* HISTORY Of ROME: FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS BT F. W. RICORD. PART L-THE KtXUS OF ROMS. PART II THE REPUBLIC OP BOMB. PART IU.-THE EMPIRE OP Rf> HEW YORK: 3 & OO n 51 <k 5 -p ^v A. B. BARNES * CO, In ti.e CUrk'i Offle* of th* DUtrin Court at the United But few U* Dtouirt of Mew York. H g e m t n t . i ; i MM I-Romulo. II Nam*PoaipiUitt... . 26 111 Tullu* HUlh. . . . 87 Anew Hardu* 46 V.-TkrqolnJu. Prims. .66 Scrviu. Tulliu- . 67 Tarquinittt 8aperbu> . 79 PABT II. I.-Tb Wr with Ptowemui. . I! The War with the Utinn. . . 1 1 1 -The P^tridMM MM! the -Tir Tribune of the People. -The Decemrira -DtatnictioQ of Rome bj the Ctaols v II . Foreign Oooqaaft* V 1 1 1 -The Jagarthlne War . . IX.-Mariiand8)lU. X. Clrll Wan and Coospiradet. Julio* OMT. . 8 ARRANGEMENT. PART III. PACK I. The Beginning of the Empire 15 II. Caligula and Claudius 47 III. The Last of the Caesars 75 IV. Transient Rulers 10! V. Vespasian and his Sons 123 VI. Extension of the Empire 147 VII. The Antonines ' 173 VIII. The Prsetorian Guards 197 IX. The Decline of the Empire 241 X. Rome Abandoned 273 PREFACE. IN the volume now offered to the public, it is the intention of the author to connect the most important events of Roman history, from the foundation of Rome to the death of Constantino. That these events may be more easily fixed upon the memory, it is thought advisable to separate the narrative into three parts. PART I. is confined to that period known as the monarchy, which, although very properly regarded as wholly fabulous, is the only foundation that can be obtained for a history upon whose pages almost all the nations of the earth appear. PART II. gives briefly the narratives which make up the history of the Republic of Rome, and which are rendered none the less instructive to the general reader, and certainly none the less essential to the student, by reason of the abundant acuteness evinced by Beaufort and Niebuhr in disproving the testimo- nies of Livy and Dionysius. Indeed, a very good knowledge of these narratives is necessary, in order that either pleasure or profit may be derived from the writings of these modern historians. PART III. begins with the circumstances that 10 PR] attended the rl.-vation of Octavius and oontaii most interesting portions of the history of the empire to the death of Constantino, during whose reign ceased to be the capital of the world. There are many persons who, through ignorance of the prominent facts of hi>t<>ry, are deprived of much of the pleasure to be derived from evi-ry-day wants of such individuals have not here been forgotten, while, with a r the volume d< :<r schools, the author stantly eoiiMiltrd ti who irad it will fail to go to the sources whenc- nd will bt- ind 1, ii(t only to ii , the subjt i, but to ] . ly of thi> intcn-iiu- to the dissolution of the em- NKWAM, N. J., October, 1858. FROM 752 TO 714 B.C. Home and the surrounding Country Ancient Inhabit- ants Cities of the ancient Latins Birth of Romulus and Remus Rhea Silvia Founding of Rome Capture of the S;il,i no Women War with the Sabines Tatius Ambition of Romulus His death. MAP OF ROME. I. ROMULUS. THERE is such an air of truthfulness about the legends, or the lays, of Rome that, notwithstand- ing the amount of learning brought into requi- sition to extinguish them, they will ever hold a place in the history of this remarkable nation. Besides, though they were utterly unworthy of credibility, they are so interwoven with the tture of all ages, that an acquaintance with them is indispensable to both the reader and the student. Italy, the country of which Rome is regarded as the centre, lias always been celebrated as the most fertile and desirable land of the world. Its delicious fruits, its corn, wine, soil, and cat- tle form not its only wealth ; metals of every kind, valuable stone, and timber here, too, abound. In short, it is a land affording every thing that can admini-Ur comfort or pleasure ; possessing a climate that has ever been unri- 14: K I N G 8 O F K O M K . Ancient Inhabitants Alba. vailed, and presenting a surface unsurpassed for its beautiful diversity of bays, promontories, rivers, mountains, hills, and plains. This country was originally occupied by nu- merous, and independent, nations, among whom the most considerable were the Aborigines, a name always given to those inhabitants of a country whose derivation is uncertain. Of these Aborigines there were various tribes ; as fur example, the Latins, the Umbrians, the Rutuli, etc., who enjoyed in their separate ciiie- the !! of liberty ami equality. dee tli-M'. there were also the Ktnir who had sprung from col- out of Lydiu and Tliessaly. The Sahines, who, iiually, be- came Mended with the Romans, were a tribe of the I'lnbrians, which hal :>arated from their fellows by the Ktrurians, : .vhoso victorious anus they were oMi^c'l to fly. Long before Rome was built, the Latins had founded in-ar its site a large and flourishing to which they gave the name of Alba, and which, f>r a period of tour liundr. continued to be ruled by a race of kin- tor their warlike exploits, and their love of power. This city, and Lavinium which was built by Eneas, soon after the destruction of Troy, are called // -f the ancient Latins. QLU8. 15 Rhea Silvia Koniulus and Remus. According to the legend, Remains, the founder ut' Rome, and his twin-brother liemns, were descendants of Procas, one of the kings of this ancient city. Their mother was Rhea Silvia, a priestess in the temple of the godde-s . herself, was the daughter of the rightful claimant to the throne ; and her uncle, who had usurped it. fearing that these children might some day dispossess him, ordered them to be thrown into the river Tiber. They were carried upon tin to the foot of the hill called the Palatine, where a wolf is said to nourished them with her milk, until they red by a shepherd who t....k them into bis hut, and, by the aid of h them from death. Growing up to manhood, they exhibited a and mental superiority th.r the admiration and o 1 iiepherds hum they were Mirrundrd. Learning, in . the history of their parentage, ihe;. lected a band of followers, and proceeding to Alba, succeeded, by means of a well-laid plot, in putting to death tin; usurper of the throne, and placing upon it their injured grandfather. 'I ambitious they were not con- tented to remain at Alba, and, n-olving to build a city for themselves, assembled about 16 K : >9 Building ol '.. fifteen hundred fullowere, and proceeded to the banks of the Tiber. J hiving selected a spot suitable for their de- sign, some difficulty arose in regard to naming and regulating the future city. A quarrel, finally, took place. From angry words they came to blows. A tumult ensued, their respec- t'riends taking an active part. K<>mu- lus, dealing his brother an unfortunate blow, stretched him dead UJM>M the ground. The building of the city pr with great activity, and n K<>mulus and his followers soon spread throughout the sur- rounding country. The c>l"iiy was, how. -mall; and to in.-: BMfft rapidly, Etonudofl opened A sanctoi . in the c' ;dl who might c: avail tlu-niM'hvs ot' it. Thither iinm- llfd fnm the lu-igliboring states crowds of people: 08, good and bad. That this increasing strength might 1 :vgu- lated, the sagaci"iis leadi-r ii. an < r<K-r . iiom he called -tvled l-'athers. and tliei:- lantfl Ta- triei;. Unfortuiuit. . "f the colonists vided with wives, and as there were scarcely any females in the city. K-multis K M I LU8. Capture of the Babine Women. I that h! ta miirht forsake him. To guard airain-t th: -. > the adjoining states to solicit permission for his !o to marry among them. But this being .ed to accomplish his d< by str Dissembling as well as possible the indignity - him and his people, he made irivat. arutiniis fur the cuk-bratiun of solemn hoimr <>f Xeptune. Tlie coK-bratinn of th' l-o jTorlaimed thrMiiirhout all the adjoh; t6S, and nuth- .vas omitted that mi^ht attract attenti-n to them. When the day arrived, crowds of ]>le from tin- >urr.-undii!L'' country, ponivd into .Koine. The Cii'iiincnsia!. . u>tnminian<. and especial! -miltitudes of the Sabines !i their wi\ s and children. As soon as th- ben the irames were to be held was filled, Jiomulns, seated upon a gorgeous tribunal, irave the .-i^nal, and in an instant the Ionian youth, who had well ar- ranged them- :-r the occa-ion, rushel, d in hand, into the midst of the unsuspect- ing multitude. ( hvrtiiniini; the unarmed men wlm opposed them, they seized upon the terri- fied females, and bore them off to their respec- tive homes. 18 KINGS OF ROME. War with the Sabiues Tatius. Deep hatred immediately took possession of the people thus grossly injured by the Romans. Wars began, and nation after nation marched against Rome ; but they were invariably de- feated and forced to retreat. The Sabines were not, however, overcome as easily as the others, and, after several bloody battles, they were pacified only by the interference of their cap- tured women, who rushed into the midst of the contending armies and begged them to lay a>ide their arms. A treaty was made betv them and the Romans, by which Romulus, and Tatius, king of the Sal>i me kings of Rome with equal powers and equal h- They continued to reign together in the m-t friendly manner for nearly v.hen Tatius was slain by a party of Laurentians who had le-en oil'ended by some of his acts. The nations bordering upon Koine continued to be troublesome for a long time; and it re- quired all the skill and strength of Romulus to subdue them. In this he, finally, succeeded ; and, then, finding himself comparatively unoc- eupied, he undertook, in various ways, to in- M his authority at home. Three hundred young men. called Celeres, were appointed to wait upon him ; and the Senate, with whom lie had been wont to advise and co-operate, were ROMULUS. 19 Ambition of Eouiulus His Death. stripped of their power, and forced to meet in the Council-house only to listen to his despotic orders. These and many other things were submitted t<> with becoming patience, but the pride and ambition of Romulus were daily becoming more intolerable. Finally, after the subjuga- tion of the Yeientiuns, lie divided, without the consent or approbation of the Senate, the con- quered lands among his soldiers, and sent home the i . The indignation of the Senate was beyond control, and, soon afterwards, Rom- ulus disappeared, and no trace of him could - be found. This event occurred a; -n of thirty- seven years; and his extraordinary disappear- ance was accounted for in a variety of \ The Senators declared that he had been carried up to heaven on a flash of lightning, to take his place among the gods, but they were boldly accused by the people of having mur- dered him; and it was only by a well-do - story that they were able to save themselves from the fury of the people, by whom Romulus I much beloved. NUMA POMPILIUS. FROM 7J i Appearance of Rome at the death of Romulus Interreg- num Choice of a King Wisdom displ.-iycil by Numa 'JViiiplr -f Janus Religion of the Romans The ^ ]i\i>i..n .f tli.- Lands Distril.ution of tl. - -Rcf- oniKiii MI of the Calendar- N'uma Sorrow of tho people IK TLMl'LE OF JANT8. 1 1. NUMA I'OMI'IUUS. nd, had, under the administration of Romulus, risen to an a>i>ni>h;n:;- height of p,,\ver. At his death, <dl within its walls was activity and life. Tein- and palaces l.^ki-d proudly from its hill- tops. Through its in; 9 poured busy it the to< Anrknu-n soundrd only for tin- purpose of addinir further htivnirtli [tB anvils ran^ only under the ed for swords and spears, and the luisy thoii-ands that went in and out :ied in the panoply ot war. The death of Romulus was rendered more lie fact that he had not bequeathed ;'irit to a son, who, stepping into his place, ini^ht lead the people on in the path of glory which they had so long been tivadinir. A kinir could not be made at once, for the -' KINGS oi K o M i. . Ii.t.-rn-eniim Choice of a ! mans ;uil Sahines who composed the nation, so thoroughly comminirled feel like one people. "While the latter 1> that ly t<<> easily yielding they might wholly their claims, the farmer spurned the thought <>f having a t'oiviirner placed upon the throne. The safety of the nation demanding a head, the > iniu-d, ly turns, the ryal piv. dy wa- conip.ised of a Inn,' individuals, taken equally from t! <livi<K-<l tln-mselvi's into each member pn-idt-d l>y tunis IB n de- cade. Tin- time that each held the ment \va- lin d the admin- ihem all in i-.-ration. A d ly in this manner withoir the interval was. In MM thi- cirCUHl an intiTn-^nnni. The people i>fu'd with this inod< ernnien;. ared to t: pronld h;. king. An election was accordingly held ; and the clu>iee fell n]>on Nunia I'mnjiilins, a ]>rivate individual, livinir near Cures, a city ..f tl: . lie hesitated, BOO to accept the chai': vt-rninir a martial and impetuous people: 1'iit, persuaded 1,. and eir \i \ PoMPILl Uuus. 16 finally eame t K"ine, and was tin-re with the in>iirnia >f royalty. :he iir>t place, it was 5m- ain the confidence of the people; and he knew very well tl. der t<>accMii- pli-h thi-i. he niu-t >hw hi.s coiitideiiee in t : assumed anth'T- ian he three hundred men, A-hnm K.iiiiiilus always kept al<ii rson as guards, t 1 him higher in the -t' his s'i their tl Vim d fur a ma.iriiitie.-nt tern- ancient wa- tu 1, haps. :ly. an arch, in the furm the muiiareh :. It- b Nun.: !i in time IT, and -hut in ' . as thf wa- cumph-t.-d. he ; emhle alx'iit it, and, in a very solemn m;i its mass! ivxpr. that the pi-:ife w; were then enj" K [HGS o F KM M Religion of the Romans. with all nations, might continue during his reign. Wonderful as it may seem, after the death of JSTuma, these gates were closed twice, only, during a period of more than six hundred years. So great was the anxiety of JSTuma to main- tain peace and promote the welfare of his peo- ple, that he favored a belief generally enter- tained, that the goddess Egeria and the Muses appeared to him, and taught him how to rule his kingdom. This belief gave great weight to his infractions, and his wishes seemed to be regarded as divine commands. The Romans believed in an immortal race of beings, inhabiting the sky, whom they called gods. These were regarded as the creators and preservers M!' all tilings, as intimately acquainted with human ail'airs, and mindful of the action of men and states, rewarding good and puni^h- iiig evil. The worship of these gods was per- formed in a very irregular manner, and one of N unia's earliest cares was to reduce it to a regular system. lie instituted an order of priests that after- wards became so highly respected that the most distinguished men of Rome, and even em- perors, were proud to be of the number. These were called Salii. They were created in honor NUMA PuMIMI.i 29 The Salii Division of Lands. of Mars, and their name is derived fruiii the won; U) dance, because, >n certain ll-ti- val days, they pa ed about the city, dancing and >inging in honor of that divinity. Their number was originally twelve, but they were afterwards increased to twenty-four by Tullus .ins. I'.y thus directing ti in of the people to matters of religion, he E d in piv ing a pr<>tbund peace. In the mean time, he d them to cultivate b:. industry, and taught them that id. rtt hateful to the L r "d>. II i them t be contented with whatever might be their lot in life. lie cheri-hed in them p-nerus -eiitinieiits, and in-jired them with love fur the gods, with whuse ir bit-s he suutrlr importunity to impress them. In a short time, the Roman :-went a 1 . Numa was loved, almost adivd. by them; and they, in turn, were the admiration of all surrounding nations. In perfecting his reirulatioii-, Xuma causi-d the boundaries of the Roman State to be marked out. The lands which had : t uired by liomulus he divided among the indigent citi- . in order t preserve them from the com- minion of erime> to which they might be driven 30 K INGS OF R O M E . Distribution of the Citizens Death of Numa. by poverty. The country was divided into pagi, or boroughs, and over each borough was a] (pointed a governor or overseer. Through the instrumentality of these, the people were encouraged to industry and alove of husbandry. Kama frequently went out himself from the city to visit his agricultural subjects, inspected their farms, censured the indolent, and ad- vanced the industrious to posts of honor and trust. In order to unite more perfectly the two peo- ple composing the Roman nation, he distributed all the citi/ens into companies, according to their arts and trade-;. Thus the distinction be- tween Sabines ami Romaic was entirely for- gotten, and all the people were thoroughly united into one. Not among the least of the works of Numa wa- the attempt which he mad- to reform the calendar. In this lie showed a great deal of skill, although it was reserved for Julius ( to accomplish this difficult task. AVhen death at last came- to put an end to his peaceful labors, he had become quite old. Four-core years had pas-ed over him, more than half of which had been devoted to th- rice of his country. The news of his departure seemed to carry desolation everywhere. N I' M A I'o M I' I I. I I 31 Mourn i Hi.- ' only (lid the lion. 6 lor hiin a< a lather, but tin- neighboring nations mourned that a benefactor was lost to all mankind. In tokm of their sorrow, they j>oiired into Koine to aid in doing honor to his remains, bringing with them and public offerings without num- ber. The bier was carried by the Senators, followed by a long proce- men, w>men, and children crowded after, not . were attending the funeral of an : . but with tear-; and loud lamentations, as if thev had lost a bel Jive in the bloom ofl TULLUS IIOSTILIDS, FROM 670 TO 638 B.C. liilii. ulti. > \\iil. i 1 Cmiuiii k tll nl Till- Los. FIGHT BETWEEN THE HOEATII AND THE CURATII. III. TULLUS HOSTILIUS. SCARCELY had the peaceful Numa been laid in liis grave, than the brazen gates of the tern pie of Janus were thrown open, as an indication that Rome was once more plunged in war. Tullus Hostilius, a Eoman by birth, and the son of a distinguished general, was elected king ; and his whole reign proved to be one of war and bloodshed. His first act was, however, a generous one, and w r ell calculated to secure for him the confidence and esteem of his coun- trymen. No sooner had he received the scep- tre, than he caused a proclamation to be made throughout the city, that it was his intention to receive nothing whatever of what had been appropriated for the support of his predeces sore ; that his own private income was sufficient for his necessities, and that the lands devoted to the former kings should be divided among the poorer citizens. Nor did he stop here ; for, 38 K I N G S O F II O M K . Generous Conduct of Tullus Hostiliu?. notwithstanding this noble provision for his more humble subjects, there still remained a large number who were destitute of lands and houses. In order to accommodate these, he caused the walls of the city to be extended so as to inclose a very considerable tract, embra- cing Mount Caelius ; and here he made such an allotment, that not a single citizen of Rome re- mained without ground sufficient for a dwelling The principal events of his reign grew out of the jealousy which sprang up between Rome and the city of Alba, which might be called the mother of Rome. During the reign <>f 7S' iiuia, tin-so two cities had continued in entire i' with each other; but no sooner had Tul- 1ns received the sceptre, than difficulties broke out between them. War was declared on both sides ; and the Al ban king set out, without delay, with a power- ful army, for Rome. He died, however, of an insidious disease, just after bringing his troops within five miles of. the city, and after having prepared to attack it. With great presence of mind, his officers concealed his death, and se- lected Mettius Fuffetius to conduct the war. News of the king's death was, however, car- ried to Rome, and Tullus collecting immedi- Tri. i. rs HOBTILI !ied forth by niirht, ';ip, and pushed <>n rapidly with the intention of destroying Allia. Metti- us, hearing of this procedure, sent with all i an ambassador to Tulh; g him to stop. MUM! t> propose sonu'thinir t>rhis 'U'rati<n which i -1 the ii. H than that !' A! Tullus >t"{'{H-(l ; ami M -ivmy C"minir up sm.ii at'trr, the t\v> C'Unmumlers held il l-.inr conference, wl them that the <l :' their i< led by a combat bet 1 . six individual-, thn-e t ' d from each of the hn>tile an: Champi'.ns mi bolfti nderful emu- lation ar : amoiiLT the oilicers and s..l- . The ! :-.imd izTeat ditli- culry in making clioice .f the mt Miitabie j.er- : and tin Q wouhl liavc BAOflt impo>-ibK'. ii ! :ia<l not called to mind the ^rdinary youtlis, thr. whom were Kmnaiis and thive Albans, and all cl L The-e youths were th- ipriogoftwin :iom had married Iloratius, a Roman, and the other ( 'uriatii; Alban. They were, con^MjiuMitly, cousins; 40 K [HOfl i ROM K. th.- Horatii and the Curiatii. and, what was most remarkable, were born upon the same day. Tlie necessary arrangements for the combat having been completed, the two armies were drawn up opposite to each other, and the youths were led into the centre of the space en them. At an appointed signal, their swords were drawn, and they rushed upon one another with the fury of d< iied in breathless silence, their hopes ot success, for a season, equally balanced. Pr< t shout ..t' j,,y ascrndfd tVom the Alban ranks and in the centre of the tield four combatants alone were visible; twonf the Ib- ratii lay dead, and the remaining bn-ther. sur- rounded by his victorious fo8, >eemed I! eiied with imniedia- .ctiou. Hitl how, had not been wounded, whi weaki'iiel by divers inj- lie resolved to light tl. 'y; and, with this in view, darted away from them. \e himself by ilight. Hi- eneiir- ing him to be an easy prey, followed exultingly, though with uiHMjua'. Perceiving them to be suflicientl v separated, lloratiu< wheeled sinldenly round, and rushing with the fury nf a madman upon his ih pursuer, stretched him lifeless upon the ground. B.O8TILIU8. ! 1 i the Alban General. Ill ti. manlier hr .-olid, :inally, the third, when a drat'eiiini: shmit nt' j->y buist frm liif Kman ranks, while the vanquished Albans, with un< ; srr. >w, threw down their arms, and, in the attitu-. iriently awaited the orders to which tedly Bt On returning to R sister because sh- wept over the u-iatii, to one of wi trothed. For th'- mm-d to die, but was 6Ub> v ae<|nitted -to of MettiiH Fulletius was | d to return with his army to Alba; but having a* not long after, t< i to their Veientiuns, he was taken by Tul- lus and barbar..u>ly put to di-atli. At the >anie time, all - >t' Alba were removed to \<1 their y was levelled to ground. nt. a war broke out with the Fi'i . which re-nlted in their overthrow. Then t<.llu\ved a Bttoceesion ot' :y battles with the Sabine<. a portion <!' which nation had not removed to R..me. at the time of their union with the Roman ]e"j,h\ Tliese wars were followed by a dreadful 42 Kix ns OF ROMK. Pestilence in Rome Death of Tullus. tilcnce, wliich carried off, daily, hundreds of the citizens of Home. Tullus did all in his power to mitigate the calamity, and by constantly oc- cupying his people, and furnishing them with excitement, caused them to forget in some de- gree the frightful scourge with which they vi.-ited. The plague gradually subsided, but the days of the warlike king were drawing to a <' and he who but lately thought that nothin. trayed so much weakness, or was so unworthy of a king, as to be occupied with matters of re- te a slave to every kind of super- stition. While ei day, in perf>rm- iiiir a >acriti<-r to Jupiter, a violent storm a: the 1 . which he dwelt was -.truck by ling, and both himself and his property all reduced ANGUS MAIM' I US, FROM 038 TO f'h;ii;i''tT of !iti<m of i Troul.li-s with tin- LitiiK < u-gemeiitot .i.li: Inij.i. I V. ANGUS .M A III' 1 US. AN i - M \i: ii B, though tin- :i of the le Nunuuand a m MiruMu-d thn itioll, and f'>r his t':. a skilful 11'- elevation -1 t. an u : tin- part <>t' tin- j.roph- tin- i-viU n-snitin^ Inmi tin- warlii -itiun illus. '1 fa had, in HIM!, and CMIMIIP ami the arts had not, f<>r many d that care and proU-i-timi which a kini^ should bft<.>w upon matters of Mich Th< wi'i-c not disappointed ontin-lv in tlu-ir an blfl : v>y the most strenuous efforts to correct the that had liueii I i lv his j>re i KINGS 01 ROM i. . Reforms in Home Trouble with the Latin?. sor. The worship in the temples, and the daily sacrifices, were once more conducted with all their ancient regularity and solemnity, and whatever had been neglected or suffered to de- cay he restored to its original condition. The arts began again to flourish, and the field? and plains that lay around the city resumed the thriving appearance which they were w>ut to wear during the reign of Xiiina. The preparations which Ancus made for n, peaceful reign were scarcely completed, when tin- re>tle-s Latins, llatlered by the h CC8S, and regardless of the tn-aty establi-h'-d with Tullus. began to make inclusions into the Roman territories. Unwilling to report t lent measures, if sat:-;' <iild be other obtained. -nt ambassador- to the Latins, instructing them to complain of the out: committed again>t t 1 ffi people, and to demand reparation. I Jut the Latins being un- willing to atone for their mi-deeds he A mined to make them an example to the nations around him. His first step was towards 1'olitorium, a large and well-fortitied city belonging to this people. Having broken down the walls, and entered the city with his victorious troops, li< the people to be di>armed. and, without de- A.* llARCIl Con. ; l.:itins Knln | stroyiiur a >iiiirl' h<>u<o, marched them all. ; tin' example of Till hi-. This conquest having been made laid E Telleme, and 1; ' < Ficana, eompelln u 1m lit, and tbrein^ tlie inhabitants to follow ; I'olitorium to limne. The Latin< 'vmaininu: uiK'nuqiK-n-d and resolute in their .-e t<> tho Rmnan ncentrated the': '' .iillia, wlu-re they made ]>iv]>ar >r a tinal en- ((untrr with their vietri.n< ; Ancus proc -Meni with entire He Hindi- him-elt' ma-ter of their j-h.'ld, de].riv t -d tlu-ni of tlu-ir arm?, and, causing all their treasures to l>e ri'inoved to Koine, sent them thither also, as he had others upon former occasions. Thus the popu- lation <,f K,.me was airain augmented by sev- eral thousands, and it became necessary to ;d its limits. The L r roiind lyin^ near the '. was allotted to the : in order to unite the Aventine to tlie Pala- tine hill. Janicnlum was also inclosed within ; ry, that it miirht never be used as a place of strength for an enemy, a connection with it g formed by means of a wooden bridge built acmss the Tiber. Besides the great additions which Ancus K i 1! o M i . Public Improvements. made to the population ami extent of lion, found means of making a iort at the mouth of the Tiber, quite sufficient lor the wants of the city. Here he also founded and fortiik-d a town which lie called Ostia. Jn proportion as the niunl>er of citi. increased, licentiousness and crime inciv also ; and greater severity on the part of the government became ry. In order to check the audacity of evil-doers, and to intinii- duU', by the fear of puni>lm. . . hm ct for the laws could not iv \ncus built a prison in the midst of the cit \ , iu-ar the Forum. Th v effect of this sooi quite evident. The success of Ancus as a '. did not him to forget his duty to the go Ig, ,\ prosjx ct !' peace having occurred, he took OC- casio 1 thanks by enlaririn^ tlie templi- of Jupiter Feretriu-, which had dedicated to this divinity by U'mulus. alter his ' died, l)i-!- family and lamented by ret more - de>irms of promoting the welfare of his coun- and the cause of religion and morality. As an evidence of the affection of his people, A .\ OUI M A ]: i i r < . 49 Death of Ancus. the : d upon him ; and at his death almost as much S'-rr..\v was manih-red a> UJMHI the decease of Numa. Ho h-t't many endiii-iiii: monuments of his wi>dm and prudence; and the irivatm < t which linally arrivi-d, wa-, in no small degree, t his generous efi TAiiormrs ruscus, j o y of Tuniuinius His ani\;il at Koine- -II. a* Kin- Kiilaiu- -iiK-iit ai the Senate Ware of Taiquinius - I'ul.lic Work* Story Of \]\>- Auirur Navins Inva>i.i:i i.t' tin- 'ryrrlii-niaiis New Wall al-out K.-IIH- 'li 'II,.- l'a\.-.l lloa.U liilli.-ully with th Mm- del "f 'laiiMiiiiii> >tiMlj^"iii "f 'lana-jnil Su<-i-i->> THE OMEN* GRANTED TO V. TARQUINIUS 1'IIISCUS. T.\i:nriNirs PKisrrs, the fifth king r>f Rome, \\a> a mail of ( 'orinthian <riirin, wh<>, during t!u iviLrii ni 1 ed ! hv tlic nuinen>us ldTU)tag68 then ,.f ..htaiiiiiiir \vi-alth or IIOIKT. On his ii.anird l.y his will', Tan- a<|iiil, uii'l a n le, living aijaci-!:' ndrd >l.\vly over :nl, takinir otV his cap, lK-w ra]'illv al'ir ; in a little while it ivturno<l, and, nttrrin^ a j.iorcing Pt-reani, rcplactMl tlu? cap ami di-ap- d. " U.-h.ild, Liicuiiin," crit-d his will-, "a meaaengeK Irnm lu-avm, ].. rti-ndiiiir the magnificent fortune 1 Th<>n >halt he the n.)l)k->t anmn^ tho imhles <>[' K<M: A ~; anger possessing such wealth ami such personal attractions, c<>uld not n-main lonir un- noticed in Koine; nor did he ]<>>e any oppor- tunity of gaining the attention and conciliating 56 1\ 1 N < , S OF Ft n M I ; . Tarquinius eler-U'il Kin-r. tlic friendship of the people. Even the sought him ; and a mutual and strong attach- ment sprang up between them. As usual, soon after the deatli of Aliens, an election of a kini: wa> held, and Tarquinius with little difficulty, able to succeed him a the throne: In order to strengthen himself in the opinion of the lower classes of JM-OJ,: choM- a hundred men from among the Plebeian-, and elevated them to the rank of Patricians and Senators. Thus the Senate was com]. of three hundred members, and so continued duri: .1 centuries. Th< - adjacent to Koine v. in throwing - in the way of tiie new kiiiic. and upon the most trifling prel : Jrurians, and the Sabin- :;d oaths which had b- from them by 1, '-essore. Tli- from t: AjU'iohe, airainst which Tarquinius marclu-d with a powerful army. His si:- and having jJundered and burned the town, he currie.l --reat numb. inhabitants to Rome. This achievement commemorated by the building of an im- TCUS between the Palatine and Aven- tine hills. PBIB< of Tarquinius Public Works. Hut Tarquinius had not much time t<> r B watched him on every >le, to accomplish liis downfall. Nation after nation loll upon him, . one by one, when they linally contrived to unite their stivnirth ; but, then, they were unable to match the skill of the Roman kinir, <r the valor of the \l -ained rapid and brilliant f the, valuable Obtaining a li ; :V.m WftI term: . by >iirrun.. ith a moiv >nb- al wall. 11-' had olerve<l, durinir his incipal di-frr f cavalry ; and, to rein- :his, he resolved to improve the pn !-;unity by adding other eentnries to ; itted by Konmlu>, and to have them dis- tinirui>hed by his own name. Makinir known tion, he found it bitterly opposed by ry celebrated angnr named Navius, who ; that serious calamities would befall any of the institutions nulus was very angry at this opposition, but being afraid to disregard the warnings of KING 3 o |. IJ M i: . of thf Hii^nr N.-ivins. the augur, ho determined, at least, to prove him to be a fal-c prophet. Summoning Xavius to liis tribunal, he said to him, in the presence of a large number of spectators: "This is the time, "Xavius. for y< MI to show the certainty of your ])ro])hetic art; for I have in my thoughts a great undertaking, ami would like to know whether it be practicable or not/' Without much hesitation. Xavins assured the king that it would be practicable. TarquiniiH then tak- ing out a ra/.or and a hone iVom under his robe, said : " 1 wisli to know, by the rnK-s of yMir art. whether, if I >:rike ! with thi> ra- i shall cut it asiiinh-r." L'kin^ undi>- turbed at the kinir. Xavius ivplied: ''Strike lideiitly. as you pr.>p.-rd, Tai'fpiin- ius. f-r it will In- cur a-under; if ii"t. I am uhmit to any punishment." The king struck, and the rax>r. cK-aving the hone, cut al>o the hand that -upporU-d it. In cinso<inence nf this. Tanjuinius abandoned liis design of adding to the number of the tunes, but he do.ubled the number of men in already intituled. AVith an army ain made ]reparatins to id Tyrrhenians, who, not- withstanding their recent defeats, lust no op- portunity to annoy him Once more he T A K o ( IHIU8 PRI8< i Iiua- > rrliriiians. i destroyed the ilower of their army; Imt tlie Tyrrhenians, still un- daunted, united all their forces and committed terrible, ravaire- upon the Roman territor [iiinius, mustering all his troops, sallied forth to repel the invaders. One division of his army, under tin- command of K^eriu*, his lieutenant, was put to tli^ht and sorely beaten ; but Tarquinius himself, without jiayin^ a:- tention to this di-a-t^r. went from om- <' siimtlier of Tyrrheiiia. putiin^ to ilie >w<.rl all who opposed him, and plundering wherever he could tind any tliiu^ of value. Kiicounteriu^ irmy that had rotiti-(l Kirerius. he fell upon it \\itli thi' utmost fury, and, not contented with a simple victory, he whipped its leaders throu-h : Kidrme, belu-aded >ome, and sent others of them into pi-rpetual banish- ment. Tin- Tyrrhenian-, routed and beaten on v side, lied to tin- fa>tne>scs of ihc nioim- i;-ave them-elve< \\\> to their coiipier- 'J'ar^juinius was greatly applaudc*! for his brilliant achievements, and the Senate, in token of their appreciation of his military skill, de- i to him the honors of a triumph. After some further difficulties with the Sa- bines, whom lie finally overcame, Tar<jiiiniu3 was able to give his attention to various enter- K 1 \ <i S V New wall Sewers Paved w;iys. prises of a peaceful character. Besides rebuild- ing the walls of Kome, which was done in a substantial manner, he constructed many other works, that have always been the wonder and glory of the city. Among these, not the Iear4 remarkable were the sewers, used for collecting the foul water from the streets and conveying it to the Tiber. These sewers, or cloacce, as they were called, were constructed under almost all the streets of Kome, and nearly every house was fin-nibbed with pipes communicating with them. The celebrated paved ways, or roads, of Koine were also introduced by Tarquinius. It is true that, during his time, they were not ex- tended beyond the city, because there was very little friendly intercourse with the surrounding nations. About four hundred years after the foundation of Kome, these roads extended to the most distant provinces, constituting the m-t useful and the most durable of her work-. Tar<[uinius, having reigned thirty-eight years, was rendered incapable of managing the affairs of go\ eminent, by reason of his advanced age. finding that Servius Tullius, his adopted enjoyed the esteem of the Senate as well as of the people, he committed almost every thing to his rare. This was a .-"iinv of great vexation to the TV >f Annir- Maivin.-. hi prede- TARQUINTUS PRISCUS. 61 Sons of Ancus Murder of Tarqnlnins. :-, who had always regarded Tanjuinius as an usurper of their rights. Upon several occa- sions they liad made ineffectual attempts to re- move him, and now, as they became well con- vinced that he would not resign the sceptre in their favor, they resolved to be, at least, re- venged of the injury which they had received. Two persons, whose services they had >ecured, contriving to obtain access to the king, slew him by means of axes which they had. concealed about their persons. Tana<|uil. his wife, hearing the tumult, ru-hcd to the chamber of the king, where many persons were already MF sembled. Instantly deciding what would be lu-r best, policy, she stooped over the body of the king, pretending to examine his wound, and, pronouncing it to be nothing more than a slight scratch, ordered bandages and ointments, re- questing, at the same time, that all present should leave the palace. Finding herself alone with the dead body, she admitted Servius, for whom she had pre- viously sent, and, showing him the late king, she laid hold of his right hand, beseeching him, at the same time, that he would not suffer the death of his father-in-law to pass unrevenged, nor his mother-in-law to be exposed to the in- sults of their enemies. "Servius," said she, K I .N (, S O K K o M K. StnitaL't-m of Tanaquil. " it' you act as a man, the kingdom is yours, and not theirs, who. by the hands of others, have perpetrated the basest of crimes." Having arranged every thing with Serving she proceeded to a balcony, which overlooked the street, where a large multitude of people had assembled, to learn the result of what had happened. ANSuming a ch'-i-rfnl countenance, she commanded their attention, and then told tin-in, in a pleasant manner, that tliere Wftfl ion tor their alarm, as the king had only heen stunned by the blow which In- had re- - told the pcopl \va- A ish that they should oliey the ordei Servius Tullius, \vlio would administer ju~ and sujiply his place until he >liould ! a!-h- to me hi> duties. At tiiia intrlli^ence. the le exprefleed i-ntire satisfaction; and. after. Servius made his appearance, clothed in the robes of state, and attended by the lie Seating him-elf upon the throne, he p: to the trial of some caosea then in piv L jud^intr some, and, concerning others, piv ing that he would obtain the ki nion. Thus, lor several days, the king'.- death was ; Servius in the i: time, taking every opportunity gthen his own inter SKKVIUS TULLIUS. FROM 576 TO 532 Kurly lli>to]-y .ition of tin- Throne lli> |iluii> t< j::iiii ill.- <: 1 -\\iil of tli<- IVo|,l.- II.- i I Kini; Hi- AI.I.K']ICII~' ni.-nt f tin- ( iiy Con. lu. t oi I,.uiu> Tai.piini. M iit- 1.'lll|it In ol.t.lill til. I |o\M, M.M.l'T of S" ^ter. IMA m::- R THE HEAP r><>r>Y OF IIKK FA V I. Slavics in. i, i us. i i.ifs, accord! HIT t> the legend, was the son of a female slave belon^im: t the li< ld of Tanjuinius, his lather lein-- i\ . who was slain while bravely ii^ht- inir in iH'halt'oi'liis count: 11. MIS eirci: i"jt him, and t c<lu- any station in life that he miirlit ; n pa- ra 1 nf his expedition-, and r\hiliitel BO lunch hravery that the wlmle, ann\ d t> him a >haiv t' prai>c which n ntlu-r per~n wa^ ahh- t- claim. Ha\:nLr. !;> ,M|uil, place<l hiniM-lt' np"ii the th; ,.dy related, lie iiuin- a<r'd fur son In it uninnh- . lani>hini: the two sons of Ancus Marciiis, known t- the ]eple that Tan[iiinins . tor the cele- i\ I x < ; s ? K " M I . Usurpation of Servins Tullius. bration of his funeral. This was conducted in the most magnificent manner, Servius retaining, meanwhile, the robes of state, together with all the other insignia of royalty. With the utmost self-possession, and withm; consulting the wishes of either the people or the Senate, he took upon himself the adminis- tration of public affairs, as guardian of the chil- dren of the late king. But, notwithstanding the favor in which he was generally held, this proceeding was strongly disapproved, and the Senate resolved that they would compel him to lay aside the robes and other ensigns of royalty. Urei-iving information of this resolution, vius applied himself to llattor and court the poorer clasaea, in hopes that through them he miii-ht be able to retain his power. To this end, ailed an assembly of the people, and made them a long speech, in which he held out to them promises that could not fail to call forth the most noisy applause. On every hand he was extolled for his fidelity and justice to his laetors, for his humanity and generosity to the poor, and for his kindness to those of an interior rank. On the following day, he caused a list to be made of all the insolvent debtors in Home, to- gether with the sums which each of them - T r i. r. i us. 69 plans to win : ctively. Af -""ii as this li>t was coni])leted, he commanded tables to bo placed in the Forum, and, in the presence of all the citizens, he paid the money to the creditors. This business being done, he published a derive bv which it wa- ordained that those who had c>n verted the pub- lic lauds to their own use >hould give up session within a certain number of days; and that those citi/.ens who had no lands should give in their names to him. Having thus acquired a great multitude of friends, he laid aside his robes of state, and, putting on a very mean div-s, came, <>no day, into the Forum. Such an extraordinary pro- ceeding eau-ed a irreat sensation throughout the city, and the people came to the place in crowds, to know it- n Sorvius, mount- ing the tribunal, told them, in a long speech, that, inasmuch as it was the determination of the Senate and the Patricians to drive him from the throne, he had determined to K>t the people choose some one to rule them in his stead. "Take, then, the rods," he exclaimed, u and give them, if you think fit, to the Patri- cians; my presence shall cause you no further trouble." The people, making a great clamor, entreated him to continue in the administration of affairs. I\IN<;s OF KM MR. Servioa elected King His apprehensions. 1 J is particular friends, who were scattered about in different ])arts of the Forum, cried out that they onirht to make him kinir, and demanded a vote of the people to be taken. The demand bciiiir constantly repeated, an election wa< held, and, as iniirht be expected, a larire majority of the people cast their votes f..r him. and he ac- cepted the kindly oflice, though the Sena 1 fused t<> confirm the proceedings of the people. l-'cai-inir le<t tlie two irrand-"iis of the late kiiiir. Tar<iuinius. niiirht. SOUK- day, dispute with him the crown, he contrived to marry them to his two danirhters, who wnv about the same Hut th' -hall see, was in- sufficient to protect him airain>t the envy which reign p'.wer will always draw upon itself. Kretjiient war- occurred during almost the entire reiirn of Serviu<. the advantage nniformlynjM.nl' . ,f tlie Komans. turninir victorioiU from his iiist campaign, he undertonk a variety of political improvements of irreat and la>tiiiir importance. The>i* im- provements have servc(l to immortali/.e hir=; name, and ]laei- him, in fact, by the side of the iiivah-.-t leiri-hitors of the world. Th. rk- was the establishment of tli -try of the Roman citizens and their property. He then divided the citi- T i 1. 1. 1 r s . 71 Kumrir.'iiK'Mt of the City. . according to their possessions, into six rs, and these classes he subdivided into centuries. Each of these classes had its partic- ular arms ; and the soldiers selected from each, had their particular positions in the army. Previous to this, the poor citizens were obliged to pay the same amount of taxes, and render the same services in war as the rich ; but in uce of this disposition of the people, he raised soldiers according to the division of the centuries, and taxes in proportion to their The population of Rome having very much increased, Servius added two more hills to the A-d the Viminal, and the other the .iline, hill. The land thus included within the city, he divided among such of the Romans as had no houses; and he, himself, fixed his habitation in the most convenient part of the Ksquiline Hill. This is the last addition that was ever made to the city. It now stood upon i hills; every increase of its dimensions having been made after n'rst consulting the auspices as the law directed, and performing religious rites. Servius spent a large portion of his time in devising and executing plans for the general . but he was coi.staiitly annoyed by the in- t'2 KINGS ot ROM r . Jealousy of Lucius Tarquinius. subordination of the nations conquered by liis predecessors. These he punished, one alter another, until they became thoroughly con- vinced of his ability to control them. The earliest and worst fears of Serving now hi-gan to be realized. Lucius Tarquinius, grandson of the late king, and son-in-law of Servius, became impatient for the crown, and, -ated by Tullia, his wife, determined to possess it at all hazards. Reports of their pro- ceedings were brought to the king, who, while he listened to them with calmness, was ill led with resentment as well as with uncertainty as to the course most advisable for him to pnj Hi- concluded to remonstrate with liis son-in- law, and to persuade him, if possible, to relin- quish a scheme which must inevitably end in mi-fortune and ruin. Hut the insolent Tarquin- ius charged his father-in-law with haviin privcd him of the throne, and ap|.i-ah'd to the Senate to sustain his cause. Tin- . who haled IServius, were glad of any thing that might relievo them of his They were, therefore, disposed to aid Tarquinius in his base design. Appealing to the people, Servius succeeded, with little difficulty, in silencing the Senate, and in driving Tarquinius into concealment. Tr i.i. i i < . 7:1 His bold Attempt to possess the Throne. But a favnraMe ..pportunity occurring. Tar- quinius, accompanied by a number of his friends, sallied forth, determined to make a bold stroke for the kingdom. Getting posses- sion of the axes of the lie-furs, and the : I, ho placed the former in the han' some, of his domestics, and arraying himself in the latter, he proceeded cautiou-ly to the Forum. :ing the Senate-hdise, he seated hi: iipnii the ti. Mere tin- . having assembled, paid to him all the honors of his 'on. I, being informed of what had taken astened : Senate-chamber, ;ar<ininiiis seated upon the thr-.i. proache<l him in hitter terms for his conduct. Tarquinius, exulting in the favorable opportu- ed frmii hi< seat, and seixing the . king, by the throat, dragged him t< the >tairs which led from the apartment, and threw him 1 1 ly to the pavement below. The servants \ ins, outnumbered by those of Tarqniniu-, fled in terror, and the old man, stunned by the blow and covered with blood, was obliged t rise without the least assistance, and to proceed homeward undefended. While Servins was on his way to the palace, the servants of Tarquinius, by order of their 74: K I N O 8 O I- K M Murder of 8erviu Cruelty of his Daughter. -ok liiin, and having barbarously slain him, left his body in the middle of the N"t long after, his daughter Tullia. the wife of Tar-iiiiniu^ reached the spot in lu-r chariot. The street being narrow, and the bdy of the kinr lyin.i? directly across it, her horses d and were arrested by the driver. "Why do you stop?" crii-d Tullia; "drive on, slave!" " Look!" replied t: dead body of your father lies before us, and there is no passage except we drive across it!" "Then di ive across it, wretch !"( the heartless woman ; and away went t 'n-akintr the bones and tearinir ate Servins. Tiie street in which tliis horrid scene oc- (nil* d. K < i ived the name of Vious Soderatua^ th< iinjnuntt #trt. AVlien the death of Servins became generally known, a tumult ensue- ;. Tarquinius was obliged to conceal him.-elf in to >a\e liis life. riRQUINIUS SUPERBUS. IK"M M i ;...; H c. Fears of Tarquinius His Precautions His Cruelty His 'l';irjuiniu.s Prodigies Story of Lucrt'tiii Conduct 'f Brutus ami liis ( 'oinpanions - ( of annual Magistrates Conspiracy to ovri turn tin- lu-puli- lic ConcK-Minsiti'iii an-1 I>-;ith d tin- Smis ..f I'.iutus Ef- forts of Tanjuinius to n--aiii tli-- IbraM -Lars Poreenna. Burrrs AND ins COMPANIONS. VII. TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. TARQUIN KBBUS, or Tun pi in th> was thus named because of the impeii>i which lie assumed upon all occasions, l.th public and private. His reign, as may be posed from what has been already related of began in fear and trembling. The divud of poison and the assassin's dagtr much, that, for >ine time after the mur- der of Servius, he scare. 1 beyond sails of his own dwelling. By night ho around his palace a strong body of choseL with swords and spears, and, l.y day, ti ndc-d him wherever he went. Spies informed him of every thing that trans- .irdom, and any one who uttered a word against him was sure to be put to death. Hundreds of persons, including ators and the wealthier BMI -ne, fell a sacrifice to his barbarity ; and the Plebeians, 80 I\ I N G S O F E O M K . Cruelty of Tarquiniua Mamillus. whom he disdained to kill, were tormented by his unjust and cruel laws. The institution Servius, by which tliey were protected against injury from the Patricians, were all taken away, and the taxes which he imposed upon them, stripped the poorer classes of almost all their possessions. Nor wa< this all ; for, by the power which lie obtained throiiirh bribery and threats, IK- was enabled to compel multitudes of the ] rt- la- in r. merely for their f"d, at the build: 1 temples and other public works, which he un- dcrt'-ok with -ivat vip.r. F,r all these evils seemed to be no remedy, f r ] -leased to see th- in people op- -d. and the cmmuii people were imt - that the Patricians liad been rol their To make up for his want d' iirthen hini-elf by fnreitrn alli- dauirliter in marria. Octavius Mamilius, a man of great power and A-n thr.mirh'mt the whoh- Latin nation, he :\-<l his la : with that of the nn-t considerable ma^iMrati-.s in c\f!-\ city. Tanpiinius was not unambitious of mil: 1 fame, nor was his knowledge of war by any means cuntemptible. On the other hand, he Sri- KIM-, i 81 Wars of Tsrqninia* - Prodigies. liuve equalled, perhaps surpassed, the of his predecessors, had tlie baseness and wick T his character been less irhirin^. os of tlie Volsci having refused t alliance with him, he made war upon tin-in, and tok by storm Suessa Fomeiia. from which he realized a very large booty. II raring, soon after, that the Sabines 1 ^ the Roman territory, he marched out against them and Miccceded in dcstrovinir their entire army. But he was less fortunate against abians, who had rendered them>elves \ ei-y odious to him by giving protection to many of his enemies, and especially to the banished citi- zens of Rome. Army after army wa- purpose. Finally, they were conquered by means of a stratagem de- Idest son, Sextus Tar<iuinius. This Roman king, according to the legend, was especially favored with prodigies of vari us I, which had irreat inlluencc upon the j.eo- ple, many of whom regarded them as evidences of the high esteem in which he was held by the While Tarquinius was engaged in beffoging Ardea, a city of the Kutulians, a circumstance :rcd which roulted, according to the le- gend, in his downfall and expulsion from Rome. K i N <; M OK U <> M i. . Story of Lucretia. Sextus, his eldest son, conceiving a strong sion for Lncretia, the wife of his cousin Col la tinns Tarquinius, went to her house, and after urging her to abandon her husband, forced her to commit a crime for which she afterwards stabbed herself dead in the presence of her father, and of Collatinus, with his friends Vale- rius and Brutus. "Swear," she cried t> them with her dying breath, "that the de- my peace shall not go unpunished ! It is tus Tarquinius who hath wronged thee, O ('!- latinus, and carried sorrow into thy household ! If ye be men, swear that he shall not < Springing towards the body of Luci ISrutus snatched from the wound the bloody knii'e, and raising it to his lips, exclaimed: "By this blood most chaste until injure* 1 by n>y;il in^'lence, I swear and call you, oh ye . to witness, that I will pr -truc- . by sword, lire, and every possible in in my power, both Lucius Tanpiinius the I 'mini, and his impi. r with their entire . and never will suffer one of them, nor any other pei-son whatsoever, to be king in E-ome! Lay aside your grief, Collatinus; kiss this sa- id swear as I have sworn ; kiss it, Lucretius, and you, too, Valerius. The bl>..d of Lucretia shall piir^e tin.- palaces of Rome!*' TARQCINIUS SIM-KIM; rs. 83 Conduct of Brutus and his Companions. Taking the body in their amis, they carried it intu the Forum, followed by a largo ami curi- ous crowd. Here Brutus told the revolting . which was caught up and circulated by a thou>and tongues through every part of Rome. Nothing was talked of but the enormities of the royal family; and the rage of the people, finally, rose so high, that they declared that Tar<|uinii;s and hi >lnuld die ; and they implored Brutus to lead them on against the bloody tyrants. A little consultation among the leaders of the rebellion resulted in a recommendation to the people to appoint two annual magistrates, to be 1 with the kingly power. An el was held without delay, and Ilrutus and Colla- tinus were unanimously chosen. Thus, in a short time, the government of Rome was entirely changed. AVhile this revolution was in progress, Tar- quinius was in his camp, at Ardea. Hearing what had happened, he set off, full speed, for Rome, but was peremptorily denied admission and warned to go away. Returning to his camp, he there met with a similar reception, and, to save his life, was forced to fly, in com- pany with his sons, to Caere, a city of Ktruriji. With a view to recover his power, Tarquin- - } K I N O 8 O F R V ilMon of Tarquinius The Sons of Brutus. ius, some time after, sent friends to Rome, un- der pretence of asking tlie Roman government to restore the property which he had been com- pelled to leave behind him. These friend-, with a view to overthrow the government, I in securing the co-operation of a num- ber of influential men, and among them the two sons of Brutus. The conspirators aim (.-induct every thing with the utmost but their plans were di>covercd, one night, by a slave, and they were con\ <<:, d of crime against the FI Unit us, as chief magistrate, 'was obliged to sit up.. M tin- judgment-rat to which the con- spirators, including his own sons, were brought l'r trial. ' v one th. placed 1,. him, and the testimony in produced and weighed. AVith a linn VtWC he need them all to scourging and t< i nor did he turn away his eyes when the heads of his two sons were placed beneath the fatal d at the failure of his enterprise, Tar- <|uiniu-> now went throughout all the cities of Ktruria, endeav-.riiig t<> urge them to take up arms against the Roman people. The \< lian< and the Tar.juinians. in answer to hi- , . placed two powerful armies un- TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. 85 Lars Poreenna. der his command. Unit us and his e*>lK : ii t meet him, and, after a terrible eonilk't, succeeded once more in delivering tlieir country ; but Brutus lost his lite upon the battle-field. Tarquinius, though greatly discouraged by a second failure, carried his complaints to Lars Poreenna, king of Clusium. His arirui not in vain. Porsenna dt-claivd that e should have a king, and tl kiiiij should be of the Etrurian race. M< preparations were once more madt < >ver- throw of the Roman Republic; but the m-w troubles into which the nation was plunged, ami the narrative of its contest with the famous Porsenna, belong more properly to the second part of this hist* TART I. QUESTIONS. I. ROMULUS. Page 13. What Is said of the legends of Rome ? For Nvh.it 11 H,s ually occupied? Mention some : .said of Alba? What were A 1 hi and Lavinium called ? 1". Fi.'m whom diil Romulus and Remus descend ' Who was their 111. t h.-r.' \\ .t.-d of th.-ir infancy .' H-w <li<l they act, on reaching manhood? What resolution did .,en take? I. What is related of their quarrel? What i> new city? How did Romulus increase hi* people? What order of nobler did he iii>titute? 17. What st.-ps did he take to procure wives for his peo- ple? Of what stratagem did hi-, finally, make use? 18. What wen Its of this act.' How \\. Sabines pacified.' What was the treaty made with tlu-iu ? What became of Tatius? What troubles did Komulus ex- perience ? How did he show his pride and ambition ? 19. In what way did he arouse the indignation of the Senate against himself ? What became of him ? What fol- lowed his disappearance ? IL NUMA POM 1 'I LI US. Page 25. What was the condition of Rome at the death of Iti-Minlus.' What irnd.-ivd bi> death inon: -ri.-vous? What dilncultie.s were in the way of making a king? 88 K I N G S O F R O M K . lir,. Who assumed the royal prerogative? How was the Senate composed? How did they administer the govern- ment? What was this interval called? Who was limilly chosen king ? What is said of Numa ? 27. How did he gain the confidence of the people ? What temple did he build ? What is said of this temple f \Vhut belief was entertained in regard to Numa What was the religion of the Romans? What order of priests did Numa institute? li'.i. Why were they called Salii? What was their num- ber? How did Numa preserve peace? What did he culti- vate and teach among the people? How did they i him ? What division was made of the lands? 30. How was the country divided ? How did Numa pro- mote industry .' How did he unite more thoroughly the people ? Wliieh of his works is here spoken of.' At what age did he die? :;l. llv, \\, . the people affected by his death .' What is said of his funeral ? 1 1 1 . TULLUS HOSTILI I s. Page 37. What happened soon after the death of Numa? Wh.. | .1 king.' What was the first n< t of Tul- 38. How liil he provide for those who were drstii lands.' I'rom what grew the principal events uf his i What is said of the Alban king.' Who Succeeded him? How did Tullus proceed? 89. What did Mettius then do? What :it did they make? Who were the champions selected to d the destinies of Rome and Alba? 40. How did the combat begin? Relate what followed. 41. What did Horatius do on returning to Rome ? What lu-camr of Mettius { What wars followed this e- I'J. What calamity ensued.' What i> stid of th H.'W did hi.-> death o 8 T 1 V , 89 IV.-_A\TS Page IV Fm what was A \vh;it was Li- ils h;ul :_'u of Tuli || U-Ljin his :ms .!i,l he make? \ til tied had li.lheW. ... \Vh;it was the con.lu. -t of the Latins ? What wa.* ooeed- ing against them ? 47. ' 1 he conquer? What did the Latins now do? How did he, finally, dispose of them? H he enlarge Rome. 48. What i-iiMi,- improvem.-nts did he make? How did he restrain evil-doers P How did he test! the gods? How long did he reign P Wi ll.Mth' 49. What title was bestowed upon him ? V. T Ai;< >l INITJS PRISCUS. Page 55. Who was Tarquiniiw Priscus P What story is told concerning his advent to Borne ? 56. What attentions did he receive P On l.i-ii,^ nmilc i...w di.l he strengthen his position P \N i 1 1 What was his first achievement ! How did he commemorate it ? 57. What was his success against his jealous neighbors P What did he do for the greater safety he wish to improve the armyP Whom did he consult in thhsni.v 58. What story is related of NaviusP HowdidTarquinins now act? What nations did he prepare to attack P success had he against the Sabines P l;it-.l of his war with th.- T\ i rl.'-niansP 60. In what way did he now employ him-. -It ' \\ luit is sii.l of hw sewers, or doaeaet What cf th- jaN.-.I ways? 90 K I N G S < > I- I J < M E . To whom did Tarquinius now commit the cares of govern- ment? 61. How did the sons of Ancus Marcius show their vexa- tion ? How did they accomplish the king's death? \Yh;il did Tanaquil do upon the occasion ? What appeal did she make to Ser.vius ? t', What stratagem did they adopt? What was their success ? VI. SERVIUS TULLIUS. Page 67. What is said of the origin and youth of Servius Tu 11 MS.' What course did he pursue after placing himself upon the throne? 68. In whoso name did he assume the government? What \\crc the feelings of the Senate? What means did Servius adopt to retain his power ? What did he do for insolvent debtors and those who had no lands! 1 In what way did he appeal to the peo- ple? 70. What demand did they make ? What was the result of the election? How did he dispose of the grand>onx ,,i TarqniniMs? What is said of the wars of Servius ? What of his public works? 71. How did he divide the citizens? What additions did he make to the city? How did Servius spend much of his time? 72. What difficulty did he experience with his son-in-law ? What was the result of his remonstrance with him ? How did the Senate act? 73. How did Tarquinius get possession of the throne? What did Servius then do? What treatment did he receive from Tarquinius? 74. How was his death accomplished? What was the eondiict of his daughter ? What name was given to the iu which this scene occurred? QUESTIONS. :1 VII. TAKQl'lNIUS SUPERBUS. Pay 79. How did Tarquinius Superbus receive his nadfof How did he begin his reign ? What care did he take to pre- serve his life f Of what cruel acts was he guilty f 80. How did he treat the poor? Why wen n..t the evils remedied ? What foreign alliance did he contract f What to said of his military knowledge T 81. What ware did he carry on ? What Is said of the pro- digies with which he was favored? uinstance led to his downfall f What is re- lated of Brutus ? 88. How were the people affected by the fate of Lucretia ? What was the result of the rebellion f How did Tarquitaus proceed, and how was he treated f 84. How did he try to recover his power ? What is related of the conspiracy ? How did Brutus act in this case f W hat further means did Tarquinius adopt to recover the kim. 85. What was the fate of Brutus ? What is related of Lars Porsenna f THE absorbing narratives which make up the his- tory of the Republic of Rome, are rendered none the leas instructive to the general reader, and certainly the less essential to the student, by reason of the abundant :u iiu-ness evinced by Beaufort and Ni.-huhr proving the testimonies of Livy and Dionysius. In- deed, a very good knowledge of the narratives here col- i is necessary, in ord- leasure or profit -e derived from the writings of these modern his- torians. \\ '!,:! much of this period of Roman 1 is undoubtedly fabulous, real characters begin to make appearance, and the early struggles between Lib- nd Despotism evince an origin antect< ters of anti.juity who have recorded th. in. They are always read and studied with the -t interest, and so, too, are those exhibitions of the love of authority, and thirst of military glory, .\iivh, taking the place of the -stern Roman v drained the plains of Italy of its noble inhabitants, and to die in distant lands, whil<- th -ir ambi- tious leaders, making conquest after conquest, sul Sj.ain, Carthage, Greece, Egypt, Asia, and, at length, inul.T Julius Cjesar. Rome itself. nu nt. I. TOE WA* WITH POKBENXA 15 II. THE WA* WITH TH* LATINS 41 III. THE PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS I V. THX TRIBUNES of TH* PEOPLE 87 V TlUR DECEMTOa ... 121 VI DESTRUCTION or ROME BT TBS OAULA 149 VII. FOREIGX CONQUESTS 173 VIIL THE JuGURTniNE WA ... 197 IX. MARIUS AND SYLLA . 281 CITIL WARS AJCD CONSPIRACIES 253 XL JCLIUB CJHAE.. . 286 Illustrations. MM FEAT or UOKATIUS COCXJEB Frontitpttef. CORIOLANCS AND HIS MoTUXB 86 DEATH or VIBOIMA CAPTURE or CAIUS MABJUS AMAJMDTATIOV or JULIUS CJMAR TIIK WAR WITH PORSENNA. FROM 407 TO 60S B. C. THINGS related in the Stories of " The Kings of Rome" The consul Publius Valerius Unjust Suspicions t him His Refutation of them Anecdote of Hora- tius Pulvillus King Tarquinius appeals to Por.-enim. king of Clusium Porsenna prepares to MM'..- \Y;ir iijion Rome a.ks Rome Horatius Codes His Defence of the Jfri'l^e across the Til>er The Honor paid to him !'<>: -s Rome The Story of Caiua Mucius The Story of Clcelia, FEAT "OF HOEATIUS COCLES. THE WAR WITH PORSENNA. THE Koman Eepublic may be said to have commenced upon the day when Brutus and Collatinus were elected consuls. Tarquinius Superbus was at this time king of Rome ; and at the very moment when the revolution took place, he and his immense army were encamped before the walls of Ardea, endeavoring to bring that strong city in subjection to Rome. To be completely stripped of his power at home, and to be shamefully and helplessly driven fruni the mid-r of his troops, was an event of which neither he nor his subjects had dreamed two clays before its occurrence. Still it is not a matter which should occasion surprise, for Tarquinius was a detested tyrant, whom the people, under a resolute leader, were at any moment ready to crush. This leader was Brutus ; and the Roman 16 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Things related in the Stories of the Kings of Home. people vested him and his colleague, Collati- nus, with the government of the city. The ar- my was withdrawn from the walls of Ardea. Joy took the place of the murmuring and dis- content which had prevailed throughout the city. The excellent laws which had been es- tablished by King Servius, and abolished by Tarquinius, were now restored. The people again exercised the rights of freemen ; and peace and prosperity seemed to be the destiny of Rome. But Tarquinius was still alive. The en Cumre had opened its gates to receive him ; and . mortified and em-aired. IK- -pent his time in devising means tor tin.- rec\vry <f his throne. Kirst he resorted to stratagem ; hut h ])lislic(l imtliin^ exe.-pt the sacrifice of the of IJrutus ami the destruction of all the friends whom lie ^till ]s>c>si-<l in Koine. Then ho appealed to the \\-ieiitians and Tarquinia aid him in his de>i t irn. Here a.Lrain he failed, him>elf and allies being driven in terror fmiu the battle-field, while the Roman army, laden with spoil-, went home in triumph. Not lon^ before this last-mentioned event, Collatings, the colleague of Brutus, had been obliged to resign the consulship and leave Rome, simply because he bore the hated name WITH POBI 17 The consul Publlns Valerius. of Lucius Turquinius. Publius Valerius was appointed in I ilrutu< too, having been the lirst tu >hed his blond in the cause of the Republic. All tlie-e things have been related in the, stories of Tin; K o loss of Brutus was a grievous thin_ the Eoman people. He had donemme than anv . ! the accompli-1 freedom. He was, in fact, regarded as deliver, ;. He ! I" bo t.lain v had < the .d in him ti. they e.-uld j.lact^ the i. di-atll lilletl them with app. iway im- i with >i ie the prey to a t d than that frni \\ i had justes- :i the cmi-iil I'lihlius became an lousy and suspicion, because he did nt : ;cy occa- d by tli- \n> lilled. It M.ut that he to rule a in order that he iniirht i\mi\- ea-ily make him- self kinir of Ron.''. M Why d-.e-, he choose Mount Yelia for his residence?" asked one. lie has grown proud and wMi-- t place e the common people," was the 18 REPUBLIC OF ROME. The consul Publius Valerius. reply of some. " He desires to be king, and means to build an impregnable fortress," said others. Though these remarks and suspicions were not accompanied by threats, or violent demon- strations, yet they had great effect upon the consul Publius. He heard them indeed with indignation, for it was far from his intention to usurp authority greater than he already pos- sessed. Still he resolved to dispel the fi-aix entertained concerning him, and therefore is- sued a proclamation for the people to meet him in a public assembly. When they were all convened, he went into their midst, and or- dering the fasces to be lowered, mounted the tribunal to speak to them. This proceeding was highly grateful to the people, for by low- ering the fasces he acknowledged their sover- eignty. "Romans," said he, "how excellent the fortune of my colleague, who, after having accomplished the deliverance of his country, and after having been raised to the highest post- of honor, It'll dying in defence of the republic ! When his glory was in its per- fection he departed ; before the glance of sus- picion had been directed towards him, before the tongue of jealousy had wounded him. But I, surviving the glory which I have won. have WAR WITH PORSEXXA. 19 The consul Publius Valerius. at last l>ec<>ine the object of calumny, and, from the character of deliverer of my country, I am sunk to the level of those who would have ,\vd it. AVill no degree of merit, then, ever gain your confidence, so far as to be se- cure from the attacks of suspicion ? Could I have the least apprehension that I. the bitterest enemy to kings, should undergo the charge of aiming at kingly power? Supj> dwelt in the very citadel, and in the capitol, could I believe that 1 was an object of t< to my countrymen ? Doeimy reputation amn^ you depend on so mere a trifle? Is my title to your confidence so slightly founded that it re to be considered where I am, than what I am? Citizens, the h<ui<e of Publius Yah-riu< shall be no obstruction to your free- dom : the Velian Mount shall be secure to you. I will not only bring down my house to the plain, but will iix it under the hill, that your dwellings may overlook that of your suspected countryman. Let those build on the Velian ^M>unt to whom you can better intrust your liberty than to Publius Vale: These few words were sutlicient to convince the people that their suspicions were unfound- ed. They served also to remind them that Va- lerius was the coadjutor of Brutus and Collati- 20 KEPUBLIC OF EOME. The consul Publius Valerius. nus in expelling the tyrant who had so long oppressed them. Shame therefore took pos- session of them, and they separated for their respective homes, leaving Valerius to enjoy the satisfaction of having triumphed over their sus- picions. Faithful to his promise, he immediately caused the workmen who were engaged upon his palace to remove the stones and timbers from the top of the mount to the vale below. Here he erected a modest mansion, and laying aside every thing which was calculated to ex- cite envy or jealousy, applied himself to the administration of his office. The excellent laws which he proposed, and his manifest devotion to the cause of the people, soon secured the confidence of his fellow-citizens ; and he even became so popular that the surname of Publi- cola was bestowed upon him. In a short time Spurius Lucretius was elected consul in the pla'ce of Brutus ; but being far advanced in years, he died in a few days after his election. Marcus Horatius Pulvillus was placed in his stead. _Of him nothing remark- able is related, except that on one occasion he showed a good deal of self-possession. It seems that the temple of Jupiter, though some time completed, had never been dedicated. The W A R W I T H P O R S K X N A . 21 Anecdote of Horatius Fulvillus. honor of performing tin- - on Mich an occasion beini: very considerable, the t-\\o consuls, Publius and lioratius, east l"ts tor the office. The lot fell to ll<>ratiu>. This 1 displeasure to the friends of Puhlius, who avoivd in every way to delay and prevent the 'ceremonies. Their elfor iiM-K-s. The day was appointed, and all the preparat: oeca-ioii ]>i'M].erly made. A great multitude assembled around the tem- ple, and Horatius hciran by perl'..rmin^ tl.< rifices and other preliminai it--. Having liniVh- ed these, he laid hold of the do..r-po-ts. while all - in a moi revi-i-ential re to listen to his pronunciation ,,f the r of consecration. Just as he had :id was about calling upon the name of Jupiter, the brother of 1'ublius, who had watched the opportunity, ru> : ieiily before him, and exclaimed in an excited man- mer : Horatius, your son has just died/' Ho- ratius, lowering I/ ;i'id looking for a mo- meut at the messenger, calmly replied, - Let him then be buried." He then proceeded with his prayer, completed the dedication, and caused his name to be placed upon the front of the temple. For a brief period, the affairs <>f the Kouian 22 REPUBLIC OF ROME. King Tarquinius appeals to Lars Porsenna. Republic seemed prosperous enough. Abroad their arms had been triumphant under the di- rection of the consuls ; at home the resolution of the people to maintain republican principles had intimidated the ambitious, and forced the proud Patricians to show a degree of kindness and justice which they had never before ex- hibited. The Senate carried their generosity so far as to tax themselves much more than the other citizens, and even took pains to furnish provisions to the poorer classes at a much low- er price than they had been accustomed to pay. But in all this they were actuated by fears for their own safety ; for enemies to the Republic were now springing up on every hand, and it behooved those who had every thing at stake to exercise prudence, and even to make some sacrifices. King Tarquinius, though constantly baffled in his undertakings, was still determined to recover, if possible, his throne. In connection with the defeated Ye- ientians and Tarquinians, he made a strong appeal to Lars Porsenna, the powerful king of Clusium. He* laid before him his own wrongs ; spoke of the indignities which, through him, had been offered to kings, and urged Porsenna to revenge the common cause of royalty. AV A R W I T II P O R S K X N A . 23 Porsenna prepares to make War upon Home. Porseiina. willing to add to the gl.>ry which he had already acquired, readily took up tlie quarrel of Tarquinius. and forthwith made the active preparation t> march a powerful army against K"me. He knew full well that it was no ordinary war in which he would have to engage. The num d brilliant victo- achieved by K"man amis were well known to him ; and he did not forget, moreover, that in defence of their li <-y would exhibit a degree of valor which a contest lor dominion or spoils would not call forth. Th- M.sofPor re tlu-refore made with the utnio>t care. His own c: Clusiuni furnishe<l an army Millicient to cope with an ordinary foe; hut he wa< not satisfied with this. M --were di-patelu-d to all tlie cities of Ktruria, with invitations to join liim in cni>liing the common i-m-mv of Italy. Latin ci: ,''-d to furnish all the aid which th- ;d, and, from all direc: >ops flocked dailv around his stan- dard. Intelligence of these vigorous proceedings wa- not IMIIM- in reaching Home. The Senate received it with terror; and the people, de- spairing of being able to resist such a host c enemies, were alni">t ready to yield the city 24 KEPUBLIC OF ROME. Porsenna attacks Koine. without a blow. The news was carried, too, to the seaport of Ostia and spread among the shepherds and husbandmen all around the city, and so great was the fear that took possession of those who heard it, that a general flight took place among them. The walls of Rome seemed to afford the only safeguard against their innu- merable foes. Thither they fled in multitudes : the aged and the young. Thither they drove their flocks of sheep and goats, their horses and mules and cattle ; and thither, from every farm-house and hamlet, went long trains of wagons loaded with grain and wine and house- hold goods, so that every gate of Rome was fairly choked with those who sought refuge from the invading foe. Nor were the apprehensions of these fugi- tives without foundation ; for scarcely had they found security within the walls, than, looking behind them, they beheld the smoke and flames of their abandoned dwellings, and knew, by the clouds of dust that filled the sky, that their foes were pushing forward, resolved upon the total destruction. of their State. Onward they came, trampling down and covering every field and vineyard within sight of Rome, and speedily reaching the high wall that surrounded the Janiculum, boldly and vig- \Y AR WITH I'.MJS K\ \ \ . Valerius ami tin- Unman H plied their batter.' .st its ponder- ous - rk. It was a dreadful moment for the Roman le ; and the v -iek at In-art, an<; tain that their power was at an end. knew not what to do. They nu-t ; but it seemed n for the purpose of bearing ea< Company in the d. they hourly awaited, iiad any plan ot a to pro} M, fr the walls were alrea<i ::h the 1 of h- :iuts of triiunph, !' the Janieubint acro>- terv-ninir T' :ietrated into citadel. :ore," shouted the consul Valerius, as ,-hrd into the mi<Ut of the terrified a %> why >tand ye here idle and craven- ted '. Alrea<i\ t: :ihnn :'allin^ Itefon- the batteries of Poreenna ! Once ujM.n it- h. y have mil;. bridge and Kome \\ ill 1 Hasten, Senators! Let us meet them at. the Km-: ; iid be the first to block its passage by our i Forth went Valerius, and forth, too, went the an Senate with all speed \ the bridge which, crossing the Tiber, united the 26 HE PUBLIC OF HOME. Horatius Codes. Janiculum to the more densely inhabited por- tions of the city. Here they arrived just as the enemy began, one by one, to leap through the breaches made in the wall on the opposite side of the river. "The bridge must be broken down," shouted Valerius ; " there is no other hope for Rome ! Bring axes, my brave Hora- tius," he continued, addressing the captain of the gate, "bring axes ; hew down the bridge." "Thou art right, Valerius," replied Horatius Codes; "the bridge must be lu-wn down, but let this be thy task, while I, with two others, cross to the further side and defend the passage till your work is done. Who dare follow me?" shouted Codes. "If none, then I will meet alone the hosts of Porsenna." Saying which he sprang, sword in hand, upon the bridge, and ran towards the other end, which the en- emy were now approaching. Behind ran also two brave Romans who had l>een inspired, by his words ; ami no sooner had the three reached the middle of the bridge than the consuls, the senators, and the people all began with and bars to tear it down. "Vile slaves," shouted Codes to the fore- most of the approaching host, "why do you not seek to secure your own liberty rather than to wrest it from those who have had the courage \V A i: w i i H r 27 Bridge across the Ti in it ? By the . i nut pass I until I hii\v 1 it with At these words a loud peal of 1; rose from the troops, who, n< w, K-apin;: by thousands tlm urh the broki ^ towards the river. The next moment a cloud of ai showered down upon Cocles and his brave companions; but ess upon the lers and heavy armor which they wore. i the stoutest and bravest warriors from the ranks of the enemy, eager for glory and confident of success, ran with spears and axes to win the narrow pass; but Cocles and his companions stood like rocks before them, and, one by one, the greatest champions of Yeii, of 11 lifeless at In the mean time, the Romans on the < vigorously with axes, cut away, one after ano timbers which supported the bridge. The last prop was all that now remained ; Valerius, seeing that the structure would soon fall, called out, "Come back, Horatius Cocles; come back, brave Romans ; the bridge is } ^ enough to hold you ; come back, before it is too late." The companions of Cocles at once obeyed the BE PUBLIC or Codes' Defence of the Britlse acr<s tho Tiber. Biimmons, but that fierce Roman, being en- gaged in a desperate conflict with a stalworth Yeientian, paid no attention to the call. Again Valerius shouted to him, but the words had hardly escaped his lips, when the bridge fell, with a mighty crash, into the waters of the yel- low Tiber. A scream of rage now burst forth from the disappointed hosts of Porsenna, and a thousand arrows were directed against the body of the brave Codes. Protecting himself by his broad buckler, and succeeding, too, in cleaving to the earth the enemy with whom he was engaged, lie sprang into the Tiber. "Holy father Tibe- rin-. I be-eeeh thee to receive the-e anus, and this thy soldier, into thy propitious stream/' said the courageous man, as he leaped from the banks of the' river. Down went Codes loaded with his heavy armor, and the deep waters dosod above him. His friends <>n the one side and his foes on the other, all ga/ed in solemn silence at the spot in which he sank. His valor and his intrepidity had excited the admiration of his enem ; < well as of his friends, and sorrow lor the possible Lott of so brave a man seemed to pervade 6 breast. "While they were still gazing upon the ruffled stream, a black helmet rose above the V-' I \A. 29 Tli i hand- i . A. and even l'>rsenna himself, nnal- . man and boar liii;: 1 the we ntly, too, did he I'M rev I -rent, 'nmln-Miis mail in A hui 1 the floOfl -d lie went alon, ' As he wal! , up tlio river 1- OIB, ami the ](.; ;ind him, and t'airl; i him in with crowns <>f \ y ^ave him the ithout t! liim - duri' : ire 4 win'.- liiui CMI-II and wine, and daily loaded his table and his store ith every tiling that the 30 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Porsenna besieges Rome. market produced ; and besides all this, they commemorated his bold achievement by a bra- zen statue which they erected in the Comitium. Notwithstanding the admiration which Por- senna felt for his foes, he w^as still determined to accomplish their destruction. Failing in his meditated attack upon the city, he resolved to besiege it, and force the inhabitants to yield, if possible, by destroying the fields and hamlets which lay around it, and by plundering and slaying all who unfortunately fell in his way. The Romans did not quietly submit to all this. Whenever an opportunity occurred, they sent bands of soldiers privately from the city, who would frequently cut off hundreds of their enemies, with very little injury to themselves. Stratagems of every kind w r ere resorted to by them, and Porsenna, finding upon one occasion that he had lost more than five thousand of his best troops, resolved to surround the city with his vast army, and, by cutting off all supplies of provisions, finally starve the people into sub- jection. It was not long before the citizens began to suffer extremely from this blockade. They had, fortunately, an unusual quantity of food, but every day it was diminishing with great rapidity, and starvation or slavery seemed in- W A R W I T II 1' . V A . 31 The Story of Caius ^Iiu-ius. evitable. In this strait, Koine presented an- other evidence of the boldness and patriotism of her citizens. Three Inmdivd young men of illustrious birth, 'mining that they would rather die than see Home subjected to a foreign yoke, bound tlieinselves by tlie most solemn oatlis that they would fi-i -s from Porsenna or Bi death in the attempt. In accordance with a i-ted plan, one of them, named Cains Mucius appeared one day bef>re the Senate and demanded j a to leave the city, saving at the same time that he i something of great importance to the common- weal; h, and that he was willing to risk his life in the undertaki: -ion was granted, and he found the v nn- ( by the enemy. In-ing well acquainted with their language, he had no difficulty in mingling with the sol- diers and pas-ing himself off a- one of their number. AYandering about the camp, he final- ly d! ; the king'- tent; and oldening that many persons were pacing in and out, he ventured to intrude upon, the royal presence. Looking about for the king, his attention was anv>ted by two persons of very dignified ap- pearance, and both arrayed in robes of equal REPUBLIC o F H o M K . The Story of Caius Mucius. splendor. One of them sat motionless and ap- parently deep in meditation ; the other, with large heaps of gold before him, was constantly occupied in giving and receiving messages, and in bestowing portions of his gold upon one and another who went in and out before him. " This busy individual is certainly the king," thought Mucius. He dared not, however, ask, lest his ignorance should betray him. Firm in his resolution, he therefore stole slowly and carelessly towards him, and having arrived within Ji (TUtance suitable fur his purpose, drew forth a knife which he had concealed within his div<-;, and plunged it into the heart of his victim. A cry of horror iv.se on all sides, and Mu- cius, notwithstanding hi- -ate efforts to 'ily anvskMl. ]]\- had killed the ki HIT'S secretary instead of the king, and those who held him. , ; him at once be- fore the monarch to receive the sentence due to his criiiK>. Trembling with ra^v, IVisenna demanded his rea-uji for such monstrous con- duct. Without the least manifestation of fear, he replied in a firm voice: "I am a Roman. My name is Cains Mucius. I came here wiih a determination to kill the enemy of my coun- try. Fortune. Porsenna, hath permitted thee WAR WITH 1' N A . , I'orsenna. ' for ti. '. 1 H-ii ana than mine will reach thee. . I not seek the 1.1. >od of thy soldiers, but thine II- >mlied at SUC :ent, the kini^ at 01 him, and order kindled. comma i'l"t in which !; i, under arm in the tlan: h-.\v h. hack i'ered his hand to become fairly roasted in i Po; _r for a few munii-nts this from St of hi- :a the lire. " Go home, yum., . laimed ;" I cannot destroy such go it be use'. .0 the liheriy which I give and depart." .Mucius appra 1 /' TO l)y tlie roeity of l^r-eima than ly the flames kin- I 34: EEPUBLIC OF KOME. Departure of Mucius. died for his destruction, thus addressed the monarch : I desire, O king ! to show you that kindness is more powerful with the brave than threats ; and since you are disposed to honor courage, be it knowTi to you, that three hundred of the principal youths of Rome have bound themselves by an oath to attack you, as I have done ; my lot happened to be first ; the others will be with you, each in his turn, according as the lot shall set him foremost, until fortune shall afford an opportunity of succeeding against you." Having uttered these words, he departed, leaving Porsenna most deeply affected by the danger to which he now saw himself daily ex- posed. One of the three hundred assassins had already been within his tent ; the knives of the others were doubtless ready to draw his blood ; and if in the hands of such daring men as Mucius, how small was his prospect of life. For some time Porsenna sat upon the tribunal, silent and meditative. Having carefully re- flected upon his condition, and the chances of conquering a people who had resolved to resort to the most desperate measures in self-defence, he concluded that it would be the part of wis- dom to propose terms of accommodation to the Eomans. WITH PORSEXXA. 35 The Story of Cloelia. Ilis resolution beinu- taken. IK- at once sent ami-; :<> tlie city vith /ti>n that Tarquiniua should he ac-kimwl- . This the li-'inan- ]>er- emptorily refused ; and the amla- ; >eing ucted no- vield- c d. propnsiiiLT nt the same time to withdraw their army, <>n c'iulitin that tlie linnians should up the lands whieh they had, some time l>el're, ta 'in the Veieiitians; and that tliey should n'ive hostagefl t ; r the iiillilnu-nt of tl The Romans In- to this, Porsenna removed his troops tVom the Janiculuni and departed to his own country. It is said that a y.nniir \v-.man named Clu-lia, one of the hostages, watching a favorahle op- portunity, escajjed as they were almt depart- inir. with several of her companion-, and swam acn-s the Tiber, thnniirh a >hower of dan charged at them hy the enemy. Arrivin ill the other- repaired t<> th ; but Porsenna, hear- f the atlair, was very anirry. and sent am- tdors to Eome demanding the restoration .'i-lia. No sooner, however, had the am- adore gone, than Porsenna expressed the greatest admiration of the conduct of Cloelia, 36 EEPUBLIC OF ROME. The Romans reward Mucius and Cla-lia. and declared that if she was restored he would tend her back to Rome. Faithful to the terms of their treaty, the Ro- mans caused Cloelia to be sent back to the camp of the Etrurians. Porseima not only complimented her upon her courageous con- duct, but told her that she might return to the city and take with her half of the hostages. Granting her the privilege of choosing am'iig them, it is said that she took the youngest, as she considered these most liable to injury from the enemy. Peace being again restored, the Romans did not forget to reward Mucius for his heroic con- duct. In addition to the honor which wa< paid to him, the Senate bestowed upon him a largo traci near the river Tiber, culled afterwards the Mucian meadows; and Mucius i the name of Sc;i-v..la, or the left handv d. because his right hand was destroyed by the flame- in which he held it. Nor did the conduct of Oo-lia go unnoticed. Her intrepidity commemorated by an e<]iie>trian statue erected at the head of the Sacred street. Porsenna, unwilling to return home without the glory of a single victory, sent a portion of his forces to lay siege to Aricia, a city of La- tium. It proved, however, an unfortunate un- \VITH ]' 37 Friendship between Porsenna and the Romans. r although the arrack \vas entirely unev it rived to di their city until sufficient ai<l \\ the I ates and fro hen they :n -d an engagement in the lield. The success of the Ktrurians seemed at first 1>< a doubt; but an artful movement on the j.art of the cohorts of Cumse decided the rces of Porsenna were completely b< and scattered over the plains. A great many of them fled to Rome for protection. 1 .so kindly received, that Porsr ifl gratitude, gave ba> mans the lands which they had \ i*ree- alily to the treaty that had been lately made between the :ice was the cause of so strong endship between Porsenna and the Ro- mans, that Tarqu: to promote his own interests through their quarrels, went from Clusium to Tusculmn, in hopes of procuring the aid of Octavius Mam 51- he renowned chief of the Latin nation. His application in this quarter was not in \ Man, -nt secretly to work among the cit- ies of Latium, and thirty of them joined in a league against the State of Rome. THE WAR WITH Till- LATINS. FROM 803 TO 49S B. INCREASE of (he Population of Rome Public Lands Pov- ertv Debts Slaves <>otaviu> M.-mliu-* make> War Diffi- culty of raising Tn>u]>s Abolishment of I>-l>t- < .'ppositioii of Appius Claudius Kmliarrav- ment of the S<n;it< i lishment of llir Dictatorship l'o\vei> ut' tin- Dictator Nu- ble Conduct of Lartius and ('ld-liu> Lartius ci-cat-d Dicta- tor I'lV'jiai'ations for War Aulus PottmniQI Battle of the Lake of Regillus Result of the Battle Ca.-ior and Pollux Peace concluded with the Latins Death of Tarquinius. II. THE WAI; WITH Tin: LATINS. BEFORE the La t Ithiir; arations for war. had been .! humiliated l>y _rau to plunder and a- ; PuMiiw . iiu- :. inarch- . I Ian:*' portion of tln-ir !es. The Sabines were not, how- K-'inans their -tinacy. <e the 01 of Reme. icians, some connec- tion and sometimes separ uade attacks apon it, : -ally with very little success. These cruel and continued attacks upon the 4:2 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Attus Clausus Increase of Population. young and struggling Republic were not with- out opposition even among the people who carried them on. A large number of the Sa- bines protested against the conduct of their countrymen, and used every argument to pre- vent them from committing further injuries. Among these, was one Attus Clausus, a man of great wealth and powerful connections. This man, having made repeated but ineffectual ef- forts to put an end to the aggressions of his people, and finally becoming discouraged and disgusted, resolved to abandon his native coun- try and move with all his household and riches to Rome. A great many others followed his example, and it is said that Clausus went to Rome accompanied by no less than five thou- sand persons. This was a very valuable accession to the Roman power, and Clan -us met, of course, with a favorable reception. He wa< da ed among the patricians, enrolled in the Senate, and des- ignated by the more Roman name of Appius Claudius. The rights of citizenship were given to those who attended him. and lands upon the river Anio assigned for their support. Thus formed the nucleus of what afterwards be- came the Claudian tribe. Appius was a man of stern and harsh character, loved by the pa- W A ii WITH THE LATI 43 Public Lands Poverty. trician?, dreaded l>v tin- plebeian-, and exert- . a powerful influ- ence in It was not until six or i r the lis.hu icnt of peace between Porsenna and .ans, that ( ' Mamilius found ared to undertake the <U>tn, of the Roman Republic. When the news of . the Con- suls and tilled with the ut consternation, for, in addition to the t roubles which threaten* d them abroad, the utmo>' d at In -me. The common people, by reason of incessant wars and by the c ousness of the patricians, found themselve duced to the in- 'lied |.. \vrty. I'nder the dominion of the kings they had always re- ceived a share of the hooty, together with a ion of the lands t >m their ene in \\: reinaindi-r leiiiL r n-ervod to pay uses of the State; but t: -ians, -ding themselves as the sovereigns of the ihlic, appropriated to their own u>e tho I by battle, or cau-ed them to be sold in such a manner as to place all the profit in their own coli Nor did they confine themselves to these usurpations only. It happened frequently that REPUBLIC OF ROME. Debt* Slaves Octavius Mamilius makes War. the crops were insufficient by reason of an un- favorable season, or because of the devastations of an enemy. Whenever tii the case, these patricians, finding means to get possession of all, compelled the plebeians to have recourse to them for the nectaries of life. Those who wished food were obliged to borrow money, and this was lent to them only at exorbitant usury. Many thus incurred debts which they utterly unable to pay; and the law in those days permitted the creditor to take the debtor, upon default of payment, to his o\vn house. and retain him as his slave. Stripes and torments were likewise all" that the conduct of the patricians rendered th-. fcrin^s of the people quite intolerable. It was while the complaints of the plebeians rising most loudly t the ears of the :!iat the news came that Octavius ^lamil- ius, with the combined armies of thirty Latin .ing to march against Rome. Already deputies from these people were with- in the walls, Uttering the most bitter complaint-, e of some excuse, that the Romans had violated their treaties and for- feited the iv-pect and even the mercy of their neighbors. ]lpii!r to derive great advantage from the embarrassing condition of the Senate, A\~ A i! \\' i ; L A T I N 45 Difficulty of raisin- Troops. . A Roman i the 1 upon such (M If their encouragement in beirinning was small, it al: L r e<l into di-spair as they pr.> ed. The ditliculty of raising troops was ex- Tlie pe. pover \erse to ing a akc up arn. . i compel those who aj> d to light for its posse- disaffi \vnuhl pa-> an nnlinaiic^ wh.-rt-l.y th'<t- 1 with U'lt> iniirht IK- r- orts to restore <] to as- lious. A ditU'ivnce of opini-'ii w:us at once manifest among those composing tl.i body. Som .illy incl: and not so rich lo to making a law which >h..uUl ivlit-ve the poor of 46 EEPUBLIC OF HOME. Marcus Valerius on the Abolishment of the Debts. their debts; while others declaimed violently against it, as unwise and at variance with honor and justice. " I am of opinion," said Marcus Valerius, a much respected senator, " that by abolishing these debts we shall purchase the good-will of the citizens at a small price, and that the great gain which private individuals, as well as the public, may thence derive, will amply compensate for so small a loss. Such a measure would not be without precedent, for we all know that the Republic of Athens, on a similar occasion, at the instance of Solon, de- livered its poor from the debts which embar- rassed them. How glorious will it be for us to relieve those citizens who have- rendered such great service to the lie-public. wln have >h<>wu so much courage in delivering their country from the cruelly of tyrant-. wh> have always been ready to sacrifice themselves fnr the oral good! Can \\v ask them to expose their li\v>, while we deny them the most trilling as- sistance? Is not their poverty inure worn compassion than of hatred? Is not, in fact, this poverty more reproachful to us than to them f' Having >pokon in this manner for some time, Valerius at length sat down amid the applauses of a large number of the senators. But the WAR WITH THE LATINS. 