U G A GEOLOGIST CAN DO IN WAR R. A. F. PENROSE, Jr. GIFT OF WHAT A GEOLOGIST CAN DO IN WAR WHAT A GEOLOGIST CAN DO IN WAR PREPARED BY R. A. F. PENROSE, Jr. FOR THE GEOLOGICAL COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL PHILADELPHIA J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 1917 INTRODUCTION This brochure has been prepared for the purpose of stating succinctly and clearly the competency of the geologist in war service. It is com- mended to the attention of command- ing officers. JOHN M. CLARKE, Chairman, Geology Committee, National Research Council. April 24, 1917. 3586 [si CONTENTS Page General Statement 9 Camps 11 Trenches and Tunnels 14 Ground for Artillery Positions 16 Roads 17 Maps 18 Long Distance Observations 21 Water Supply 23 Vibration Effects 26 Other Qualities for Usefulness 27 WHAT A GEOLOGIST CAN DO IN WAR GENERAL STATEMENT A knowledge of geology can be made of use in many ways in time of war, not only to the army in camp but to the army on the march and the army in battle. The ground on which an army camps, the ground which it traverses, the rocks on which heavy guns are placed, and the roads over which these heavy guns must be hauled, the ground in which trenches, tunnels and other openings for pro- tection or storage are dug, the water supply for the army, and many other subjects are important matters in determining the success of military [9] GEOLOGISTS IN WAR operations, and in most of them the geologist has a special knowledge which can be of use to army officers. The distribution and character of the rocks, their stratified or unstrati- fied nature, their porosity, strength, elasticity, composition and other physical and chemical properties, all have a bearing on the welfare of an army and are all familiar to the geologist, but are outside the knowl- edge of most army officers. In the education of the army officer, the numerous matters of a military nature that demand his attention necessarily prevent him from studying these geological subjects, and yet a knowl- edge of them is of importance to the success of military operations. [10] CAMPS The drainage of the camp and the sanitary arrangements are matters of great importance, and here the geologist, by his knowledge of the structure of the ground, can be of assistance. Dry and sufficiently high ground is, of course, desirable from a sanitary point of view, though from a strategic point of view perhaps it cannot always be occupied; and in places where military necessity re- quires a camp in a low, swampy place, there may be spots that are bet- ter drained than others, or where the character of the water is less objec- tionable and less infested with mos- quitoes and other insects. A knowl- edge of the geology of a swamp is, in] GEOLOGISTS IN WAR therefore, as important to the welfare of an army camp as a knowledge of mountains and plains. A true comprehension of the topog- raphy and geology of arid regions, such as are found in our southwest, is often necessary for the safety of a camp, for many attractive-looking meadows are really the bottoms of dry creek beds, and before morning, storms in the mountains above may convert them into roaring torrents, sweeping everything before them. Hundreds of pioneers and others in our southwest have lost their lives in this way. Many of them knew the danger of camping in dry creek beds, but they did not grasp the topography of the country sufficiently to realize [12] CAMPS that the convenient flat spots which they chose for camp were really in line of drainage channels, and hence in line of danger. [13] TRENCHES AND TUNNELS The geologist, when circumstances permit, can locate the more easily worked and dryer formations for digging trenches and tunnels, and can thus often save not only unnecessary time and labor, but the calamity of wet trenches with the resulting rheu- matism, pneumonia, tuberculosis and other diseases. He cannot always perform this service, for trenches must be dug where strategic necessity re- quires them, and, moreover, an army often cannot wait until the geologist makes his examination ; but when op- portunity permits, the geologist, more than anyone else, can be useful in this matter. An instance of how tunnels and underground openings can be kept dry, even among forma- [14] TRENCHES AND TUNNELS tions that are mostly wet, is shown remarkably in the case of the under- ground railways in London. The old original underground railways were dug near the surface, often in porous, water-bearing materials, and were damp and uncomfortable. The new underground railways, com- monly known as the tube-railways, were made largely in the " London Clay," which formation, though un- derlaid and overlaid by wet strata, is itself so impervious to moisture that excavations made in it are compara- tively dry. The result is that the tube-railways are dry and healthy passages. This instance is mentioned to illustrate how a knowledge of geology can affect the character of underground work. GROUND FOR ARTILLERY POSITIONS The ground on which heavy artil- lery is to be stationed is of the utmost importance, for on its firmness, elas- ticity and other qualities depends to a large extent the accuracy of a gun's work. Here again the knowledge of the geologist is of importance, for to him the structure and the physical and chemical character of rocks have been a life study, while they are un- known quantities to men of most other professions. [16] ROADS The roads on which heavy artil- lery is to be moved must be far stronger than most roads. In fact, in America there are to-day prob- ably few roads that could bear with- out damage the heavy artillery used now on the western front in Europe. In case of war, our wagon