/ THE 
 L 
 
 ENGLISH AND AMERICAN 
 MECHANIC. 
 
 COMPRISING A COLLECTION OF 
 
 Over 3000 Receipts, Rules and Tables, 
 
 JIMIUJIIO FOB THB USB OF EVERT 
 
 MECHANIC AND MANUFACTURER. 
 
 B. FRANK ^AN CLEVE, 
 
 AUTHOR AKD PUBLISHER, 
 PHILADELPHIA, PENNA. 
 
 PRICE, $9.80. CLOTH STJTDTNO. 
 
 The additions made during the year will be mailed to Subscribers 
 on receipt of Fifty Cents in January of each year. 
 
 Mail the money to above address. 
 Steady Employment given to Good Canvatttrt at Remvnerativt Prica,
 
 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by 
 
 B. FRANK VAN CLEVE, 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 CAXTOH PBESS OP SHESMAN A Co., PHILADA.
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 rPHIS work is offered as a valuable Book of Reference 
 -*- for Mechanics and Manufacturers, trusting they will 
 find information therein that will well repay them. 
 
 It is the intention of the Author to produce the most 
 disirable information in the most intelligible form for 
 practical application. 
 
 The mechanic who has studied mathematics but little, 
 will find that by studying some of the brief rules herein, 
 he will get a clear comprehension of things that would 
 otherwise be unintelligible to him. 
 
 The Author acknowledges his indebtedness to numerous 
 English and American authors for valuable material for 
 tables, etc. 
 
 B. F. V.
 
 THE 
 
 AMERICAN AND ENGLISH MECHANIC. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAMS. 
 
 To find the Circumference of any Diameter. 
 Fig. 1, 
 
 From the centre C describe a circle A B, having the required 
 diameter ; then place the corner of the square at the centre C, and 
 draw the lines C D and C E ; then draw the chord D E : three times 
 the diameter added to the distance from the middle of the chord 
 D F E to the middle of the subtending arc DOE, will be the cir- 
 cumference sought. 
 
 To find the Area of the Sector of a Circle. 
 
 HULK. Multiply the length of the arc DG E by its radius DC, 
 and half the product is the area. 
 
 The length of the nrc D Q E equal 9} feet, and the radii C D, C E, 
 equal 7 feet, required the area. 
 
 9-6X7 = GG-5 -~ 2 = 33-25 the area.
 
 PROPORTION OF CIRCLES. 
 
 Proportion of Circles. 
 
 Fig- 2. 
 
 To enable machinists to enlarge or reduce machinery wheels 
 without changing their respective motion. 
 
 First, describe two circles AB and C D the size of the largest 
 wheels which you wish to change to a large or small machine, 
 with the centre P of the smaller circle C D on the circumference 
 of the large one A B ; then draw two lines L M and N tangent to 
 the circles A B and CD, and a line I K passing through their cen- 
 tres P and R; then if you wish to reduce the machine, describe a 
 circle the size you wish to reduce it to; if one-half, for example, 
 have the centre Q one-half the distance from R to S and describe 
 the circle E F, and on its circumference T as a centre, describe a 
 circle G H, allowing their circumferences to touch the tangent lines
 
 TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 5 
 
 L M and N 0, which will make the circle E F one-half the size of 
 the circle A B, and G H one-half the size of C D ; therefore F and 
 G II are in the same proportion to each other as AB and CD. 
 
 If you wish to reduce one-third, have the centre Q one-third the 
 distance from R to S; if one-fourth, have the centre Q one-fourth 
 the distance from R to S, and so on. This calculation mny be ap- 
 plied beyond the centre R for enlarging machine wheels, which 
 will enable you to make the alteration without changing their re- 
 spective motion. 
 
 To describe an Ellipse, or Oval. 
 
 [Simple Method.] 
 
 Fig. 3. 
 
 At a given distance, equal to the required eccentricity of the 
 ellipse, place two pins, A and B, and pass a string, ACB, round 
 them ; keep the string stretched by a pencil or tracer, C, and move 
 the pencil along, keeping the string all the while equally tense, 
 then will the ellipse C G L F H be described. A and B are the foci 
 of the ellipse, D the centre, DA or DB the eccentricity, EF the 
 principal axis or longer diameter, G H the shorter diameter, and 
 if from any point L in the curve a line be drawn perpendicular to 
 the axis, then will L K be an ordinate to the axis corresponding to 
 the point L, and the parts of the axis E K, K F into which LK di- 
 vides it are said to be the abscissae corresponding to that ordinate. 
 
 NOTE. OVAT.. A curve line, the two diameters of which are of unequal 
 Icii-ih, and is allied in form to the ellipse. An ellipse is that figure which is 
 produced by cutting a cone or cylinder in a direction oblique to its axis, and 
 p:i>"iii'_ r through its sides. An oval may be formed by joining different segments 
 ot'cirrlrs. so that their meeting shall not be perceived, but form a continuous 
 curve line. All elliiiscs are ovals, hut all ovals are not ellipses; for the term 
 oval may be applied to all afMhaped figures, those which are broader at one 
 end than the other, as well as those whose ends are equally curved.
 
 TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE, 
 
 To describe an Ellipse. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 To describe an ellipse of any length and width, and by it to 
 describe a pattern for the sides of a vessel of any flare. 
 
 First draw an indefinite line DE perpendicular to the line AB, 
 and from C, the point of intersection, as a centre, describe a circle 
 FG, having the diameter equal to the length of the ellipse ; from 
 the same centre C describe a circle H J equal to the width ; then
 
 TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 7 
 
 describe the end circles L K' and L K, as much less than the width 
 as the width is less than the length ; then draw the lines M N and 
 M N tangent to the circles K'L, II J and K L ; from the middle of 
 the line M N at erect a perpendicular produced until it intersects 
 the indefinite line D E ; from the point of intersection P as a cen- 
 tre, describe the arc K/II K, and with the same sweep of the divi- 
 ders mark the point R on the line D ; from the point R draw the 
 lines RU and R V through the points K' and K where the arc K' 
 II K touches the end circles K'L and KL; then place one foot of 
 the dividers on the point R and span them to the point H, and de- 
 scribe the arc Q'H Q, which will be equal in length to the arc K' 
 HK; from the same centre R describe the aro U W V the width 
 of the pattern ; then span the dividers the diameter of the end 
 circle K L ; place one foot of the dividers on the line R V, at point 
 Q, and the other at Y as a centre, describe the arc QT the length 
 of the curve line K 0, and with the same sweep of the dividers de- 
 scribe the arc T'Q' from the centre Y' on the line R U ; then span 
 the dividers from Y' to U, and from Y' as a centre, describe the 
 arc U X, and from Y as a centre, describe the arc V X, which com- 
 pletes the description of the pattern. 
 
 The more flare you wish the pattern to have, the nearer the 
 centre point R must be to H ; and the less flare, the further the 
 centre point R must be from II ; in the same proportion as you 
 move the centre R towards, or from H, you must move the centre Y 
 towards, or from Q, or which would be the same as spanning the 
 dividers lees, or greater, than the diameter of the end circle KL. 
 
 To find the Circumference of an Ellipse. 
 
 RULE. Multiply half the sum of the two diameters by 3-1416, 
 and the product will be the circumference. 
 
 Example. Suppose the longer diameter 6 inches and the shorter 
 diameter 4 inches, then 6 added to 4 equal 10, divided by 2 equal 
 5, multiplied by 3-1416 equal 15-7080 inches circumference. 
 
 To find the Area of an Ellipse. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the longer diameter by the shorter diameter, 
 and by -7854, and the product will be the area. 
 
 Example. Required the area of an ellipse whose longer diam- 
 eter is inches and shorter diameter 4 inches. 
 
 6 X 4 X -7864 = 18-8496, the area.
 
 8 TO DESCRIBE A BIGHT ANGLED ELBOW, 
 
 To describe a Right Angled Elbow. 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 First construct a rectangle A DE B equal in width to the diam- 
 eter of the elbow, and (he length equal to the circumference : then 
 from the point J, the middle of the line A B, draw the line J H, and 
 from the point F, the middle of the line AD, draw the line FG; 
 from the point J draw two diagonal lines J D and JE: then .span 
 the dividers so as to divide one of these diagonal lines into six 
 equal parts, viz., J, L, 0, T, 0, V, E : from the point L erect a 
 perpendicular, produced to the line J II ; from the point of contact 
 M, as a centre, describe the arc N J for the top of the elbow, 
 and from the points M' and M' as centres, with the same sweep 
 of the dividers, describe the arcs NO and NO; then draw nn in- 
 definite straight line PQ tangent to the arcs NO and N J. having 
 the points of contact at S and S ; on this tangent line erect a per- 
 pendicular passing through the point N produced until it inter- 
 sects the line BE produced; then place one foot of the dividers 
 on the point of intersection R and span them over the dotted line 
 to the point T, and with the dividers thus spanned describe the 
 arcs TS, TS, TS, and TS; these arcs and the arcs N 0, NJO, 
 and N will be the right angled elbow required.
 
 TO DESCRIBE A STBAIGHT ELBOW. 9 
 
 To describe a Straight Elbow. 
 
 [Old Method,] 
 
 Fig. 6, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .--- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '' 
 
 * 
 
 
 j 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 .1 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 i 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 <i 
 
 \ 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 7 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x 
 
 ( 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 P 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 
 7 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 s 
 
 7 
 
 Mark oat the length and depth of the elbow, A B C D ; draw a 
 semicircle at each end, as from A B and C D ; divide each semi- 
 circle into eight parts ; draw horizontal lines as shown from 1 to 
 1, 2 to 2, etc.; divide the circumference or length, ACBD, into 
 sixteen equal parts, and draw perpendicular lines as in figure ; 
 draw a line from a to 6 and from 6 to e, and on the opposite side 
 from d to and t to/; for the top sweep set the dividers on fourth 
 line from top and sweep two of the spaces ; the same at the corner ; 
 on space for the remaining sweeps set the dividers so to intersect 
 in the three corners of the spaces marked X- The teams must 
 be added to drawing. 
 
 To describe a Carved Elbow. 
 Fig, 7.
 
 10 TO DESCRIBE A CURVED ELBOW, 
 Fig, 8, 
 
 Describe two circles UX and V'S, the curves desired for the 
 elbow, having the distance from U to V equal to the diameter; 
 then divide the circle \ T/ , W, R and S, into as many sections as 
 desired; then construct a rectangle, Fig. 8, ADEB, the width 
 equal to the width of one section V'W, Fig, 7, and the length equal 
 to the circumference of the elbow: then span the dividers from 
 the point R to the point P at tho dotted line, Fig. 7, and with the 
 dividers thus spanned mark the points F F' Fig. 8, from points A 
 and D, and draw the lines FG and F'G' ; frqm point I draw the 
 two diagonal lines I F and IG, span the dividers so as to divide 
 one of these diagonal lines into six equal parts, viz., I, L, 0, T, 0, 
 V, G ; from the point L erect a perpendicular line produced until it 
 intersects the line I H produced ; from the point of intersection M, 
 as a centre, describe the arc N 10 for the tap of the elbow; with 
 the same sweep of the dividers describe the arcs N and N ; then 
 draw an indefinite straight line P Q tangent to the arcs N and 
 N I, having the points of contact at S and S; on this tangent line 
 erect a perpendicular line passing through the point N (same as 
 in Fig. 5), produced until it intersects the line B E produced; then 
 place one foot of the dividers on the point of intersection and span 
 them over the dotted line to the point T, (same as in Fig. 5), and 
 with the dividers spanned describe the arcs T S, T S, T S, and T
 
 TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW. 11 
 
 8; these arcs and the arcs N 0, N 1 and N, will be one side of 
 the section, and by the same rule the other side of the section may 
 be described at the same time, which will be a pattern to cut the 
 other sections by. 
 
 To describe a Straight Elbow. 
 
 [Another Method for describing a Straight Elbow.] 
 
 Figs. 9 and 10. 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 f 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
 < 
 
 / 
 
 \ 
 
 I 
 
 j 
 
 r 
 
 ^ 
 
 ' 
 
 t 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 j 
 \ 
 
 ^ 
 
 N ', 
 
 a 
 
 iff 
 
 PIG. 9. Draw a profile of half of the elbow wanted, and mark a 
 semicircle on the line representing the diameter, divide the semi- 
 circle into six equal parts, draw perpendicular lines from each 
 division on the circle to the angle line as on figure. 
 
 Fin. 10. Draw the circumference and depth of elbow wanted, 
 and divide into twelve equal parts ; mark the height of perpendic- 
 ular lines of Fig. 9 on Fig. 10 a b e, etc. ; act your dividers the 
 same as for the semicircle and sweep from e to e intersecting with 
 / and the same from a to the comer, then set the dividers one- 
 third the circumference and sweep from e to d each tide, and from 
 a to b each tide at bottom ; then set your dividers three-fourths of 
 the circumference and sweep from c to d each tide on top, and from 
 e to b at bottom, and you obtain a more correct pattern than is 
 generally used. Allow for the lap or seam outside of your draw- 
 ing, and lay out the elbow deep enough to put together by swedge 
 or machine. Be careful in dividing and marking out, and the 
 large end will be true without trimming. The seams must be 
 added to drawing.
 
 12 TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS. 
 
 To describe Bevel Covers for Vessels, or Breasts 
 for Cans. 
 
 Fig. 11, 
 
 From as a centre, describe a circle D E larger than the vessel ; 
 and from C as a centre, describe a circle A B the size of the ves- 
 sel, then with the dividers the same as you described the circle the 
 size of the vessel, apply them six times on the circumference of 
 the circle larger than the vessel ; for can-breasts describe the cir- 
 cle FQ the size you wish for the opening of the breast. 
 
 To describe Pitched Covers for Fails, eto. 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 To cut for pitched covers, draw a circle one inch larger than 
 the hoop is in diameter after burring, then draw a line from the
 
 OVAL BOILER COVER. 
 
 13 
 
 centre to the circumference as in the figure, and one inch from 
 the centre and connecting with this line draw two more lines, the 
 ends of which shall be one inch on either side of the line first 
 drawn, and then cut out the piece. 
 
 To describe an Oval Boiler Cover. 
 
 From C as a centre, describe a circle whose diameter will be 
 equal to the width of the boiler outside of the wire, and draw the 
 line A B perpendicular to the line E F, having it pass through the 
 point D, which is one-half of the length of the boiler ; then mark 
 the point J one quarter of an inch or more as you wish, for the 
 pitch of the cover, and apply the corner of the square on the line 
 AB, allowing the blado to fall on the circle at H, and the tongue 
 at the point J ; then draw the lines H B, B J, G A and A J, which 
 completes the description.
 
 14 TO DESCRIBE A LIP TO A MEASURE. 
 To describe a Lip to a Measure, 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Let the circle A B represent the size of the measure ; span the 
 dividers fromK to F three-quarters of the diameter; describe the 
 semicircle D K E ; move the dividers to G the width of the lip re- 
 quired, and describe the semicircle K P J, which will be the lip 
 Bought. 
 
 The Circle and its Sections. 
 
 1. The Areat of Circles are to each other as the squares of their 
 diameters; any circle twice the diameter of another contains four 
 times the area of the other. 
 
 2. The Radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the cen- 
 tre to the circumference. 
 
 3. The Diameter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the 
 centre, and terminated both ways at the circumference. 
 
 4. A Chord is a straight line joining any two points of the cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 6. An Arc is any part of the circumference. 
 
 6. A Semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a diameter. 
 
 7. A Segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a chord. 
 
 8. A Sector is a part of a circle cut off by two radii.
 
 FLARING VESSEL. 15 
 
 To describe a Flaring Vessel Pattern, a Set of Patterns 
 for a Pyramid Cake, or an Envelope for a Cone. 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 From a point C as a centre, describe a circle A B equal to the 
 large circumference ; with the point F as a centre, the depth of 
 the vessel, describe a circle DE equal to the small circumference ; 
 then draw the lines GH and RS tangent to the circles AB and 
 D E ; from the point of intersection as a centre, describe the 
 arcs A C B and D F E ; then A D E B will be the size of the vessel, 
 and three such pieces will be an envelope for it, and A J B T F U 
 the altitude: then by dividing the sector S H into sections A B, 
 D E, P Q, and W X, you will have a set of patterns for a pyramid 
 2
 
 16 TO DESCRIBE A COXE OR FRUSTUM. 
 
 cake ; and the sector A B will bo one-third of an envelope for 
 a cone. 
 
 In allowing for locks, you must draw the lines parallel to the 
 radii, as represented in the diagram by dotted lines, which will 
 bring the vessel true across the top and bottom. 
 
 To describe a Cone or Frustum. 
 
 First draw a side elevation of the desired vessel, D E, then from 
 A as a centre describe the arcs CDC and G E G ; after finding the 
 diameter of the top or large end, turn to the table of Diameters 
 and Circumferences, where you will find the true circumference, 
 which you will proceed to lay out on the upper or larger arc CDC, 
 making due allowance for the locks, wire, and burr. This is for 
 one piece; if for two pieces, you will lay out only one-half the 
 circumference on the plate ; if for three pieces, one-third : if for 
 four pieces, one-fourth ; and so on for any number, remembering 
 to make the allowance for locks, wire, and burr on the piece you 
 use for a pattern.
 
 TO DESCRIBE A HEART CYCLOID. 17 
 To describe a Heart. 
 Fig. 17, 
 
 Draw an indefinite line A B; then span the dividers one-fourth 
 the width you wish the heart, and describe two semicircumferences 
 A C and C B ; span the dividers from A to B, the width of the heart, 
 and describe the lines A D and B D, which completes the description. 
 
 Cycloid. 
 
 Cycloid, a curve much used in mechanics. It is thus formed : 
 If the circumference of a circle be rolled on a right line, begin- 
 ning at any point A, and continued till the same point A arrives at 
 the line again, making just one revolution, and thereby measuring
 
 18 TO STRIKE SIDE OF FLARING VESSJfL. 
 
 out a straight line ABA equal to the circumference of a circle, 
 while the point A in the circumference traces out a curve line 
 A C A G A: then this curve is called a cycloid; and some of its 
 properties are contained in the following lemma. 
 
 If the generating or revolving circle be placed in the middle of 
 the cycloid, its diameter coinciding with the axis A B, and from 
 any point there be drawn the tangent C F, the ordinate C D E per- 
 pendicular to the axis, and the chord of the circle A D ; then the 
 chief properties are these : 
 
 The right line C D equal to the circular arc A D ; 
 
 The cycloidal arc A C equal to double the chord A D ; 
 
 The semi-cycloid AC A equal to double the diameter A B, and 
 
 The tangent C F is parallel to the chord A D. 
 This curve is the line of swiftest descent, and that best suited 
 for the path of the ball of a pendulum. 
 
 To Strike the Side of a Flaring Vessel. 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 12 
 
 To find the radius of a circle for striking the side of a flaring 
 vessel having the diameters and depth of side given. 
 
 RULE. As the difference between the large and small diameter 
 is to the depth of the side, so is the small diameter to the radius 
 of the circle by which it is struck. 
 
 Example. Suppose A B C D to be the desired vessel, with a top 
 diameter of 12 inches, bottom diameter 9 inches, depth of side 8 
 inches. Then as 12 9 = 3 : 8 : : 9 to the radius. 
 72-r3 = 24 inches, answer.
 
 TO DESCRIBE BREASTS FOR CANS. 19 
 
 To describe Bevel Covers for Vessels, or Breasts for 
 Cans. 
 
 Fig. 20. 
 
 Construct a right angle A D B, and from the point C, the altitude 
 height you wish the breast, erect a perpendicular line F; then on 
 the line B, mark the point one-half the diameter of the can; 
 and on the line F, mark the point G one-half the diameter of the 
 opening in the top of breast: draw a line N to pass through the 
 points E and G produced until it intersects the line A ; place one 
 foot of the dividers at the point of intersection H, and place the 
 other on the point E, and describe the circle E I K ; span the divi- 
 ders from the point H to point G, and describe the circle G L M ; 
 then span the dividers from the point D to E, and step them six 
 times on the circle E I K, which gives the size of the breast. Re- 
 member to mark the lines for the locks parallel with the radii.
 
 20 TO FIND THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE. 
 
 To Find the Centre of a Circle from a Part of the Cir- 
 cumference. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
 Span the dividers any distance you wish, and place one foot on 
 the circumference A B, and describe the semicircumferences C D, 
 E F, Q H, and I K, and through the points of their intersection P Q 
 and R S, draw two indefinite lines L M and N ; the point of their 
 intersection T, will be the centre desired.
 
 THE FRUSTUM OP A CONE. 
 
 Sector, for Obtaining Angles. 
 Fig. 22. 
 
 21 
 
 SECTOR, a portion of a circle comprehended between any two 
 radii and their intercepted arcs. Similar Sector* are those whose 
 radii include equal angles. 
 
 To find the area of a sector. Say as 360 is to the degree, etc., 
 in the arc of the sector, so is the area of the whole circle to the 
 area of the sector. Or multiply the radius by the length of the 
 arc, and half the product will be the area. 
 
 To Construct the Frustum of a Cone. 
 
 Form of flat Plate by which to cotutruct any Fruttum of a Cone. 
 
 Fig. 23. 
 
 Let A B C D represent the required frustum ; continue the lines 
 A D and B C until they meet at E ; then from E as centre, with the 
 radius E C, describe the arc C H; also from E, with the radius E B, 
 describe the arc B I ; make B I equal in length to twice A O B ; 
 draw the line E I, and B C I H is the form of the plate as required.
 
 22 
 
 STRIKING OUT A CONE. 
 
 Rule for Striking out a Cone or Frustum. 
 Fig. 24. 
 C 
 
 In a conical surface, there may be economy, sometimes, in 
 having the slant height 6 times the radius of base. For a Circle 
 may be wholly cut into conical surfaces, if the angle is 60, 30, 
 16, etc. 
 
 But there is a greater simplicity in cutting it, when the angle 
 is 60. For instance, take A C equal to the slant height, describe 
 an indefinite arc AO; with the same opening of the dividers 
 measure from A to B ; draw B C and we have the required sector. 
 This would make the angle C equal 60. This angle may be 
 divided into two or four equal parts, and we should thus have 
 sectors whose angle would be 30 or 15, which would not make 
 the vessel very flaring. The accompanying figure gives about the 
 shape of the flaring vessel when the angle of the sector is 30. 
 
 Fig. 25, 
 
 To find the Contents of a Pyramid or Cone. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the area of the base by the height, and one- 
 third of the product will be the solid content. 
 
 Example. Required the solid content in inches of a Cone or 
 Pyramid, the diameter of the base being 8 inches, and perpendic- 
 ular height 18 inches? 
 8 X 8 = W X -78&t X 18=.904'7808 -=- 3= 301'593G .inches -r 231 = 1 gall 1^ qta.
 
 CONTENTS OF FBUSTUM OF A. CONE. 23 
 
 Hipped Roofs, Mill Hoppers, etc. 
 
 To find the various Angle* and proper Dimensions of Material* whereby 
 to construct any figure whose form it the Frustum of a proper or 
 inverted Pyramid, a* Hipped Roof*, Mill Hopper*, etc. 
 
 Fig. 26, 
 
 O 
 
 Let A B C D be the given dimensions of plan for a roof, the 
 height R T also being given ; draw the diagonal A R, meeting the 
 top or ridge K* on plan; from R, at right angles with AR and 
 equal to the required height, draw the line R T, then T A, equal 
 the length of the struts or corners of the roof; from A, with the 
 distance A T, describe an arc T /, continue the diagonal A R until 
 it cuts the arc T/, through which, and parallel with the ridge R, 
 draw the line m n, which determines the required breadth for each 
 side of the roof: from A, meeting the line m n, draw the line A o, 
 or proper angle for the end of each board by which the roof might 
 require to be covered ; and the angle at T is what the boards re- 
 quire to be made in the direction of their thickness, when the cor- 
 ners or angles require to be mitred. 
 
 Contents in Gallons of the Frustum of a Cone. 
 Figs. 27, 28, 29. 
 
 To find the Contents in Gallons of a Vessel, whose diameter is 
 larger at one end than the other, such as a Bowl, Pail, Firkin, 
 Tub, Coffee-pot, etc.
 
 24 CONTENTS OF SQUARE VESSELS. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the larger diameter by the smaller, and to the 
 product add one-third of the square of their difference, multiply 
 by the height, and multiply that product by -0034 for Wine Gallons, 
 and by -002785 for Beer. 
 
 Example. Required the contents of a Coffee-pot 6 inches diam- 
 eter at the top, 9 inches at the bottom, and 18 inches high. 
 
 Large diameter 9 Brought up 1026 
 
 Small do. 6 -0034 
 
 54 4104 
 
 J of the square 3 3078 
 
 57 3-4884 wine gallons, 
 
 Height 18 or nearly 3$ gallons. 
 
 456 
 57 
 
 Carried up 1026 
 
 1026 multiplied by -002785 equal 2-8574 Beer Gallon*. 
 
 Rule to find the Contents in Gallons of any Square 
 Vessel. 
 
 RULE. Take the dimensions in inches and decimal parts of an 
 inch, multiply the length, breadth, and height together, and then 
 multiply the product by -004329 for Wine Gallons, and by -003546 
 for Ale Gallons. 
 
 Example. How many Wine Gallons will a box contain that is 
 10 feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 feet deep T 
 
 Length in inches, 
 Breadth in do. 
 
 Height in inches, 
 
 120 
 60 
 
 Brought up 345600 
 004329 
 
 7200 
 48 
 
 67600 
 28800 
 
 3110400 
 691200 
 1036800 
 1382400 
 
 UfttVKVMOO ! 
 
 Carried up, 345600 
 
 or 1496 galls, and 3J gills.
 
 CONTENTS OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS. 25 
 
 Contents in Gallons of Cylindrical Vessels. 
 
 RULE. Take the dimensions, in inches and decimal parts of an 
 inch. Square the diameter, multiply it by the length in inches, 
 and then multiply the product by -0034 for Wine Gallons, or by 
 002785 for Ale Gallons. 
 
 Example. How many U. 8. Gallons will a Cylindrical Vessel 
 contain, whose diameter is <J inches, and length 9} inches? 
 Diameter, 9 Brought up 769-6 
 
 9 -0034 
 
 Square Diam. 81 
 Length, 9*5 
 
 ~405 
 729 
 
 30780 
 23085 
 
 2-61680 
 or 2 gallons and 5 pints. 
 
 Carried up, 769-5 
 
 To Ascertain the 'Weights of Pipes of various Metals, 
 and any Diameter required. 
 
 Thickness in 
 parts of an 
 ini-h. 
 
 Wrought iron. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 LMd. 
 
 A 
 
 826 
 653 
 
 in 
 
 28$ 
 
 Ibs. plate -38 
 76 
 
 S 
 4 
 
 Ibs. lead -483 
 967 
 
 A 
 
 976 
 
 86 
 
 1-14 
 
 ;< 
 
 \ < 1-46 
 
 t 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-627 
 
 46J 
 68 
 
 1-62 
 1.9 
 
 8 
 1 
 
 1-933 
 [ " 2-417 
 
 I 
 
 1-95 
 2-277 
 2-6 
 
 70 
 80J 
 93 
 
 2-28 
 " 2-66 
 8-04 
 
 n 
 It 
 1ft 
 
 2-9 
 8-883 
 8.867 
 
 RVI.F.. To the interior diameter of the pipe, in inches, add the 
 thickness of the metal ; multiply the sum by the decimal numbers 
 opposite the required thickness and under the metal's name; also 
 by the length of the pipe in feet, and the product is the weight of 
 the pipe in Ibs. 
 
 1. Required the weight of a copper pipe whose interior diam- 
 eter is 7 j inches, its length 6} feet, and the metal \ of an inch in 
 thickness. 
 
 7-5 X '125 = 7-625 X 1'52 X 6'25 = 72-4 Ibs. 
 
 '2. What is the weight of a leaden pipe 18} feet in length, 3 
 inches interior diameter, and the metal } of an inch in thickness? 
 8 + -26 = 8-25 X 3-867 X 18-5 = 232-5 Ibo.
 
 26 
 
 TIN PLATES. 
 
 Tin Plates. 
 
 Size, Length, Breadth, and Weight. 
 
 BRAND MARK. 
 
 No. of 
 ShecU 
 in Box. 
 
 Length and 
 Breadth. 
 
 Weight per 
 Box. 
 
 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Cwt.qr.lbs. 
 
 
 C 
 
 225 
 
 14 by 10 
 
 1 
 
 
 x 
 
 225 
 
 14 by 10 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 XX 
 
 xxx 
 
 xxxx 
 
 225 
 225 
 225 
 
 14 by 10 
 14 by 10 
 14 by 10 
 
 1 1 21 
 1 2 14 
 1 3 7 
 
 Each 1 x advances 
 $1.75 to $2.00. 
 
 1 xxxxx 
 
 225 
 
 14 by 10 
 
 200 
 
 
 1 xxxxxx 
 
 225 
 
 14 by 10 
 
 2 21 
 
 J 
 
 DC 
 Dx 
 
 100 
 100 
 
 17 by 12J 
 17 by 12 
 
 3 14 
 1 14 
 
 8 g g| 
 
 Dxx 
 
 100 
 
 17 by 12 
 
 117 
 
 *! 
 
 D xxx 
 
 100 
 
 17 by 12 
 
 1 2 
 
 o Jr .^ *;? 
 
 D xxxx 
 
 100 
 
 17 by 12 
 
 1 2 21 
 
 s" p< * 
 
 D xxxxx 
 
 100 
 
 17 by 12 
 
 1 3 14 
 
 ' "3 g a 
 
 D xxxxxx 
 
 100 
 
 17 by 12 
 
 207 
 
 f jUn 
 
 8 DC 
 
 200 
 
 16 by 11 
 
 1 1 27 
 
 g "a"* 
 
 8 D x 
 
 200 
 
 16 by 11 
 
 1 2 20 
 
 60 
 
 8 Dxx 
 
 200 
 
 15 by 11 
 
 1 3 13 
 
 * bcjj 
 
 8 D xxx 
 8 D xxxx 
 
 200 
 200 
 
 15 by 11 
 15 by 11 
 
 206 
 2 27 
 
 Illll 
 
 8 D xxxxx 
 
 200 
 
 15 by 11 
 
 2 1 20 
 
 IS a. - 
 
 8 D xxxxxx 
 
 200 
 
 15 by 11 
 
 2 2 13 
 
 Is .6 ^ 3 
 
 
 
 
 about 
 
 a . g 1 1 
 
 TTT Taggers, 
 
 225 
 
 14 by 10 
 
 1 
 
 ali.1 
 
 1C 
 
 225 
 
 12 by 12 
 
 
 
 1 x 
 
 225 
 
 12 by 12 
 
 
 
 1 XX 
 
 225 
 
 12 by 12 
 
 
 
 Ixxx 
 
 225 
 
 12 by 12 
 
 
 1 About the same 
 
 1 xxxx 
 
 225 
 
 12 by 12 
 
 
 weight per Box, as 
 
 
 
 
 
 } the plates above 
 
 1C 
 
 112 
 
 14 by 20 
 
 
 1 of similar brand, 
 
 Ix 
 
 112 
 
 14 by 20 
 
 
 J 14 by 10. 
 
 Ixx 
 
 112 
 
 14 by 20 
 
 
 
 1 xxx 
 
 112 
 
 14 by 20 
 
 
 
 1 xxxx 
 
 112 
 
 14 by 20 
 
 
 
 Leaded or \ 1 C 
 Ternea / 1 x 
 
 112 
 112 
 
 14 by 20 
 14 by 20 
 
 100 
 110 
 
 | For Roofing.
 
 WEIGHT OF WATER. 
 
 27 
 
 Oil Canisters, (from 2% to 125 gall*.,) with the Quantity and 
 Quality of Tin Required for Custom Work. 
 
 Galls. 
 
 Quantity and Quality. 
 
 Galls. 
 
 Quantity and Quality. 
 
 10 
 16 
 
 2 Plates, I X in body. 
 2 SDX " 
 2 DX 
 4 IX " 
 8J DX " 
 4 DX 
 
 83 
 
 45 
 60 
 90 
 125 
 
 13J Plates, IX in body, 3 
 breadths high. 
 13 J Plates, SDXinbody. 
 13$ DX 
 15J " D X " * 
 20 " DX " 
 
 The bottom tier of plates to be placed lengthwise. 
 
 pounds, 
 pounds. 
 
 7-50 U. 8. gallon!. 
 112-00 pounds. 
 
 Weight of Water. 
 
 cubic inch is equal to '03617 pounds 
 
 cubic inches . is equal to -434 
 
 cubic foot is equal to 62-5 
 
 cubic foot is equal to 
 
 cubic feet is equal to 
 
 cubic feet is equal to 2240-00 pound 
 
 Cylindrical inch is equal to -02842 pounds. 
 
 Cylindrical inches... is equal to -341 
 
 Cylindrical foot is equal to 
 
 Cylindrical foot is equal to 
 
 2-282 Cylindrical feet is equal to 112-00 
 
 45-64 Cylindrical feet is equal to 2240-00 
 
 Imperial gallons..... is equal to 112-00 
 Imperial gallons. .... is equal to 2240-00 
 United States galls, is equal to 112-00 
 United States galls, is equal (o 2240-00 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1-8 
 85-84 
 
 1 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 114 
 
 224 
 13-44 
 
 268-8 
 
 49-10 
 
 pounds. 
 
 Bounds. 
 . S. gallons, 
 pounds, 
 pounds, 
 pounds, 
 pounds, 
 pounds, 
 pounds. 
 
 Centre of pressure is at two-thirds depth from surface. 
 
 Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional Parts of a Gallon, 
 or an Inch. 
 
 [The Inch, or Gallon, bring divided into 82 parlt.] 
 [In multiplying decimals it is usual to drop all but the first two or three figure*.] 
 
 03125 
 
 06'_'5 
 
 09375 
 
 UB 
 
 15625 
 
 1875 
 
 21875 
 
 25 
 
 28125 
 
 3125 
 
 34375
 
 28 DIAMETERS, ETC., OF CIRCLES. 
 
 APPLICATION. Required the gallons in any Cylindrical Vessel. 
 Suppose a vessel 9 inches deep, 9 inches diameter, and con- 
 tents 2-61G3, that is, 2 gallons and 61 hundredth parts of a gallon ; 
 now to ascertain this decimal of a gallon, refer to the above Table 
 for the decimal that is nearest, which is -625, opposite to which is 
 |ths of a gallon, or 20 gills, or 6 pints, or 2J quarts, consequently 
 the vessel contains 2 gallons and 5 pints. 
 
 INCHES. To find what part of an inch the decimal -708 is. 
 Refer to the above Table for the decimal that is nearest, which is 
 71875, opposite to which is 23-32, or nearly Jths of an inch. 
 
 A TABLE CONTAINING THE DIAMETERS, CIRCUM- 
 FERENCES, AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, AND 
 THE CONTENT OF EACH IN GALLONS 
 AT ONE FOOT IN DEPTR 
 
 UTILITY OF THE TABLE. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 1. Required the circumference of a circle, the dianseter being 
 five inches T 
 
 In the column of circumferences, opposite the given diameter, 
 stands 15-708* inches, the circumference required. 
 
 2. Required the capacity, in gallons, of a can, the diameter 
 being 6 feet and depth 10 feet? 
 
 In the fourth column from the given diameter stands 211-4472,* 
 being the content of a can 6 feet in diameter and 1 foot in depth, 
 which being multiplied by 10 gives the required content, two 
 thousand one hundred fourteen and a half gallons. 
 
 3. Any of the areas in feet multiplied by -03704, the product 
 equal the number of cubic yards at 1 foot in depth. 
 
 4. The area of a circle in inches multiplied by the length or 
 thickness in inches, and by -263, the product equal the weight in 
 pounds of cast iron. 
 
 * See preceding page for Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional parts of a 
 Gallon and an Inch.
 
 DIAMETERS, ETC., OF CIRCLES. 
 
 29 
 
 Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, and the Con- 
 tent in Gallons at 1 Foot in Depth. 
 [Area in Inches.} 
 
 Dfcm. 
 
 Cire. in. 
 
 Area in. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Cire. in. 
 
 Area in. 
 
 Gallon*. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 8-1416 
 
 7854 
 
 04084 
 
 61 
 
 20-420 
 
 83-183 
 
 1-72652 
 
 
 
 8-6343 
 
 X<!" 
 
 06169 
 
 1 
 
 20-813 
 
 34-471 
 
 1-79249 
 
 
 
 8-9270 
 
 1-2271 
 
 OCS80 
 
 I 
 
 21-205 
 
 85-784 
 
 1-86077 
 
 
 
 4-3197 
 
 1-4848 
 
 07717 
 
 I 
 
 21-698 
 
 87-122 
 
 1-93084 
 
 
 
 4-7124 
 
 1-7671 
 
 09188 
 
 7 in. 
 
 21-991 
 
 88-484 
 
 2-00117 
 
 
 
 6-1051 
 
 2-0739 
 
 10784 
 
 
 
 22-883 
 
 89-871 
 
 2-07329 
 
 
 
 6-4978 
 
 2-4052 
 
 12606 
 
 
 
 22-776 
 
 41-282 
 
 2-14666 
 
 
 
 6-8905 
 
 2-7611 
 
 14367 
 
 
 
 23.169 
 
 42-718 
 
 2-22134 
 
 2 
 
 i. 
 
 6-2832 
 
 8-1416 
 
 16833 
 
 
 
 23-662 
 
 44-178 
 
 149726 
 
 
 
 6-6769 
 
 8-5465 
 
 18439 
 
 
 
 23-954 
 
 46-663 
 
 2-87448 
 
 
 
 7-0686 
 
 1*9761 
 
 20675 
 
 
 
 24-347 
 
 47-173 
 
 2-46299 
 
 
 
 7-4618 
 
 4-4302 
 
 23036 
 
 
 
 24-740 
 
 48-707 
 
 2-68276 
 
 
 
 7-8540 
 
 4-9087 
 
 25522 
 
 1 
 
 n. 
 
 25-132 
 
 60-2C6 
 
 2-61378 
 
 
 
 8-2467 
 
 6-4119 
 
 28142 
 
 
 
 25-615 
 
 61-848 
 
 2-69G09 
 
 
 
 8-6394 
 
 6-9395 
 
 30883 
 
 
 
 25-918 
 
 .-.:: I.V, 
 
 2-77971 
 
 
 
 9-0321 
 
 6-4918 
 
 83763 
 
 
 
 26-810 
 
 66-088 
 
 2-86468 
 
 1 
 
 i. 
 
 9-4248 
 
 7-0686 
 
 86754 
 
 
 
 26-708 
 
 66-746 
 
 2-95074 
 
 
 
 9-8176 
 
 7-6699 
 
 89879 
 
 
 
 27-096 
 
 68-4S6 
 
 8-03816 
 
 
 
 10-210 
 
 8-2967 
 
 43134 
 
 
 
 27-489 
 
 90-189 
 
 8-12686 
 
 
 
 10-602 
 
 S-'.'l'.J 
 
 46619 
 
 
 
 27-881 
 
 81*881 
 
 8-21682 
 
 
 
 10-995 
 
 9-6211 
 
 60029 
 
 r 
 
 u. 
 
 28-274 
 
 68-611 
 
 640808 
 
 
 
 11-888 
 
 10-320 
 
 63664 
 
 
 
 28-667 
 
 66-896 
 
 8-40059 
 
 
 
 11-781 
 
 11-044 
 
 67429 
 
 
 
 29-05'J 
 
 67-200 
 
 8-49440 
 
 
 
 12-178 
 
 11-793 
 
 61324 
 
 
 
 29-452 
 
 89-029 
 
 8-68961 
 
 4 
 
 n. 
 
 12-666 
 
 12-666 
 
 65343 
 
 
 
 29-846 
 
 70-869 
 
 648686 
 
 
 
 12-969 
 
 13-364 
 
 49499 
 
 
 
 80-237 
 
 72-769 
 
 8-78347 
 
 
 
 13-351 
 
 14-186 
 
 73767 
 
 
 
 80-630 
 
 74-662 
 
 8*88243 
 
 
 
 13-744 
 
 15-033 
 
 78172 
 
 
 
 81-023 
 
 78-688 
 
 8-98258 
 
 
 
 14-137 
 
 15-904 
 
 82701 
 
 10 in. 
 
 31-416 
 
 78-540 
 
 4-08408 
 
 
 
 14-629 
 
 If, >()(! 
 
 87360 
 
 i 
 
 81-808 
 
 80-515 
 
 4-18678 
 
 
 
 14-922 
 
 17-720 
 
 92144 
 
 
 
 82-201 
 
 82-616 
 
 449068 
 
 
 
 15-315 
 
 18-665 
 
 97058 
 
 
 
 32-594 
 
 84-6-10 
 
 4-89608 
 
 6 in. 
 
 16-708 
 
 19-635 
 
 1-02102 
 
 
 
 32-986 
 
 66-490 
 
 4-60268 
 
 1 
 
 16-100 
 
 20-G29 
 
 1.07271 
 
 
 
 83-379 
 
 88664 
 
 4-61053 
 
 
 
 16-493 
 
 21-647 
 
 1-12564 
 
 
 
 33-772 
 
 90-762 
 
 4-71962 
 
 
 
 16-886 
 
 22-690 
 
 1 -17988 
 
 
 
 34-164 
 
 92-885 
 
 4-82846 
 
 
 
 17-278 
 
 23-758 
 
 1-23542 
 
 11 
 
 n. 
 
 84-557 
 
 95-033 
 
 4-94172 
 
 
 
 17-671 
 
 24-850 
 
 1-29220 
 
 
 
 84-950 
 
 97-205 
 
 6-05466 
 
 
 
 18-064 
 
 26-967 
 
 1-85028 
 
 
 
 35-343 
 
 99-402 
 
 5-16890 
 
 
 
 18-467 
 
 27-108 
 
 1-40962 
 
 
 
 85-736 
 
 101-623 
 
 6*28489 
 
 6 in. 
 
 18-849 
 
 28-274 
 
 1-47025 
 
 
 
 36-128 
 
 103-869 
 
 6-40119 
 
 
 19-242 
 
 Ll'.M'.l 
 
 1-53213 
 
 
 
 86.521 
 
 106-139 
 
 6-61923 
 
 
 19-635 
 
 30-679 
 
 1-59531 
 
 
 
 86-913 
 
 108-434 
 
 6-63857 
 
 
 20-027 
 
 81-919 
 
 1-65979 
 
 
 
 37-300 
 
 110-753 
 
 5-75916
 
 30 
 
 DIAMETERS, ETC., OP CIRCLES. 
 
 Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, and the Con- 
 tent in Gallons at 1 Foot in Depth. (Continued.) 
 [Area in Feet.] 
 
 I'i.im. 
 
 Circ. 
 
 Area in ft. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Clrc. 
 
 Area in ft 
 
 (.all..,,.,. 
 
 Ft In. 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 
 1 ft. depth. 
 
 Ft In. 
 
 Ft In. 
 
 
 1 ft depth. 
 
 
 3 If 
 
 7854 
 
 6-8735 
 
 6 
 
 14 14 
 
 15-9043 
 
 118-9386 
 
 ] 
 
 3 4 
 
 9217 
 
 5-8988 
 
 7 
 
 14 4| 
 
 16-4986 
 
 123-8830 
 
 g 
 i 
 
 8 8 
 
 1-0690 
 
 7-9944 
 
 8 
 
 14 7? 
 
 17-1041 
 
 1279112 
 
 3 
 
 3 11 
 
 1-2271 
 
 9-1766 
 
 9 
 
 14 11 
 
 17*7301 
 
 L82-62M 
 
 4 
 
 4 2 
 
 1-3962 
 
 10-4413 
 
 10 
 
 15 2 
 
 18-3476 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 6 
 
 1-5761 
 
 11-7866 
 
 11 
 
 15 5J 
 
 18-9858 
 
 142-0582 
 
 6 
 
 4 8 
 
 1-7671 
 
 13-2150 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 4 11 
 
 1-9689 
 
 14-7241 
 
 6 
 
 15 81 
 
 19-6350 
 
 146-8384 
 
 8 
 
 6 2 
 
 2-1816 
 
 16-3148 
 
 5 1 
 
 15 111 
 
 20-2947 
 
 151-7718 
 
 9 
 
 6 & 
 
 2-4052 
 
 17-9870 
 
 5 2 
 
 16 2| 
 
 tt-MM 
 
 156-7891 
 
 10 
 
 6 9 
 
 2-6398 
 
 19-7414 
 
 5 8 
 
 16 6| 
 
 21-6475 
 
 161-8886 
 
 11 
 
 6 2J 
 
 2-8852 
 
 21-4830 
 
 5 4 
 
 16 9 
 
 22-3400 
 
 167-0074 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 6 
 
 17 OJ 
 
 28-0437 
 
 172-3300 
 
 2 
 
 6 3 
 
 3-1410 
 
 23-4940 
 
 5 6 
 
 17 8 
 
 23-7583 
 
 177*6740 
 
 2 1 
 
 6 6 
 
 3-4087 
 
 26-4916 
 
 6 7 
 
 17 6 
 
 24-4835 
 
 183-0973 
 
 2 2 
 
 6 9 
 
 8-6869 
 
 27-5720 
 
 6 8 
 
 17 '.' 
 
 25-2199 
 
 188-6045 
 
 2 3 
 
 7 
 
 8-9760 
 
 29-7840 
 
 6 9 
 
 18 
 
 25-9672 
 
 194-1930 
 
 2 4 
 
 7 3 
 
 4-2760 
 
 82-6976 
 
 5 10 
 
 18 8 
 
 26-7261 
 
 199-8610 
 
 2 5 
 
 7 7 
 
 4-6869 
 
 34-3027 
 
 6 11 
 
 18 7 
 
 27-4943 
 
 205-6133 
 
 2 6 
 
 7 101 
 
 4-9087 
 
 36-7092 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 7 
 
 8 1* 
 
 5-2413 
 
 39-1964 
 
 6 
 
 18 10J 
 
 28.2744 
 
 211-4472 
 
 2 8 
 
 8 4} 
 
 6-5850 
 
 41-7668 
 
 6 8 
 
 !'. 7'. 
 
 80-6796 
 
 229-4342 
 
 2 9 
 
 8 7 
 
 5-9395 
 
 44-4179 
 
 6 6 
 
 20 4j 
 
 33-1831 
 
 248-1564 
 
 2 10 
 
 8 109 
 
 6-3049 
 
 47-1505 
 
 6 9 
 
 21 2f 
 
 36-7847 
 
 267-6122 
 
 2 11 
 
 9 l} 
 
 6-6813 
 
 49-9654 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 3 1 
 8 2 
 
 9 6 
 9 8} 
 9 11 
 
 7-0686 
 7-4666 
 7-8757 
 
 62-8618 
 65-8382 
 68-8976 
 
 7 
 7 8 
 7 6 
 7 9 
 
 21 11| 
 22 9} 
 23 6J 
 24 4} 
 
 38-4846 
 41-2825 
 44-1787 
 47-1730 
 
 287-8032 
 308-7270 
 820-3859 
 I6S-76CI 
 
 3 3 
 
 10 2, 
 
 8-2957 
 
 62-0386 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 4 
 
 10 6 
 
 8-7265 
 
 65-2602 
 
 8 
 
 25 1J 
 
 60-2656 
 
 875-9062 
 
 3 5 
 
 10 8 
 
 9-1683 
 
 68-5198 
 
 8 8 
 
 25 11 
 
 63-4562 
 
 399-7668 
 
 3 6 
 
 10 11 
 
 9-6211 
 
 73-1504 
 
 8 6 
 
 _"; s* 
 
 56-7451 
 
 424-3625 
 
 8 7 
 
 11 3 
 
 10-0846 
 
 75-4166 
 
 8 9 
 
 27 5 
 
 60-1321 
 
 449-2118 
 
 3 8 
 
 11 6J 
 
 10-5591 
 
 78-9652 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 9 
 
 'I 91 
 
 Vl 1-0446 
 
 82-5959 
 
 9 
 
 28 81 
 
 63-6174 
 
 476-7MI 
 
 3 10 
 
 12 54 
 
 11-5409 
 
 86-3074 
 
 9 8 
 
 29 Of 
 
 (7-9007 
 
 502-5536 
 
 3 11 
 
 12 3| 
 
 12-0481 
 
 90-1004 
 
 9 6 
 
 _". i<>: 
 
 70-8823 
 
 630-0861 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 9 
 
 30 7* 
 
 74-6620 
 
 558-3522 
 
 4 
 
 12 63 
 
 12-5664 
 
 93-9754 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 12 9i 
 
 13-095'J 
 
 97-9310 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 13 1 
 
 13-6353 
 
 101-9701 
 
 10 
 
 31 5 
 
 78-5400 
 
 587-3534 
 
 3 
 
 13 4 
 
 14-1862 
 
 103-0300 
 
 10 8 
 
 52 2 2 
 
 82-6160 
 
 617-0876 
 
 4 
 
 13 7| 
 
 14-7479 
 
 110-2907 
 
 10 6 
 
 32 11J 
 
 86-5903 
 
 G47-55G8 
 
 6 
 
 13 10J 
 
 15-3206 
 
 114-5735 
 
 10 9 
 
 33 9| 
 
 90-7627 
 
 678-2797
 
 DIAMETERS, ETC., OF CIRCLES. 
 
 31 
 
 Diain. 
 
 Cire. 
 
 V rt-.i in li 
 
 (iall-ns. 
 
 1 ft. depth. 
 710-6977 
 748*8686 
 
 77G-774l> 
 810-9143 
 
 Diain. 
 
 Circ. 
 
 Area in ft. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Ft In. 
 11 
 11 3 
 11 6 
 11 9 
 
 Ft In. 
 34 G 
 35 4j 
 M i 
 M 104 
 
 '...Vu;.:i 
 99-4021 
 103-8691 
 108-4342 
 
 Ft. In. 
 _'l 
 21 8 
 21 6 
 21 9 
 
 Ft In. 
 65 111 
 
 66 9 
 67 6A 
 68 8j 
 
 346-8614 
 354-6571 
 363-0611 
 371-5432 
 
 i n.iii-|ith. 
 
 Jo'.MI-2-.".lO 
 
 2052-2532 
 2716-0413 
 2778-6486 
 
 12 
 12 8 
 12 6 
 12 9 
 
 37 8f 
 
 :s H 
 
 39 8l 
 
 l) (i. 
 
 18497I 
 117*6690 
 
 rji!-71*7 
 127-6765 
 
 848-1890 
 B81-89M 
 
 917*7896 
 
 '.'.,1-1 . 
 
 22 
 22 8 
 22 6 
 22 9 
 
 69 14 
 69 10| 
 70 81 
 71 6} 
 
 3801336 
 186*8290 
 197*6067 
 
 406-4935 
 
 28427910 
 2907-7GG4 
 1978^889 
 
 3039-9209 
 
 13 
 13 3 
 13 6 
 13 9 
 
 40 10 
 41 7i 
 42 4j 
 43 2| 
 
 182*7881 
 187*8861 
 
 143-1391 
 148-4890 
 
 992-6274 
 1031-1719 
 1070-4614 
 1108-0045 
 
 28 
 23 8 
 28 6 
 23 9 
 
 72 8 
 
 73 OA 
 73 9J 
 74 7i 
 
 415-4766 
 424-5677 
 188*7871 
 443.0146 
 
 3107-1001 
 3176-0122 
 (848*6696 
 018-0406 
 
 14 
 14 3 
 14 6 
 14 9 
 
 43 11} 
 ti M 
 46 6| 
 
 46 4 
 
 163-9384 
 169-4863 
 
 165-1303 
 170-8736 
 
 1161-2129 
 L192-6940 
 
 1234-9104 
 1277-8616 
 
 24 
 24 8 
 
 Jl 
 24 9 
 
 76 4| 
 
 76 2| 
 76 llj 
 77 9 
 
 168*8904 
 481*1088 
 
 3383.1568 
 1464*0061 
 1626-6929 
 
 8597.9068 
 
 II 
 
 15 8 
 15 6 
 15 9 
 
 47 11 
 
 17 In; 
 I s 81 
 
 I'.i :.. 
 
 176-7150 
 1--J i;.vr 
 188*699 
 I'.-i B8BJ 
 
 1321-6454 
 
 ]:: V'.<.,::i 
 1407-6165 
 
 117. .,.:_ 
 
 26 
 26 8 
 18 
 
 25 9 
 
 78 6| 
 7'.' M 
 80 11 
 80 10^ 
 
 490-8750 
 500-7415 
 ')10-7(Mi3 
 5207692 
 
 70^696 
 
 3744-7462 
 
 3894-6208 
 
 16 
 16 3 
 
 n; 
 16 9 
 
 50 8} 
 51 
 51 10 
 52 7{ 
 
 201-OC24 
 207-394G 
 213-82'>1 
 
 1608-6250 
 1660*9791 
 
 1599-069G 
 1047-8930 
 
 26 
 M : 
 26 6 
 20 9 
 
 81 8J 
 82 6J 
 83 8 
 84 Oj 
 
 630-9304 
 641-1896 
 651-5471 
 662-0027 
 
 8970-5098 
 KM7-8883 
 4124 6898 
 18084610 
 
 17 
 17 3 
 17 6 
 17 9 
 
 53 U 
 54 2j 
 64 11 j 
 56 9j 
 
 2964801 
 
 233-7055 
 240-5287 
 247-4500 
 
 1697-4616 
 1747-7431 
 1798-7698 
 1850-6301 
 
 27 
 27 8 
 27 6 
 
 _: c . 
 
 84 91 
 85 8] 
 86 41 
 87 2J 
 
 572-6566 
 U8-806I 
 
 598-9687 
 
 604-8070 
 
 4281-8072 
 1861*4664 
 1441*8607 
 
 4622-9886 
 
 18 
 18 3 
 18 6 
 18 9 
 
 56 6) 
 57 4 
 58 If 
 68 10J 
 
 2o4-4G9( 
 261-6872 
 268-8031 
 276-1171 
 
 1908*0864 
 1966*2687 
 
 2010-2171 
 2064-9140 
 
 28 
 28 3 
 28 6 
 28 9 
 
 87 11; 
 
 B8 9 
 
 89 6j 
 90 3= 
 
 615-7536 
 l2e-798S 
 
 637-9411 
 649-1821 
 
 4604-8517 
 1686-4876 
 4770-7787 
 4854-8434 
 
 19 
 19 8 
 19 6 
 19 9 
 
 59 8} 
 60 6| 
 61 8\ 
 62 Oj 
 
 288-6*94 
 
 291-0397 
 298*6481 
 
 :n.;. :;:.:,. 
 
 2120-3462 
 2176-5113 
 2233-2914 
 2291-0452 
 
 29 
 29 8 
 
 29 6 
 29 9 
 
 91 U 
 
 91 10| 
 92 8J 
 93 5i 
 
 660-5214 
 671-9587 
 188*4948 
 
 695-1280 
 
 4939-6432 
 6086*1769 
 
 5111-4487 
 5198-4451 
 
 20 
 20 3 
 20 6 
 20 9 
 
 62 9 314-1COO 
 63 1 322-0630 
 64 4f 330-0643 
 65 2JI388-1687 
 
 2349-4141 
 2408-5159 
 2468-3528 
 
 L'.-.:>-'.'i::;:: 
 
 30 
 30 3 
 30 6 
 30 9 
 
 94 21 
 
 95 Of 
 95 9| 
 96 7^ 
 
 706-86005286-1818 
 718-69005374-6512 
 730-61835463-8658 
 742-644715553-7940
 
 32 
 
 CAPACITY OF CANS IN GALLONS. 
 
 Capacity of Cans One Inch Deep. 
 
 UTILITY OF THE TABLE. 
 
 Required the contents of a vessel, diameter 6 7-lOtht inches, depth 10 inch -a? 
 
 Ity ill.' table a vessel 1 inch deep and 6 and 7-lW/ur inches diameter contains 
 15 (hundmlllis) of a gallon, then -15 X 10= I'M or 1 gallon and 2 quarto. 
 
 Required the contents of a can, diameter 19 8-lUfAt inches, depth 30 inches? 
 
 l:y the tahle a vessel 1 inch deep anil 1'J and &-10/A* inches diameter contain! 
 1 eallon and -X\ ihundredthsi, then I'.'B X 30 = 30-90 or nearly 40 gallons. 
 
 K.-qniri-il tli.' id pth of a can whose diameter is 12 and 2-10TA* inches, to con- 
 tain 16 gallons. 
 
 By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 12 and 2-10/A* inches diameter contains 
 
 60 (hundredth*) of a gallon, then 16 -=-) = 32 inches, the depth required, vix. : 
 
 50 ) 16 ( 32 X 'SO =.16 gallons! 
 
 Itai 
 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 ,. 
 
 A 
 
 :> 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 03 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 04 
 
 -06 
 
 4 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 05 
 
 06 
 
 06 
 
 07 
 
 07 
 
 07 
 
 08 
 
 5 
 
 08 
 
 08 
 
 08 
 
 09 
 
 09 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 -2-2 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 24 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 3f> 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 11 
 
 41 
 
 41 
 
 4-J 
 
 43 
 
 44 
 
 44 
 
 45 
 
 46 
 
 47 
 
 48 
 
 12 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 54 
 
 55 
 
 56 
 
 13 
 
 57 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 61 
 
 62 
 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 65 
 
 14 
 
 66 
 
 67 
 
 68 
 
 69 
 
 70 
 
 71 
 
 72 
 
 73 
 
 74 
 
 75 
 
 15 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 78 
 
 79 
 
 80 
 
 81 
 
 82 
 
 83 
 
 84 
 
 85 
 
 16 
 
 87 
 
 88 
 
 89 
 
 90 
 
 91 
 
 92 
 
 
 94 
 
 95 
 
 97 
 
 17 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 1-005 
 
 1-017 
 
 1-028 
 
 1-040 
 
 1*051 
 
 1-063 
 
 1-075 
 
 1-086 
 
 18 
 
 1-101 
 
 1-113 
 
 1*135 
 
 1.138 
 
 1-150 
 
 1-162 
 
 1-17") 
 
 1*187 
 
 1-200 
 
 1-211 
 
 19 
 
 1-227 
 
 1-240 
 
 1-253 
 
 1-266 
 
 1-279 
 
 1*299 
 
 1-.S04 
 
 1-317 
 
 1-330 
 
 1-343 
 
 20 
 
 1-360 
 
 1-373 
 
 1-385 
 
 1-400 
 
 1-414 
 
 1-428 
 
 1-411 
 
 
 1-478 
 
 1-482 
 
 21 
 
 1-499 
 
 1-513 
 
 1-527 
 
 1-542 
 
 1-556 
 
 1-570 
 
 1-585 
 
 1-600 
 
 1-612 
 
 1-630 
 
 2'2 
 
 1-645 
 
 1-660 
 
 1-075 
 
 MM 
 
 1-705 
 
 1*720 
 
 
 1-750 
 
 1-770 
 
 1-780 
 
 23 
 
 1-798 
 
 1-M4 
 
 1-830 
 
 1-845 
 
 1-861 
 
 1-876 
 
 1-892 
 
 1-908 
 
 1*928 
 
 1-940 
 
 24 
 
 1-958 
 
 1-974 
 
 1-991 
 
 2-007 
 
 
 2-040 
 
 2-056 
 
 2-072 
 
 row 
 
 2-105 
 
 26 
 
 2- 1 _'.-. 
 
 2*149 
 
 2-159 
 
 2-176 
 
 2-193 
 
 2-210 
 
 2-227 
 
 2-244 
 
 2-261 
 
 2-280 
 
 26 
 
 2*298 
 
 2-316 
 
 -:;:;:; 
 
 :':.-. l 
 
 
 2*386 
 
 2*4M 
 
 2-422 
 
 2-440 
 
 2-460 
 
 27 
 
 LM7S 
 
 
 2-515 
 
 2-533 
 
 
 2-588 
 
 2-607 
 
 me 
 
 2-643 
 
 28 
 
 2-665 
 
 2-684 
 
 2-703 
 
 2-722 
 
 2-741 -.'-7i;4 
 
 2-780 
 
 2-800 
 
 
 2*886 
 
 29 
 
 2-859 
 
 2-879 
 
 2-898 
 
 2-918 
 
 2-938 
 
 2*968 
 
 2-977 
 
 2-997 
 
 3-017 
 
 S-036 
 
 30 
 
 3-060 
 
 3-080 
 
 3-100 
 
 3-121 
 
 3-141 
 
 3-162 
 
 3-182 
 
 3-202 
 
 8*828 
 
 3-245 
 
 31 
 
 3-267 
 
 8-288 
 
 3-309 
 
 3-330 
 
 3-351 
 
 3-372 
 
 3-393 
 
 ;<-4H 
 
 3-436 
 
 3-457 
 
 32 
 
 3-481 
 
 3-503 
 
 3-524 
 
 5-543 
 
 3-568 
 
 3-690 
 
 3-612 
 
 3-633 
 
 3-655 
 
 8-689 
 
 S3 
 
 3-702 
 
 3-725 
 
 3-747 
 
 3-773 
 
 3-795 
 
 3-814 
 
 3-837 
 
 3-860 
 
 8*889 
 
 3-904 
 
 34 
 
 3-930 
 
 3-953 
 
 3-976 
 
 4-003 
 
 4-022 
 
 4*046 
 
 1*070 
 
 4-092 
 
 4-115 
 
 4-140 
 
 35 
 
 4-165 
 
 4-188 
 
 4-212 
 
 4-236 
 
 4*260 
 
 
 4-331 
 
 4-355 
 
 4-380 
 
 36 
 
 4-406 
 
 4-430 
 
 4-4,55 
 
 4*483 
 
 4*609 
 
 
 4-577 
 
 4*609 
 
 4-626 
 
 37 
 
 4-654 
 
 4-679 
 
 4-704 
 
 4-730 
 
 4-755 4-7- 
 
 4-834 
 
 4*865 
 
 4-880 
 
 38 
 
 4*909 
 
 4*935 
 
 4-961 
 
 
 5-012 
 
 
 
 5-120 
 
 ."14L 1 
 
 39 
 
 5-171 
 
 5-197 
 
 r.-L'-j-i 
 
 o-ir.0 
 
 
 5-904 
 
 5*330 
 
 5-357 
 
 5-383 5-410 
 
 40 
 
 5-440 
 
 5-467 
 
 5-491 
 
 5-521 
 
 5-548 
 
 5-576 
 
 6r03 
 
 5-630 
 
 5-657 5-684
 
 DEFINITION OP ARITHMETICAL SIGNS. 33 
 
 Definition of Arithmetical Signs used in the Work. 
 
 = When we wish to state that one quantity or number is equal 
 to another quantity or number, the sign of equality = is employed. 
 Thus 8 added to 2 = 6, or 8 added to 2 is equal to 5. 
 
 -f- When the sum of two quantities or numbers is to be taken, 
 the sign plus -j- is placed between them. Thus 3 -f 2 = 6, that is, 
 the sum of 3 and 2 is 5. This is the sign of Addition. 
 
 When the difference of two numbers or quantities is to be 
 taken, the sign mi nut is used, and shows that the latter number 
 or quantity is to be taken from the former. Thus 6 2 = 8. 
 This is the sign of Subtraction. 
 
 X When the product of any two numbers or quantities is to be 
 taken, the sign into x is placed between them. Thus 8 X 2 a* 6. 
 This is the sign of Multiplication. 
 
 -7- When we are to take the quotient of two quantities, the sign 
 by -T- is placed between them, and shows that the former is to be 
 divided by the latter. Thus 6 -7- 2 = 8. This in the sign of 
 Division. But in some cases in this work, the mode of division 
 has been to place the dividend above a horizontal line, and the 
 divisor below it, in the form of a vulgar fraction, thus : 
 
 Dividend 6 
 
 = Quotient. - = 8. 
 Divisor 2 
 
 When the square of any number or quantity is to be taken, this 
 is denoted by placing a small figure 2 above it to the right. Thus 
 6 s shows that the square of 6 is to be taken, and therefore 6* = 6 
 X 6 = 36. 
 
 When we wish to show that the square root of any number or 
 quantity is to be taken, this is denoted by placing the radical sign 
 y before it. Thus y/36 shows that the square root of 86 ought 
 to be taken, hence )/86 = 6. 
 
 The common marks of proportion are also used, yii., : : : : as 
 8 : 6 : : 4 : 8, being read 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8. 
 
 The application of these signs to the expression of rules is ex- 
 ceedingly simple. Thus, connected with the circle we have the 
 following rules: 
 
 1st. The circumference of a circle will be found by multiplying 
 the diameter by 8-1416. 
 
 2d. The diameter of a circle may be found by dividing the cir- 
 cumference by 3-1416. 
 
 3d. The area of a circle may be found by multiplying the half 
 of the diameter by the half of the circumference, or by multiply- 
 ing together the diameter and circumference, and dividing the 
 product by 4, or by squaring the diameter, and multiplying by
 
 34 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 Now all these rules may be thus expressed: 
 1st. diameter X 3-1416 = circumference. 
 
 circumference 
 2d ' 8-1416 
 
 diameter circumference 
 3d. X 2 = area. 
 
 diameter X circumference 
 or, 7 = area. 
 
 or, diameter 2 X '7854 = area. 
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 T)RACTICAL Geometry is an important branch of knowledge 
 _[ to all who are in any way engaged in the art of building. 
 The workman, as well as the designer, requires its aid ; and unless 
 he is acquainted with some of the leading principles of the 
 science, he will frequently feel an uncertainty as to the results 
 he may deduce from the problems which are presented to his 
 notice. 
 
 PROBLEM I. 
 
 To inscribe an Equilateral Triangle within a given Circle. 
 
 Let A B c be a circle ; it is required to draw within it a triangle 
 whose sides are equal to one another. Commencing from any 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 point A, mark on the circumference of the circle a series of spaces 
 equal to the radius of the circle, of which there will be six, and 
 draw the arcs A D D B, etc. Then join every alternate point as 
 A B, B c, c A, and the several lines will together form an equi- 
 lateral triangle.
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 35 
 
 PROBLEM II. 
 
 Within a given Circle to inscribe a Square. 
 
 Let A B o D be the given circle, it is required to draw a square 
 within it. Draw the diameters A B, o D, at right angles to each 
 
 Fig. 31, 
 
 other; or, in other words, draw the diameter A B, and form a per- 
 pendicular bisecting it. Then join the points A c, p B, B D, D A, 
 and the figure A B c D is a square formed within a given circle. 
 
 PROBLEM III. 
 
 HUli in a given Circle to inscribe a regular Pentagon,- that it, a 
 Polygon of five AMM. 
 
 Let A B CD be a circle in which it is required to draw a pentagon. 
 Draw a diameter A D, and perpendicular to it another diameter. 
 
 Fig, 32, 
 
 Then divide o B into two equal parts in the point B, and join o ; 
 and with E as a centre, and the radius c E, draw the arc c r, cut- 
 ting A o in F; and, with c as a centre, and the same radius, de- 
 scribe the arc F o ; the arcs c F, o F intersect each other in the 
 point F, and the arc o F intersects the circumference of the circle 
 in the point o. Join the points c and o, and that line will be a 
 side of the pentagon to be drawn. Mark off within the circum- 
 ference the same space, and join the points A H, u i, i K, K c, and 
 the figure that is formed is a pentagon.
 
 36 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 PROBLEM IV. 
 
 Within a given Circle to describe a regular Hexagon; that is to 
 gay, a Polygon of six equal Sides. 
 
 Let A B c be the given circle, and o the centre. With the radius 
 of the circle divide it into parts, of which there will be six, and 
 
 Fig. 33. 
 
 connect the points A D, D B, etc., and the figure A D B E c v will 
 be a regular hexagon. 
 
 PROBLEM V. 
 
 To cut of the Corners of a given Square, to as to form a regular 
 Octagon. 
 
 Let A B c D be the given square. Draw the two diagonal lines 
 A c, and B D, crossing each other in o. Then, with the radius A o, 
 that is, half the diagonal, and with A as a centre, describe the 
 arc F, cutting the sides of the square in s and r ; then, from B 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 as a centre, describe the arc o H ; and in like manner from c and 
 D describe the arcs I K and L M. Draw the lines L c, F i, n M, and 
 K B, and these, with the parts of the given square o F, i H, M K, 
 and E L, form the octagon required. 
 
 PROBLEM VI. 
 
 To divide a given Iiine into nut/ Utimber of Parts, which I'nrtu 
 shall be in the same Proportion to rnrh otJtt r us t lit- Parts of some 
 other given Iiine, whether those Parts are equal or unequal. 
 
 Let A B be the given line which it is required to divide in ihe 
 same manner and proportion as the line c D, whether the parts are
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 37 
 
 equal or unequal. On the base line c D, form an equilateral tri- 
 angle in the manner already described in a former problem. Then 
 take the distance A B, and with K us a centre, describe the arc r a, 
 and join the points r and o, and F o shall be equal to A B. Now, 
 
 Fig, 35. 
 
 if from the points e I K, which are the divisions of the line c, we 
 draw lines to E, as H K, I E, and K K, these lines will cut ro in the 
 points n b c, which will divide the line r a into parts proportionate 
 to the divisions of the line D. 
 
 PROBLEM VII. 
 
 On a ylvrn TAne to draw a Polygon of any \innbfr of Side*, o 
 tlt.it th<it l.iii,- shall !>,- ,,,,e Bide of a Polygon ; or, in othrr trortto, 
 t<> 1111,1 the Centre of a t'lrvle which xhull rtrrutnserlbe any JPoly- 
 tftin, the Lenyth of the Side of tlm Polygon being givv*. 
 
 We shall here show, in a tabular form, the length of the radius 
 of a circle, which shall contain the given line, as a side of the 
 required polygon; and here we will suppose the line to be divided 
 into one thousand equal parts, and the radius into a certain 
 number of like parts. The radius of the circle for different 
 figures will be as follows : 
 
 For an inscribed Triangle 677 
 
 Square 701 
 
 Pentagon 860 
 
 Hexagon 1000 
 
 I I <'}>t II ""nil ....... 1 152 
 
 Octagon 1306J 
 
 Enneagon 1462 
 
 Decagon 1618 
 
 Endecagon 1776 
 
 Dodecagon 1932 
 
 By this table the workman may, with a simple proportion, find 
 the radius of a circle which shall contain a polygon, one side being 
 given : thus, if it be required to draw a pentagon, the side given 
 being fifteen inches, we may say as 1000 is to 15, so is 850, the 
 tabular number for a pentagon, to 12 inches and seventy-five hun-
 
 38 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 dredth parts of an inch, or seven-tenths and a half of a tenth of 
 an inch. 
 
 \\ c may here give another table for the construction of polygons, 
 one in which the radius of the circum.-criliin^ circle is given. If 
 it be required to find the side of the inscribed polygon, the radius 
 being one thousand parts, the sides of the different polygons will 
 be according to the following scale : 
 
 The Triangle 1732 
 
 Square 1414 
 
 Pentagon 1176 
 
 Hexagon 1000 
 
 Heptagon 867 J 
 
 Octagon 765 
 
 Enneagon 684 
 
 Decagon 618 
 
 Endecagon 563J 
 
 Dodecagon 517 \ 
 
 Here, as in the case already mentioned, the law of proportion 
 applies, and the statement may be thus made: as one thousand is 
 to the number of inches contained in the radius of the given cir- 
 cle, so is the tabular number for the required polygon to the length 
 of one of its sides in inches. Thus, let it be supposed that we have 
 a circle whose radius in inches is 30, and that we wish to inscribe 
 an octagon within it; then say as 1000 is to 30 inches, so is 765 
 to "2'2 inches and 95-100 parts of an inch, the length of the side of 
 the required octagon. 
 
 Method of Drawing Curved Lines. 
 
 We will now introduce a few remarks upon the method of draw- 
 ing curved lines, and also give some rules for finding the forms of 
 mouldings when they are to mitre together, that is to say, of 
 raking mouldings, and of bevel work in general. It will also be 
 necessary to make a few remarks upon the form of ribs for domes 
 and groins, a knowledge of which is so necessary to the builder 
 that without it the workman cannot correctly execute his task. 
 It is hardly necessary to state, that all these mechanical operations 
 are founded upon geometrical principles; and, unless he is ac- 
 quainted with these, the workman cannot hope to succeed in his 
 attempt to excel in his art, one which is necessary for the com- 
 fort and convenience of all communities. 
 
 PROBLEM VIII. 
 
 To iJrnir tin Ellipsf irith tlif Jliitr and Cntnpn-aiira, the tranvme and 
 cimjuyittr IHitim-ti-ra l-iny given; that ia, the length and width. 
 
 Let A B be the transverse or longest diameter ; c i> the conjugate 
 or shortest diameter ; and o the point of their intersection, that
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 39 
 
 is, the centre of the ellipse. Take the distance o c or o n; and, 
 taking A as one point, mark that distance A E upon the line A o. 
 Divide o E into three equal parts, and take from A F, a distance 
 r, equal to one of those parts. Make o o equal to o F. With 
 the radius r o, and v and o as centres, strike arcs which shall in- 
 tersect each other in the points i and H. Then draw the lines H 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 j K, H o M, and i F i., i o N With T as a centre, and the radius 
 A F, describe the arc L A K ; and, from a as a centre, with the name 
 radius, describe the arc M N. With the radius H c, and H as a 
 centre, describe the arc K o M ; and, from the point i, with the 
 radius 1 1>, describe the arc L n M. The figure A c B D is an ellipse, 
 formed of four arcs of circles. 
 
 PROBLEM EX. 
 
 To draw an Ellipse by mean* of two Co 
 
 Fig. 37. 
 
 Let A B be the transverse, and r. r the conjugate diameter, and 
 the centre of an ellipse to be drawn. From o with the radius
 
 40 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 o A, describe the circle A o B D, and from the same centre describe 
 another circle o B H F. Divide the outer circle into any number 
 of equal parts; the greater the number, the more exact will he the 
 ellipse : and they should not be* less than twelve. From each of 
 these divisions draw lines to the centre o, as a o, 6 o, e o. Then, 
 from a, b, c, etc., draw lines perpendicular to A B, and from the 
 corresponding points in the inner circle, that is, from the points 
 marked 1, 2, 3, etc., draw lines parallel to A B. Draw a curve 
 through the points where these lines intersect each other, and it 
 will be an ellipse. 
 
 In the diagram to which this demonstration refers, only one 
 quarter of the ellipse is lettered, but the process described in re- 
 lation to that must be carried round the circles, as is shown in the 
 dotted and other lines. 
 
 PROBLEM X. 
 
 To describe an Ellipse by Means of a Carpenter's Square, or mpieoe 
 ,,f notched Lath. 
 
 Having drawn two lines to represent the diameters of the ellipse 
 required, fasten the square so that the internal angle or meeting 
 of the blade and stock shall be at the centre of the ellipse. Then 
 take a piece of wood or a lath, and cut it to the length of half the 
 longest diameter, and from one end cut out a piece equal to half 
 the shortest diameter, and there will then be a piece remaining 
 at one end equal to the difference of the half of the two diameters. 
 Place this projecting piece of the lath in such a manner that it 
 may rest against the square, on the ed^e which corresponds to the 
 two diameters; then, turning it round horizontally, the two ends 
 of the projection will slide along the two internal edges of the 
 square, and if a pencil be fixed at the other end of the lath, it will 
 describe one quarter of an ellipse. The square must then be 
 moved for the successive quarters of the ellipse, and the whole 
 figure will thus be easily formed. 
 
 This method of forming an ellipse is a good substitute for the 
 usual plan, and the figure thus produced is more accurate than 
 that made by passing a pencil round a string moving upon two 
 pins or nails fixed in the foci, for the string is apt to stretch, and 
 the pencil cannot be guided with the accuracy required. 
 
 There are many other methods of drawing ellipses, or more 
 properly ovals, but we can only notice two of those in common 
 use. 
 
 1. By ordinates, or lines drawn perpendicular to the axis. 
 Having formed the two diameters, divide the axis, or larger diam- 
 eter, into any number of equal parts, and erect lines perpendic- 
 ular to the several points. Next draw a semicircle, and divide its 
 diameter into the like number of equal parts; that is, if the larger 
 diameter or axis of the intended ellipse be divided into twenty 
 equal parts, then the semicircle must be divided into the like num- 
 ber. As the diameter of the semicircle is equal to the shorter
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 41 
 
 diameter of the ellipse, or conjugate axis, perpendiculars may be 
 railed from these divisions of the diameter, or the semicircle, till 
 they meet the circumference; and the different perpendiculars, 
 which are called ordinates, may be erected Uke perpendiculars, 
 on the axis of ellipse. Joining the several points together, the 
 ellipse is described ; and the more accurately the perpendiculars 
 are formed, the more exact will be the ellipse. 
 
 2. By intersecting arches. Take any point in the axis, and with 
 a radius equal to the distance of that point from one extremity of 
 the axis, and with one of the foci as a centre, describe an arc ; then 
 with the distance of the assumed point in the axis from the other 
 end of it, and with the other focus as a centre, describe another 
 arc intersecting the former, and the point of intersection will be a 
 point in the ellipse. By assuming any number of points in the 
 axis, any number of points on the curve may be found, and these 
 united will give the ellipse. This process is founded on the prop- 
 erty of the ellipse ; that if any two lines are drawn from the foci 
 to any point in the curve, the length of these lines added together 
 will be a constant quantity, that is, always the tame in the same 
 ellipse. 
 
 PROBLEM XI. 
 
 To find the Centre and the two AJC* of an ftllpse. 
 
 Lot A B c D be an ellipse, it is required to find its centre. Draw 
 any two lines, as E r and o H, parallel and equal to each other. 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 Bisect these lines as in the points i and K, and bisect i K as in L. 
 From L, as a centre, draw a circle cutting the ellipse in four points, 
 1, 2, 3, 4. Now L is the centre of the ellipse. But join the points 
 1, 3, and 2, 4; and bisect these lines as in M and N. Draw the 
 line M N, and produce it to A and B, and it will be the transverse 
 axis. Draw c D through L, and perpendicular to A B, and it will 
 be the conjugate or shorter axis.
 
 42 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 
 
 PROBLEM XII. 
 
 Tixlrnw a flitt A // !>;/ tin in!, / *< -rlion <>/' J.iin-K, fuirintj the Open- 
 I ny ,in,l Spring or lti*e i/inn. 
 
 Let A D B be the opening, and c D its spring or rise. In the 
 middle of A B, at D, erect a perpendicular u K, equal to twice c i>, 
 its rise ; and from E draw E A and E B, and divide A E and B E into 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 D B 
 
 any number or equal parts, as a, b, e, and 1, 2, 3. Join B a, 3 e, 
 2 b, and 1 A, and it will form the arch required. 
 
 The more parts A E and B E are divided into, the greater will be 
 the accuracy of the curve. 
 
 M my curves maybe made in the same manner, according to 
 the position of the lines A E and E B; and if instead of two lines 
 drawn from A and B, meeting in E, a perpendicular be erected at 
 the same points, and two lines be then drawn from the ends of 
 these perpendiculars meeting in an angle, and these lines be 
 divided into any number of equal parts, the points of the adjacent 
 lines may be joined, and a curve will be formed resembling a 
 Gothic arch. The demonstration already given is therefore very 
 useful to the workman, as he may vary the form of the curve by 
 altering the position of the lines, either with respect to the angles 
 which they make with each other, or their proportional lengths. 
 
 PROBLEM XIII. 
 
 /< <>f a 
 
 tl>l K'itll 
 
 Fig. 40, 
 
 To find the Form or Ctir t -<it,,r<- of a linking Moulding that thtM 
 14 ii it i- correctly icith a I.< n I one. 
 
 Let A B c D be part of the level moulding, which we will here 
 suppose to be an ovolo, or quarter round; A and c, the points 
 where the raking moulding takes its rise on the angle ; F c a, the 
 angle the raking moulding makes with the horizontal one. Draw
 
 PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 43 
 
 c r at the given angle, and from A draw A E parallel to it ; con- 
 tinue B A to H, and from c make c H perpendicular to A 11. Divide 
 c H into any number of equal purls, an 1, 2, 3, and draw lines 
 parallel to H A, as 1 a, 2 6, 8 c; and then in an; part of the raking 
 moulding, as i, draw i K perpendicular to E A, and divide i K into 
 the same number of equal parts H c is divided into ; and draw 1 a, 
 2 b, 3 c, parallel to B A. Then transfer the distances 1 a, 2 b, 8 e, 
 and a curve drawn through these points will be the form of the 
 curve required for the raking moulding. 
 
 We have here shown the method to be employed for an ovolo ; 
 but it is just the same for any other formed moulding, as a cavetto, 
 semirecta, etc. It may be worthy remark, that, after the moulding 
 is worked, and the mitre is cut in the mitre-box for the level 
 moulding, the raking moulding must be cut, either by the means 
 of a wedge formed to the required angle of the rake, or a box 
 made to correspond to that angle : and if this be accurately done, 
 the mitre will be true, and the moulding in all its members cor- 
 respond to the level moulding. The plane in which the raking 
 moulding is situated is square to that of the level one. This is 
 always the case in a pediment, the mouldings of which correspond 
 with the return. 
 
 PROBLEM XIV. 
 
 To find the Form or Curvature of the Return in an open or broken 
 Pediment. 
 
 Let A B c be the angle which the pediment makes with the cor- 
 nice, and let the form and size of the moulding be as in the last 
 problem, and as shown at D A B u. From u drop a perpendicular 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
 on c B, and draw D B perpendicular to D c, or parallel to c B ; and 
 let D B be equal to B i (Fig. 40). Then from B draw B r parallel 
 to D A, and divide B F into the same number of parts as i K (Fig. 
 40), at 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, and transfer the distances 1 a, 2 b, 3 c, as in 
 Fig. 40. Then a curve line drawn through the points a, b, e, will 
 be the form of the return for the moulding of the open pediment. 
 The mitre for the return is cut in the usual manner, but that 
 of the pediment is cut to the proper angle of its inclination, as in 
 the last problem. In fixing the mitre, the portion K D o of the 
 return must be cut away to make it come flush with the top of the 
 pediment moulding.
 
 44 EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 
 
 EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 
 
 Of the Circle, Cylinder, Sphere, etc. 
 
 1. The circle contains a greater area than any other plane figure 
 bounded by an equal perimeter or outline. 
 
 2. The areas of circlet are to each other as the squares of their 
 diameters. 
 
 8. The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 
 8-1416. 
 
 4. The diamtter of a circle is equal to -31831 of its circumference. 
 
 6. The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its area equals 
 7854. 
 
 6. The square root of the area of a circle, multiplied by 1-12837, 
 equals its diameter. 
 
 7. The diameter of a circle multiplied by -8862, or the circum- 
 ference multiplied by -2821, equals the side of a square of equal 
 area. 
 
 8. The sum of the squares of half the chord and versed sine 
 divided by the versed sine, the quotient equals the diameter of 
 corresponding circle. 
 
 9. The chord of the whole arc of a circle taken from eight times 
 the chord of half the arc, one-third of the remainder equals the 
 length of the arc ; or, 
 
 10. The number of degrees contained in the arc of a circle, mul- 
 tiplied by the dianfeter of the circle and by -008727, the product 
 equals the length of the arc in equal terms of unity. 
 
 11. The length of the arc of a sector of a circle multiplied by its 
 radius, equals twice the area of the sector. 
 
 12. The area of the segment of a circle equals the area of the 
 sector, minus the area of a triangle whose vertex is the centre, 
 and whose base equals the chord of the segment; or, 
 
 18. The area of a segment may be obtained by dividing the height 
 of the segment by the diameter of the circle, and multiplying the 
 corresponding tabular area by the square of the diameter. 
 
 14. The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles multiplied 
 by their difference and by -7854, equals the area of the ring or 
 space contained between them. 
 
 15. The sum of the thickness and internal diameter of a ci/lintiric 
 riny, multiplied by the square of its thickness and by 2-4674, 
 equals its solidity. 
 
 16. The circumference of a cylinder, multiplied by its length or 
 height, equals its convex surface. 
 
 17. The area of the end of a cylinder, multiplied by its length, 
 equals its solid contents. 
 
 18. The area of the internal diameter of a cylinder, multiplied 
 by its depth, equals its cubical capacity.
 
 EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 45 
 
 19. The square of the diameter of a cylinder, multiplied by its 
 length and divided by any other required length, the square root 
 of the quotient equals the diameter of the other cylinder of equal 
 contents or capacity. 
 
 20. The square of the diameter of a tphere, multiplied by 8-1416, 
 equals its convex surface. 
 
 21. The cube of the diameter of a tphere, multiplied by -6236, 
 equals its solid contents. 
 
 22. The height of any spherical tegment or tone, multiplied by 
 the diameter of the sphere of which it is a part, and by 8-1416, 
 equals the area or convex surface of the segment; or, 
 
 23. The height of the tegment, multiplied by the circumference 
 of the sphere of which it is a part, equals the area. 
 
 24. The solidity of any tpHerical ttgmtnt is equal to three times 
 the square of the radius of its base, plus the square of its height, 
 ami multiplied by its height and by -5236. 
 