47 The Opposition of Appias Claudia*. nid when Appius -peak. e of l>tors. A la g pri- vate public faith ; ami those in wh r it is de- . eooteoi of the gn lesstob- than i lurmnrin^s nf the people. 1 mny 006 \\h- ruined themselves by debauch- iiappy if they >li..ull (piit it er. A- to the on em ; luit let it I.. ;' the creditors .t:i\. '1 :it to give am--! .-nplo ai> . let those who ha 1 , up..;. :. prnnitted their . the .-edition, the way t-- ty \\ ill i;. . ( pled \- \\i!l restrain tii*- n-bellion> .- pel them to return to tin With such words he put to silence the sup- 48 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Embarrassment of the Senate Oppression of the People. porters of Valerius, and a long di-cus-km hav- ing ensued, the Senate finally adjourned, re- solving that they would make no decision in the matter until after the termination of the war. The people, in return, testified their dis- approbation of this proceeding by renewing their complaints in more bitter terms, and showing in a more decided manner their deter mination to try their strength with that of the patricians. The situation of the Senate became, day by day, more embarrassing. Their efforts to rai>e an army were not only fruitless, but ridiculous; and in the mean time rumors were constantly reaching Rome that tin- powerful forces of the Latins would soon be within their terr: Consternation and despair were painted on the faces of every j-atrieian. The Senate not hav- ing Miiticient power to enforce obedience to its will, feared that the punishment frac- tory would result in a civil war, more ; dreaded than the hatred of foreign enemies. lint all that the Senate lacked in pin strength was made up in superior cunning ; and, finding that they must, yield, they deter- mined that in doing it they would place the people under a yoke worse than that from which they hoped to escape. Pretending, there- \V AR WITH T !l K L VTI XS. Esu .tor. their authority, d to ! ulil be all law, ' .oj-t duration. '[ of the decree which they made n tin- was: "'1 i C'lu'lius, who ber witli all publ . ^houhl lay aside their \> : that there shouM he lut oiu ; that I be selected by voice of the people, and that his power should not continue 1 lon^r tha The peopl -si on on the part oi be gON -y the newly ate. < !' Rome, b\ MJUS con- tlius to be placed in the hands of a hi whose voice was to be superior t<> that of . they had written upon wood jii. .stain 1 or lull :i- 1m al"iie might cho oflScers of State, !x, Wei'e to be at his disposal ; the treasures of the Republic 4 50 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Checks upon his Conduct. were to be used as he might deem proper; peace and war were to be at his option ; the armies were to march wherever he might or- der, and the people were to do his bidding, in whatever station he might choose to place them. The name of Dictator was given to this new- ly created magistrate, and such was doubtless the extraordinary powers originally conferred upon him, although at a subsequent period, when circumstances demanded the exercise of this office, these powers were somewhat dimin- ished. In later times the dictator could not use the public money without the authority of the Senate or the consent of the people, ther could he leave Italy ; nor was he permit- ted to ride on horseback without the permis- sion of the people; and. what was a si ill great- er check upon his conduct, he might be e. to an account for his actions after the expira- tion of his term of office. It was important that the man selected for this office should possess extraordinary abilities. He should be skilful in the affairs <,f govern- ment, experienced in the art of war ; lie should be a man of wisdom and resolution, and cially should he be possessed of the greatest moderation. \V A II W IT II 'I II K L AT I - fL The co ius and ] Cloe- .<! wort: .'d with the pov> ator ; but it was believed t: -jual- ate, willing that either ol' .<uhl posed that they id decide the ma dyes. 1. art ius at once iv- ; ('In-lius as m..re deserving than liim-rll'. and Clu-lius in>i.-.ti-d tliat assessed abilities superior to hi- >\\ n ; '.-iuld either ot' tlu-m .it ho inrir d ! th-' h no- ble cnn<i U to win universal ad- niiratinn ; and the Senate and ju-nph- 1,, more anxious that nm- of ;nidd 1.. suaded to assume t! The anie eager in their de- maii'. . B; i-ntiiv ^ illiiiL r !i--- t sul.mit t> th -ii nf nu-n i'.,r wlium the L r lnr. advantajre- <>l' ah-nlute j.n\\er }..-s>es>ed s<> little ehann. The Senate ha [ted a wlmle day, in at one or the nther ^>i' th- mnHils- w..uld permit liiniselt' t> ' ,\ f,,r the ne\v office, finally a<ljounied. In the . ing, many of the relatives ,t' ( In lin> and Lar- tius, together with several of the most eminent 52 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Lartius made Dictator His Public Appearance. senators, repaired to the house of Lartius, and bdfeought him in the most earnest terms that he would sacrifice his generous feelings to the public goud. Overcome at length by their con- tinued remonstrances, he consented that his col- league should name him as Dictator. Having accepted thN new office, Lartius re- solved t<> make such an impression on the peo- ple as was intended by it> creation. To this end, he made his appearance before them with the utmost pomp. The kings had always d by twelve lictors, each carrying in his hand an axe. These axes had been re- moved by the consul Valerius ; but Lartius not only caused the 8 -red. but lie even doubled the number of the lictrs, in t<k. a p"' :-ior to that of kings. The e precisely such as could be de-iivd. A magi-Irate. >uch as the Dictator presented him- self, was little in accordance with the tions of the people. They were n<>t only a Hied but frightened at }\\< appearance, having ted upon the immense power with which he wa- clothed. The magnilicence of his cortege, the proud and commanding air which he assumed, reminded them of the !. re whom they had lately trembled ; and the obedience which they had promised to the new V, i: LATI 53 Impression upon the People Manner of raising Troop*. ruler, was MOV .1 iVuin the \ with which h- or having made a -sion upon the minds c\vn .>!' i turbulent, he d all th lied with the utmost 6} :ie number of those a age of si nd to be a hun- housand and seven him Having -c|.arated the old men from those who : ins, he formed the into four bodies : ry and cavalry. The d of the bravest and most expe- . and, .itting Cla-lius, his former colh choo the others, he p. ins his general 01 1 the :irius Lav Jlaviii:.-- i ody of troops to protect at thos* -.vliL-re he they would be most likely to encoun- y. But he was anxious, if possi- :-e peace ^nthout blood^i 5 that he miirht succi-ed in Mr with j.rudent men to the }>rincipal ai>n, and iinally suc- '::^ a truce fr OM6 year. Althnu_. if with the Latins was inevita- 54: EEPUBLIC OF ROME. Preparations made for War. ble, still its postponement for so long a time was gratifying both to the people and to the Sen- ate. Lartius, believing that the office of Dicta- tor was no longer necessary for the safety of Rome, returned with his army, and resigning his authority, named Sempronius Atratinus and Marcus Minucius as consuls for the remainder of the year. Nothing now was thought of but the prep- aratioas necessary for the deadly struggle which must take place between Rome and the Latin nation. In order that civil discord might be prevented, the Senate issued a decree for- bidding creditors to disturb their debtors until after the war. They also decreed that any Latin WOUK-II who hud married and settled in Rome should be permitted to go, with their daughters, to the home of their ancestors it' they chose; they also invited those Roman women, who had married and gom into the cities of the Latins, to return with their daugh- ter- t> U<>im>, for none could tell how dreadful would be the war which was shortly to begin. All the Latin women, it is said, but two re- mained in Rome witJi their husbands; while all the Roman women, loving Rome more than their husbands, took their young daughters, and came hack to the homes of their fathers. WAR WITH THK LAT 55 us created Dictator. In for con- had taken place, and Auli.- r<-:umius and . >u^ht that this war Q tho Latin- and the Romans would re-ult in the de- or the other nation ; and at such a critical time, it was : that the admi :i ..f n>\vrnment should he ; <>f one person. Tin ,;lh'd uj.. .me a Yiipniu- named his I'.^tuniiu-, f.r thi- imp-. was .'iily t: B the Us, one of the in.-t ti-rrihh- 11 Cll_M v L r A- .-.Mil a> every tliinir was in ivadines-, Aulro ]>ut himself at the head i' liis tr..,p- :UM! l'..rih }),>ldly to in.-ct the enemy. He t' Pneneste, a ahoiit i .-tward tr^ni K.'ine. Arriving near the L:ik- which was not very tar l'riii I'ra army of Octaviu- Mainil- .idvancii | !> him. Hi- <>\\n army >mall. composed of >,tnd intantry and three thou- ?and horse; hut the I.atin< tar 56 KEPUBLIC OF HOME. Battle of the Lake of Regillus. him, they being three thousand horse and forty thousand infantry. Approaching each other, they immediately formed in battle array. Sextus Tarquinius ap- peared at the left wing of the Latins ; Octavius Mamilius at the right ; while Titus, the other son of Tasquinius, occupied the centre, at the head of the exiles, and of those who had pre- ferred the party of the Tarquins to that of their country. The cavalry was also divided into three bodies, one in each wing, and one in the centre. Conspicuous, too, among the leaders was old King Tan|iiinius, though his head was now white with the frost of nearly ninety win- ters. The Roman army, small when compared with that of tin 1 Latins, drew up boldly t<> the conte>t. Titus ^Ebutius, general of the cavalry, was stationed upon the left; the consul Vir- ginius on the right ; and the Dictator Aulus commanded the front of the battle. Though the Romans perceived at a glance that their force was unequal to that of their enemie- they were n< >wi>e. daunted, but seemed rather t<> be endowed with twofold strength when they found that their former tyrant and his hateful sons were prominent among the leaders of their toes. The knowledge of this fact filled them AVAR WITH THE LATINS. 57 The Fuiy of the Battle. with so much fury, that it was with diiliculty thev ::ted fruin rushing headlong into the battle. Aldus. :iir the anl<>r uf his troops, and hearing, \ that tl. flirt h d for the battle. Nnthiiiir could . with which the tW< upon each other. That vast line of >ol, . 0r liill aii'l <lale, a- lar a- th- eh. SOOHHM! sudden! as it' by IIKILMC. ( )nward is and spears giving forth a nado tlie earth tremble around le confined to the sol- alone. Tliose who '_i-he>t in com- mand were con-], it. Even old la rquinius dashed forward, lance in hand, to where it rai^-d most fiercely; and his son i']y by his side.till oblig> retire, woimdt-(l by a javelin. yKhutiu-, also, the general of the Homan cavalry, heedless of his own person, darted upon ^Mamilius, com- mander-in-chief of the en.-my, woundinir him in the bn-a<t, and r> B a bl\v that nearly deprive<l liim nf an arm. S litu- llci-minius iiiclitinir a< bravely as he did upon the bridge, when Horatius Codes mi- 58 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Marcus Valerius The Progress of the Battle. dertook to defend it against the combined for- ces of Porsenna. And Marcus Valerius, also, entered the contest, swearing that as his family had the honor of having banished the Tar- quinii, so they should possess that of having slain them. But the boast of Valerius was in vain, for, intent upon killing Titus Tarquinius, he rushed madly into the midst of a band of Latins, and was pierced by a score of darts. nge immediately took p<>.->e ion of those who witnessed the deed, and the body of Va- lerius was soon covered by a hundred of his foes. The left wing of the Roman army, discour- aged by the loss of its chiefs, and vigorously attacked by tin.- o\il I t-> -ivr way and lly. Tlu- Dictator Aulus perceiving it, gave orders for a detachment of cavalry to repair to the .spot and compel the deserters to return, or slay them a< eneniie-. Placing himself al>o at the head <"f a flu-sen band, he fell furi- ously upon the exiles, put them to flight, and slew Titus, the son of King Tarquinius. This all'air, so unfortunate for the Latin ar- my, \va- perceived by Mamilius, their leader. Fearful of the consequences, lie sped with a detachment to aid the routed exiles. But llerminius, the lieutenant-general of the Ro- : WITH THK 1 : I'rogreM of the Battle Result of the Battle. man arm 'I:imilius l>y hi- elothes and arm-, daru-d upon him and slow liim at u w of his lanee. A Minilar fate, how- minius for as he stooped to il Mamiliu- :lmu;li with a javelin, and laid dead upon th. t' his 11 the !<-. of the Latin army, under the CMiui! . .ir<|iiinins. maintained their ground, and th- U>man ^ivin.ir way 1 bem, when Aulns, with a I tO their viiiij his situation t hi- :ms with the fury M!' despair. AVith his of 1 lie cut him, until at length, surrounded ! HM hurh-d to the .ml, covered with blood and wounds. The Latin-. inir that their elm-f- all slaii.. Town in 1 -iio>t con- interior officers ].artieij>atii ral alarm, :' mand, and in a short time that ii> army . lli^ht. The !-y of the Kumans was complete. Th.- tie hud < ing the whole day, and when they laid down at ni^ht, tlu-y w-re sur- rounded by the dead bodies of thirty thousand 60 REPUBLIC OF ROMP:. The two mysterious Horsemen. of their enemies ; they also had in charge five thousand prisoners, together with a large amount of the richest spoils. Many wonderful things are related of the battle of the Lake of Regillus. Among others, it is said that during one period of the battle the Romans gave way so rapidly before the Latins, that Aulus fell down upon his knees and vowed a temple to the deities Castor and Pollux, if they would aid him to win the vic- tory. No sooner had he risen to his feet than two horsemen, arrayed in glittering apparel and upon snow-white steeds, appeared at the head of the Roman bands, exciting all around 7 O them to courage, and carrying destruction wheresoever they went. Wherever the battle was fiercest, there might these shining cava- liers be seen ; nor did they quit their danger- ous position until the camp was taken and the enemy put to flight; but when Aulus inquired fur them, in order that he might bestow UJM.U them ii reward Milted t<> their valor, they could not be found, either among the living or the dead. As the sun- went down, the people of Rome became anxious to know h\v the battle had gone; and while they were wonderi : to the fate of their friends, there suddenly ap- peared in the Forum two shining horsemen upon \Y A R WITH Tiir: 1 61 Castor And Pollux Triumph of Auhi?. snow-white h< irses. h;r- ry appearance of men who lia<l ju>t 00 attle. and their hor>es all covered with foam. Gfaing iin- medi; fountain by the temple of ;u they wa-hed away the >tain> of the %ht, and related t> all wh< cruwdi-d anaind them how the battle had l>een tu^ht, and huw it had l>een w.n. Then they iiKnnted their horses and rnle tVnm the 1-Wuin; imr euld they ever be fmiiid . th..uirh dil' :i wa< inadi- t'.-r them in every j!: f the battle were sent t-> the E -e j.e.'i'h" nn the l'..ll..win^ day ; and mention i> said t havi- b :' tin? n. Tin 1 Pollux had aided Anlus cord- iiiirly rai-ed in their honor. < ii 'ie ri'joiein^r in Rome when Anlns with his victorious army retn;: inj/ their rii-h ' , and Accompanied by tiu-ii-numer- OUB pi d with a ina^niii- triumphal procession, and a tenth part of M set apart for the celebration of games, and fur the performance of suitable sacrifices. These had scarcely been concluded, when the Latins sent ambassadors to Rome, chosen from BE PUBLIC OF ROME. Peace concluded with the Latins. all the principal cities which had opposed the recent war. They brought olive branches in their hands; and appearing before the Sen- ate, made long speeches, in which they con- demned the conduct of their countrymen, and threw the blame of the war upon their rulers. They confessed that they had been justly pun- ished, and desired to become the inseparable friends of the Romans, promising implicit obe- dience to their commands, and aid to them in all their enterprises. The Senate did not seem much inclined to listen to their professions, inasmuch as they had hitherto proved themselves false and treacher- ous. Nevertheless, it was finally determined to grant them peace, on condition that they would deliver up all their deserters, drive awav the exiles who had taken rei'mre among them, and surrender th<>e whom they had taken pris- oners. "Do all this/' said the .Dictator to them, "and then return, and we will conclude with YOU a treaty of peace." A low days alter, the ambassadors returned, bringing with them the deserters, whom they had caused to be arrested. A treaty of friend- ship was then arranged ; and thus, after strug- gling fourteen years against the machinations of King Tarquinius, Rome at last beheld him WAR WITH THK LATIH 63 D**thofT*rquinlo*. completely OYOPtfalOWn, Driven away from the cities of tlio Latins, he was obliged to take i;e. W!K- re he, at last, died in<>l>-rii- rity and wn-:.- I, Tli- IK-WS .f his death was reci-ive<l with i^reat joy at Ronu 1 , lxth ainun^ the senators and the onum-ns; but it wast 1 t'>r fre>h injuries to the people, and further di>turbances of the public peace. THE PATRICIANS MD PLEBEIANS, FROM 493 TO 401 B. C. SERVILIUS and Appius Claudius Oppression of the Poor The Story of the old Centurion Trouble with the People A threatened Invasion Preparations for Battle The Vol- f-'i repulsed Further Troubles on account of the Debts The Sabines attack Rome The People refuse to enlist A Dictator created Rome's Enemies defeated Retirement of the People to Moris Sacer Effort of the Patricians to bring them back. III. THE PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIA SINCE the creation of the first Dictator, the patricians had learned that their own sa as well as that of the commonwealth, depend- ed upon their treatment of the poorer classes. These must be conciliated, if protection was I'd against the enemies of the Republic. One source, and a very great source too, of their uneasiness was removed, since death had I Tarqu tn ^ivin^ them any further trouble. No sooner did they see them- red from this fear, than commenced the same hateful course which had so exasperated the poor upon former occasions. Those debts which had before created so much trouble, remained still unpaid. They were now talked .f, and their payment vehemently de- manded. The poor expostulated, and earnestly plead their inability. The creditors replied, 68 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Servilius and Appius Claudius. that they had acted with leniency ; that they had submitted to a law which had robbed them of their rights ; that the war was at last brought to a close, and that the time for the settlement of their claims had now arrived. Severity was used; and it was not long before the utmost cruelty was resorted to. It is not surprising, then, that a general discontent should follow, and that the city should again be threatened with civil discord. In the midst of all this, Aulus Postumius resigned the dictatorship, and Appius Claudius and Publius Servilius were elected consuls. The election of these two men to the consul- ship was a contrivance, and perhaps a good contrivance, of the Senate ; for, although they both possiv-M-d exeellent traits, they were very different in their dispositions. Appius was a man of pvat resolution, and a severe olerver of the lavi s ; while Servilius, on the other hand, was gentle, humane, and agreeable to the poor aud to the multitude. There was nothing more certain than a contrariety of opinions between them. Servilius could not fail, from the good- ness of his heart, to favor the suppression of debts, or at least the taking off of the exorbitant and accumulated interest, which already ex- ceeded the debts themselves. Appius, on the PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. 69 Oppression of the Poor. ury, maintained that it was unjust to re- lieve the debtor at th 36 of the creditor; and lie iirred that the course proposed by Ser- vilius would be regarded by the seditious only a< a mark of concealed weakne-s, and that new uld be thereby IbsU Tli- ions which they hold together did not fail to roach tho ears of the peplo. and j.nb- lic feeling wafl oxhihitod in the ; hich bestowed ifpon S . as woll a- in tho '.(a[od upon ..'1 >f Aj'j'in-. hi- o.lleaguc. All the efforts of Servilius were in vain. }>y their iless en- . in delivered them ; prisons and >t rij.es, and made them undergo 11 they cried >ut :':ie law, and in, iiiont .^rs to free themseT their "j'i>!o i.ius. Secret meeting- wei\- held in t!. ^ (.f dol'r -.vere tantly devi.-e<l and di . :id, in a >hort time. th city was thrown into the most violent commotion. I pon a certain occasion, while G MMIII- Of the people together and talking over thel: and feeble centurion, loaded with heavy chains, 70 REPUBLIC OF ROME. The Story of the old Centurion. threw himself in their midst, claiming their protection. His clothes were soiled and torn, his face pale and disfigured, and his whole ap- pearance gave evidence of the grossest mal- treatment. Notwithstanding his pitiful and wretched condition, there were many present who recognized him, and who said that he had formerly been a centurion that had often won distinction by his bravery in battle. He him- self showed the scars which he. had received in various combats, and gave the names of the consuls and officers under whom he had served. Upon being asked by the multitude, whence he came, and why he was in such a deplorable condition, he replied, that while he was serving in the war against the Sabines, the enemy had fallen upon his property, destroying not only the crops which covered his fields, but the house which proteeted his little ones; that they had carried away his ihcks and herds, and all that he had laid by to support himself and family. lie said, too, that, to increase his misfortunes, a heavy tribute had been exacted from him at a timw when he was without the means to pay it ; that, in order to satisfy this demand, he had been compelled to borrow money on exorbitant interest; that this interest having accumulated, he had been obliged first PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. 71 Effect of the Story upon the People. ! his lands, then his household goods, and, finally, that he had been compelled to deliver him- -lave t.. those who hud taken n of his substance. IK- said, n that hi> eredit"is had treate<l him, not as a >lave, hut us a criminal condemned to the punishment; and in proof ef this, exhibited UJM.II his back the marks of the whips and rods with which his flesh had been torn. soon as he had finished speaking and wounds, the pe a tu- mult which pervaded the whle who ha<; i similar maltreatmi-n 1 . from all quarters, imploring the protection of their fellows, and the multitude .-oon became so great as to create considerable alarm amon^ the patricians. S<.me of them, indeed, would have doubtless lost their lives, had not the the aiiLTiT of the pop;, As soon as these magi ::ad- their a}j)earance, the multitude turned towards them, and exhibited the chains and ignomini- ous stripes that had been inflicted upon ; who had hazarded their lives in behalf of the "Republic. They demanded, in threatening lan- e, that the Senate should be assembled at once, and that something should be done to BE FUEL ic or HOME. Trouble with the People An Alarm. protect them from the injuries to which they were expo-cd. Some of the senators having collected to- irotlicr. the people assembled in crowds around their place of meeting, determined that they should act promptly and efficiently in their be- half. But either through fear, or a di.-inclina- tion to act, they sent out word to them that t a sufficient number present to Iran-act business. This exei; iiow- . satisfactory, and the tumult continued with increasing fury. The absent being linally con :hey promised to do something at on< people. Jn the mid>t of all this tumult, the attention of the multitude nly attracted to- ward an who \ I'uri- ou>ly over the <listant hills in the direction ,.f Koine. Onward he C if lite depended on the speedy fultilment nf hU course. The multitude ga/.ed and wondered, and seemed for the time to f,rget the C&USe wiiich had brought them together. Presently the lior>eman was hid behind the walls which he was rapidly ap- proaching: and then the city gates tlew open, and, without .Blackening his ] hounded forward towards the plae< -mbly. u To arms ! To arms, Romans !" he shouted ; " the I . atened Invasion Joy of the People. ' 1111- a friendly eh' . A pro- vast as- lage. 1 ut of i^ods are I tlu furious nmlti: will soon him. . iitul now . of joy with which it i i ly the d people. All was confusion and un- -enators, ; :.(-< .uirht the con- was more popular than his appease the people, a in hack t> a sense of thi-ir lut; tlh-ir mi I iliti- iM^st sootl. . that. :i the :m-ansofgra r^p- .ted to : ie consternation pro- 74: REPUBLIC OF ROME. Murmurings cease Preparations for Battle. ducecl by hearing of the approach of their enemies, together with the necessity of imme- diate action on their part, made it impossible for them to labor effectually in behalf of the private interests of the citizens. He implored them, for the sake of their wives and children, to lay aside their hostility towards the patri- cians, and to aid in the public defence. He promised also that upon the close of the war, every thing should be done which could pro- mote their welfare ; and decreed that, in the mean time, no debt whatever should be pros- ecuted. The well-known kindness of Servilius, the zeal which he had always manifested in behalf of the people, together with the mildness and eloquence with which he spoke, were powerful enough to calm all mimnurings. The people permitted themselves to be enrolled, and < exhibited considerable ardor in ranging them- selves under the ^tandards of their leaders. Marching out of the city, with Servilius at their head, they encountered the enemy, who were hastening forward, "conn 1 dent of victory. The battle was delayed until the consul felt assured that the sudden animation of his troops was not affected. Seeing that they were really eager for the combat, he gave the signal, and nc\--r PATRI AND PLEBEIANS :: The Volscl repulsed. did soldier^ d r bravery <>r intr ity. TheVi-'. unable to withstand their !1 back terrified and confined. The Komans pursued them e\vn into the midst of their Their triumph was complete; and, :iir themselves with booty, they 111:11 en t. ^^uessa Pometia, where tlu- i\-innant <!' nciny ha<l ll--L Iln-.- liu- \ ti-ndrd them-' h much obstinacy during -. but \\viv linally cmnjn l!cd t> yield. Having pillaged all the houses and . and put the inhabitants to the swnrd. iius ]\-turiK'd with his victorious tnx>] Ron Tlii'-e adtlitinnal victMi-i, .-1 tin- peo- ple with a hope that the Senate would now ^rant the relief which had been promised to them through the c<n>ul Servilius. A short i the re- cent campaign, they di-manded a I'uliilment of the proiiii-e. Hut Apjtins had become jealous of the success of his colleague Servilius, and, in order to throw him into contempt, i. the law to be enforced with all its se\\-ritv against debtors. Those who were thereby per- secuted resorted to Servilius for protection : but it was all in vain ; for even if he had been able to help them, he was. now disinclined to 76 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Further Troubles grow out of the Debts. interfere, inasmuch as his colleague and all the nobility were favorable to opposite measures. But by this course of conduct he not only ac- quired the hatred of the plebeians, but lost the esteem of the patricians ; the former re- garded him as a deceiver, and the latter con- sidered him as devoid of the firmness necessary to a ruler. The people now, giving up all hopes of pro- tection, resolved to take matters in their own hands. Persons were stationed in the neigh- borhood of the courts for the purpose of watch- ing whatever transpired. Whenever any debtor was seized and led in for trial, a crowd rushed in from all quarters, making so much clamor and confusion as to prevent the voices of the officers from being heard, and likewise to deter any one from executing the sentence of the la\v. The people seemed likely to obtain by force what they had failed to procure by en- tivaty : and the creditor, who was now assailed and abused by the angry multitude, seemed even in greater divad of Wing his liberty than the debtor. In the midst of this difficulty, an alarm was spread that the Sabines were intend- ing to make an attack upon the city. Orders were promptly issued for a levy of troops, but not a single man would suffer himself to be en- I > A T R I r\ A X S A XI) P L K B K I A X S . 77 Attack of the Sabines The People refuse to enlist rolled. Dismay airain took posses>ion of the be. The consul Servilius llattered the peo- ple in vain, and in vain did the consul Appius scold and threaten to vi-it their disobed: with tin- :' the law. They hade the senators to take up amis them-e they told Servilius that his promises wer i- than those of their perjured allies, and they ridiculed the raire of Appius and <; him ' , 'e tli.- threats uf which he was SO lavish. Kvery day man IV worse and id most srrion- fear> wen- ei.' for the safety of the commonwealth. About this time, the term- of the consuls !lius and Appius drawing to a close, the friend- of the UepuMie hoped that the election of COIIMI! aide to the people would he productive of some derive of rpiict. Aldus ^'iririIliu- and Titus Vetu-iiN were the penom <1 to ntlice; lut the people, now uncer- tain a- to what kind of governors were set them, held regular nightly in upon the K-<juiline and Aventine mounts, in order that they might, it any time, he alle to act prompt- ly and in concert. These meet in ::- ( L r reat uneasiness to the c<n>ul>. and the Senate upbraided them in the bitterest terms, becau-e they did not put a stop to them, and make ex- 78 EEPUBLIC OF EOME. Vain attempts to raise Troops Dictator created. ainples of the ringleaders. A decree was now 'd, that the consuls should enforce the lev- ies with the utmost strictness. This they ac- cordingly attempted, and, mounting the tribu- nal, they cited the younger citizens by their names; but no other answer was made except a shout from the multitude, " that the common people could no longer be deceived; and that not a single soldier should be raised until the public engagements were fulfilled ; that every man must have his liberty restored, before arms were put into his hands, in order that the peo- ple might be convinced that they were to fight for their country and fellow-citizens, not for their masters." It wa- evident enough to the consuls, that neither they nor the Senate po>se>-e<l Miflirieiit 'r to control this determined multitude; so, after making one or two vain etl'<rts to en- force obedience, they concluded to resign their office and create a I ) it- tutor. The person whom they selected wa< Marcus Valerias, the In-other of Pnblius Valerius, who had always been a givat favorite of the people. The choice proved very acceptable to every one, and he at once gained the confidence of all, by proclaiming that no person should be molested on account of debt, and by promising PATH i The Enemies of Koine again defeated Further Trouble. cmmpaigi tin' difficulties of -I/ens iii'. iv irave in : them>elves U) "lied \\-itliMi;- tion. Ten legions were raised. mi thousand infantry and three him Three of these weiv placed under I of each consul. and t'"nr i tlie 1 ' Tli ere was no furtl The UN were already iiivadinir the t- of tl. i ambassadors were in Rome beee< >c Senate to send troops to the as- si>ta; 'heir allies. Th- . too, -ahines \\ initting depiv hainl. < )nwanl, :it the Konian armies, led i?i dif- n-i ly i Ji and the I ' a ed in numliers l.y their nij.any tin-in. The K.|UJllis, the V and thi ieces,orsent il; int: t. their homes; and the Konian lea-. their d \vith priory and laden with tho As soon as the army had returnrd to K the I ' \'aleriu-> appean-d ht-t'..re the S-n- and demanded of them what course they 80 EEPUBLIC OF EOME. Valerius resigns the Dictatorship. intended to pursue in regard to those persons who were confined fur debt. In reply to his inquiries, the Seriate giving him to understand, that they were opposed to taking the matter into consideration, Valerius thus addressed them : " My endeavors, senators, to restore concord are, I see, displeasing to you ; believe me, when I solemnly declare, that the time will shortly come when you will wish that the commons of Rome had just such patrons as I am ; as to myself, I will neither be the means of further disappointments to the hopes of my countrymen, nor will I hold the office of Dicta- tor without effect. Intestine discord and foreign wars made it necessary for the commonwealth to have such a magistrate ; peace has been procured ill) road ; at home it is not suffered to take place ; it is my determination then, in time of sedition, to appear in the character of a pri- vate citizen, rather than in that of Dictator." Having delivered this speech, he left the Sen- ate chamber-, abdicating at the same time the dictatorship. The common people, believing that he had resigned his office on account of the ill-treatment which they had received, at- tended him, as he retired to his house, with gratitude and applause. Upon the abdication of Valerius, those le- PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. 81 Retirement <>f the Plebeians to Mons Sacer. gions assigned to him wore disbanded accord- ing to custom ; but the other six legions which had been under the command of the coiiMils were still kept together, and ready for service. In order that they might not be broken up, the Semite instructed the consuls to lead them out against the E<juan>, who, they pretended, had renewed their hostilities. The design of the patricians was, however, too evident, and the commons resolved unanimously, but silently, that they would no longer Milter themselves to be deceived. Obedient to the commands of the consuls they took up their arms, and, inarching forth from the city, encamped on the banks of the river Anio near to Rome. The day drawing to a close, they lighted their camp-fires and made the usual prepara- tions for the night. l>ut as they were all going about, each in the performance of his respective duty, word was passed around, from man to man, that none of the commons should go to sleep that night, but be ready at a signal to follow their secret leaders. At the appointed time, when the patricians, stretched upon their soft couches, were locked in slumber, they all marched silently forth with their arms and standards, and took possession of a fortified hill about three miles distant from the city. 82 KEPUBLIC OF ROME. The Patricians strive to bring them back. The vexation of the consuls arid of the offi- cers may be easily imagined, when, at the break of day, they discovered themselves to have been entirely deserted by their troops ; and it being no difficult matter to ascertain the direc- tion in which they had gone, we cannot doubt that immediate measures were taken to bring back the deserters to their duty. The proud patricians followed, then, with all speed in the track of their revolting army, and reaching the base of the hill where the rebels had encamped, sought, by alternate reproaches and promises, to win them again to obedience. " Enough, enough !" shouted Sicinius, who acted as a leader among the soldiers. " How have ye the heart, O patricians, to call back men whom ye yourselves turn into slaves or exiles ? How will ye give us faith in promises so often broken as yours have been? If ye wish the city to yourselves, go hence unhin- dered ; but for us, our country shall be that in which we can find liberty." The consuls and the patricians were soon convinced of their inability to contend against so much resolution, and, therefore, quietly mounting their horses they turned towards Borne. THE TRIBUNES OF Till- PEOPLE. FROM 491 TO 485 B. C. FEARS of the Patricians Embassy to the Revolters Their Reception and Offers Discourse of Junius Brutus Fable related by Menenius Reconciliation of the Plebeians Cun- ning of Brutus Tribunes of the People created Their Powers The ^Ediles Famine in Rome Coriolanus His Character The Hatred of the People towards him He is cited before them Efforts made to save him His Trial and Condemnation He offers his Services to the Volsci He goes to the house of Tullus Attius His Reception Enters into the Service of the Volsci Marches against Rome Fail- ure of the different Embassies sent to him His Mother pre- vailed upon to intercede with him Her Appeal to him in behalf of Rome Her Success Death of Coriolanus. COBIOLAXUS AND HT8 MOTHER. IV. THE TRIBUNES OF THE PEnl'LE, No sooner had the news of the revolt 01 I .!< the greatest commotion. Those nds and -s among the reb- them the greatest s my cases undertook to join : rifled by tlu- loss of citizens upon wlnm tlu-y d for defence and service, endeavored to retain all \vlm and, closing tlie raised to m; most fforts to bring back those who Oft, Tln-n- main. u-K--<, M!I. fled to join t UJIMII tin- Sacivd Hill. nis di-<iTtr<l, was in the utmost frnin its numerous foes, who, in time, ncr ,-,f the ci\-il discord by which it had 88 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Fears of the Patricians Embaosy to the Revolters. been rent, would be certain to make it an easy prey. To make the best of their condition, the patricians armed themselves, their clients, and as many as they could gather from the lowest classes of the plebeians. They strengthened also the gates, manned the towers, and set their posts without the walls. Besides all this, through the temperate counsels of the wiser patricians, it was resolved to send an embassy to the re- volters, who still remained upon the hill by the river Anio, increasing daily in number, and procuring such fond and shelter as the neigh- boring lands afl'onU-d. It may be easily im- agined that the revolteiv themselves were quite as anxious as the patricians to become recon- ciled with their countn men, for it was not very probable that they could form a more agree- able alliance; and the means of gaining a sub- sistence, after the harvests around them had been reaped, would be very scanty indeed. "When, therefore, the commissioners, sent by the Senate, came within sight of the hill, the whole throng of revolters descended to meet them. At their head was Sicinius, whose name has been already mentioned, and Juuius Bm- tns, a very quick-witted and self-esteeming per- Bonage. At the head of the embassy was Me- iienius Agrippa, whose oft-hand eloquence had TUIBTNKS OF Tl OPLE. Bi Reception of the Embus/. made him a general favorite at Rome. He had, moreover, sprung from tlie plebeians him- self, and was, therefore, a very suitaMe person intrusted with Mich a matter. Reaching the great multitude that ll<>< down the hill to meet him and his associates, he made known to them at once the wi>hes of id In-sought them to return peace- fully to Rome. But the plebeians who had heen apprised of the approach of the embassy, determined to cross at tiist t; tin- c<>m;: B, and, by rai-ing <b-tae union and ju-ace, to train e\vry p-.s-ible advan- iiiiL r ly, wlien they had >tated their message from ftte, Juntas BrntOi imme- diately cried out: u Th Senate betray their are masters if we know how to im- prove this opportunity; speak, then, all that \ < .u to say, and I will endeavor to answer, in the name of my comrade-, in -uch a way as will be equally useful and airiveable to tl; It was tlu-ivu|>on agreed that the COU sioners and the multitude should reascend the hill and talk the matter over in the camp. Having here arranged themselves in the most convenient manner, both for speaking and list- ening, M. Valerius began the negotiation by offering, in the name of the Senate, pardon to REPUBLIC OF ROME. Otters to the Eevolters Deliberations. all the revolters, and, at the same time, an earnest appeal to them to return to the city, where their wives and children were sighing for their embraces. This speech was replied to by Sicinius, who urged that, before the people consented to this, it was but just that they themselves should open their grievances, and know what they might hope from the fine promises of the Sen- ate. Closing his harangue with a call upon the soldiers to defend the public liberty, he was i inn KM! lately followed by Junius Brutus, who a<l<livs>txl himself to the multitude in such a way as to encourage them in their revolt, and to increase in them a hatred of the patri- cians, who wore already beginning to feel the want of their protection and their service. Then, turning towards the ambassadors, he cried out: "You invite us to return to Rome, but you do not tell us upon what conditions. You talk to us of nothing but pardon and for- giveness, as if we were your subjects, and sub- jects in rebellion ; but that is the point to be decided. The question is Which is in the fault, the people or the Senate ? which of these two orders first violated that common society which ought to subsist between the citizens of one and the same republic '." TRIBUNES OF THE PKOPLE. 91 Discourse of Junius Brutus. In a long oration, he thru related t< them a, number of facts by which he >ho\\-ed the con- tinued devotion of tlie commons to the higher nd the self-sacrificing spirit which they }jad ever inn 1 in their behalf; and con- cluded by asking them to show what reeom- commons had ever , for their assistance. "Instead of assi>t;u 1 he, "have not our bravest soldiers, oppn--ed with the weight of usury, groaned beneath tin- chains of their nu-iviK^s creditors? Have not y>ur promises to relieve us been forgotten, and have. not our services bei-n denied I Sutler us then, to depart from a country when- v. like >o many slaves; and, so long as we have oursw.'nU in our hands, we shall be able to open for ourselves a way into more fortunate C'lill: Every one of the multitude, by his looks and 'tied to the truth of these words; and many came forward and showed the marks of the stripes and injuries which they had re- ceived. T. Largiu-. the head of the embassy, endeavored to justify the conduct of the patri- - and of the creditors; but he only made the matter worse, and even pmv"ked Sicinius to inteiTupt his speech, and to order him and his fellow commissioners to propose the condi- 92 KEPUBLIC OF KOME. Conciliatory Speech of Menenius A Fable. tions which they were empowered to make, or to leave the camp at once. This brought out Menenius, a man of great prudence and penetration, who, in a speech full of moderation and wisdom, was able to win the attention and respect of the multitude. He stated to them that the Senate had carefully inquired into the poverty of the plebeians and the severity of their creditors, and that it was their determination to annul all obligations, and to declare the poor citizens free of all man- ner of debts. Taking advantage of the soften- ing influence of his words, he represented to them how necessary it was to the State that one part of the citizens should be richer than an- other, and enforced this maxim by relating to them the following fable : " At a time when the members of the human body did not, as at present, all unite in one plan, but each member had its own scheme and its own language, the other parts were provoked at seeing that the fruits of all their care were applied to the use of the stomach ; and that the stomach mean- while remained at its ease, and did nothing but enjoy the pleasures provided for it. On this they conspired together, that the hands should not bring food to the mouth, nor the mouth receive it if offered, nor the teeth chew it. TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. 93 The Plebeians reconciled Cunning of Hrutus. "While they wished, through these angry meas- ures, to subdue the >t<>niach through hunger, the members and the whole body were, to^vther with it, reduced to the last stage of deca\. From thence it appeared that the ollire of the stomach itself was not confined to a slothful indolence ; that it not only received noiirish- inent. hut supplied it to tlie others, conveying to every part of the Imdy that blood <n which depend- uir life and vigor, by distributing it e(|iially thnuiirh the vein>, after having brought it to perfection by digestion of th Making an application <f this fable t> the present ease, and showing the great similarity between the dissension of the membei-s and the imeiit <>f the commons airain-t the patri- cians, he made a powerful impression upon the people. "Receive our embraces as the lirst fruits of peace," said he, " and let us enter all together into Eome ; let us jointly carry thither the first news of our reunion ; and may the gods AN ho protect this empire, grant that it may be hereafter celebrated by new victories !" All the people, moved by this speech, cried out to Menenius that they were satisfied, and that lie might lead them back to Rome. But the cunning Brutus checked their sudden trans- port, and insisted upon having some pledge of EEPUBLIC OF ROME. Tribunes of the People created. the sincerity of the patricians. " Grant us," said he, "some officers chosen out of the body of the plebeians ! We ask for them neither purple robes, nor the curule chair, nor the lie- tors; but let them have the power to hinder the injustices that may be done to the people, and to defend their interests, both public and private." This demand took the commissioners by sur- prise ; and having conferred together on the subject, they agreed that this exceeded the bounds of their instructions, but that some of them would go back to the city and obtain the answer of the Senate. The distance not being great, and the Senate being easily convened. it was determined, after some discussion, to end the dispute by allowing the Plebeians to elect yearly from their number certain magistrates, who were to be called T-rifainca of the People. Before leaving their camp upon the hill, they accordingly elected, for the first Tribunes, L. Jnnius Brutus', and C. Licinins Bellutus, the leaders of the revolt* And now having noth- ing to detain them any longer from Eome, they first performed a sacrifice to the gods upon the * Livy says that C. Licinius and Lucius Albenus were the first Tribunes, and that they created three colleagues, one of W 1 Qin was Sicinius. TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. 95 Powers of the Tribunes. hill, which they afterwards culled Mons Saivr; ami then, led hy their Tribunes ami the r.>m- mi-Moners. they went to the embraces of their The establishment of the Tribnneship was another change in the form of the government .f Rome, l-'rom a monarchy to a kind .f aris- y, it was by >l-w steps approach! denoera The Tribunes, it is true, had little in their appearance to awaken any appivlu -!i>i- ' the part of the proud patricians. They dre ed like the plainest C .-ilteiided only hy a .-Siiir'e ft ;ilel ri,ttni\ and never ad- mitted in-idi' pt on invitation. 1 had ihe riirht to oppose and wholly nullify the decrees -of thi- a : nir the little J.atiu \ ^Iforbidit; and this they wrote at the bottom of these decrees, when thev thought them contrary to the liberty of the !e. This was a simple and unobjection- able means of preventing oppre ion ; but it will in the end that, under pretence of securinir the liberty of the people, these humble magi- _rn of ruining the authority of the Senate. It wa- not l,mg bi-tore they obtained permission to choose, as their as- 96 KEPUBLIC OF KOME. The ^Ediles Famine in Koine Coriolan us. sistants, two plebeians, with the title of aediles, who, from acting as their agents, finally became in-pectors of the public edifices, baths, aque- ducts, &c. Still Home presented every appear- ance of repose, and the friendly feelings be- tween the plebeians and the patricians seemed to be sincere and durable. But the fire of di- vision had not been wholly quenched. During the consulate which followed the re- volt, a terrible famine occurred, and, as a mat- ter of course, all kinds of provisions were sold at an excessively high price. Bitter complaints were made on the part of the people, and it was commonly believed that the patricians, having their granaries full, had occasioned the public dearth, in order to make up to themselves the abolition of the debts. This opinion was very much strengthened, too, by the conduct of Mar- cius ('oriohmus, an avowed enemy of the power of the Tribunes. "If the plebeians wish to have provisions at the usual price," said he, "let them restore te the patricians their former rights. Why am I obliged, after being sent under the yoke after being ransomed, as it were, from robbers to behold plebeian magis- trates, to behold Sicinius invested with power and authority? The road is open to the Sacred Mount, and to other hills ; let them carry off TRIBTNKS OF THE PKOPLE. 97 The Character of Coriolanua. tin- (Mrn from our land-, as tlu-v did two \ ago." This Marcius Coriolaini- wa- !ed tVoin one of tlu- in'st illu>trions patrician families in Koine, lie liad l>eeii brought up with <rreat by his mother, Yetnria. a woman of noted austerity, wlio liad taken every pains to inspire, him with her own sentiments At an early <L he r-howed irre::t capacity t'..r tin- art of war. JndetMl, he receive(l the surname of Co- riolamis tor liavinir tlUtiniriiisluMl liiin-elf so mueli in tlie capture of ('orioli, one of the c of the Vnlx-i, which lie set on tire with his own hand, pcrformim: at the -arnc time many val- - of manner wa-, however, so great, that he could never make him-elf a favorite anioiir tlie people, wlm, while they admiivd his val>r, his upright and his generosity, dreaded his severity and his pride. When he wi-hrd the c. .nsuUhip, the ])!eheia!is tln-refore iv fused to him their \ and for this remsOB he ever entertained for them the irreate-t liatred. It is not surju^in^, then, that lie .-Imuld have endeavored to avenge, liimself iijion the plebeians, at a time when their poverty threw them so completely in his power. The speech of Coriolanus, just now quoted, 7 98 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Hatred of the People towards Coriolanus. was highly applauded by the younger senators, who openly advocated the abolishment of the Tiibuneship; but the Tribunes, on the other hand, who happened to be present by invita- tion, were very much incensed ; and assem- bling the people tumultuously, they cried out that the patricians had made a league to de- stroy them, their wives and their children, unless the plebeians delivered their magistrates, chained, into the hands of Coriolanus. They declared that he was a second tyrant rising up in the Republic, and aiming at their death or slavery. The plebeians had now, however, acquired so much power that they no longer entertained the idea of deserting, as upon a former occa- sion, but rather of making a trial of their strength with the patricians in the very centre of Koine it-elf. Nothing now but the destruc- tion of their enemies could be thought of; hut, that the forms of justice might be observed, they summoned Coriolanus to come and an- swer for his conduct before an assembly of the people. But this proud senator sending back their officer with contempt, they Availed for him at the door of the Senate, in order to seize him when he should come out. As he made his appearance, therefore, the a^diles were or- TRIBUNES OF TFIK PKOPLE. 99 Treatment of Corioltnus. dered to lead him to prison ; lut the command WM n-'t an easy one t execute, for Coriulanus and his friend- .-to,d upon their defence, ami, liMiig well their li.Ms. forced the ffidiles to make a quick retivat. A general disturhanee im- mediately ensued, in which the plebeians on one side, and the patricians on the other, com- abusing and reproaching one another in tl.i . In the in\(\>{ of it the ;ls arrived, and by means of entreat:. well as by their authority, succeeded in dis- persing, the multitude and sending them to their lion Hut the pleheia -ions of their power, had determined not so easily to abandon their iraine. On the following day, therefore, they ibled in crowds at the Konim to talk over their irrievance-, and to contrive plans Hr rem- edying them. The patricians also asseml.)lt'<l with them, and the conduct of Coriolanus be- inir the exciting theme, much was said by both parties fur and a-ain-t him. Coriolanus himself was there: and being called upon to M had been stated by his friends, that he wa< willing to a-k pardon if he had done wrong, he inveighed more violently than ever against the enterpri>es of the Tribunes, and de- clared boldly, that the people had no right to 100 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Coriolanus cited before the People. judge a senator ; that the consuls and the Sen- ate alone had a right to call him to account for his behavior. A serious attempt would have been made to destroy him at once, had not the cunning Bru- tus perceived that the people were not, at the moment, in a mood to lay hands upon him and to drag him from the midst of his numerous compeers. This individual then holding a brief consultation with the Tribune Sicinius, the lat- ter cried out : " You see, O Romans, that it is not the fault of the patricians that much blood is not shed to-day, and that they are ready to come to the greatest extremity to rescue the de- clared enemies of the Roman people out of the hands of justice. But it is our duty to set them better examples: we will do nothing rashly. Though tlu- criminal is sufficiently convicted liv his own coni'i'SHon, we are yet willing to give him time to prepare his defence. We cite thee," added he, addressing himself to Coriola- nus, " to appear before the people in seven and twenty days. As to the distribution of the corn, if the Senate does not take due care of that matter, the Tribunes will give directions about it themselves." It was very hard for the Senate to yield to such an extraordinary measure ; but agreeably T BIB 015 >PLE. 101 Efforts to save Coriolanus from the People. t. tlio I mail having the t<> appeal t the people lrm th< ot'tln- H I'M!' thrill ' It \va3 not a single pie' tliat complained, but tin* whole body <>f the ii pruph', who were demandlm: the con- ati-.n nf a tyrant who had been cha with atteni]>: uniiie, and with having pni'^i <1 the abo- litin of the trilniiu'-liij>, a ina^i-tracy made '1 I iv the most solemn oa A)).iu- ( 'hiudius and other jatrieian> did all in thrir i.\\er t >av- Din tV->ni th .onMd M. \'ah-riu^ Ix-lievinir that _: go some little <!' it< au- tlmritv. WMiil-: tlu- durati-'ii <>t' it, and wtiuld be more likely ! di-ann tin* j.e-.]K'"> rage against the illii-:rius crim- inal thazi 1'V all'-wiii^ them t.. jud^** him. turn- ed t" ii-h: him in the im>-t teudi-r maim a peace to t .blio. -aid he; u oH-r you tlie jud_L r nn-nt !' the jK-i.j.le : this is the only liMim:: ;. nf ju-tityiii_r ynur- tC6 tlmsc \vli<. \nii f.f aiming at tyranny. The 1 with beholding so great a soul 102 Ft E PUBLIC OF ROME. The advice of Valerius to Coriolanus. bowing under the power of their Tribunes, can never bring themselves to pronounce sentence of condemnation upon Coriolanus. If, on the other hand, you show contempt for the tribu- nals of the people, you will become the fatal torch ; and who can tell how far the flame may run. Set Rome, therefore, before your eyes, and give it an exhibition of your love." The minds of many of the senators being thus disposed to peace by the speech of Vale- rius, they united with him, beseeching Coriola- nus to yield himself to a trial by the people. " You know, Conscript Fathers," replied Co- riolanus, addressing the senators, "what the whole course of my life has hitherto been. You know that this obstinate hatred of the peo- ple, and that unjust persecution which I now suffer from it, are occasioned only by the in- violable zeal which I have always shown for the interests of this body. I will not insist, upon the returns I now meet with ; the event will show tin- weak ness and perhaps the malice of the counsels which are given you in this af- fair. But since Valerius's opinion has at length prevailed, let me know, at least, what is the crime that I am charged with, and upon what conditions I am delivered over to the fury of my adversaries." TRIP. INKS oi PEOPLE. After some consultation, the Tribunes agreed that they would confine their whole accusation to the single crime of tyranny. " If it U replied (JoriolaniN, "and 1 have nothing to disprove but a calumny so ill-grounded, I free- ly yield myself to the judgment f the people." Thus, with the consent of all parties, the de- Hlfl rigned, allowing ('n-ilaiius >even and twenty .;, pivparc his detence. when the day arrived, an iniinense multitude crowded the Forum at an early hour. The friends of C'oriolanns lahnv<l faithfully in his In-half; while, on the other hand, the Trilmncs and all his < did every tiling in their r to accomplish his destruction. ('-rila- lius him-elf answered the >u<picioii< which had uj.on him. l.y a >imile narratio He u'ave an account of all the en-a-viiiriit- in which lie had taken part, showed the wound-, which he had received, the, military honor> which his general- had le~tow- ed upon him. and named the several posts in the army through which he had successively i. lie then called upon the multitude :it, even citing many of them ly name, and demanded if they could not t-ti!y to the truth of what lie said. A great deal of feeling was manifested by his 104: REPUBLIC or ROME. His Defence and Condemnation. old comrades in arms, and many among the plebeians shouted out in his behalf. But the Tribune Decius rising up, made a most power- ful speech against him, in which he endeavored to show that Coriolanus had, upon a certain occasion, defrauded the soldiers of their booty, and had distributed it among his friends. He called upon many to testify to the fact, and, succeeding in turning the current of popular feeling against Coriolanus, called for the judg- ment of the people, which was promptly given, and Coriolanus was condemned to perpetual banishment. The greatest consternation prevailed imme- diately among the patricians. This feeling was succeeded by rage and indignation ; and Vale- rius was bitterly reproached for having misled them by his artful discourses. Coriolanus, how- ever, with an appearance of the utmost uncon- cern, left the assembly, went to his house, where he found his w T ife and mother bathed in tears. Exhorting them to bear with patience this reverse of fortune, he bade them farewell, and refusing to take with him a single attend- ant, walked out of the gates of Rome, without speaking one word to the many friends who followed in his footsteps. The people, of course, testified great joy on T R 1 HI" N E S OF T II K J ' E O P L E . 105 He offers his Services to the Volsci. account of this decided triumph over the 1 Sen- ate. Hitherto dependent upon the patricians, they were now hec<>me their judges, and had. obtained a right to decide the fate <>t'the great- est in the commonwealth. A terrible triumph for them it was. as we shall presently behold. After leaving Koine, ('oriolanns wandered about, indifferent a> to the >pt which should oifer him an asylum, provided only that he could lind the means and opportuniti* avenging his wrongs. Looking around for the mo>t powerful enemy of Koine, he finally de- termined to offer his service- to the Yol-ei, and, if possible, to stir them np to war. This nation, bordering upon Koine, had always op- i it with remarkable courage, but never with much succex. The Romans had taken from them, at different times, a great deal of their territory, and they had been compelled, not long before, to sue for a truce of two y in order to repair their broken strength. Co- riolanus himself had, more than once, cut to pieces their troops and ravaged their country ; and his name was a terror throughout all their borders. And their very ruler, Tullus Attius, having been beaten by him in several engage- ments, it seemed the height of madness for him to venture in their midst. Hut Toi-mlanus 106 EEPUBLIC OF ROME. His appearance at the house of Tullus Attius. thirsted for revenge, and determined to obtain it in the speediest and most certain manner, or die in the attempt. Disguising himself, then, he one evening en- tered Antium, the chief city of the Volsci. and proceeded immediately to the house of Tullus. Entering it without speaking a single word, lie took a seat by the domestic hearth a place, sacred in all the houses of anci<-nt paganism. The servants, astonished at >m-!i extraordinary conduct, and struck by his majestic, air. ran to tell their master. Tullus immediately appeared, and demanded of him who lie was, and what lie required. "If thou dost not know me," he replied, U I am Cains Marcius; my surname is CWiolanus, the only reward left me of all my service-. I am bani>hcd from K<>me by the batred of the people, and the pusillanimity of the great : I seek revenge: it lies in thy power to employ my sword against my foes and thy c<>imtrvV. If thy republic will not accept of my Ben I give my life into thy hands; put an end to an old enemy, that may else come to do more mischief to thy country." Tullus was, of course, in great ama/.ement, but in a moment comprehend ing all, he stretched to him his hand, and said: ".Fear nothing, Mar- TRIBI The Volsci seek a pretext for Wr with Rome. 'Mr pledge lif tl: curitv. I'.v if, tliou i/ivi-M us And _rly we shall have can' to ackn>\\ ' than thy l'ell>v. :-Miii the Tlu-y a- frsa- D loriniiiir the 1'ollow- i.lan I'-i* n-!: w ith the Ro- mans, -which h:i'l 'h-i 1-y ih' i :iliel, u: to conver ce into a solid jn-aci- IK t the t "iis, that imbMMMlon should le and unly this one condi- . a restitution of the lands which had been taken t n at different times; a tiling which 1 \v that the liuinans to d< >. r l'hi- plan having been approved by the V.,1- .bassadors were selected and d to Rome, and in the mean time, the :ve preparations were made for war. A- a matter of course the Senate of Rome re- fiiM'd t-> re-ton- the territory which t] taken by c<n<jik->t tnm the Volsci, an<l their reply t> the ;; A a-, that if the Volsci HUM liiM. i w.uld lay them 108 UK PUBLIC OF ROME. Coriolanns marches against Rome. down last. A declaration of war followed at once, and Tullus, remaining at home with a large body of troops, sent Coriolanus at the head of the army into the Rnman territory. So rapid and unexpected were all his proceed- ings, that the citio against which he inarched had neither time nor courage to defend them- selves. The towns of Same-inn, Longnlinn, !'<- lusca, and (Jorioli, were taken from the Ro- mans in quick succession; so al>> were Cm-bin, Yin-Ilium, Trebia, Labicum, and 1'edum. The citizens of Bola, more obstinate than the other.-, were put to the sword, and the wlmlo country was plundered and devastated. The lmu-es and e>iatr> of the ]>atrieians, by order of Co- rinlanus. were, however, .-pared, a eireunistance which greatly inilanie*! the plebeians. Such continual success inspiivtl the snldiers of Coriolanus, who, finding nn army in the field t npp.ise his doigns, advanced upon La- viniuni, took it, and, coining within five miles of Koine, encamped his army. The consternation at Rome wa- great indeed. No one had the courage to fight, and no one was found capable of leading. The people ran up and down on all sides, begging that means nhould le taken to bring aU.ut a peace, and they even expressed a wish to annul the ten- TRIBI r THK PlOPLE. 109 ^ ___ L _ _ _ u -, _ . _ i-.-n - - rr_ Terror of the Roman People. tence passed upon Cori>lanus ami t< recall him from hi- exile. The Senate, howev< sedto do this saying, that Rome wuld never grant any thing to a rebel eo long as be remained in This decision coining to tlie ears of Cori<>la- nus, la* immediately broke up his camp, and niaivliing to the city, pr- At >ight of 8ucb a daring procectliug, tin- pa- tht* j.cupK- l.ccaine still nmrc alarnu-*!. Hesolution entirely taih-il them. they jniiu-d together in sending a <h-pntatin to _r of five men of dignity. Unt the haughty general would liti.n that K"me should restore to the Volsci tin- t<-rrit<rv \\hich it bad taken t'nm them. At the earnest re- : of the deputies, he granted the city a- hirty day<, at the end >!' wliidi time again at the gates of Rom . Other dr|>: !'0 now Pent t him, who ight him not t- any thing whicli might imt be agreeable t< the dignity .f Kome; but he persisted obstinately in his demand, and threatened the destruction of the city it did not comply within three d Terror now took possession of the Roman-, and they appeared willing to do any thing to 110 EEPUBLIC OF HOME. Ambassadors sent to Coriolanus. avert the evil which awaited them. The priests, the augurs, and the guardians of the sacred things, dressed in their ceremonial robes, marched in procession to the camp, and bei Coriolanus by the respect that he owed to the gods, and by all that was sacred in religion, to grant to his country peace. He made to them, however, the same stern reply, adding that, in t withstanding their belief that the gods de- cived the empire of the world to Borne, pr. appearances were iniieli against it, and that he \va- sure of carrying the town. The disappointed priests returned, and ma- king known the result of their mission, the men women and children, bathed in tears, flocked to tin- temples to implore the gods to save their country. Moved by a sort of divine inspira- tion, a lady named Valeria, accompanied by a great number of women, went to the house of Yeturia, the mother of Coriolanus, where they found her, as well as his wife, bitterly deplor- ing the misfortunes of Rome. "We are Eoman ladies," said Valeria, as soon as she came into the presence of the mo- ther of Coriolanus ; " we are Roman ladies who have come to beseech you to aid in securing the safety of our common country. Go along with us to the camp of Coriolanus, and beg of TRIIH-NF.S oi 'PLE. Ill him peace for hi- fell- us. All our hope is in the tend- h ho may have for so good a mother and so virtu-. u- a wife. Jm; demand him. IK' rannt with- '. ith Mm- childivn will fol- V"ii, and cast ourselves at his fe* of Coriolanus was quite as anx- ious for the honor and safety of Home as any of the ladies who surrounded her; but knowing perfectly tin- character of her son, she Ml that it wniil.l IK- useless for her to interpose. What -access can you expect from m es to a man so implacable ?" said she. t\vo women IK-IK! that stubborn heart, which the ministers of religion themselves could not soften? And indeed what shall I bo him? What can I reasonably < It-ire of him ? Shall I a>k him to pardon those who have treated him like a man blackened with the foulest crimes ? Shall I ask him to betray a nation that has opened to him an asylum, and preferred him to its most illustrious citi- in the cninmand of it> armies? Can a an mother and a Roman wifr with de- <>m a son and a husband ti. which mu-t di-h.MiMr him before both gods and men ? Give us up therefore to our unhappy destiny; leav. n our iu?f affliction*.' 1 112 KEPUBLIC or EOME. She goes to the Camp of her Son. But the mother and wife of Cori claims being finally overcome by their entreaties, consented to accompany them to the camp, and the ap- proval of the Senate being obtained, they set out upon their mission in chariots provided for the purpose. The news of their approach was carried to Coriolanus, who, conceiving it to be the last expedient of the Senate, determined to receive them with respect, but to grant none of their requests. Severe and resolute, however, as he was, he could not behold his mother and wife at the head of this troop of Roman ladies with- out running to embrace them ; but the moment they began to entreat him to remove his troops from Rome, all his natural sternness returned, and he declared that he could grant the Ro- mans peace only on the conditions already named. " And can you, my son," said the mother, raising her voice, " can you refuse a proposal so equitable, unless you prefer a cruel and ob- stinate revenge to your mother's tears and en- treaties ? Consider that your reply is to decide the fate of my glory, nay, and of my life too !" Coriolanus made no answer, but on his face any one might see a stern refusal of his mother's prayer. TRIIU-NKS UK TIIK PEOPLE. 113 Her Appeal in behalf of 1: "Dot thou believe," she continued, u that, covered with the >hame of a contemptuous de- nial, I can ]atiently wait till thy anus have pronounced our doom ? A KMIM:IH woman knows how to die, when her honor calls her so to do; ami if I cannot move thee. I am iv- 1 to irive death to myself, here in thy :KV. Thou -halt not march to Koine without treading over the hody of her to whom thou owe>t thy beinir; and if asi^ht of ><> much hornn- has not the power to -top thy fur; member, at least, that by mean- of thy endeav- oring to bring Rome into chains, thy wife and children cannot avoid a speedy death, or a te- dious servitu. Uy this time the appearance of Coriohmus :i to chanire. His hatred and desire of Qge 8eemd to be yielding to tlie moving ;u-le before him, but still he would not say a word. " \\ r hy dost thou not answer me, my son?" cried again his mother. " Wilt thou not know thy mother 1 lla>t thou forgotten the care I took uf thy infancy? Canst thou, who make-t war only to revenge thyself of the ingratitude of thy fellow- citizens, deny me the first favor 1 ever asked thee, without blackening thyself with the very same crime ? If I required thee 8 114 REPUBLIC OF ROME. The Effect of her Prayers and Tears. to betray the Volsci, who have given thee so generous a reception, thou wouldst have just cause to reject such a proposal. But I only desire thee to withdraw thy troops from Rome ; allow us a truce for a year, that in this inter- val measures may be taken to procure a solid peace. Grant this, my son, I conjure thee by Jupiter, all-good and all-powerful, who presides at the capitol, by the manes of thy father and of thy ancestors 1 If my prayers and tears are not able to move thee, behold thy mother at thy feet, imploring of thee the preservation of her country!" And bursting into tears, she embraced his knees. His wife and children, and all the Roman ladies, falling down before him, begged him to have mercy upon their beloved city. ""What is it that you do, my mother?" cried Coriolanus, stooping down to raise her from the ground. " Rome is saved, but your son is lost ! Farewell, farewell forever !" and then embra- cing her, and his wife and children, he moved slowly towards his tent. On the following day he called a council of war, and, no one presuming to contradict his opinion, it was decided that the army should return home to Antium. Without delay the march began : but they had no sooner entered TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. 115 IVatii ofCoriolanus the ii the city than the cry was raised that Coriolanus had turned a traitor to the in- ici II' 1 demanded a trial by nil council of the nation; but Tullus. the nor, jealous of his exploits, and ti-arin^ his eloquence a> much as his valor, rai>ed a tuniult, and, by nu-uns of a^i'iit^ previ.ni-ly iiivtnu-UMl, d him to be stabK-d. f j'hus tell this remarkable man, though it was titly without the approbation of the VoKci, fortliey a t'liiMi-d in rreat multitink-s Ironi the :l>orinir cities to do hiin honor at his bur- ial, and upon his tomb they placed garlands and spoils of war. At Rome the report of his death was received with neither favor nor resentment. The women all went into mourning for him for the space of ten months, the longest period for wearing ha- biliments of grief. THE DECEMVIIIS FROM 485 TO 446 B. C. THE Agrarian Law Increasing power of the Tribunes Efforts to pacify tli<- JVople Proposition to establish fixed Laws Conduct of Quintius Ceso Cincinnatus created Die- tutor Commissioners sent to Greece Decemvirs appointed Their powers Appius Claudius The Ten Tables Con- duct of the Decemvirs Their Tyranny "\V;ir with the Sa- bines Defeat of the Romans Story of Bioeios Dentatal Story of Virginia The Decemvirate abolished Death of Appius DEATH OF VIRGINIA. V. THE DEC KM V IRS. some anil it iuis indi- vidual >h"iild take advantaL'v f t: the ph : ,:il tin* pair prun >wn telfiah ends, and, accord! ^p. Cassius Vueellimitt ei inir in thi> way to obtain ti < >..!- einnlv p: . ly tin- law. A m ly birth, and a i-nsul, IK- snu^ht, l, v ^ainmir the atl'H-ti..n of tin- plflu-iai:-. .nipli-h liis T" i hi- mil J.M^M!. in order to juit the poor citi/i-ii> up.n -..mc r<juality with the rich, and them t> >ulsi-t. that the land> takni fnun th' . and which had !.< 'I'.nld jiially <livi<K-d ainMn L r tin- pf-plc. And this was tlie tain" 10, which made so much tnaihle durinr many follnwin^ years. This law, nf c<ur>'. nn-t immediate op- position from the patricians, and such was the 122 EEPUBLIC OF ROME. The Agrarian Law Genutiua. expectation of Cassius ; but the Tribunes, jeal- ous that a patrician should undertake to rise through the favor of the people, succeeded in bringing about his death. The subject of dividing the public lands among the people was not, however, forgotten, and a law was obtained from the Senate pro- viding for the appointment of commissioners, who should proceed with the partition of these lands, and set up landmarks, that might put a stop to all usurpations for the future. Still, few were found among those having influence or power who dared to move in the matter, and it remained for a long time unagitated. At length, however, one of the Tribunes, Cn. Ge- nutius, publicly cited the two consuls to nomi- nate the commissioners, and to proceed in the partition of the lands ; and so boldly was he sustained by the people in his demands, that the Senate finally fixed a day for the decision of this vexatious matter. But on the night preceding this" day, Genutius was found dead in his bed, without the least marks of poison or any other violence. His body was laid out in the Forum, and the report was circulated that the gods, disapproving his enterprise, had put an end to his life. Thus the Agrarian law was again silenced for a long time. TH K DKCEMV IBS. ii'.. ili- Trilnines. The contest between the pK-heians and the patricians continued with little abatement ; and the death of Genutius wa- rather an incentive t- activity than a motive to despair. While the consuls every year incurred only the h; ; of the people, the Tribunes, studying to gain their applause, aimed at sharing with the Sen- ate and patricians the wealth, the digi/ and the magistracies of the Republic. The pi.wer of the Tribunes occasionally rose so high that the consuls fled before them ; thus the consul Appius, opposing vehemently the Agra- rian law, was so furiously attacked by them, that he w.-nt into exile, or. as some historians say, ]>ut an end to his life. There was not however wanting, among the patricians, some who would occasionally, fivm N'oleiice or ambition, put themselves at the head of the common people. The desire on the part of the plebeians to have houses and homes was too reasonable and too simple to be resisted; and it would have been stranire enough, had no one, either from selfishness or kindness advocated their cause. During the consulship of Tib. Emelius and Q. Fabins, twenty years after the Agrarian law was first mooted, a strong effort was made to satisfy the people by furnishing them with lands. Erne- 12-4 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Efforts made to pacify the People. lius stoutly averred that it was impossible to maintain peace and union among the citizens of a free State, unless the lands taken from their enemies were fairly divided between the rich and the poor. He obstinately persisted upon the publication of the Agrarian law. and wa- ably sustained by some of the older sena- . but most of them complained that he was do-irous of gaining popularity l>y distributing property which did not belong to him. Dis- cord was likely to follow, when Fabius, his col- league, proposed that the city of Antium, whose inhabitants had been recently de-troyed by Avar, should be given to the poorer people of Rome. Three citizens were named to make the establishment of this colony ; but when the people were called to give their names to these pi-r>ons, few appeared, so strong was their at- tachment lor Koine, and so little inclination had they to give up its games, its spectacles, its public a>semblies, and its busii At this time Koine had no fixed laws, nor any constant form of administering justice. The will of its kings had been, at lirst, its law, and the consuls and Senate succeeding to their power, succeeded likewise to the same right of dispensing justice. Not long, then, after the attempt to found a colony at Antium, a certain T ii R DlOl M 9 : 1-J,") Proportion to establish fixed Laws. Tribune, named Terentillu- Ai-a, undertook to signalize hi- tribunate by prop..>in^ the * li-hment of la I ami determined, t'..r the by in tlu- jnliT! they should j. man ami man. TIio-o law- -iMl I iv trn o 'imn half of v '.-ins ami half with a Opposition on the part ..f tin OB, ami iiHH'tin<r> were re- lly hrhl, hut to no purpose. At length, im-s (h-ti-nniiic-.l to 1 the ]M for the ]>nrp-- t . !' naming their cnnimissi..- AVhile tlu- l.u-incss was in progress, Qnintius . -on of (Juintius Cinei- I eoii-iil, ru-hed into the crowd, knocked down M 1 all tli:/ ; nd by m- of the uproar which lie raised. .if the as- seml.Iy, notwithstanding all that the Trih could do t> keep them together. inch applauded l.y the senators and ) a, l.ut his conduct was so to the Triluines that lie was summoned to ap- .hly of the people. His father, Cincinnati. - friends and relations, did all in their power to save him; but the pcoi.je were so exa-porated by his con- REPUBLIC OF ROME. Conduct of Quintius Coso. duct, as well as by the discreditable stories which were related concerning him, that they were determined to condemn Ceso to death. The witnesses, however, by whom they were to condemn him, not being present, it was deemed advisable to commit him to prison until such time as he could be tried; but this proceeding having been disousseil, it wa< a give d that ten citizens should be bound for his forthcoming on the day when he was to be tried, or pay siich line a< should bo determined upmi be- twiM-n the Senate and the Trihiin did QOt, however, dan t<> appear before the people, but, departing that very night from Rome, went t- Tii-cany. The fine WB6 exacted with so much rigor from hU bondsmen, that his il- liHtrion-, lather, obliged to sell his e>taU-s. re tired t.. a few iCTOfl of land, which ho cultiva- ted wi:h hi- \vn hand- in order to j)rocure a subsistence. Not long after tin- a war broke nut between the Romans -mi the one hand, and the Sabiiu-* and the Jvjiii on tho other. The two consuls. at the head >f their rospcctivo arn 'it out eoivo tho invaders. Xautius, who attacked the Sabines. met with great bi; ait, while he was pursuing them with a terrible slaughter, his colleague Minutius was pushed into such THK DECIMVI 1-J7 :iii. that it : It f.'und iml -pensable under ii eum- L. QuintiiH Cineinnatus having been named for this hirh . a deputation wa< >eiit to hrin<: liiin his lirtlc tann. Dropping the han<lh' ut' iiis plough, be girded on his sword, and at tin- lf<l in - Tln S in rratitiiK' I'-T his ;ild hav.- <1 upon him th- liiniT <"t' the kind, he DM t. the occupations of his little farm. innatm \\.-i-c with thr : -; he even recommended the in- !' tin* number of the Tril that M- \\<.uld tl. among them ; and such was undoubtedly trill-, though the Triliuru-: .-rrnied m ciallv ., ruin the consuls and tin- nnl.il- ity. A cnnstant union was, howt-ver, main- tained lu-twi-i-u the Tribunes and the jilolx and for live MU-O. the same Tribunes te proposition of Terentillus Arsa for a code of fi\e<l law was not forgotten, but was now continually urged 128 EEPUBLIC OF KOME. Commissioners sent to Greece. upon the Senate, who took every mea ;;'id defeat it. To this end, am<mir other tilings, it \vas proposed that three commi ion- ers l)e sent to Athens to examine Mich of the of Solon a< were mo>t popular anin<r the ks, making choice of those most suitable for tlu- ]: <n>titution of the linniai; j)ul)lic'. Tln->o foinini>-i' jointed, and dui-inir their alienee tiie city was compar- atively free from the (li-srn-ioii- \vhieh usually ailed. Hut they had no sooner returned than thr Tril.uues and people lu-^an to clamor for th.e appointment of tin- Decemviis, who be eiiipl'.yt-d upon the ^i-eat w<>rk <f fixing a body of law- tor the government ot'tiio Commonwealth* Kvery etl'.'rt was made by the COngalfl lo di-ter the appointment of | and <ne of them even feigned, f ( ,r some time, to le >iek. in order that he mi^ht not lie importuiiiMl in the matter. P.y the art- fulne>-, 1. !' the Tribuiu-s the appoint- ment of the I K-ceniN "ir- \\a- finally achieved; but the de-i-n of 'JVivntillus \\;i- not fully car- rird out, for live of them -hoiihl have n from anioiiM- the plebeians, which \va< not done, 'i'he-f Decemvirs consisted . of Ap- jiius C'laudius, T. Genutius, 1 -. Yeiuri- u<. C'. Julius, A. Manlius, S. Siiljiitius, i j . Cu- Tii i DEOB M \ Power* of lb Daeemrlre Applus OUadlua. amiuB. All >ther of: inite c<>nt i i anl even the common 1 . .f the ] be at i A jipius ( 'laii'T ono en, In* II-SUHUM! ii" autli'-ritv | . !;ir iwpoesi! was sure to rec< !i>iiK'>< intrustiMl to him , urn the . lirt.is, \vl. -:i tin* I '..(I their point hiitht'ully Upon . which i-s of the Iliiving completed their work, 130 REPUBLIC' OF ROME. The Ten Tables The Ambition of Appius Claudius. proposed it in ten table.*, sonic of them relating to the concerns of religion, others to the public rights, and the greater part to private persons. The>e laws were submitted to the people, and received their unanimous approbation, though, in the opinion of some person-., several regula- tions were wanting which, if added, would ren- der the body of the Roman law complete. This opinion becoming very general, it civ a desire to make another election of Decemvirs for one year more; and the Senate glad thus to get rid of the Tribunes and the people glad to be i'ree from the con<nN. the thing was dime. The day was fixed for the election, and among the senators tin-re were, of COUTBe, many who aspired to the dignity of the otliee. Ap- piu-. however, pretended that, having labored in it assiduously for a whole year, he was will- ing that any one should now occupy hi* place. Hut when the day arrived, he -urreeded not only in procuring hi- own election, hut the fK-ction of six other senator> least esteemed in the wlioU- body, and what was still more sur- pri-ing. of three plebeians Throwing off then the line mask which he had worn during the previous year, he represented to his colleagues that there was nothing more ea-y than for them to retain the sovereign power during their Tin. lUut-litv Co:<.du,-t , ut a 16 ofcon rules, which all irmi<L'd with t'. -ulemn - ve. poo which these ' y appeared in public, with tw. -ts befor. rr all wlmm tin- >urse preva; plaii. n-uU, I had : 'irninir " v ^' r ^ K ' ! these complaint- confined t< : -, but the : s made tlic-in al>, althoiiirh the .'ned to take advantage of the res- ignation of the I> >ull \lany nf them. 1; Agiveahly ' in which these iirst aj : igfl in the HUM iniprriMii- and . help them in their bate design*; and even ; "iimr many \\ . ^rrin^ li- ccnti 1 not blusli to become the MM vants and accomplices of nu-ii. UMBVB was no safety in B '- and virtue; and the j .f honest ci: 132 REPUBLIC OF 11 o M K . Their Tyranny Rome threatened from abroad. was daily plundered, while the unfortunate sufferers were unable to procure the least relief. If any one was bold enough to express his in- dignation at such a government, these tyrants ordered him to be beaten as a slave ; some were even put to death, and confiscation wa> n common occurrence. Hope began to spring up in the breasts of the people as the time drew near when the reign of these terrible men should cease ac- cording to law. But the year came to a close without any appearance of an as-embly of the people for an election. The tyrants, in fact, now boldly proclaimed that they should retain the government, if neccs- ary. by force and vio- lence; and, many of the citi/eiis g"ing into voluntary exile, Koine seemed destined to de- struction. Its foreign enemies no longer re- mained quiet, and even the nations owing it allegiance de-pi>cd the orders that were sent to them, as if they were unwilling to submit to a people that hud lost their own liberty. The yKijiii and the Sabines, ever ready to show their enmity to Rome, raised two large armies and inarched against it. The Decem- virs, seeing themselves thus compelled to de- fend the city, sought the aid of the Senate and people, and, after a great deal of difficulty, ar- Tin: I>K-KMVIRS. 133 mies wer . and placed under their c-"in- niand. Appiu-. conh'dini: them t his col- them forth -my; whil>t he, with a body of maintain hi> authority against the c-neniy at boo It cnuld not le >nj.]>rsed that men who had lly di'i -rived ( ,f their lil- alnsrd i- imairinalle way, w-mld li^-ht well for tlmse who had occasioned all their <ut- 1'erinir-; and we accnrdin^ly find that the Ko- niaii ani: in thi> war, were in ji >hort time (inpleti-ly I-I.UUM! ami dri . ilieir ">'. i-y. Hut the new> of the ;ne with as mud: at a victory. K said that i' ierful that the armies of tin- Kejnillic should be un 'iiand of usurper.-; and while some called to- others proposed that a Dictator should 1>. Dentatus, an old plebeian, who hud at in a hundred and t \venty lattl-s. went about denouncing in the seveiv-r terms the mvirs as the cau-e !' this mi>i'oi-: into so. much contempt did he throw them, that would scarcel i^jvc heed to their 134 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Siccius Dentatus His Defence against his Murderers. commands. The discontent, indeed, became so general, that an open revolt seemed almost inevitable. But Appius, provided for such an event, sent provisions and recruits to his colleagues, and bid them, at the same time, to punish in the most rigorous manner all those who gave any evidence of mutiny. Resolving also to be re- venged upon Siccius, he pretended to have great respect for his experience as a soldier, and engaged him to go and assist the generals with his counsels. The old soldier, sincerely desiring to serve his country, and unsuspicious of the cunning Decemvir, set out at once for the camp, where, according to previous instructions from Appius, hi- was recvived with every appearance of joy and resj.eet. l>ut the secret agents of Appius, contriving to iret him out of the camp into a lonely place, fell upon him with their swords. The hero of a hundred and twenty battles was not, however, to be slain without a >tni<_ r i:le. Placing his back airainst a r<>ek. in order k> prevent an attack from behind, he defended himself with so much skill that several of them were killed, while others were terribly wounded. The villains, however, bent upon the accomplishment of their purpose, climbed T H K : vi us. 135 Apptu* saspected of causing bis Death. up to th. I thence heat him on tlu- head witl. g into the cam; . hearile-s rutiian- .-aid that they hal fallen into an amhu-h, in which Siccius and some of their rmr; -lain. The -tory was at hut some of who regarded Siccius as a lather, went nut to seek his cor found it; but they found also that thu- with him were all - ; and what them more \va>, that none uf them liad been stripped of their arms or clothes, and that the slain all lay with their faces towards him. Be- this, then- were no i3 indicating the retivat of any who mi^ht have In r:i >up- posed to attack th ! these things made th- -ct that iufl had lu-en mn : and it was natural for ti. was This was confirmed 1 -my dei. 'lie ])iinisliment of the 88- mid. having : assisted in making their t-eape. These ii-re the citi/.ens and soldi' ' and the people, all cried out against ?o infamous a deed. But ere Rome could be free from the yoke of Ap- 136 KEITH LIC OF ROME. Appius attracted by Virginia. pins, he was to fill up the measure of his tyran- nies by a deed still more odious and horrible than the murder of Siccius. While the armies were engaged in the war, it was the custom of this brutal Decemvir to administer justice in the Forum, where, at stated seasons, he sat to receive those who re- quired his services. From the position which he occupied, he could easily perceive all who passed to and fro, either upon their business or their pleasure; and it is not difficult to admit that his mind was not so completely occupied with the interest of his fellow-citizens, as to pre- vent hi- eyee from being sometimes wickedly engaged. Seated one day in his u>ual plan-, lie chanced lo >py a beautiful girl, of about iiftecn years, who, under the charge of an attendant, was pacing through the Forum on her way to school. Struck with her appearance, he imme- diately inquired her name and condition, and aM-rrtained that she was a plebeian ; that her lather was cue \ irginius, a centurion in the army then engaged in the war ; that her own name was Virginia, and that >he was engaged to be- married to Icilius, lately one of the Tribunes. Such a story had little in it to encourage his Tin: lM:i'KMv; 137 Virginia claimed as a Slav* by Claudius, :i if Appius had not In married man. tin- lows of the Twelve Tablefl for- bade all alliances between the patrician- ami pleK-ians and he very soon dif that Virginia wa< proof ; my dish* purp. ''( lie might cherish towards lu-r. , to get her into his pos- ;rse to M. Claudius, one of the nunien-us sc<undivls whom he kept in his empl This man having one day t''ll,,\\ discoverr<l the school to which -: and after waiting a short time at tlu- < entered, and taking the UINU-JM ! ly the hand. .ted by f drag h. his own h-.iise, under j.ivtencc was the daughter of one of his slaves. ( > wlii'lnied with confusion, Virginia could fend her-. -If only ly lu-r t-ars; hut the wit- nesses of the transaction, moved l.y the sight, ran to her assistance, and put a Stop to the :ig of Claudius. The villain a- that he meant to use no violence, but simply to take possession of his own property, to which he was certainly entitled, wherever he might lind it; and In- challenged all those wh- ined his right, to appear with him hefore the Decemvir Apjius, where he would lead Yir- 138 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Virginia carried before Appius. ginia, and prove abundantly that she was his slave. Some of the people, who knew both the girl and her father, and others, moved only by curi- osity, followed to the Forum, where Claudius stated his case before a judge who was himself the author of the villany. lie said that Vir- ginia had been born in his own house, and that her mother had secretly sold her to the wife of Virginius, who now made her pass for his own daughter. lie offered also to produce undenia- ble testimony of the truth of his assertions, but claimed that until the matter could be decided, it was but just that >lu- >hould accompany him as her master; and at the same time signified his willingness to give good security lor her appearance, it' Vilnius, at hi- return, still pre- tended to be her real father. Numitorius. her uncle, who had been in- formed of what had taken place, had by this time reached the Forum. Without much diffi- culty he discovered the plot that had been laid by the unprincipled Appius; hot, concealing his suspicions, he simply claimed that, as the uncle of the girl, he was entitled to her guar- dianship until the appearance of her father, and asked that the case might be postponed for two days, by which time he thought that Yir- 'I'm: !>!:> KMVIRS. 139 At'.Tii; ginius iiii^ht le brought from the cam}). So ju>t a demand could not tail to gain tin- ap- proval of the a-^emhly ; but Api ared that, however willing ho might he to deliver the girl into the liamK of any one claiming to be her father. In- could not with justice give her up to a person asserting him>elf t- 1 uncle; ami that, under the C "-lled to place her in the custody of Claudius, who should give sec produce gafa at the return of her reputed fat: Such an unjust decree aroused the indigna- tion of the whole assembly, and murmurs and complaints arose on <le. Th who resent gathered around Virginia BSj and declared that she should not be delivered in hands of Claudius. 13ut this cruel monsVr. reiranlh->- of tl, . \va- attempting to force her , when Icilius, to whom she was promised in marriaire, ru.-hed into the Forum, maddened by the report- which had imw i his ears. BegvdieM of all danger, he flung himself into the presence of the haughty Decemvir, and shaking i lied hand in his very face, cried out "Thou shalt t me, before thou shalt enjoy the fruit of thy vile ar- tifices and insupportable tyranny. Is it not 140 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Effective Speech of her Lover. enough that thou hast deprived us of the two strongest bulwarks of our liberty, the protection of our Tribunes, and the right of appeal to the assembly of the people ? Cannot the honor of the Roman maidens be safe with thee ? Know, tyrant, that Virginia is betrothed to me, and that I expect to marry a virgin, and one free born. If, in the absence of her father, any attempt is allowed to do her violence, I will implore the aid of the Roman people for my wile; Virgin his will demand assistance of all his fellow-soldiers for his daughter, and both gods and men will be on our side. IJut tin. ugh I hud not a man to assist me. justice and vir- tuous love w r ill give me sufficient power to pre- vent the execution <>f thy unjust sentence !" Such passinnule language moved every one, in his behalf, and Claudius wa> driven to take refuge at the feet of Appius. Multitude.- of people, llocked into the Fnruni, and the De- cemvir, fearing an open revolt, thought lit to revoke his decree and to give Virginia her freedom, on condition that Icilius should give r-eeurity for her appearance on the morrow. AVithout a moment's delay, Appius dis- patched a secret messenger to his colleagues svho commanded the army, begging them to invst Virginius, upon tome pretence or other, Tii i: DKCE M v . 141 or at lea-t nt to permit him to return to Koine. In this way. he still hoped that he .