roads, and perhaps some of our railways, would have to be greatly strengthened to be serviceable. The selection of the rock and other materials to accom- plish this result, the location of the quarries, their extent and their capac- ity for production, are all within the province of the geologist. [17] MAPS The geologist in his comprehen- sion of the meaning of topographic, geologic and other maps, in other words in his ability to " read maps," can be of much service to army offi- cers. All army officers of course are supposed to be able to understand topographic maps, but to them the contour lines mean only elevations and depressions on the surface of the country, in some places abrupt and in others more or less gently sloping. To the army officer ground is ground, hills are hills, and hollows are hollows. To the geologist, however, ground, hills and hollows have a varying sig- nificance. The character of the con- tour lines on the topographic map MAPS may often give him a suggestion of the geological structure of the region and even of the probable nature of the rocks. In fact, if a geologist has even only a very general knowledge of the geology of a region, a contour map may give him a very definite idea of the character of the rocks or other formations comprising any certain district in that region; and if he has in addition a geologic map, his in- terpretation of conditions is still more accurate. This knowledge indicates to him the character of the mountains, hills and valleys, enables him to judge whether a valley probably consists of low swamps or dry meadows; whether the rivers are deep and diffi- [I9J GEOLOGISTS IN WAR cult to ford, or shallow and easy to ford ; whether they are swift and full of rapids, or slow and moving slug- gishly. [20] LONG DISTANCE OBSERVATIONS The special knowledge of the geol- ogist enables him even without topo- graphic, geologic or any other maps to see many things at a distance not apparent to others. Through his field-glasses he can look far ahead on the line of march, and can observe geological conditions and identify the most available passes over ridges or through mountain ranges ; he can de- termine whether the slopes indicate underlying rocks which might make the passes smooth and easily trav- ersed, or whether they indicate rocks which might offer abrupt and difficult impediments to the passage of an army; he can predict whether the slope on the other side of the range GEOLOGISTS IN WAR is probably steeper or has a more gradual incline than on the near side, whether it is likely to be an open country or timbered, as well as many other features of practical importance to an army. Many a mountain pass might look desirable to one not famil- iar with its geology, while another pass, apparently more difficult, could be seen by the geologist to be much more available. 133] WATER SUPPLY The geologist can often be of much service to an army in the question of water supply. In regions where sur- face waters are abundant and suit- able for use, the geologist may not be needed, but where underground water has to be sought, his services become of importance. A study of the circulation of underground waters is as much a part of the education of a geologist as the study of the nature of rocks and minerals, of geological formations, of topographic and geo- logic maps and the various other matters already mentioned. The surface of the ground in many regions, especially in the arid parts of our west and southwest, looks like [23 GEOLOGISTS IN WAR a dry and barren waste, but often at a depth of from a few feet to a few hundred feet, underground waters are circulating. The discovery of such waters would be of great value to an army, not only in giving them a local supply of clear, fresh water, inde- pendent of outside sources, but in saving the expense and the time of men and mules or motor trucks in hauling water from a distance, which, even after it reaches camp, may be hot, muddy and insipid. Under- ground waters of course cannot al- ways be found, and even where they exist they are often too limited in quantity, or too great in depth, to be available under the circumstances of immediate necessity; but in many [24] WATER SUPPLY places they do exist and could be reached by some form of portable boring machine. The knowledge of the geologist is essential in locating them. [25] VIBRATION EFFECTS The problems of landslides and snowslides in mountainous regions, due to vibrations caused by heavy cannonading, the possibility of the use of the seismograph in determining the distance of artillery fire, and many other allied subjects, are important matters for the geologist in studying his sphere of usefulness in the field of battle. 26] OTHER QUALITIES FOR USEFULNESS In addition to the matters already mentioned, the geologist whose work has been in the more newly settled parts of the world, and not in the older settled region where he has lived in civilization, is an efficient scout. His training has been in the wilds among mountains, hills and plains; often without trails, where he has had to take his course by the blazes on the trees or from the stars, the moon or his compass, and often surrounded by hostile natives. He can fight, cook, withstand bad weather and discomfort, and still keep on with his scientific work; he has acquired the woodcraft of the 127] GEOLOGISTS IN WAR old trapper together with the educa- tion of a scientist. Few other men possess this unique combination of accomplishments. [28] UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of 50c Der volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is made before expiration of loan period. 00688 3586 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY