. Other examples of this type in the National Museum are Nos. 1755 and 1756 in the collec- tion of the National Institute, and No. 18826 from the St. Regis Iroquois Reservation, New York (pi. 19). The Cree Indians around Winnipeg, on the authority of Dr. E. R. Young, have two or three pairs of suowshoes each. They are of the turned-up and pointed variety, formed of two pieces. One pair is made just the height of the man. These are for long journeys after deer, etc. The hunter will carry in his hand a long pole, to the end of which is lashed his hunting knife, and when lie runs down the game he soon dis- patches it with his extemporized lance. Another pair of snowshoes is used for home hunting, and the third pair around his home. The women do not wear a different shoe from the men. The shoes are rights and lefts. Example No. 73308 in the National Museum, in the Catlin collection, is of the same type. Two of the oldest and most interesting specimens of snowshoes in the National Museum from the Algonquian are Nos. 1755 aud 1756, above-mentioned. The frame is rectangular in the cross sections, and consists of a single piece, smallest at the toe, widening and thickening toward the foot rest, and tapering again toward the trail. There are three crossbars, one small one in front and two rounded sticks border- ing the foot space. The netting of the toe and heel space is in hexag- onal weaving attached all round by a series of loops rove through the frame on the sides and caught under the lashing of the foot space along the crossbars. This weaving is made of very finely cut deerskin (or babiche) woven with great care. The netting of the foot space is of coarser babiche, and passes around the crosspieces and the frame on the outside. The hexagonal weaving and the strong rawhide piece on which the ball of the foot rests are all swung from the frame by a twine an inch long on the sides, and in front 3 inches long, the front lines being also wrapped or marled with rawhide. The knots by which the foot netting is attached to the frame on the sides are called the clove hitch, and along the front foot bar the knots are fastened off with half hitches. The small line to which the front netting is attached, and also the cross line which forms the sling of the foot netting, in passing from one knot to another is fastened down with what sailors call the marline hitch. Around the border of the foot netting in order to strengthen it there is an additional twining or wrapping of babiche to keep the meshes in place. 406 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1394. Examples Nos. 19116 to 19119 are modern snowsboes made in Mar- quette, Mich., and given to the National Museum by T. Meads. A pair of these is shown in pi. 20. They repre- sent the western Canadian idea of perfec- tion as the Renfrew examples do the eastern. The frame is rectangular, flat, squared in front and cut a little thicker in the middle of the front. They are wide in the middle, taper more abruptly than the eastern specimens and have not such long trailers. Furthermore, the babiche is finer and the netting goes snug up to the frame everywhere excepting the front and hinder margin of the foot net. The square-toed snowshoe is geographically located south of the double-pointed voy- ageur type and west of the flat, round front type. It is the snowshoe of the Western lakes. Examples in the Museum are Nos. 73307-73310, Catlin collection, possibly Chippewa No. 2651 from the War Depart- ment, no tribe given; and Nos. 154369- 154371 collected among the Menimonee by Dr. W. J. Hoffman. In Glen Island Museum of Natural His- tory, New York, are exhibited Nick S toner's snowshoes, of the double-pointed type. They are square in cross section,turned up in front, the two pieces riveted together with iron. There are two crossbars, no toe and heel netting, and the rawhide lacing is wrapped around frame and crosspieces. Again and again it was said, when study- ing the Mackenzie River suowshoe, that the voyageurs and white agents of the Hudson Bay, while they walked on the round-ended shoe, preferred these sharp at the ends for tripping. In Catlin's pic- tures (Smithsonian Report 1883, II, pi. 99), this pointed shoe occurs with Siouan label. Indeed, this variety may be called temporarily the Siouan type (fig. 90). It is an exalted form of the Chukchi type, consisting in this case of the outer frame of two pieces square in cross section, irregularly lenticular in outline and turned up at both ends and resembles that of the Tsekehne. I'ig. 90. NETTED SNOWSHOE, POINTED AT BOTH ENDS, PKOBABLY SIODX. Cat. No. 2730, U. 8. N. H Colln-teil by the War Department. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 20. MODERN NETTED SNOWSHOES. The frame is of one piece of squared and tapered wood, cut in ogee curve on the inside of the toe. It is bent almost square in front, and joined together at the heel with a short trailer: flat, somewhat short and broad, and having two crossbars set well front and back. The front and rear netting is very light, and is attached to the knotted selvage thong in the usual way. The ingenuity of the maker has exhausted itself on the long central space. The noteworthy features are: (1) The hexagonal weaving in stout thong. (2) The double loop knots about the frame. (3) The single loops about the crosspieces, inclosing at the same time the selvage thong of the front and rear netting, and the long twisted ends that form these loops. (4) The quadruple cross thong for the footing. (5) The neat slings holding the footing to the front crossbar. (6) The absence of holes in the wood anywhere about the middle space. The ornamentation on the outside is formed by tufts of different-colored yarns, caught under the knots in the selvage thong where it is tied through the frame. Grand Rapids. Mich. Gift of Mead and Company, manufacturers. (Cat. Nos. 19116-19119, U. S. N. M. ) Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 20. MODERN NETTED SNOWSHOES. Grand Rapids, Michigan. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 21. RUDE SNOWSHOES. These are old specimens from the western territories. The frames, the breadth of which is greater than the length, are made of rough poles, skinned, spliced, and clumsily wrapped at the front. There are no crosspieces nor perforations. The entire interior is like the central space of the Alaskan ruder forms, and must be so studied. The foot rest is at the front, made by doubling and twisting the thong. It is qtiite possible that long handling may have disturbed the radiating thong. The twist, which is so beautifully handled in better specimens, is here in embryo. The curious loop of single turn and half hitch may be noted. Mr. Eells describes in the "American Antiquarian" (vol. x) precisely this form of snowshoe among the Salishan tribes from Puget Sound eastward. Snowshoes are also reported from the cliff -dwellings of the Mesa Verde. Collected by the War Department. (Cat. No. 2739, U. S. N. M.) Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 21. RUDE SNOWSHOES. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 40T No example of snowshoe is in the National Museum from the Indians of Alaska, Canada, or the eastern United States that was not made with metal tools. No remains of an ancient and purely Indian type have been recovered. Therefore, with the utmost caution, the skill of the tribes long associated with French and English as trappers, should be set over against that of others whose snowshoes were ruder. The very fine babiche is the production of the curved steel knife, and the refinement of the snowshoe seems to date from its introduction. In the western slopes of the Rocky Mountain region, and thence over the Sierras to the Pacific Ocean, will be found the most primitive types of American Indian snowshoes, and yet the Renfrew, the Turner, and the Meads examples are illuminated by these rude specimens. Example No. 2729 (pi. 2t ) in the National Museum is a pair of suowshoes collected among the Utes, of Utah, in 1841, by Oapt. H. Stansbury, during the Fig. 91. PRIMITIVE SNOWSHOE, WORN BY THE KLAMATH (LUTUAMIAN) INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. CU Ni. 24109, U. S. K. M. Collected by L. S. Dyar. Rocky Mountain exploring expedition. The frame is a bent pole, the hoop being wider than long, the ends roughly spliced and lashed with rawhide in front. There are no crossbars, but an intimation of structure in the position of the foot rest. The two elements of the perfected snowshoe, here exhibited in their nakedness, are the double loop about the frame, as in figure 82, and the twined thong acting as a set of slings for footing. The network is a series of half hitches made by the thong wherever it crosses itself. The two shoes are not even alike. Length, 16 inches; width, 20. Example No. 24109 (fig. 91) is a pair of snowshoes collected on the Klamath River Agency, Oreg., by L. S. Dyar, Indian agent. The framework is a hoop made of a pole and is lashed together at the side with buckskin, with very little splicing. The network is all of one piece of rawhide passed backward and forward, commencing at the 408 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. lower right-hand corner and fastened to the hoop, not by a double loop, but by a half hitch and single turn and then twined about the standing part. Diameter, 14 inches. To complete the western series is example No. 2728 (fig. 92), a very old specimen marked "West coast of America" and collected by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition. The frame is an elongated oval and irregular hoop of pole, spliced and wrapped at the heel. The two shoes are not quite alike in shape. There are no cross- bars, but three turns of the raw- hide netting are served together and answer precisely to the rest under the ball of the foot in the eastern specimens. In this speci- men may be seen a rude and primitive form of the Renfrew foot netting set in a series of slings made of twined babiche and caught around the frame with a half hitch and single- turn knot. In the irregular and ar- tistic spacing of the slings will be seen the foreshadowing of the open-work ornamental lacing on the elaborate voyageur speci- men (pi. 16), which is made in the same manner, namely, by omit- ting the filaments that pass straight across in a triangle that is longer than it is wide. Mr. F. W. Hodge says that the Zuni and other pueblo tribes make an overshoe of goatskin, worn over the moccasin in the snow, with the hair side out. Snowshoes are also reported in the clift-dwelliugs. SNOWSHOES IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Fig. 92. PRIMITIVE TJPE OF SNOW8HOE FROM COLUMBIA RIVER WASHINGTON. Cm. No. 2728, U. S. N. M. Collected by Wilkes Exploring Kxpedition M ii-ciiiii number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 167891, 17892 Finland Hon. J. M. Crawford. 169274 do Minnesota Theo. Roosevelt. 22195 22196 Snowshoes, Ainos( p. 386) Snowshoes (fig. 76) Japan Yokohama, Japan Hon. B. S. Lyman. Do. 150C43 Snowshoes (p 386) 63602, 63603 Snowshoes (p. 389) Siberia E. W. Nelson. 63604 Suowshoes (nif. 79)... lev Cane. . . Do. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 409 SNOWSHOES IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 2442 Snowshoes (fig. 78) Chukchi 2443 do do Do. 15605 Snowshoes (p. 389) St. Lawrence Island H. "W. Elliott. 4. r >73 4> 45733 . . do Alaska. do 63236 Snowshoes (p. 389) do E. W. Nelson 44265 Cape Darby, Alaska Do. 48092 Snowshoes (fig. 80) do Do. 45400 Snowshoes (pi. 11) Norton Bay, Alaska Do. 48103 Snowshoes (p. 390) .... do Do. 896 Alaska C. P. Gaudet. 5569 Snowshoes ;pl. 12> Yukon River, Alaska.. . W. H. Dall. 49099 E. W. Nelson. 8812 Snowshoes IugaliukEskimo(p 391) do W. H. Dall. 38873 Snowshoes (p. 391 ) do Do. 90455 SnowshoeH, Kcnai Indians Cooks Inlet W. J. Fisher. 90456 do do ' Do. 38874 Snowshoes (p. 394) Alaska E.W. Nelson. 72420, 72421 Snowshoes (pi. 13) Bristol Bay, Alaska C. L. McKay. 89912-89914 Snowshoes (fig. 81) Point Barrow, Alaska Lieut. P. H. Ray. 877 571 862 Snowahoes (p. 397) . Snowshoes, Kootcha, Kutchin Snowshoes Anderson River N < i it h \w-st Canada Yukon River, Alaska R. Kennicott. W.L.Hardisty. R. Kennicott. 127941 Snowehoes (p 391) Putnam River, Alaska. . Lieut. G. M. Stoney, 127614 Snowshoes, Tinnei Indians(p. 395) . Alaska U. S. N. Lieut. E. B. Webster, 153488 do U. S. N. J. C. Rnssell. 153489 do do Do. 153651,153652 Snowshoes Yukon River, Alaska . J. H. Turner. 7470 Snowshoes (p. 397) Fort Anderson, Canada R. MacFarlane. 7471 Snowshoes (p. 397) do Do. 530 Snowshoes, Chippewayan Mackenzie River, Canada B. R. Ross. 1974 Snowshoes (p. 395) . do Do. 1975 Snowshoes (p. 396) ..... ... do Do. 2046 Snowshoes (p. 395) do Do. 528 Babiche or sno wshoe line do Do. 568 Snowshoes, Slave Indians do Do. 569 Snowshoes, Chippewayan Indians do Do. 2044 Babiche for snowshoes Fort Simpson Canada Do. 5647 Snowshoes (pi. 16) do Do. 860 861 Snowshoes of voyagers, for walk- ing behind dog sledge (p. 395). Snowshoes, Slave Indians (p. 395) . . Mackenzie River, Canada do I :. Kennicott. Do. 5646 Snowshoes, Slave Indians (p. 395) do Do. 536 Snowshoes, Yellow Knife Indians do . Do. 2045 Snowshoes, Yellow Knife Indians .... do Do. 1330 (p. 395). Snowshoes (p. 397) do C. P. Gandet. 72462 do Chilkat. Alaska John J. McLean. 20783 Snowshoes (pi. 15) Sitka, Alaska J. G. Swan. 63558 Snowshoes (pL 14) do 163509 Snowshoes, Montaguais Labrador Henry G. Bryant . 90019, 90020 Suowsboes. small ... I' n'M\ a Bav. Labrador. . L. M.Turner. 410 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1804. SNOWSHOES IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 90023 Ungava Bay Labrador . . L. M. Turner 90145 do Do 90146-90153 Snowshoes (figs 86-88 pi. 17) ...do Do 2651 Snowshoes, Chippewa (p. 406) Wisconsin War Department. 154370 Minnesota W. J I In I! n lull 154371 do . . Do 19116-19118 T Meads 19119 Snowshoes, small model (p. 406) do Do. 154369 W.J Hoffman 126839 Snowshoes, hunter's (p. 403) Adirondacks Maj. C. E. Bendire, 24788 24789 British North America. . U.S.A. G R. Renfrew &, Co 1755 Snowshoes (pi. 19) Eastern part of British J. Varden. 1756 Snowshoes (p. 405) North America. do .. .. Do 2730 Snowshoes, Sioux Indians (fig. 90) . War Department. 73307-73310 Snowshoes, Catlin collection (p. 406) 2728 Captain Wilkes TJ S. N 24109 west Coast of America (fig. 92) . Snowshoes, circular (fig. 91) K 1: i n lii 1 1 1 L. S. Dyar. 2729 165588 Snowshdes, Coast Indians (pi. 20) . . Columbia River K la ma lli Cal. Lieut. Wilkee, U. S. N. ICE CREEPERS. The ice creeper is a device of some kind worn under the boot in win- ter to enable the traveler to walk over smooth ice or snow crust without slipping. The snowshoe prevents the traveler from sinking in the snow and at the same time in many places, especially in America and north- eastern Asia, affords a ratchet to prevent the foot from slipping back- ward. The creeper, however, does not prevent the foot from sinking in the snow, but simply acts as a ratchet or stop to prevent its slipping in any direction. This result is achieved in different ways by different peoples. The Eussians, the Chinese, and the Mongols attach sharp- headed nails, sometimes of immense size, to the bottoms of their boots. The eastern Eskimo quilt the bottom of the shoe, leaving loops of raw- hide projecting underneath which serve the purpose, but the ice creeper (par excellence) is a device fastened under the shoe and not a part of it, provided with sharp points beneath, which keep the foot from slipping. There is a small area of distribution for this type of objects, as exhibited by the collection in the TJ. S. National Museum, partly in north- eastern Asia and partly in northwestern America. It is a question, not yet settled, whether both sets of peoples owe the existence of this invention to the presence of the Russians in that quarter. In America ice creepers precisely like those of the Eskimo, Chukchi, and Kamchadales, made, however, of leather and iron, are worn exten- sively in winter throughout the Northern States. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 411 The U. S. National Museum does not possess any specimens from Kussia, but doubtless such things are used there abundantly. The Roman soldier at times wore under the bottom of his caliga or sandal sharp spikes, like harrow teeth, so that if literally men were not mangled under harrows, it was just as painful to be tramped to death thus. Greig reproduces one of these sandals from Baldninus de Calceo Antique, etc. 1 Example No. 55850 is a mandarin's boot from north China to be worn in icy weather. The legs and uppers are of soft, black leather lined with blue cotton. The front seam extends from the sole in front to the top of the leg. The back seam, as in our boots, reaches from the sole to the top, and in both seams is a neat piping of thin leather. The noticeable feature here is the existence of a thick extra sole and heel, the former having sixteen rifle-bullet shaped iron' points, the latter twelve pro- jecting downward half an inch, as though two Kamchatkan ice-creeper frames had been nailed beneath each boot. The Aiuo rode on broad Amur-skees drawn by the reindeer. Nordenskiold figures, from an old Japanese book, an Aino man, bare- headed, dressed in fur, wearing skin boots, standing on a pair of skees and holding the staff or balancing pole in his hand. In front of the man trots a reindeer having a rawhide line about its neck, the other end of which is tied around the man's waist. 2 Example No. 73092 (tig. 93) is a snow- shoe frame and ice creeper combined. The framework consists of two bent sticks in shape of an oxbow, one tele- scoped into the other and bound with spruce root tucked in at the ends. Secured between the two bows, at the side, are wedge-shaped pieces sharp at the bottom so as to be driven into the snow crust, or surface, or rough ice. The structure of this specimen is the same as that of the snowshoe before mentioned from the Caucasus. The Kamchatkans use in hunting the ice shoe, consisting of two small parallel " splines" 3 feet long and 7 to 8 inches apart, united at each end, and having crossbars; they have the same curve at each end, and are arched in the middle the same as snowshoes, and like them fastened on with straps. The splines are set underneath with pointed bones to stick into the ice. This example may be compared with the Finland Fig. 93. COMBINED SNOWSHOE AND ICE CREEPEB WORN BY THE AINOS OF JAPAN. Cat. No. 73092, U. S. N. M. Collected by Romyn Hitchcock. I . \V. Greig, "Old-Fashioned Shoes," pi. xvi. "'Voyage of the Vega," New York, 1882, p. 475. 412 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Fig. 94. ICE CREEPER OP IVORY FROM NORTHEASTERN SIBERIA. Cat. No. 2433, U. S. N. M. Collected by the Kodgers Expedition. skee, which has a midrib or keel the whole length underneath. The Kamchadal who live in the neighborhood of ice hills or glaciers make use of sharp-pointed irons, called posluki, 1 which they fasten to the foot. "For smooth ice or snow the Tuski use 'creepers' of carved ivory, having serrated edges, fastened under the moccasin, which prove of great service." 2 Example No. 2433 (fig. 94) is an ice creeper from northeastern Asia col- lected by Admiral John Rodgers. It consists of a piece of walrus ivory cut in rectangular shape and having a rec- tangular piece re- moved from the middle. Around the underside of the remaining piece are ten projections or blunt points. This piece of ivory is tied under the instep of the boot by means of a thong passing though holes bored at either end. The student in looking at this piece will hardly fail to recognize that it is copied from something else, and in reading the description of the wooden frame with spikes beneath, worn under foot by Kam- chadal, will see at once whence the motive came. Example No. 46261 (fig. 95) is an ice creeper from Plover Bay, in north- eastern Asia, collected by W. M. Noyes. It is well known that the people of Plover Bay are Eskimo who have gone over there in times not remote to take up their abode, and this specimen, therefore, was worn by an Eskimo. It con- sists of an oblong, rectangu- lar piece of ivory cut out in the middle and having four- teen little obtuse points or projections beneath, and is fastened to the foot in exactly the same manner as the foregoing. Short rude snow- shoes are used for ice creepers by Chukchi and Eskimo about Bering Strait. Figs. 95 and 96. ICE CREEPERS OF IVORY FROM PLOVER BAY, SIBERIA. Cat. Nos. 46261 and 46260, U. S. I. M. Collected by E. W. Nelson. 1 LangBdorff, " Voyages," London, 1814, n, p, 292. *Hooper, " Tents of the Tuski," London, 1853, p. 185. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 413 Example No. 46260 (fig. 96) is another specimen from the same locality, which is interesting because of the variation in detail. The shape is rectangular in outline on top, but is chamfered beneath around all of its margins, and also the margin of the cavity in the middle has been chamfered, so that beneath were left two long edges, like sled runners; by cutting away notches in these pyramidal points \vre formed. The lashing is similar to tliosr before named. Example No. 63881 (fig.97) is from St. Lawrence Island, and exhibits another stage in the process of elaboration. The general shape is quad- rangular. Theuppf-r partis cut so as to fit around the foot a little better. There is no excavation fn)m tbe middle, but by a series of fur- rows filed on the underside, three longitudinally and eight laterally, a series of thirty-six pyramidal projec- tions are effected. The lashing or attachment to the foot is exactly as in the preceding one. The last step in this evolution, or practically fading out of a type of invention, is a specimen from Sledge Island, No. 44761 (fig. 08), collected by E. W. Nelson. This is also a rectangular specimen. The edges are chamfered all around. Underneath a broad furrow is gouged longitu- dinally through the middle and ridges remaining are filed across, leav- ing two rows of projecting pyramids. So far as the collections in the U. S. National Museum are concerned, this peculiar device does not seem to have gone any farther southward on the American side. Murdoch says that in early spring, before it thaws enough to render waterproof boots necessary, the surface of the snow becomes very smooth and slippery. To enable them- selves to walk on this, the natives make a kind of creeper of strips of sealskin, doubled lengthwise and generally bent into a half moon or horseshoe shape, with the folded edges on the outside of the curve sewed on the toe and heel of the sealskin sole, 1 (Fig. 99.) Figs. 97 and 98. ICE CREEPERS OK IVORY, FROM ALASKA. Cut. N<.. 6SS81 and 44761. U. S. N. M. Collect.-.! hy E. W. Ne Fin- 9- ICE CREEPER ATTACHED TO BOOT SOLE. Point Barrow, Alaska. From * fifiire in the Ninth Annual Report "f the 1 Cf. Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 135. fig. 82. 414 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. In example No. 56750, a pair of boots from Point Barrow, Murdocn draws attention to a large round patch of seal skin with the hair on, and pointing toward the toe, to prevent the wearer from slipping. These patches are carefully "blind stitched "on so that the sewing does not show on the outside. On the Amur snowshoe the hair is pointing backward to prevent slipping. 1 At Point Barrow, says Herendeen, the Eskimo make an ice creeper by rolling up rawhide and sewing the strips across the boot, which should be compared with the Ungava plan. The boots of the Northern Labrador Eskimo are peculiar. The soles are often made with strips of sealskin thongs sewed on a false sole, which is attached to the un- dersurface of the sole proper. The strips of thong are tacked on by a stout stitch, then a short loop is taken up and another stitch sews a portion of the remainder of the strip. This is continued until the en- tire undersurface consists of a series of short loops, which, when in contact with the smooth ice, prevent the foot from slipping; not made in any other portion of the dis- trict. 2 (Fig. 100.) An interesting example of the fading out of a device is seen in the wipka or skeleton shoes of the Klamath Indians, example No. 165588 in the U. S. National Museum. Their god kuu- kamtihiksh wore them. It is not a suowshoe at all in the sense of sus- taining a person on the snow, but a net in the form of a moccasin drawn over the latter as an overshoe. It is made of coarse twine, in twined weaving, with a mesh about an inch wide. A similar makeshift, example No. 165558 in the U. S. National Museum, is from the Moki pueblo. ICE CREEPERS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Fig. 100. ICE CREEPER ON BOOT SOLE. HUDSON BAY ESKIMO. Collected by L. M Turner. DIM a figure in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 73092 R. Hitchcock 2433 46260-46262 63300 Ice creepers, ivory (fig. 94) Ice creepers, ivory (figs. 95, 96) Ice creepers, ivory Chukchi Plover Bay, Siberia St. Lawrence Island, Commodore Rodgers W. M. Noyes. E. W. Nelson. 126982 ...do... Alaska. ...do .. Do. 1 Cf. Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 132. 2 Ibid., p. 179. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. ICE CRKEPERS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. 415 Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 63881 St. Lawrence Island, E. W. Nelson 44361 Alaska. Cape Nome, Alaska. . ... Do. 44559 do Sledge Island, Alaska . Do. 44761 44762 do Do 49176 Alaska Do 153439 do J C. Russell 90189-90193 L M Turner 165588 Twined, over -moccasins .......*. Klamath Indians, Cali- Bureau of Ethnology fornia. PRIMITIVE MAN AS A CARRIER. Among the numerous epithets applied to man it must not be forgotten that he is a carrying animal, an emigrating animal. Other species carry objects, but they make no carrying devices; fishes and birds especially are migratory, but they go in annual circuits, many of which they have Fig. 101. VllicilMA NEGRO ON THE BOAD. From R fitnrr in ih- ll.-port of the Smithomn Institution (U. 8. National Muwurn), 1887. been repeating since the glacial epoch. Many animals are provided by nature with pouches and carrying organs. So men also have excellent- hands and arms, relieved of the toilsome work of walking so that they may be more free to grip and hold. 416 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. In this chapter it is designed to trace the progress of early and more primitive forms of invention as applied to the carrying industry. Now- adays one may see men in the double role of carrier and of rider ; they carry and are being carried, which gives rise to the two generic terms, freight and passengers. The freight of the world as well as its pas sengers are either carried or hauled, and these separate functions divide men into pack animals and traction animals. For carrying on the head or toting, according to the shape of the load and the skill of the bearer, there may be (1) nothing to hold the load on; (2) one or both hands may grasp the burdens; (3) the forearm may rest between load and head ; (4) a pad, having many patterns from land to land, may sustain the load on the head and support it when placed on the ground; (5) the receptacle may be made convex at the bottom by an added rim or by punching up. 1 Finally, the load may be hung from the head by means of a headband and slings or straps. In such cases there is a double resting place for the back and shoulders and hips, all assist in sustaining the burden. Furthermore, the student will notice that the head strap rests against the forehead in some instances and against the bregma in others, as in the Apache water carrier. This same head or forehead baud will occur in certain tribes as an instrument of traction. Toting as against carrying with the headband will also be found to have relation to natural resources, and hence to tribal and ethnic custom. It should be noticed in this connection by craniologists that among savages that carry loads on the head or use the burden strap or other devices about the forehead, children are taught and compelled just as soon as they can walk to carry loads. Small jars, baskets, frames, or packs are loaded upon them at first, and these are increased with age. Again, in many tribes carrying methods are a matter of sex, so that if any modification of the skull takes place by the act it would show itself in one sex and not in the other. CARRYING PADS FOR THE HEAD IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 77189 Head pad for packing Hupa Valley, California . Lieut. P. H. Kay, TJ. S. A. 126907 84107, 84108 Head pad, leather and grass twine . . Belt for carrying burdens, Moki California Arizona Do. V. Mindeleff. 84109, 84110 Head pad, Moki Indians do Do. 22828 ... do Maj J W. Powell. 70962-70974 do ... 40473 Head pads (fig 161) Zuiii Do 41760 ... do Do. 41761 Carrying strap, hood rope, Moki .... do Do. 42156 Carrying band, plaited, Moki do Do. 76980 Headband Mexico New Orleans Exposition. 152720 Carrying gourd and yoke Colima, Mexico iRatzel figures a Schilluk woman, barefooted, with a jar on the head, supported by the wrist of the right hand and grasped at the rim with the left. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 417 CARRYING- YOKES AND HEADBANDS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contribute!. 167783 Yokes Finland Hon. Jno. M. Crawford. 73386 Carrying strap New Guinea D. S. Spaulding 1511 9 Sandwich Islands . Mrs Sibyl Carter 153361 Carrying bands India W. H. Ball. 153557 Carrying rope, goat's hair Kashmir, India Dr. "W. L. Abbott 150679 150680 Carrying band Yezo, Japan Komyn Hitchcock. 150683 do do Do. 150757 do Do. 77112 Seoul Korea The shoulders and back are favorite places for men's burdens; women a little more commonly prefer " toting." The roustabouts and wharf men set all sorts of sacks upon the shoulder for short distances. The sack holds its own as a carrying utensil on their account. The shoulder not only lends itself to actual burden bearing, but has been the occasion of inventions in the following directions: .(1) In the utensil that fits and holds the load the receptacle or package (fig. 134). (2) In the carrying device itself, the ve- hicle. (3) In the attachment of the burden to the man, the harness (fig. 102). These are not always separate, and not even ever present, but the operation must always embrace the use of something an- swering to these and out of which they were elaborated. Carrying is done on one shoulder, on both shoulders, and on the shoulders and neck. All the eastern Asiatics and the Polyne- sians carry a load first on one shoulder, then on the other, by means of a shoulder pole. The race of peddlers and of men with lit- tle impedimenta in Europe and America go about with their belongings in a pack borne on the end of a stick, resting near its mid- dle on the shoulder and grasped by the hand at the other end (fig. 101). African porters, as will be seen, have their load on one shoulder, either with or without carrying-frame, and relieve that shoulder by putting the middle of the staff on the other shoulder and catching the lower end of the staff beneath the load behind (fig. 103). Finally, the Caucasian literally wears a yoke, so carved out that it H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 21 Fig. 102. CARRIER'S SHOULDER-PADS FROM >ir- HAMBA, AFRICA. Cat. No. 151132, U. S. N. M. Collected l.y th- U. S. Ellipse Expedition. 418 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. rests on both shoulders and the atlas at once (figs. 108, 109). The "por- ter's knot" is an invention which combines head, atlas, and shoulders into one resting place for enormous burdens (fig. 110). But, somehow the back has come proverbially to be the seat of the human load, so as to leave the arms free. Knapsacks, carrying frames, porters' packs, and the thousand and one devices for long marches are designed for the back, especially in Europe and aboriginal America. The head- strap load, the breast-strap load, the shoulder-strap load, Fig. 103. ANGOLA NEGRO CARRYING ON THB SHOULDER. Krom a photograph in V. S. National Museum. the sack held over the shoulder by its mouth, all rest against the lean- ing back, and are sustained upon the center of gravity of the body. Allied to this back load is the burden on the hip and on the thighs. Besides these wholesale methods there is the infinitely varied retail method of bearing small packages on the hands, arms, breast, stomach r and knees, which together afford room for regional, racial, and cultural variations of apparatus. One will see in pictures of Brazil, for instance, a servant carrying a bottle of wine or fruit on the head as a feat of agility in toting. In another place, men are trained to the knack of carrying PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 419 after other fashions, until they seem to take on certain gaits and styles of walking. But it is along the docks and retail streets that one will witness the survival of all modes of burden bearing in vogue since human history began. The devices for carrying loads will first receive attention; after that the carrying of children and adult persons. Following the method of the former chapter, it seems more convenient, from a museum point of view, to continue the geographic order, regarding (1) Africa in its negroid portions. (2) Caucasian Africa, Europe, and Asia. (-3) Semitic and southern Asia. (4) Northern Asia and its appendages. (5) America. This order is generally followed so as to bring geographic areas into contact where there has-been also industrial contact. A common sight in the land- scape of negroid Africa is that of a woman with an immense jar on her head, steadied not by her hair or by a carrying ring, but by her naked forearm resting between the head and the jar or gourd. Her other hand may or may not hold to the rim. These toting negroes are now all over the warm por- tions of the world. No sight is more common in the streets of Washington than that of an old negress with an immense bundle on her head. In their native coun- tries the negroid tribes have in- vented apparatuses for carrying. Example No. 151129 (fig. 104) is a rudecarryiug or packingbasket from Angola. The bottom is made in form of a mat or head pad. The warp is a series of rods, and the weft is in twined weaving, common in Africa, in eastern Asia, and in the Pacific States of North America north of the Pueblo country. The lower row of this twining should be noticed as a bare suggestion of which the bird-cage baskets of California and Oregon are the fine art. It is designed to introduce a little more rigidity into the texture. In this specimen the complete carrying baskets of many lands appear almost as a skeleton, and there are many variations of this type in West Africa. A carrying basket from the Herero African tribe in the Berlin Museum fiir Volkerkunde is a little on the plan of the typical bean basket of the Mohave, but much shallower. Its motif is hoops and sections of hoops in three series held in place by windings of bast. At Fig. 104. CARRYING-CRATE FROM ANGOLA, AFRICA. Cat. No. 1M129, U. S. N. M. Collected by Hifli ChmHnin. 420 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. the top is a wooden hoop. To this hoop are lashed three segments of hoops outside, their ends close together on opposite sides, like meridio- nal lines. Inside these are laid segments of hoops of smaller size, at right angles to the three and parallel to one another, like the wires in a rat trap. 1 Example No. 152612 (fig. 105) is from the French Kongo, the gift of the Cincinnati Museum Association. In this specimen the common wicker- work is used; that is, a rigid warp and flexible filling. It is seen in America in three culture regions, that of the birch, ash, and oak splint, that of the split cane, and in one Pueblo in northeastern Arizona made from little twigs of Hilaria Jamesii. The plaited headband of the specimen here figured would also be familiar in America. Baker furnishes excellent examples of varied carrying among the Madi negroes: Four men bearing a house frame on their heads and spears or bows in their hands; woman with hamper on the head and child astride the hips ; woman with hamper on the head and gourd in net borne in left hand ; bottle in net and child clasped in the arms against the stomach ; man with great bundle of long poles on back, shoulders, and head, held in place with both hands, the small ends dragging on the ground; the whole party are driving a herd of cattle. Knapsack straps and headband combined are given by Du Chaillu in the picture of an Aschira negro carrier. The man is naked, save a loin cloth ; holds a staff in his hand and bears on his back a crate, shown with board bottom and latticed sides. The crate is supported by a band across the forehead and a strap over each shoulder, attached to the borders of the crate. This should be compared with a picture in v. d. Steinen's " Unter den Naturvolkern Zeutral-Brasiliens," pi. vi, and page 237. 2 Rat/el reproduces from Cameron a Mrua man barefooted, wearing only a cloth about the loin, carrying a plain or self bow in the right hand, a spear in the left hand, and three arrows under his left arm. On his back, knapsack fashion, is a bale of goods, and suspended on his left side from his left shoulder hangs a fish basket and scrip or small haversack. 3 Exam pie No. 169128 (fig. 106) from Kongo Free State, Africa, is a carry- ing frame or basket, collected by J. H. Camp. The essential parts, as of many others in the TJ. S. National Museum from the area of African Fig. 105. WOMAN'S CARRYING-BASKET WITH HKAUBAND. Cat. X... 152612,U. S. N. M. Collected by C. Stei-keliMiu. 1 Figured by Ratzel, " Volkerkunde," Leipzig, 1887, 1, p. 333. *Cf. Ratzel, " Volkerknmle," Leipzig, 1887, i, p. 596. 3 Ratzel, "Volkerkunde," Leipzig, 1887, 1, p. 92. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 421 porters, are the two substantial bamboo rods along the bottom; around this a network of bamboo fillets in twined weaving is constructed, and the flat border finished oft' in diaper weaving. The staff always accompa- nies this device, not only to support the carrier, but to place on the vacant shoulder as a fulcrum in order to help support the frame. Example No. 151132 is a Muhamba carrying frame from Portu- guese West Africa, collected by Heli Chatelain. The fundamental parts are the rods and the sides. The rods are two poles about 6 feet long, laid parallel, like the frame of a bier upon which the apparatus is built up. In the economy of the carrier these poles serve as foundation for the frame, as holds for the hands, and the projections of the rods enable the carrier to set his load upon the ground and to resume it without much stooping. The sides of the apparatus are two-netted hoops. Each hoop is a stick bent into an elongated ellipse, and lashed to Fig. 106. CARRYINQ-CRATB OF CANE FROM KONGO, AFRICA. Cat. No. 1691S8, U. S. N. M. Collected by J. H. Camp. the poles. The network consists of quadrilateral meshes made of cane splints served neatly all over with finely split cane. Between the chief meshes and subdividing them is a series of meshes in wrapped style of weaving. The poles are held in place by cross-pieces, and the space padded beneath to protect the shoulders. These frames are convenient in packing, and the load is required to be put up in such manner as to fit them. 1 Serpa Pinto figures a Biheilo carrier with his regulation pack fastened between the parts of a forked stick and borne on the shoulder. His belt is a regular arsenal and commissary. 2 This may be compared with the West African and Kongo pack. Example No. 72708, received from the Museum fur Volkerkunde, Leipzig, is the most interesting specimen of this type of frame for the reason that it is constructed from two palm leaves and may be made 1 Cf. Steinen, '.' Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral-Brasiliens," pi. vi, p. 72. *Ratzel, " Volkerknnde," Leipzig, 1887, I, p. 194. 422 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. without the use of metal tools by laying the stems parallel and a few inches apart. The leaflets on the sides of the stem that are toward each other are interwoven, which forms a prolonged webbing on which the load may rest. The leaflets on the outside of each stem are twisted for a few inches and their ends are braided down together to form a continuous upper border of the apparatus. This construction will be best seen by examining fig. 107. Nothing could be simpler than this device, and yet it is an attractive object, containing all of the elements of the most finished carrying frame from the African region. There are over one hundred thousand carriers on the Kongo. They are almost naked African sav- ages, and yet the produce they bring is on its way to the great streams of world commerce. Each one of tbeni carries a load of 75 pounds 12 or more miles a day, making in round numbers a unit of 1,000 pounds 1 mile. Among the Kasai and other wooly-haired tribes, as well as in the Papuan area, the women carry water jars on the shoul- der. The reason seems to lie in the great care that is taken of the hair. Enough material does not exist in the U. S. National Museum to test the question whether Friedrich Miiller's division according to hair is tallied by the two customs of head carrying and shoulder carrying respectively. Fig. 107. . The jars are always round bot- CAHRYING-FHAME OF BRAIDED PALM LEAF. tomed and the roads tolerably Cat. No. 72708, U. S. N. M. level. These same round jars or gourds, in order to be carried in other ways, must be protected. The most common and natural style of sling or lashing for a rotund jar or gourd consists of two small circles of some flexible material near the top and the bottom united like the snare of a drum so that they can not move either way. A cord attached to either of them or around the bottom and united with them will be efficient. The jar and the gourd being frail, the sling has often pad ding added or protection at exposed points and extra bottoms are attached to the lower ring. In the rattan region this inclosure of the gourd is most efficient and elaborate. In many examples the network is tastefully knotted and PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 423 ornamented and provided with a bottom and a bale. The vessel may be carried then after any fashion; maybe set down and will sup]>ort itself; is guarded against destruction by a blow. The U. 8. National Museum possesses a great variety of such vessels, which are usually devoted to the transportation of water, oil, milk, etc. A very elaborate mounting for carrying a gourd bottle, in the U. S. National Museum, is No. 5587, from the Kongo. A conoid carrying basket is formed of a warp of bent rods erossing at the bottom, fitted to the gourd and held in place by weaving in leather thong and cotton thread. Palm oil, animal fat, milk, and other food liquids, as well as pombe and native fermented drinks, are kept for immediate use in such inclosures. They are well known to collectors by their indestructible rancid odor. Example No. 7<2S1 is a long carrying gourd from the Kongo, collected by Hon. W. P. Tisdel. It is mounted by boring a hole in the side near the small end, cutting off the end and running a noose up from the former hole through the latter. The knot at one end of the noose forms Fig. 108. ENGLISH CAKKVISO-VOKK. Cat, No. 131093, r. >. N. M. CollTted by Edward Lovett. the toggle and the bend the means of attachment. The gourd is about 30 inches long and 3 inches thick. It will be convenient to insert here some of the survivals of primitive eanying apparatus and methods in vogue in Europe. Indeed, every form of transportation may be witnessed on the farm and garden, about the docks, and along the commercial streets, and especially in the markets. Every part of the body tit to carry any object is harnessed. Every kind of harness for attaching the load to the person is in use. Every sort and shape of receptacle for holding loads and holding them on survives. Finally, in the great commercial centers, all things that ha\e been carried elsewhere must be borne again. The carrying yoke (example No. 131093, fig. 108), from England, is a type of harness widely dispersed in northern Europe and among the colonists from that area. Dr. W. J. Hoffman found the Indians of Wis- consin and Minnesota carrying water and maple sap in buckets made of birch bark on their backs by means of this yoke. The parts of the utensil are the horixontal piece, or the yoke itself, and the slings. The yoke itself is wider than it Is thick, is rounded on all corners, for ease to the carrier, and tapers toward the ends to reduce weight. 1 It 'Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. 8. Nat. Mas.), 1887, p. 285, fig. 40. 424 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. also serves another purpose in common with all other carrying poles, it holds the loads away from the body. Whoever has tried to carry two pails of water with his hands alone knows this. It is a common thing in the country to see the boys and women using a hogshead hoop as a spreader. In the cities two ice men carry an enormous block by both holding to the hooks and one pushing against the shoulder of the other for a brace. This triangulation of lift and push is excellently illustrated in the style of carrying in vogue among the peasantry of Europe. The yoke is practically reversed. A strap or rope about 6 feet long, with a hook at each end, is worn over the neck and the hooks attached to the bales of the buckets to be carried (fig. 109). This enables the bearer to use both arms and neck, for the hands may grasp either the handles of the hooks or the bales of the buckets. In order to hold the loads away from the person four sticks are framed together, and the two crossbars are laid against the bales of the bucket on the side next to the carrier. 