-honld IK- able t- deliver Virginia into the hands of daadius. I!ut hi- mes-enger reached ainj) too late: Vidimus- had been prompt- ly apprised of hi- daughter's danger, and had obtained leave ot' absence from the camp b. the arrival of the m68BeBgen of ApphMd liv- ery effort was. h-.wever, made him, and pivvent him from ^ettin^ back to Rmne, but it wa- all in vain. Prompted by a lather's . lie llew a- <n the winirs ot' the wind. :o bloodhounds dispatche<l in pur-uit of him had -rented lii- trark, he was locked in the arm- !' hi- unhappy dau^: With a bleeding heart he went to the Forum on the foIliiwinLT day, leading \'irL r inia by the hand. A en>wd of people had already a- bled, to whom Icilius \va loudly declaimiiii; against the tyranny and ba>ene-s of the !)- cemvir. JJnt the youth, the beauty, and inno- cence of Virginia moved the multitude more than all the complaints ami eiitr ; her family: and Appiu-. hearing of the Btr feelinir that had against him, or- ; a b< :dy of troops to be sent to the Forum for his protection. Then repairing thither him- self, and taking possession of his tribunal, ho 142 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Trial before Appius. called upon the villain Claudius to open his demand, and to proceed in his action. Claudius, of course, began by claiming Vir- ginia as his slave, and offered to prove his pretensions by a dozen witnesses. Having per- mi-sion to. produce these witnesses, he brought immediately upon the stand a female slave, who, for a bribe, swore that Virginia was her own daughter, and that she had sold her to the wife of Virginius, who wished to bring her up as her own child. " If the evidence of this woman is not suffi- cient," said Claudius, "I will adduce still fur- ther proof; but I hope that justice will not be denied to me on account of the threats of this Icilius, or the clamors of these pretended relatives." But the friends of Virginia brought witnesses who had known her from the very moment of her birth, and who had seen her when a babe upon her mother's bosom. Nothing, indeed, could be made more clear, than the fact that Claudius was a ba-o impostor, and that Vir ginia was the victim of a foul conspiracy. Observing the effect produced by the wit- 8 of Virgin! us upon the multitude, Appius stopped the proceedings, and addressing the assembly. >aid : 4 ' Be it known to you, O Tin; DEOKMVIRS. 143 >tous Judgment Indignation of Virginias. ! that I am net ignorant of the facts connected with r .It is true, that du- rinir the whole life of this maiden. Claudius not until yesterday claimed her as hi> slave; but this dues not in any wi-e diminish 'iirht t< do so now. Everybody knows that Claudius* father, at his death, left me guardian of hi- s n. Soon afterward-. I was tuld that, as Mich, i o- aim this young slave, as part of his M n : and I then heard the evidence wliieh has this day !i in your hearing. Kvery tiling c-'ii- sj.in-d t.. hinder me in the performance of my duty; hut the post I now occupy will not allow me i him the justice which I ov and I therefore decree that the plaintiff take home the ^irl a-> his slave." W roil i(l it up to the highest pitch of mad by such an unjust sentence, Virginiufl ]'.; hi- arm around his child, and turning to the cruel Decemvir, he shouted: k Know, () A].- : 1 did not educate my daughter for >uch a hideous wretch as thoii ! I gave her to Icilius, and tlmu shalt i. il her thine. AVhat! shall it he said of Romans, that they ares- yield tamely their wives and daughters to beasts like thee?" A thousand clamors now filled the air ; and 14A REPUBLIC OF HOME. Virginias slays his Daughter. Appius, maddened by the exposure of his crime, and fearing too for the safety of his life, was obliged to order his soldiers and his lictors to drive the people from the Forum. Yirginius, perceiving then that it was impos- sible for him to save his daughter, begged of Claudius that he would allow him to have a moment's conversation with her in private. The request was granted, on condition that she should not be taken out of the Forum. Pierced to the heart he clasps the stricken maiden in his arms; he wipes away the tears which bathe her face, and, drawing her closer and closer to his bosom, removes her slowly from tin- tribunal, as if in search of some quiet plaee where, undisturbed, he may whisper in her ear. Approaching ( ne of the littler-hops that opened in the Forum, he spies a butclu-r's knife. Keaching out his hand In- takes it 1111- perceivcd, and pivs>ing Virginia to his heart with still more tenderness than ever, he e.x- claims: ".My dearest child, this is the only way to -a\e thy honor and thy liberty." With these words he plunges the knife into her bosom, and then drawing it out all reeking with her blood, he rushes to the tribunal of the ty- rant, and holding up the knife to the terrified monster, shrieks into his ears : " It is Avith Tin-: I vi us. l-l.~. - .Iriven fnun tho i this innocent 1.1 1. O Appius that I <i thy head to the internal L I... ml -hrieks n<>\v till tho F>rum; and Ap- ' -r his life, calU upon hi Vir_i:iniu< and di>arm him. IJut the brave centurion, brandi-hiii- ihem all defiance ; and, Ope&ing a passage thri'iiirli the c-r'\vd, reaches the r! . and itnpi, lr v for Appius and his bru- tal c -lii-agues. Crowds of pr ; int> tlu- I-'.. rum In n. ., . and sluwed l.y tlu-ir actions tho t'nllo-t li-tormin:i- tin t> avi-n^f tlu- death >f Viririnia. 'J'he des- j.oratt- Appius called upon his guards to their leaders; but th- po<plr. n..\v prrt'cdlv furio B thorn. t': l-'nim. lnko the - of the liotors, and cha>in^ tho tyrant him>olf tVom his tribunal, eumpolh-d him to take ivfuge in a neighboring Inn: Viririniiis having ; camp, with the bloody knife still in his hand, told the dreadful story to the soldiers. Kui-ed to the highest pitch of madness, his comrade- tn.k up their arms, and, in spite of the threat- of their generals, marched that very day t< Komo. Their arrival in the city changed the tumult to an open rebellion, and, the Senate being con- 10 146 REPUBLIC OF ROME. The Dccemvirate abolished Death of Appius. venecl, all the Decemvirs promised to abdicate their offices, if they might only be saved from the hatred of the people. An interrex was promptly chosen, and L. Valerius and M. Ho rat ius were afterwards named as consul-. In the course of a few days the excitement somewhat subsided. The people elected their Tribunes ; the Lex Valeria was confirmed anew, and thus the innocent blood of the unfortunate Virginia, like that of Lucretia, procured the Roman people their liberty a second time. Appius was arraigned before the people to an- swer for his crimes ; but bi'ing placed in prison to await his trial, he avoided punishment by taking his own life. His infamous accomplice, Marcus Claudius, was condemned to death. Through the intercession, however, of his pow- erful friends, Virginius consented that this sen- tence, though not too severe, should be changed to banishment. THE DESTRUCTION OF ROM1-] BY TIIF. CAULS. FROM 448 TO 380 B. 0. THE Siege of Veil Camillas made Dictator Taking of Voii Triumph of Camillus A<-ou>at ions brought against liim Ills Kxile Difficulties with (he Gauls Brennus marches a.u'ain.-t Home Rome abandoned to its Enemies Thr- City destroyed Camillus undertakes to punUh the Gauls Bravery of Cominius Attempt to take the Capitol Singular Alarm Fate of the Invaders Inmates of the Ca]>i;>l niak<- -MVrs t iSr.-mius The Gauls driven from Home Desolate Appearance of the City Proposals to for- sake : i Determination to rebuild it Jealousy of M. Munlius His Imprisonment and Death. VI. THI-DKSTIilVTInN OF I^MI- I'.Y TIIK HAILS. A i i notion of the Deceimi ami ' ul-ion of the IK r a seas< ed comparative tran- (juiH i it was not long before the old quarrels between the n<> '1 the people need with almost as much violence as . "One would thinky' >aid the illu>: Quintius, "that Rome holds within her walls two different nations contending with otlicr for the command." Encouraged by their numerous triumphs, the people at length began to offices hitherto held only by the patricians, and demanded also a repeal of the law that prohibited intermarriages between them. Taking advantage of these continual strifes, the neighboring nations, ever jealous of this powerful city, made incursions upon their ter- 150 REPUBLIC OF ROME. The Siege of Veii. ritory, and threatened them with evils still greater than they were suffering by their civil contentions. Among the boldest of their ene- mies were the yEqui and the Yolsci, whose armies came to the very gates of Rome. But they were driven away as often as they made themselves subject^ of alarm. The most insolent and provoking treatment which they received, came, however, from the Veientes, who drove away with contempt the ambas<adiv sent to them to demand repara- tion. These people, occupying the city of Veii, one of the strongest and wealthiest in Italy, were enemies that, the Romans might take great pride in subduing; and the Jlagrant of- fence recently committed by them, was suffi- cient to just if v the severest proceedings on the part of Koine. The siege of Veii was accordingly resolved upon, and a large army was collected and sent against it. .Hut the place being almost im- pregnable, ii was a long time before the Ro- mans gained any perceptible advantage. In- deed they suffered so much from the sallies made from the city, that they were sometimes on the point of giving it up entirely. It was, however, determined that the military tribunes in command of the Roman forces should be re- i ox OF Ro Camilla* made Dictator-Taking of Veil called, and that the conduct of tli- iould becoinn.' M". Furiu- Caniil -eral , alor and extraordinn -ity. That li. have every possible advan- . Camilli: ieed to th.- diL'ni' . and the army was irreatly and rapidly in- creased by men of every rank, whom, ly the lu-tre of \\\< name, he drew anuuid him. March- ing t- \\-ii he went vigorously t< wrk, with the h'|u- tliat he mi^ht l.e alle t> carry the t..wn lya<-ault <r '|.. ; luit lindin^ that 'uhl nut succeed in this way, he had re- cnur-e 1.. mininir and sapping. By dint of a .1 uf lal.r, liis MUlifi-s dug a subt' Q6O1U i>aaire, under the v 'li.- \t-r\ tre of the place; and then ei: t'rum the aTuimd, spread thenif-elve.- thruughout the town. The ' . whully unsu.-piciuus of such an attack, and having all their forces near the walls, found themselves suddenly overwhelmed by tin- enemy. It wa- in vain for them to : and the JJoinan soldiers, cutting down all whom they found in arms, plundered the city. The news of this achievement was rece' at Koine with demonstrations, of the greatest j'>y. The temple- were crowded with grateful worshippers, and four days were set apart for a 152 KEPUBLIC OF KOME. Triumph of Camillas Proposition concerning Veil. public thanksgiving to the gods. Camillus himself, returning with his victorious army, en- tered the city in a stately chariot, drawn by four milk-white horses. Such parade was not wholly agreeable to the people, who had not seen so much pomp since the expulsion of their kings. A proposition was immediately made by T. Siciiiius Dentatus, Tribune of the people, to make a second Rome of the city of Yeii, by sending one-half of the Senate, knights, and people to dwell there. But this proposition met with "vnrnil >j.j<.>it ion from the patricians, with Camillus at their head; and when sub- mitted to the decision of the people was prompt- ly rejected. The kindly lei-ling of the people towards Ca- millus was not destined to be of long duration. It seems that this great general, when engaged in the sieire of \\-ii, had vowed that if success attended his arms, he would consecrate the tenth part of the booty to Apollo. But in the contusion of victory he forgot his vow ; and his conscience being troubled upon the recollection of it, he sought, through the aid of the Senate, to compel the soldiers to return a tenth part of their booty, in order that he might fulfil his vow. The soldiers, unwilling to give up their I)' F Roy. 153 Camillas accused His exile. spoil u clamor, and declared that he nod with tin- patricians to keep the le always in inl : . lie wa< even ac- i >V havini: embezzled, out of the pillage tin brass gates that \\viv -een in .-I was summoned to answer to the re an assembly of the people. Mrtitied by such an accn-ati-n, IK- appealed 1'nr prtM-ti..M ; hut hcinir tll hy them that they cmild <lo nothing more than pay the line that ini^ht he imposed upon him, he declared that he wuhl rather hanish him- :'r..iu Rome than answer to such an infa- mou> -rdiiiLrly, t> his house, . his \\ilt- and children, and, at- tended hy nly two <>r three friend.-, went t> the gate of the city, where, turning tnwani capitol, he prayed the gods that his im-ratefnl cuntrynu-n miirht quickly repent the outra- annrr in whicli they had repaid his Bervice0; and that their calamitit com- pel them to recall him. And shortly after this, a misfortune came upon Rome, greater than any which it had hitherto suffered. Ab'ut two hundred years previous to this event, the Gauls, one of the most numerous na- of Kurope, had migrated in large bodies to Italy, where they established a number of 154: KEPUBLIC OF ROME. Brenntis marches against Rome. very powerful settlements. Milan, Verona, and Padua, cities winch subsist at tlie present day, are said to have been founded by them ; and at the very time when Camillas was en- gaged in besieging Veii, these barbariai, they were called, were endeavoring to strength- en themselves by the acquisition of Tuscany. The city of Clusium, on the very verge of fall- ing into their hands, sought aid from the Ro- mans, who, accordingly, sent three amba a- dors to Brennus, leader of the Gauls, with in- structions to ell'ect a reconciliation between him and the people of Clusium. These ambassadors, thinking themselves un- civilly treated by 15ivmm>, went to the city of Cbisium, undiT pretence of conferring with its magistrate-, and stirred them up to a vigorous reM-taiice. A report of their proceedings com- ing to the ears of Brennus, he sent a herald to Rcme. who demanded that these ambassadors should be delivered up to him. But the affair being referred -to the people, it was resolved that the ambassadors should be sustained in what they had done, and an army was imme- diately raided to resist the Gauls, if they at- tempted to attack the city. Brennus became so enraged on account of these proceedings, that, removing his troops I); 155 Battle between the Romans and Hauls. In nil ('lii-ium, he marched directly t-> K Tlie inhabitants of the eoimtry lied before him; aiul the IMWIIS ami villages in his path were completely deserted. JJut Rome was the ob- rath, and he wa- determined ..n nothing Lett tha:i ItB i"tal destruction. M^: ailr.l, naturally, in th the ivjx-rt nf hi> ajij.n.aeli; but with th'U>and tnMjs it \va> h<.| K '(l that the in\ Illicit be j.llt to tlirht. man jinnies, aeeonlinirly, went 01 the barbarian-. They \\vnt "Ut b..Mly, too, lieade<l by their MX military tri'h VMim % ir men !' 1a f \al-r than eapaeity. Near the ri\er Allia. a half-day'.- jum e li.i-.tile armii-s met. The\ . drawn out in battle arrav uanl them-elves a 'i!iL r -unfunded, the U- man- e\te!id.-l their win^s, plaein^ their \t- eran tno|s UJM.II the ri^lit and let'r, and leav- :re in a 'iditi<>n. r J'he (iau! directed their main Mivn^th against thi> feelly defended jmint, and, breakini:- thr..u_ir!i the e.h.>rts that occu- pied it, made a eimjlete ilivi.>i..n of the ene- ai-my. (.'..nl'-undtMl by sue h a movement, the I: \ en di-awin^ their swords, fled in every direction. Some ru>hed with all 156 EEPUBLIC OF EOME. Rome abandoned to its Enemie?. speed into the neighboring city of Yeii ; others, in hope of escape, plunged into the river Tiber ; and a few, too swift-footed for their pursuers, contrived to make their way to Rome, where, of course, they carried terror and consternation. The Senate suppling that the whole army had cut to pieces and expecting that the < iauls would immediately cilect an entrance into the city, ivnvated to the capitol. where they col- d. Ibr iN defence, all the strength remain- ing in the city. Here. 1"". they brought what- provi>ii>ns they c<>uhl gather; but the women, children, and all such as were incapa- ble of rendering eliicieitt aid, were excluded and compelled t shelter themselves from the enemy a- wi-11 a they could. Some took ref- :n the neighboring fields, and others lied to the adjacent towns. There were, however. among the old senators and priests, a good many who disdained to take advantage of a shelter which wa- denied to the weak and help- and who. were. DKHTeOVer, <letermined to sncrilice their lives rather than abandon a city where they had >jent all their years. These ::ihle men. dressing themselves in their ]>riestly and consnlar robe-, and assuming their various emblems of oilice, seated theinselve> in the open doors of their respective dwellings, re- 1> OF Ro lf7 The O:s -ubniit to whatr -Mii-iit the en- emy mi^lit irive t! Two or tluve days, however, elapsed b< the (ianls had suHk-ientl; :vd t'n.in the inirs attending their victory t enable tin-in to proceed to Rome. And when tlu-y them, and n-.t an obj :nir in t! Such an uin-\ "\- naturally tilled with >u-jirioii ; and passing within the walls, tli- _ : eautiouviy to the riirlit and to tli, -.Ian had '. ly which to brinir about tlu-ir le-tnn-tin. Ai along ti gained niorr oonl ] but what wa- the as- t.'iii-hnient of tiie-e barbarians a^ the\ i there a solitary, <rray-hrarded man, dressed in costly robe ai <l at the nt'his dwi-llinir in a magnificent chair t' i Tlie >oldier> >t"] ( ],cd and L r a/.ed in aw- IIJMHI !-rable ti^un-s. who neiti mo\ M benr upon the :iscious of the passing crowd. appp-achrd them to admirr tiieir splendid : an<l ilnwing beards, but, apparently. :'-h them. soldier, more COrioiH ami more imj.iident than the oth- lucked the t' one of these venera- 158 REPUBLIC OF ROME. The Destruction of Rome. ble men. Raising his ivory wand, lie gave the soldier a blow which sent him reeling to a dis- tance. Enraged to the highest pitch, the sol- dier returned, and with one blow of his axe felled the aged Roman to the ground. As the army advanced through the streets, the old priests and senators, seated in their chairs, were now slain, one by one ; and of all the inhabitants of Rome none were left alive within its walls, except those win* were deter- mined to defend the capitol. Thither Brennus hastened with his victorious troops. I hit in vain did he call upon its tenants to surrender. Nature had provided them with ramparts which delianee to his utmost etli.rts, and. in order to coin pi IT. he was forced to starve his victims in their >trnngli<ld. lie could, however, re- venge himself l'<r their obstinacy, and accord- ingly turned his soldiers loose to pillage and destroy every thing around them. The tire- brand was applied to the palaces, of the patri- cians and the "humbler dwellings of the ple- beians. The sacred temples and the public edifices were razed to the ground ; and in a short time the great city of Rome, famous throughout all Italy, and lately the terror of surrounding nations, was nothing but a mass of unsightly rubbish. Encamped amid its bro- DESTRUCTION OF ROME. 159 KrtWt "f i:..nu-'s u Camillas. ken colwnns and smouldering ruins wa- llren- nu>. with his army, anxiou>ly waiting uiitil famine should terminate his work, l>y forcing the inmates of the Capitol to throw themselves into hix power. JJtit the soldiers of Hi-cnnus could not all sit idly around the capital. Uy leave uf their commander, they wandered in parties, liere and there, about the country, preserving neither or- der nor di-eipline in any of their pn>, tor. heinir the masters ot' Rome, they fancied that the whole region was under their suh- jectioiL nilius. ;. i. not far di-tant, wa- a >ileiit >j tclator of what was ^oin^ <n. irue that lie if a irrcat suf- at the hands of his fellow citizens, but the calamities of his country unVctrd him more than any evils that he had liim-elf endured ; and striving nol)ly to forget hi- own wrongs, he undertook t redress those of hi- enemies. For a warrior of his renown, it was no diffi- cult task to iind enough ready to follow where he should lead; and, with the consent of the -trates of Ardea, he sallied forth one night, with a band of well-armed youth, and surprised a largo body of Gauls, who had been recklessly indulging in wine. The slaughter 160 REPUBLIC OF ROMK. Camillus undertakes to punish the Gauls. wa> terrible indeed, and the appearance of those who escaped only served t<> inspire the fugitive .Roman.-, lurking heie and there, with hope. They started from their hiding-place^ and ran toovthcr from every quarter, to inquire who it w:is that had ri-en up to deliver Koine from her invaders. And when they learned that it was Oamillus. their irreat ireneral. whom they had compelled to jLro into exile, they he- pin to condemn thruiM-lve.-. and eagerly run- niiii: to him. pn>elainied their j)enitence, and <! liim to lead them on airainst the (iauls. Caniillus told tlu-ni that he would willingly his country, hut that he was an exile, and Incapacitated from holding tin- ( imand of his country"- armies. IJut emwdin^ more nu- mt'iMii-ly every moment amuud liim, they wonld not h-t him ^o. Still, he would not con- st-lit, until they promised iir~t to send >me one to Koine to know whether the capitol yet held <ut. ami, in casi- it did, ! take orders from the Senate, which was >hut up within it. This \va- a vei-y dillieult task to pel-form, but a yoiinir Koman named Pontius ( 'ominius dared to undertake it. lie passed through the my'.- ranks, and reaching the Capitoline Hill, clambered from rock to rock, Dealing }ivcijiee after precipice, and, encountering a tho-,,- I> . !innlly read" apitol. Without a moment's delay. tho Senate, hearing hi . with <>!: , ( 'ainillus I ' to the hi_ r he-t dignity ot' hix c >mitry. Hut it without any thinir t- >upprt it. imprisoned S --nhl i'unii>h him with MiMthiT in'iifv, ii,. r anus. inr troop-. '!'< a >\- tlier like ('aniiilu-.it was. IH>\\V little bo hal capti: \vlu-n it hal withstood tor that couhl In.* lu-nu^lit a--ain-t it, was al> find - wbo OOimted it Millicirnt to follow wh-!vvT li<- ini_L r ht h-ad. 'I'lu-y -tartc<i up Iron i every liill-idc. and poured upon him i and riv In- c<tuld conclude upon any plan for dcli\ . iu- found \ thoii-and sold' In the mean time some of the tn.oj. ihlinjr al'oiit the ( 'aj'iloliuc Hill, 1 anionir the rocks t 1 if the darinir Pontiu-. (in- iiat they miirht l>e the means of indicating ><>me passage t> the capitnl. they traced them until they fun ml out how this hitherto inacce--ille place could ached. Tin-*- made known their di-r lirennns. who. forming a plan to surprise the fortre>s, di.>e from hi- ll 162 EEPUBLIC OF HOME. Attempt to take the Capitol Fate of the Invaders. number of youths accustomed to mountain life, and sent them out by night to take the place. "With great difficulty these bold fellows followed the tracks of the Roman Pontius, lending each other a helping hand, until they arrived at the foot of the wall, which on that side was built very low, because so craggy a place seemed safe from all attack. Finding the sentinel asleep, these Gauls be- gan to scale the wall, when some geese, con>e- crak-d to Juno, awakened by the noise, made a loud cackling; the sound, so unusual at mid- night, arousrd the suspicions of M. Manilas, a con-ular per.-on, who immediately ran to the spot 1o ascertain the cau-e. It was impossible for him to mistake it. and it was equally im- :>le tor tlu- d:>C'vrivd invaders to retreat. Alone he face- the ennny. who. notwithstand- ing their number, must light him at a feait'ul disadvantage, lie cuN oil' the hand that is lifting a battle-axe t fell him ; with his buckler lie pushe- another to the bottom of the preci- pice; again and again, he sends another tum- bling headlong after, and clamoring as loudly as he can, succeeds at last in raising the gar- rison. No quarter is now grVen to the Gauls, who, finding it in vain to fly, are successively thrown into the abyss below. DESTIM CTION OF ROME. 163 ft he Gauls. As SIM .n a< thr II>inan-; in the eapitol found themselves delivered from the great danger that had threatened them, they >eized the sen- tinel who liad so caivle ly slept upon his p>t. and hurled him headlong from the rock; and, at the same time, they rewarded M. .Manlin>, who ly his coiiraire and vigilance had saved them. As the provisions of the garri>>n were . ach soldier presented him with halt' a pound of meal and a mea-ure of wine. It v long before the Gauls th tt to e.\]'erience the inconvenieiico of scar- eity almost as innch as those whom they were j-ini: in the eapitol. Hitherto they had procured their provisions by iMlla^i"^ the sur- rounding country; but, through tear of the army of ( 'amillns they contined themselves more cl.sely to the city, and thus the besiegers \\ere. in turn, tlu-m-clvi-s lie-ieu'ed. By de- grees they l.eiran to be fairly in want, and would have been glad enough could they have withdrawn honorably from the walls of Home. During this time, the Romans in the eapitol did not know that their Dictator, Camillus, was working zealously for their delivery. Dis- tressed by hunger, they resolved to enter into I'M KKITTJLIC OF KOMI-:. Distress in tlie Capitol Appear:. !us. iations with I'rennus I'm- the surrender of the capital; and intrusted tlieir in! Sulpicius, a military tribune, who agreed with Urenims to give him a thousand pound-* weight Id, if lie would immediately withdraw his army from the dominions of the Kepublie. .'dmir 1" agreement the t r<>ld was brought; but upon weighing it the GauU made use of fabc balances. Such unfairness cau-ed a mur- mur among the "Ilmnans ; but Urennus, in of redrc->in i ir tin- abuse, pulh-d ..it' his >w<nl nnd belt, and threw them int> the >cale. al- ready Mverrhariri'd. Sulpicius, enraged at >uc\\ an insult. a-ke<l him the meaning f his cun- duct. "What should it be," replied the bar- barian, '* but w- 'ie;vd f % Hut Ca:uillu>. with hi> army, ad 1 - \vitli all >pei-<l. ar IJi.me. Wnnl having -c-nt t<> him that a treaty had been I'm between the inmates nf the eajutol and the (iauls. and that the deputies of the former now in eonfen-iiee with 1'rennus. he immedi- ately took with him some of his prineipal otli- oiit in haste for the city, lieacli- ihe jilare when.' Sulj icius and Brennufl .:end;nic ab.mt the j^'hl, he wa- i'e- ceivi-d with every mark of attention by the Koinaii depurie-. Sulpieiiis at onee made known iircTiox OF ROME. Brennus and Camillas. :n the nnfair dealing of 1'rennus, and ap- pealed to him for ju-t "Carryback this gold into the capital. " Camillas to the deputies "aiii! ( aul<, retire with y a and weight-. I: ifl with alone that the Romans shall recover their Cont'nnnded hy sueh lianirhty lai! i^ren- nns stood speech a moment, while the (ijiuls and the Uman dejmties jnvpaivd to do the hiddin t ir >t % Cainillus. At lenirth he vi-n- -t airai; i^s of Ca- milliH, as a contraveiiti-.n ui* a treaty air. " I am Dietat.T of IJ..me," ; ( 'ami llus, i who dares to determine an affair of Mich importance without my sanction? Away with your ir"ld. your w- ,d halai Ureimus, recovering from his conl'ii-iun. re- plied with a- much han^htiiu-s a< Cainillus, and the t'.vn chirt'tain> separated, in order to juarrel by an ajpeal to arms. Without the least delay, the army of Cainillus advancing, da-hed with fury upon the (iauls, who were promptly drawn out t- iiem. iis time disevered his match in the leader of the Roman His hr. troops fell hack, notwithstanding I . iori- EEPUBLIC OF ROME. The Gauls driven from Rome Appearance of the City. ty of their position. Rallying them as well as he could, he raised the siege, and retreated some miles from Rome. But Camillus was de- termined to punish him for the injuries su-- tained by Rome. He followed him in his re- treat. slew almost all his soldiers, and reco\ from them the rich spoils which they were car- rying away. Although delivered from its enemies, Rome was not. at this time, a place suitable for the accommodation of the many thousands who claimed if as their home. Scarcely a house wa- >tanding within its walls, and the walls themselve- were, in many places level with the ground. Under such circumstances, i not strange that a proposition should he made and urged, to remove, in a mass, to the city of Ycii, which was a well-fort i tied place, with stately buildings, and surrounded by a fruitful territory. The Tribunes advocated the plan with the greatest ardor, representing the diffi- culty which must attend any attempt to rebuild a city in the midst of such immense hea; ruins. Besides, the people were exhausted by mi-fortunes, without strength, without money, and almost without provisions* But the Sen- ate did not agree with the Tribunes, although their opposition was rather in the form of pray- DESTRUCTION OF Etc 167 The rebuilding of Borne. iinl entreaties. They showed the people the* tombs of their ancestors; pointed to tlie spots consecrated to the gods by Romulus and A'nnia. and reminded them of tlie prophecies that 1: -hould become the mistivs> of tlie world. Camillus, too. was among the number <.f those \\hoopposed the proportion to aban- don Rom " said he, "that by re- tiring to u will assume the name of a conquered people, and l<e that of Roman getherwith the glorious destiny which the gods atlixed to it. and which, with your name, will go to the iir>t barbarians that shall get i of the eapitol, and who, by this change, may perhaps in time become yur nd your tyr- The words of Camillus acted like a charm on all. The pm-pcrt of future empire was far to be preferred, by the Romans, to the pr- conveniences of life. The Tribunes yielded. The people declared that they would not go to Veii; and everyone falling to work, the re- building of the city went on with such rapidity, that in less than one year it a>sumed the same appearance which it presented on the arrival of tlie dreadful Brenntis. But scarcely had Rome thus arisen from its ashes, than its old enemies, the Tuscans, the 168 EE PUBLIC OF Ho MI:. Jealousy of M. Manlius. ii, an<l the Yolsci, leagued together for the purpose of oppres>ing it. Camillas was again call'-d to tlie Dictatorship; and, by his con- sin innate ability a< a general, succeeded in de- feating tlieir armies and compelling them to sue for mercy. In consequence of these and fanner services lie l>ecame the idol of the peo- ple, who h<n<red him with the title of Reel of the Country and Second Founder of Rome. Among the fellow-citi/ens of Cainillus, ; lie, however, who was unwilling t<> yield him all the glory accorded freely by the a< !Maivu> "Manlius, the l>rave -t-ldier, . with his single arm. had defended the eapilol wlii-n alxtut to be surprised hy the (iauls at midnight, lie c<>uhl not bear t Cainillus preferred. bef..re him. in the command of the armies; and. by his fiv<|Ueiit -peeehes, DdeaVOTed t. blaeken the character of a man wh<> wa- admire<l and bel >ved by all. AVith the d Sign, as was said, of promoting his ambitious aims he beg ! atter the people, and to impress them witli the idea that he was friendly to their int lie renewed the proposals for the division of the lands; he even sold his own to aeiplit the debts of the <p- -ed plebeians; he interfered between d ore and creditors, and was frequently insiru- DESTRUCTION OF ROME. 169 Troubles again Dictator created. mental in rescuing from prison those whom ity had sent there. The- ' was as- 1, sprang, ii"t from benevolence, but from lia whole aim being to secure T through tlie aid of the lower el;, AVhether this was true or nut, it is certain that Manlius acquired numerous 1'rieiids and sup- \ ho, not contented alone with l>eM<>\v- inir upon him their praises, attended him often as a s ,anl. In time, the patricians began to feel a good deal of unea- itluence of ^lun- ily MrongtT and strui. <ed it iiece>sirv t iv>rt to tin- usual rem- edy, \vhieh wa- to create a l)ietator. Tliis was done on j.ivtence that the interests of Rome demanded an army to be sent again>t the Vol- sci. Cornelius Cossus was c-h'-eii Dictator. The Vnlsei were BOQD reduced to submiion, and the Dictator, returning to Ruine, summoned Manlius to ap}>ear before him. Manlius obeyed with promptness, attended by a concourse of his friend-. Failing to satisfy the Dictator, when charged with engaging in various disor- derly practices, he was committed to prison without making any other resistance than an appeal to the deities of the capitul, that they would protect their soldier and defender. 170 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Manlius placed in Prison His death. The friends of Manlius, chiefly plebeians, in token of their sorrow, dressed themselves in mourning, and even uttered seditious murmur- ing. In order to appease them, they were offered lands belonging to one of the newly- conquered towns ; but this did not succeed. The prison of Manlius was surrounded, night and day. by crowds of people, eager to effect his liberty ; and, in order to prevent mischief, lie was at length set free. But the evil prac- tices of which lie wa- accused, were Mill .kept up, with the very de-igns urged as reasobs for his arrest and imprisonment. Camillus now, for the fifth time, became it<>r : and such a triumph of his rival could nut he otherwise than tormenting to a soul like that !' ManliiN. He did not, of course. 1'ail t< te-tify his feelings; and his pro- ceedings, whether legal or illegal, were suffi- ciently oH'eii-ive to the patricians t<> bring upon him the charge of aspiring after royalty. Once more he was summoned to be tried, and the charges against him having been fully estab- lished, he was condemned, as is said, to be thrown from the Tarpeian rock a spot which was at once the monument of his glory and his shame. FOREIGN CONQUESTS. FROM 380 TO 120 B. C. CAJRTHAGE and ite People Ship-building among the Ro- mans First Naval Engagement Expedition against Car- thage Regulus is taken Prisoner His noble Conduct Carthaginians beaten Peace The War renewed Hanni- bal invadr.s Italy Hi^ March lli> Success Opposed by the Roman Armies Artifice of Hannibal Defeat of the Roman. Palnntisui of Scipio The Romans encour.u Hannibal rallrd Ibuno Misfortunes of Carthaire 1' Tiberius and Caius Gracchus Ambition Agrarian I.u\v Designs of Tiberius defeated His Artifice His Deatli Caius and Drusus Death of Caius. VII. FOREIGN CONQUESTS. IT was almost five hundred years before the Unmans had so i'ar subdued the nations by which they were surrounded, as to think of spreading their conquests, beyond the limits of Italy. .Hut they no sooner felt themselves to be perfect masters of the countries near them, than they determined to carry their arms be- yond the sea; and the first foreign war which they undertook was with Carthage, a rich and powerful city, on the coast of Africa. The foundation of Carthage was laid about a hundred and thirty-seven years before that of Koine. All its citizens were merchants, and traffic was esteemed among them far above the profession of arms. The fleets of Carthage were, however, among the most powerful in the world, and no one doubted her superiority upon the sea, over which she had extended her do- minion, quite to the coasts of Spain, and in the 174 EEPUBLIC OF HOME. The Romans engage in Ship-building. islands of Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia. But the conquests of Carthage were effected, chiefly, by the aid of foreign troops, and, in some c even under the command of hired generals. Rome, on the other hand, reared her own mi- litia, and her officer.- were taken from among those who had been brought up to fight her les. A great sea lay between Rome and Cart! and Home had not a single ship to launch upon it, nor had the a single sailor or naval captain ain<ng all her legions. But her people were ingenious, diligent, and never di>couraged by tlie greatest labotB. When they had formed the resolution to gather glory and wealt! vend the waves, it was not long before they found the means < f carrying thi> resolution into effect. Hitherto they had never paid the least attention to the construction of the ves>el> that ieiihilly. or otherwise, vi>ited their c< but no\\. a (.'arthaginian galley having been driven to them by >tre>s of weather, tln-y upon it eagerly, and taking it for a model, built, within two months, a fleet sufficiently powerful to commence their enterprise agi the great city, whose dominion upon the sea it was their intention to dispute. Their first naval engagement was successful, too ; and FOREIGN CONQUESTS. 175 First naval Engagements. their first naval commander, in honor of his achievements, was ever attended at night, dur- ing the remainder of his lite, with flambeaux and music. Encouraged by their early hiicce-, they in- civa-i-d, rapidly, their fleets, and spreading them <>\vr the sea, made them-elves the mas- ters of Agrigentnm, and of the chief towns in that inland ; tliey took Aleria, tlie capital of Corsica, Olbia in Sardinia, and, finally, car- ried their victorious arms to the very gates of ( 'arthage. L. Manlius and Attilins Regains commanded the first uYi-t that was sent to Carthage. It cnn>i-t-(l of three hundred and forty ships, with a hundred and forty thousand troops. But be- fore they iv ached their destination, the Cartha- ginians met them on the sea, with an e<jual armament. The struggle was a long and des- perate one, the Carthaginians having the ad- vantage of lighter vessels and better sailors. Fortune seemed uncertain where to choose ; but, the Roman vessels finally grappling with those of the Carthaginians, the fighting began foot to foot, and, as it were, on dry land. Then it was that the Romans got the better of their enemies. They fought like madmen, deter- mined to conquer or to die. The Carthagin- 176 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Expedition against Carthage. ians were slaughtered by hundreds and thou- sands. The sea was perfectly red with blood, and the bodies of the dead floated far and wide on every hand. Ship after ship was disabled and sunk, until the whole Carthaginian fleet was completely scattered. The Romans obtaining, in this way, a free passage to the coast of Africa, succeeded in Handing, and immediately began to ravage the country in a most terrible manner. In a short time Manlins >ailed buck to Italy, with twenty- seven thousand prisoners, while Regains, ac- cording to the instructions of the Senate, continued his conquests. Success attended him wherever he went, until finally he brought his army to the walls of Carthage. By this time tlu- city was crowded t<> overflowing by the terrified inhabitants of the surrounding country, who had tied thither for protection; and Kciruln> had not been long about the Avails with his besH-iriiiir army, before the Carthagin- ians began to experience all the terrors of fam- ine and sickness. The Carthaginians, relying but little upon their ability to cope with an enemy that had thus far beaten them by sea and land, were very desirous of entering into negotiations; and Regulus himself, contented with his vie- FOREIGN CONQUESTS. 177 Advantages gained over the Carthaginians. . was not averse to it. But as he held Carthago completely in hi* power, he felt that he had a right to impose upon them such terms as he pleased, and accordingly agreed to re- move his army on condition that the Cartha- ginians should deliver up to Rome the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, "give liberty to all the prisoners that they had taken, defray the e\- ' the war, pay an animal tribute, never undertake a war without the consent of the Senate, keep hut one large ship in their navy, and furnish h'fty galleys, completely equipped, whenever the interest of Rome might require them. These terms imposed by the Romans were considered very hard by their enemies, but ilus, who thought himself master of the country, replied "That enemies must either conquer, or submit to the law of the con- queror." This rendered the Carthaginians des- perate ; and accordingly, mu>tering all their forces, and marching out into the open field, under the command of Xantippus, a Lacede- monian general, they offered battle to the Romans. Their position was admirably cho- M-n. while that of the Romans was not. But the Rumans, having been hitherto successful, began to despise their foes, and rushed upon 12 178 REPUBLIC OF KOME. Eegulus, the Roman General, taken Prisoner. them with deafening shouts. The Carthagin- ians maintained their ground like men deter- mined to conquer or to die; and in a short time, by means of their elephants and cavalry, succeeded in putting the Romans to flight, with a loss, of thirty thousand men. Kegulus, their ral, was taken prU'>iu-r, and being loaded with cliains. wa- carried to Carthage and con- iined in a gl"..my dungeon. The war between these two nations wa< still continued with the same anii . ;emelill- iie seas with her navies, ami pouring into Africa her countless soldiers. > IOID6- times amended One side, and sometimes the other; but the Carthaginians having finally B number !' battles took Regulus from his :it him to liome to solicit a p> or, at h , of priMiners. lie fore :. h.iwevi-r, he was compelled to make a promise, that he would return to Carthage if he failed in his DUflVOO, and was moreover told that his life depended upon his siicc- The joy of the Senate at having thus an op- port unit v to liberate their brave and faithful general was very great, and they would have willingly testiiied their regard for him by buy- ing hi- frei-doni at any price, lint Kegulus labored earnestly against his own interest, and FOBB] N QUESTS. 179 Tho Carthaginians beaten Peace. succeeded in persuading hlB fellow-countrymen to continue the war. Then, without entering his house, or seeing hi< wife and children. he should ho softened by their tears, h- turned to Cartha-. ding to his promise, when- he i in the most cruel turnn After a great deal of lighting, the Roman- finally gained such advantage over the Cartha- ginians that the latter were 'l>liL r *''l OHC6 more to sue for peace, which was irranted, upon the hardest conditions. Tlu-y were conipi-lled to ahandon the i>land of Sicily. t< re-tore all pri-- iiont ran-oni, t ^ive up all d to pay <lown a thousand talents for the charge of the war, and two thousand two hundred in two y way of tribute. The Oarthagin- . were glad to obtain peace even upon re term- ; hut it was n- niuch peace, that tlu-y <h->ired. as a truce. Tliey liadsutl'ered trrril.lv, and needed time to repair their fore -oon, then, as they found them- selves in a condition to light, they took up arms with even greater fury than before. The famous Hannibal was, no doubt, the cait-o of this second war, memorable for some of the most daring exploits that are found re- corded upon the page of history. AVhen this great Carthaginian general was only nine years 180 REPUBLIC OF ROME. The War renewed Hannibal invades Italy. of age he accompanied his lather in the war against Spain, and at that time swore, at the altar, eternal hatred to the Roman-. Faithful to this early vow, he took the first opportunity to bring about a violation of the tre;t inn 1 between Carthage and Rome; and as soon as war was declared on the part of Rome, he ut lor Italy with an army of ninety thou- sand toot -oldier-. t<rty elephant-, and twelve thousand cavalry. AVith this immense army, lie tr; < iaul in the depth of winter. .His acroefl tin- Alp- wa- accomplished in nine day.-, hut tin- dc-perate journey wa- per- formed at the expense ot' -i\ thousand 1. mm and .-evenly tliousand fo linen, who p ( -r- 1 Irom tin- hardship.- which they were ioivcd to in:- Capturing Turin, he siip- plied his nec.U tro..p- with pr.vi-ioii>, and u raged tin- pr .pie of Cisalpine (Jaul to join his standard. AVith all .-pci-d he tin out for Koine; hut the army of that Republic, under the cmuUict of Cornelius Scipio, ad- vanced in the mean time to re>isi him. and on the hanks of the river Ticinus they met. The liattle was Moody, but the day was decided by a charge ot' the Numidian horse, which left .Hannibal master of the Held. The lite of the Roman general wa> saved by hi- .-on Publius FoKKHiX HONQUKSTS. 181 Armir* M-nt from !: .bal's March. Scipio, who afterwards gained > iniu-h dis- tinction in the war with the Carthaginians. A MM-. -nd army, under the command of Tibe- rius Sempronius, was now sent against Hanni- bal, but with no better success the Romans g their cam]), and twenty-six thousand men. \\y this time, Hannibal was willing to give his army re>r. and accordingly he retired into winter quarters. But the K<>mans, mean- while, were in it idle. Their empire in Italy iisly threatened, and whatever they could do t> i-epel the .-uece.-sful invader must !>e doiu- prnmprly.and vigorously. Two larirc armi- berafon raised, and fully eipiipped for the iMi>uinir campaign. Tln-e wen- sent to the pa es of the Apennines ; but llannibal.de- tennininir to enc>nnter only one of them time, enmed the mountain-, and traver.-ed the Clu.-ian Mar-h. F.r fur days and ni^ht.- his army march(Ml through water; and he him>elf, nmimted on the only remaining elephant, bare- \cd his own life, and lo-t an eye in o <|iience of an intlammation. As soon as he found a solid footing, he sought to engage in battle the army under r'laminius. lie laid wa>te with lire and sword the whole country around him, and pretended that he was about marching upon the city of Koine. Flaminius, 182 RK PUBLIC OF EOME. Artifice of Hannibal induced to keep nearer to him than was pru- dent, was suddenly attacked, upon the borders of the Lake Thrasymenus, and his army was completely cut to pieces before he could dis- play his colors. Hannibal now marched into Apulia, spreading terror wherever he went. Meanwhile another army, under the command of Fabius Maximus, was sent out to oppose him. With this general. Hannibal experienced more trouble than with those whom he had been hitherto obliged to encounter. Fabius almo-t equalled him in the r.-e nf stratagem, and so completely bairied him in his designs, tliat lie >carcely knew what to do. But Han- nibal outwitted him at last. Finding him- self suddenly >\\u{ between impassable rocks and mar-lies, he cnlk-ctcd a thousand oxen, and labelling burning torches to their horns, drove them furiously, at midnight, into the deiiles which were guarded by the Unmans. Panic- struck, by the terrible >ight, the guards fled frm their pts, and Hannibal forced his way through the Unman ranks. Delay was disastrous to the Carthaginians, whenever a .Unman army was hovering around them. Their dependence for support was upon the territory in which they happened to be lo- : ; and it wa* nece>>ary fur them to meet CONQUESTS. 183 Defeat of the Romans They recover. opposition with the utmost promptness. Being now in possession of Camue, they used every effort to bring the Eomans to an engagement, but for ;i time were unsuccessful. It was finally bi*i night about, and the linnan army was to- tally de.-troyed. Rome lo-t. as is .-aid, fifty thousand men ; and the conqueror sent to Car- thage tw<> bushels of gold rings, to show the incredible number of Roman knights that had fallen in the battle. It is quite probable that Hannibal would have made himself master <>1 the city without striking a bl\v, if he had at thi> time marched his victorious jinny dii'ectly t Knif. Acting, Imwi-vi-r. a< if he feared to put an end to the war t<>, snon. he lingi-red in Campania, under pretence that his troop- : ed some ivpoM-. Thi- gave the Romans time r from their consternation, and to take 3 for preserving themselves fn>m total de- struction. It wa- to the young Scipio that they were mainly indebted f<r this success. After the battle of Caniuv. lie, with a number of other officers, retired to a neighboring town, which still held for the Itomans, and while oc- cupied at the house of a friend was informed that these officers, in despair of saving the Re- public, had assembled at a certain place for the purpose of making arrangements to abandon 184 KKITHLIC OF ROME. Conduct of ?cij>io The Romans enc<> . Italy. Extremely indignant at Mich conduct, he repaired immediately to the assembly, and entering with his drawn sword in liand, lie cried out: "I swear that I will never abandon the Republic, nor suffer any of her citizen- to do it. Whoever here >hall refu-e to take this oath which I have taken, shall perish beneath jny sword!" Ashamed of their conduct, and willing to do any thing to atone for it, they took the ribed by Scipio. S'>me repaired to Rome, and other- undertook to rally the allies, so that hope began to spring up in the 1 if the people. Kvery i-libr; \vj> made to repel Ilan- nihal. Hie citizens armed their slaves. Tliey their silver and their gold. They took down from the r<.of> of the temples the old arms that had been hung up there as trophies, and gave them to the trmps. Q. Fabins Max- iuius, leader of the Roman army at hine. by all sorts of artiiice and delays, 1'uiU-d the Car- thaginian general" at every step. Scipio. IH>, at the head <>f the ]I'iiian army in Africa, was gaining battle after battle, and daily threaten- ing the deMruction of Carthage. lie had there gained. a> allies, the two powerful king-, phax and Ma>:ni.--a; and so great was his siic- . that the Carthaginians were compelled to !'- CON Q TESTS. 185 :irtbacrinians compolled to mak I call Hannibal home to defend his own country. two :rt met near Zaina. with the full knowledge- that the battle about to be fought between them, would decide the empire and the liberty of their ropcctive countries. >. h>\v much depended on their spirit and courage. Succos, under such circumstances, was lor a Jong time doubtful, hut victory at last declared forScipio. r i\vc-nty thousand Carthaginianfl tell ii})on the lield, and ;ial numher were taken prisoners. It was now impossihle l>r ('artha^e t-> make, any further resistance to K.,nu-. l\ace must be obtained at almost any price, and even the proud Hannihal him>clf wa- ohli^-d to >ue for il. P.ut the lioman- woiihl nut <^rant it e\cr])t on the hard. They compelled the Carthaginiane all their ileet-, and their elephants; they forced them to restore all their pri-om-rs and to deliver up all doert- ers; they made them pay immen-e >ums of money; forhid them to make alliances with other nation-, or to eniraire in war, without the knowledge and express permi-Mon of the Ro- man Senate. The deplorable condition of Carthage was rendered even more deplorable through the implacable hatred of Masini^u, king of Xu- 186 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Fall of Carthage Aspirations of Rome. midia. Protected by Rome, this old enemy deprived the Carthaginians of the best part of their possessions, and destroyed their trade in the interior of Africa. But, more than all this, the Romans, seeing them so enfeebled, and still remembering the injuries sustained at their hand< in the battle*; of Thrasymenus and CamiJi'. resolved upon their total destruction. And now the third war with Carthage beiran, but it wa- not of so long duration as the two preceding. That stately city, which had pre- sumed to dispute the empire of the world with "Rome, fell, and it> inhabitants were scat' amonir the ditferent nations of the earth. And n\v Koine, eh-vated to the In'-' pitch by Mich a triumph, aspired to the con- qur-t of tin- whole earth. Their military lead- :md their armies marched forth in every direction. The irivat Antiochus, who ruled o\vr the larger part of Asia, was driven by them from his poeeessions. They cn(]iiercd the Insubrians an<l thi> Li^urian-. They re- duced Macedon as well as Illyrium into pr-v- 5. Tlie Greeks, too, fell under their do- minion. In one word, all Italy, Spain. Illyrium quite to the Danube, Africa, Greece, Thrace, Macedon, Syria, all the kingdoms of Asia Mi- nor, became members of the Roman Empire ; FOREIGN CONQUESTS. 187 Tiberius and Ca'us Gracchus. and the name of Rome struck terror and re- spect among all the nation- of the earth. With so much success, came the greatest lux- ury : and the manm-rs of the Roman* offered so much change by their good fortune, that they seemed altogether another people. The up- rightness for which they had been held in such in, became corrupted by the pleasure of conquest and dominion. Ambition, rather than justice, governed their undertakings; seltish- succeeded the care formerly manifested f<>r the public good; and patriotism almost eea-ed to i-xist among them. In this state of things arose Tiberius Grac- chus and Caius Gracchus, names too familiar in 'Roman history to be numbered with those which can be mentioned only where the great- est minuteness is to be observed. These bro- thers were grandchildren of the great Scipio, and their sister marrying the younger Scipio, they were thu< related to the most powerful families in the Republic. Their mother, Cor- nelia, bestowed upon them a most excellent ed- ueation. She, one day, being in the company of a Roman lady who w r as displaying her jew- els, was asked to exhibit hers. Sending at once l >r her two sons, she pointed to them and ex- claimed : " These are my jewels." 188 KE PUBLIC OF ROME. Ambition of Tiberius fostered by his Mother. Tiberius, the elder, wa- endowed by nature with all those graces which serve as a recom- mendation to merit. He was also noted for his moderation, frugality, and public spirit; and, at an early age, had made himself conspicuous in the military service. Under the command of his brother-in-law, Scipio, lie a :.-ted at the of Carthage, and was the first man who mounted the walls of the burning city. At the age of thirty he was considered one of the best orators of Rome; but those who were jealous of ins ri.-ing merit insinuated that he . inordinate ambition, an implacable h; against the Senate, and a pretended zeal for the interest- of the people. His mother. Cornelia, is reported to hav coin-aired his ambition by saying that people spoke of her as the mother-in-law of Scipio, and nt as the mother of the (iracchi. u Your l)rotlier-in-law, Scipi..," she continually >aid. "stand- in the lir>l rank among the captains and generals of thfi Republic; make, now. your own name distinguished by the establishment of laws useful to the peoj 'Whether at the solicitation of his mother or not. it is quite certain that lie oii'ered himself as a candidate for the tribuneship of the ]n-o- ple, and he was duly invested with this oilice. FOREIGN CONQUESTS. 189 The Agrarian Law. Hi- attention had been, doubtless, called to the poverty of the lower classes ; and the success- ful application of a remedy would certainly place his name as conspicuously before the world as that of his illustrious brother-in-law, Scipio. He undertook the task, but, lijve most reformers and servants of the people, whether selfish or unselfish, he reaped, in the end, sor- row and >hame. Two hundred and thirty-two years had now d since the enactment of the Agrarian law, by which it was declared that no person should possess more than five hundred acres of the public domain, and that the overplus should be divided among the plebeians. This law had ever remained a dead letter, and Tiberius knew th;; : val woidd only meet with the strongest opposition from the higher cl; Hut he managed to bring it up, with >everal ;iing clauses. lie provided that the pos- rs of Mir] >lu- lands should receive compen- >ation for the buildings and other improvements erected on them; that every sun who w; age might possess the whole quantity allowed by law to a citizen and householder; and that every son under age might possess half that quantity. But the nobles and rich citizens of Koine re- 190 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Designs of Tiberius defeated. jected the propositions of Tiberius with con- tempt, and stigmatized him as a promoter of sedition and a disturber of the public peace ; and to counteract his plans, they gained over one of the Tribunes of the people, Marcus Oc- tavius, without whose consent it would be im- possible to enact the modified law. According to custom, however, Tiberius exposed his law nineteen days to the view of the people, and then proceeded to take' their votes upon it. But Octavius interposed with his veto, and the whole undertaking seemed thus, at once, to be defeated. Tiln-riiis wa> not, however, to be so easily thwarted in his designs; and while the great men of Rome were triumphing over his defeat, he was taking measures to put a speedy termi- nation to their joy. At the next assembly of the people he arose ad thus addressed them: "Since custom will not allow a Tribune to propose any new law, if but one of his colleagues forbids it, it is but justice that I should submit to the opposition of Octavius. But then as the tribuneship was created with a view to the redressing of the people's grievances, and as that Tribune, who for.-akes this view, destroys the very foundation of this institution, I demand that the people, by FOREIGN CONQUESTS. 191 His artifice The Law revived. plurality of voices, decide which of the two, ( Jctavius or I, acts most contrary to their in- terests; and that he who is judged to have failed in his duty, and to have abused his priv- ilege of opposition, be immediately deposed." This proposition of Tiberius was at once unanimously approved ; and the vote being taken without delay, Octavius was excluded from the tribuneship. Thus, every obstacle to the law being removed, it was revived, and three commissioners, or triumvirs, were chosen to attend to the division of the lands. But the difficulties attending this, now appeared in their full light. Complaint! of the bitterest kind proceeded from every part of Italy, and Tibe- rius began to find his enemies daily increasing around him. Endeavoring to regain the favor of the people, he occupied himself in devising new plans for promoting their interest ; but so zealously did the patricians labor against him, that, when the day for electing the Tribunes of the following year arrived, it was found impos- sible to hold any election at all. And on the next day, such a noisy multitude beset the Fo- rum, that Tiberius strove in vain to raise his voice among them. Alarmed for his own safety, the Tribune beckoned to his nearest friends, and, wishing 192 REPUBLIC OF HOME. Death of Tiberius. t<> intimate to them that his life was in danger, In- touched his head with the end of his ti "*He wishes a crown!" shouted Lis cue: " Whoever h.ves the Republic, let him follow cried his own kin-man, Scipi- and at the head of hi- follower- h<- nia<!e an upon Tileriu< and his friend-. A tnninit ensued. The friends of Tilu'riu-. torri- iie<l, abandoned him. They ran in every di- >n; and Tilieriu- liini-t-lf, llin^ini:- away liis milts of office, darted from his tribunal, and ran ' bit lilt'. He tell. ho\\e\cr. in liis tli^'ht. ami. at the same time ne.-ivin^ a blow iijM.n the head fmm KmM one near, never aii-ain arr-e t hi- f-et. \\"ith him three hun- dred !' his friends and adheivnt> \\i-re slain and tlnni: int th- The A ;.i-onian. law was in iS8 atiected by the death of Tiierins. It still continued in full -ed nt to be the source of i mmotions. < hie of the (Minmi- aj'j.oinied to ezeCUt Ml sho of ihe mnnK-red Tilerius; and, for ; -i-veni. . ! e-me wa> the theatre of c . between the pa- tricians and plebeian-. Cain- (iraechus, bro- ther of Tiberius, came t<> t!ie tribune-ship ten }ears afterwards. With a desire of revenge, FOREIGN CONQUESTS. 193 Cains Gracchus and Livius Drusus Death of Caius. he omitted no opportunity to gain the favor of tlie plebeians, as well as to arou-e them against the patrician-. Many of liis brother's enemies . through his instrumentality, expelled from the city; and the execution of the hateful law was earnestly attempted. Such was his Biicce>s in operating upon the people, that he Tribune for a second year. I Jut tlu* Senate l'und the means of withdrawing the favor of tin- people from Caius. Their in>tru- ment was hi- oo] Drusus, who, by means of making still greater promises to them than were made by Caius, succeeded in winning their approbation. When, therefore, a third election for Tribunes took place, Caius was d . and Opimius, one of his- bitterest enemies, was chosen to the c<>n>ulate. Soon after his elevation to office, Opimius sought to repeal the laws made by Caius: in consequence of which a great tumult arose in the city. Thousands of people armed them- - upon different sides; and the streets of Rome once more flowed with the blood of its citizens. No less than three thousand were slain. The head of Caius was cut off, and car- ried about upon the end of a spear; and his body, like that of his brother Tiberius, was thrown into the river Tiber. 13 THE JUGURTHINE WAR. FROM 120 TO 102 B. C. EARLY Education of Jugurtha He forms Plans to obtain the Throne of Xumidia Is adopted by the King, his I'nelo Death of Hinnpsal, his adopted Brother Civil War in Numi'lia Commissioners sent thither from Rome Ju.umr- tha's manner of satisfying lln-in Civil "War continued His :td"pt-.l brother, Adherbal, appeals to Rome Murder of Adlicrbal Koine makes War against .Juirurthu The Roman :il bribed by him Indignation of the People Jugur- tha goes to lioim Aiu.th.-r Rinnan Army -1 him It- 1 >!". a- 1 , Partial Defeat of Jugurtha Cains Mar: eomes Consul and takes command in Nmnidia Final Over- throw of .Tugurtha His Delivery to Sylla His Death. vi i r. THE JIGTUTHIXE WAR. THK l*>ss of the Gracchi was very deeply t'elt hv the people of Rome; and an affair of less moment than that of Jugurtha, would liave scarcely brought them out nt'the dejection and c Mi-tcrnatiuii into which this loss had thrown them. During the war against the Carthaginians, the Roman general, Scipio, had formed a friend- ship with Masinis-a, a famous African prince. This prince rendered him such valuable servi- ces in his campaigns, that the Romans bestowed upon him the kingdom of Numidia, which at his death he left to Micipsa, who succeeded him. Hicipsa had two sons, the elder named Adherhal and the younger lliempsal. Resides these, he had a nephew named Jiigurtha, who being a promising youth, and without protect- ors, was taken into the family of Micipsa, and 198 KK PUB LIC OF ROME. Early Education of Jugurtha. educated with his sons, although he was con- siderably older than they. Nothing could be more satisfactory to a pa- rent or guardian than were the early conduct and progress of Jugurtha. His masters all praised him for his diligence, and prophesied that he would be a prodigy of learning. In drawing the bow, managing a horse, and in all kinds of athletic exercises, he was surpassed by no one; and it is said that his boldness in the chase was only equalled by the modesty with which lie received the praises bestowed upon his difficult achievements. Young .luirurtha soon became one of the or- naiiKMits of the court of Numidia; and the king, his uncle, looked upon him with pride and pleasure. Uut as the young prince grew older, it became very evident that he ] an inordinate ambition, guided by an artful, insinuating, dextrous, and deceitful irenius. The discovery of this filled the king with anxiety, for he, himself, was now becoming old, and his two sons were not of sufficient age or ability to oppose artifice, such as he began to fear that Jugurtha might use against them. It seemed plain enough, that he had nourished in his bosom a viper that would eventually turn and sting him. J I" (i I K 1 1! 1 .\ K \V AR. 199 His success In War S-x-ures Friends. The love which he bore to his own oll'spring prompted him, at once, to get rid of Jugurtha ; and the least objectionable manner of accom- plishing this seemed to he, by sending the am- bitious youth to the war. IK- placed him, ac- cordingly, at the head of a body of troops which he otl'eivd to Scipio .Kmilianus, who was then jing Numantia, in Spain. Jugurtha was not, however, destined to he slain in war. and lu- entered it as if he felt the aurance that this NX His Mirprising acts of valor won for him universal admiration; and he made him- self especially pleasing to his own officers and soldiers hv his winning manners, and his con- tinual favors and pre-ents. Not forgetting the importance of securing the principal men under his command, he omitted nothing which could bind them to his interests. And even before the conclusion of the campaign they intimated to him that he would have little difficulty in placing himself upon the throne of Numidia. Returning to his own country covered with the glory which he had acquired in the arrny, and also hearing a letter from the Roman gen- eral, in which his valor and his services were commended in the highest terms, he could not fail to lay a good Inundation fnr his plans. Friendfl ilocked to him fj-om every quarter, 200 H K P I B L i C O F It O .\L K . His adoption by the King His Plans. even from among the ministers of the kingdom ; and those who did not come voluntarily, he managed to gain by promises and presents. Without a great deal of difficulty, he contrived to have it intimated to the old king that he could not do a wiser thing than to adopt him a> his son, in order to give hi> younger children a guardian, and the State a protector. The king, ready to drop into his grave, listened to the hint, and in hopes that Jugurtha would at least be grateful, adopted him in a public man- ner, beseeching him earnestly, at the same time, to have a tender regard for the interests of his younger brothers. Hut the projects of .higurthu did not admit of any display of gratitude; and every thing like a tender regard fr his younger brothers would have been equally injurious to them. The death of the old king was only a signal for the execution ,.f these plans and the event, showed how admirably they had all been laid, ^sumidia wa< divided into three equal prin- cipalities, at the head of which were three sovereigns, possessing equal power, and all under the protection of the Romans. To be the sole master of Numidia was the aim of Jugurtha, and it was no great trial of his e<n- Bcience to rid himself of the two young princes, WAR. 201 Death of Hiempsal Ci?il War. his adopted brothers. ]>y the aid of as>assins, whom it was easy enough for him to hire, he caused the younger to be stabbed at night, while keeping in his bed. Adherbal, the elder brother, terrified by such a wicked act, fled to that portion of the king- dom over which he had been appointed ruler ; and immediately proceeded to raise troops to defend himself against the designs. of his brutal kinsman. The whole nation now became di- vided, some declaring themselves in favor of one prince, and some in favor of the other. A bloody civil war ensued, during which many of the towns of Xumidia were destroyed, and thousands of its inhabitants were put to the sword. Success generally attended the arms of Jugurtha, and Adherbal linally Mitfej-inga com- plete defeat, was obliged to fly for safety in disguise. Wandering tor some time about his native land, lie managed, at last, to make his e-rape to Koine. The arrival here of a young prince, thus per- secuted and driven from his country by an am- bitious and blood-thirsty brother, could not fail to arouse the indignation of the Roman people. The whole city was thrown into excitement, and every one declared that nothing less could be done than to send an army into Africa to I K I ' I B L I C OF 1 1 < > M K . Interference of Borne- t into NumMia. punish the ba-e Jugurtha. But the base, ami, at the same time, cunning Jugurtha. sent am- ba-sador- to Koine to justify his barbarous con- duct. And these ambassadors being loaded with immense nuns of money, found it no very difficult task to convince the Senate and gran- deefi <>t' limue that he was not, after all, sii-h an abominable Avivtch as, at first sight, he might a]]M-ar. Thi- nutcries of the people were hushed, and ten cominiioiiers were sent into >Jumidia to i-llect a reconciliation between Ju- gurtha and Adherbal. The-e commi^inTii-i-s, on their arrival, {bund Jugurtha to be one of the mo>t ho>pitable and gi-nerous of mortal. He provided them with every thing that they could wi-h, and neg! not to bestow upon them gold and -ilver to their heart'- content. In turn they pnnu' him an excellent and much abused man; and in -ettling the ditliculty between him and Ad- herbal, contrived to give him the cities and richest province-, a- a token of their great regard for the untold wealth which he evidently [K>fi868B6<L Having rid himself of these conmii Jugurtha began, at once, to prosecute his de- signs against Adherbal. In order, however, to have some little show of justice on his side, he J i ; i in 11 i N K YY .\ u. 203 The War continued The Gold of Jugurtha. tried to provoke him to resentment, by com- mitting small depredations upon his frontiers. Uut Adherbal took no notice of these tilings, and Jugurtha finally entered bis dominions at the head ot' a large army, and made himself master of most of his cities and provinces. There was now no other course for Adherbal he must either fight or deliver himself up to his Uood-thirsty enemy; and, accordingly, lie levied a great army, at the head of which he undertook to drive .Jugurtha from his kingdom. J.ut Jugurtha, vastly his superior in the art of war, attacked him upon all sides, de-troyed his troops, and endeavored to take possession of his person. Adherbal, however, made good -ape- to Cirta, the capital of his dominions. To Cirta, also, Jugnrtha hastened, determined upon Adherbal's death, lie besieged the town; he used every effort to obtain an entrance, and even swore that he would not leave its walls until his enemy was within his grasp. So des- perate, at last, became the position of the poor persecuted prince, that he was obliged to dis- patch messengers to Rome, to beg the people there to interfere and save his life. To Rome, however, Jugurtha had also hastened messen- gers, in the form of bags of gold ; and these, placed in the hands of his emissaries there, REPUBLIC OF ROMP:. Adherbal's difficulty in obtaining Aid from Rome. contended with great effect against the meen- gers of Adherbal. The Romans scarcely knew which to choose, but finally the gold prevailed, and they contented themselves with sending three commissioners into Africa, who were in- structed to make peace, if possible, between the t\v<> Numidiao princes. I Jut Jugnrtha's gold succeeded in sending back these commissioners, soon after their ar- rival ; and his gold, also, prompted them to re- port in Roine that the affairs of Numidia were ne\er in a more prosperous condition. Mean- while, Adherbal, driven to extremity, wrote a long account of his condition to the Roman Sen- ate, informing them how .Jugurtha had bribed their commissioners, and imploring them, in the name of Ma>ini.^sa, his grandfather, to save at least, his life. fc> Dispo-e. a- \..u plea>e. of tlu- kingdom of Numidia, but Miffer me not to fall in the hands .if a tyrant, and of the mur- derer of my family." said he. There were some honest men in the Senate, who had not been corrupted by the gold ot Jugurtha, and who were of opinion that an army should be sent immediately into Africa to raise the siege of Cirta, and to punish this wicked man. But the number of these honest men was not great enough to prevail ; and J r <T r H T n i x K W A R. 205 Adberbal's murder An Army sent Into Numidia. nothing more was done than to send commis- sioners again into Xumidia. Like those who had been sent before, they were easily seduced by the cunning Jugnrtha, who bribed them to believe that his brother, Adherbal, had at- tempted to destroy him, and that it was only in suit-defence that he had taken up arms again>t him. With this report the commissioners returned to Rome; and Jugurtha, once more allowed to continue his persecution of Adherbal, pushed the siege of Cirta with so much vigor, that it wa- obliged to yield, and Adherbal fell into his hands. The poor prince demanded no other conditions but the preservation of his life, which Jugurtha promised him in the most solemn terms; but no sooner had he entered the city, than he slaughtered all the Numidians, and put Adherbal to death by the most cruel tortures. The news of such an outrage could not be circulated in Rome without exciting universal indignation. Those Senators who had suffered themselves to be bribed by the infamous Ju- gurtha, beginning to fear now that they might be accused as accessories to his crime, consent- ed to have an army sent into Africa to punish him as he deserved. The commaud of this army was given to L. Hestia Calpuniiu^ a man 206 REPUBLIC OF ROME. War made upon Jugurtha. of sordid avarice, and t> whom war was merely a trade, by which to fill his cotters with gold. At his own solicitation he was furnished witli officers whom lie knew to be no better than him-elf; and by whose assistance, doub 1 lie Imped to reap a golden harvest. Before, however, the army was ready to set out from Home, Jugurtha, informed of what A\a< going on, sent thither an embassy plenti- fully provided with money. JJut he was mi>- taken upon this occasion. It was impossihle for the Senah- to sutler hi- ojlciicr- to go any longer unpunished. His aniba^adoix wen- or- deivd to depart without even entering the city, unless they would consent to give up the king- dom of Numidia, as well as the person of ,Iu- gurtha himself, rnwilling to comply with such a demjUld, they accordingly retired; and Calpiirnius. embarking with his troops at Rhe- gium. entered the dominions of .lugurlha. and ,11 a vigorous war. The course of his army Wai ever\whei\' 'marked by the most dread- ful deva>tation. Jle formed sieges, pi undered cities, and made prisoners. The terrified in- habitants iled in all directions at the simple mention of his name, and rlugurtha himself be- gan linally to fear that his empire was at au end. Uut what could he do ? His armies were J IT, T KTIl I N K \V AH. 207 Tbe ! r al bnbed by Jugurtba. iiisuflicicnt to cope with the veteran troops of Koine, and he had no allies strong enough to enable him to make a determined resistance inst his invaders. Jugnrtha knew well enough what to do. Hitherto the Romans had not been \ -t the power of his gold, and his cullers Mill amply provided with it. Coniident that in this way he could drive them from his country, he sent emissaries to Calpurnins, with oilers <!' la rife sums of money, it' lie would leave him alone in peftoa Calpurnius was pure! ea-ily ; and, in urder to deceive the Roman Seiiatt-, ]reii'iMh-d that the Tsumidian king had delivered up to him his towns, his horses, his elephants, and everything that he possessed; and lor a time this wa< apparently the Oftta Hut so s<>. >n as the IJoman army had left Nn- midia. .hignrtha entered again into possession of all his dominions, and even pureha-ed of the ( 'alpurniiis the horses and elephants which should have been retained for the >ervice of Rome. It was not very long before the Roman peo- ple began to suspect that the treaty made be- fcpeen Calpurnius and Jugnrtha was a perfect sham; and when, at length, their Mi-picions were confirmed, the greatest indignation was REPUBLIC OP Indignation of the People Jugurtha sent for. manifested against the Senate. The Tribunes of the People complained in the bitterest terms. They declared, in the public assemblies, that there was no justice left among them that money was the tyrant of Rome, and that the grandees and nobles had no other deities. "They tell us," said one of them, "that the Xumidian has yielded himself up to the Re- public that he has delivered up his p!; his troops, and his elephants. Convince us of the truth of this assertion ; make Jugurtha come to Rme. It' it le true that he has sub- mitu-d. lu- will obey your orders; if not. y.-u may easily judge that what they call a tivaiy is nothing but ft COllnaioO between that crafty prince and our generals a treaty that has pro- duced nothing but impunity of his crim him. scandalous riches to tho>e who weiv in- trusted with the Senate's commission, and an eternal dishonor to the Republic." It was impossible to prevent the people from sending for Jugurtha, and the praetor Cas-ius was consequently di-patched to bring him to Koine. A less artful man would have proba- bly resisted any such proceeding, but Jugurtha, still counting upon the power of his gold, con- sented to go, on receiving the public faith as his safeguard. On reaching Rome, he gained J re i in H i N K \V A R. 209 More Corruption Jngurtha Sc-nt Home. at once the Tribune Boehius, who managed to protect him, but not without exposing himself tu the charge of corruption. Indeed, the peo- ple became so provoked at this fresh instance of collusion, that they threatened to seize Ju- gurtha, and give his crown to another grandson of Ma>inis~a, who, upon the death of Adherbal, had taken refuge in Rome. Jugurtha, how- ever, put an end to such a plan as this by causing the assassination of his rival. But the murderer being taken, confessed that he had been employed by Jugurtha to commit the deed, whereupon this infamous wretch was cumn landed by the Senate to depart at once from Koine. Passing through the gate of the city, it is said that he looked back and ex- claimed: "O mercenary town! thou wouhUt quickly be enslaved, if a merchant were found but rich enough to buy thee !" Although the Romans were bound by their promise to suffer Jugurtha to return to his do- minions, yet they were determined to bring him back to Rome, and punish him for his ini- quity. The voice of the people was now raised against him, and it was publicly declared that he should never escape again. A large army, under the command of the consul Albinus, was accordingly sent into Numidia, with orders to u 210 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Defeat of another Army sent against Jngurtha. make a vigorous war upon him, unless he de- livered his person and kingdom up to the dis- posal of the Roman people. But Jugurtlia found means to perplex and delay Albinus, to such a degree, that he actually accomplished nothing during the time that he remained in Africa ; and the season for holding the election in Rome having arrived, he was obliged to re- pair thither, and leave his army under the di- rection of his lieutenant, Aulus. This man possessed neither valor nor military knowl- edge ; and the crafty Numidian succeeded, without much difficulty, in drawing so poor a general into difficulty. Aulus was led, through his artifices, to conduct his army into narrow it, whose avenues had been previously secured, and then lie was completely cut to pieces: life and liberty being Driven to those, who escaped the sword, only on condition that they should pass under the yoke an ignomini- ous ceremony, by which the conquerors affixed an eternal shame to the defeat of the van- quished. Besides this, J'ugurtha compelled Aulus and his principal officers to promise that the Romans should never again disturb him in the possession of the kingdom of Xumidia. As soon as the Senate heard of this shameful treats, tlu-v declared it void: and recalling JUGURTHINE WAR. 211 Another Army sent Jugurtha defeated. Aulus, intrusted Metellus, the consul elect, with the prosecution of the war. The new general, having collected a large supply of provisions and ammunition, set out for Numid- ia, accompanied by Caius Marius, whom the people had chosen as his lieutenant. On arri- ving in Africa, Metellus received from Aulus the command of the Roman army, and maivh- ing at once against Jugurtha, he drove him to the very extremity of his dominions. Jugurtha was stripped of all his troops, and completely shut out of all his fortified towns. Nothing seemed left for him to do but to submit to whatever terms the Roman general should think fit to dictate to him, and he agreed ac- cordingly to pay to Metellus two hundred thou- sand pounds weight of silver ; to deliver up all his elephants and a certain quantity of arms and horsed; and to yield up all who had de- serted to his ranks. To these hard conditions Jugurtha rendered a ready obedience; but when Metellus ordered him to repair, himself, to Tisidium for further directions, he began to hesitate, and spent several days without com- ing to any resolution. The fear of falling into the hands of the Romans, who would doubtless punish him for all his crimes, finally prevailed ; and he determined that he would not surrender 212 KEPUBLIC OF ROME. Trouble in the Roman Army. as long as he could find a single soldier to help him fight. Accordingly he broke off all nego- tiations; gathered together new troops; forti- fied some small places that were still in his possession, and bid the Romans to take him if they could. In the mean time trouble arose in the Ro- man camp. Gains Marius, the lieutenant of Metellus, and a very ambitious man, aspired to the supreme command. The 1 tetter to attain the object of his wishes, he caused a report to be carried to Rome, that Metellus was prolong- ing the war in Africa, in order to continue him- self in ]>o\\er; and contrived also to have it circulated, that, if he was at the head of the ar- my, a single campaign alone would be sufficient to bring Jug ml ha, dead or alive, to Rome. J lit heiio the consulship had never been filled pt by a patrician, and Marius belonging to the order of the plebeians, it seemed a very bold thing for him to aspire to this office, lie found, however, friends enough in Rome to la- bor in his interest. A short time previous, then, to the election, word was sent to him in Africa, that tin-re was little doubt of his receiv- ing the majority of the votes. As it was ne- HT fur him to be in Rome at the time of <he election, he asked his discharge of Metel- JUGURTHINE WAR. 213 M.-irius made Consul. lus, and received it, though not without a sharp rebuke for making gach high pretensions. AVith- out appearing to be offended, he took his de- parture, and, notwithstanding the obstacles thrown in his way by the nobility, wa>, in due n. made consul and commander of the ar- mies of Rome. TliN was a great triumph for the common people; and Marius himself boasted in pivs- of the patricians, that the dignity he had obtained was a victory which the people had gained over the great, by means of his coin-age and valor. "By taking the command of the army out of the hands of the great," said he in a public assembly, "yon have removed the chief obstacle that lay in the way of victory. It has been nothing but their ignorance in the military art, their presumption, and especially their scandalous avarice, that have drawn out the war to such a length already." "With as little delay as possible, Marius pro- ceeded to raise new troops for the war in Afri- ca. Arriving in Xumidia, he marched with the forces that accompanied him, to join those under Metellus. This great general, deeply mortified at being superseded by his late lieu- tenant, appointed one of his officers to deliver over his army to Marius, and then set out at 214 .REPUBLIC OF KOME. Marias takes the Command in Numidia. once for Rome. A strong body of cavalry, un- der the command of Cornelius Sylla, soon after arrived in Africa ; and these, joining the forces under Marine, formed a large and powerful army. Previous to the arrival of Marius in Rome, Jugurtha had succeeded in securing the pro- tection and aid of a neighboring king, named Bocchus. Their united army presented a very formidable appearance, but Marius determined to attack them without delay. Taking, first, the great and populous city of Capsa, he began to form plans for destroying the army of Jugur- tha; but while thus engaged, the two kings marched privately upon him, and throwing the Rum an troops into the greatest consternation, slaughtered them by hundreds. Indeed they would have gained a complete victory, had they known and improved the advantage which they, upon this occu-i'n, acquired. Recovering from his surprise, and rendered by this misfortune much more cautious. .Marius collected his troops and once more made an ef- fort to meet and punish his crafty foe. Two decisive battles were soon after fought, and the two kings were sadly beaten in both. Bocchus became convinced that he had committed a great error in allying himself with Jugurtba .} C (i C KT H I X K \V A R. Bocchus sends Ambassadors to Rome. against the Roman nation. Hoping, however, that he might vet save his crown, he sent am- bassadors to Rome, with instructions to signify to the Senate his regret at having engaged in the service of Jugurtha. These ambassadors were received with great respect at Rome ; but in reply to their solicita- tions they were answered in these w >rds : " The Senate and Roman people are not used to for- get either services or injuries ; however, since Bocchus repents of his fault they grant him their pardon. As to peace and alliance, he shall obtain them when he has deserved thejn by his actions." " What does this mean ?" said Bocchus, in reply to these words, as they were delivered to him by the ambassador. "What would the Senate desire when they tell me, that I shall have peace and alliance after I have deserved them by my actions ? Go to the camp of Ha- rms, and bid him to send his qutestor hither." The quaestor, Sylla, was accordingly sent to the troubled king. " You have no other way," said Sylla to him, " of obtaining peace and al- liance, but by delivering Jugurtha to us ; and thus you will make amends for the imprudence of your first engagement." The proposal was not at all agreeable to 210 REITHMC OF HOM K. Boocbus delivers Jugurtha to Sylla. lnis, who could ni-.t In-ill* to be guilt such apiece of treachery, lie would not . to it; and their interview ended. l>ut Sylla came t see him again and again, and each time being more preying, and more eloquent, ;ui- finally confuted to yield up .Jugurtha. Tin- wretched jirince was seized, loaded with chain-, and given ii]> to Sylla, who placed him in the hand- of MarillS. M Mengers -re at once di>jatched to Rome to bear the joyful tiding, and, soon after, the eoiijueror of Numidia followed with his vic- tori.aia army. Th -att-s of the city were wide open fur his triumphal entry, and tha, eo\ei-ed with chains, was dragged like a slave at the- wheels of the chariot of Murius. In order to prevent 1;: was taken at to pri-Mit. where he was condemned to he starved to death. l\\> royal n-be was taken otl by tin- executioner, as well as all the clothes which covered him, and then the mi-craMe eh was rudely .pushed into the dungeon, destined to be his tomb. u ( )h, Hercules, how cold are thy siove- !" he exclaimed, as the damp air struck upon hi- naked body; and thus, after >tnii:^linj with hunger for -i.\ days, died a kinj who, to gratify his ambition, did not he-ita'e to commit the blackest cr; MARIUS AND SYLLA FROM 102 TO 86 B. 0. defeats the Barbarians Marius in disfavor He goes to Asia Assassination of Drusus War of th< federates Sylla sent against Mithridates Contention be- t \ve.-n Marius and Sylla Sylla inarches against his rn.-mirs at K.-III.- -ICtfiol :t:.d Sulj-itius driven from the cit\ They an- pro- -rilied Suljitius slain Cinna made Consul He oj'|ii'U8 the measures of Sylla Stratagem of Cinna His <lrh-.it l>c|triv.-il ,.l' his ( .lli,'.- ( 'miij'laiii^ t<; tli- army Tin- flight of Mariu> I1U i-onJ.-iinnition !r<mi (1-ath -11> goes to Africa His arrival at Carthaire 11- is invited to join Cinna Tlu-y \\r . made .1 Brutal conduct of M;irius Death of Marius. r.MTTRE OF CAIU8 MA HITS. IX. MARIUS AND SYLLA Tin: rejoicings in Home on account of the tt and capture of Juirurtlia. were very much marred by the disputes between the pa- ;ind plebeians, as to who was entitled to most honor for this acliicveinent. The ple- 1 that the successful termina- tion <>t' the war was due to Marine the consul clio-rii from tlieir numl)er ; and the pa- trician- c d that Marius miirht vet have been in Africa, if Sylla, a patrician, had not contrived to r t .t p.^e ion of the pei-son of Ju- irnrtha. ' jealousy at once sprang up betw< t\vo di-tin<ruishcd soldiers, which resulted in a good deal of trouble and blood- shed. These contentions, however, gave place, for a while, to a general alarm created by the threat- invasion of a great multitude of barbari- K K 1M H L f C OF K O M E . Marius defeats the Barbarians. ans, known by the name of Teutones and Cini- bri, is-uin^ from Chersonesus Cimbrica, now called Jutland. These barbarians, numbering more tlian three hundred thousand, had already overrun (iaul, and were making preparations to pass into Italy. The fear of such immense numbers of people, remarkable for their iierce- ness, smothered, of course, every tiling lik-- cord amonir the citi/en- .f Ilmne. The com- m-.n >afrty occupied their attention more than \mr\\ . and. with mir aec-n-d, Marius was I to take command <f the armies, in this time of troul.le. I'ndcr his direction the Ro- man te-rrit'>rv wa> ably defended. In OQ6 tie, which la-ted, as i> said, two whole d; : hundretl and f.irty thousand of the Ti-ir were slain ; and at another time, a hundred and twenty tln-u^and of the Cimbri fi 11 ujnn the liehl. :v thousand that were taken If Marius had IUH-II ooH8id< ei-al before, he mu-t. c.-rtainly. no\v lie regard- ed as the iir>t in the lioinau liepublic. Ii; his jiuj.ularity was very irreat. but he was not inch admired for his \ii \Tetellus, the Li'eneial whom he had superseded in Nu- midia. This fact was to him a subject of deep mortification, and he therefore did every MART rs AND S vi.i. A. 223 Marius' jealousy of Metellus Marius in disfavor. in his power t-> accomplish tlie downfall of his rival. Through the instrumentality of certain men whom he had in his employ, lh d in procuring the banishment "f Metel- lus. Hut these men, who soon heeanie known as the tools of his ambition, were detected in the - : <>n of the grossest crimes; and when Mariu< wa< called upon to punish them, a- they deserve-. 1, he did every thing in his power to facilitate their escape. The people v naturally, indignant at Mich conduct in their chief ruler; and determining to take the matter in their own hands, pursued thc-e n< with so much vigilance, that they were <>lliired, for - surrender then: Marius. who secured them against the attempts of their enen. This only made tin- matter worse. The ser- ! which Marius had rendered to the State all forgotten, ly rea-n of this con-piracy with evil-doers. The people resolved that they would thi'iiisi-hvs have justice; and surround- ing, therefore, the house in which lu- was pro- ng these wicked men, they forced it open, and killed them with clubs and stone-, turning upon Marius, they heaped upon him all sorts of accusations ; and, as a kind of pun- ishment, demanded the repeal of the sentence L'lM K KP I HI. 1C OF Ko V .-Marina goes to Asia. of liiuiMniie:.- [etellns. A puM: Hcmhly was com ad, ly an al- most unanimous v<>tc, Metellu- W8 the rights of citizenship. With iis little delay as possible, the fri. of this old and faithful general notified him of' what had takm place; and when in', arrived that he was on hi> way f K"ine, the whoK- ci1 "lit t inert liiin, so that hi* return wa-. in fact, a triumph. Hut while this 9ioD lilliMl every one with joy, Mariu- alone much (K-jectc-d; and, with a< little delay :.-a\inr Knme, he emharke.l for . under pivtrncr .f pi-rfoniiin which IM- had \.\ved din war with :ilri. It i- .-aid that his to liriiiir al>out a war Let 1 . 6 and Mithridatr-. On of ful mi in the KaM. With- mpliehing any thing, he retnmed to \i where, during a season of j- d amid a nunilK-r came in a niti(H-<l. It \ l..n^ h.,w-ver, lief.. re diillci. B, the results if which v little while, felt throULrh"iit the \\ : :it of Italy. The-e diilicultie- had their nri^iu in the rreat privilege- attached t. the (piality M A 1:1 I B A N i> S v tie* in Koine. tinction, wherever he ini % irht clio.-e t dwell, ill the election ..f ::1 commanders, and was a sliaivr in the sovereignty of 1 hore- ,1'ural that tlne nations that had submitted th> to the commonwealth I .aid tin- :d furnished the sol required of ' <-k t<> h;: .vhieh tl. thus supjM.rtiiiir. And, accordin,u r lv, when an oppor- tunity occurred, some of them demanded the 9 and name of Koman citi/cns. '! maintained that they did more for the support and : . ;!iun -he and her ter- ritoiits did themselves; and they urired that - no justice in treating as mere' iio were, in every way, equal- fell- na. '.limn-, Livius Drusus, took it upon If to settle these difficulties and to this end made >e\*-ral propositions, which v nirly obnoxious to the Senate. : :cm was a very lar^e incivaM' of their number, and the division <f the public 1; Uut ilie proud senatore disdained to have intru- ihru.-t amonir them, and the very of Agrarian law wa> en-'iiirh to rai>e a 15 226 EEPUBLIC OF ROME. W&r of the Confederates. acy against Drusus. The Latins and other na- tions did all in their power to protect him, but notwithstanding this he was unable to escape the fury of his opposers, and was finally slain at the very door of his own house. The cruel assassination of a man who had labored to procure the rights of citizenship for the foreign subjects of the commonwealth, could not fail to arouse among them the great- est indignation ; and these people very natu- rally sought to obtain their right- by force of amis. This, it was, that gave rise to what is called the Social W<u\ or War of the Cv; eratcs. Deputies were sent from one ci; another, and a league entered into between them, by which it was agreed that each district should furnish a certain proportion of arms anH soldiers. They appointed also their most skil- fnl generals to command their troops, and made the nmst rapid preparations for an attack upon Koine. JJut before commencing any ac' hostility, they sent ambassadors to the city, demanding, in the. name ot' all the nations of Italy, to be recognized as IJoman cjtizens. A demand made under such circumstances could not be granted ; and the Senate, even reJ'iiMiig to listen to their ambassadors, the Confederates promptly drew out their forces, MARIUS AND SYLLA. 