 25. The solidity of a tpherical zone equals the sum of the squares 
 of the radii of its two ends, and one-third the square of its height, 
 multiplied by the height and by 1-5708. 
 
 26. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 foot in diameter and 1 foot in 
 length, equals 5-875 of a United States gallon. 
 
 27. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 inch in diameter and 1 foot in 
 length equals -0408 of a United States gallon. 
 
 28. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 inch in diameter and 1 inch in 
 length, equals -0034 of a United States gallon. 
 
 29. The capacity of a tphere, 1 foot in diameter, equals 8-9156 
 United States gallons. 
 
 30. The capacity of a tphere, 1 inch in diameter, equals -002165 
 of a United States gallon; hence, 
 
 31. The capacity of any other cylinder in United States gallons 
 is obtained by multiplying the square of its diameter by its length, 
 or the capacity of any other sphere by the cube of its diameter, 
 and by the number of United States gallons contained as above 
 in the unity of its measurement. 
 
 Of the Square, Rectangle, Cube, etc. 
 
 1. The side of a square equals the square root of its area. 
 
 2. The area of a square equals the square of one of its sides. 
 8. The diagonal of a tquare equals the square root of twice the 
 
 square of its side. 
 
 4. The side of a square is equal to the square root of half the 
 square of its diagonal. 
 
 5. The side of a tquare equal to the diagonal of a given square 
 contains double the area of a given square. 
 
 6. The area of a rectangle equals its length multiplied by its 
 breadth. 
 
 7. The length of a rectangle equals the area divided by the 
 breadth ; or, the breadth equals the area divided by the length.
 
 46 
 
 EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 
 
 8. The side or end of a rrrtanglt equals the square root of the 
 sum of i In' iliiigoiiul uud opposite side to that required, multiplied 
 by their difference. 
 
 9. The diagonal in a rectangle equals the square root of the sum 
 of the squares of the base and perpendicular. 
 
 10. The solidity of a cube equals the area of one of its sides, 
 multiplied by the length or breadth of one of its sides. 
 
 11. The length or breadth of a side of a cube equals the cube 
 root of its solidity. 
 
 12. The capacity of a 12-inch cube equals 7-4784 United States 
 gallons. 
 
 Surfaces and Solidities of the Regular Bodies, each of 
 whose Boundary Lines is 1. 
 
 No. of Sides. 
 
 MM* 
 
 Surfaces. 
 
 Solids. 
 
 4 
 
 Tetrahedron. 
 
 1-7321 
 
 0-1179 
 
 6 
 
 Hexahedron. 
 
 6. 
 
 1. 
 
 8 
 
 Octahedron. 
 
 8-4641 
 
 0-4714 
 
 12 
 
 Dodecahedron. 
 
 20-6458 
 
 7-6631 
 
 20 
 
 Icosahedron. 
 
 8-6603 
 
 2-1817 
 
 The tabular surface multiplied by the square of one of the 
 boundary lines equals the surface required; or, 
 
 The tabular solidity multiplied by the cube of one of the 
 boundary lines equals the solidity required. 
 
 Of Triangles, Polygons, etc. 
 
 1. The complement of an angh is its defect from a right angle. 
 
 2. The supplement of an angle is its defect from two right 
 angles. 
 
 3. The sine, tangent, and secant of an angle are the cosine, 
 cotangent, and cosecant of the complement of that angle. 
 
 4. The hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle being made nulii, 
 its sides become the sines of the opposite angles, or the cosines 
 of the adjacent angles. 
 
 6. The three angles of every triangle are equal to two right 
 angles; hence the oblique angles of a right-angled triangle are 
 each others complements. 
 
 6. The sum of the squares of the two given sides of a right- 
 angled triangle is equal to the square of the hypothenuse. 
 
 7. The difference between the squares of the hypothenuse and 
 given side of a right-angled triangle is equal to the square of the 
 required side.
 
 EPITOME OP MENSURATION. 
 
 47 
 
 8. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the base 
 multiplied by the perpendicular height; or, 
 
 9. The area of a trianyle equals half the product of the two 
 sides and the natural sine of the contained angle. 
 
 10. The side of any regular polygon multiplied by its apothegm 
 or perpendicular, and by the number of its sides, equals twice 
 the area. 
 
 Table of the Areas of Regular Polygons, each of whose 
 Sides is Unity. 
 
 Name of 
 Polygon. 
 
 No. of 
 MM. 
 
 SSRT 
 
 Area when 
 Side is Unity. 
 
 Interior 
 Angle. 
 
 Central 
 Angle. 
 
 Triangle.. . 
 
 3 
 
 0-2887 
 
 0-4380 
 
 60 W 
 
 120 / 
 
 Square 
 
 4 
 
 0-6 
 
 1- 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 Pentagon.. .. 
 
 6 
 
 0-6882 
 
 1-7205 
 
 108 
 
 72 
 
 Hexagon .. .. 
 
 6 
 
 0*660 
 
 2-5981 
 
 120 
 
 60 
 
 Heptagon. .. 
 
 7 
 
 L4886 
 
 . i . .,'.1 
 
 LS8S41 
 
 61 2< r >ft 
 
 Octagon 
 
 8 
 
 1-2071 
 
 I -_- 
 
 186 
 
 46 
 
 Nonagon.. . 
 
 9 
 
 1-8787 
 
 6-1818 
 
 140 
 
 40 
 
 Decagon... .. 
 
 10 
 
 1-6388 
 
 7-0049 
 
 144 
 
 86 
 
 Undecagon.. 
 
 11 
 
 1-TfJs 
 
 
 147 16^ 
 
 B4* 
 
 Dodecagon... 
 
 12 
 
 1-8660 
 
 11-1962 
 
 160 
 
 80 
 
 The tabular area of the corresponding polygon multiplied by 
 the square of the side of the given polygon equals the area of 
 the given polygon. 
 
 Of Ellipses, Cones, Frustums, eto. 
 
 1. The square root of half the sum of the squares of the two 
 diameters of an ellipse multiplied by 3-1416 equals its circum- 
 ference. 
 
 J. The product of the two axes of an tllipte multiplied by -7854 
 equals its area. 
 
 3. The curve surface of a cone is equal to half the product of 
 the circumference of its base multiplied by its slant side, to 
 which, if the area of the base be added, the sum is the whole 
 surface. 
 
 4. The solidity of a cone equals one-third of the product of its 
 base multiplied by its altitude or height. 
 
 5. The squares of the diameters of the two ends of i]\e frustum 
 of a cone added to the product of the two diameters, and that sum 
 multiplied by its height and by -2618, equals its solidity. 
 
 4
 
 48 
 
 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 
 
 INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC, 
 
 OB UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 
 
 The slide rule is an instrument by which the greater portion 
 of operations in arithmetic and mensuration may be advanta- 
 geously performed, provided the lines of division and gauge-]. oinis 
 be made properly correct, and their several values familiarly 
 understood. 
 
 The lines of division are distinguished by the letters A B c n; 
 A B and c being each divided alike, and containing what is 
 a double radius, or double series of logarithmic numbers, each 
 series being supposed to be divided into 1000 equal parts, and 
 distributed along the radius in the following manner : 
 
 From 1 to 2 contains 301 of those parts, being the log. of 2. 
 
 177 " " 8. 
 
 4 602 " " 4. 
 
 6 699 " " 6. 
 
 778 " " 6. 
 
 845 " " 7. 
 
 903 " ' 8. 
 
 954 " 9. 
 1000 being the whole number. 
 
 The line D on the improved rules consists of only a single 
 radius ; and although of larger radius, the logarithmic series is 
 the same, and disposed of along the line in a similar proportion, 
 forming exactly a line of square roots to the numbers on the 
 lines B c. 
 
 Numeration. 
 
 Numeration teaches us to estimate or properly value the num- 
 bers and divisions on the rule in an arithmetical form. 
 
 Their values are all entirely governed by the value set upon 
 the first figure, and being decimally reckoned, advance tenfold 
 from the commencement to the termination of each radius: thus, 
 suppose 1 at the joint be one, the 1 in the middle of the rule is 
 ten, and 1 at the end, one hundred ; again, suppose 1 at the joint 
 ten, 1 in the middle is 100, and 1 or 10 at the end is 1000, etc., 
 the intermediate divisions on which complete the whole system of 
 its notation. 
 
 To Multiply Numbers by the Rule. 
 
 Set 1 on B opposite to the multiplier on A ; and against the 
 number to be multiplied on B is the product on A. 
 Multiply 6 by 4. 
 Set 1 on B to 4 on A ; and against 6 on B is 24 on A.
 
 UTILITY OP THE SLIDE BULE. 49 
 
 The slide thus set, against 7 on u is 28 on A. 
 
 82 
 86 
 40 
 48 
 60 
 100 
 
 etc. 
 
 To Divide Numbers upon the Rale. 
 
 Set the divisor on B to 1 on A; and against the number to be 
 divided on B is the quotient on A. 
 Divide 63 by 8. 
 
 Set 8 on B to 1 on A ; and against 68 on B is 21 on A. 
 
 Proportion, or Rule of Three Direct. 
 
 HULK. Set the first term on B to the second on A; and against 
 the third upon B is the fourth upon A. 
 
 1. If 4 yards of cloth cost 88 cents, what will 80 yards cost at 
 the same rate ? 
 
 Set 4 on B to 88 on A ; and against 80 on B is 286 cents on A. 
 
 2. Suppose I pay 81 dollars 60 cents for 8 cwt. of copper, at 
 what rate is that per ton ? 1 ton = 20 net. 
 
 Set 8 upon B to 81.5 upon A ; and against 20 upon B is 210 upon A. 
 
 Rule of Three Inverse. 
 
 RULK. Invert the slide, and the operation is the same as direct 
 proportion. 
 
 1. I know that six men are capable of performing a certain 
 given portion of work in eight days, but I want the same per- 
 formed in three ; how many men must there be employed ? 
 
 Set 6 upon c to 8 upon A; and against 8 upon o is 16 upon A. 
 
 2. The lever of a safety-valve is 20 inches in length, and 5 
 inches between the fixed end and centre of the valve; what weight 
 must there be placed on the end of the lever to equipoise a force 
 or pressure of 40 Ibs. tending to raise the valve ? 
 
 Set 5 upon c to 40 upon A ; and against 20 upon c is 10 upon A. 
 
 8. If 8} yards of cloth, 1} yard in width, be a sufficient quantity, 
 how much will be required of that which is only Jths in width, 
 to effect the same purpose ? 
 
 Set 1-5 upon c to 8'75 upon A; and against 8-75 upon c is 15 
 yards upon A. 
 
 Square and Cube Roots of Numbers. 
 
 On the engineer's rule, when the lines c and n are equal at both 
 ends, c is a table of squares, and D a table of roots, as 
 
 Squares 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 on c. 
 Roots 128 4 5 6 7 8 9 on D.
 
 50 UTILITY OP THE SLIDE RULE. 
 
 To find the Geometrical mean Proportion between two 
 Numbers. 
 
 Set one of the numbers upon c to the same number upon D ; and 
 against the other number upon c is the mean number or side of an 
 equal square upon D. 
 
 Required the mean proportion between 20 and 45. 
 
 Set 20 upon o to 20 upon D ; and against 45 upon c is 30 upon D. 
 
 To cube any number, set the number upon c to 1 or 10 upon D; 
 and against the same number upon D is the cube number upon o. 
 
 Required the cube of 4. 
 
 Set 4 upon c to 1 or 10 upon D ; and against 4 upon D is 64 
 upon c. 
 
 To extract the cube root of any number, invert the slide, and 
 Bet the number upon B to 1 or 10 upon D; and where two numbers 
 of equal value coincide on the lines B D, is the root of the given 
 number. 
 
 Required the cube root of 64. 
 
 Set 64 upon B to 1 or 10 upon D ; and against 4 upon B is 4 upon 
 D, or root of the given number. 
 
 On the common rule, when 1 in the middle of the line c is set 
 opposite to 10 on D, then c is a table of squares, and D a table of 
 roots. 
 
 To cube any number by this rule, set the number upon c to 10 
 upon D ; and against the same number upon D is the cube upon o. 
 
 Mensuration of Surface. 
 
 1. Square*, Rectangle*, etc. 
 
 RULB. When the length is given in feet and the breadth in 
 inches, set the breadth on B to 12 on A; and against the length 
 on A is the content in square feet on B. 
 
 If the dimensions are all inches, set the breadth on B to 144 
 upon A ; and against the length upon A is the number of square 
 feet on B. 
 
 Required the content of aboard 15 inches broad and 14 feet long. 
 Set 15 upon B to 12 upon A; and against 14 upon A is 17*6 
 square feet on B. 
 
 2. Circles, Polygons, etc. 
 
 RULE. Set -7854 upon c to 1 or 10 upon D; then will the lines 
 c and D be a table of areas and diameters. 
 
 Areas 3-14 7-06 12-56 19-63 28-27 38-48 50-26 63-61 upon o. 
 Diam. 23456789 upon D. 
 In the common rule, set -7854 on c to 10 on D; then c is a line 
 or table of areas, and D of diameters, as before. 
 
 Set 7 upon B to 22 upon A ; then B and A form or become a table 
 of diameters and circumferences of circles. 
 
 Cir. 8-14 6-28 9-42 12-56 15-7 18-85 22 25-13 28-27 upon A. 
 Dia. 123 4 56 78 9 upon B.
 
 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 
 
 51 
 
 Polygons from 3 to 12 tides. Set the gauge-point upon o to 1 or 10 
 upon i> ; and against the length of one aide upon D is the area upon o. 
 Sides 8 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12. 
 
 Gauge-points -438 1-7 2-6 8-63 4-82 6-18 7-69 9-87 11-17. 
 Required the area of an equilateral triangle, each side 12 inches 
 in length. 
 
 Set -433 upon o to 1 upon D; and against 12 upon D are 62-5 
 square inches upon c. 
 
 Table of Gauge-Points for the Engineer's Role. 
 
 NAMI- 
 
 F, V, V. 
 
 F, i, i. 
 
 i, i, i. 
 
 T, L 
 
 1,1. 
 
 F. 
 
 L 
 
 Cubic inches.. 
 
 678 
 
 83 
 
 1728 
 
 106 
 
 1273 
 
 106 
 
 121 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 1 
 
 144 
 
 1 
 
 1838 
 
 22 
 
 121 
 
 88 
 
 Imp. gallons.. 
 
 LM 
 
 231 
 
 277 
 
 294 
 
 363 
 
 806 
 
 629 
 
 Water in Ibs. 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 276 
 
 298 
 
 362 
 
 806 
 
 628 
 
 Gold 
 
 814 
 
 1176 
 
 141 
 
 149 
 
 178 
 
 166 
 
 269 
 
 Biker " 
 
 15 
 
 216 
 
 261 
 
 276 
 
 834 
 
 286 
 
 6 
 
 Mercury " 
 
 118 
 
 169 
 
 m 
 
 216 
 
 268 
 
 226 
 
 889 
 
 Brass 
 
 193 
 
 177 
 
 838 
 
 864 
 
 424 
 
 369 
 
 687 
 
 Copper 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 819 
 
 331 
 
 897 
 
 846 
 
 696 
 
 Lead ' 
 
 141 
 
 m 
 
 243 
 
 268 
 
 81 
 
 27 
 
 IM 
 
 Wro't iron ' 
 
 207 
 
 297 
 
 867 
 
 838 
 
 468 
 
 894 
 
 682 
 
 Cast iron ' 
 
 222 
 
 82 
 
 884 
 
 407 
 
 489 
 
 424 
 
 788 
 
 Tin 
 
 219 
 
 816 
 
 878 
 
 401 
 
 481 
 
 419 
 
 728 
 
 Steel 
 
 202 
 
 Ml 
 
 862 
 
 872 
 
 448 
 
 885 
 
 671 
 
 Coal 
 
 127 
 
 183 
 
 22 
 
 88 
 
 28 
 
 242 
 
 42 
 
 Marble " 
 
 691 
 
 86 
 
 102 
 
 116 
 
 18 
 
 113 
 
 196 
 
 Freestone " 
 
 632 
 
 916 
 
 11 
 
 1162 
 
 14 
 
 141 
 
 21 
 
 For the Common Slide Rule. 
 
 NAMES. 
 
 F, F, F. 
 
 F.I, I. 
 
 i, i, i. 1 
 
 F, I. 
 
 I.L 
 
 F. 
 
 i. 
 
 Cubic inches.. 
 
 36 
 
 618 
 
 624 ! 
 
 660 
 
 799 
 
 625 
 
 118 
 
 Cubic feet 
 
 625 
 
 9. 
 
 108 
 
 114 
 
 138 
 
 119 
 
 206 
 
 Water in Ibs. 
 
 10 
 
 144 
 
 174 
 
 184 
 
 22 
 
 191 
 
 829 
 
 Gold 
 
 607 
 
 736 
 
 88 > 
 
 96 
 
 118 
 
 939 
 
 180 
 
 Silver 
 
 938 
 
 136 
 
 167 
 
 178 
 
 208 
 
 173 
 
 864 
 
 Mercury ' 
 
 738 
 
 122 
 
 127 
 
 132 
 
 162 
 
 141 
 
 242 
 
 Brass ' 
 
 12 
 
 174 
 
 207 
 
 221 
 
 266 
 
 23 
 
 897 
 
 Copper " 
 
 112 
 
 168 
 
 196 
 
 207 
 
 247 
 
 214 
 
 871 
 
 Lead 
 
 880 
 
 126 
 
 162 
 
 162 
 
 194 
 
 169 
 
 289 
 
 Wro't iron " 
 
 129 
 
 186 
 
 222 
 
 236 
 
 288 
 
 247 
 
 423 
 
 Cast iron " 
 
 139 
 
 2 
 
 241 
 
 254 
 
 804 
 
 265 
 
 458 
 
 Tin 
 
 137 
 
 136 
 
 235 
 
 25 
 
 300 
 
 261 
 
 454 
 
 Steel 
 
 136 
 
 183 
 
 22 
 
 233 
 
 278 
 
 239 
 
 418 
 
 Coal 
 
 796 
 
 114 
 
 138 
 
 146 
 
 176 
 
 161 
 
 262 
 
 Marble 
 
 370 
 
 63 
 
 687 
 
 725 
 
 81 
 
 72 
 
 121 
 
 Freestone " 
 
 394 
 
 67 
 
 69 
 
 728 
 
 873 
 
 755 
 
 132
 
 52 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 
 
 Mensuration of Solidity and Capacity. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. Set the length upon u to the gauge-point upon 
 A; and against the side of the square, or diameter ou D, are the 
 cubic contents, or weight in Ibs. on c. 
 
 1. Required the cubic contents of a tree 30 feet in length, and 
 10 inches quarter girt. 
 
 Set 30 upon u to 144 (the gauge-point) upon A ; and against 10 
 upon D is 20-75 feet upon c. 
 
 2. In a cylinder 9 inches in length, and 7 inches diameter, bow 
 many cubic inches? 
 
 Set 9 upon u to 1273 (the gauge-point) upon A; and against 7 
 on D is 346 inches on c. 
 
 8. What is the weight of a bar of cast iron 3 in. square and 6 
 ft. long ? 
 
 Set 6 upon B to 32 (the gauge-point) upon A; and against 3 
 upon D is 108 pounds upon o. 
 
 BY THE COMMON RULE. 
 
 4. Required the weight of s cylinder of wrought iron 10 inches 
 long and 6} diameter. 
 
 Set 10 upon B to 283 (the gauge-point) upon A; and against 5} 
 upon D is 66-65 pounds on c. 
 
 5. What is the weight of a dry rope 25 yards long and 4 inches 
 circumference ? 
 
 Set 25 upon B to 47 (the gauge-point) upon A; and against 4 on 
 D is 53-16 pounds on c. 
 
 6. What is the weight of a short-linked chain 30 yards in length, 
 and -j^ of an inch in diameter ? 
 
 Set 30 upon B to 52 (the gauge-point) upon A ; and against fl 
 on D is 129-5 pounds on o. 
 
 Power of Steam Engines. 
 
 Condensing Engines. RULE. Set 3-5 on c to 10 on D; then D is 
 a line of diameters for cylinders, and o the corresponding number 
 of horses' power; thus, 
 
 H. Pr. 3$ 4668 10 12 16 20 25 80 40 50 on c. 
 
 C. D. 10 in. 10J 12 18} 15* 17 18J 21$ 24 2f.f 29$ 33| 37f on D. 
 
 The same is effected on the common rule by setting 5 on c to 12 
 on D. 
 
 Non-condensing Engines. RULE. Set the pressure of steam in 
 pounds per square inch on B to 4 upon A; and against the cylin- 
 der's diameter on D is the number of horses' power upon c. 
 
 Required the power of an engine, when the cylinder is 20 inches 
 diameter and steam 30 pounds per square inch. 
 
 Set 30 on B to 4 on A ; and against 20 on D is 30 horses' power on o. 
 
 The same is effected on the common rule by setting the force of 
 the steam on B to 250 on A. 
 
 Of Engine Boilers. 
 
 How many superficial feet are contained in a boiler 23 feet in 
 length and 5$ feet in width ?
 
 STEAM-ENGINE HORSE POWER. 53 
 
 Set 1 on B to 28 on A ; and against 5 -6 npon B is 126*6 square 
 feet upon A. 
 
 If 5 square feet of boiler surface be sufficient for each horse- 
 power, how many horses' power of engine is the boiler equal to? 
 
 Set 5 upon B to 126'5 upon A ; and against 1 upon B is 25-5 
 npon A. 
 
 Horse Power. 
 
 As this is the universal term used to express the capability of 
 first movers, of magnitude, it is essential that the estimate of it 
 should be uniform. 
 
 Its estimate is the elevation of 88,000 pounds avoirdupois one 
 foot in height in one minute, and it is designated as being Nomi- 
 nal, Indicated, or Actual. 
 
 The first designation being adopted and referred to by Manu- 
 facturers of steam-engines in order to express the capacity of an 
 engine, the elements thereof being confined to the dimensions of 
 the steam cylinder, and a conventional pressure of steam and speed 
 of piston ; the second to designate the full capacity of an engine, 
 as developed in operation, without any deduction for friction ; and 
 the last referring to its actual power as developed by its operation, 
 involving the elements of the mean pressure upon the piston, its 
 velocity, and a just deduction for the friction of the operation of 
 the machine. 
 
 In reviewing the various modes for the computation as submitted 
 by Engineers and Manufacturers, there is no proper formula that 
 presents the essential element of being in conformity with any 
 other, and as conformity in a rule for this purpose, if based upon 
 an assimilation to the capacity of an engine, is all that is requisite, 
 it would have been preferable to have adopted an existing formula 
 to the introduction of a new one, had it been practicable to have 
 done so. It occurs, further, that there is not only a want of con- 
 formity in the various rules essayed by authors, but they have 
 neither reached the cases of both condensing and non-condensing 
 engines, nor have they properly approached to the actual power of 
 an engine ; and as the practice of operating engines since the adop- 
 tion of exist ing formula; has materially altered, both in an increase 
 of pressure and velocity of piston, the following rules are submitted. 
 
 Nominal Horse's Power. 
 
 CONDENSING ENGINE. 
 tP V 
 
 - - = horte't power ; d representing diam. of cylinder in inches, and 
 
 i ) : 
 
 v tf. e velocity of the piston in feet per minute. 
 
 This is alike to the rule of the British Admiralty, substituting 
 3(X'0 for 0000, and it is based upon a uniform steam pressure of 
 10 bs. per square inch (steam gauge, or above the pressure of the 
 atmosphere), cut off at one-half the stroke, deducting one-fifth* 
 
 * The friction and losses in a marine engine may be taken at 1-5 to 2 IDS. per 
 squ iiv inch for working the engine, and 5 to 7}^ per cent, upon the remainder 
 for the friction of the load.
 
 54 
 
 STEAM ENGINE HORSE POWER. 
 
 for friction and losses, with a mean velocity of piston of 250 feet 
 per minute for an engine of long stroke, and of 2UO feet for one 
 of short stroke. 
 
 The rule of the British Admiralty is based upon a uniform and 
 effective pressure of 7 Ibs. per square inch at full stroke, and a 
 mean velocity of piston of 205 feet per minute: viz., 170 feet for 
 a stroke of 2-5 feet, and 240 feet for a stroke of 8 feet. 
 
 NON-CONDENSING ENGINE. 
 
 This is based upon a uniform steam pressure of 60 Ibs. per 
 square inch (steam gauge), cut off at one-half the stroke, deduct- 
 ing one sixth for Inctiou and losses, with a mean velocity of pis- 
 ton of 250 feet per second. 
 
 Nominal Horse Power of several Non-condensing 
 Engines. 
 
 <Pv 
 
 Computed from Formula 
 
 1000 
 
 p. 
 
 sr 
 
 Diameter 
 and Stroke 
 of Cylinder. 
 
 KOTO- 
 
 Hone*- 
 Power. 
 
 Diameter 
 
 and Stroke 
 of Cylinder. 
 
 Hero- 
 
 lotion.. 
 
 Hone* 1 
 Power. 
 
 H'. : .- . i. 
 of Cjl Inder 
 
 Bcro. 
 
 lltioBf, 
 
 No. 
 
 In*. Feet. 
 
 Mln. 
 
 
 Ins. Feet. 
 
 Mln. 
 
 Mo. 
 
 bu. Feet. 
 
 Kin. 
 
 9- 
 
 6 X 1- 
 
 125 
 
 46-1 
 
 12X4-5 
 
 82 
 
 159-7 
 
 22X55 
 
 30 
 
 9-2 
 
 6 16 
 
 85 
 
 66-3 
 
 14 8- 
 
 47 
 
 l*iO-7 
 
 22 6- 
 
 28 
 
 12-2 
 
 7 1- 
 
 125 
 
 66-3 
 
 14 8-5 
 
 41 
 
 168-6 
 
 22 6-6 
 
 26 
 
 12-5 
 
 7 1-5 
 
 86 
 
 58- 
 
 14 4- 
 
 87 
 
 169-4 
 
 22 7- 
 
 25 
 
 16-3 
 
 8 1-5 
 
 85 
 
 no- 
 
 14 4-5 
 
 34 
 
 183-7 
 
 24 6-5 
 
 29 
 
 16-9 
 
 8 1-76 
 
 76 
 
 60-8 
 
 14 6- 
 
 30 
 
 I-..;;-:, 
 
 24 6- 
 
 28 
 
 21.1 
 
 9 1-5 
 
 87 
 
 ;i-.s 
 
 15 8- 
 
 48. 
 
 194-7 
 
 24 6-5 
 
 26 
 
 21-3 
 
 9 1-76 
 
 76 
 
 66-1 
 
 16 8-6 
 
 42 
 
 193-6 
 
 24 7- 
 
 24 
 
 21-4 
 
 9 2. 
 
 66 
 
 66-6 
 
 15 4- 
 
 87 
 
 198-7 
 
 24 7-6 
 
 23 
 
 21-5 
 
 9 2-5 
 
 68 
 
 66-8 
 
 15 4-5 
 
 83 
 
 227-1 
 
 26 6- 
 
 28 
 
 2H-1 
 
 10 1-5 
 
 87 
 
 67-5 
 
 15 6- 
 
 M 
 
 228-6 
 
 20 ;.:, 
 
 26 
 
 26.6 
 
 10 1-76 
 
 76 
 
 77-1 
 
 16 8-5 
 
 43 
 
 227-1 
 
 
 24 
 
 27-2 
 
 10 2- 
 
 68 
 
 77.8 
 
 16 4- 
 
 88 
 
 288-2 
 
 26 7-5 
 
 23 
 
 27-6 
 
 10 2-5 
 
 65 
 
 78-3 
 
 16 4-5 
 
 84 
 
 237-9 
 
 26 8- 
 
 22 
 
 28-2 
 
 10 8- 
 
 47 
 
 79-4 
 
 16 6- 
 
 81 
 
 _';>; 
 
 28 66 
 
 26 
 
 28-7 
 
 10 3-6 
 
 41 
 
 81-7 
 
 16 6-5 
 
 29 
 
 274-4 
 
 28 7- 
 
 25 
 
 2&8 
 
 10 4- 
 
 86 
 
 82-9 
 
 16 6- 
 
 27 
 
 270-fi 
 
 28 7-5 
 
 23 
 
 32-9 
 
 11 2- 
 
 70 
 
 99-1 
 
 18 4-5 
 
 84 
 
 276-8 
 
 28 8- 
 
 22 
 
 33-3 
 
 11 2-5 
 
 65 
 
 103-7 
 
 18 6- 
 
 82 
 
 279-9 
 
 28 8-5 
 
 21 
 
 33.4 
 
 11 3- 
 
 46 
 
 103-4 
 
 18 5-5 
 
 29 
 
 304-2 
 
 30 6-6 
 
 26 
 
 33.9 
 
 11 3-5 
 
 40 
 
 105- 
 
 18 6- 
 
 27 
 
 816- 
 
 80 7- 
 
 26 
 
 34-9 
 
 11 4. 
 
 36 
 
 128. 
 
 20 6- 
 
 82 
 
 324- 
 
 30 7-5 
 
 24 
 
 39-2 
 
 12 2- 
 
 68 
 
 127.6 
 
 20 5-5 
 
 29 
 
 331-2 
 
 30 8- 
 
 23 
 
 89-6 
 
 12 2-5 
 
 65 
 
 129.6 
 
 20 6- 
 
 27 
 
 (864 
 
 30 8-5 
 
 22 
 
 40-6 
 
 12 3- 
 
 47 
 
 130- 
 
 20 6-5 
 
 25 
 
 M0*2 
 
 30 9- 
 
 21 
 
 41-3 
 
 12 3-5 
 
 41 
 
 134-4 
 
 20 7- 
 
 24 
 
 359-1 
 
 30 9-6 
 
 21 
 
 41-5 
 
 12 4. 
 
 36 
 
 164-9 
 
 > 5- 
 
 '2 
 
 360- 
 
 30 10 
 
 20
 
 STEAM. 55 
 
 Indicated Horse Power. 
 
 This is the gross power exerted by an engine, without any de- 
 duction for friction, the mean pressure upon the piston being 
 determined by an Indicator, or by a computation based upon the 
 actual initial pressure in the cylinder. 
 
 Mixture of Air and Steam. 
 
 Water contains a portion of air or other uncondensable gaseous 
 matter, and wh'en it is converted into steam, this air is mixed with 
 it, and when the steam is condensed it is left in a gaseous state. 
 If means were not taken to remove this air or gaseous matter from 
 the condenser of a steam-engine, it would fill it and the cylinder, 
 and obstruct their operation ; but, notwithstanding the ordinary 
 means of removing it (by the air-pump), a certain quantity of it 
 always remains in the condenser. 
 
 20 volumes of water absorb 1 volume of air. 
 
 Steam Aoting Expansively. 
 
 To Compute the mean Prfnurf> of Strain wpon a Pifton fry //>//.. r- 
 bolie Logarithm*. 
 
 RULE. Divide the length of the stroke of a piston, added to the 
 clearance in the cylinder at one end, by the length of the stroke 
 at which the steam is cut off, added to the clearance at that end, 
 and the quotient will express the relative expansion of the steam 
 or number. 
 
 Find in the table the logarithm of the number nearest to that of 
 the quotient, to which add 1. The sum is the ratio of the gain. 
 
 Multiply the ratio thus obtained by the pressure of the steam 
 (including the atmosphere) at it enters the cylinder, divide the pro- 
 duct by the relative expansion, and the quotient will give the mean 
 pressure required.
 
 56 STEAM. 
 
 Table of Hyperbolic Logarithms. 
 
 N... 
 
 Log- 
 
 No. 
 
 Log. 
 
 No. 
 
 Log. 
 
 No. 
 
 Log. 
 
 No. 
 
 Log. 
 
 1-05 
 
 049 
 
 2.65 
 
 '.'7.-, 
 
 4-25 
 
 447 
 
 6-8 
 
 768 
 
 7-4 
 
 2-001 
 
 1-1 
 
 095 
 
 2-66 
 
 978 
 
 4-8 
 
 469 
 
 686 
 
 766 
 
 7-45 
 
 2-008 
 
 1-16 
 
 14 
 
 2-7 
 
 
 4-83 
 
 465 
 
 6-9 
 
 775 
 
 7-6 
 
 2015 
 
 1-2 
 
 182 
 
 2-75 
 
 1-012 
 
 4-35 
 
 47 
 
 5-95 
 
 788 
 
 7-55 
 
 INi-J-J 
 
 1-25 
 
 228 
 
 2-8 
 
 1-03 
 
 4-4 
 
 482 
 
 6- 
 
 792 
 
 7-6 
 
 2-0^8 
 
 1-8 
 
 262 
 
 2-85 
 
 1-047 
 
 4-45 
 
 498 
 
 6-06 
 
 8 
 
 7-66 
 
 
 1-33 
 
 286 
 
 2-9 
 
 1-066 
 
 4-5 
 
 604 
 
 6-1 
 
 808 
 
 7-60 
 
 2-080 
 
 1-35 
 
 3 
 
 2-95 
 
 1-082 
 
 4-65 
 
 516 
 
 6-15 
 
 816 
 
 7-7 
 
 2-043 
 
 1-4 
 
 836 
 
 8- 
 
 1-099 
 
 4-6 
 
 1-526 
 
 6-2 
 
 824 
 
 7-75 
 
 2-048 
 
 1-46 
 
 872 
 
 3-05 
 
 1-115 
 
 146 
 
 1-537 
 
 6-26 
 
 833 
 
 7-8 
 
 2-064 
 
 1-6 
 
 405 
 
 8-1 
 
 1-181 
 
 4-66 
 
 1-54 
 
 63 
 
 841 
 
 7-86 
 
 2061 
 
 1-65 
 
 438 
 
 8-15 
 
 1-147 
 
 4-7 
 
 1-648 
 
 6-33 
 
 846 
 
 7-9 
 
 8-067 
 
 1-6 
 
 47 
 
 8-2 
 
 1-168 
 
 4-76 
 
 1-658 
 
 6-85 
 
 848 
 
 7-95 
 
 2-<>78 
 
 1-65 
 
 5 
 
 3-25 
 
 1-179 
 
 4-8 
 
 1-569 
 
 6-4 
 
 856 
 
 8- 
 
 2-079 
 
 1-66 
 
 506 
 
 8-3 
 
 1-194 
 
 4-86 
 
 1 -679 
 
 6-46 
 
 864 
 
 
 
 1-7 
 
 531 
 
 8'33 
 
 1-202 
 
 4-9 
 
 1-689 
 
 6-6 
 
 878 
 
 8-1 
 
 2-092 
 
 1-75 
 
 56 
 
 3-35 
 
 1-209 
 
 4-95 
 
 699 
 
 6-66 
 
 1-879 
 
 8-15 
 
 2-098 
 
 1-8 
 
 588 
 
 3-4 
 
 1-224 
 
 6- 
 
 609 
 
 6-6 
 
 L-887 
 
 8-2 
 
 2-104 
 
 1-86 
 
 612 
 
 3-45 
 
 1 218 
 
 5-05 
 
 619 
 
 6-66 
 
 1-895 
 
 8-26 
 
 2-11 
 
 1-9 
 
 642 
 
 8-6 
 
 L-268 
 
 5-1 
 
 629 
 
 6-66 
 
 1-896 
 
 8-8 
 
 2-116 
 
 1-95 
 
 668 
 
 8-55 
 
 l-L'.T 
 
 6-15 
 
 639 
 
 6-7 
 
 1-902 
 
 8-33 
 
 2 119 
 
 2- 
 
 693 
 
 36 
 
 I-2S1 
 
 5-2 
 
 649 
 
 6-76 
 
 1-91 
 
 8-36 
 
 2-122 
 
 2-05 
 
 718 
 
 3-66 
 
 1*296 
 
 5-25 
 
 668 
 
 6-8 
 
 1-917 
 
 8-4 
 
 2-128 
 
 2-1 
 
 742 
 
 866 
 
 i _.: 
 
 5-3 
 
 668 
 
 686 
 
 1-924 
 
 8-45 
 
 2-134 
 
 2-16 
 
 766 
 
 3-7 
 
 1.806 
 
 5-33 
 
 673 
 
 6-9 
 
 1-981 
 
 8-5 
 
 2-14 
 
 2-2 
 
 788 
 
 376 
 
 1 -:VJU 
 
 6-35 
 
 677 
 
 6-95 
 
 1-989 
 
 8-66 
 
 2-146 
 
 2-25 
 
 811 
 
 3-8 
 
 ].::.::, 
 
 6-4 
 
 
 7- 
 
 
 8-6 
 
 2-162 
 
 2-8 
 
 838 
 
 8-85 
 
 1-348 
 
 6-45 
 
 -.;;,.; 
 
 7^6 
 
 1-953 
 
 8-65 
 
 2-158 
 
 2-38 
 
 845 
 
 8-9 
 
 1-861 
 
 6-5 
 
 
 7-1 
 
 1-96 
 
 --..., 
 
 2-159 
 
 2-35 
 
 854 
 
 3-95 
 
 1-874 
 
 6-65 
 
 7U 
 
 7-15 
 
 
 8-7 
 
 2-163 
 
 24 
 
 875 
 
 4- 
 
 1-386 
 
 5-6 
 
 728 
 
 7-2 
 
 1-974 
 
 876 
 
 2-169 
 
 2-45 
 
 
 405 
 
 1-399 
 
 5-65 
 
 732 
 
 7-25 
 
 L-981 
 
 8-8 
 
 2-176 
 
 2-5 
 
 916 
 
 4-1 
 
 1-411 
 
 5-66 
 
 733 
 
 7-3 
 
 1-988 
 
 8-86 
 
 2-18 
 
 2-55 
 
 936 
 
 4-15 
 
 1-423 
 
 6-7 
 
 74 
 
 7-33 
 
 1-991 
 
 8-9 
 
 2-186 
 
 2-6 
 
 966 
 
 4-2 
 
 1-435 
 
 6-76 
 
 749 
 
 7-35 
 
 1-996 
 
 8-95 
 
 2-192 
 
 NOTE. The Hyp. Log of any number not in the table may be 
 found by multiplying a common log. by 2-302685053, usually by 28. 
 
 Example. Assume steam to enter a cylinder at a pressure of 34-7 
 Ibs. per square inch, and to be cut off at J the length of the stroke of 
 the piston, the stroke being 10 feet ; what will be the mean pressure? 
 
 10 feet -)- -5 for clearance = 120 5 in*., stroke 10 -i- 4 -f -5 for 
 clearance = 30-5 in*. 
 
 Then 120-6 -f- 30-5 =8-95, the relative expantion. 
 
 Log. of number 3-95 = 1-374, which + 1 = 2-374. 
 ?^X^ = 82 S _8 =20 . 866 ^
 
 STEAM. 
 
 57 
 
 When the Relative Expansion or Number fall* between two numbers 
 in the Table, proceed as follows: Take the difference between the 
 logs, of the two numbers. Then, as the difference between the 
 numbers is to the difference between these logs., so is the excess 
 of the expansion over the least number, which, added to the least 
 log., will give the log. required. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. The expansion is 4*84, the logs, for 4-8 and 
 4-85 are 1 5G9 and 1-579, and their difference -01. Hence, as 4-85 
 oo 4-8 = -05 : 1-679 co 1-669 = -01 : : 4-84 4-8 =-04 : -008, and 
 1-669 + -008 = 1-677 = the log. required. 
 
 Effect of Expansion with Equal Volumes of Steam. 
 
 The theoretical economy of using steam expansively is as fol- 
 lows a like volume of steam being expended in each case, and 
 expanded to fill the increased spaces. 
 
 Point 
 
 Kipanilon 
 Number. 
 
 & 
 
 O.in 
 per Cent. 
 
 .:. i- m 
 
 Point 
 of Culling 
 Off. 
 
 v=^ 
 
 ! ..'":. 
 ofSlMB. 
 
 E& 
 
 1 
 
 ID- 
 
 8-802 
 
 280- 
 
 6 
 
 2- 
 
 69a 
 
 69-8 
 
 125 
 
 S' 
 
 8-079 
 
 208- 
 
 6 
 
 1-66 
 
 507 
 
 60-7 
 
 166 
 
 6- 
 
 2-791 
 
 179- 
 
 626 
 
 16 
 
 47 
 
 47- 
 
 2 
 
 6. 
 
 2*008 
 
 161- 
 
 60Q 
 
 1-6 
 
 406 
 
 40-5 
 
 26 
 
 4- 
 
 2-886 
 
 139- 
 
 7 
 
 1-42 
 
 861 
 
 86-1 
 
 3 
 
 8-33 
 
 2-208 
 
 120- 
 
 76 
 
 1-88 
 
 286 
 
 22-8 
 
 :::;:', 
 
 8- 
 
 MM 
 
 110- 
 
 8 
 
 1-26 
 
 a ; 
 
 20-6 
 
 876 
 
 J.'V, 
 
 1-978 
 
 97-8 
 
 875 
 
 1-148 
 
 131 
 
 18-1 
 
 4 
 
 2-5 
 
 1-916 
 
 91-6 
 
 9 
 
 1-11 
 
 104 
 
 10-4 
 
 In this illustration, no deductions are made for a reduction of the 
 temperature of the steam while expanding or for loss by back 
 pressure. 
 
 The same relative advantage follows in expansion as above given, 
 whatever may be the initial pressure of the steam. 
 
 Gain in Fuel, and Initial Pressure of Steam required, 
 when acting Expansively, compared with Non-Ex- 
 pansion or Full Stroke. 
 
 Point of 
 Cutting 
 Off. 
 
 Gain in 
 FueL 
 
 Initial Pressure 
 Required. 
 
 Pointof 
 Cutting 
 Off. 
 
 Gain in 
 FueL 
 
 Initial Pressure 
 Required. 
 
 Cutting 
 Off. 
 
 Full 
 Stroke. 
 
 CutUng 
 
 Lbs. 
 1-32 
 1-67 
 2-6 
 
 Full 
 Stroke. 
 
 Lbe. 
 1- 
 1- 
 1- 
 
 Stroke. 
 
 PerCent 
 11-7 
 22-4 
 82- 
 41- 
 
 Lbs. 
 1-01 
 1-03 
 1-09 
 1-18 
 
 Lbe. 
 1- 
 1- 
 
 1- 
 
 Btnfct 
 
 Percent. 
 49-6 
 68-2 
 67-6
 
 58 
 
 STEAM ENGINE SLIDE-VALVES 
 
 The* Relative Effect of Steam during Expansion is obtained from 
 the preceding rule. 
 