1 Example No. 131091 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 110) is a "porter's knot," procured in Lon- don by Mr. Edward Lovett. This specimen is a hard pillow, after the general plan of a horse collar. A baud passes around the fore- .head and the knot or pad rests on the shoulders and the back. Its uses are twofold, first to pro- tect the head and body from in- jury, and to perfect this function a cap of stout leather is worn. The chief use, however, is to enable the carrier to take any kind of load at will boxes, bags, furniture, in short, every sort of freight that is hauled in London or Liverpool and carry it to and from the wagon or car. The rather crude drawing of a knot collected on Thames street, London, will help the reader to see that the porter may use and rest in turn the head, the back, or either shoulder. The modern packing box or barrel, with ugly corners, nails, hoops, and hoop iron, are also kept from lacerating the flesh. The com- bined activity of these thousands of carriers by whose agency great piles of freight appear and disappear incessantly reminds one of the silent power of those great rivers at whose bidding islands of debris are formed and carried away. The bearing of burdens on the scapulse (fig. Ill), as among the Eng- Fig. 109. SUBSTITUTE FOK NECK.YOKE USED BY WOMEN IN NOBMANDY. From a figure by Dupre. 1 "Art of the World," D. Appleton &, Co., New York, p. 76. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 22. MARKET WOMAN IN DRESDEN SELLING VEGETABLES. The noteworthy features in this connection are: (1) The wicker carrying basket, strong and flexible, for the back. (2) The knapsack straps, made fast to the upper edge of the basket and buttoned at the lower end under the projecting ends of the frame posts, making it ]>erfectly easy for the woman to harness or unharness herself. (3) The hamper basket, with two handles, for field work and not for the road, carried in front of the body or upon the shoulder or nape of the neck. (4) The pack or bundle, easy to carry on the arm. in the hand, or on the shoulder. In this picture is an example of the most active folk industries in one of the most enlightened cities of the world. From a photograph in the TJ. S. National Museum. Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 22. MARKET WOMAN IN DRESDEN SELLING VEGETABLES. From a photograph in the U. S. National Museum. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 425 lish porters, must be very old, for it was long ago restheticized in the Atlantides and Telamoues, the first term relating, doubtless, to Atlas, who bore up the vault of heaven on his shoulders, and the second to the Telamoniaii Ajax. 1 While the southern Europeans and the races allied to them affect the toting habit, the northern Europeans, especially the German race, carry burdens on the back. The soldier and his knapsack, the peasant, and the drudgery woman with her basket furnish the ever present picture. The German carrying basket (pi. 22) is a model of convenience. It exists in many materials, sizes, degrees of finish, and it varies somewhat in form according to special functions. But all of them are practically knapsacks. The side of the basket next to the carrier's back should be somewhat flat. The straps for the shoulders are attached near the top of the apparatus, and they both have a loop or eyelet at the bottom to fit over the ends of the frame sticks which project downward below the basket to receive them. These loops and projections are of the greatest possible convenience, for the carrier does not have to rise painfully with her load. She sets it upon any access- ible rock or table, turns her back to it, brings the straps over her shoul- ders, and buttons the eyelets over the projections at the bottom of the basket. She has nothing more to do than to bend her back, adjust herself to the load, and walk off. Other modes of carrying are in vogue, prac- tically, every other, and the mode here described exists elsewhere, but the peaceable knapsack is, after all, the favorite style of burden bearing with the Germanic people. 2 In periodicals one will now and then see a picture of a German woman carrying dirt in a knapsack basket up a hill, and children drawing her along by means of a rope working round a pulley. 3 The occasion of this is as follows: The constant working down hill of the light loam by farming and by the rain impoverishes the hilltops. In order to enrich them again the men carry the fertile dirt uphill in baskets on their backs and the women resort to the device above Fijt. 110. PORTER'S KNOT, AS SEEN ON THAMES STREET, LONDON. Cat No. 131091, U. S. N. M. Collected by Kdward Lnrett. 'Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, 8. v., Atlantides. Cf. U. 8. Consular Report No. 103, March, 1889, p. 431 ; Mason, " Woman's Share in Primitive Culture," New York, 1894, p. IL'1, and "The Human Beast of Burden," Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. S. Nat. Mns.), 1887, p. 285. 3 Zeitschrift des Vereius fur Volkskunde, Berlin, 1894, v, pi. i. 426 REPORT OF* NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. spoken of. Iii the figure given by Miss Rehsener, there is a tripod shown oil the top of the hill and a pulley attached to the crossbar. One woman at the foot of the hill is filling a basket with rich dirt by means of a shovel. A long rope is attached by one end to the basket on the back of the woman. The middle of the rope is around the pulley, and three children are drawing at the other end. The coopera- tion in this simple process is perfect. One basket is being filled, one is on the carrier's back, and a third is being brought to the starting point by the children. Example No. 28155 (tig. 112) is a Lapland wallet made of spruce root. This is a species of network made as follows: A two-ply twine for about 9 inches forms the foundation along the middle of the bottom. From that point, as the twine proceeds in a coil, at every turn one of the strands is extended or expanded into a loop, which passes backward around the preceding twine by a double twist, and then the original twining proceeds for another loop and double turn, when strand num- ber two is expanded to form the next loop or mesh, and the whole process consists in twining and alternately makingboththestrands a loop around the cord of the pre- ceding coil. The whole operation is a process of alternate twist and loop, making meshes about three- fourths of an inch square. The handle consists of a three-ply rope made of the same spruce root. One single cord makes both handles knotted on one side to form the double loop. Depth of the basket, 9 inches. This species of twining and loop- ing is essentially hand work, and is rather netting than weaving. That is, there is no warp and weft, but the two are one, built up mesh by mesh with the fingers. The wallet is lucl'ul for all carrying purposes, being tough and light. As remarked, the inelanochroic peoples of Europe, in their devices for carrying, resemble the North Africans and the Semito Hamites generally. The women carry loads on the head; the men over the backs like peddlers, or on a shoulder pole, as did the ancient Egyp- tians, the Irish peasantry, especially the women. The writer has seen a young woman toting a pail of milk on her head and carrying one in each hand, thirty quarts in all, seemingly with great pleasure. Fig. 111. MADEIRA WINE CARRIER USING FOREHEAD, SHOUL- DERS, AND BACK. From the Report of the Smithsonian Institution ( U. S. National Museum), 1887. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 427 The Greek aiid Roman nniH(( was a pole of wood held oil oiie or both shoulders for carrying burdens, which were attached to the two ends. Smith figures a dwarf, a grasshopper, aiid a faun, each bearing loads therewith, showing how this drudgery thing had become a motif in art and mythology. 1 In Greece the term arafpopeos is applied to every carrying device, strap, pole, yoke, etc. This southern European carry- ing pole, however, is not the English yoke. It may be seen in hundreds of pictures of Egyptian laborers, and has its greatest development in eastern Asia, south of the great divide. The carrying yoke laid on both shoulders or biceps is shown in Roman art. 2 The Egyptian clay and brick bearers seem to be wearing the yoke after the Chinese fashion. The Greek na\ado? was the basket in which women placed their work, and is figured like the waste basket at the office desk, a truncated cone or cylinder of wicker. It was also a reli- gious emblem and is found associated with Minerva, who taught women the art of weaving; with Demeter or Ceres, thegoddessof harvest; withTellus and other divinities, as an emblem of abund- ance. It was frequently placed on the heads of divinities in ancient statues, and is thus called modius by archaeologists. Carried on the heads of young women in processions it gave rise to the Caryatides. 11 The Roman ferculum was a platform on which the images of the gods were carried in procession. Spoils ol war and prisoners were borne in triumph on the same device. On the arch of Titus at Rome soldiers are figured as carrying the golden candle- stick of the Jews on a ferculum. * 112. LAPLAND CAUKYI.Vi-WALLET. MADE OF SPRUCE BOOT. CL No. WI.V>, f. S. N. M. 'Dictionary of Greek ami Roman Antiquities, s. v., Asilla, with 3 figs. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. \\, Corbie, illus. from Her- culaneum. : Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. v., Calathus, with figure of Calathus on chariot and on the head of Serapis. Reference is made to Saglio's Dictionary, for description of priestesses wearing the Calathus. 4 Figured in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. v. Ferculum. 428 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. The enormous loads borne incessantly on the heads of women in Italy are shown in a painting by Gioli, exhibited at the Art Exposition at Venice in 1887. The women are all barefooted and poorly clad. They have immense bundles of brush upon their heads, and for the double purpose of staff and prop for the load each holds in the right hand a stout stick. l Upon the monuments and paintings of Egypt, as well as In the scenes of modern life, carrying may be seen in the following varieties: (1) On the head, with or without head Dad: with or without sup- port from hand or arm. (2) Picking up and carrying bricks with both hands, in the kiln and at the building. The carriers are in every attitude, and the study of them exhibits excellently the versatility of the human body in this industry. (3) On the shoulder, in box or tub ; in sack, and by means of the carrying pole, like the Chinese coolie. (4) In the hand ; with satchel, or in the infinite variety seen about the bazaars. The salver or charger neld in the right hand, extended in the presence of gods and great men, is one of the commonest appearances on ancient monuments. This practice has a ceremonial motive as well as that of convenience and respect. It is not right for a menial to touch the food of a superior, and the ceremonially unclean must not touch the food of those that have been purified regardless of rank. The form of carrying food and drink on a waiter or charger resting on the two extended palms held forward, occurs again and again on Egyptian mural paintings and sculptures and survives in the waiters at most hotels. Montfaucon has a picture of men in rows holding up and carrying the throne of a Persian King upon their uplifted hands. 2 Herodotus mentions, as an example of the contrary ways of the Egyptians, that the women carry burdens on the shoulders while the men bear them on the head. But on the monuments even the testimony of Herodotus is reversed. And the women of the lower orders in our day carry water in large vessels on their heads. Now, as anciently, the women do the bulk of the carrying. 3 The methods of carrying in ancient and modern Egypt are those also of Syria and Palestine. The multitudes of asses and camels in use lift the burdens from the heads of women and from the backs and shoulders of men, the former for short haul, the latter for long haul. Tristram speaks of the shepherds in Palestine carrying lambs not only under the arm, but in the hood of the abeih, or cloak. 'Mason, "Woman's Share in Primitive Culture," New York, 1894, fig. 36. 2 "L" Antiquite" expliqude," Paris, 1722, p. 183, pi. n. 3 Lane, "Modern Egyptians," 1846, I, p. 267; Erman, "Life in Ancient Egypt," London, 1894, pp. 99 and 276. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 429 For professional carrying and the daily round of burden bearing, as connected with the traiisp( rtation of water, two inventions are in vogue, the pottery vessel and the skin bottle. In Egypt, where the donkey is also aquarius, the sharp-bottomed jar made to fit in a saddle pack may also be carried in a sling on the back. But, in the Holy Laud, the use of the head in carrying water necessitates an entire change in the form of the utensil. The water skin is simply the hide of the goat or some other animal, drawn oft' with great care; the openings all but one are closed tight, and straps added for the convenience of the bearer, according to whether he may live in a headband country or one addicted to shoulder or breast straps. It is a common sight in Constantinople to see eight stout fellows carrying a tierce of wine by means of two parallel poles (fig. ll.'i). The tierce rests in two rope slings. Each end of each rope is attached to the middle of a piece of wood, the ends of which are swung under both the Fig. 113. WINE BEARERS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. All illustration of cooperative carrying. From a pbotofraph in the U. S. National Museum. poles. This divides the load into eight equal parts. The poles extend beyond the tierce at either end, so that the men have no difficulty in walking. Klsewhere this cooperative carrying is still further amplified, and its survival may be seen at barn raisings, about shipyards, found- ries, navy-yards, and in handling ordnance in the open. Of the Arab women about Mosul, Layard says that they looked after their children, made bread, fetched water, cut and carried wood home (n their heads. They did all the weaving, struck and raised the tents, loaded and unloaded the beasts of burden when they changed camp, drove cattle to pasture and milked them at night. When moving, they carried the children on the back as well as when about the daily toil. The weight of the large sheep or goat skin filled with water is consid- erable. It is hung on the back by cords strapi>ed over the shoulders, ami upon it was frequently a child unable to follow the mother afoot. The bundles of firewood brought from alar were enormous, concealing 430 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. head and shoulders of the bearer. The author speaks of one athletic girl, Hadla, who, having finished the task imposed by her mother, would assist her neighbors for pastime. 1 A good picture of such an athlete would in art stand for the genius of work. Emil Schmidt fig- ures the Tamil women of southern India carrying loads upon their heads, at the same time bearing their children upon the arm and the hip. 2 The following kinds of carriers appear on the black obelisk of Shalmaneser: (1) With hands held out in front; (2) with hamper held in both hands in front; (3) with wallet in right hand and sack held on left shoulder with left hand, most common ; (4) with load held aloft over head in two hands; (5) with bundle of rods hugged in both arms; (6) with load held on shoulder in sack, like the wharf porter; (7) two men with pole between them on the shoulder, load swinging; (8) with lead and driven camels ; (9) with box or pack on the shoulder. No one is using headband, breast strap, knap- sack straps, or any other de- vice for fastening the load. On the Chaldean and As- syrian monuments the divers- ity of carrying is well shown. For example : ( 1 ) The bearing of fans, fly brushes, umbrellas, food, and drink before gods and princes; (2) the sack over either shoulder ; (3) the satchel in the right or the left hand ; (4) the shield on either arm; (5) bow in left, arrows in right hand, great shield supported on the back ; (6) all sorts of loads borne on the head, two men with carrying pole,, the load above, between, or below the supports. In the figures of Kouyuujik gallery the men are building a mound, carrying earth in baskets on their backs. The lower tier of men are run- ning down hill with empty baskets. In the photographs in the U. S. National Museum none of the groups show the endless-chain method of passing light objects along a line of men and women. The Polynesians practiced such economy. In the Hawaiian legend of the Royal Hunch- back it is related that on the arrival of Pili in the islands, Paao, the high priest, removed with him to Kohala. At Puuepa he erected a large heiau, the stones of which were passed from hand to hand a dis- Fig. 114. GABBIER WITH WATER SKIN, FILTER, AND BOTTLE. From a photograph in the U. S. National Museum. 'Layard, "Nineveh and its Remains," New York, 1849, p. 29L 8 Schmidt, "Reise nach Sudindien,/' Leipzig, 1894, p. 10. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 431 tauce of miles. 1 "MacRitchie mentions a similar custom among the Picts. It was in vogue hot many years ago at fires in villages, and in the Southern States watermelons and other fruits and fruit packages are handed along for considerable distances. The use of the hides of animals in raising, carrying, and holding of liquids is confined chiefly To the Caucasian race, and is especially seen in their Mediterranean, Asiatic, and African areas (fig. 114). The goat's skin is particularly chosen because of its size and its texture. The hide is drawn oft' with as few openings as possible; these are tied up and calked and a harness of leather is attached for carrying, suspending, and emptying. In the illustra- tion here given the skin Is brought into proximity with the jar that in its form succeeds the goatskin in some lands. By comparing the harness with that of the Mexican aguador and others it will be seen that the strap for dumping, which is absolutely necessary in the skin, survives as of doubtful utility on the jar. 2 In tlte Kig Veda leather water bottles, like those in use at this day, are mentioned. India, southern Asia, and the Malayo- Polynesian islands may be considered seriatim on the notion of contiguity, regardless of race and environment. The carrying pole or Hindu bawjliy is omnipresent. Here a load on the hinder end is sustained by the hand in front. There the man in the middle sustains the pole with a load on either end, and in a t hird view, the load is in the middle and there is a man at each end. Other changes are rung on each of these. The methods of attaching the load to the poles are quite as numerous. Example No. 27<1.'J (fig. 11-T>) is an elaborate carrying apparatus pre- sented by the King of Siam. It consists of a pole and two baskets. Each end of the pole pierces a basket from side to side, holes having been provided for this purpose. The material of the structure is split rattan done in wickerwork. Cords are provided for packing the load 11.".. M \.MKSK WK-KKR CABBYING-BASKET8. BORNE IX PAIRS WITH SHOULDER POLE. r ,t. X... 27tll:t. I', s. X. M. Prraented by the King of Siam, thitmnh Grn. John A. Halderman. 1 K:il:ik:iu;i, ' l.r^ciids ;unl M\ tlis <>f Hawaii/' New York, 1888, Webster. Efa .ilso Kep. SiiiitliH.mian lust. ({'. S. Nat. Mus.), 1887, p. 284, tiff- ** 432 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. and blocks of wood are attached to the bottom of each hamper to pro- tect the weaving. With this may be compared a precisely similar fashion from the Sand- wich Islands. A photograph in the TJ. S. National Museum repre- sents a Kanaka carrying two bundles after the manner of the Siamese, having thrust through each one of them an end of his carrying pole (fig. 116). The U. S. National Museum possesses a number of immense gourds holding each several gallons, the gift of Mrs. Sybil Carter. In the absence of all pottery from the entire Polynesian area these gourds are the universal receptacle of things to be carried, clean or Fig. 116. CARRYING POLE. Sandwich Inlander carrying two bales by means of a shoulder pole. From H photograph in the U. S. National Museum. Fig. 117. PRIMITIVE SHOULDER POLK. Burmese boy carrying Jack fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia), From a photograph by Rev. H. M. Luther. unclean, liquid or solid. On the testimony of travelers and mission- aries these gourds are slung in network and suspended from each end of the carrying pole. Wilkes says that the people are so wedded to this method of burden bearing as to use stones to balance the weights in the two packages. The stick is made of the Hibiscus tiliaceus, used also by the Kanaka in creating fire by the plowing method. Covers of gourd are sometimes fitted over the bottom ones to prevent the rain from wetting the contents. The gait of the carrier is a quick trot, with short steps. The U. S. National Museum is indebted to Eev. R. M. Luther for the description and photograph of the most primitive form of the carrying pole and double load from Burma. A Karen boy is return- PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 433 ing home with two jack finite attached to a stem of the same tree. (Fig. 117.) The drawing fails to show that t lie fruits are adhering to the orig- inal stein, but in fact they are, and this is tin- last analysis of the shoulder pole in which the stick, the perpendicular strings, and the weights are in one piece made by nature. Weights are never carried on tin- head by the Nicobarese, but are invariably slung on a stick or jK>le and borne over the shoulder. A woman may occasionally be seen carrying on her head for a few yards, from her hut to the jungle, a basket containing a light load of pandanus drupes, but this is the only in- stance in which anything is borne on the head. As they are not in the habit of distressing them- selves by taxing their powers of endurance, the distance that a man or woman will carry a maxi- mum load without a rest rarely, if ever, exceeds a few hundred yards; in fact, it would appeal- that, though the physical powers of the average Nicobarese exceed those of the average Bnrinan or Malay, there are many tasks per formed by the latter from which the former would shrink as irk- some and fatiguing. 1 Example No. 164745 (fig. 118) is a carrying basket from .Tarawa, Andaman Islands, the gift of Eu- rico Giglioli. The texture of this specimen is a re- markable study. It should be com pared with the Mohave carrying basket from south - western Arizona. 2 The upper rim is a rigid hoop. From this depend bamboo rods, doubled in the middle and attached to the hoops by their ends. These doubled rods cross at the bottom as the meridians do at the pole, in such manner as to lay the foundation for an inverted cone. I Jet ween these rods deptfnd subsidiary and smaller ones, reaching down not quite to the bottom and Fin. 118. WOMAN'S CABRYINO-BA.KKKT, FROM THK ANDAMAN ISLANDS. CM. No. 1M745, V. S. If. M. Collected by K. II M , i.,lt ..ri'r.il. Run... . (ioo.lwin. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 435 well around on their necks, using the right hand to grasp it by the mouth and hold it steady. A small gourd is used in filling tin* vessel. In some areas on the Kongo, where the hair of the people is bushy ami \voolly and the coiffure is a matter of pride, this method of setting the round- bottomed water jar on the shoulder is to be seen. The Philippine Islanders are a composite people of Negrito, Malay, and Sinitic elements, existing in all varieties of mixture. These Indone- sians make pottery, and carry water therein. The round bottomed vase is made to harmonize with the delicate and slightly pilose head by means of the headband, consisting of a scarf or sash deftly rolled up. In a collection of photographs made by Consul A. R. Webb the women are shown in various attitudes of holding, placing, poising, and removing the jar (figs. 121 and 1 2). l\BF V '"IVl ill \ In this connection it is not \\IU\llH Jl lljLLJUl,t i \\i difficult to understand how art is the glorification not of nature alone, but of industry. These caryatides have for their motive not some natural object, but a common human experience. i:\ample No. 74506 (tig. ll'3) is a carrying stick of bamboo, with baskets of bamboo. The pole is a piece of split bamboo, wider in the middle and notched at the ends to prevent the slipping of the load. The baskets of this particular specimen are rather elaborately made of whole and split stalks, and paneled with the same materials. The inside is provided with cleats, on which shelves or drawers may slide, for holding and serving a number of dishes. The special treatment of the bamboo in making fast joints without nails or lashing will be better shown in the carrying chair from China, illustrated in this paper (tig. 2li9). Ivxample No. 54174 (tig. LU4) is part of a carrying apparatus made of two bent bamboo splints, with a latticed tlooron which to set the load. This and the specimen just before described were the gift of the Chinese Centennial Commission. It would be impossible to describe and figure the practically endless variety of inventions in China for the ut.ili/ation <>t the shoulder pole. The bamboo also is a great blessing, since it lends itself to the inventor's mind with a plasticity almost equal to that of clay and with a toughness, according to weight, that can not be excelled by any other material. Fig. 120. PAPUAN WOMBN CARRYINO JARS ON THE 8HOULDKR. i lh<- U. Viti, :.l Mil 436 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Dr. K. N. Graves, long time missionary in China, contributes the following notes on the Chinese carrying trade in general : The carrying poles of the Chinese coolies are of stout bamboo, about 6 feet long, or they use a pole of smooth, strong, flexible wood, about 2 inches broad by 1 thick, a long ellipse in section. A peg at each end, and the stick being somewhat widened, prevents the ropes or rattan slings from falling off. They shift the burden from one shoulder to another by means of the staff', and never use a yoke resting on both shoulders, as is seen in Europe. The skin on the shoulders becomes thickened and hardened, but not infrequently becomes sore and galled. They are truly beasts of burden. Fig. 121. PHILIPPINE WOMAN "TOTING" WATER. From a photograph by Consul Alexander R. Wehb. Fig. 122. PHILIPPINE WOMAN LIFTING JAR FROM THE HKAI). From a photograph l>y Consul Alrjtnniler R. Webb. As to the rate of travel and annual amount of goods carried, no definite informa- tion can be given. Most of the carrying is between the villages and towns 15 or 20 miles away and shorter distances. Formerly, before the opening of the Yang Tze to foreign trade, a great deal of tea was brought across the mountains from the cen- tral provinces, several days' journey, to the head waters of the Canton River, but this is discontinued. Most of the merchandise in .South China is carried for long distances by the waterways. In the more thinly settled hills and mountainous districts it is carried on men's shoulders. The Chinese wheelbarrow (fig. 125) is, in fact, a camel or donkey pack- saddle witli its balanced, two-sided load. The wheel and the coolie's PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 437 legs are the locomotory part of tin- device. If the wheel be removed, the two sides of the burden would tit over the back of any park beast and the track need not be widened. The Chinese do not at present extensively use this mode of transportation except in the cities, but the Tibetans employ both the yak and the horse. The eamcl is not far distant on the northwest, and in the Chinese tribute -pictures horses, asses, camels, elephants, and pack reindeer are seen. Hereabouts there a re two other examples of the beginning of t he wheel. The Kaschkir cra- dle in Orenburg, Kussia, with two little wooden block wheels, is tigured by Pokrowski. The Korean carrying chair has often be- neath it a single wheel, a very laborious device for tak ing a load from the back of an animal instead of putting it on. 1 In the exaltation of the royal person, ceremony decides the form of the vein cle. In the freight and pas- senger barrow of the Chinese there is no social distinction created between passenger and barrow man. The women of western Tibet are healthy and hardy, and carry weights of 00 pounds over the passes. They wear shoes of felt and of straw. The Tibetans are very quick over their work. Each time they raise a heavy load they force out the air from their lungs by a vigorous hiss. They handle great weights with considerable ease, for their arms, though not muscular, are tough and set in solid shoulders, which are supported by deep necks, the length of their forearm being remarkable. Lamas, stick in hand, give their orders and reprimand them; but these savages do their work cheerfully and are obedient and respectful to the lamas, to whom they listen in the most humble pos- ture, witli back bent and hanging tongue/ 1 The Aino usually carry burdens by means of a In-aided band of the bark of ohiyo ( Ulmus montana). Fig. 123. ClllNr.SK CAKKYINVi-HASKKTS AND SIIOCI.IIKK- BAMBOO. Ho, 74,'iOt;, r. s. N. M. Gift of the- Chinene (VnirnniH Philadelphia, !;.. 'Pokrowski, Revue d' Ethnographic, 1889, p. 34. -Bishop, -'Among the Tibetans," Chicago, 18!M, p. II. 3 Bonvalot, "Across Tibet," New York, 1892, Cassell, p. 270. 438 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Example No. 22254 (fig. 126) shows the manlier in which this elaborate contrivance is constructed. Hough figures one of them in use (pi. 23), and says that these bands, called tara or pickni -tara, are also employed to sustain the babe upon the back. Sometimes the two ends of the headband are tied to the ends of a stick resting on the lumbar region, and upon this the burden rests. The Korean extends the ends of the stick, and then has a kind of yoke resting on the lower part of his back. The Aino women make constant use of the tara. They carry heavy loads with them, and even bring large tubs of water to their homes. 1 Example No. 22254 is a carrying band collected in Yokohama by the Hon. 3*. S. Lyman. A similar specimen, collected by Wilkes on the northwest coast of America, is unfortunately labeled Africa. 2 Prof. E. S. Morse speaks in the greatest praise of Japanese backs, both as to their strength and flexi- bility. This people also are expert in the hexagonal weaving of carry- ing devices in bamboo splints. This enables them to produce a receptacle (fig. 127) which combines perfectly the strength and light ness that are needed. The same hexagonal plan of weaving exists in the U. S. National Museum upon specimens of snowshoes in Canada and cedar-bark wallets of south- eastern Alaska and British Colum- bia, but nowhere on basketry in rig. 124. America south of the Canadian CHINESE CAKKYIXG-CRATE. Cat. No. W1T4, U. S. N. M. Gift of the Chinese Centennial < mission, Philadelphia, 1876. line and east of the coast range. The Japanese also have bor- rowed from China the shoulder pole or stick of bamboo for all sorts of short-distance carrying (fig. 128). The exigencies of Japanese commerce do not demand the extensive coolie system. The epoch of the human back, however, was at its climax when the islands were first visited. The people were singularly devoid of beasts of burden. In the figures from life here reproduced the clever tricks for using the pole are made manifest, for in such matters the Japanese are extremely ingenious. Owing to a climate not at all rigorous, the professional carriers are not overclad. Example No. 73093 (fig. 129) is a carrying frame from the province of Tate Yama, Japan, collected by P. L. Jouy. It is a ladder or frame- 1 Cf. Rep. Smithsonian lust. (U. S. Nat. Mus.), 1890, p. 464, pi. cv. Cf. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. S. Nat. Mus.), 1887, p. 287, fig. 42. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 23. KOREAN PEDDLERS. The one on the left hand with the rectangular box is a seller of confectionery and small articles, his load resting against his body in front and supported by a strap or band hung from the nape of the neck. This method of carrying is universal among hawkers of small ware, and is said to be omnipi'esent in Korea. The carrier to the right wears the knapsack frame supported on the back by shoulder straps or braces. Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 23. KOREAN PEDDLERS. Hough, "The Bernadou. Allen, and .Tony Korean Collections in the U. S. National Museum, PL VI. Report of the Smithsonian Institution (U. S. National Museum), 1891. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 439 work of \vood, not unlike that of some American Indian cradles. To render the framework soft to the bark and to hold it in place, it is Fitf.125. ^ % ( I1INKSK HAKIiOW nil DOUBLE SHOlT.DKK-rACK. MOITKTKI) ON A Will 1.1. Krnni ., iihiituiniph tn tin- 1'. S. N:IIHIN;I| >lii~riini. entirely wrapped and concealed in a continuous sennit or braid of straw. The arm bands are of the same material and are braided like JAI'AXKSE IIKADHAMi AMI < 'AKK VIM .- 1:< H'K. IIIIAIIlKli AM) WllVKX. I'.il. No. .-.':. I -. V M. C..llf.-t.-il l.v II. ill. II S. I..VIIIBII. a whip-lash, thickest where the pad is needed. These bands are to be worn knapsack fashion, and are tied by their extremities to the wooden framework. The lashing for the load is ,ilso of sennit. 440 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. The Tate Yama carrying rack or ladder appears in Korea without the wrapping of sennit, but with pieces framed in near the bottom pointing outward at right angles to form a shelf like that on the glass peddler's frame. A staff or rest may be attached to enable the carrier to relieve his back without setting the burden on the ground. (Fig. 1.30.) Hitch- cock brought from the Aino country photographs of a precisely similar device. It is worn knapsack fashion, which refers the reader to Japan. 1 The carrying pole in Korea (fig. 131) is not always used on the shoul- der, but after a fashion that recalls two or three inven- tions in different areas. The pole rests on the lower back and is suspended from a band attached to its mid- dle and passing up under one arm, over the shoulder, back of the neck, down in front of the other shoulder, and back to the starting point. Children in England and America harness one another thus in playing horse; but this is the only example known to the author where the scheme is in serious use. Hooks are sus- pended from the ends of the pole, and from these hang jars slung neatly in splints. The detachable feature of the sling on the jar is also quite original, as will be noted in Carles's figure. 2 From Carles it is also seen that the order of transpor- tation is sometimes reversed in Korea, in that the woman may carry merchandise on the head and the man become packer for merchandise and passenger-bearer at the same time, using the double bandolier (fig. 132). Example No. 150768 is a carrying band and seat from Shikotan, in the island of Yezo, collected by Romyn Hitchcock. It is used by women for carrying children on their backs. The apparatus consists of two parts a woven band which passes over the chest of the bearer, >Cf. Carles, " Life in Korea/' New York, 1894, MacmiJlaii &. Co., p. 67. * Ibid., p. 30. Fig. 127. JAPANESE CARRYING-BASKET WITH SHOULDER-STRAPS. Illustration of hexagonal weaving. From a photograph in the IT. S. National Museum. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 441 to each end of which a line is attached, and a slightly curved wooden seat, to the ends of which the line is made fast The child sits on the seat as in a swing, and its feet straddle the hips of the mother. 1 (See fig. 133.) Among the causes tli.it have produced pluck and physical strength in men, perhaps the carrying trade is preeminent. The pick, the hammer, the plane, develop muscle. Art, commercial pursuits, and the enjoy- ments of life usually render men delicate. The toughening of the legs and back and arms, the development of lung and heart power, and the ability to endure winter's cold as well as summer's heat come from the carrying and traveling industry. So far we have been in the land of the professional carrier, where men have been compelled to transport burdens and to haul loads profes- sionally. Vig.IV. . JAI'ANKSK CAKKIKK. WITH >ll')l l.lll ,K !( )|.l ; ANH IJlADS. Kr.in, :, |.li,,t,,nr.,|.t, in the I . S. National Ms.-u,n. Coming to the American continent, the reader will still be witness to a great deal of heavy drudgery in this department, but the human back is greatly relieved by the fact that few of the industries of this conti- nent were in the world's great streams of progress before Columbus, and therefore the amount of burden bearing was restricted to limited culture areas. It is fitting at this point, and speaking of this enormous amount of professional carrying, to take into consideration the effect of this successive work upon the bodies of men. Dr. Robert Fletcher calls my attention to the fact that studies in this line have been instituted by the French Government upon what is called " 1'homme moteur " by Dr. Bessy, of Toulouse. Dr. Fletcher refers 'Rep. Smiths.miau lust. (U. 8. Nat. Mua.), 1890, p. 4l'U, tig. 67. 442 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. to the enormous amount of work done by man power, especially in times of war. It seems that the railroad hands at Toulouse had made com- plaint of being compelled to carry on the back bags of Hour weighing from 100 to 122 kilos (say, 240 pounds) from the car to the quay, a dis- tance of 21 meters, on uneven ground, continuously. One man made twelve trips, but at the last one broke down and was unable afterwards to work. Dr. Bezy found that the railroad companies had not used the dyna- mometer in examining men for the work, and, furthermore, the following interesting results were obtained. A man weighing 85 kilos can walk on a horizontal road at the rate of 1.50 meters per second for a space of ten hours. A traveler with his baggage on his back can carry 40 kilos at the rate of 0.75 meters per second for seven hours. A porter, carrying a load on his back and returning empty handed for a fresh load, can carry 55 kilos at the rate of 0.50 meters per second for six hours. Dr. Fletcher also calls the au- thor's attention to Quetelet's table of the standard of lifting strength to the rule that a man should not carry a load greater than his own weight. Excessive carrying is made more injurious by increasing the time, or age, or speed, or roughness of the path, or by decreasing nutrition. On passing northward into east- ern Siberia the student comes upon the pack reindeer, the sledge rein- deer, and the dog. Women have their own fashions of carrying chil- dren, as will be seen later; but men are too much burdened with clothing, and relief is too near at hand for them to continue the old-time slavery of the back. The Eskimo in carrying loads use the band across the forehead as well as across the breast. Having their little hand sledges, they are given more to traction than to carrying. The women have strong backs, and upon them falls the duty of burden-bearing. In the "Cruise of the Corwin" is an account of a woman who, by rolling and the use of her boat, succeeded in transporting an anchor stone weighing, it was supposed, 300 pounds. l 1 Haley, "Cruise of the Corwin," Washington, 1885, p. 49. Fig. 129. NORTHERN JAPANESE CARRYING-FRAME, WITH SHOULDER-BANDS. Illustration of plaited work. Cat. No. /3093, U. S. N. M. Collected by P. L. Jouy. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION 443 Turner says that he has seen the TTugava Eskimo place ;i barrel of Hour on their shoulders and carry it up a hillside so steep as to require one not burdened to pick his steps with care. ' Grant/ says that the women of Greenland are the butchers and cooks, and also the curriers to dress the pelts and make clothes, boots, and shoes out of them, and for all this business they use nothing but a knife in form of a half-moon, such as cooks mince meat with, which they use also at the table, and have neither shears nor knife besides; a bone or ivory slice, a thimble, a couple of coarse and line needles, and their own teeth, with which they pull the skins and supple them both at dressing and sewing. They build and repair the houses and tents quite alone, as far ;is re- lates to the masonry. The men very coolly look on while the women bring heavy stones that are ready to break their backs.- The enormous amount of en ergy and endurance in the Es- kimo arrested the attention of Nan sen. He has collected in his second volume a number of narratives in which are de- scribed West Greenlanders who have gotten into straits and who have performed prodigies of energy. 3 The Babiues, a subtribe of carriers in British Columbia, have a frame for the back called tchen-est'lu (sticks interwoven). It is like a rough arm chair without legs, made of stout split sticks of willow ( *SVi //'./ lomji folia] joined by thongs. The Dene women pack this frame from the forehead with a skin line broadening in the middle, and if the load is heavy the ends of the line are passed a (TOSS the chest. Father Morice has seen among the Hwotsu' tinne, a fraction of the Pabines. a woman thus parking her invalid husband, a man of more than average size and weight. 1 Fin. KOKEAN KKrsllWCM.I) Cl ITK.K rsIXH HISINU-FKAMK WITH SHOUUIKH STRAPS. ('nun M limit-.- in r.-irl.-' " I.il.- in Ki.rrn." 1 Tamer, "Indiana and Eskimo of Ungava," p. 104. -Grant/., "History of Greenland," London, 1767, p. 164. ^Nansen. "First Crossing of Greenland," London, 1890, n, j 4 Trans. Canadian lust., 1894, vu, p. 118. 444 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Example No. 150406 is the model of a similar packing frame (ka-ni ko n -hua) from the Ouondaga Iroquois, procured by Mr. Hewitt. It is made of hickory rods bent like a wooden flail, and resembles two backs of bent- wood chairs, one vertical, the other horizontal, the parts united by means of tough hickory bark. The rack for trunks on the back of a country stage coach seems to be a survival of this angular, .packing frame. Father Morice points out its occurrence in the ancient Mexican codices. It may be seen on the backs of porters at Panama and in Peru. The Patagonian mother has a similar device for her baby, and Fig. 131. KOREAN MAN CARRYING WATER BY MEANS OF A POLE RESTING ON THE LUMBAR REGION AND SUPPORTED BY A BAND PASSING OVER THE SHOULDER AND AROUND THE NECK. From :i sketch in the U. S. National Museum. Hitchcock, as has been said, photographed the type on the backs of his Aino carriers for the U. S. National Museum. Father Morice reports that the carriers of Stuart Lake (Athapascans) are inferior workmen, and that they fabricate carrying pails from the bark of the birch (Betula papyracea) and of spruce (Abies nigra). The method of construction is given, with working patterns. 1 Among the carriers the wallet or packing bag of the men, t'lul-en'- kez', is made from the caribou skin cut in fine strips or the skin of beavers when found so decomposed that the fur has lost its value. 2 1 Trans. Canadian Inst., 1894, iv, Chap. vn. The whole paper can not be too highly commended. 2 Ibid., 1891, iv, p. 160. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 445 The regular packing wallet (lu'-kez) of the carriers is made of undressed moose hide and tanned caribou skin. The packing band is of moose skin, broad in the middle for the forehead and quite long. On each end of the wallet is a luj; or oar of tanned hide pierced with two holes. The ends of the carrying band pass through the upper holes and are drawn forward and tied across the breast, so that the position of the burden may be changed at will. 1 Salmon skin often replaces the hide. Women are the principal carriers. Of the Athapascan woman Father Morice says that her capacity for Fig. 1:52. KOKKAN MKTIKMIS K I'AUKVINIi. Krnin figure in Curies* "Life in Kiirra." carrying heavy burdens lies in her ability to preserve an accurate bal- ancing of the load rather than in any great muscular strength. The pack rests on the back, between the shoulders, supported by a leather line which passes in a broad band across the forehead and is secured by the ends of the line being tied across the chest.-' The professional carriers about Lake Nipigon, Canada, are described by Ralph, who says that each man uses a tumpline, or long stout strap, which he tied in such a way around what he meant to carry, that a broad part of the strap fitted over the crown of his head (fig. 134). 'TranH. Canadian hist., 1SHI. iv. p. 117. ti^- 1 '!"' Proc. Canailian lust.. !**!. XXV, Nns. ll'l and 152. 446 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Thus they "packed" the goods over the portage, their heads sustain- ing the loads, and their backs merely steadying them. When one had thrown his burden into place, he trotted off up the trail with spring- ing feet, though the freight was packed so that 100 pounds should form a load. For bravado one carried 200 pounds, and then all the others tried to pack as much, and most of them succeeded. All agreed that one, the smallest and least muscular-looking one among them could carry 400 pounds. 1 Fig. 133. AINO HEAD-STRAP AND SEAT, KROM SHIKOTAN, YKZO. From a figure m the Report of the Smithsonian Institution ( U. S. Nationil Museum), 1890. Cat. No. 150768, U. S. N. M . Mackenzie tells of men who carried seven packages of 90 pounds each across a portage half a league long without stopping. 