227 War of the Confederates. consisting of more than a hundred thousand men, with the determination to enforce their claims. With equal promptness, the Senate al-o raised an unusual number of lei: which, under the command of the two consuls, by C. Marius, Cn. Pompeius, Corne- lius Sylla, and Licinus Crassus. took the lield against the foe. Each of these persons com- manded separate bodies, on account of the great number of places t<> which it wa- DI sarv for them to give attention at the same time; and thus Rome hud. in fact, a number of very large armies scattered uver different part- of Italy. The spirit manifested on both sides seemed to be nearly the same. The one fought <>bsti- nately for their rights, and the other determined to resist to the last. Many were the bloody encounter* between them, and many were the - taken and retaken, without any apparent advantage to either. But, day by day, their re diminished and weakened to such a degree, that it became evident that, which- ever side -wa- victorious, the commonwealth must be ruinously affected. Willing to pre- vent, if possible, an act of self-destruction, the Senate signified their determination to yield to the Confederates as much as was consistent with 228 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Marius falls in public Estimation. the dignity of the Roman name. The rights of citizenship were at first given to such as had not taken up arms ; then to those who offered first to lay them down ; and, finally, to the na- tions adjoining the Roman territories. In this way the fury of the enemies was allayed, and they, at length, becoming suspicious of one an- other, hastened to make their separate peace. When an end had been put to the war, the people, as a matter of course, began to talk over its incidents, and to bestow their praise, or their dispraise, according to the merits of the* different officers who had been trusted with conducting it. The great reputation that had been heretofore sustained by Marius, suffered, for some rea>on, upon this occasion. Whether it was on account of the heaviness and slow- ness natural to advancing years, or because he had no opportunities to di-play his military talents cannot be known; but certain it is, that he did very little for the glory of the Ro- man arms, while Sylla, his great rival, distin- guished himself by so many grand achieve- ments, that immediately after the conclusion of the war, the consulate was conferred upon him; and, not long afterwards, he was made gover- nor of Asia Minor. About this time, Mithridates, the mightiest MAKIUS AND SYLLA. 229 Mithridates offends the Roman People. prince of all the Ka>t, gave great offence to the Koman people, by making war upon, and con- quering several kingdoms in alliance with them. And when the Senate sent to him a request that he would withdraw his forces from all the provinces under the protection of the common- wealth, he testified his contempt of their power and his resentment, by causing the murder of iifty thousand Rinnans, who, for the purpose of carrying on di lie rent kinds of traffic, had set- tled in the East. Not content with this, he wen threau-iied Koine itself, and all Italy, with the power nf his arm.-. It was no common enemy that had now r'. up against Koine. In every direction he had carried the terror of his name, and nation after nation had fallen a prey to his fearful arms. His armies were said to reckon more than two hundred and fifty thousand foot, and fifty thou- sand horse, with an infinite number of armed chariots ; and his seaports contained more than four hundred ships of war. But the ivsoum-s of "Rome were also vast ; and the Senate, trust- ing in the valor of its soldiers, and in the expe- rience of its generals, did not hesitate to enter the lists, even against a prince as powerful as Mithridates, and accordingly appointed Sylla to undertake the war. 230 REPUBLIC or ROME. Jealousy of Marius Disturbances. So great an honor conferred upon a hated ri- val was a bitter thing for Marius, and he re- solved, if possible, to take it from him, and to have it bestowed upon himself. For this pur- pose he brought over to his own inter* Tribune of the people, named P. Sulpitius, a bold and enterprising man, and an inveterate enemy of Sylla. By skilful management of their plans, tlu-M- two persons succeeded in rousing the allies <>f Koine again>t the Senate, and in inciting them to demand such an alter- ation of the laws, as w >uld throw into their hands a degree of p>wer which would enable them to defeat the purposes of the Senate. This met with in.-tant opposition, and holy days proclaimed, whereon ir was not lawful to do business, in order that compliance with the demand might be p.-aerfully deterred. P>ut Sulpitius, without any regard for this j.mda- mation, summoned an aembly'of the people, and sent to the consuls a bold re<pie>t that the holy days should be. revoked, in order that the people might give their v.tes upon the altera- tion of the law. This being refused, a great commotion arose, and the party of Sulpitius drawing their swords, much blood was .-pilled, and the son-in-law of Sylla was killed, while endeavoring to succor his father. Sylla, him- MA KITS AND SYI.LA. 231 Marius ?paree the Life of Syllm. self, was pursued by his enemies, and com- pelled t.) rake rei'nire in tlie house of .Marius, which he happened to lind open in his flight. It would now have been easy enough for Mari >e himself forever of liis rival; but he could not take tin- life of a man \vh< had ,!ety at his lhv>ide ; >till, he compelled him to return to the a-embly, and declare the holy days ahli>hed and n-j.t-ah-d. But Sylla had no" sooner dune this, than he lied from the and placed himself at the head of th">e - which he had commanded in the war of the Confederates, and which were to inarch under him airainst Mithridates. In the- mean time, the holy days hein*j repealed, Sulpitius procured the alteration of the law, and suc- d al-o in causing the command of the ar- my to he taken away from Sylla and best" upon Marins. This was the beginninir of a >eries of dis- turbances, in and about Rome, which miirht, with truth, be called a civil war. Marius, ap- pointed to the command of the army, now on its way against Mithridates, sent immediate! v some officers of his party to take possession of it, until he could himself get ready to overtake it. Proceeding with all dispatch, these officers finally reached the camp of Sylla, to whom 232 REPUBLIC OF HOME. Contention between Marius and Sylla. they communicated their message, requesting him to yield to them the command of the ar- my. But Sylla was not one of those men who tamely submit to the dictation of others. He bid the officers of Marius to go back to Rome, and tell their master to come and take the command himself, if he could. But these offi- cers becoming insolent, some of the soldiers of Sylla, who were standing by, fell upon them and slew them ; and then, turning to their commander, besought him to lead them against his enemies at Rome, before taking them to Asia. The news of the slaughter of these officers having been carried to the city, Marius was so enraged, that he caused a number of the friends of Sylla to be put t<> death, and their houses to be plundered. This occasioned so much terror among others, that they fled with all haste to the distant camp, and thither carrying a report of what had taken place at home, created so much excitement, that Sylla determined to go back, at once, to Rome. This resolution caused a number to leave him, because they were un- willing to turn their arms against their own country. Still these were, in comparison, so very few, that Sylla would not change his pur- pose ; but, on the contrary, hastened to put it MARIUS AND SYLLA. 233 Sylla marches against his Enemies at Borne. into execution. His colleague, Q. Pompeius, hearing of his proceedings, set out from Rome to join him ; but while they were yet at some distance from the city, Marius and Sulpitius, who had no army to oppose them, sent the pne- tors, Brutus and Servilius, to command Sylla to stop his march. The insolent manner in which these two men addressed the commander of the army, so ex- asperated the soldiers, that they fell upon them, broke the fasces and axes carried before them, and, tearing in pieces their purple gowns, would have killed them, if Sylla had not in- terfered. Seeing the praetors return to Rome in such a plight, Marius and Sulpitius became convinced that it was useless to resist so power- ful and so bitter an enemy, and accordingly dispatched deputies to him, hoping, at least, to delay his march. When these deputies reached Sylla, they began, at once, to entreat him and his colleague, Pompeius, to suspend their anger, and to cause their troops to halt within five miles of Rome. " The Senate," said they, " are in hopes of bringing about an accommodation, and will see you fully satisfied in this matter. Be contented to let your troops rest until these difficulties can be settled." Sylla perceiving, however, that the object of 234 KEPUBLIC OF EOME. Sylla drives Marius and Sulpitius from the City. the deputies was simply to delay his progress until Marius could raise forces to meet him, made them believe that he accepted their pro- posals, and even directed his officers, in their presence, to mark out a camp. But as soon as the deputies had got out of sight, he sent his cavalry behind them, and, bringing on the re- mainder of his army with the greatest speed, arrived before the gates of Rome, while his enemies supposed him to be still far away. Notwithstanding the suddenness of Sylla's appearance, Marius and Sulpitius were par- tially prepared to oppose him ; but their resist- ance being very feeble, he entered the city sword in hand, and threatened to burn and ra/A- it to the ground, if the people gave any aid or protection to Marius and Sulpitius. In consequence of this, these two men were aban- doned by every one, and finally forced to fly from Rome. With an army of six legions at his command, it was no difficult matter for Sylla to convince the people that there were many things in the government of Rome that needed revision and correction, before order could again exist. Ac- cordingly, he abolished certain laws which gave the control of the elections into the hands of the people ; he took measures to prevent the con- MARIUS AND SYLLA. 235 Marias and Sulpitius proscribed. tinual speeches by which, as he declared, the Tribunes were wont to create seditions among the people ; and established a law which de- chuvd every citizen who had filled the Tribu- nate incapable of holding any other magistracy for the future. .Redressing, in this manner, the wrongs which he thought had been sustained by the patricians, he turned his attention to re- venging his own private grievances, and, with as little delay as possible, caused the decree which gave the command of the army to Ma- rius to be repealed. Not content with this, he obtained articles of impeachment against him, a- well as against his son ; also against Sulpitius and twelve of the principal senators, for having been authors of the last insurrection. These pei-sons were all declared enemies of the Ro- man State. Rewards were set upon their heads ; they were interdicted water and fire, which meant all manner of subsistence and assistance from anybody; and throughout the city of Rome, and all the provinces of the State, the decree was proclaimed by sound of trumpet, ordaining that they should everywhere be pros- ecuted at the public charge, and be put to death as soon as they could be found. Nor were any efforts spared to find them. By order of Sylla, troops were sent out in all directions 236 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Sulpitius slain Cinna made Consul. to take them ; but none of them, except the Tribune Sulpitius, could be found. He was discovered in the moors and marshes of Loren- tum, by some of Sylla's horsemen, who imme- diately cut off his head, and carrying it to Rome, nailed it to the rostrum. Such relentlessness on the part of Sylla be- gan, in time, to arouse bitter feelings towards him. The people charged him with cruelty; and the Senate murmured against his proscrip- tion <>f their colleagues, as if they were common thieves and vagabonds. Some became bold enough to say that lie sought the death of a man more generous than himself; and that he had forgotten that he owed his life to Marins, who might easily have destroyed Trim, when he took refuge in his house. These reproaches did not escape Sylla, and he sought to overcome them by feigning, subsequently, a vast deal of moderation. Thus he testified no anger at the defeat of certain person-, who>e election forcer- tain oHiccs he had recommended, and even suf- fered his enemy, Cornelius Cinna, to be chosen consul the following year. Cinna, it is true, was his kinsman, and a patrician; but he had devoted himself to the interest of the plebeians, and was consequently an opponent of the measures of Sylla. As soon, MARIUS AND SYLLA. Cinna opposes the Measures of Sylla, theref>iv, as he had entered upon tlie duti his office, he declared that lie would procure the repeal of all the la\\ i!a, and even undertook, through the instrumentality of one of liis creatures, to procure the inipeachineiit of Sylla. But without deigning to give an answer to the charges made again>t him, Sylla left both the charges and his judges, and set out from Koine for his army, to make war against 3Iith- rida; In order to maintain himself more iirmly ugain-t Sylla. it was evident that Cinna must, if puihle, bring ahout the recall of Marius. Hut the decree of his proscription was a very solemn thing, and the party of Sylla in Roiiu- BO stronir, that its n-versal could not he ac- complished without some difficulty. To make sure of it, however, he gained the Confederates on his side, by promising to restore to them f citizenship which Sylla had vir- tually taken away from them. In a secret way he notified them to assemble on a certain day, in large numbers, at Koine, with swords under their gowns, and at the same time appointed an assembly of the people, for the purpose of proposing a new law for their acceptance. AVheii the day arrived, the Forum was so crowded with the>e Confederates, that the citi- 238 REPUBLIC OF EOME. Stratagem of Cinna. zens themselves could scarcely find access to it. Cinna mounted the rostrum, and, in a long speech, set forth the claims of the Latins and Italians, and maintained, that the glory and in- terests of the commonwealth demanded that all the different nations of Italy should form but one body, and one State. lie demanded also, that, as new citizens,, they should receive places in the old tribes, as chance might deter- mine it ; and declared that this was the only way to preserve peace and union, and to in- crease the glory and terror of the Roman name. The Confederates, of course, received such a proposition with great applause, and loudly de- manded that a vote should be taken, in order to make it a law. But the ancient citizens and patricians opposed it strongly; and from dis- putes they went rapidly to loud invectives and bitter accusations, when the Confederates final- ly drew their sw r ords from beneath their gowns, and falling upon the ancient citizens, drove them from the Forum. Octavius, the colleague of Cinna, and a friend of Sylla, fearing that something like this might happen, had taken the precaution to have in readiness a large number of armed people. As soon, therefore, as the disturbance took place, he marched to- MARIUS AND SYLLA. 239 Cinna leaves Rome He is deprived of his Office. wards the Forum, and attacking the Latins, dispersed and pursued them, sword in hand, out of the gates of the city. Thus abandoned, Cinna had no other course but to leave Rome also ; and following, accord- ingly, the people whom he had invited thither, he visited successively their largest towns, and endeavored to stir them up to revenge them- selves upon the Roman people. It was not very difficult for him to find, wherever he went, enough enemies to Rome. Most of the cities and towns resolved to unite in war upon their common foe, and he went zealously to work, raising men and money. In the mean time, the Senate, hearing of what he was doing, passed sentence upon him. They declared that he had forfeited his right as a citizen ; they deprived him of his office of consul, and elecied Lucius Merula, a priest of Jupiter, in his stead. This increased the fury of the fiery Cinna, and, resolving upon the most destructive measures against his enemies, he proceeded to Capua, where a large body of Roman soldiers was then stationed. The offi- cers and troops, ignorant of what had happened, were, of course, much surprised to see a consul appear among them without his lictors, fasces, and other tokens of dignity. " You see," said 240 EEPUBLIC or BOME. The Roman Army at Capua receive him as Consul Cinna, addressing them, " an unheard-of prece- dent of the Senate's tyranny. You had made me your consul ; the people of Rome had conferred that dignity on me by their vofes ; and the Senate deprives me of it, without hearing what I can say for myself, and even without having consulted the people. I am stripped of the badges of my office, driven from the tribunal and the city, while you are thereby treated with contempt, dnd deprived of your liberties and your rights." Saying this, he tore his robe, called upon the gods for jus- tice, and threw himself upon the ground as if he was resolved to terminate his life. By this conduct Cinna succeeded in his scheme. The soldiers began to cry out against the tyranny of the Senate. They lifted the abused consul from the ground, restored to him the fasces, and, taking an oath of fidelity, acknowledged him as their consul and general. Thus the man so lately forced to fly from Rome became its formidable foe ; and the consuls, Octavius and Merula, were obliged, with all haste, to raise new troops to oppose any pro- jects which he might have for the recovery ot his authority. In the mean time the party of Cinna increased daily in strength. People flocked to him continually from the city. MARIUS AND SYLLA. 241 The Flight of Marius. Many, even of the senators, went to his camp, and it was reported that the renowned Cains Marius and his son were on their way to join him. This extraordinary man, after having been six times elevated to the consulship, and after having acquired the greatest glory for the arms of Rome, was compelled, on account of his many acts of tyranny and violence, to fly, at the age of se \vn- ty years, from his country, unattended even by a single friend or servant. Escaping through the gates of the city, he journeyed all day, on font, with as much rapidity as his great age would suffer him ; and, a price having been set upon his head, he often found it necessary to conceal himself among rocks and caves, in order to pre- serve his life. Finding, near the close of the first clay of his flight, that the soldiers of Syl la- were just upon his track, he plunged into a dis- mal swamp, and, burying himself up to his neck in the sickening mud, there remained during the entire night. Trembling with the cold, and half dead with weariness, he left his hiding-place at break of day, and stealthily pursuing his course towards the sea-coast, hoped that he might meet some vessel that would carry him away from Italy. He had not, however, proceeded very far before he encountered a 16 242 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Manns taken lie is condemned to Death. party of persons from the city of Minturnae, who, perhaps, hearing of the reward that had been offered for his head, were out in search of him. Being easily recognized by some one among them who had often seen him, he was at once seized, and stripped of all his clothing. A rope was then placed around his neck, and the poor old man was dragged along the road, amid the shouts of a rabble that soon gathered about his heels. In this condition he was car- ried into the city of Minturnie, and delivered up to the magistrates, who cast him immedi- ately into prison. After a short conference, these magistrates determined, agreeably in the ediet of the Ro- man Senate, to put Murius t> death, and ac- cordingly sent to his prison a public executioner, who was a rimhrian by birth. Marias, on see- ing the man enter the prison sword in hand, easih d his errand, and drawing up his tall form in its utmost height, iixed upon him such a terrible look from beneath his shaggy brows, that the frightened Cimbrian stood transfixed upon the spot. "Thou barba- rian !" shouted the old Roman general, in a voice of thunder. "How darest thou come hither, sword in hand, to take the life of Caius Marius ? Begone, vile slave !" MART us AND SYLI.A. He oscap.- : s to Africa. The Cimbrian, terrilied by the voice as well as by the name of Marius, sprang through the pri-on door, and rushing into the presence of the magistrates, declared that it was not in liis -rto take rhe life of >uch a man. The ma- gistrates, seeing the frightened appearain their executioner, concluded that the gods had intrrfered to sivo tlie life ot'^Iarius, and, with- out delay, j him i'ree. Tlu-v even furnished him with a vessel, which car- ried him to the island of J-jiariu, whence, learning that his S'-n l;a<l taken refuse at tlie court of Numidia, he detenniniMl to pass into Africa. A storm having arisen, he was ohl.^ed to put into one of the port- of Sicily, whore he intrivd further ilitiij-isliy. IK- had scarce- t his foot upon the shoiv, when the Koman <|iui'.-tor in command <-f that country, happen- ing to he upon the spot, reco^niz-, d him and onlered him to be seized. A tumult at once aro>e between the otlicers of the qiuestor and the men belonging to the vessel of Marius, which resultc-d in the loss of sixteen of the lat- ter. Marius himself escaped, and, a few days after, reaching the coa>t of Africa, landed near Carthage. In this ruined city he hoped to find, at last, a place of safety, especially as he had always 244 BE PUBLIC OF ROME. Marius sitting upon the Kuins of Carthage. been a friend to Sextilius, the governor of the province, lie had not, however, been here long when a lictor approached him with orders from Sextilius, that he should depart,*at once, from his government, under penalty of being prosecuted as an enemy of the Roman State. Overcome with grief that he, who had once been the master of the whole world, could not now find for himself, in any country upon the earth, a resting-place for his foot, he sat and gazed in the face of the lictor without offering a word in answer. Pressed, however, for a re- ply, lie finally exclaimed: "Go and tell your master, that you have seen Caius Marius, ban- islu-d his native country, sitting upon the ruins of Cartilage." Hut Marius did not wait to know what effect this warning, as to the uncertainty of fortune, might have upon the Roman governor. Ri>ing from his humble seat, he went at once upon the vessel, which was still at hand, and spent the ensuing winter in wandering along the ; of Africa, waiting the return of a servant whom he had dispatched to his son, who was in that country. To his great surprise, young Marius himself returned, and together they sailed to the island Cercina, where they re- ceived information of the proceedings of Cinna. M A K I I* S A XI) S Y L L A . 245 Cinna invites M?niis to join him. AVitli a- little delay as possible, Marius sent a messenger to Cinna, offering to aid him in his intended attack upon Koine. In reply, Cinna dispatched a letter addressed to him as procon- sul, and sent to him also lictors, and all the other insignia of that dignity. But Marius re- turning them all, as not agreeing with his pres- ent circumstances, set out for the camp of Cin- na in nothing but an old gown, and with his hair and beard rough and unshorn. The news soon flew to Rome, that Marius had returned to Italy with a design to render aid to Cinna; and, immediately, more than five hundred citizens went out to join him. Encouraged thus, he visited a number of the towns upon his route, and, by means of hand- some promises, induced great numbers of peo- ple to join his standard. Many also of the Ro- man soldiers, who had formerly been under him, came and offered their services; so that in a short time his own army, added to that of Cinna, was thought sufficient to march against Rome. In the mean time, active preparations had been made for the defence of the city. The consul Octavius, did not, unfortunately, enjoy that popularity among his troops so necessaiy to the successful conduct of the affairs of war. KEPUBLIC OF KOME. Rome threatened by Marius and Cinna. The Senate, therefore, in the absentee of Sylla, who was far away in Asia, fighting against Mithridates, sent for Cecilius Metellus, a man of great courage and ability, then engaged in making war upon the Samnites. They wrote to Metellus, instructing him to bring back his army to Rome, if he could make honorable conditions with the enemy; and, at the same time, charging him, in case he should not be able to do this, to leave it in care of his lieu- tenants and return himself. Through the man- agement of Marius, the Samnites refused to come to terms, and Metellus was consequently obliged to go to Rome alone. On his arrival, the soldiers of Octavius loud- Iv demanded Metellus for their general, decla- ring that under him they would brave the greatest warrior that could be brought against them. But he refused, so decidedly, to listen to their seditions language, that many nf them, offended, went over to Marius, who created still farther disorder in the city, by offering freedom to all the slaves who would join his army. Meantime, a great clamor arising among the people on account of the scarcity of food, the Senate were compelled to send deputies to Cinna, to make him some overtures of peace. But Cinna being unwilling to receive them, MA KITS AND SYLLA. 247 Cinna restored to the Consulship. unless they acknowledged him as consul, they weiv forced to ivturn to Rome. This wa- a \vry trying situation for the Sen- ate. On the one hand, the city was so closely .red by the armies of Marius and Cinna, that no food could anywhere be procured. On the other hand, the appointment of Merula to the office of consul could not be repealed, and Cinna would grant ivlief only mi condition that this oilier should be declared his own. Under such circumstances, it was impossible to do any thing ; but, with great generosity, Merula came into thi' Senate, and voluntarily laid down tho consulship. The Senate now sent deputies again to China, inviting him to enter Rome, and assume the office of consul. Nothing was O demanded of him but an oath, that he would put none of his fellow-citizens to death, except in accordance with the usual course of law. But this oath he would not take, although he promised that he would never give his consent to the death of any one. Every one in Rome was not, of course, satis- fied with these proceedings. Metellus chose to banish himself rather than acknowledge Cinna ; but the consul Octavius, whom Cinna had re- quested to leave the city, arrayed himself in his consular habit, and, placing himself on his 248 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Brutal conduct of Marius. * tribunal, resolved to meet his fate. Cinna and Marius marched to the gates, the former enter- ing with his guards, while the latter, remaining outside, refused to go in until the decree which proscribed him had been repealed by the peo- ple. It was, therefore, necessary to call an as- sembly of the tribes, but the vote had not been half taken, when the furious man burst into the town at tin- Ik-ad of his lawless troops, and mur- di-ivd every one that he could find of those whom he supposed to be his enemies. The consul Octavius was slain in his tribunal; and Merula, knowing that he would meet a similar fair, npriii-d his own veins and died. The whole city pivM-nted u dreadful sight. Blood flowed on every side, and the dead, both of the patricians and the plebeians, lay nnburied in the streets. The soldiers of Marius had orders to kill all tho>e whose salute he did not return, so that his friends and officers were afraid to come into his presence. This bloodthirsty man was not, however, sat- isfied. He had not yet been able to lay his hand upon Sylla, on whom he longed, more than on all others, to vent his rage. This hate- ful rival was far away, fighting the battles of the Republic in distant lands. Still, the old monster sought to do him all the injury he MAUITS A xi) SYLLA. 249 Cinna and Marius made Consuls. could. IK- raxed his house to the ground, con- fiscated his goods, and sought to slay his wife and children, who, however, fortunately es- caped his fury. Uy means of the power which ised over the Senate, he caused all the laws established during Sylhfs consulship to be revoked, and also had this valiant soldier declared an enemy of the commonwealth. AVhen the season for another election of con- suls again occurred, Cinna and Marius man- aged to be chosen to this high office ; but by this time new> wa- brought that Svlla had put an end to the Mithridatic war, and that, hav- ing reduced the provinces, he wa^ returning with a large army to Koine. The two consuls were naturally alarmed by this intelligence, for they would now have no ordinary leaders like Octavius and Merula to contend with, but a skilful general, who had formerly driven Ma- rius himself from his country, and who had recently maintained a successful war with one of the most powerful monarchs of the East. Marius especially was terribly disturbed. He had already experienced all the miseries of banishment and flight, and, old age now full upon him, he trembled at the thought of en- countering them again. So great was his anx- iety that he was unable to sleep either by day 250 REPUBLIC OF ROME. The Death of Marius. or night, and, unable any longer to endure it, he abandoned himself to excessive drinking. Although he might have found in this way a temporary relief for his harassed mind, he rapidly sank beneath it, and before the arrival of Sylla, fell into a pleuritic fever which termi- nated his wretched life. Thus, at the age of seventy years, died the unhappy Marius, who had been seven times consul of Rome, and who, had it not been fur his execrable ambi- tion, might have won the admiration and grati- tude of his country. The news of his death wa> received with the greatest joy, and every Roman leaped as if a load of shackles had been stricken from his body. CIVIL WARS AND CONSPIRACIES. FKOM 86 TO 62 B. C. and Sylla Sylla returns to Italy His Con- test with young Marius The Siege of Preneste Telesiuus attacks Kciin- 11- is defeated by Sylla Cruel Conduct of Svlla His I .sui patiou of Power His Abdication thereof \\i< I>.;tili anl it> Coii-e^nerices The Servile War Defeat of Spartacus Crassus and romp'-y t 'haraoter of Catiline His Consjiiracv :iL r ;ii!i>' Home 1 )i-c>v<-ry of his Plans by aiiS taken to drtVn>i aOCUSCS Catiliin -. -n.-iic Catiline leaves Rome The Aniba.-sadurs of the Allobroges Their betrayal of the Con- spirators Defeat and Death of Catiline Ilonor paid to Cicero. X. CIVIL WARS AND CONSPIRACIES. MANY tliinirs conspired to delay Sylla in his return t<> Italy, ami among them, especially, the diiliculties which he had in conclu- ding a peace with Mithridates, together with the annoyances thrown in hU way by the army under the command of Valerius Flaccus, which -ent by Cinna into Asia against Mithridates, under ju\-tenco that the war which Sylla had made upon that prince \\:t> disowned by the commonwealth. This army consisted of two legions; but its leader, the consul Valerius, was a man of such a tyrannical and violent spirit, that his soldiers did not hesitate to second the ambitious designs of his lieutenant, Fiinbria, who, immediately upon their arrival in Asia, aspired to the supreme command. Valerius was slain by the hand of Fimbria himself, and this base man at Qnce took the place of the 254 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Mithridates and Sylla. general whom he had sworn to follow and obey. Mithridates was not ignorant of what had taken place in Rome, and he knew well enough how anxious Sylla was to be at liberty to has- ten thither. In hopes, then, of securing terms more favorable to himself, he made use of ev- ery means to detain and wear out the Roman general. Different parties were intrusted with negotiating between the two great hostile lead- er.-, and diil'erent term- were several times pro- posed, without coming to a sati-ta<-:<>ry conclu- sion, until, linally, the patience of Sylla being exhausted, he spoke with so much tierce- r,< the ambassadors of Mithridates that they went terrified to their master, and advised him, if ho valued his lit'i- and cn>\vn, to come speedily to terms with the iiery Roman. .Mithridates then de.-iivd a personal interview with Sylla be- . by making peace with him, he would not be free from the war which Fimbria was carrying on against him. To this interview Sylla readily agreed, and they met at Dardanum, a town of Troas. On approaching the Roman general, Mithridaies held out his hand to him, in token of friend- ship ; but Sylla, drawing back, asked him whether he accepted of the peace upon the CIVIL WARS. 255 Sylla, by Stratagem, gains the Army of Fimbria. conditions last proposed. The haughty mon- arch of the Kast was so confounded by the rior haughtiness of the Koman general, that ho could scarcely find words lor utterance, and, like an aba-hed maiden, faintly murmured that he was willing to accept the terms. Upon this Syila embraced him, and assured him that lie would soon put Fimbria out of a condition to give him any further trouble. Faithful to his w>rd. Sylla marched, without delay, against Fimbria, and pitched his camp by that of his treacherous rival. AVith as little loss of time as possible, he sent him a summons to surrender up to him, as procou-ul, 'inmand which he had so basely obtained, without the consent of either the Senate or the Roman people. Jlut Fimbria ivfu-ed to com- ply with his request, and thereupon both ap- plied tin- to the fortifying of their re- camp-. The soldiers of both parties being, however, of the same nation, and chiefly of the same city, it was quite natural that, in a foreign land, they should be rather disposed to friendship than to hostility. Consequently, when they met, they saluted one another, and by degrees visited from camp to camp clan- destinely, until at length it was impossible to make them oppose each other in deadly battle. 256 REPUBLIC OF HOME. Sylla returns to Italy Cn. Pompeius. Sylla knew how to take advantage of this. He instructed his own troops to encourage deser- tion from the camp of Fimbria, and, one day, this ridiculous general found himself all alone in the midst of his silent fortifications. Know- ing that Sylla would punish him for his murder of Valerius, he fled to Pergarnus, and there run himself through with his own sword. With as much haste as possible, Sylla now set forward with his troops for Rome, and after many and long journeys, both by sea and land, finally arrived in Italy. The two consuls, Cinna and Carbo, hearing of his approach, ordered young Marius to raise forces, and likewise re- quired the Samnih-s to assist them against their common enemy. It was the intention of Cinna to meet S\lla before he entered Italy, but a portion of his army refusing to go on board of the ships provided for their transportation, a tumult arose, during which a soldier, becoming enraged with Cinna, ran him through with his sword. On reaching Italy, the 'army of Sylla was much increased by handsome bodies of troops brought to him by Metellus Pius and Marcus Crassus; but nothing gratified him more than the succors which he received from Cn. Pom- peius, afterwards surnamed the Great. The CIVIL WARS. 257 Sylla wins the Army of Scipio. force brought to him by this young general, then only twenty-three years of age, consisted of three legions, which was truly a great addi- tion to the army of Sylla, then numbering only thirty thousand men, while his enemy counted two hundred thousand, under the command of fifteen general officers of great experience and courage. New accessions were thus daily made to the army of Sylla; and when, one day, L. St- one of the consuls, encamped very near him, he contrive.!, under some pretence, to procure a short truce, during which his soldiers, as in the case of Fimbria, brought over to his standard a large number of the troops of Scipio. The whole matter was carried on so secretly that the consul himself >uspected nothing, until he was anv>ted in his own tent by Sylla's soldiers, and carried to their general. His army was also much augmented through the aid of ag whom he sent to the very foot of the Alps, in order to gain the Cisalpine Gauls. But young Marius, scarcely less active than he, procured, daily, large forces to oppose him ; and, among others, obtained of the Samnites forty thousand men, whom he placed under the command of Pontius Telesinus, the ablest warrior of their nation. Having been elected to the dignity of 17 B. Mwiiu rooted by SjrIU, and bmiegd in Preneste. ;i. ami t ML r ly, k head osl him. The tirht \ li lv. and l'<>r . v douhtt'ul, until lion of ><,nie of Manila's troops c; s> iniich C'.nj'u-ion that hi- whole a. broken up and i '^^t, anl lu\ hii. compclli-d t, take n-:'iiir- in 1'reneste, a \vrll- ic-d j.lace close a Imairininir that ho >hul<l concliuk' tin- war 1, Sylla at once . After causing lines, d-iuhts, t :--.WM up, ditches to bf d all the avenues t<> tin- :iv LTuai-di-fl. a dfi the n. he c;: pie togc g i-.'inplaiiu-d ,; inannei- in \\ d them- to be inMi d lies, he sold t Of Mai\i;- and bil : .lower.-, and th--n ivtu. t(. hi- or. l,v the eaj'ture ol : niinate I Th of all Italv was now este. where Marius, >hut uj . Irving to elude tin- gng| 3 La. Hi- im- :ider the di: of V I L \V A KS. TlMtan marebee to Borne. LT to gain access t> him at ] M-tuntlv :is fought, and th<>u- upon thousands were > !:hmt af- t'to Marine Thu- allairs ct'iiliiuu d, until only three of the great chief- tains of Marius, with hut four legions of troops, cause. These, joinin<r Telesinus, general of the Samnites, resolved ob- :oly to continue the war. Designing to 3, Telesinus came forward, at the \t\ thousand troops. Sylla, send- iiiir I'-'ini^ey to attack liini in the rear, pivpared to assault him viir"rni>ly in front; but tin- cun- , taking advantage of the dark- ness, flew with all speed towi with so much eagerness di<l he pinvue liis :i, that in ilie nioniin^ the van of his ar- my was seen from the hills about the city, ibitants, terrified by such a host of peop!' us they knew, lu-hl them in - liest hatred, flew to the gates, and, closing them, prepared to defend their walls. On- Telesinus, concealing nothing of hate- ful to all his nation. When close upon it, and ready for his operations, he walked through all 260 JiEPUBLic OF ROME. Sylln opposes him. tin- ranks and lines of his army, exclaiming " We must cut down that i'nrest win-re thn-e :oiis wolves take shelter. Let lire and sword destroy all spare nothing ; mankind can never U- free a- I'-nir a< any Jioma: main al: The people, under the command of Appins Claudiu-, su-tained nol>]y the attack of Telesi- nu>. No OIK- d I., li-rht i;, r tlu-ir h and j.roju-rty ; and. alth.iiL r li Apjius was killed in tlu- early part .f the cn^a^ciiH-nt. tlu-\ ]>inir oil' the Samniti->. nnt'.l Svlla should In- alilc to CMIIU- to tlu-ir ail. This he did with all dili^-ncc. 'IV him near tlu- city, and a latllc f.-r i 1 led. It waa a M-I-V Moody alfair. I><th ai-mir- tMii-j-ht with the c ration. \'i<-!.ry or death appean-d to l,e the motto of every soldier -n tin- held, and for a while th-- : extremely <loul,tfnl. At la>t ihe Samnites, traininir a coiisideralde advanta-v ..ver the troops of Sylla, pu>hed them H> liard that >everal d' his cohort and entire LegiODfl irave way and lied. With >w..rd in hand, Sylla endeavored io urn ; Imt the ternn'-strickeM and disordered soldiers, niv- ini;- no heed to his commands, rushed into the gates of IJome. The inhabitants, fearing that CIVIL WAS 261 Telesinus overcome Preneste surrenders. -umnites would enter with them, >hui, with all ha>te, the gate-, and letting fall the port- cullis, killed ii great number of permits, and among them >e\eral senators in Sylla's army. All retreat being thus cut off to a large portion of his army, they were obliged to turn ah>ut and laee the enemy, who \ ..m them. JJut night coming uu i u the mid-t of the con- ilict, both parties were compelled to suspend, and fcyylla retired to his camp. He ascer- d, however, that the left wing of his , under eiiimand of Crassus, had over- niy. and covered the lie-Id with nniv than iifty thousand slain, among whom ; thousand were aU" taken prisoners; the next day Sylla caused all these to be shot with da habitants of Preneste, an:'Mg whom Marius had taken refuge, opened their i OOQ a- they heard of SyllaV . and Marius and a brother of Telesinus endt-a- a subterran. , but fail- i their attem})t, they killed each other, in order that t: ij not fall alive into the hands of the enemy. The people of the tu\vn were all put to death, except the women and the children ; and rSylla, iinding his enemies EEPUBLIC OF HOME. Cruel Conduct of Sylla. finally subdued, entered Rome at the head of his victorious troops. But the glory which Sylla had acquired in war was destined to be tarnished by the mon- strous acts of which he was author during the peace that followed. The remnant of the large armies that had opposed him, de-irons <>f quar- ter, sent deputies to intercede with him. lie re- plied, that lie would spare all those who made themselve- worthy of life by slaying tlu'ir com- panions. These unfortunate men thereupon turned their arm- again-t eaeh other, and a terrible slaughter followed. Six thousand of them, however, e.-eaped and came to Home. These, Sylla caused to be shut up in the llip- podmme. and then .-ending his troop> into the plaee, butehered them in cold blood. Soon after tin-, he pn>.-cribed eighty teen hundred knights, and a large number of the richest citi/ei;- of Rome. l'-r the murder of each of these, he . Hi-red a reward of two talents, and even -paid the money to the very slaves for tl; 'nation of their ma-ters. But his cruelty was not limited to the party of Marius. lie permitted his friends and offi- 10 revenge themselves upon all their pri- vate enemies, so that the streets of Rome con- tinually flowed with blood. No one was sure CIVIL WARS. 263 lie declares himself Perpetual Dictator. of living a >inu'le day, and every one dreaded to encounter the glance of tliis cruel monster. man, C. Metellu^, wa-. however, coura- s enough to rise up in the midst of the Senate, and ask Sylla to put a stop to the mis- !' hi- 1'ellow-citizens. "We do not ask you," said Mctellus, " to forgive any of those whom you have resolved shall die; but pray you to free us from an uncertainty worse than deatli itself, by letting us know whom you de- sign to spare." Sylla coolly replied, that he had not yet fixed upon the number of those whom he should allow to live,; that he had proscribed such as his memory presented to him, and that he should continue to proscribe all that lie could remember among his enemies. As if maddened by the sight of the torrents of blood which lie had shed, he now began to proscribe whole towns and nations, slaying such as he pleased, and stripping the inhab- itants of their houses and lands, in order to reward the soldiers who assisted him in his work of death and desolation. He also de- clared himself perpetual Dictator, and thus changed, in fact, the government from a repub- lican to a kingly form. All the ancient laws were abrogated new ones were created. He made himself master of the public treasures, 264: REPUBLIC OF ROME. Resigns voluntarily bis Authority. and disposed, according to his pleasure, of all the estates and fortunes of his fellow-citizens. It is true that he suffered the Senate, and most of the principal officers to remain, but their authority was absolutely nothing, and the in- ducements to seek them were almost wholly taken avvay. "Hut the most extraordinary thing concerning Sylla is yet to be related. Incredible as it may seem, this singular man, after having destroyed more than a hundred thousand of his fellow- citizens in the civil war; after having caused the massacre of ninety senators and twen: Imndivd knights, went into the Forum, and, in the presence of the assembled people, took from his own person the emblems of his office, SIMM away his lictmx di-mis-ed his guards, and voluntarily iv>ii:-ned the office which he had usurped, and which lie might have long con- tinued to hold. It is natural to suppose that the fear of being torn to pieces by a deeply- injiuvd people, would have deterred him from an act so bold as this. "Hut his chief paasion had been revenge, and this being at last satia- ted by the seas of blood which he had spilt, he eared for nothing more, not even power or life. The multitude were thunderstruck at what he did. They could not believe their eyes, and CIVIL WARS. 265 Bylla's Death His Epitaph. gazed with silence and awe upon him as he stepped down from his tribunal, and mingled, like a private man, among the people, who, a moment before, bowed and trembled in his presence. And strange, too, as it may seem, this very prince of murderers walked forth alone into the open street, and proceeded with- out any molestation to his own house. It is said that one young man addressed to him some in-nlting language, which Sylla disdained to answer ; but the Romans, generally, deemed this act of abdication the last and greatest ef- fort of magnanimity and heroism. They never attempted to punish his murders, although he declared that he was ready and willing to be tried lor any of his deeds. Not long after this i Sylla died, in his own bed, as quietly as the most peaceful citizen of the commonwealth could have desired. A few days before his death he wrote his own epitaph, the substance of which was "That nobody had ever out- done him, either in obliging his friends, or in persecuting his enemies." Dissensions and civil wars did not cease at the death of Sylla. The grave, indeed, had scarcely closed upon him, when the consul Lep- idus undertook to make himself the master of the government. To attain his object, it was 266 EEPUBLIC OF EOME. Consequences of Sylla's Death. necessary to make himself the leader of a par- ty ; Lnt as Pompey, Metellus, Crassus, and even his colleague, Catulus, were chiefs of the pa- trician side, in whose favor he had declared himself, he believed that he should be more successful by going over to the party of Man' us, whose leaders had been dr-troyed in the civil war. At the expiration of his consulate, being ap- pointed to the government of (iallia Cisalpina, he began at once to raise an army, and gained to his party the pnetnrians. lirutus and Per- penna. Inviting ihc people of Koine, and 6fr penally tln>>- belonging t' the party of Marius, to jin him, lie marched towards the city, with the fnd h<pe that he should become another Sylla. lint Catulus at the head of the leirions and of all the nobility, charged him with so much vigor, that his army was cut to pieces, and he. himself compelled to tly. Mortified by his ill lucceat) and surely grieved by certain private matter-, he died soon after, and with him his party fell, lirntns, one of his coadju- having been overcome by Pompey, was -mated a few days alter by orders of that : al ; and LV-rpenna, the remaining chief, thus finding himself at the head of thirty-two thousand meu, marched into Spain, according CIVIL WARS. 207 The Spanish War The Servile War. to the example x>f Sertorius, a general of great lame, who yet maintained the party <>i' ^larius at Lusitania. The Senate, in order to preserve those prov- , sent Pompey, with a lar^e anny. against the-e Uvo generals. A irreat many battles tn,k place, without much advantage on either >ide, until tlie death of Sertrius, wliieh wa- occa- sioned ly the jc-alou-y of IVrpeMMa. Tliis 1111- skiliul ireneral was then ea>ily heatc-n ly I'um- \vh(. ordering lii> head to be cut off, put an end t the Spanish war. In the mean time a very dangerous war had luvii rxeited in Koine by one Spartaein, a 'I'hracian irladiator. wlm, with -rvnity com- -. had e-eaped iVoin inij.ri-i.nmrnt in ( 'a- pua. .1 laving IK-CM joincil by a multitude of runaway slaves and j.ea-antry fruiii the neigh- borhood, lie iouirht an<l irained a ninnber of eoii-ideraMe battles. Finding himself, linally, at the head of >i\ty thou-and men, he occa- sioned so much alarm, that the two consuls were sent out with two legions to >ubdue him. O These he succeeded in defeating, and, with his victorious troops, was on his wav to Rome, when Crassus, at the head of a powerful army, went out to meet him. Keaching Spartacns near Rhegium, the Roman general surrounded 268 KEPUBLIC OF KOME. Spartacus overcome Crassus and Pompey. him with a ditch, six miles in length ; but Spar- tacus evaded him by night, and continued his march towards the city. Crassus, however, determined that he should not thus escape ; and following closely after, compelled him to engage, and finally overcame him after an ob- stinate conflict. Sixty thousand of his followers were slain, six thousand were taken prisoners, and lie himself, it is said, fell, fighting on his knees upon a heap of fallen enemies. A large number of these troops of Sparta- cus escaping, fled into the neighboring moun- tains, where Pompey, on his return from Spain, met with, and easily defeated them. By this achievement he sought to raise his own glory, to the disparagement of Crassus; and this, to- gether with other matters, was the cause of the ji-alousy which existed between them, when, subsequently, they were both elevated to the consulship. This jealousy was, however, the means of giving great pleasure to the people of Koine. Crassus, to win their atl'ection, gave them an entertainment upon a thousand long, and well-spread, tables. He also distributed corn enough to all the populace to maintain their families three whole months. Pompey, on the other hand, to outdo Crassus, restored to the Tribunes all the authority of which they CIVIL WARS. 269 W:ir Avith the Pirates Catiline. had been deprived by Svlla, and by this meas- ure made himself the idol of the people, who, during 1 the war with the Pirates, which occurred soon after, conferred upon him such unlimited powers, that he might easily have become sole reign of the commonwealth. The success which attended him in this war, was tlu- reason for appointing him to the com- mand of the army that had been sent out against Mithridates ; and the decree that gave him this, gave him also the government of Asia, and the superintendency of the vast na- val power, with which he had subdued the Pirates. At the time of his departure, Eome, then the mistress of the world, seemed to be in the enjoyment of a profound peace. So far as external appearances could be an indication, union subsisted among her citizens, and an unusual prosperity in all her affairs. But be- neath all this seeming tranquillity, a secret agi- tation was going on ; and new parties and new schemes were in process of formation, which could bring about nothing short of anarchy and despotism. At the head of one of these dangerous par- ties was Lucius Sergius Catiline, a descendant of an illustrious patrician family, and one of the ministers of the cruelty of Sylla, to whose cause 270 EEPUBLIC OF KOME. Character of Catiline. he had ever been devoted. Murder, rapine, and conflagration had been the first deeds and pleasures of this formidable man ; and, withal, he possessed such powers of dissimulation as enabled him to throw a veil over his horrid vices, and render himself agreeable to the just and good. Of the many terrible crimes which he is said to have committed, that of the mur- der of his wife and son may be regarded as a specimen of such as are not too disgusting to relate. At a time when Home had grown rich by the spoils of so many conquered nations ; when ambition, luxury, effeminacy, and all the vices inseparable from wealth were exerting their baneful influences, it is easy to imagine that a man like Catiline could find those who would be willing to second him in any plot which he might form, either against private or public in- terests. Indeed, there were hundreds of young men, who, having consumed the patrimony of their ancestors in extravagance and riotous liv- ing, were ready to do any thing which could relieve them from their enormous debts, and promote the gratification of their depraved de- sires. As they could, through the high offices of the State, find every facility to attain their wishes, they sought to fill them with persons of CIVIL WARS. 271 Conspiracy against the Government their own diameter. Dut being baffled in their efforts to do this, there were some of them who determined to u.-sussinute the prin- cipal officers of the State, and seize upon die government. Catiline, foremost in every thing evil, was, of course, a prominent leader upon this occa- sion ; and, through the influence which he could use as a member of the Senate, he con- trived to draw into the plot a great number of senators, knights, and notable men, who, from different motives, were willing to join him. Among these were Lentulus, an unprincipled man, who had been consul with Marius ; and Cethegus, formerly a Tribune of the People, whom he governed at his own pleasure. So, also, in this great conspiracy, were many wo- men of the best families in Rome, as, for in- stance, Sempronia, so remarkable for her high birth, lively wit, undaunted courage, and in- comparable beauty. Indeed, as to numbers, it was sufficient for almost any purpose ;'for in it were engaged all those Roman youth who had ruined themselves by their licentious courses, all those who aspired to posts in the govern- ment, and all those who desired to be revenged ' upon their too powerful enemies. To these, Catiline made the most extravagant promises, 272 EEPUBLIC OF EOME. Discoveries made by Cicero. on condition that they would elevate him to supreme power. A conspiracy, in which so many were en- gaged, could not imain secret for a great length of time. Sooner or later, some one must prove a traitor ; and, fortunately for the Roman people, it engaged the attention of such a man as Cicero. In a short time the whole city talked about it ; but nothing definite was known, except that Catiline was at the head of a large party, who were aiming at some great revolution in the government. Many supposed that it was only the overthrow of Cicero, who had been preferred to him for the consulship. But Cicero was better informed. From the moment that he discovered that there was a secret combination in the city, he made every effort to discover those who were engaged in it, and what were their designs. He ascertained their places of meeting, and finally succeeded in introducing spies among them, who reported faithfully to him all their proceedings. To his surprise and sorrow, he learned that it was the intention of the desperate men to set fire to the city in several places, and, during the confusion that would necessarily follow, to murder the chief men of the Senate in their very houses. It was also a part of their plan to cause the CIVIL WARS. 273 Plans of the Conspirators. troops then under the command of Manlius to advance, in order to make themselves masters of Rome and of the government. "While all this was going on, news was unex- pectedly brought that Pompey, having subdued Mithridates, was returning to Italy with a vic- torious army. This was sufficient to throw Cat- iline and all his party into the utmost conster- nation. They were speedily called together at night, in a private part of M. Lecca's house. Various plans were suggested for carrying their purposes into immediate execution ; and finally it was resolved, on the night preceding the Sat- urnalia, to set fire to the city in a hundred dif- ferent places ; to cut the water-pipes, in order to prevent the extinguishment of the fire ; to murder the whole Senate, and to seize Pom- pey's children, and hold them as hostages against his power and resentment. Thereupon Catiline was to place himself* at the head of the forces of Manlius, and settle his authority in the State. Cethegus, and a Roman knight named Cornelius, volunteered to go and stab Cicero in his own house. The correctness of this report being sufficient- ly established, on the following morning, by the appearance of Cethegus at Cicero's door, this prudent consul, at once, convened the Senate, 13 274 EEPTJBLIC OF KOME. Means taken to defend the City. to whom he communicated the whole plot, sta- ting that he did not yet think it a proper time to name the persons by whom he had been in- formed. So great, however, was the confidence reposed in his probity, that without asking him to prove his allegations, he and his colleague were fully empowered to use all means neces- sary to protect the commonwealth. Without delay, and as quietly as possible, the greatest preparations were made to defend thi' city. Guards were stationed in different parts to thwart the purposes of the incendiaries Bodies of troops were raised and placed con- veniently for action, and every thing was done which the occa-ion seemed to require. Mean- while, a packet of letters, directed by some of the conspirators to different individuals, falling into the hands of Crassus, was brought by him into the Senate and there opened and read. They contained the whole plan of the conspira- cy ; and the persons for whom they were in- tended, were warned, if they valued their lives, to depart at once from Rome. These letters produced a great sensation in the Senate ; and while they were deliberating upon them, Catiline walked in and took his seat, with an air as innocent as that worn by the most upright man among them. But this CIVIL WARS. 275 Cicero accuses Catiline before the Senate. more than Cicero could endure. Rising from the seat in which he was presiding over tli at august assembly, he fixed his eyes upon the guilty Catiline, and with that voice by wlii eh he was accustomed to astonish all who heard him, he exclaimed : " How long, O Catiline, dost thou design to abuse our patience ? How long are we yet to be the object of thy fury? How far dost thou intend to carry thy guilty audaciousness ? Dost thou not perceive, by the continual watch all over the city, by the terrified looks of the peo- ple, and by the angry countenance of the sen- ators, that thy pernicious designs are discov- ered? Faith t'ul eyes are upon all thy proceed- ings ; thou canst not hold any council so secret, but that I hear of it : I am present there my- self; I am present to thy very thoughts. Dost thou fancy that I am ignorant of what passed, last night, at M. Lecca's house? Didst thou not there distribute employments, and divide all Italy into shares with thy accomplices? Some are to take the field under the command of JVIanlius, and others to stay in the city, to fire it in a hundred different places at a time. During the disorder and tumult occasioned by so general a fire, the consuls, and most of the senators, are to be massacred in their own 276 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Catihce attempts to answer Cicero. houses. The Senate, that august and sacred assembly, is informed of the most minute cir- cumstances of the plot ; yet does Catiline live ; not only lives, but is one among us, and looks on us as so many sacrifices. While I am now speaking, he is marking out those whom he de- signs for death ; yet we are so patient, or rather so weak, that we are less intent on the method how to punish his crimes, than how we shall preserve ourselves from his fury." .Catiline, rising with a sneer upon his face, begged the Senate that they would not listen to the invectives of this enemy and low-born upstart, who, for the sake of getting for himself a name, could thus injure a high-born senator, by such unmitigated lies. But he was not al- lowed much time to speak. His guilt was al- ready too apparent to be denied, and he was forced to stop in his harangue by a general murmuring, which finally broke out in loud and repeated accusations against him as an in- cendiary, a parricide, and an enemy of his country. His face pale with anger, and his eyes flashing with rage, he rushed from the senate-chamber, crying out, that, since they had provoked him to the utmost, he would not fall alone, but would involve in his own fate those who had sought his ruin. CIVIL WARS. 277 Catiline 'eaves Rome- The Allobroges. Calling together Lentulus, Cethegus, and some of the other conspirators, he informed them of what had happened, and, urging them to lose no time in putting Cicero to death, he put himself at the head of three hundred armed men, and went directly to the camp of Manlius. Lentulus and the other chiefs set to work, in the mean time, t< draw into their plot the am- bassadors of the Allobroges who were then in Rome, making vain efforts to procure the dis- charge of their nation from the enormous taxes which they owed to the Roman State. The conspirators told these ambassadors that if they would join Catiline, every surety would be giv- en them of a general discharge of their debts. The ambassadors listened with attention to these proposals, but concluded, upon consulting together, that they would gain more in the end by making a revelation of this scheme to the Senate. Going therefore to Cicero, they ob- tained all the promises that they could desire, and then returning to the conspirators, pretend- ed to accept their offers, and received a written agreement from them signed by Lentulus and the principal chiefs of Catiline. With this, re- tracing their steps to Cicero, they informed him that on the following night they should proceed, under an escort, to the camp of Cati- 278 KEPUBLIC OF ROME. Conspirators betrayed by the Allubroges. line, with letters to him containing the plan of the conspiracy. Acting upon this information, Cicero sent a sufficient number of armed men to intercept these Allobroges; and, having seized the papers in their possession, he was furnished with all the evidence necessary for causing the immediate arrest of Lentulus, Ce- thegus, and other prominent coadjutors of Cat- iline. The Senate was at once convened ; and the conspirators, being convicted by their own hand- writing, were severally earned to separate pris- ons. In order to prevent the pnssibility <>f their escape, Cicero determined that the Sen- ate should decide, at once, concerning them. Each senator being accordingly asked to give his opinion, the conspirators were condemned to death by the consent of all except Julius Caesar, who made a long speech in favor of sparing their lives until Catiline should be van- quished. Sentence of death was pronounced upon them, and without waiting for its confir- mation by an assembly of the people, Cicero caused them to be executed within an hour af- terwards. The news of their death fell like a thunder- bolt, scattering the multitude of their accom- plices still in the city; and when it reached CIVIL WARS. 279 The Destruction of th Conspirators. the camp of Catiline, many persons who had been attracted to his standard by the hope of plunder, fled in the utmost terror. But, in no- wise daunted, the bold conspirator made new levies of troops, and only seemed more eager to drink the blood of his countrymen. Defeated in the plan which he had formed for taking possession of Rome, he determined to pass over into Gaul. But in this he was al><> disappointed. A powerful army was sent out to cut off his retreat ; and, finding himself >< n surrounded by his foes, he was compelled to come to battle. The fight was long and ol>ti- nate. The soldiers of Catiline knew that they must either conquer or die, and accordingly they neither gave nor asked quarter. As an inevitable consequence, they were all slain upon the field ; and Catiline himself was killed as he stood fighting upon a heap of his fallen enemies. When it was known from how dangerous a plot the city had been saved through the un- wearied efforts of Cicero, nothing could exceed the praise bestowed upon him by all the citi- zens. His house was surrounded by people who came to do him honor. Even the women put lights in their windows in token of their gratitude. Almost ready to worship him, every 280 REPUBLIC OF ROMK. Honor paid to Cicero. one declared that he was the second loumU-r of Rome and the father of his country. And, without doubt, he merited the character given to him by the Emperor Augustus, in tln-st-, words : " He was a good citizen, whu hived his country -incerely." JULIUS C^SAR. FROM 62 TO 85 B. a POMPKT and Cesar Cunning of Csar His Ill-treatment of Cicero His Conquests His Love of MOM. v l-al" l'<.iii|x-y I'oni|M-y made ('on-ul Cfiesar demands th- < >tli' ;ni(l fail.- !! threatens Rome, and is <l<-.-lar--<l \\\,- Kn- -niy oltlu- ('miijoii\v-alth H<- inarches against tlu- Defeats Pomj-t-y I- nia-l-- Consul and Dictatcr I "i assume the Title of King t't.n-j ira-'v formed against him His Assassination Its Consequences Marc Anton\ h;u'> Will Antony's Oration Octavius returns to Rom. Antony's Jealousy <>rtaviu-' MK-C-. 11.- i> ina-1.- Cmi-ul j.irntois pro-ci il.od Octaviu- an-1 Antony : cil t .,l Tin- Triumviri The Battle of Philip].! Tin lin.l of the Commonwealth. ASSASSINATION OF JULIUS CJffiAB. XL JULIUS C.ESAR. D the mere name of a Repuhlic, the >f U.me had hy this time little enough t<> hoast. Tlie whole a<lmini>trati"ii iiolde families, who passed ilar dignity about to one another as they pleased. The sovereignty of tlie people almost gone; and, except in a very f'-w ;ike Cato, Cicero, and Catullus, tlu-iv \\;i> little honesty or patriotism to le i'"ii!id in any one. Two remarkable men were at this time divi- ding the attentitni of the whole Roman people. OIK- of them was Ciieu- Pompey, an illustrious general, who had won laurels in every part of the known world, and who, in consideration of his splendid achievements, had received the surname of Magnus (Great). He was a man of untainted morals, kind, mild, and humane ; 286 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Pompey and Csosar. and, if he was not possessed of true patriotism, he had not any of that ambition which may lead one to become a destroyer of freedom. That any one should pretend to an equal share of the glory which he had acquired was highly offensive to him ; and this was, doubtless, the cause of the enmity which sprang up between him and Julius Caesar, a general of undoubted valor, exalted courage, and wonderful ability. It could not be otherwise than that two parties should spring up in the commonwealth, led respectively by these two illustrious rivals. Pompey, who was at the head of the Senate, div\v alter him, naturally, those who sympa- thi/ed witli the nobility of Rome; and Ciesir, who could be first in no other position, under- took to revive the party of Marius, which was n-ally that of the plebeians. Having been publicly impeached for causing the statue of Marius to be secretly placed in the capitol, he defended himself with so much eloquence, that he not only secured his own absolution, but also procured the recall of those who had been banished during the dictatorship of Sylla. Pompey did not, however, share the undivi- ded favor of the Senate. In the wealthy and ambitious Crassus, he had an enemy and a ri- val in the government, dreaded, at first, even JULIUS CJESAR. 287 C'linniiij; of Otesar Hi* increasing Power. more than Caesar ; so that while he had to con- tend against the growing popularity of the lat- ter, he was also obliged to guard against being supplanted by the former. But Caesar, a man of far more shrewdness than either, knew that his success depended upon diverting their at- tention from him, and causing as much mutual dread as possible between them. So well did he succeed in this, that lie obtained, through their united influence, the consulate; but he had no sooner arrived to this dignity, than he managed, by a master-piece of cunning, to cre- ate an enmity between Pompey and the Sen- ate, and between the Senate and the people. This he contrived to do by undertaking to re- vive the Agrarian law, which Pompey and Crassus consented to advocate, and w r hich their respective friends in the Senate could not fail to oppose. The passage of the law was pro- cured ; but Caesar alone gained the applauses of the people for whose benefit it was made. Thus Pompey, distrusted and cast out by his patrician friends, became, in a measure, de- pendent upon his rival Caesar, who, knowing too well the importance of keeping.him quiet, obtained for him the government of both Spains, while he gave that of Syria to Crassus, and at the same time secured for himself the govern- 288 REPUBLIC OF ROME. His Ill-treatment of Cicero. ment of Illyricum and Gaul for the space of five years. So powerful, indeed, did he be- come, that he was able to use force towards his enemies and all those who dared to oppose him. Cato, at his command, was put under arrest ; and Bibulus, his colleague in the con- Hiilship, was driven out of the Forum by the people ; his fasces were broken, his lictors beat- en, and he himself forced to lie a knur time concealed in order to save his life. The great Lucullus, who had so gloriously conqueivd the powerful Mithridate, was compelled to fall at Caesar's feet in a full assembly, and then to re- tire from public- Imsine-s. Nor did ( even hesitate to unite himself with the infa- mous Clodius in order to ruin the great and good Cicero, whom, for a frivolous reason, he caused to be impeached before an assembly of the people ; and when this excellent man found himself abandoned by all his former friends, now the creatures of Caesar, he quitted Rmne by night, and retired into Greece. His houses, both in the city and country, were immediate- ly razed to the ground, and his goods sold at auction by the common officers of the law. Caesar, on going to take possession of the government of Gallia Cisalpina, which, at the close of his consulship, he chose for himself, JULIUS C^SAR. 289 His Conquests. set out at the head <>f an immeii-o army, with the intention ot' conquering the whole country, in hopes that he should thus he furni.-hod with great tivasuros. The vast number of battles which lie fought during this absence of ten - In. in Hume, and the splendid vietories which lie achieved, raised him to the highest rank among the captains of the Roman people. r j'he Helvetians, after the most ubstinaio li-ht- W&K driven by him into their iimnntains; the Belgians were subjected to his authority. In -hurt, he conquered all Gaul, and then, C ing the >oa, set uj) his standard in Great JJrit- ain. Kight hundred cities are said to have yielded either to the force, or terror, of his linn*. Three hundred different nations sub- mitted to his laws; and of three million^ of men whom he defeated in battle, one million slain and another million taken prisoners. But with so many brilliant achievements, he was guilty of a thousand disgraceful acts. His immoderate ambition and insatiable de>ire of acquiring riches, cau>ed him to set a price upon every thing which could bring him mon- ey. Places, governments, wars, alliances, all had their value in gold ; and the very temples of the gods, and the lands of the Roman allies, were compelled to pour their treasures at his 19 290 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Hto Love of Money He acquires Frienda. feet. But the splendor of his victories, and the gratitude and l"ve <>f his well-paid countrymen, united to give to his rohheries the name of great political actions; and tin !iem- ielree were thanked in solemn tun n for the sacrileges which lie had successfully cdiin.' against them. It is not strange that Cavar should love money, for. certainly. n man better under- stood its value. "With it. lie, no douht, pur- cha-ed a gVBttl deal <!' that stmn^ aitachinent which his sldi t -rs tr-titii-d ii.r him, and to which he was chietly indchu-d fur ]\\< aztra^ di nary success. Their 1'm-tiines depended nj...n his own, ami he ,:lcd tu reward them :-uii-ly frum the trea-ures whirh they ena- hlcd him to accumulate. AVith an iipun tlu- future, he assigned lands and posees- - tu thu>e who served him with m..t lidel- lle paid the dehts uf \n< j.rincipal offl and can-cd all tu I'e-anl him as an ho- ard, intrusted with riches ever at their com- mand, while faithful and valorous in the charge uf their duties. I Jut his soldiers and otliceis were not the sole recipients uf his boundless wealth. The Senate it- CD his pay. and the chief offices in the commonwealth were the purchased possessions of his creatures. ,1 r LI rs C.ESAR. 291 Jealonsy of Pompey Pompey made Consul The growing influence of Ccesar could nut fail t attract tin- attention of \\\< rival Pompey, who blushed at the thought that he had been outdone by a man to whom he had ever MIJ- posed him-elf Miperior. Crassus, who had al- held the balance of power in his own hands, was no longer living ; and now it was nt that a struggle for supremacy nm-t soon ensue between these two leaders of the Roman people. Though still at the head of his government in Gaul, Caesar was able to carry on his operations in the centre uf Rome. candidates for office came openly with money in their hands to purchase, but M beaten back by force and vi<>! So dreadful were these disputes, on some oc- ;is, that no elections could be held, and U"ine was actually, at one time, during < months, deprived <t' magistrates. Pompey, doubtless, did his share in causing this c in fu- sion; and his friends took the opportunity to declare that such a state of things demanded the immediate creation of a Dictator, and, at the same time, shrewdly named him for the office. The wi>e and good Cato, fearing for the safety of the Republic, declaimed loudly against such a course, and, at his suggestion, Pompey was simply clothed with the power of REPUBLIC OF ROME. Ctesar demands the Office His Failure. sole consul, amenable to the people for all his actions on the expiration of his ollice. lakinir advantage of a precedent thus established, demanded, in his turn, to he made sole consul, and likewise the continual i'-n of his governments ahroad. But his proposition \vu- opposed by the adherents of I^mpey, on the Around that custom required a candidate for the consulship to be present, in person, at JJume during the time of an flection. The oflice wa- con-eijiieiitly conferred on Marcellus and Lentuln-, t\vo of the most prominent of I'ompevV frit-lids. Pompey himself made no oj.cn upp.,>i;inn to Cflesar; but, as he bewail to feel >oi IK- dread of the fortune and valor of this rival commander, hi- tried, in a secret manner, to deprive him of hi- ir.vernmrnt of (iaul. were coiic-erti-d with the Sena' some one as his successor, and i ]>"s-ihle was doiu' to brin^ it about. In tlu mean, time, Ca-ar. nut iirnd'ant of what wa> r'inir on at home, wrote several time- to the Senate, ivcpiirin.ir that they -hould either continue him in his government, or allow him to be a candidate lor the cunsulate, nut- hi> absence from IJome. But his ^iicceediuir in uppo>inj his demands, he ]>a>>ed the Alps at the head of one of his JULIUS C.ESAR. 293 He threatens Rome Is declared an Enemy. trust v legions, and halted at Ravenna. From this place he sent to the Senate one of his lieu- tenants, intrusted with letters, in which, rela- :n a lofty man ner all his exploits, he de- clared that, if justict <t done him, he would, in a t- r Rome, for the pur- ging his private injuries, as well as those suffered by his country. This threat roused the whole Senate against him: and. appointing Lucius I)..mitius hi- : in (iaul, they pa-ed a decree that he should le prosecuted as an enemy of the com- monw.-altli. Mark Antony, Curio, and Cas- hy virtue of their office as Tribunes, op- i earnestly this decree; but being driven forcibly out of the Senate, they went in all ha- .. to the camp of Caesar. Thus, again, the commonwealth was divided against itr-elf, through the ambition of two men, who sought to subserve their own private in- y pretending to take up arms in de- fence of the laws and liberty. It is true that Pompey had upon his side a greater appear- ance of justice, and that he was commissioned by the authorities of Rome to oppose Caesar in their behalf; but Caesar had upon his side the affections of the people, and 'he was, moreover, most powerful and most secure. It was, how- 294: REPUBLIC OF ROME. Ce.ar marches against Rome. ever, with great reluctance that he resolved to march against his fallow-countrymen ; and when lie reached the river Rubicon, which di- vided his own government from the rest of Italy, he hesitated for >ome time, in view of the ruin which must certainly fall upon Rome if he passed over the little stream. "If I defer any longer the en -ing of this river," said he to those about him. u l am undone; and if I do cross it, how many people shall I make \vivti-hed !" Hut it being, after all, more diffi- cult for him to endure his own injuries unre- al than to see his country all in devia- tion, he plunged into the river at the head of troopt, and ending it, exclaimed "It is done : the die La c "With the rapidity which always character- ized the movements of this wonderful soldier, he marched directly to Rimini, and made himself master of the place. The news of this achievement fell like a thunderbolt upon Home. Already they fancied that, his victo- rious legion- were at their very gates; and J'ompey, the two consuls, and a large number of senators, finding themselves entirely without troops, lied in terror from the city, leaving their wives and children to the mercy of their enemy. Onward came the victorious general. ,1 r i.rrs r J-:SAR. 295 His Pursuit of Pompey. The gates of the defenceless city opened to receive him, and its immense treasures were seized, and divided among his faithful follow- ers. Then began his terrible pursuit of Pom- pey, whom he seemed determined t> limit, with all his adherents, from every lurking-place upon the earth. Jle chased him from one part of Italy to another: subjected, within t\vo months, rvrrv inch of its territory to his authority; then following his rival into (treeee. finally met him, surrounded by an immense army on the plains of I'haisalia, where, tailing upon his troops with a terrible slaughter, and even sacking his camp, he c impelled him to fly for his life, on foot, and in a pitiful di>gui-e. And at night, the great Fompey, who, for thirty-four years, had been u>ed to conquer and carry all before him, was obliged to sleep in the miserable cabin of a fi-herman. AVandering from one place to another, he was finally induced to proceed to Egypt, where he was promised a favorable reception from the young Ptolemy, whose father had received benefits at his hands. But the base ministers of this youthful king, hearing of his approach, determined to sei/.e and put him to death. On his arrival, a boat was sent from the shore to bring him from the vessel. Embracing his 296 EEPUBLIC OF KOME. Death of Pompey Csesar Consul. wife and son, who had accompanied him, he stepped into it, though not without some fear of treachery; and, before reaching the land, he was shamefully murdered, and his headless body was left naked upon the beach. The death of Pompey completed the fall of all his party, and ( ';i-sar thus became the mas- ter of the world. On his return to Rome, he was appointed, by a decree of the Senate, con- sul for ten years, and perpetual Dictator. The name of /////" r>it<>i- was given to him, together with the august title of F<i.tlu-r nf Ins Country' and his person was declared sacred and invio- lable. Kvery honor and dignity, in fact, were heaped upon him, so that nothing but the title \\as wanting to make him a king. This he would have unhesitatingly assumed, had he not kniiwn the hatred in which the Romans held the name. 15ut his assumption <>f this title was precisely what his secret enemies desired; and the senators who had conferred s many honors on him, sought thereby only to render him odious, in order that they might the sooner bring about his ruin. He was even urged to place upon his head the crown; and when he was preparing himself to set out upon an expe- dition against the Parthians, the books of the Sibyls were produced to prove to him and to JULIUS C^SAR. 297 Ctesar arged to take the Crown. the people that the Parthians could never be vanquished, unless the Romans had a king for their general. So zealous were the friends and flatterers of .r in the prosecution of this matter, that a day was lixed upon on which it should be set- tled by a decree of the Senate; and it was pro- posed that in Rome, and throughout all Italy, he should be styled Dictator, but that he slum Id be Acknowledged a king, and take upon him- self that title, in respect of all foreign nations subject to the Kmau empire. L-'i-Min this moment it was agreed, in private calals, that the liberty of Rome could be pre- served only by the death of the Dictator. Marcus Junius Brutus, whom Csesar loved as his own son, and whom he held in the tender- est friendship, was at the head of this conspir- acy. With him were Cassius, a zealous repub- lican, and ( 1 a<ca, and IIHUV than ,-ixty senators. The day upon which the Senate was to meet for the purpose of giving Caesar the title of king, was the ides of March, and upon this day the conspirators determined to carry their plot into execution. A soothsayer had warned Caesar to beware the ides of March ; and his wife, disturbed by a frightful dream, besought him with tears not to go to the Senate-house. 298 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Death of Caesar. To please her, he called his friend Mark An- tony, and told him to dismiss the Senate; but Decimus Brutus, one of the conspirators, suc- ceeded in overcoming his apprehensions, and he proceeded to the capitol. On hi.s way thither, a note was placed in his hands, giving him an account of the conspiracy ; but being crowded on every side, he put it by without reading it. Srarcvly had lie entered the capitol, when all the conspirators came ar<>uml him, as if to (I him honor. According to an agreement among tlii'm, Attilius C'imber, one of their number, i'ell down at his feet to demand the pardon of hi- In-other, who was banished. 1 .r refusing it. the conspirator laid hold of the bottom of hi< mho, and pulled it so hard as to make him bow his head. Ca>ea then drew his dagger, and pierced the Dictator in the ursed Ca>ca, what doest thou?" he exclaimed, as he seized the assassin and dashed him to the ground. u Die, tyrant!" shouted all the conspirators, now rushing upon him from every side. With all the power which he possessed, he at once defended him- self against his numerous foes, until perceiving among them his beloved j'rutus, he exclaimed u And thou, too, my son!" and then, cover- JULlt'S CjiSAR. 299 Its Consequences. ing his face with his mantle, fell, pierced with twenty-three wounds, at the foot of Pompey's statue. The bloody work was no sooner ended, than the conspirators rushed into the Senate-cham- ber, and exhorted the senators to give their approval to an act thai had restored liberty to their country. But the senators, confounded by the dreadful tragedy, fled to their hou-r-. not knowing what they had to hope or fear. Then, still holding their bloody dagger- their hands, the conspirators flew into the ud ]> roe 1 aimed that they had killed the king of Rome, and the tyrant of their coun- try. They placed before them a herald, who, on the point of a javelin, carried a hat ;i> a signal of liberty; and thus marching along, ex- horted the people to lend their aid in restoring the commonwealth. But the people not ap- ing by their conduct to favor what had been done, they retired to the capitol, grieved that the death of a usurper was about to bring fresh calamities upon the commonwealth. Antony, whom Caesar had made consul, hid himself when he first heard of his protector's fate ; but on learning the disposition of the people, he resolved to revenge his death ; and causing Caesar's papers and money to be car- 300 KEPUBLIC OF KOME. Mark Antony Caoear's Will. ried to his own house, he summoned the Sen- ate, in order that they might determine wheth- er Caesar had been a usurper or a lawful ma- gistrate, and whether those that killed him de- served to be rewarded or punished. After a great deal of discussion, conducted with abundance of caution, it was finally agreed that n<> one should be prosecuted for Cesar's death, and that all the ordinances which he had made should continue in full force. An- tony \va> indignant at this decision of the Senate, but, dissembling his feelings, he de- termined that the conspirators should not go unpunished, lie 'had ( 'av-ar's will in his pos- <>n; and lie knew full well, that when it should be read in the hearing >f the people, they would rise in anger against his murderers. Alter a great deal of difficulty, he obtained the permi>sion of the Senate to read it at Ca> sai-V funeral, at which a vast concourse of the citizens were present. Kvery one listened in- tently to the words of the great man, who had so endeared himself to them by his muni li- cence when alive ; and on finding that he had not forgotten to leave them something at his death, they were filled with gratitude and moved to tears. To every citizen he gave the sum of seventy-five Attic drachmas, and, more- JULIUS C^SAR. 301 Antony's Funeral Oration Terror of the Conspirators. over, left his magnificent gardens to the people. Kvi-n to some of the principal conspirators he had bequeathed the most splendid presents, and had appointed them guardians to his nephew Octavius, whom he adopted as his son and heir. But it was during the delivery of his funeral oration, that Antony aroused their feelings most. When he gave them a narrative of Cse- sar's victories, and enumerated his many vir- tues, they made the Forum ring with their hearty plaudits. But when he pointed to his corpse, and told them how he died, they ;ied, and groaned, and muttered their re- sentment. And then, when he held up Csesar's bloody robe, and showed them the many rents made in it by the daggers of his foes, their rage overleaped all bounds. They screamed for vengeance, and some of them, flying to the houses of the conspirators, swore that they would, with fire and sword, sacrifice them to Csesar's ghost. In danger of losing their lives, the conspirators left the city as quietly and speedily as possible. By insensible degrees, Antony advanced to- wards the sovereign power ; and the authority of the government seemed to be wholly in his hands, when young Octavius, Caesar's grand- 302 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Octavius returns to Home Antony's Jealousy. nephew, arrived in Rome to take possession of his inheritance. This young man had been sent by his uncle to Apollonia, a city on the coast of Epirus, to complete his studies ; and, at the time of Csesar's death, he was scarcely eighteen years of age. The sad event afflicted him sorely, and he resolved to revenge it, and to maintain the honor of his adoption at the peril uf his life. Arriving at Drundusium, the usual place of entrance and departure for trav- ellers to and from Greece and Asia, he as- sumed the name of Caesar, was introduced with much formality into the town, and made the master of it. Marching boldly to Rome, he joined by large numbers of his ad< father's friend-, frerdmr!i. and even >!, Money and every thing was poured in upon him ; and, when he came near the city, the magistrates, officers of the army, and people thronged the gates to meet him. Every one came out to do him honor, except the ambi- tious Antony, Avho would not so much as send the least of his servants to compliment him in his name. After young Octavius had caused his adop- tion to be confirmed in the most solemn man- ner, he went to Antony, beirired hi- friendship, and demanded the inheritance left to him by JULIUS CJESAR. 303 Octavius in Favor. \ the legacies mentioned in his will. Antony, at fiivi. d to ac- kn-'wledge his claims, but afterwards changed mcanor, when he found the influence of iu- continually increasing, and his own nably diminishing. For this ine: influence, Octavin- was in a great measure indebted t< the large sacriiice which he made of his personal property, in order to pay his uncle's legacies to the people, who unanii: clared in his favor, and against Antony. The murder < 'iesar, supported by the >y hirgr arn lie-, were much in the way of the ambitious Antony; and he wuld have gladly united with the great man's nephew in destroying them, had he not feared that Octaviu- w..uld grasp at the reign power. This power being the only mark at which he himself aimed, Octavius be- came to him no less odious than Brutus or Cassius. But the Senate hating them both, feared the haughty Antony more than the mod- est Octavius; and for the sake of crushing the former they were willing to flatter and honor the latter. A seat was given to him in the Senate; and he was induced to join his forces with the consuls llirtius and Pansa against Antony, who had refused to comply with a do- 304 REPUBLIC OF ROMK. TLe Senate opposes Antony. cree which required him to remove his annv from Gallia (Jisalpina, where he was fighting with Decimus Bn By tliis movement of the Senate, Antony was nearly ruined ; hut he managed to escape from the legions of Pansa and (Jclavius, and passed the Alps, in order to join his old friend Lepidns, who waa still in daid. and with the hope that lie might also secure the aid of Plau- CMS and Asinius J'ollio, former geiu-rals of Cae- sar, who were, all in eoniinand of numerous ar- Lepidus n-i'used at iiist to join him, un- der pretence that he feared to otl'eiid the IN-II- ate; but Antony, marching >traight nj) to his army, contriveil ly means of hiihes and prom- ises to roh him of his command; and after- ward- M-cmvd al>o the other armies. In the mean time the coii-;;l 1'ansa, being at the point of death, sent for Octavins, and, earnestly entreating him to agree with Antony, ] -laced under his authority t\vo legions, which had formerly been in his command. The-e le- gions the Senate ordered him to disband, un- der pretence that the Republic had no further occa-ion for them. But Octavius, in order that he might have the privilege of keeping them on foot, offered him>elf a< a candidate for the consulship. Finding, however, that the Senate ,J r i.i rs (\KSAK. 305 Octavius consul The Conspirators proscribed. were determined to prevent his election, he inarched his forces towards Rome, when the terrified senators not only chose him consul, but caused Quintus JVdius, one of his relatives, to be made his col league. Immediately upon taking possession of the consulate, he caused the impeachment of every one who had been engaged in the murder of Caesar, and condemned all the conspirators to lose their lives for not presenting themselves for trial. But Brutus and Cassius, their el. beinir at the head of twenty legions, he con- cluded that it would be impossible to destroy them as long as Antony continued to oppose him. Resolving, therefore, to become recon- ciled with him, he induced his colleague to propose to the Senate to recall Antony, on the ground that it would be to the advantage of the commonwealth. To this many of the sena- tors were not at all inclined, but they were forced to yield; and the decrees against him being repealed, Octavius sent to him a propo- sition, that they should unite their forces, and march against Brutus and Cassius. Antony beginning to despair of making himself sole master of the sovereign power, determined to share it with Octavius; and, in accordance with an arrangement made by their mutual friends, 20 306 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Octavius ami Antony reconciled The Triumviri. they met, in company with Lepidus, alone, in a little desert island formed by the river Panaro, near Modena. They first embraced ; and then all three sat down, with no one to overhear the agreement made between them concerning the disposition of the government of Rome. This conference lasted three days, but the details of it are not known to any one. It is said, however, that they debated what form of government they should settle in the common- wealth, and in what way they should share the - ; p<>wer. Caesar agreed to abdi- cate the consulate for the rest of that year, and invest Yentidius, mio of Antony's lieutenants, therewith; and Ga?sar, Lepidus, and Antony, by the title of Triumviri, were to possess the sovereign power f.r live years. After this, they divided the provinces, the legions, and the treasures of the commonwealth between them, as if all the-e had been their patrimony. I'm as a irieat deal of money was oeceflUiy for them to carry out their plans, they resolved to make themselves easy on this score by the pro- scription of the wealthie.-t and most powerful citizens of Rome. A list of them was drawn up, among whom were Paul us, the brother of Lepidus, and Lucius Ca?sar, the uncle of Anto- ny, and Cicero, the tried friend of young Oc- JULIUS CJSSAR. 307 The end of the Commonwealth. tavius. Tliree hundred senators, and more than two thousand knights, were involved in this horrible proscription. Then began the war with the commonwealth, which now had n<> existence save in the camp of the conspirators. Caesar and Antony went together with their legions into Macedonia, where Brutus and Cassius were endeavoring t> keep alive the last spark of Roman liberty. The hostile armies met near the town of Phi- lippi. For a while nothing but skirmishes took place, in which the conspirators were always m-t Miccesst'ul. But the day iinally arrived whereon the fortune and destiny of the com- monwealth were decided. It was a furious battle. The plains of Philippi were deluged with blood, and on them were buried the re- mains of liberty, with the bodies of Brutus, of and of the chiefs of the conspirators, and the last of the genuine Eomans. From this gory field sprang forth the Empire. Upon it, all the friends of the Republic lay, and Octa- vius felt that he could now reign alone. The ruin of his colleague, Lepidus, was easily ac- complished ; and then a quarrel, and finally a fight near Actium, left Octavius the master of the world. For a long time this successful man, though 308 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Honor paid to Octivius. indifferent soldier, hesitated whether he should assume the title of king, or reign under some other name. Finally he resolved to retain the sovereign power, and to cause himself to be styled AUGUSTUS Imperator, a title sometimes given to victorious generals, and to which no odium \vas yet attached. In the mean time he still allowed in Rome the offices of consul, praetor, sedile, and other republican magistrates, l)ii t made them all subservient to his private i-iidv and interests. During his reign, peace and pli-nty flourished anew, and the tempK- t .Janus was closed for the third time since the t'oin nlation of Rome. He adorned the city in such a manner that it was truly said, that " he found it of brick, and left it of marble.'' The ie erected altars to him, and, by a decree of the Senate, the month Sextiles was, in honor of him. called A-uyunt. But all that further re- lates to him and to his successors, will be found in the volume entitled Tin: KMI-IKE OF KOMI-:. PART II, QUESTIONS. I. THE WAR WITH PORSENNA. Page 15. Who, at the commencement of the Republic, were elected Consuls ? Who was king? What caused the expulsion of Tnrquinins from Rome? At what place was the army encamped ? Who was leader in this revolution ? 10. What good effects were the result of this change? T "h;it place did T;ir<iuinius withdraw? In what manner did IK- here employ himself? Relate the manner in which the sons of Brutus were sacrificed. What of Goliath. 17. Who was appointed Consul in his stead? Why was the loss of Brutus so grievous ? What effect had it upon the people? Why did they suspect Publius? What place had l>e chosen for his residence? Why was it offen.- the Unmans? 18. What was the course pursued by Publius ? Why did he lower the fasces? Give some account of his speed) ' I'.'. To what place did he propose to remove his duelling ? 20. What ciVr- t had this upon the populace? Hov. his promises fulfil led .' What name was bestowed on him ? Who was , ] ted Consul in place of Brutus, and what fol- lowed ? Who filled his place ? 21. (live an account of an incident that showed the self- -ion of Horatius. 22. In what state were the affairs at Rome during these changes ? What actuated the Patricians to show kindness to the poorer classes .' How was Tarquinius employed ? 23. Who was Porsenna, and why did he engage with Tar- 310 REPUBLIC OF ROME. quinius ? What preparations did he make for war ? How did they affect the Romans ? 24. Describe the effect of this panic on Rome. What was done by the enemy ? 25. What by the Senate ? What by Valerius ? 26. What was the conduct of Valerius at the bridge? Describe the heroic act of Horatius Codes. 27. The attack of the troops. The fall of the bridge. 28. Effect of the intrepidity of Cocles on the spectators. 29. How was Porsennu affected .' l.k-seribe the end of this adventure. How was Codes rewarded? 30. Did this heroic action end the war ? How did Por- senna procvrd a.^ain.-t the city of Rome? What is said of the suffering of the dti/.ens ? 31. What ivMilution was formed by three hundred young men? What did Mucius do .' Win-re did he protvt-d .' 32. Give an account of his conduct in the king's tent and speech to the king. 33. How did he K-havo at the burning pile? How did this ronduet all'ert iW.-rnjia ' '.\. In \\liii; i.ianin.-r did Mucius disclose the plot of the 300 ? Why did 1'orsenna re.sulve on peace ? 35. On what terms was peace concluded ? What was done by Clu-lia ? What the demand of Porsenna? 36. How did this affair md ? How \\viv Mudus and Cloe- Jia rewarded t Why was Mucius ealk-d Sc;-vola? 37. In what other expedition did i'orsnma m-age ? How did this cement the. friendship between him and the Ro- mans? II. TUP] AVAR AVITH THE LATINS. Page 41. Who, at this time, were the Roman Consuls ? What enemies annoyed Rome? \'l. Did all the Sabines engage in these aggressions? What was done by Attus Clausus ? How many accompanied him to Rome ? How were they rewarded? QUESTIONS. 311 undertaken by Octavius Mamilius ? How were the Romans aflfected by the news? What domestic troubles had th> 44. What oppressions had the Plebeians to endure ? How many I^atiii cities prepared to marcli against Rome? -1 "). What seemed inevitable ? Why did the Romans rind it difficult to raise troops? What did the people require of' theSenat.-? W- : 46. What arguments were used by Marcus Valerius for abolishing the debts of the Plebeians? 47. Who ruse in the opposition, and how? 48. What effect had the speech of Claudius ? What ren- dered the situation of the Senate embarrassing ? What did they determine upon ? 4'.'. What How ivivived by the peo- ple? What powers were to be intru-t.-d to tins ruler ? 50. What name given to him? How was the power of this magistrate n-tii.-t.-d ' What abilities were required ? ol. Who were th.- two Consul.-, and what their charac- proposed by the Senate ? What noble con- test originated in this proposal? ;>'2. In what manner was it terminated ? How. did Lartius manage so as to make an impression of mt>re than kingly power .' With what . 53. In what manner did Lnrtius divide and enroll the cit- ' To whom give command of the army ? Huw prove himself a wise general and good man .' What did he i- o4. Why did Lartius resign his authority ? Whom did he name Consuls? What decree was issued by the Sena specting debts? What with regard to married women? How did the women act ? 55. Why was a second Dictator chosen? Who was he? What did he do ? What is said of the hostile armies ? 56. What commanders appeared in the army of the La- tins ? What was the age of King Tarquinius ? Describe the army of the Romans. What excited them to effort ? 312 REPUBLIC OF ROME. 57. Describe the battle. What was the conduct of Tar- quinius and his sons ? 58. Describe the death of Valerius. How did Aulus act? 59. Describe the death of Mamilius. Also of Herminius. Fate of Sexttis Tarquinius. Who gained the victory? What the number of the slain ? 60. What prisoners and spoils were taken by the Romans ? What wonderful incident is related of two horsemen in this battle? 61. What further account of their appearance in the Fo- rum ? What belief obtained among the people ? How were Castor and Pollux honored ? How was Anlus honored ? 62. For what purpose were ambassadors sent from the Latins to Rome ? How did these ambassadors act ? Upon what condition was peace granted them ? How long had Rome stni;_'L.--led with Tarquinius? 63. What was his end .' III. Till-: PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS. Page^l. What lesson had the Patricians learned? Had the Plebeians been benefited by the war? 68. Whafe arguments did they urge for the payment <>f their debts ? Were they listened to .' What was th-- of this treatment ? What two men were elected Consuls ? What was the difference in their characters ? 69. What were their opinions respecting the debtor and creditor ? llo\v were the two Consuls regarded by th pie ? What was the condition of the poor ? What the con- sequence of their sufferings ? 70. Describe the condition of the old centurion. In what manner had he been thus reduced? 71 . I low had his creditors treated him ? What effect had this recital upon the people? Had others been so used? What representations did they make to the Consuls ? What demand ? Ti'. What did the people obtain from the Senate ? What QUESTIONS. 313 strange incident arrested the tumult ? What message was delivered by the horseman ? 73. How \\;i> the intelligence received ? What effect had it on the multitude ? What did they say ? Whom did the Senate entreat to appease the people .' 74. In what manner did Servilius proceed ? What prom- ise ? With what effect ? Why did lie delay the hattle ? 75. How did the Roman soldiers act in the midst of ill- tivatiiu-nt .' What of the Volscians ? Did the Plebeians obtain relief after their victory ? Why not ? HIAV did S, rvilins lose favor with both parties? In what manner did the people proovd to protect themselves ? What ii.-mi.-s thivateii'-d at this time to attack the city? 77. Ho\v did the people treat the demand of the S.-nale and t '< >n>uls .' Who were the next Consuls ? Did the change produce confidence in the people? For what pnrp< they hold nightly meeting-: ' Wh.-r.- did tl 78. What decree was passed' With what effect? To \\hat did t!: uin resort ? What person was selected itor? I'.y what promise did he render himself acceptable to the people ? How did this succeed ? What enemies came against the Romans ? Who conquered ? 80. At the return of the army, what demand did Valerius make of tl Their answer. I Tow did he address t hem ? How proceed after his speech ? How were the peo- ple pleased? 81. What orders did the Senate give the Consuls ? With what design ? Where were they encamped ? In what man- ner did the Plebeians deceive the Patricians ? Of what place did they take possession ? 82. What course was pursued by the Patricians ? Who was leader among the soldiers ? How did he address the Patricians? What was done by the Consuls and Patri- cians ? 27 314 REPUBLIC OF ROME. IV. THE TRIBUNES OF THE PEOPLE. Page 87. What effect had the revolt of the Plebeians on the city of Rome ? What was done by the Patricians ? What was the name of the hill of refuge ? 88. What was the situation of affairs at Rome ? Upon what did the Patricians resolve ? How were the commis- sioners met ? Who were at the head of the revolters ? Who conducted the embassy ? 89. What was the policy used by the Plebeians? What the speech of Brutus ? How did Valerius begin the negotiation ? 90. What was the reply of Sicinius ? The address of Ju- nius Brutus to the people ? to the ambassadors ? 91. How did he appeal to their justice and humanity? What of T. Largius ? Of Sicinius ? 92. Who was Menenius ? How did he try to soften the people ? Give an account of his fable. 93. What was its effect ? What did Menenius propose ? 94. What pledge was demanded by Brutus ? In what manner did the Senate decide ? Who were the first Tribunes of the People ? 95. To what form of government was Rome now approach- ing? In what way did the Tribunes nullify the decrees of the Senate ? What design had these magistrates ? 96. What were the JKdilcs? Their office? Give an ac- count of the famine that occurred. Who was Marcius Cori- olanus ? In what manner did he speak of the Plebeians .' 97. What account is given of his mother ? What had he done for Rome ? Why disliked by the Plebeians ? How did he return this feeling ? 98. What was the effect of the speech of Coriolanus? How was he treated by the Plebeians ? What orders were given the ^Ediles ? W. Why could they not effect this? What ensued? What happened on the following day ? 100. How did Brutus appease the people ? What did Si- cinius gay ? How did the Tribunes deal with Coriolanus ? QUESTIONS. ')].*> 101. What was the Valerian Law ? Who endeavored to save Coriolanus ? What was counselled by the Consul Vale- rius ? What was his speech ? 102. To what did the Senators urge Coriolanus ? Give his address to them. 103. Of what did the Tribunes accuse him ? How many days had lie allowed him to make defence ? In what man- ner did he do this ? 104. What was done by the Tribune Decius ? To what was Coriolanus condemned ? Give an account of the con- duct of Coriolanus on this occasion. 105. Why did the people rejoice ? What was the only object of Coriolanus after leaving Rome ? Why did he offer his services to the Volsci ? Why was it dangerous for him to venture on this ? 106. Into what city did he enter ? Into whose house ? Who was Tullus ? Why did he take a seat upon the hearth ? How did he address Tullus ? 107. How did Tullus jinswcr ? What plan was laid be- tween the two ? How did the Yolscian Senate act upon this plan .' What was the reply of the Romans ? 108. What followed ? Who led the troops ? What towns did la- take from the Romans ? What inflamed the Plebe- ians ? How near to Rome did Coriolanus encamp his army ? What effect had this on the people ? 109. What still more alarmed the Romans ? Who were sent to Coriolanus ? What did he grant ? What threaten ? 110. Who were next sent ? His reply. What was done by Valeria ? To whom did she appeal ? What request ? 111. Why did the mother of Coriolanus hesitate? In what words did Veturia address the Roman ladies ? 112. What was finally done by the mother and wife? How did Coriolanus receive them ? His answer to their re- quest. 1 1 3. Give the appeal of his mother. How was he affected ? 114. How did Veturia continue her supplications ? What 316 REPUBLIC OF ROME. actions followed this pleading ? Describe the effect on Cori- olanus. What did he do the next day ? 115. How did Coriolanus lose his life ? How was he hon- ored by the Volsci ? How by the women of Rome ? V. THE DECEMVIRS. Page 121. Who was Sp. Cassius Viscellimus ? What his designs ? How did he seek to accomplish them ? What was the Agrarian law ? 122. What caused his death? What law was obtained from the Senate ? What was done by Genutius ? How was the Agrarian law again silenced ? 123. Describe the contest between the Plebeians and Pa- tricians. How high did the power of the Tribunes rise ? In what did the I'atrieians sometimes advocate the cause of the Plebeians? What two Consuls made an effort to furnish them with lands ? 124. What did Kmelius insist on? The consequence. What did Fiibius propose > Why were the people unwilling to accede ? How, at this time, was law administered at Rome? 1 '2~>. What was proposed by Terentillus Arsa ? How were the laws to be proposed? What violence was perpetrated by Q. Ceso ? Who applauded him ? How did the Tribunes act? 1 2ii. In what manner did Ceso escape punishment ? What was done by his father to pay the fine? Who was his father ? What war broke out after this ? What of the Ro- man Consuls ? 127. Why was a Dictator necessary? Who was named? How did tin- deputation find Ciucinnatus employed ? Relate what occurred. What of the Tribunes ? 128. Why were commissioners sent to Athens? Why were the Decemvirs appointed ? Who were they ? 12!. What powers were conferred upon them? How did Appius Claudius render himself agreeable to the people? QUESTIONS. 317 How was the government administered by the Decemvirs ? How did they form the code of laws ? 130. Into how many tables was the code arranged ? What caused the election of Decemvirs for another year ? What was the policy of Appius ? To what did he aspire ? 131. What was the conduct of the new officers ? Of what did the citizens complain ? Give an account of the tyranny of the Decemvirs. 132. How were those treated who complained ? Did this authority cease at the close of the year ? What did the ty- rants proclaim? What armies were raised against Rome ? Whose aid was sought by the Decemvirs ? 133. What of Appius ? Of the Roman armies ? Who was Siccius Den tat us ? What did he do ? 134. How did Appius prevent open revolt ? How revenge himself on Siccius ? Give the story of his assassination. 135. Why did the soldiers suspect he had been murdered ? What confirmed the suspicion ? 136. In what place did Appius administer justice? Who was Virginia ? What of her appearance and condition ? 137. Whom did Appius employ to get her in his posses- sion ? How did Claudius proceed ? What pretend ? 138. What story did he fabricate of Virginia ? Who dis- covered the plot ? What did Numitorius claim ? 139. What was decreed by Appius ? How did the assem- bly receive this ? Who was Icilius ? What did he do ? 140. What language did he use ? What followed ? On what condition was Virginia freed ? Next step of Appius. 141. In the mean time, what had Virginius done ? What did he do on the next day ? What moved the multitude ? How did Appius provide for his own safety ? 142. How did Claudius offer to prove Virginia his slave? What witnesses were brought by her friends ? What was done by Appius ? 143. Give the address^of Claudius to the assembly also his decree. What was done and said by Virginius ? 318 KEPUBLIC OF HOME. 144. What was the proceeding of Appius ? Request of Virginius ? Describe the death of Virginia. 145. Describe the flight of Virginius. What was done by the people ? What was the effect of all this on the soldiers ? 146. What of the Decemvirs ? Who were named Consuls ? What effect had the death of Virginia on the Romans? What became of Appius ? What of Claudius ? VI. THE DESTRUCTION OF ROME BY THE GAULS. Page 149. What effect on Rome had the expulsion of the Decemvirs ? Why did not this state continue ? What did the people aspire to and demand ? 150. What enemies assailed Rome ? What of the Veien- tes? Of the city of V 151. To whom was the conduct of the siege committed? With wh:it dignity ? In what manner did he take the city ? 162. How was Camillus honored at Rome ? What propo- sition was made by Sicinius Dentatus? How received? What of the vow of Camillus, and his forgetfulness ? 163. What accusation was made against him ? How did Camillus conduct in these circumstances? Who were the Gauls ? 154. What cities were founded by them ? Of whom did the city of Clusium seek aid ? Who was Brennus ? What produced a quarrel between the Romans and the Gauls ? 165. What was done by Brennus ? Where did the hostile armies meet ? Describe the battle. 156. How did the flight of the Roman army affect the city ? How the Senate ? What was their cowardly act ? What was done by some of the old men and priests ? 157. In what state did the Gauls find Rome on entering it ? What is related of the aged men ? 158. What caused their destruction ? How did Brennus treat the city ? Why could he not take the capitol ? What did he resolve ? QUESTIONS. 319 159. While waiting, how were the soldiers of Brennus employed? Where was Camillas? What did he undertake ? How did he commence his work ? 160. What did the penitent Romans entreat of him ? On what conditions .did he consent ? Who undertook the task ? How did Cominius reach the capitol ? 161. How did the Senate receive the proposal ? How did Camillas procure troops ? What discovery was made by the troops of Brennus ? 102. What plan did Brennus propose to surprise the for- ' What saved it from the Gauls who scaled the wall ? Relate the heroic deed of Manlius ? 163. How did they deal with the sleepy sentinel ? How reward Manlius? What was the condition of the Gauls within the city ? What that of the Romans within the cap- itol ? What did they resolve upon ? 164. What agreement make with Brennus? What un- fairness was used by the Gauls ? How did Brennus insult the Romans? Who arrived in the midst of the dispute about the gold ? 165. What was said by Camillus? What was done by him ? What was the result of his victory ? 166. What was the condition of Rome after its delivery ? What proposal was made about the city of Veii ? Who ad- vocated it ? 167. Why did the Senate oppose? What was urged against it by Camillus? With what effect? How much time was taken to rebuild Rome ? 168. Why was Camillus again called to the Dictatorship ? What titles were given him ? Who refused to honor Camil- lus and why ? How did he seek to gain the people ? 169. Why did the Patricians again create a Dictator? Who was chosen ? How did he deal with Manlius ? 170. In what manner did the friends of Manlius show their sorrow ? What did they obtain for him ? What honor was again bestowed on Camillus ? How did this affect Man- UK PUBLIC OF ROME. lius? What charges were established against him? What was his condemnation ? VII. FOREIGN CONQUESTS. Page 173. How long had it taken the Romans to subdue the surrounding nations ? What was their first foreign war ? What of Carthage ? its foundations ? citizens ? fleets ? 174. Where and how had Carthage extended its con- quests ? How were Rome and Carthage separated ? What disadvantage had the Romans ? How did they obtain a fleet ? 175. What of their first naval commander ? What places were taken by their fleets? Where did they carry their arms? Who commanded the first fleet sent to Carthage? Describe the engagement? 176. Who wei' What further success had the Ro- mans? What of Manlius? OfRegulus? What the condi- tion of Carthage ? Of what were the Carthaginians desirous ? 177. Upon what terms did Regulus agree to withdraw his army.' How did the Carthaginians receive the proposal? W)i \\a< Xantippus? 178. What the result of this battle? What became of Regulus? What the conditions upon which he was sent to Rome .' How was In- r. criv.-d l.y the Roman Senat.- ' 179. Did Regulus remain in Rome? W T hy not? His fate ? Upon what terms did the Romans grant peace to the Carthaginians? Did this peace continue? Who was the cause of the second war ? 180. What vow had he made? Describe his passage through Gaul across the Alps. W r ho conducted the Ro- man army? Where did the armies meet? How was the battle decided ? How was the life of the Roman General saved ? 181. Who was now sent against Hannibal ? With what success? What more was done to repel the invader ? What hardships did Hannibal encounter ? What did he lose ? 182. What mistake was made by Flaminius ? With what : Vf>ult ' Who next \\a> ^--nt to oppose Hannibal .' How did Fahius trouble liiiu .' I low w;i> Kal>iu> ont\\ itted .' Why lay dangerous to the Carthaginians ' 183. Hive ;iu account of the destruction of the Roman army. What mistake did Hannibal make alter this battle ? Who preserved \(m<- from total distraction .' What iufor- niiitioii did S'ij-io receive after the battle of ('a:. 184. What oath did he take, and enforce, of his country- ' How did these Romans proc.-ed to recover their ' What was done by Fabiu.s Maximus ? Wh. Seipio doin- in Afri.-a .' What kin-s did h.- -ain ? Why was Hannibal recalled.^ Where did lie and meet .' Wit-h \\ N .' What was done by the I'pou what terms did the Romans grant ' Who was Ma-inissa? AVhat did he do to the Carthaginians? How many Punic or Carthaginian wars were thnv .' t'onseipit-nce of the What did Home after this aspire to ? What nations ompiered 1'V tli-m .' 187. What change accompanied success in the Romans ? What moral change ? Who were Tiberius and Caius Grac- What >toi y is related of their mother? 188. (Jive s.-ine account of Tiberius. At what sie.^e did What was insinuated by his enemies? How wa< it >:iM his mother encouraged his ambition? What office did he hold? 189. To what was his attention called? What was the Agrarian law' Had this law been enforced? What was done by Tiberius ? 190. How did the nobles and the rich receive the propo- sition of Tiberius? Who was gained over by them ? How did Octavius interpose to overthrow the measure ? In what manner did Tiberius address the next assembly ? I'.tl. Who by vote was excluded from the tribuneship ? \V ;1 - the las* revived .' What elV-vts re-ulted ? tin- niiinner in which Tiberius lost his life. 322 REPUBLIC OF ROME. Did the death of Tiberius affect the Agrarian law ? What was the state of Home. When was Caius Gracchus elected ? 193. What were his public acts? How were Drusus and Opimius excited against Caius? Give an account of tho second tumult and death of Caius. VIII. THE JUGURTHINE WAR. Page 197. How did the loss of the Gracchi affect Rome ? Who was Masinissa ? Why did the Romans bestow upon him Numidia ? Who was Micipsa ? Names of his two sons ? What of Jugurtha ? 198. How did Jugurtha appear in early youth ? How did his mirk- 1 VLTUI d him ? How did his conduct change ? How did this affect Micipsa ? 199. How did the uncle manage to rid himself of Jii'_rur- tha ? How did Jugurtha gain the army ? W T hat was inti- mated to him ? 200. How received on his return ? What intimated to Miripsa? How was this adviiv a<-u-d upon? What hap- pened on the death of the king ? How was Numidia divid- ed .' What was tin: aim of .Juirurtha .' 201. What did he do? How did Adhrrkil act ? What war nisnrd .' Who sur<vs>ful ? What became of Adhnbal t How were the Romans atirrt.-d .' 202. What artifice did Ju-urtha i-mplc.y ? With what success at Rome ? How did Jugurtha dupe the commis- sioners ? 203. What next was done by Jugurtha? How did Ad- herbal proceed? Where fly? Next step of Jugurtha? What messengers were sent to Rome ? 204. Did the men, or gold, prevail ? What was effected by Jugurtha' s gold ? What did Adherbal write to the Sen- ate ? What was the opinion of the honest men at Rome ? 205. Did their advice prevail ? What was the fate of Ad- herbal ? Effect at Rome of this outrage ? Who was sent to punish Jugurtha ? QUESTIONS. 323 206. What was the character of Calpurnius ? What was done by Jugurtha ? What ivciuired by the Senate ? What done by tin- army under the command of Calpurnius ? What was the resource of Jugurtha? Give an ac- c.'uut of the treachery of Calpurnius. Was this suspected by tin- Roman people? Of what did the Tribunes complain ? What demand Senate ? Who was sent to bring Jugurtha to Rome ? Did IK- cnns.-nt to go ? In what did he trust ? What was done by him on reaching Rome ? With what did the people threaten Jugurtha? What new crime diil he p'-!p-tiate? What did he say when banished from How did the Romans proceed against him ? 210. Why did not Albinus succeed in Numidia ? Who took charge of the army ? In what manner was Aulus de- feated ? On what conditions were life ami liberty granted to those who escaped ? How did the Senate keep the treaty ? 211. Who was intrusted with the war ? What was done in Africa by Metellus ? What terms did Metellus make with Jugurtha ? What prevented Jugurtha from fulfilling his promises ? What did he do ? Who was Caius Marius ? How did he cause trouble in the Roman camp? To what office did he aspin- ' Why was this a bold thing for Marius? llo\v did he pnx Jlo. What offices did Marius obtain ? In what manner did Marius triumph over the Patricians ? What was done by him ? How did this affect Metellus ? 214. Who was sent to assist Marius in Africa? What king gave aid to Jugurtha ? What did the two kings effect Marius ? How did he retrieve his loss ? What of Bocchus ? 2 1 "> . For what purpose did he send ambassadors to Rome ? How were they received and answered ? What was the only condition upon which peace could be obtained from them ? REPUBLIC OF HOME. 216. Did Bocchus consent to deliver up Ju.irurtha ? How did Marins enter the city of Rome ? To what was Jugurtha condemned ? Give an account of his end. IX. MARIUS AND SYLLA. Page 221. After the defeat of Jugurtha what marred the rejoicings? What caused jealousy between Marius and Sylla ? What the result ? What invasion alarmed the city ? l!J. Where is Jutland? How many barbarians invaded Italy ? Who had command of the Roman army ? What s were gained by him ? How was Marius regarded f Uetellus ? 223. H<>\v did Marius accomplish his downfall? What i the indiirnatii'ii of tin- people? How did they pro- ceed against tlie>e wieked men? II'JI. How was Metellus re>torcd ? In what manner did th- Unman citi/.;-ns show their love for Metellus ? Why did Marius l.-ave Rome ? Origin of new difficulties in Rome ? 225. What rights had Roman t -iti/.ens .' What was claimed by those who had submitted to Uoine ' Who was Livius I >i usns? How did he offend the Senate .' What was tli.- tat.- of Drusus ? To what did thisas- ition ;uouv the foreign subj'---t> ' Wh it the social war f What league was entered into .' Why were ambassadors sent to Rome ? How were they r <. < -iv.-d .' J'JT. What was the number of the Confederate army? Who commanded the legions <.f the Senate? How was this contest carried on? What put a stop to it ? Who was the great rival of Marius ' What dignities were conferred on Sylla ? Who was the mightiest prince of How did he give offence to the Romans ? How tes- tify his contempt of their authority ? What threaten ? In what respect terrible as an enemy ? W r ho by the Romans was appointed to undertake the war with Mithridates? 230. What feeling did this rouse in Marius ? What re- QUESTIONS. solve? Who joined him ' How did they succeed ? Who was killed in the commotion? _':;]. Where di.l Sylla take refuse ' Why iliil not Marine put him to death .' What did he compel him to do ' What 'r.e next step of Syllii ? How did Marius olt;iin CI.MI- iiuiiid of the army ? Whom did he send to take possession? I >id Sylla submit ' What was done to th->e in gers? How did Marius act? What was the determination 233. Who were sent to stop his march ? How were these men treat. -d hy the soldiers of Sylla? What wa> to arre>t tin- march of Sylla? How did Sylla answ.-r the artilice of Marin- ' Ii"W him? In what manner did Sylla treat Rome and uMiIs? How many 1 i ? How did ho control the What law di.l he e>tahli>h .' What decree repeal ? Who were declared .-nemies of the state? (Jive particulars j.roseeiition of ti A hat of the feelin- towards Sylla' ,i< h.-d ' With what etl'.-ct ' Who was ( 'inna .' What wag done l.yCimia.' What hy Sylla' Why did Cinna wish to iveall Marius.' How did he prc>< What i> said of the speech of Cinna.' 1IU d.-man.l ? What cau>ed disputes between i riti- Who was Octavius ? What was done hy him ' How did Cinna seek to stir up the j.eoph- .' What -(I on him ' How did he appear at Capua ? 1MO. What were his actiOOl there. How : What was the strength of his party. -41. What was reported .' Give the story of Marius. iM'J. Where was Marius imprisoned? Relate what hap- pened to him in prison. _ l:i. Why was he set free ? What occurred on his voyage ? Where did he land ? 326 REPUBLIC OF ROME. 244. Give an coccount of Marius at Carthage. Where was Marius joined by his son ? 245. How did Marius appear at Rome ? Who joined him ? 24G. Who was sent for to defend Rome? Why did not Metellus serve ? What occurred between the Senate and Cinna ? 247. What oath did the Senate demand of Cinna ? What was done by Octavius .' 248. How was he treated by Marius and Cinna ? How did they treat the city of Rome ? Where was Sylla ? ill'.'. How did Marius treat the family of Sylla? also the laws and ] .>)- >n of Sylla? Who were elected Consuls,? What news alanm-d tlu-m ' How was Marius aff.-ctcd ' 250. To what diil hr abandon himself .' How was the life of Marius terminated' At what age? How often was he ; -if K'.me ' What caused his ruin .' How were the people affected by his death .' X. CIVIL WAliS AND CONSl'IlIAriKS. lay in the return oOylla .' Who .il.-iius l-'lacci ;..,.' Wh' Fimbria .' What occurred be- i tin-in .' J.'.l What policy diil Mithridates use with Sylla ? What terrified the ambassadors of the kini; .' Describe the inter- view I ila and .Mithrid Mithridai ! What suunnoiis did Sylla send (<> Kiiuhria ' How ive.-iv.-d ' Why would not the soldi- -rs fuht ' What th<- consequence? What was the Tate of Fimbria .' Where did Sylla conduct his troops .' What ord.-r wa> iu<-d by the Consuls ? Who were they .' What tin- fate of Cinna.' How was the army of Sylla increased ? Who was Cn. I'oinpeius ' How old was I'ompey th.- <ireat at that time ? What number of men did he bring to Sylla ? How did Sylla ob- tain the troops of Scipio .' What was done by young Ma- QUESTIONS. 327 258. How were his troops routed ? Where did he take refuge ? What was done by Sylla to capture Marius ? To what was the attention of Italy directed ? 259. Did they afford relief to Marius ? Whom did the army of Marius join ? Who was Telesinus ? To what place diil ho march ? What was done by the inhabitants ? 260. What was said by Tel, -sinus to his army? Who commanded the people ? How did they sustain the attack ? Give an account of the battle between Telesinus and Sylla ? Win-re was tli-- battle f.u-lit ? 261. How did the people prevent the entrance of the Sam- nites into the gates? What terrible disaster occurred? What suspended tli.- cnntli. t ' Who overcame ? How did Sylla's cnn-lty appear .' What became of young Marius? H>\\- did Sylla enter K.>me? In what manner did he b his glory? Mention some of his monstrous acts of cruelty. 263. What was said to him by Metellus? What was Sylla's reply? How did he reward his soldiers ? How did he change the government of Rome ? 264. How many of his citizens had Sylla destroyed ? How many senators and knights ? What was his most extraor- dinary act ? What was his ruling passion ? 265. What struck the multitude with awe ? How did the Romans regard this act ? In what manner did Sylla die ? What did he leave for his epitaph ? What was attempted Mus ? Who were chiefs of the Patricians? Whom did Lepidus gain to his party ? What became of him ? and of Brutus ? 1M7. What put an end to the Spanish war? Who was Spartacus ? Who joined him ? Who went against him ? 268. Relate his fall. What caused the jealousy between Crassus and Pompey ? How did Crassus seek to gain the people of Rome ? How did Pompey make himself the idol of the people ? 328 REPUBLIC OF ROME. 269. What appointment was given to him ? In what con- dition was Rome at this time ? What Avas going on ? Who was Catiline ? 270. What his character? Of what crimes was he ac- cused ? Who were ready to join Catiline in any plot ? ' 1271. What plot was formed? Who the leader? What noted men were in it ? What of women ? What was the object of all these? 272. Whose attention did this conspiracy engage ? What was ascertained hy Cicero ? What did he learn of these pro- ceedings ? 273. What news threw Catiline into consternation ? What did he and his party resolve upon? What was he to do? Who was to stab Cicero ? J71. In what manner 'li<l the Senate show confidence in Cicero? How did he prepare for defence ' What papers were brought to tin- Beoatc .' What was d..ne by Catiline ? 276. How was Cicero affected .' Speech of Cicero. 276. How was he answered by Catiline? How was Cati- :vcd to stop' What was his declaration? J77. Where did he go.' Whom did the conspirators attempt to draw into the plot? With what promise .' To whom did they divulge the plot ' How did the ambassadors procure evidence against Catil'r 21*. To what \\rie the chief conspirators condemned ? *J7'.'. Was I 'atiline among them .' What was he compelled to do? Doseribe his death. How was Cicero honored? 280. What was- he declared .' What did the Emperor Augustus say of him ? XI.-.IVLIUS CJSSAR. 285. How did Rome now lose its republican form of government? What two men divided public attention? How was Pompey illustrious ? 286. What was the cause of the enmity between him and Julius Caesar? Of which party was Pompey? Of which Q u K> r 1 O.N s. Julius Cu-siir ? Why was Ca-sar impeached ? What was the effect of his eloquence ? Who with Pom ivy divided the favor of tlr S How did I'a-sar obtain the consulate ? What was his policy as to the Airrarian law? What government did Cae- sar obtain for Pompey ? ForCrassus? For himself ? How did he use his power ? How treat Cato ? Bibulus ? Lucul- lus ? Cicero ? 289. How did Cirsar set out for his government ? What him to the highest rank among the captains ? What nations had he conquered? How many citi.s' What of his battles ? Of his ambition ? His treasures? Why diil Cji-sar love money .' How did he spend it? H->w a-.-Ln lands and the ehief offices of state ? How was Pompey affected by the influence of Caesar ? In what condition was Home, through these disputes ? What was done by Cato ? What u as the demand of Caesar ? How was this op- ' How did Pompey act in secret? Why did \ 1 ps ? What 1< -tiers send to the Senate ? What decree did they pass? Who opposed this? How did the Senate them ? What had Pompey on his side ? What had Caesar? Describe Caesar at the River Rubicon. To what place did lie march? How was this news received at Rome? What wa> don.- by Pompey and the Senate ? What by the city ? What pursuit then commenced ? What happened on the plains of Pharsalia ? How long had Pompey been a conqueror? To what now reduced? Of whom sink protection ? What treachery did Ptolemy con- template ' 296. Give an account of the death of Pompey. What did Caesar become ? What titles and honors were conferred on him ? Why was not that of king given him ? Why did his enemies wish him to assume it ? 297. What proposal was made ? What was agreed upon 330 REPUBLIC OF ROME. in private cabals ? Who was at the head of this conspiracy ? Who associated with Brutus? What day was fixed upon? How had Cicsar been warned ? 298. How far did these things affect him ? How was lie attacked? What was done by Casca ? How did the sight of r.rutus aft'ert him? What followed this bloody scene ? What was done by the conspirators ? Did the people approve ? Upon what did Antony resolve ? 300. How did he proceed? What did the Senate decide on ? How were the people affected by the reading of Caasar's \\ ill .' What did he leave to the citizens and others ? 301. Give an account of the funeral oration of Marc An- tony and its effect? Who was tin; adopted son and heir of 1 1. >w old was he at Caesar's death ? On what did he iv>o|ve .' What name aume ' How was he received in KJ>IIIC .' Wh"-<- friendship did ( letavius beg ? Why did Antony at first refuse his claims ' Why afterwards -rant them ? How did Octavius tfain the people? How was ( >. tavius regarded by Antony? Why did the Sen- How did Antony secure the interest at Why did Oetavins wish the consulship .' How obtain it ' What do > Why reeall Antony ? Where did the thiv in. -el .' HOW.' What d.-ter- niine upon in their conference ? What was the Triumviri ? How did they divide the commonwealth? How obtain money ? 307. How many were involved in this proscription? What war beiran .' (iive an account of what took pi . 1'hilippi. What sprang from this field ? What left Octavius r of the world .' What title did he assume' What flourished in his ' What temple was closed ? How was Augn>tu> hon- 01 ed I'V the prop],- .' What month n.iin- d attrl him.' IN the two parts recently offered to the public, respectively entitled THE KINGS OF ROME and THE HLIC OF ROME, the narrative of the establish- ment and growth of the Roman power is brought down to the death of Julius Caesar. The present volume, which forms a sequel to those just nnim .!, begins with the circumstances that attended the elevation of Octavius, and relates the most interesting portions of the history of the empire to the d ath of Constantine, during whose reign Rome ceased to be the capital of the world. Few, perhaps, who have read the first two volumes, will fail to go to the sources from which the narrative has been drawn; and it is believed that those who read the present volume, will be induced, not only to investigate more closely the subjects herein presented, but to pursue the study of this interesting history to the dissolution of the empire. Arrangement. PAOB 1. THE BEGINNING or THE EMPIRE 15 II. CALIGULA AKD CLAUDIUS 47 III. TDK LAST or THE CJBARB 76 I V. TRANSIKNT RULERS 101 \ '. VESPASIAN AKD BIS Sows 1 1:8 ^' I. EXTENSION or THE EXPIRE 147 V 1 1. THE ANTONINES 178 V III. THE PRAETORIAN GUARDS 197 1 X. THE DECLINE or THE EMPIRE 241 X. ROME ABANDONED.. . 278 ustrgtuns. PAOB DEATH OF MARK ANTONY Frontitpiece. NERO'S EXPEDITION TO GREECE 74 A ROYAL GLADIATOR 196 A ROMAN EMPEROR ENSLAVED 240 THE Battle of Actium Death of Antony Octavius and Cleopatra Singular death of Cleopatra Extent of the Em- pire Appearance of Rome Octavius becomes Emperor Takes the name of Augustus His Kindness and Magna- nimity His Wars Birth of Christ Death of Augustus The Honors paid to him Tiberius made Emperor Re- volt of the Army Tiberius jealous of Germanicus His treatment of Germanicus Baseness of Piso and Placina Death of Germanicus Indignation of the People Piso de- stroys himself Ambition of Sejanus His Schemes to ob- tain the Empire His Detection and Punishment Wretched Condition of Tiberius His Death His Treatment of the Christians, DEATH OP MARK ANTONY. I. THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. BY the death of Caesar, Rome, as may be learned by reference to the close of the pre- ceding volume, was thrown into the utmost contusion. The people, easily persuaded that he had been unjustly murdered, compelled all the principal actors in the bloody scene to flee from the city. The government was then usurped by three men Antony, a friend of Caesar, Lepidus, one of his generals, and Octa- vius, his adopted son who were called trium- virs, or a triumvirate. The chiefs, of the con- spiracy, Brutus and Cassius, with their adhe- rents, were defeated in battle, as already stated, on the plains of Philippi, where they both committed suicide ; and then the members of the triumvirate, each anxious to be first, began a dreadful quarrel among themselves. Lepidus, the weakest of the number, was M.UJI deposed EMPIRE or EOME. Battle of Actium. and banished. Mark Antony, the master of the greater part of Asia and Egypt, and in alli- ance with some of the most powerful kings, ceuld not be so easily disposed of by the ambi- tious Octavius, who now wished to rule alone. His shameful conduct, however, in Egypt, where he became intoxicated with the charms of Cleopatra, its queen, having excited against him the displeasure of his countrymen, he was deprived of his government. But being nat- tered and encouraged by the beautiful Egyptian queen, he defied the power of Rome, and brought about a war between his country and Cleopatra, which resulted in his total ruin. It was the naval battle fought near Actium, a city of Epirus, that decided the fate of Anto- ny, and made Octavius master of the Ro- man world. The ships of Antony and Cleopa- tra were ranged near the mouth of the Gulf, in O opposition to those of Octavius, while the land armies of the two generals were drawn up on either side, only as spectators of the engage- ment. The conflict was maintained with equal animosity by both parties, and the advantage gained by either was not at all perceptible, when, suddenly, the fortune of the day was de- cided by the flight of Cleopatra, attended by sixty of her vessels. Antony himself immedi- BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 17 Death of Antony Octavius and Cleopatra. ately followed her, leaving his fleet at the mercy of the enemy ; and this, together with his land forces, soon after submitted to the vic- torious Octavius. The numerous misfortunes which afterwards befell him in rapid succes- sion, produced such an effect upon his mind, that he called one of his slaves, named Eros, whom he engaged, by an oath, to kill him when- ever fortune should drive him to this last re- source. Eros being soon after commanded to fulfil his promise, pretended the utmost readi- ness to obey, and, requesting Antony to turn away his face, stabbed himself, and fell dead at his master's feet. Moved by such a display of heroic affection, Antony hung for a long while in silent agony over the body of his faith- ful servant; and then, taking up the sword, gave himself a mortal blow. The wound, though frightful, did not prove fatal at once ; and the unfortunate man ordered those who heard his groans to carry him* into the presence of Cleopatra. The horror-stricken queen tore her clothes, beat her breast, and kissed the wound of which her lover was rapid- ly dying. Her transports of grief were beyond description ; she was, indeed, with difficulty pre- vented from destroying her own life. In the mean time, Octavius, arriving in the city of 2* 18 EMPIRE OF KOAIE. Cleopatra's singular Death. Alexandria, laid plans for seizing the person of Cleopatra, in order to lead her as a captive in his triumphal entrance into Rome. But the queen learning his intentions, resolved to de- feat them, by putting an end to her life. Going previously to the tomb of Antony, she crowned it with garlands of flowers, and kissed the coffin a thousand times. Then, returning to her palace, she ordered one of her domestics to bring to- her secretly, in a basket of fruit, an asp, the bite of which, though deadly, was not accompanied with pain. Informing Octavius, by letter, of her fatal purpose, and requesting Li m to bury her in the same tomb with Anto- ny, she arrayed herself in the most splendid manner, and then dismissing all but her two attendants, Charmion and Iris, laid down upon a gilded couch, and suffered herself to be stung by the poisonous reptile. As soon as Octavius received her letter, he sent messengers in all haste to prevent her terrible design, but they arrived too late. Cleopatra was already dead ; and by her side was stretched the lifeless body of her faithful Iris. Charmion, herself just ex- piring, was arranging the diadem upon Cleo- patra's head. " Alas !" cried one of the mes- sengers, " was this well done, Charmion ?" "Yes," replied Charmion, "it is well done* B E i J I N N 1 N ' <>F T II K K M 1M K K . 19 Extent of the Empire Appearance of Rome. such a death becomes a queen defended from a long line of glorious ancestors ;" and the words were no sooner pronounced than she fell dead at the feet of her beloved mistix At this period, Rome was at its gre: height of wealth and splendor. Its dominion had been extended over all the nations of Eu- rope, except some powerful northern tribes, that still maintained their independence. With- in the limits of its empire were England, France, Spain, Germany, all the States of Italy, Greece, the country now occupied by Turkey in Europe, and many other nations. Its sway extended over Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Persia, Parthia, and all the northern part of Africa, from Mauritania, now Morocco, on the west, to Ethiopia uii the east. Through- out all these countries the people of Rome had extended the arts of painting, sculpture, and ar- chitecture, so that a multitude of cities in various parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia, were filled with costly temples and palaces of marble, with beautiful statues and valuable paintings. But Rome itself was, of all the cities in the world the most wonderful. At this period it was fifty miles in circumference, and contained four millions of inhabitants. Within it were the choicest treasures of the countries which it had 20 EMPIRE OF ROME. Change in Octaviua. conquered; the most beautiful statues from Greece ; columns and obelisks from Egypt ; gold, silver, and precious stones from every quarter of the earth. It was adorned with the most magnificent temples, theatres, public baths, aqueducts, and triumphal arches ; and was, by far, the most splendid city in the world. In polite learning, too, the Romans had made a proficiency which has never since been ex- celled. Besides Virgil, Horace, and Ovid, poets whose names are familiar to every one, Livy, the historian, graced this period. In short, the glories of this age reflect a lustre on human nature itself. From the moment that Octavius found him- self the master of the world, the government of Rome took a permanent form. This man, who, when surrounded by rivals, had been so cruel, now became mild and kind. He labored ear- nestly to unite the interests of the different classes. Causing himself to be created Tribune of the People," and Prince of the Senate, he managed to govern both, and, at the same time, to make them believe that they were governing themselves. Taking great care to encourage men of learning, and to cultivate their friend- ship, he was repaid by hearing his praise cir- culated in every portion of his empire. BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 21 The Senate declare Octavius Emperor. When thoroughly convinced that he had se- cured the attachment of all orders of the State, he resolved upon making a great display of his magnanimity, by pretending a wish to relin- quish the sovereign power. All parties, of course, united in entreating him to retain the government, which he finally consented to do, though, apparently, with great reluctance. Such an exhibition of moderation, and so much devotion to the public interest, created a strong desire on the part of the Senate and the people to do whatever might afford him pleas- ure. Then it was that the title which he had as-umed of AUGUSTUS IMPERATOE was legiti- mately bestowed upon him, and his person was declared sacred and inviolable. The Senate, by oath, approved of all his acts, and set him wholly above the power of the laws. They went so far as to swear obedience, not only to the laws which he had made, but even to those which he should make for the future. In fact his power was unlimited, while no one seemed to feel or know it. The numerous titles and employments which were thus heaped upon Augustus, did not seem to render him less assiduous in the discharge of his duties. His whole life appeared now to be devoted to the welfare of his subjects ; and 22 EMPIRE OF ROME. "Wise regulations of Augustus. especially did he aim at the suppression of cor- ruption in the Senate, and of licentiousness in the people. Through his instrumentality a great check was placed upon those cruel shows of gladiators, so common during this corrupt period. He did all in his power to promote marriages and domestic happiness, fining those who refused to enter into wedlock, and reward- ing those who reared large and healthy fami- lies. He ordered that the senators should be held in great reverence, and added much to their outward dignity. He was very strict in regard to the morals of play-actors, forbidding the least licentiousness in their lives, and inde- cency in their actions. In order to prevent bribery at elections, he took, as a pledge, con- sidi'ttiblo sums of money from the candidates, which he obliged them to forfeit in case they were guilty of any unjust practices. In this way he did much to extirpate vice, and to im- prove the conduct of the Roman people. The agreeable manners and kindness of Au- gustus, made him a great favorite among the people ; their lawsuits, even, he condescended to plead in person, and such was his affability that he returned the salutations of the meanest persons. It is said that some one, on a certain occasion, presenting him a petition with much BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 23 His Kindness unu Magnanimity. timidity, Augustus looked at him in a reproach- ful manner, and exclaimed: "What, friend! you act as if you were offering something to an elephant, and not to a man ; be bolder !" But the greatness of his mind was best exemplified in his magnanimous treatment of Cornelius Cinna, the grandson of Pompey. This noble- man had entered into a dangerous conspiracy against him; but the plot was discovered be- \'< 'iv it was ripe for execution. For a long tinio Augustus was uncertain how he should act. JI> clemency, however, at last prevailing, he sent for those who bad been found guilty, and having reprimanded them, dismissed them with- out any further punishment. Then turning to Cinna, the chief of the conspirators, he thus ad- dressed him : " I have twice given you your life first as an enemy, then as a conspirator ; I now give you the consulship ; let us there- fore be friends for the future, and let us only contend in showing whether my confidence or your fidelity shall be victorious." From this time, it is said, that all conspiracies against Augustus ceased. Although he was himself totally destitute of military skill, the Eoman arms, under his lieu- tenants, were still generally crowned with sue- But the wars which were carried on in 24 EMPIRE OF ROME. The "Wars during the Eeign of Augustus. distant provinces aimed rather at enforcing obedience than at extending dominion; and thus the Cantabrians, the Germans, the Rhe- tians, the Dacians, the Armenians, and other nations, were successively defeated in vari- ous contests, and compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. The war with the Dalmatians and Pannonians, one of the most obstinate that occurred during his reign, con- tinued nearly three years ; but that which proved most fatal to the Roman interests, was under the management of one of his generals, named Quintilius Yarus. This general, inva- ding the territories of the Germans, followed the enemy among their forests and marshes, with his army, in detachments, and was entire- ly cut off, with all his forces, composed of the choicest troops of the empire. Such was the effect of this misfortune upon the mind of Au- gustus, that he was often afterwards heard to cry out, in a tone of anguish : " Quintilius Ya- rus, restore to me my legions !" The reign of Augustus, which continued during a space of forty years, was peaceful and little interrupted by commotions, wars, and po- litical intrigues, which are, indeed, the chief materials of history. About the middle of this reign, most of the nations of the world found BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 25 Birth of Christ themselves, at once, yielding obedience to the same monarch, and in perfect harmony with each other. It may with propriety be regarded as a fitting time for the appearance upon earth of the Prince of Peace; and, indeed, it ANUS about fourteen years before the death of Augus- tus that our Saviour Jesus Christ came into the world. He was born in Judea, one of the many provinces of Rome, in the seven hundred and fifty-second year of this remarkable city, and in the twenty-fifth year of the reign of the first of its emperors. While so fortunate in the affairs of his gov- ernment, Augustus, in his domestic relations, experienced a great deal of unhappiness. Al- though twice married, he had but one child, a daughter, named Julia. He felt, however, some- what consoled for the want of children, by see- in g her married and surrounded by a large and promising family ; but, finally, her husband died, and then, one by one, her children also fol- lowed. Meanwhile, Augustus caused his daugh- ter Julia to be married to Tiberius Claudius Nero, a son of his second wife, born during her first marriage. He also adopted Tiberius, com- pelling him in turn to adopt Germanicus, the only surviving child of his brother Drusus. Tiberius had always been very serviceable in 8 EMPIRE OF EOME. Sickness and Death of Augustus. the management of public affairs ; Augustus, therefore, on arriving at the seventy-fourth year of his age, constituted him his successor, and gave up to him, almost entirely, the adminis- tration of the State. About this time, seeming to be apprehensive of his approaching end, he made his will, and then solemnized the census or numbering of the people, whom he found to amount to four mil- lions one hundred and thirty-seven thousand. Soon after this, having accompanied Tiberius in his march into Illyria, as far as Beneventum, he was attacked violently by a diarrhoea. Re- turning thence to Nbla, he became so ill that he sent for Tiberius, with the rest of his most intimate friends and acquaintance. Apprising them of his conviction that his end had come, he gave them his last instructions. It is said that, a few hours before his death, he ordered a looking-glass to be brought, and his hair to be dressed with more than usual care. Then addressing his friends, whom he beheld sur- rounding his bed, he desired to know whether he had acted well his part in life. Receiving an affirmative reply, he cried out with his last breath, " Then give me your applause." When the death of Augustus became known, lamentation was heard throughout the empire. BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 27 Honors psid to Augustus Commencement of the Reign of Tiberius. His funeral ceremonies were performed with tlie utmost magnificence ; and when the rites were over, his will was read in the Senate- House. In this will he made Tiberius and Livia his heirs, and gave large legacies to many private persons, and some memento to the praetorian guards, and to all the citizens of Rome. Tem- ples were afterwards erected to his memory; divine honors were allowed to him ; and it is said that one of the senators, in consideration of a large sum of money, swore that he had seen him ascending into heaven. There can be little doubt that Augustus did all in his power to promote the happiness and welfare of his subjects. While he appeared to give them a republican form of government, he really ruled them as the most .absolute mon- arch ; but, guided by his consummate pru- dence, they were prosperous and contented. In this virtue few monarchs ever excelled him ; and, could his early crimes be forgotten, he might be pronounced one of the most faultless princes that ever lived. The reign of Tiberius began fourteen years after the birth of Christ ; and the unworthy successor of Augustus was fifty-six years of age when he came to the empire. He soon found means to render himself unpopular, by claim- 28 EMPIRE OF Ko MB. Revolt of the Array under Germanicus. ing as a debt that homage which his predeces- sor had been willing to receive as a favor. In the beginning of his reign, however, he was governed, apparently, by generous and noble feelings. The great names and titles which were liberally bestowed upon him by the Sen- ate, he utterly rejected. He likewise prohib- ited the erection of statues in his honor, and the worship which was offered to him as to a deity. Besides all this, he assumed an appear- ance of great patience and moderation on all occasions, and even suffered others to speak ill of himself and of his government, saying that " in a free city the tongues of men ought also to be free." lie manifested, too, a great hatred of vice, as well as a detenu i nation to cause jus- tice to be duly and regularly administered throughout every part of his empire. In short, he contrived, for a season, to enjoy a degree of ivsjiectand admiration almost equal to that of the excellent monarch who had preceded him. Germanicus, the nephew and adopted son of Tiberius, was at the head of the Roman armies in Germany when Augustus died. As soon as intelligence of this event was brought into that region, these armies revolted, and declared that O ' > the Roman Empire was in their gift, inasmuch as its principal grandeur was owing to the sue- BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 29 Jealousy cf Tiberius. cess of their arms. They resolved that they would choose an emperor themselves ; and Ger- manicus being greatly beloved by thorn all, they offered to raise him to this exalted dignity. It is probable, too, that this might have been easily done; but Germanicus was a man who could not, for any consideration, be tempted to do what was dishonorable or wrong. Their offers were consequently rejected with the ut- most indignation, and their seditious behavior was promptly quelled. When information of this was brought to Tiberius, he was, of course, gratified by the loyalty of Germanicus, but, at the same time, exceedingly distressed by his popularity ; and, a short time after, his jealousy was so much in- ilamed by the success of Germanicus against the Germans, whom he beat in a number of battles, that he determined to find some plausi- ble pretence for detaching him from the armies. It was not, however, until the Parthians threat- ened to attack Rome, that a favorable oppor- tunity occurred for effecting the ruin of Ger- manicus. That fierce and unconquerable people breaking the peace that had been made with them during the reign of Augustus, invaded Armenia, a tributary kingdom of the empire. This was an occasion for recalling the legions 3* 30 EMPIRE OF EOME. Tiberius separates Germanicus from the Army. of Germanicus ; and Tiberius procuring him a triumph for his victories in Germany, wrote to him to return, in order to enjoy the honors that had been decreed to him by the Senate. He also complimented him upon his achievements, telling him that he had reaped glory enough in a country where he had ever been victorious. In reply, Germanicus earnestly entreated the continuance of his command for one year longer, in order that he might finish the enter- prises that he had begun. But the cunning Tiberius, intent upon the accomplishment of his base design, offered Germanicus the consulship, and requested him to execute the office in per- son. Germanicus, although he probably under- stood the motive of the emperor, delayed no longer to obey his wishes, and accordingly set out for Home. Great multitudes of people went out to meet him, and as he entered the city, accompanied, in a chariot, by his wife and children, the people were thrown into a frenzy of joy and admiration ; and Tiberius himself, though extremely jealous, feigning to join in the general rejoicing, gave, in the name of Germanicus, three hundred sesterces to each of the citizens. The real aim of Tiberius, in raising German!- BE<;INNMX<; OF THE EMPIRE. 31 lie instigates Piso to destroy Germanicus. cus to the consulship, was, first to separate him from his army, and then, as soon as possible, to get him far away from Rome, where his popu- larity was now so hateful to him. It was easy enough for him to do this, even in a way that could not be wholly disagreeable to Germani- cus. The Roman Empire was vast, and its in- terest oftentimes demanded the presence of wise and prudent men, at great distances from the capital. At this particular time there was difficulty, not only with the Parthians, but with the people of Comagena and Cilicia ; and the inhabitants of Syria and Judea, overburdened with taxes, were making earnest supplications for redress. To be intrusted with the manage- ment of these important matters was no small honor, and Germanicus could not therefore re- fuse the offer of the government of the prov- inces of Asia. It was decreed to him then, with even greater powers than had been granted to any previous governor. But the malicious Tiberius, intent upon the destruction of his vic- tim, had sent, as governor, into Syria, one Cneius Piso, a man well chosen for his wicked purposes ; and to this person he had given se- cret instructions to oppose Germanicus upon every occasion, and even to procure his death, if he could accomplish it without suspicion. EMPIRE OF ROME. Machinations of Piso. Accepting his appointment, Germanicus set out, with his wife and children, for his Eastern expedition, and, arriving within the territories intrusted to his care, undertook to settle the difficulties existing between them and the gov- ernment of Home. In the mean time the wicked Piso watched him closely, and endeav- ored to throw various impediments in the way of his success. But Germanicus, notwithstanding every obstacle, soon succeeded in bringing Ci- licia and Comagena into obedience to Koine; also in obliging the king <f Parthia to sue for peace. Still Piso did not cease to do all in his power to injure the favorite general of the Ro- man pi'oplo. He openly censured all his ]>m- (vi>. lings and sought every opportunity to cast ivpmach ii] inn him. His base conduct did not, however, meet with retaliation on the part of Germanicus. This most noble person op- posed him only with patience and condescen- sion ; and when, at last, he found it impossible otherwise to avoid his machinations, as well as those of Placina, the wife of Piso, he made a voyage into Egypt, under a pretence of view- ing the celebrated antiquities of that country. Here he remained as long as the duties of his office would permit; and then returning, fell suddenly and dangerously sick. It now oc- BEGINNING OF TIIK KM PIKE. 33 The baseness of Piso and Placina. curred to him that his sickness wa< due to the treachery of Piso, and, hoping that he might yet recover, he sent word to this infamous man that all connection must at once cease between them. A short interval of convalescence gave BO much Bnoovagement to his friends that they and the citizens of Antioch prepared to oiler sacrifices for his recovery ; but even these solemnities were not tolerated by the abomina- ble Piso, who sent his lictors to drive the vic- tims from the very foot of the altars. The hopes of Germanicus and of his friends were not destined to be realized. Piso and his wicked wife Placina, had been but too success- ful in their attempts upon his life ; and the day iinally arrived when he was forced to meet his approaching end. His weeping friends gath- ered around his bedside, and to them he de- clared that he had fallen a victim to the devices of Piso and Placina. " Let the emperor know, I conjure you," said he, " the manner of my death, and the tortures I endure. Those who loved me when living, those even who envied my fortune, will feel some regret when they hear that a soldier, who had so often escaped the rage of the enemy, has fallen a sacrifice to the rage of a woman. Plead, then, my cause before the people ; you will be heard with 34: EMPIRE OF ROME. Death of Germanicus Indignation of the People. pity : and if my murderers should pretend to have acted by command, they will either re- ceive no credit or no pardon." With these words lie stretched forth his hands to his weep- ing friends, who all vowed that they would sooner lose their lives than their revenge. When news of the death of Germanicus was brought to Rome, the whole city was thrown into the utmost distress. A stop was put to every kind of business, public and pri- vate ; the streets resounded with lamentations, and the people, as if incensed against their gods on account of this calamity, cast stones at their sacred temples, and threw down their very altars. In a little time it was reported that Germanicus had been poisoned through the artifices of Piso and his wife Placina. Im- mediately the greatest indignation prevailed against these persons, as well as against the emperor himself, at whose instigation it was thought that. the crime had been committed. And when Agrippina, the widow of Germani- cus, on her return home, approached the city, the whole body of the people went out to meet her, with a strange mixture of sorrow and ac- clamation. The ceremony of entombing the ashes of Germanicus was regarded in profound silence ; but it was no sooner done, than the BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 35 Piso destroys bis own life. whole multitude broke out in loud lamenta- tions, crying that the commonwealth was now in> longer. Tiberius used all his art to conceal the cha- grin which he experienced at this excessive sorrow of the people, and even made a show of sharing in the general calamity. He aUo permitted the accusation of Piso, who, finding that nothing could save him lYoin the indigna- tion ot' the people, dispatched himself with his own hand. Placina his wife, suffered subse- quently the punishment due to her crime. About a year after this event, Tiberius took A-n son Dnisns as a colleague with him in the consulship, and, in order to accustom him to business left to him, almost entirely, the rnment of the city. Having reached the ninth year of his reign, this wicked monarch, who now had no object of jealousy to restrain him, began to exhibit his real character more openly. Assuming to himself the interpreta- tion and enforcement of the laws, he soon a general gloom over the city, by his acts of cruelty and tyranny. One of the first of his victims was Cremutus Cordus, a brave man, who defeated his malice, by putting an end to his own life. But Tibeiius found his match for dissimulation in a Roman knight named Seja- 36 EMPIRE OF HUME. The ambition of Sejanns. nus, who contrived to gain his confidence, arid lii i ally to bring upon him a great amount of Buffering. This subtle, bold, and ambitious man obtain- ed, by degrees, almost entire control over Tibe- rius ; and the servile senators, fearful of his power, and willing to preserve the favor of the emperor, did every thing to please him. Jlis statues were set up by the side of those of Tibe- rius, and the greatest eauvniess was manifested t< pay him equal honors. Every day he grew more and more in the favor of the emperor, and, at last, thinking him- selt':-trong enough, lie ventured to aspire to the thn>ne. But this, of course, he could not attain so long as Tiberius or his heirs were living; and judging correctly that the heirs of the em- peror could be disposed of more easily before, than after, the destruction of the emperor him- self, he took his measures accordingly, and soon brought about the death of Drusus, the empe- ror's son. This' was a terrible blow to Tiberius, yet he bore it with great composure, and did not for a moment suspect the cause of it. But there were others besides Drusus in the way of Sejanus. The children of Germanicus must also be disposed of, in order that he might at- tain his wishes; and his next attempt was to OINNIX1 H i-: K M i' i i: B. -7 Scjanus persuades Tiberias to remove from 1 : -ut their ruin. Ihit finding thorn close- ly Balded by their mother Airrippina, he could not immediately accomplish liis . and therefore undert' rsuade Til erius to re- tire t >ome airreeable n-tivat, remote from In this way he expected t" lerive many advantages, since there could be no ac- pfl tlimii^li him. He .I nn-ncces-t'nl in bis attempt. Til v c-miviiK-ed that lite would be far iiiMn . himself if he could be five fruni the 'I \e\ati. .ns ,,f Idleness ; and, i-din^ly, in the twelfth year <f his rei^n, at the in-taiuv -f Sejanus, he left Rome and : iirned. Th' sjx.t which he for i, nent was the little island <>f Ca- o to Naples, and about three miles the main land. Here, utterly re- LrardK'-- <f the welfare of his i-mi .iban- douod himself to the most shameful pleasures. Nothing seemed to move him not even the insurrection of the Jews, which followed the erection of his statue in .Jeru-alem, nor the fall- ing of the amphitheatre at Fidenae, by which iifty thousand persons were either killed or wounded. While Tiberius was thus passing bis life in excesses of every kind, his favorite, Sejanua 4 38 EMPIRE OF BOME. He accomplishes the death of the children of Germanicus. was intent upon the accomplishment of the plan which he had devised for getting posses- sion of the throne. The cruel and jealous dis- position of the emperor was made subservient to his purpose ; and every day he strengthened liis power, through the terror which he was able to inspire. Secret spies and informers were placed by him in every part of the city, and in this way he managed to get rid of those who were either so bold or so imprudent as to manifest any displeasure at his acts. Having constantly in view the destruction of the chil- divn of Germanicus, he sought every opportu- nity to render them obnoxious to Tiberius; and finally, by means of false reports circulated by his command, he succeeded in causing them to be declared enemies of the State. The two princes were accordingly arrested, thrown into prison, and starved to death, while their mother Agripphui was sent into banishment Had his cruelty ceased here, he might have succeeded in his infamous design. But with such a high hand did he wield a power which was not strictly his own, that he at last encoun- tered some one who had sufficient boldness to call him to account. This was Satrius Secun- dus, a man of great resolution, who accused him to the emperor. The charge was seconded BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE. 39 The designs of Sejaims , . by Antonia, the mother of Germanic-us ; and Tiberius, being well convinced of the treachery of his favorite, took immediate steps to bring him to punishment. But so strong was the habit of dissimulation with Tiberius, that he could not proceed, even in such a matter, with- out indulging it. Granting, accordingly, new and great honors to Sejanus, lie caused him a moment afterwards to be confounded, by or- dering the Senate t> cast him into prison. And the Senate, eager to comply with the royal mandate, not only placed the unhappy wi in prison, but directed that he should be forth- with executed. The sudden downfall of a man who had been at such a height of power, could not be wit- nes-ed without emotion. The whole city was immediately in agitation, and unmistakable evidence was given on every hand that Seja- nus, notwithstanding the adulation so freely offered him, was held in the greatest odium. As he was led to execution, the people loaded him with insult and execration; and when he attempted to hide his face with his hands, they prevented him, and even tied his hands behind his back. His statues were thrown down from their pedestals, and he himself was shortly after strangled by the common executioner. Nor 40 EMPIRE OF EOME. Punishment of Sejanus. was his death sufficient to appease the enraged populace ; his body was ignoininiously dragged about the streets, and his whole family exter- minated with him. But in escaping the cruelty of Sejanus, the people of Rome found themselves none the less miserable under the tyranny of Tiberius. This blood-thirsty monster caused the prisons to be filled at once by those whom he pretended were the accomplices of Sejanus, and numbers of the most illustrious, of all ages and of both . became the victims of his diabolical pas- sions. The whole city was filled with slaugh- ter and Humming. Dead bodies lay putrefy in g in heaps around the place of execution, and the friends of the wretched victims were not permitted the sad satisfaction of weeping over those whom they loved. "Let them hate me !'' exclaimed the brutal tyrant, "so long as they obey me !" During all this time Tiberius was still in his at at Caprea, indulging in his pleasures, and issuing his cruel orders to his minions in the capital. Frequently he commanded the victims of his cruelties to be brought to his abode, and tortured before his eyes. But he was not free from suffering himself. His own suspicions were a continual torment to him ; BEGINNING OF THK KMPIRE. 41 hod condition of Tiberius. JUKI, in one of his letters to the Senate, lie con- fessed that the gods and godde^e- had so af- flicted and confounded him, that he knew not how or what to write. \l\< bodily atHic 1 rible. AVith a face broken out with ulcers and covered over with ] lean and bent, ami a bald and icri/y.ly pate, he presented a very loathsome spec:.- \vr, hated and de<j>i-ed him. 1*1 1 e Senate j>l<>ivd against him, the peoph- re- viled him. and his greatest favorites dreaded him, because in constant uncertainty of their v si \tv-M -veil years of age, and as much a torment to himself as he wa< a subject of odium to the world, he finally beiran to think of his 'ut ion, and the appointment of a successor. : much hesitation lie selected Caligula, one of the sons of (iermaiiicus, and a young man, who-. doubtless, more than any thing else, recommended him to the favor of this in- famous monarch. But, a dissembler to the last, lie pretended to be still strong and well, when lie knew that his end was rapidly approaching; and even when he could scarcely maintain a sitting posture, continued to receive his guests, and to protest that he was in perfect health. It was while making an effort to read the acts 40 4:2 EMPIRE OF ROME. Death of Tiberiua of the Senate, that he, at last, fell senseless to the floor. The friends of Caligula, thinking the emperor dead, advised him to prepare to secure the suc- cession. The congratulations of the court were tendered to him, and he caused himself to be acknowledged by the Praetorian soldier.-, and went forth from the emperor's apartments amidst tho acclamations of the multitude. ]*ut during all this, Tiberius suddenly recovered, and asked i'.>r something to eat. The whole court was iillcd with terror by this unexpected change. All resumed their pretended sorrow, and left the new emperor in order to ma: their solicitude for the old. Caligula, thunder- struck, n< led death instead of an em- pire, and, not knowing what to do, stood gazing upon the scene in gloomy silence. His com- panions, however, Imping to gain more from him than from the dying emperor, soon came to his relief. Gathering around the couch of Tiberius, they strangled the wretched man to death. It was during the eighteenth year of this wicked monarch's life that Jesus Christ suf- fered crucifixion. Not long after his passion, Tiberius received a letter from Pilate, the gov- ernor of Judea, containing an account of the i UK K M I'l KK. 4.> i ina. death, re-unv ' tin* Saviour. This letter he communicated to the Senatr. siring them to enrol < nong the number of the Koman p'tl-. Jiut, becau-e the propo- i had nt nri^inatfJ among tin -.-nate n <!> this, alleinn^ an an- cient law wli: them the supervision of all n To show their opposition ^till farther, they even commanded that all uld leave the city. T.ut Tiberius thwarted thU unju-tiliable measure, by threat- eiiini; with death any one who should attempt . and for this act Christianity might have ranked him among i . had not .iole life been such a disgrace to humanity. CALIGULA AND CLAUDIUS. FROM 37 TO 55 A. D. CALIGULA'S reception at Rome He begins to reign well His first acts of Cruelty The absurd worship paid to him The honors which he bestowed upon his horse The fa- mous Bridge of Puteoli Caligula's mode of obtaining money His expedition against the Germans and Britons His ri- diculous conduct in Germany The conspiracy of Cherea Assassination of Caligula Claudius made Emperor by the Army His public works War with the Britons Caracta- cus captured and taken to Rome Claildius becomes indif- ferent to the Empire Conspiracies Revolt of Camillus Story of Cecina Fetus Cruelties of Claudius Death of his wife His marriage to Agrippina Her schemes for securing the empire for her son Nero Claudius poisoned. II. CALIGULA AND CLAUDIUS. AT this time the Romans lm<l arrived at the highest pitch of effeminacy and vice. From all portions of the empire wealth had poured into the city, and with it the luxuries peculiar to every country in the world. Gluttony was reduced to a perfect system, and debaucheries of every kind were practised openly. Instead of attending to the welfare of the empire, the senators themselves became devoted to the most debasing pleasures ; and the people, if possible, more corrupt, seemed to abandon every kind of labor, and to depend for subsistence upon any thing, save what was honest and manly. Indo- lence became an alarming vice. Courage no longer characterized the Roman soldiery, and their passion for glory was nearly extinguished. Under such circumstances it is not wonderful that the history of Rome should henceforth ex- 48 EMPIRE OF ROME. Caligula Emperor His reception at Rome. hibit continual instances of tyranny on the part of the rulers, and of insubordination among the people. The reign of Caius Caligula, the successor of Tiberius, although very short, was more replete with atrocities and abominations than that of any ruler that had yet preceded him in Rome. His ascent to the throne was, however, an oc- casion of great rejoicing ; and, as he approach- ed the city from Caprea, witli the dead body of the late emperor, thither taken for interment, he was received witli new titles of honor by the Senate, and declared sole successor to the em- pire, although Gemellus, tlu grandson of Tibe- rius, had Uvn h-t't r.'-lK'ir. The people flocked about him on every side, pleased at being de- livered i'n.m the cruelties of Tilu'rins, and hoping new ad vantages from the virtues of Caligula. Xor were these manifestations of joy confined to Rome, or even to Italy. They ox- tended over the entire empire ; and the whole world, in short/seemed combined to honor him for qualities which he did not in aiiywiV- sess. For several months, it is true, Caligula man- aged to conduct himself in a very praiseworthy manner. The abuses that had crept into the State, became to him an object of attention, CALIGULA AND CLAUDII 49 Caligula begins to reign well. and lie undertook their correction, with much apparent zeal. The institutions of Augustus, which had been disused during the reign of Tiberius were revived. The condition of the I{man provinces wa< investigated, and several of their governors removed on account of the corrupt conduct of which they were found guilty. Pontius Pilate was one of a number wlmni lie banished into Gaul; and here this unjust ruler afterwards committed suicide. A great many knights were driven from Rome, because of their infamous crimes; and a multi- tude of abominable practices w r ere abolished by his orders. The ancient manner of electing magistrates by the suffrages of the people was restored ; and some kings, w r ho had been un- justly deprived of their dominions, were placed again in possession of them. For these and many similar acts, he did not fail to receive the highest praise. A shield of gold, bearing his image, was ordered to be carried annually to the capitol, attended by the Senate, and the sons of the nobility ; and the day on which hu mounted the throne was inserted among the festivals. But this reign of virtue and good sense was of very short duration. Eight months had scarcely elapsed before all his moderation and 6 50 !PIKE OF His flrst acts of cruelty. clemency gave way to tlie most furious pas- sions, unexampled avarice, and capricious cru- elty. It is pretended by some that his mind became deranged by a di<Mnlcr which hap- [ to him a short time alter his am to the throne. This may ivally have been the : and it is very diilicult to account, other- . I'm- the extravagant cruelties and ridicu- ]ou< inc<- dea that are imputed to him. The iirst instance of cruelty related of him, wa- in the ca-e of a person named Politus, who. during the sickness of the emperor, v> tlia' he w>uld .-acrilice l\\> n\vn life to the if they would restore him to health. Caligula, on hi- having been informed of this devotedni->- of 1'olitus, actually compelled him to fulfil his vow. X,,t lo. this, he obliged (iemellus C'-heir with him to the em- to kill himself. Then he put to death Silenus. his own father-in-law, and (Iivcinus, a noted senator, who refu-ed to witne.-^ falsely again>t Silenus. Afier this, a multitude fell victims to his avarice or suspicion, and among them Macro, the very person to whom he was most indebted for the empire. But his vanity and extravagance soon gave rise to atrocities far surpassing any already mentioned. Not content with assuming the CALK; r LA A N D C LI r !>i us. 51 The n ;> paid to Caligula. highest hunian titles. In- upon being sty KM! a go.j. and actually caused the heals of tatues of Jupiter and of other deitie- bo he struck otl', and his own put in their pi, nently he would place hiin-v-lf between the images of and Pollux, and order all who came into their temple to pay their homage to him, in-tcad of the-e divinities. IK- evni can-ed a magnificent temple to be built and dedicated to himself, and in it placed his statue !d, which was dressed every day in cl< similar to thse worn by himself, and ad by crowds of worshippers. The priests of this U-mple v, numerous, and the offitv fly sought on account of the exquisite sac- rifices that were here offered up. Caligula's ,and his wile, were both among the num- ber of these pric ;. ridiculous as it may Necame one of them himself, and shipped his o\m image. In order to maintain ivtensions to divinity, he employed many inventions to imitate thunder, and would fre- quently defy Jupiter, crying out to him, " Con- quer me, or I will conquer you!" The envy and detestable lusts of this infa- mous man seem almost incredible, and were equalled only by his excessive prodigality. The luxuries of former monarch s were nothing 52 EMPIRE OF The Honors bestowed by Caligula upon bis compared with his. Tin-. ny thing that human ingenuity could contrive for the gratification of the sen-cs, that lie did not procure. Kven . 1 tasteless pearls >lved in the sauces which were }>laced upon his table, and his baths wer- vd of the richest wils and most precious i For his favorite horse Incitatus. he built ; of marble, with a manger of ivory. lie d Ibr the- animal a house tilled with < furniture and provided with a kitchen, in that all his vi-' ated with ]: respe ;iid thai lime- in- IncitatiN to dine at his own table, that i : have appointed him to tin sul>hip lial he not been ])i\-ventr<l ly death. Such if the folly of this man, that h iand in the mi< Mount;;' K-vrlled, and plains and valleys elevated, only to gratify hi- \\\ -t ab-urd j.ircr of extra' of which any human beinir was ever iruilty, '.rid t ire .i, which built durini:- the thinl year of \\\> rei^n. l-'or the purpose, simply, of calling himself n.: of the ocran as well as of the land, he c:i nn infinite number of >hips to be fa-ti-netl to each other, so as to make a lloatin^ bridge CALIGULA AND CLAUDIUS. 53 The fkmouB Bridge of Patooli :i to I'm -s an arm of th< :d a halt' in breadth. These ships ::i two rows and I aius, aii- 'henijm- !' timh. : : en laid, and 1, so that the le resembled one of the streets of IJ ; til houses, for the reception of himself and dants, were then built upon it: and when the whole was completed, he ar: - , hiniM-lf in the most u . and, by the great officers .inny all tlu- n..l,ii;ty, with a protli mlti- d at one end of the :id with ridiculous importance ro< ;hi-r. At night tlie im: torches and other illuminations withwhich this structure was adoi i up A hole bay and the surrounding re. ^torm, of course, demolished less fabric, and in a short time not a v< main' rk his folly. In a link- more than one year, the imm- berius to M all ex- vagance, and then to si: his v every species od pine , :i. All were di- rected to the n : i ient of his coi: 54 EMPIRE OF ROME. Caligula's methods of obtaining Money. Every thing in Home was taxed; freedmeii were obliged to purchase their freedom a second time ; and many who had named him as their heir, were poisoned, that he might obtain im- mediate possession of their fortunes. He even caused a gambling-table to be kept in his own dwelling. On a certain occasion, having been very unlucky, he ordered two rich knights to be apprehended, and, conliscating their e-tates, ted that lie never made a better throw in all his life. At <>ne time he complained open- ly of his poverty, and actually stood in the door nf his palace to the donations of his MibjecK Certain prison* nf the highest qual- enturingat one time to Maine his extrava- . he condemned them to dig in the mines, and to repair the highways. It is too sickening to read the follies and cruelties of a monster, who could wish ''that the people of Home had but one neck, that he might dispatch them all at a -in^le blow." The people, as -a matter of course, grew weary of his intolerable conduct, and conspir. were everywhere formed against him. The piracies were, however, arrested by an ex- pedition which he projected against the Ger- mans and the Britons. For this purpose he made the most extensive preparations. Im- CALIGULA AND CLAUDIUS. 55 xpedition against the Germans and Britons. numbers of troops were levied, mid war- like engines of every description constructed fr the great campaign. Every one believed, from the interest which he muni tested in the matter, and the energy which he displayed, that he would, at hist, do something for the glory of his own mime and that of the Roman. people. In due season the great army set out from Rome, with Caligula at their head. But such was his impatience to reach the countries which he proposed to overrun, that his cohorts were unable to carry along their standards. In a lays, however, hi less subsided, and tin 1 march continued then more like a funeral procession. AYhen, iinally, he arrived in Brit- ain, ho merely gave refuge to one of its ban- i>hed princes, and then, in a letter to the Sen- 'lescribed the action, as an achievement by which he had taken possession of the whole island. After this, turning his attention towards (iermany, he there, soon after, landed his victo- rious troops. Arranging his engines and war- like machines with great solemnity upon the sea-shore, and drawing up his troops in battle array, he went on board of his galley. Coast- ing up and down, as if for the purpose of seeing that every thing was right, he iinally ordered 56 EMPIRE OF K<>MK. absurd conduct in Germany. the trumpets to ho sounded, and the signal for enifjiireinent to he irivcn. Immediately, tlie troop-, who had been previously instructed, all stooped down upon the shore, and be^an to till their helmets with the .-hell- that lay here and there. This being done, he went on sin -re airain, and, assembling the army, ap- plauded them, in a pompous harangue, for their irreat achievement, ami caused it to he commemorated by the erection of a lofty lower. Incredible as it may seem, the Senate, upon }\\< return to Koine, alter this piece of folly, actually r him with th and spent a whole day in ]>rai-inir his perfonn- -. lint the iviirn !' ( 'alii:,,^ NV;l> o!rawin<r to a close. Many co: ire already ..n foot; but that which was defined to ril the 1 of \\i\< detestable tyrant, was < by Ca-s;:, ' a. a tribune of the Pnetorian bands, and a man of e\ <1 c.>urai r e. whom Caligula had takm every opportunity to ridi- cule, simply because he had an effeminate . Many of the most illustrious m 8, actuated by revenirc for }>ei-sonal inju- :uul indio-niti, . associated with him; and the downfall of Caligula was hastened by the appointment of Cherea to preside over the CALK \N i) CLATIHI W The conspiracy of Cherea Assassination of Caligula. tortu .iiid innocent female, for whom he entertained a great It wa- linallv agreed among the that Caligula should he attacked during the Palatine which continued lour days. JJnt, tin-.-- without any opportunity to carry out their d< - that the con-piracy nii^ht le di- vulged, and therefore determined that it should voinpli>hrd on tiu' r..llowinr day, at the moment that Caligula was to pass throuirh a pri- ^allery to BOOM hath-, not far distant from the pala -. thereupon, sta- d tliein in a suitable place, and d with irreat patience tor a t;iv.>rahle mo- . This linallv oreunvd. The emperor, mpany in which he was eiiji-yin^ \vards the hath, and on ivach- occujiied by the con-piratoi*8, a .-pranir upon him, and crxin^ out, "'l'yran% think upon tins!" struck him to the ground. The others imn rushed up.n the wretched man, and di.-jatched him, with thirty wounds. Thus, in the twenty-ninth year of his and after a reign of less than four years, died Cains Caligula, one of the g mongers that ever ruled in Rome. So bitter was the 58 EMPIEE OF EOME. Claudius made Emperor by the army. hatred of the people against him, that his wife and infant child were also put to death : the former was stabbed by a centurion, and the latter was dashed violently against a stone wall. Even the money, which bore his name and likeness, was melted down, by a decree of the Senate, in order, if possible, to obliterate his memory ; and the Senate, having so long suf- fered by the cruelty of tyrants, began to con- sult together concerning the restoration of their former liberty, and even talked boldly of ex- tinguishing the name of Caesar. But the very first step which they took towards the accom- plishment of this design, created alarm among the soldiers and the populace; and such a strong combination was immediately formed against them, that many lives were even sacri- ficed before any active measures had been adopted on either side. While every thing was yet in disorder, and neither the Senate nor the people knew pre- cisely what course to take, some soldiers, who were running about the town, discovered, acci- dentally, an uncle of Caligula, named Claudius, who had secreted himself in a quiet place, fear- ing K'.st his relationship to the late emperor might make him an object of revenge. Trem- bling from head to foot, he was dragged from CALIGULA AND CLAUDIUS. 59 Public works 'f Claudius. his retirement, with no other expectation than a sudden and awful death. But the senseless soldiers, taking him upon their shoulders, car- ried him to the camp, and proclaimed him em- r. Xor w<nld tlu-y listen to the remon- strances of the Senate, who, in order to prevent bloodshed, were obliged to pa a decree con- firming the election of the military, also to go and pay their homage to Claudius. This man, who thus nnex] notedly arrived at the height of power, was fifty years of when he began to reign. It is said that the faculties, both of his body and mind, had been, in infancy, so affected by disease, that he was wholly unfit for the position to which he was elevated. "Whatever truth there may be in this, it is quite certain that the commencement of his reign promised much for the people of Koine. Though he caused Cherea to be put to death, yet he exhibited a degree of mildne his conduct which had not, for a long time, been witnessed in the rulers of the empire. Justice was administered by him with great impartiality; and he was assiduous in hearing and examining the complaints even of the meanest of the citizens. Attentive to all the wants of the people, he kept the city well sup- plied with corn, and all the necessaries of life; 60 EMPIRE OF KOME. His efforts to promote the interests of the Empire. and the style of building which he encouraged, far surpassed any that had, hitherto, been adopted. Through his instrumentality, also, an immense aqueduct was constructed, by means of which water was brought for the use of the city, from a distance of forty miles, through high mountains and over deep valleys. He also made a haven at Ostia, at such amazing expense that his successors were unable to maintain it; and, in order to strengthen the current of the river Tiber, he turned into its channel the waters of the Lake Fucinus. Nor were the cares of Claudius directed to the city only. The most distant provinces en- joyed a share of his attentions. Whatever could conduce to their happiness and prosper- ity wa< eagerly promoted by him; and several princes of kingdoms dependent upon Home, who had been unjustly dispossessed by his pre- decessors, were restored at his command. The cruel edicts of Caligula were disannulled, and he refused to receive the worship which had been offered to the monarch who preceded him. Willing to gratify the people by foreign con- quest, he made preparations for a descent upon the island of Britain, which had, now, for a long time, been left in the undisturbed posses- CALIGULA AND CLAUDIUS. 61 War with the E. items. sion of its inhabitants. He had some difficulty, at first, in overcoming the great aversion of his soldiers to making war in a country which they judged to be beyond the limits of the world ; but they finally embarked, and the Britons, under the conduct of their king Cyno- belinus, were several times overthrown. Clau- dius went to Britain himself, that he might, in person, participate in the honor of conquest; but his stay was of no longer duration than six- teen days, when he returned to Rome, where lie was received with all the tributes which it had been customary to pay to the most distin- guished conqueror. Triumphal arches wore erected in his honor, and annual games insti- tuted to commemorate his victories. Plautius and Vespasian in the mean time continued the war in Britain, and, after a great many very bloody battles, finally reduced a portion of the island to a Roman province. But a new governor, named Ostorius, having been appointed to succeed Plautius, the Britons rose up in arms and disclaimed the Roman power. Another terrible war immediately en- sued. The Romans, with great difficulty, main- tained the honor of their arms ; and, indeed, so formidable was the resistance of the Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales, under their king 62 . EMPIRE OF ROME. Caractacus taken and sent to Rome. Caractacus, that the Roman general was nearly discouraged. These people removing the seat of war into the most inaccessible parts of their country, defended themselves with the greatest obstinacy, and for the space of nine years kept the Romans in the utmost terror. Finally, Caractacus, driven to extremes, gathered to- gether a powerful army, hoping, by one deci- sive battle, to be able to drive the invaders from his shores. Before engaging in it, he ad- dressed his countrymen with calm resolution, relating to them the glorious deeds of their an- cestors, and telling them that liberty or slavery depended upon their conduct. It was a terri- ble battle ; but nothing that undisciplined valor could do, was of any avail against the superior skill of soldiers and generals trained to the art of war. The army of Caractacus was cut to pieces, and the wife and daughter of this heroic 111:111 were taken prisoners. Caractacus himself was afterwards treacherously delivered into the hands of the conquerors, and sent as a sort of trophy to Rome, where the utmost curiosity prevailed to see a man who had, for so many years, braved the power of the Roman arms. "Alas!" cried he, as he was led in triumph through the streets of the city, " how is it possi- ble that people possessed of such magnificence CALIGULA AND CLATDILS. 