 The Mechanical Effect of Steam in a cylinder is the product of 
 the mean pressure in Ibs., and the distance through which it has 
 passed in feet. 
 
 The Pressure at the End of a Stroke, or at any Given Point of the 
 Stroke, is obtained by dividing the initial pressure by the portion 
 of the stroke performed when the steam is cut off. 
 
 Slide- Valve*. 
 All Dimensions in Inches. 
 
 To Compute, how much Lap mtwt be given on the Steam Side of a 
 
 Sliili: ><!/<' to ,-nt <,]l ll, >/.-<im <it ' 
 
 , if ,jii;n 1'tirt <////< 
 of the Piston. 
 
 RULE. From the length of stroke of piston subtract the length 
 of the stroke that is to be made before the steam is cut off; divide 
 the remainder by the stroke of the piston, and extract the square 
 root of the quotient. Multiply this root by half the throjv of the 
 valve, from the product subtract half the lead, and the remainder 
 will give the lap required. 
 
 Example. Having stroke of piston 60 inches, stroke of valve 
 16 indies, lap upon exhaust side inch = ^ of valve stroke, lap 
 upon steam side 3} inches, lend 2 inches, steam to be cut off at 
 the stroke ; what is the lap ? 
 
 
 
 60 of 60 = 10- j =-166. ^-166 = 408. -408 X y = 3-264, 
 and 8-264 r = 2-264 inchct or the lap half the lead. 
 
 To Compute the Lap required on the Steam Side of a Valve, to cut 
 the Steam off at various Portions of the Stroke of the 
 
 Valve without Lead. 
 
 Lap in parts of \ 
 the stroke..../ 
 
 Distance of the piston from the end of its stroke when the 
 steam is cut off, in parts of the length of its stroke. 
 
 ft 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 286 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 J_ 
 
 177 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 354 
 
 328 
 
 27 
 
 25 
 
 228 
 
 204 
 
 144 
 
 1H_> 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. Take the elements of the preceding case. 
 
 Under is -204, and -204 X 16 == 3-264 inches lap. 
 
 When the Valve is to have Lead. Subtract half the pro- 
 posed lead from the lap ascertained by the table, and the remainder 
 will be the proper lap to give to the valve. 
 
 If, therefore, as in the last case, the valve was to have 2 inches 
 lead, then 2 -j- 2 3-264 = 2-264 inchet.
 
 STEAM ENGINE SLIDE-VALVES. 
 
 59 
 
 Portion of the Stroke of a Piston at which the Exhaust- 
 ing Port is closed and opened. 
 
 Lap on the Exhautt Side of the Valoe in Partt of it throw. 
 
 Lap. 
 
 Portion of Stroke at which the Steam is cat off 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 178 
 
 161 
 
 148 
 
 126 
 
 109 
 
 <m 
 
 074 
 
 058 
 
 T 
 
 18 
 
 118 
 
 1 
 
 086 
 
 071 
 
 068 
 
 048 
 
 027 
 
 jj 
 
 118 
 
 101 
 
 466 
 
 .,.,... 
 
 053 
 
 043 
 
 033 
 
 024 
 
 
 
 092 
 
 082 
 
 067 
 
 066 
 
 041 
 
 IK;.; 
 
 022 
 
 Oil 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 038 
 
 026 
 
 019 
 
 012 
 
 008 
 
 004 
 
 001 
 
 001 
 
 i 
 
 06 
 
 062 
 
 04 
 
 03 
 
 022 
 
 015 
 
 008 
 
 002 
 
 X 
 
 073 
 
 066 
 
 061 
 
 042 
 
 .,:;:; 
 
 023 
 
 013 
 
 004 
 
 tf 
 
 092 
 
 082 
 
 067 
 
 065 
 
 044 
 
 083 
 
 022 
 
 on 
 
 The units in the columns of the table marked A eipress the 
 distance of the piston, in parts of its stroke, from the end of the 
 stroke when the exhaust port in advance of it is closed ; and those 
 in the columns of the table marked B express the distance of the 
 piston, in parts of its stroke, from the end of Us stroke when the 
 exhaust port behind it is opened. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. A slide-valve is to cut off at } from the end of 
 the stroke of the piston, the lap on the exhaust side is jlj of the 
 stroke of the valve (Iti inches), and the stroke of the piston is 60 
 inches. At what point of the stroke of the piston will the exhaust 
 port in advance of it be closed, and the one behind it opened? 
 
 Under } in table A, opposite to ,V is -0->3, which x <0, the 
 length of the stroke = 3-18 inches; ami under j in table B, oppo- 
 site to jV, ia -033, which X '>" = I'-' 8 inehet. 
 
 If the lap on the exhaust side of this valve wan increased, the 
 effect would be to cause the port in advance of the vnlve to be 
 closed sooner, and the port behind it opened later. And if the 
 lap on the exhaust side was removed entirely, the port in advance 
 of the piston would be shut, and the one behind it open, at the 
 same time. 
 
 The lap on the steam side should always be greater than that 
 on the exhaust side, and the difference greater the higher the 
 Telocity of the piston. 
 
 In fast-running engines alike to locomotives, it is necessary to 
 open the exhaust valve before the end of the stroke of the piston, 
 in order to give more time for the escape of the steam. 
 
 To Ancertaln the Breadth of the forts. 
 
 Half the throw of the valve should be at least equal to the lap 
 on the steam side, added to the breadth of the port. If this
 
 60 
 
 STEAM ENGINE SLIDE-VALVES. 
 
 breadth does not give the required area of port, the throw of the 
 valve must be increased until the required area is attained. 
 
 To Compute the Stroke of a Slide-ruin: 
 
 RULE. To twice the lap add twice the width of a steam port in 
 inches, and the sum will give the stroke required. 
 
 Expansion by lap, with a slide-valve operated by an eccentric 
 alone, cannot be extended beyond of the stroke of a piston 
 without interfering with the efficient operation of the valve; with 
 a link motion, however, this distortion of the valve is soiiu-wliut 
 compensated. When the lap is increased, the throw of the eccen- 
 tric should also be increased. 
 
 When low expansion is required, a cut-off valve should be re- 
 sorted to in addition to the main valve. 
 
 To Compute the Lap and Lead of Locomotive Valve*. 
 
 32 t = lap in inches, and -07 t = lead in inchu; t reprctenting the 
 ttroke of the valve. 
 
 Giffard's Injector. 
 
 Maximum Temperature of the Feed-water Admistible at different Pret- 
 turet of Steam. 
 
 Pressure per square inch... 
 Temperature of feed 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lba. 
 
 Lba. 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 148 
 
 138 
 
 130 
 
 124 
 
 120 
 
 110 
 
 The capacities of injectors are denoted by the diameters of their 
 throats in millimetres; thus No. 4 has a diameter of 4 millimetres 
 = 4 X 'OS 9 * = -1S"6 inchet. 
 
 The expenditure of steam increases with the proportionate 
 pressure in the boiler. 
 
 Raising the Safety-Valve of a Boiler will lessen the pres- 
 sure by allowing the steam to escape from the boiler, thus permit- 
 ting the water to rise up and come in contact with the over-heated 
 iron, and probably cause an explosion. 
 
 The Door and Damper should never be open at the same time, 
 unless it is absolutely necessary, as the cold air, that would other- 
 wise have to pass through the fire and become rarified, ru>lies 
 through the open door above the fire, and impinges on the tube 
 and crown-sheets, and has a tendency to contract the seams and 
 caup them to lenk. 
 
 Blowing out the Boiler under a high steam pressure, the 
 change is so sudden that it has a tendency to contract the iron, and 
 cause the boiler to leak.
 
 BELTS. 
 
 61 
 
 To heat Rooms, 1 square foot of steam-pipe surface is required 
 for 80 cubic feet of space ; 1 cubic foot of boiler is required for 
 1500 cubio feet of space. One horse-power boiler is sufficient for 
 40,000 cubic feet of space. 
 
 BELTS. 
 
 The resistance of belts to slipping is independent of their breadth, 
 consequently there is no advantage derived in increasing this di- 
 mension beyond that which is necessary to enable the belt to re- 
 sist the strain it is subjected to. 
 
 The ratio of friction to pressure for belts over wood drums, is, 
 for leather belts, when worn, -47 ; when new, -5 ; and when over 
 turned cast-iron pulleys, -24 and *27. 
 
 A leather belt will safely and continuously resist a strain of 850 
 Ibs. per square inch of section, and a section of -2 of a square inch 
 will transmit the equivalent of a horse's power at a velocity of 
 1000 feet per minute over a wooden drum, and -4 of a square inch 
 over a turned cast-iron pulley. 
 
 A vulcanized India-rubber belt will sustain a greater stress than 
 leather, added to which its resistance to slipping is from 50 to 85 
 per cent, greater. 
 
 In high speed belting, the tension, or the breadth of the belt, 
 should be increased, in order to prevent the belt from slipping. 
 Long belts are more effective than short ones. 
 
 To Compute the titreg* a Brit or Cord is capable of transmitting. 
 4 I . 
 
 RULE. Multiply the value of C from the following Uble by the 
 stress in pounds. 
 
 Proportion of Arc 
 mbraoed to the Cir- 
 cumference of the 
 
 Tain, of Coefficient C. 
 
 Leather Belu. 
 
 ConU <m Woodra SkearM. 
 
 
 On Wood Drumi. 
 
 Oa Iron Pulleyi. 
 
 MB*. 
 
 Poli.hed. 
 
 .O 
 
 1-8 
 
 1-4 
 
 1-9 
 
 1-5 
 
 3 
 
 2-4 
 
 1-7 
 
 2-6 
 
 1-9 
 
 4 
 
 3-8 
 
 2- 
 
 8-5 
 
 2-8 
 
 5 
 
 4-4 
 
 2-4 
 
 4-8 
 
 2-8 
 
 6 
 
 5-9 
 
 2-9 
 
 6-6 
 
 8-5 
 
 7 
 
 7-9 
 
 8-4 
 
 9- 
 
 4-2 
 
 C = the ratio of the resistance of a drum or puUey to slipping a belt 
 or cord when the resistance of the belt or cord upon the under or slack 
 side is known. 
 
 Example. What is the stress a belt is capable of transmitting 
 when the arc embraced upon the surface of the driving and wooden 
 drums is -4 of its circumference, and the power or tension of the 
 belt is 200 Ibs. T 
 
 8-8 X 200 = 660 Ibt,
 
 62 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 T<> Compute the Stress which is transmitted to a Belt or Cord. 
 
 RULE. Divide the power ID pounds transmitted to the periphery 
 of the pulley by the velocity of the surface of the drum. 
 
 Example. A cast-iron pulley, 4 feet in diameter, driven by a 
 power of four horses, makes 100 revolutions per minute ; what is 
 the stress upon the belt? 
 
 33,000 X * = 132,000 Ibt. 1 foot per minute. 
 
 4 X 3-1416 X 100 = 1266-64 feet velocity. 
 
 Then . = 105 Ibt. = difference of the stress upon the belt and 
 
 ' 
 
 the resistance of the under tide of it, = S, and S -f = P. P 
 
 representing the stress transmitted by a belt, s the resistance of its under 
 side, and P the sum of S -f- s, or the stress and resistance. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. What should be the resistance of the under side 
 of a leather belt running over the semi-circumference of a cast- 
 iron pulley, 1 foot in diameter, driven by a power of 200 Ibs. ? 
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, MORTARS, AND 
 CONCRETES. 
 
 Turkish Plaster, or Hydraulic Cement. 100 Ibs. fresh lime 
 reduced to powder, 10 quarts linseed-oil, and 1 to 2 ounces cotton. 
 Manipulate the lime, gradually mixing the oil and cotton, in a 
 wooden vessel, until the mixture becomes of the consistency of 
 bread-dough. 
 
 Dry, and, when required for use, mix with linseed oil to the 
 consistency of paste, and then lay on in coats. Water-pipes of 
 clay or metal, joined or coated with it, resist the effect of humidity 
 for very long periods. 
 
 Exterior Plaster or Stucco. 1 volume of cement powder to 
 2 volumes of dry sand. 
 
 In India, to the water for mixing the plaster is added 1 Ib. of 
 sugar, or molasses, to 8 Imperial gallons of water, for the first coat; 
 and for the second or finishing, 1 Ib. sugar to 2 gallons water. 
 
 Powdered slaked lime and Smith's forge scales, mixed with 
 blood in suitable proportions, make a moderate hydraulic mortar, 
 which adheres well to masonry previously coated with boiled oil. 
 
 The plaster should be applied in two coats laid on in one opera- 
 tion, the first coat being thinner than the second. The second 
 coat is applied upon the first while the latter is yet soft, 
 
 The two coats should form one of about 1J inches in thickness, 
 and when finished it should be kept moist for several days. 
 
 This process may be modified by substituting for the first coat 
 a wash of thick cream of pure cement, applied with a stiff brush 
 just before the plaster is laid on.
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 63 
 
 When the cement is of too dark ft color for the desired shade, 
 it may be mixed with white sand in whole or in part, or lime paste 
 may be added until its volume equals that of the cement paste. 
 
 Khorassar.or Turkish Mortar, used for the construction of 
 buildings requiring great solidity, | powdered brick and tiles, } fine 
 sifted lime. Mix with water to the required consistency, and lay 
 on layers of 5 and inches in thickness between the courses of 
 brick or stones. 
 
 Interior Plastering. The mortars used for inside plastering 
 are termed Coarse, Fine, Gauge or hard finish, and Stucco. 
 
 Coarse Stuff. Common lime mortar, as made for brick masonry, 
 with a small quantity of hair; or by volumes, lime paste (30 Ibs. 
 lime) 1 part, sand 2 to UJ parts, hair $ part. 
 
 When full time for hardening cannot be allowed, substitute from 
 15 to 20 per cent, of the lime by an equal proportion of hydraulic 
 cement. 
 
 For the second or brown coat the proportion of hair may be 
 slightly diminished. 
 
 Fine Stuff (lime putty). Lump lime slaked to a paste with a 
 moderate volume of water, and afterward!' diluted to the consis- 
 tency of cream, and then to harden by evaporation to the required 
 consistency for working. 
 
 In this state it is used for a slipped coat, and when mixed with 
 sand or plaster of Paris, it is used tor l\n- titnlimy coat. 
 
 Gauge Stuff, or Hard finish, is composed of from J to 4 volumes fine 
 stuff and 1 volume plaster of Paris, in proportions regulated by the 
 degree of rapidity required in hardening; for cornices, etc., the 
 proporti6ns are equal volumes of each, fine stuff and plaster. 
 
 Stucco is composed of from 3 to 4 volumes of white sand, to 1 
 volume of fine stuff, or lime putty. 
 
 Scratch Coat. The first of three coats when laid upon laths, 
 and is from \ to f of an inch in thickness. 
 
 One-coat Work. Plastering in one coat without finish, either 
 on masonry or laths that is, rendered or laid. 
 
 Two-coat Work. Plastering in two coats is done either in 
 a laying coat and set, or in a screed coat and set. 
 
 The Screed coat is also termed a Floated coat. Laying the first 
 coat in two-coat work is resorted loin common work instead of screed- 
 ing, when the finished surface is not required to be exact to a straight- 
 edge. It is laid in a coat of about j an inch in thickness. 
 
 The laying coat, except for very common work, should be hand- 
 floated. 
 
 The firmness and tenacity of plastering is very much increased 
 by hand-floating. 
 
 Screeds are strips of mortar 6 to 8 inches in width, and of the 
 required thickness of the first coat, applied to the angles of a room, 
 or edge of a wall and parallelly, at intervals of 3 to 5 feet over the 
 surface to be covered. When these have become sufficiently hard 
 to withstand the pressure of a straight-edge, the inter-spaces be- 
 tween the screeds should be filled out flush with them, so as to 
 produce a continuous and straight, even surface. 
 5
 
 64 
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 Slipped Coat is the smoothing off of a brown coat with a small 
 quantity of lime putty, mixed with 3 per cent, of white sand, BO as 
 to make a comparatively even surface. 
 
 This finish answers when the surface is to be finished in dis- 
 temper, or paper. 
 
 Hard Finish. Fine stuff applied with a trowel to the depth 
 of about | of an inch. 
 
 Estimate of Materials and Labor for 100 Square Yards 
 of Lath and Plaster. 
 
 Materials 
 and Labor. 
 
 :; i .,,-- 
 ll..i 1 
 I -11,1-1.. 
 
 Two Coats 
 Slipped. 
 
 Materials 
 and Labor. 
 
 SCoaU 
 Hard 
 
 rWO< ':it.< 
 
 Lime 
 
 4 casks. 
 
 31 casks. 
 
 White sand.. 
 
 Nails 
 
 2i bush. 
 
 1 ; [I,, 
 
 13 Hs 
 
 Plast. Paris- 
 Laths 
 Hair 
 Sand 
 
 I " 
 2000. 
 4 bush. 
 7 loads. 
 
 2000. 
 3 bush. 
 6 loads. 
 
 MiiM.na 
 Laborer 
 Cartage 
 
 1 " 
 
 .,: ,,,-y, 
 
 I 
 
 Hydraulic. 1J parts unslackcd hydraulic lime, 1 parts sand, 
 1 part gravel, and 2 parts of a hard broken limestone. 
 
 This mass contracts one-fifth in volume. Fat lime may be mixed 
 with concrete without serious prejudice to its hydraulic energy. 
 
 Various Compositions of Concrete. Forts Richmond 
 and Tompkius, TJ. S. 
 
 Hydraulic. 308 Ibs. ccment = 3-G5 to 3-7 cubic feet of stiff 
 paste. 12 cubic feet of loose sand = 9-75 cubic feet of dense. 
 
 For Superstructure. 11-75 cubic feet of mortar as above, 
 and 16 cubic feet of stone fragments. 
 
 In the foundations of Fort Tompkins, about ^ of its volume 
 was composed of stones from J to J of a cubic foot in volume, 
 rammed into the wall as the concri'tc wa-< \\\.\>\. 
 
 Sea Wall. Boston Harbor. Hydraulic. 308 Ibs. cement, 8 
 cubic feet of sand, and 30 cubic feet of gravel. The whole pro- 
 ducing 32-3 cubic feet. 
 
 Superstructure. 308 Ibs. cement, 80 Ibs. lime, and 14-6 
 cubic feet dense sands. The whole producing 12-825 cubic feet. 
 
 Cost of labor and materials expended in laying concrete founda- 
 tion at Fort Tompkins, during the year 1849, per cubic yard as 
 laid, $2.26. 
 
 Transverse Strength 
 
 Of Concrete*, Cement*. HUnrtnrn. r>i~rin>ltr>iti, ami Trass, <h-<ltirr<l 
 from the Expci-hnt-nt* ,,f <i,;,rr<its T,,li,-,i and <iill,n.,i;; I . v I . 
 General Treunnrt. mid M. f'uisin. 
 
 Reduced to a uniform Measure of Ont Inch Square and One Foot in 
 Length. Supported at both Ends. 
 
 ^ ptr *1 uare incn f * ection , representing value for gen- 
 
 eral use, being of ultimate breaking strain.
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 Experiments of Voisin, 1857. 
 
 65 
 
 69 
 
 1-69 
 
 1-1M 
 
 1 
 
 [-46 
 
 I- 
 
 11 
 
 ;:_ 
 8 i 
 1- 
 2-7 
 
 1-9 
 91 
 
 u 
 
 1-12 
 1-06 
 
 1-1 
 
 [46 
 
 HI., 
 
 LHM 
 
 83 
 65 
 81 
 79 
 
 Experiments of General Totten, 1837. 
 
 CtOMOll. s.ud-4. ' S.udl. 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Brick 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Eat 
 
 The (nnlu, bricki. etc., wen broken Into frMmraU or ipaUs of UM raqiind 
 
 Tensile Strength 
 
 Of ritriiiui Crtnrntg, Mortara, and Ximonru, drduffd frntn thr Kx- 
 l>, i-i>n,-,,t.i of Vlcnt find ChntoHfy at Clmrbourg, Gen. Gilliimrc, U. 
 S. A., Crystal Palace, London, ,-tr. 
 
 Weight or Power required to Tear asunder One Square Inch. 
 
 lUterlalt and MUlurti. 
 
 Boulogne, 100 parts, water 50 
 
 90 days, 100 parts, water 50 
 
 Boulogne, 1 year, Portland (natu- 
 ral) 
 
 En-listi, 1 year, Portland (arti- 
 
 fi.-Lii. : : 
 
 Portland, 42 days, cement 1, sand 1 
 
 " 135 " '. 
 
 " English, 320 days, pure... 
 14 " cement 1, 
 
 ad i. 
 
 Miwrl.l. tod MizturM. 
 
 English, pure, 1 month 
 
 Roman, 1 year, from Septaria.. 
 42 days, cement 1, sand 1 
 
 u u 1, " 3 
 Stonemasonry, Roman cement, 
 5 mos 
 
 713 
 206 
 393 
 424 
 191 
 284
 
 66 
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 BRICK AND GRANITE MASONBT, 320 DATS. 
 
 Pure 
 
 Cement ... 4 \ 
 
 Sand 1 / 
 
 Cement, Delafield and Baxter.. \ Cement... 61 
 
 Sittings... 1 / 
 Cement... 1 \ 
 Sittings... 2/ 
 
 Lawrence Co.. {pull 
 
 * , {SsEj} 
 
 (Pure 
 
 " Newark Lime and Cement Co 1 Cement... 1 ) 
 
 (Sand 2/ 
 
 " Brighton and Rosendale Pure 
 
 " Newark and Rosendale Pure 
 
 Pure upon bricks 
 
 " 1, sand 1 pure upon bricks 
 
 " 1, " 3 " " 
 
 " Pure upon granite 
 
 " 1, water -5 
 
 " 1, -42 
 
 " Pure upon bricks, without mortar, mean 
 
 Common lime 1 1 
 
 " sand 2} J 
 
 Sand ."!..!.. 8 } up ' 
 
 Lime paste 1 \ 
 
 Sand 2/ 
 
 Lime paste 1 ) 
 
 Sand 8 I 
 
 Cement paste ^ b) 
 
 Crashing Strength of Cements, Stone, etc. 
 (Crystal Palace, London.) 
 
 Reduced to a uniform Measure of One Square Inch. 
 
 Portland cement, area 1, height 1 
 cement > 
 sand / 
 
 Portland cement 1) 
 
 sand 4/ ' 
 Roman cement, pure..
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 Experiments of GFeneral Oillmore. 
 
 67 
 
 DeUfleld and 
 
 Baxter 
 
 High Falls (N. 
 ?.), 270 days- 
 James Rirer 
 
 Jam.-s Rier, 59 
 
 days ............ 
 
 Portland(Eng.\ 
 320 days- 
 
 Stiff paste 
 
 Pur* 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Sand 
 
 -in. -nt 4- 
 
 Water 2-6 
 
 Cement 4' 
 
 Water 1-4 
 
 Pure cement....- 
 
 Cement. 1 
 
 Sand 2 
 
 11.; 
 
 i . 
 I i- 
 IN 
 
 Portland Pure 
 
 days 
 
 i:.. -.-,,!,'. H .fV- 
 nian i, 320 days 
 
 Cement 
 
 Hi 
 
 ar 
 
 Pure 
 
 Lime ... 
 
 Stiff paste.. 
 
 I!:,.' 
 
 Ail except the Om were i 
 
 i ef n Ibe. per *qur* Inch. 
 
 Akron, New York 
 
 Brighton and Koaendale. 
 
 CumlK-rland, Md 
 
 .lam. , Hiver, Va 
 
 Newark and Itosendale. 
 
 Portland, Kui?llsh 
 
 Remington, Conn. 
 
 N 
 
 Round Top. Md. 
 Rosendale, H 
 
 . . 
 
 , Hoflman.. 
 
 Sandusky Ohio ...... 
 
 -li-|.h. nlstown, Va. 
 
 UUca, I1L 
 
 NOTE. When the paste ia not subjected to compression during 
 setting, a thin paste produces as strong a mortar as a stiff one. 
 
 Experiments of General Treussart 
 
 Puizuolui. and Trui UnrUr. 
 
 Strasburgh 
 
 Puzzuolanaf) 
 Sand ......... 1 Udays 
 
 Trass ......... 1 1 
 
 Lime . 1) 
 Sand ......... 1V4 
 
 Puzzuolanalj 
 
 Poxroolua ud True -Mortar. 
 
 Lime paste. 1 >.,,_. 
 nttirj 
 
 ..... - 
 
 Cement paste, 95 days 13-8 " Cement paste i, lime paste 1 4*2 
 
 * 1, lime paste J 13-C Fire-brick beam f 2'1 
 
 " I, <J i 11-3 Portland cement, 4 mos. 21'3 
 
 " 1, " 1 7'9 i| Roman " 4 " 14'8 
 
 DEDUCTIONS. 1. Particles of unground cement exceeding -fa of 
 an inch in diameter may be allowed in cement paste without sand, 
 to the extent of 50 per cent, of the whole, without detriment to its 
 
 f Loaded partly along the bricks, and broke through them.
 
 68 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 properties, while a corresponding proportion of sand injures the 
 strength of rnortar about 40 PIT rent. 
 
 2. When these unground particles exist in cement paste to the 
 extent of 66 per cent, of the whole, the adhesive strength is >liinin- 
 ished about 28 per cent. For a corresponding proportion of sand 
 the diminution is 68 per cent. 
 
 3. The addition of sift ings exercises a less injurious effect upon 
 the cohesive than upon the adhesive property of cement. The 
 converse is true when sand, instead of sittings, is used. 
 
 4. In all the mixtures with sittings, even when the latter 
 amounted to 66 per cent, of the whole, the cohesive strength of the 
 mortars exceeded its adhesion to the bricks. The same i-.--uiis 
 appear to exist when the sittings are replaced by sand, until iho 
 volume of the latter exceeds 20 per cent, of the whole, after which 
 the adhesion exceeds the cohesion. 
 
 6. At the age of 320 days (and perhaps considerably within that 
 period) the cohesive strength of pure cement mortar exceeds that 
 of Croton front bricks. The converse is true when the mortar 
 contains 50 per cent, or more of sand. 
 
 6. When cement is to be used without sand, as may be the case 
 when grouting is resorted to, or when old walls are to be repaired 
 by injections of thin paste, there is no advantage in having it 
 ground to an impalpable powder. 
 
 7. For economy it is customary to add lime to cement mortars, 
 and this may be done to a considerable extent when in positions 
 where hydraulic activity and strength are not required iu an emi- 
 nent degree. 
 
 Slaking. The volume of water required to slake lime will 
 vary with limes'from 2-5 to 3 times the volume of the lime (quick- 
 lime), and it is important that all the water required to reduce 
 the lime to a proper consistency should be given to it before the 
 temperature of the water first given becomes sensibly elevated. 
 
 Immediately upon the lime being provided \\iili the requisite 
 volume of water, it should be covered, in order to confine the heat, 
 and it should not be stirred while slaking. When the paste is re- 
 quired for grouting or whitewathing, the water required should be 
 given at once, and in larger volume than when the paste is re- 
 quired for mortar, and when slaked the mass should be transferred 
 to tight casks to prevent the loss <.f water. When the character 
 of the limes, as with those of hydraulic energy, will not readily 
 reduce, their reduction, which is an indispensable condition, must 
 be aided by mechanical means, as a mortar mill. 
 
 The process here given is termed droiening. When the lime is 
 retained in a barrel, or like instrument, immersed in water, and 
 then withdrawn before reduction occurs, it is termed immersion, 
 and when it is reduced by being exposed to the atmosphere, and 
 gradually absorbing moisture therefrom, it is termed air-slakrd. 
 
 Bricks should be well wetted before use. Sea sand should not 
 be used in the composition of mortar, as it contains salt and its 
 grains are round, being worn by attrition, and consequently 
 having less tenacity than sharp-edged grains.
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 69 
 
 Pine Clay. The fusibility of clay arises from the presence of 
 impurities, Midi as lime, iron, and manganese. These may be 
 rei.iuveil l>y Mo'jiinjr tho clay in hot muri.-iiic acid, then washing 
 it with water. Crucibles froui common clay may be made in thia 
 manner. 
 
 Pise* is made of clay or earth rammed in layers of from 8 to 4 
 ;ii depth. In moist climates), it is necessary to protect the 
 external surface of a wall constructed in thia manner with a coat 
 of mortar. 
 
 Asphalt Composition. Mineral pitch 1 part, bitumen 11, 
 powdered stone, or wood ashes, 7 parts. 
 
 2. Ashes 2 parts, clay 3 parts, and sand 1 part, mixed with a little 
 oil, makes a very fine and durable cement, suitable for external use. 
 
 Mastic. Pulverized burnt clay l3 parts, litharge ground very 
 fine 7 parts, mixed with a sufficient quantity of pure linseed oil. 
 
 8. Silicious sand 14, pulverized calcareous stone 14, litharge 2, 
 and linseed oil 4 parts by weight. 
 
 The powders to be well dried in an oven, and the surface upon 
 which it is to be applied roust be saturated with oil. 
 
 4. For Road*. Bitumen 16-875 parts, asphaltum 225 parts, oil of 
 resin '',-25 parts, and sand 135 parts. Thickness, from 1 } to 1$ inches. 
 
 Asphaltum 55 llis. and gravel 28*7 Ibs. will cover an area of 
 10*75 square feet. 
 
 Notes by General Gillmore, U. 8. A. All the lime neces- 
 sary fur any required quantity or Imtrh of mortar should be slaked 
 at least one day before it is mixed with the sand. 
 
 All the witter required to slake the lime should be poured on at 
 one time, the lime should be submerged, and the mass should then 
 be covered with a tarpaulin or canvas, and allowed to remain un- 
 disturbed for a period of 21 hours. 
 
 The ingredients should be thoroughly mixed, and then heaped 
 for use as required. 
 
 Recent experiments have developed that most American cements 
 will sustain, without any great loss of strength, a dose of lime 
 paste equal to that of the cement paste, while a dose equal to } to 
 f the volume of cement paste may be safely added to any Rosen- 
 dale cement without producing any essential deterioration of the 
 quality of the mortar. Neither is the hydraulic activity of the 
 mortars so far impaired by this limited addition of lime paste as 
 to render them unsuited for concrete under water, or other sub- 
 marine masonry. By the use of lime is secured the double advan- 
 tages of slow setting and economy. 
 
 Pointing Mortar is composed of a paste of finely-ground 
 cement and clean sharp silicious sand, in such proportions that 
 the volume of cement paste is slightly in excess of the volume of 
 voids or spaces in the sand. The volume of sand varies from 2} to 
 2| that of the cement paste, or by weight. 1 of cement powder to 3 
 to 3$ of sand. The mixture should be made under shelter, and in 
 quantities not exceeding from 2 to 8 pints at a time. 
 
 Before pointing, the joints should be reamed, and in close 
 masonry they must be open to 1 of an inch, then thoroughly satu- 
 rated with water, and maintained in a condition that they will
 
 70 
 
 LIMES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 neither absorb water from the mortar or impart any to it. Masonry 
 should not be allowed to dry rapidly after puinlinj:, but it should 
 be well driveu in by the aid of a caulking iron and hummer. 
 
 In the pointing of rubble masonry the same general directions 
 are to be observed. 
 
 Notes by General Totten, U. 8. A. 240 Ibs. lime = l 
 cask, will make from 7-8 to 8-15 cubic feet of stiff paste. 
 
 308* Ibs. of finely-ground cement will make from 3-7 to 3-8 cubic 
 feet of stiff paste ; 7'J to 83 Ibs. of cement powder will make 1 
 cubic foot of stiff paste. 
 
 1 cubic foot of dry cement powder, measured when loose, will 
 measure -78 to -8 cubic foot when packed, ns at a manufactory. 
 
 100 yards of lath and plaster work, with wagesof masons at $1.75 
 per day, and Kockland lime at $1 per cask, cost, respectively : 
 8 Coats hard finish work, $25.50: 2 Coals slipped work, $19.95. 
 
 Moral Efflorescences. White alkaline efflorescences upon 
 the surface of brick walls laid in mortar, of which natural hy- 
 draulic lime or cement is the basis. 
 
 The crystallization of these salts within the pores of bricks, into 
 which they have been absorbed from the mortar, causes disinte- 
 gration. 
 
 Ashphalt Flooring. 8 Ibs. of composition will cover 1 sup. 
 foot, f inch thick. 
 
 Plastering. 1 bushel, or 1 J cubic foot of cement, mortar, etc., 
 will cover 1J square rods } inch thick. 75 volumes are required 
 upon brick work for 70 upon laths. 
 
 Cost of Masonry, of various Kinds, per Cubic Yard, and 
 
 the Volume of Mortar required for each. 
 
 GEN. UILLMORE, U. 8. A. 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 s 
 
 CM 
 
 t. 
 
 MorUr. 
 
 1 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 Si 
 
 f 5 
 
 It! 
 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 t 
 
 Rough, in nibble or gravel, from J^ 
 
 Cu. Ft. 
 10*8 
 
 Bbli. 
 665 
 
 Bbb. 
 
 1-22 
 
 $Cu. 
 90 
 
 SCu. 
 
 4.10 
 
 tcu. 
 6. 
 
 Blocks, large and small, not in 
 courses; joints liaimu'T-(lressed.._ 
 h.-aiii-rx :mil .stretchers 
 dovetailed; hammer-dressed; beds 
 and joints laid close 
 
 8-1 
 
 423 
 06 
 
 92 
 
 11 
 
 62 
 08 
 
 7. 
 9 
 
 7.63 
 908 
 
 Ordinary ; courses 20 to 32 in rise 
 Onlinury ; courses 12 to 20 in rise.-... 
 Hrirk 
 
 1-5 
 
 2- 
 8" 
 
 08 
 1-05 
 42 
 
 17 
 22 
 9 
 
 12 
 16 
 66 
 
 5.70 
 2.19 
 
 5 70 
 
 610 
 
 
 11* 
 
 "54 
 
 r?5 
 
 1 21 
 
 2.19 
 
 320 
 
 
 9- 
 
 41 
 
 roe 
 
 r.". 
 
 1.56 
 
 221 
 
 " inferior 
 
 8* 
 
 37 
 
 97 
 
 ! 
 
 1 45 
 
 205 
 
 Rubble, without mortar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cost of materials assumed as follows: Cement, $1.25 per barrel; 
 Lime, $1; Bricks, $4.25 per M; Sand and Gravel, bO cents per 
 ton ; Granite spalls, 55 cents per cubic yard ; Labor, $1 per day. 
 
 300 Ibs. net is the standard barrel, but it usually weighs 308 Ibs.
 
 71 
 
 ARTIFICERS' RULES AND TABLES, 
 
 For Computing the Work of Bricklayers, Well Diggers, 
 Masons, Carpenters and Joiners, Slaters, Plasterers, 
 Painters, Glaziers, Pavers, and Plumbers. 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF BRICKLAYERS' WORK. 
 
 Brickwork is estimated at the rate of a number of bricks in 
 thickness, estimating a brick at 4 inches thick. The dimensions 
 of a building are usually taken by measuring half round on the 
 outside, and half round on the inside; the sum of these two gives 
 the compass of the wall, to be multiplied by the height, for the 
 content of the materials. Chimneys are by pome measured as if 
 they were solid, deducting only the vacuity from the hearth to the 
 mantle, on account of the trouble of them. And by other* they 
 are girt or measured round for their breadth, and the height of 
 the story is their height, taking the depth of the jambs for their 
 thickness. And in this case, no deduction is made for the vacuity 
 from the floor to the mantle-tree, because of the gathering of the 
 breast and wings, to make room for the hearth in the next story. 
 To measure the chimney shafts, which appear above the building, 
 gird them about with a line for the breadth, to multiply by their 
 height; and account their thickness half a brick more than it 
 really is, in consideration of the plastering and scaffolding. All 
 windows, doors, etc., are to be deducted out of the contents of the 
 walls in which they are placed. But this deduction is made only 
 with regard to materials; for the whole meat-urc is taken for 
 workmanship, and that all outside measure too, namely, measuring 
 quite round the outside of the building, being in consideration of 
 the trouble of the returns or angles. There are also some other 
 allowances, such as double measure for feathered gable ends, etc. 
 EXAMPLE. The end wall of a house is 28 feet long, and 87 feet 
 high to the eaves: 15 feet high is four bricks or 1(3 inches thick, 
 other 12 feet is three bricks or 12 inches thick, and the remaining 
 10 feet is two bricks or 8 inches thick ; above which is a trian- 
 gular gable 12 feet high and one brick or 4 inches in thickness. 
 What number of bricks are there in the said wall? <4iu. 2d,b20. 
 ThickMHi 
 
 28X15=420X4=1680 contents of 1st story. 
 
 28X12=336x3=1008 2d " 
 
 28X10=280x2= 660 " 8d " 
 -7-2= 6X28=168x1= 168 " gable. 
 
 8416 square feet area of whole wall. 
 7} bricks to square foot. 
 
 23,912 By the table. 
 1,708 8000 suprfi. ft. = 22,500 bricks 
 
 400 " "= 8,000 " 
 
 Answer, 25,620 bricks. 10 " = 75 
 6 " = 45 " 
 
 3416 " " =26, 620 bricks
 
 72 MEASUREMENT OF BRICK WORK, ETC. 
 
 A Table by which to ascertain the Number of Bricks 
 necessary to Construct any piece of Building, from a 
 four-inch Wall to twenty-four inches in thickness. 
 
 The utility of the Table can be seen by the following Example. 
 Required the number of bricks to build a wall of 12 inches thick- 
 ness, and containing au area of 6,437 square feet. 
 
 Square feet 1000 
 X 6 
 
 22,500 bricks See table. 
 
 6000= 135,000 
 
 400 = 9,000 
 
 80 = 675 
 
 7= 158 
 
 NOTE. 7 J bricks, 
 equal one superficial foot. 
 
 6,437 = 144,833 bricks. 
 
 Superficial 
 feet of 
 Wall 
 
 Number of Bricks to Thickness of 
 
 4-lnch. 
 
 8-inch. 
 
 12-inch. 
 
 16-Inch. 
 
 20-inch. 
 
 24-inch. 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 45 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 80 
 
 45 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 90 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 45 
 
 68 
 
 90 
 
 113 
 
 135 
 
 4 
 
 80 
 
 CO 
 
 90 
 
 120 
 
 150 
 
 180 
 
 5 
 
 38 
 
 75 
 
 113 
 
 150 
 
 188 
 
 225 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 90 
 
 135 
 
 180 
 
 225 
 
 270 
 
 7 
 
 53 
 
 105 
 
 158 
 
 210 
 
 263 
 
 815 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 120 
 
 180 
 
 240 
 
 800 
 
 360 
 
 9 
 
 68 
 
 135 
 
 203 
 
 270 
 
 838 
 
 405 
 
 10 
 
 75 
 
 150 
 
 225 
 
 300 
 
 875 
 
 450 
 
 20 
 
 160 
 
 800 
 
 450 
 
 600 
 
 760 
 
 900 
 
 80 
 
 225 
 
 450 
 
 675 
 
 900 
 
 1136 
 
 1350 
 
 40 
 
 800 
 
 600 
 
 900 
 
 1200 
 
 1500 
 
 1800 
 
 50 
 
 876 
 
 750 
 
 1125 
 
 1500 
 
 1875 
 
 2250 
 
 60 
 
 450 
 
 900 
 
 1350 
 
 1800 
 
 2250 
 
 2700 
 
 70 
 
 625 
 
 1050 
 
 1575 
 
 2100 
 
 2626 
 
 3150 
 
 80 
 
 600 
 
 1200 
 
 1800 
 
 2400 
 
 3000 
 
 :;.,IM) 
 
 90 
 
 675 
 
 1350 
 
 2025 
 
 2700 
 
 3376 
 
 4050 
 
 100 
 
 750 
 
 1500 
 
 2250 
 
 8000 
 
 3750 
 
 4500 
 
 200 
 
 1500 
 
 8000 
 
 4500 
 
 6000 
 
 7800 
 
 9000 
 
 800 
 
 2250 
 
 4500 
 
 6750 
 
 9000 
 
 11250 
 
 13500 
 
 400 
 
 3000 
 
 6000 
 
 9000 
 
 12000 
 
 15000 
 
 18000 
 
 500 
 
 3750 
 
 7500 
 
 11250 
 
 15000 
 
 18750 
 
 22500 
 
 600 
 
 4500 
 
 9000 
 
 13500 
 
 18000 
 
 22500 
 
 27000 
 
 700 
 
 6250 
 
 10500 
 
 15750 
 
 21000 
 
 26250 
 
 31500 
 
 800 
 
 6000 
 
 12000 
 
 18000 
 
 24000 
 
 30000 
 
 36000 
 
 900 
 
 6750 
 
 13500 
 
 20250 
 
 27000 
 
 33760 
 
 40500 
 
 1000 
 
 7500 
 
 15000 
 
 22500 
 
 30000 
 
 37500 
 
 45000
 
 MEASUREMENT OP WELLS, ETC. 73 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF WELLS AND CISTERNS. 
 
 There are two methods of estimating the value of excavating. 
 It may be done by allowing so much a day for every man's work, 
 or so much per cubic foot, or yard, for all that is excavated. 
 
 Well Digging. Suppose a well is 40 feet deep, and 5 feet in 
 diameter, required the number of cubic feet, or yards? 
 
 6 X 6 = 26 X -7861 = 19-635 X 40 = 786-4 cubic feet. 
 Suppose a well to be 4 feet 9 inches diameter, and 16} feet from 
 the bottom to the surface of the water; how many gallons are 
 therein contained? 
 
 4-75' X 16-5 X5-875 = 2187-162 gallons. 
 
 Again, suppose the well's diameter the same, and its entire depth 
 86 feet ; required the quantity in cubic yards of material exca- 
 vated in its formation. 
 
 4-76 X 86 X '02909 = 22-972 cubic yards. 
 
 A cylindrical piece of lead is required 7} inches diameter, and 
 1G8 Ibs. in weight ; what must be its length in inches ? 
 
 7-6 X '3223 = 18, and 168 ~ 18 = 9-3 inches. 
 
 Digging for Foundations, etc. To find the cubical quantity 
 in a trench, or an excavated area, the length, width and depth 
 must be multiplied together. These are usually givon in feet, and 
 therefore, to reduce the amount into cubic yards it must be divided 
 by 27. 
 