2 The Kutchin woman cuts and hauls the h'rewood for her husband; she hauls his lodge, kettles, and property when the camp is moved; she hauls the meat to the camp in winter and carries it in summer. During the warm weather she dries the meat, carries him water, makes his clothes, laces his snowshoes, and indeed does all the drudgery of the camps. The men always cook. If a wife will not obey her husband 'Julian Ralph, "On Canada's Frontier," New York, 1802, p. 188. * " Voyages trom Montreal through the Continent of North America," u. i.vm. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 447 she gets a good beating. Children are generally well treated by their parents. 1 The watersheds and river systems of Canada and tin- northern United States, together with the tact that nature supplied excellent material for very light and capacious water craft, rendered this whole territory accessible from any point of it and made it possible for single stocks of Indians to occupy large territory. Portages were of several kinds: (1) The voyageurs unloaded their canoes, carried t lie goods on their backs by means of headbands or on their shoulders, from open wat00 pounds. Kadi had a foreman Fig. 134. CANADIAN 1'ACKKR WITH TUMPUXK. i :i fiiirH iii " Canada'* Frontier," by Julian Kalph. 1 Jones, Rep. Smithsonian hist., ISM. p. :'._'(;. M:ii-krn/ic, " YoMiircs from Montreal through th< Philadelphia 1HOJ, p. xxxiii. ( uiii incut n|' N^rth \iin-rir.-i,' 448 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. awl a steersman, and enough additional men to form a crew capable of carrying the boat. The justification among the Chippewas for loading the backs of their women with grievous burdens is found in their mythology. They derive their origin from dogs. At one time, as the story goes, they were seized with such reverence for their canine ancestors that they entirely ceased to employ dogs in drawing their sledges, greatly to the hardship of their women, to whom the task fell. 1 Maximilian saw Cree Indian women returning in all directions from the forests, panting under the weight of large bundles of wood, which were fastened on their backs. 3 Example No. 165918 in the U. S. National Museum is the universal packing or parfleche case of the Cheyenne Indians of the Algon- quian stock. It is made from a single piece of buifalo hide, cured as rawhide and not tawed. A hide was first sweated so that the hair would come out and then cleaned and stretched until nearly dry. It was then cut into shape, doubled up into wallet form, useless folds were cut away, and was then fitted with strings and painted in green, black, yellow, and blue to the gen- tile pattern. The U. S. National Museum possesses a large variety of these packing cases from every one of the stocks on the plains Siouan, Algonquian, Oaddoau, Kiowan, and Shoshoneau. The function of the parfleche was to preserve articles and food in the tent and to become a packing case for man, for dog's back, dog travois, horse travois, and horse's back in the daily or the annual move (figs. 135 and 136). "In winter time," says Wood, "the New England Indian women were their husbands' caterers, trudging to the clam banks for their timber, and their porters to lug home their venison which their laziness exposes to the wolves till they impose it upon their wives' shoulders." 3 Loskiel says that the Delaware women carried everything on their Fig. 135. RAWHIDE PACKING OK PARFLECHK CASE. Tat. No. 165918, L : . S. N. M. Collect eel by H. 11. Voth. 1 Bancroft, "Native Races <>!' the Pacific States," New York, 1874-1876, I, p. 118. -Maximilian, "Travels in the Interior of North America," London, 1843, p. 203. n Wood, "New England's Prospect,'' 1'rmce Soc. Publications, Boston, I, p. 108. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 449 heads, fastened by a thong round their foreheads. By meaus of this they frequently supported above a hundredweight, the load being placed so as to rest also upon their backs. 1 Fig. 136. RAWHIDE PACKING OR PARFLECHE CASES Cil No. I8&IM, U. S. N. M. Collected hy Junta Mooney. The I'. S. National Museum possesses an old carrying basket, example . ' History of the Mission of the United Brethren/' 1794. pp. 107-108. H. Mis. 90, pt 2 29 450 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. No. 8430 (tig. 137), from the Arikaree Indians, of Dakota, who are of the Panian or Caddoau stock. The basket is quadrilateral, widest at the top and longer than wide. Four bent poles constitute the frame, each one forming the basis of a side or end. The end ones, much like ox-yoke bows, project below the others to form a rest for the basket. At the top the ends of the poles are held in place by means of a hoop. In a former paper the weaving was said to resemble that of the British Columbia tribes in cedar bark and other flat material, and so it does. But it is more significant here that it also resembles that of the Muskhogean and other south- ern stocks of the United States. It is diagonal weaving in nar- row strips of birch and other tough bark, varying in color. The distribution of this type of weaving belongs to the study of the industries of the Ameri- can aborigines. The cacique of Patofa gave to Soto guides, 700 Indians to bear burdens, and maize for four days' journey. Soto trav- eled six days by a path, which narrowed more and more until it was lost altogether. All through Georgia the Indians obeyed their ladie to furnish bearers. From that it is in- ferred that the professional carrier had been developed. 1 Example No. 91508 (fig. 138) is a form of carrying basket quite common among the Choc- taw Indians of Louisiana. It is a hamper holding a bushel or more, wider at top than at bottom. It is made of the common cane, split and woven by diagonal weaving, the universal method among the southern tribes of the United States upon all baskets whatever. The headband of leather is attached to the sides of the basket. On the west coast of America, south of the peninsula of Alaska, the sled, the kayak, and the portable canoe disappear, and the porter at once assumes his carrying devices, and does not lay them aside again until the Straits of Magellan are reached. Both head and breast band are brought into play. With the former the reader is familiar. The breastband is a flat piece of textile or hide extending from a Fig. 137. CARRYING-BASKET OF AKIKAREE (CADDOAN) INDIANS. Ct. Nn.8130, U. S. N. M. Collected by Dr. Washington Matthews. II. .. 1 " Discovery and Conquest of Terra Florida," Publica tions of the Hakluyt Society 1851, p. 52. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 451 load on a man's back across his arms and breast. Sometimes it is seen quite up to the collar bone, again it crosses almost down to the elbows. A good picture of this device is given by Krause. He figures a Chilkat man, barefoot, weaving trousers and blouse, and carrying a pack sup- ported by a headband and breastband. Between the former and the forehead lies a soft pad. 1 (Fig. 139.) Schwatka was astonished at the endurance, of the Alaskan carriers. and says that the Indian packers over these mountain passes usually carry IOC) pounds, although one lie had witnessed walked along readily with IL'7. and a miner informed him that his party employed one that carried 1 '<. The cost of carriage of a pack (KM) pounds) over the Chilkoot trail for miners has been from -".I loslL'. ; md the lndi;iii> \\ere not inclined to see him over at any reduced rates, despite the la rue amount of material re quired to be transported, some 2 tons. By giving them two load s,oi do n blmg the time over the portage, a slight reduction could be had, not worth the time lost in such an arrange- ment, and he made contracts with enough of them to carry his effects over at once. "Mr. Spuhn was also very energetic in his efforts to secure for me better terms, but without avail, and after I crossed the trail 1 in no way blamed the Indians for their stubbornness in maintaining what seemed at first sight to be exorbitant, and only wondered that they would do this extremely fatiguing labor so reason- ably." Schwatka gives a view on Payer portage, representing a Chilkat Indian with two ammunition boxes going over the pass. The amount some of these packers will carry seems marvel ms, and makes esti- mates for pack mules or trails therefor seem suj erfluous. Their only packing gear is a couple of bands, one passing over the forehead where it is flattened out into a broad strip, and the other over the arms and across the breast. The two meet behind on a level with the shoulder, and are there attached to lashings more or less intricate, Kig. 138. CHOCTAW CAKKYINii-HASKKT, TOMMON AMONO MU8KHO- liKAX TRIBKS. 9ISUH. 1'. S. X. M. r.illert.'.l l>y Kclwurd I'.Hi.-r. Aurel Krause, "Die Tlinket-Indianer," Jeua, 1885, p. 101. 452 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. according to the nature of the material to be transported. If a box or stiff bag, the breast band is so arranged in regard to length that when the elbow is placed against it (the box), the strip tits tightly over the extended forearm across the palm of the hand bent backward. The head- band is then the width of the hand beyond this. Schwatka saw a few Indians arranging their packs and their harness according to this mode. The harness proper will not weigh over a pound, and the lashing according to its length. The strip across the head and breast is of untanned deerskin, about 2 inches wide, with holes or slits in the ends protected from tearing out by spindles of bone or ivory. 1 "It seemed marvelous beyond measure IIOAV these small Indians, not averaging, I believe, over 140 pounds each, could carry 100 pounds up such a precipitous mountain, alternately on steeply inclined glacial snow and treacherous rounded bowlders where a misstep in many places could have hurled them hundreds of feet down the slope or precipices. "The Indian would chase a goat, almost keep- ing up with him, down into thje valley where we camped, and up the steep mountain slopes of the eastern side equally as high as those men- tioned, and all this immediately after he had carried over 100 pounds across the trail." 2 Fig. 139. CHILKAT (KOLUSCHAN) PACKER WITH LOAD. From a figure in "Die Tlinket In- dianer," by Krause. Fig. 140. CARBYINO-WALLET OF SPRUCE BOOT, MIXED PLAIN AND TWINKD WEAVING . Southeastern Alaska. Cat. No. 168163, U. S. N M. Collected by Herbert Ogden. Example No. 168163 (fig. 140) is a wallet of spruce root from south- eastern Alaska, near Fort W ran gel 1. It is a shallow bowl or tray, 1 Schwatka, "Military Reconnoissance in Alaska," 1883, p. 23, fig. 8. z lbid., pp. 17-18. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 453 circular in outline, and flexible. The noteworthy characteristic is the mixture of art in its production. In the weft every alternate row is twined and the next plainly woven. Now Dixons Entrance is the point of contact of the Koluschan or Tlingit, the Skittagetan or Haida. the Chimmesyan and the Wakashan or H;iclt/.uk;tn families, and Sal- ishan tribes are not far distant. On the north of Dixons Kntrancc twined weaving in split spruce root attains its perfection. On the south of it, in the cedar-hark country, plain weaving and diagonal or diaper weaving have their develop- ment. Inthisspec- i in {'ii a Tl i n gi t woman might have woven one row and aWakashan woman the alternate row. On a great many trade baskets and fanciful articles, such as covered bottles, this alternation reappears. The handle is a loop of spruce-root rope on one margin and a loose end on the other margin to tit therein. Speaking of the necessity of carriers from the coast, Setou-Karr says that when the (Jhilkats are all gone, those interior regions which are only attainable on foot with pack-carriers or packers will become more difficult of ac- ',';;,; > .' '.:':: i j^ ;;;.!' /. .-.: ' r - ..... cess, because now these Indians, bro- ken as they are by disease, can yet carry heavier packs than a white man. Fig. 142. They can travel far- . 141 . I'l.AllMi i AKlnlMMiAND AND LINE, VBKl> BY TIIK MAKAII (WAKA-.IIAM INDIANS, NEAH HAY, WASHINGTON. fat. NIL lf.n. T. S. N. M. CII||.TI| l.y JaniM BY THK CI.ALLAM (SAUSHAN) tllCr Oil foot and CD - IN " IAN8 ' dure. greater hard- cat. No. X3472, U. .S. N. M. follertr.t bjjamr* (i. Swan. ships. 1 hey do not require so much in the shape of clothes and bedding. Their dried salmon, which they carry as food, weighs little, and they are satisfied with that. They are able, moreover, to supplement this with many kinds of roots, herbs, and fruits which are eatable. 1 Mrs. Allison says of the Similkameen : Before there was any regular means of transport over the mountains lying between Hope, on the Fra/er, and the Similkameen, the Indians used to be employed to pack provisions over on their backs. Their packs were suspended by means of a baud or str;i]> passed over their foreheads [see figs. 141 and 142], and I have known some of them to pack three sacks of Hour (150 pounds) on their back while traveling on snow- shoes for a distance of 65 miles over a rough, mountainous road, with a depth of 25 feet of snow on the summit of the Hope Mountain, over which the trail ran. Some- 1 Seton-Karr, Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., London, 1891, xm, p. 73. 454 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. times a whole family would start out on one of these packing expeditions, the children as well as their parents, each taking a load and accomplishing the journey in six or eight days, according to the state of the road. If an unusually violent snowstorm overtook an Indian while traveling in the mountains he would dig a hole in the snow, cover himself with his hlanket, and allow himself to be snowed up ; here he would calmly sleep until the snow had passed, then he would proceed on his journey. 1 Mayne's testimony is to the same effect : The things were then divided into bundles or packs, of as even weight as possible, giving some 50 or 60 pounds to each man. Arranging these packs is a matter of no little difficulty, for the Indian has a great objection to altering his load after he has started, so that you have to give the men carrying the provisions, which grow lighter daily, a heavier load at starting than those who have the canteen or the tent to carry. They generally stop for some live minutes' rest every half hour. This they do with sur- prising regularity. They generally squat near a ledge of rock on which they can rest their burden without removing it. They carry everything the same way, viz, with a band over the forehead, the pack resting on their shoulder blades or a little below. - Of the Columbia Indians Lewis and Clark speak: The morning was cool; the wind high, from the northeast. The Indians who ar- rived last night took their empty canoes on their shoulders and carried them below the great shoot, where they put them in the water and brought them down the rapid, till at the distance of 3-J- miles they stopped to take in their loading, which they had been afraid to trust in the last rapid, and had therefore carried by land from the head of the shoot. 3 Fig. 143. INDIAN WOMAN CARRYING WOOD WITH BREAST- BAND AND PARBUCKLE. Montana. From a photograph in D. S. National Mnsenm. The men and women about Still- water, Mont., carry loads in a similar way. (Fig. 143.) The packer takes a reata or rope about the size of one's finger, made out of Buffalo skin or braided elk skin (three plait), lays it on the ground in shape of a loop, and places the load across it. They generally get a little rise in the ground or a cut bank ; but if on the level of a prairie they are helped by one of their number to raise it or else work over on their side until they can get upon their knees, when they are all right. After placing their load of 100 pounds each of flour or a quarter of a buffalo or steer or a bundle of dry wood they, with their back against it, take the curve or bend of the rope over their head, 'Allison, Journ. Anthrop. Inst., London., 1892, xxi, pp. 305-306. 2 Mayiie, " British Columbia and Vancouver Island," pp. 100-101. 3 " History of the Expedition under the command of Lewis and Clark," New York, 1893, n, p. 684. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 455 down across the breast and across the shoulders, and then, taking one of the ends in each hand, bring them up behind their back, catch the rope on top of the load by running each end under; then, pulling the ends over each shoulder, tighten the loud, if loose, and then raise on one side, then the other, to make it more secure, and with a heave forward the carrier comes to the knees before getting on the feet. The load or burden rests on the back and shoulders. When moving, the body is bent forward, and the heavier the load the more the body is inclined. I have seen them carry wood over 4 miles in this way, resting whenever they find a suitable place, like a cut bank or washed gully, so the load will be even with the place and can be taken again in a minute or so. It will be observed that the regulation carrying strap is for the professional packer. When good textiles abound along the shores and inland, from Sitka south ward, the car- rying wallet arid conical bas- ket come into vogue. In the land of the giant cedar and of the soft grasses the former pre- vails. Under the domination of more rigid material the cone comes into play. The freight also is different. Most of the dwellings of the fishing peo- ple are by the water side, the freight can not be packed and the haul is short. ExainpleNo. 127843 (fig. 144) is a carrying wallet from the Quiuaielt Indians, a Salishan tribe in Chehalis County, Wash., collected by Charles Willoughby. By reference to the illustra- tion it will be seen that the apparatus is a combination of the head band and line, a kind of inverted sling, with a bag. The band is braided in the same manner as in the foregoing figure. The construction of the wallet is of interest. The general texture is precisely that of the typical Chilkat blanket and the Sitka wal- lets, only the material is twine, the weaving is loose and flexible, and the warp is horizontal. At the top are one or two interesting features introduced to strengthen the border. Two rows of close twined weav- ing an 1 laid on outside as in the style called "bird-cage" stitch. The Fig. 144. CARBYINQ-WALLBT AND HEAD-BAND. An example of twined weaving, with horizontal warp. 'nl. No. 127843, I'. S. N. M. Quinaiult (Salishan) Indian*. Washington. Collected by Charles Wil'.ouihby. 456 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. ends of the weft are braided down into one another, drawn tight and cut off. Example No. .19026 (fig. 145) is a conical carrying basket used by the Clallam Indians. It was collected by James G. Swan. It is introduced to show how the savage inventor would convert a soft wallet- of the north into a hard cone of the south. The web of the basket is from rushes united by twine weaving, by braiding, and by the plaiting of a single filament. This soft, open network is converted into a light but strong cone by the insertion of a hoop into the top and the fixing of six vertical rods to the hoop at equal distances, uniting their ends at the bottom of the cone, and sewing them to the texture of the wallet inside. Example No. 19289 (fig. 146) is a burden basket used by McCloud River Indians, California, col- lected by Livingstone Stone. In the Clallam basket just noted, the headband encircles the cone about the middle, raising the load high on the back, after the man- ner of the Oriental water car riers. Indeed, the conical bask et and the conical jar should be studied together as for the back instead of the head. Farther south it will be seen that the Pueblo women make their jars for the head, while the Papago make theirs for the back, hence the variety in form. (Fig. 146.) The California woman has abundance of rhus, hazel, wil- low, pine root, and other rigid material and may decorate the surface with different fern stems, straw, and dyed splint. So she makes her baskets in twined weav- ing, having rigid switches or small stems for her warp. But in this central California region there is a device of strengthening the texture not sufficiently explained in the drawing. It is, in fact, the union of what has been called the twined stitch with the bird-cage stitch. There are three elements : (1) The fundamental or vertical warp of twigs; (2) across this at right angles a horizontal subsidiary warp of twig carried around in the process of weaving, and (3) a web or weft of twined weaving uniting the two. Dr. Hudson, of Yokaia, Cal., the Fig. 145. CONICAL CARBYING-BABKET WITH RODS AND PLAITED HEAD-BAND FROM PYRAMID LAKE, NEVADA. Cat. No. 19026, U. S. N. M. Collected by Stephen Power*. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 457 best authority on such matters, draws attention to the fact that all the northern stitches culminate in the Sacramento Valley and mirts adjacent, and that the Yo- kaiau stock are very adept at this composite style of tex- ture. The top of this basket is strengthened by a hoop, to which the carrying band is attached. The bottom is strengthened by close weav- ing. The Porno Indians use a conical basket for carrying, held on the back in a sling, the headband of which passes over the carrier's brow. Dr. Hudson once saw an old wo- man carry 3 bushels of pota- toes in this manner through mud and rain to her home '2 miles distant. Greater loads are not unusual to the men, and as a consequent result of such customary labor the Dig ger Indian is abnormally de- veloped in the dorsal and the anterior cervical muscles, besides having a chest magnificent in proportions. 1 Example No. 1126U07 (fig. 147) is an elaborately constructed headband worn by the Natano band of Hupa Indians, Athapascan stock, living on the reservation of the same name in northern California. It consists of a loosely woven, visor-like pad to fit on the forehead, and is held in place by a rope made of the warp of the pad, served with twine made from the native hemp. This apparatus is first placed on the head, and then the headband of the load or of the tracking line is worn over it. It must be remembered that the Hupa are the kinfolks of the Carrier Indians of Canada and Alaska. Collected by Capt. P. H. Ray, U. S. A. Farther southward and in the mountains north of San Francisco Bay Fig. 146. CONICAL BURDEN-BASKET USED BY THE MCCLOUD RTVER INDIANS OF SHASTA COUNTY, CALIFORNIA. ':it. No. 19899, U. S. N. M. Colln-li-il hy Livingston SI., Mr. Pig. 147. FOREHEAD PAD WORN BY THE HUPA (ATHAPAS- CAN) INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. Cut. N.I. 126907, U. S. N. M. Collected by dipt. P. H. Ry, V. S. A. 1 J. W. Hudson, Overland Monthly, 1893, xxi, p. 573. 4H8 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. dwell the most exquisite of American basket makers. They use the conical carrying basket, and from each of the stocks the U. S. National Museum has a large collection. They also make globular baskets in large quantity and of many sizes, but these are quiet holders of things, not carriers. If they were they would sit on the head after the manner of a Zuni vase. In the companion pictures here given (figs. 148 and 149) the two styles of weaving are shown, the open and the close, though both have Fig. 148. POMO WOMAN CABRYINO CONICAL BASKET. California. ii a photograph in the r. S. National Museum by H. W. Henshaw. Fig. 149. YOKAIA MAN CARRYING WOOD IN CONICAL BASKET. California. From a photograph m the U. S. National Museum by H. W. the same stitch. In the administration and mingling of the twine and the coil the natives of central California developed as many as seven distinct varieties of weaving, which will be minutely described in a paper on the industrial arts of the aboriginal Americans. The man is a Yokaia, reduced to poverty by the new regime, and is seen carry- ing wood. The staff is of great help to the bearer with the headband. The other picture represents a Porno woman bearing a lighter load in a conical basket. The headband encircles the middle of the utensil, and passes across the woman's forehead well up. The basket is woven PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 4f)9 by the twined process, and ornamented in bands and triangles with split stems of maidenhair fern. Example No. 4l'l.V> (tig. 150) is one of a large number collected among the Utes of Utah by Maj. J. \V. IN. well The I'tes belong to the Sho- shoncau stock, stretching from the northern border of Mexico to Costa Rica. In each culture area they will be found adapting themselves to circumstances and yet preserving their originality: (1) In the north they carry luggage in folders or cases of rawhide, as do the Sioux and other dependents on the buffalo. (2) In the Great Interior P.asin, of which they were practically the owners in aboriginal days, the Ute-Shoshoneans were glean ers of all sorts of grass seeds: the women went out with coni- cal baskets, stood them on the point behind a bunch of goose foot or other plant, with a fan knocked the seeds into the cone until it was full, hung the load on their backs by means of the headband, and carried it home. The contents were winnowed, ground, and cooked by the sa me industrious women. (3) In the pueblo country the Utes are represented by the mixed Moki pueblo, where, as will be seen, four or five quite distinct types of carrying bas kets are made. (4) In Mexico and southward the Aztecan becomes the great- est of burden bearers. The cones here described are made of split osiers, rims stems, and the scions of other plants not identified, worked into twined weaving, leaving a very rough surface on account of the harshness of the material. Once in a while a narro\\ band of black varies the monotony. But nothing is more striking in the immense Powell collection of Ute material than the lack of variety in the color of the buckskin clothing and the uniform hue and texture of the carrying baskets and bottles. Examples Nos. 131 13J) and 1 SSI 1 7 (figs. 1/51 and 1/52) are carrying nets from the Missions in California. The latter is marked Temecula.who are Shoshonean; the former is simply accredited to the Missions. In the Powell collection from I'tah is another carrying net, No. 11244. Kach of these is a strip of open netting with fixed meshes, gathered up at the 1TK SEKD-UASKF.T AND OATHKK1NQ-KAN. I '.-it. Si,. 4ZI.V.. I". S. N. M. r,.!l,.,. t ,..| l,y Maj. .1. \V. I'owt-ll. 460 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. ends into an eyelet or loop like a hammock and provided with a carrying rope of the same kind. The nets are of bast fiber, probably Apocynum. The knots of two of them are the standard-mesh knot, bowline on a bight, in nautical phrase; the other is square. The geographic distri- bution of knots will be considered later, but the reader practically bids adieu to the rigid mesh knot with the Pueblo region and takes up the plain coil, half-hitch, wrapped filament of all America south. This is seen in carrying nets and hammocks. 1 Before leaving the Slioshonean sphere of influence, it is necessary to Fig.ir.i. CABRYISO-NET USED BY THE MISSION INDIANS ( >F CALIFORNIA. Cat. No. 131139, U. S. N. M. Collected l;y Stephen JHIII.-.I. Fig. 152. CARRYING-NET MADE OF AGAVE FIBER, USED BY THE TEMECULA INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. C;it. No. 18897, U. S. N. M. Collected l,y Kdwnril I'almer. mention another carrying device whose texture and material are the same as that of the Ute conical burden basket. Example No. 42129 is one of a large number of tight carrying bottles or jars, used in the transportation of water. After being closely woven the vessel is dipped in hot pitch, and this closes every chink. These vessels are much stronger than pottery; indeed, it seems impossible to break one in the ordinary wear and tear. In the course of the weaving lugs or loops are left on the side for the carrying band. These water bottles in their Cf. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. S.Nat.Mus.), 1887, p. 369, fig. 75. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 461 use are not confined to the Ute^, being seen in the hands of Apaches and Pueblo peoples. The Apaches are Athapascans, and are most expert in coiled basket bowl weaving. It is fair to infer that they possess this type of water jar by trade or that they were early taught the art of making them in their new homes. 1 (Fig. 153.) Davis speaks of Indian women carrying water along on the march for the Spaniards to drink. 2 Vaca says of the Arbadaos, a tribe of Indians in western Texas, that they go naked, and tear their flesh in passing through the woods and Fig. 153. APACHK WOMAN CARRYING WATER IN BASKET BOTTLK. Krorn n phutof raph in the II. .S. National Museum. bushes. They were obliged to carry heavy loads of wood upon their backs, and the cords which bound it on cut into their flesh. This refers to Vaca's party :| in this instance, but shows the common method of carrying in this region. V aca also speaks of a separate class of emasculated men among some 'Cf. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (II. S. Nat. Mug. ), 1887, p. 268, fig. 14. Apache woman c:irrying water bottle. '"Spanish Conquest of New Mexico," I>oylentown, ixtJJt, p. 89. "Ibid., p. 77. 462 I'EPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Texaii tribes who, among other functions, carried heavy burdens. They were more muscular and taller than other men and bore burdens of great weight. 1 The Apaches also use a modified conical basket, example No. 21489 (fig.154). The material and the stitch are precisely those of the Utes, but there are three noticeable features. The basket is oblong, like a northern pack ; the surface is decorated by plain colored and checkered bands, and hanging from the top and the bottom are fringes of buckskin, at the ends of which are the false hoofs of deer and bits of tin rolled up. The reader is now in the midst of the arid region including the cliff dwellings and the pueblos. Into it have come tribes from the four quarters and introduced every form of carrying apparatus known thereabout. They also preserve to us forms obsolete elsewhere. In addition to this, for three hun- dred and fifty years, Spanish inrtueiice has been at work pro- ducing modifications and making additions. The women who go to the mesa for clay now bring it home in old blankets in good European style, slung over one shoulder like a peddler's pack. Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff calls the attention of the writer to a curious shifting of the industrial center in those pueblos where the men col- lect wood in the adjoining plains, carry it by toilsome journeys up the mesas just to burn it for the ashes. The creating of fires in the plain would disturb all the social economy of the mixed populations. The Moki or Hopi pueblos, seven in number, in northeastern Ari- zona, have been carefully studied by many ethnologists, latterly by the Bureau of Ethnology and by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes. These tribes, *of mixed linguistic affinity, have several marked varieties of basketry, especially for carrying: (1) wickerwork, warp rigid, weft flexed; (2) diagonal weaving, of split yucca leaf; (3) coiled work, in meal plaques, etc.; (4) twined work, in water jars. Example No. 70937 (fig. 155) is one of a large number of carry- ing baskets from Moki in wickerwork, the same manipulation being practiced on pretty plaques and flat, quadrilateral mats. The mate- rial is the unbarked twigs of little shrubs yet undetermined. The Fig. 154. ORNAMENTED CARRYING-BASKET USED BY THE APACHK INDIANS OF ARIZONA. Cat. No. 21489, U. S. N. M. Collected by J. B. White. Davis, "Spanish Conquest of New Mexico," Doylestown, 1869, p. 83. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 463 quadrilateral form and framework of these baskets recall the Arikaree specimen before described. The headband is attached to the ends one- third of the distance from the top. Kxample No. lL'153 is figured by Stevenson, in connection with a plaque having woven center and wicker border. 1 Example No. ti'l'.Mi (tig. l.~i!) is a carrying basket of split yucca liber leaf in diagonal weaving, collected by James Stevenson. There are a great many specimens of this ware in the I'.S. National Museum vary. ing in form from a flat tray to a deep fruit-picking basket. All of them are coarse, light, strong, and often made to be quite ornamental by the variation of the stitch and alternating of the two sides of the leaf, one green and the other whitish. The headband is attached to the rim. The various styles are figured by Colonel Stevenson. 2 Example Xo. 4l'12!) (tig. 157) is a water-tight jar for carrying water, collected at Wolpi, one of the Moki pueblos in northeastern Arizona, by James Stevenson. It is of split osiers made in coiled work, after the fashion of the Apache trays, and dipped in hot pitch. Lugs of horse- hair are attached to the sides for the headband. This should be com- pared with Vte and Apache speci- mens, the more especially since the.-e make no pottery, while the Moki are excellent potters. The basketry of the '/Aim In- dians, in New Mexico, as it exists in the IT. S. National Museum is of very rude and ordinary form, IIASKKl K..K. ; vill|.:iilN.i VITCAI-KIT., M.-njl I I I I btleSS O WJ Ilg to pOVCl'tV of IIKI VAN, ARIZONA. . , , ., * ena ' an " ln<) t |V< ' ro '* s <'onstrnc Kr ,ii.ur- i,, th. s.,,,,,,1 \,,,H,,I Kn-.rt .1 ii.- i:,r t tfoii. The twined, coiled wicker, Fig. 155. FHUIT-I'ICKER'S HASKET FROM TU8AYAN, ARIZONA. i t. No. rW"7. I >. N. M r,,11,., !(,! In- .|:,IIM- Stevenson. and diagonal or plaited styles r\j>t. but no original fashions are developed. Si-cinnl Ann. iV|>. limviiu of i t liiiologv . li^s. .">:;!'. .Md. 'Ibid., tigs. 54:: 464 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Example No. 22971 (fig. 158), collected by Jaines Stevenson, is built up on corner bows and warp of three sticks together; the filling is in wicker and the ends are fastened off very neatly by tucking them in. 1 Example No. 40093 (fig. 159) is a modern specimen of Moki pottery collected by James Stevenson, and is one of a large number illustrating the control of the carrying function over form. It may be called an aboriginal canteen and could have been influenced in shape by those of civilized peoples. At any rate, the mouth has relation to filling and emptying, the flat side to the convenience of the carrier; the lugs are for the headband, for the Moki wears the canteen on the back and not on the hip with the strap over the shoulder. Finally, the whole motive of ornamentation is con- trolled by the industrial form. The axis of ornament has revolved outward 00 de- grees from the mouth to the apex of the outer side. In the great variety of canteens figured by Stevenson this is true. 2 Water jars, globose in form,with wide open mouths and receding bottoms to fit the carrier's head (fig. 160), exist by thousands in Zufii and other pueblos. 3 Carrying on the head is not an American Indian native custom. There are thousands of Pueblo water pots and jars with concave From a fi g0 in the Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. bottOUlS tO facilitate CaiTy- Cat. No. 42129, U. S. N. M. Collected by James Stevenson. ing them on the head. But these are all post-Columbian. Not all the Pueblos even in our day prac- tice toting, keeping up the good old custom, once in vogue from Smith Sound to Patagonia, of bearing loads on the back held in place by a band across the forehead or the breast. No ancient American water jars seem to have concave bottoms, but the circular padded ring is found in Arizona and New Mexico, and occurs in some collections from ancient sites. Dr. J. Walter Fewkes has found only one fragment of a small jar punched up at the bottom. It is therefore possible that the ancient inhabitants of Tusayan may have carried water on the Fig. 157. WATER-BOTTLE FROM TC8AYAN, ARIZONA, MADE OP COILED BASKETRY AND COVERED WITH PITCH. ' 'Figured also in Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. S. Nat. Mus.), 1884, fig. 80; and in Sec- ond Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, figs. 484-488. "Second Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, 1883, figs. 385-397. 3 Op. cit., figs. 359-384. The papers of Holmes on the development of form and ornament should be examined. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 465 head in jars convex or rounded on the bottom by means of the padded ring. The presence of the rings does not prove this altogether, since their function may have been to uphold the jar but not to carry it. The head and the breast band, the shoulder and atlas yoke, and toting seem to have divided the earth among them in early times as carrying methods, and their areas are quite contiguous. Example No. 40473 is called a carrying pad, ha kin ne, of the Zufii Indians. It is made of the dried leaves of the Yucca baccata, split and plaited as in making a whip. These rings are made to tit the head comfortably, and serve the double purpose of sustain- ing a jar of water on the head and holding it upright on the ground. They also preserve the soft pottery from wearing away. Example No. 4046(5, collected in the pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, illustrates a va- riety of head pads used in carrying jars. The Irish milkmaid catches up a kerchief or cloth and by a quirk or two converts it into a ring or crown which she places on her head be- fore setting thereon the brimming pail. The Zufii water carrier pro- vides herself with a thick ring of bark, or especially of closely braided yucca, and on this she sets her round- hottoined jar. The same ring serves also in keeping the jar upright on the floor of her room. H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 30 Fig. 158. COABSE UATHEEINQ-CEATE USED BY THE ZUSl INDIANS OF NEW MEXICO. Cat. No. 22971, U. S. N. M. Collected by James Stevenaon. Fig. 159. CANTEEN OF POTTKRV, USED BY THE MOKI INDIANS OK ARIZONA. ( -:il. S.i. 40HU3, I!. S. N. M. Colln-tnl liy Jm.- M.-W,IM,M. 466 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. The making of jars with receding bottoms modifies the size and func- tion of the ring 1 (fig. 161). Fig. 160. VASE USED FOR CARRYING AND STORING WATER BY THE ZUSl INDIANS OF NEW MEXICO. Cat. No. 41150, U. S. N. M. Collected by Jamea Stevenson. Coronado (1540) wrote to his superior in Mexico: " f send your lord- ship two rolles which the women in these parts are woont to weare on their heads when they fetch water from their wells, as we used to do in Spain; and one of these Indian women with one of these rolles on her head will carrie a pitcher of water, without touch- ing the same, up a lather." 2 Leaving the pueblo country the student may transfer his investigations among the un- classed Mission Indians, the Yu- man, and the Piman families, all about the Colorado mouth. The U. S. National Museum is in- debted to the Pasadena Asso- ciation and ^o Miss Picher for some observations among the Mission carrying people. It is a singular fact that Indian wo men cut grass with such old knives as they may get, dry it, Fig. 161. HEAD-PADS USED BY THE PUEBLO WATER-CARRIERS OF NEW MEXICO. Cat. No. 40466, U. S. N. M. Collected by Jiunex MeveiiBiin. 'Cf Second Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, 1883, fig. 486; Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U.S. Nat. Mas.;, 1887, fig. 19, Zufii woman carrying water vase. 2 Publications of the Hakluyt Society, London, 1890, in, p. 454. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 467 and sell it as hay to the Government. The huge bundles are rolled up and tied, and are carried on the top of the back, being held up in a variety of ways. In one case the good woman thrusts the end of a stick under the binding rope and holds (into that. In another, the woman attaches the ends of her carrying strap to tin- wrapping cord of the bundle, using the stick for a cane, and in a third case she uses both headband and staff, holding onto the latter with both hands above the shoulders (tig. 102). Rockhill figures a woman of Iinamu Ohnang carrying a bundle of fagots on her back by means of a shoulder band. 1 Fig. 162. MISSION INDIAN WOMAN OK SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA CAKKYINH HAY. Kri.m H l>lloti.rHlih HI Ih- r. S National Museum Piy MIM Annie I!. I'lrh.-r. Example No. 19742 (ng. 163) is a basket for carrying cactus fruit, collected among the Diegenos Indians, of the Yuman family, on the Mis- sion Reservation, in Lower California. As will be seen, it is in twined weaving of the rudest sort, a globose wallet, strikingly similar in shape to the great pottery ollas made and used by the neighboring tribes. The noteworthy character about the specimen is the occurrence of twined weaving so far south. On the testimony of the national collec- tions there does not exist a tribe south of this line that practices it. K \ample No. 2414a (tig. 1(54) is one of the most interesting specimens in the world. It is the carrying frame and net of the Mohave Indians, 1 Diary of a Journey through Mougolia aud Tibet/' 1894, Smithsoniau I n-t . . p. 81. 468 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. of the Yuman stock, dwelling about the mouth of the Colorado River, in Arizona. They live largely upon the raesquite bean, which they gather, pod and all, and grind for bread. Two poles 8 feet long bent in the form of an oxbow and crossing each other at right angles form the ground work. These are held in place by lashing at the bottom and by a hoop at the top. Four or five strong twines of agave fiber pass from the hoop above to the bottom of the framework between each pair of uprights. These and the uprights constitute the warp. The weft is a new type of Indian textile on the Pacific Coast called "wrapped" weaving. A single twine is coiled round and round the frame, making meshes with the warp half an inch wide. Every time this weft passes the warp strings or poles, it is simply wrapped once around. The roughness of the agave fiber holds the wrap from slipping and pre- serves a tolerably uniform mesh. Foster describes the finding of cloth in a mound in Butler County, Ohio, and figures a specimen in which the'twines are wrapped in the same manner. 1 The head- band is a rag tied to two of the upright sticks. This should be compared with the Jarawa basket, p. 433. The Pima women make of native twine a kind of carry- Fig. 163. BASKET FOK GATHERING CACTUS, USED BY THE DIEGESOS (YUMAN) INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. Cat. No. 19742, U. S. N. M. Collected hy Kilwanl Palmer. ing basket or hod called in the tradition of the Casa kiho. Bandolier finds mention of it Grande. 2 The principle is the same as that of the Mohave carrier just described, and the functions and environments are the same, but the structure is different. The Pimas dwell in the northwestern corner of Mexico, con- tiguous to the Yuma. They are by some considered a separate family, by others to be allied to the Nahuatl or Uto-Aztecan. At any rate, their weaving on the kiho or carrying basket is of the south. Example No. 126680 (fig. 165) is a kiho of the Pimas collected by Edward Palmer. Ft consists of four straight sticks 4 feet long, tied 1 Foster, " Prehistoric Races," Chicago, 187M, p. '22~>, lij;. 29. 1 Handelier, Archaeological Iuwt. Am. (Ain. Series), Hi, 1890, p. 255, PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 469 together at one end for the bottom of tin- utensil, and fastened to a hoop at the other end for the top. The uetwork is done with a needle, and not with tin* lingers. It is netting or lace work, and not weaving at all. There is nothing to serve as a warp. The whole surface of the frame is covered by a continuous coil of agave fiber twine from bottom to top. Each coil is looped into the one beneath it by a "buttonhole stitch " or u half hitch," as shown in the drawing. In the Mexican hammocks each coil is simply caught under the preceding at regular intervals, while in more pretentious work the moving part is wrapped once, twice, or three times about the standing part as in Canadian snowshoes. Accompanying this speci- men and every other one of the kind in actual life is the staff, which serves a multitude of purposes to be explained later. The Pimas and their neigh- bors make use of gourds as well as of pottery in carrying water and more compact freight. Example No. 76047 (tig. 16(5) is a carrying gourd from the Pi ma country, collected by Edward Palmer. It is inter- esting in this connection on account of the net in which it is inclosed. About the bot- tom the twine is laid in the style of the Pima kiho. It is coiled in "half hitches." About the top it is served around the gourd itself in a series of half hitches. The headband is a rag caught into the network. Example No. 19478 is a globular gourd from San Diego, Cal., Mission Indians. It is mounted in two zones of leather above and below, with lash ing of rawhide rove through holes cut along their inner border like the snare of a drum, holding about a gallon. The Papago Indians of northwestern Mexico make a very elaborate carrying device also called "kiho." Example No. 7(>(K'i3 (fig. 167) is a small sized kiho collected by Edward Palmer. Four sticks and a hoop, as in the specimen last described, form the ground work, but they are disposed quite differently. Two of them, forming the back of the uten- sil, are 6 feet long, and extend below the kiho for le-js and above it for binding the top load. The front pair of sticks start from the back pair a Fig. 164. CARRYING-BASKET, WRAPPED WEAVIXU, USED BV MOHAVE INI HANS OF ARIZONA. Cat. No. 2414.V C. s. N. M. Collected by KdwarJ Palmer. 470 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. foot, more or less, from the ground and are lashed to the hoop which forms the upper border. This hoop is so adjusted to these four sticks that when the woman is leaning forward with the load on her back the hoop shall be hori- zontal. Covering the space between the hoop and the junction of the four sticks is a pyramidal bag of net- work starting from a ring of twine at the bottom and wrapped about the hoop at the top. This net- work is like that on the Pima basket, but is rendered ornamen- tal by varying, according to a pre- determined plan, the number of times the moving part shall be wrapped about the standing part. The Papago Indians of the Piman stock have been lately studied carefully by Professor McGee, of the Bureau of Ethnology, and ex- cellent descriptions and pictures of the carriers secured. It is a puzzle in technographic studies that the lacework on their carry- ing frame, or kiho, commonly called the buttonhole or half- hitch stitch, finds its most northern ex- tension among the Piman stock. Nowhere in the Pueblo tribes is it found, according to the collec- tions of the U. S. National Museum. But south of the Piman it occurs in Central America, in Latin South America as far south as Tierra del Fuego, where it will be found to be the only attempt at textiles. The open-work pattern is produced by en- largement arid inultipli- Fig. 165. CARRYINQ-BASKET OF COILED NETTING, USED BY THE PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. Cat. No. 126680, U. S. N. M. Collected by Edward Palmer. rig. lee. CARRYING -GOURD IN NETWORK, USED BY PIMA INDIANS OF ARIZONA. C a ,No. 7 604r ( U.S.*.M. Co,,ect,n, y Edward P, m e, . The half PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 471 or centrifugally; that is, each one or a ^series of them may 1>< 1 made on ;i larger gauge. The nuiltiplication takes place in (ho number of winds of the moving about the standing part in each stitch. The pattern is in fact a matter of counting ami a fair indication of progress in arithme- tic and geometry made by the Papagos. This network is woven from a ring or loop of cord about inches in diameter, and spreads out tent like to tit a hemp 2 or 3 feet in diameter. This hoop is attached to 3 or more poles of varying length, which act as spreaders, stays, foot rests, handles, staucheons, etc. To complete the outfit a mat of diagonal weaving in yucca tiber extends along one side of the apparatus, to act as a pad to protect the back, and a headband is fastened by its ends to two of the upright sticks. Accompanying the kiho al- ways is a staff' about 4 feet long, with a short crotch on the top. Mr. William Dinwid- die, who accompanied Profes- sor McGee, secured excellent photographs of a woman ris- ing with the kiho, loaded with pottery and other objects (figs. 168-170). The kiho is stood upon its two short legs while the woman sits down with her back against it and draws the headband across her forehead. Virtually, she harnesses her- self to the load. Taking her staff' firmly in the right hand and grasping the hoop with the left hand, she leans for- ward and throws the load upon her back. Rising thereafter is a matter of several movements, in which the good right hand and the staff" play a prominent part. She is now ready to walk away with her load. The professional carriers of Mexico, men and women, use two kinds of headband and the breastband, either singly or combined, and the kinds of receptacles that are attached to the body thereby, as well as the varieties of merchandise therein, are innumerable. The loads shown on their backs in the U. S. National Museum collection of photos are bales of hemequin fiber, bales of goods formed up to suit the carrier, coops of poultry, all sorts of marketing and retail mer- Fig. 167. KIHO, OR I>AIA(i<> rARKYINQ-FKAMK, IN LACK WORK. Out. No. IfittW, T. S. N. M. Coll-|i hy Kdwiird Pnllnrr. 472 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. ciiandise, furniture, pottery, basketry, water and pulque, frequently many times more bulky than the porter himself. The water carrier is Fig. 108. PAPAGO WOMAN ADJUSTING KIHO. rom a photograph in the Bureau of Ethnology. a man whose neck muscles are marvels of toughness, for he supports a globular canteen on his back by means of a headband across his fore- Fig. 19. PAPAGO WOMAN RISING WITH KIHO. From a photograph in the Rureall of Ethnology head at the same time that he supports a pitcher in front of him by means of a strap over the bregma. This process is better shown in a EXPLANATION OF PLATE 24. MEXICAN WATER PEDDLER. The man wears the sun and rain hat, and the old-time sandals without the single toe string. The long vessel derives its form not from the imitation of a natural object, but from several exigencies. It is to be slung below the center of gravity, to fit the back somewhat, to be carried by means of a band across the forehead, to enable the bearer to empty the liquid by bending his back. The straps about the neck of the vessel, held by its other end in his left hand, are for the purpose of drawing down and guiding the mouth of the can. The plate is from a photograph in the U. S. National Museum by Rev. E. F. X. Cleveland, of Dundee, 111., who saya that this is the method of distributing water in Guanajuato, and that the metric system of measures is employed in selling, as may be seen by the cup at the top of the can. The town is in a valley between precipitous hills. A delightful spring on the side of the mountain is conducted to reservoirs, whence the carriers obtain their stock. Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 24. MEXICAN WATER PEDDLER. From a photograph in the U. 8. National Museum presented by Rev. E. F. X. Cleveland. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 473 sketch of a butcher made for the author by W. H. Holmes (fig. 171). Tlie economy of supporting force is equaled by the economy of points of attachment. This man is at once Pueblo Indian, packer, and the inventor of a new method of self-imposition in the form of a load hanging in front. Illustrating the carriers of liquids there is in the IT. S. National Mu- seum a photograph of a water peddler of Guanajuato worthy of closest study, for he looks as though he had dropped in from Cairo Q>1. 24). Fig. 170. PAPAQO WOMAN WITH Kill" PROPERLY MOUNTED. From H i>hoi|rnph in the Bureau ofEthnnlofy. He has on his back a jar 4 feet in length slang in leather straps and hung to himself by a headband attached to the bottom of the jar. To the top of the jar is fastened a strap the other end of which he holds 111 his left hand. In order to deliver his water he uses his spine as a pivot by which the jar can be brought to a horizontal position and guided by the straps. "The cargadores are trained from boyhood to carry heavy burdens over great distances. Don Pepe expected them to travel 8 leagues a 474 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. day. But when carrying lighter loadvS they will sometimes travel for several consecutive days at the rate of nearly 40 English miles a day. When the cargo bearers were moving in single tile with their burdens, they looked like the Tamemes bearing tribute to Montezuina, as repre- sented in the ancient pictures. It is probable that these men were enduring labors similar to thoSe that had been performed by their ancestors for centuries before the arrival of the Spaniards." ! The Mexican carrier enters into serious competition with all modern schemes to improve his country. Over the devious and painful trails of the mountains he knows the shortest cuts. Once in a while his Fig. 171. MEXICAN BUTCHER USING TWO HEAD-BANDS. From a sketch by W. H. Holm.-s. trail lies across the railroad, which he pauses for an instant to contem- plate, and then he proceeds on his way, a bit of the olden time crossing the path of the nineteenth century (fig. 172). As in the drawing, his load on his back may be supported by breastband, or the more ancient headband may be in vogue. Some of his dress is modern, but his hat, or migratory house to defend his head from heat and rain and his eyes from the beating sun, is old; it is a survival. His sandals, especially dedicated to the travel and transportation industry, are old in form, but the coming of the Spaniard brought him horses and cattle and rawhide, 'Lindesay Brine, "The American Indians; Their Earthworks and Temples," Lon- don, 1894, pp. 283-284. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 475 which he did not have previously, and so there is about his feet just a suggestion of Mediterranean influence. On the very top of his load is his water Mask of gourd, that the ingenious horticulturist has compelled to grow with a constriction about its middle for the sole occupation of its carrying strap. Heneath that is his poncho or shawl, at once cloak. -'"'' ..% t^aii'Tx* .,, <->, '> 1 ><$ fe Fig. 172. PROFESSIONAL CAKKIER. Mexico. From i drawing by \V. II > hnniili-r. bed cover, and umbrella. On his back between it and the load is a soft padding, prelude to all saddle blankets. The I . S. National Museum is indebted to E. F. X. Cleveland for a photo of the Mexican carrier in the last act of his drama (fig. 173;. In this he has quit his mountain path and rivalry of the locomotive and freight car in one, and is in the act of carrying coal to feed the iron horse. His old-time hat gives place to the porter's cap. The visor is ouly the 476 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. shadow of the luxurious briin of his native sombrero. He can not dis- card the headband. His limbs are as bare as he is allowed to wear them, and his sandals have antique elements. The carrying pole has a place in the Mexican transportation indus- try. Example No. 126592 (fig. 174) is a carrying device of great interest from Guadalajara, Mexico. The yoke is a flat piece of wood, slightly bent and pierced at the ends for slings or nooses. There is no cutting away to fit the shoulder, but the utensil may be worn as a Holland ^ yoke or .as a Chinese pole ad libitum. The sling at each extremity is of " leather, attached by passing the bend through the hole and over the end. The noose or slipknot at the other end of the sling is for attach- Fig. 173. MEXICAN COAI. CAKRIKR. From n photograph in II..- T. S. N;,ti.,n;i! .V.umum by K. K. X. Cleveland. ment to the top of ajar. In this specimen form is determined by func- tion. But the apparatus has another interest, for it lies exactly on the boundary line between the man carrier and the donkey carrier. The jars should have been drawn with round bottoms. They fit into a wooden rack, one-half of which is shown in miniature in the drawing. By fastening two of these together and throwing them over the back of a donkey four jars full of liquid may be carried, or, as one may see every day in San Luis Potosi, the four jars rest in a rack, beneath which is a wooden wheel suggestive of the Chinese type. In point of fact, the student is witness to the two transfers of loads, to wit, that onto the wheel and that onto the beast. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 477 "The Indians of central Yucatan are accustomed to carrying, which their fathers pursued before them from time immemorial, and they not only carry merchandise and the baggage of travelers, but travelers themselves." 1 The mozos or porters of Guatemala are obliged. when ordered 1>\ the comandancia, to carry burdens not to exceed four arrobas (KM) pounds). Their pay is ;i reales. ;md they must not be sent beyond their district. They support the burden with the mecapal, a rawhide strap, against the forehead. The frame is called carcaste by the Quiche'.'-' "The women have a certain kind of dignity in their manner, caused, in a great measure, by their usage of carrying water jars and pans of crockery poised upon their heads. They there- fore walk slowly and hold themselves upright. This cus- tom, which begins from early childhood and forms part of their daily life, has the result of giving them good figures and a particularly graceful movement. "The men, on the contrary, have a crouching appearance, caused by the method in which they have been accustomed from boyhood to carry their burdens. They relieve the pressure of the weight on their backs by means of a broad band passed over the forehead, and thus, by bending forward. the load is made less oppres- sive. The men and boys con- sequently contract a stooping posture, and this presents an unfavorable contrast to the women, whose bearing is precisely the reverse. There is another circumstance which has its influence in shaping the figures of the women. They carry all small things on the open palm of the left hand, which is thrown back and held well raised up. In fact, the same causes which affect the appearance of the. Indians in North America are present here, but with the difference that there it is the squaw who contracts the stooping and bent figure, through carrying Fi-. 174. < AKKYINIi-JAKS, WITH POLK AND CliATK KOK SAMK. ( inadalajara, M.-\i..i. t at. S.i. \W!Ot, I'. S. N. M. Collm-tnl l.y Kilwanl I'al r. 'Morelet, "Travels in Central America," New York, 1871, p. 279. - iirighuiu, " (jiuateuuiia," New York, 1887, p. 78; figure, p. 98. 478 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. her children and other burdens, and it is the man who maintains the upright figure and dignified manner." l Example No. 129654 (fig. 175) from Honduras, is a simple net made of twine in one continuous piece, wrapped backward and forward to form the warp and then woven through plainly for the weft. Leaving a few inches for attachment the selvage at each end is formed by twined weaving almost out of place in this area. The square netting is also rare, most of the bags and hammocks being in the netted style. Example No. 126805 (fig. 176) is a carrying frame from Honduras, collected by Consul A. E. Morlan. To the student of compara- tive technography it is worthy of close atten- tion. It is framed on two poles, on which rests a struc- ture suggestive of the California baby cradles, and of the porters' frames of West Africa. The sides and border are of wood, parineled with a textile in diagonal weaving. It is quite within the area of prob- Cat. No. 129654, U. S. N. M. Collected I.; Townsend. Pig. 175. CARETING-NET FKOM HONDURAS. i C. K. ability that in this device there are borrowed African features. That the negro race, introduced at the be- ginning of the sixteenth century into middle America, modified and in places crowded out the aboriginal arts is easily proven. In the museum of the Peabody Academy in Salem is a carrying frame labeled Panama, which I here rig.ne. produce through the kindness of Prof. E. S. CAKRYING-FRAME FROM HONDURAS. Morse (fig. 177). It consists simply of two palm <=' i*, u. s. N. M. coii-tj by fronds in which the stalks are the basis sticks, and the network is made up of the leaflets twined together. A headband of cotton cloth completes the outfit. This specimen is almost identical with fig. 107, from West Africa. 1 Lindesay Brine, "The American Indians; Their Earthworks and Temples," Lon- dou, 1894, pp. 188-189. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 479 "About St. Pierre, in Martinique," says Lafcadio Hearn, "the erect carriage and steady, swift walk of the women who bear burdens is likely to impress the artistic observer * * * and the larger part of the female population of mixed blood are practiced carriers. Nearly all the trans- portation of light merchandise as well as of meats, fruits, vegetables, and food stuffs to and from the interior is effected upon human heads. * * * Packets are loaded and unloaded by women and girls able to carry any trunk or box to its destination. At Fort de France the great steamers are entirely coaled by women, who carry coal on their heads, singing as they come and go in proces- sions of hundreds. The highest type of professional female carrier is to the charbonniere, or coaling girl, what the thoroughbred racer is to the draft horse the type of por- teuse selected for swiftness and en- durance to dis- tribute goods in the interior par- ishes, or to sell on commission at long distances. "At a very early age she learns to carry small articles upon her head, a decanter of water, or an orange in a plate. At 9 or 10 she is able to tote a tolerably heavy basket or a tray weighing from L'O to 30 pounds and to walk barefoot 12 or 15 miles a day. At 16 or 17 she carries a tray and burden of 120 to 150 pounds' weight or walks 50 miles a day as an itinerant seller. * * * The weightis so great that no well freighted portense can unassisted' either load or unload herself. She can not even sit down under her burden. * * * "She wears no shoes. She must climb thou- sands and descend thousands of feet every day ; march up and down slopes so steep that the horses of the country all break down after a few years." 1 In St. Pierre itself women carry burdens on the head, "peddling Fig. 177. CAHKYINfi-KRAMK OP I'ALM KROND, FROM 1'ANAMA. from * npecimen in the Peabody Academy, Salmi, Mau. Fig. 178. PORTETI8K, OK CARRIER I.KS8ER ANTII.LKS. From a litiir.- in Hrarn'i " Miibmii in thr Trnpii-. " Hearn, "Two Years iu the French West Indies," New York, 1890, p. 103. 480 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. vegetables, cakes, fruit, ready-cooked food, from door to door (fig. 178). * * * These women can walk all day long up and down hill in the hot sun, without shoes, carrying loads of from 100 to 150 pounds on their heads, and if their little stock sometimes fails to come up to the accus tomed weight, stones are added to make it heavy enough. * * * I have seen a grand piano carried on the heads of four men. With the women the load is seldom steadied with the hand.*' 1 The coaling at Kingston, Jamaica, is done by women. They lift the baskets upon their heads and walk on board the ship, and as they go round the plank and come out there is a little brass piece given each one. These women are very skillful in Curaao. They have been known to take numerous clothes bas- kets on their heads and march along. You hear them paddling all day long; it is a continuous clatter. One of the curious things about them is the fact that the poorest of them will have their pure white clothes, and a friend writes that in the Spanish islands you can buy from them just as much with a 3-cent piece as with a 10-cent piece. They bore a hole through it because they fear that travelers will spend it again. Coal is transported to these islands; the steamer comes right up alongside the wharf, and women carry the freight. In the South American Cordilleras the carrying art has little new infor- mation to offer. This much is true, that the configuration of the country and the political and commercial con- ditions resulting therefrom multiplied the number of backs that had burdens to bear, made of them a class or caste, organized them into more complex social units, and greatly increased the length of the journey. Long roads were laid out, paved in some places, bridges were thrown over deep chasms, and a system ;>f relays was established. Humboldt, speaking of the carriers in his day, says: In those times of oppression and cruelty (sixteenth century) which have been described as the era of Spanish glory the commendatorios (encomienderos) let out the Indians to travelers like beasts of burden. They were assembled by hundreds, either to carry merchandise across the Cordilleras or to follow the armies in their expeditions of discovery and pillage. The Indians endured this service more patiently because, owing to the almost total want of domestic animals, they had Fig. 179. . NAPO INDIAN CARRIER. Ecuador. From a figure in Stanford's Compendiun 'Hearn, "Midsummer in the Tropios," New York, 1890, p. 40. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 481 long been constrained to perform it, though in a less inhuman manner under the government of their own chiefs. 1 The explorers of the Isthmus of Panama found the Indians engaged in commerce, and upon their backs laid tin- timbers of the first boats ever sailed on the Pacific by European*. In Stanford is the picture of a Napo Indian carrier (fig. 179). Tin- >< ant costume, the basket of cane, the headband, the two staves, are of old. The shabby dress replaces the old-time clothing of bark cloth universally donned by the natives of tropical America formerly. Elassaurek says that the Indians of Ecuador carry evert hing on their backs, the load being tied to their forehead. Their strength lies in the muscles of the neck and not in their arms. They carry stone, brick, sand, lime, furniture, vegetables, meat. etc., and pass along laughing or talking, or in sullen silence, but you never hear them sing. 2 Near Quito the traveler is surprised by the sight of many an Indian woman, who not only carries a load on her back, with a babe tied to the top of the carga, but also spins cotton as she trots along. 3 Mrs. Fannie B. Ward says that she has seen Peruvian women and men walking along by the side of a llama spinning the wool that the animal was shedding, using the creature for a natural distal!'. Whymper figures a man carrying a huge jar of water (fig. 180). He is barefooted and clad in European dress. Upon his lower back rests a pad of cloth and on the top of this the vessel, round bottomed and in- closed in a sliDgor network in which the two rope rings rest against the sides of the jar in stead of around the neck and the bottom. These are united by cross lines so as to retain the vessel from all directions. A strap passes from the network around the man's breast. There is no headband. 4 The aboriginal water carrier of Cajamarca figured by Wiener is clad partly in native and partly in European rags; but his water jar is of the universal type, globose, with lugs on the side, through which a braided rope passes and thence over the right shoulder and under the left arm. s 1 Humboldt's Travels, Bohn, 11, p. 31. Hassan rek, " Four Years Among Spanish Americans," New York, 18H7, ]>]< llassaurek, op. cit., p. 89. '"Great Andes of the Equator," New York, 1892, Scrilm.T. p. 169. et Bolivit-. ' p. l-'s H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 31 Fig. 180. HKVl' I KOH CABKYINO WATKK .IAKONTHE HACK. Krom a figure in Whyinper'n " urrnt Anden of the Kqutor." 482 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Baiinondy says the Jivaro of northern Peru carry loads of a hun- dredweight with ease over the worst of mountain tracts. The women use a covering for the lower portion of the body, called the pampanilla, pro- tecting sometimes the upper portion with a man- tle, in which they generally carry their children before them. The Llameo, Cocama, and Omagua of Nanta are land carriers and boatmen. 1 On the Brazilian coast Hawkins (1593) saysthat "the women fetch the water and do all drudgerie whatsoever. Their childe they carry in a wallet about their iiecke, ordinarily under one arme." If one kills any game in hunting he does not bring it home, but strews leaves to mark his' path and sends his wife back after it. On a journey or going to war the women carry all. Example No. 131222 (fig. 181) in the U. S. National Museum collections, from Sandy Point, Straits of Magellan, is the model of a carrying basket made of rushes, a specimen of which is to be found in every Fuegian bark canoe. The nota- ble feature about the specimen is that while it is a coiled basket it also has the pe- culiar characteristic of the Central Am- erican netted bagging. As in all spiral basketry, the foundation is a rod or a bunch of fiber coiled continuously from bottom to top. These coils are held to- gether, not by a continuous whipping or sewing, but by a series of half hitches or buttonhole stitches. The Japanese lunch baskets carried by school children have a similar stitch, but the weft is wider and more closely woven'. The handle of the basket is plaited. The Patagonians are said to build up their hair with a "hair lace of ostrige feath- ers, and make it a stoar house for all things * * * a quiver for their arrows, a sheath for their knives, a box for fiersticks, etc." 2 Fig. 181. CARRYING BASKET, COILED IN HALF HITCH OR BUTTONHOLE STITCH. Straits of Magellan. Cat. No. 131222, 1). S. N. M. Fig. 182. States Eiplo 1842." Wilkes' "Narrative of the United ng Expedition during the years 1838- 'Raimondy, ''Indian Tribes of the Great District of Loreto, Northern Peru," Anthrop. Rev., London, 1863, i, No. 1, pp. 3<1 W. -Drake, "Th<; World Encompassed," Publications of the llakluyt Society, London, 1854, pp. 50, 52. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 483 Mr. iin Tliurn says that in < Iiiiana tin- hard work falls to the women. They clean the house, fetch water and firewood, cook the food, make the bread, nurse the children, plant tin- fields, dip the produce, and when the men travel the women carry whatever baggage is necessary. The women bring water for the house in clay bottles or gourds (goobies), or they take surianas, large lias kets fitting on the back and supported by a hand across the forehead, and fetch heavy loads of fire- wood. 1 Carrying on the head is most common in I'.ra/il. M. Biard gives a .uivat variety <>f methods of sub- mitting the head to a load, among them a single negro toting five empty wine casks, and a company of six hearing a grand piano on the head, keeping time to the sound of a rattle. 2 Accord ing to Wilkes the slaves a re almost the only carriers of burdens in Kio .Janeiro. They go almost naked, and are exceedingly numerous. They appear to work with cheerfulness, and go together in gangs, with a leader who carries a rattle filled with stones (fig. 182). With this he keeps time, causing them all to move on a dogtrot. Each one joins in the monotonous chorus, the notes seldom varying above a third from the key. The words they use are fre- quently relative to their own country; sometimes to what they heard from their Fit;. 183. AHKYIMi-KKAMK, KlfoM rPPERSHINOr, I1KA/.II.. FromR figure in von den SleincnV " Unter den Natunrolkirii /.en- tral-HrMiliens." master as they started with their load, but the sound is the same. The coffee carriers go in gangs of twenty or thirty. In singing, one-halt' take the air, with one or two keeping up a kind of hum on the common chord, and the remainder finish the bar. These slaves are required by their masters to obtain a certain sum according to their ability, say, from 25 to 50 cents a day, and to pay it every evening. The surplus be- longs to themselves. In default of not gaining the requisite sum, castigat ion is always inflicted. The usual load is about 200 pounds. 1 The methods employed are from the Old World and especially negroid. Fig. 184. CARRYING BASKET OK ("II. I IP NETTING, FROM BKA/II-. Cat. No. i:>2M7, I'. S N. M. Collrcir.l bjrF. G Fry 1 iin Tlmrii, "Indians Of British Cniana," i,p. 21(>; Wallace, ''Travi-ls n," p. L'.M,; II. II. Smith, " Itra/.il." New York, 1X79, ]>. 371. " Lo tour (In Moiulr." Paris, iv, p. !". \Vilkrs. ' \arrati\ <>f the T. S. Exploring Expedition during the years 1838-1842," I, p. r,L'. 484 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. One of the most striking resemblances possible in culture objects in two hemispheres is the carrying frame from the Shingu (fig. 183) and from the west coast of Africa, almost opposite on the South Atlantic and not very far away, and both under Portuguese influence. The apparatus consists of a circular hoop for bottom, with coarse lacing of fiber and three elongated ellipses of the same style for the sides and bottom. 1 The African specimen is carried on the back and shoulders, sustained by tbe Fig. 185. , COOPERATIVE CARRYING. Men on the Shingu launching canoe. From a figure in von .) CAKKYINC APPLIANCKS IN TIIK U. 8. NATIONAL MUSKCM. AFRICAN TRIBES. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. MM Haversack . .. .. Africa John CiiHsin. 4947 Han. irrass do National Institute. 4948 do do Do. 4949 Haversack, leather do Do. 4965 do ... do Do. 5155 do West Africa i; i; (itirlev. 151129 racking banket (fig. 104) Angola r ; Kdii>-e I:\IM iiition 151130 151131 (Jold coast \tricii Stewart Ciilin 765'W 76537 Wallet t'nr t'mit Africa 15UM .. do Stewart Culin 151133" Wallet Wc^t Africa Do 151203 do East Africa W L Abbott 151248 do Do. 141825 Wallet .. do.... Do 152612 Curryin" basket 1ialiinibo(flg. 105) do Carl Steck lemaii 164874 Carrying basket Gaboon, Africa Rev. A. C. Good 166135 West Africa lleli Cliatelain 166143 do Do 1G6146 Csrrviii" basket, An r ola do Do IQ6H7 Wallet leather Mandingo Africa L4MM Straps carrying Bant Africa Wasliington.D. C. W A Chanler 168911 Hag. traveling do Do 167500 .. do do W H Brown 106222 ' Banket, carrying West Africa 169128 Carrying frame (flg. 106) Kongo . T H Camp EUROPEAN PEASANTRY. 131091 Porter's knot and cap (flg. 110) London England .. Edward Lovett 131092 Yoke for carrying .... ,lo D 13109:1 Yoke and carrying ropes (tig. 108) . do Do. 1268110 do 167006 Net IM i ' iv Carrying eggH Madrid, Spain Walter Hough. 167007 Porter's .strap do Do 164803 Yokes for carrying water Venice H. H Giglioli. 150833 Carrying baskets sen in Berlin. "Unter den Nnturvolkcrn Zentral-Hrasilifiis," ii-rliu, I*!'!, pi. \, opp. p. 120. 486 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. CARRYING APPLIANCES IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. EUROPEAN PEASANTRY continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed, 167787 167788 Turkey R. J. Levy 28155 Open wallet (fig. 112) .. . 167820 Finland 167821 Knapsack do 1)0. ASIATIC AND INDO-PACIFIC PEOPLES. 164745 Carrying basket (fig. 118) Andaman Islands Enrico Giglioli. 27189 Siam King of Siam 27613 Carrying baskets (fig 115) do ... Do. 165410 Alex. R. Webb 4451 3239-3251 Basket, provision Fiji Islands do Captain Magruder, U. S. N. 4419 Basket haversack do TT. S. N. Do. 4538 Basket haversack do Do. 23978 23980 . do ..do 73386 3397 Carrying net (fig. 119) Haversack New Guinea A. P. Goodwin. Lieutenant Wilkes 130770 do do U. S. N. Lieut. W. E. Safford 3842 do U. S. N. Lieutenant Wilkes 76560 Wallet Maori seed U. S. N. 3501-3504 Baskets, grass Sandwich Islands Lieutenant Wilkes 151113 Haversack, banana and maiden- do U. S. N. Mrs. Sibyl Carter. 3538-3540 hair roots. do Lieutenant Wilkes 3776 U. S. N. Do 129760 Haversack Easter Island W. J. Thomson. 1535 Satchel . 54171-54174 74506 Basket, market (fig. 124) Carrying pole (fig. 123) China do Centennial Commission Do. 73093, 73094 150684 Basket, hunter's and fisherman's . Tate Tama, Japan P. L. Jouy. 150768 Headband and seat (fig. 133) .....do Do. 22254 Headband (fig. 126) do Do. 28189 Basket, fish Japan Japanese Commission. 169034 Chair, lady's carrying Korea Korean Commission. 153613 Carrying-cloth, with cover do Ensign J. B. Benintloii U. S. N. ESKIMO AND ALASKAN INDIANS. 44685 43334 Traveling bag, Man's, Nerpa skin. do Cape Nome, Alaska E. W. Nelson. Do :i025 Strap for back load do Do. 38074-38075 Haversack, grass... ...do.. Do. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 487 CARKYIXC; Arri.iAN< KS IN TIIK I'. S. NATIONAL Mi -KK.M Continued. I.-KIMO ASM) ALASKAN INDIANS < . Mil illtlcll. Museum number. Specimen. l.ocality. r>\ whom rniitriliiiti-il. 40] li'ilmina Ita\ Alaska. 1. \V N.-lsi.n. 37630 lla\ i rs:ick, grass St. Micha.-ls Vhiska Do. 43480 Ba r hunting .... d Do. 36184 37640 24684 Satrhel. n'sh.tkin Havwsark. sealskin Kiislmimk, Alaska Chalitniut. Alaska Do. Do. 1. M 'riinu-r 32901-32965 Satchel, straw do K. \V. N.-Uon. 32971-112974 1 'an, traveling, straw do Do. 894 R. Kennicott -7." Yukon River Alaska W H Dall 1 -.-:;. do E. W. Kelson. 38304 Wallet liladder ... .do Do. 38305 do Do. 38309 Wallet , tishskin .. .do Do. 38316 Bag leather, and fishskin .. . do Do. 38465 Wallet, rash, long do Do. 38693 Wallet, bladder ... .do Do. 38308 Sack, tislmkin Alaska Do. wtnt Sack sealskin Anvik, Alaska Do 37871 Bag tishskiu Do 37872 Sack, grass do Do. 36185 Satchel, fishskin do Do. 7580 Bag sealskin Cape Roman/off, Alaska W. H. Dall. 7778 do do Do. 36183 Satchel fiahskin Kuskokwim, Alaska. . . . E. W. Nelson. 67996 Alaska J. J. McLean. 16320 Strajis ]>ackiii" Niinivak I.-laml, Alaska. W. H. Dall. 38466 Kuskokwiin, Vlaska E. W. Nelson". 37401-37404 Sack, tishskin Nusbagag, Alaska Do. 127325-127326 Togiakmut, \laska. 55946 Bristol Bay, Alaska Charles L McKay. 38843 Sack, straw, large Nushagag, Alaska- K W Nelson. '.' ;"."" Wallet of fur ... . Alaska Charles L McKay. 72496-72497 Pouch bunting do William J. Fiaher 72500-72502 ... do do Do. 38306 Wallet rush Big Lake, Alaska. . E. W. Nelson. 14976-14980 36990 36992 Wallet, sea grans, ornamented Aleutian, Attu Island, Alaska. do W. H. Dall. L M. Turner. 76346 Wallet do T. H. Bean. 168296 Wallet, grass . do Lieut. G. T. Eiumons. INDIANS (IK KA*TKK.\ XoKTH AMEKICA. 1979 Wallet Arctic coast B. R. Rosa. 2041 Bag ... . Mackenzie River Do ".".111 25. r >0 \V I l!:irdt"*tv 2608 ,|.i Do 2020 do I 1 . K Kosa 2047 do do Do. 2609 Satchel birch bark do \V I, II Midi-sty. 5112 Pouch, hunting ... ...do... Do. 488 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. CARRYING APPI.IANCKS i\ THK U. S. NATIONAL MUSKUM Continued. INDIANS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 542 2048 2551 548 527 127140 127141 128079 153505 153508 54404-54441 1937-1939 154320 152963 164821 164823 168408 8553 154035 165840 165918 6910 91508 91509 8430 Haversack (Yellow Knife Indians) Bag, hunting (Yellow Knife In- dians). Bag hunting Fort Resolution R. Kennicott. B. R. Ross. Strachon Jones. B. R. Ross. Do. Mrs. Lilla Pavy. Do. Do. Henry G. Bryant. Do. J. Varden. Lieut. G. K. Warren. U. S. A. Dr. W.J. Hoffman. Jas. Mooney. Miss E. C. Sickels. Do. F. W. Clarke. S. M. Horton. Mrs. M. M. Hazen. H. R Voth. Do. Edward Palmer. Do. Do. Dr.W. Matthews, U.S. A. do FortRae Bag, sealskin (square) South Greenland do Bag, leather (hand) Greenland Wallet (Montagnais Indians) do Wallet porcupine quill Canada Wallet, large leather, ornamented (Sioux). Wallet of grass and bark Parfleche case (Kiowa Indians) . . . Upper Missouri River . . Leach Lake, Minn Indian Territory Pine Ridge Agency do Bag, traveling Satchel Haversack, buffalo skin Haversack (Sioux Indians) Nebraska Montana Parfleche case, small (Cheyenne Indians). Parfleche case, clothing (Chey- enne Indians) (figs. 135, 136). do Basket, carrying (Choctaw) (fig. 138). Basket, berries (Choctaw Indians) . Carrying basket (fig. 137) . . . Alabama do WEST COAST INDIANS. 1682"93 Wallet beaded Alaska 21560 Basket, large, Kolnschau Indians. .....do 60227-60228 11410 do 168163 Wallet spruce root (fig 140) do 60330 20808 Pouch, hunting, beaded Prince Wales Island 20811 Pouch, hunting, small A laska. do 4123 do North west Coast, Amer- 648 Basket, carrying ica. do 685 do do 2552-2553 Pouch, hunting do 23477-23478 Baskets Towanahoo Indians Hoods Canal 168283 Wallet Alaska 168294 Wallet, cut... ...do.. Lieut. G. T. Emmons. U. S. N. Dr. J. B. White. J. J. McLean. V. Colyer. Herbert Odgen. J. J. McLean. J. G. Swan. Do. Do. George Gibbs. Do. Lieutenant Wilkes, U. S. N. J. G. Swan. Lieut. G. T. Emraons. Do. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. CAUKYI.NC; APPLIANCES IN THE U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. WBST COAST INDIANS continued. 4S9 Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 2127 Wallet, waterproof North west Coaat Amer- 1. i fii 1 1- nan i Wilkes 153 550 Wallet ica. U. 8. N. 1289 Wallet, sea grans J 4i Swan 23360 Wallet, bark- wo yen N.-.ih Bay, Washington Do. 76634 Wallet, cedar-bark Washington Do. 151452 do do Dr Fran/ Boas 127843 Carryinu wallet (tig. 144) Quiniault, Wash.. Cbarlea Willoiighby 165137 166541 Valiae of rawhide Case (partiet'ho) Wyoming Washington Jas. Mooing. Dr. E. L. Morgan. 1292 Straps, for carrying load do J. G. Swan 130976 do do E. C. Chirouse. ' 23479-23480 Basket, carry ing (Clallam Indiana) do J. G. Swan. 19026 Carrying basket (tig. 145) do . . Do. 1778 Satchel, strips of bark ( 'oliiinbia River. . Dr. Suckeley, II. S. A. 24104 Basket for carrying roots (Kla- Oregon . L. S. Dyar. 24116 inatli Indians). Satchel, made of tuli (Klamatb do Do. 24122 Indiana). Sack, carrying grain do Do. 18897 Net, agave fiber (tig 151) California Fxlward Palmer. 19706 Net, carrying do Stephen Powers. 19472 Basket cactus fruit do Edward Palmer. 19743-19744 Basket fruit (fig 163) do Do. 19745 Basket acorns .' do Do. 19769 Bag, fruit, etc do Do. 19770 Bag, cones of pines do Do. 24165 Basket, carrying do Do. 131139 Carrying net (fig. 152) Missions.. do Do. 131148 Basket and strap, carrying (Hupa do Jeremiah Cnrtin. 131161 Indians) . do Do. 126907 167410 Headband (fig. 147), Hupa Indians. do do Lieut. P. H.Ray, U. S. A. H. W. Henshaw. 165687 Basket, carrying (Pima Indians) do F. W. Hodge. 126680 do Edward Palmer. 174523 Indians. Basket carrying (Papagos) Arizona W J McGee. 10351 Bas ket for seed Fort Mohave, Colorado. . .Edward I'aliner. 168412 Satchel beaded Colorado F. W. Clarke. 152528 Pouch hunting Lewis Engel. 70929-70937 Basket carrying (fig. 155), Moki Arizona 128913 do do Mrs. T. E. Stevenson. 166707 Basket carrying (/ufii Indians) . New Mexico 68465-68475 do do 68544-68550 ... do .. . . do Do. 68701-68714 (Jourd, for carrying water (Moki do Do. 71020 Indians). Basket, water-tight (Moki Indians) do Do. MM Strap carrying with hair ropes.. do V. Mindelelf. 9540 68633 Rope, woolen, for carrying wood (Zuni Indians). Carrying bands (Xuiii Indiana)... do ...do... Edward Palmer. Col. Jas. Stevenson. 490 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. CARRYING APPLIANCES IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. WEST COAST INDIANS continued. Museum number. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 68655-68656 Shoulder pad (Zufii Indians) Maj J W Powell 27827 Net basket, prop stick headband 1804 do 1514 Indians). do Mexico U. S. A. 73934 Head strap (Yucatan ) do L. H Aym6 73974 Packing rope do Do 24145 Basket, carrying (fig. 164), Mohave. California Edward Palmer 9981 Do 12064 Haversack ( Pai TJtea) Southern Utah Maj. J W Powell 14382 do do Do 14397 Haversack, beaded with strap . . do Do 14493 - do Do 14664-14675 Baskets, for fruit and seeds do Do. 17196 Haversack, rawhide (Utelndians) do Do. 42155 Carrying basket (fig 150), TJtes Utah Do. 19026 134422 134429 Basket, large, conical,for seeds, etc Baskets, gathering fruit Pyramid Lake, Nevada . New Mexico Stephen Powers. 84139-84143 Gourds, for carrying drv articles . . do V. Mindeleti" 5564 (Moki Indians). Basket, gathering (Apache In- Arizona Edward Palmer. 152711 dians). Haversack (hide) Do. 126680 Basket and rest stick ; also head do Do. 126591, 126592 band. Carrying yoke and jars (fig. 174) .. do ... Do 77006 J E Benedict 73955 Bag, packing, large Mexico 73956 Bag, packing, small ... do Do 129652 129654 Carrying net (fig. 175) do Do. 152507 Carrying net (fig. 184) Mrs. F. G. Fry. 126805 1864 Carrying frame (fig. 176) Wallet (Comanche Indians) Honduras New Mexico A. E. Morlan. Lieutenant Couch, U.S. A 7926 7927 Wallet, mat Wallet, mat (double) Mexico . do . ... Dr. Sartorius. Do. 76918-76919 Wallet, basket (palm) do New Orleans Exposition. 43121 Wallet, grass (double) United States Colombia Thomas Moran. 131222 Carrying basket (fig. 181) Straits of Magellan THE CARRYING OF CHILDREN. Next to getting about and carrying things comes the activity of car- rying persons, or passenger traffic, and this commences with the trans- portation of helpless children. Invention has had in this art an opportunity of elaboration along the lines of geographic conditions in obedience to the commands of ethnic peculiarities, but the most primitive method resorts to no machinery whatever. (Fig. 186.) The traffic of the world in the present day is always numbered in PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 491 millions, whether of persons, of miles, of tons of freight carried or coal consumed, or of dollars invested. It began with naked mothers carry- ing naked children, without the expenditure of one dollar. To study this art from its simple to its complex forms one must commence with tropical peoples who have never been elsewhere. Here the infant is transported upon the person of the mother, both of them clinging one to the other by a semiautomatic habit or instinct. In this paper little attention will be paid to the bed and wrappings of infants. That sub ject has already been discussed. 1 African mothers, on the testimony of the TJ. S. National Museum, have never invented a single device for their tiny passengers, who are usually gathered into t he foldsof the sash or shawl or mantle. Doubtless this gar- ment is worn frequently to give the child a resting place, and netting tied about the neck furnishes support to the nestling; but it is practically true that the spirit of invention in Africa has not been awakened by the necessity of carry- ing infants. Schurtx figures a Masakara negro woman in the interior of Africa, grind- ing grain on the metate, with a muller. at the same time bearing an infant in the folds of the shawl upon her back. 2 And the union of the manufacturer with the carrier is one of the commonest oc- currences there. Katzel gives an interesting picture, after Falkeustein, of a Loango mother, barefooted, wearing a head handkerchief, hoeing in the field, and carrying a sleep- ing infant on her back, securely held in place by a cloth or shawl, tied around her body under the arms and above the breasts, and reaching to her ankles. 3 Holub, in his illustrated catalogue of the South African Exposition in Prague, pictures a Bechuana woman engaged in the same double exercise, and illustrated books and journals describing the west coast of Africa show the usual position of the African babe ridiiig astride 1 E. Pokrowski, TnuiH. Soc. Friends of Nat. Sci., Moscow ; Mason, " Cradles of the American Aborigines," Rep. Smithsonian Inst. (U. S. Xat. Mns.), 1887, pp. 164-212; J. H. Porter, " Notes on the Artificial Deformation of Children among Savage and Civilized Peoples, "ibid., pp. 213-235; H. Ploss, " Das Kind in Branch und Sitte der Volker," Leipzig, 1884, 2 vols. 9 " Katechismus der Volkerkunde," Leipzig, 1893, p. 180. 3 " Volkerkunde," Leipzig, 1887, I, p. 155. FIJ;. 186. WOMAN OK BKITTAXY CARRYINO < Hll.t). From sketch by \V. K. Ch.in.JI~. 492 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. the mother's hips and enfolded in the loose garment. (Fig. 187.) many places the attachment to her body is reduced to a mere string. The Zulu mother carries her babe in a shawl, or wide sash, which passes around her body above her breasts, close under her arms, and reaching quite down to her hips. 1 The child sits in the shawl as in a swing, which passes about the loins above the center of gravity. The Hottentot women generally wear the krass a square piece of the skin of a wild beast, generally a wildcat, tied on with the hairy side outward around their shoulders, which, like those of the men, cover their backs and sometimes reach down to their hams. Between two krasses they fasten a suckling child, if they have one, with the head just peeping over their shoulders. The under krass prevents their bodies being hurt by the children at their back. 2 Ratzel figures Abyssinian women in the double function of carrying children and carrying freight. In the former, the tiny passenger rests in the folds of the dress on the back. In the latter, the load is borne on the back and sustained by ropes, knapsack wise. 3 In European countries for the most part, the child has been consigned to a wheel carriage of some kind. The simplest form of this is the Baschkir Kuin, which is merely one form of California cradle (fig. 188), with wheels on the hindmost cross bar, and a hood of birch bark instead of reed mat. 4 A forked stick is the frame of the cra- dle and hounds of the axle. On this rests an oblong cylinder of birch bark, ovoid in horizontal outline, and having a lattice bottom. The hood is of birch bark, and not unlike that of a common wagon. A differentiation has also taken place among cradle frames, one form dropping the suspension strings, by means of which it became now a bed to be swung, now a vehicle to be carried, assumes the rockers or wheels and is no longer lifted from the ground; the other remains in the condition wherein it may be now a swinging bed, now a carrying frame. The carrying of children on the person has been affected in European 'Ratzel, "Volkerknnde," Leipzig, 1887, 1, p. 150. 2 Kolben, "Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope," iv, p. 14. 3 "V61kerkunde," in, p. 229. Cf. Pokrowaki, Rev. d'Ethnog., 1889, fig. 27, p. 34, with Rep. Sraithsoniau Inst. (11. S. Nat. Mus.), 1887, p. 180, fig. 12. Fig. 187. AFRICAN METHOD OF CARRYING CHILD. From a photograph in the U. S. National Museum. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 493 countries by this differentiation. Wherever the old-time carrying frame and swing becomes a rocking cradle or a wagon, the process of carrying the child reverts to the most primitive type, chiefly on one arm, after the manner of the African mother. The commonest sight and often a painful si^ht in tin- poorer settle- ments of any modern city is that of a girl, often quite young, lugging an infant on the left arm, distorting her body hopelessly. Likewise may be seen among the folk in sport or in serious humor and in the pastimes of children survivals of past practices in the car riage of infants. In art, as has been previously stated, the drudgeries of life are glorified. If the caryatid and atlas are the a-sthetieising and apo theosis of burden bearing on liesid and back, the many renditions of the Ma- donna exalt in art and religion the transportation of the human infant on the left arm. 1 Hercules was cradled in his father's shield: Dionysius in a winnowing fan, which has the same shape. The (1 reeks do not seem to have carried children in cradles, but the Romans had gotten so far, although the figures resemble the Sioux shoe-shaped device without the wooden support.