63 Claudius becomes indifferent to the Empire. at home, should think of envying Caractacus an humble cottage in Britain?" The citizens of Borne gazed at him with astonishment, as he passed along the street; they seemed unable to realize the fact that there was upon the earth a man, who could dare to contend against a power like that of Rome. When he was brought be- fore the emperor, he refused to sue for pity, as did the other captives ; but Claudius had the generosity to spare his life. By this victory of Ostorius, the Britons were very much humbled, but not by any means subdued. New revolts followed one another in quick succession, and their country was the scene of continual warfare during the whole reign of Claudius. The emperor himself, who had commenced so well, began, in the mean time, to show less regard for the public wel- fare, both at home and abmad. Feeling, per- haps, his inability to manage alone the affairs of his empire, he left them almost entirely to those about him ; and, unfortunately, he hap- pened to be surrounded by the most evil-minded persons in the world. The chief of these was Messalina, his wife, whose name has almost become a common term to express female profligacy. Such was the sway borne by these insidious EMPIRE OF EOME. Conspiracies Eevolt of Camillas. advisers of the feeble emperor, that all offices, dignities, and governments were entirely at their disposal. Cruelties of every kind were also practised at their command ; and even the family of the emperor himself, was nearly ex- terminated through their instrumentality. As a very natural thing, conspiracies against the life of the emperor resulted from such disorders in the ministers of government. None of them were, however, productive of so much evil as the revolt of Camillus, the lieutenant-governor of Dalmatia. This general, supported by many of the leading men of Rome, openly rebelled against the emperor, and, assuming the title himself, threw Claudius in the utmost conster- nation. So great indeed was his terror, that when Camillus commanded him, by letter, to relinquish his empire and retire to a private station, he seemed actually inclined to obey, and, doubtless, would have obeyed, had not the legions under the command of Camillus de- serted their leader on account of some remark- able prodigies, by which they were greatly ter- rified. The scenes of horror which followed this event beggar all description. Messalina and her minions knew no bounds to their cruelty. They wrought so upon the fears and suspicions CALIGULA AND CLAUDIUS. 65 Story of Cecina Petus. of the emperor, that numbers were executed without trial or proof; and scarcely any, even of those who were barely suspected, escaped, except by the ransom of their lives with their fortunes. One of the most affecting incidents of this terrible affair, was the death of Cecina Petus, one of the unfortunate associates of Camillus. This illustrious man, immediately after the death of Camillus, had escaped with his affec- tionate wife Arria, into Dalmatia, where he hoped to be secure against the emperor's re- venge. But he was very soon apprehended, and put on board a ship, in order to be con- veyed to Rome. Arria begged earnestly to be permitted to accompany him, and even offered to perform the offices of a slave, if she might simply be allowed to be near the object of her affections. It was in vain, however, that she used entreaties ; she was not suffered to come on board the ship. But, determined not to be separated from her beloved husband, she procured a fisherman's bark, and sailed by the side of his vessel throughout the entire voyage. Arriving in Rome, she contrived to find access to his prison, and attended him faithfully, through a long and painful illness, resulting from his misfortunes. During this 66 EMPIBE OF ROME. Cruelties of Claudius. sickness their only son was suddenly attacked and carried off by a fatal disorder. But even this did not diminish the care of Arria for her husband ; she visited him with as much regu- larity as ever, and even managed to conceal from him their grievous loss, restraining her tears, and, in reply to the inquiries of Petus, saying that the child was " well," or " happy." And when, at length, the day was fixed, on which Petus was to die, she used every art to inspire him with resolution; but finding that he continued timid and wavering, she took a poniard, and, stabbing herself in his presence, presented it to him, exclaiming : " It gives me no pain, my Petus !" To such an extent were the terrors of Clau- dius excited by Messalina and her favorites, that he began, at length, to devote himself wholly to the work of slaughter. Frequently the very individuals with whom he was sup- ping, would be taken from the table and hur- ried to the place of execution, where they learned, for the first time, that sentence had been pronounced upon them. Some histo- rians affirm that thirty-five senators, and above three hundred knights were executed during his reign ; and such was his unconcern in the midst of cruelty, that one of his tribunes bring- CALIGULA AND CLAUDIUS 67 Death of Messalina Claudius marries Agrippina, ing him an account of a certain senator that was executed, he owned that he had quite for- gotten his offence, but calmly acquiesced in his punishment. In the mean time Messalina. his wife, con- ducted in such a shameful and outrageous manner towards him, that he became greatly enraged, and she was obliged to conceal her- self in order to escape instant death. Many of those who had conspired with her against the honor and peace of the emperor, were taken and put to death; and Messalina herself was finally discovered, and ordered to show the fal- sity of the accusations made against her. She i night, perhaps, have made a successful de- ilnee, by means of her great influence over Claudius, had not Narcissus, her accuser, under pretence of having the authority of the em- peror, given orders to the tribunes and centu- rions to destroy her immediately. The commaix} executed ; and when Claudius heard of her death, he manifested no emotion of any kind whatever. It is said that soon after this event, he made a public declaration that he would continue single during the rest of his life, as his mar- riage had been so unfortunate ; but it was not long before he espoused Agrippina, the daughter 68 EMPIRE OF ROME. Agripplna secures the empire for her son Nero. of his brother Germanicus, a woman who had poisoned her former husband, and who, if pos- sible, was even more wicked than the late em- press. Her character was not unknown to Claudius ; but, having always been under the government of women, he found his new situa- tion irksome. As soon as Agrippina had become a p'art- ner in the empire, she began to contrive means for setting aside the claims of young Britannicus, the son of Claudius and for securing the suc- cession to her own son Nero. For this pur- pose, a few days after her own marriage, she married Nero to the emperor's daughter Octa- via. and then urged the emperor to make, in imitation of his predecessors, a new adoption, advising him to take Nero as his associate in administering the affairs of government. It no diilieult mutter for her to succeed in this ; and Nero being thus placed in the road to advancement, she sought to increase his popularity, by" putting him under the tutorship of Seneca, a man much beloved and admired by the people, for his genius and strict morality. While Agrippina was thus doing so much for her own son, she pretended to have n affection for Britannicus, the son of her hus- band, the emperor. For this young, man she CALIGULA AXD CLAUDIUS. 69 Agrippina plots against her Husband. oxJiibited, outwardly, the tcnderest regard, while she was secretly plotting his destruction. But as there was no immediate neces-itv \\>r putting him out of the way, she applied her- self, first, to the removal of other and more l'i innidable obstacles to her ambition. Claudius c<>uld not be completely under her dominion, so long as his faithful friend Narcissus was at hand to warn and counsel him. Th minister, who had already delivered his mas- ter frt -in the hands of one abominable woman, i<>r, perhaps, slow to caution him a^, the devices uf another. Agrippinu discovered that Claudius bore her tyranny with great re- luctance; and it was reported to her that he had leeii heard to say that it was his fate to sutler from his wives, until forced to become their executioner. Such a speech was calcu- to alarm her, and she determined to rid herself of Narcissus, and thus acquire greater influence over Claudius. Success attended her efforts. Narcissus, un- able to counteract her designs, went, a voluntary exile, into Campania; and the poor emperor beheld himself, without a single friend, exposed to all the machinations of an insidious woman. Under these circumstances, his heart warmed, naturally enough, towards his son Britaiinicus ; 70 EMPIRE OF EOME. Claudius poisoned. and it was perceptible, every day, that his af- fection for the youth was steadily increasing. This served to arouse still more the jealousy of Agrippina. No crime was now too great for her to perpetrate ; and the death of her hus- band was resolved upon without the least hesi- tation. A notorious woman, named Locusta, was employed by her to prepare a potent poison, and to mix it with the favorite food of the em- peror. Having eaten it, the wretched man dropped down insensible ; but the dose did not prove fatal, and he would have, doubtless, re- red from its effects, had not an abandoned physician, been directed to thrust a poisoned leather down his thn>at, under pretence of ma- king hi in vomit. This put a period to his life, at the age of sixty-three, and in the fifty-fourth year of our Lord. THE LAST OF THE C^SARS, FEOM 66 TO 69 A. D. NERO proclaimed Emperor He begins his reign with clemency His mother deprived of her power Her efforts to regain it Disorderly conduct of Nero He plots against his mother He destroys her His passion for music His performances in the Circus His musical tour through Greece His return He causes Rome to be burned Perse- cution of the Christians Rebuilding of Rome Nero's palace A conspiracy against him Its consequences His treatment of Seneca Death of Seneca Further cruelties The Britons The Jews Revolt of Galba Nero's anger His absurd preparations for war His despair His flight and death. NEED'S EXPEDITION TO GREECE. III. TllK LAST OF THE CJESABS, NOTWITHSTANDING the disastrous reigns of the preceding emperors, the Roman Empire see to be in a pro.-perous condition when Nero, tlie last of the Caesars, ascended the throne. The number of the inhabitants of the city amounted to nearly seven millions; and, although there were no bounds to luxury and corruption, the military spirit of Rome still kept the world in awe. Nero did not ascend the throne, without still farther aid from his wicked mother. This abominable woman had been told by an astrolo- ger that her son would one day be emperor, and the cause of her death ; but her reply was : " Let him kill me, provided he reign ;" and, in accordance with this strong desire, she left nothing undone to place him in J.O-.M ion of the sovereign power. The murder of her hus- 76 EMPIRE OF EOME. Nero proclaimed Emperor. band the emperor was, through, her instrumen- tality, kept carefully concealed ; and eveiy thing was so adroitly managed, that, before his death had become known to the people, ar- rangements were made for securing the election of Nero. At the proper moment, this young man, then only seventeen years of age, accom- panied by Burrhus, prsefect of the Praetorian guard, appeared before the people and the army, as the successor of the departed emperor. Glad, perhaps, to be rid of a man who had otalilislu'd his authority by so many cruelties, they received the young claimant for empire with the loudest acclamations, though not with- out making some inquiries for Britannicus. By a well-concerted plan, these inquiries wi-iv all silenced; and Nero, having made the most Mattering promises, after the manner of his pre- decessors, was without difficulty proclaimed emperor by the army, the Senate, and the people. Indebted so much to Agrippina for his em- pire, he submitted, at first, to her directions, with the most implicit obedience ; and she, taking advantage of her power, resented, in the most terrible manner, all the offences, fancied or real, which had been committed against her. Si la mis, the pro-consul of Asia, Narcissus, the LAST OF TIIK C.KSARS. 77 He begins to reign with _riv;it mildnett. favorite of her late husband, and many others, put to death to gratit'v her desire of re- 58. But her cruelties found strung opposi- tion in Seneca and Burrhus, the tutor and gen- eral of Nero, who succeeded in gaining him on their side, and in forming a plan of g<>\ eminent mereiful and wise. So long, indeed, as Nero -d to the counsels of the-e worthy men, his reign eontinued to be a model for succeed- ing princes. During a period of live \var-. he no exhibitions of his innate depravity. Strict jn- vat liberality and humanity, marke<l all his actions; and so agnvable were his manners, that the Romans began to praise the gods for haying sent them a prince who would make amends for the tyranny of those who had preceded him. But a reign which commenced with so much clemency was destined to terminate with the most barbarous cruelty. Agrippina, the mother of Nero, could not endure the loss of p which she experienced, in consequence of the iniluence exerted over the young monarch by his counsellors, Seneca and Burrhus. She de- termined, if possible, to regain her former au- thority, and, to this end, resorted to every arti- fice. Nero, encouraged constantly to oppose her cruelties, deprived her, by degrees, of the 70 78 IMRE OF HOME. Nero's mother angry at her loss of power Her efforts to regain 1L L8 which .-he possessed of doing mischief; hut. liuving gone s> far as to displace her chief fevorite, 1'allas, she fell into the most ungov- ernable i'liry. and proclaimed that Xero was an usurper, and that Dritannicus, the real heir to the throne, was still living, and in a coin; t<> receive his father's empire. She even threat- ened Nero with the declaration that she would present herself before the army, and thei pose liis baseness, as well as her own. These menaces lilled him with alarm. lie knew very well that the claims of IJritannicus to the tl, NT than hi- own; hut he had never bet'nv thought of doing him a personal injury. T: . however, tin. cited, of losing his p&Wer, h-d him me<litate the death of JJritannicus, and he eventually brought it ab>ut. by in.- adini: to him at a ban. Th.mirh A-'i-ippina was thus de]>rived of a rt'ul mean> <>f territyinir her >>n Ni-ro into compliance with her wi>hes. she \va< not totally di>armed. By bribing and ;' the tri- bunes and centurions, she endeavored to create ng, and even succeeded in making h. somewhat formidable to him. The result of this Avas, that A'ert> di>banded the (-ii-rniau guard which she wa- }ermitted to have about LAST OF THE C.ESARS. 79 from the Ttain ] 1 her, hi mpt with ny. ifl as if Nero was be- >S and less influenced by . ;i-els ; llurrlius. Alth> by the former, with liter;-. 1 iniide acquaint .<!, lv tin- la with cverv ti. . lu- lu-iran, linal- he coin]- persons, and to alandin hiniM-lf t" tin- si-s. IK- Mviiu-d t> take a sti 'it in running ahout tlie city, ly ni- tin- di>^ui-f nt' a .-lave, and in comniittin. B96B, in which lu- not only endan- 1 the lives uf others, but also his own. lid he take any pains to !, attributed it to ked it for the sake of his liberality and kindness as a ruler. But t of his own are repinled hint as an example worthy to imitate, and the city was, in < ([uence, filled i^ht with tumult and dis- ordt-r. i is of tli e rules of de- cency, Nero at length parsed to the commission 80 EMPIRE OF KOME. Bad influence of Poppea He plots against his mother. of the greatest enormities. For some trifling reason, he abandoned his wife Octavia, and married Poppea, the wife of his favorite Otho, a woman as much celebrated for beauty as she was notorious for the want of eveiy virtue. At this circumstance his mother Agrippina pre- tended to be greatly shocked ; and she lavished the most disgraceful epithets upon Poppea. She sought, also, by every device, to gain the favor of her son ; but this was now a more diffi- cult matter than before, for, in addition to his own disinclination to receive her, she had also to contend with the resentment of his new wife, who possessed a powerful influence over him. Tim nigh this infamous woman, he was doubt- less induced, finally, to cause his mother's death. He was not yet so hardened in iniquity as to proceed to such a crime at once. Poppea pre- pared him for it by degrees, inciting him, at first, to tease Agrippina with lawsuits, and to employ mean people to sing satirical songs un- der her windows. At last he was induced to believe that he was not sure of his throne so long as Agrippina lived ; and then he resolved to put her forever out of his way. His first at- tempt was by poison ; but Agrippina kept her- self so well fortified by antidotes, that this was quite impracticable. He then endeavored to LAST OF THE CAESARS. 81 He succeeds in destroying her. have her drowned while upon an excursion to the coast of Calabria, but failing in this also, he resolved to put her to death openly. That a deed so unnatural might, however, have some appearance of justice, he caused a report to be circulated that Agrippina had conspired against him ; and a poniard was dropped at his feet by a person who pretended that lie had been em- ployed by her to assassinate him. Nero en- deavored to get Seneca and Burrhus to approve of his horrible design. But Seneca would not say a word in reply to his solicitations, and Burrhus declared that he would have nothing to do with such a piece of enormity. At last one of Nero's freedmen, named Ani- cetus, offered to perform the dreadful service; and, placing himself at the head of a company of soldiers, he proceeded to the dwelling of Agrippina. The house was surrounded, and an entrance to the apartment containing the un- happy woman having been forcibly effected, this vile wretch, accompanied by some mem- bers of his crew, found himself in the presence of his victim. Agrippina knew, at once, that her doom was sealed ; but, waving her hand towards the ruffians, she cried out : " If you come to inquire after my health, you may in- form the emperor that I am better ; but if you 82 KM i> i K K 'OF EOMK. Nero's passion for music. come with any worse intention. YOU alone, and not my son, must be guilty !" In reply, a club was immediately dashed against her head, but not with fatal effect. Anicetus then drew his sword, to dispatch her. Observing his action, she tore, open her robe, and, presenting her naked bosom, exclaimed : " Strike here, for this place gave nourishment to a m>n-- This dreadful deed was defended before the te, on the following day, by Nero hii and the Senate not only excused, but even ap- plauded it. It seems strange that a man who could be guilty of such an awful crime, should have a ion for arts that soften and refine the heart. Thi- was, however, the case; and it is said that he had been addicted to them from IIN childhood. The principles of music were among ],is earliest studies; and, as soon as he ;ded the throne, he placed himself under the nio^i celebrated masters, and submitted, with the utmost patience, to all their instruc- tions. Notwithstanding all his assiduity, he still p'. e ed a feeble and unplea-ant voice. I5ut a person in his position c>uld not fail to lind tlmse who were ready to listen to his tire- some performances, and to rank him among the finest musicians in the world. 1. ;:s. > one of his favorite pmvuits. It is said tliat he never missed the circus when chari were to be exhibited At fiist he attended in a private way; then he appeared publicly; and, finally, 1 tenni.'ied to take a prominent part in them If'. K very tiling was done by his coun- sellors Seneca and Burrlms, to prevent him from illy with .iirnity of his station; but 'eing all in vai: >uud in the valley of tlu- \'ati- .\lu-i-e he lirst exhibited his teats of 1 man -hip to a few chosen spectators, and, finally, 1 who desired to attend. Not. oo&tent with the praises be-t.\ V i-d upon him for tlu-e performances, he determin- he people sp - of his mu-ical abili- and, with this de - called Juveniles, at which he ap- d upon the stage, surrounded by ccnturi- .nd tribunes, and tuning his instrumunt to his voice, li' ajer of Ion- 'ence. The ]>i-opK' ? who were afraid to do other pleasure at this pitiful ex- hibition; and the royal mu>:< so much gratified by their demonstrations, that he re- solved to make the tour of his empire, and give 84 EMPIRE OF HOME. Ills expedition to Greece. everybody an opportunity to witness his skill. His first exhibition, after leaving Rome, was at Naples, the immense theatre of which was crowded to suffocation, and then closed, so that no one, by leaving the place, might disturb the great performer. The people, notwithstanding their eagerness to gain admission, soon became weary <>f the emperors wretched music, and some of them leaped, Stealthily, from the walls, or ] >retended to fall into swoons, in order that they might be earned out. An old senator, named a-ian, barely escaped with his life, for bring so disrespectful as to go to sleep. It was not very long before reports of the strange act ions of the emperor reached Greece; and the cities of that country sent deput! Koine, inviting him to give them a taste of his musical perl- -nuances. These deputies >w- ceeded so well in gratifying his vanity, that he prepared, without delay, to go int.- where he -pent the whole of the ensuing year. The retinue winch accompanied him upon this journey, resembled a vast army, but it was composed only of singers, dancers, tailors, and other attendants upon the theatre. Thus 6E I'd, he travelled throughout all the cities of Greece, exhibiting himself at their games, and carrying off no fewer than eighteen hundred LAST OF THE C.ESARS. 85 return to Rome. awarded to him, it' not ly merit, at p. On his ivtuni. lif entered Na- a breach in the walls of the city, an honor which "nled to tho-e who cun.juerors in the Olympic panics. But his entrance into Rome was splendid, beyond de- ll ere, dressed in purple r- with wild olive, he made hi- aj hariot of Augustus. In his <>wn hand he bore the Pythian chaplet, while the hundred crowns which had been ac- 1 t him were carried in advance. By Me sat Diodorus, a celebrated n and in 1 followed a legion of singers, who chanted in honor of his victories. The Sena 1 j>eople, filled the air with their acclamations; all the streets smoked with incense; victims were slain on hand ; the pavements were strewed with .-atl'ron, and g and ribbons were show- upon the emperor from every window as he pa<>ed al Such were, for a long time, the amusements < >f Xero ; but li n g? eventually, to satisfy him, lie began a course of extravagance and cruelty, which has placed his name among the first of those who have rendered themselves objects of an unmitigated hatred. A recital of 8 EMPIRE OF ROME. He causes the city to bo set on fire. all his crimes would not only be too disgusting to read, but would form a volume by themselves. The brutal murder of his own mother fitted him for the commission of every enormity; and, by turns, he destroyed Domitia, his aunt, Burrhus, his faithful counsellor, and Octavia, his wife. " My predecessors," said he, on one of these occasions, " did not know the rights of monarchy ; people may hate me, if they only fear mo.*' Murder alone, failing, at last, to satisfy his love of cruelty, he endeavored to season it by different horrible accompaniments. For the purpose of gratifying tins terrible appetite, he caused, on one occasion, the city of Rome to be set on thv in >i-\vral places; and then, dress- ing himself in the costume of an actor, mmi one of the highest towers of hi< palace, to enjoy the scone, and to ropeat :; a theatrical manner, upon the do-t ruction of Troy. For nino days this terrible fire continued to burn, with the most disastrous effects. Thousands upon thousands of people were turned horn and penniless in the streets. The most beauti- ful monuments of art and of history were leveled to the dust; and the whole city pre- sented such an aspect of wretchedness, as it is not in the power of language to depict. LAST OF THE CAESARS. 87 The persecution of the Christians. JJut such a vast amount of misery <?<>uld not be oc 1 without some exhibition of indig- natio- BO; and Nero, tearing that he might have carried his enormities somewhat too far, denied any a :iair. and charged the whole guilt of it upon the Chris- tians, wlio were now becoming quite numerous in Rome. In aence of this false ace tion, the most terrible persecution v menced again-f theso unfortunate and inn< Nothing could exceed the crue' the treatment whu-li they received at the hands of this hearth-^ wretch. Throughout every portion of the city tl: huntvd like wild - : and many of them, actually dre-sed in the si limals, were forced into t of furious dogs, who killed and devoured them. Some were crucified, and others were burned alive. At times the whole city would be lighted by the fagots that were kindled about the bodies of these unhappy beings; while the emperor, dressed up like a cliari- himself with their tortures. It was during this terrible persecution that St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter crucified, with his head down- ward. But this barbarous treatment of the Chris- tians did not serve to rid the emperor of the 88 EMPIRE OF ROME. Rebuilding of Eotne Nero's palace. suspicion, that the conflagration of Rome was the work of nis own hands ; and well aware that everybody believed him to be the author of it, he endeavored, if possible, to establish his innocence, by causing the city to be rebuilt in a far more splendid manner than it was be- fore. The work went on with the greatest rapidity, and Rome, in the end, became more magnificent than ever ; but nothing could ex- ceed in splendor the new palace of Nero. Such was its extent, that within its very walls were inclosed parks, lakes, and vineyards. The apartments were adorned with the richest metals and the most precious jewels. The ceiling of the principal chamber was movable, turning around in imitation of the starry firmament; and tile I'litrance to the palace was so spacious, as to admit a colossal statue of the emperor one hundred and twenty feet in height. But when this magnificent building was completed, Nero took possession of it with the very quiet observation that, now, he was lodged like a man. The rebuilding of Rome, and especially of the palace of Nero, was not accomplished with- out extortions of every kind, and in every direc- tion ; still his subjects, with the exception of the Christians, had comparatively little to com- LAST OF THE C^SARS. 89 'quences of the conspiracy against Nero. plain of liis cruelties. These cruelties had been, hitherto, chiefly confined to his own kindred ; but, at length, the discovery of a iracy formed against him, caused his bru- tality to be felt on every hand. Many of the principal families of Rome were engaged in this conspiracy, and, consequently, a -rear num- ber of the chief men of the city fell victin his wrath. Among these was the celeb rat CM! poet, Lucan ; also, the famous philosopher, ca, who had always been the friend and faithful counsellor of Nero. It is true that Seneca, after vainly endeav- oring to correct the evil propensities of the emperor, had virtually withdrawn the assistance of his valuable advice, by retiring from court into solitude and privacy ; but it is by no means certain that he was of the number of those who plotted against his life. Nero, however, either because he believed him guilty, or for the sake of his wealth, or on account of the hatred of his virtues, determined upon his death, and, accordingly, sent a tribune to notify him that he was suspected of being concerned in the conspiracy. Seneca received the tribune, and listened to his communication without the slightest exhibition of fear; and this was reported to the cruel emperor, who immedi- 90 EMPIRE OF ROME. Nero's treatment of Seneca Death of Seneca Fuither cruelties. ately cried out: "Then go to him again, and give him my orders to die !" But even this terrible command had no effect upon the calmness of Seneca. He simply asked permission to make some alterations in his will, in favor of some friends who happened to be with him at the time. This privilege be- ing, however refused to him, he turned to his friends and said: "Since I am not permitted to leave vim any marks of my affection, at least I leave you one legacy, more precious than all the rest my examp! The only favor which ^Xero was willing to grant to Seneca, was the choice of the manner of his death. The philosopher, accordingly, ean-ed hi- vi-ins to be opened : but. impatient at the slowness of the operation, he demanded poison ; and this Wing also tardy in its elfect, as finally di-owm-d in a warm bath. It is Faid that during li\< Hillerings he dictated a discourse to his seeretary, which was afterwards read with the" utmost eagerness by the people, who held Seneca in the greatest reverence. The consequence of this conspiracy against Nero was to fill the whole city with slaugh- ter, and i rightful instances of treason. Every- where people took advantage of it, to avenge themselves of private injuries. Slaves accused LAST OF i ESARS. 91 Queen Boatlice* Tl.e Jews. their masters of being concerned in it; and in .iklren v, enough to make it instniinental in causing the destruction of their parents. All the country surrounding as occupied by soldiers, who were in pursuit of the suspected and the guilty, and crowds of wretches, loaded with chains were, every day, Id-ought up to the palace gates to .eir sentence from the bloody tyrant, who to>k a peculiar plea-ure in pronouncing it with his own lips. The Roman governors in the different prov- inces of the Empire seemed to be more >r leas influenced by the terrible example of the emperor; and, in some instances, their crucl- so great as to cause open revolt on the part of their Mihjeei<. This was the case among the Untuns \vli- , under the conduct of their queen, Boadicea, rose up again>t the Ro- man power, u 1 London, and massacred ;'y thousand of their enemies. They were, however, finally subdued, and Boadicea herself, seeing her destruction inevitable, took poison, rather than fall into the hands of her merciless victors. A revolt also took place among the Jews, in consequence of the oppression which they experienced from the Roman governors, one of 92 EMPIRE OF ROMP:. Sergius Galba proclaimed emperor. whom went so far as to issue a public procla- mation, in which he permitted the country to be plundered, on condition that the spoils should be equally divided with himself. Nor did the infamous Nero attempt to check the outrages committed by those who represented him abroad. There now remained nothing monstrous or inhuman, of which this tyrant had not been guilty. All those who >hould have been nearest and dearest to him, had fallen victims to his insatiable cruelty; even his wife Poppea, for whom he had sacrificed the Empress Octavia, had been killed by a blow from his own foot; and the valiant generals, who had led on his armies to victory, were, one by one, slain at. his command; still, he appeaivd in nowise weary of his horrible employment.-, and continued to pursue them with nndiminished activity. But human nature, at last, grew weary of such un- mitigated wrongs, and the whole world seemed to rise up with a determination to get rid of so terrible a monster. The first declaration made against him was by the legions in Gaul, under the command of Julius Yindex. This valorous general resolved that he would no longer serve a man, who had proved himself far worse than the very worst LAST OF THE C^ESAKS. 93 's reception of the news of this conspiracj. of brutes : and he accordingly proclaimed as emperor, Sergius Galba, a brave old general, who was then the governor and head of the legions in Spain. Nero was at Naples when he received the news of this revolt. He seemed to feel but lit- tle concern, as to the safety of his empire, though he heard with great indignation, the ridicule which the manifestoes of Vindex throw upon his musical talents. "While the epithets of tyrant and murderer did nt ait'ect him in thi r galled him .sadly to In* called a miserable j and as he read what Yindex had written a^ain>t him, he frequently turned to those about his person, and inquired whether it was possible, that one who had studied music so long and carefully should de- such treatment. Jle determined, how- ever, to have his revenge, and, accordingly, set a reward of ten millions of s> upon the head of Yindex, and then repaired to Rome, where the utmost consternation prevailed on account of the revolt, concerning which, the reports were every hour becoming more and more exciting. Soon after his entrance into the city, he called together a number of his favorites in the Senate, for the purpose of taking some meas- 94: EMPIRE OF ROME. Galba's revolt Nero's anger. ures to subdue the party of Yindex; but in- stead of laying the matter before them, in or- der to obtain their advice, he produced a number of musical instruments, designed to be played upon by water, and entered into a long explanation of their mechanism, advan and defects, adding, in an ironical tone, that he " hoped, with the consent of Yindex, to exhibit these instruments upon the theatre."' Many days, however, did not elapse, before intelligence reached Koine of ti it of Galba. ! at his supper table, when the news arrived; and >o g tfi the terror with which he was struck, on learning ction of this great general, that he turned over the table with his font, and fell into a swoon. On recovering there from, he tore his . and hair, exclaiming that he frantic, in. ii become, th re all - of the different provinces, mur- der every one .of the Gauls in Rome, poison the whole Senate, burn up again the citv. and turn the lions, kept for the purposes of the theatre, loose upon the people. Finding, i . that no particular advantage could be derived from such extravagance, even if it were practicable, he more wisely concluded to meet his enemies. LAST OF THE r.ESARS. 95 Hi* absurd preparations for war His despair. But his usual folly w 1 in the pre- 'ions which he made for this purpose. A large arn deed raised, and pro- perly equipped, but 1. > pro- ample conveyances for hi al instru- ments, h 1 dancers, also to div the o of Amazons a large number of unprincn :nen, upon whose services he much relied. In the midst of these absurd preparations, Intel ii \ as brought to Rome that se\ other province had :. . and that the whole empire wa- ready to shake off the yoke of the eriii-1 : A portion of the army of alien upon, and routed the - under the e-'inmand of Vindex, but the us troops were immediately in to turn their arms against the peror. Indeed, the r< , now so general that I e to lind in except his b- d to light in his behalf, provided himself with poison, as a preparative against the worst, and resolved to make his escape into Egypt. But, upon inviting the few soldiers around him to accompany him in his flight, they all excused the . under different pretexts, and, before midnight, deserted him, and proclaimed themselves in favor of Galba. 96 K M P I K E OF ft < ) .\[ E . His flight Phaon's protection. Ascertaining his forlorn condition, he sprang from his bed, and desired a favorite gladiator, who happened to be near, to dispatch him with his sword ; but the gladiator fled from his presence, and the wretched Nero, only partly dressed, rushed from his palace with the deter- mination to plunge into the Tiber. But the poor coward, unable to encounter death, stopped before he reached the river-side, and meeting Phaon, one of his freedmen, begged of him a place of shelter. Phaon took pity on him. and conducted him four miles from Rome, t<> his country house, into the back part of which lie n -I -tealthily, creeping through the reeds and brambles, with which the place was over- run. I hit I Mini m and the two or three domestics who were with him, soon grew weary of their charge, fr they knew that, ere long, the emissaries of the Senate would be in pursuit of the bloody tyrant; and Nero, moreover, did nothing, after he reached tliB house, but moan, and groan, and act in the most outrageous manner. Phaon endeavored, therefore, to persuade him to de- stroy himself, urging upon him that he would doubtless be put to a cruel death, if he fell into the hands of his enemies. Nero consented, and bade Phaon and the servants to go and dig him LAST OF THK CJKSARS. 97 Nero's dread of death. a flfrave, unl bring the water necessary t wash his body; but when the dagger was placed in his hand, he could not summon resolution enough to strike. On the next day a diligent search was made in Rome lr Xero, but he could not be found; und the S -embling, pronounced him an enemy of the State, and sentenced him to be stripped naked, and scourged to death. A re- port of their proceedings having been carried to him, he seized a poniard in each hand, and, jning closely their points, returned them to their scabbard-. that his hour had not yet come. But he knew that this hour was close at hand, and that the soldiers of the Sen- ate were perhaps even then riding towards his place of concealment. He began, therefore, to reproach himself, exclaiming : " Does this be- come Nero ? Is this trifling well timed ? No, no: let me be courageous!" and, while thus engaged, the clatter of approaching horses fell upon his ear. Again he seized a dagger, and placed its point against his throat ; but, unable still to drive it in, he begged one of the ser- vants to assist him ; and the noise of the pur- suers increasing without, the servant, in pity, gave the poor wretch the fatal stab. The sol- diers of the Senate rushed into the room just 9 98 EM FIRE OF ROME. Eejoicings at Rome. as he fell. One of them tried to stanch the wound, but Nero, with his last breath, told him that it was now too late ; and thus he died, in the thirty-second year of his age. The news of the death of this dreadful tyrant was received at Rome with demonstrations of the greatest joy ; and couriers were dispatched to Galba, and to all the provinces, to relate the happy tidings. The people went about the city with liberty-caps upon their heads, singing, and dancing, and expressing their satisfaction in every possible manner. All the statues of the emperor were also thrown down and de- stroyed, while thousands went to the house of Phaon to view his lifeless body, and to triumph over his death. TRANSIENT RULERS. FROM 69 TO 71 A. D. GALBA'S severity His reforms His avarice Disparaging stories Jealousy He adopts a successor Otho's scheme to obtain the throne Assassination of Galba Otho a the throne His first acts Revolt of Vitellius Cent. tween Otho and Vitellius Defeat of Otho Its effect upon him His death Vitellius marches to Home His indolence and gluttony He incurs the odium of the people ^> siau resolves to displace him His preparations to this Antoiiins sent against Vitellius Civil wars Success of Vespasian Execution of Vitellius. IT. TRANSIENT RULERS. THE reign of Nero, the last of the line of the irs, was followed by a few months of civil di-rird, during which three emperors succes- sively ascended the throne, the first of whom wn- Scrvius Galba, a distinguished general, whose native virtues and great abilities marked him as a man eminently qualified for such a responsible position. It is true that he was quite advanced in age, being already in his SL'Nvnty-si'cniid yoar; but he still possessed re- markable vigor both of body and mind. The nomination to the throne had been in nowise desired by him ; and it is even said that when he received it, he was so disturbed at the idea of being elevated to such a dignity, that he contemplated suicide. A message from the Senate announcing the death of Nero, and naming him as the successor to the throne, de- 9* 102 EMPIRE OF KOME. Galba's severity His reforms. termined him, however, to assume the empire ; and taking, therefore, the title and ensigns of royalty, he set forth from Spain, where he was then in command, to Rome. As he approached the city, an immense body of mariners, whom ISTero had enlisted among the legions, went out to meet him, and demanded a confirmation of the favor granted to them by his predecessor. Galba endeavoring to defer an answer to their request, they considered the delay as equivalent to a denial, and behaved in a very disrespectful manner, insisting upon an immediate response, and even brandishing their arms in token of a determination to com- pel him to grant their wishes. Without a mo- ment's hesitation, Galba gave orders to a largo body of horse to march among them, and seven thousand were slain upon the spot. These mariners, doubtless, deserved some pun- ishment for their insolence, but the severity exercised upon this occasion was illy calculated to make a favorable impression upon the peo- ple over whom he had just been called to rule. Besides this, he began, as soon as he ascended the throne, to root out, in the most violent man- ner, the vices which had grown so enormously during the previous reign ; also to replenish the treasury, now exhausted by the prodigality of TRANSIENT EULERS. 103 His avarice Disparaging stories. his predecessors. These things were certainly commendable in themselves, though undertaken somewhat prematurely, for the people of Rome were not altogether prepared to step at once from the depths of vice to the summits of vir- tue. Galba, therefore, soon acquired the name of an austere and avaricious man ; and all man- ner of ridicule was heaped upon him, and sto- ries of every kind were circulated in regard to his meanness, and in disparagement of his in- tellect, and even of his honesty. There was indeed some reason to believe that his fondness for money exceeded his love of justice, for, not long after his return to Rome, he caused all the bloody ministers of Nero's cruelties to be pub- licly executed, with the exception of the most notorious of them all, who was said to have purchased his pardon by the sacrifice of his wealth. It is however, a matter of much doubt, whether this, and other equally unworthy acts are to be directly attributed to Galba. He was, unfortunately, too much under the in- fluence of these unprincipled men, who took every opportunity to abuse his confidence, and by whose conflicting counsels, he soon rendered himself an object of contempt among his sub- jects. It is far more than probable, that the EMPIRE OF HOME. Jealousies Qalba adopts a successor. criminal acts imputed to him, had their origin in these cunning and selfish counsellors. Be tliis as it may, the people were very soon lislied with their new emperor, and were v to change him for another, whenever an opportunity occurred." Galbahad beenelev npire, through the instrumentality of the army in Spain, and nuw, jealou-' in to spring up in the armies of the other provinces, who desired the achievement of something similar. One of the armies in Germany <-ially de-irous of placing their gene- ral. Yiti-llius, up"ii the throne; and, when, in due time, they were called to take the oaths of homage and fidelity to (ialba, they re1 emperor, and demanded thai the supreme authority should be vested in their general, Yitellius. Having no children, and believing that lie would be able to strengthen his position by the adoption of some one as his heir and succi >\m his determination, and was at :med to adopt Marcus Salvius , formerly a confidant of Xero, and pro- il in Lusitania. Otho himself besought him to declare in his favor, and urged his ser- - in procuring for him the empire. Hut Galba had already determined that Piso Lu- TRANSIENT .11 ri.Kiis. 105 Otho's scheme to obtain tbp throne Assassination of Galba. cinianu-. a man of great virtue-, -houhl be his lieir; and when hi> adoption was publicly made, Otho resolved t- -Main the empire by t'.rce. of money which lie was enabled to borrow, Otho bribe <1 snio of the oflicers of the Pnetorian bands, and through their influene succeeded in corrupting the fideHty of the soldiers themselves. So much power had he acfjuircd over them within the short space of eiirlu days, that he hesitated no long* '.are to them, in a lengthy sp- his determioatioi] .d the throne. (Jalba :iati/i-d by him as cnieUnd avarir and unworthy of the empire; and when the harangue of Otho was concluded, the soldiers him upon their shoulders, and, with drawn ds, carried him into their camp, and pro- claimed him emperor. The news of this revolt was a dreadful blow to Galba, but a report of Otho's sudden death having immediately succeeded it, he regained his courage, and, buckling on his armor, rode forth into the Forum, accompanied by a num- ber of his folio wers. Just at this moment, a company of Otho's troops entered the place from an opposite direction. Observing the emperor in a comparatively defenceless condi- tion, they rushed upon him with murderous 106 EMPIRE OF ROMP:. Otho ascends the throne. design. Galba, perceiving that it was impos- sible to save his life, rode forward from the midst of his followers, to meet the assassins ; and, bending his head over his horse's neck, bade the foremost of them to strike it off, if it tor the good of Rome. This was accom- plished in the twinkling of an eye, and the head, being stuck upon a pole, was taken to Otho, who ordered it to be carried about the camp in the most contemptuous manner. The body of Galba, after lying several days in the stree^ finally buried by some of his friends. Thus, in the seventy-third year of his age, and at't> _rn of on a months, died another of the emperors of Rome. As soon as tli nation of Galba had become generally known throughout the city, UN* and the people rushed to the camp of Otho, ta pay him their homage, and to con- gratulate him on his success. Such a hearty approval of his conduct inspired the new em- : with the utmost confidence, and In forth at once from his camp to the S chamber, where he received the titles and cn- - of royalty. Thence he went to his palace, was evinced by his subsequent behavior, to make himself a ruler worthy of the ct and admiration of his subjects. TRANSIENT KULERS. 107 His first acts. One of the first of his acts was to pardon all those who had opposed most strenuously his efforts to obtain the empire ; and the very man who had taken the most active part against him, lie advanced to an office of the highest tru-t. Immediately after this, he caused the most notorious minister of Nero's cruelties, wlinm <4alba had suffered to escape, to be ar- rested and punished a- he deserved. Then ho recalled to the city those who had fled from it, to avoid the rage of Xero ; and restored to them, and to all others, the possessions of which they had been robbed by this men tyrant. Hut the reign which promised so much hap- piness to Rome, was destined to be of even shorter duration than that of Galba. Aulus iius, the commander of the legions of T Germany, had long desired to make himself master of the empire, and, by means of large expenditures of money, together with the most, extravagant promises, he had suc- ceeded in gaining over to his wishes the oiV. and soldiers under him. These men, asserting that they had as much right as the cohor Rome to choose an emperor, proclaimed Vitel- as their choice, and boldly declared that they were ready to maintain his cause by an 108 KMPIRE OF ROME. Revolt of Vitellius. appeal to arms. The greatest consternation prevailed in the city, when the news of this revolt arrived ; and no one, perha[. ivg retted, more than Otho, the evils likely to ensue from it. Though formerly a weak, vicious, an<l de- bauche<l man, Mnce hi- elevation to the empire incd to have lu-en iran-forined into an- other heing. Tlie welfare of his people was now apparently nearest to his heart, and hene- volence, humanity, and patriotism charade all his actions, Cm. QO doubt, that the wliich he had raised liiin-clt' to JM.\V- er, were n. ln-ttcrthan those now about to bo empl'vrd against him ly Vitellius, he found 1111 cliai-p- airainst his rival, which coiihl not he l.rouirht with c|ual force against himself. It was tlh-n-tniv with extreme n-luctance that lie n t<> march out airain>t the h-L'ions of Vitelliu8, which v . upon their way to Italy. Xor would he consent to this at all. until after he had first d to >hare the em pi re with his rival, and had done every thing in his power to avert the i\\< of war. When there seemed to be no alternative hut hhiods-hed, he collected a powerful army, which he accompanied a- far as the city of Drixellum, and thence sent forward under the TRANSIENT IXTLERS. 109 Coi; ( Uho and Vitcllius Defeat of Otbo. of his two generals, Suetonius and Vitellius himself, remaining in Gaul, had dispatched seventy thousand men, under the command of Valens and Cecina, towards Rome. These hostile armies encountered one another in due season ; and, during three suc- v- da\-, three bloody fights ensued, in all of which the legions of Otho were successful, though not completely victorious. At length, however, the generals of Vitellius rect reinforcements from Gaul, and another jv ii icnt took place, in which the troops of Otho, although at first apparently victorious, were forced to fly midst a most terrible slaugh- ter. Otho hiin>elf was at Brixellum, anxiously awaiting some tidings from the lield of battle. came the news that his legions had Boo- ed in capturing the eagles of the enemy; then that they were near to victory ; but at length no messenger at all arrived, and he began to chide his officers for not attending to their duties. Finally a poor soldier who had be- longed to his now scattered army came in, covered with blood and dust, and related to him the dreadful termination of the battle. Otho was loth to believe the terrible intelli- gence ; and the flatterers by whom he was sur- 10 110 KMPIRE OF EOME. Its effect upon him. rounded accused the soldier of cowardice and hood. This was more than the poor fel- low could endure, so he drew his sword, and, plunging it through his o\v;i body, told them that thus he was willing to prove that he was neither a coward nor a liar. Such was the effect produced upon Otho by the death of this faithful soldier, that he im- mediately exclaimed that he would no !< be the cause of the destruction of such valiant men ; th; 'iild die himself, and thus .-ave his country frm further calamity. The friends around 61 --d to cheer his mind, and * .-till further effort- against his enemie- ; but it was all in vain ; and, in the ; time, the officers, and many .f th- -my coming near, he turned and thu- ad-' tern : "I es ar more glorious than tl don, siin- 9 convinced me of ion. I must however enl me iavnr more ; which is to die, in ordi procure your safety ; I can never so much ad- vance tiie interests of my country by war and blood, BS by -aerificing myself for its peace. Others have purchased lame by governing well ; let it be my boast to leave an empire, rather than, by my ambition, to weaken or destroy it." TRANSIENT RTLERS. Ill Death of Otho. one present could fail to admire the noble gene; ' the emperor; and every one, at the close of his address, was still more desirous than ever to prevent his fatal purpose. He assured them, however, that his resolution was firmly taken; and, v 'hem to yield, at once, to Vitellius, he entered his chamber to write farewell l.-tteis to his sister, and to his 'lied. These being finished, he prei loath. But a great tumult having arisen amnir his soldiers, he opened his cham- ber door, and employed the remaining part of the day in checking their violence, and in giv- >>d advice to all such as chose to receive it from him. Towards evening, he again closed loor, and takinir nothing but a draught of cold water, stretched himself upon his bed. and slept till the break of day, when he arose, and, takiir _rer from beneath his pillow, j himself a mortal wound, and tlr ! his life, after a short reign of three months and five diivs. The news of the death of Otho was received with great lamentation by his soldiers, who were unwilling, notwithstanding his advice, to go and join the ranks of Yitellius. At first they entreated a distinguished general named Virginias to assume the title of emperor, but 112 EMPIRE OF Ro:viE. Vitellius marches to Eoma His entrance into the city. not being able to prevail upon him to do so, they sent an ambassador to the generals of Yitellius, and obtained a pardon on condition of their submission to his authority. During all this time Vitellius was still in Gaul ; but the Roman Senate had no hesita- tion in proclaiming him emperor, and he set forward, without delay, to join his army and to enter Rome. On passing over the field where the bloody battle which gave him the empire was fought, he stopped to gaze upon the dead bodies of the men and horses that lay everywhere about, putrefying and tainting the air with their stench. And, snuffing lip the loathsome breeze, he remarked, with disgusting coolness, that the smell of dead enemies was quite refreshing. On approaching Rome, he affected the utmost splendor in his appearance, and suffered his army to follow him without any regard to order or decency. The country over which they passed was, consequently, ren- dered almost desolate, by the unrestrained ravages of his soldiery ; and when he reached the city, he entered it, not as its ruler, but rather as its conqueror. He inarched through the principal streets on horseback and cased in armor, causing the Senate to walk before him, like so many slaves on foot. On the fol- TRANSIENT KULERS. 113 Indolence and gluttony of Vitellius. lowing day he made a very pompous speech, in which he magnified himself into a hero, giving to all an idea that he possessed the power of the very gods to benefit mankind. The manner in which he intended to admin- ;he affairs of the empire was soon appa- rent. Kvery thing wa> intrusted to an unprin- cipled freedman, named Asiaticus, wh<>, witli a band of players and cha 1 d in bringing the government into the utmost con- tempt. Cnwilling to assume tin 1 cares of ru- ling, he abandoned himself to all kinds of luxury and profuseness. But, of all the to which he was addicted, gluttony rendered him the nio-t disgu>iing. His meals, of course; "f the most sumptuous character; and, in order that he might cat of all the vari- ous dishes under which his table groaned, he would stuff himself to suffocation, and then dis- gorging the contents of his stomach, commence again ; thus eating and vomiting, by turns, un- til he was no longer able to put the viands into his mouth. The sums of money which his entertainments cost w T ere prodigious. About thirty millions of dollars, it is said, were spent in maintaining his table during the short space of four months. Fortunately his reign was very short, for had it been of any great dura- 114: EMPIRE OF EOME. His prodigality and rapacity. tion, the whole wealth of the empire would not have been sufficient to furnish him with food. And short, even, as it was, his prodigality be- gan, at last, to produce want, and this, in turn, rendered him cruel and rapacious. His coffers becoming empty, he resorted, at first, to money-lenders in order to replenish them ; but no money-lender was ever fortunate enough to recover from him a loan. Indeed, it is said that if any one of them ever dared to remind him of a debt, he would quickly cause it to be cancelled by the knife of the public executioner. Money-lending, upon such terms, proving to be rather an unprofitable business, there were, .soon, none to follow it; and the needy monarch was compelled to adopt other means of supplying his demands. On one oc- casion, therefore, hearing of the sickness of one of his wealthy associates, he went to visit him, and, mingling a quantity of poison with his medicine, administered it with his own hand, and afterwards took possession of the dead man's fortune. At another time, hearing a Roman knight, who had been condemned to death, cry out, in hope of mercy, that he had made the emperor his heir, he demanded to see the will, where finding himself joint inher- itor with another person, he ordered both to bo TRANSIENT KULKKS. 115 He incurs the odium of the people. executed, and thus enjoyed the legacy without a partner. By such conduct, Yitellius could not fail to render himself, soon, odious to all mankind. A termination to his reign was regarded as in every way desirable; and prognostications of his downfall weiv continually made. One a writing was put up in the Forum to this en ; We, in the name of the ancient Chaldeans. give Vitellius warning to depart this lite by the calends of October." In consequence of this, he became so exasperated that he ordered all the astrologers to be banished from. Rome. Again, an old woman predicted that if he sur- vived his mother, he would reign many years in peace and happiness. The ba-e wretch im- mediately caused his mother's death, by refu- sing her sustenance, under pretence that her health would be thereby impaired. But he very soon began to entertain fears, founded on something more formidable than mere prognos- tications. His mad behavior had rendered him altogether insupportable, and the spirit of re- volt spread, consequently, to every portion of the empire. Vespasian, commander of the le- gions in Judea, and who had been sent into that country to suppress an insurrection of the Jews, learned of the great detestation in which 116 EMPIRE OF EOME. Vespasian resolves to displace Vitellius. Yitellius was held at Rome. This valiant general had already reduced all the country, except Jerusalem, to subjection, although the disorders in the government at home, during the last three transient reigns, had been a con- stant hindrance to his operations. He, as well as his legions, were becoming discontented with such a state of things, and a resolution was finally taken to displace Yitellius, and give the empire into the hands of some one competent to receive it. It was no difficult matter .for Yespasian, un- der these circumstances, to procure the suffrages of his soldiers. Indeed, not only the legions under his own command, but even those in Maesia and Pannonia, resolved to place him upon the throne ; and, without his knowledge, he was also proclaimed emperor at Alexandria. At first, he affected to decline the honors of- fered to him, but his soldiers threatened to put him to death immediately, in case he rejected a title which, without doubt, he was very wil- ling to receive. As soon as he had signified his acceptance of the empire, his principal officers were called together, and a resolution taken to leave his son Titus to carry on the war against the Jews, and to send Mutianus, with the greatest part of TRANSIKNT UI/LERS. 117 Preparations made to oppose him. his legion-, into Italy, while he himself was to be engaged in levying forces in all parts of the "Mast, for the purpose of establishing his au- thority. In due time, intelligence of all these proceed- ing- was brought to Rome, and Vitellius, with- out in the least abating his abominable sloth and gluttony, resolved to make an effort to de- lend his power. His generals were ordered to make all preparations to resist the inva. but scarcely had they collected their forces, when Antonius Primus, <>ne <>f the leaders un- der Vespasian, entered Italy with an immense army. A bloody engagement took place near Cremona, in which the troops of Vitellius were defeated, with the loss of thirty thousand men. Vitellius, himself, who remained at Rome, eating and drinking, and indulging every 1 ly appetite, was tilled with indescribable terror on learning the success of his enemy. At first he desired to go and lay the ensigns of the em- pire at the feet of Vespasian, and was actually taking measures to do it, when an accidental w< >rd of encouragement from some one near his person, determined him to make another effort to save his throne. Further reinforcements were accordingly raised ; but a large party in the city who were bold enough to declare in 118 EMPIRE OF EOME. Antonius sent against Vitclllus Civil wars Success of Vespasian. favor of Vespasian, seized upon the capital, and although unable to retain it, gave a serious check to the operations of Yitellius. In the mean time, Antonius, who was ad- vancing rapidly towards Rome, now appeared before the walls, and commenced a furious at- tack at three different points. The army with- in, sallying forth upon the besiegers, defended themselves with equal obstinacy. But, at last, the besiegers obtained an entrance within the walls, and a terrible slaughter commenced in all the streets. It is remarkable that, during these dreadful scenes of bloodshed, the people could not be prevented from celebrating one )f their noisiest and most riotous feasts, called me Saturnalia. While, therefore, in one part of the city the two hostile armies were engaged in butchering one another, in other parts nothing wa- to be seen but mirth, feasting, and drunk- enness. During these extraordinary proceedings, Yi- tellius took- refuge in a private house upon mount Aventine, whence he intended at night to make his escape from the city ; but, with his usual want of resolution, he returned to his palace, which was now empty and desolate. Wandering about from room to room, trembling lest he might encounter some one, he finally TRANSIENT KULERS. 119 Execution of Vitellius. hid himself in an obscure corner, whence, however, lie was soon taken by a party of the soldiers of Yespasian. "With the most earnest entreaties he begged them to send him to pri- S'.M, ami .-pare his life, until Vespasian should arrive; but the soldiers, refosiBg to listen to his prayers, placed a halter about his neck, and dragged him along, half naked. t- the public Forum. As he pa^ed through the street-, every lie loaded him with reproaches; some cast dirt and tilth upon him; others struck him with their hands, and no one failed to make fun of the red face and prominent stomach which he had acquired by means of his ex- cesses. Arriving at length at the place of public execution, they beat him to death; and then, fixing a hook into his body, dragged it in the most ignominious manner about the streets, and finally threw it in the Tiber. Thus terminated the life of the glutton, Vitellius, in the fifty-seventh year of his age, after a short reign of less than nine months. As in the case of many of the emperors of Rome, no one was sorry to learn that he was dead. VESPASIAN AND HIS SONS. FROM 71 TO 96 A. D. 11 VESPASIAN emperor Rebellion of the Jews The war against them Siege of Jerusalem Obstinacy of the Jews Their sufferings Destruction of Jerusalem Triumph of Titus and Vespasian Liberality of Vespasian His death Accession of Titus His character Effects of his example Sufferings in Italy Death of Titus His brother Domitian Indolence and its fruits Military aspirations of Domitian His absurd expedition against the Sarmatians His cruel- ty His hatred of the Senate Attempts to frighten them Conspiracy Assassination of Domitian. V. VESPASIAN AND HIS SONS, SOON after the death of Vitellius, the Senate and army united in declaring Flavins Vespa- sian emperor. He was, however, at this time, in Egypt, whither messengers were immediate- ly dispatched to urge him to return, at once, to Rome. But the season being very unfavora- ble for sailing, he deemed it more prudent to defer his voyage, and therefore remained several months in Alexandria, where, it is said, he per- formed miracles, in curing blind and lame men by touching them. Vespasian was born in the country of the Sa- bines, about the close of the reign of Augustus ; but he did not attract any especial notice until the reign of Claudius, when he acquired great reputation in Germany and in Britain, on ac-. count of his military talents. In the beginning of the reign of Nero, he retired to private life, 124 KMPIRE OF ROME. Jewish rebellion Vespasian goes to Home. but was, at length, appointed by that emperor, proconsul of Africa; and upon the breaking out of the Jewish rebellion, he was sent, as has been already said, with a large army into Judea, the whole of which, with the exception of Jerusalem, he succeeded in subduing. This great and ancient city he was just upon the point of attacking, when the civil wars, which followed the death of Nero, occurred. The prosecution of this scheme was in various ways prevented, and, finally, he was obliged to intrust it to other hands, in order to comply witli the wishes of the Roman people, who de- sired to place the empire in his hands. In- tent, however, upon the thorough subjugation of the Jews, he would not set out for Rome, until lie had made every arrangement for its accomplishment; and then, leaving to his son Titus the command of the army that was to be- siege Jerusalem, he went back to Italy to oc- cupy the vacant throne that there awaited him. The news that he was on his way to Rome flew before him; and while he was yet many miles from the city, the Senate, accompanied by a great multitude of the inhabitants, came .forth to meet him, sincerely rejoicing at the prospect of having an emperor whose virtues had been so thoroughly tested; and who, it is VESPASIAN AND H; i-j:> Dissensions among the ' gratifying to lind, far from disappointing their expectations, devoted himself, with great .-uc- to the promotion of their happiness and welfare. Titus, in the mean time, continued the war again>t the .lew-, with the utm>t vigor. No f their country, except Jeru>alem. imw remained unsubdued; and towards this place he marehed his conquering army, halting with- in -ix furlongs of the outer walls. The Jews, at this time, were not only obsti- nately rebelli Uoman power, hut they w.-re enpi^ed in a liva<lful war among theniM-l\v~. IK-avt-n it-elf seeni'-.l, also, in veri- licatinn uf the pre<liction of our Saviour, to be directly enira^ed in accomplishing their de- struction, by ' eartlnjuukrs. famine, and lence; and when Titus brought his army to their gates, the streets of the city were already tio\vin t ir with the blood of its inhabitants. Neither of the contending factions hopii, v Kaiii any advantage by an alliance with the Unman leader, a temporary su-pen-inn >f hos- tilities was agreed upon among themselves, and they united against the common enemy. The first attack which they in;. con- ducted with so much .-kill and fury, that the Romans were driven from the walls in the ut- 11 126 EMPIKE OF ROME. The iiege of Jerusalem. most confusion, and forced to take refuge in the mountains. It was not long, however, before Titus succeeded in rallying his forces and com- pelling the inmates of the city to re-enter their gates. Taking great care that his army should not be again surprised, he did every thing in his power to effect an entrance into the city. This was indeed a very difficult undertaking, as it was surrounded by three walls of great strength and thickness. The first of these was, however, battered down after an immense amount of labor, attended with much fatigue and danger. He then made the most favorable offers to the inhabitants, with repeated assu- rances of pardon, in case they would submit to his authority. But his proffered kindness was treated with contempt, and even regarded as an indication, on his part, of a want of confi- dence in his ultimate success. To show the in- habitants, however, that lie was fully able to conduct his undertaking, lie went vigorously to work ; and within the space of five days there- after, the second wall was laid in ruins, and the inhabitants were compelled to rely for safety on the third alone. Again Titus urged the infatuated people to listen to his offers of peace, assuring them, that if they would not submit, he should lay their V< L ANl> 11 ; 3. [-27 Obstinacy of the,: city in the dust. Josephus, a Jewish com- mander, who had been taken primmer, ^>mc time before, by Vespasian, and who afterwards an account of the Jewish war. was then in the army of -Titus, and wa- sent by him into the purpose of persuading the peo- ield to the Roman power. Hut his is of no avail, and he I forced to ocupe from the scotis and repro- with which he was assailed. Titu< therefore commenced the down tlie :vmaining wall. The engines used fr this purpose were brought to bear upon it ; but such 'ii of the Jews, that nothing could be done, and the eiiiri: i 'itus were royed as fast as they could be built. The Roman general was not, lu>we\ XT, to be driven from his enterprise; and. a consultation with his officers havii held, it wma deter- mined to surround the whole city with a trench, and thus cut off all succor from abroad. The work was accomplished with incredible celerity, and Titus, knowing that the city mu>t eventu- ally submit, sat down in expectation uf a speedy acceptance of his repeated offers of peace. But he v, 'tied to be disappointed; for, not- withstanding the horrid ravages uf famine; and pestilence within the walls ; notwithstanding 128 EMPIRE OF HOME. Dreadful suffering of the Jews. the necessity, to which the people were driven? of eating the very filth in the street, and the rotten carcasses that floated in the sewers, they still refused to yield. Finally, a report was brought to the ears of Titus, that a woman of distinction in the city had boiled her own child and eaten it. The dreadful story put the Roman general in such a transport of rage, that he declared that he would leave nothing undone in order to accom- plish the destruction of a city that could toler- ate such abominable crimes. To this end, large detachments of his soldiers were sent into the neighboring forests, and immense quantities of timber having been cut down, innumerable en- gines were constructed and brought to bear upon the walls. The Jews, though starving and dying, fought with the utmost desperation ; in like manner fought the Romans, and the walls of the city finally yielded to the heavy strokes of the never ceasing rams. Then the soldiers of Titns, leaping upon the unprotected inhabitants, slaughtered, without mercy, all who fell in their way. Great numbers of these unfortunate beings fled to the temple, and to the fortified part of the city called Sion, while multitudes concealed themselves in vaults and subterraneous passages. Sion, however, soon VESPASIAN AND HIS SONS. 129 Destruction of Jerusalem. fell into the hands of the Romans, and the mag- nificent temple, held in such reverence by the le, was, contrary to the commands of Titus, finally. destroyed. This dreadful sight filled the Jews with, more terr'r than any thing that had yet occurred. :rding them- - utterly l'<>rsaken of God, they filled the aiv with their groans and lamentations, and yielded themselves, volunta- rily, to the swnrds of their conquerors. The then, in verification of prophecy, was raxed to the ground by the ploughshare, so that one Btone was not found upon another; and thus, after a .-iege of six months, Jerusalem, which, under the peculiar care of Heaven, had flourished two thousand years, was totally de- r^troyed. More than a million of its inhabitants perished by the sword and famine, and nearly a hundred thousand were carried away cap- tive ; the survivors were scattered over every portion of the earth, where their posterity re- main, a monument of the wrath of Heaven, and of the truth of Revelation. The greatest honors were paid to Titus on his return to Rome, loaded with the spoils of liis recent victory. A magnificent temple was built to Peace, wherein these spoils were de- posited; and, now that all the commotions 130 EMPIRE OF EOME. Triumph of Titus and Vespasian. throughout the empire were at an end, the doors of the temple of Janus were once more closed. Titus became associated with his father, Vespasian, in the administration of pub- lic afrairs, and both applied themselves to the correction of the innumerable abuses that had crept into the State during the preceding reigns. The licentiousness of the army w r as re- strained, and the ancient discipline restored. Even senators and knights who had disgraced their stations, were degraded, and more worthy men appointed to fill their places. Vespasian turned his attention, also, to the beautifying of the city, erecting many fine edifices, among which was the Coliseum, whose ruins are visi- ble at the present day. This immense amplii- theativ, capable of containing one hundred and ten thousand persons, and deservedly ranked among the wonders of ancient times, was erect- ed in the space of one year, by the compul- sory labor of twelve hundred Jews and Chris- tians. Vespasian distinguished himself no less by his liberality in the encouragement of the arts and learning. A salary of a hundred thousand si'skTCL-s was constantly given by him to the teachers of rhetoric. Josephus, and other Jewish historians, experienced the greatest VESPASIAN AXD HIS SONS. I-'H Liberality of Vespasian His death. kindness at his hands; and Quintilian, the >r, and Pliny, the naturalist, together with all the professors of the useful arts and sciences, shared largely of his bounty. The public treasury was so completely ex- hausted \\heii e to the empire, that it was nece raise a sum equal to three hundred millions of pounds sterlii, order to meet the < >vrnment. The ' iiience of this, were v; but Ve-paMan expended nothing his private gratification. His care was not confined to the city of e. Everywhere throughout his exu-n-ive empire, attention was gi\vn to the wants of his >;e; and he was especially devoted to pr.- moting the welfare rf the people of liritain, of whom, through the instrumentality of 'iierals, were now brought into subjection. AVith only one or tw :-uelty ever exercised in the punishment of tho-o who offended against Vespasian; and when, alter a i of ten years, he was taken away by death, all the subjects of his great empire mourned for him as for a father. Perceiving his end to be drawing near, he exclaimed: " Methinks 1 am going to be a god!" and then declaring that an emperor should die standing, he raised 132 EMPIRE OF EOME. Accession of Titus. himself to his feet, and expired in the arms of those who stood around him. The universal sorrow which followed the death of Vespasian, was succeeded by great re- joicings, on account of the accession to the throne, of his son Titus, who commenced and continued his reign in the practice of every virtue. While his father was living, he was not free from the charge of cruelty and prodi- gality ; but, as soon as he himself began to reign, he shook off every vice, and became a model of moderation and humanity. All the loose and unprofitable companions whom he had around him were dismissed, and he applied himself so diligently to the promotion of the public good, that he acquired the appellation of the " Delight of Mankind ;" a name which he seemed, ever afterwards, anxious to pre- serve. \\-spasian had labored assiduously for the welfare of Home, but he omitted much that might have been done for the suppression of the abominable vices that had their origin in the licentiousness of preceding reigns. To the extermination of these, Titus applied an untir- ing hand ; and all persons, consequently, whose conduct marked them out as unworthy mem- bers of society, were deprived of citizenship, VESPASIAN AND HIS SONS. 133 Character of Titus Sufferings in Italy. and, in many instances, they were publicly scourged, or sold as slaves. Nothing whatever that could promote the good of the State seemed to escape his attention, and while he was not engaged in doing good, he appeared to be un- happy. It is said that, having recollected, one night, that he had, during the day, done noth- ing for the benefit of mankind, he exclaimed to those around him : " Oh, my friends, I have lost a day !" In order that he might keep his hands unstained by the blood of his fellow-men, he took upon himself the office of High Priest, declaring that he would rather die himself than to put another to death. It was during the reign of this excellent monarch that the dreadful eruption of Mount Vesuvius occurred, by which the cities of Pom- peii and Herculaneum were destroyed, with a great multitude of human beings, among whom was the celebrated scholar and naturalist, Pliny, who fell a sacrifice to his devotion to the study of nature. A great fire, which continued three successive days and nights, also occurred about this time at Rome ; and not long after this calamity, a terrible plague broke out, by which ten thousand persons perished in a single day. Titus did all in his power to relieve the suffer- ing thus occasioned ; and undertook, at his own 12 134 EMPIRE OF EOME. Example of Titus Death of Titus. nse, to repair the loss resulting from the conflagration. The excellent example given by Titus was not lost upon the governors of even the remotest provinces. Cneius Julius Agricola, who had been sent into Britain about the close of the reign of Vespasian, succeeded nut only in bring- ing the whole of that large island into subjec- tion to the Roman arms, but, also, in introducing among the people the polite manners of their conquerors. Temples, theatres, and stately houses were built by them, in accordance with his advice and example. The sons of their no- bility were instructed in the liberal arts ; and the language, modes <fdiv--. and living of the Romans, \\vre cultivated by them. The reign of Titus was not. however, of long duration; and his death, which was probably occasioned Ky tin ' his brother Do- mitiau, who longed to occupy his place, oc- curred about three year- after he ascended the throne, and' in the forty-iirst year of his a<re. It is said that when he felt his end approach- ing, he declared that during the whole course of his life, he knew but one action of which he repented, and this was an action which he did not think proper to name. Not one of the rulers of Rome was more universally beloved, D HIS SONS. 135 lian Good beginning of Domitian. or in- ;vly Inn:. ml certainly none of hi- aithfully and v f..r the good of the c monwealth. When Titus "Fhr. B Doini clan, by the dentil of his brother, ed no decided <ii]M>!ti.;i. though tlu-y tivmhlcd. he- :i his youth, thi- younger M iih-ivd hini-i-lf iuii..tN l>y his ; vnluj)ti | n> well n< ly his cnu-1 nml ninliirnnnt . In the be- ginniBg of hif d, he managed to- de- am ; ami, \'r a wliile, th. :;ir<l, libitions of clemency, lih- ernlity, and j "iild j.r another Tim-. .Many excellent 1; e in- stituted through his instrumentality, and he an-il t . hr more merciful towards the un- fortunate and the criminal, even, than the ordi- nary hnr-h d and j.ntiently i them. A com-se of conduct so utterly nt variance with his inclinations, could not be, for any length oi' time, -pursued; and we accord find him, ere IOM--. weary of the affairs of State, and occupied in devising means for gratify ing 136 EMPIRE OF KOME. His natural iudolence and ite fruits. his taste for mean pursuits. Unlike the noble father and brother who had preceded him, he found his highest enjoyment in such games and sports as should be indulged in only after the mind has been employed in painful labor. Thus, he began to devote all his time to archery, wrestling, and horsemanship; and, at last, in order that graver pursuits might not interfere with his favorite amusements, he banished all philosophers and mathematicians from Home. The most expensive exhibitions were constantly given under his direction ; and he, himself, adorned with a purple robe and crown, pre- sided at them, and distributed prizes with his own hand. But the manner in which he be- guiled the hours that he spent alone in his pri- vate chamber, is disgusting in the extreme. On these occasions, instead of applying his mind to some useful study, he would catch the harmless flies that crept about the wall, and, sticking pins through their bodies, amuse him- self with the struggles which they made to escape his cruelty. It was thus that, for a long time, he exhibited, only in petty cruelties, and ignoble pursuits, the baseness of his mind ; but, finally, the odi- um with which the people began to regard him, together with their murmurs, served to "VESPASIAN AND HIS SONS. 137 His aspirations for military fame. bring out all the malice of which he was capa- ble. The first object of his malevolence was the excellent Agricola, whose talents, both as a general and a statesman, as exhibited in Britain, had won for him such great applause. Domi- tian, with a childish desire to earn a military reputation for himself, had, some time before, undertaken an expedition against the Catti, a people of Germany ; but after marching, in the most warlike manner, towards their territory, he prudently determined to retrace his steps to Rome. Resolving, however, that he would not go home without the honor of a triumph, he purchased a number of slaves, and, dressing them in tlx) (German costume, carried them along as prisoners of war. At the head of this contemptible procession, he entered the city like a victorious general. Conscious, however, that he could not thus diminish the glory ac- quired by Agricola, who was now carrying his victorious arms over the islands in the neigh- O borhood of Britain, he determined to remove him from his command, and, accordingly, sum- moned him to Rome, under pretence of appoint- ing him to the government of Syria. Agricola obeyed the emperor's call ; but, instead of receiving the government of Syria, he was obliged to retire to private life ; and his death, 138 KMPIRE OF KOME. His absurd expedition against the Sarmatians. which occurred very soon after, was doubtless accomplished under the direction of Domi- tian. Xot long after this event, some of the noma- dic tribes, inhabiting the northern parts of Eu- rope and Asia, and known as the Bannatiane, made a formidable invasion of the Roman em- pire, threatening the destruction of some of its important provinces. Indeed, they succeeded so well in their operations, that Domitian, fear- ful of the result, sent out his forces against them, well armed with an abundant supply of moiH-y. !V;i iinally purcha>ed of barbarians, and the contemptible emperor, thinking this a gnn.l opportunity to seize upon a little military honor, resolved to have the ant of a triumph. Jle accordingly entered in the gn 'iendor, claiming the e of a people, with whom he had never fought a single battle. Becoming, daily, more and more desirous of applause, he iinally grew dissatisfied with every- thing that fell short of the veneration paid to the gods themselves. The titles given to the deities, he, at last, assumed and no statues AVU-O permitted to be erected to his honor, un- they Avere of gold or silver. But even these absurdities might have been endured, had VESI'ASIAN AM) HIS SONS. 139 Cruelty of Domitian Scheme of Lucius Antonius. he not, with them, exhibited the most unmiti- i cruelty. Indeed, the M "f <leath 1 from his lips with as little limitation as the m-t ordinary command ; and a lai'ire number >f illustv' tton peri-hed at his bidding, upon the nit trilling pretences. One ..iideliilied !> dl : aimthf iperor Otlio ; riii"ther, I'm- liavi D liis own uain ne\v lance \\hich he had invei i another Mi/:, k in which he praised distingaiahed i! This dreadful eruelty ot' Duinitiaii wa> very inuc'li ar.- .u-c-ideiital defeat of a plan t'>rme(l ly Lucius Ant>nius, O.)veriior of rniaiiN-.' -i..n nfthe throne. Marcliini!- t-\vard- K"i:ie, the iMnnidable army .ntoiiiu- was suddenly divided l>y an over- flowing of tile Rhine* A- junc- ture ly tin- 1'nrces of the r which were lost him, he was totally routed, and d to abandon his ambitious project. From moment, Domitian seemed to be .Auspicious of all around him; and nothing could exceed ruelty of the tortures which he inflicted upon those whom he ch-e to accuse of treason. Some, he deprived of their limbs, others, he pierced with red-hot irons ; while multitudes, 140 EMPIRE OF HOME. His attempt to frighten the Senate. were crucified, burned, and otherwise destroyed, to gratify bis fiendish passions. His hostility to the Senate and nobility was scarcely kept within bounds ; and on several oc- casions he threatened to extirpate them all. At one time, he put them in the utmost consterna- tion by surrounding the senate-house with a large body of his troops. At another time, he invited them to partake of a great banquet at his palace ; and receiving each with the great- est politeness, as, one by one, they entered, he caused them to be conducted to a spacious apartment, hung round with black, and lighted by a few melancholy tapers. Along the sides of this dismal room were arranged all sorts of instruments of torture and execution ; and close by them, were gloomy rows of coffins, each with a senator's name inscribed upon it. While the terrified nobles were gazing in silence upon these symbols of violence and death, a door suddenly opened at one side of the chamber, uml through it entered, slowly, a hideous com- pany of men, each with a drawn sword in one hand, c^nd a flaming torch in the other. Sur- rounding the horror-stricken senators, these ter- rible looking creatures began a most frightful dance, accompanied with unearthly grimaces, and the flourishing of their swords and torches. VESPASIAN AND HIS Soxs. 141 Conspiracy against Domitian. Domitian, from n private corner, watched this outrageous violation of all decency; and, when he had sufficiently enjoyed it, sent a vant into the room to inform the half-dead com- pany that the emperor gave them leave to re- tire to their homes. But such detestable trifling, added to cruelties more real and inexcusable, could not be practised with impu- nity ; and, conscious that this must be the case, he began at length to feel some anxiety for his own safely. AVitli a view, therefore, to save him- self from sudden surprise, he kept more closely within his palace, and even ordered the gallery in which he walked to be set around with a pel- lucid stone, which served as a mirror to re- flect the pei-sons of all who approached him from behind. But great and costly as were these precau- tions, they were rendered unavailing, by his want of prudence in placing the name of his wife in the written list of proscribed persons, which he was in the habit of carrying in his tablets. This woman, it seems, had for some, perhaps very good, reason, incurred his anger, and, determining to punish her, he had enrolled her name among those destined for destruction. Happening, one day, to get possession of this list, she was terrified at finding her name among EMPIRE OF ROME. His Assassination. the victims to his cruelty. She showed it to the prefects of the Praetorian bands, also to Ste- phanus, the comptroller of the household, and to Parthenius, the chief chamberlain, all of whom were upon the fatal catalogue. A con- spiracy was, of course, the result, and a day was fixed upon for dispatching the cruel tyrant. Upon this appointed day, as Domitian was making preparations to go to the bath, a mes- senger informed him that Stephanus desired to consult him upon an affair of great importance. His attendants were consequently dismissed, and Stephanus entered, with his hand in a scarf, which he had worn for several days, under pre- tence that it was injured, but really that he might better conceal a dagger. He began his business by giving the emperor an account of a pretended conspiracy, the particulars of which were specified in a paper which he pre- sented to^him. Domitian seizing it with eager- ness began to read ; but he had scarcely finished the first sentence, when Stephanus drew his dagger and struck him in the groin. The wound not being mortal, a struggle imme- diately ensued. The tumult was overheard by some of the followers of Stephanus, who stood without the door. They rushed, at once, to the assistance of their master, and the emperor was VESPASIAN AND HIS SONS. 143 Death of Stephanas. dispatched with seven wounds ; but Stephanus also slain by some of the officers of the guard, who came to the rescue of the monarch. Thus ended the life of this infamous tyrant, after a reign of fifteen years, and at the age of forty-five. EXTENSION OF THE EMPIRE. FROM 96 TO 139 A. D. 130 THE brief reign of Nerva Early training of Trajan His accession to the throne Plutarch First works of Trajan His respect for the laws His military spirit Conquest of the Dacians The bridge over the Danube Prosperity of the empire Persecution of the Christians Extension of the Roman power Splendid victories Death of Trajan His obsequies Trajan's column Character of Hadrian His elevation to the throne His kindness and love of peace I lr ;il >an<lons the conquests of Trajan His famous journey His labors in Germany and Britain His visit to Athens and Carthage His favorite, Antinous Rebuilding of Jerusalem Hadrian's return to Rome His acquirements His suffer- ing near the close of life His death. VI. EXTENSION OF THE EMPIRE. NOTHING could exceed the joy that prevailed throughout the city of Rome, when it was pub- licly known that the infamous Domitiuu was ii<> more. The senators, especially, whom he had so constantly held in terror, congratulated one another upon his death, as one of the hap- piest events in the history of the empire ; and, as soon as they could be convened, a decree was parsed that no funeral obsequies should be paid to him, and that all his inscriptions should be erased. At the same time, they declared Cocceius Nerva emperor ; and, without delay, proceeded to his house to render to him the customary homage. This choice was exceedingly fortunate, not so much on account of any peculiar qualifica- tions possessed by Nerva for this responsible position, but because, through his instrumen- tality, Rome obtained, as his successors, two of 148 KM i' IKK OF ROME. The emperor Nerva. the noblest of her emperors Trajan and Ha- drian. Nerva, himself, was a very excellent man, thuiigh not possessed of the energy and talents necessary to the ruler of so vast an empire. IIi> exaltation was, indeed, due solely to the blameless conduct of his life; and, even if he had been distinguished as a statesman, or B dier, he was now too far advanced in life. 1 sixty-two years old, to labor efficiently again>t vils that had crept into the Stale during the unlbrtuna! "f I)mitian. The short period, during which he occupied the throne, was devoted to the welfare of his subjects who very soon began to look upon him as an indulgent lather. The vicious v nl' course, di-pleased at his eil'ort- to promote nler and virtue; but th> i annoyance which he :iccd, was i'mm f -riaii bands, who insisted upon :.-ath of the late emperor, whose frequent liberalities had endeared him to them. Xerva did all in his power to put a stop to this insurrection ; ho even presented himself to the furious soldiers, and, uncovering his bosom, bade them strike him rather than commit ><> unju>t an act. They refused. ho\vever, to listen to his remonstrances ; and seizing upon those who had been accessory Bl si ON OF ; : i i RE. 149 rleA reign. to the death of Domitian, slew them in a mt .aimer. But not conteir with this, they forced the emperor to give an approval of their acts, and to make a sj just it;, ui before the people. It was in a great measure owing to this cir- 1 t. MM some one with him in the adi; ;<>n of the affairs of Stat.-. 11*- f.-lt. the necessity of a i^er arm than his own to keep i ;md to oppose those who were ob- .-tinately bunt upon evil. AVith true devotion to the welfare of th- -, he sought dili- v tor some one con to aid him; and, fortunat- LS Tl pi us Trajan, then governor of Upper Germany, and a way connee; family. This . >f the last and happiest acts of Nerva. A short t rwards, he was seized with u him olV, amid the lanu-n- ! the people, after a reign oj :li>. Tlie tamous Trajan, who is generally ac- i he greatest and best of th> eiii[" - a native of Seville, in Spain, al- though his family was originally from ! rather wa> a brave lioman ^fiieral. who distinguished himself in several expeditions 150 EMPIRE OF KOME. Early training of Trajan His modest bearing. which he conducted along the Euphrates and the Ehine ; and Trajan, though a lad, accom- panied him in some of these expeditions, march- ing frequently on foot, and sharing, like any common soldier, the dangers and fatigue inci- dent to military life. With such an early training, it is easy to be- lieve that Trajan would be rendered fully com- petent to oppose the torrent of public disorders which had so largely swollen under the long tyranny of former emperors. In nowise vain of superior position, he preserved the manners and living of a soldier, and spurned every thing like homage, when he was elevated to the rank of general of the army in Lower Germany. Even when, upon the death of ]S"erva, he was requested by the Senate to repair to Home and receive the crown, he changed in nothing his conduct or appearance, but treated every one as if he were a simple tribune. Nor was his march towards the city, upon this occasion, at- tended with any exhibition of pride or power. At the head of a very large army he proceeded from Germany towards Rome, with a discipline to which the legions of the empire had, for a long time, been strangers; and the countries through which he passed were not in the least disturbed by any improprieties on the part of EXTENSION or THE KMPIRE. 151 His accession to the throne Plutarch. his numerous followers. Reaching the gates of the city, he did not demand a triumphal en- trance, but, on the other hand, chose to go in on foot, attended by the officers of the State, and followed by his soldiers, who passed silent- ly to their quarters. The celebrated Plutarch, whose Lives of illus- trious Greek and Roman personage.- are familiar to every student of history, was, at this time, a resident of Rome. A Greek by birth, he had long resided here as a teacher of philosophy ; and Trajan, whose early life had been spent in arms, became, at a late period, it is said, one of his pupils. The following extract from a let- ter, written by this great philosopher to him, on his accession to the throne, will serve to .-how the high estimation in which this famous monarch was held by those who knew him best: " I am sensible," said Plutarch to' him, " that you sought not the empire. Your natural mod- esty would not suffer you to apply for a dis- tinction, to which you were always entitled by the excellence of your manners. That modesty makes you, however, still more worthy of those honors, which you had no ambition to solicit. Should your future government prove, in any degree, answerable to your former merit, I shall 152 EMPIRE OF KOME. The first works of Trajan His great respect for the laws. have reason to congratulate both your virtue and my good fortune on this event." Trajan was forty-two years of age when he ascended the throne ; and, possessing a fine >nal appearance, together with a great mili- tary reputation, he succeeded more easily in curbing the insolence of the Prastorian guards, as well as that of other disaffected parties in the State. Having taken measures to supply certain wants of the city, which demanded his immediate attention, he proceeded to banish such persons as exerted a pernicious influence by their lives or conversation. He then under- took to reduce some of the most odious of the -. which had been imposed upon the peo- ple by his predecessors. Afterwards he gave his attention to the laws, abolishing such as were unjust, and enacting others that were de- sirable. Nor did the fact escape his notice, that many of the most important offices of the government were occupied by persons very un- suitable, by reason of their want of talent and integrity. These he displaced as rapidly as he could prove them, appointing others in their stead. Upon one occasion, as he was perform- ing the ceremony of giving the sword to the prsefect of the Praetorian guard, he said to him : " Take this sword, and use it, if I have merit, EXTENSION OF THE EMPIRE. 153 His military spirit. fur me; if othenvi-v. against me.' 7 Immedi- ately afterwards lie took the opportunity to ad- those present in regard to the reforms in which lie had been occupied, and, at the con- clusion, declared that " he who made laws was the first who was bound to preserve them." Indeed no one evinced, by his example, a greater desire to preserve the laws than he himself; and if then- was any thing in his character at all exceptionable, it was his im- moderate passion for war, a business to which he had been trained from boyhood. For the profession of arms he seems to have possessed a talent that has been seldom equalled ; but it may be said that he seldom exercised it, unless there was, apparently, a just and sufficient cause, The Dacians were the first, after his accession to the throne, to feel the power of his arms. These people, who occupied a large re- gion of country southeast of Germany, under Decebalus, their king, had given the predeces- sors of Trajan a great deal of trouble. It had been found impossible to conquer them, and therefore a large tribute had been yearly paid, in order to restrain their constant incursions upon the Roman territory. Trajan, however, refusing to pay the tribute which had been ex- acted from his predecessors, found his dominions 154 EMPIRE OF EOME. Contest with the Daclans, invaded by numberless hordes of these barba- rians, who carried desolation wherever they went He accordingly raised a powerful army, and attacked them upon their own soil. At first he met with a vigorous opposition; but, iinally, constraining them to come to a general engagement, he routed their armies, with a ter- rible slaughter. The loss sustained by the Romans, on this occasion, was very great. Trajan, himself, not only displayed the utmost activity during the contest, but, when it was over, he gave his per- sonal attention to those who had been injured, tearing the linen clothing, even, from his own body to dress their wounds. The Dacian mon- arch sne<l t'r peac$, nud, entering the camp of Trajan, paid his homage as a vassal of Home. But Trajan had scarcely returned with his vic- torious army, when the treacherous Dacians, renewing their hostilities, forced him again to inarch again-t them. Decebalus had, by this time, learned how to engage with the Roman troops ; and, by means of various devices, he contrived to protract the war. Trajan deter- mined, however, that he would subdue him, and, in order to be better able to invade his territory, undertook the stupendous work of building a bridge across the Danube. This EXTENSION OF TIII: KMPIRE. l.V> The bridge over the Danube Prosperity of Hume. gious >!ructure. emitting of twenty-two arches, a hundred and fifty feet high, and a hundred and seventy broad, ha- been regarded o of the ri works of antiquity. It be of eminent service to the Roman army, at .pletin, the war was eou- ducted \vith so much vigor, that the country, although very spacious, and filled with brave and hardy inhabitai: . tinally subdued. Decebalu -iiort to rscape, hut finding it impossible, he >h i w him-i-ll', and liis lu'ad was >cnt at once to Rome U a tn .j.hy of success. By these conquests, the whole of tin- ritor;, 'a wa- annexed to the Unman em- pire. Trajan'- -pivad to the nmst distant .nd Uoine enjovi-il ad -plendnr greater than she had hitlieri 1. Am- liitlier from the ren. - of India to con<^ratnla f e the emperor, and to crave his friemUhip. Tiie. rejoicings in the "ii account of these victories, were of the most extraordinary character, and continued for the space of a hundred and twenty days. Although a man of L r reat prudence, and not easily deceived, Trajan suffered himself to he misled l>y the reports which were brought to him concerning the Christians. Being warned 156 EMPIRE OF EOME. Persecution of the Christians Extension of the Eoman power. that they were laboring zealously to overthrow the religion of the empire, his extreme venera- tion for the gods induced him to use every means to weaken and discourage them. A law was already in existence, by which all societies dissenting from the established religion of the State, were declared illegal. This law was now permitted to be enforced, and under it, the Christians were, persecuted in every portion of the empire. Among the large numbers that were put to death, was St. Clemens, bishop of Rome, who was thrown into the sea ; also, St. Simeon, bishop of Jerusalem, who, at the age of a hundred and twenty, was scourged and crucified ; likewise St. Ignatius, who was thrown to wild beasts, in the amphitheatre at Rome. But these cruel persecutions were imme- diately terminated when the emperor was made acquainted by Pliny, the proconsul of Bithynia, with the true character of the Chris- tians, and their inoffensive and moral way of living. For a long time, the empire had now been com- paratively undisturbed by war, but, finally, the Parthians and Arminians attempting to throw off all constraint, Trajan again took up arms, and did not quit them, until he had achieved a series of victories which stretched the Roman EXTENSION OF THE EMPIRE. i:7 A long series of splendid victories. power even to the Indies. First punishing the Armenians for their rebellion, and then reduc- ing the wealthy kingdom of Mesopotamia into the form of a Roman province, he marched into Syria and Chaldea, conquering these countries, and even taking the famous city of Babylon. Crossing, at this point, the river Euphrates, he pursued the route once taken by Alexander the Great, and, at the head of his victorious legions, traversed vast regions which had never before been visited by Roman arms. Nothing what- ever was sufficient to diminish the ardor with which he had commenced his journey ; and, as he proceeded, province after province was added to the empire. lie passed over the river Tigris, and opening a way for himself in Persia, gained many, and very splendid, victories. Then sailing down the Persian Gulf, he entered the Indian Ocean, and was making conquest after conquest in this distant region, when he was informed of the revolt of some of the provinces which he had already subdued. Sending, therefore, to the Senate a list of the nations which he had already conquered, he returned along the Persian Gulf, for the purpose of punishing the countries that had revolted from him. He not only succeeded in retaking those places that had formerly submitted to him, but also 14 158 EMPIRE OF ROME. Death of Trajan His obsoquies. himself master of all the most fertile kingdoms of A.-ia. It is said that in the achievement of this long series of conquests, he never met with a repul-e except before the city of Atra in tlie desert of Arabia; soon after which he concluded to give masters to the countries that he had subdued, and then repair to Rome. Going with this design to the city of Ctesiphon in IVr>ia. he crowned Paithenaspatea king of Parthia. lie also gave a king to the province of Albania, and placed governors an<l lieutenants iii other provi Then appointing Pnblius ^Klins Hadrian general of tin.- fiircrs in tin- Bast, In- srt out for IJonic. Uut lu i had not pn.civded farther than Si-linns ; icia, wlii-n In- was taki-n sick and died, at, tlu 1 anv of >i. \ty-t hive, after :i reign of nearly twenty \ < Tli, i event eaused the most profound sorrow in Rome; and a general de- sire was at once manifested to do something honorable to" the memory of their excellent and wi.-e monarch. A similar desire was also felt by Hadrian, the successor to the empire. This new emperor, who, at the time of his accession, was in command of the forces in the East, sent the ashes of Trajan to Rome, and repaired thither, also, with as little delay as possible. A BXTKW8IOM OF THE KMPIRK. Trajan's column Character of Hadrian. triumph having : -:vd to him on h; rival. he modestly declined ii, preferrim:, a- he knew would be in. . iv agreeable to the people, tliat these ho; -i!d he paid to the Trajan. Accordingly, the iu<>t nia^niticiMit ]>ivjarati"ii- ;ih>, to which Hadrian coiitrihiiv v tliiiii: in hi> j>o\vc-r. The statue "f Trajan ic*! in tl. an lmnr, licv.-r !!'.. re coiiti-rred iqmii the dead ; and his allies, inclosed in a rMrii urn, \vi-re (1 on tlu- t.-j of a marble column, a hun- dred and thirty-t\. i hei^lit. This column tells, even at the present day. the >tory of his military exploits, and t'r the elegance ot' its ]roportinii, Ix-ain nd simplicity and dexh-rity ..f sculpture. i> regarded a- the iine-t in the world. Hadrian, the successor of Trajan, was hy birth a Spaniard, and the nejihew ot' hi- [ -. He was a man of va-t and active LTenins, intimately acquainted with the Latin and (iivek laniriia^es the laws of his country, and the philosophy of the times; but he was extravagant, incon>tant. capricious, and vain. Although intrusted with the command of the forces in the East, he was not i by Tra- jan as the most suitable person to be placed at the head of the empire, and this prudent monarch 160 EMPIRE OF HOME. His elevation to the throne. accordingly hesitated in naming him for the succession. But during the last illness of Tra- jan, the empress Plotina contrived, either to fix his resolution, or to forge a will by which Ha- drian was nominated his successor. With such varied endowments, and such well-known skill in all the exercises of body and mind, together witli considerable military reputation, he had no difficulty in ascending the throne. The army, all the soldiers of which, it is said, he could call by name, accepted him with acclamations; and tin* Senate to whom he was known as an ac- complished orator, a forcible writer, a profound mathematician, and a skilful general, cheerfully united in giving liim the empire. Upon the elevation of Hadrian to the throne, he remitted a very great number of debts due from (liU'eivnt individuals and provinces to the irea-tiry. lie, also, raised himself very much neral estimation by giving the estates of condemned persons to the public, instead of ap- propriating them to himself. His veneration for the Senate was very great; and every thing in his power was done, to promote the dignity and purity of this important body. Such was his eare to prevent all unworthy men from be- ing introduced into it, that he told a captain of his guard, on creating him a senator, that he KXTKXSIOX OF THE EMPIRE. 161 Kindness of Hadrian His lore of peace. had n<> honors in his gift equal to what he then ded, The greatest praise was bestowed upon Ha- drian for his moderation and clemency, which exhibited on numberless occasions, , rially towards those who had injured him when lie was a private man. Meeting a person, one \vho had been hi< inveterate enemy, he exclaimed: "My good friend, you hav L for I am nw emperor!" His manner kind, especially towards of meaner stations. No one who was to ..brain his assistance; and the sick ol'irn >aw him in their chambers. "I am emperor," said he, " not for my own good, but fur the benefit of mankind." Although he pursued a course very different from that of his predecessor, he seems to have been governed by sound sense and distinguished wi-dom. The arts of peace were far more agreeable to him than those of war, and thus he suffered much of the territory acquired by the conquests of Trajan to be lost to the em- pire. The regions beyond the Euphrates lie re- garded as of little value, and making that river the boundary of the empire, he placed his legions along its banks to prevent the incur- - of the enemy. The Alani, the Sarmatians, 162 EMPIRE OF KOME. The conquests of Trajan abandoned. and the Dacians beginning, soon after. he as- cended the throne, to be very troublesome by their numerous incursions, he was desirous of contracting, still more, the boundaries of his dominions , but being dissuaded by his friends, he iinally satisfied himself by breaking down the bridge which Trajan had built over the Danube, concluding, with much good sense, that the passage which was open to him, was equally advantageous to his barbarian enemies. There were those' who, attributing the peace- ful disposition of Hadrian to cowardice, would have done any tiling to deliver the empire from a ruler who was diminishing its glory and impair- ing its power. Indeed, a very dangerous con- spiracy was fnniu-d against his life by four per- "f consular dignity ; but their designs were discovered, and they were all put to death by order of the Senate. An act so inconsistent with the great moderation which he alway played, occasioned much murmuring on the part of the people. Hadrian, therefore, took the utmost pains to rid himself of the imputa- tion of having been concerned in the execution of these men, who had always been regarded a> among the most worthy in the empire ; and to divert attention from the matter, he soon af- ter caused a number of most magnificent exhi- EXTENSION OF THK KMIMKK. I*'.:; Irian's famous joar: hitjons to l>e held in the amphitheatre for tlie entertainment of the people. During the fourth year of his reign he began the famous journey through all the jn\! of his empire, which he i- said to have per- formed on foot and with his heikd uncovered. It wa- undertaken in pursuanee of one of his maxims, that an emperor ought to imitate the sun, which dillWs warmth and \ r all the parts <>f the earth. In imitation, also, of the sun, he determined that his career r-hould be as brilliant as possible, and. m gly, set out with a very splendid court, and numerous 6 in attendance on him. The lirM province which he visited was(iaul, where lie halted fora length of time sutlicicnt ike a complete census of the people. Thence he passed into Germany and Holland, travelling slowly, noting every thing worthy "f oWrvatioii, and giving such directions as he thought might improve the welfare of the in- habitants and promote the interests of the em- pire. From these countries he went to Britain, a land in which some of his predecessors had acquired so much glory, and where he was also desirous of leaving a name. Here he rested a considerable period, for the purpose of reform- ing a multitude of abuses, as well as for under- 164 EMPIKE or ROME. His labors in Germany and Britain. taking to.recancile the natives to the power of Rome. Finding that the southern parts of the province were very much harassed by the in- cursions of the Picts, and other barbarous na- tions of the north, he caused these intruders to be shut off by a wall of wood and earth extend- ing from the river Eden in Cumberland, to the Tyne in Northumberland. Having accomplished all that he could in Britain, he returned to Gaul, and, passing through this country, went to Spain, where he was received with groat joy, as 1 icing a native of that country. Selecting the city of Terra- gona as his resting-place, lie there called a mooting of the deputies from all the provinces, and devised many things for the benefit of the nation. Having passed the winter in this coun- try, he returned to Rome, fur the purpo- making preparations to pursue his journey in the East, After arriving in Asia Minor, he was induced to turn aside and make ti visit to Athens, where he remained for a considerable length of time, taking upon himself the office of arclion or chief magistrate of the place. Here, he was initiated into the Eleusinian mys- teries, held among the most sacred in the Pagan mythology. At the suggestion of Gratianus, the proconsul of Asia, he remitted, during his K X T I. N S i ( X O F T 11 K K M P I K K . Hid visit to Athens and Carthage Ills favorite, Antlnous. residence here, the persecution of the Chris- tians, and even thought of receiving Christ among the number of the gods. Passing from Athens to Sicily, he visited "Mount -Ktna, and thence returned, once more, to Rome, where he, however, stayed only long enough to ])iv}arc ships to convey him to the coast of Afriea. IK'iv he remained a great length of time, engaged in reforming the gov- ernment, and in erecting the most magnificent Imildings. The famous city of Carthage, which had so long been in ruins, he ordered to be rebuilt, calling it after his <>\vn name, LTadrian- ople, Revisiting Rome, Hadrian, in a very short time, undertook a second journey to Greece, whence he passed over into Asia Minor, and thence into Syria, Palestine, Arabia, and Kgypt. It was during this journey that he lost his favor- ite, Antinous, a young Bithynian, who had ac- companied him during his travels. The young man was drowned in the Nile, but whether by accident, or otherwise, cannot be known. J I a- drian was inconsolable on account of his loss; and, not satisfied with giving his name to a newly-discovered star, he built temples in his honor, and caused him to be worshipped as a god. His image was represented by the arts 166 EMPIRE OF ROME. Rebuilding of Jerusalem. in every way ; and some of these figures belong to the finest remains of antiquity, especially the statue, now in the Yatican, called the Antinous of Belvidere. The tomb of Pompey, which he found at this time to be in a ruined condition, was ordered to be rebuilt by him. He also gave directions for the rebuilding of Jerusalem, a task which was readily undertaken by the Jews, who now began to hope that they were about to be re- stored to their long-lost kingdom. But not sat- isfied with the benefits which Hadrian had con- ferred upon them, and angry on account of the privileges granted to Pagan worshippers in their new city, they fell upon all the Romans and Christians in Judea, and put them, unmer- cifully, to the sword. Hadrian, who was in Athens at the time, hearing of this base return of his kindness, was so incensed that he sent a powerful army against the Jews, destroying nearly six hundred thousand, and banishing the rest, with orders that they should never again come within view of their native land. At length the emperor, after spending about thirteen years in travelling over his dominions, resolved to return and end his days in Rome. The news of his intention was carried to the city, where it was received with every demon- KXLKNSIOX OF THE EMPIRE. 167 His joyful reception at Rome The great acquirements of Hadrian. stration of joy, for Hadrian had endeared him- self to his people in a thousand different wavs. All his subjects, then, united in giving him n hearty welcome home ; and he came back to them somewhat older and more feeble, but with unabated zeal for their happiness and prosper- ity. AVith the greatest assiduity, he now ap- plied himself to the correction of whatever abuses had crept into the government during his protracted journey ; he caused also the enact- ment of various useful and just laws. The privilege hitherto granted to masters, of killing their own slaves, was very wisely taken t'mni them; and slaves who were accused of miscon- duct, were allowed to be tried in an equitable manner. Hadrian was very fond of di>playing his nu- merous acquirements, and seemed ever ready to engage in conversation, upon any topic, with those around him. Such was his ambition to excel in knowledge of the arts and sciences, that he was envious of all those who acquired any considerable reputation therein ; and it is asserted that he allowed his jealousy, on some occasions, to render him unjust and even cruel. Apollodorus, the famous architect, who built Trajan's great bridge over the Danube, is said to have lost his life in consequence of some 168 KM ! IKK OF ROME. His suflerintrs near the close of life. severe criticisms upon an edifice con.-tr after Ilndrin: rns. According to - accounts, it became, at length, a dangerous tli i HIT to dispute with him, even upon philo- sophic subject^. Favorinus, a philosoph great reputation, engaging one day in a di sion with him, was wise enough to allow him- self to be vanquished. Some of his friends blaming him for so doing, he replied: "How, would you have me contend with a man who is ma-tiT <>f thirty legions?" v and bodily infirmities began now to warn Hadrian that the time was at hand when he mu>t lay a>ide, : of em- pire. Determining, therefore, to adopt some one as his heir and r. he fixed upon Titu- Marcu> Antoninus, one of the four per- sons of consular rank among whom he had di- vided the administration of the atfairs of Italy. This adoption was, however, on condition that Antoninus should, in his turn, adopt Lucius VITUS, and Marcus Amvlius, both of whom subsequently a-cended the throne. In the mean time, he became more and more feeble, and, finally, fell into a stale of -uttering, in which life grew quite insupportable. Occasionally his pains were such, that he begged those who were in attendance to dispatch him with the F THK KM PI HE. l;:i I. Hut Ant"ninus was always at hand to any tiling <>f this kind; and, m<iv did all in his p<\ver to reconcile the emper>r to 11 as to make it as sii] 'portal-! him as v, ible. It was, perhaps, at the imeiiduti.'ii of Antoninus that hi- wont to Baia3, in the h>pe that I g6 of air and benefit him. This, however, ed of no avail, and the sntlering nmnaivh mined, at last, to ivf v means d to alleviate \\\- pain-, or to protract his '!;, "that kings died nu-ivly ly the multitude of their physicians." Under such circi; 0, death probably came sooner t. ; and, iinally, in the of his age, and in the twenty-second of his [plied, dictating the cvlcl> ftan/as, nf which Pope has made the following translation: "Oh, fleeting spirit, wandering That long has warmed my tender breast, Wilt tliou no more my frame inspire ? No more a pleasing, cheerful guest ? Whithrr, ah ! whither art thou flying ? To what dark, undiscover'd shore ? Thou seem st ;ill trembling, shivering, dying, And wit and humor are no more." 15 Till- ANTONINES. FROM 139 TO 181, A. D. CHARACTER of the Emperor Antoninus Pius His patron- age of learning Apollouius Death of Antoninus Two emperors succeed him Invasion of the barbarians Yerus sent against them His shameful conduct Sutlerin^s of the empire Relief aiT<>r<lr<l by Auivlius Death of Verus Overthrow of the barbarians Further invasions A remark- able bat tl.- Miraculous deliverance, of the Romans Con- spiracy of Avidius Casius Journey of Aurelius into the East His devotion to philosophy His expedition -i< kness of Aurelius His anxiety for Corn- modus His death. VII. THE ANTONINES. Trrrs MAKTS A. \TONINCS, the successor of Hadrian, was one of that very small nunil)er of men, who, by a proper use of power, render themselves I- 1-3 of their kind. AVith it propriety, lie lias been denominated nd Xuma. Indeed, his love of justice, re- ligion, and peace, induced the Roman Seriate i> r iijKtn him the surname of J'tux. And it is, ]erha]s, not a little to his praise, that although his reign continued for a space of twenty-two years, it furnishes very few materi- als for history, which has been justly called a register of the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. At the time of his accession to the empire, Antoninus had arrived at the age of fifty years, having already discharged, with great x.eal and integrity, some of the most important offices of 150 174: EMPIRE OF ROME. Character of the emperor Antoninus Pius. the State. He began, at once, to ascertain wherein he could propose any thing which might promote the welfare of the empire ; and, from the first moment, he labored with assiduity to this end. Many unworthy persons were re- moved by him from office ; burdensome taxes were moderated or abolished, and the wants of the needy, in many cases, relieved at the sacri- fice of his own private fortune. In this manner, as well as by his great dislike of all personal display, he gained the esteem not only of the citizens of Rome, but of the whole empire. Ambassadors came to him from the remotest regions, to solicit ; his friendship and alliance; an<K in some instancrs. IK- was desired by them to appoint kings for their respective countries. The Christians, who in previous reigns had been greatly persecuted, he treated with the utmost kindness. They were not only allowed to practise their religion, but Antoninus de- clare* I thai whoever disturbed them simply on account of their faith, should be punished with great severity. Antoninus had very little taste for war ; and when his subjects attempted to inspire him with a desire for military glory, he replied : " I had rather preserve the life of a single citizen, than destroy a thousand enemies." Notwithstanding THE AN TON IN i 175 His patronage of learning Apollonius. this, he Mippressed with great promptness the insurrections which happened during his reign in IJritain, in Dacia, and in Germany. In or- der t<> prevent the incursions of the barbarians in the former country, he dug a deep trench from twelve to fourteen feet wide, and built a high wall across the isthmus between the Forth and the Clyde. Learned men were sure to secure his patron- age. He invited them from the remotest coun- tries, for the purpose of conferring wealth and honor upon them. Among those win > thus came to K 'me at his invitation, was Apollonius, a fa- mous stoic philosopher, whom he designed as an instructor for his adopted son, Marcus Au- relius. It is said that this philosopher, on his arrival, having been sent for by the emperor, replied, in an arrogant manner, that it was a scholar's duty to wait upon the master, and not the master's duty to wait upon the scholar. An- toninus, smiling only at this ridiculous display of vanity, sent Marcus Aurelius to him. Not the least of the numberless things, so ad- mirable in Antoninus, wa< the pains which he took to render Marcus Aurelius worthy to suc- ceed him in the empire; and, truly, Marcus Aurelius was. in all respects, worthy to be the adopted son of this excellent monarch. At a 176 EMPIRE OF ROME. Death of Antoninus Two emperors succeed him. . early age he devoted himself to the sever- est study, and to the practice of every virtue. It is said, indeed, that during the whole reign of his adopted father, which continued twenty- years, lie was absent from the palace only two nights, and even these were not in suc- '"ii. AVh en Antoninus, at the age of seventy-five, found that the hand of death was upon hi in, he convened his friends and principal officers around his death-lied, and in their presence confirmed the adoption of Marcus Aurelius, without mentioning Lucius Vcrus. whom Ha- drian had desired him to adopt al>o. Hut when .Marcus Aurelius who could not Le guilty of an act that had the lea-t appearance of injustice, found himself in Ion of the empire-, he admitted Veru> as his a-"ciate ande<[ual; and thus Kome, for the tirst time, found itsi-If under the government of two sovereigns, of e<pml au- thority, hut of very diiferent merit and pi. The lamentation for the loss of Antoninus extended over the whole empire. Marcus Au- relius pronounced his funeral oration. The Senate erected a pillar to his memory, which is ^till standing, and known as the Anton nit ( \'hunn. His successors assumed his name in Tin: AN TON INKS. 177 Invasion of the barbarians. hon,,r i>r him ; ami In- \\a- >p>krn of, a- bein; almost tin.- only monarch that had lived without spilling the 1' .is countrymen or of his eriemi Tlie two emperors, Mareus Auivlius and Lu- cius Verus, tlieii a-ccndrd the throne together, and reigned c'iij"intly during a space of nine -. with far more haniiouy than im'irht have 1 from two j ich 4ipjo- 15ul they had scarcely hcirim t- adniini>ter the atl'airs imient, when the empire wa- ; ; on all sides ly the l)arl)arou> nati'-n- that >urnnunled it. (iennany :ivaded by the renowned and valiant ( 'atti who had l.een >ueh :'ul oppmu-nts of Julius Ca-sar, and who now ravaizyd all before them, with lire and >word. Tho Dritons, aN, rev..ltc<l ; a- K. man authority ; and the Parthian-, under their kiln .madean irru])ti)ii more dreadi'ul than any that thev had before undertaken, dc>tryiur the lioinan le- gions in Armenia, and driving the .Roman i;o \vrnor from Syria. Such a s RTM well calculated to the abilities of the new emperors of Rome. Together they devUed plans for subduing their enemies and reducing their revolted provinces ibmiflsion. It was agreed between them 178 EMPIRE OF HOME. Verus sent to oppose them. that Aurelius should remain at home to admin- ister justice, and correct such faults as might exist in the laws and policy of the State, and that Yerus, furnished with the ablest assistants, should take the field in person. According to this arrangement, Yerus went, supported by the best advice from the judicious Aurelius, as well as by the most experienced generals, and most valiant troops. But Yerus himself performed a very insignificant part in the victories which were achieved at this time by the Roman arms. Intent, alone, upon his own pleasures, lie resolved to intrust the con- duct <>f this great expedition to his generals; and, accordingly, when he reached Antioch in Syria. he buried himself in one of its beautiful sub- urbs, called Daphne, where lie rioted in excess- es, unknown even to the voluptuous Greeks. The army was abandoned by him, and the ob- ject of his journey to this remote portion of his empire was totally forgotten. His generals, however, leaving him plunged in every kind of debauchery, went forward and fought the bat- tles of the empire with all success. Baby- lon, Ctesiphon, and many other powerful cities, were plundered and destroyed, and, in the course of four years, during which the war continued, the Romans ran over nearly THE ANTONINES. 179 Shameful conduct of Verus. all the country of Parthia, and thoroughly sub- dued it. But Verus who had, all this time, passed a life of indolence and pleasure, determined, now. In iMirn tlu 1 honors which had been so hardly can u-d by others. Appointing, therefore, suit- able persons to take care of the conquests re- cently obtained, and taking upon himself the titles of Armenicus and Parthic-us. he returned to Rome in the greatest pomp and >plendor. The excellent Anrclius was n..t ignorant of iiameful conduct of Verus ; and, mortified with the accounts that were daily brought of his excesses, he did every tiling that was possi- ble to reclaim his colleague ; and when app: that he was about to return with his victorious army, he ordered the must magnificent prepa- rations for his reception. But the return of Verus was a terrible thing for the empire. 1 1 is soldiers brought the plague from Parthiu, and spread it over all the provinces through which they passed. Their route was, of course, marked by the most dreadful scenes of wretch- edness and death ; but Verus, insensible alike to humanity and shame, pursued his desolating march, attentive only to the preservation of his own life and the promotion of his own pleasures. But the raging pestilence, spread over the 180 EMPIRE OF EOME. Terrible sufferings of the empire Aurelius relieves the empire. empire by the reckless Yerus, was not the only cause of terror and destruction. Earthquakes, famines, and inundations, such as had never be- fore been known, took place ; myriads of lo- custs filled the air and devoured the productions of the land ; and, besides all this, the barba- rous nations surrounding the empire, taking ad- vantage of these terrible calamities, carried their devastations even into the midst of Italy. To crown the whole, this deplorable state of things was attributed by the pagan priests to the inoffensive Christians, who, in consequence, were cruelly put to death in every part of the empire. During this terrible time, it was, that Justin Martyr, and Poly carp, and a host of other excellent men, were burned to death or crucified. To be the faithful ruler and father of a nation under such adverse circumstances was not an enviable lot ; and the efforts of Aurelius to per- form his duty during this trying season, even if they had proved less successful, were enough to confer upon him immortal glory. Using, in the promptest manner, every means to stay the awful pestilence, and providing as well as he could for those who were famishing for food, he collected, with the least delay, the forces of the empire, and dragging Yerus from the sensual THE ANTONINES. 181 Death of Verus The barbarians subdued. delights of Rome, into which he had plunged himself, marched at the head of his legions to drive away the fierce barbarians who had come to profit by the miseries of his subjects. Not content with chasing their vast armies from the soil of Italy, he even pursued them beyond the Alps ; and then returned to Rome with a loss of men so small, as to be almost incredible. But, before Aurelius had completed this vic- tory over the barbarians, Yerus, weary of the toils of war, determined to return to the pleas- ures which he had unwillingly left at Rome. While journeying slowly thitherward, he was seized with a fit of apoplexy, which put an end to his life, and thus gave Aurelius sole posses- sion of the empire. This excellent emperor mourned sincerely the loss of his unworthy colleague, and used all laudable means to save his memory from the contempt to which it was justly entitled. It is reasonable, however, to suppose that, for the sake of Rome's welfare, he rejoiced to be able to act now with greater diligence and success than ever. The barbarians, though repulsed, and even driven from the empire, were not yet wholly conquered ; and the return of the em- peror to Rome enabled them to collect in still greater numbers to harass their powerful ene- 16 182 EMPIRE OF KOME. Further difficulties with the barbarians. my. It became necessary, therefore, for Aure- lius to take the field once more; and he pre- pared himself, accordingly, for a long and vig- orous campaign. Indeed, it was several years before these obstinate barbarians could be sub- dued ; but the perseverance of Aurelius finally accomplished it, and they were compelled to accept such terms of peace as he thought fit to propose to them. Disbanding now his armies, in the hope that he had secured his empire against further diffi- culties with the troublesome people who sur- rounded it, he applied himself to such matters of internal policy as seemed to demand his at- tention. The public expenses were greatly diminished through his care ; the useless and demoralizing shows and sports exhibited in the amphitheatre were lessened, and the luxuries of the great very much restrained, as well by his own example, as by the wise regulations which it was in his power to enact. But the hope which he had entertained con- cerning the barbarians, rested upon a false foundation ; and his zealous efforts to promote the happiness and welfare of his people at home, were suddenly interrupted by ravages upon his empire, carried on with even greater fmy than before. All the nations, indeed, from THE AXTONINES. 183 A remarkable battle. Illyricum to the farthest parts of Gaul, had united to take up arms against him, while he, in the enjoyment of a fancied peace, had suf- fered his broken legions to remain unrecruited, and his empty treasury to continue unre- plenished. AVith the energy peculiar to him, however, he soon repaired his shattered forces, by large enlistments of slaves and gladiators; and, in order to raise money, sold all the movables of the empire, with the costly furniture which had been deposited, in endless variety, in the cabi- nets of his predecessors. Some idea of this sale may be obtained from the fact that it con- tinued, uninterrupted, for the space of two months. In the mean time his preparations went on with the greatest activity ; and his nu- merous enemies, one after another, were soon compelled to fly from his territories, or to yield themselves as slaves. One of the battles fought during these cam- paigns, and which resulted in great benefit to the Christians, is often related on account of the miraculous circumstances accompanying it. This 1 >attle was commenced by an army of the barbarians, near the border of a shallow stream, which separated them from the Koman legions. The attack was so vigorous that the Romans 184 EMPIRE OF EOME. Miraculous deliverance of the Romans. were induced to ford the stream, in order to punish the enemy with greater severity ; but the latter fled immediately towards the neighboring mountains, at the same time tempting the Eomans, in various ways, to fol- low them. By degrees, Aurelius and his troops found themselves in the narrow passes of the moun- tains, surrounded on every side by precipitous rocks, exposed to the intense rays of a summer sun, and utterly destitute of water. The sol- diers, weaned by the useless pursuit of their cunning foes, and fainting, for want of some- thing to quench their intolerable thirst, dropped down by hundreds upon the inhospitable rocks. Aurelius went about, in person, doing eveiy thing in his power to relieve their distress, and to animate their courage. In the mean time the barbarians collecting in vast numbers, began to make preparations to take the exhausted Romans an easy prey. But just as they were about to fall upon them, it is said that a Christian legion, under the com- mand of Aurelius, fell down upon their knees, and united in the most earnest supplications to Heaven for deliverance. Immediately a dark cloud, moving over the heads of the contending armies, discharged upon the Romans a refresh- THE ANTONINES. 185 Conspiracy of Avidlus Casius. ing shower, and, at the same time, sent down upon their enemies a terrible storm of hail, which, slaying them by hundreds and thou- sands, accomplished the salvation of the Roman army. Such was the effect of this miraculous assistance upon Aurelius, that he caused the persecution against the Christians to be sus- pended, and wrote to the Senate a letter in their behalf. But the emperor had scarcely achieved his conquest of the barbarians, when a dangerous conspiracy was concerted against him by Avi- dius Casius, one of his favorite generals, who was at the head of a powerful army in the East. This man had acquired a great military reputa- tion, by his success in the wars upon the Par- thians; and he was, moreover, held in great esteem by all the virtuous portion of the em- pire, on account of the excellent discipline which he had introduced into the army. A selfish desire to promote his own interests, seemed, however, to be his motive for gaining popularity ; and, as soon as he believed that he had secured enough of public favor, he caused a report to be circulated that Aurelius was dead, and then proclaimed himself emperor in Syria, declaring, at the same time, that his object was the re-establishment of the for- 186 EMPIRE OF EOME. Aurelius's treatment of the conspiracy. mer commonwealth of Korne. By such pre- tensions, he succeeded, soon, in drawing im- mense bodies of men under his command, and, in a short time, brought all the countries, from Syria to Mount Taurus, under his subjec- tion. When the news of this conspiracy was brought to Aurelius, he listened to it without the least manifestation of fear, but, at the same time, be- gan to make preparations to oppose it, telling his soldiers that he would freely yield the em- pire to Avidius, if such a measure would be most conducive to the public good. " I am ready," said he to them, " to meet Avidius before the Senate, and before you, and to yield to him the empire, without the shed- ding of blood, or striking a blow, if it shall be thought for the public good. But Avidius will never submit to such a tribunal ; he who has been faithless to his benefactor, can never rely upon any man^s professions. He will not, even in case of being defeated, rely on me. And yet, my fellow-soldiers, my only fear is that he may put an end to his own life, or that some one, thinking to do me a service, should hasten his death. The greatest hope that I have, is to prove that I can pardon the greatest offences ; to make him my friend in spite of his reluc- THE ANTONINES. 187 The conspiracy defeated. tance, and to show the world that even civil wais may have a happy issue." Avidius left no means untried to strengthen iii> power. His efforts to gain partisans in cer- tain quarters, especially in Greece, were not so {Successful as he anticipated, and his offers to some of the provinces were rejected with con- tempt. Indeed, the excellent Aurelius had ob- tained such a strong hold upon almost the en- tire world, that it is surprising that Avidius should have succeeded even as well as he did. Much of his success was, doubtless, due to his former good character, and the reported death of Aurelius. When his duplicity became ap- parent, and the fact concerning the emperor's well-being established, the officers and soldiers of Avidius began to regard him with contempt, and, finally, only four months after the com- mencement of the revolt, they slew him. His head was carried to Aurelius, who received it with many expressions of regret, and ordered it to be decently interred. Those who were engaged in this conspiracy of Avidius, were treated with the utmost len- iency by Aurelius, who would not suffer one of them to receive any greater punishment than banishment. The friends of Aurelius took the liberty to blame him for this leniency, telling 188 EMPIRE OF ROME. Aurelius makes a journey into the East. him that Avidius would not have been so gen- erous had he been the conqueror. To which the emperor made the following reply, so ad- mirably illustrative of the security to be found in the conscientious discharge of all the duties of life : u I never served the gods so ill," said he, "or lived so irregularly, as to fear that Avidius could be the conqueror." Not long after this event, Aurelius took a journey into the East, where he feared the ex- ample of Avidius might have a pernicious in- fluence. His absence from Home continued for the long space of eight years, during which time he visited a large number of provinces, charm- ing every one by his affability, and raising, if it were possible, the admiration in which his worth and talents were everywhere held. At Athens, where he remained some time, he seemed to devote himself entirely to the wel- fare of the people, inquiring into their wants, and advising them as to their interests. He conferred many honors upon the inhabitants, and established among them professors in vari- ous sciences, providing abundant means for their proper maintenance. Nothing could exceed the joy which pre- vailed throughout all Italy, when Aurelius re- turned from his long sojourn in the East. The THE ANTONINES. 189 His return His devotion to philosophy. inhabitants of the various towns through which he passed, went out in crowds to meet him, and every honor was paid to his distinguished worth. Laving aside his military dress as soon as he touched the soil, and even obliging the soldiers who accompanied him to do the same, he journeyed towards Rome, and entered it, not as a conqueror, but like a simple citi- zen. Here he distributed large sums of money among his delighted subjects, and remitted taxes which had been accumulating for many years. Not long after his return, he named his son Commodus as his successor to the empire, and then, retiring to a beautiful country-seat, spent some time in studying philosophy, which was not with him a subject of mere speculation : such, it is said, was the tranquillity of his mind, that he was never observed to feel any emotion, nor to change the expression of his countenance, either in joy or in sorrow. The fruits of his studies are found in a work, still extant, known as his Meditations, and which was written by him in the Greek language. Aurelius was now far advanced in life, and justly entitled to spend the remainder of his days in undisturbed repose ; but this was not destined to be his fortune. The Scythians, and 190 EMPIRE OF EOME. His expedition against the Scythians Sickness of Aurelius. other barbarous nations, took up arms once more against the empire, and invaded it with all the fury which they had exhibited upon for- mer occasions. Notwithstanding his increased years, Aurelius made the most active prepara- tions to repel their dangerous incursions, and, despite the earnest remonstrances of his peo- ple, went forth in person to defend his country. But his subjects, fearing that they would never see him again, would not let him set out until he had given them instructions for their future conduct. Accordingly, after spending three whole days in giving them short maxims, by which they might regulate their lives, he de- parted ii] "Hi his expedition, amidst the prayers and lamentations of all his people. The usual courage and prudence of Aurelius resulted in the conquest of his enemies, during this campaign. But in the third year of the war he was seized with the plague at Yinde- bona, a city now known by the name of Vien- na. From the first moment of his attack, he seemed to be aware that his end had come, and with undiminished solicitude for the welfare of his country, he desired to spend his remaining breath in its behalf. Gathering, therefore, his principal officers about his bed, he imparted to them such advice as he thought would be of THE ANTONINES. 191 IDs anxiety for his sou His death. service to them aiid to the public. It was im- possible for him to conceal the uneasiness which he felt at leaving the empire in the hands of so unpromising a person as his son Commodus; and he did not hesitate to implore those who were around him to provide good examples and instructions for this unworthy heir to the reign ty. "Make him particularly sensible," said the dying emperor, " that not all the riches and honors of the world are sufficient to satisfy the luxury and ambitiim .!' a tyrant; nor are the strongest guards and armies able to defend him from the just rewards of his crimes. Assure him that cruel princes never enjoy a long and peaceful reign ; and that all the real delights of power are reserved for those, only, whose clem- ency and mildness have gained them the hearts of the people." Thus, occupied with the welfare of his coun- try, died the excellent Aurelius in the fifty- ninth year of his age, and in the twentieth of his reign ; and a sad event it was for Rome, whose glory and prosperity seemed to have been buried with him. Bad emperors enough had already occupied the throne, but henceforth they were to be more numerous than ever. The barbarous enemies, heretofore so successfully 192 E'MPIRE OF KOME. Factions and conspiracies. beaten off, were to become more dangerous, and more obstinate. Factions and conspiracies were to become greatly multiplied, and patriot- ism to diminish year by year until finally extinct THE PRAETORIAN GUARDS. FROM 181 TO 235 A. D. 140 EARLY conduct of Cominodus lli> hatn <! of the Senate Infamous behavior of Oleander, and its consequences Bru- tality of Comraodus His performances in the circus Con- spiracy against him His death Klcvatinn of iVrtinax His virtuous reign The Pratt uian guards Their i institu- tion Tlu-ir usurpation of power Their sale of the empire at auction Its purchase by ]>idius .lulianus- His ti-eatineiit by the I'ra-torians Srvenis made emperor The I'ra torians disbanded Severus and his rivals- Overthrow of Nip T Sc\ems's e.\i>edition int> I'.ritain His death Quarrels be- twceu Caracalla and Geta Caracalla made emperor by tlic Praetorian guards Jealousy between officers of tin- miard Conspiracy against Caracalla Macrinus made emperor He inrur> tin- hatred of (lie soldiers He is slain The elevation of II-li..i:abalus His follies He is slain by the guard Alexander made emperor His v .tions His mili- tary expeditious The conspiracy of Maximiu. A ROYAL GLADIATOR VIII. THE PRUTORIAN GUARDS, IT was very unfortunate t<>r Home tliat Aure- lius ^hould have been willing to place its des- tiny in the hands of a worthless young man like his son Commodus. He did it, howevei . without employing every means within his power to prevent the mischief which was likely to ensue from the elevation to supreme power of a youth of nineteen years, possessed of a very narrow mind, and addicted to the worst of vices. Indeed Commodus listened, for a season, to the wise counsellors, to whom his father had sol- emnly committed him ; and the difficult war against the barbarians, in which the empire was engaged when lie succeeded to the throne, continued to be prosecuted with much success. He took the burden of the campaign upon his own shoulders, and seemed, at first, to sustain it with all the ability displayed by his incom- 198 EMPIRE OF ROME. Early conduct of Commodus. parable father. But, by degrees, dissolute per- sons of his own age, with whom he had, hitherto, been forbidden to associate, began to find ac- cess to him, and, finally, to have more influence over him than the excellent instructors under whom he had been placed. It was through their advice, accompanied by the tempting descriptions which they gave of the pleasures of Rome, that he was induced to abandon the campaign in which he had en- gaged, and return to tin- city. P>ut even alter taking this step, he c<>ul<l not, at once, turn a deaf ear to the counsels <>!' the worthy men to whom his lather had commended him. For the sj.ace of three years, being more or less un- der their control, no material change could be seen in the government of the empire, though the youthful monarch indulged, without re- straint, in every species of debauchery. It is impo>sible to tell to what extremities of wickedne>< his love of sensual pleasures might have carried him. He does not, however, see ni to have been guilty of bloodshed, until an at- tempt was first made upon his own life. This happened, upon a certain occasion, as he was going through one of the passages of the am- phitheatre. An assassin came suddenly upon him, and, brandishing a drawn sword, cried PRAETORIAN GUARDS. 199 Commodus becomes enraged at the Senate. out, "Traitor, the Senate sends tliee this!*' I Jut the imprudent assassin was seized by some of the emperor's guards, before he could eiK-ct his purpose; and his subsequent confessions fixed the crime upon the emperor's sister, who afterwards suffered death for this abominable act. But Commodus was not satisfied with the punishment of those who were doubtless con- cerned in this conspiracy against his Hie. The words of the assassin inspired him with the most bitter hatred against the Senate; and his suspicion, alone, of this body, was sufficient to lirinir forward those who were ready to accuse its members, for the sake of the rewards which they were sure to receive. Numbers of them in this way suffered death, and many profligate men were really enriched by the mo>t atrocious murders. Among those who thus acquired un- bounded wealth was one Perennis, an unprinci- pled man, to whom Commodus had committed the care of the government, while he himself was buried in his pleasures. Perennis, becoming at length one of the richest men in Rome, began to aspire to the empire, and by means of his great wealth, was enabled to find enough of those who were willing to aid him in his enter- prise. Ill success, which, sooner or later, is sure 200 EMPIRE OF ROME. Plot against Commodus Its consoquencee. to attend bad men, finally visited him ; and the immense treasures which he had accumulated, were insufficient to save him from the anger of Commodus. As soon as the plot of Perennis was discovered, he and his sons were all put to death. The emperor finding himself thus surrounded by persons who were willing to take his life, began to grow still more regardless of the lives of others, and the best men of Rome, conse- quently, fell daily, a sacrifice to his unjust sus- picions, or, to his abominable avarice. This cruelty, very naturally, rendered his reign more odious, and his death more desirable. Conspi- racies, therefore, multiplied ; desertions, also, took place among his troops, and revolts oc- curred among his provinces. The murmurs of the people broke out into open rebellion ; and pestilence and famine, finally, filling up the measure of their calamity, they dared to op- pose the bloody tyrant. At this time it was that Cleander, the successor of Perennis, and a great favorite of the emperor, fell a 'sacrifice to the fury of the populace. This execrable minister of Commodus, by rendering himself useful to the passions of his master, and by exhibiting an utter want of vir- tue, had acquired an authority little inferior to PRJGTORIAN GUARDS. 201 Infamous conduct of Oleander Fury of the people. that of the emperor. This authority being exercised, however, chiefly for the purpose of gratifying his own avarice, was accorded, without any limitation, to Oleander. Offices of honor and trust were exposed to public sale, by this infamous man ; and wealthy persons were sometimes compelled to give their entire fortunes for the empty title of Consul, Patrician, or Senator. The laws were also administered by him without any regard to justice. Inno- cent men were condemned, in order that he might be able to sell to them a pardon ; and criminals, justly condemned, could purchase a reversal of their sentences. Commodus had a share of the wealth ac- quired by such abominable practices, and in order that it might still continue to flow in, he undertook, in connection with Oleander, to make a great exhibition of liberality by erect- ing baths, porticoes, and places of exercise for the people. But when, during the famine, Ole- ander attempted to monopolize the sale of corn, and thus to fill his coffers, the people rose in mass, and declared that it was time to rid the earth of such a monster. The palace of the emperor was besieged by angry multitudes, who demanded the head of the public enemy. Oleander, terrified by such a furious demonstra- 202 KM FIRE OF EOME. Death of Oleander Brutality of Commodus. tion, ordered a body of cavalry to fall upon tJie people ; but these were assailed so vigor- ously by stones, arrows, and other missiles tin-own upon them from the windows and house- tops, that they were forced to retreat; and Commodus, at last, to save his own life, ordered the head of his favorite Oleander to be cut oft' and thrown among the crowd. Commodus, from the window of his palace, saw, witli the utmost inditl'erence, the head of his favorite minister kicked about tl and turned from it to his pleasures, with all his usual relish. Every of humanity had now deserted him. Hi- very amusements, in- deed. CMiisi-ted of cruelties, such as would have, shocked the nio-t degraded savages. His sub- tied at his approach, for it was not unu- sual for him, under the protection of his guards, to strike at them with his sword, cutting oif an or limb, and frequently killing them in the very thoroughfares. On one occa- sion, dressing himself in the costume of Hercu- les, and armed with a heavy club, he went into the street, and entering a group of beggars and cripple-, whom he had caused to be collected her, fell upuii them and beat several to death before they could make their escape. Commodus is said to have been the only one PR^TORIAN GUARI 203 Hi* piTformaiuv in the circus. of the Human emperors who liad not the least for any of the liberal arts. Even Nero wa< fond of poetry and music, but the pleasures of Coramodus were not elevated above those of the very lowest of the people. "When he was not occupied in gratifying his beastly lusts, he might be found enu-auvd in the exercises of the circus or the amphitheatre ; and, indeed, he ac- quired great skill in shooting with the bow.and in throwing the javelin. Flattered, like Xero, by the prdliirate men who surrounded him, he determined, at length, to u'ive exhibitions of his strength and dexterity; and the amphitheatre was crowded by his curious subject-, when they learned that they were to be entertained by an imperial performer. lie stepped into the arena, armed with bow and arrows; and as lions or panthers were, one by one, let loose upon him, he sent his unerring shafts, alternately, through their heads or hearts. With arrows shaped liked a crescent, it is said that he could cut off the head of an ostrich while running at its greatest speed. Not content with such a degrading exhibi- tion of himself, he even entered the lists as a gladiator, a profession which had been long branded as infamous. His favorite character, on these occasions, was that of the Secutor, who, 204 EMPIRE OF ROME. His conduct censured by his friends Ills fury. armed with a helmet, sword, and buckler, met his antagonist, the Retio/rius. The latter was furnished with a net, with which he tried to entangle his adversary, and with a trident with which he sought to slay him. It is said that in this character he fought seven hundred and thirty-five times. Lietius his general, Electafl his chamberlain, and Marcia one of his female favorites, remon- strated with him on this abominable conduct. their advice only served to make him : and a< death alone was aji adequate punishment f<>r ih-e who offended him, he phuvd their names among those in his tablets whom In- determined to destroy. Like Domi- tian. being one day careless enough to leave this i \n> apartment, while taking a bath in an adjoining room, it was picked up by a little child and carried to Marcia. who was only too eurioii- to examine it. Shocked by di<c<>\vr- ing her own name among the number of those condemned by the tyrant to death, she ran with the fatal list to La-tius and Electus, who were no less terrified at finding their own names as- sociated with here. These three persons, without hesitation, re- solved to seize the first opportunity to poison Commodus ; and in accordance with this reso- PKJETORIAN GUARDS. 205 Conspiracy against Commodus Its result. lution, a deadly draught was soon after admin- i-d to him by the hands of Marcia. The immediate effect of the poti<>n was to throw him into a profound slumber, during which, all his attendants were removed from the apartment, under pretence that he needed rest. Awaken- : n a short time, lie began to vomit violent- ly; and Maivia fearing that he might finally recover, >uminoned to her assistance a young man named Narcissus, wln, with her aid, strangled the unconscious emperor. Thus, a reign of twelve years, and at the age of thirty- one, died one of the HKM execrable immarchs that ever disgraced the Unman empire. So much secrecy had been observed by the conspirators, that the death of Commodus was not known until his body had been removed from the palace, and a person selected to fill the vacant throne. This person wa< Jlelvius Per- tinax, the praefect of the city, a senator of con- sular rank, whose merit had elevated him from the lowest position to the highest offices of the empire. The son of a liberated slave, he had been successively a shop-keeper, a school-mas- ter, a lawyer, and a soldier. In the last station he exhibited so much courage and wisdom, that he was made commander of a legion, by Au- relius, and, subsequently, governor of Dacia, 18 206 EMPIRE OF ROME. Kelvins Pertinax and the conspirators Pertitiax made emperor. Syria, and Asia Minor. Although Commodus had banished him on account of his virtues, he was, afterwards, willing to recall him and make him prefect of the city, on account of his emi- nent abilities. As soon as the emperor was dead, Lsetius, the Praetorian prefect, and Electus, the cham- berlain, ran from the palace, notwithstanding it was midnight, and knocking at the door of Pertinax, demanded entrance. On learning the names of his visitors, Pertinax, supposing that they had been commissioned by the empe- ror to hike liis life, bade them come in and ex- ecute their master's orders. And when they told him that Commodus was dead, and that they had (-me to offer to him the empire, he - d 1o trust them, believing that this was only a mad prank [' the tyrant, intended prelude to his own destruction. Convinced, at at length, that they were not deceiving him, he consented with great reluctance to accept the crown, and wau conducted with as little delay as possible to the camp of the Praetorian bands, where it was immediately announced that Commodus had died of apoplexy, and that Pertinax had succeeded him. The astonished soldiers having agreed to ac- cept the new emperor, the Senate was called PRAETORIAN GUARDS. 207 Joy of the people. together, at dawn of day, to ratify the choice thus made. Their surprise was not less than that of Pertinax ; but, when they had recovered from it, they made the Senate House resound with their expressions of indignation against the tyrant, and of joy at being delivered from him. They decreed, at once, to erase his name from the public monuments, to throw down his statues, to drag his body with a hook to the -ing-rooms of the gladiators, for the public gaze, and thence to throw it on a dunghill. Legal and just as were those decrees, Perti- nax prevented such an unnecessary display of rage ; and, from respect to the memory of Aureliu-. permitted the body of Commodus to have a decent burial, lie knew that a virtuous life on his part would be the most effectual way of condemning the vices of his predecessor; and he accordingly began, even upon the day of his accession, to show the people that neither pride, nor jealousy, nor pomp, nor luxury, were indispensable to the dignity of an emperor. His wife was not permitted, like former em- presses, to be styled Augusta, and he forbade his son to take the rank of Caesar. Different in all respects from his predecessor, he banished from the palace the profligate persons who frequented it, and gave encouragement to EMPIRE OF KOME. Virtuous reign of Pertinax. those, only, who were distinguished for their virtues. Although Pertinax was, at this time, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, he lacked none of the vigor essential to the conduct of so vast an empire. Had he been allowed a longer reign, he might have brought back the empire to the glnry which it possessed in the days of the An- tonine<. But short, even, as was the reign of this estimable man, he did much to repair the injuries done by Commodus. By economy and industry. In- succeeded in replenishing the pub- lic trca-ury. which had been exhausted through the prodigality of his predecessor. The worth- ivontes of this infamous tyrant were com- pelled t<> give up their ill-gotten treasures; and 9 who had been r<>' through his rapacity, were put in possession of their wealth. The demands of the just cred- itors of t ; -i-tied. Innocent vic- tims were recalled from exile, and ivh from prison; and hundreds of slaves, who were held in unlawful bondage, were set at liberty. The meanest of the people had access to him, the Senate respected him, and the barbarous nations, who regarded his name with terror, laid down their arms when they knew that he had succeeded to the throne. PRAETORIAN GUARDS. 209 The Prsetorian guards Their hatred of Pertinar. But Homo was under the dominion of an abandoned soldiery, whose manners the mable Pertinax lia<l vainly labored to reform. So !<>Mir had they been accustomed to the indul- a?id profusion of Comniodns, that they were ivady to rebel against a monarch, wln>e ju-tiee lilled the people with joy, while it de- prived them of the hem-tits which they had hitherto derived from the disorders of the Slate. Indeed, Pertinax had not been three days upon the throne, when a party of the Pnetorian guards sei/ed upon a worthy senator, and, car- rying him to the camp, wished to compel him the empire. He stoutly refused the dangerous honor. But, not long after, they Kided Socius Falco to receive it, and a con- spiracy was formed, which was, however, promptly crushed by the resolute conduct of the emperor. This only served to irritate the is more; and, at the expiration of about three months from the accession of Per- tinax, a general sedition broke out in their camp, which it was impossible to control. A large body of soldiers declaring openly that they would no longer endure the rule of Perti- nax, took up their arms, and marched towards the imperial palace. The news of their approach preceded them, 210 EMPIRE OF KOME. Its consequences Institution of the Praetorian guards. and the friends of the emperor, hastening to his apartments, besought him to throw himself into the hands of the people, and entreat of them protection. But he said, in reply, that it was unworthy his imperial dignity and all his past actions, to save himself by flight. In the mean time the rehels entered the palace gates, which were opened by their accomplices within, and, rushing furiously into the chamber of the em- peror, fell upon him with their swords and lances. In an instant his bndy rolled upon the floor, covered with a multitude of wounds. By his side fell, also, Klectus, and several of his faithful attendants, \\l\n vainly endeavored to defend him. His head was then separated from his body, and, placed upon the point of a lance, was can-led in triumph to the camp of the Praetorian guards. These Praetorian bands, so frequently men- tioned in the course of this narrative, and into whose hands the destiny of the empire seemed now to have fallen, were instituted by Augus- tus to protect his person and his power. They consisted, originally, of ten cohorts, each num- bering one thousand men, horse and foot. They were distinguished by double pay and especial privileges. Their term of service was twelve years ; at the expiration of which time, PK.ETORIAN GUARDS. Their demands. each soldier received twenty thousand sesterces. Augustus kept but three of these cohorts in the city, stationing the remainder of them in dif- ferent parts of Italy ; but Tiberius, about fifty years after, under pretence of introducing a stricter discipline, assembled them all in Home, in a permanent camp, which was strongly for- tified. These powerful bands, established in the very seat of the empire, and regarded, at iir- ctors of the Senate, the people, and the treasures, perceived, in time, that it was for them to have the empire entirely under their control. At first they exhibited a great deal of pride, and demanded privileges quite inconsistent with the discipline necessary to be observed in armies. Indulged by successive emperors in their pleasures and irregularities, they began, by degrees, to regard themselves as an independent body, and, finally, as the highest power of the State. From the time of Claudius, they exacted from every new succes- sor to the throne, a large donation in considera- tion of their protection ; and, at last, an em- peror could not be appointed without their consent. The dreadful disposal which they made of the worthy Pertinax, was a new and still more 212 EMPIRE OF ROME. Their usurpation of power. dangerous assumption of power; but it was, soon after, followed by an act too shameful to be related. When the party who had under- taken the destruction of Pertinax had accom- plished their deadly purpose, the people, ac- knowledging. 21- it were, a power greater than the thnnie, and even than themselves, awaited in patience the next demonstration of the thou- sand-headed tyrant that had assumed to rule them. Previous to the bloody act, the governor of the city. Sulpicianus, had, it is true, gone to the camp for the purpc <!' calming the tern- wit h any hope of sue for he had not been long within the fortifica- tion-, when the* lu-ad !' hi> >on-in-law, the em- peror, was brought thither by the furiou- . upon the point of a lance. It is natural to suppose that he would have lied with horror from the sight ; but the brutal man. ga/.ing with indifference upon the ^ene. began to urge the claim which he now had upon the vacant throne, and even to oiler money to secure it. But a vacant throne was a commodity which the Pnetorian market did not every day atl'ord, and it was fair to suppose that a handsome 1 jar- gain might now be made. The shrewdest of the band having taken the offer of Sulpicianus into consideration, concluded that it was too PRJETORIAX (i CARDS. 213 They offer to soil the empire at auction The bidders. small ; and, thereupon, one of them ran out upon the ramparts, and bawled out, in trumpet tones, that the Roman empire would be sold, immediately, at public auction, to the highest bidder. The news flew in every direction through the city, and presently the walls of the Prretorian camp were be-et by crowds of the wealthy and shameless men of Rome. The bidding was spirited, but chiefly conducted by Sulpicianus, and Didin- Julinuus. a man -d of no other commendation for the exalted office than his heaps >!' gold, and his silly wife and daugh- ters, who, like many thousands of their kind, imagined glory and honor to be the attendants of position, and not of ability or talents. The highest bid of Sulpicianus was one hundred and sixty pounds sterling to each soldier. This would make a large sum when multiplied by ten thousand ; but Didius was anxious to secure the prize, and, well aware that he could never be emperor in any other way, rose to two hun- dred pounds, when the gates of the camp were thrown open to the despicable purchaser of empty titles, and the soldiers swore allegiance to him. Soon after the accomplishment of this abomi- nable deed, the soldiers conducted Didius to 214 EMPIRE OF ROME. The sale and delivery Value of purchased honors. the Senate House, and demanded a ratification of their choice. " Fathers," said Did ins, as he was ushered into the presence of the assembled Senators, " you want an emperor, and I am the fittest person you can choose." More words were, of course, unnecessary, under the circum- stances, and Didius, having been at once for- mally acknowledged emperor by the Senate, was escorted to the palace, where his wife and daughters speedily arrived, to share the brief honors which he was dotim-d t' eiijny. The people, now thoroughly enraged by the shameful conduct of the Pnetorian bands, be- gan to calculate the strength which they culd bring against them; and, reasonably concluding that the numerous legions scattered over the empire would never assent to such an assump- tion of power on the part of the soldiery at home, they caused the doings at Rome to be carried to them with all dispatch. In the mean time they refused to submit to the authority of Didius, and sought every op- portunity to pour forth their imprecations against him, and to ridicule his contemptible ambition. Pescemrius Niger, governor of Syria, and Septimius Severus, commander of the German legions, on hearing what had taken place at PK^TORIAN GUARDS. 215 More aspirants Didius in difficulty He is deserted by the Praetorians. , n> >lved, by the assistance of their re- spective troops, to take possession of the em- pire. Each, accordingly, proclaimed himself emperor. But while Niger, elated by the homage paid to him by all the kings and poten- in Asia, was giving himself up to feasting and luxury, Severus, at the head of a powerful army, marched with all speed to Rome. Poor Didius, who had not dreamed that the throne would cost him any thing beyond the purchase-money, which he had paid into the hands of the Praetorian soldiers, was utterly cuntniinded at the prospect of parting, possibly, with a portion of his blood. Resolving, how- ever, to make the best of his unfortunate posi- tion, he begged the Senate to proclaim Severus a traitor; and when they had gratified him in this respect, he besought the Praetorian cohorts to aid him in opposing the usurper. But the cohorts, relishing the vices and luxuries of Rome more than the dangers and fatigue of war, and quite indifferent, moreover, to the cause of Didius, concluded to remain within their camp, and suffer this affair to take its course. Advice of every kind was, in the mean time, profusely lavished upon the confounded Didius, who, at last, in very desperation, sent an embassy to Severus, offering to receive him 216 EMPIRE OF ROME. His fate Severus made emperor. as partner in the empire ; but the offer was re- jected with contempt. By this time the Senate had become so thor- oughly disgusted with the cowardice and in- conipetency of the emperor, that they decreed, unanimously, that he should be deprived of the empire, and that Severus should be pro- claimed in his stead. Not content with this, they decided, also, that Didius should be slain, and, accordingly, sent to the palace fr the purpose of dispatching hint The miser- able man was found by them, weeping in the midst <>t' a few personal friends, who had not yet deserted him. AVhen the executioners made known their errand, he undertook to :i with them <>n the subject, declaring that his purcha-e of the empire wa< no crime, and that he was entitled to enjoy it for the natural 1 of his life. But the messengers of the Senate, protesting that they had no authority ,ter into the merits of the case, led him into the secret baths of the palace, where lie paid the penalty of his folly and of his pitiful ambition. Soon after this the Senate sent ambassadors to Severus, yielding him obedience, and grant- ing him the ensigns and the usual titles of em- pire. He continued his march towards Rome, PRAETORIAN <ir.\nDS. 217 The Praeiori&n guards disbanded. but, while yet some distance from the city, ho issued his commands to the PnBtori&D hands t<> meet him, without their arms, on a large plain, at no great distance from the Avails. Afraid to disobey, and yet Imping to gain the favor of the emperor, they maivhed from their camp, arrayed in their most brilliant costume, and : Branches of laurel in their hands. The emperor, meeting them upon the appointed field, canard a portion <>f his army to surround them, with levelled spears; and, while they expecting the just punishment of their gross misconduct, he mounted a tribunal, pre- viously erected, and, after reproaching them with perfidy and cowardice, caused them to be stripped of their splendid urnaiin-nK and or- dered them, under penalty of death, to march, without the least delay, a hundred mi Irs from Eon Severus then entered the city with the great- est military pomp, and took possession of the imperial palace. Promising the Senate that he would reign with clemency and justice, he sought to prove his love of virtue, by ordering the burial rites of Pertinax to be celebrated with the utmost magnificence. He, himself, pronounced his funeral oration; and, at its close, .the people generally agreed that the 19 218 K M r i R E OF HOME. Severus and his rivals. royal euW5>t was worthy to supply the place of that much-lamented prince. Although Severus had been thus successful in placing himself upon the throne, he feared tlu- power of Peecennius Niger, the governor of Syria, who had been proclaimed emperor by the vast army in the East, and acknowledged by the potentates of A>ia. lie was al>o jealous of Clodius Albinus, commander of the legions in Hritain. In order to prevent them from uniting their forces against him, he cli< tliem both into the belief that he had no suspi- ci"!i of them ; and. at the >ame time, ma- accomplish their destruc- tion. l'nder P visiting the eastern pmviaeei for tin- purpo^- of regulating the af- fairs !' that portion .f the empire, lie marched thither with a powerful army, and. coming sud- denly upon Niger, made him an .In the- mean ti: ..-mug upon Albinus the rank of Caesar, he endeavored, alter his vie in the 1 rid of him by treachery. Writing, accordingly, a letter to Albinus, whom he addressed in the most anVtioiiate manner, he recounted his signal victory :d begged him to conduct the affairs of Britain with a view to their common inte This letter was intrusted to some of the crea- PRAETORIAN UTARDS. 210 Overthrow of Niger. - of Severn.-?, with instructions that, after it had been read by Albinus, they should obtain a private interview with him, and plunge their 'nto his heart. But Albinus, being no- tiiied of this conspiracy, proclaimed himself emperor, and, crossing into Gaul, at the head of an im: : my, inarched forward with all speed to encounter Severus. A battle en between them, which lasted from morning till night without any apparent advantage on either Severn-, Imwever, conquered in the end. Albinus wa> taken prisoner, and his head sepa- l from his body. I "nwilling to lead an inactive life, Se\v having now secured himself in the possession of his empire, determined to make war upon the Parthians who were invading his i'mii dec! in subduing, and, after taking and plundering a number of large and wealthy cities, he returned to Rome in triumph. Then he resolved to make an expedition into Britain, where a formidable resistance had been made to the Roman power. Before setting out, however, Severus appointed his two sons, Carr- calla and Geta, joint successors in the empire. Taking them with him, he landed in Britain, and marched immediately against the Caledo- nians. Notwithstanding the prodigious diffi- KM PIKE OF ROME. Expedition of Severus to Britain His death. culiie> attending this expedition, and the 1- fifty thousand men from sickne and fatigue, he compelled tin- enemy to sue I'm* peace. tlie better security of the country, he built the famous wall, still called by his name, which .ds from the Solway Frith to the German Ocean. The amazing labor which he had 1 obliged to perform during this campaign, im- paired his health so much, that he, was obliged t retire 1" York in order to obtain repose. JJut. it was in vain that he endeavored to regain his strength. Indeed, it was still further reduced by a revolt amoiii: his BOldiefB, iiiMi^ated by alia, a youn^ man cntiivly . man- aged to r, . but not Ion-- afu-r, in the- sixty- sixth year of his aL r e and the- iM^hU-enth of liis . he dii-.Lh-avini: his Btt -rdin^ to liis drelaration, in a comparatively flourishing condition. His sons Caracalla and Gcta. the fo: d cnu-1, the latter mild and mrrcitul, suctveded to the throne. They were cheerfully acknowh'd^-ed by the people ainl'the provi: and received, on their return to Rome, with \ demonstration of respect. Hut such was the enmity which existed between them, that PR.ETORIAX GTAUDS. 2-21 The Praetorians make Caracalla emperor. they could not meet unless each was surround- ed by a numerous train of armed folio v No communication was allowed between their apartments in the imperial palace, and each fortified his chambers with the utmost dili- iujain>t the other. A proportion Avas made to divide the empire between them, and this, doul. uld have been done, had not the inlami>u> ('aracalhi resolved upon a sp< mode of their mutual (parrels to an end. At the entreaties of his mother, he con- '1 to meet his brother in her apartment, on ti-rm- of peace and reconciliation; but, con- trivipg to OOHC MO soldiers clo-e at hand, ,m-ed them to rush in, at a prcc was inhumanly murdered in the very arms of his mother. The indignation of the people would, per- . have In ed upon Caracalla, but he from the palace to the Pnetorian camp, where, by means of the most extravagant pron. money, he secured protection. These soldiers, oolite . ^,o>e ban- i>hed by - . proclaimed him sole emperor, and stigmatized his brother Q a traitor, andanei: ::e commonwealth. Theyal> terrih'ed the Donate into the same measnivs. and /alia was invested with undivided power. 222 EMPIRE OF KOMK. Tlie follies of Caracalls. A man who could thus cause the death of his own brother, was capable <!' any crime; audit is not, therefore, surprising to find that he should, soon alter, kill his own wife, and de- stroy all those who had dared to utter a word against his cruel conduct. Two thousand per- i to have perished on account of their eXpTMsioB <:' sympathy 3 brother. Having very properly concluded that the people hated him, lie declared that, knowing how to secure his OW1 . he eared not for their lo\v. ! tfl pun-based at an enormous pri<-.-. Tin- Pnctorian soldiers could be kepi Bteft his interest only b_. haustin^ the treasury, and by conmiittiiiL of unpardonable rapa Tortured by a ^uih;. -nee, and unable main in a city where. a< he -said, he be- held the ariirry forms of his father and brother upbraid him, he K-t'i Home about a year after the murder of Geta, and never more returned. 1 Jut "the cities where lie sojourned, tilled with niouniiii^. on account of his cruel ;id it is . \ that the w: of the Nile were tinned with the blood of the citizens of Alexandria, ma-sacred at his com- mand, by his inhuman soldiers. The expense of his journeys, and of his residence in distant PlI.KTOKIAN GUARDS. i^ies between the officers of the Prtorian guards. lands, was immense. Magnificent palatvs and theatres were erected f<>r his iooommodation in .itirivnt cities through which he p;t and many of these he ordered to be thrown down, because they did not please his Multitudes of people were ruined by the enor- >r the purpose of defray- ing 1: WBj the burden of whieh wa.s felt, iinh through the empire. Ja could not fail, under thesi- eircum- stauce-, to make hini>elf the subject of univer- sal hatred. The Pnvtoiian soldiers, however, upon whom he showered innumerable fa My t- Mi>tain him; but a jeal'-u-y, which sprung up between two of his officers, :ed in freeing the world, at last, from this insupportable T. It seems that Opilius ^laerinus, a man of great talents and dexterity, had, on account of the increasing favor shown towards him by the emperor, incurred the hatred of Adventus, another officer of the Pne- torian bands. Adventus, hearing in Koine that a famous astrologer had predicted that Macri- nus and his son would receive the empire, wrote a letter, in which he related the prediction to Caracalla. This letter was dispatched with great caution to Caracalla ; but the messenger with whom it 224- EMPIRE OF HOME. Conspiracy against Caractlla. was intrusted, happened to place it in his hands just as IK- was making preparations for a chariot Caracalla, who never suffered business to interfere with liis pleasures, delivered the which he had just re- <i, t> .Macrinus telling him, at the same . t<> read them all, and impart to him the contents on some future occasion. Macrinus, reading the letters immediately, very naturally, surprised and alarmed at what appeared to him, at once, to he a cunning plot devised by Adventus to accomplish his ruin. "Without, h-\\ 'raying the emotion, lu- put them a-ide, telling the emperor that tliey contained nothing of imjri; The chariot rare went on, but, in the mean time, ^larriniK determined, since a c..n>piracy had ; formed him. to crush it by the notion of the emperor, a-ainsf whom he had not, perhaps, hitherio. entertained jmy evil design. A> soon, 1: an opportunity occur- red, lie made known his design to one ]\lar- tialis, a soldier of the guard, who, b< had been refused the rank of centurion, and for ; reasons, entertained a great hatred for the emperor. Without any hesitation, Martialis entered into the conspiracy, and undertook to PR^TORIAN GUARDS. Macrinus mode emperor by the Praetorians. destroy Caracalla at the first favorable moment. It was not 1 -re this moment arrived. alia determining to make 1 :i pilgrimage to the temple of the moon at Carrlm-, set out, ac- companied by a long train of cavalry. While upon the road, he happened to move on, alone, in advance of his followers. Martialis observ- ing him in this nnpr<> >ndition, spurred hi- hoiv-e forward towards him, under pretence him some as- : and as as he had reached the spot where the omi ling, drew a dagger, and plunged it into his heart. The hold deed could not fail to aitracr attention, and the BaBASSio was immediately cut to pieces by the soldiers of the guard. However little Macrinus may have, hereto- fore, thought of obtaining supreme power, the emperor was no >.oner dead, than he began to hope that the prophecy concerning bin would prove correct. Conspicuous as the senior prefect of the Praetorian bands, he might easily fancy himself somewhat entitled to the vacant throne. However this may have been, he concealed with great care the part which be had taken in causing the death of Caracalla, and undertook, by means of liberal promises, to secure bis election among the sol- 226 EMPIRE OF KOME. The reception of his regulations by the soldiers. diers. His popularity, it is true, was not great, but the -rian bands liud again be- come so corrupt during the six years' reign ot the infamous Caracalla, that they were ready to sell the empire to any one who would pay them a generous price. Tw. days, then, after the death of Caracalla, Macrinus wa- elected nnperor by the Pnvtorian bands, and hi* name .-cut to the Seiiat* confirmation. The .1 to be livered I'min | ible tyrant, did not hesi- i" aokn ice made by the soldiers though they aftorv. . mplained that a man ofobecore birth, who had nev. ink of senator, slmuld ])e so sud- denly eh-vated to the thr Macrinus. tind: inpire much embar- d in continence of the prodiirality >f alia, undertook a reformation in the dif- nents of government, which was, indec'tl. \ irable, but f->r which he did not ] -ary abilities or prudence. wholesome reirulati- -11 re- d by a licentious peo}le. and the severe discipline which he attempted to introduce into the army, resulted only in making him an ob- of hatred among those to whom alone he could look for protection. PR.ETORIAN GUARDS. ogabalus proclaimed emperor. The immense army assembled by his pr : in tli- . iMtl which, on coming to very properly disbanded, becai ;y incensed at the new regulations of the new emperor, ami iinally succeeded in accomplishing his ruin. ]\lany <>t' the soldiers at Kmesa, in I'ho-nieia, were in the habit of resorting to the temple of the Sun, where they gazed with wonder and delight at )t officiating there, who, they tan- !> re a striking resemblance to their late sovereign, Caracalla. This young pried at last, a subject of general attention, and the temple was daily thronged with troops, cori< Id him. iidmother, M 'or of the wife of the '. 'eror, Severus, and a woman of great wealth, heard, with f the regard man : v the lioman soldiery for her grandson. Hoping to make it the means of promoting his inteiv-ts. she af- firmed that the young priest, whose n Bassianus, was the natural son of Caracalla. The story was eagerly believed by the troops of Emesa, and Bassianus was proclaimed em- peror. Although this young prince assumed the name of Antoninus, he is generally distin- guished in history by that of Jleliogabalus, be- 228 EMPIRE OF KOME. His disgusting follies. cause he was originally a priest of that divinity. As soon as lie was proclaimed emperor at Kmesa, his grandmother, Massa, by means of her immense wealth, succeeded in enlisting in his cause other portions of the army stationed in the Ka-1. When, therefore, Macrinus heard that a claimant to the throne had suddenly arisen, Heliogabalufl was, already, at the head of a powerful force. Macrinus thought it neces- sary, at first, to send only a lew legions, under the command of a lieutenant, to oppose the pretender; hut these heing promptly defeated, he re>"lved to go him.-elf, at the head of his en- tin- army. The h>iile parties met on the con- fines of Syria. An obstinate battle ensued, in which Macrinus was overthrown, and subse- quently slain, after a short reign of about one year and two months. The Tnetorian guards, who had promptly decried Macrinus when fortune seemed to for- sake him, united with the rest of the army in supporting the pretensions of Ileliogabalus ; and the Senate, consequently, were constrained to receive him as lawful successor to the throne, lie was. at this time, but fourteen years of age, and. though so young, is represented by histo- rians as a monster of sensuality. During the four years in which he reigned, it is said that PRAETORIAN GUARDS. 229 A horse raised to the consulship. he married four wives, all of whom he succes- sively divorced ; and then, professing to be a woman himself, married one of his own officers. lie made his grandmother Msesa, and his mother Soemias, his colleagues on the throne ; and he appointed a Senate of women, over whom his mother presided, and by whom the modes and fashions for the empire were prescribed. The entire reign of this infatuated boy was filled up with absurdities, which it is difficult to see how men possessed of any intelligence could for a moment endure. He was, never- theless, allowed to squander, in the most reek- manner, the public treasures. He was always dressed in cloth of gold and purple ; his whole palace was studded with the most costly jewels; and the floors of his apartments were covered with gold and silver dust. To gratify his childish whims, he was sometimes carried through the streets in a chariot drawn by ele- phants, at other times by mastiff dogs, and fre- quently by females. On a certain occasion the whole city was occupied, at his command, in collecting spiders, the entire weight of which, when they were all brought together, equalled ten thousand pounds. These follies, and even the disgraceful cere- mony of raising his horse to the honors of the 20 EMPIRE OF ROME. Heliogabalus slain by the Praetorians. consulship, might have been tolerated for a much longer time, had he not mingled with them cruelties never before surpassed. His grandmother, perceiving that he was beginning to make himself an object of terror, persuaded him to adopt his cousin Alexander as his suc- cessor, and to take him, at once, as a partner in the cares of government. This he consented to do, but finding, afterwards, tli at Alexander had, by his virtues, acquired the affections of the people and the army, he determined to rule alone. But the Praetorian guard- learning his intentions, threatened to kill him, and compelled him to place Alexander under their Alarmed, now, for his own safety, he began means to protect himself; and regarding the Senate afl his most formidable fin-ink'-, lie hani-hed them all from the city. Then he en- deavored to poison Alexander; and believing, perhaps, that h".had succeeded, spread a report throughout the city that he was dead ; but per- ':ig that the soldiers were about to mutiny, he to.k Alexander in his chariot to the camp. Hero the soldiers fell upon Heliogabalus and his attendants, and puisuing him back to the palace, succeeded, at last, in killing him. Alexander, the favorite of the Praetorian PRAETORIAN GUARDS. 231 Alexander made emperor. guards, was immediately elevated by them to the empire, and the Senate, with their usual adulation, offered to confer new titles upon him, which, with becoming modesty, he declined. Indeed, Alexander, adopting the noble model of Trajan and the Antonines, proved to be a most excellent monarch. To the most rigid e he added the greatest humanity. His accomplishments, beside-, weiv equal to hi- vir- : lie was an excellent mathematician, geo- ; eian, and musician; he was skilful, also, in painting and sculpture, and few, of his time, could equal him in poetry. Although only seventeen years of age when he ascended the throne, he began with great prudence and wisdom to correct the vices and irregularities which had flourished with but lit- tle check during the preceding forty years. The unjust taxes imposed by Caracalla upon the provinces, were removed. The excessive luxury of the people was, by degrees, restrained, and, at the same time, wholesome amusements were liberally furnished for the populace. The dig- nity and authority of the Senate were restored ; and every one began to breathe freely, and to feel that life and property were safe. The task of rectifying the abuses in civil af- fairs was comparatively easy, and was repaid 232 KM PIKE OF HOME. regulations by the thanks and prai-es of his subjects; but the reformation <.f the army was a far more clillicult enterprise, and, although he had the courage and prudence necessary to undertake it, he was destined to become a martyr to the . "Fur in 'in exercising any severity in this difficult work, he began, and conducted it by the most gentle means. Instead, for in- stance, of compelling the soldiers in their marrhc< to curry. a> they had been uccu-tomed, iteen duy> pnvi>iin upon tlieir liacks, lie cau-eo! ample m he i'ormed along the public roads, and ninnemu- trains of mules and camels were employed to relieve them of the liurdeii. He did not diminish their p;, oblige them to be less prodigal of their money, but simply attempted to check their intemper- ance, and to direct their luxury to objec utility, such us splendid armor, fine horses, and shields enriched with gold and silver. The Pni'tnriim guards entertained, indeed, f<T Alexander, a great all'ection. They looked upon him as a protege whom they had snatched from the hands of a tyrant, and placed upon his throne ; and Alexander was not ungrateful to them for the kind feeling which thev had manifested towards him. He shared their fa- tigues and dangers, visited, in person, their sick PR.F.TORTAX Q-U-A BDS. Military expedition of Alexander. and wounded, and, in the camp, himself with their food and lodging. But cor- ruption had taken too strong a hold upon the army to be removed, even by the courageous and indefatigable Alexander. The Pnetorians became irritated at the reforms which lie un- dertook, but unwilling at first to make him the object of their anger, they accused their prae- ripian, of being the author of their fan- cied grievances, and, by threatening to burn the caused him to be delivered into their hands, and afterwards slain. The celeb: historian, Dion Cassius, a commander of the Punnonian legions, lost his lii'e under somewhat similar circumstances. Alexander had been ten years upon the throne when ho undertook his first military ex- pedition, which v list the Parthians and Persians, and such was the regularity which he had, by this time, gradually introduced into the army, that the days of Roman glory seemed to have returned. His enemies were defeated in a most decisive manner. The cities of Ctesi- phon and Babylon were retaken, and the Ro- man empire restored to its former limits. A Thracian peasant, named Maximin, who, by means of his great physical strength and cunning, had risen to a distinguished rank in 234 EMPIRE OF EOME. Conspiracy of Maxirnin. the army, perceiving that Alexander had in- curred the displeasure of his soldiers on account of his strict discipline, conceived the idea of turning this displeasure to his own account. !!< employed his creatures, accordingly, to go about from legion to legion, to increase the discontent ; and in a short time the sub- dued murmurs of the troops broke out into mutinous clamors. They accused themselves of weakness and stupidity, for having so long submitted to an eileminate Syrian, instead of an experienced general, who could win for thi-m rl<ry and riches. This \va^ during the thirteenth year of the <>f Alexander, and lie was, at this time, at. the head of a powerful army, with which he had marched to the hanks of the Rhine, for the purpose of opposing the barbarians of Ger- many, who began to pour down in immense swarms upon the more southern portions of the empire. The task of subduing them had not teen achieved, when, one da} 7 , as it is said. a portion of the army, having invested ]Uax- imin with the insignia of royalty, brought him into the camp, and proclaimed him emperor. Alexander, amazed at the proceeding, and foreseeing his fate, retired into his tent to await the result. Followed, soon after, by a PRAETORIAN GUAKS Death of Aleian trilmne and ^-evenil centurions, lie was shame- fully put to death, in the twenty-ninth year of his age. The death of Alexander was very much la- mented by the Christians throughout the em- pire. Towards them he had always exercised tin- greatest clemency. The famous Origen is said to have instructed him in the doctrines of Christianity. Upon a certain occasion, a dispute, concerning a piece of ground, having occurred between a company of cooks, who de- sired to secure it for purposes of feasting, and a number of Christians, who had occupied it f>r worship, the matter was referred to Alex- ander, who decided it in these words: "It is r that God be worshipped there, in any manner, than that the place should be put to >f drunkenness and debauchery." DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE, FROM 235 TO 306 A. D. CHARACTER of Maximin Conspiracy Elevation of Gor- dianus Contest between Maximin and Gordianus Maxi- min's success Other emperors chosen Maximin's as- ition New emperors The secular -aim .-> -lament- ;ilil- condition of the Empire IViseeutiun of tin; i'hri>tians ::s other enemies <>f tin- Empire Gallus and -Kiiiiliaini.N Val:ri.iu A K<>m;in emperor i-uslavnl King Sapor and Vain ian- < Jalliciius The Thirty Tyrants Clau- ilis military n]M-ratins Aurdian His f\ii-dition against Hisdcatli -An int.-rn u'nmii--Tacitus made finprror Flnriaijusainl Tn'txis FurtlK-r usnri>ations of the poldi-rs 1 >i<H-lr>ian The Empire divided Persecution of the Christians Dioclesian and Maximiau rr>ii;ii their power Constantine. A IW1IAN EMPEROR ENSLAVED. IX. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. HOME now found itself under the dominion of a despot whose court was a military camp, located, sometimes, upon the banks ofthe Rhine, and, sometimes, on those of the Danube. ]\Ia\i- min, the first of all the empen>rs wlmso elec- tion the Senate refused to confirm, either dis- dained or feared to take up his residence in the imperial city. It has already been said that Maximin was a Thracian peasant, who, on account of his re- markable appearance, physical strength, and cunning, liad risen from a common soldier to the highest station in the army. Although a courageous soldier, and a skilful general, the proud senators could not forget that he had first attracted public notice as a wrestler and a box- er, that his greatness was originally due to his enormous stature, which is said to have exceed- 21 242 EMPIRE OF ROME. Character of Maxlmin. ed eight feet, and to his wonderful strength, reported to have surpassed that of two oxen. These tilings they carried in remembrance; and when, therefore, they heard that this igno- rant boor, whom they had often seen contend- ing with slaves in the amphitheatre, had been elevated ti the throne, they determined to resist the choice of the Praetorian bands. He, on the other hand, while ding every thing to con- cval ilit- ob-curity of his origin, even to the deMruction <>f his kindred, would nut allow any man of noble birth, or acCOmpliflhmenJ abilii near hi- pen The masses of the people did not, at iii-st, sillier from his excessive cruelty. It limited t the nobles and the wealthy, whom he frequently can-ed to be to death with clubs, or to b< d to the jaws .f ravei beasts ; but, finally, his avarice and the rapacity of his soldiers, prompted him to acts which made the whole empire groan. Not content with confiscating the entire wealth of cities, ripped the temples of their precious olfer- . and melted down, and coined into m.nev, ..-old and silver statues of the emperors, the :id the gods. Notwithstanding this inhuman treatment of his subjects, he did not abandon or delay the 1) !. . Of TH 1- K M 1' IKK. 243 Conspiracy Elevation of Gordianus. military op,.-rati'iis undertaken by his prede- cessor against tlie enemies of Rome. He over- threw the Germans in several battles, and laid waste their land with lire and >w>rd, fur l'.ur hundred miles around him. And wherever the conflict with the enemy ra-vd most fiercely, there, Install form was always conspicuous, and his powerful arm ever most active. But, with all this, Ju was unable to win either i Tion or respect of those around him; and, al- though his troops were kept under control, numerous conspiracies were formed against his life. AVhile none of these were successful, an event in Africa reMilted in the appointment of another emperor, and gave the Senate courage to attack this hearth or. The enormous tim-s imposed upon the people of that country by Maximin, drove them, at nee. and a conspiracy was formed, airainst the liicei*s of Maximin, which ended in their coinph : icti"ii. The standard ..f rebellion ; the Roman emperor was erected; and the inhabitants of the province leathering around it, seized upon Gordianus, their proconsul, an excellent old man, of a wealthy and most illustrious Roman family, and compelled him to assume the insignia of royalty. He begged them, with tears in his J 1 1 PIBS OF BO v Mnvimin and Gordianus. '.\\i die in peace; but they would imt li>ten to liis en: -ml lie proi: finally, b 1 he title of emperor, provided the Senate confirmed their choice. The Senate listened with anxiety to the re- port- which were hruiiglit to them frm Africa; but expertinir, in any event, that they would BOOH feel the effects of tli. Maximin, and knowing well the worth of donlianus, they ratilied his election, and, with him, made his s<>n, al-o. emperor. I In! before tJie-e pm- iings were made public, the S :ied trn>ty nu-n t<> the I'ra-tnrian camp, wlm, >layinir the cnu-l agents statioiu-d tin-re by Maximin, ran, afterwards, through the aiminir to the people and tl BWI of the joyful revolution. Nothing was I eft undmir -nple thfl bloody tyrant. JIU statn.-s were, thrown do\\ n, \\ . ,und ; arm- ([nartt-i-. soldiers enlisted t ir-' f.rtli t<> attack him in his imperial camp. The spirit Lion per- vadrl the whole of Italy, and in a >hort time a powerful army, under the direction of skilful lead. ready to combat in the cai, the Senate and the people. Tlu ucre >ca: DECLINE OF THK EMPIRE. in's success Other omperors choson. when new- was brought to U>me tliat an army, commanded by one of Maxim! orals, had marched nirain-t tin- (iordiai Cart; their ! <>ops, had >lain the younger of tlic empc: or a reign of only t! "ave. through gri Eo: ; with lamentation ly thi- 4er. Tlie Senate asscniLh-d, un- 11 what to do; but as such 1> sel- dom without SOUK- (liivctini: hand, a - noble senator at K-n^tli an- C'>nn r virtues of the Gord' d de- plnri 1 loss, closed his ^]>rcch l.y >a; "We have lost two excclh-nt prince-, hut, un- less w Op6fl <>f the repub- lic have notp* Let IN ehoose two emperors. My vote is in favor of Maxim us and JJalbinus." These i '.\ kno\vn f..r their courage and virtue, without one dissenting voice, and the temple of >rd, where tl o was assembled, ini- me(liately resounded with "Long life and vic- tory to the emperors Maximus and Balhin There was, however, a large number of dis- nted people in the city, who insisted upon adding another emperor to the two already and, in order to quiet the clamor 2-iG KM PI RE D KB. .imin. which they made. ;-on of the elder Gor- diaii, only thirteen years of age, was associated with Maximus anl iJalbinus. AVhen the news of the proceedings of the 1 t<> the camp of Maxiniin, lie behaved like a furious wild beast, striking his lu-ad violent; alls of his apart- ment, and threatening the life of all who ven- tured to approach him. Jlis fury, at length, subsiding, he pa ed across the Alps, for the pnrpoM- of laying waste the fertile plains of Italv. .Put tin- Senate had, with the utmo-r proinpiih . fortified all the towns, and pL B to his progress which they could Colltl The unexpected oppoMii,.n which he thus en- countered, threw the huge barbarian into such an ungovernable rage, that he fell upon his .wii ollicers, and actually caused a number of ; to be put to death. In the lime the armies of th> . unand of skilt'i. advancing to meet him. A terrible and deceive conllict seemed inevita- ble, when the outrageous conduct of Maximin caused a mutiny among his troops, which a the lives of many thou-and<. The suldie; - termined upon the tyrant's death; but such wa> his ama/.ing strength, that no one dared to DK H M r i RE. iM , His assassination Another eniir.>r : i'rajtorians. encounter him. His govds, however, having been bribed, a number of well-armed men en- tered his tent at no.u, when h slew both him and his sun, whom he had made a partner in the empire. Their heads were carried abnut the camp upon the points of spears; their bodi tin-own out to be de- voured by dogs, and then their armies swore allegiance to and to the emperors, Maximus and iJalbinus. The united armies of the murdered MaxJmin and <!' tlie Sena' tied to Koine, which I with the usual ceivnmnits of a triumph. For some time the two emperors continued to discharge their duties without op- . but, at length, the Pnetorian soldiers ninir jeal'iu- [X)\ver of the Se; and di'<irous of si-rin^ upon the tin-one a mon- arch of their own selection, ivs-.lved uj...- scilinir, once more, ilu-ir >upremacy. Taking advantage, accordingly, of the absence of tlie emperors' guards, who were all permitted to attend the Capitoline games, they marclu-d from their quarters, in a numerous body, to the palace. Surrounding it. they penetrated to the imperial apartments, and seizing both the em- perors, dragged them to the camp and slew them. Immediately afterwards, proclaiming 248 K M l'I RE OF JioM K. Wrks of the new emperor. Gordian sole successor to the throne, they set- tled down. Apparently satisfied, in their camp. This younir prince seems to have inherited the virtues of his grandfather, who died in Africa. Jlis Ji: . upon coining into reconcile the soldiers and the citizen^ to each other; and. indeed, for the iirst three or four years of his roiim, the ire enjoyed comparative peace. For the wisdom and energy which lie displayed, lie B, vi-ry inncli indebted to h'- ccllcnt instructor. J\Ii.-ith;en<. who-c daughter he married, and to whom he seemed alwa look for aid and con; Dimmr the tilth rei_irn. the eni]>iro :'urini^ly inval-d l.\ 1',-r- d pillaired Syria and the adjacent provinces. Th Gk)tl . down from tlie nrth, attempting to tix their roidence in the kingdom of Thrace. Gordian drove them hack to their own countries, and likewise defeated the Persians, with a dread- ful slaughter. But Misitlueiis, his counsellor, having lu-en poil ,. l>y 1'liilip, an Aral), who finally succeeded to the tin-one, the affairs, of the army were not so ahly managed, and murmurs be^an to be heard his troops. Philip, in the mean time, DEC I. I N K OF TH K K M PI UK. The emperor I'hilip The Secular games. contrived :iiideiice, and, eveiitu- ally, acquired a degree of power fully equal to -vn. But not contented with this, the am- bitions man caused his benefactor to be slain, and then securing tin :' the soldiers, ;ded the thr> The Senate making no opposition to this pro- Philip conclml with the . and marched his army 1 ;me. "While upon ! . '1 hi> nati\e coun- try of Arabia, wi. < -ailed Phili- Tin :dth year during which the city had now A. 1 ). -J i i "iiiplcted in the reign of this emperor. This was an occa- sinu, therefore, i the SdC games, the origin of which is not jnv'- known, though they were observed, with _ solemnity, at in of about a hundred Slaves and >trangers were excluded from all participation in them. They continued three days and three nights, during which tinio sacrifices, music, and dancing, were kept up -antly on the banks of the Tiber. Upon the present occasion, these games were cele- d with greater splendor than had been given to them by Augustus, or any succeeding emperor ; and thus it was that Philip managed, 2r0 KM PI RE OF HOME. Lamentable condition of the empire Another emperor slain. on liis return to Home, to divert the attention of the people from the fact that he was no bet- ter than a usurper and a murderer. The history of this period, though exceeding- ly imperfect, exhibits a state of affairs lament- able enough for the Roman empire. Immense as that empire was, and overspread, too, by its own innumerable armies, it was every day be- coming an easier prey to barbarous inv;; Its own soldiers, habituated to the business of making and unmaking emperor-, were ijuarrel- ling among themselves for power, and ready to tear the empire into pieces, in order their individual wanfe. Six emperors had been cut oil' by the sword during the six months that ded the reign of Gordian. Gordian had now, also, shared their fate, and flu-re were i-haps, of the generals of Philip who did not feel a disposition to imitate th ample, of their ambitious master. I hiring the year following the Secular games, a rebellion broke out among the legions of O !Mo->ia, where a subaltern officer, named Mari- nus, revolted, and caused himself to be pro- claimed emperor. This affair gave Philip much alarm; but he was soon relieved by the intelligence that Marinus had been promptly murdered by the soldiers who had sought to DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 251 Another chosen. elevate him. Nevertheless, Philip deeming ir necessary to send to Mresia some one who was able to restore peace and discipline an these rebellious legions, selected for this pur- pose an intrepid senator, named Decius. Scarce- ly had Dee-ins reached the army, and assumed the command, than lie was compelled to be- eoine one of their accomplices. They ^ave him the choice of the title of emperor or death. Taking the former, and at the same lime noti- fying Philip that he had done so in order to to him the empire, he marched the army towards the confines of Italy. But Philip, distrusting his profe^-inns collected all the e that he could, and went out to meet him. These forces, however, had proceeded no far- ther than Verona, when they revolted in favor of Decius, and slew the emperor, as he justly ved. Whether Decius would have resigned to Philip the title conferred upon him by the army, it i- impossible to tell; it is certain, however, that as so. .11 as his election to the throne had been confirmed by the Senate, he formed a plan of government, which, if he had been per- mitted to carry it out, might have arrested, some- what, the rapid decline the empire was now evidently experiencing. But the obstinate dis- 252 IPIRE OF ROME. Persecution of the Christians The Goths. putes between the pagans and Christians inter- fered so much with the policy which he had adopted, that lie felt constrained to check them by permitting a violent persecution of the latter. The deatli of many thousands of these unhappy beings did not, however, serve in the least the intere>ts of Koine. This persecution was im- mediately succeeded by a terrible invasion of oths, a nation that, eventually, overturned Ionian power, sacked the imperial city, and brought all Italy under their dominion. Deciufl waa obliged, thc:vfore, to abandnn the ta-k of restoring the ancient manners and the maje.My of the laws, in order to p: the empire against the furious ravages of the barbarians. Re collected, immedi pow- erful army, and, marching out again>t them, slew thirty thousand in a .-ingle battle. But pursuing those who survived, with a deter- mination to drive them forever from the em- . he found himself suddenly plunged into a deep morass, where the enemy having the advantage, he was slain, and his whole army cut to pi. The legions, humbled by tliis terrible defeat, made no objections to the decreeof the Senate, which gave the empire to Hostilianus, the young son of Decius, while, at the same time, DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. Their treachery Other enemies of the empire. it associated with him a prominent general, named Gallus. The whole guidance of affairs was left in the hands of Gallus, who, at once, concluded a shameful treaty with the barba- rians, lie agreed, not only to leave in their possession all the plunder which they had taken during their invasions, but even suffered them to retain their prisoners, many of wlmm were i of great worth and distinction. :iis. lu promised to pay them, annually, a large sum of money on condition that they would make no more incursions into the Ro- man territory. The condition of the empire was now de- plorable indeed. AVhile Gallus returned to Koine to abandon himself to every species of plca.Mire, the G.uhs with whom he had lately made so shameful a peace, renewed their terri- ble invasions, and, at the same time, the Per- nans and Scythians committed the most dread- ful ravages in Mesopotamia and Syria. In ad- dition to this, a violent persecution was carried on against the Christians ; and, to crown the whole, a horrible pestilence broke out in every portion of the empire. Hostilianus, the asso- ciate upon the throne, died in the midst of it, but not without suspicion that his death had been brought about through the instrumentality 22 KMPIRE OF KOME. Guilus and yEmilianus. of Gallus. Then it was that Junilianns, one of his generals, Imping to relieve his country from some of tin* mi.-fortune- that had beftillen it, collected tin- seatteivd frce> of the empire, and boldly attacking its barbarous enemies, c: them far beyond it- oonfil The troops of ./Kmilianus, gratified by the lib- eral share which he granted them of the plunder of their foes, proclaimed him emperor upon the battle iield. lint before he and his victorious army had returned to l^me, GalliH. inforni'-d of hi- approach, r.u-ed from his intoxicating plea- L gathering tjrether a po\vrrfnl :it out to meet him. The ho-tile armies met in Mu-ia. A dreadful battle immediately en>ued. J-jnilianu- MM vii-t.rin; .-allus m-i shameful reiirn of only two years and fniir min: Jiut the reign of ^Emilianus was de-tiia d to imri indeed. When (iallus lir-t 1. of liis approach towards K-.me, he- sent Vale- rian, one of liU mo-t tnu the Unions of Gaul and Germany to his aid. Valerian did not briiiLT them soon enough to BftfQ his master; but hearing that Gallus had >lain he determined to revenge him, and accordingly inarched upon yKinilianus with such an overwhelming force, that the terrified DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 255 Character of Vnlerian. soldiers of this general slew their leader, and submitted without resistance to Valerian. This general, well known through the empire, for his many virtues, his wisdom and undaunted coura. . ated to the throne by general acclamation. His son, Gallienus, was also de- claivd his successor, and placed in command of the forces necessarily maintained in (iaul, in order to that country from the inva- MMIIS with which it was constantly threatened by the people of Lower Germany. Although mure than >i.\ ! of age, Va- lerian commenced the work of reforming the State, with all tin- energy that had charadrr- i/A-<l him as a soldier an<l a leader in the armies of the empire; and so great was the re- in which he was held, and so sensible, too, had the people now become of the importance of some re volution in their manners, that they sub- mitted with comparative cheerfulness to his direction-. .Put it was now too late to save the em pire. Luxury and misrule had done their work ; and, in the person of Valerian, Rome \va- -liortly to suffer an indignity which would, ere long, be visited upon herself. All the sur- rounding nations, like birds of prey, seemed to be hovering around her. Each successive 256 EMPIRE OF EOME. A Roman emperor enslaved. assault which they made was more daring and more destructive. They came, too, in such im- mense numbers, and from so many different directions, that the empire seemed to be upon the brink of ruin. Valerian, consequently, find- ing it impossible to devote himself any longer to tin- labor of reforming the State, put on his arm- and hastened forth to repel the invaders of his eountry. Intruding to his numerous generals the de- of the Danube and the Khine, he placed hiiiir-ell' at the head of a powerful army, with the design of conquering Sapor, king of Persia, who.-e operations in the East were threatening tin 1 greate.-t injury to the empire. raing the river Euphrates, he was deceived by tin- repre- sentations of his IVa-torian pnei'ret, and impru- deiitly marched i< . ,e tbund him- self and hi> army in a ]>o>itin nn favorable for intering the JYrMau monarch. In vain did he endeavor to cut his way through the in- numerable hosts that surrounded him. King Sap<>r not only reduced his army to submi but made the .Roman emperor a captive. To humiliate, a- much as possible-, the Eo- jnan empire, he compelled its armies, now within his power, to select, as emperor, a vile fugitive of Antioch, named Cyriades; then, DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. 257 King Sapor and Valerian. causing the aged emperor, Yalerian, to be dressed in his imperial robes and loaded with chains, obliged him to wait about his person like the most abject slave. The cruelties and indignities to which Yalerian was exposed seem almost incredible. It is even said that the haughty Sapor never mounted his horse with- out stepping upon the neck of the kneeling emperor in order to ascend . Such, for seven years, was the ignominious life which Valerian, the sovereign of the proud- est empire in the world, was compelled to lead. His subjects, intent upon their pleasures, lost to all shame, and indifferent to the welfare of the State, suffered the insignia of Roman majesty to be trampled in the dust ; and Gal- lienus, the heartless son of the fallen monarch, secretly rejoicing in a misfortune which gave him possession of the empire, refused to under- take the rescue of his father, saying with barba- rous coldness, that " since he had acted like a brave man he was satisfied." But while Gallienus, indifferent to every thing except his own pleasures, was passing his time in ease and luxury, and diverting him- self in the company of buffoons, and infamous persons of every kind, the enemies of the empire were daily acquiring greater strength, 220 258 KMPIRE OF KOME. Gallns The Thirty Tyrants. and committing more fearful depredations. Province after province was captured and plundered by tin- barbarians, and wheneyer the news thereof was brought to Gallienus, he would only reply to it with a jest. It is not wonderful that, under such circum- 568, a -pi rants to the dominion of the State should spring up on every hand. Xo less than thirty, indeed, are said to have contended, about this period, for the supreme p They are known in history as the Thirty Tyrant-, though there i- hut little intere-t in what they did. IV .-ill, that his personal jeopardy, GallienuB gare up, fora season, his lite of ease and luxury, and took the lield against his t'oes. It was to Milan that he li: 1 his legions, for tin- jni: of contending with one of the alx-ve-inen- tioned tyrai. with a siu-ce^ful army, threatened to fall upon "Uome. lie reached the place occupied ly his rival, but before coming to an nent, his own officers con- spired to slay him. P.i-t'oiv expiring, he was prompted to name, as his successor, a general of great valor and distinction, named Claudius. The choice was cheerfully continued, both by the soldiers and the Senate, and Claudius entered upon the du- DEC LINK OF THE EM PI UK. Claudius His military operations. ties of his exalted station with the confidence and respect of all his subjects. The ambitious leaders who had undertaken to usurp the em- pire during the lite of Gallienus, were promptly subdued; and, then, a powerful array wa- to oppo.se the Goths, who, swarming all over ad pilla. ';y <>f Athens, and destroyed most of the monuments of ta-te and learning which were there so numerous. Claudius sent out, at the same time, numerous check the progress of some three hun- dred thousand barbarians, who had made their way. in -hips along the river I )anul>e, and were iding terror and devastation on every .-ide. o savage invaders, notwithstanding their superiority in numbers, were completely over- thrown, and so many of them were taken oners, that every province of the empire was abundantly supplied with slaves. Not long after tin's Claudius inarched against the revolted Germans, and subdued them with a terrible slaughter. Then lie undertook an expedition against Tetricus and Zenobia, the former of whom had usurped the dominion of Gaul and Spain, while the latter had as- sumed the title of Queen of the This enterprise he was not permitted to prosecute. A dreadful pestilence, then prevailing in Pan- 260 EMPIRE OF HOME. Death of Claudius Aurelian made emperor. nonia, attacked him as he was pushing with his army tlirongh the city of Sirmium. and he died, a .-hort reign of twu years, to the great re- gret of his subjects, and the irrcparahle injury of the empire. Anxious, however, that his great design of givin to tlie empire should be prose- cute. 1, he recommended Aurelian. then master of the horse, as the most deserving of the thm: Senate made some opposition to this t>r (Juinctilius, the In-other of Claudius, claimed the Miccc-siou, and wa> permitted to a nine the in-igi ilty. Hi> reign C"ii- tinne(l, however, hut n days, wlieii he withdrew iVoin the cares of government, and put a termination to his own 1 Aurelian, who was now acknowledged r m peror, applied himself, immedi:: . the prosecution of the designs of Claudius. The obstinate Goths, so long a tenor to the em were Mibdued by him. Alter three ments, lie Mieceeded in di'stmyinir the army of the (iermans. who liad invaded Italy, then, having marched wi-tward agaiust the usurper Tetricu^, and recovered the ] -f Gaul, Spain, and Britain, lie turned his arms against Zenobia. the proud queen of the East, who had long resisted the Ko- DECLINE OF THK ElfPlBE. Zonobia qacen of the East. mini power, aiui established an empire of her own. :id other portions of the Ro- man dominions, acknowledged her supremacy, ience, as well as the seat of her gov- erinnent, was the opulent and splendid city of Palmyra, which rose, like an island, from the >andy deserts of Arabia. Here she acquired and maintained a power that struck terror into the 11. g, the so\viviirn< "f which, in several instances solicited her friendship. ; iad. indeed, the ambition to be the mis- tress of the world, and might, perhaps, have tinally succeeded, had she been opposed by a prince of less resolution and ability than Aure- Th> !,. already successful in subduing the numerous enemies of the empire, as well as in overthrowing a number of dangerous usurp- ers, determined to recover from Zenobia the provinces over which she had assumed author- ity. Marching, therefore, into Asia, at the head of a powerful army, he found the cities and provinces through which he passed, ready to acknowledge their allegiance. But Zenobia, unwilling that he should advance to the very gates of her capital without striking a single blow in defence of her dominions, went forth, 262 IFIRE OF KOMK. Aurelian's expedition against Zenobia. followed by her numerous legions, to give him battle. The hostile armies met first at Autioch, where Zenobia, notwithstanding the multitude of her soldiers, and the talents of her general-, i. Again they met at Kmcsa. at which place fre.-h troops had been collected t<> oppose the Roman emperor. A second time ...liia now lied for safety to Pal- myra, whither Aurelian followed her. and. after laying siege to the city, made her j.ri-.ner. She di>playrd a great deal of fortitude in the of her conqueror, but when he 1 soldiers attributed their misfortun her ambition, and demanded her execution, \\-as so cowardly as to charge her conduct to the counsel of her friends. To save her own :iced the lives of those whom >he. >hotild have 1; and it can never be forgotten that amnir her innocent victim- was tin- celebrated philosopher hnngimi>, wh-e writings are read and admired even at the :it day. IVace having been thus restored to the eni- . Aurelian undertook, now, by the m..>t rOQfl mea-ures. to r, >train the dcefl which had been, for so many year.-, permitted to tlourivh umv>trained. Not contented with pun- ishing licentiou>ne.-> and injustice, he attempted DEC LINK OF THE EMPIRE. 263 Death of Aurelian An Interregnum. t<> interfere in matters of conscience, and thus 1 a vast amount of snUering among the inoffensive Christians. But so l>arl>ar.u- were the punishments which he inflicted upon th<e incurred his displeasure, that a conspiracy wa- iinally formed against him by his officers, and ! e so common to his pre- decessors, at the age of abon; . and ly live. Thnso who liad rj t< his death appeared to r< ly, and united with the legion- in praying the Senate t place him in the number of the g< JJnrin^ the eight months that lollouvd the death >f Aiuvlian, the empire remained with- out a sovereign, and, what i< vei-y remarkable, nothing occurred to disturlj it.< peace. Various reasons are assigned l>r | aonlinary in- terregnum, the most probable of which is, that no one felt a di >}>- it ion to seek an oflSce whose occupant seldom failed to en< the assas- sin's knife. The Senate, though fur some time indisposed to make a choice, found tkemsel\v<, at length, compelled to name some one as com- mander of the armies now necessary to be led against the Germans, wbo were beginning their depredations in Gaul, as well as against the Xing of Persia, who was evidently disposed to 264: KM PIKE OF HOME. Tacitus chosen emperor. usurp the empire in the East. Convening for this purpose, they elected, unanimously, tin- .-enator Tacitus, a relative of the historian of that name. Tacitus was very unwilling to accept the proffered dignity, and lie even left the city, in urder to <. -scape the solicitations of the Senate and the people. But his objections were finally overcome, and although i; :ty-ii\v years of age, he accepted the reins of government. Hi- elevation to the throne wa< considered a greattriunii.il on the part of the Senate, and they even believed that they would no", Mime their ancient authority, and that Home, treed from the military despotism under which it had been -<> long crushed, was destined to be more flourishing than ever. Tacit 11- began his reign by punishing, with great -evcrity, those who had been engaged in the murder of Aurelian. There wa< not, how- ever. the*lea>t exhibition of cruelty COIIIH with this, or any of his subsequent acts; and his reign, had it been of sufficient length, would have proved highly benelicial to the Uoman empire. But he was too old to endure the fatigues of ruling; and, within six months after as-iiming the reins of government, he died of a fever with which he was seized, DECLINE OF THI: KMPIRE. Florlanus and Probus. while inarching against the Persian- and Scythians, wlio had invaded the ea>tern por- tions of the empire. For a few months following the death of Tacitus, a civil war seemed to threaten the empire, in consequence of its usurpation by Floriumis, the brother of the deceased emperor. Many of the legions promised to maintain his cau-e, but a powerful opposition made against them by the Senate, under the direction of Probus, a general of great virtue and ability, resulted in the death of Florianus, and saved a : mount of bloodshed. The reign of Probus, which continued for a space of more than six years, is remarkable only for a series of wars with the numerous barbarous nations which, for such a length of time, had harassed the empire. The (Germans in Gaul suifered terribly at his hands. The Sarmatians, the Goths, and even the Persians, were obliged to submit to his victorious arms. And, in addition to all his victories over the enemies of the State, he suppressed a number of dangerous intestine commotions. But the great restraint which he put upon the licen- tiousness of his soldiers, irritated them so much that they finally entered into a conspiracy and slew him. Such, however, was their admira- 23 KM TIRE OF HOME. FurthtT usurpations of the soldiery. lion of him as a general, that they riveted to his memory a costly monument, with thi- scription : ''Here lies the emperor Prohus, truly de-ei-vim: the name ; a subduer of barba- . ami a conqueror of usurpers." On the death uf J'mhus, the Roman soldiery roiimed the authority which they had, now, for some time, quietly accorded to the Sei They determined t make an emperor of their own number, an-i. v, selected Carus, the Pnetorian prefect, who, on a<- t' his advanced age, associated with him-elf hi- sons, Carinus and Numerian. II . iio\v- . as well as that of his two sons, was so .-hort and undi-i' d, as scanvly to a menti--:!. 1 ! to have been a brave and aeeonipli-hed -oldivr, \\>r hi- had hardly a-eended tho throne, when he was obliged to march out aira . who i airain to oppo- of Ctoiphon was the scene of a bloody battle between him and the IVr-ian kinir, over whuin he would. dOUhtieOB, ha\r ..l.taiiu-d a complete pj, had he not bren >trnck dead in hi- >hortly after his iirst >uccess. Numerian, the younp-r son of Carus. could not be consoled ibr the loss of his lather, and he, him.-elf. was doubtless assa^inaied by DECLINE OF THI; KM PIKE. Dioclcaian chosen emperor. Arius Aper, the 1'nvtorian pra-t'ect. who hoped thus t> obtain the empire. But the indiirnu- ti.m of the army was so great when they I the treachery of Aper, that they ed to give him their support, and chose, for empenr, C.Valerius Dioclesian,a man of mean birth, but a very successful general, who slew Aper with his own hand. clesian found himself securely seated on the throne, after overcoming Carinus, the re- maining son of Cams, whose pretensions to the i support. Then associating with himself, on the throne, Valerius Maximian, a very rude, though ageous soldier, lu- hi-iran t< ivpel the bar- barians, who had, by this time, re-unied their hostilities. Scarcely had quiet been restored in (Jaul, when he was obli'iT'-d to inarch his armies 8 Achilleus, tlie governor, had a uiiK-d the tit K- of emperor. Having punished tlie rebels here, and condemned Achilleus to be ;ired by lions, he was compelled to under- take a long and difficult war in Afriea, where the legions had revolted and seized upon the public revenues. Difficulties arose about tlie same time in Britain on account of the usurpa- tion of Carausius, the commander there, who proclaimed himself emperor ; and, indeed, on 268 K M r i UK OF ROM I. Dioclesian divides the empiro Persecution of the Christians. e\vry hand 1. ed called upon to defend the eni])irc either against barbarians or pre- tenders. . ievinir that, under these circumstance tor him to have other a in the task of government, besides ^laximian, lit In of Ccesar upon (ialeriu-, sill-named Armentarius, and upon (V>nstantinus Chlnrus, two generals of distinguished merit. To the.-e twoCsesars an equal slian- ..t'thi- : authority was i:\\> :s as- sumiiiL r inwards them *!,. ehara-ter f lather Diocle-ian adnj.tin^ (ialerins, and Maximian adnptiiiLr < 'n<taiitins. Tlie-e i'nur - then divilel the empire 1 liiem. ( Jaul, Spain, ai i tn ('.. : and tlie Illyrian pn-vi! e placed under the pmtectinii <!' (Valerius. Tin- empire, though imw apparently well iruarded. \va-. neverihele--. liara-sed in a tearful manner by the barbarians of the north, who watelu-d opportunity t> eommit their ra\a-i'-. Hut the sn tiering wrought in this way, were ii'^tliin^ fnmj.aivd with the la-t Of the Christians which occurred about this time. It exceeded in severity any other that had pivvi<>ii>ly taken place. So great, indeed, was the barbarity with which DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. Diocleaian and Maximian resign their power. these inoltensive persons were pursued, that it is related on an ancient inscription, that " the government had effaced the name and superstition of the Christians, and had re- stored and propagated the worship of the gods." In the midst of this persecution the two oldest emperors, Dioclesian and Maximian, d the greatest astonishment by laying aside their imperial robes, and going into pri- lil'e. ('nn-tantius and Galerius agreed, at to divide the empire b< hem, but finding themselves unequal to the task of gov- erning it, even under such an arrangement, concluded, in imitation of their late col- leagues, to take two partners under the title of Caesars. Maxim in and Severus were, accord- ingly, invested with this dignity. During the second year of his reign, Con- sent to Britain, and took up hi deuce at York. Here he continued lor some time in the practice of every virtue. A sickness overtaking him, he sent for his son, Constantino, to whom he bequeathed the em- pire, saying " that none but the pious Con- stantine should succeed him." Galerius, his colleague, was very much en- raged at the appointment of Constantine, and 23* 270 EMPIRE OF ROMK. Maxcntius. declared that Severus sliould enjoy the authority in his sU.-al. Another pretender named Maxrn- tius immediately arose, and in a short time the empire was filled with the most frightful dis- sensions. ROME ABANDONED. FBOU 306 TO 337, A. D. I >i VISION of the empire Rome taxed like a province Rebellion of the people Attempts to punish tin::. < IDJM tors at the same time Maximin and Constai. ( iu ity of Maxentius Constantino marches against lam- Bis success throughout Italy Maxentius opposes him in person Vision of Constantino EOs great battle with Max- He enters Rome The Praetorian guards disbanded Constantino, at peace The Goths Contest with huinius :s The Council of Nice Constant it aes to found a new capital Omens Building of Constantinople Kapidity of the work Rome abandoned Death of Con- stantino. X. ROME ABANDONED. IT was during the reign of Constantino that tin* city of Rome, ceasing to be the capital of the empire, was shorn of the glory which it had so long possessed, and <1 t<> the posi- tion of a subordinate to a power which it ha<l originated, and at the head of which it had stood for centuries. This is, then, a very promi- nent point in its history, and one from which it is int. to review its past, or proceed to the study of those succeeding events connected with its decay and downfall. Constantine, at the time of his father's death, was thirty-two years of age, and remarkable for his vigor of body and mind. He is said to have been of a tall and majestic figure, well skilled in the use of arms, affable in his man- ners, prudent in speech and conduct, and of unbounded ambition. At this time, as already 274: EMPIRE OF EOME. The divisions of the empire Rome taxed. stated, the empire was divided between three or four individuals, who, with more or less claim to authority, exercised the royal preroga- tive in different quarters. The provinces of Gaul, Spain, and Britain, received Constantine, with acclamation, as the successor of his father Constantius. Galerius claimed the mastery of all the countries lying between the confines of Italy and Syria; and subservient to his inter- ests were Maximin, who was intrusted with the sovereign command <>f Egypt and Syria, and Severus, who was in possession of Italy and Africa. Tlic mormons sums of money which the ex- travagance or avarice of Galerius required, about this period, caused a heavy tax t<> bo laid upon the whole ei up ire. 'Hie people of Home, since the e>n.jih->t <>f Macedonia, had been ex- empted in mi the burden of personal tax ; but Galerius issued ;i command, from his palace in Nicomedia, that Kmie should pay its propor- tion of the tribute, like any other city of the empire. This insolent attempt to place Eome in the position of a mere province, aroused the indignation of both the Senate and the people. The IVa-toriau. guards, too, looking upon it as an indication of an approaching overthrow of their authority, declared their willingness i<> re- ROME ABANDONED. 275 Rebellion at Borne. sent the insult, and to draw their swords in favor of any person whom the Senate might choose to name as emperor. A conspiracy, at the head of which were two rian praefecN. wn* at once formed. All those officers who preferred to acknowledge the authority of Severn?, emperor of Italy, and of his colleague, or rather his master, Galeriu^, emperor of A>ia, were put to death; and Max- entius,the son of the emperor Max! mian, was ele- i to the throne by the united voice of the Senate, the Praetorian guards, and the people. The old Maximian, who, it will be remem- bered, had, some time previous, resigned the empire, now came forth from his retirement, and offered his great military talents in favor of his son Maxentius. Intelligence of the revolt was carried imme- diately to Galerius, and in accordance with his advice, Severus marched towards Home at the head of an immense army, in order to subdue the rebellious city. But when he arrived, a large portion of his troops deserted him, and he was forced to take refuge in Ravenna, where an asylum was offered to him. Thither Maxi- minian marched with a numerous force, and laying siege to the city, succeeded, at length, in making Severus his prisoner. The unfortunate 276 KMPIBE OF ROME. Attempt to punish the rebellious city. man was taken to Rome, and, not long after- wards, put to death. Maximian, now Imping to strengthen the cause of Maxentius by an alliance with Con- stantino, who was in quiet possession of the rn provinces, crossed the Alps with -his daughter I:'au>ta, whom he offered tu give in marriage to this emperor. Constantino accept- ed the oiler; but, while he thus appeared toes- ise of Rome and of the Senate, he determined to remain, for the present, a tator of the contest which was inevitable be- n ( Valerius and Maxentius. In the mean time, (ialcrius, intrusting the dc- of the Danube to his friend Licinius, .1 InniM-lf at th-- head of a powerful army, and marched toward- tor the purp" 4' the death <f Severus, and punishing tlu rebellious city. Jle found, however, that it. obtain n through Italy. V. ' y sent out its hosts to oppo.-e- his pngiv>s, and he was forced to make an ignominious retreat, or incur the risk of sharing the fa to of Severus. Reaching his capital in safety, and still hoping to accomplish his purpose, he imme- diately appointed Licinius to the throne ren- dered vacant by the death of Severus. But ROMK A.BANDONKD. L'77 >l>erors at the same time. Maximin, the governor of Kgypt and Syria, having been informed of this appointment, was filled with jealousy, and Galerius was com- pelled to grant to him also the title of emperor. Maximian, the father of Maxentius, liad like- ivMimed tin' imperial emblems which he had once laid a>ide\ and thus the attair- of the Unman world were administered, at the same time, hy six ditleivnt emperors : in the V by C''in>tantine. .Maximian, and Maxentius; and in the East, by Galerius, Severus, and :us. Max*:: 1 !!;-, relieved, by the retreat >f <. rius. ot'llu- anxiety which lie felt for the perma- nency of his power, now became impatient of the control of his father, Maximian. ^ love of authority seemed to increase with his many years. After a vain trial <>f lient to get rid of the old man's -inter- fere* nee, he finally appealed to the Pnvtnrian guards, who decided that Maxim ian was not the legal sovereign of Italy, and compelled him to leave the country. lie went first to Illyri- cum, but being driven thence by Galerius, he departed to the court of his son-in-law. C'on-tan- tine. Here he was well received, and here he might have lived in peace, had not his uncon- querable love of power prompted him to an act 24 MM PI RE OF IwOMK. Maximian and Constantine. as absurd a- it was deU-table. Taking advan- tage, atone time, of the absence of Constantine, who was compelled to lead his army against the hostile Franks, he caused a report to be ,;d that Constantine was dead, and there- upon ascended the throne, and seized upon the public trea-mv. l>ut his usurped authority was oiViiMi-t duration. Constantine soon reappeared. and Maximian. unable to retain the imperial pM\ver. lied, but was MH.H after captured and put to death. ThOB fell the oldest <f the-e m mporarv emperon. (lah-rius wa> not destined to sur- liim lung: he r his at i'n>ni Italy. .f a loathsome - vliich reiidei\-<l him an object too disgust mir to be- hold. Hisdcath , jealousy, at once, between Maximin and Severn-, wlm bnth dominions which he left. They made pivparatinn Me their claims by an appeal to <mns, but linall : to divide the territories rnverlu'd by(ialerius. They, how- ever, becanu- enemies. Licinius connected him- self witli Constantine. and "Maximin entere<l into ; . alliance with Maxentins. It was not long before the people of II bewail to sutler at the hands of Maxentius al- D all the horrors that had been inflicted up- ROME ABANDONED. Cruelty of Maxcntius His insolent conduct towards his colleagues. on them by their former tyrants. Towards the Senate, especially, did lie manifest an implaca- ble hatred. He exerted from them immense sums of money, to..k pleasure in exposing them to insult and contempt, and even caused a great. number of them to be put to death. On a cer- tain occasion, he gave np the people to be slaughter -nan guards, and mul- titudes fell in the very heart of the city, Dot by the arn>\vs and spears of the barbarian-, but by ' 'heir fellow-citi/en-. But it was not Rome, alone, that suffered from his brutality. All Italy, delivered up to the lie-en- and plunder of his merciless troops, Wftfl tilled with indescribable wretched- ;-lendid villas of unoffending no- blemen were bestowed upon his military favor- ites, and the wives of distinguished senators en to his soldiers. He. himself, in- closed within the walls of his palace, and pro- tected by his inhuman legions, passed the time in debauchery, and boasted that the emperors Constantino, Maximin, and Licinius, were his lieutenants, to whom he had intrusted the de- fence of his distant provinces. The empty boasts of a drunken braggadocio received but little attention from these princes of the empire ; but, when, at length, he caused 280 KMPIKE OF KOME. Constantino marches against Maxentius. the statues of Constantine to be thrown down, under pretence of revenging the death of his father Maximum, whom he himself had perse- 1 and banished from Italy, he took a step which resulted in his destruction. Constantine did not immediately collect his armies and march forth to Rome to punish "Maxell tins, but simply sent ambassadors to ob- tain from him some apology for his conduct. This, however, he refused to give, and even be- gan to collect a powerful army, with which lie threatened to overrun Gaul, and force Constan- tine to surrender his dominio Con-tantine, in the mean time, having been strongly urged by the Senate and people to deliver Rome from this detestable tyrant, de- termined to march his legions into the heart of Italy. This In* knew would be a very diihYult undertaking, tor his armies were only about half as numerous as i Maxentius. and it was aeceflBftly for him, moreover, to leave a large number of legions to defend the Rhine. IK 1 wa- sure, however, that the tnn.ps, of Koine, enervated by indulgence and luxury, and long unused to war, would need to be vastly superior in numbers, in order to compete with the hardy of Gaul. Setting out, then, at the head of about forty thousand soldiers, he M i; A 11 AN HONED. 281 Success of Constantino in Italy. marched to encounter an enemy that consisted of more than a hundred and fifty thousand. Before Maxentius had received intelligence of his coining, Constantino had already crossed the Alps, and appeared before the city of Susa, ovr-r the high walls .of which his soldiers clam- 1, amidst a shower of stones and arr and, with s\v<>rd B ', compelled the gar- Maxnitins to yield. From Su.-a, he direr- -ourse to the plains of Turin, win-re, minn-rous legion* had been sent to meet him. Falling upon these witji unexpected fury, he succeeded. n<t simply in putting them to flight, bnt in cutting them to pieces, in a most fearful manner. Tlu-n he took possession of Milan, and, indeed, of all the cities of Italy between and the river Po. With a view to making his entrance into Rome still more certain, he delayed his march thitherward. l'r the purpose of freeing himself from an immense army which held the city of Verona and the province of Venetia. In order to do this, he was obliged to undertake the siege of Verona, which, on account of the pe- culiar position of the place, was a very difficult and dangerous task. His first attempts were unsuccessful ; but the general of Maxentius was finally defeated by the superior skill of Con- 24 EMPIRE OF HOME. Maxentius Induced to oppose Constantino. slant ine, and Yerona surrendered, and its gar- rison became prisoners of war. Although thus lar at every step successful, Constantino had much to do, for Maxentius could still command soldiers arid treasures almost unlimited. Tin's miserable sovereign had, as yet, paid but little attention to the rapid progre.-s of his fortunate rival, and rely- ing. probably, upon his boundless resources and the valor of the Pnetonan guard-. lie continued to pa.-< bis time in the pleasure.** and amu>e- ments to which he had l>e-n BO long devoted. Uut hi- ucceeded, at last, in aroii>ing him to the danger of hifl p".-itinn; and in this tbey were not a little aided by the indignant clamors of th . who began to a.-semble about, the palace gates, and loudly charge the emperor with cowardice and indolence. coupled his name with e\> ithet, and even made the circus resound with their bitter rep Thus induced -t make a desperate effort in behalf of his tottering power, Maxentius raised another powerful army, and, taking Command <f it in person, went forth to meet his enemy. Constantine, if we- may believe the historian bins, felt, now, the utmost confidence that Koine would fall, without difficulty, into his HOMK ABANDONED. n of Constantino. hands. He had, in tlio course of his maivh, according to that historian, seen a vision, in which u bright cross appeared in the heavens bearing, in the Greek language, this inscription : * L\ THIS :i. !" IVrplexcd by a circum- stance so extraordinary, he had recourse to the learned men around him, b..:h I'agan and Christian. The former pronounced ir an in- . portending the most untbrtu- nate events; tin- latter maintained that it was an indication that hU cause would receive- the : of Heaven. Di-ji'i-i-d to adopt the interpretation nio-t lavurablo to him-c-if, Constantine made a public pr"tui.M of ( 'hri-tianity ; and, causing a royal Mandard to In- ma-; 'iibling the which he had seen in the heavens, c<inniandc<l it to be carried before him, in tin- war-, as an en-ign of victory and celestial pmti-ftion. Thus, the first of the Roman emperors who had aban- doned pa. for Christianity , he now 1. his march towards Rome, expecting that the cowardly Maxentius, shutting himself up within its walls, would compel him to besiege and, perhaps, destroy this great and magnificent city. How great was the surprise of Constantine, when, arriving within nine miles of Eome, he saw, stretched out all along the plains which 284 K M. F IKE O F K O M E . His great battle with Maxentius. bordered the Tiber, the innumerable hosts of Maxentius waiting to receive him. They were well arranged for fighting, but, with their backs to the river, it was impossible for them to fly. CoQstantine, surveying the ground with his well-trained eye, disposed his troops for battle. The post, of honor and of danger was selected for himself; and, putting on his most splendid armor, he charged, in person, the cavalry of the enemy. Such was the vigor of his attack, that tln-y speedily gave way, and left the in- fantry wholly unprotected* Legion after legion of the-e now began t desert the detested Max- entins, leaving the Pnetorian guards almost alone to defend his cause. The guards, who could not hope, for any mercy from Constantino, fought with desperation, and fell, on all sides, by hundreds and by thousands. Finding, at length, that death was inevitable, the broken troops of Maxentius fled precipitately into the river, whose surface was soon covered by their lifeless bodies. Maxentius himself, hoping to escape to the city, attempted to cross the Mil- vian bridge ; but the structure, unable to sup- port the crowd that accompanied him, gave way, and he fell to the bottom of the stream, whence his body was recovered on the follow- ing day, and exposed to the people. ROME ABANDONED. 285 Constantino enters Rome. Constantino entered the city and took posses- sion of the imperial palace; but his profession of Christianity did not prevent him from putting to death the two sons of Maxentius, and care- fully extirpating his -whole race. He did not, however, exhibit, otherwise, any unnecessary cruelty. The Roman people demanded of him a great many victims, but he refused to punish any who were not fully convicted of the charges brought against them. Persons who had been unjustly banished <>r imprisoned during the pre- ceding reign, were restored to their rights. The Senate received the promise that they should enjoy again their ancient dignity and privileges ; and, as a grateful return, they granted to Constantino the first rank among the three emperors who now governed the Ro- man world. Games and festivals were also in- stituted in honor of his victory, and numerous edifices were dedicated to him. Although Constantine spent but a very short time in Rome, he succeeded in correcting many abuses which had been encouraged by his pre- decessor. The Praetorian guards, whose num- bers and privileges were greatly increased by Maxentius, had resumed all their former haugh- tiness. "No sooner had Constantine taken pos- session of the city, than he caused the remnant 286 K M PIKE OF Ko M E . The Prsetorian guards disbanded. of tliese soldiers to be banished to the frontiers of the empire; and the fortified camp which they had so long occupied, to be levelled to the ground. It was not long after Constantino's entrance intu Italy, that the death of Maximin reduced tin- number of the Roman emperor.- to three. .Not discouraged by the fate of Maxentius, with whom lu- was in alliance. Maximin undertook to increase hi- dominion- by a war upon Licin- ius, the Illyrian emperor. His iinineiise army wa- cut to piece-, and he, liim>elf, within three months after, died, probably, from the- chagrin attending the failure of his enter- prise. Although the e dominions of the remaining emperon, ('"iistantine and Licinius, thu- very much augmented, they were jealous of each other's power, and willing to Jind M>me pretext for toting each other's strength. It was not long before Constantino found sullicient rea>on for war. in the indignities which had been otl'ered to the statues erected to his hoinr along the frontiers of Italy. Two battles were subsequently fought; one, near Cibalis, a city of Pannonia, and another on the plain of Manila in Thrace. Licinius lost in both, and sued for peace. It was granted to ROME ABANDONED. Constantino at peace The Gothsi him, but his dominions were confined to Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. A peace of eight years, between these two jealous emjx' ued. During this time itantine employed liimself in amending the already e>tahli>hed, and in enacting such others a< In- ! i->seiitial to the public good. In the mean time the Goth-, who had rapidly i: i in strength and numbers, in- curred his displea>mv. His legions wn Oft them, and alter a number of blo"dy hat- :hey were c impelled to purcha-e an ign<>- minioiH peace. Nt C"iitented with this, In- iv- snlved t> puni-h other barbarous nations that had invaded the Roman territories ; and to this end, repairing the bridge built by Trajan across the Danube, he to<>k a terrible revenge upon the enemies of the empire. The great - 1 :iich followed the arms of Constantino in these wars upon the barbarians, strengthened him, no doubt, in his determina- tion to become the sole ruler of the Roman empire. Licinius, his rival, was now becom- ing advanced in age, and there was a strong probability that he would make but a feeble resistance to an army fresh from the field of victory. Without a shadow of provocation, Constantino prepared to march against him ; 288 K M P 1 R E OF II M K . Contest between Constantine and Licinlus. but the old emperor, though startled by the in- telligence, resolved that he would make a desperate defence of the comparatively small dominions which still remained to him. Summoning, then-fore, the. great, energy that h;ul characterized his earlier days, he collet-ted, with incredible promptness, an immense army of a hundred and iifry thousand foot, ami lifteen thousand liorse, together with a fleet of three hundred and iifty galleys. Ascertaining that tin- army of ('onstantinc. somewhat inferior in numbers to his own. was approaching the city of Hadrianople, !. 1 a fortified cam]) in the vieiniry of that ])lace. According to his expectation-, ( '"ii>t:int ine directed his march towards him. For several days the hostile armies remained in sight of each other, with scarcely any exhibition of the enmity subsisting between their iv-peetive leaders. :5us was finally drawn from his adva' oils position, and ( 'onstantine. sei/.in^ the oppor- tunity, tell upon him with such fury that thirty- two thousand of his men were .-lain, his camp taken, and he himself compelled to fly l'r refuse within the walls of Byzantium. Determined to improve the advantage thus acquired, ('onstantine irave directions that his fleet should force the passage of the Hellespont, ROME ABANDONED. 289 Success of Constantino. which was under the protection of the power- ful arniaincnt of Licinins. A naval en- incut accordingly took place, which at the end of two days resulted in the destruction of one hundred and fifty of the vessels of Licinius, to- gether with five thousand of his men. Artifi- cial mounds of earth were then constructed around the walls of Byzantium, and from the rs erected thereupon, -tones and darts were thrown upon the inhabitants. Licinius, escaping from the city, fled to Chalcedon in A>ia. But determined not to surrender to his rival, he rai>ed an army of sixty thousand men, which he conveyed to ( 'hrysnp.ilis, on the IJosphonis, opposite to By- zantium. Oonstantine, crossing over the strait in small . gave him battle, and after slaughtering twenty-five thousand troops, forced him to sue for peace. This was granted on condition that he should resign all hi- preten- sions to the throne. Having accepted the ten 1 1 s, Licinius was permitted to take the hand of Constantine, and was subsequently sent to Thessalonica, where he was soon after put to death, under pretence that he had entered into a conspiracy with the barbarians. The Christian Church, which, previous to the triumphs of Constantine, had been harassed 26 KMPIKK OF ROMK. Arius The Council of Nice. only by tin- peraecotiona of paganism, no sooner found itself firmly established, than it became divided apiin-t itself. Arius. a presbyter of Alexandria, and a man of irreat learning and eloquence, oppo-in^ the doctrine that the S..n of God was co-eternal with the Father, incurred the indignation of his bi-hop. and was excom- niunicated by a council of the cler. tirinir int.. Pah-tine, he succeeded by means of his extraordinary talent- in making many c<.n verts to liis views, amoni: wlmm was the distin^ui-hiMl hi Kiisebius, bishop >f Nii-.-media. T<>rn by intestine anim<ity ani ioDS, the Church "f Christ prWODte^ thus early, an illustration of the evil- of ii)t,,h-rance, as well as a .-trikiiiL .'human fallibility. 0<m- .-tantinr.althoiiLrh unskilled in ivliiri"ii- matter-, i. with more >hrewdm-ss than the c!i- tendinir Fathers, that a " IK-U-I- <livi(h-d airain>t itself cannnt stand." Convi-nin^. tip euuncil of more than three hundred bishops at Nice, he attended in peisou, and order- ing their mutual complaints to be j to him, he took the papers, and. in the pn - of the assembled cleriry. committed them to the ilanu exam]le of moderation and for- bearance was, however, attended by no good EtOME A r. AN DON ED. 291 Constantine detenninee to found a new capital. effect. A large majority of the council a- to excommunicate Arius as a heretic, and lie wa- lanishe<l into Illyricum. Some time after- wards, Constantine insisted upon receiving Arius again into communion, and a day was lixed for tlie solemnity ; but, before the day ar- rived, Arius died, according to some, by poison, and according to Othen, in answer to the prayers of his enemies. AVhile Constantine was laboring zealously in behalf "f Christianity, he did not forget the other interests of the empire. Intent upon e\- 'ng his troops, and upon regulating the affairs of the provinces, he had, since the cap- ture of Jti.me. biv-n constantly moving through ditl'erent parts of his dominions, making his oc- ' of residence, sonu-times, Treves, and at other time-, Milan, Aquileia, Sirmium, -us, or Tbessalonica. Being now the mas- rld, and without a rival, he re- solved to build a capital for his empire more central than Rome, and in every respect equal to that famous city. The spot which he first chose for this purpose is said to have been Chalcedon, in Asia Minor ; but, in laying out the ground plan, we are informed that an eagle caught up the line, and flew with it to Byzantium, the city which he !K. Omens Uuililinir of Constantinople. had he-ieged during the COlltest with Licinius. In another account of the founding of the new capital, it is related that one night, while antine was sleeping within the walls of iJy/antium, the tutelar genius of the city. a rahle matron howed diwn with years and infirmities, appeared to him in a vision, and Hiddddy transformed into a : maid, whom he adorned with all the emhlems of imperial givatii'- . Interpreting this a- an indication from Heaven; ntium should he tin- capital of his empire. ; 1 that he immediately hegan the work of enlarging a'nd adorning it. The city in ' | itinople in honor of th- T, the griiins ami lahor of v. Mihjeets, throtigliout all the empire, wen- called into re.jui-ition in order to make 1 it the metrop- \orld. An incredihle amount of money wa- expended in rearing it- pro,ii^inns ; and the cjuarne- and forestfl of the neighboring region were stripped to furnish ma- terials for its palace.- and temples. The cities .recce and Asia were rohhed of their choice-! monuments, the .-tatucs of their [ the trophies of their heroefl and the fine-t pro ductioiis of their artists, in order to add splen- dor to t. [e of the future rulers of the ROM K A BANDON !: i>. Tlio rapidity of the work. empire. Schools of learning, churches, pub- lic halls, theatres, circuses, baths, and p for every species of amusement were 66 lished. Tin- work of building was can with extraordinary rapidity ; and the walls, porticoes, and principal edilic completed in a very linMied. the I in the : .-inn manner; and afterwards, on the annual return >f its birthday, the image of Constantine. p! upon a car. and accompanied by ihroiigh the Hippodrome, % where e\vry liMi..r was paid to tlie t'oimder of th<- 5 not entirely stripped lants in order to people this new ;iing wa<, h- .done. by Coii-tantine to encourage the removal thither of the noble and wealthy families of the empire. !! JV:red to his favorite- the mag- nificent ]>alaees which he had built in quarter of the city; and, gradually, the opuK-nt senators of Ronie. and of the eastern prov: adopted the new residence of the emperor. The advantages to be derived from an abode at the seat of government brought people, at length, in crowds ; and finally it became neces- 294: EMPIRE OF ROME. Death of Constants ne. sary to extend the limits of the city, in order to accommodate its increasing population. Con- stantinople, in short, concentrated the wealth and nobility of the emphv, and Rome, the an- cient mistress of the world, sank from her >u- premacy. The Goths finding that the old capital had abandoned, fell upon it with redoubled fury; and although Constantino was still able t<> puni>h their incursion-, it wa- very evident that the day was iut di.-tant when, not Rome, alone, bir would be their prey. Decay seemed to be written upon e tliinir; i-veii the em: thoiiLrh eoiiirratu- l.y amba^adors i'r..m Kthipiu a: upon the peace and ; ' y of his irovern- meiit. wa> t irra<lually I I <rf tho>e an.imd him. The cle of his life wa> sullied (rf eru.'lty ; and. after a of thirtv : vain old man, whose chief cmplm U to ad-.ni his pers.ni in c..-tlv robes of >il"k. and to Btiuly all the arts ;ed to in urder to conceal the ravni: time. PART III. QUKSTIONS. I. THE BE<;i.\MN<; OF TliK KMI'IKK. Pa'je 15. What happened upon the death of t'a-sar ? Who usurped the govern UK nt .* Wh.v .railed' What !;ice among the triuin !>;. Wh-it is >aid Antony? What war was brought about by Ant.-uy ' What is said of the bar 17. .''ction with the d-ath of Antony .' W . ith upon t'i 18. Wliat plan was laid by Octaviin ' How di I determine to dff at it ' l;--l;it<- th-- dlGU l'.. What wastluM-omlitionof i What - d(iiniiiin>? What had it d>u,,> lor art? What was th- i-xt.-nt and p.pulation ' K\. Wha- . etc.? Of its i AVhat i-hanffe tiMik place in the conduct ol ' Jl. How did he show his modi-ration .' Wh.v it produce? What title WM i up"ii him, ami how was he otherwise honored? How did these honur> him ? Hi*. In what way did he clieck immorality ? How did he become a favorite among the people? What anecdote is related of him .' \V hat is said of his treatment of Cinna ? What of his military skill ? 24. At what did he aim in his wars? Which was tho 1-1 M i- 1 i. ii OM K. Which the must fatal .' lonjr diil hi- \Vliat ivmarkalilf rv-nt t fourteen his death .' In what year of the city did thi- (M-riir ' W Jrs of Augi. H.i-.v did i ily .' \Vhoin did What is : li .' J7. What : his will.' H<>\v was h.- h..i. Wliat is said i,f his -"\ .rniuriit .' When did Til'i-rin- iiil <>f him .it lir.-t Whom ilid niani. -MX d-> ' I! wiid i-: Sd ' What \va> i uiaii! to him, and how did ; 1'i-o finally si;. \\liat mosa^> did ( 1 l.-w w;is t Wlia; H"w ; ;dof the burial uf .uxnieus? QUXSTIOX What was the conduct of 'I What the md ..f . 'lid Tiherius take as a o'lK .. 1 f .' what ,li.l What diiii. . ' What , il..w did li.- propose to ruin the ehiMivu of (Ji-rmani- >iid lie go? Htiw did he omilurt him- 38. What was the . II. .w did 1, against the chill; them.' !low .lid Tii-Tius inui>h him.' Wh;.- M tlu- >ple ? How wa> 40. How it became family ' \\ iiirini,' this ' Was he, him 11. Wh.r Whom tli-1 ;is his successor? H\v .11. 1 h-- his pro;.. :. !_' pend while he was r< Senate ? How did Caligula mw act .' What cause oi arose ? How was Caligula I What What was | IL CALIGULA AND CLATOII What ' nfth.-i ..... I 1 ''-- <>i" th.- s..l.li 48. Of the n-L'M of Caligula.' How was ]i.- received at ' How far (lid the j ' What was hi duct at I:: 40. What corrections did he make ? How did he punish 298 EMPIBE OF ROME. Pilate ? What other evils did he correct ? In what way ' was he honored ? How long did this reign of virtue con- tinue ? 60. '\ o what did it give way ? ] h>w has he been excused .' What was his first act of cruelty ? What others are related ? .". 1 . How did he exhihit his vanity ? What is said of the temple erected in himself.' How did he maintain his pre- tensions to divinity '.' iid of his prodigality? Of his table and baths.' Of hit & YOlite horte ? Of other follies ? Of the bridi:' 1 <>f 1'uteoli ? To what did In- resort when his fortune was expended 7 OMi did h- adi.pt to Jill 1.'. How the people affected i>y his eondiu-t ' How id of his expedition against the Germans and r.rit..; ii-.w was he recelred by ih- Be&atef Wi, Wli.. eonspired with him airainvt ( 'ali^ula .' tlie plan of the e.>n>pirators ? What was ess ' How lonu' did Caliirula i- 68. What became of his family ? - bis name ' What did the Senate nn : 1 eoneerninu' the disc.. very of('laii<li I H..W was he made emperor ' What I when ftt! What is said of him ? How did he be- ^in liis rei-ii ' ',(. What puHie wnrks'did he undertake; 1 How did he treat the provinces .' Wliat foreign con[iie.>ts did he under- (',]. With what success ? Ho\\ I OQ his te- turn .' What happened, in the mean time, in Britain .' What is said of the Silui, llelate \\hat is ^iiil of the war with Caractatus. What beram i;:*. How was he regarded in Rome? How treated l>y Q r i: s T i o N s . riiuulius ? What was the result of the victory of Ostorius ? What followed .' How did the emperor now behave ? To wlioni did lie leave his affairs ? i hy his advisers ? What ! result ? H"\v was Claudius aif.'ct.-d l.y tin- I ::illu< ? What followed the desertion of Camillas by ops? itc the story .f Cecina Petus. What rruelti. > 'in the terrors of Claudius ? What i-; related of his unconcern f ;rred between Claudius and Mt-ssalina ? Mi'ssalina ? What pul-lic d clarati<.n did Claudius makr ' II'\v did lie krcp his : hr first uink-rta; . ij.pina? In what maun.T did sh- MOOeed ' H-w .lid -lu- tn-at r.ritaui.! What oltarl- \vii-i in thr way of her ainl.ition .' In what ' What was now the condition of Claudia still more ami What did she ivM'hv t<. do ' How did she effect her pur- III. THE LAST OF THE (LESAKS. Page 7">. Wh; condition of the empire when -. . nd. d tin- throne? What was the population of th-' eity ' What is related of Nero's mother? I'.y what in Nero made emperor? How did he, at tii>t. treat Airrippina .' What advantage d'nl she take of her po\\ 77. Who opposed her? And with what success? What I of the first fi\ How was Atcrippina alVected ? What did sin- determine to do? Whal wa> the result of Nero's opposition t" \Vhat threats di<l slie make 7 How was he atleeted hy them ? In what way did he defeat Ai^rippina ? To what did she then resort' How was she attain thwarted ? EMPIRE OF ROME. 71'. What change now took place in Xero ? What was his conduct, and how was it regarded .' 80. How did lie treat his wife Oetavia? Whom did he then many.' What was tin; conduct of A.srippina? To what was lie in>ti^atcd ],y I'oppe.-i .' How did ho torment his mother :' What attempts did he. make to destroy her .' 81. How was his plan regarded hy Seneca and Imrrhus ? How was his horrilih; purpose linally accoin]ilished .' llelate the circunistanees of Airrippina's death. 82. What took plac,- in the Senate? What is said of love, of in 83. Of his fondness for chariot-driving ? Of his musical performances .' How was he received hy tin: people ? 84. llelate what is said of his li<>t exhibition after leaving What is said of his journey through <Ji< >*>. How wa0 he IVOeiYed *i Viples.' Iirserihe his return to Rome. When thetC aniu-emeiits failed to satisfy, what did he next 86. ' ts of cruelty was he now guilty? What it i> -i\eii of his l.iirninu- the . 87. Whom did he iOCQM of this enormity? What was the result of this hase accusation? What distinguished :ipo>ti. i d.-ath at this t'; 88. In what way did Nei tahlish his inno- of the rebuilding of Rome ! Desciibe his new pa!. D whom had Nero ch! -. d his cruelty '. 89. What followed ry of a conspiracy B him ? What distinguished men fell victims to his wrath ? What is related of Seneca in connection with this con- spiracy .' How did Nero ti. i:elate the curcumstances attending thedeat i. What were the further consequences of this conspiracy .' 11. What happened in the provinces of the empire? What occurred amon.ic the P.ritons ? What took place unions the .K'\^ QUESTIONS. 301 92. What is further related of Nero's enormities ? How were they finally regarded? Who first declared against him? 93. Who was proclaimed emperor ? Where was Nero, and how was he affected by the revolt ? What afflicted him most in the manifestoes of Vindex ? What did he do in order to have revenge ? On returning to Rome, what was his course ? 94. How did he behave in the Senate? What intelli- gence reached Rome soon after ? How was Nero affected by it ? What piece of extravagance did he contemplate ? 95. How did he prepare to meet his enemies ? What other intelligence arrived in the midst of these prepara- tions ? In what condition did Nero find himself ? 96. How did he seek to destroy himself ? What is related of his flight ? What was his conduct at the house of Phaon ? What was Phaon' s advice to him ? 97. What was the action of the Senate ? What effect had itXipon Nero ? How did he behave ? In what way was his death accomplished ? 98. At what age did he die ? How was the news of his death received at Rome ? IV. TRANSIENT RULERS. Page 101. What followed the reign of Nero ? What was the character of Galba ? How was he affected by his nomi- nation to the throne ? 102. What occurred upon his approaching the city ? What is said of his reforms ? 103. What name did he acquire ; and what was said of him ? What circumstance seemed to prove his love of money ? What may be said in his defence ? 104. What jealousies sprang up in the armies? What was done by the armies in Germany ? How did he hope to strengthen his position ? What is here said of Otho ? 105. Whom did Galba adopt as his successor? How did 302 EMPIRE OF KOME. Otho scheme for the throne ; and with what success ? What followed the news of this revolt, and the report of Otho's death ? 106. Relate the circumstances attending the death of Galba. At what age did he die ; and how long did he How was Otho treated by the Senate ? What effect had this treatment ? 107. What were some of his first acts? What is related of Yitcllius and the legions of Germany ? 108. What effect had the news of this revolt ? How did Otho feel in regard to it ? What offer did he make to his rival ? What course did he then pursue ? 109. Describe the conlli< D the armies of Otho and Yitellius. What inrHent is here rela'. 110. What effect did it produce upon Otho ? What did rs ? 111. (live an account of his death. How was the news of it reeej\-ed by his soldi 11:2. Wli- it.-llius all this time? What action was taken by the. Senate ? What were the words of Yitcllius cm passing the lield win-re his army had recently triumphed ? How did 1. 11:;. To whom did h<> intru-t affairs? To what did he abandon him.-elf ' What is said of his meals, and mode of eating .' What was the cost of his table for four months ? 111. Wh.> id his prodigality? How did he re- plenish hi- How did he treat those who loaned him money ? What in>tances are mentioned of his gross widkedi 11"). What n'f.rt had his conduct? How did he become the astrologers? How, and why, did iher's death ? What was the result of his mad behavior ? 110. What is said of Yespasian ? How was he made em- peror ? What did he resolve to do on accepting the empire ? 117. What was the result of his contest with Yitellius? QUESTIONS. 303 How did Vitellius receive the news of his own defeat? What did he conclude to do ? 118. By whom was Rome attacked? What festival was in progress during the attack ? What was the conduct of Vitellius 5 119. By whom was he taken ? How was he treated by the soldiers .' How by the people ? In what manner was he put to death ? At what age did he die, and what the length of his reign ? V. VESPASIAN AM) HIS SONS. Page 123. Who succeeded Vitellius in the empire ? Where was he when chosen emperor ? When was he born ? When did he first attract n-!' 1-Jt. What offices did he receive under Nero? What scheme was he obliged to abandon, by going to Rome ? To whom did he intrust it ? How was he received at Rome? 111".. What is said of Titus? What was the condition of the Jews \\hrn he attacked them? What then became of their 1 With what success did they attack the Roma: 111.'.. What did Titus now do ? How did he treat the in- habitants ? How did they receive his offers ? What course did lie now pursue ? 1 27. Who was Josephus ? On what mission was he sent ? With what result ? What now took place ? How did Titus then proct 128. Hw was Ji-nisal.-m finally taken? 129. How were the Jews affected by the destruction of the temple ? What became of the city ? How long had the siege continued ? How many perished with it ? How was Titus received at Rome ? 130. To what did he and his father apply themselves ? What public improvements did they make ? How did Ves- pasian distinguish himself ? What is said of his patronage of learning ? 304 EMPIRE OF KOME. 131. What was the condition of the public treasury when Vespasian began his reign ? What is said of the devotion of Vespasian to the wants of the people ? Give an account of his death. Who succeeded him upon the throne ? l:;j. What had been the character of Titus? What ap- pellation did he acquire ? To what did he apply himself? 133. What is related of his devotion to the good of others ? What dreadful events occurred during his reign ? 134. What was the effect of his example? By what was his death probably occasioned ? What did he declare when about to die ? How did the people regard Domitian ? How did he manage to deceive them ? In what did he find his chief pleasure ? How did lie amuse himself in private ? the first object of his malevolence ? What is said of his expedition against the Catti? How did he treat Agricola ? 138. Give an account of his expedition against the Sar- matians. What is said of his love of applause ? 139. What ii^tunos of his cruelty are mentioned ? How was his cruelty augmented ? In what way did he punish those accused of treason ? 140. What account is given of his attempts to frighten the Senate ? 141. In what way did he guard himself against surprise? How v. (-cautions rendered unavailing ? Relate the i'-h led to a conspiracy against him. ll'J. How was his death accomplish VI. KXTKNMoX OF TIIK KM TIRE. Page 147. How was the Senate affected by the death of Domitian ? Who was declared emperor ? How did the choice prove fortunate ? 148. To what was Nerva indebted for his elevation ? To what did he devote his short reign? What is related of the Praetorian bands ? QUESTIONS. 305 14',i. How did their conduct affect Xerva ? Whom did he choose a> an associate in the government ? What is said of Nerva's death ? What is said of Trajan and his family ? 150. What did he do when a lad ? What was the effect of his early training ? How did he behave when made em- peror ? What is said of his journey to Rome ? }')!. What celebrated philosopher now lived in Rome? Give the substance of Plutarch's letter to Trajan. 1 "_'. I low did was Trajan when he ascended the throne? the principal reforms which he undertook. What did he say concerning law-makers' What .- only thing exceptionable in hi .' (Jive an K.I. With what success did he attack them' How did Trajan display his humanity .' What further dimculti- he with th. What prodigious structure did he erect ? Of what service was it ' What was the result of Trajan's conquests ? How was he instrumental in persecuting the Chris- tians ? W i . . . mg the numbers put to death ? How were t i How was the peace of .;-iiv disturbed ? \~>7. Give an account of Trajan's victories. 158. Aft. : what did he do ? What is said of his drath ? H.\\- W as the news of it received at Rome ? Who What was Hadrian's conduct on reaching Rome? What honors were paid to Trajan? What was Hadrian's character ? How was he regarded by Trajan ? 160. How was he made the successor of Trajan ? How- was his nomination received ? In what manner did he ren- der himself popular ? 161. Relate what is said of his moderation and clemency. In what respect did he differ from his predecessor ? How did he diminish the extent of the empire ? 162. What was his plan to get rid of his enemies ? What 306 EMPIRE OF ROME. occasioned a conspiracy against him ? How did this con- spiracy terminate ? 163. How did he perform his famous journey ? Why was it undertaken ? What is said of his visit to Gaul and Ger- many ? Of his visit to Britain ? 164. Of hi -pain ? Of his visit to Athens ? 165. Of his visit to Sicily and Africa? Of his second journey to Greece ? What loss did he suffer during this journey? What is related concerning his grief for Aii- tinous ? 16G. What did he do for the Jews ? How did they repay his kindness.' How did lie punish them? How long did well cootie 107. How was he reo-iv-d at ll<m- ? What reforms did he make? Of what R tieularly fond? Of whom envious' What instamvs of his injuM '. iird .' 168. Whom did he adopt as his heir, and on what condi- tions ? What is M sufferings and <1 VII. Till- ANTOMMX 17:1. ll"\\ did Antoninus UM- i. What sur- name was conferred upon him :' What is said of his i At what ai;- did lie lie-in to reign? 171. Wh . iiis iit>t aets ? HOW were they Ib.w did h.- tn-at the cliri>tian> .' \\'hat did he think How did h.' d.-al with the barharians ? What was his treatment < f l.-.u : What was particularly ad- mirable in Antoninus ? 17''.. What did IK- do when near his end .' How did Mar- irelius aet when he eame in po>scssi<>n of the empire? What hono; i to the memory oi'Antoi,:. 177. How li>nu r did the two emperors rek r n conjointly? What happened soon after their rei^n he^an .' What agree- ment was made between the two emperors? 178. What was the conduct of Verus during this cam- C c ) I KSTIONS. 307 .' How did his generals proceed? What was their success ? 17'.'. Of what mean act was Verus now guilty ? How did Aurclius treat him ? What is said of the return of Ye 180. What calamities befel Rome ? To whom were these calamities attributed ? What measures were adopted by Aureli 181. What success had he against the harbarians ? What account is ^iveii ui the di-ath of Verus ? What was the con- duet of Aurelius on t: n ? ''arharians finally subdued ? I low did Aurelius now employ himself .' How were his occupations intern;; How did Aurelius recruit his army and replenish his iv .' What became of his enemies ? account of the miraculous deliverance of .;ian army. What benefits resulted from it to the Christians.' Relate wl. iraey of Avidius ( a>i did Aurelius receive the news of this con- spiracy ? What did h" ird t. > Avidius ? 1 S 7. 1I"\\- \\;i How were those in it treated .' 188. What n-ply did Aurelius make to those who blamed him for hi- .' What account is given of the jour- . Aurelius intu the East ? How was he received on his return? 189. How did he enter Rome ? Whom did he name as hi* successor ? How did he then employ his time .' What work did he write ? 190. What people now invaded the empire? What is said of his preparations to attack them ? What was his success ? What occurred during the third year of this war ? 191. What was the chief cause of uneasiness to him when 308 EMPIKE OF ROME. about to die ? What advice did he leave to be given to his Bon ? At what age did he die ? How long had he reigned ? VIIL THE PRAETORIAN GUARDS. Page 197. How old was Commodus when he began to reign ? How did he, at first, behave ? How did he prose- cute the war witli the barbarians? To what influence did he, by nine subject ? 198. What induced him to abandon the campaign against the barbarian^ . ; What was the condition of the empire for about three years ? What attempt was made upon the life .mnodus .' I!-'.). What was the result <.f this attempt ? Who suffered innocently in consequence of this conspiracy ? What is re- lated if iVivm. 200. What beeame of him ? What resulted from the sus- picion ' What was the consequence of his buspicions ? Wh" Mcr ? 201. How did lie use his authority .' How did he admin- With whom did (Meander share his ill- ilth? What caused th.- people to rise a him ? What was Ins fate ? How was Commodus aiYected by the loss of his favorite ' V, ,ied of his brutality .' What is said 0< his tMtM ' What of his pe: aiire> iii i; What (^f him as a gladiator? -uivd his - the conse- ::it of the conspiracy tliat foil Who was sel< ei. of IVrtina 20C. How was the offer of the empire made to him ? 207. What was dune by the Senate ? How was the body of Commodus to be treated ? What was the conduct of Pertinax ? What custom did he disallow in his family ? What changes took place in the palace ? QUESTION-. 309 208. How old was he when he be^an to reign .' What evils and abuses did lie correct ? How was he regarded ' What is Miid of the Roman soldi. TV .' What at- t'-mpt was made by tin- I'ra-torian guards .' II. .w was their conspiracy Duelled? What did they, soon after, under- JU>. What was the conduct of IVrtinax ? What was his F>y whom were the l'ra.-t<>rian bands instituted? What account is given of them .' 211. How \\.K- they located? How did they regard themselves ? What is said of their demands .' 212. What is relate<l of Sulpieianus ? H<\v \\as the oflcr . ipieianus regar. ! 21:;. What proclamation was made by one of the hand ? What took place, as the news of it spread .' Who were the chief bidders for the empire .' What were their rev bids ; and who v -t'ul ? ill 1. What is related of I>idius in presence of the Senate ? What wore now the feelings of the Senate towards the Prae- torian bands ? How did they treat Didius ? 21">. What is said of Niger and Severus ? What was the position of Hidius? What course did he pursue? What offer did he make to Severus ? Hit). Wliat it-solution was taken by the Senate? How was Didius disposed of? What then occurred between the Senate and 'J17. AVhat commands did Severus send to the Pnetorian bands ' How did he then treat them ? What did Severus do, on entering the city? U18. Of whose power did Severus feel afraid, and of whom was he jealous ? How did he get rid of these persons ? 219. What was, subsequently, the fate of Albinus ? What was his success against the Parthians ? What expedition did he now resolve to make ? Whom did he appoint his joint successors in the empire ? 220. What is said of this expedition to Britain ? What 310 EMPIKE OF ROME. was the effect of his labors ? "What is related of his death ? What was the character of his successors ? 221. What was the feeling subsisting between them? How were their quarrels terminated ? How did Caracalla save his own life ? 222. Of what further cruelties was he guilty ? In what way did he secure the protection of the Praetorian soldiers ? What is related of his journeys and cruelties in foreign countries ? 22:). What follies did he commit in the different cities through which he passed ? Who sustained him in all this ? Ik-late the circumstances that led to the murder of Cara- calla. 22o. What hopes were now entertained by Macrinus ? 22G. By whom was he elected emperor ? What was the action of the Senate? What reforms were undertaken by Macrinus ? How were they received .' What wore the feel- ings of the army towards him ? "I'll. What is related concerning a young priest at Emesa? Whence did the new emperor derive his name ? 228. How did Man-inns proceed against Heliogabalus ? What course was pursued by the Senate? What was the character of Heliogabalus ? 22!. How did he behave .' What were the follies that made up his entire r< 230. How did his grandmother propose. to save him from impending ruin .' What did he thereupon do? What was hi.-, conduct subsequently ?. 231. What was bis end ? Who was made emperor ? What was the character of Alexander ? What reforms did he un- dertake .' -'\-. What did he do for the army ? How was he regarded by the Pra>torian guards ? How did he show his gratitude ? How did they become irritated against him ? Upon whom did they visit their anger ? What is said of Alexan- der's first military expedition ? Q IT i: s T i o N s . 311 204. What means did Maximin employ to overthrow Alexander? Under what circumstances \\ as .Maximin pro- claimed emperor ? What was the conduct and fate of Alex- ander ? 205. By whom was Alexander regretted ? How had he treated the Christians ? IX. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. Pagelll. Where did Maximin hold his court? Why? Give some account of Maximin. Why did the senators de- spise him ? :M What is said of his wonderful strength? How did he revenge himself upon the nobles ? How oppress the rich ? -4-j. What is said of his military operations ? What con- spiracy was formed against him ? Who was compelled to assume the insignia of royalty / 214. Upon what condition did Gordianus promise to ac- cept the title of emperor ? How did the Senate receive his election ? For what purpose did they send men to the Free- torian camp ? How were the people aroused against Maxi- min ? 245. What was the fate of the two Gordians ? How was Rome affected by this event ? Whom did the Senate choose in their place ? Upon what did the people insist ? 246. Who was associated with Maximus and Balbinus ? How did Maximin behave on hearing this news ? What effect had the opposition of the Senate upon him ? To what resolution did his outrageous conduct bring his soldiers ? 247. How was his death and that of his son accomplished ? In what manner did the Praetorian soldiers assert their su- premacy ? 248. Whom did they proclaim sole successor to the throne ? What was the character of this prince ? What the state of the empire ? What enemies invaded the empire ? How were they repelled ? Who was Misithaeus ? What was his fate ? Who was Philip ? 312 K M P i R E OF ROME. 249. In what manner did he ascend the throne ? "What peace did lie conclude ? What city did he build ? What year was completed in his reign ? What games were cele- brated ? Describe this festival. 250. What does the history of this period exhibit ? De- 'scribe the state of the empire. What was the fate of Gor- dian ? What rebellion broke out ? What became of Mari- nus? 251. Whom did Philip send to Moesia to restore peace ? To what did the soldiers compel Decius ? What choice did they give him ? How was the death of Philip brought about ? What plans did Decius form ? Ll-VJ. What persecution arose ? What invasion succeeded ? Give an account of the army of Decius and his death. Who obtained the empire 3 253. Who was associated with him 7 What treaty did Gallus make ? What four things rendered the condition of the empire deplorable ? What is said of Ilostilianus ? '2~>\. What was done by .Kmilianus ? Why was he pro- claimed emperor ? Give an account of the conflict between him and Gallus. Who avt-nu'ed the death of Gallus ? In what mamiiT was Valerian elevated to the throne? Who was declared hi- ' How old was Valerian ? What is said of his conduct, and how was he regarded? Why coul'i ve the empire ? What was done by Valerian? With what design? How was he .l.'c.-ived ' How made a captive? Give an account of the shameful treatment of Vale- rian. What is said of his son Gallienus ? 258. How many aspirants to supreme power arose ? De- scribe the end of Gallienus. Who was his successor ? 259. What is said of the reign of Claudius? Who had pillaged Athens ? How many barbarians were overthrown ? Who was Zenobia ? 260. What put an end to the enterprises of Claudius ? Who was recommended by Claudius as successor ? What is QUESTIONS. 313 said of Quinctilius ? What was done by Aurelian against the enemies of the empire ? Against whom did he turn his arms ; 201. Who acknowledged the supremacy of Zenobia ? Win- iv was her residence ? What was her ambition ? How did Aurelian proceed against her ? 1ZG2. Where did the hostile armies meet ? Which was de- feated ? Where again did they meet ? Where did Zenobia fly ? What is said of her capture ? Of what perfidy was she guilty ? What was undertaken by Aurelian '.' 263. How did he treat tin- Christians and others? Give an account of his death. What is an interregnum ? How long did that after the death of Aurelian continue ? How was this accounted for ? elected by the Senate .' Ho\v old was Ta- citus ' How was his elevation regarded? What is said of :i ' H<>\v long did it continue ? 205. What now threatened the empire? Who was Pro- bus? How long was his reign? Whom did he subdue? What caused his death? What is saiil of his monument ? Whom did the sol- diery select as emperor ? Who were associated with Carus? What is .said of < 'anis ? What of his death ? What of the death of Xumerian ? Wh<> \v;is the next emperor? Who was associated with him? What were his exploits? What difficulties arose ? 268. Into how many parts was the empire now divided ? What were the names of the four emperors ? How was the empire harassed ? What is said of the persecution of the Christians ? 269. What act caused astonishment ? What was done by Constantius and Galerius ? Who were they ? Where did Constantius reside ? To whom did he bequeath the empire ? What of Galerius ? 270. What filled the empire with dissensions ? 314 EM ! i u K o i- HUME. x. HOME ABAXI OXKD. Page 273. In whose reign did the city of Rome cease to be the capital of the empire ? How old was Constantine at his father's death ? Describe him. 271. How was the empire divided at this time? What provinces had ( 'mistantine ' What did Galerius impose upon Home ' How did the Senate show resentment ' Wh<. w.i^ elevated to the throne by the Senate? What was done by Maximian ? Who maivhed with an army to Rom.- 7 Where did h- take refuse? Wlio took him prisoner? What is said (.( his death ? What allian> , form.-d aJiK.iiLC tin- emperor^ ? Who was Licinius ' Why ilerios marcfei toward< Bone! why did h- n.it - Whom did lie appoint to the tin 277. Wh 1 em]eiors ' How many einpeiois were tlinc at this time ' What were their names ? In what manner did Maxeiitius treat his father ? Where did Maximi.i :'uge ? 278. '!'*) what art did hi* lo : prompt him? How was it punMied ? W. What divi-i tlif rni.-lty of Maxt-ntiiis. How was all Italy treat. -d by him? How did he sp.-nd his time.' Uf what did I. Why did he throw d nstantine ? What did ( '.in-tantine tiien do ' How did M.i.\entiu- his demand ' How did their armies < 1>1. \\ i. . ;';d C..n<tantiii- jairsue ? What ^\d 1, i of th- si Its surrender.'' II.. \v did Maxeiitius pass his time? How was he aroused ' What was done by him ? 283. Give an account of Constantine' s vision. What was done by Constantino ? To what plaeo did he march ? QUESTION.-. 315 284. Where did he meet the armies of Maxentius ? What was the result of this battle ? What the fate of Maxentius ? 285. How did Constantino conduct himself on entering Rome ? How did the Senate and people show their joy ? What is said of the Praetorian guards ? What is related of Maximin ? What emperors re- mained ? Why. and how. did they divide the cmpi: What was the length of the peace between them ? What, during this time, was done by Constantino ? What ."W his ob; 288. In what manner did Licinius resist him? How did he suco-'-d ' \\'lieie did h- take refuge ? the naval . ; >e the flight of Licinius, liis surrender, and death. t hail the Christian profession of Constan- tino on the Christian Church ? Who was Arias : and what me by him? Hw many bishops assembled at the Council of Nice ? For what purpose ? How did Constan- tine t : o order ? iI'.Jl. What was the end of Arius ? Was Rome now the capital of the empire ? What spot did Constantino fix upoii for it .' How was Byzantium afterward- What name it ' How is it here descri ;.t of the dedication of Constantinople. How was tin- lu-w capital peopl' What people fell upon Rome ? What was the effect upon the empire of the abandonment of Rome ? What upon the emperor? How was the end of Constantino's reign sul- lied ? What was his last employment ? THE I A LIBRARY