* The Semite mother who carries her child about her neck puts it astride one shoulder, shifting it to the other as occasion demands (fig. 18J>). No device or invention is used, but a semi- automatic habit, a kind of instinct for clinging to each other, kee] is the young passenger in position. This should be compared with the position of the child among other peoples. In Egypt the young children of both sexes are usually carried by their mothers and nurses, not in the arms, but on the shoulder, seated astride as in fig. 190 (see Isaiah, XLIX, U-). and sometimes, for a short distance, on the hip. 3 The Nestorian woman bears her child in a bundle on her back. In the Indo- Pacific area there is little change, only local modifications 1 1 4. 188. N CHAIII.K >K Ht'SHK-S, WITH HANDLE, T8KD BY K LA MATH INDIANS OF CALIFORNIA. '(.'f. "Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, "N-\v York. IS'Jl. p. 186, fig.50. Woman of I in I i. -i carrying burdeii and child. "Smith, Dictionary of (Jn-rk and Unman Aiiti<|iiiti>H, n. v., <'nna,. 3 Lane, "Modern Egyptians," London, isiii, i. p. 7J. 494 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. in the primitive method of having as little machinery as possible involved in the transportation of the infant. Of course none of these peoples have ever so much as thought of differentiating the carriage device from the sleeping device. The siwela, or cradle of Timor, is a flattish basket made of woven rattan ropes, suspended so as to rock over a fire placed beneath, with only the spathe of a palm under the child's back, its head generally lying on rough rattan, and Avith a small piece of rag thrown over its stomach. The fire below the cradle, which not unfrequently sets fire to it, is partly to keep off the mosquitoes and partly to keep the child warm during the night. The smoke is often so great as almost to suffocate the infant. 1 Turner saysthat the Sarnoan mothers carry their children not on the arm but astride the hip. He pronounces it much safer than on the back and less tiresome to the nurse, audit gives the child a lest constrained posture. The New Guinea baby may be said for some time to practically live in a net; it is carried in one suspended to the mother's neck, dang- ling low down in front of the woman ; it sleeps in a net bag, and when it awakes and cries and can not change its position in the bag, which is probably suspended from the roof of the veranda, it presents a most comical ap- pearance. 2 The Australians of Carpentaria Gulf carry the young children under the arm, in a trough of ti bark, with a string under the center and over the shoulder, the arm press- ing it on the outer side to keep it close. When a little grown, the child is carried across the hip, supported with one arm, and afterwards across the neck, holding itself on by the mother's hair. In South Australia, between 30 and 40 degrees south, the women carry their children on the back in the folds of the great robe, at the same time also having a satchel hung over the left shoulder and under the right arm, and paeles or rolls on the small of the back, with line across the breast and shoulders. When a Darling River mother is about to carry her child she leans her body forward, and taking hold of the child by its arms swings it over her left shoulder and places it between her shoulder blades with its Fig. 189. WOMAN OF PALESTINE CARRYING CHILD. From a sketch in the Christian Herald. 1 H. O. Forl>es. " Ktlmolojjy of Timor-l.aiit,'' Joiirn. Anthrop. lust., London, 1884, XIII. p. 12. 2 Jouru. Anthrop. lust., London, 1892, xxi, p. 203. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 495 hands around her neck. She then throws a I'm- rug around herself and the child, and afterwards a netted bag (numyuncka is drawn tight under the seat of the child with one end brought over each shoulder of the mother and tied together under her chin to keep the child and rug in their position; so a pouch is formed to hold the infant while it is being carried about. The men generally carry children on their shoulders, as do the Eskimo men. 1 In a photograph taken by Roinyn Hitchcock at Osaka, Japan, a woman is represented as carrying a .".-year old child pickaback (ttg. 1!U). The very same method of carrying is practiced by both men and women among the Eskimo of Port Clarence, Alaska. The child's bed and carriage in one piece exists in Uussia. in all the countries under her sway, and in the lands along the southern border of these. It had a wide development in America. This combination carriage and bed ex- ists in two forms that in which tin- whole body of the child is bandaged. legs and all, and that in which the body is swaddled and the legs are partly free. These two have relation to climate and pedagogic notions and superstitions; but they have profound relations also to the nomadic and hunting life of the people. Pokrowski traces the rigid cradle wherein the child is laid upon its back and strapped therein so as often to pro- duce deformation among thedeorgians, Nogais, Sartes, Kirghi/, Kalmuck, Ya- kut, Buriat, Ostiak, and Samoyed. 2 He says that it is the most ancient and widely spread. In central llussia it is formed of four planks about a linger and a half high, in shape of a box, 1 meter long and so centimeters wide, on which is fixed a cloth bottom, and from the corners are ropes which unite in a ring above for suspension. In fact, it is a wooden hammock that has lost its carrying function. I5ut Pokrowski ath'rms that these cradles often preserve the ancient form that they may be car- ried about as well as hung up in the house. They are both carriage and swinging cradle in one. The cords from the two borders of the cradle cross over the woman's In-east as in the bandolier 1 dig. 1!>'J). 'F. lionuey, "Customs of tho Aborigines of (he K'ivn I >.:rlinu. \'\\ s.mtli \V.H Jourii. Authrop. lust., London, ixxl. \m, p. iL'ti. M<. Kri.ni n photograph in tl,. Mi, -.-.,,, 496 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. The cradle of the Lapps is a very ingenious structure, admirably suited for its purpose under the ordinary circumstances of Lapp existence. "These cradles," Friis tells us, "are hollowed out of a log, and have a hood which protects the child's head. From this hood down to the end a light network of thongs or cord is stretched over the child, and over this net a handkerchief or other covering can be spread in such a manner that the child can be in complete shelter without hindrance. A strong strap is fastened from one end of the cradle to the other, by means of which it can be slung on the back or set to swing from the branch of a tree (tig. 193). It may be thrown on the ground and rolled about without injury to the child, and it will, moreover, keep out cold of 20 below zero." [ Pokrowski says that the Lapp cradle is in form of a boat, the body being a " dug- out" with very thin walls, making the apparatus very light and easy to carry. Outside is stretched a covering of rein- deer leather, very thin. Moss is used for the bed, and over it is spread the fur of the young reindeer. Rawhide lines, stretched from the hood to the foot, sustain the cur- tain of leather hung over all. A strap at- tached to the foot and the front serves for suspension, and enables the mother to sup- port the child in front or on her back, or on one hip, the strap resting on the oppo- site shoulder. The Ostiak have two kinds of cradles, those for the new born and another kind for more ad- vanced children. The former are trays of birch bark, oblong, shal- low, high at the head, rolled over about the margin and decorated with great taste. The cradle is provided with cords, by means of which it may hang in front of the mother (fig. 194). The cradle for the more advanced infant is deeper, and provides for seating it more erect. This is carried on the back of the mother (fig. 195). The children of the Giliak, as among the Goldi, are strapped see the l>:ihy, wliich had been sitting np and had eaten a fairly good supper of raw meat, put to bed by it- mother. She lirst wrapped it in furs, then placed it iu a liox .shaped like a coffin, and laced it with narrow strips of hide. RO 1 Kavenstein, "Russians ou the Amur," London, 1861, p. 391. '' " Reisen und Forschuugen im Amur-Lande," pi. xii. 3 Bash, " Reindeer, Dogs, :ind Suowshoes," p. 123. 11. Mis. 90, it. L' 32 498 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. that it was not ouly impossible for it to fall out, but also very difficult for it to move. 1 Infants are kept among the Manguii and Orochou in an oblong box; while the Goldi strap them down in a basin-shaped cradle, ornamented with small coins, and suspended by means of an iron hoop to a rafter in the house. 2 The Yakut cradle, according to Lansdell, resembles a coal scuttle. Fifr. 193. LAPP ORADLK. e in the Revue ii'F.lhn. 101. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 501 also the pillow. One cradle, from the Yunias. lias two little pads about 4 inches apart to catch the head of the infant; another has a regular pillow, and so on. Finally, all the U. S. National Museum cradles are made to stand up or to hang up. A great many persons who are familiar with tin- subject have been questioned, and it seems to be true that Indian cradles are very seldom laid flat on the ground. In that case the head is perfectly free, and after the child is a few weeks old, excepting dur- ing sleep, the head does not touch the pillow at all. As explained elsewhere, the exigencies of climate prevent the Eskimo from carrying their children in open frames. But the Lamut and Tungus devices just named exist in a climate as cold as any endured by the Eskimo. It is necessary to seek the explanation of the absence of any device among the Hskimo in the difference of the culture grade. The Asiatics are herdsmen and hang the children to the saddlebow. The Eskimo have gener- ally no good wood for frames and no good rea- son to separate the infant from the mother. When the child is young it rides in the mother's hood, between her fur coat and her skin (fig. 107). To prevent the young passenger from getting lost Boas intimates that a strap is worn about the mother's waist. The costume of this unique people over many hundreds of miles of coast east and west is uniform in this regard. 1 When children are about a month old they are put into a jacket made from the skin of a deer fawn having a cap of the same material, their legs remaining bare, as they are always carried in their mother's hood. In some places, where large boots are in use, they are said to be carried in these. 2 The hood of the jacket is much the larger in that of the women, for the purpose of hold- ing a chikl. The back of the jacket also bulges out in the middle to give the child a footing, and a strap or girdle below this, secured round the waist by two large wooden buttons in front, prevents the infant from sliding down/ 1 The mode of treating infants is one of the national customs of a peo- ple that changes most slowly says Richardson. 4 Fig. 197. ESKIMO WOMAN OF POINT HARROW CARRY I Mi CIIII.I). Prom a photograph by Captain Healjr, V. 8. H. M. 'Sixth Aim. l.vp. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 556. - Ibid, p. 666. 3 Ibid, p. 557. 4 Richardson, '-Arctic Searching Expedition," New York, 1852, p. 218. 502 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Peary says that the woman of North Greenland, like the man, wore the ahtee and netcheh, made respectively of bird skin and sealskin. They differed in pattern from those of the man only in the back, where an extra width is sewed in, which forms a pouch extending' the entire length of the back of the wearer and fitting tight around the hips. In this pouch or hood the baby is carried; its little body, covered only by a shirt reaching to the waist, made of the skin of a young blue fox, is placed against the bare back of the mother, and the head, covered by a tight-fitting skull-cap made of seal skin, is allowed to rest against the mother's shoulder. In this way the Eskimo child is car- ried constantly, whether awake or asleep, and without clothing except the shirt and cap, until it can walk, which is usually at the age of 2 years; then it is clothed in skin and allowed to toddle about. If it is the young- est member of the family, after it has learned to walk, it still takes its place in the mother's hood whenever it is sleepy or tired, just as American mothers pick up their little toddlers and rock them. 1 When the Eskimo babe is large enough to escape from the hood and walk it has still to be carried a great deal. Of this sort, both father and mother take the youngster by one arm and one leg, give it a toss, and in a twinkling the youthful rider is sitting pickaback astride the parent's neck (fig. 198). The author has seen both men and women carrying young children after this fashion. Women carry their young astride their backs. The child is held in place by a strap passing under its thighs and around over the mother's breasts. 2 When a child is born in Ungava, on the authority of Lucien Turner, the mother wraps it in the softest skin she is able to procure and during its infancy it is carried in the ample hood attached to her coat. The carrying devices for infants among the American Indians, as 1 J. Peary, " My Arctic Journal," New York and Philadelphia, 1893, p. 43. 8 John W. Kelly, " Ethnographical Memoranda Concerning the Arctic Eskimos of Alaska and Siberia," Bureau of Education, Circular of Information No. 2, 1890, p. 18. Fig. 198. ESKIMO WOMAN CARRYING CHILD. From a photograph in the Bureau of Ethnology. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 503 distinguished from the Eskimos, may now be examined in the follow- ing families and tribes: (1) The Athapascan family, of Alaska and Canada; (2) the Algonquian family, of Canada and the United States; (3) the Iroquoiau family, north to south; (4) the Southern Indians of the United States; (5) the tribes of the plains of the Great West, especially the Siouan family; (<>) the Pacific Slope tribes of southeast Alaska and British Columbia; (7) the tribes of the Pacific. Slope from Vancouver Island southward; (8) the Great Interior Basin and the Pueblos; (9) Mexico and Central America: (10) the Cordilleras of South America; (11) the Amazonian area and southward; (12) the Caribbean area. The Athapascans of the north are the inland neighbors of the Eskimo and by the Eev. A. G. Morice are thus classified: Northern Denes. Loncheux: Lower Mackenzie River and Alaska: Hares: Mackenzie, Anderson, and MacFarlane rivers; Bad-People: Old Fort Halkett; Slaves: west of Great Slave Lake an.l Macken- zie River; Dog-Ribs: between Great Slave Lake and Great Bear Lake: Yellow-Knives: northeast of G neat Slave Lake; Caribo6 Eat- ers: east of Lake Athabaska; Chippewayans: Lake Athabaska, etc.; Tse'kehne: both sides of Rocky Mountains; Beavers: south side' of Peace River; Sarcees: east of Rocky Mountains, latitude 51 north; Nah'ane: Stickeen River and east; Carriers: Stuarts Lake, north and south; Tsilkoh'tin: Chilcotin River. Southern Denes. Uinkwas, Totunies, and Kwalhiokwas: Oregon; 1 1 n pas: Hupa Valley, California; Wailakis: northern California; Navajo: Arizona; Apache: Oklahoma, Colorado, New Mexico, and Arizona: Lipans: New Mexico. Mackenzie s 'mewhere intimates that the Chippewayan mothers make their upper garments full in the shoulders. When traveling they carry their infants upon their backs next the skin and convenient to giving them nourishment. This is a transition habit between Eskimo and Indian and not prevalent among the Athapascans. "The Kutchin women," says Richardson, " do not carry their infants in their hoods or boots after the Eskimo fashion, nor do they stuff them into a bag with moss, as the Chippewayan and Crees do, but they place them in a seat of birch bark, with back and sides like those of an armchair, and a pommel in front resembling the peak of a Spanish saddle. This hangs at the woman's back, suspended by a strap which passes over her shoulders, and the infant is seated in it, with back to hers, and its legs, well cased in warm boots, hanging down on each side of the pommel. The child's feet are bandaged to prevent their growing, small feet being thought handsome; and the consequence is that short, unshapely feet are characteristic of the people." ' The Lower Yukon trough -shaped cradle of birch bark (example No. :!i".s(>, in the TJ. S. National Museum, fig. 199) is made of three pieces, the 1 Richardson, "Arctio S*roliinK Expedition," New York, 18T>L'. i>. _'1'7. 504 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. bottom, the top or hood, and the awning piece. The two parts consti- tuting the body of the cradle overlap an inch and a half and are sewed together with a single basting of pine root, with stitches half an inch apart. Around thebody just under the margin, and continuously around the border of the hood and awning, lies a rod of osier. A strip of birch bark laid on the upper side of the awning serves as a stiffener and is sewed down by an ingenious basting with stitches an inch or more long which pass down through two thicknesses of birch bark, around the osier twig just below the margin, and up again through the two thicknesses of birch bark by an- other opening to form the next stitch. The hood is formed by puckering the birch bark after the manner of a grocer's bag. The bor- dering osier is neatly seized to the edge of the hood and awning by a coil of split spruce root. Kows of bead s of many colors adorn the awn- ing piece. In a country intolerable * by reason of the mosquitoes it is not strange that provisions for sus- taining some sort of netting should be devised. Immediately after birth, without being washed, the Northeastern Tinneh infant is laid naked on a layer of moss in a bag made of leather and lined with hare skins. If it be in summer, the latter is dis- pensed with. This bag is then se- curely laced, restraining the limbs in natural positions, and leaving the child freedom to move the head only. In this phase of its existence it resembles strongly an Egyptian mummy. Cradles are never used, but this machine, called a "moss bag," is an excellent adjunct to the rearing of children up to a certain age, and has become almost, if not universally, adopted in the families of the Hudson Bay Company's employees. 1 The Carrier women of Stuart Lake transported their babes in cradles of birch bark, curved up at the narrow end or foot and prolonged at the broad or open end as a support for the child's head. A hoop of willow encircled the wide end, and the necessary lacings passed through a band of buckskin bordering the apparatus on the outside. In recent times modifications have been made in covers and in lacings. The Tsilkoh'tin tribe make a cradle of willov twigs in form of a slipper, covered with Fig. 199. ATHAPASCAN CRADLE OK BIRCH BARK. Yukon River, Alaska. Cat. No. 32986. U. S. N. M. Collected by E. W. Nelsc 'Bernard R. Ross, Rep. Smithsonian Inst., 1866, p. 30o. PRIMITIVE TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. 505 deerskin and provide a hoop over the infant's face. 1 In this connection especial attention is called to the Yokaia and the llu pa cradles of Cali- fornia. The shoe shaped cradle of the Tsilkolftiu resembles in form and motif the latter, the Carrier truncated cradle, in which the child's feet are free, recalling the former, even as to the material. 2 The reader will not forget that the Hupa came long ago to California from the Athapascan country. The Southern Canadian cradle is aboard with two flaps of cloth which lace together up the center. The child is laid on its back on the board, packed with soft moss, and laced firmly down with its arms to its side and only its head at liberty. The cradle is strung on the back of the mother when traveling, or reared against a tree when resting in camp, the child being only occasionally released from bondage for a few moments. The little prisoners arc remarkably good. No squalling disturbs an Indian camp. 3 Catlin figures a Cree woman car- rying a child on her right arm, and holding the buffalo robe around the child with the left hand. 4 The Kickapoos,of the same stock, (terry the small child on the back in the shawl (fig. 200). Mr. Lucien Turner reports that the Nascopi of Labrador and [Jn- gava, who are much affected by their proximity to Eskimo, use no cradle board for children. The principal factor in the Chip- pewa infant's house, according to Kohl, is a flat board. For this pur- pose poplar wood is selected ; in the first place because it is light, and secondly, because it does not crack or splinter. On this board a small frame of thin, peeled sapling is fas- tened, much after the shape of the child's body, and stands up froui the board like the sides of a violin from the sounding board. It is fastened on with bast, because the Indians never use nails, screws, or glue. The cavity is tilled with very soft substances for the reception of the child. V. G. Morice, Trans. Canadian Iimt., 1894, iv, p. 133. with two 8ee figures 210-212. :i Fit7willianiM, "Tin- Northwest Passage liy i,aiu1." p. 8f. H.'atlin, "North Atuericau Indiana," i, p. 33. Fig. 200. KICKAPOO (ALQONQCIAN) WOMAN CARKVINO rmi.li. After Hoppe. 506 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. They prepare for this purpose a mixture composed of very fine, dry moss, rotted cedar wood, and a species of tender wool found in the seed vessels of a species of reed. This wool was recommended as a most useful ingredient in the stuffing, for it sucks up all moisture as greedily as a sponge, and hence there is no need to inspect the baby' continually. In this bed the little beings nestle up to the armpits so far they are wrapped up tightly with bandages and coverings, but the head and arms are free. At a convenient distance above the head is a stiff circle of wood, also fastened to the cradle with bast. It serves as a protection to the head, and if the cradle happens to fall over it rests on this arch. In fact, you may roll au Indian tikinagan over as much as you please, but the child can not be injured. The squaws at times display extraordinary luxury in the gaily embroidered coverlid which they throw over the whole cradle. 1 The Iroquois cradle, example No. 18806, has the backboard carved in imitation of peacocks and is painted in bright colors. It is square at the top and the awning frame is mortised at the ends, which allows them to slide over the awning bar held down and guyed by stays on the opposite sides; has a movable foot rest at the bottom and thongs along the sides for lashing the baby in. Length, 29 J inches; width, top, 10 inches, bottom, 8 J inches; foot rest, height. 3 inches; width, 6 inches. The St. Regis Iroquois, in the north of New York and near Canada, have for many years bought their cradle boards from the whites or made them of material bought from a white man. Example No. 8894 is like the last, with gaudily painted and carved backboard, and awning frame carved. Length, 31 inches; width, top 11 inches, bottom 7$ inches; height of awning frame, 12 inches; width of top 9^, bottom 12 inches. Morgan says that the Iroquois baby frame, " ga-ose-ha," is an Indian invention. It appears to have been designed rather as a convenience to the Indian mother for the transportation of her infant than, as has generally been supposed, to secure an erect figure. Tlie frame is about 2 feet in length by about 14 inches in width, with a carved footboard at the small end and a hoop or bow at the head, arching over at right angles. After being inclosed in a blanket, the infant is lashed upon the frame with belts of bead work, which firmly secure and cover its person, with the exception of the face. A separate article for covering the face is then drawn over the bow, and the child is wholly protected. When in use, the burden strap attached to the frame is placed around the forehead of the mother, and the " ga-ose-ha" upon her back. This frame is often elaborately carved, and its ornaments are of the choicest description. When cultivating the maize, or engaged in any outdoor occupation, the mother hangs the ' ga-ose-ha" upon a limb of the near- est tree and left to swing in the breeze. The patience and quiet of the 1 J. G. Kohl, "Wanderings round Lake Superior," 1860, pp. 6-7. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 507 Indian child in this close confinement are quite remarkable. It will hang thus suspended for hours without uttering a complaint. ' East of the Mississippi River, north of the Tennessee and the North Carolina line, and south of Hudson Bay Algonquian and Iroquoiau tribes all used a flat cradle board not far from 2i feet long, 10 inches wide, and one-half an inch thick, tapering wider at the head. Example No. 18800 has the back carved in flowers and birds and painted blue, red, green, and yellow. The cleat at the upper end of the back is a modern chair round. The footboard is a small shelf or bracket on which the child's feet rest. u In the towne of Daferaonquepeuc distant from Koanoac 4 or 5 milles, the woemen are attired, and powuced, in fuch forte as the woemen of Roan oa<- are, yet they weare noe worathes vppon their heads, nether haue they their thighes painted with finall pricks. They haue a ftrange manner of bearing their children, and quite contrarie to ours. For our woemeii carrie their children in their armes before their brefts, but they taking their fonne by the right hand, bear him on their backs, hold- inge the left thighe in their lefte arme after a ftrange and conuefnall fafhion." 2 Hodgson's description is not clear. He says that as few of the Creeks are able to purchase many negroes, almost all the drudgery is per- formed by the women, and it is melancholy to meet them, as we con- tinually did, with an infant hanging on their necks, bending under a heavy burden and leading their husband's horse while he walked before them, erect and graceful, apparently without a care. This servitude has an unfavorable effect upon the appearance of the women, those above a certain age being generally bent and clumsy, with a scowl on their wrinkled forehead and a countenance dejected. 3 The Chetemacha of St. Marys Parish, southern Louisiana, had a peculiar method of fastening their infants in the cradle boards. They rocked them in such a way that the forehead was flattened, while the back of the head assumed a round shape by the rocking motion. This implies that the flattening pad, or short piece of wood, was fastened to the head only and not at the same time to the cradle board. 4 It also points to a fashion of cradling or carrying of that type which exists from the Columbia River mouth northward. The Choctaw custom should be studied in the same connection. The frame of the Comanche cradle (Shoshouean) belongs to the lat- ticed type, as in figure 202, and is thus made: Two strips of narrow 1 Lewis H. Morgan, "League of the Iroquois," 1851, pp. 390-391, with illustration. "Harlot, "Virginia," Holbein Soe., Manchester, 1888, pi. x. 3 Hodgson, "Letters from North America," I, pp. 135-136. Compare the hammock cradle of the Seminoles (Fifth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 497) with Cape Breton cradle (Rep. U. S. Nat. Mas., 1887, p. 169) and drawing in Bruce's report. (Senate Ex. Doc. No. 73, Fifty -third Congress, second session.) . 157. 'Ibid., p. 204. 512 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. is found in morasses or meadows. The child was laid on its back in one of this kind of cradles, and, being wrapped in skins or cloth to keep it warm, was secured in it by small bent pieces of timber. To these machines they fastened strings, by which they hung them to branches of trees; or, if they found no trees at hand, fastened them to a stump or stone while they transacted any needful business. In this position the children were kept for months, when they were taken out. ' As soon as the Sioux Indian baby is born, says Dodge, it is placed in a coffin shaped receptacle, where it passes nearly the whole of the first year of its existence, being taken out only once or twice a day for washing or change of clothing. This clothing is of the most primitive character, the baby being simply swaddled in a dressed deerskin or piece of thick cotton cloth which envelops the whole body below the neck. The outside of the cradle varies with the wealth or taste of the mother, scarcely two being exactly alike. Some are elaborately orna- mented with furs, feathers, and beadwork ; others are perfectly plain. Whatever the outside, the cases themselves are nearly the same. A piece of dried buffalo hide is cut into proper shape, then turned on itself, and the front fastened with strings. The face of the babe is always exposed. The whole is then tightly fastened to a board or, in the most approved cradles, to two narrow pieces of board joined together in the form of a ladder. It forms a real u nest ot comfort," and as the Indian is not a stickler on the score of cleanliness, it is the very best cradle that they could adopt. To the board or slats is attached a strap which, passed over the head, rests on the mother's chest and shoulders, leaving the arms free. When about the lodge the mother stands the cradle in some out of- the way corner, or in fine weather against a tree; or if the wind is blowing fresh it is hung to a branch, where it fulfills all the promise of a nursery rhyme. When the baby is 10 months to a year old it is released from its confinement and for a year or two more of its lite takes its short jour- neys on its mother's back in a simple way. It is placed well up between the shoulders; the blanket is then thrown over both, and being drawn tightly at the ironi 01 ner neck by the mother, leaves a fold behind, in which the little one rides securely and apparently without the slightest inconvenience to either rider or ridden. A Nez Perce woman may be seen playing a vigorous game of ball with a baby on her back. 2 Examining a collection of cradles from the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, the student is at a loss to harmonize the object with the old descriptions. Often the traveler speaks of a board being used, and this is true for cradles east of the Plains, or where timber abounds, but on the Plains the cradle is backed by lattice work, with sharp ends 'Carver, "Three Years' Travels," Philadelphia, 1796, p. 151. 2 Dodge, "Our Wild Indians," Hartford, 1883, Worthington, pp. 185-186. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 513 projecting upward. Of course, aboriginally, there was no board cradle back, and even the modern nicely planed slats were unknown. On the Pacific Slope of America, between Mount St. Elias ;m inches at the distal end or top. At the back of the fork are lashed 19 rods of \\ood project- ing at their ends an inch or more beyond the fork. The lashing of the rods to the fork is by means of sinew skillfully crossed both in front and rear that is, the seizing is partly parallel and partly cross-laced to give the strongest joint. These wooden rods seem to follow a rude plan of pairs, but the design is not clear. The slat- work on thfc front con sists of a separate transverse rod to which about 40 twigs are at tached by bending the large end of each one around the rod and then holding the series in place by a row or two of twined weav- ing with split twig. To fasten this slat- work in place, the rod is put behind the two outer ends of the forked stick and the twigs laid in order on the front of the series of transverse rods so as to till neatly the space between the forks. These twigs are held in place by lashing them here and there to the transverse rods and to the side prongs. This lashing crosses the twigs diagonally in front and the rods behind vertically. 1 ' Upon this cradle rack or frame is fastened the true cradle, which in this instance is a strip of coarse mat made of soft flags, 1 foot wide, joined by crossrows of twined weaving "2 inches apart. This mat is bordered by a braid of flags, and the two ends are puckered or drawn Fig. 213. TOKAIA WOMAN CARRYING CHILD. From photograph in f. S. National Muneiiin by Mrs. .1. \V. llml*oii. 1 By a misprint in a former paper the name Klumath is associated with this speci- men. Rep. Smithsonian lust. (U. 3. Nat. Mus.), 1887, p. 180, fig. 1:.'. 524 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. to a point. The cradle belongs to the open, unhooded type and is made by doubling the matting at the head and drawing it together to a point at the foot. The edge nearest to the cradle frame is joined and fas- tened to the frame, while the outer edge is allowed to flare open. In this little ark of flags or rushes the baby is placed. Having escaped from the scoop-like half seat, half cradle, before described, the California child is still obliged to be a passenger. It does not ride pickaback, as the Eskimo, nor on the shoulder, as do the Caucasians, nor on the arm, as often seen in Africa; but it straddles the mother's hips and is held se- cure by her shawl or girdle (fig. 213), recalling rather the infants of Japan and thereabout. Example No. 24146 in the U. S. National Museum is from the Mo- have, in southern California and Arizona. The frame of this cradle is a prettily made ladder or trellis, built up as follows: A pole of hard wood about 7 feet long is bent in shape of an oxbow, the sides 7 inches apart at top and 5 inches at bottom, so that the cradle is a little narrower at the foot. Eleven cross bars, like ladder rounds, connect and strengthen the frame, commenc- ing at the bottom and ending near the bow. These rounds con- sist each of three elements a rod or spreader between the two sides; a strap-like binding of two or three split twigs clasping the sides and laid along on the spreader; a seizing of tough twig holding fast the straps and spreader. The drawing of the reverse side clearly sets forth the man- ner of administering this light but strong cross bracing (fig. 214). Upon this ladder is laid the cradle bed of willow or mezquite bast, made as follows: Three bundles of stripped bast, each about an inch in diameter, are lashed at their middle with the same material. They are then doubled together concentrically and spread out to form a bed. On this is laid a little loose finely- shredded bast, like a nest, and the bed is ready for the baby. A dainty quilt or counterpane of bast is made from strips 30 inches long, doubled and braided at the top like a cincture. This braiding is Fig. 214. MOHAVE TBELL18 CRADLE AND BED. Cat. No. 24146, U. S. N. M. Collected by Edward Pa PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 525 unique and so very neatly done as to demand explanation. Two strips of bast are seized about their middle by a single twist of the two ele- ments of twined weaving. Of course, two halves will project above and two below the twist. Lay two more strips of bast in the second bight of the twist and draw down th* first two upper ends, one to the right of and the other between the second pair of strips, seizing them in place by another half turn of the twines. Lay on a third pair of bast strips and bring down the second pair of ends projecting upward, as at first. The weaving consists of four movements, namely: Laying in a pair of bast strips, grasping them. with a half turn of the two twining wefts, beijding down the two upward strips just preceding, one between, the other outside of the last two strips, and grasping them with a half turn of twine. The lashing belts of this cradle are 12 to 15 ply braids made up of red, green, white, and black woolen and cotton cords, plaited after the manner of the straws in hat making. Special attention is called to the peculiar type of ornamentation undesignedly originated by braiding with threads of different colors. On this belt of several colors the threads are so arranged as to produce a continuous scries of similar triangles, filling the space between two parallel lines by having their bases above and below alternately. Not the worst of the ornamentation is the parallelism of the braid- ing threads, now to one side of the triangle and in the next figure running in a direction exactly at right angles. One of the com- monest ornaments on pottery, rude stone, and carved wood is this distribution of lines in triangles. The floor of the Yaqui cradle (fig. 215) is of the slatted type, 30 inches long. A dozen or more reeds, such as arrow shafts, are fastened in the same plane by dowel pins. The reeds are not bored for the pins but simply notched in a primitive fashion. There is no cradle trough, but a bed of bast, shredded, is laid on longi- tudinally. The pillow consists of a bundle of little splints laid on transversely, at either end of which is a pad of rags. There is no awning, and the lashing material in this instance is a long cotton rag, taking the place of a leather strap, passing round and round baby and frame and fastened off in a martingale arrangement crossing the feet and tied to the lower corners of the cradle. When a I'ima child is able to stand alone, the mother allows it to Fig. 215. CRADLE FRAME OP REEDS, USED BY THE YAQUI INDIANS OF 8ONORA. Cat. No. 9396, I . 8. N. M. Collected hy Ed- ward Palmer. 526 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. mount upon the immense cinctures of bark worn on her back and to grasp her around the neck. On long journeys, says Edward Palmer, they use the cradle board. Leaving the Pacific Slope and reverting to the Great Interior Basin, the Shoshonean tribes in the far north will be found adapting them- selves to the surrounding Siouan, Salishan,.and Shahaptian customs. They are on the drainage of the great Columbia and in the area of buckskin. For the most part, the basis of all Shoshonean cradles is of twig, a kind of open basketry with a warp of rods and a row of twined weaving here and there. Upon this grating the awning is built up for the face. Over it the covering of buckskin is stretched and to it the headband is attached as it is to the universal conical pack- ing basket of the same culture area. Example No. 128342 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 216) is a cradle of the Uncompahgre Utes collected, with others, by Captain Beckwith, U. S. A. It isbuiltupon a kite-shaped board. Special attention is called to the two suspension straps, one near the top for hanging in the cabin, the other lower down for the woman's forehead, to set the load well up on the back. Maj. J. W. Powell collected a variety of Lite cradle frames in his early explorations. Example No. 14646, from the Colorado Utes, is shown in three views. The frame is based on a dozen or more twigs, without bark, laid par- allel. Underneath these is laid an ellipsoidal hoop, spread a little way beyond the rod at the sides. A stick is laid across under the rods and is fastened at its ends to the hoop and also to the rods by the wrapping of a filament. Two or three rows of twined weaving hold the rods in place at intervals. Over the frame a dainty awning is built and a cov- ering of beautiful white buckskin incloses all. The carrying band is attached to the crossbar and goes over the forehead of the mother. Example No. 14646 (tig. 217) is a cradle of the Utes of southern Utah. This cradle has the oxbow frame lathed along the back with twigs close together and held in place by a continuous seizing of sinew. It is a rude affair, but this is evidently due to the lack of material in a desert country rather than to want of taste in the makei . The awning for the Fig. 21 6. UTB CRADLE. The frame is made of sticks covered with buckskin. Cat. No. 128342, U. S. N. M. Collected by Captain Beckwith, U. S. A. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 527 face is a band of basketry, 4 inches wide, attached by its ends to the side frame of the cradle. This band is of twined weaving, the weft running boustrophedon. Notice especially that each half turn of the twine includes two warp twigs and that when the weaver turned back- ward she did not inclose the same pairs of warp twigs, but twined them in qninconoially, creating a mass of elongated rhomboidal openings, exactly as the Aleutian Islanders weave their inarvelously fine grass wallets, while the lite weaving is a model of coarseness in an identical technique with unaccommodating material. The headband of buckskin Fig. 217. UTE CRADLE. The frame is of rods covered with buckskin. ("at. No. 14646, U. S. N. M. Collected by Maj. J. W. Powell. is not tied immediately to the bowed frame, but is knotted to a loop made of a narrow string wound three times around the frame and knotted. Pyramid Lake, Nevada, is on the border of California and adjoining to the Palaihnihan or Achomawi and Pujunan families of the last named States. Examples Nos. 19040 and 7C734 (fig. 218) are from the Nevada Utes. When the Ute babe leaves its swaddling frame, and before it comes 528 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. to be entirely independent, it passes an intermediate stage, like t he opossum, in an open sack. In this case the mother puts her shawl or robe about her. straps her bandolier around over one arm and under the other, and the young passenger has an apartment below which it can not go. Example No. 152252 (fig. 219) shows the Ute mother carry- ing a 2-year-old child. The cradles of the cliff dwellers were made in the shape of an ellipse, constricted slightly at the sides. Small reeds or twigs were laid side by side lengthwise and on top of these crosswise, as in African shields Fig. 218. (BAULKS OF NEVADA UTES, SHOEING G'ALIFOHNIAN INFLUENCE. Cat. Nos. 19040 and 76734, U. S. N. M. Nevada exhibit, New Orleans Exposition. On one side the sticks run up and down ; on the other side they run crosswise. The two sets are held together by weaving in geometric patterns. On some of these cradles the hood is still preserved. Example No. 21523 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 220) is a very elaborate Apache cradle, the substantial part consisting of the frame and the hood. The frame is elliptical in outline, being formed by a pole of wood bent and the two ends spliced and lashed. Upon this ellipse are laid laths of pine, planed. Over the child's face is built the hood formed by bending two bows of supple wood to the required shape and overlaying them with transverse laths of pine laid close PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 529 together and tied dowii. The upper edges of these laths are beveled, so as to give a pretty ett'ect to the curved surface. The leather work on the cradle consists of a crown of white buckskin to the hood, a binding of brown buckskin to the bowed frame above the hood varie- gated with narrow bands of white buckskin, and finally, the true sides or capsule of the cradle, consisting of a strip of soft, brown buckskin, say 10 inches wide, cut in a fringe along its lower border and edged with fringe of white buckskin along its upper outer edge. This strip Fig. 219. UTK SQUAW CARRYING CHILD. i a photof rxph in the U. S. National Museum. is fastened to the cradle continuously, commencing at an upper margin of the awning, carried along this awning, fastened to its lower margin 4 inches above the junction of awning and frame, passing on to the foot and around to the other side as at first. Slits are made in the upper edge of the brown buckskin just below where the white buckskin fringe is sewed or run on, and back and forward through these slits a broad, soft band of buckskin passes to form the cradle lathing. To perfect the ornamentation of this beautiful object, tassels of buckskin H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 34 530 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. in two colors and strings of red, white, and blue beads are disposed with great taste. A simpler form of cradle, based, however, upon the elongated hoop, is shown in fig. 221, introduced here to illustrate all the details involved, to wit, the method of wearing the headband, the function of the awning as a cover and a place for toys, the border loops as on the margin of a sandal, the cross lacing, the free feet in accordance with the widespread west coast and northern habit, the modern style of wearing the blanket, Fig. 220. APACHE SLAT CRADLE, WITH HOOD. Cat. No. 21523, U. S. N. M. Collected by Dr. J. B. White, U. S. A. the moccasins of the mother soled and having a protection against thorns in front, and, finally, her leggings, each one made of an entire deerskin. The Navajo cradle, No. 127615, and the one with which it is compared (figs. 222 and 223), are bnilt upon two strips of thin board, each pointed at the top, after the manner of the Indians on the plains. The awning of splint bows in figure 222 is suggestive of the buggy top awning affected by the Zufii Indians. This and many other introduced elements make it very difficult to discriminate what is truly aboriginal from, what is not. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 531 The packing, the lacing 1 , the bedding, the pillow, and the headband are characteristic of the region. The cover or spread of buckskin and the foot rest are not so common. The former is of the north or of elevated and cool regions; the latter has a distribution not worked out. It will be seen on Iroquoian and other eastern forms, and on a Pitt River cradle from California, example No. 21411, figured upside down in the U. 8. National Museum Report of 1887, page 180. This cradle of the Navajo Indians resembles the same article made by the Rocky Moun- tain tribes. It includes the flat board to support the vertebral column of the infant, with a layer of blankets and soft wadding to give ease to the position, having the edges of the frame work ornamented with leather fringe. Around and over the head of the child, who is strapped to this plane, is an ornamented hoop, to pro- tect the face and cranium from accident. A leather strap is attached to the vertebral frame work to enable the mother to sling it on her back. 1 The Zufii use a simple cradle board with parallel sides and the top either cut semicir- cular or notched in gradines in imitation of a kind of ornament much affected by these peo- ple in their decoration. Holes are bored along the sides for lashings and carrying strap. A block pillow, identical in form with the pillow blocks of many European peoples, performs the functions of a head rest and of a cleat There are many examples in the U. S. National Mu- seum, of which Nos. 41184 and 69015 are types. The elements of the Moki cradle frame, ex- ample No. 23154 in thell. S. National Museum (fig. 224), are the floor and the awning. The floor is of the oxbow type, having the bow at the foot and the loose ends projecting upward as in the Yokaia and other California frames. The Moki are the only savages west of the Rocky Mountains known to the writer who make real wicker basketry. This cradle frame is covered with wicker of unbarked twigs, four rows on the floor and four on the awning. The warp of the floor is formed of series having two twigs each. There is a great variety in the delicacy, the number of warp strands, and the minor details in the Moki cradle floors. Indeed, while they are all alike in general marks, there are no two alike in respect to patterns. The awning is still more varied. Fundamentally it is a band of wicker basketry longer than the cradle is wide, its ends securely fastened to the frame sides by lashings of yucca Fig. 221. APACHE SQUAW CARRYING CHILD. From a photiraph in the U. S. National Museum, by A. Frank Randall ' Si-]iiMili-r;ift'H Arcliivrs, i\ . |ip. l35-43ti; also Bancroft's Native liuces, I, p. 532 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. fiber or string. Here and there stitches are omitted so as to effect an openwork ornamentation. An additional strip frequently passes at right from the apex of the awning at the upper edge to the floor of the frame at its upper end. (Fig. 225.) The Quich6 mother in Guatemala carries her babe on her back while she is at work and rocks it in a hammock while it is asleep. The Muso and Colima, on the Magdalena, in Colombia, formerly laid their children in cradles made of reeds, just big enough to contain that Fig. 222. NAVAJO CRADLE BOARD. From a figure in the Report of the Smithsonian In dilution (U. S. National Museum), 1887. Fig. 223. COMPLETE NAVAJO CRADLE, WITH HOOD AND BUCKSKIN AWNING. Cat. No. 127615, U. S. N. M. Collected by Dr. R. W. Shu- feldt, U. S. A. little body, binding their wrists and the brawny parts of the arms, as also their legs at the ankles and the calves, placing them with the head downward, and the feet up, the cradle resting against a wall stooping, that their heads might grow hard and round. 1 Leaving out the last interpretation, it is certain that the Muso infant was laid in a little trough of reeds, which should be compared with those cradles made of a bit of skin rolled up and with the cylindroid cradles of wood in Antonio de Herrera, "History of America," vi, p. 183. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 533 Siberia. The binding of the whole body, feet and all, in this region is interesting. The Peruvians of old, it is said, used cradles of textile, not unlike those of California, but the Patagonians seeni to be the only South Americans that actually strap their babies to a frame. On the pottery of Peru, children are seen lying in the lap, riding astride the neck, and sitting on the shoulder, but not fastened in cradles. Wiener figures a barefooted woman at An day mayo, Peru, with her child in a sash which passes around her waist and over the right shoulder. Both hands are active in i-arrying objects. 1 This fact should be considered in connection with the custom in the Tropics of wearing the infant al>n reaching elevated ground the cradle frame does not immediately appear, but the shawl or other garment be- comes more and more the nesting place of the tiny passenger. Custom and climate play upon each other at every turn, and the typical plan is apparent at each. 2 But cradles did exist, made of reeds as shown, along the Cordilleras. The Aymara Indian women of Taiapaca wear a long cotton gar- ment, over which is a woolen dress, then a long mantle fastened by tupus or pins of silver, a long waistband, then thefemale poncho in which they carry their children behind them. 11 The Araucauian infant is rolled up in bandages and put into a cradle frame which may be carried about by the mother or hung to a peg driven into the walls of the house or laid in baskets suspended from the roof so that they can be swung by a cord tied to the cradle. 4 The Araucanian woman is often figured in the role of both passenger carrier and burden carrier (fig. 226). The child is laced on a rack and borne on the back by means of a headband. At the same time any amount of provisions maybe stored in a netted bag suspended from the 1 P Ind ians Souora, Mexico Fort Wingate N Mex Edward Palmer. Dr R W Shufeldt, 130650 Cradle, Yaqui Indians Sonora Mexico U. 8. A. 538 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. THE CARRYING OF ADULTS. It was seen in the foregoing discussion that there are two periods in the carrying of children associated with two distinct types of activities: 1. The period of helpless infancy, calling for bed, swinging or rock- ing cradle, and carriage. The inventions associated with this period have passed through a wonderful evolution and elaboration, whose climax is all modern beds, cradles, baby junipers, walking devices, car- riages, and the great array of pediatric apparatus for the deformed. 2. The second period of infancy is devoted to learning the act of walking. About the home the child escapes from its cradle and soon finds itself going about. The mother, however, can not always wait for its slow locomotion and proceeds to carry it in an extremely primi- tive fashion, and allows it to mount her neck or back or hip without the aid of intervening devices. In the earliest periods of culture or artificiality in living, there were no class conditions which demanded that one should be borne upon the backs of others by reason of rank. The carrying of adults, or riding on human backs, was not in primi- tive times a world-wide enjoyment, and was never an industry until the climax of the hand epoch was reached. The dead were borne to Fig. 227. BIER USED BY THE SEMINOLE8 OP FLORIDA. From a figure .n the Fifth A nmial Report of the Bureau of F.thnoloiy. their burial, helpless persons were assisted from the fight, and those who held some rank were carried on the backs or shoulders of men. But walking was the order of the day prior to the taming of the rein- deer, camel, ass, horse, ox, and elephant. The Semiuole Indians did not double up the corpse for burial, but laid it out straight. A long pole was placed above the body and securely tied thereto by bands at the neck, the middle, and the leet. Then two or more men lifted the PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. f)3! pole and carried the dead to the last resting place (fig. 227). The single stick, with a passenger lying or sitting in a hammock beneath, is also the simplest form of carriage for the living. The next simplest device for bearing the living has for its manual part two poles instead of one. The Japanese use one pole, the Chinese and Koreans use two. In the Madeira Islands will be seen the single-pole hammock (tig. 228). But the double pole riding chair was almost universal before good roads and wheel carriages and illuminated cities. It existed in several parts of semicivilized America. The U. S. National Museum possesses an exam pie from Madagascar. The Caucasian subspecies in all its branches were familiar with it, and it was only a century ago, when streets were lighted at night sufficiently for carriages, that sedan chairs of most costly patterns went out of vogue. The basterna was a kind of litter with two poles or shafts, in which women were carried in the time of the Roman emperors. It resembled Fig. 228. - HAMMOCK CARRIAGE, FROM MADEIRA, WITH TWO BEARERS. From a photograph inth.- I . R. Nutiiuial Muwiim. the lectica, or common litter, and the sedan chair, only the latter \va< carried by slaves while the basterna was supported by two mules, 1 the shafts running through stirrups on the saddle of each. The ordinary bier is carried, not on the shoulders, but about a loot from the ground, by handles, but among the Maronites and other Syrian Christians, according to Tristram, the bier is borne aloft on the uj (stretched and reversed palms of a crowd of bearers, who rapidly relieve one another in quick succession. 2 The same method has been mentioned in the carrying of the throne chair of a Persian king aloft on the palms of bearers/ 1 The body of an Egyptian, when prepared for interment, says Lane, 'Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. v. Jiaaterna, with woodcut. "Tristram, "Eastern Customs in Hible Lands," London, 1894, p. 98. 3 Montfaucon, L'Antiquite' expliqu<>, <>7, luU PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 543 platform quite above the poles. 1 Such a feat is impossible, and the omission of the other two indispensable carriers or a second pole must be due to ignorance of perspective. (Fig. 232.) In this connection Katzel figures a curious little image from Colombia (fig. 233), in which the head- band is used in carrying a man. "In this little town of the New World," (Santa Catharina, Brazil), says Langsdorflf, "a sort of sedan chair is used, called cadeirinhas, in which the rich are drawn in state by their negro slaves. They are not like our sedan chairs, closed up with doors and glass windows, but rather re- semble an easy chair with a high back. Theyhavea canopy," etc. 2 (Fig. 234.) The bier, the sedan, and the litter become historically the travois for dog and horse, and after that the cart and the carriage. In one or two places in the world the carrying of men and women on human hacks survives. This is especially true in mountains where there an- no beasts to ride and two or more can not work together. In such places there is naught to do but for the tough and profession al carrier to take his passenger upon his back, and this indeed he does. In the Brockhaus Atlas of Kth nography (pi. 10) will be seen a Dyak carrying chair, very inter- esting in this connection. The Dyaks are in the habit of carrying Fig. 232. CARBYINO MOTIVE IN PERUVIAN TEXTILE. One-third size. Fig. 233. cillBMIA CLAV FKJURB FROM COLOMBIA, SIK >wi\(i METHODOF CARRYING BY MBAN> OF A 1IKAD -HANI). From * figure in KaUrl'i ' Viilkerkuinl'. " \Virnt-r, "Pe'ron et Bolivie," pp. (><>!, !:{!; also KYiss and Stnbel, " \rcropolis of Ani-on." pt. VII, and "/eitschrift fiir Ktlmolo^io," Berlin. IMC.. \\vii, p. 307. 1 Langadorft', " Voyages and Travels," London. ISIIJ, i, p. 17. 544 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. loads on the back in frames hung from the forehead by a strap, precisely after the American Indian fashion. Now the carrying chair is borne in the same way. It is a low seat, whose hind legs extend 3 feet, more or less, above the seat. The front legs are inclined backward and are Fig. 234. THE CAERYING-CHAIR IN BRAZIL. From a figure 10 Langadorff's " Voyages and Travels." extended upward till their ends meet those of the hind legs, where they are securely fastened together. The tamenes, or porters, at Timbala, in Yucatan, carry a full-sized man on their backs in a chair or frame specially designed for that purpose. 1 MAN IN TRACTION, AND THE DOMESTICATION OF RIDING AND HAULING BEASTS. After inspecting the primitive man as the traveler in connection with his innumerable inventions, and also as a carrier, the study would not be complete without giving attention to man as a traction force. It will be seen in a subsequent study on primitive domes- tication that the ani- mal comes in merely to transfer the load from man's back to its own. The haul- ing of loads is in the same line. Before there were traction beasts there were traction men, and in our own day one can not go amiss for men and boys and women harnessed to objects dragged on the ground, on the snow, or along the water, or to sleds and wheeled vehicles. In order to perform this duty well there is need of harness for men (figs. 235 and Fig. 235. ESKIMO BREAST-YOKE USED IN HAULING. Cat. No. 36025, U. S. N. M. Collected by E. W. Nelson. 1 Ddsire (Jharuay, "Les Ancieunes Villes," Paris, 1885, p. 433, with figure. EXPLANATION OF PLATE 25. GROUP OF ASSYRIAN WORKMEN HAULING A WINGED BULL. Only man power is involved, using the sled, the cart, cooperative traction, the roller, and the lever. The folio wing features must be noted: ( 1 ) A low sled, or drag, with runners of heavy timbers, extra thick at the bottom, or shod. (2) A rack or framework about eight feet high to steady the image. The uprights pierce the crossbars of the sled and are crossed by horizontal l>eams joining their tops or middles. (3) Guy ropes and forked props attached to, and placed against, the top and middle rails, respectively, to steady the image on the sled. These are held at their lower ends by two men each, fourteen in all. (4) Long drag ropes, four in number and double, fastened through eyelets in front and back of the runner, with men attached to them by means of bricoles. These men are evidently dragging the sled. Those who saw the southern rivers before the civil war will remember that the slaves hauled ashore the heavy seines in precisely the same manner. It will be remembered also that in Holland the small boats are drawn up an incline from one canal to another by ropes attached to the stern and wound over a windlass. As soon as the center of gravity passes the summit of the causeway, the stern ropes are relaxed. (5) Power is multiplied by the tise of the lever and the roller in combination. Comparing this with another Kuyunjik inscription, it will be seen that a fulcrum is put beneath the lever near the sled, and that the men pry up that part by means of ropes over the long arm. This may be used as a walking lever to keep up con- tinuous motion, or for the purpose of setting the roller under the sled and giving it a start. One may see nowadays two men moving a heavy locomotive along a track by steel crowbars worked between the track and the driving wheel. It will be remembered that all the megalithic monuments of the world were erected,in the hand epoch. No great teams of beasts are shown on the monu- ments, and no capstans with sweeps worked by animals. It was the weakness of the human body that necessitated cooperation, strong ropes, lubricants, rollers, inclined planes, levers, wheels, etc., and these in turn provoked the highest expression of their capacity. (Layard, "Babylon and Nineveh," New York, 1853, Chapter v: also Rawlinson, " Herodotus. " New York, 1872, frontispiece.) Report of National Museum, 1894. Mason. PLATE 25. GO O Q *"* UJ : O Z 3 I < 5 11 o % z i ii < si- a. -a PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 545 236), which, by and by, will become harness for dogs, reindeer, camels, yak and cattle, goats, elephants, horses, aud mules, and the varied occu- pations thus engendered will have a splendid efflorescence in art and mythology The simplest harness tor men is, in military phrase, the bricole, which is a loop to go over the head ami a piece of loose rope or lint- extending therefrom constituting the single (race. The reindeer in Lapland now wear it, and HO do men innumerable on the canals and at the fishing shores. In the old days of long seines the haulers could be seen wearing the bricole, now pressing with the breast, now with one shoulder, now with the other, now backing, with the loop athwart the neck or the shoulders so as to watch, their work. There did not seem to be a contortion of the human body that could not usefully employ the bricole in traction. It was collar, breast strap, and breeching all in one. At the end of the loose rope or trace was a Turk's head knot, by means of which by a single overlap the seine hauler could hitch and unhitch himself from the cork line. The Eskimo have invented a vari- ety of toggles, frogs, and buttons to facil- itate attaching and detaching the hauler from his load, to be illustrated further on. The number of locomotives in the world is 105,000, aggregating 3,000,000 horse- power, or 125,000,000 of menpower. The writer does not know the amount of horse- power in navigation, but it is very great. There are not over 200,000,000 able- bodied persons in the world, so the steam traction power and the power of human backs are about equal. But while steam traction is the climax of the industry human traction is not superseded. The first mechanical means of transport by land was doubtless the sled. It was employed by the Egyptians in the transfer of large masses of stone. 1 In one sculpture a statue drawn by 172 men is shown. There are oil men, bosses, and relays. In Assyria, also, the sled was used to haul heavy loads by means of a great multitude of men (pi. 25). There is no better example to be found of the two princi- ples often mentioned in this paper first, that it is the manual part of a device that is greatly modified by invention, and second, that the history of the past has been chiefly the evolution and glorification of the hand Fig. 236. ZUXI BREAST-BANDS rsEU IN HAUUNO. Cat. No. 709a, U. 3. N. M. Collected by Jme> Suvra- . " lirnkiuiiler," II. p. KJ4; Eriiian, "Life in Ancient Egypt," p. 477. II. Mis. 90, pt, 2 -I'. 54G REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. or of the power of man. The industry of these two great nations was all anthropotechnic. Among the Eskimo there is no plainer looking sled than the ones shown by Wilkinson and Layard for moving the ancient gods; Imt there is an immense variety of activity going ou to move the sled concerted action, relaying, carrying, prying, and com- manding. There is also a goodly and sufficient array of apparatus, ratcheted tracks, strong ropes, oil, levers, and shore poles to decrease friction and to increase power at the expense of time. In the U. S. National Museum the sleds are associated with primitive life and with snow. But in many places in the United States and else- where sleds are employed to run over fallen grass and on the very steep hillsides by the backwoods farmers and lumbermen. As these harvest- ers of nature take all from the soil and restore nothing, their hauling is downhill and they have no difficulty in getting their forest product and their crops to the highway. Wagons would be out of the question unless the wheels were extremely low. The island of Madeira is quite famous in this regard, where sledding becomes a pastime (tig. 237). It must not be forgotten that in all countries where snow lies on the ground long enough to become packed, hauling and travel- ing over the snow are the easiest and swiftest. As far south in America as the New England and the Northwestern States hauling is preferably done in winter on sleds, largely with oxen. The frosts render the roads im- passable in spring, and the common country road is disagreeable most of the year. It is also a season in which other work is dull. When one reads such works as Bush's Keindeer, Dog, and Snowshoes, it is pleas- ant to reflect on the little difference in this regard between many of the methods of cultivated New England and savage Siberia. The character! sties of the best sled have to be studied out foreach area. First and fundamentally, in sled-using lands sled-making material of the best quality is not always forthcoming. Men have to use what they can get whale's jawbone in one place, driftwood in another, and poor standing wood in a third. Not discouraged in this, the fertile genius discovers and develops the qualities and versatility of rawhide, of braces, of splints, of form, of harness, of administration. No doubt a Fig. 237. PASSENOEU SLED FROM MADE1KA. From photograph in the V. S. National Musem PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 547 great many conferences and much cudgeling of the head have taken place. Captain John Spicer. who spent eleven winters among the Eskimo, tells of an inventional contest and debate between two sled builders in Cumberland Sound. The old-fashioned sleds have narrow runners, but one builder declared that broader runners would do better. To prove his assertion he made two sleds, loaded them exactly alike, Fip. 238. I.AIM.AN1I I'ULK, OK KKKI.KI. SI.Kll. Cat. So. UWO, IT. S. N. M. (iift of thi- Univrroit; .! ChriKtiMta. fastened e;wh one to the end of a spar, hitched a line to the middle of the spar and pulled. The sled with bro id tread moved first and easiest every time. To make the sled runners broad and smooth, the wood and shoes are, by most peoples of Asia and America, treated to a coat of blood and water, and in one place of salt. This preparation is said to stick faster than merely frozen water ; but almost universally the hyperborean Fiji. 'J:t9. UIT<>M VIEW OK I. API. AND ITI.K. teamsters go provided with the means of coating the bottom of the sled runners wiYh a pellicle of ice, just as the drivers used to provide the tar bucket in days of wagoning. The Norwegian sled is 10 feet long, 1 foot inches wide, and <> inches high. It is made of ash wood, and all the parts are firmly lashed together with rawhide. The runners are nothing else than a pair of skees, and arc superior to the flat toboggan.' Example No. 14800 in the II. S. National Museum (figs. 238,239) is F. <;. Jackson. "Tli.- (in-jif Fro/.-n L:md." London. !Xr>. p. 548 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. called a pulk or Laplaiid sled. As will be seen from the drawing, it is built up like a boat on a keel, above which rise on either side strakes of plank, wide at the rear and tapering to a point in front, where they disappear in the widened end of the keel. The whole is fastened together with treenails passing through stout wooden bows, the ends of which overlap at the widest part. The rear end is set in like the head of a barrel. The aft'air is decked over with movable sliding planks, so that it may instantly be adapted to freight or passengers. The specimen here represented is the gift of the University of Christiania, and has with it a reindeer properly harnessed and the driver in costume sitting in the hold. At a glance he reminds one of an Eskimo sitting in a kaiak from which the stern has been sawed off. As an element in the congeries of sled "inventions, it is a compromise between the sled and the boat. The substitution of one runner for two, the rounding of the strakes on the outside to furnish a keel eft'ect, however the vehicle might leaii, especially the inclosed and comfortable passenger, all suggest settled life, short journeys, beaten roads, and social comforts. The harness and the reindeer will be discussed in another paper. It is a very interesting fact that Nansen, in studying perfect economy in regard to his boat for landing in east Greenland, came upon the problem of the pulk or sled with a hull and runners in one. The Samoyed sled is about 9 feet long and 30 inches wide, of pine, with large, thick runners curved up at the front 2 feet. On each side are four uprights, close together toward the rear and sloping inward. These are united by crossbars, which act as sills of the floor. Side frame pieces (called bereznias) extend from the top of the bend of the runners to the rear end of the sled. Baggage is heaped on the cross sills, and the driver sits thereon or upon a seat in front of it. The woman's sled is larger, and long strips of rawhide painted red hang from the bere/nias.' The Samoyed drives from two to five reindeer abreast. Each one is harnessed to the sled by running traces of seal hide attached by chulki, of which there is one at each side. The chulki is a tackle block or dumb sheave of ivory or wood through which the trace runs from the near to the off-side reindeer. Jackson figures four of them, and they may be compared with similar objects on Eskimo harness. But the Samoyed man, like the German woman with her dog team, does a good part of the work himself, and before the days of the tame reindeer he did it all. Towing or tracking along the canals and on the rivers of China is done universally by men. Each coolie engaged wears over one shoulder and under the opposite arm a bricple or harness of bamboo, previously explained (page 545). From this becket or loop a piece of rope extends to the main line by which the load is hauled, after the same fashion as the negro seine haulers in Virginia fifty years ago. 1 P. O. Jackson, "The Great Frozen Land," London, 1895, pp. 115, 118, figure. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 549 Of the sleds about Bere/ovsk, in northeast Russia, it is said that those used for a long voyage have the form of a box, the interior being titled with beds of feathers and furs. The little air openings are dosed by broad curtains. The passenger lies down. 1 This form will be seen in every part of Siberia where the K'ussi;ms have established themselves :md their postal methods MS far east as Kamchatka. The pavoshka is also suggestive of the inclose'd toboggan of central and northern < 'anada. Schrenck figures the Amur sled, and it will be seen that its form is quite the universal pattern. It may be seen in possession of children in civilized lands wherever there is snow. Its parts are, the runners, gently sloping upward; the posts, mortised into the runners; thecross- bars, set into the posts and held by lashing or pins; the top rail, into which are mortised the posts. The rail is Fi g .24o. securely fastened to """ "' SLKD - - From a tifurr HI s.rhrrn.-k'i " Kcinrn urid Forschunfrn mi Amur-Lcnde." the runner in trout. Omitting tenons and mortises, the framework is fundamental. (Fig. L>40. )* The narta, or sled, of the Tungus is from 8 to 10 feet long, 2 feet wide, and the floor is 1 foot above the snow. Above this a few inches is a light railing, on each side which keeps the load in place. The run- ners are of white birch, about 4 inches wide, flat-bottomed, and the parts are lashed together with rawhide thong. En front of each sled is a stout bow to which the long seal thong or trace is attached. The Korak about Yainsk, on Okhotsk Sea, when the rough snow becomes destructive of sled runners, to protect them as well as to improve the running, every two or three hours turn the narta or sled over and with a piece of deerskin saturated with water, moisten the shoes and in a few minutes they are incased in ice. A bottle of water is carried by the driver beneath his furs next his body. 3 Example No. 73018 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 241) is a model of a Kamchatka!! sled, consisting of the following parts: Runners, uprights, sills, bed or bottom rails, traction bow, and netting with its upper rail. The runners are enlarged examples of the Lapland and Eastern skee turned up in front to the level of the bed or seat. The posts perform the following functions: At the lower end they are inserted for a short distance into the upper margin of the runner by a shallow tenon and mortise. Kaeh one is perforated above this lomt and a sinew cord is rove through these perforations, and holes 1 Eve Fulinska, "Le Tour du Monde," Paris, 1862, v, p. 236. 8 " Reisen und Forschungeii im Auiur-Laude," iv, p. 492. 'Bush, " Kcmdrcr, i>^s. ami Sm>\\ shoes,'' p. 322. 550 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. bored through the runners diagonally in pairs ao that the sinew cord on its lower loops is countersunk beneath the runners to prevent abra- sion. Each upright is bored through its middle and the end of a sill fits exactly into the bore or auger hole. Above this point the upright extends far enough to receive the top rail. The bed or seat of the sjed is a long thin plank resting on the sills, and extending as far front as the flat jx>rtion of the runners. The rail is a cylindrical rod or pole passing a short distance above and entirely around the sled, let into the tops of the upright pieces, ami a network of sinew cord is laced through holes on the edge of the bed- piece and around the rails by a series of half hitches. The front of the bed is let into a stout piece of wood securely lashed to the traction piece, which is in the form of an oxbow, securely fastened in turn to the front of the runners, reaching back a short distance from the front to the bed and attached to the front pair of uprights by a cable extend- ing from the end of the bow to a notch on the back of the upright. fwr^ff i i Fig. 241. BOTLT-UP SLED WITH BODY OF NETWOKK. Kamchatka. Cut. No. 7I18, II. S. N. M. Collected by Dr. I.eonhsr.l Stejneger. Across the top of the bed from upright to upright there is a cable of sinew cords held together by a figure of eight seizing, common among the Eskimo in many of their harpoon lines. Above the rail at the first pair of uprights is another bow like the traction piece in front, which the rider is said to hold firmly in going over precipitous or difficult places. Length, 21 inches. Collected by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger. Fridtjof Nausen speaks of a low hand sled, skikjaelke, on broad runners, resembling ordinary skees. 1 Captain Cook says of the Kamchatkan passenger sled, that the length of the body is about 4 feet and the breadth 1 foot. It is made in the form of a crescent, of light, tough wood, fastened together with wicker work, and among the principal people is stained with red and blue, the seat being covered with furs or bearskins. It has four legs, about 2 feet in height, resting on two long, flat pieces of wood of the breadth of 5 1 "First Crossing of Greenland," London, 1890, i, p. 33. Compare tigure in "Zeit- schrift fur Volkskunde," Berlin, 1891, p. 430, and Senate Ex. Doc. No. 92, Fifty-third Congress, third session. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 551 or 6 inches extending a foot beyond the body of the sled at each end. These turn up before somewhat like a skate, and are shod with the bone of some animal. The carriage is ornamented at the forepart with tas- sels of colored cloth and leather thongs. It has a crossbar, to which the harness is joined, and links of iron or small bells are hanging to it, which, by the jingling, are supposed to encourage the dogs. 1 The riding sled of Kamchatka is a happy combination of a small hooded body on a pair of skees or Norwegian snowshoes for runners. There is one in the U. 8. National Museum (Cat. No. 2811), all the parts fastened together with rawhide of different colors. The hood is a piece of brown leather, slashed and drawn through with particolored leather thongs so as to resemble weaving. The writer has seen the same imi- tation of weaving on Eskimo boxes and bags and on a box in Xufii. New Mexico. Langsdorff makes tiie important statement that the sleds of Kam- chatka are of uniform width, so that when the track is once made all will run in the same lines. A good sled weighs about 20 pounds. Tli ere are two varieties, as shown above, the riding sled and the freight sled. The runners are a trifle farther apart in front. The driver always sits sideways, ready to spring out at any moment. The freight sleds, nardeus, resemble a long bench, with a guard on each side set upon short feet. The runners are the same width apart as in the riding sled. Belonging to the sled is the oerstel, a strong stick, slightly angular, with a spud of iron at one end and thongs of leather at the other, into which iron rings are plaited for a rattle. If the driver wants to increase speed he rattles the oerstel, to stop the sled or to slow up he sticks the iron spike into the snow in front of one of the crosspieces. The oerstel also serves as a lever in upholding and righting the vehicle. In short, this implement is lever, brake, whip, and voice to the driver. 2 The Chukchi sled runner is a long pole, cut away in the middle and bent until the two ends almost meet. In this stage of the manu- facture either part would serve for top rail or runner. Nordeuskiold figures the essential parts of another style of Chukchi sled as follows: 1. Framework of curved " knees," four pairs. 2. Kunners below and body rails above, framed to these knees. 3. A long, thiii hoop passing on top of the body sill halfway and under the bottom of the runner all the way. The floor is of slats. These are for riding. The pack sleds are of stronger wood, with runners not bent back. Some of the light ones had a body of splints covered more or less with reindeer hide. 3 The sled and its outfit occurs as a motive in the art of both Chukchi ;iiid the Eskimo. Over and over again on the drill handles and pipes 'Cook, "A Voyage to the Pacific Ocean, 1776-1780," in, p. 374. Lanjj.silortl, " \ ovageh and Travels," London, 1814, in, p. 288. 'Nurdriiskn"ild. Voyage of tlie Vega," New York, 188'2, p. 37y, with tigures. 552 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. teams of dogs are moving along with or without load. The Chukchi adds the reindeer team and shows the driver shaking the oerstel. 1 Hooper, speaking of the Chukchi, says : The Tuski traveling sled for there are two other kinds is constructed princi- pally for speed, being exceedingly light and of elegant form. Six or nine arches of wood, let into flat runners, support a seat about 5 feet long and 14 inches broad, connected at the head with the runners by their springy curves. A sort of basket is formed at the back of the sled, and broad strips of whalebone are secured under the wooden runners. Braces and uprights further bind the parts together, and all are fastened with whalebone. A single thong of seal hide from the under part of the seat serves to attach the dogs, which vary in number from two to ten; as far as eight they all run abreast, the single traces of the harness radiating from the main thong, to which they are secured by loops of ivory. Hooper 1 describes the dogs in full. 2 Among the Eskimo in this last century, partly their own invention and partly introduced from the eastern continent, were to be found several classes of sleds. These, of course, are in addition to the make- shifts soon to be mentioned. 1. The bed on solid runners, the sled par excellence, repeated in the toy sled and in the common peasant examples. These are common further east and in hand work. 2. The bed on pairs of bent sticks or knees spliced together or arched, which serve for both posts and sills. 3. The bed resting on a square, mortised framework, and frequently made with great care. 4. The bed flat on the ground, the toboggan, or the common stone buck. Nausen figures an ideal sled, with broad runners, curved at both ends, having a yoke for draft and bow behind, which should be compared with the Asiatic styles. 3 To attach himself to his sled and to his load, the Eskimo uses his hand and a very simple harness or toggle now to be described. Example No. 43717 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 242 a, 6) is a pretty toggle from Cape Prince of Wales, cut in imitation of a seal. The lines of feather ornament on the back and the prettily carved bands about the wrists are noticeable. The latter is in imitation of the embroidery around the tops of boots, with the fluffy band of Arctic fox fur. The holes are concealed on the underside, bored diagonally, so as to meet in the object and not appear above. The Eskimo TP adepts at this "blind stitching" method. Example No. 43718 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 242 c), of walrus ivory, is a button for many uses, carved to represent the head of a fish. On the end and on the underside holes have been bored at right angles, meeting to form a continuous cavity. The stnations and the 1 Figured by Nordenskiold, " Voyage of the Vega," New York, 1882, p. 498. '"Tents of the Tuski," London, 1853, p. 42. 3 "First Crossing of Greenland," London, -ISMO. i, p. 34. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 553 point work of the drill are neatly shown, as well as tin* use of the file or knife, to convert a conical hole into a cylindrical one. Example No. 38551 in the U. S. National Museum (tig. 242 tf) is an ivory hook with the eyelet in the plane of the hook. In this example the whip splice common among the Eskimo is shown. Where a knot in a greasy line that can not slip or jam is needed, this is, of course, the best. In some examples the splicing is continuous. Example No. 37901 in the U. S. National Museum (tig. 242 e) is a good specimen of the Eskimo hooU attachment carved from walrus ivory. The eye is bored trans versely to the plane of the hook One or more of these forms would be employed effectively by the Eskimo in lieu of tackle. The ivory is so smooth and the rawhide lines so saturated with grease that there is very little friction. Example No. 44155 in the U. S. National Museum (tig. 242/) is from Cape Darby, Alaska. The toggle repre- sents a swimming seal. The holes are mortised across the line of the body. The ends are tied in a true lover's knot, and t hen the whole joint, as well as the parallel part of the line, are beautifully served with raw- hide string. Example No. 33073 in the U. S. National Museum is a drag or harness for a man, to attach him to any load he may have to draw. It is held in the hand, the line passing be- tween the middle and the ring finger. The toggle is a bit of walrus ivory, cut with pointed flutes. The two holes for the strap are joined outside by a double countersink. The two ends of the strap are united and the projecting extremities wrapped down with tine rawhide line. No. 3S558 (fig.. 242 0), from the Yukon district, is a plain example of the same construction, and there are many more in the collections. Kxample No. 38552 in the I". S. National Museum (fig. 242 h) is the toggle of a drag from the Aleutian Islands, made of walrus ivory, in Fig. 242. KSKIMn -1(11,01.1 > \Ml IIAU.NKSS oil CIX>THKS HOOKS. Alaska. 554 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. imitation of a fox or wolf doubled up. The line hole is bored trans versely. This object has seen much use, as the line has worn a deep furrow iu the ivory. No. 63819 is a precisely similar object from Point Hope, in form of a seal. Example No. 43848 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 242 i) is a toggle from Unalakleet, on the east shore of Norton iSound, representing a seal floating on its back. This specimen was designed for hard work. Two holes are mortised diagonally from the sides into the stomach. This was done after the iranner of the ancient carpenter, by boring holes at the ends of the mortise and cutting away the intermediate material. Example No. 45356 in the IT. S. National Museum is a stop or toggle on a loop or becket not here shown. The toggle or stop represents a number of seals' heads. The object is perforated once longitudinally and twice transversely. With lines through the latter it would become a toggle. In its present form it is a stop for a running noose or ivory Fig. 243. HANI) SI.El) WITH RUNNERS MADE OK WALRUS TUSKS. St. I, uwrenee Island, Alaska. Cat. No. 63S87, U. S. N. M. Collected ).y E. \V. Nelson. eyelet of some kind. The rawhide line has its ends fastened together in the usual way, but the longer bend is served with rawhide string by a series of half hitches put on alternately by right and left turns, forming a series of double loops. The effect is as pretty as the method is simple. Concerning these traction hooks and toggles, it may be said that the beautifully carved specimens of which those described are types, and of which there are hundreds in the U. S. National Museum, are all modern and effected with metal tools obtained from Europe and Asia. Example No. 63587 in the TJ. S. National Museum (h'g. 243), is a short sled from St. Lawrence Island. The runners are two strips from enor- mous walrus tusks, thin below and winged or margined above. Each one of these runners is pierced in nine places. At the front elliptical holes arc cut for the attachment of the harness. Three pairs of holes are bored front, middle, and back for the lashing of the crosspieces, and PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 555 one hole is bored in the rear for rawhide loops or beckets. The ninth hole is bored just in front of the middle bar for additional beckets useful in lashing- the load to tin- sled. These beckets are made of rawhide, one end slit, the other fastened through the slit b\ a weaver's knot. The three crossbars are made of driftwood, roughly cylindrical, somewhat flattened beneath to n't on the widened surface of the runner, and hav ing- two parallel notches cut almost around the upper part just above the runner. The crossbar is fastened to the runner by a lashing of rawhide which passes again and again through the runner over the end of the crossbar, bark through the runner and over the other parallel notch of the crossbar, this process being repeated several times and fastened by simply tucking under. In the middle crossbars the end is L .. i Fig. 244. BUILT-UP SLED FROM NORTON BAV, ALASKA. Out No. 45335, I'. S. N. M. Collected by K. \V. N>N,,n fastened by a cross seizing, because the outside notch has been some- what worn away. Such a vehicle takes the place of the wheelbarrow or common hand cart, and is used by man or dog traction in bringing in game short distances, and could never be utilized for long journeys. Example 15507. from Poonook, is double. Length of sled, 14 inches; length of crossbars, 15 inches. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Kxample No. 45.W5 in the U. S. National Museum (tig. 244) is the model of a sled, consisting of runners, three pairs of knees, bed, uprights, and rails, from Norton Hay, Alaska The runners are stout bits of wood turned up in front to the level ot the bed. The knees are inserted or mortised into the upper margin of the runners in a crude way and fastened by pegs. The horizontal portions of the knees have been 55 fl REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. beveled so as to splice neatly and appear as a single piece extending from runner to runner. These are fastened together by lashings of rawhide. The uprights are slender posts mortised into the runners and fastened by pegs just back of the point of insertion for the knees. The top rails tit into notches at the upper ends of these, and are held down by lasn- ings. The bed or seat of the sled consists of four parallel slats or strips of wood extending from the rear to the front of the runners. Athwart these slats, above the two middle ones and beneath the two outside ones, are twenty-four cross slats fastened to the strips by a continuous sewmg of sinew cord, which passes through perforations in the slats and cross- pieces all the way, excepting that underneath the outer slats the ends of the cross pieces fit in a sling and are not perforated. These two pieces are attached to a stout block of wood, which, with the ends of the run- ners and the front of the floor or bed pieces, are joined by a firm lashing of rawliide. Length, 10| inches. Locality, Norton Bay. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. 30771 in the U. S. National Museum is a sled model from Norton Sound, consisting of the following parts: Runners, knees, posts, floor, and top rails. The runners, like a series from this and neighboring regions, consist of two stout pieces of wood turned up with quite a sharp curve in front. The knees are three pieces of wood on each side, in the shape of a quadrate or ship's knee, mortised into the top of the runner and held in place by a treenail. These knees are chamfered and spliced neatly, so that the load of the sled rests upon three semicircular arches. There are also three posts mortised into the top of the runners back of the knees, and extending upward to hold a railing on the side. On the top of these posts a hand rail is fitted into shallow notches, and held in place by a lashing of rawhide passing over the rail and down through a perforation near the top of the post. This is a common form of joint among the Eskimo. The floor of the sled rests on two sills. Across these there are fourteen slats running at right angles to the sills, and over the ends of the slats and against the upright posts are two long strips of wood holding the slats in place. In front of the floor and against the runners is a stout piece of wood, to which the team is attached. The sills of the floor are fastened to this stout piece of wood by rawhide thongs running through holes bored in the crosspiece and in the sills; but the strips or cleats on top or the slats are mortised into this. stout piece of wood. The posts and knees are held in place in the runners by pegs. The two knees of each pair are fastened together by pegs and by lashings of rawhide. The slats are sewed to the sills by a continuous Vawhide line passing through a series of holes bored down through them and the sills, one stitch being taken in each. The slats are attached to the upper side strips in a somewhat similar manner, only the sewing passes through the strips of wood and around the ends of the slats, each one being grooved for that purpose. The posts are fastened also to these strips of wood by a lashing of sinew. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 557 Finally, there is a network of rawhide which is laid on diagonally between the upper rail and the strip along the top of the floor. This line passes backward and forward around each piece by a single turn. without knots. The knots in this sledge are halt-turn netting knots, or what is called a "single bowline''. In many cases the ends are sim- ply tucked under and drawn tight. Length of model, 9 inches. Example No. 48104, from Norton Bay, is of similar construction, except in minor details. In this model the parts are not sewed together with rawhide. Length, -3 inches. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. IW.'WU is the model of a sled in the U.S. National Museum, probably from St. Michaels, Alaska, consisting of runners, upright posts, sills or crosspieces, bed or seat rails, traction piece, and handle. The runners are long, slender pieces of hard wood, broad below and narrow above, turned up in front twice as high as the level of the bed. There are five pairs of uprights mortised into the upper margin of the runners, raking backward at a slight angle and braced at the bottom with rawhide line seized through perforations in the upright and through the upper margins of the runners. This seizing is then neatly trapped and the ends tucked under. It is a very pretty piece of work. The sills on which the floor or bed of the apparatus rests consist of pieces of hard wood, with their ends forming a cylindrical tenon fitting into an auger hole or round mortise. The bed consists of two wide outer strips or framework, and between them six narrower pieces, parallel and equidistant. These middle pieces are not cut or bored at all, but the two wide ouier pieces are mortised through for the insertion of the uprights. After the bed was in place a seizing of rawhide line was carried backward and forward, over and under the slats, and around the outside of the uprights, and a frapping passed around between the slats, so as to form a perfect brace in every direction, holding the slats firmly to the sills and form- ing a perfect separation for the parallel parts of the bed. The outer rails of the bed pass forward and are bent upward to correspond with the ends of the runners. This is a very neat piece of rawhide work. The rail passes along the top of the uprights, which are mortised into them and held down by seizings of rawhide passing through the upright and over the rail, neatly trapped. The front ends of these rails bend downward from the foremost upright and are neatly seized to the out- side rails of the bed. A network of rawhide joins the outside rails of the bed to the upper rail, formed by three parallel warp lines passing through the uprights, and a wedging made by a series of half hitches passing through the outer rail of the bed and the upper rail at equal distances, forming rectangular spaces. The traction part consists of a bow sei/.ed to the foremost uprights, strengthened in front by a stout bit of wood just in front of the upper part of the runners. The handle of the sled consists of a framework of wood very much like the handle of an old-fashioned horse rake. The ends pass down 558 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. and are seized to the second pair of uprights. The side pieces of the handle are attached to a crosspiece at the rear end of the sled and reseized to the upper rail. Outside of the handle two rawhide lines double aud cross each other, neatly served with the same material. This whole apparatus is of such extraordinary workmanship that it is easy to say that much was made with modern tools and that little is the work of the Eskimo. The form approaches that of the Kamchatka!) sled, and the seizing and knots of the rawhide are thoroughly aboriginal. Special attention is called to the very primitive fashion of network between the rail and the bed, in which the weaving is done by a series of half hitches. Length, 40 inches; width, 6 inches; height, 5 inches. Example No. 48147 is constructed somewhat on the plan of the last number, but is very rudely made. The floor consists of four slats run- ning longitudinally between the sidepieces which constitute the frame- Fig. 245. BUILT-UP SLED FROM TOGIAK RIVER, ALASKA. Cat. No. 1666-. U. S. N. M. Collected by Dr. Tarletim H. Bean. work. Length, 2 feet 3 inches ; locality, An vik. Collected by E. W. Nelson. Example No. 49111, from Tanana Kiver, Alaska, is the model of a sled consisting of runners curved up at both ends and knees or sup ports for the floor or bed of the sled. There are three pairs of these supports, which are in the form of a ship's knee. They are slightly mortised into the upper part of the runner and secured there by a sewing of rawhide. The two knees lie together parallel at the top and extend far enough to support the rails which form the bed. They are held together by a Cashing of rawhide, which also holds down the rails in their places. At the ends the rails are mortised into the crossbars. The runners, the outside rails, and these crossbars, terminate together and are lashed with rawhide. This forms a very light but strong sledge. Length, 35 inches. Collected by E. W. Nelson. On the Porcupine River, interior Alaska, Turner collected a sled (166974, U. S. N. M.) with the foundation like a toboggan and back and sides built up of dressed skins, and also a large lap robe of the same material. This should be compared with a precisely similar form in use in the Amur country. 1 1 "Le Tour 7. in the U. S. National Museum (tig. 246), from Togiak River, is a sled consisting of runners, two pairs of knees, ;uid rails. The runners are stout pieces of wood, 1 inches thick above, 1 inch thick below, and 3 inches wide, shod with bits of antler and bone listened on with pegs or treenails. They are turned up abruptly in front. The knees are mortised into tin- upper margin of the runners and wedged in place. In order to bring the upper part of the knees closer if t pifr.ua. BIMLT-ri 1 SI.KH CSE1) BY TIIK KSKIMo ( IK POINT HARROW. ALASKA. Krmn ii figure in thr Ninth Annual Report ot tUr Bureau of Kihm>lnf>. together, each one is chamfered and cut away so that the other can be partly let into it. These are then pegged together and sewed with raw- hide lashing. The rail consists of a round pole extending from the top of the runner in front on a level backward and lashed to the extended upper ends of the knees. Along the upper margin of the runners holes are bored and loops of rawhide inserted for the attachment of the load and for bracing. For traction a line of braided sinew is provided. Fiji. 247. KSKIMO FLAT SI.KH FROM I'OINT liAHKoW. ALASKA. Kr.pin ;. fu'ir.' in the Ninth Annual Report olthc Bureau of Kthnolosy. This sled is said by the collector to be used in the transporting of kaiaks. Length, <> feet. Collected by T. H. Bean. The sled of the southeast Alaskan is said to be about 20 inches in breadth and 10 feet in length, a sort of rail work on each side, and shod with bone, put together with wooden pins or with thongs or lashings of whalebone. 1 Murdoch describes two kinds of sleds at Point Barrow: (1) The kamoti, for carrying general freight (tig. 246): (2) the unia, low and flat, without rail or standards (tig. 247). The kamoti consists of runners shod with strips of whale's jaw; Cook, "A \\nago to tin- J'aeilir (K-e:m, 177!-1780," in, p. 23. 560 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. standards, four on a side; sills for the flooring of slats; crosspieees or knees connecting the runners and supporting middle floor; rail on top of standards, raised above the floor and meeting the front of the runner. All these parts are fastened together by seizings of seal hide. 1 The second type of Point Barrow sled, the unia. is a small, low drag for conveying bulky objects and hauling umiaks across laud ice. Fig. 248. HAND SLED WITH RUNNERS OK WHAI.KBONE. From a figure in the Ninth Annual Heportofthe Bureau (,! Kthnology. Both kinds are made of driftwood and shod with strips of whale's jaw about three-fourths of a.n inch thick, fastened on with bone tree- nails. For carrying a heavj load over soft snow the runners are shod with ice. To each runner is fitted a shoe of clear ice, 1 foot high and inches thick. From the ice on a pond they cut a piece the length of a runner, 8 inches thick aud 10 inches wide. Into these they cut a groove Fig. 249. ESKIMO TOBOGGAN MADE OF BALEEN. Point Barrow, Alaska. :ur- in the Ninth Annual Report of the Hiireau iiiitlisonian I.Y|... 1NJ6, p. 321. H. Mis. 90. pt. 2 36 562 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. bevel in front than in the rear. The five crossbars are mortised through the upper part of the runners in a very rude manner and fastened down with pegs. The line for hauling is attached to the front ends of the runners, just as in the case of the ordinary toy sled of boys in Fig. 251. LOW SLED FROM FOKT ANDERSON, MACKENZIE RIVER, CANADA Cat. No. 74/2, U. S. N. M. Collected by K. MacFarlanp. civilized countries. Although this was sent to the U. S. National Museum with a large collection of most interesting objects, it does not have the appearance of being an aboriginal form. Length, 7 inches. Collected by B. MacFarlane. Fig. 252. LOW SLED, FROM ANDERSON RIVER, CANADA. Cat. No. 1638, U. S. N. M. Collected hy R. MacFarlane Example No. 16.38 in the TJ. S. National Museum (fig. 252) is the model of a sled from Anderson Eiver consisting of high solid runners and crossbars. The runners have a long bevel in front and a short one in the rear, and are sawed off at the ends. There are three crossbars, PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 563 broad in the middle and chamfered at the ends for the lashing. Near the upper border of the runners holes are gouged through the wood as long as the end of the crosspiece is wide. A double lashing passes over the end and through these holes so as to give a double bearing or brace. This is a very common method of attachment among the Eskimo. In the model the lashing is done with rawhide and sinew twine. This example reproduces with considerable faithfulness the construction of the aboriginal types. The shoeing on the bottom of the runners is fastened on with pegs of wood. Length, 12 inches. Col- lected by It. MacFarlane. Example No. 7473 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 253), is the model of a sled from Anderson River, northern Canada. The runners are wide, separate planks, curved up in front and beveled in the rear. Five crosspieces are attached to the top of the runners by means of sinew Fig. 253. BUILT-UP SLED FROM FORT ANDERSON. Mackenzie River District, Canada. C.t. No. 7473, U. S N. M. Collected by R. MacFarlane. cord passing over the ends of the slats and through very rudely exe- cuted mortises near the edge of the runners. The winding of the thread passes over the slats outside and inside of the runner so as to form an excellent yielding brace. Mortising is very uncommon among aboriginal peoples, and therefore the needs of the fur traders are to be suspected. The front crosspiece is fastened on through two seta of holes instead of mortises. Between the slats on top of each runner six posts are mortised and fastened down with treenails, and a similar post is mor- tised through the upper surface of the hind slat. Along the top of these posts, at the sides and at the rear, are tight rails which extend out and are fastened to the upturned ends of the runners. The rails are sewed to the posts by means of babiche. Length, 14 inches. Col-, lected by R. MacFarlane. 564 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Example No. 7474 is the model of a sled from Fort Anderson, Mac- enzie River district, built up on knees, similar to example No. 49111. Length, 12 inches. Collected by Robert MacFarlane. The U. S. National Museum possesses a large number of full-sized specimens of the Canadian toboggan. A model of one of them from Anderson River, northern Canada, example No. 1976 in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 254) is made of two separate thin planks of birch wood not more than three eighths of an inch in thickness. These two planks are joined together pretty evenly at the inner edges and held in place by four battens in the upper side, three of them at equal dis- tances along the flat surface, and a double batten holding the two ends together in front. These battens are firmly secured in place by a lash- ing of rawhide which passes over the batten through the boards. On the under side, the holes through which the rawhide passes are counter- sunk, vso there is no danger of being injured by abrasion. These raw- hide lashings are put on with great regularity, showing on the under Fig. 254. CANADIAN TOBOGGAN OE FREIGHT SLED. Cat. No. 1976. U.S. N. M. Collected by R. MacFarlane. side a pair of countersunk cavities on the boards so that every part is securely held in place where the most strength is needed. On the upper side the rawhide line shows an alternation of simple turns and marline hitches. The boards constituting the toboggan are curled up in front after the manner of an elegant sledge and sewed together with rawhide. This sewing is done in a very interesting manner. On the upper surface the holes appear some distance away from where the two margins are joined together, but on the underside they come out very near the margin so that they are bored out and unite along these edges. The front of the sled is braced by means of small cables of rawhide passing from the tip end to the planks below and to the first batten. There is also a strong rawhide line carried from the tip to the end of the last batten in the rear. This gives stability to the vehicle in every direction without increasing its weight. Upon this model is lashed a long capsule or open bag of tawed rein- deer hide bound around the edges and representing the cover or pro- tection in which the pack or load is placed and held securely. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 565 The knots on this model are mostly half or marline hitches alternating with round turns. Here and there, in fastening off the work (among the American aborigines), a square knot is found (which is somewhat unusual in this writer's experience), the Indians of this continent using the plan of merely taking in a loose end and relying upon the shrinkage of the rawhide to hold it in place. Length, 2 feet 4 inches. Collected by B. R. Ross. Example No. 166974 in the IT. S. National Museum (fig. 255) is a trav- eling sled from Canada. The apparatus is based on a toboggan made of short planks and crossbars. The front is covered with leather for ornamental purposes and the side and back arc of moose skin set up on a frame of wood and iron painted red on the outside. The body or riding part extends backward to within 22 inches of the end, which is left free either for luggage or for the driver to stand on when he is riding. Rawhide lines or loops are attached to the side for the purpose of holding baggage or for the convenience of the driver. From the front to the rear extend doubled-braided lines a half inch wide, and the Fig. 255. CANADIAN TRAVELING BLED, FULL-RIOOED. Porcupine River, Alaska. Cat. No. 166974, U. S. N. M. Collertrd by .1. H. Turnrr. interior is provided with a cover or boot of soft moose skin either for protecting the driver against the weather or for covering up the freight. Width, 14 inches; height of body,' 18 inches. Collected by J. Henry Turner. Dr. Rae tells us that the Boothians use sleds of rolled-up sealskin, not from choice but of necessity, because they have little or no wood, and no large bones of the walrus or whale with which to construct them, as the Arctic Highlanders have. 1 McClintock also says that the runners (or sides) of some old sleds left at Matty Island were very ingeniously formed out of rolls of sealskin, about 3 feet long, and flattened so as to be 2 or 3 inches wide and 5 inches high. The sealskins appeared to have been well soaked and then rolled up, flattened into the required form, and allowed to freeze. The underneath part was coated with a mixture of moss and ice laid smoothly on by hand before being allowed to freeze, the moss answer - '" Eskimo Migration," Journ. Anthrop. Inst., London, 1878, VH, p. 129. 566 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. iug the purpose of hair in mortar to make the compound adhere more firmly. 1 The Pima Indians of Arizona are also said to make a wagon of hide for dragging their crops, and Peary relates that on one occasion he made a sled of musk-ox skin. "it is easier," he says, "to haul 150 pounds on a sled than to carry 50 pounds on your back, particularly over the snow. The weight on the back sinks one down into the snow, while the sled is a much more easy process. For instance, on one occasion I hauled a sled carrying 60 or 70 pounds for 1,100 miles, and our average day's journey was 24 miles. The snow was in fairly good condition, and we came back well. If I had been carrying- that weight, it would have been very difficult." Petitot says of the Slave Indians about Fort Kae, Hudson Bay ter- ritory, that it is a singular spectacle to see a horde of these savages on their march over a frozen lake. As far as the eye could reach could be seen a long file of sleds and dogs, of women loaded with burdens and young children. 2 The Western Deu.6 travel in winter by means of light toboggans drawn by three or four dogs trotting in In- dian file. In summer, when families are en route for their hunting grounds, the dogs are used for pack animals/ 1 Fig. 256. BSKIMO SLED (QAMUTINQ), PROM CUMBERLAND GULF. From a figure in the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. The sleds of the Chippewayan are formed of thin slips of board, turned up in front, and are highly polished with crooked knives in order that they slide along more smoothly. They are made of the red or swamp spruce-fir tree. 4 Boas, from whom the following is taken, declares that during the greater part of the year the only passable road for the Central Eskimo is that afforded by the ice and snow; therefore sleds (qamutiug) of different constructions are used in traveling. The best model is made by the tribes of Hudson Strait and Davis Strait, for the driftwood which they can obtain in abundance admits the use of long wooden runners (fig. 256). Their sleds (Boas, tig. 482) 'McClintock's Narrative, etc., Boston, 1860, p. 233, with figure. 2 Smithsonian Rep., 1865, p. 135. 3 Cf. Father Morice, Proc. Can. Inst. (Series 3), vn, p. 131. Mackenzie, " Voyages, from Montreal through the Continent of North America," Philadelphia, 1802, p. 125. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 567 have two runners, from 5 to 15 feet long and from L'O inches to L'i feet apart. They are connected by crossbars of wood or bone, and the back is formed by deer's antlers with the skull attached. The bottom ot the runners (qamun) is curved at the head (uinirn) and cut off at right angles behind. It is shod with whale's bone, ivory, or the jawbones of a whale. In long sleds the shoeing (pirqang) is broadest near the head and narrowest behind. This device is very well adapted lor sledding in soft snow; for, while the weight of the load is distributed over the en tire length of the apparatus, the fore part, which is more apt to break through, has a broad face, which presses down the snow and enables the hind part to glide over it without sinking in too deeply. The shoe (Boas, fig. 483) is either tied or riveted to the runner. If tied, the lashing passes through sunken drill holes to avoid any friction in moving over the snow. The right and left sides of a whale's jaw are frequently used for shoes, as they are of the proper si/e and permit the shoe to be of a single piece. Ivory is cut into flat pieces and riveted to the runner with long treenails. The points are frequently covered with bone on both the lower and upper sides, as they are easily injured by striking hard against hummocks or snowdrifts. The crossbars (napun) project over the runners on each side and have notches which form a kind of neck. These necks serve to fasten the thongs when a load is lashed on the sledge. The bars are fastened to the runners by thongs which pass through two pairs of holes in the bars and through corresponding ones in the runners. If these fasten- ings should become loose they are tightened by winding a small thong around them and thus drawing the opposite parts of the thong tightly together. If this prove insufficient, a small wedge is driven between the thong and the runner. The antlers attached to the back of the sled have the branches removed and the points slanted so as to tit to the runners. Only the brow antlers are left, the right one being cut down to about 3 inches in length, the left one to 1 inches. This back forms a very convenient handle for steering the sledge past hummocks or rocks, for drawing it back when the points have struck a snowdrift, etc. Besides, the lash- ing for holding the load is tied to the right-brow antler, and the snow knife and the harpoon are hung upon it. Under the foremost crossbar a hole is drilled through each runner. A very stout thong (pitu) consisting of two separate parts passes through the holes and serves to fasten the dogs' traces to the sledge. A button at each end of this thong prevents it from slipping through the hole of the runner. The thong consists of two parts, the one ending in a loop, the other in a peculiar kind of clasp ipartirnng). Figure 484 (Boas) represents the form commonly used. The end of one part of the thong is fastened to the hole of the clasp, which, when closed, is stuck through the loop of the opposite end (see Boas, tig. 482). A more artist i< design is shown in lig. is.", f l',oa> . One end of the line is tied to the hole on the 568 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. underside of this implement. When it is in use the loop of the other end is stuck through another hole in the center and hung over the nozzle. The whole represents the head of an animal with a gaping mouth. The dogs' traces are strung upon this line by means of an uqsirn (fig. 257), an ivory implement with a large and a small eyelet (Boas, fig. 486). This whole account of the central Eskimo sled should be studied in the original memoir. Other sleds are made of slabs of fresh-water ice, which are cut and allowed to freeze together, or of a large ice block hollowed out in the center. All these are clumsy and heavy, and much inferior to the large sled just described. 1 Fig. 257. ESKIMO DOG HARNESSED FOR SLED. From :i fimre in the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. The inhabitants of Hudson Strait leave Tuniqten in the spring, arrive at the head of Frobisher Bay in the fall, and after the formation of the ice reach the Kugumiut settlements by means of sleds. 2 The Eskimo sleds seen by Parry vary in size, being from 6i to 9 feet in length, and from 18 inches to 2 feet in breadth. Some of those at Igloolik were of larger dimensions, one being 11 feet in length and weighing 268 pounds, and two or three others above 200 pounds. The runners are sometimes made of the jawbones of a whale, but more 1 Sixth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 529-538, figs. 482-489. 2 Ibid., p. 423. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 569 commonly of several pieces of wood or bone, scarfed and lashed together, the interstices being filled, to make all smooth and firm, with moss stuffed in tight and then cemented by throwing water to freeze upon it. The lower part of the runner is shod with a plate of harder bone, coated with fresh-water ice to avoid wear and tear and to make it run smoothly. This coating is performed with a mixture of snow and fresh water about a half inch thick rubbed over it until it is smooth and hard upon the surface. When the ice is only in part worn off, it is renewed by taking some water in the mouth and spirting it over the former coating. He noticed a sled which was curious on account of one of the run- ners and a part of the other being constructed without wood, iron, or bone of any kind. For this purpose a number of sealskins were rolled up and disposed into the required shape, and an outer coat of the same kind was sewed tightly around them. This formed the upper half of the runner, the lower part consisting entirely of moss, molded, while wet, into the proper form, and being left to freeze, adhering firmly together to the skins. The usual shoeing of smooth ice completed the runner, which for six months of the year is as hard -as wood. The cross- pieces which form the bottom of the common sled were made of bone, wood, or anything they could muster. Over these was generally laid a sealskin as a flooring, and in the summer a pair of deer's horns are attached to the sled as a back, which are removed in winter to enable them when stopping to turn the sled up to prevent the dogs running away with it. The whole is secured by lashings of thong, giving it a degree of strength combined with flexibility which no other mode of fastening could effect. 1 The sleds of Smith Sound were made up of small fragments of porous bone, admirably knit together by thongs of hide. The runners, which glistened like burnished steel, were of highly polished ivory obtained from the tusks of the walrus. 2 Nowadays, says Bessels. the sled is the only means of conveyance used by the Eskimo of Smith Sound. Before they came in contact with the white man this was composed of pieces of bone ingeniously fastened together with thongs of rawhide, but now wood is frequently used. 3 In the U. S. National Museum is a model of a sled from North Green- land, example No. 10418. The parts to be noticed on this sled are the runners, the ivory shoeing of the runners, the crosspieces or flooring, the braces and handles, and the method of lashing the different parts together. Owing to the great scarcity of material in this Eskimo region, 'William Edward Parry, "Second Voyage for the Discovery of a Northwest Pas- sage," London, 1825, pp. 514-515. Kane, "Arctic Explorations,'' Philadelphia, I, 1856, p. 205, with illustrations. 3 Be8sels, Am. Nat., 1884, p. 868, fig. 4. Also "Die Anierikanische Nord-pol Expe- dition," Leipzig, 1879, p. 359, with two excellent figures of old sleds. 570 REPORT OP NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. most of their sleds as well as other apparatus are made of oak and other timber gathered from whaleships or wrecks. The runners are each of a single piece of wood, straight along the top and pointed in front by a long curve. Through the runners holes are bored along the upper margin for the lashing of the crosspieces and the handles, and in the lower margin for lashing of the shoeing. Between these perforations and the part to be lashed the wood is cut away, so that the thong or other seizing is always countersunk and not exposed to be injured by abrasion of ice or snow. The shoeing is made up of pieces of ivory or bone fastened on by treenails at each end of the strips and firmly held to the runner by a series of lashings through counter- sunk holes. To effect this, first, a larger-sized hole is bored in a little way from the bottom; then two holes are bored from this point diag- onally, one having an outlet on the inner margin of the runner, and the other just on the outer margin of the runner, to meet the two holes bored for this purpose through the runner itself. A coarse lashing of thong is then sewed through the hole and through the runner around and around until the hole is filled up and well bound together. To hold the floor pieces, on top each bit of wood is cut away so as to leave only a narrow end; a hide thong is wrapped around these ends down through the hole in the runner from side to side, in the usual method of the Eskimo. Braces run from the front crosspiece out toward the front of the sled and are held in place by treenails and lashings of hide passing through holes bored in each. The handles are of the typical shape, and they also are sewed to the upper margin of the run- ner as described. A round piece of wood passes from handle to handle and is slightly let into each and held in place by a lashing of thong. In a word, the parts of the sled are all sewed together in such manner as to take the strain in every direction, and not to expose the material to abrasion at any point. This model is a fair representation of all the sleds, small and great, from this region. Length of model, 14 inches. Collected by Dr. E. K. Kane. The parts of sied (No. 2676) to be now studied are the runners, the shoeing, the crossbars, the handle, and the lashing. (Fig. 258.) The runners (as in the case of most from this region) are made of oak planks less than 1 inch thick, 4 inches high, and 2 feet 4 inches long, taken from whaleships. Evidently these runners have formed part of a sled prior to their use in this one, for there are a great many holes bored along the top and bottom which now have no function. Each runner is shod with strips of narwhal ivory. Holes are bored through the runners three-fourths of an inch from the bottom, and the wood is cut away between these holes and the bottom so that the rawhide lashing may be countersunk. The shoeing is fastened to the runners in the following manner : Holes half an inch apart are bored diagonally through the ivory so as to meet in a single countersunk cavity below. At every point of attachment there are two sets of these holes, one near the outer margin PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 571 of the shoeing, the other near the inner margin. The rawhide lashing passes through the runner, then down through one of the diagonal holes in the shoeing and up through the other, then through the runner to the inside, and down, and up through the diagonal bores in the shoeing back to the outside, as indicated in the drawing. The only exception to this method of attachment is where two ends of the shoeing come together. In that case the bore passes down through the shoeing a quarter of an inch from the end, and a slight gutter is cut from this perforation to the end of the ivory. When two pieces are bored and guttered in this way, a rawhide line passes down through one along to the other in the countersink; the lashing then passes up through the hole in the runner to the inside, and down through the other two perforations, backward and forward. until they are firmly sewed on and the rawhide is protected at every point. When the process is understood, the ingenuity of the Eskimo will appear, the object being at every step to secure the shoeing permanently in place and yet to protect the rawhide line from abrasion by the ice. There are tive crossbars to the sled on which the load />\ rests. They are made of the roughest kind of pine and oak from old box covers or barrels, and the Fig. 258. EASTERN ESKIMO SLED. r.i. N,,. 8676, U. S. N. M. Collected by Dr. R. K. Kn-. front one has been mended by a splicing of bone, as there is no bracing whatever in the Greenland sled beneath. The lashing of these cross bars is very complete and efficient; holes are bored through the runners 1 inches from the top, just below where the crossbar is to be attached. The crossbars are cut away at the ends, so as to form a notch like a dovetail. A stout rawhide line passes over this notch and down through the runner to the inside, up over the notch and down to the hole in the runner, and back to the outside. These excursions through the runner and over the end of the crosspiece continue until the holes are tilled up; the strands of the lashing are seixed thinly by several turns of the rawhide line. In this particular case a half turn of the lashing pa.--f- also through old holes that were used when these runners were part of another sled. The handles are very much like those of a plow. They fit on the top 572 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. of the runner at the hind end, and are held on by a rawhide line pass- ing- through a series of holes bored in the runner and in the handle. In addition to this, a rawhide line passes from a hole in the handle 2 inches above the runner to another hole in the heel of the sled. Two inches below its upper margin a rawhide line is rove four times through and fastened off by a half hitch; this part of the work is very neatly done. The upper part of the handles are joined together by a cross- piece, which is held on by n diagonal lashing. The knots on this sled are very interesting, consisting of splices or whip knots (a very common device in all rawhide lines), overhand knots ? and a series of half turns. After all, the most efficient knot is that shown Fig. 259. ESKIMO SLED-BUNNEB MADE OF WHALEBONE. Reunselaer Harbor, Greenland. Cat. No. 10417, U. S. N. M. Collected by T>r. E. K. Kane. in the attachment of the crosspieces to the runners, consisting of a seizing fastened off with a single half hitch; the side strand and fore-and-aft strand are'taken up very effectively by this method of lashing. In a land where there is no other mode of attachment, of course the sled maker has to rely upon his rawhide line to hold the parts of the vehicle together. Collected by Dr. E..K. Kane. There is in the U. S. National Museum (example No. 10417, fig. 259), a sled runner made from sections of the bones of a whale, initered and fitted together, and then sewed by lashings of rawhide lines. The shoeing is made of seven strips of ivory and bone sewed on to the runner by means of a rawhide line passing through the runner and through the shoeing, the gutters being countersunk, so as to prevent the abrasion of the united material. Length, 2o inches. General Greely figures a modern Greenland low sled with crossbars and handles of wood, and by the side of it an old specimen with runners of driftwood shod with bone, three wooden crosspieces and handles of whale rib lashed on to the runners with thong and having a crossbar at the top. 1 The specimen is much dilapidated. Example No. 89941, in the U. S. National Museum (fig. 260) is a sled from Labrador, consisting of three parts, the runners, the crosspieces, and the floor or bed. The runners are of wood, bent up slightly at the front. On the top of the runners, front and rear, jogs have been cut and perforated. On the top of these rest the crosspieces or sills, and above this three slats running longitudinally, one in the middle, and one at each side connected with the runner in front. The parts are 1 "Lady Frankliu Bay Expedition," I, pi. VI. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 573 fastened together by lashing. Length, 9 inches. Collected by Lucien M. Turner. The komatik, according to \V. A. Steams, is a sort of sled used by Indians of Bonne Esperance Island, and looks very much like a magni- fied specimen of one of those latter articles. Its dimensions vary from 9 to 13 feet in length, from 1' to 3 feet in width, and it stands about 8 inches from the ground. The wood is wholly pine, and the side bars are cut out of thin deal boards, planed down to about 1 or rarely L' inches in thickness, \\irh the front ends turned up like the front run- ner of a modern sled; the sides are often beveled, so that the bottom is one-fourth or one-half an inch wider than the top. The upper part of the sled is made of a number of thin pieces of wood of equal length and about 4 inches in Width, with the ends rounded, and then notched for a purpose that will appear hereafter. The front and rear pieces are similar, but of double the width, while the thickness of all is about the same, generally one-half an inch, though the end pieces are perhaps a little thicker. Each piece has two pairs of holes bored through it on either end, the distance between each pair of holes being that of the width of the top of the runner, and the distance between the holes of each pair being about half an inch. Between each pair the end is then gouged out crosswise about one fourth of an inch deep, while the inner pair are connected at right angles by another gouge, the purpose of Fig. 260. BUILT-UP SLED FROM LABRADOR. Cat. So. 89941. U. S. K. M. Collected by Lucien M. Tur which will soon be seen. A curious fact is that all these holes are bored out with a red hot iron, to make them smooth and even. On the side bars or runners, at a regular and previously measured distance apart, are bored holes to the exact number of the crossbars. The holes are bored one a little above and the next a little below the preceding one, so that when done the whole presents two unequal rows, hence the liability of splitting the soft pine in the sewing process is lessened. The next work is sewing the parts together. For this a course salmon net twine is threaded into a needle used for the purpose, and each cross- bar is s>wed to tln corresponding holes in the -runner, in and out of the holes on either side of the bar itself, and drawn as tight as possible j 574 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. the needle then slips under the twine through the groove across the inner pair of holes, and a loop and a stout pull fasten it; thus each bar is sewed on till all are tight. The forward end of each side bar must be strengthened by along, thin iron placed lengthwise along the inner side of each bar and sewed tight to the boards. 1 The sleds of the Iroquois Indians, says Charlevoix, which serve to transport the baggage and in case of necessity the sick and wounded, are two small and very thin boards half a foot broad each and 6 or 7 feet long. The fore part is somewhat raised and the sides bordered with small bands, to which the thongs for binding whatever is laid on the carriage is fastened. Let these carriages be ever so much loaded, an Indian draws them without difficulty, by means of a long thong or strap, which is passed round his breast. They use them likewise for carrying burdens, and mothers for carry- ing their children with their cradles; but in this case the thong or collar is placed upon their forehead, and not on the breast. 2 The line between savagery and barbarism puts the wheel on the side of the latter. Barbarous man in traction should therefore form a later chapter, full of interest and necessary to the whole history of land trans- portation and travel. As late as 1878 the only railroad in China extended 10 miles from the Kaiping coal mines to the sea. The motive power was men, who worked twelve to fourteen hours and received 10 cents a day. SLEDS IN THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. Museum No. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 14800 74534 2811 73018 46261 63388-63389 15597 15609 48104 129323 30771 48147 168567 49111 166974 595 2042 570 1638 10268 10378 Sled, reindeer, and driver Sled Norway University of Christiania. Centennial Commission. Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N. Dr. L. Stejneger. Dr. T. H. Bean. E. W. Nelson. Henry W. Elliott Do. E. W. Nelson. L. M. Turner. Do. E. W. Nelson. World's Columbian Ex- position. E. W. Nelson. J. H. Turner. B. R. Ross. Do. Do. R. MacFarlane. Capt. C. F. Hall. f Do. 36. do Kamchatka Sled model do Sled runner, shoe of Dog sled, model Icy Cape St. Lawrence Island Poonook, Alaska Sled, wooden runners shod with whale's bone. Sled, model ..do Norton Bay, Alaska St. Michaels, Alaska ... Norton Sound, Alaska.. Sled, model Sled (Ingalik) do Sled Xanana River, Alaska.. Porcupine River, Alaska do Babicho sled line (Dog Rib Indians) Reindeer sled line do Dog sled (Chippewayan) . .. .... Slave Lake, Canada Mackenzie Uiver Frohisher liny loss's ship, Victory, Re- pulse Bay. on, 1884, pp. 145-146. orth America," I, p. Sled (Eskimo) Sled runners (Eskimo) Sled runners and erossbnr (In- nuit). 1 Stearns, " Labrador," Boat 2 Ckarlevoix, "Voyages to N PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 575 SLEDS ix THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Continued. MllSI -111 II No. Specimen. Locality. By whom contributed. 10419 Whale jawbone, used in making 10376 sli-iU. Sled, mniifr of ,(,, Capt. C. F. Hall. 12397 Sled runner ( Kskinio) Polaris Bay Dr. E. Beasels. 12363 do do Do 89941 Sled (tov) Labrador 1 M Turner 90271 do Do 153511 do 531 Sled, reindeer British Columbia B R Rosa 1639 Sled (dog) Kskimo ' R MacFarlane 2153 . . do do Do 2676 Sled or traineau do Do 7472 do Do 7473 Sleds (2) Do 7474 Sled do Do 532 Sled (dog) model K Kennicott 1976 do B R Rosa 169044 Sled (Eskimo) Labrador 561 Sled, boys' whalebone runners Greenland Dr. J. J. Hayes. 10377 Sled (Dr. Kane's) 10418 Sled model (Dr. Kane's) do 'Do. 127136 sled shod with iron South Greenland Mrs. Olivia Pavy. 168968 Sled East Greenland Dr Soph us Miiller. 127040 43920 Sled, child s (model) Sled Smith Sound Fort Ynkon, Alaska. . . Dr. E. Bessels. E. W. Nelson. 7970 do T T. Minor. 15593 15613 Sled runners (2 ivory and 2 wood) . . Sled shod with whalebone Poonook, Bering Sea do Henry W. Elliott. Do. 15597 Double sled, whale rib do Do. 55889 Sled, Eskimo . do Chas. L. McKay. 63387 Sled (dog) do E. W. Nelson. 153653 Sled (model) do J. H. Turner. 153054 153655 Sled (dog team) model do Do. 38793 Sled (model) t St. Michaels, Alaska E. W. Nelson. ROADS AND TRAVELERS' CONVENIENCES. To this vast subject of going about afoot and riding, of carrying singly and cooperatively, and of shifting the burden upon the backs of beasts, there are subsidiary conveniences of great importance, such as the following, including all activities covered by classes 4 and 5, men- tioned on page 254. 1. Koads and bridges, involving the entire subject of primitive engineering. L'. Provisions for extending the length of the journey and the time that may be spent away from home. 3. Condensed and special food for long trips, and travelers' drugs. 4. Natural, artificial, and human guides. 6. Provisions lor camping, resting, relaying, sleeping, feeding ani- mals, etc. 576 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. 6. Signaling, postal service, and couriers. 7. Measures of time and distance, clocks, calendars, stations, mile- stones, length of journey and extent of commerce, etc. 8. Apparatus of trade, money. 9. Markets, bazaars, and fairs. 10. Amnesty and laws of travel and trade. The social organizations, laws, and customs involved in and created by this vast industry. None of these topics can be fully elaborated here. Some of them will be considered and illustrated from material in the Museum later. 1. Roads and bridges. The U. S. National Museum has among its treasures a collection of primitive bridges, to be used in illustrating the history of that series of inventions which led up to the modern roadbed and railroad. The earliest roadmakers were not engaged in casting up highways, but in keeping them clear. The most primitive bridges were logs or great rocks across streams, and, after that, bridges supported on trees, posts, vines, and braces, anticipating in a rude way the pier bridge, the suspension bridge, and the cantilever. Fords and portages were a part of this activity. Mankind had walked over every habitable part of the globe before there was a beast of burden. The trails laid down by ruminants were adopted by man until the earth was a network of primitive roads. "Locomotion among the Western Dene"," says Morice, " is ordinarily by walking in very narrow paths, though the Tsil-koh-tin and South- ern Carriers now travel on horseback. More commonly the Carriers use as highways the numerous lakes that dot the country in summer and winter." 1 The obstacles in the way of early travel and the indefatigable energy of men in passing over them are well set forth in Mrs. Bishop's travels among the western Tibetans. The following elements of difficult prim itive travel are mentioned about the Shayok Elver: Winter traffic along river beds nearly dry. Summer caravans laboring along difficult tracks at great heights. Climbing difficult rock ladders and perilous stairways. Crossing glaciers filled with yawning crevasses. Eiding along precipice ledges on the yak. Leading baggage horses down precipices, with men holding the head and tail of each. Travelers and goods making perilous runs in scows, poled and pad- dled. Swimming the animals through the cold water. "We had," writes Mrs. Bishop, "twelve horses, all led. 'Water guides' with 10-foot poles sounded the rivers ahead; one led Mr. Ked- slob's horse in front of mine with a large rope, and two more led mine, while the gopas of three villages and the zemindar steadied my horse against the stream. * * * All the chupas went up and down souud- 1 A. G. Morice, Proc. Canadian, Inst. (Series 3), vn, p. 131. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 577 ing long before they found a possible passage. All loads were raised higher, the men roped their soaked clothing on their shoulders, water was dashed at our faces, and then with shouts the whole caravan plunged into deep water, strong and almost ice cold. The traveler from Kashmir to Tibet can not be borne in a carriage or a hill cart. Much of the way he is limited to a foot path, and walks down all rugged and deep descents and dismounts at most bridges. The roads are bridle paths, worn by traffic alone across the gravelly valleys, but elsewhere constructed with great toil and expense, along narrow val- leys, ravines, gorges, and chasms. For miles at a time this road has been blasted out of precipices from 1,000 to .'3,000 feet in depth, and is merely a ledge above a raging torrent, the worst parts, chiefly those around rocky projections, being scaffolded, i. e., poles are lodged hori- zontally among tbe crevices of the cliff", and the roadway of slabs, planks, and brushwood or branches and sods is laid loosely upon them. This track is always wide enough for a loaded beast, but in many places, when two caravans meet, the animals of one must give way and scram- ble up the mountain side." 1 In a subsequent paper trails, roads, portages, and bridges, especially of aboriginal America, will be more fully treated. 2. Increasing the lentjtli and the time of journeys. There are many regions of the earth that were positively inaccessible to primitive man ; but there are also vast tracts that, while they are uninhabitable, are yet accessible and may be crossed. A part of the history of travel relates to invading and traversing these spaces. If there had been no such intervals, there would have been little travel. As we have a modulus of early culture in the depths at which people might operate in the earth or in the sea, so we have another in the length of journeys and the number of months or years that would be devoted to a single round or excursion in walking, packing, boating, sledging, or with flocks and herds. These distances in modern commerce constitute the haul be- tween producer and consumer. Birds of passage made formerly longer journeys than men, and the length of their migrations in time and distance was equaled, perhaps, by those of fishes and marine mammals. The motives which governed the movements of these creatures were very simple, but these same constituted the incentive to human movements over the earth. The coming and going of birds and marine creatures are likewise the occa- sion of an enormous amount of human bustle and running about. Most of the domestication of animals is caused by a desire to have them at our doors, and to make us independent of their migrations. In addition to the great migrations of aerial and marine creatures, many land animals were often obliged by natural conditions to travel great distances; and the inquiry is also concerning the self-imposed Mrs. Hislmp. "Among the Tilx-tans," Chicago, 1894, pp. 36, 76. II. Mis. 90, pt. L 37 578 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. loads of men and the distances to which they bore them in order to fol- low the caribou, the buffalo, the elephant, etc., for the purpose of living upon them. All of these combine to give confidence to men, to enlarge their cos- mogony and to stimulate the cooperative activities which make it possi- ble to go away farther and return. In every tribe there are stories of travelers who have made long voy- ages and returned. Dr. Boas says that the myths of the northwest coast of America point across the Pacific; all of them are Odysseys. Besides that class of traditions which fix upon tbe present habitat as the primal home, there is another class of migration myths. One school of interpretation may appreciate and another depreciate the real length of the migration. That is not mooted here. They are migration myths, and relate to wanderings. The U. S. National Museum comes in contact with such by its collec- tions of mythological material carvings, totem posts, paintings, marks on pottery, masks, dress, figures on boats, paddles, carrying baskets, and even in the stitch or mesh in weaving. The length of a sled or of a boat, the number of parts to a dog harness, the existence of certain kinds of packing cases, the calendar, and many other objects which the curator has to handle every day, are in fact metric apparatus to indicate how far away the owners are bold enough to go. Again, the perfecting of devices prolongs the day's travel. Nauseu tells of a kaiak journey of 80 miles in a single day, and Schwatka said in a lecture that he had made over a hundred miles in one continuous excursion with a company of Eskimo. 1 The East Greenlanders journey around to West Greenland to get snuff', and will consume four years in a single excursion there and back. Nansen says that they often remain no longer than an hour at the trading station and then take up their homeward inarch. The Manchu and Manyarg who navigate the Sungari are said to spend eight days from the mouth of the river to Sansin; and the voy- age to Tsitsikar or Mergen requires a month. They either tow their boats from the land or push them along with long poles. 2 The Tuski, near East Cape, undertake journeys to Koliina occupying six months, and to other points requiring four months. 1 Wrangell supposed that some men passed their lives thus, but Hooper does not seem to be of this opinion. The journeys are undertaken with reindeer and large covered sleds. Furs and ivory are taken to be exchanged for tobacco, beads, knives, prints, sugar, spirits, etc. 4 Formerly, says Seton-Karr, the different tribes of northwest British Columbia were afraid to quit their tribal territory, but now Indians 'F. Nansen, "The First Crossing of Greenland," London, i, p. 367; 11, p. 436. 2 Ravenstein, "Russians on the Amur," London, 1861, p. 261. 3 Hooper, "Tents of the Tuski," London, 1853, p. 185. 'Ibid., p. 186. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 579 can be found willing to accompany the white mafri through regions that are as strange and unknown to them as to him. Some, for instance, have accompanied miners as far as the mouth of the Yukon, and returned home by way of San Francisco. 1 The extent and direction of aboriginal journeys and commerce have been in one place cut off, in another greatly stimulated, by contact with the Caucasian race. Certainly in Canada the fur bearing animals were soon killed about the trading establishments, and the Indians were stimulated to make greater and greater excursions into the wilderness and from the wilderness to the trading posts.- 3. Travelers' food and drug*. Condensed food and stimulants are necessary to a long journey, and the invention of them has incited much ingenuity. So frozen food in the north is succeeded by pemmican and this by meal, cassava, taro, tsamba, or what not. in order that a great deal could be put into a small space. The U. S. National Museum has made a large collection of this packed and condensed travelers' food, and among the specimens illustrating early medicine are many of the strength-sustaining drugs among savages/' The Indians of southern Yucatan, according to Morelet, never set out on any expedition without a supply of pozol. This is maize made into a kind of paste, sweetened with sugar to suit the taste, and when mixed with water serves at once for food and drink. It is at the same time the most economical and portable kind of provision for a journey. 4 Chocolate, says Humboldt, is easily couveyed and readily employed. As an aliment it contains a large quantity of nutritive and stimulating particles in a small compass. It has been said with truth that, in the East, rice, guin, and ghee (clarified butter) assist man in crossing the deserts; and so, in the New World, chocolate and flour of maize have rendered accessible to the traveler the table-lands of the Andes and vast uninhabited forests. 5 4. Guides, natural and human. Nowadays the steel rail holds the vehicle smoothly and directly to its course, and on the waters artificial buoys, light-houses, and apparatus for ooserving the heavenly bodies and for steering do almost as well for the ship. Primitive men were not without their folk astronomy, instincts, nat- ural pilots, and experiences. They also knew how to keep the traveler or the boat on a direct way. Winds blow, waters run, natural objects animate and inanimate on which man depends move and have their areas of dispersion. 1 H. W. Seton-Karr, Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., London, 1891, xm, p. 73. s Mackenzie, "Voyages from Montreal through the Continent of North America," Philadelphia, 1802, p. i. On lengthening the journey, consult also W. C. Bouipas, "Northern Lights on tbe Bible," London, 1894, pp. 63-68. iCf. Index-Catalogue Surg. General's Library, Washington, s. v. 'Morelet, "Travels in Yucatan," New York, 1871, p. tifi. J3ohn, "Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America," London, 1852, II, p. 59. 580 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. It has been said that? the islanders of the Pacific wandered after all automatically about and settled their archipelagos. 1 Above this unconscious guidance there is an accumulation of folk- lore and folk experiences in all savages that are truly the marvel of all intelligent travelers. Moreover, there is a sign language of travel. The Africans had one system, the Americans another. It is an interesting group in the U. S. National Museum, merging on one side into music, on the other into the apparatus of war. Early in September, 1513, says Helps, Vascp Nunez set out on his renowned expedition for finding the " other sea," accompanied by 190 men well armed, and by dogs, which were of more avail than men, and by Indian slaves to carry the burdens. He went by sea to the territory of his father-in-law, King Careta, by whom he was well received, and accompanied by whose Indians he moved on into Poncha's territory. This cacique took flight, as he had done before, seeking refuge among his mountains ; but Vasco Nunez, whose first thought in his present under- taking was discovery, not conquest, sent messengers to Poncha, promising not to injure him. The Indian chief listened to these over- tures and came to Vasco Nunez with gold in his hands. He did no harm to Poncha, and, on the contrary, secured his friendship by pre- senting him with looking-glasses, hatchets, and hawks' bells, in return for which he obtained guides and porters from among this cacique's people, and was enabled to prosecute his journey. Following Poncha's guides, Vasco Nunez and his men commenced the ascent of the mountains until he entered the country of an Indian chief called Quarequa, whom they found fully prepared to resist them. 2 Balboa on arriving at the coast of the Pacific in 1543 "seems to have heard of a wealthy tribe who lived on the seacoast far to the south and used large sheep as beasts of burden. 3 * * * The supposition that accounts of Peru had reached the Isthmus, notwithstanding the great distance, involves nothing impossible." Quite as much as shepherds watching their flocks, travelers and car- riers have watched the stars, mapped out the heavens, and guided their way on land and water by the celestial lanterns. The Eskimo in traveling use the north star as a guide. Their knowledge of seasons is also wonderful. The seasons have distinctive names, and these are divided into a great number, of which there are more during the warm weather than during the winter. 4 Roger Williams says, "The wildernesse being so vast, it is a mercy, that for a hire a Man shall never want guides, who will carry provisions '"Die nnfreiwillige Wanderungeu im Stillen Ozean," Petermann's Mittheilnugen, 1894. H 2 Helps, "The Spanish Conquest in America," New York, 1856, i, p. 340. 3 Bandelier, "The Gilded Man," New York, 1893, p. 5, quoting Herrern, Dec. i, Lib. x, Cap. in. * Lucieu Turner, Eleventh Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 202. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 581 and such as hire them over Rivers and Brookes, and find out often- times hunting houses or other lodgings at night. "I have heard of many English lost and have oft been lost my selfe, and my selfe and others have been often found and succoured by the Indians. 1 * * * "They are so excellently skilled in all the bowels of the Countrey (by reason of their hunting) that I have often been guided twentie. thirtir. yea, sometimes forty miles through the woods a streight course, out ol my path.*' 5. Provisions for camping on the road. Lengthening a journey beyond the endurance of a single effort involves the putting down of the load and resting. The steps in the progress of invention leading up to the resting and relaying elements of many modern cities seem to have been 1. .Modifying the packing apparatus so that it could l>e laid aside ami resumed with least effort. -. Carrying the means of providing temporary bed, shelter, lire, food, and defense. 3. On the establishment of regular trails, temporary shelters were provided, which the traveler might use and proceed. No attendants were needed. 4. Caravansaries, where for a fee the traveler and porter might sleep and be fed, and where his commodities could be safely housed from thieves. 5. Hostelries, villages, repair shops, stores in short, tin- >etting up of a travel center. Aboriginal hospitality had its first motive largely in the traveling industry, and its abolition was caused by the superabundance of travel causing the existence of hostelries and guilds relating thiTHo. rivaling a public sentiment against receiving strangers free of charge. The methods adopted by the Central American Indians when pre- paring to pass the night upon an open savanna were instructive. In the first instance they placed upon the ground a quantity of broad dry leaves to protect them from the damp grass. They then dispersed, and in a few minutes the adjacent forest resounded with the noise of the blows made by their machetes. They returned bearing loads of fire- wood and also several strong forked branches. These they sharpened at one end and fixed into the earth near the camping place to form supports to carry the bales of tobacco. In this manner the cargo was raised about .'i feet, and thus they carried out the invariable rule of the Indians, who never leave anything upon the ground at night. They then lighted a large fire. 2 The tambo of Peru was a hut of refuge along the public trails and highways across the despoblader or desert regions. 1 Roger Williams, Coll. R. I. Hist. Soc., i, p. 72, with vocabulary for guide, hire, etc., with derivatives. 'Brine, " The American Indiana, Their Earthworks and Temples," Luudou, 1849, pp. 291-292. 582 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Mr. im Thurn speaks of the Indians who accompanied him in Guiana as lying in hammocks under which fires were lighted. But they also compelled the boys to take lighted palm leaves and singe them as they lay in their hammocks to destroy savage insects. 1 (>. Signals, couriers, and posts. The U. S. National Museum has an interesting collection relating to conveying information for and by travel. The emergencies of the growing state, as in Peru, demanded that the central power should be more rapidly informed. The separate elements in the problem before the early man were the following : 1. To substitute for the long walk a succession of quick runs couriers. l'. To have trained professionals with road conveniences and guard posts. 3. To have an esoteric sign language to the eye and to the ear, by which information maybe conveyed to the traveler as he goes along, by which one traveler may leave word for another or, finally, to get rid of the traveler altogether by a system of telephoning or of visible speech. Langsdorff mentions the use of fire signals in Japan. " In defiance of the interdict the fishermen informed us that four days before intelli- gence was communicated to Nagasaki by fires in the night of a three- masted vessel being off the coast; that at our appearance oft' the har- bor information of it was conveyed by a post of observation upon the nearest hill." 2 "The Micinacs have a system of communicating while in the woods. Sticks are placed in the ground; a cut on one of them indicates that a message in picture writing on a piece of bark is hidden near by under a stone. The direction in which the stick leans from its base upward indicates that in which the party moved, and thus serves as a conven- ient hint to those who follow to keep oft' their hunting ground." : The method of the Karankawa of communicating with each other when parties were at a distance was by smoke. By some means known only to themselves, and carefully kept secret, the smoke of a small fire could be made to ascend in many different ways, as intelligible as spoken language to them. At night the horizon was often dotted in various directions with these little fires, and the messages thus con- veyed seemed to govern the movements of the Indians. 4 Das Ausland for February, 1889, et seq., has a very interesting article by Robert Muller on " Life and Occupation in the Cameroon," in which a curious instrument is thus described : A log is hollowed out and is divided along the transverse diameter by a bridge, upon which a drumstick is beaten to produce sounds of different tones. This rather unpromising instrument becomes of great importance as 1 "Indians of British Guiana," London, 1883, p. 12. 2 Langsdorff, " Voyages and Travels," London, 1813, i, p. 220. *S. Hager, Am. Anthropologist, Washington, 1895, vin, p. 31. iQatachet, "The Karaukawa Indians," Cambridge, 1891, p. 19. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 583 a means of communication and may, in fact, be called a " drum tele- graph." The villages are situated comparatively close together, and by means of the drum news is communicated rapidly from one village to another. A regular drum language has been invented, and this can be imitated with the mouth or beaten on the breast, so that conversa- tion can be carried on by the natives in the presence of white men without the latter understanding it, though comprehending the spoken language. The drum also serves the ordinary purpose of an instru meiit to dance by, etc." The Jivaros practice a system of telephony, which has at all times been very dangerous to their adversaries in war, by giving strokes on the "tunduli," a large drum, which is heard from house to house and passed on from hill to hill. The houses are all over their territories at convenient distance for the purpose; and in this manner very varied information is conveyed in a few moments to all the, families of hordes dispersed over a large extent of country. This was the greatest danger the Spaniards had to contend with, and is still a main source of protection to these Indians, as they can rouse a large number at a moment's notice and sound the alarm through entire hordes.-' The messenger, mail carrier, dispatch bearer, professional courier, is equipped and exercised after the manner of the traveler. Altogether these men are a device like a machine, transforming numbers of men into velocity. To develop an extensive system of couriers in ancient times, extended territory and a strong central government were needed. Hence the Greeks, having a small territory and disunited states, were not moved to establish any such institution. In very early times among the Egyptians there were provisions for the conveyance of letters; but their system of rapid communication, if they had any, is not revealed. Rome, on the other hand, and especially under the Empire, had, as will be seen, roads through all the territories they conquered. Besides the marching of armies over them and the general traffic, these roads were the means of continuous and rapid intelligence. Among the Italian allies of Rome, officials on public business imposed any conditions they chose on the people along their way, such as fur- nishing food, lodging, fresh beasts, and even transport. Senators or ministers carried a mandate to subjects and allies to supply them with all necessaries for the journey. For the purposes of dispatches there were a variety of men and methods. These are well worked out in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, third edition, under the phrase cursus publicm. Such terms as couriers, messengers, mounted couriers, stations, or relays (mutationes), postal stations (man- M?ane#), conductors, guards, drivers, beasts of burden or conveyance, 1 H. W. Henshaw, Am. Anthropologist, HI, p. 292. 8 A, SirntoD, Journ, Anthrop. Inat., 1880, May, p. 387. 584 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. rolling stock, passports, smack of the road and great movements of people and money and goods. We read that the communities were bound to furnish and .maintain the teams and to keep the stables in repair. They had further to secure the services of muleteers, mule doctors, wheelwrights, grooms, and conductors (vehicularii). To organ- ize and to keep moving such complicated machinery required excellent management and training. From such a well-defined system backward to more primitive methods constitutes the early history of culture in this regard. 1 The Persian Empire under Darius, son of Hystaspes, affords the earliest instance of a national postal service. Mention is made of a class called symmaci as existing in the most ancient times among the Egyptians for the conveyance of letters by land. 2 In Persia horsemen stationed at intervals, and relieving one another, conveyed the imperial will in all directions from Susa, Ecbatana, or Babylon. u The post is carried by Lapps and reindeer overland in Finmarlan from Alten to Vadso, Kautokeeno, Karasjok, and other points in the Arctic, and it rarely fails to arrive on schedule time." 3 Langsdorff thus speaks of travel in America at the beginning of the century. In consequence .of an entire failure of communication by water, that by land exceeds what anyone could expect. Posts go regu- larly from Yera Cruz to all the provinces of North and South America. A courier comes in about two months from Mexico to San Francisco, the farthest establishment to the north. It commonly brings the news from Europe of about six months back. From San Francisco anyone may travel with the greatest safety, even to Chile; there are stations all the way kept by soldiers. 4 On the lofty plateau of Yilque, between Puno and La Paz, says Wiener, there are regular couriers. The master of the post has in his stable several mules and in his service chasqui who are accompanied by their women. This service is well done. At 2 kilometers from the sta- tion the courier sounds on his horn, and beasts are put in the post road to be ready when the chasqui arrives. Only half an hour is lost at the station. 5 7. Metrical appliances. In many places and ways transportation has been a promoter of invention for metrical appliances. The pack load of a man is a unit of weight in Africa and America. Layard says that wheat and barley in Armenia are sold by the camel load, nearly 480 pounds. It is said that Charles V amused himself with clocks when 1 Beare, in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, s. v. Vehicularii Cursus Publicus. 2 Ibid. 3 Rasmus B. Anderson, Senate Ex. Doc. No. 73, Fifty-third Congress, second session, p. 148. 4 Langsdorff, "Voyages and Travels," London, 1814, ii, p. 207. 6 Wiener, "Pe'rou et Bolivie," p. 392. On the whole subject of signals, cf. Mallery, Fourth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 585 his mind became enfeebled. But some one remarks that his study of clocks was a profound appreciation on his part of the fact that his ships could go no farther until his clocks ran better. Almanacs or records of the days of the year and clocks or artificial devices for recording time of day must necessarily have occurred to those who had to get about more forcibly than to those who stayed at home. Indeed, antedating the invention of weights and measures was the art of counting, or simple arithmetic. The systems of counting were greatly improved by the art of transportation. The thousands of tally clerks on the docks belong to an old race, older than their demure prototypes on Egyptian monuments keeping the tale of bricks. Vaca says that the Indians of a tribe he visited gave him " 2,000 back loads of corn." The back load was therefore the unit of measure. 1 "They are punctuall in measuring their Day by the Sunne, and their Night by the Moon and the Starres, and their lying much abroad in the ayre; and so living in the open fields, occasioneth even the youngest among them to be very observant of those heavenly lights." 3 While exchange and all its mechanism constitute a separate body of industry, it can not be denied that weights and measures set agoing a large fraction of these activities. Before things can be bartered, some one must go and get them for that purpose ; he must bear them to and fro or to stated meeting places, and arrive on time. Commerce instigates very largely the ransacking of the earth and the manufacture of her raw materials. All these, as well as barter at every point, regulated most of the travel and carrying, by perfecting clocks and calendars. The early conquests of the Assyrians in India had enabled the Indians to carry on a great trade in ivory, and from them the Tyrians drew their ivory for the great throne of Solomon. "The men of Dedan were thy merchants, they brought thee for a present horns of ivory and ebony" (Ezekiel, xxviii, 15; Isaiah, xxi, 13). 3 The inhabitants of the settlements about the mouth of the Anadyr divide their time in summer between fishing and hunting the wild reindeer, which make annual migrations across the river in immense herds. In winter they are generally absent with their sledges, visiting and trading with the wandering Chukchi going with merchandise to the great annual fair at Kolima. 4 The reindeer is their calendar. The Giliak of the Tymy collect immense stores of frozen fish, not only as food for themselves and their dogs during winter, but also as an object of trade with the Aino, Orochon, and Giliak of the coast and mainland, and the Maugun of the Amur. The Aiuo bring to the valley of the Tymy at stated seasons Japanese goods, the Orochon furs, the others copper, seals, Russian and Manchu merchandise. 5 1 Davis, "Spanish Conquest of New Mexico," p. 105. 8 Roger Williams, Coll. R. I. Hist. Soc., I, p. 67. 3 Hart, "Animals of the Bible," London, 1888, p. 91. * Kennan, "Tent Life in Siberia," p. 288. 6 Ravensteiu, "Russians on the Amur," London, 1861, p. 271. 586 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Hooper says that the Tuski exchange skins of the reindeer and a small portion of the meat for sealskins, whale, walrus and seal's flesh, tusks, sinews, etc., all of which are much less valuable than their own commodities. Sealskins they need for marine employments, as those of the reindeer are destroyed by salt water; the aliens require deerskins for hut furniture. 1 A company of hunters in 1646 sailed down the Kolima Eiver to the Polar Sea. East of the Kolima they fell in with the Chukchi, with whom they dealt in this way: They laid down their goods on the beach and then retired, on which the Chukchi came thither, took the goods, and laid furs, walrus tusks, or carvings in walrus ivory, in their place. Herodotus already states in Book iv, chapter 196, that the Cartha- genians bartered goods in the same way with a tribe living on the coast of Africa, beyond the gates of Hercules. The same mode of barter or commerce by deposit was still in use nearly two thousand years later, when the west coast of Africa was visited by the Venetian, Cadamosto, in 1454. 2 Hooper saw in the hands of an Eskimo at Barter Island an example of the knife called " dague," obtained from Hudson Bay Company's Indians. 3 Since the beginning of our century European fleets have visited the west shore of Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, and thus manufactures from that country have found their way to the inhospitable shores of the Arctic Sea. The most valuable articles which were bartered were metals and wood. The value of the former may be seen in its economi- cal application for knives and harpoon heads. 4 The ordinary trade of the Eskimo is purely primitive, people going to the sources to procure the commodity. But Murdoch tells of a com- pany of more southern natives who brought a boat load of skins of the bearded seal to Point Barrow for sale, to be used to cover Umiaks. 5 The very simplest form of commerce on the western continent does not seem to have been in the hands of peddlers; but certain necessary articles like salt and other minerals existed in mines or quarries situated inside the boundaries of certain tribes. The owner did not dig the material and carry it about to sell or exchange it, but the people who wanted the article had to go after it and pay some kind of tribute for the privilege. Thus, the Tanos held the veins of turquoise or kalaite at Cerillos. The Teguas, Piros, and Zunis were settled near salt marshes. The Queres of San Felipe had in front of their village large veins of mineral paint, for adorning pottery. According to Bandolier, in 1540, the Pecos Indians came to Zufii 'Hooper, "Tents of the Tnski;'- Loudon, 1853, p. 35. -Kamusio, "Navigation! et Viaggi," i, 1588, leaf 100; Nordenskiold, "Voyage of the Vega," New York, 1882, p. 453. 3 " Tents of the Tuski," London, 1853, p. 257. 4 Sixth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, p. 466. 6 Ninth Ann. Rep. Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 44-55. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 587 with buffalo hides. The people of Acoina exchanged cotton mantles against deerskin with theNavajo; the Utes traded atTaos; the Apaclies of the Plains caiue to Pecos \\ -ith buffalo robes. The Pecos people did not allow the Apache to enter their village. They even kept a watch with trumpets. ' The Wyanddts bartered the surplus of their mai/e fields to surround- ing tribes, receiving fish in exchange. The Jesuits styled their country (Lower Canada) the granary of the Algonquian.* As evidence of traffic in the mound-building period, Professor Put- nam instances tinding obsidian knives. Now this material belongs stratigraphically in the Yellowstone Park or in the Colorado Valley or in Mexico. He found also mica from North Carolina, gold, silver, meteoric iron, alligator's teeth, and shells from the (lulf of Mexico. The trade between Ottawa River and Hudson Bay is mentioned by the Jesuits/' "Among themselves they trade their Corne, Skins, Coates, Venison, Fish, and sometimes come ten or twenty in a company to trade amongst the English. They have some who follow onely making of Howes, some Arrowes, some Dishes (the women make all their Earthen vessells) some follow fishing, some hunting, most on the seaside make money and Store up shells in Summer against Winter whereof to make money." 4 Breckeuridge remarks that the Louisiana nations have considerable trade or traffic with each other. The Sioux have for this purpose regu lar fairs or assemblages at stated periods. The same thing prevails with the nations on the southwest side of the Missouri. Those toward the south have generally vast numbers of horses, males, and asses, which they obtain in trade, or war, from the Spaniards or nations imme- diately bordering on New Mexico. These animals are chiefly trans ferred to the nations northeast of the river by such of the southern tribes as happen to be on good terms with them, who obtain in exchange European articles, procured from the British traders. Their stock of horses requires to be constantly renewed by thefts or purchases. From the severity of the climate and the little care taken of the foals, the animal would otherwise be in danger of becoming extinct. Their mode of trading with each other is perfectly primitive. There is no bargain- ing or dispute about price. A nation or tribe comes to a village, encamps near it, and, after demonstrations of a thousand barbarous civilities on both sides, as sincere as those which are the result of refinement, one of the parties makes a general present of all such articles as it can con- 1 Archteol. Inst. Am. (Am. Series), in, 1890, p. \M, quoting Espojo and Castaneda. 4 Parkman, "History of the Conspiracy of I'oiitiar," etc., Boston, 1891, i, p. L'lf, referring to Mercier, " ; Relation des Hurons," 1637, p. 171. Also F. J. Turner, Johns Hopkins University Studies iu Historical and Political Science, Series 9, Nos. xi-xil. :| " Relations des Jesuites," 1640, Tome I, 34. "Ceux-cy out au Nord les Timiscimi, les Outinaagami, l-s Onachegami, h-s Mitchitamoii, les Outurbi, les Kiristinon |iii habitant sur les riuves de la mer du Nord oh les Nipisiriuieus vont eu murchaudisc." 'Roger Williams. Coll. R. I. Hist. 800., I, p. 183. 588 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. veniently spare. The other a short time after makes in return a similar present. The fair is then concluded by a variety of games, sports, and dances. They hold the mode of trading by the whites in great con- tempt. They say it displays a narrow and contemptible soul to be weighing and counting every trifle. The price is usually fixed by the chief and his council, and the nation as well as traders must submit. 1 The Crows annually visit the Mandans, Minnetarees, and Ahwahha ways, to whom they barter horses, mules, leather lodges, and many articles of Indian apparel, for which they receive in return guns, ammu- nition, axes, kettles, awls, and other European manufactures. When they return to their country they are in turn visited by the Paunch and Snake Indians, to whom they barter most of the articles they have obtained from the nations on the Missouri for horses and mules, of which those nations, i. e., the Paunch and Snake, have a greater abun- dance than themselves. They also obtain of the Snake Indians bridle- bits and blankets and some other articles which those Indians purchase from the Spaniards. The bridle-bits I have seen in the possession of the Mandans and Minnetarees. 2 In the volumes of Lewis and Clark the Arikaree are described as mid- dle men. Being agriculturists, their corn, beans, and other products enabled them to procure peltry from other tribes and to exchange these with the white traders for goods. The Arikaree are described as will- ing to give anything they had to spare for the most trifling article. One of the men gave an Indian a hook made out of a pin, and received in return a pair of moccasins. 3 The buffalo is procured by the Skilloot from the nations higher up the river, who occasionally visit the Missouri; indeed, the greater pro- portion of their apparel is brought by the nations to the northwest, who come to trade for pounded fish, copper, and beads. 4 TheChilkats and Chilkoots will not allow the inland tribes to approach the coast with their furs, but insist on acting as middlemen between them and the white traders. For this reason they assure themselves whether or not anyone comes to trade with these inland tribes. 5 Among the coast Indians north of Puget Sound there are in each tribe officers who keep record of the mutual debts of individuals a kind of public ledger. The astonishing thing is the fact that these men hold the accounts in their memories. There is also a fixed rule about interest that is, the amount of property that must be returned for a gift or a loan. The Makahs, from their peculiar locality, have been for many years 'Brackenridge, "Views of Louisiana." 1811, p. 71. 3 " History of the Expedition under the command of Lewis and Clark, 1804-1806/' New York, 1893, i, p. 198, quoting from Lewis's " Statistical View," London, 1807, p. 25. 3 Ibid., i, p. 164. Ibid., in, p. 957. 6 H. W. Seton-Karr, Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., London, 1891, xni, p. 82. PRIMITIVE TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 589 the medium of conducting the traffic between the Columbia River and coast tribes south of Cape Flattery, and the Indians north as far as Nootka. They are emphatically a trading as well as a producing peo- ple: and in these respects are far superior to the Clallams and other tribes on Fuca Strait and Puget Sound. Before the white men came to this part of the country, and when the Indian population on the Pacific Coast had not been reduced in numbers, as it has IMTII of late years, they traded largely with the Chinook at the mouth of the Columbia, making excursions as far as the Kwinaiult tribe at Point Grenville, where they met the Chinook traders, and some of the more venturesome would even continue on to the Columbia, passing through the Chehalis country at Grays Harbor and Shoal water Bay. The Chi- nook and Chihalis would in like manner come north as far as Cape Flattery; and these trading excursions were kept up pretty regularly, with only the interruption of occasional feuds. 1 All the tribes living on Puget Sound sold strings of dried clams and oysters to the interior tribes. The Haida went down to Vancouver Island every winter and dried these mollusks to carry home and use in barter. It was their custom to catch and dry not only enough for their own use, but also a vast quantity for the purpose of trade with the inland and mountain tribes. Every fall they loaded their canoes with dried salmon and sturgeon and quantities of hiaquas and went to the Cas- cades (the rapids of the Columbia River, about 150 miles from its mouth), where they met the Indians from the mountains and plains and bartered their dried fish and hiaquas for slaves and for the skins and meat of the buffalo. They used the buffalo skins for making their sum- mer wigwams and their winter clothing and beds. The gray seal, beaver, and otter were abundant in and about the mouth of the Colum- bia and its tributaries; and bear, panther, elk, and deer roamed the forests at will, but the Chinook were fishermen, not hunters, and killed only enough of the land game to partially supply them with meat and skins. In olden times the Chinook dealt very largely in slaves. Trading as they did with the inland Indians who were much of the time at war with each other, and, making slaves of their prisoners, desired a market that would take these slaves as far as possible from their native country the Chinook had a tine opportunity to purchase and bring these slaves to the coast These they sold to the tribes both north and south, realizing a handsome profit, and becoming the wealthiest nation in all that part of the country. 2 On account of the demand for animal products, commerce extended in the Southwest over much greater expanses than might be supposed. Iridescent shells from the Gulf of California found their way to Zufii through Sonora and the Colorado peoples. The Hova, who dwelt in 1 Swan, " Indians of Cape Flattery/' Washington, 1869, pp. 30-32. 2 Strong, " Wah kee nah and Her People," New York, 1893, Putnam, pp. 126-127. 590 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. Sonora and Chihuahua, exchanged the feathers of the large green par- rot for greenstone. At Casas Graudes, Bandelier saw turquoises, shell beads, and marine snails; among the latter, species found only in the West Indies or in the Gulf of Calffornia; among others, Turritella broderipiana from the Pacific, Conus proteus from the West Indies, and Conns regularis from the west coast of Mexico. 1 "The possession of turquoise in the small range of mountains called Cerillos gave the Tanos Indians, of Galisteo Basin, a prominent posi- tion among their neighbors. The Zuiii enjoy similar privileges, which cause their modest relations of commerce to extend as far as the iute rior of Sonora and the Colorado of the West." 2 When Marcos de .Niza was thirty days' journey from Cibola he talked with Indians who had been there. " Upon being asked why they had traveled so far from home, they answered that they were going in search of turquoises, hides of cattle, and other things ; * * * that they were in the habit of going into the first cities of the province and serving the inhabitants by tilling the soil and in other occupations, for which they received in exchange hides and turquoises." 3 The first President of Mexico had in his employ a Tejos Indian, the son of a merchant engaged in trading, in the interior of the country, bird feathers, to be made into plumes, for gold and silver. This Indian said he had made two trips with his father to Cibola. 4 This connects the city of Mexico with Zuiii. Bandelier speaks of the civilized tribes of Central Granada, who carried their salt over the beaten mountain paths to the cannibal inhabitants of the Cauca Valley and received gold in exchange for it. 5 The most precious commodity among the Muysca was salt. In white cakes, like sugar loaves, it was carried over beaten paths from Bogota west to the river Cauca, and north from tribe to tribe down the Magdalena for a distance of 100 leagues. Regular markets were maintained, even in hostile territories, and the Muysca received in exchange for their goods, gold, of which they were destitute and which their neighbors had in abundance. 6 Each tribe of British Guiana has some manufacture peculiar to itself, and its members constantly visit the other tribes, often hostile, for the purpose of exchanging the products of their own labor for such as are produced only by the other tribes. These trading Indians are allowed to pass unmolested through the enemy's country. When living among the Macusi, I was often amused by a number of those Indians rushing into my house, in the walls of which we had had windows pierced, who, with bated breath, half in joy, half in terror, used to point through the 1 Bandelier, Archaeol. lust. Am. (Am. Series), HI, p. 39. 2 Ibid., p. 36. :l Davis, " Spanish Conquest of New Mexico," p. 123. Ibi of production, created money, and thus the things to be handled and carried were so greatly increased in number by the demand for them that the ultimate price was lowered by the transportation. The original treasure of the Pueblo Indian consisted of shell beads, green stones, and of objects of worship. Many a good horse is still purchased from the Navajo by means of turquoises alone. Bandolier also refers to the exchange of turquoises for parrots' plumes, quoting Cabeo,a de Vaca. 2 The Samoa 1 1 women manufactured tine mats from "the leaves of a species of hibiscus, scraped clean and thin as writing paper and slit into strips about the sixteenth of an inch wide. When completed they were from 2 to 3 yards square. Few of the women can make them, and many months, yea, years, are sometimes spent over the plaiting of a single mat. These fine mats are considered the most valuable prop erty, and form a sort of currency which they give and receive in exchange. They are preserved with great care. Some of them pass down in a family through several generations, and as their age and historic value increase they are all the more prized." :< !>. Markets, bazaarx, ami fairs. In a museum such things exist in pic tures. photographs, and descriptions. In reality the market, the bazaar, and the fair are organized and temporary gatherings of merchants and buyers agreed upon for certain hours, months, or years for the pur- poses of exchange. They become more and more world embracing. Primitively they are known to have existed on each of the continents and to have furnished temporary political and industrial centers of great stimulus. In all the epochs of culture few stimuli to universal travel have been greater. They are in the same class with convocations, anniversaries, and public fetes. But they involve carrying no less than travel. In a paper now 1 im Thnrn, "Indians of British Guiana," London, 1883, p. 271. r.audelier, Archu-ol. Inst. Am. (Am. Series), in, 1890, p. 213. Turner, "Samoa u Hundred Years ago uinl Long Before," London, 1884, p. 120. 592 REPORT OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, 1894. being prepared on American Aboriginal Industries a list of trade cen- ters on the Western Continent will be given. 10. 'Amnesty and laws of travel. Finally, there do not seem to have been anywhere in the world tribes of savages living contiguous that did not grant special amnesty to travelers and carriers and traders. From these agreements have sprung international law, the latest word in the comity of nations. In the development of the rudiments of international law, the estab- lishment of treaties, and agreements concerning amnesty the trader or mercator must have been a largely ruling motive. International law was and is largely evoked by the exigencies of trade movements. "If any robbery fall out in travell, between persons of diverse States, the offended State sends for Justice. If no Justice be granted and recompence made, they grant out a kind of Letter of Mart to take satisfaction themselves, yet they are carefull not to exceed in taking from others, beyond the proportion of their own losse." ' There is no doubt of trade amnesty and the law of reprisals, but it is questionable whether the old rule was not interpreted as elsewhere to mean "an eye for an eye," etc., or even more than that. Cabe9a de Vaca remained among the Charruco Indians six years (1528-1533), dressing like a savage. He traveled as a peddler from tribe to tribe over many hundreds of square miles. This was said to be convenient to the Indians because they could not traffic in time of war. Into the interior Cabega carried sea snails and their corn, medicine, sea beads, etc., and brought back skins, ocher, flint, cement, arrow shafts, tassels of deerskin, ornamented and dyed red. He was treated kindly everywhere, the Indians trading food for wares. He became a person of great importance and was much sought after. 2 As intimated more than once in this paper, travel and transportation by land pass in their elaboration from man power to the forces of phys- ical nature through the epoch of beast power, and it will be in order, in a subsequent paper, to study out the rude appliances and methods of primitive peoples in their first employment of domestic creatures to carry them on their backs, to haul them in some sort of conveyance, or to draw loads for them. There are a number of elements which enter into the organization of traveling on foot which pass into more definite forms as soon as beasts take the place of men in the labors here considered, such, for instance, are roads, bridges, harness, and others, which it will be necessary to consider or to investigate with much greater care in the study which follows. It is also more than once mentioned that the two great phases of carrying were by land and by water. It will be in order, therefore, to follow this paper with a second one, in which should be studied out the 1 Roger Williams, Coll. R. I. Hist. Soc., I, p. 77. "Spanish Couquest of New Mexico," Doylestown, 1869, p. 58, PRIMITIVE TRAVEL x AND TRANSPORTATION. 593 inventions of the lower races of men pertaining to the use of water as a means of traveling or moving burdens. The first devices of this kind were simply floats for bearing up the human body or some sort of load, in order to move it aeross still water. Many substances were employed in this eapaeity, such as very light wood, the hollow stems <>f plants, the skins of animals inflated, and vessels of pottery. The second step in the elaboration of water conveyance was that in which some kind of displacement took the place of mere flotation. As soon as means wen found to direct the course of a floating body, the ship was in progress of invention. Among primitive forms for navigation the earliest represent the efforts of the human mind to devise the rudder, the fixed keel, the shifting sail, and means for storing up provisions for a long journey. As soon as these were achieved, savagery changed to barbarism or civilization, and the limits of this study were fixed. H. Mis. 90, pt. 2 38 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FAOUTY A 001 131 295 6