 Suppose a trench is 40 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, 
 required the number of cubic feet, or yards T 
 
 40 X 3 = 120 X 3 = 860 feet -j- 27 = 13$ yards. 
 
 24 cubic feet of sand, 17 ditto clay, 18 ditto earth, equal one ton. 
 1 cubic yard of earth or gravel, before digging, will occupy 
 about 1} cubic yards when dug. 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF MASONS' WORK. 
 
 To masonry belongs all sorts of stone-work ; and the measure 
 made use of is a foot, either superficial or solid. 
 
 Walls, columns, blocks of stone or marble, etc., are 
 measured by the cubic foot; and pavement*, slabs, chimney-pieces, 
 etc., by the superficial or square foot. Cubic or solid measure is 
 used for the materials, and square measure for the workmanship. 
 In the solid measure, the true length, breadth and thickness are 
 taken, and multiplied continually together. In the superficial, 
 there must be taken the length and breadth of every part of the 
 projection, which is seen without the general upright face of the 
 building. 
 
 EXAMPLE. In a chimney-piece, suppose the length of the man- 
 tle aud slab each 4 feet 6 inches ; breadth of both together 3 feet
 
 74 MEASUREMENT OP 
 
 2 inches; lenpth of each jamb 4 feet 4 inches; breadth of both 
 together 1 foot 9 inches. Required the superficial content. Ant. 
 21 feet 10 inches. 
 
 4 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. 2 in. = 14 ft. 3 in. 1 . f lfl . . 
 4 " 4 " V 1 " 9 " 7 " 7 " i Ieei *" incnes. 
 
 Rubble Walls (unhewn stone) are commonly measured by the 
 perch, which is 16J feet long, 1 foot deep, and 1J foot thick, 
 equivalent to 24$ cubic feet. 25 cubic feet is sometimes allowed 
 to the perch, in measuring stone before it is laid, and 22 after it 
 is laid in the wall. This species of work is of two kinds, coursed 
 and uncuursed; in the former the stones are gauged and dressed 
 by tue hammer, and the masonry laid in horizontal courses, but 
 not necessarily confined to the same height. The uncoursed rub- 
 ble wall is formed by laying the stones in the wall as they come 
 to hand, without any previous gauging or working. 
 
 27 cubic feet of Mortar require for its preparation 9 bushels 
 of lime and 1 cubic foot of sand. 
 
 Lime and sand lessen about one-third in bulk when made 
 into mortar; likewise cement and sand. 
 
 Lime, or cement and sand, to make mortar, require as much 
 water as is equal to one-third of their bulk. 
 
 All Sandstones ought to be placed on their natural beds ; from 
 inattention to this circumstance, the stones often split off at the 
 joints, and the position of the lamina much sooner admits of the 
 destructive action of air and water. 
 
 The heaviest stones are most suited for ducks and harbors, 
 breakwaters to bridges, etc. 
 
 Granite is the most durable species of stone yet known for the 
 purposes of building. It varies in weight according to quality; 
 the heaviest is the most durable. 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF CARPENTERS' AND JOIN- 
 ERS' WORK. 
 
 To this branch belongs all the woodwork of a house, such as 
 flooring, partitioning, roofing, etc. Large and plain articles are 
 usually measured by the square foot or yard, etc., but enriched 
 mouldings, and some other articles, are often estimated by run- 
 ning or lineal measures, and some things are rated by the piece. 
 
 All Joints, Girders, and in fact all the parts of naked flooring, 
 are measured by the cube, and their quantities are found by mul- 
 tiplying the length by the breadth, and the product by the depth. 
 The same rule applies to the measurement of all the timbers of a 
 roof, and also the framed timbers used in the construction of 
 partitions. 
 
 Flooring, that is to say, the boards which cover the naked floor- 
 ing, is measured by the square. The dimensions nre taken from 
 wall to wall, and the product is divided by 100, which gives the
 
 CARPENTERS' AND JOINERS' WORK. 75 
 
 number of squares ; but deductions must be made for staircases 
 and chimneys. 
 
 In measuring of Joists, it is to be observed that only one of (heir 
 dimensions is the same with that of the floor; for the other exceeds 
 the length of the room by the thickness of the wall, and one-third 
 of the same, because each end is let into the wall about two-thirds 
 of its thickness. 
 
 No deductions are made for Hearths on account of the addi- 
 tional trouble and waste of materials. 
 
 Partitions are measured from wall to wall for one dimension, 
 and from floor to floor, as far as they extend, for the other. 
 
 No deduction is made for Doorways on account of the trouble 
 of framing them. 
 
 In measuring of Joiners' work, the string is made to ply close 
 to every part of the work over which it passes. 
 
 The measure for centring for Cellars is found by ranking a string 
 pass over the surface of the arch for the breadth, and taking the 
 length of the cellar for the length; but in groin centring, it is 
 usual to allow double measure, ou account of their extraordinary 
 trouble. 
 
 In Roofing, the length of the house in the inside, together with 
 two-thirds of the thickness of one gable, is to be considered as the 
 length ; and the breadth is equal to double the length of a string 
 which is stretched from the ridge down the rafter, and along the 
 eaves-board, till it meets with the top of the wall. 
 
 For Staircases, take the breadth of all the steps, by making a 
 line ply close over them, from the top to the bottom, and multiply the 
 length of this line by the length of a step, for the whole area. By 
 the length of a step is meant the length of the front and the returns 
 at the two ends ; and .by the breadth, is to be understood the girth 
 of its two outer surfaces, or the tread and riser. 
 
 For the Balustrade, take the whole length of the upper part of 
 the handrail, and girt over its end till it meets the top of the newel 
 post, for the length ; and twice the length of the baluster upon the 
 landing, with the girth of the handrail for the breadth. 
 
 For Wainscoting, take the compass of the room for the length ; 
 and the height from the floor to the ceiling, making the string ply 
 close into all the mouldings, for the breadth. Out of this must be 
 made deductions for windows, doors, chimneys, etc., but work- 
 manship is counted for the whole, on account of the extraordinary 
 trouble. 
 
 For Doors, it is usual to allow for their thickness, by adding it 
 to both dimensions of length and breadth, and then to multiply 
 them together for the area. If the door be panelled on both sides, 
 take double its measure for the workmanship ; but if the one side 
 only be panelled, take the area and its half for the workmanship. 
 For the surrounding architrave, gird it about the outermost parts 
 for its length ; and measure over it, as far as it can be seen when 
 the door is open, for the breadth. 
 
 Window-shutters, bases, etc., are measured in the same 
 manner.
 
 76 MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS* WORK. 
 
 In the measuring of Roofing for workmanship alone, holes for 
 chinmey-shiifts and sky-lights are generally deducted. But in 
 measuring for work and materials, they commonly measure in all 
 sky-lights, lutheran-lights, and holes for the chimney-shafts, on 
 account of their trouble and waste of materials. 
 
 The Doors and Shutters, being worked on both sides, are 
 reckoned work and half work. 
 
 Hemlock and Pine Shingles are generally 18 inches long, 
 and of the average width of 4 inches. When nailed to the roof 6 
 inches are generally left out to the weather, and 6 shingles are 
 therefore required to a square foot. Cedar and Cyprett Shingles 
 are generally 20 inches long and C inches wide, and therefore a 
 less number are required for a "square." On account of waste and 
 defects, 1000 shinnies should be allowed to a square. 
 
 Two 4-penny Nails are allowed to each shingle, equal to 1200 
 to a square. 
 
 The weight of a square of Partitioning may be estimated at 
 from 1500 to 2000 Ibs. ; a square of single-joisted flooring, at from 
 1200 to 2000 Ibs. ; a square of framed flooring, at from 2700 to 
 4500 Ibs.; a square of deafening, at about 1600 Ibs. 100 superficial 
 feet make one square of boarding, flooring, etc. 
 
 In selecting Timber, avoid spongy heart, porous grain, and dead 
 knots; choose the brightest in color, and where the strong red 
 grain appears to rise on the surface. 
 
 Number of American Iron Machine - Cut Nails in a 
 Pound (by count). 
 
 Size. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Number. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Number. 
 
 3 penny ... 
 
 408 
 
 6 penny. 
 
 156 
 
 12 penny. 
 
 52 
 
 
 275 
 
 
 100 
 
 20 " . 
 
 .. 32 
 
 6 " 
 
 2 '7 
 
 10 " 
 
 66 
 
 80 " 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS' WORK. 
 
 In these articles, the content of a roof is found by multiplying 
 the length of the ridge by the girth over from eaves to eaves ; 
 making allowance in this girth for the double row of slates at the 
 bottom, or for how much one row of slates is laid over another. 
 When the roof is of a true pitch, that is. forming a right angle 
 at top, then the breadth of the building, with its half added, i-^ the 
 girth over both sides. In angles formed in a roof, running from 
 the ridge to the eaves, when the angle bends inwards, it is called a 
 valley ; but when outwards, it is called a hip. It is not usual to 
 make deductions for chimney-shafts, sky-lights or other openings.
 
 IMPORTED SLATES. 
 
 77 
 
 Slates. 
 [From the Quarries of Rutland County, Vermont.] 
 
 i Inch Cora. 
 
 1 Inoh Coyer. 
 
 3 Inch COT*T. 
 
 IlDChCoTCT. 
 
 
 No. of SIMM 
 
 No. of SUM* 
 
 
 No. of SIMM 
 
 ICo. of SIMM 
 
 BliMof S1M>. 
 
 -A-ar 
 
 tolfcoSaow* 
 
 r i ,. 
 
 suMorsuiM. 
 
 
 ., : | - .r* 
 
 or IM Feet. 
 
 24 by 16 
 24 by 14 
 
 86 
 98 
 
 84 
 93} 
 
 18 by 11 
 18 by 10 
 
 174J 
 192 
 
 163} 
 180 
 
 24 by 12 
 
 114 
 
 109 
 
 18 by 9 
 
 213 
 
 200 
 
 22 by 14 
 
 108 
 
 102J 
 
 16 by 12 
 
 184 
 
 
 22 by 12 
 
 126 
 
 120 
 
 16 bv 10 
 
 221} 
 
 
 22 by 10 
 
 162 
 
 144 
 
 16 by 9 
 
 246 
 
 
 20 by 14 
 20 by 12 
 
 129 
 143 
 
 im 
 
 1334 
 
 16 by 8 
 14 by 10 
 
 277 
 MS 
 
 267 
 240 
 
 20 by 11 
 
 146 
 
 L46J 
 
 14 by 9 
 
 IN 
 
 U61 
 
 20 by 10 
 
 169J 
 
 160 
 
 14 by 8 
 
 827 
 
 800 
 
 18 by 12 
 
 160 
 
 160 
 
 14 by 7 
 
 874 
 
 848 
 
 " Each Slate is 8 inches BOHD or COVER. The rule for measur- 
 ing Slating is, to add one foot for all hips and valleys. No deduc- 
 tion is made for Lutheran windows, sky-lights or chimneys, except 
 they are of unusual size; then one-half is deducted." 
 
 Imported Slates. 
 
 NamwofShtML 
 
 SUes. 
 
 Numlicr of Super- 
 of 1200 will corer. 
 
 Weight of each 
 IT of 1300 
 Slatet. 
 
 
 Inches. Inches. 
 24 by 12 
 
 1100 
 
 60 owt 
 
 Marchionesses 
 
 22 12 
 
 1000 
 
 65 
 
 
 20 10 
 
 760 
 
 40 ' 
 
 Viscountesses 
 
 18 ' 10 
 16 ' 10 
 
 
 86 
 81 ' 
 
 
 16 ' 8 
 
 SMI 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 14 ' 8 
 
 400 
 
 22 
 
 ,4 
 
 12 ' 8 
 
 8331 
 
 181 
 
 Plantations 
 
 14 12 
 18 ' 10 
 
 600 
 fttl 
 
 88* 
 25 
 
 ,, 
 
 12 10 
 
 41 A] 
 
 23 ' 
 
 Doubles 
 
 18 ' 7 
 
 ...,,,-. 
 
 171 
 
 small 
 
 11 7 
 
 '.," 
 
 141 " 
 
 School Slates for 
 Blackboards 
 
 6 ft. by 2J ft. 
 6 feet by 3 ft. 
 

 
 78 PLASTERERS' AND PAVERS' WORK. 
 MEASUREMENT OF PLASTERERS' "WORK. 
 
 Plasterers' work is of two kinds, namely, ceiling which is 
 plastering upon laths and rendering, which is plastering upon 
 walls, which are measured separately. 
 
 The contents are estimated either by the foot or yard, or square 
 of 100 feet. Enriched mouldings, etc., are rated by running or 
 lineal measure. One foot extra is allowed for each mitre. 
 
 One-half of the openings, windows, doors, etc., allowed to com- 
 pensate for trouble of finishing returns at top and sides. 
 
 Cornices and mouldings, if 12 inches or more in girt, are some- 
 times estimated by the square foot; if less than 12 inches, they 
 are usually measured by the lineal foot. 
 
 1 bushel of cement will cover I If square yards at 1 inch in 
 thickness. 
 
 1 bushel of cement will cover 1} square yards at jths of an 
 inch in thickness. 
 
 1 bushel of cement will coyer 2} square yards at } of an inch 
 in thickness. 
 
 1 bushel of cement and 1 of sand will cover 2} square yards at 
 1 inch in thickness. 
 
 1 bushel of cement and 1 of sand will cover 3 square yards at 
 fths of an inch in thickness. 
 
 1 bushel of cement and 1 of sand will cover 4$ square yards at 
 i of an inch in thickness. 
 
 1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 3J square yards at 
 1 inch in thickness. 
 
 1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 4} square yards at 
 ths of an inch in thickness. 
 
 1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover G j square yards at 
 } of an inch in thickness. 
 
 1 cut. of mastic and 1 gallon of oil will cover 1} yards at }, or 
 2} at } inch. 
 
 1 cubic yard of lime, 2 yards of road or drift sand, and ." bushels 
 of hair, will cover 75 yards of render and et on brick, and 70 yards 
 on lath, or Co yards platter, or render, 2 eoatt and tet on brick, and 
 60 yards on lath; floated work will require about the same as 2 
 coats and set. 
 
 Laths are 1J to 1J inches by 4 feet in length, and are usually 
 set Jth of an inch apart. A bundle contains 100. 1 bundle of 
 laths and 500 nails cover about 4} yards. 
 
 MEASUREMENT OP PAVERS' WORK. 
 
 Pavers' work is done by the square yard ; and the content is 
 found by multiplying the length by the breadth. Grading for 
 paving is charged by the day.
 
 GLAZIERS' AND PAINTERS' WORK. 79 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF GLAZIERS' WORK. 
 
 Glaziers' work is sometimes measured by the square foot, some- 
 times by the piece, or at so much per light; except where the 
 glass is set in metallic frames, when the charge is by the foot. ID 
 estimating by the square foot, it is customary to include the whole 
 sash. Circular or oval windows are measured as if they were 
 square. 
 
 Table showing the Size and Number of Lights to the 
 10O Square Feet. 
 
 Sice. 
 
 Light*. 
 
 SUe. 
 
 Light.. 
 
 Sire. 
 
 Light*. 
 
 Sin. 
 
 LighU. 
 
 6 by 8 
 
 800 
 
 12 by 14 
 
 M 
 
 14 by 22 
 
 47 
 
 20 by 20 
 
 86 
 
 7 by 9 
 
 229 
 
 12 by 15 
 
 80 
 
 14 by 24 
 
 48 
 
 20 by 22 
 
 83 
 
 8 by 10 
 
 180 
 
 12 by 16 
 
 76 
 
 15 by 16 
 
 64 
 
 ttfcg 14 
 
 80 
 
 8 by 11 
 
 164 
 
 12 by 17 
 
 71 
 
 15 by 16 
 
 60 
 
 20 by 25 
 
 29 
 
 8 by 12 
 
 160 
 
 12 by 18 
 
 67 
 
 15 by 18 
 
 63 
 
 20 by 26 
 
 28 
 
 9 by 10 
 
 160 
 
 12 by 19 
 
 63 
 
 15 by 20 
 
 48 
 
 20 by 28 
 
 26 
 
 9 by 11 
 
 146 
 
 12 by 20 
 
 60 
 
 15 by 21 
 
 46 
 
 21 by 27 
 
 26 
 
 9 by 12 
 
 183 
 
 12 by 21 
 
 67 
 
 15 by 22 
 
 44 
 
 22 by 24 
 
 27 
 
 9 by 13 
 
 123 
 
 12 by 22 
 
 66 
 
 15 by 24 
 
 40 
 
 22 by 26 
 
 36 
 
 9 by 14 
 
 114 
 
 12 by 23 
 
 62 
 
 16 by 16 
 
 66 
 
 22 by 28 
 
 28 
 
 9 by 16 
 
 100 
 
 12 by 24 
 
 60 
 
 16 by 17 
 
 68 
 
 24 by 28 
 
 21 
 
 10 by 10 
 
 144 
 
 13 by 14 
 
 79 
 
 16 by 18 
 
 60 
 
 24 by 30 
 
 20 
 
 10 by 12 
 
 120 
 
 13 by 15 
 
 74 
 
 16 by 20 
 
 46 
 
 24 by 82 
 
 19 
 
 10 by 13 
 
 111 
 
 13 by 16 
 
 69 
 
 16 by 21 
 
 48 
 
 25 by 80 
 
 19 
 
 10 by 14 
 
 103 
 
 18 by 17 
 
 66 
 
 16 by 22 
 
 41 
 
 M b] M 
 
 16 
 
 10 by 16 
 
 96 
 
 13 by 18 
 
 61 
 
 16 by 24 
 
 38 
 
 28 by 34 
 
 16 
 
 10 by 16 
 
 90 
 
 13 by 19 
 
 68 
 
 17 by 17 
 
 60 
 
 30 by 40 
 
 12 
 
 10 by 17 
 
 85 
 
 13 by 20 
 
 66 
 
 17 by 18 
 
 47 
 
 31 by 36 
 
 18 
 
 10 by 18 
 
 80 
 
 13 by 21 
 
 63 
 
 17 by 20 
 
 42 
 
 31 by 40 
 
 12 
 
 11 by 11 
 
 119 
 
 13 by 22 
 
 60 
 
 17 by 22 
 
 38 
 
 81 by 42 
 
 12 
 
 11 by 12 
 
 109 
 
 13 by 24 
 
 46 
 
 17 by 24 
 
 86 
 
 32 by 42 
 
 10 
 
 11 by 13 
 
 101 
 
 14 by 14 
 
 73 
 
 18 by 18 
 
 44 
 
 32 by 44 
 
 10 
 
 11 by 14 
 
 94 
 
 14 by 15 
 
 68 
 
 18 by 20 
 
 40 
 
 33 by 46 
 
 10 
 
 11 by 15 
 
 87 
 
 14 by 16 
 
 64 
 
 18 by 22 
 
 86 
 
 34 by 46 
 
 9 
 
 11 by 16 
 
 82 
 
 14 by 17 
 
 60 
 
 18 by 24 
 
 83 
 
 30 by 62 
 
 9 
 
 Ilhyl7 
 
 77 
 
 14 by 18 
 
 67 
 
 19 by 19 
 
 40 
 
 32 by 60 
 
 8 
 
 11 by 18 
 
 78 
 
 14 by 19 
 
 64 
 
 19 by 20 
 
 88 
 
 83 by 66 
 
 8 
 
 12hyl2 
 
 100 
 
 14 by 20 
 
 61 
 
 19 by 22 
 
 84 
 
 36 by 58 
 
 7 
 
 12 by 13 
 
 92 
 
 14 by 21 
 
 49 
 
 19 by 24 
 
 32 
 
 38 by 58 
 
 7 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF PAINTERS' WORK. 
 
 Painters' work is computed in square yards. Every part is 
 measured where the color lies; the measuring line is forced into 
 all the mouldings and corners.
 
 80 
 
 SEWERS. 
 
 Cornices, mouldings, narrow skirtings, reveals to doors and 
 windows, and generally all work not more than nine inches wide, 
 are valued by their length. Sash-frames are charged so much 
 each according to their size, and the squares so much a dozen. 
 Mouldings cut in are charged by the foot run, and the workman 
 always receives an extra price for party-colors. Writing is charged 
 by the inch, and the price given is regulated by the skill and 
 manner in which the work is executed;, the same is true of imi- 
 tations and marbling. The price of painting varies exceedingly, 
 some colors being more expensive and requiring much more labor 
 than others. In measuring open railing, it is customary to take 
 it as flat work, which pays for the extra labor; and as the rails 
 are painted on all sides, the two surfaces are taken. It is cus- 
 tomary to allow all edges and sinkings. 
 
 MEASUREMENT OF PLUMBERS' WORK. 
 
 Plumbers' work is rated at so much a pound, or else by the 
 hundredweight of 112 pounds. Sheet lead, used in roofing, 
 guttering, etc., is from 7 to 12 pounds to the square foot. And a 
 pipe of an inch bore is commonly from 6 to 13 pounds to the 
 yard in length. [See Table, " Weight of Lead Pipe per Foot."} 
 
 SEWERS. 
 
 Sewers are classed as Drains, Sewers, and Culverts. 
 
 Drains are the small courses, as from one or more locations 
 leading to a sewer. 
 
 Sewers are the courses from a series of locations. 
 Culverts are the courses that receive the discharge of sewers. 
 
 The greatest fall of rain is 2 inches per hour = 64308-6 gallons 
 per acre. 
 
 Drainage of Lands by Pipes. 
 
 Soil.. 
 
 of Pi pet. 
 
 Distance 
 apart. 
 
 Boll*. 
 
 *"?. 
 
 Diiunoe 
 apart. 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 Ft In. 
 
 Fret. 
 
 Coarse gravel sand 
 Light sand with gravel 
 Light loam 
 Loam with clay 
 
 4 6 
 4 
 3 6 
 8 2 
 
 60 
 50 
 S3 
 21 
 
 Loam with gravel... 
 Sandy loam 
 Soft clay 
 Stiff clay 
 
 3 9 
 2 9 
 2 6 
 
 27 
 40 
 21 
 15
 
 SEWERS. 
 
 81 
 
 Sewers. 
 
 Circular. 65 y/z X 2/= t>, and X a = V ; x repruenting area 
 of sewer -7- <A< wetted perimeter, f inclination of do. per mile, and v 
 velocity of flow, in feet per minute; a area of flow in square feet, and 
 V volume of discharge in cubic feet per minute. 
 D 2D 
 
 - = w, -^- = w>, and D = 1 
 
 D representing height of 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 Sfwer, w and w' width at bottom and top, and r radius of sides. 
 
 In culverts less than 6 feet in depth,* the 
 brick-work should be 9 inches thick. When 
 they are above 6 feet and less than 9 feet, it 
 should be 14 inches thick. 
 
 If the diameter of top arch = 1, the diameter 
 of inverted arch = -5, and the total depth = the 
 sum of the two diameters, or 1-5, then the 
 radius of the arcs which are tangential to the 
 top, and inverted, will be 1*5. 
 
 From this any two of the elements can be 
 deduced, one being known. 
 
 Oval. Top and bottom* should be of equal diameters. The 
 diameter -76 depth of culvert; the intersections of the top and 
 bottom circles form the centres for striking the courses connecting 
 the top and bottom circles. 
 
 The inclination of sewers should not be less than 1 foot in 240. 
 
 Dimensions, Areas, and Volume of Work per Lineal 
 Foot of Egg-shaped Sewers of different Dimension*. 
 
 Internal Dimeniiom. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Diameter of 
 Top Arch. 
 
 Diameter of 
 Inrert. 
 
 Area. 
 
 W 
 
 $ 
 
 "AS* 
 
 Feel. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Sq. Feet. 
 
 Cab. Feet. 
 
 Cab. Feet. 
 
 Cab. Feet. 
 
 *i 
 
 1-5 
 
 76 
 
 253 
 
 2-81 
 
 
 
 3- 
 
 2- 
 
 1- 
 
 4-5 
 
 8-56 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 2-6 
 3- 
 3-6 
 
 1-25 
 1-5 
 1-76 
 
 7-03 
 10-12 
 13-78 
 
 4-31 
 6-06 
 6-81 
 
 9-56 
 10-87 
 1275 
 
 
 
 6- 
 
 4- 
 
 2- 
 
 18- 
 
 6-56 
 
 14-25 
 
 
 6-| 
 
 4-6 
 
 2-25 
 
 22-78 
 
 7-81 
 
 15-75 
 
 24-75 
 
 7-J 
 
 6- 
 
 2-6 
 
 28-12 
 
 
 17-06 
 
 27- 
 
 8-J 
 
 6-5 
 
 2-75 
 
 84-03 
 
 
 
 18- 
 
 28-41 
 
 9- 
 
 6- 
 
 8- 
 
 40-5 
 
 
 
 19-69 
 
 30-94 
 
 In laying large sewers through quicksands, cast-iron inverts 
 are sometimes employed, and with success, to connect the founda- 
 tion of the whole work together. 
 
 * Internal dimensions.
 
 82 
 
 ARCHES AND ABUTMENTS. 
 
 Area of Surface from which Circular Sewers will dis- 
 charge "Water equal in Volume to One Inch in Depth 
 upon surface per Hour, including ordinary City Drain- 
 age. 
 
 Inclination 
 in Feet 
 
 Diameter of Sewen in Feet. 
 
 2 
 
 2^ 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 Area. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Area. 
 
 Area. 
 
 None 
 
 38} 
 
 67* 
 
 120 
 
 277 
 
 670 
 
 loao 
 
 1 in 480 
 
 48 
 
 76 
 
 136 
 
 308 
 
 630 
 
 1117 
 
 1 in 240 
 
 60 
 
 87 
 
 166 
 
 355 
 
 735 
 
 1318 
 
 1 in 160 
 
 63 
 
 118 
 
 203 
 
 460 
 
 950 
 
 
 1 in 120 
 
 78 
 
 143 
 
 267 
 
 690 
 
 1200 
 
 2180 
 
 1 in 80 
 
 90 
 
 166 
 
 295 
 
 670 
 
 1188 
 
 2486 
 
 1 in 60 
 
 125 
 
 182 
 
 818 
 
 730 
 
 1500 
 
 2676 
 
 ARCHES AND ABUTMENTS. 
 
 Approximate Rules and Tables for the Depth of Arches 
 and Thickness of Abutments. 
 
 C i/ r = D. C representing coefficient, r radius of arch at crown, t 
 thickness of abutment, h height of abutment to tpring, and D depth of 
 crown in feet. 
 
 In single arches, Stone C = -3, Brick -4, and Rubble -45. 
 
 Depths required for the Crowns of Arches. 
 
 s* 
 
 r 
 
 8 
 9 
 
 Feet. 
 
 42 
 47 
 52 
 56 
 6 
 64 
 67 
 71 
 74 
 8 
 85 
 9 
 
 reel 
 56 
 63 
 69 
 75 
 8 
 .-,-, 
 9 
 94 
 98 
 1-06 
 1-13 
 1-2 
 
 Fret. 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 16 
 17 
 
 95 
 I- 
 
 1-04 
 
 1-06 
 1-12 
 1-16 
 1-2 
 1-23 
 1-J7 
 1-31 
 1-34 
 1-41 
 
 1-38 
 144 
 1-5 
 
 I-'.-. 
 1-6 
 1 '..-, 
 1-7 
 1-74 
 1-79 
 1-88 
 
 1-47 
 1-5 
 1-64 
 1-78 
 1-9 
 2-01 
 2-12 
 2-22 
 
 m 
 
 2-51 
 
 1-96 
 
 2- 
 
 2-19 
 
 .-.:: 
 
 J 
 
 Ml 
 
 Tl 
 
 Feet. 
 
 3-58 
 
 3-69 
 
 3'8 
 
 3-9 
 
 4- 
 
 42 
 
 4-38 
 
 4-56 
 
 4-73 
 
 4-9 
 
 5-06 
 
 5-22
 
 ARCHES AND ABUTMENTS. 
 
 83 
 
 Minimum Thickness of Abutments for Arches of 120, 
 where their Depth does not exceed 3 Feet. 
 
 Computed from the formula 
 
 / i f 8l Y 8r 
 V ^-H^) -2* 
 
 
 Height of Abutment to Spring la Feet. 
 
 
 Reigbt of Abutment to Spnng U Feet. 
 
 1" 
 
 
 RtdlM 
 
 of 
 Area. 
 
 
 5 
 
 7-5 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 7-6 
 
 10 
 
 SO 
 
 H 
 
 r*et. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Ftc 
 
 Feet 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Fee*. 
 
 Fec 
 
 ~FeeT 
 
 "F^Z" 
 
 F> , t 
 
 4 
 
 8-7 
 
 4-2 
 
 4-3 
 
 4-6 
 
 4-7 
 
 12- 
 
 6-6 
 
 6-4 
 
 6D' 
 
 7-6 
 
 7 'J 
 
 4-5 
 
 8-9 
 
 4-4 
 
 4-6 
 
 4-9 
 
 5- 
 
 15- 
 
 6- 
 
 7- 
 
 7-5 
 
 8-4 
 
 - H 
 
 5- 
 
 4-2 
 
 4-9 
 
 4-8 
 
 5-1 
 
 5-2 
 
 20- 
 
 6-5 
 
 7-7 
 
 8-4 
 
 
 10 
 
 6- 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-7 
 
 5-2 
 
 5-6 
 
 8-7 
 
 25- 
 
 6-9 
 
 8-2 
 
 9-1 
 
 10-5 
 
 111 
 
 7- 
 
 4-7 
 
 5-2 
 
 6-5 
 
 6- 
 
 6-1 
 
 30- 
 
 7-2 
 
 9-7 
 
 9-7 
 
 111 
 
 U 
 
 8- 
 
 
 5-5 
 
 5-8 
 
 6-4 
 
 6-5 
 
 85- 
 
 7-4 
 
 91 
 
 10-2 
 
 11-8 
 
 U'.l 
 
 9- 
 
 6-1 
 
 5-8 
 
 6-1 
 
 6-7 
 
 6-9 
 
 40- 
 
 
 9-4 
 
 10-6 
 
 12-8 
 
 IM 
 
 10- 
 
 5-3 
 
 6- 
 
 6-4 
 
 M 
 
 7-3 
 
 45- 
 
 7-8 
 
 
 11- 
 
 13-4 
 
 u :< 
 
 
 5-5 
 
 6-2 
 
 6-6 
 
 7-8 
 
 7-6 
 
 80- 
 
 T9 
 
 10- 
 
 11-4 
 
 14- 
 
 It 
 
 NOTE. The abutments are assumed to be without counterfort* 
 or wing walls. 
 
 Keystones. 
 
 To Compute the Depth of Ktyttonei for Srymental Arches of StoM. 
 
 (TKAUTW1ME.) 
 
 First Class of Arch, -86 / of the radius at the orown. 
 Second Class of Arch. -4 j/ of the radius at the crown. 
 Brick or Rubble. -45 v / of the radius at the crown. 
 In Viaducts of several Arches. Increase the above units to -42, 
 46, and-61. 
 
 Railway Bridge*. 
 
 For Spans between 25 and 70 feet. 
 Jtisf, | of the Span. Depth of Arch, -055 of the Span. 
 Thickness of Abutments, from \ to of the Span. Matter, 1 inch 
 per foot. 
 
 Cost of Tunnels prior to 1855. (Major McClettan, U.S.A.) 
 
 Location. 
 
 Per Coble 
 Yard. 
 
 1 
 
 P.rCo. 
 
 
 t CU. 
 
 
 $ CU. 
 
 Black Rock, U. S.;greywacke \ 
 slate f 
 
 6 60 
 
 England, freestone, marble,) 
 clay, etc., lined j 
 
 846 
 
 Blaislev, France, lined 
 Bli.sworth,En K ., blue clay, lined 
 Blue Ridge U. S 
 
 3 18 
 1 55 
 4 00 
 
 Lehi-h, U.S., haid granite 
 Schuylkill, U. S., slate 
 > Union, U 8. slate ~ 
 
 4 38 
 2 00 
 2 08 
 
 
 

 
 84 IRON WORKS, FLOUR MILLS, ETC, 
 
 Railway Tunnels. 
 
 In soft sandstone, U. S., without lining, per lineal yard... $88 00 
 
 In loose ground, thick lining, per lineal yard 710 00 
 
 Ordinary brick lining, including centring, per cubic yard. 8 60 
 
 Shafts. 
 
 Blaisley Tunnel, clay, chalk, and loose earth, per yard in depth, 
 $139.11. Deepest, 646 feet. 
 
 Black Rock, 7 feet in diameter and 139 in depth, hard slate, per 
 yard in depth, $79.50, or per cubic yard, $18.72. 
 
 The time required to drive the heading of the Black Rock Tunnel 
 for 1782-5 feet was 2387 turns of 12 hours each. 
 
 IRON WORKS (ENGLAND). 
 
 Temperature of hot blast 600 
 
 Density of blast and of refining furnace.... L'A to 3 Ibs. per sq. in. 
 Revolutions of puddling rolls per minute, 60; rail rolls, 100; 
 rail saw, 800. 
 
 Horse-power (indicated) required for different 
 Processes. 
 
 Blast furnace 60 
 
 Refining furnace 26 
 
 Puddling rolls with squeezers 
 and shears 80 
 
 Rail rolling train 250 
 
 Small bar train 60 
 
 Double rail saw 12 
 
 Straightening 7 
 
 Rolling- Mills. 
 10 tons bar iron per day 80 | Plates, for each sq. ft rolled. 5 
 
 FLOUR MILLS, SAW MILLS, WOOD- 
 WORKING MACHINERY. 
 
 Flour Mills. 
 
 For each pair of 4-feet stones, with all the necessary dressing 
 machinery, etc., there is required 15 horses' power. 
 
 One pair of 4-feet stones will grind about 6 bushels of wheat 
 per hour. Each bushel of wheat so ground per hour requires -87 
 actual or 1-11 indicated horses' power, exclusive of dressing and 
 other machinery. 
 
 Stonet, 4 feet diameter, 120 to 140 revolutions per minute.
 
 WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY. 85 
 
 Dressing Machine*, 21 inches diameter, 450 to 600 revolutions 
 per minute. 
 
 Creepers, 3J inches pitch, 76 revolutions per minute. 
 
 Elevator, 18 inches diameter, 40 revolutions per minute. 
 
 Screen, 1(5 inches diameter, 300 to 350 revolutions per minute. 
 
 788 cubio feet of water, discharged at a velocity of 1 foot per 
 second, are necessary to grind and dress 1 bushel of wheat per 
 hour = 1*49 horses' power per bushel. 
 
 2000 feet per minute, for the velocity of a stone 4 feet in diam- 
 eter, may be considered a maximum speed. 
 
 Saw-Millfl. 
 
 Oang taw, 80 square feet of dry oak, or 45 square 
 feet of dry pine, per hour 1 hone-power. 
 
 Circular taw, 2-5 feet in diameter, 270 revolutions 
 per minute, 40 square feet of oak, or 70 of dry 
 spruce 1 " 
 
 800 revolutions per minute. 1-38 square feet of dry pine per 
 minute, kerf ^ inch and 6 inches deep, requires the power of 1 
 horse for the saw alone ; and 1 square foot, kerf I inch and 1 foot 
 in depth, requires a like power. 
 
 4-5 feet in diameter, kerf \ and 1 foot in depth, requires 1 
 horse's power for 1-83 feet per minute. 
 
 Oak requires nearly one- half more power than pine. 
 
 With a kerf of $ inch, 1 horse's power will saw 2-66 square feet 
 per minute. 
 
 The speed of the periphery should be about 50 feet per minute. 
 
 Velocities of "Wood-working Machinery in Feet or 
 Revolutions per Minute. 
 
 Circular saws, at periphery, 6000 to 7000 feet. 
 
 Band saw, 2500 feet. 
 
 Gang saws, 20 inch stroke, 120 strokes per minute. 
 
 Scroll saws, 300 strokes per minute. 
 
 Planing-machine cutters at periphery, 4000 to fiOOO feet. 
 
 Work under planing-machine, Xth of an inch for each cut. 
 
 Moulding-machine cutters, 3500 to 4000 feet. 
 
 8quaring-up-machine cutters, 7000 to 8000 feet. 
 
 Wood-carving drills, T>000 revolutions. 
 
 Machine augers, 1J diameter, 900 revolutions. 
 
 Machine augers, J diameter, 1200 revolutions. 
 
 Gang saws require for 45 superficial feet of pine per hour, 1 
 horse power. 
 
 Circular saws require for 75 superficial feet of pine per hour, 1 
 horse power. 
 
 In oak or hard wood, f ths of the above quantity require 1 horse 
 power.
 
 86 
 
 MINING AND BLASTING. 
 
 Sharpening Angles of Machine Cutters. 
 
 Adzing soft wood across the 
 grain 30 
 
 Pluning-machines, ordinary 
 soft wood 35 
 
 Gouges and ploughing ma- 
 chines 40 
 
 Hard-wood tool cutters 50 to 55 
 
 MINING AND BLASTING. 
 
 Mining. 
 ! 
 
 In ordinary Soil, = charge of powder in pounds, I representing 
 
 half the depth of the line of least resistance. 
 
 In Masonry, / X C = charge in pounds ; C representing a coefficient 
 depending upon the structure. 
 
 In a plain Wall, C = -16, in one with counterforts = -2. and 
 under a foundation when it is supported upon two sides = *4 to *6. 
 
 Blasting. 
 
 In small blasts, 1 pound of powder will loosen about 4} tons. 
 
 In large blasts, 1 pound of powder will loosen about 2} tons. 
 
 60 or 60 pounds of powder, enclosed in a resisting bag, hung or 
 propped up against a gate or barrier, will demolish any ordinary 
 construction. 
 
 One man can bore, with a bit. 1 inch in diameter, from 60 to 
 100 inches per day of 10 hours in granite, or 300 to 400 inches 
 per day in limestone. 
 
 Two strikers and a holder can bore, with a bit 2 inches in di- 
 ameter, 10 feet in a day in rock of medium hardness. 
 
 PROJECTION OF WATER. 
 
 Heights to which "Water may be Projected through 
 Engine Pipes under Pressure. 
 
 68 
 102 
 136 
 170 
 
 132 
 
 6 
 33 
 25 
 2 
 
 90 
 105 
 120 
 150 
 
 Feet. 
 
 204 
 238 
 272 
 340 
 
 166 
 198 
 231 
 
 297 
 
 17 
 14 
 125
 
 WATER-POWER. 
 
 87 
 
 Power required to raise Water from Wells by a Double- 
 acting Lifting Pump. 
 
 
 
 Depth from which thi. Volume can be raised by each Unit of Power. 
 
 or 
 
 Pump. 
 
 ass;. 
 
 Man taming 
 a Crank. 
 
 Donkey 
 working a Gin. 
 
 Bone 
 working a Gin. 
 
 One Hone- 
 power Kngln*. 
 
 Inchee. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 reel. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 2 
 
 265 
 
 80 
 
 160 
 
 560 
 
 880 
 
 2* 
 
 420 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 850 
 
 550 
 
 8 
 
 620 
 
 85 
 
 70 
 
 245 
 
 885 
 
 i 
 
 830 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 175 
 
 276 
 
 4 
 
 lOtt) 
 
 20 
 
 40 
 
 140 
 
 220 
 
 WATER-POWER. 
 
 To Compute Water-power. 
 
 eoo rip 
 00189 V A = horse', power, and y = V ; V representing volume 
 
 of water, in cubic feet, per minute, and h head of water from race in 
 feet. 
 
 Effective Horse-power for different Motors. 
 Theoretical power ..................................................... 1- 
 
 Undershot wheels ......... = -4 
 
 Poncelet's un'shot wheel = -6 
 Breast wheel (high) ...... = -55 
 
 (low) 
 
 Overshot wheel. 
 
 Reaction wheel. 
 Impact wheel ... 
 
 Turbines.... 
 
 Tremont turbine. 
 Hydraulic ram ... 
 
 ,= -2 
 = -5 
 
 Hydraulic Ram. 
 
 882 HP 
 
 = V, -00113 V A = HP ; V representing volume of water in 
 
 cubic feet per minute, A head of water in feet, and HP actual horse- 
 power.
 
 88 WAVES. 
 
 Jet Pump. 
 
 The greatest effect of a Jet Pump is when the depth from which 
 the water it) drawn through the supply or suction pipe is -y of the 
 height from which the water fell to give the jet. 
 
 The flow up the suction pipe being -2 of that of the volume of 
 the jet ; hence the effect = -9 x ^ = "18. 
 
 Imperial Gallons. 
 6-2355 Gallons in a Cubic Foot. 
 
 WAVES. 
 
 The undulations of waves are performed in the same time as the 
 oscillations of a pendulum, the length of which is equal to the 
 breadth of a wave, or to the distance between two neighboring 
 cavities or eminences.
 
 ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 89 
 
 SOLDERS. 
 
 Tin. 
 
 " coarxe. melts at 500".. 
 
 " ordinary, melU at 861 
 
 Sp.-llcr, soft 
 
 " hard 
 Lead. 
 St. .! 
 BrsHtt or Copper'!.... 
 
 Une Brans 
 
 Pewterera' or Boft... 
 
 Gold .... 
 " bard 
 
 Sliver, h*rd 
 
 " Ml ft 
 
 Pewter 
 
 Iron 
 
 f"l'l"-r.! 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 A PLASTIC METALLIC ALLOT. See Journal of Franklin Institute, 
 vol. xxxix, page 65, for Ita composition and manufacture. 
 
 Composition for Welding Cast Steel. Borax, 10 parts; sal- 
 ammoniac, 1 part. Grind or pound them roughly together; fuse 
 them in a metal pot over a clear fire, continuing the heat until all 
 spume has dtepMWed from the surface. When the liquid Is clear, 
 pour the rompoMi ion out to cool and concrete, and grind to a fine 
 powder; then it is ready for use. 
 
 To use this composition, the steel to be welded should be raised to 
 a bright yellow heat; then dip it in the welding powder, and again 
 raise it to a like heat as before; it is then ready to be submitted to 
 the hammer. 
 
 FUSIBLE COMPOUNDS. 
 
 Compounds. 
 
 | 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Rose's fusing at 200 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 
 Fusing at less than 2uO 
 
 333 
 
 
 333 
 
 33.4 
 
 
 N-wton'8, fusing at less than 2I2P 
 
 
 i*9 
 
 81 
 
 50 
 
 
 fusing at 150 to 160 
 
 
 12 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 18 
 
 Soldering Fluid for use with Soft Solder. To 2 fluid oz. of 
 muriatic acid add small pieces of zinc until bubbles cease to rise. 
 Add % a teaspoonful of sal-ammoniac and 2 fluid oz. of water.
 
 90 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 
 
 By the application of this to iron or steel, they may be soldered 
 without their surfaces being previously tinned. 
 
 FLUXES FOE SOLDEBING OR WELDIN3. 
 
 Iron Borax. 
 
 Tinned Iron ll.-iii. 
 
 Copper and Brass Sal-ammoniac. 
 
 Zinc Chloride of zinc. 
 
 Lead Tallow .,f resin. 
 
 Lead and tin pipes Resin and sweet oiL 
 
 STEEL. Sal-ammoniac, 1 part; borax, 10 parts. Pound together, 
 and fuse until clear, and, when cool, reduce to powder. 
 
 Babbitt's Anti-attrition Metal. Molt 4 Ibs. copper: add, by 
 delves, IL' n.s. best Bane* tin; s n. n-^uiiH -if antimony, and li 
 
 Ibs. iiiniv of tin. After 4 or 5 Ibs. tin have been added, reduce the 
 heat to a dull red, then add the remainder of the metal as above. 
 
 This composition is termed A<m/->-// //*//, for lining, take 1 lb. of this 
 hardtminff, melt with it 2 Ibs. Banca tin, which produces the lining 
 metal for use. Hence, the proportions for lining metal are 4 Ibs. 01 
 copper, 8 of regulus of antimony, and % of tin. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 
 
 DIMENSIONS OF DRAWINGS FOR PATENTS. United States, all of 
 drawing and signature to be within marginal line of 8x13 inches. 
 Leave 1 inch margin, making the paper 10 x 15 inches. 
 
 SERVICE TRAIN OF A QUARTERMASTER. The Quartermaster's 
 train of an army averages 1 wagon to every _'t men: and a well- 
 equipped army in the field, with artillery, cavalry, and trains, re- 
 quues 1 horse or mule, upon the average, to every 2 men. 
 
 A LrMixous POINT, to produce a visual circle, must have a velo- 
 city of 10 feet in a second, the diameter not exceeding l>~> inches. 
 
 All solid bodies become luminous at 800 degrees of heat. 
 
 TiDEa The difference in time between high water averages 
 about 49 minutes each day. 
 
 In sandy soil, the greatest force of a pile-driver will not drive a 
 pile over 15 feet. 
 
 A FALL of .1 of an inch in a mile will produce a current in rivers. 
 MELTED SNOW produces from X to y* of its bulk in water. 
 
 At the depth of 45 feet, the temperature of the earth is uniform 
 throughout the year.
 
 STRKXflTTI OF MATERIALS. 91 
 
 A SPERMACETI CANDLE .85 of an Inch in diameter consumes an 
 
 inch in Icu-tli in 1 hour. 
 
 Sn.irv is the base of the mineral world, and Carbon of the or- 
 gani/.cd. 
 
 SOUND passes in water at a velocity of 4,708 feet per second. 
 
 M 1 1 \ i,s have fi v.- degrees of lustre fplend&U, shining, glistening, 
 
 ijliiitui. rimj and dull, 
 
 A MARBLE-SAW requires half a horse's power. 
 
 WIRE AND HEMP ROPES. A wire rope 3^ ins. in circumference. 
 
 ami ;i hi-mp -hroii'l s ins. in circumference, parted in the rope at 
 H" tons t .''"> Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 ENDLESS ROPES. Tlie friction or adhesion of ropes Is from .1 to 
 .07 of their weight. 
 
 Brief Rules for the Computation of the 'Weights of Cast 
 Iron Pipes and Cast and "Wrought Iron Bolts.--( Horatio Alien.) 
 CAST IRON PIPES. To the inner diameter of the pip- 1 add the 
 thickness of tin- pipe in inches, and multiply the sum by in tim.-s the 
 thickness, and the product will give the weight in pounds per foot. 
 
 WuoroHT IRON BOLTS. Square the radius of the bolt and multi- 
 ply it by 10, and the product will give the weight in pounds per 
 
 flor east iron, subtract 2-27, or, .074 of the result 
 
 MU.I.EABLE OR ALtTMTNmi BRONZE. By weight: Copper, 90: 
 Aluminum, 10. This composition may lx* forged cither when betted 
 or cooled, and becomes extremely dense. Its tensile strength is 
 100,000 Ibs., and when drawn into wire 128.000 Ibs., and its elasti- 
 city one half that of wrought iron. Specific gravity, 7700. 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 ELASTICITY AND STRENGTH. 
 
 The component parts of a rigid body adhere to each other with a 
 force which is termed cohesion. 
 
 Elasticity is the resistance which a body opposes to a change of 
 form. 
 
 "> is the resistance which a body opposes to a permanent 
 separation of its parts. 
 
 fh, accord inc to th<> manner in which a force 
 to exerted upon a i>o<i\, are distinguished as t-mtii- *tr.-n<jth, or ab- 
 solute resi-tan> '/.-. or r> -si-tain-.' to tit-Mire; ,'r>i*h- 
 iii'j xtr- n;,'1k. or roUtanc.- to compression; tornional strength, or re- 
 slstauce to torsion; and detru&ve strength; or resistance to shearing.
 
 92 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 Tho limit of stiffness is flexure, and the limit of strength or resist- 
 ance is fracture. 
 
 loneliness of hndi'-s. N -tr'-ngth and flexibility com- 
 bined; hence any material or body which bear- tin- groate.-t load, 
 and bends tin- nio.-t al tin- time ol fracture, i.- the toui;lic.-t. 
 
 The tp'-rifir firm-it;/ of iron is ascertained to indicate very cor- 
 rectly the relative degree of its strength. 
 
 The nnilral arts, or line of equilibrium, is the line at which ex- 
 tension terminates and compression be-in-. 
 
 The 1-,'nistance of cast iron to crushing and tensile strains is, as a 
 mean, as 4, 3 to 1.* 
 
 English cast iron has a higher resistance to compression, and a 
 lc tensile resistance, than American. 
 
 Tho mean tensile strength of American cast iron, as determined 
 by Major Wade for th.-' I'. S. Ordnance Corp-, i- :<l.s-_".' lh>. per 
 square inch of section; the mean of English, as determined by Mr. 
 K. Hodgkinson for the Kailwav Commission, etc., in 1K4!. i- I!t.4.s4 
 Ita.; and by Col. Wilmot at Woolwich, in 1858, for gun-metal, is 
 23,257 Ibs 
 
 The ultimate extension of cast iron is the 500th part of its length. 
 
 The me,nn tru^-nc xtr'tifjth of American oast iron, also deter- 
 mined by Major Wade, is t!si |bs. per |iiare iii'-h. >n-|>eiidi-d from 
 a bar fixed at one end an<l loaded at the other: and the mean of 
 English, as determined by Fairbairn, Barlow, and olhers, is 500 Ibs. 
 
 The resistance of \crmifjhl iron to crushing and tensile strains is, 
 as a mean, as l'~> to 1 for American: and for Kn-jrlisli, 1"J to 1. 
 
 Tho mmn tentUe strength of American wrought iron, as dotor- 
 mineil by Prof. Johnson, is "I.IHHI Ibs.. and the mean of English, as 
 determined by Capt. Brown, Barlow, Brunei, and Fairbairn, is 
 63,900 Ibs. f 
 
 Tho ultimate extension of wrought iron is the 600th part of its 
 length. 
 
 The rrsittfincf tofljnire, acting evenly over the surface, is nearly 
 % the tensile resistance. 
 
 Modulus of Elasticity. Tho modulus or corflirint of the 
 
 elu*ti-itii of any substance is the mea-Mire of its ela-i'i r<-a<-tion or 
 force, and is tlio height of a column of the same substance, eanable. 
 of producing a ]ires-ure on its ba^e. which is to the weight causing 
 a certain decree of compression, us the length of the >nb>tance is 
 to the diminution of its length. 
 
 It is computed by this analogy: As tho extension or diminution 
 of the length of any given sobaaUMe is to it> 1-nnth in iii"h.'-. -o is 
 the force that produced that extension or diminution to the modulus 
 of its elasticity. 
 
 Or, z : P : : l:u> = , x representing the length a substnnce 1 In square 
 z 
 
 n< -.f Mr. IIiMl-kin-SMii .,u irou of low tensile strength 
 
 gives a nii'ail of t't.'M I'll. 
 
 fThe results, as given by Mr. Telford, Included experiments upon 
 Swedish iron ; hence they are omitted in this summary.
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 93 
 
 ami 1 foot In length would be extended or diminished by the force P 
 and w the weight of the modulus in tbs. 
 
 To Compute the Weight of the Modulus of Elasticity 
 of a Substance. RULE. As the extension or compression of the 
 length of auy substance is to its length, so is the weight that pro- 
 dmvil that extension or compression to the modulus of elasticity 
 in pounds avoirdupois. 
 
 EXAMPLE. If a bar of cast-Iron, 1 inch square and 10 feet In length 
 Is extended .008 Inch, with a weight of 1000 Iba., what la the weight of its 
 modulus of elasticity? 
 
 .OOS : 130 (10X12) : : 1000 : 15.000.000 Bw. 
 
 NOTE. When the weight of the modulus of elasticity of a substance 
 IB known, the height of it can be readily computed by dividing the 
 weight by the weight of a bar of the substance 1 inch square and I foot 
 in length. 
 
 Ex. 2. If a wrought-lron chain, 60 feet In length and .2 inch in diam- 
 eter, is subjected to a strain of 150 tt>s., what will it be extended? 
 
 The modulus of elasticity of iron wire is 26,808,000 fcs., and the area of 
 chain .2x; 7854^.31416. 
 
 150 
 =477,463 tt>s. per square inch, and 60x12=720 ins. 
 
 120 843.773 36 
 
 Then 477.463X = =.0128 Inch. 
 
 2B.808.000 26,808,000 
 
 To Compute the Weight when the Height is Given. 
 RULE. Multiply the weight of 1 foot in length of the material by 
 the height of the modulus in feet, and the product will give the 
 weight. 
 
 To Compute the Height of the Modulus of Elasticity. 
 RULE. Divide the weight of the modulus of elasticity of the 
 material by weight of 1 foot of it and the quotient will give the 
 height in feet. 
 
 From a series of elaborate experiments by Mr. E. Hodgkinson 
 for the Railway Commission, he deduced the following formulae for 
 the extension and compression of cast and wrought iron: 
 
 CAST-IRON EXTENSION : 13,934,040 - - 2,907,432,000 - = W. 
 I ft 
 
 e e 
 
 CAST-IBON COMPRESSION : 12,931,560 522,979,200 = W, e and e re- 
 
 l P 
 
 presenting the extension and compression, and I the length In Inches. 
 
 IT/LUSTRATION. What weight will extend a bar of cast-iron, 4 inches 
 square and 10 leet in length, to the extent of .2 inch? 
 
 13,934,040X-^ - - 2,907,432,000 - = 23223.4 - 8076.2 = 15147.2, which X 4 Ins,
 
 94 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND WEIGHT OF VAKIOUS SUB- 
 STANCES. 
 
 SUBSTANCES. 
 
 3 
 
 ulit 
 
 I. , t. 
 
 A-h 
 
 Br.isa, yellow... 
 
 wire 
 
 Copper, cast. 
 
 Kir, red 
 
 4,9.0.000 
 
 Gun-meUU 
 
 Hempen fibre*. 
 
 Ice 
 
 li'.n, cast 
 
 wre ......... 
 
 4112,000 
 
 4, N,MI, i IK) 
 
 K,:tH) (MM) 
 4.1111.1^1 
 2.71(IOl)0 
 
 6 ' 
 
 6,0 I 000 
 
 5J7W900 
 
 560000 
 
 M77.000 
 
 n; 
 
 i.i'.:i.-,m 
 
 l.796>50 
 
 7211.000 
 
 Limestone 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 Mail.le, WbltO... 
 Oak 
 
 1'ilie, 1'lK-h 
 
 " White 
 
 Steel, cast 
 
 44 wire _ 
 
 Stone, Portland 
 
 I II), ClUSt 
 
 W illow 
 
 Yel. Pin*-, mean 
 
 /.me 
 
 I.K.-IO.OOO 
 2.400,000 
 
 4,7.^IIHNI 
 
 8,i U.(KX) 
 8^80,000 
 
 ! '." 
 
 U672.000 
 
 tl'.lNIUH) 
 
 : 
 
 1,080,400 
 
 !4^08,000 
 1.710,000 
 
 i 
 
 2,K)0.(iOO 
 13,410,1100 
 
 The elasticity of Ivory, as compared to Glass, is as .95 to 1. 
 
 To Compute the Length of a Prism of a Material which 
 would be severed by its own 'Weight when Suspended. 
 RULE. Divide the tensile resistance of the material by the weight 
 of a foot of it in length, and the quotient will give the length. 
 
 Modulus of Cohesion, or Length in Feet required to Tear 
 assunder the following Substances. Kawhide, 15,375 feet; 
 
 hemp twine, 7 ..,0(10 feet; Catgut, u'.'.,"iiU feet. 
 
 Tensile Strength. '/' tance of the 
 
 fibres or particles of a body to sep;\nition. It is therefore propor- 
 tional to their number, or to" the area of its transverse section. 
 
 The fibre* of wood are .-strongest near the centre of the trunk or 
 limb of a tree. 
 
 CAST IRON. Experiments on oast iron barspive a tensile strength 
 of from 4,000 Ibs. to 5,000 Ibs. per square inch of its section, as just 
 sufficient to balance the elasticity of the metal, and as a bar of it is 
 extended the 5500th part of its length for every ton of direct strain 
 per square inch of its section, it is d due d thai its elasticity is fully 
 excited when it is extended less than tbe 3000th part of Its length, 
 and the extension of it at its limit of elasticiy is estimated at the 
 1-tioth part of its length. 
 
 The mean tensil* str> tifjth, then, of cast iron being from 16,000 to 
 20,000 Ibs., the oohuot it. \vh-n su'-.j ct d to a ten.-ile strain, may 
 be safi ly estimated at from }{ to % of this, or of its breaking strain. 
 
 A bar of cnst iron will contrast or expand .000006173, or the 
 i of its length for eaeh degree of b -at; and a-iiniini,' the ex- 
 treme range of the temperature in this country 140 ( 20 l.'OO), 
 it will contract or expand with this change .MOMtS, or the n.-.7th 
 part of its length. It .shrinks in cooling from .0104 to .0118 of its 
 
 It follows, then, that as 2240 Ibs. will extend a bar the 6500th
 
 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 95 
 
 part of its length, the contraction or extension for the 1157th part 
 will be equivalent to a force of 10,648 Ibs. (1% tons) per square inch 
 of section. 
 
 Cast iron (Greenwood) at three successive meltings gave tenaci- 
 ti. -, uf 21,300, 30,100, and 35,700 Ibs. 
 
 Cast iron at 2.5 tons per square inch will extend the same as 
 wrought iron at 5.6 tons. 
 
 The mean tensile strength of four kinds of English cast iron, as de- 
 term ined by the Commissioners on the Application of Iron to Railway 
 Struct uivs," was 15,711 Ibs. per square inch (7. 014 tons); and the 
 mean ultimate extension was, for lengths of 10 feet, .1997 inch, 
 IMMII'.: the r,iMth part of its length; and this weight would compress 
 a bur the 775th part of its length. 
 
 Tensile strength of the strongest piece of cast Iron ever tested 
 4.v.>7n Ibs. This was a mixture of grades 1, 2, and 3 of Greenwood 
 iron, and at the 3d fusion. 
 
 WROUGHT IRON. Experiments on wrought Iron bars give a 
 tensile strength of from 18,000 Ibs. to 22,400 Ibs. per square inch of its 
 section, as Just sufficient to balance the elasticitv of the metal, and 
 as a liar of it is extended the 10,000th part of its length for every ton 
 of direct strain per square inch of its section, it is deduced that its 
 elasticity is fully excited when it is extended the 1000th part of its 
 length, and the extension of it at Its limit of elasticity is estimated 
 at the 1520th part of its length. 
 
 The mean tensile strength of wrought iron being from 55,000 to 
 65,000 Ibs., the value of it, when subjected to a tensile strain, maybe 
 sat'-iy estimated at from V to % 01 this, or of its breaking strain. 
 A bar of wrought iron will expand or contract .000006614, or the 
 l. r )i.-_'(i(ith part of Its length for each degree of heat; and assuming, 
 n^ liel'ure stated for cast iron, that the extreme range (if temperature 
 in the air in this country is 140, It will contract or expand with this 
 change .inn ><_><>, or the 1080th of its length, which is equivalent to a 
 inn-.- of 20,740 Ibs. (9> tons) per square inch of section. 
 
 Experiments upon wrought iron, to determine the results from 
 repeated heating and laminating, furnished the following: From 1 
 to 6 reheating and rollings, the tensile strength increased from 
 43,904 Ibs. to 61,824 Ibs., and from 6 to 12 it was reduced to 43,904 
 again. 
 
 The tensile force of metals varies with their temperature, generally 
 decreasing as the temperature is increased. In silver the tenacity 
 decreases more rapidly than the temperature; in copper, gold, and 
 platinum it decreases less rapidly than the temperature. 
 
 In iron, the tensile strength at different temperature is as follows: 
 60. 1; 11*0 1.14; 212, 1.2; 250, 1.32; 270, 1.35: 326, 1.41: 
 435, 1.4. 
 
 STIRLING'S MIXED OR TOUGHENED IRON. By the mixture of a 
 portion of malleable iron with cast iron, carefully fused in a cruel- 
 lil'-, a tensile strain of 25,764 Ibs. has been attained. This mixture, 
 when judiciously managed and duly proportioned, increases the 
 resistance of cast iron about one-third; the greatest effect being ob- 
 tained with a proportion of about 30 per cent, of malleable iron. 
 
 Bronze (gun-metal) varies in tenacity from 23,000 to 54,500 Ibs. 
 7
 
 96 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 ELEMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE TENSILE RESISTANCE OF 
 VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 
 
 
 |i!x 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 2JJ-* 
 
 IN 
 
 StmSTANCKS. 
 
 Pi 
 
 Ills 
 
 IKatioofst 
 to thnt ( 
 inuKup 
 
 SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Jill 
 
 m 
 
 Beech 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 .8 
 
 Wrought-iron, Swe. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Jl HHI 
 
 .S4 
 
 Cast-iron, English... 
 American 
 Oak 
 
 4,000 
 6,000 
 2)856 
 
 J 
 .28 
 
 " Eng. j 
 " Am 
 
 18,850 
 
 ^m 
 
 21,000 
 
 -'i 
 
 Steel pi H tea, blue 
 tempered 
 Stool wire 
 Yellow Pine 
 
 turn 
 
 85.700 
 
 .62 
 .6 
 23 
 
 Wrought wire. No. 9. 
 
 uii.nmealed 
 Wrought wire, No. 9, 
 
 47,532 
 
 86,300 
 
 .49 
 45 
 
 Wrought-lron, or'dy 
 
 17,600 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 TENSILE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 OK POWER REQUIRED TO TEAR ASUNDER ONE SQUARE 
 
 INCH. 
 METALS. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Copper, wrought 
 " rolled 
 " cast, American 
 wire 
 
 84000 
 86000 
 
 BUM 
 
 Iron plates.mean, English 
 lengthwise 
 crnvswlse. _ 
 " Inferior, bar 
 
 61000 
 68800 
 48800 
 BOOM 
 
 " bolt 
 
 ::. ... < 
 
 
 7 i'liW) 
 
 Iron, cast. Low Moor.No. 2 
 Clyde No 1 
 
 i; I7fl 
 
 I'.!".', 
 
 " " ' " lejdiam 
 
 ." H) 
 
 6MM 
 
 " NO 8 
 
 MB 
 
 Lead, C;IM 
 
 1800 
 
 Calder No 1 
 
 
 " milltnl 
 
 MB 
 
 Stirling, mean 
 
 
 " wiro 
 
 2580 
 
 mean of American 
 mean* of English, 
 Greenwood, Amer'n.. 
 gun-metal, mean 
 wrought wire 
 best Swedish bar. 
 
 81829 
 
 HUM 
 
 87481 
 108000 
 72000 
 68500 
 
 Platinum, wire 
 Silver, cast 
 Steel, cast, maximum 
 * 4 ** moan 
 
 " blistered, soft | 
 
 6800B 
 MOOO 
 
 l:j.x) 
 88657 
 188000 
 104000 
 
 11(X)0 
 
 English bar 
 rlvots, American 
 bolts 
 
 60000 
 68300 
 
 62250 
 
 " chrome, mean 
 puddled, extreme... 
 
 
 hammered 
 mean of English 
 rivets English 
 
 531I13 
 68900 
 
 !.">;. i' 
 
 " plates, longthwise... 
 " crosswise 
 
 96800 
 
 88700 
 
 I'^XKI) 
 
 crank shaft 
 turnings 
 plates, boiler, ) 
 
 44760 
 
 Tin, cast, block 
 " Banca 
 Zinc .".."..'."'."" 
 
 6000 
 
 2122 
 3500 
 
 American J 
 
 
 " sheet 
 
 lf-000 
 
 Lake Superior and Iron Mountain charcoal bloom Iron has resisted 
 90000 Ibs. per square Inch. 
 By Commissioners on Application of Iron to Railway Structure*.
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUBSTANCES. 
 
 97 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 | 
 
 100 
 
 * 
 
 80 
 414 
 24 
 HQ 
 
 li- 
 2346 
 8500 
 140 
 
 ,'.':: 
 
 830 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Brick, well burned- 
 flre 
 " inferior .... | 
 
 Cement, blue stone 
 " li V' 1 rau lt>*.......... . . 
 riarwlch 
 " Portland, 6 mos_ 
 Sheppy 
 " Portland 1, sand 3 
 Chalk 
 
 I.illH'StolH* * 
 
 Marble, Italian ~ 
 44 white _ 
 Mortar, 12 years old 
 Plaster of Paris ...... 
 
 670 
 
 S 
 
 "SS 
 
 72 
 9000 
 
 i m 
 
 .-iTiMiH 
 
 JK 
 
 as2 
 
 8 
 8 
 
 7600 
 
 Rope, Manilla . 
 hemp, tarred _ 
 
 
 Sandstone, fine grain 
 Blate 
 
 Ohms, crown 
 Gutta-percha 
 
 Stone, bath 
 
 aa:::::=::-:: 
 
 " " mortar 
 Ivory .. 
 
 " Portland... | 
 Whalebone 
 
 Leather bflts 
 
 COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 
 Lt*. || 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 12000 
 
 .H.) 
 
 .--.Km 
 11000 
 48700 
 
 Gold 5, Copper 1_ - 
 
 50000 Copper 10, Tin 1 
 42000 r 8. Tin 1. gun-metal 
 18000 " 8, " 1. small bars 
 17608 Tin 10, Antimony 1 
 
 5678S II Yellow metal 
 
 " yeliow".".'"!.'. 
 
 Bronze, least 
 greatest 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Bet-c'h 
 
 14000 
 
 ir, " 
 
 Maple 
 
 UBOO 
 
 ll r >()0 
 
 
 
 " English 
 
 Itll.dO 
 
 IViv . .. .. 
 
 i p .. >. . 
 
 
 I "') 
 
 Cedar 
 
 11400 
 
 " African 
 
 UOOO 
 
 Chestnut, sweet ... 
 Cvpress ~- 
 Deal, Christiana 
 Elm 
 
 N>oOO 
 
 MM 
 
 12IIK) 
 l:>00 
 
 Pear 
 Pine, pitch .... 
 44 larch _ 
 " American white 
 
 '88 
 
 lLlH.,1 
 
 iSS 
 
 
 2VHK) 
 
 
 7000 
 
 Llenum-vltse - 
 
 ll-'"> 
 
 Hpruoe, white 
 
 ln--.ll 
 
 
 2>iVX) 
 
 
 woo 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 21000 
 
 T.ak 
 
 11 "<} 
 
 Spanish 
 
 uooo 
 
 avo 
 
 \Vnlnut 
 Willow 
 
 &
 
 98 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF 
 WROUGHT IRON TIE RODS. 
 
 Common English Iron, l/ 5 Inches in Diameter. 
 
 Description of Connection. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Semicircular hook fitted to a circular and welded eye 
 Two semicircular hooks hooked together 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 MIHH) 
 
 J6220 
 29120 
 4H160 
 MOM 
 
 Right-angled hook or goose-neck fitted into a cylindrical eye 
 Two links or welded eyes connected together 
 Straight rod without any connection articulation. 
 
 Iron bars when cold rolled are materially stronger than when only 
 hot rolled, the difference being In some cases as great as 3 to 2, 
 
 WIRE ROPES. 
 
 RESULT OF EXPERIMENTS ON THE TENSILE STRENGTH OF 
 IRON AND STEEL WIRE ROPES. 
 
 s 
 
 PI 
 
 Ins. 
 
 if 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 il 
 
 Lbs. 
 13440 
 
 44800 
 
 Ins. 
 
 % 
 
 Ins. 
 
 1 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 33600 
 
 56000 
 
 EXTENSION OF CAST-IRON BARS WHEN SUSPENDED 
 VERTICALLY. 
 
 1 Inch Square and 10 Feet In Length. Weight applied at one end. 
 
 1058 
 2117 
 
 Ins. 
 
 .0014 
 
 .0190 
 
 Ins. 
 
 .0000 lf> 
 .OOUUW 
 
 Ins. 
 
 am 
 
 .0871 
 
 Ins. 
 
 .00265 
 .OOS55 
 .02555 
 
 Steel. The tensile strength of steel increases by reheating and 
 rolling up to the second operation, but decreases after that. 
 
 The relative resistance of wrought iron and copper to tension 
 and compression is as 100 to 54.5. 
 
 Transverse Strength. The Transverse or Lateral Strs.ngth of 
 any Bar, J3eam, Rod, etc., is in proportion to the product of its
 
 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 99 
 
 breadth and the square of its depth; in like-sided beams, bars, etc., 
 it is as the cube of the diameter of the section. 
 
 Wh,n one end is fixed and the other projecting, the strength is in- 
 versrly as tin- distance of the weight from the section acted upon; 
 and tlic strain upon any section is directly as the distance of tlm 
 weight from that section. 
 
 When both ends are supported only, the strength Is 4 times greater 
 for an equal length, when the weight is applied in the middle be- 
 tween the supports, than if one end only is fixed. 
 
 When both end art, fixed, the strength Is 6 times greater for an 
 equal length, when the weight is applied in the middle, than if one 
 end only Ts fixed. 
 
 The strength of any beam, bar, etc., to support a weight in the 
 centre of it, when tha end re*t* merely upon two supports, compared 
 to one when the ends are fixed, is as 2 to 3. 
 
 When the weight or strain is uniformly distributed, the weight or 
 strain that can be supported, compared with that when the weight 
 or strain is applied at one end or in the middle between the sup- 
 ports, is as 2 to 1. 
 
 In metals, the less the dimension of the side of a beam, etc., or 
 the diameter of a cylinder, the greater its proportionate transverse 
 strength. This is in consequence of their having a greater propor- 
 tion of chilled or hammered surface compared to their elements of 
 strength, resulting from dimensions alone. 
 
 The strength of a cylinder, compared to a square of like diame- 
 ter or sides, is as 6.25 to 8. The strength of a holloa cylinder to 
 that of a solid cylinder, of the same length and volume, is as the 
 greater diameter of the former is to the diameter of the latter. 
 
 Thf strength of an equilateral triangle, fixed at one end and loaded 
 at the other, having an edge up, compared to a square of the same 
 area, is as 22 to 27; and the strength of an eu trilateral triangle, 
 having an edge down, compared to one with an edge up, is as 10 to 7. 
 
 NOTE. In these comparisons, the beam, bar, etc., Is considered 
 as one end being fixed, the weight suspended from the other. In 
 Barlow and other authors the comparison is made when the beam, 
 etc. , rested upon supports. Hence the stress is contrariwise. 
 
 Dt'tru*ion is the resistance that the particles or fibres of materials 
 oppose to their sliding upon each other. Punching and shearing 
 are detrusive strains. 
 
 7) jl ction. When a bar, beam etc., Is deflected by a cross-strain, 
 the side of the beam, etc., which is bounded by the concave sur. 
 face, is compressed, and the opposite side is extended. 
 
 In atones and cast metal*, the resistance to compression is greater 
 than tin- resistance to extension. 
 
 In irt>ds, the resistance to extension is greater than the resistance 
 to compression. 
 
 The general law regarding d*flfftion is, that it increases, cceteru 
 paribut, directly as the cube of the length of the beam, bar, etc., 
 and inversely as the breadth and cube of the depth.
 
 100 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 The resistance of flexure of a body at its cross-section is very 
 nearly 9-10 of its tensile resistance. 
 
 The gt-iffcjtt bar or beam that can be cut out of a cylinder is that of 
 which the depth is to the breadth as the square root of 3 to 1 ; the 
 strongest, as the square root of 2 to 1 ; and the most resilient, that 
 which has the breadth and depth equal. 
 
 RELATIVE STIFFNESS OF MATEEIALS TO RESIST A 
 TRANSVERSE STRAIN. 
 
 Ash 089 White pine 1 
 
 Beech 073 Yellow pine 087 
 
 Elm 079 Wrought iron 1.3 
 
 Oak 095 Cast iron 1. 
 
 The strength of a rectangular beam in an inclined portion, to re- 
 sista vertical stress, is to its strength in a liori/.oiital position astho 
 square of radius to the square of the cosine of elevation: that is, as 
 the square of the length of the beam to the square ot the distance 
 between its points of support, measured upon a horizontal plane. 
 
 Experiments upon bars of cast iron, 1, 2, and 3 inches square, give 
 a result of transverse strength of 447, 348, and 338 Ibs. respectively; 
 being in the ratio of 1, .78, and .756. 
 
 The strongest rectangular bar or beam that can be cut out of a cyl- 
 inder is one of which the squares of the breadth and depth of it, and 
 the diameter of the cylinder, are as 1, 2, and 3 respectively. 
 
 The i ratio of the crushing to the tranxwrse strength is nearly the 
 same in glass, stone, and marble, including the hardest and softest 
 kinds. 
 
 Green sand iron coatings are 6 per cent, stronger than dry, and 30 
 percent, stronger than chilled; but when the castings are chilled 
 and annealed, a gain of 115 per cent, is attained over those made in 
 green sand. 
 
 Chilling the under side of cast iron very materially increases its 
 strength. 
 
 WOODS. Beams of wood, when laid with their annual or annular 
 layers vertical, are stronger than when they are laid horizontal, in 
 the proportion of 8 to 7. 
 
 Woods are de.n*er at the root* and at the centre of their trunks. 
 Their strength decreases with the decrease of their density.
 
 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 
 
 101 
 
 TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, DEDUCED FROM 
 
 EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Reduced to the uniform Measure of One Inch Square, and one Foot In 
 Length ; Weight suspended from one End. 
 
 
 
 
 || 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 || 
 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 If 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 I! 
 
 
 P 
 
 >l 
 
 METALS. 
 
 JH 
 
 
 
 Jbt 
 
 
 means of 
 Cast iron, fourdivi- 
 
 507 125tolflO 
 6fill55 " 210' 
 
 WROUGHT IRON. 
 
 700 
 
 
 Atnerlcan slons of 
 
 , -JM 
 
 American ~... < 
 
 650 160to209 
 
 grades 
 
 772 
 
 M - M 
 
 
 600| 
 
 " mean by MH) Wade 
 
 BB1 
 
 170 " 225, 
 
 English 
 
 400 100 " 130 
 
 " West Pt. Foundry, 
 extreme- 
 
 HO 
 
 250 "325 
 
 
 550 1S5 " 180 
 665 65 "210 
 
 Swedish*. _.. 
 
 M English, Low Moor, 
 cold blast ~ 
 " Ponkey, cold 
 
 !7'J 
 
 110 " HO 1 
 145 " 1> 
 
 MIXTUREOFCA8TAND 
 WROUGHT IRON, etc, 
 
 Cast Iron. Blaenavon. 
 
 
 145 
 
 " hot blust, mean 
 
 500 l-ii " Ift5|| " lOperctofwr't 
 
 ... 
 
 175 
 
 11 cold ** ** - 
 
 51ti 1 ',') " 170 " 80 " " 
 
 
 230 
 
 " Ystalyfera. cold bl't 
 
 77ii lor, 255 60 " " 
 
 
 185 
 
 " mean of 05 kinds 
 
 600 125 " 16511 " and 2'X per ct 
 
 
 
 "mean of 15 kinds, 
 direct from the 
 
 
 of nick el, mean 
 
 " Stirling. 2d qu. 
 
 ... 
 
 180 
 154 
 
 Pig. cold blast- 
 
 641 IflO " 21511 " - 8d 
 
 
 125 
 
 M planed bur 
 
 518 ISO" 170 Copper 
 
 
 
 " rouich bar 
 
 
 
 
 Rteel, greatest 
 
 1918 M ' 450 STONES (American). 
 
 
 
 Steel, pud.lled (per- 
 manent bend) 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 Ash ^. 
 Beech 
 
 m 
 
 } ." 
 
 170 "225 
 
 Flagging, blue 
 freestone, Conn 
 " Dorcliester 
 N. Jersey- 
 
 5 
 
 IOJ 
 
 JM 1 
 
 17 > 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Birch.- 
 
 ,,,, 
 
 40 
 
 N. York...- 
 
 .'i. 
 
 8 
 
 Chestnut. 
 
 : 
 
 53 
 
 Granite, bine, coarse.. 
 
 
 6 
 
 Deal, Christiana - 
 Hickory '.."....... .*."*.~*. 
 
 187 
 
 ',-' 
 
 45 
 80 
 55 
 
 " Qulncy. Mass. 
 STONES (Ktigllsh). 
 Adelaide marble- 
 
 7- 
 
 
 IXK*USt . ..^. .. . 
 
 
 80 
 
 Arbroath _ 
 
 IT/ 
 
 gvz 
 
 Maple 
 
 m 
 
 
 tiangor slate 
 
 
 :i ' 
 
 Norwav pine _.. 
 
 1 ' : 
 
 40 
 
 Bath 
 
 -, > 
 
 IV 
 
 Oak, African 
 American white 
 " M live.. 
 
 M 
 
 LT> 
 
 50 
 50 
 65 
 
 ( 'alt li ness, paving, 8c. 
 ;*ornlfh granite 
 Cralgleth sandstone... 
 
 & 
 
 lo'.T 
 
 22* 
 
 7 
 
 - Canadian 
 
 1" 
 
 86 
 
 Darley sandst., Vlct'a 
 
 l.'i 
 
 4 
 
 " Dant _ 
 
 i H 
 
 80 
 
 Kentish rag- 
 
 HJ 
 
 12 i 
 
 Eng . 
 
 1 !> 
 
 85 
 
 Limestone 
 
 n. 
 
 
 " "' superior 
 PUch pine 
 
 m 
 
 ;' 
 
 45 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 Uangollen slate 
 'Park Hprlng sandst'e 
 Portland oolite- 
 
 u 
 
 1.4 
 
 7 
 
 Riga fir 
 
 M 
 
 ', 
 
 30 
 60 
 
 Valentia, paving, Irel 
 Welsh, " 
 
 r,- .1 
 
 va 
 
 23 
 
 55 
 
 Teak 
 
 White pine 
 " American 
 
 H 
 M 
 
 80 
 45 
 
 Yorkshire, bine 
 landing... 
 
 HJ 
 
 
 Whltewood 
 
 114 
 
 88 
 
 pavlne 10.' 
 
 3$ 
 
 INCREASE IN STRENGTH OF SEVERAL WOODS BY SEASONING. 
 
 Ash 44.7 percent. I Elm 12.3 per cent, I White plne....9 percent. 
 
 Beech 01.9 | Oak .26.1 | 
 
 With 840 Ibs. the deflection was 1 Inch, and the elasticity of the 
 metal destroyed.
 
 102 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 CONCBETES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 | 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 ' 
 
 || 
 
 CONCRETES (English). 
 
 l 1 
 
 . BRICKS (English). 
 Best stork 
 
 11 S 
 
 " sand, .'{parts; lime, 1 part 
 
 CKMENT8 (English) 
 
 .7 
 
 Fire-brick 
 Vcw brick 
 
 11. 
 
 107 
 
 
 - i 
 
 < )1>I lirirk 
 
 ' 1 
 
 Portland ... { 
 
 ::7..-> 
 
 Stock-brick, well burned 
 
 u 
 
 Bheppy 
 
 loj 
 r,. 
 
 
 
 TRANSVERSE STEENGTH OF CAST IRON BAES AND OAK BEAMS 
 OF VARIOUS FIGURES. 
 
 Reduced to the uniform Measure of One Inch Square of Sectional 
 Area, and One Foot in Length. Fixed at one end, Weight suspended 
 from the other. 
 
 FORM OF BAR OR 
 BEAM. 
 
 Breaking 
 Weight. 
 
 FORM OF BAR OR 
 BEAM. 
 
 Breaking 
 Weight. I 
 
 CAST IRON. 
 
 Lbs 
 
 A Equilateral triangle, an 
 
 Lbs 
 560 
 
 Square 
 Square diagonal verti- 
 
 678 
 
 V Equilateral triangle, an 
 
 058 
 
 cal 
 
 568 
 
 
 
 fc Cylinder 
 
 57. 4 i 
 
 T2ins. deep X 2 ins. wide 
 X 268 ins depth 
 
 2068 
 
 O Hollow cylinder; greater 
 diameter twice that of 
 
 7JM 
 
 2 ins. deep X 2 ins. wide 
 J. X .268 ins. depth. 
 
 565 
 
 8 Rectangular prism, 2 Ins. 
 deep X 14 in. depth 
 " 3 ins.deep X Xln.depth 
 
 "4 " XX " 
 
 1456 
 2892 
 
 l>ii.3_' 
 
 A Equilateral triangle, an 
 edge up 
 V Equilateral triangle, an 
 edge down 
 
 114 
 130
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 103 
 
 TBANSVEBSE STBENGTH OF SOLID AND HOLLOW CYLINDERS 
 OF VARIOUS MATERIALS. 
 
 One foot in length. Fired at one end ; Weight suspended from the 
 other. 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 1| 
 
 s 5 
 
 Hollow Internal 
 Diameter. 
 
 Breaking Weight 
 
 Breaking Weight 
 for I inch external 
 Diameter and pro- 
 port ionate Inter- 
 nal Diameter. 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 Ash 
 
 Ins. 
 2. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Lbs. 
 085 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 88 
 
 
 2. 
 
 1. 
 
 IM 
 
 75 
 
 Fir* 
 
 2. 
 
 
 T72 
 
 97 
 
 White pine 
 
 ifJBTALa!"*" 
 
 Cast Iron, cold blast 
 
 STONE WARE. 
 
 Rolled pipe of fine clay 
 
 | 
 
 8. 
 2.87 
 
 1.928 
 
 75 
 610 
 
 12000 
 190 
 
 a 
 
 Ml 
 8 
 
 Brick-work. A brick arch, having a rise of 2 feet, and a span 
 of 15 feet 9 inches, and 2 feet in width, with a depth at its crown of 
 4 inches, bore 358,400 Ibs. laid along its centre. 
 
 To Compute the Transverse Strength of a Rectangular 
 Beam or Bar.. WHEN A BEAM OR BAR is FIXED AT ONE END, 
 AND LOADED AT THE OTHER. Rule. Multiply the talus of the 
 inai.-i inl in the preceding tables, or as may be ascertained, by the 
 lir.M.iih and square of the depth in inches, and divide the product 
 by the length in feet. 
 
 NOTE When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout Its length, 
 the result must be doubled. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What are the weights each that a cast and wrought iron 
 bar, 2 inches square and projecting 80 inches In length, will bear with- 
 out permanent injury? 
 
 The vnluet for cast and wrought iron in this and the following cal- 
 culat ioiiH are assumed to be 225 and 180. 
 
 H.-in-o 225X2X2*= 1800, which,--2^=720 Ibs.; and 180x2x2*=l0, which, 
 +2.5=576 Ibs. 
 
 IP TTTE DIMENSIONS OF A BEAM OR BAR ARE REQJTTREP TO 
 SUPPORT A GIVEN WEIGHT AT ITS END. Rule. Divide the pro- 
 duct of the weight and the length in feet by the valut of the ma- 
 
 An inch-square batten from the same plank as this specimen broke
 
 104 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 terial, and the quotient will give the product of the breadth and 
 the square of the depth. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What Is the depth of a wrought-lron beam, 2 Inches 
 broad, necessary to support 576 Ibs. suspended ut 30 inches from the 
 fixed end? 
 
 =8, whlch,-i-2 Ins. for the breadth=4, and J 4=2 Ins., the 
 
 180 
 breadth. 
 
 WHEN A BEAM OR BAR is FIXED AT BOTH ENDS, AND LOADED 
 IN THE MIDDLE. Rule. Multiply the value of the material by 6 
 times the breadth and the square of the depth in inches, and divide 
 the product by the length in feet 
 
 NOTE. When the beam Is loaded uniformly throughout its length, 
 the result must be doubled. 
 
 EXAMPLE What weight will a bar of cast iron, 2 inches square and 5 
 feet In length, support In the middle, without permanent injury? 
 
 225X2X6X2*=10800, whlch,-5-5=2160 Ibs. 
 
 OR, IF THE DIMENSIONS OF A BEAM OR BAR ARE REQUIRED 
 TO SUPPORT A GIVEN \VKIGHT IN THK MIDDI.K. I'.I:T\VI;I:X THE 
 FIXED ENDS. Rule. Divide the product of the weight and the 
 length in feet by 6 times the value, of the material, and the quotient 
 will give the product of the breadth and the square of the depth. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What dimensions will a cast ir^n square bar 5 feet in 
 length require to support without permanent injury a stress ol 2160 Ibs? 
 2160X5 10800 
 
 = =8, which,-*-2 ins. for the assumed breadth,=4, and J 4=- 
 
 225X6 1350 
 2 ins the depth. 
 
 WHEN THE BREADTH OR DEPTH is REQUIRED. Rule. Divide 
 the product obtained by the preceding rules by the square of the 
 depth, and the quotient is the breadth; or by the breadth, and the 
 square root of the quotient is the depth. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. If 12S Is the product, and the depth is 8: then 128-5-8* 
 =2, the breadth. Also, 123-2=64, and ,J64=8, the depth. 
 
 WHEN THE WEIGHT is NOT IN THE MIDDLE BETWEEN THK 
 
 ENDS. Rule. Multiply the i-'ilue of the material by 3 times the 
 length in feet, and the 'breadth and square of the depth in indies, 
 and divide the product by twice the product of the distances of the 
 weight, or stress from either end. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the weight a cost-iron bar. fixed at both ends, 2 
 ins. square and 5 feet in length, will bear without permanent injury, 2 
 feet from one end? 
 
 225X3X5X2X2* 27000 
 
 = =2250 Ibs. 
 
 2X2X3 12 
 
 WHEN A BEAM OR BAR is SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS, AND 
 LOADED IN THE MIDDLE. Rule.. Multiply the value of the ma. 
 terial by 4 times the breadth and the square'of the depth in inches, 
 and divide the product by the length in feet.
 
 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 105 
 
 NOTE. When the beam Is loaded uniformly throughout Its length, 
 the result must be doubled. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What weight will a cast-Iron bar, 5 feet between the sup- 
 ports, and 2 Ins. square, bear In the middle, without permanent In- 
 jury? 
 
 225X2X4X^=7200. which, +5=. 1440 Ibs. 
 
 OR, IF THE DISTENSIONS ARE REQUIRED TO SUPPORT A GIYEN 
 WEIGHT. Rule. Divide the product of the weight and length in 
 feet by 3 times the vnlue of the material, and the quotient will give 
 the product of the breadth, and the square of the depth. 
 
 WHEN THE WEIGHT is IN THE MIDDLE BETWEEN THE SUP- 
 PORTS. Rule. Multiply the valu* of the material by the length in 
 feet, and the breadth, and the square of the depth in inches, and 
 divide the product by the product of the distances of the weight, or 
 stress from either support. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What weight will a cast-iron bar, 2 Ins. square and 5 
 feet in length, support without permanent Injury, at a distance of 2 
 feet from one end, or sunport? 
 
 225X5X2X2* 9000 
 
 -=1500 Ibs. 
 2x(5-2) 6 
 
 To Compnte the Pressure upon the Ends or upon the 
 Supports. Riik.\. Divide the product of the weight and its 
 distance from the nearest end or support by the whole length, and 
 the quotient will give the pressure upon the end or support farthest 
 from the weight. 
 
 2. Divide the product of the weight and its distance from the 
 farthest end, or support, by the whole length, and the quotient will 
 give the pressure upon the end or support nearest the weight. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Whnt is the pressure upon the supports In the case of the 
 pr,.,-..(liug example? 
 
 1500X2 1500X8 
 =600 Ibs. upon support farthest from the weight; 900 Ibs. 
 
 5 6 
 
 upon support nearest to the weight. 
 
 WHEN A BEAM OR BAR, FTXED OR SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS, 
 BEARS TWO WEIGHTS AT UNEQUAL DISTANCES FROM THE ENDS. 
 Let m and n represent distances of greatest and least weights 
 from their nearest end, W and 10 greatest and least weights, L 
 whole length, I distance from least weight to farthest end, and V 
 distance of greatest weight from farthest end. 
 
 mXW IX w nxu> TxW 
 
 Then h pressure at w end, and 1 pressure at W 
 
 L L Li L 
 
 end. 
 
 ILLTTSTRATION. A beam 10 feet In length, having both ends flxed in 
 a wall, bears two weight*, viz., one of 1000 IDA. at 4 feet from one of its 
 ends, and the other of 2000 Ibs. at 4 feet from the other end ; what Is the 
 pressure upon each end? 
 
 4X2"00 6X1000 4X1000 6X2000 
 H =1400 Ibs. pressure upon w end, 1 =1600 Ibs. 
 
 10 10 10 10 
 
 pressure at W end.
 
 106 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 WHEN THE PLANE OP THE BEAM OR BAR PROJECTS OBLIQUE- 
 LY UPWARD OR DOWNWARD. WHKN FIXKD AT ONI; KND AND 
 LOADED AT THE OTHER. .ftufc. Multiply tin- /-.//'/ <>f the nuite- 
 rial by the breadth and square of the depth in inches, and divide 
 the product by the product of the length m feet and the cosine of 
 the angle of elevation or depression. 
 
 NOTE. When the weight is laid uniformly along it* length, the re- 
 Bait muM be doubled. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What is the weight an ash-beam, 5 feet in length, 3 lns 
 square, and projecting upward at an angle of 7 l^, will bear without 
 permanent injury ? 
 
 55X3X3=1485, which,-i-5X cos. 7 lo',=1485-=-5x.992=299.39 Ibs. 
 
 To Compute the Transverse Strength of Cylinders, El- 
 lipses, etc. WHEN A CYUNPKK. Ui-.t TANUI.K (THI. DIAGONAL 
 BEING VERTICAL,) HOLLOW CYLINDER, OR BEAMS HAVING M.r- 
 TION8 OF AN ELLIPSE, ARE KITHKR FIXED AT ONK KXD AND 
 LOADED AT THE OTHER, OR SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS, THE 
 LOAD APPLIED IN THE MIDDLE, OR BETWEEN THE SUPI'OKTs. - 
 Ride. Proceed in all cases as if for a rectangular beam, taking for 
 the breaath and depth, and value of the material, as follows: 
 
 Cylinder, diameter 8 x.6; Rectangle, * side 1 X.7; Hollow Cylinder 
 (dlam.* dlam.*) X-6; Ellipse, transverse diam. veitlcal conj. X trans- 
 verse*, x.6; and Ellipse, conj. diam. vert, transverse X conj.* X.6 of 
 value. 
 
 When an Equilaterinl Trianffle, or T Beam. RtTLB. Proceed In all 
 cases as if for a rectangular beam, taking the following proportions of 
 the value of the material. 
 
 Fixed at one or (Eqnllaternl triangle, edge up, 6Xd, X.2 of Value. 
 h /* ^ \ Equilateral triangle, edge down, 6xP. X 34 
 both end*. ^-p beam or ^ edge down> bx&, X-42 
 
 Supported at (Equilateral triangle, edge up, bx&, X.84 " 
 < Equilateral triangle, edge down, 6xd*. X.2 " 
 both ends. r or bar. * edge up. 6Xd, X.42 
 
 To Compute the Diameter of a Solid Cylinder to Support 
 a Given Weight. WHEN FIXKD AT ONK END, AND LOADKDAT 
 THE OTHER. Rule. Multiply the weight to be supported in 
 pounds by the length of the cylinder in feet; divide the product by 
 .6 of the value of the material, and the cube root of the quotient 
 will give the diameter. 
 
 NOTE. When the cylinder is loaded uniformly throughout its length, 
 the cube root of half the quotient will give tbe diameter. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What should he the diameter of a cast-iron cylindrical 
 beam, 8 ins. in length, to support 1-5000 Ibs. without permanent injury? 
 
 15000X.66 
 8 ins.=.68 feet; -- =74.07; and f 74.07=4.2. 
 
 . r> 
 
 WHET* FIXED AT BOTH ENDS, AND LOADED rN THE MIDDLE. 
 Rule. Multiply the weight to be supported in pounds by the length 
 
 The strength of a Rectangle, the diagonal beint? vertical, compared 
 to that of its circumscribing rectangle, when tbe direction of the strain 
 is parallel to the side of it, is as 2.45 to 1.
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 107 
 
 of the cylinder between the supports In feet; divide the product by 
 .; of the value of the inatrruil, and the cube root of \ of the 
 quotient will give the diameter. 
 
 NOTE. When the cylinder Is loaded uniformly along Its length, the 
 cube root of half the quotient will give the diameter. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What should be the diameter of a cast-iron cylinder, 2 
 feet between the support*, that will support 1930S Ibs. without per- 
 manent injury? 
 
 .6X225 
 
 WHEN SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS, AND LOADED IN THE MID- 
 DLE. Rule. Multiply the weight to be supported in pounds by 
 the length of the cylinder between the supports in feet; divide the 
 product by .6 of the value of material, and the cube root of \ of the 
 quotient will give the diameter. 
 
 NOTE. When the cylinder Is loaded uniformly along Its length, the 
 cube root of half quotient will give the diameter. 
 
 EXAMPLE. What should be the diameter of a cast-iron cylinder, 2 
 feet between the supports, that will support 54000 Ibs. without per- 
 manent injury ? 
 
 54000X2 800 
 
 - -800, and f =5.85 ins. 
 .X225 4 
 
 And what its diameter If loaded uniformly along its length? 
 SOO-i-2 
 - -100, and f 100=4.64 ins. 
 
 To Compute the Relative Value of Materials to resist a 
 Transverse Strain. Let V represent this value in a Beam, liar, 
 or Cylinder, one foot in length, and one inch square, side, or in 
 diameter; W the weight; ithe length in feet; 6 the breadth, and d 
 the depth in inches; m the distance of the weight from one end; 
 and n the distance of it from the other in feet 
 
 NOTE. In cylinders, for 6 d* put d*. 
 
 IW 
 
 1. Fixed at one End, weight suspended from the other, - V. 
 
 6 d* 
 I W 
 
 2. Fixed at both Ends, weight suspended from the middle. - =V. 
 
 664* 
 
 8. Supported at both Ends, weight suspended from the middle 
 
 - =V. 
 46d* 
 
 4. Supported at both Ends, weight suspended at any other point than 
 
 mn W 
 
 the middle, - =V. 
 I bet* 
 
 5. Fixed at both Ends, weight suspended at any other point than 
 
 2m n W 
 the middle, - =V.
 
 108 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 
 
 From which formula;, the weight that may he borne, or any of 
 the dimensions, may be computed by the following: 
 
 Vdb V6d MV IW 
 
 1. =W; =l\ =b: J =d. In rectangular beams, eto 
 
 / ' W Vd 6V 
 
 IW 
 6andd=f . 
 
 66dV 66dV IW IW 
 
 2. =W- =1; =6; J **d. In rectangular beams, 
 
 I ' W 6dV *66V 
 
 IW 
 etc., 6 and d=^ . 
 
 46d*V 46dV IW IW 
 
 8. =W; =1: =b: J =d. In rectangular beams. 
 
 I W 4dV 46V 
 
 IW 
 etc., 6 and d=f . 
 
 lbd*V mnW mnW mnW 
 
 4. =W, =1; =6; J =t In rectangular beams, 
 
 win 6d*V l&V J6V 
 
 mnW 
 
 etc., 6 and d=f . 
 
 IV 
 
 2mnW 2mnW 2mnW 
 
 =W: =1; =*;J =A In rectangular 
 
 86dV 8tdV SffrV 
 
 2mnW 
 beams, etc.. 6 and d=^ . 
 
 When the weight is uniformly distributed, the same formulae will 
 apply, TV representing only half the required or given weight. 
 
 Girders, Beams, Lintels, etc. The Transverse or Lateral 
 Sknugfk of any Girder, Beam Brest-summer, Lintel, etc., is in pro- 
 portion to the product of its breadth and the square of its depth, 
 and also to the area of its cross-section. 
 
 The best form of section for cast-iron girders or beams, etc., is de- 
 duced from the experiments of Mr. K. DodgktaMOD, and such as 
 have this form of section i are known as Hodgkinson's. 
 
 The rule deduced from his experiments directs that the area of 
 the bottom flange should be 6 times that of the top ihin-if flanges 
 coiiiUM ted by u thin vertical \vcb, sufficiently rigid, however, to give 
 the requisite lateral stillness, and tapering both upward and down- 
 ward from the neutral axis: and in order to set aside the risk of an 
 imperfect casting, by any great disproportion between the web and 
 the flanges, it should be tapered so as to connect with them, with a 
 thickness corresponding to that of the flange. 
 
 As both cast and wrought iron resist ern-Oiing or compression 
 with a greater force than extension, it follows that the flan ire of a 
 girder or beam of either of these metals, which is subjected to a 
 crushing strain, according as the girder or beam is supported at both
 
 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 109 
 
 ends, or fixed at one end, should be of less area than the other flange, 
 which is subjected to extension or a tonsil*- strain. 
 
 When girders are subjected to impulse*, and are used to sustain 
 vfbntfng l<>;tils, as in bridges, etc., the best proportion between the 
 top and bottom flange is as 1 to 4: as a general rule, they should be 
 as narrow and deep as practicable, and should never be deflected to 
 more than one five-hundredth of their length. 
 
 In Public Halls, Churches and Buildings where the weight of peo- 
 ple alone is to be provided for, an estimate of 175 Ibs. per square 
 foot of floor surface is sufficient to provide for the weight of floor- 
 ing and the load upon it. 
 
 In churches, buildings, etc., the weight to be provided for should 
 be estimated at that which may at any time be placed thereon, or 
 which at any time may bear upon any portion of their floors; the 
 usual allowance, however, is for a weight of 280 Ibs. per square 
 foot of floor surface for stores and factories, and 175 Ibs. per square 
 foot when the weight of people-alone is to be provided for. 
 
 In all uses, such as in buildings and bridges, where the structure 
 is exposed to sudden impulses, the load or stress to be sustained 
 should not exceed from 1-5 to 1-6 of the breaking weight of the 
 material employed; but when the load is uniform or the stress quies- 
 cent, it may be increased to ' ., and ' 4 of the breaking weight. 
 
 An opn-web girder or bf.am, etc., Is to be estimated in its resist- 
 ance on the same principle as if it had a solid web. In cast metals, 
 allowance is to be made for the loss of strength due to the unequal 
 contraction in cooling of the web and flanges. 
 
 In cast-iron, the mean resistance to crvthing or ttrttnsion is as 4.3 
 to 1, and in wrought iron as 1.35 to 1; hence the mass of metal below 
 the neutral axis will be greatest in these proportions when the stress 
 is intermediate between the ends or supports of the girders, etc. 
 
 Wooden girder* or bfsmu, when sawed in two or more pieces, and 
 have slips set between them, and the whole bolted together, are 
 made stiffer by the operation, and are rendered less liable to decay. 
 
 Oirders cast with a face up are stronger than when cast on a side, 
 in the proportion to 1 to .96, and they are strongest also when cast 
 with the bottom flange up. 
 
 The following results of the resistances of metals will show how 
 the material should be distributed in order to obtain the maximum 
 of strength with the minimum of material: 
 
 
 To Tension. 
 
 To Crushing. 
 
 
 $21.000 
 
 <M ;..i 
 
 Copper 
 
 1 .T2.000 
 
 Ji "Vi 
 
 1*1,000 
 117000 
 
 ~W rough t- Iron 
 
 J 4-1.000 
 
 [ryw 
 
 4o!ooo 
 
 83,000 
 
 Tin- best Iron has the greatest tensile strength, and the least conv 
 pressive or crushing.
 
 110 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 The mo/tt economical construction of a girdr or beam, with ref->r- 
 ence to attaining the greatest strength with the least material, is as 
 follows: The outline of the top, bottom and sides .shoul 1 l>e a curve 
 of various forms, according M tin- hr-adth or depth throughout is 
 equal, and as the girder or beam i.s loaded oulyat one end, or in the 
 middle, or uniformly throughout 
 
 To Compute the Dimensions and Form of a Girder or 
 Beam. WHEN A GIRDEU OH HKAM is FIXKD AT ONE KM. AND 
 LOADED AT THE OTHEH. 1. Wh<-n. th d /,th /. uniform, thrani/kmit 
 th , utir ,' I n'jth. The section at every point must be in proportion 
 to the product of the length, breadth Mid square of the depth, and 
 as the s plan- oi the depth is in every point the same, the breadth 
 must vary directly as the length; consequently, each side of the 
 beam must be a vertical plane, tapering gradually to the end. 
 
 2. Whin th; breadth is uniform throughout the entire length. The 
 depth must vary as the square root of the length; hence the upper 
 or lower sides, or both, must be determined by a parabolic curve. 
 
 3. When the section at every point is similar that is, a Circle, an 
 Ellipse, a Square, or a Rectangle, the sides of which bear a fixed pro- 
 portion to each other. The section at every point being a regular 
 ngure, for a circle, the diameter at every point must be as the cube 
 root of the length; and for an ellipse, or a rectangle, the breadth 
 and depth must vary as the cube root of the length. 
 
 WHKN A GIRDER OR BEAM is FIXED AT ONE END AND LOADED 
 UNIFORMLY THROUGHOUT ITS LENGTH. 1. Wh n the, depth i* uni- 
 form throughout its entire length. The breadth must increase as the 
 square of the length. 
 
 2. When the breadth is uniform throughout its entire length. The 
 depth will vary directly as the length. 
 
 3. When the section at every point is similar, as a Circl . 
 Square, and Rectangle. The section at every point being a regular 
 figure, the cube of the depth must be in the ratio of the square of 
 the length. 
 
 WHEN A GIRDER OR BEAM is SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS. 
 1. When loaded in the middle. The constant of the beam, or the 
 product of the breadth and the square of the depth, must be in pro- 
 portion to the distance from the nearest support; consequently, 
 whether the lines forming the brain are straight or curved, they 
 meet in the centre, and of course the two halves are alike: the 
 beam, therefore, may be considered as one half the length, the 
 supported end corresponding with the free end in the case of beams, 
 one end being fixed, and the middle of the beams similarly corres- 
 ponding with the fixed end. 
 
 2. When thf, flspth ii uniform throughout. The breadth must be 
 in the ratio of the length. 
 
 3. When the breadth is uniform throughout. The depth will vary 
 as the square root of the length. 
 
 4. When the section at every point ts similar, as a Circle, Ellipse,
 
 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. Ill 
 
 and Rectangle. T\\e section at every point being a regular 
 figure, the cube of the depth will be as the square of the distance 
 
 from tin- supported .-ml. 
 
 A GIRDER OR BEAM is SUPPORTED AT BOTH ENDS, 
 AND LOADED UNIFORMLY THROUGHOUT ITS LENGTH. 1. When 
 the depth is uniform. The breadth will be as the product of the 
 length of the beam and the length of it on one side of the given 
 point, less the square of the length on one side of the given point. 
 
 2. When thfi breadth is uniform. The depth will be as the square 
 root of the product of the length of the beam and th> length of it on 
 on- siilc of the given point, less the square of the length on one side 
 of the given point 
 
 3. Whfn the section at every point i similar, as a Cirde, Ellipse, 
 Square, and Rectangle. The section at every point being a regular 
 figure, the cube of the depth will be as the product of the length of 
 the beam and the length of it on one side of the given point, less the 
 square of the length on one side of the given point. 
 
 GENERAL DEDUCTIONS FROM THE EXPERIMENTS OF STEPHEN- 
 BON, FAIKHAIIIX, CUIJITT, HUGHES, ETC. Fairbairn shows in his 
 experiments that with a stress of about 12, :?_'<) ll>s. JMT square inch 
 on lit inm, and 28,000 Ibs. on wrought iron, the sets and elonga- 
 tions are nearly equal to each other. 
 
 A cast-iron beam will be bent to one-third of its breaking weight 
 if the load is laid on gradually, and one-sixth of it, if laid on at 
 one.-, will produce the same effect, if the weight of the beam is 
 small compared with the weight laid on. Hence beams of cast iron 
 should be made capable of bearing more than 6 times the greatest 
 weight which will be laid upon them. 
 
 In wrought-iron beams, if fixed at both ends, the upper flange 
 should be larger than the lower, in the ratio of 1.32 to 1. 
 
 The breaking weights in similar beams are to each other as the 
 squares of their like linear dimensions; that is, the breaking weights 
 of beams are computed by multiplying together the area of their 
 section, their depth, and a constant, determined from experiments 
 on beams of the particular form under investigation, and dividing 
 the product by the distance between the supports. 
 
 Cast and wrought iron beams, having similar resistances, have 
 weights nearly as 2.44 to 1. 
 
 The range of the comparative strength of girders of the same 
 depth, having a top and bottom flange, and those having bottom 
 flange alone, is from having but a little area of bottom flange to a 
 large proportion of it, from % to \ greater strength. 
 
 A box beam or girder, constructed of plates- of wrought iron, 
 compared to a sin-jl . rib and flanged beami, of equal weights, has 
 a resistance as 100 to 93. 
 
 The resistance of beams or girders, where the depth is greater 
 than their breadth, when supported at top, is much increased. In 
 some cases the difference is fully one third 
 
 When A beam is of equal thickness throughout its depth, the
 
 112 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 
 
 curve should be an ellipse to enable it to support a uniform load with 
 equal resistance in every part; and it' tin- beam is an open one, tho 
 curve of equilibrium, for a uniform load, sin mid be that of a para- 
 bola. Hence, when the middle portion is not wholly removed, the 
 curve should be a compound of an ellipse and a parabola, approach- 
 ing nearer to the latter as the middle part is decreased. 
 
 Girders of cast iron, up to a span of 40 feet, involve a less cost 
 than of wrought iron. 
 
 Cast iron beams and girders should not be loaded to exceed one- 
 fifth of their breaking weight; and when the >train is attended with 
 concussion and vibration, this proportion must be incrca>ed. 
 
 Simple cast iron girders may be made 60 feet in length, and the 
 best form is that of llodgkinson: when subjected to a liv 
 the flange should he as 1 to 6, and when to a concussion, etc., as 1 i< I. 
 
 The forms of girders for .-dim: the limit of those of 
 
 simple cast iron are various; the principal ones adopted an- those of 
 the straight or arched cast iron girders in separate pieces, and bolted 
 together the Trussed, the Bow-string, and the wrought iron Box 
 and Tubular. 
 
 A Straight or Arched Girder is formed of separate castings, and is 
 entirely dependent upon the bolts of connection for its strength. 
 
 A Trussed or Boro-string Girder is made of one or more castings 
 to a single piece, and its strength depend-;, other than upon tin; 
 depth or area of it, upon the proper adjustment of the tension, or 
 the initial strain, upon the wrought iron truss. 
 
 A Box or Tubular Girder is made of wrought iron, and is best 
 
 constructed with east iron tops, in order to n>>ist compression: this 
 form of girder is best adapted to afford lateral stiffness. 
 
 Floor Beams, Girders, etc. The condition of the stress borne 
 by a floor beam is that of a beam supported at both ends and 
 uniformly loaded; but from the irregularity in its loading and un- 
 loading, and from the necessity of its pOMMBfalg great rigidity, it is 
 impracticable to estimate its capacity other than as a beam having 
 the weight borne upon the middle of its length. 
 
 To Compute the Depth of a Floor Beam. WHEN THE 
 LENGTH AND BKKAOTH AKE GIVEN, AND THE DISTANCE BKTWI.I N 
 THE CENTRES OF THE BEAM is ONE FOOT. Rule. Divide the 
 product of the square of the length in feet and the weight to be 
 borne in pounds per square foot of floor, by the product of I times 
 the breadth and the value of the material from the Table (page 208,) 
 and the square root of the quotient will give the depth of the beam 
 in inches. 
 
 EXAMPLE. A white pine beam Is 2 Ins. wide, and 12 fert In length hp- 
 tween the suppora ; what should be the depth of It to support a weight 
 Of 175 Ibs. per square foot? 
 
 IS* \ IT:, 
 
 =105, and J 105=10.25 Ins. 
 
 2X4X30 
 
 WHEN THE DISTANCE BETWEEN THE CENTRES OF THE BEAM 
 is GREATEB OR LESS THAN ONE Yom.Rule. Divide the product
 
 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 113 
 
 of the square of tin- depth for n beam, tc Km tJie distance between th 
 centra it one foot, by the distance given in inches by 12, and the 
 square root of' the quotient will give the depth of the beam in inches. 
 EXAMPLE. Assume the beam In the preceding case to be net 15 Ins. 
 from the centres of Its adjoining beams; what should be Its depth ? 
 
 =131.25, and J 131.26- 11.45 Ins. 
 
 Header and Trimmer Beams. The conditions of the stress 
 borne or to be provided for by them are as follows: 
 
 IT !'!' r or Trimmer beams support M of the weight of and upon 
 the tail beams inserted into or attached to them. 
 
 Trimmer Btanw support, in addition to that borne by them 
 directly as a floor beam, each % the weight on the headers. 
 
 The stress, therefore, upon a header is due directly to its length, 
 or the number of tail beams it supports; and the stress upon the 
 trimmer beams is that of their own stress as a floor beam, and )4 of 
 the weight upon the header supported by them. 
 
 NOTK. The distance between the support of the trimmer-beams and 
 the point of connection with the header does not in anywise affect the 
 si ri >< upon the trimmer-beams; for in just proportion as this distance, 
 is increased, and the stress upon them consequently Increased, by the 
 suspension of the header from them nearer to the middle of their 
 length, so is the area of their surface supported by the header reduced, 
 and, consequently, the load to be borne by It 
 
 Girder. The condition of the stress borne by a Girder* is that 
 of :i beam fixed or supported at both ends, as the case may be, sup- 
 porting the weight borne by all of the beams resting thereon, at 
 the points at which they rest; and its dimensions must be propor- 
 tionate to the stress upon it, and the distance between its points of 
 insertion or support. 
 
 ILLUSTRATION. It is required to determine the dimensions of ft 
 pitch-pine glnler. l.'i feet between its several points of supports, to sup- 
 port the ends of two lengths of beams each 20 feet In length, having a 
 superincumbent weight, including that of the beams, of 200 IDS. per 
 square foot. 
 
 The condition of the stress upon such a girder would be that of a 
 number of beams, 40 feet in length (20x2), supported at both ends, and 
 loaded uniformly along their length, witn 200 Ibs. upon every super- 
 ficial foot of their area. 
 
 Hence the amount of the weight to be borne Is determined by 20y2X 
 15X200=120,000 Ibs. the product of twice the length of r beam, the dis- 
 tance between the supports of the girder and the weight borne per 
 square foot of area; and the resistance to be provided for is that to be 
 borne by a beam, 15 feet in length, fixed at both ends, and supporting 
 120,000 Ibs. uniformly laid along its length, equal to 60,000 Ibs. supported 
 at Its centre. 
 
 15X00,000 
 
 Consequently, - = 3000=quotient of the product of the length 
 
 6x50 
 and weight + the product of 6 times the value of the material : and 
 
 assuming the girder to be 12 inches wide, then j =15.8 ins. 
 
 When a girder has four or more supports, its condition as regards a 
 stress upon Its middle Is that of a beam fixed at both ends.
 
 114 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, 
 
 FORMULJE TO COMPUTE THE VALUES AND THE DIMENSIONS 
 OF BEAMS, BARS, ETC., OF VARIOUS SECTIONS.-(TKtDGOLJ).) 
 
 For a Square, Rectangle, Rectangle the diagonal being vertical, and 
 Cylinder, they are alike to those already given, substituting in the 
 Rectangles for 6 d 2 . 8 s . 
 
 For a Grooved or Double-flanged, Open, and Single-flanged Beam 
 they are as follows : 
 
 Grooved. 
 
 Open. 
 
 1. Fixed at one End,) rW 
 
 Weight suspended V =V. 
 
 from the other, ) 6 d (1 q y*) 
 
 2. Fixed at both Ends,) IW 
 
 Weight suspended V =V. 
 
 from the middle, j 6 d* (1 q y 3 ) 
 
 8. Supported at both) , w 
 
 Ends, Weigh BUS- I _ =v 
 
 ,,led from **\>*^ 
 
 t both\ mnW 
 
 it BUS- | __^____^^^ 
 
 pended atany other 
 
 point than the mid- bd?m + n (lq y) 
 ' mnW 
 
 5. Fixed at both Ends, 
 Weight suspended 
 
 = V 
 
 aw V 
 
 b d* m + n (1 y 8 ) 
 mnW 
 
 6 d TO + n (1 y) 
 
 f 
 
 - *a 
 
 UJl 
 
 I W 2.) For the other condi- 
 8. I tlons of a Beam, Bar, 
 =V. 4. [ etc. , use the same for- 
 5. J mula as the above, mul- 
 tiplying the Value obtained above by 6, 4, 1 and 1.5 respectively, y and q 
 depth of groove whole breadth of beam- 
 representing =y, and 
 
 whole depth of beam 
 width of web 
 
 whole breadth of beam 
 
 TRANSVERSE RESISTANCE FROM END PRESSURE APPLIED 
 HORIZONTALLY. 
 
 WROUGHT IRON. "7% feet in lencth; flanges, 6x3^ ins. X % 
 depth; area, 5> 2 .square ins. ; 50,000 Ibs. produced no set; 58,240 ibs. 
 produced a set 01 1% ius 
 
 WHITE OAK. Rectangle 10 feet in length, 11X4U ins. : 33,600 Ibs. gave 
 a deflection of .% in. ; 50,400 Ibs. gave a deflection of A in.; 67,200 Ibs. 
 gave a deflection of .% and with 78,400 it broke.
 
 
 STRENGTH OP MATERIALS. 
 
 115 
 
 TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON GIRDERS AND BEAMS, DE- 
 DUCED FROM EXPERIMENTS IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA. 
 Reduced to a Uniform Measure of One Inrh in Drpth, One Foot in Length. 
 Supported at both End* ; the titreu or Weight applied in the Middle. 
 
 
 FUntce*. 
 
 j 
 
 
 jj 
 
 a 
 
 3** 
 
 
 
 SECTION OP 
 
 
 
 >* 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 !*' 
 
 !i 
 
 fl 
 
 0- 
 
 GIRDER OR 
 BEAM. 
 
 1 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 ^ 
 3 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 ! 
 
 a 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 Breaking 
 Length of 
 
 I 
 
 if 
 
 
 Sq. Ins 
 
 Sq. Ins. 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 In. 
 
 Sql. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 LbB 
 
 Ll.s. 
 
 Eq. area 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I of flange 
 at i, i. A- 
 bottom, 
 
 1.75X.42 
 
 1.77 M 
 
 .29 
 
 5.125 
 
 L77 
 
 2.82 
 
 80150 
 
 10768 
 
 2100 
 
 H <- 
 
 2.02X315 2.02X315 
 =1.045 =1.045 
 
 JBL* 
 
 ifl 
 
 2.02 
 
 2.59 
 
 10276 
 
 3952 
 
 1900 
 
 Area 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M of see. 
 a of top 
 L&bot. 
 
 ""- .7-' 
 
 6.67X.66 
 = 4.4 
 
 .266 
 
 5.128 
 
 6.67 
 
 6.28 
 
 117460 
 
 18852 
 
 3650 
 
 *-lto6,J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 5 -. > i:! 
 
 JM 
 
 136 
 
 5. 
 
 1.96 
 
 7280 
 
 8714 
 
 2350 
 
 
 j 1 j 
 
 ' ''i5 
 
 
 .865 
 
 1.68 
 
 6. 
 
 1.96 
 
 Mi 
 
 1213 
 
 760 
 
 
 
 
 28.9X8.12 
 
 ; ; 
 
 
 
 Ml - 
 
 
 
 
 r 
 
 . f 
 
 
 = 74.66 
 
 
 (6.1 
 
 
 *.. . 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 C. 
 
 ! 
 
 .--! 
 
 = .75 
 
 .5 
 
 4-t 
 
 L6 
 
 1. 
 
 19980 
 
 199SO 
 
 5000 
 
 m 
 
 i 
 
 ' .f'-' 
 
 ' .^ 
 
 .5 
 
 It 
 
 L6 
 
 1. 
 
 7252 
 
 7252 
 
 1800 
 
 | 
 
 u -: 
 
 4 X2 
 -8 
 
 
 
 
 4. 
 
 4. 
 
 14 
 
 83600 
 
 2800 
 
 700 
 
 1 
 
 { 
 
 5.1X288 
 = 11.88 
 
 12.1X2.07 
 KM 
 
 2.08 
 
 303 
 
 11.1 
 
 90.8 
 
 4798800 
 
 m 
 
 1700 
 
 Rectaniru- } 
 1 lar Prism, > 
 
 H 
 
 1.0D5X.98 
 
 .-. . l. : 
 LOOS M 
 .771X131 
 1.507X.74 
 L525X.78 
 
 1.005X.99 
 
 JS. 
 
 77! UJ 
 I. -'7 .71 
 
 1325X.78 
 
 .994 
 
 S 
 
 .006 
 
 .771 
 607 
 
 M 
 
 2.012 
 
 2.51 
 
 i.nl 
 
 ii04 
 4.07 
 
 2.994 
 
 .005 
 
 JH 
 .(XVi 
 .771 
 .607 
 
 JH 
 
 2.025 
 .98 
 
 .'98 
 M 
 
 Z 
 2^5 
 
 9440 
 UNO 
 
 -,7."-! 
 
 teas 
 
 80000 
 
 6232 
 771.1 
 080S 
 10TO 
 1640 
 Ml 
 
 2350 
 
 2450 
 M 
 
 3100 
 
 ^_ Square ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S3 Prism, 
 
 
 
 
 .11-' 
 
 1.01 
 
 1,02 
 
 .032 
 
 2635 
 
 2552 
 
 2500 
 
 " Stress 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 at EOda, 
 Cylinder! J 
 
 
 
 
 
 .122 
 
 1.122 
 
 .122 
 
 .989 
 
 2370 
 
 2396 
 
 2150 
 
 4JSU 
 
 
 
 4431 
 
 L443 
 
 .443 
 ~tn. 
 
 .041 
 
 2269 
 
 2182 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 1 A ivpresentlng area of secMen. d the depth It 
 the 'breaking weight in pouncU.
 
 116 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 CRUSHING STRENGTH OF VARIOUS MATERIALS, DEDUCED 
 
 FROM EXPERIMENTS IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA. 
 
 Reduced to a uniform Measure of One Square 1m h. 
 
 1 
 
 FIGURES AND MATERIAL. 
 
 ss 
 
 FIGURES AND MATERIAL. 
 
 Cm sli ing 
 Weight. 
 
 Prisms. 
 
 CAST IRON. 
 
 American, gun-metal 
 " mean 
 English, LoW ( Moor, No. I..... 
 
 Clyde, No's.'.'.'.'" 
 Stirling, mean of all 
 " extreme 
 
 WROUGHT IRON. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 ITNfl 
 139000 
 
 liL'I.Vl 
 
 B28lo 
 
 106060 
 122396 
 
 i.-; in vi 
 
 127720 
 83600 
 
 Bsaoo 
 
 40000 
 
 wri 
 
 1170., 
 
 2Q600I 
 
 i/woo 
 7730 
 
 6663 
 
 mi 
 
 -'.'< 
 lasu 
 
 UK 
 fiW 
 
 8811 
 mat 
 
 >!!: 
 
 88 
 
 nog 
 
 9500 
 MM 
 BM 
 
 :>--:. 
 
 on 
 
 5950 
 7089 
 
 laioo 
 
 6645 
 
 2000 
 OK 
 
 4000 
 800 
 
 Clay, fine, baked 
 
 Lbs. 
 175 
 400 
 iO 
 500 
 
 IP 
 
 -,:!! 
 l'!-j 
 
 MM 
 
 mn 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 isra 
 
 1.5000 
 ON 
 
 .>:,.) 
 1717 
 KEd 
 
 me 
 
 :,:i!) 
 BOM 
 HM 
 
 1980Q 
 
 :.;ID 
 16800 
 9087 
 
 M'til 
 28017 
 
 l-.'ll 
 
 L-J702 
 
 0080 
 IflM 
 
 ni')6 
 
 1S2-18 
 ldl-24 
 OBM 
 240 
 120 
 1543 
 
 iaao 
 
 342 
 
 L N, K ) 
 
 am 
 
 UI7t>2 
 2177 
 2228 
 
 " rolled and baked 
 Common brick masonry j 
 
 'Craigleith Limestone, Eng'h j 
 [Aberdeen granite, " 
 JArbroath " 
 CaithneM " 
 'Limestone 
 Portland " 
 Portland cement 
 mean " 
 Portland oolite " 
 Fire-brick, stourbridge... 
 Freestone, Bellville 
 
 " mean 
 
 English 
 ' ( 
 
 VARIOUS METALS. 
 
 Fine brass ^. 
 
 Cast copper... 
 
 Cast steel .. 
 
 Cast tin . .. 
 Lead 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 Ash. ... 
 
 " Connecticut.^ 
 Dorchester 
 " Little Falls. 
 Gneiss 
 
 Beech 
 
 Birch. 
 Box 
 Cedar, red , '. 
 Chestnut 
 Elm '...."."" ."._"" 
 Hickory, white.. "...... 
 Locust 
 
 Granite, Patapsco 
 " Qtiinev 
 
 Marble, Baltimore, large 
 small 
 " East Chester* 
 Hasting?, N. Y 
 Italian 
 Lee, Mass 
 Montgomery oo.,Pa... 
 " Stockbridgef 
 Symington, large. 
 " fine crvstal 
 " strata h or 1 zon ta 1 
 " strata vertical 
 Mortar, good 
 
 Mahogany, Spanish 
 
 Maple 
 Oak, American white 
 " Canadian white 
 " " live 
 " English j 
 
 Pine, pitch 
 " white ... 
 44 yellow ..'.'.. 
 Spruce, white 
 Sycamore 
 
 " common 
 Normandy Caen 
 
 Walnut 
 
 Portland cement, 1 ; sand, 1 
 
 STONES, CEMENTS, ETC. 
 
 Brick, hard j 
 " common j 
 
 Sandstone, Adelaide.. 
 
 Acquia Creek! 
 
 stJkbrick 8 !^::::: 
 
 Sydney " 
 
 * Same as that of the General Post Office, Washington. 
 f Same as that of the City Hall. New York. 
 
 a Same as that of the Smithsonian Institute. 
 
 r Same as that of the National Washington Monument.
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 117 
 
 CRUSHING STRENGTH. 
 
 The crushing strength of any body is in proportion to the area of 
 its section, and inversely as its height. In tapered columns, the 
 strength is determined by the least diameter. 
 
 When the height of a pri*m or column is not 5 times its side or 
 diameter, the crushing strength is at its maximum. 
 
 Experiments upon cast-iron born give a crushing stress of 5,000 Ibs. 
 per square inch of section as just sufficient to overcome the elas- 
 ticity of the metal ; and when the height exceeds 3 times the diam- 
 eter, the iron yields by bending. 
 
 When it is 10 times, it is reduced as 1 to 1.75; when it is 15 times, 
 it is reduced as 1 to 2; when it is 20 times, it is reduced as 1 to 3; 
 when it is 30 times, it is reduced as 1 to 4; and when it is 40 times, 
 it is reduced as 1 to 6. 
 
 The experiment of Mr. ITodpkinson have determined that an in- 
 crease of strength of about % of the breaking weight is obtained 
 by enlarging the diameter of the column in its middle. 
 
 In cast iron column* of the snme thickness, the strength Is inversely 
 proportional to the ' power of the length nearly. Thus in solid 
 
 d* 1 * 
 
 columns, the ends being flat, the strength is as , I representing the 
 
 P-i 
 length, and / the diameter. 
 
 Hollow columns, having a greater diameter at one end than the 
 other, have not any additional strength over that of uniform cylin- 
 drical columns. 
 
 Kxperiment upon wrought iron give a mean crushing stress of 
 74. -.'"<) Ibs. per square inch. Cast iron is decreased in length nearly 
 double what wrought iron is by the same weight; but wrought iron 
 will sink to any degree with little more than 26680 Ibs. per square 
 inch, while cast iron will bear 97500 Ibs. to produce the same effect 
 
 A wrought bar will bear a compression of 1-863 of its length, with- 
 out its utility being destroyed. 
 
 With cast iron, a pressure beyond 26680 Ibs. per square inch is of 
 little, if any, use in practice. 
 
 For equal decrements of length, wrought iron will sustain double 
 the pressure of cast iron. 
 
 a GRatt and the. hardest stones have a crushing strength from 7 to 9 
 times greater than tensile; hence an approximate value of their 
 crushing strength may be obtained from their tensile, and contrari- 
 wise. 
 
 Various experiments show that the power of stones, &c., to resist 
 the effects of freezing is a fair exponent of that to resist compres- 
 sion.
 
 118 
 
 DAMS AND TUNNELS. 
 
 WROUGHT IRON PLATES, CYLINDRICAL TTJBES. 
 
 LENGTH. 
 
 1 
 
 M 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Crushing 
 Weight. | 
 
 PLATES. 
 
 feet 
 
 Ins. 
 2.98 
 
 Ins. 
 .497 
 
 Ins 
 
 1 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 815 
 
 
 801 
 
 766 
 
 2.3 
 
 3379 
 
 HOLLOW CYLINDERS. 
 
 feet 
 
 External. 
 1.495 
 
 Internal. 
 1.292 
 
 444 
 
 14661 
 
 II 
 
 249 
 
 2- r T5 
 
 BM 
 
 12)779 
 
 II 
 
 6.366 
 
 6.'l06 
 
 2.547 
 
 35686 
 
 KECTANGULAK TUBES. 
 
 4.1 
 4.1 
 425 
 
 4.1 
 4.1 
 425 
 
 .504 
 
 l.i'-' 
 2,895 
 
 10980 
 MM 
 
 flap-riveted, and two Internal) 
 \diaphragm plates J 
 
 8.4 
 8.1 
 8.1 
 
 4.25 
 8.1 
 
 8.1 
 
 ti >.( 
 2.07 
 3.551 
 
 JWsl 
 13^60 
 19800 
 
 EXPANSION OR DILATATION OF SOLIDS. (FARADAY.) 
 
 Lineal. 
 At 212, the length of the bar at 32=1. 
 
 Bismuth .. 1.0013908 Gold 1.001495 
 
 Brass 10019062 Granite 1.0007894 
 
 Silver 1.00201 
 
 Slate 1.0011436 
 
 Cast Iron 1.0011112 Lead 1.0028426 Stock brick 1.0005502 
 
 Cement 1.001435 Marble 1.001HU1 Mt^el 1.0011899 
 
 Coppor 1.00H:55 Pavement* 
 
 Fire-brick... 1.0004028 Platinum. 
 
 .. 1.0008645 Sandstone 1.001743 
 
 Tin... 
 Zinc.. 
 
 iRht Iron.... M :ni-j.-,75 
 . 1.002042 
 
 DAMS AND TUNNELS. 
 
 DAMS (EARTHWORK.) 
 
 "Width at top In high dams from 7 to 20 ft. I Breast slopes = 3 to 1 
 
 Width at top in low dams = height. | Back slopes =2tol 
 
 Height above surface of water not less than 3.5 feet. 
 
 PROPORTION OF LABORERS IN BANK. FILLERS, AND WHEELERS 
 IN DIFFERENT SOILS, WHEELERS BEING ESTIMATED FOR A 
 DISTANCE OF FIFTY YARDS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ri 
 
 
 j 
 
 | 
 
 1 
 
 
 E 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 i 
 
 ;: 
 
 Inloose earth, sand He 
 In compact earth 
 In marl 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 fn hard clav 
 In compact gravel 
 In rock 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 f
 
 STRENGTH OF ICE. 
 
 119 
 
 MASONRY. 
 
 Width at bottom = .7 height; at middle = .5 height ; and at top = .3 
 height. 
 
 TUNNELS. (FROM ACTUAL PRACTICE IN BRICKWORK.) 
 
 
 !| 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 1 
 
 PURPOSE. 
 
 II 
 
 8 
 
 ! 
 
 is 
 
 If 
 
 
 fc,0 
 
 
 33 
 
 K 
 
 BO 
 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Feet. Ins. 
 
 Feet. Ins. 
 
 Canal 
 
 Various 
 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 1 3 
 
 Canal 
 
 Clay 
 
 21 
 
 e 
 
 20 
 
 1 6 
 
 Thames Tunnel.... 
 
 Clay 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 :;; ; 
 
 2 6 
 
 Railway _ 
 
 Chalk 
 Various 
 
 -: 
 27 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 27 
 27 
 
 1 10}$ 
 
 
 tthale 
 
 80 
 
 
 30 
 
 i loll 
 
 4 
 
 ( Jn-i'M siuid 
 
 30 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 1 :; J 
 
 Canal ....."""'."'.'!!!." 
 
 Fret-stone _ 
 Chalk and earth.. 
 
 8 
 
 
 36 
 35 6 
 
 2 8 
 1 2 
 
 WESTD-MILLS. (MOLESWORTH.) 
 
 To Compute the Angles of the Sails. 
 
 18 d* 
 
 23 = angle of the sail with the plane of motion at any part of 
 
 r* 
 
 the sail; r representing radius of sail in feet, and d distance of any part 
 of the sail Jrom the axis. 
 
 Axis OP SHAFT OF WIXD-MILL WITH HORIZON. 
 
 8 upon level ground. 
 
 Breadth of whip at axis, JL length of whip. 
 
 Depth ^ 
 
 Breadth of whip at end, Jl 
 
 Depth ^ 
 
 Width of sail " | 
 
 DivMod bv the whip in the proportion of 5 to 3, the narrowest por- 
 tion being lie iresl to the wind. 
 
 Width of sail at axis, length of whip; distance of sail from axis, } 
 length of whip. 
 
 Cross-bars from 16 to 18 Inches apart. 
 
 STRENGTH OF ICE. 
 
 Thickness, 2 Ins. will bear infantry. 
 
 4 " cavalry or light guns. 
 
 6 " heavy field nuns. 
 
 upon sledges, a weight not exceeding 1000 
 Ibs. per square foot.
 
 120 SHRINKAGE OP CASTINGS. 
 
 STIFFNESS OF BEAMS. 
 
 Stiffness of Beams. (TRKDGOLD.) 
 
 P W c 
 
 = d; - = 6; 6 representing breadth, and d depth In Inches 
 6 (/' 
 
 I length In feet, and W load In Ibs. upon the middle. 
 C = Pine. .01; Ash, .01; Beech, .013; Elm, .015; Oak, .13; Teak, .008. 
 When the beam Is uniformly loaded, put .i5 W Instead of W. 
 
 Resistance to Detrusion. When one beam is let in, at an in- 
 
 clination to tlni depth of another, so as to bear in tin- direction of 
 the lihrt-s of the l)t-;ini that is cut, tin- depth of the cut atriyht <i,, : //,s 
 to ^t7t;'ftfir,'n slioultl not be more than oiu'-tifth of the length of the 
 piece, the fibres of wliich, by their cohesion, re>i>t tin- pressure. 
 
 To Compute the Length necessary to resist a given Hori- 
 zontal Thrust, as in the Case of a Rafter let into a Tie- 
 Beam. 
 
 4T 
 
 = 1; b representing the breadth of the beam In Inches, T the hori- 
 
 be 
 
 zontal thrust In Ibs., c the cohesive resistance of the material In Ibs. 
 per square Inch, and I the length In inches. 
 
 REVOLVING DISC. 
 
 To Compute the Power. RTTLE. Multiply one-half the weight 
 of the disc by the height due to the velocity of its circumference in 
 feet per second. 
 
 EXAMPLE. A grind-stone S% feet In diameter, weighing 2000 Ibs., Is 
 required to nwke.'iii-J'i revolutions per minute; waul power must be 
 com muni rated to It? 
 
 Circum. of 3% =10.6 feet, which X 362.25 and -i- 60 = 64 feet per second. 
 Then 2000 -=- 2 X 64 = 61000 ll>s. raised 1 foot, 
 
 NOTE. If the rev< Iving disc Is not an entire or solid wheel, being a 
 ring or annnlus.lt most first be computed as If n entire disc, and then 
 the portion wanting must be computed and deducted. 
 
 Power Concentrated in Moving Bodies. Simple power Is 
 force multiplied by its velocity. Power concentrated in a moving 
 body is the weight of the body mvltf/i'ii'l />>/ tk- xgitare of its velocity; 
 and the product divided by the acceler<dri-r,\ir the power concentrated 
 in a moving body is equal to the power expended in generating the 
 motion. 
 
 SHRDTKAGE OF CASTINGS. Jn 
 
 Iron, small cylinders .......................................... = ^ per foot. 
 
 " Pipes ........................................................ = " 
 
 " Girders, beams, etc ...................................... = \ in 15 ins. 
 
 " Large cylinders, the contraction of diameter at 
 
 top ....................................................... = ^ per foot 
 
 Ditto at bottom .......................................... = ^ per foot. 
 
 " Ditto in length .......................................... = finl6ins.
 
 VERNIER SCALE. 
 
 121 
 
 Brass, thin = J in 9 ins. 
 
 Braaa, thick = f in 10 ins. 
 
 Zinc = -fr in a foot. 
 
 Lead = ^ in a foot. 
 
 Copper = A in afoot. 
 
 BiBmuth = ft in a foot. 
 
 VERXIER SCALE. 
 
 The Vernier Scale is 11-lOths, divided Into 10 equal parts; so that 
 It divides a scale of lOths into lOOths when the lines meet In the two 
 scales. 
 
 COMPARATIVE WEIGHT OF TIMBER IN A GBEEN AND 
 SEASONED STATE. 
 
 TIMBER. 
 
 Weight of a Cub. Ft 1 1 
 Green. B^OO^JI TIMBER. 
 
 Weight of a Cub. KU 
 
 Green. 
 
 BMMMM >i. 
 
 Amer. Pine- 
 Ash 
 
 Beech 
 
 l>-. Oz. 
 fell 
 
 6s. 3 
 60. 
 
 Lb* Or. 
 
 30.il 
 
 60. 
 686 
 
 Cedar 
 
 Kimlisii Utik 
 Riga Fir 
 
 71 10 
 48.12 
 
 Lh.0z. 
 284 
 438 
 858 
 
 To Compute the "Weight of Cast Metal by the Weight of 
 the Pattern. WHEN THE PATTERN IB OK WHITK PINE. RULE. 
 Mujtiply tile weight of the pattern in pounds by the following mul- 
 tiplier, and the product will give the weight of the casting: 
 
 Iron, 14; Brass, 15; Lead, 22; Tin, 14; Zinc, 13.5.
 
 122 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
 
 Bar of Iron. The average breaking weight of a Bar of 
 Wrought Iron, 1 inch square, is 25 tons; its elasticity is destroyed, 
 however, by about two-fifths of that weight, or 10 tons. It is ex- 
 tended, within the limits of its elasticity, -000096, or one-ten- 
 thousandth part of an inch for every ton of strain per square inch 
 of sectional area. Hence, the greatest constant load should never 
 exceed one-fifth of its breaking weight, or 5 tons for every square 
 inch of sectional area. 
 
 The lateral strength of wrought iron, as compared with cast iron, 
 is as 14 to 9. Mr. Barlow finds that wrought iron bars, 3 inches 
 deep, 1J inches thick, and 33 inches between the supports, will 
 carry 4 tons. 
 
 Bridges. The greatest extraneous load on a square foot is 
 about 120 pounds. 
 
 Floors. The least load on a square foot is about 160 pounds. 
 
 Roofs. Covered with slate, on a square foot, 61 J pounds. 
 
 Beams. When a beam is supported in the middle and loaded 
 at each end, it will bear the same weight as when supported at 
 both ends and loaded in the middle ; that is, each end will bear 
 half the weight. 
 
 Cast Iron Beams should not be loaded to more than one-fifth of 
 their ultimate strength. 
 
 The strength of similar beams varies inversely as their lengths; 
 that is, if a beam 10 feet long will support 1000 pounds, a similar 
 beam 20 feet long would support only 500 pounds. 
 
 A beam supported at one end will sustain only one-fourth part 
 the weight which it would if supported at both ends. 
 
 When a beam is fixed at both ends, and loaded in the middle, it 
 will bear one-half more than it will when loose at both ends. 
 When the beam is loaded uniformly throughout it will bear double. 
 When the beam is fixed at both ends, and loaded uniformly, it will 
 bear triple the weight. 
 
 In any beam standing obliquely, or in a sloping direction, its 
 strength or strain will be equal to that of a beam of the same 
 breadth, thickness, and material, but only of the length of the 
 horizontal distance between the points of support. 
 
 In the construction of beams, it is necessary that their form 
 should be such that they will be equally strong throughout. If a 
 beam be fixed at one end, and loaded at the other, and the breadth 
 uniform throughout, its length, then, that the beam may be equally 
 strong throughout, its form must be that of a parabola. This 
 form is generally used in the beams of steam-engines. 
 
 When a beam is regularly diminished towards the points that 
 are least strained, so that all the sections are similar figures, 
 whether it be supported at each end and loaded in the middle, or 
 Supported in the middle and loaded at each end, the outline should 
 be a cubic parabola.
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 123 
 
 When a beam is supported at both ends, and is of the same 
 breadth throughout, then, if the load be uniformly distributed 
 throughout the length of the beam, the line bounding the com- 
 pressed side should be a semi-ellipse. 
 
 The same form should be made use of for the rails of a wagon- 
 way, where they have to resist the pressure of a load rolling over 
 them. 
 
 Similar plates of the same thickness, either supported at the 
 ends or all round, will carry the same weight either uniformly 
 distributed or laid on similar points, whatever be their extent. 
 
 The lateral strength of any beam, or bar of wood, stone, metal, 
 etc., is in proportion to its breadth multiplied by its depth 1 . la 
 square beams the lateral strengths are in proportion to the cubes 
 of the sides, and in general of like-sided beams as the cubes of 
 the similar sides of the section. 
 
 The lateral strength of any beam or bar, one end being fixed 
 in the wall and the other projecting, is inversely as the distance 
 of the weight from the section acted upon ; and the strain upon any 
 section is directly as the distance of the weight from that section. 
 
 The absolute strength of ropes or bars, pulled lengthwise, is in 
 proportion to the squares of their diameters. All cylindrical or 
 prismatic rods are equally strong in every part, if they are equally 
 thick, but if not they will break where the thickness is least. 
 
 The strength of a tube, or hollow cylinder, is to the strength of 
 a solid one as the difference between the fourth powers of the 
 exterior and interior diameters of the tube, divided by the exte- 
 rior diameter, is to the cube of the diameter of a solid cylinder, 
 the quantity of matter in each being the same. Hence, from 
 this it will be found, that a hollow cylinder in one-half stronger 
 than a solid one having the same weight of material. 
 
 The strength of a column to resist being crushed is directly as 
 the square of the diameter, provided it is not so long as to have 
 a chance of ber.ding. This is true in metals or stone, but in 
 timber the proportion is rather greater than the square. 
 
 Models Proportioned to Machines. 
 
 The relation of models to machines, as to strength, deserves the 
 particular attention of the mechanic. A model may be perfectly 
 proportioned in all its parts as a model, yet the machine, if con- 
 structed in the same proportion, will not be sufficiently strong in 
 every part; hence, particular attention should be paid to the kind 
 of strain the different parts are exposed to ; and from the state- 
 ments which follow, the proper dimensions of the structure may 
 be determined. 
 
 If the strain to draw asunder in the model be 1, and if the 
 structure is 8 times larger than the model, then the stress in the 
 structure will be 8 s equal 512. If the structure is 6 times as large 
 as the model, then the stress on the structure will be 6 3 equal 216, 
 and BO on ; therefore, the structure will be much less firm than
 
 124 
 
 MANILLA ROPE. 
 
 the model; and this the more, as the structure is cube times 
 greater than the model. If we wish to determine the greatest 
 size we can make a machine of which we have a model, we have, 
 
 The greatest weight which the beam of the model can bear, 
 divided by the weight which it actually sustains equal a quotient 
 which, when multiplied by the size of the beam in the model, will 
 give the greatest possible size of the same beam in the structure. 
 
 Example. If a beam in the model be 7 inches long, and bear 
 a weight of 4 Ibs., but is capable of bearing a weight of 26 Ibs., 
 what is the greatest length which we can make the corresponding 
 beam in the structure? Here 
 
 26 -r 4 = 6-5, therefore, 6-5X7 = 45-5 inches. 
 
 The strength to resist crushing increases from a model to a 
 structure in proportion to their size, but, as above, the strain in- 
 creases as the cubes ; wherefore, in this case, also, the model will 
 be stronger than the machine, and the greatest size of the struc- 
 ture will be found by employing the square root of the quotient 
 in the last rule, instead of the quotient itself; thus, 
 
 If the greatest weight which the column in a model can bear is 
 8 cwt., and if it actually bears 28 Ibs., then, if the column be 18 
 inches high, we have 
 
 i) = 3-464 ; wherefore 8-464 X 18 = 62-362 
 inches, the length of the column in the structure. 
 TABLE OF MANILLA EOPE. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Clrc. 
 
 Wt. per 
 
 Breaking load. 
 
 Diam. 
 
 Circ. 
 
 w ibr 
 
 Breaking load. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 ins. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Tons. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 239 
 
 I 
 
 019 
 
 25 
 
 660 
 
 1-91 
 
 6 
 
 1-19 
 
 11-4 
 
 25,536 
 
 318 
 
 1 
 
 033 
 
 36 
 
 784 
 
 2-07 
 
 6 * 
 
 1-39 
 
 13-0 
 
 29,120 
 
 477 
 
 u 
 
 074 
 
 70 
 
 1,568 
 
 2-23 
 
 7 
 
 1-62 
 
 14-6 
 
 32,704 
 
 636 
 
 2 
 
 132 
 
 1-21 
 
 2,733 
 
 2-39 
 
 *i 
 
 1-86 
 
 16-2 
 
 36,288 
 
 795 
 
 2* 
 
 206 
 
 1-92 
 
 4,278 
 
 2-55 
 
 8 
 
 2-11 
 
 17-8 
 
 39.872 
 
 955 
 
 3 
 
 297 
 
 2-73 
 
 6,115 
 
 2-86 
 
 9 
 
 2-67 
 
 21-0 
 
 47,040 
 
 1-11 
 
 3* 
 
 404 
 
 3-81 
 
 8,534 
 
 8-18 
 
 10 
 
 3-30 
 
 24-2 
 
 54.208 
 
 1-27 
 
 4 
 
 528 
 
 5-16 
 
 11,658 
 
 3-50 
 
 11 
 
 3-99 
 
 J7-4 
 
 61,376 
 
 1-43 
 
 4* 
 
 668 
 
 6-60 
 
 14,784 
 
 3-82 
 
 12 
 
 4-75 
 
 30-6 
 
 68,544 
 
 1-59 
 
 5 
 
 825 
 
 8-20 
 
 18,368 
 
 4-14 
 
 13 
 
 6-58 
 
 33-8 
 
 75,712 
 
 1-75 
 
 5J 
 
 998 
 
 9-80 
 
 21,952 
 
 4-45 
 
 14 
 
 6-47 
 
 37-0 
 
 82.880 
 
 The strength of Manilla ropes, like that of bar iron, is 
 very variable; and so with hemp ones. The above table supposes 
 an average quality. Ropes of good Italian hemp are considerably 
 stronger than Manilla; but their cost excludes them from gen- 
 eral use. 
 
 The Tarring of ropes is said to lessen their strength ; and,
 
 STRENGTH OF WIRE ROPE. 
 
 125 
 
 when exposed to the weather, their durability also. We believe 
 that the use of it in standing rigging is partly to diminish con- 
 traction and expansion by alternate wet and dry weather. 
 
 The common rules for finding the strength of rope by mul- 
 tiplying the square of the diameter or circumference by a given 
 coefficient are entirely erroneous. 
 
 Prices in Philadelphia, in 1873 : Manilla 17 to 18 cents per 
 pound; Italian hemp, 25 cents; American hemp, 15 cents; Sisel 
 hemp, 16 cents; jute (East Indies), 10 cents. 
 
 TABLE OF WIRE ROPE, MANUFACTURED BY JOHN A. ROEB- 
 LING'S SONS, TRENTON, N. J. 
 
 Prices in 1873, 10 per cent, more than table. 
 
 Ron o* 183 Wmn. 
 
 Ror or 49 Won. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 f 
 
 a 
 
 jn 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 ! 
 
 | 
 
 III 
 
 - _ 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 8 
 4 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 10! 
 
 10} 
 
 S 1 
 ? 
 
 4 
 :: 
 
 .. 
 
 a 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 \ 
 
 1 20 
 1 05 
 91 
 78 
 65 
 63 
 41 
 34 
 28 
 25 
 24 
 23 
 22 
 
 74 00 
 65 00 
 64 00 
 43 60 
 35 00 
 27 20 
 20 20 
 16 00 
 11 40 
 8 64 
 5 13 
 4 27 
 3 48 
 
 IP 
 
 10} 
 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 6 
 
 8} 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 ir, 
 17 
 18 
 19 
 20 
 21 
 22 
 23 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 27J 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 j 
 i 
 
 
 
 64 
 47 
 41 
 35 
 29 
 23 
 18 
 15 
 13 
 11 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 
 } 
 ? 
 
 4 
 
 36 00 
 30 00 
 25 00 
 20 00 
 16 00 
 12 30 
 8 80 
 7 60 
 5 80 
 4 09 
 2 83 
 2 13 
 1 65 
 1 38 
 1 03 
 81 
 56 
 
 103 
 10 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 G 
 5 
 6 
 
 j 
 
 Tiller Rope, % in diam., 26 ct*. 
 
 Ropes from No. 8 to No. 10% are spe- 
 cially adapted for hoisting-rope. 
 
 28 
 29 
 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 Large Sash Cor. 
 Small " 
 
 Notes on the Use of Wire Rope, by Mr. Roebling. 
 
 Two kinds of wire rope are manufactured; the larger sizes, 
 as also the most pliable, are composed of 133 wires, and are gen-
 
 126 STRENGTH OF WIRE ROPE. 
 
 erally used for hoisting or running rope. Those of 49 wires are 
 stiller, and are better adapted for standing rope, guys, and rigging. 
 
 For safe working load, allow to } of ultimate strength, accord- 
 ing to speed and vibration When substituting Wire Rope for 
 hemp rope, it is good economy to allow for the former the same 
 rate per foot run which experience has approved of for the latter. 
 
 Wire Rope is as pliable ns new hemp rope of the same strength ; 
 the former will therefore run over the same sized sheaves and pul- 
 leys which are used for the latter. But the greater the diameter 
 of the sheaves, pulleys, or drums, the longer Wire Rope will last. 
 In the construction of machinery for Wire Rope it will be found 
 good economy to make the drums and sheaves as large as possible. 
 The size of drum is as follows: The same figure which expresses 
 the circumference in inches in the second column of the table is 
 also the minimum diameter of drum in feet; doubling that figure 
 will give the maximum. The diameter of drum should be no less 
 than the minimum, nor is it necessary to exceed the maximum. 
 As an example, take a No. 4 rope, circumference 5 inches; there- 
 fore the minimum diameter of drum is 5 feet, and the maximum. 
 10 feet. Or a No. 10J rope, circumference 2 inches ; therefore 
 minimum diameter is 2 feet; and maximum 4 feet. A smaller 
 diameter of drum may answer, but the short bending will result 
 in a much more rapid wear. In most cases the Rope will wear 
 twice as long on a maximum diameter as on a minimum. 
 
 Experience has also demonstrated that the wear increases with 
 the speed. It is better to increase the load than the speed. 
 
 Wire Rope is manufactured either with a wire or hemp centre. 
 The latter is more pliable than the former, and will wear better 
 where there is short bending. 
 
 Wire Hope must not be coiled or uncoiled like hemp rope. When 
 mounted on a reel the latter should be turned on a spindle to pay off 
 the rope. When forwarded in a coil without reel, roll il over the 
 ground like a wheel, and run off the rope in that way. All un- 
 twisting must be avoided. 
 
 To preserve Wire Rope apply raw linseed oil with a piece of 
 sheepskin, wool inside ; or mix the oil with equal parts of Spanish 
 brown and lampblack. 
 
 To preserve Wire Rope under water or under ground, take 
 mineral or vegetable tar, add 1 bushel of fresh slacked lime to 1 
 barrel of tar, (which will neutralize the acid,) and boil it well, 
 then saturate the rope with the boiling tar. 
 
 The grooves of cast-iron pulleys and sheaves should be filled 
 with well-seasoned blocks of hard wood, set on end, to be renewed 
 when worn out. This end wood will save the rope and increase 
 adhesion. The small pulleys or rollers which support the ropes 
 on inclined planes should be constructed on the same plan. When 
 large sheaves run with a very great, velocity, the grooves muM be 
 lined either with leather set on eud, with cork, or with India rub- 
 ber. This is done in the case of all sheaves used in the transmit- 
 tion of power between distant points by means of ropes, which
 
 STRENGTH OF IRON CHAINS. 
 
 127 
 
 frequently run at the rate of 4000 feet per minute. Rope } inch 
 diameter will transmit 100 horse power to a great distance. 
 
 WEIGHT AND STRENGTH OP IRON CHAINS. 
 
 The links of ordinary iron chains are usually made aa 
 short as is consistent with easy play, in order that they nay not 
 become bent when wound around drums, sheaves, etc. ; and that 
 they may be more easily handled in slinging large blocks of 
 Btonc, etc. 
 
 When so made, their weight per foot run is quite approximately 
 8} times that of a single bar of the round iron of which they are 
 composed. Since each link consists of two thicknesses of bar, it 
 might be supposed that a chain would possess about double the 
 strength of a single bar; but the strength of the bar becomes 
 reduced about -f s , by being formed into links; so that the chain 
 really has but about ^ of the strength of two bars. As a thick 
 bar of iron will not sustain as heavy a load in proportion as a 
 thinner one, so of course stout chains are proportionably weaker 
 than slighter ones. In the following table, 20 tons per tyuare inch 
 is assumed as the average breaking strain of a single straight bar 
 of ordinary rolled iron, 1 inch in diameter or 1 inch square; 19 
 tons, from 1 to 2 inches ; and 18 tons, from 2 to 8 inches. Deduct- 
 ing A from each of these, we have as the breaking strain of the 
 two bars composing each link, as follows: 14 ions per tquare inch, 
 up to 1 inch diameter; 13-3 tons, from 1 to 2 inches ; and 12-ti 
 tons, from 2 to 8 inches diameter ; and upon these assumptions 
 the table is based. 4 
 
 TABLE OF STRENGTH OF CHAINS. (Original.) 
 Chains of superior iron will require \ to J more to break them. 
 
 Diam. of rod 
 or which 
 thelioki 
 
 Weight 
 of chain 
 per ft. ran. 
 
 Breaking itrain 
 or UK, chain. 
 
 Dlam. of rod 
 oT which 
 the llnkt 
 
 oT'c&n 
 perft-ruu. 
 
 Breaking itraia 
 ofUwduun. 
 
 Int. 
 
 P<1. 
 
 325 
 
 U31 
 
 773 
 
 Ina, 
 1 
 
 9^6 
 
 PH. 
 
 TOM. 
 
 J'J-00 
 
 1 
 
 679 
 
 3,069 
 
 1-37 
 
 1 
 
 
 11-7 
 
 wjat 
 
 26-44 
 
 JL 
 
 904 
 
 4,794 
 
 2-14 
 
 
 
 14-5 
 
 78,114 
 
 3264 
 
 a. 
 
 1-30 
 
 6,922 
 
 8-09 
 
 
 
 17-6 
 
 88,801 
 
 39-42 
 
 f<r 
 
 1-78 
 
 9,408 
 
 4-20 
 
 
 
 20-8 
 
 I.:,. 1M' 
 
 47-00 
 
 i 
 
 2-81 
 
 12,820 
 
 6-60 
 
 
 
 24-4 
 
 123,614 
 
 66-14 
 
 A 
 
 2-93 
 
 15,590 
 
 <','."', 
 
 
 
 28-4 
 
 143,293 
 
 63-97 
 
 1 
 
 362 
 
 19,219 
 
 8-58 
 
 
 
 82-6 
 
 164,505 
 
 78-44 
 
 ii 
 
 4-38 
 
 28,i74 
 
 10-39 
 
 2 
 
 37-0 
 
 187,162 
 
 83-66 
 
 
 
 6-21 
 
 27,687 
 
 12-36 
 
 2* 
 
 46-9 
 
 224,448 
 
 100-2 
 
 H 
 
 6-11 
 
 82,301 
 
 14-42 
 
 2* 
 
 57-9 
 
 277,088 
 
 123-7 
 
 i 
 
 7-10 
 
 37,632 
 
 16-80 
 
 2* 
 
 70-0 
 
 335,328 
 
 149-7 
 
 H 
 
 8-14 
 
 43,277 
 
 l'J-32 
 
 8 
 
 83-3 
 
 398,944 
 
 178-1 
 
 Price in 1873 of chain., about 10 centa per pound for % ; 74 for % j 6 for
 
 128 WEIGHT OF RAILROAD SPIKES 
 
 WEIGHT OF RAILROAD SPIKES.* 
 
 The hook - headed spikes t, commonly used for confining 
 rails to the cross-ties, vary withiu the limits of the following 
 Fie.43. table ; the lightest ones for light rails on short local 
 branches ; and the heaviest ones for heavy rails on first- 
 class roads. The table is from the Phoenix Iron Company 
 of Philadelphia. The spikes are sold in kegs usually of K>0 
 pounds. For the weight of spikes of larger dimensions, we 
 may near enough take that of a square bar of the same 
 length. What is saved at the point, suffices for the addi- 
 tion at the head. 
 
 Size in ins. 
 
 No. per keg 
 of 150 Ibs. 
 
 No. 
 per ft). 
 
 Size in ins. 
 
 Sfitt? 
 
 No. 
 perlb. 
 
 Length. Side. 
 
 Jlxt 
 
 526 
 
 400 
 
 3-5 
 2-66 
 
 Length. Side. 
 
 850 
 289 
 
 2'33 
 1-93 
 
 6x1 
 
 705 
 
 4-7 
 
 51 x s 
 
 218 
 
 1-46 
 
 6 xA 
 
 488 
 
 3-25 
 
 6Xl 
 
 810 
 
 2-07 
 
 6 X t 
 
 390 
 
 2-6 
 
 
 262 
 
 1-76 
 
 
 295 
 
 1-97 
 
 
 196 
 
 1-30 
 
 6 X * 
 
 257 
 
 1-71 
 
 
 
 
 A size in very common use is 5 X & which weighs about 
 J pound per spike. A mile of single-track road, with 2,112 cross- 
 ties, 2J feet apart from centre to centre, and with rails of the 
 ordinary length of 24 feet, or 10 ties to a rail, thus having 440 
 rail-joints per mile, with 4 spikes to each tie, except at the rail- 
 joints, at each of which there will be 4 Bpikes,f will require, at 
 a neat calculation, 9,328 spikes. 
 
 But an allowance must be made for rail guards at road-cross- 
 ings, which we may assume to be 24 feet wide, or the length of a 
 rail. A guard will usually consist of 4 extra rails for protecting 
 the track rails, and spiked to the 11 ties by which said track rails 
 are sustained. Consequently, such a crossing requires 11 X^ = 
 88 spikes. For turnouts, sidings, loss, etc., we may roughly 
 average 584 J spikes more per mile; thus making in all (if we 
 assume one road-crossing per mile) 9328 + 88 + 58410,000 
 spikes per mile, or 5000 pounds, or 33J kegs of 160 pounds. 
 
 Adhesion of Spikes. Professor W. R. Johnson found that 
 
 * The price of spikes, and of cut nails, in Philadelphia, in 1873, about 5 centa 
 per pound. Rivets 16 cents. 
 
 f This supposes the joint and chair to rest upon a tie; but when long chairs 
 are used, with a view of placing the mil-joint between two ties laid near each 
 other, there will be 8 spikes to a joint; or 1,760 per mile more than above; 
 equal to 880 pounds; making in all, per mile single track, say 12,000 spiki><, or 
 6,000 pounds, or 40 kegs. 
 
 | Tola allows that turnouts and sidings amount to about 1 mile of extra track 
 on 15 miles of road.
 
 WEIGHT OF NAILS. 
 
 129 
 
 a plain spike -375, or | inch square, driven 3f inches into seasoned 
 Jersey yellow pine, or unseasoned chestnut, required about 2000 
 pounds force to extract it; from seasoned white oak, about 4000; 
 and from well-seasoned locust, about 6000 pounds. Bevan found 
 that a 6-penny nail, driven one inch, required the following forces 
 to extract it: Seasoned beech, 667 pounds; oak, 607; elm, 327; 
 pine, 187. 
 
 Recent careful experiments in Hanover, Germany, by 
 Engineer Funk, give from 2465 to 8940 pounds (mean of many 
 experiments, about 3000 pounds) as the force necessary to extract 
 a plain inch square iron spike, 6 inches long, wedge-pointed for 
 one inch (twice the thickness of the spike), and driven -U 
 inches into white or yellow pine. When driven 5 inches, 
 the force required was about ^ part greater. Similar 
 spikes, ft inch square, 7 inches long, driven 6 inches 
 deep, required from 3700 to 6746 pounds to extract them 
 from pine; the mean of the results being 4878 pounds. 
 In all cases about twice at much force vat required to extract 
 them from oak. The spikes were all driven acrost the 
 grain of the wood. Experience shows that when driven 
 wi'/A the grain, spikes or nails do not hold with much more than 
 half as much force. 
 
 Jagged spfkes, or twisted ones (like an auger), or those which 
 were either swelled or diminished near the middle of their length, 
 all proved inferior to plain square ones. When the length of the 
 wedge point was increased to 4 times the thickness of the spike, 
 the resistance to drawing out was a trifle less. 
 
 When the length of the spike is fixed, there is probably no 
 better shape than the plain square cross-section, with a wedge 
 point twice as long as the width of the spike, as per Fig. 44. 
 
 Boards of oak or pine, nailed together by from 4 to 16 
 tenpenny common cut nails, and then pulled apart in a direction 
 lengthwise of the boards, and across the nails, tending to break 
 the latter in two by a shearing action, averaged about 800 to 400 
 pounds per nail to separate them ; as the result of many trials. 
 
 Fig. 44, 
 
 I 
 
 WEIGHT OF NAILS.* 
 
 Name. 
 
 LenRth. 
 Inches. 
 
 No. per ft. 
 
 1 Nam* 
 
 SC: 
 
 No. per ft. 
 
 3 penny 
 
 1 
 
 667 
 
 8 penny 
 
 21 
 
 101 
 
 4 " ... 
 5 " 
 
 l\ 
 
 353 
 232 
 
 10 .... 
 12 .... 
 
 8 
 
 68 
 54 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 175 
 
 20 .... 
 
 3J 
 
 34 
 
 7 ' 
 
 2* 
 
 141 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 * Price in Philadelphia, 1873, about 5 cents per pound. Boofing nails of 
 tinned iron, 12 cento. Copper nails, 50 cento.
 
 130 STRENGTH OF CAST IRON BEAMS. 
 
 The sizes and weights vary considerably with different makers. 
 The above are machine-made, or CUT NAILS, in distinction to the 
 WROUGHT NAILS made by the blacksmith. 
 
 A TABLE 
 
 Showing the Weight or Pressure a beam of Cast Iron, 1 inch in breadth, 
 will sustain, without destroying its elastic force, when it it supported 
 at each end, and loaded in the middle of its length, and also the de- 
 flection in the middle which that weight will produce. By Mr. Hodg- 
 kinson, Manchester. 
 
 length. 
 
 6 Feet. 
 
 7 Feet. 
 
 8 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 10 Feet. 
 
 X 
 
 Weight I Dcfl. 
 In Ibi. 1 ID In. 
 
 Weight 
 inltu. 
 
 Den. 
 la ID. 
 
 Weight 
 lolb*. 
 
 DeH. 
 into. 
 
 w? 
 
 Dett. 
 la In. 
 
 
 
 Drfl. 
 In ID. 
 
 3 
 
 1278 
 
 L't 
 
 1089 
 
 33 
 
 954 
 
 42t> 
 
 855 
 
 54 
 
 766 
 
 66 
 
 3} 
 
 1739 
 
 205 
 
 1 !>_' 
 
 28 
 
 1298 
 
 305 
 
 1164 
 
 46 
 
 1041 
 
 67 
 
 4 
 
 2272 
 
 18 
 
 1936 
 
 L'l.-. 
 
 1700 
 
 32 
 
 1520 
 
 405 
 
 1360 
 
 5 
 
 *} 
 
 2875 
 
 16 
 
 2450 
 
 217 
 
 2146 
 
 284 
 
 19ii4 
 
 36 
 
 1721 
 
 -441 
 
 6 
 
 8560 
 
 144 
 
 3050 
 
 196 
 
 2050 
 
 256 
 
 2375 
 
 32 
 
 2125 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5112 
 
 12 
 
 4356 
 
 163 
 
 3816 
 
 213 
 
 8420 
 
 27 
 
 8060 
 
 33 
 
 7 
 
 6958 
 
 103 
 
 6929 
 
 14 
 
 6194 
 
 183 
 
 4655 
 
 23 
 
 4165 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 9088 
 
 09 
 
 7744 
 
 123 
 
 6784 
 
 16 
 
 6080 
 
 203 
 
 6440 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 9801 
 
 109 
 
 8586 
 
 142 
 
 7695 
 
 18 
 
 6885 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 12100 
 
 098 
 
 10600 
 
 128 
 
 9500 
 
 162 
 
 8600 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 12826 
 
 117 
 
 11496 
 
 15 
 
 10285 
 
 182 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 15264 
 
 107 
 
 13680 
 
 136 
 
 12240 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16100 
 
 125 
 
 14400 
 
 154 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18600 
 
 115 
 
 16700 
 
 143 
 
 
 11 Feet. 
 
 UFeet. 
 
 16 Feet. 
 
 18 Feet. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 6 
 
 2548 
 
 48 
 
 2184 
 
 65 
 
 1912 
 
 85 
 
 1699 
 
 1-08 
 
 1530 1-34 
 
 7 
 
 3471 
 
 41 
 
 2975 
 
 68 
 
 2603 
 
 73 
 
 2314 
 
 93 
 
 2082 
 
 1 14 
 
 8 
 
 4532 
 
 36 
 
 3884 
 
 49 
 
 3396 
 
 64 
 
 8020 
 
 81 
 
 2720 
 
 1-00 
 
 9 
 
 5733 
 
 32 
 
 4914 
 
 44 
 
 4302 
 
 57 
 
 3825 
 
 72 
 
 3438 
 
 89 
 
 10 
 
 7083 
 
 28 
 
 6071 
 
 39 
 
 6312 
 
 51 
 
 4722 
 
 64 
 
 4250 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 8570 
 
 26 
 
 7346 
 
 36 
 
 6428 
 
 17 
 
 6714 
 
 69 
 
 6142 
 
 73 
 
 12 
 
 10192 
 
 24 
 
 8736 
 
 33 
 
 7648 
 
 43 
 
 6796 
 
 54 
 
 6120 
 
 67 
 
 13 
 
 11971 
 
 22 
 
 10260 
 
 31 
 
 B978 
 
 39 
 
 7980 
 
 49 
 
 71^'J 
 
 61 
 
 14 
 
 13883 
 
 21 
 
 11900 
 
 28 
 
 10412 
 
 36 
 
 9^65 
 
 46 
 
 8330 
 
 67 
 
 15 
 
 15937 
 
 19 
 
 13660 
 
 26 
 
 11963 
 
 34 
 
 10624 
 
 43 
 
 9562 
 
 53 
 
 16 
 
 18128 
 
 18 
 
 15536 
 
 24 
 
 13584 
 
 32 
 
 12080 
 
 40 
 
 LOB80 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 20500 
 
 17 
 
 17500 
 
 23 
 
 15353 
 
 30 
 
 18647 
 
 38 
 
 12282 
 
 47 
 
 18 
 
 22932 
 
 16 
 
 19656 
 
 21 
 
 17208 
 
 28 
 
 15700 
 
 36 
 
 13752 
 
 44 
 
 NOTE. This table shows the greatest weight that ever ought to 
 be laid upon a beam for permanent load ; and if there be any lia-
 
 RESISTANCE OF BODIES. 131 
 
 bility to jerks, etc., ample allowance must be made; also, the 
 weight of the beam itself must be included. [See Tablet of Catt 
 /ron.] 
 
 To find the Weight of a Cast Iron Beam of given 
 Dimensions. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the sectional area in inches by the length in 
 feet, and by 3-2, the product equal the weight in pounds. 
 
 Example. Required the weight of a uniform rectangular beam 
 of cast iron, 16 feet in length, 11 inches in breadth, and 1} inch 
 in thickness. 
 
 11 X 1-6 X 16 X 3'2 = 844-8 pounds. 
 
 Resistance of Bodies to Flexure by Vertical Pressure. 
 
 When a piece of timber is employed as a column or support, its 
 tendency to yielding by compression is different according to the 
 proportion between its length and area of its cross section; and 
 supposing the form that of a cylinder whose length is less than 
 seven or eight times its diameter, it is impossible to bend it by 
 any force applied longitudinally, as it will be destroyed by split- 
 ting before that bending can take place ; but when the length ex- 
 ceeds this, the column will bend under a certain load, and be 
 ultimately destroyed by a similar kind of action to that which has 
 place in the transverse strain. Columns of cast iron and of other 
 bodies are also similarly circumstanced. 
 
 When the length of a cast iron column with flat ends equals about 
 thirty times its diameter, fracture will be produced wholly by 
 bending of the material. When of less length, fracture takes 
 plac partly by crushing and partly by bending. But, when the 
 column is enlarged in the middle of its length from one and a 
 half to twice its diameter at the ends, by being cast hollow, the 
 strength is greater by one-seventh than in a solid column con- 
 taining the same quantity of material. 
 
 To determine the Dimensions of a Support or Column to 
 bear, without sensible Curvature, a given Pressure in 
 the Direction of its Axis. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the pressure to be supported in pounds by the 
 square of the column's length in feet, and divide the product by 
 twenty times the tabular value of ; and the quotient will be 
 equal to the breadth multiplied by the cube of the least thickness, 
 both being expressed in inches. 
 
 NOTE 1. When the pillar or mpport is a square, its side will be 
 the fourth root of the quotient. 
 
 NOTE 2. If the pillar or column be a cylinder, multiply the 
 tabular value of by 12, and the fourth root of the quotient equal 
 the diameter.
 
 132 ELASTICITY OF TORSION. 
 
 Example \. What should be the least dimensions of an oak 
 support, to bear a weight of 2240 pounds, without sensible flexure, 
 its breadth being 3 inches, and its length 5 feet? 
 
 Tabular value of E = 105, 
 
 Example 2. Required the side of a square piece of Riga fir, 9 
 feet in length, to bear a permanent weight of 6000 pounds. 
 
 Tabular value of E = 90, 
 and ! = V 263 = 4 inches nearly. 
 
 Elasticity of Torsion, or Resistance of Bodies to 
 Twisting. 
 
 The angle of flexure by torsion is as the length and extensi- 
 bility of the body directly and inversely as the diameter; hence 
 the length of a bar or shaft being given, the power, and the lever- 
 age the power acts with, being known, and also the number of 
 degrees of torsion that will not affect the action of the machine, 
 to determine the diameter in cast iron with a given angle of 
 flexure. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the power in pounds by the length of the shaft 
 in feet, and by the leverage in feet; divide the product by fifty- 
 five times the number of degrees in the angle of torsion; and the 
 fourth root of the quotient equal the shaft's diameter in inches. 
 
 Example. Required the diameters for a series of shafts 35 feet 
 in length, and to transmit a power equal to 1245 pounds, acting 
 at the circumference of a wheel 2J feet radius, so that the twist 
 of the shafts on the application of the power may not exceed one 
 degree. 
 
 45 66 V * 2 ^ = V1981 = 6 ' 67 inches in diameter - 
 
 To determine the Side of a Square Shaft to resist Tor- 
 sion -with a given Flexure. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the power in pounds by the leverage it acts 
 with in feet, and also by the length of the shaft in feet ; divide 
 this product by 92-5 times the angle of flexure in degrees, and 
 the square root of the quotient equals the area of the shaft in 
 inches. 
 
 Example. Suppose the length of a shaft to be 12 feet, and to 
 be driven by a power equal to 700 pounds, acting at 1 foot from
 
 STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 
 
 133 
 
 the centre of the shaftrequired the area of cross section, so that 
 it may not exceed 1 degree of flexure. 
 
 700X1X12 
 92-6X1 
 
 = V 90-8 = 9-53 inches. 
 
 Relative Strength of Bodies to resist Torsion, Lead 
 being 1. 
 
 Tin 1-4 
 
 Copper 4-8 
 
 Yellow Brass 4-6 
 
 Gun Metal 6-0 
 
 Cast Iron 9-0 
 
 Swedish Iron.... 9-6 
 
 English Iron.... 10-1 
 Blistered Steel.. 16-6 
 Shear Steel 17-0 
 
 STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 
 
 [From Lowndes' Engineer's Hand-book, Liverpool, I860.] 
 Solid, Rectangular, and Round To find their Strength. 
 
 Square and rectangular. 
 (Depth ins.) 1 X Thickness ins. 
 Length, ft. 
 
 tons. 
 
 X Tabular No. = Breaking weight, 
 Round. 
 
 Hollow. 
 
 weight, tons. 
 
 Thickness not exceeding j 
 
 I inch for iron. 
 3 ins. for wood. 
 
 2 ins. for iron. 
 6 ins. for wood. 
 
 3 ins. for iron. 
 12 ins. for wood. 
 
 Square and Rectangular. 
 
 Cast and Wrought Iron 
 Teak and greenheart 
 Pitch pine, and Cana- 
 dian oak 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 25 
 
 85 
 32 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 26 
 
 18 
 
 Fir, red pine, and Eng- 
 lish oak 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 13
 
 134 STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 
 
 Hound. 
 
 Cast and Wrought Iron 
 
 8 
 
 68 
 
 56 
 
 Teak and greenheart... 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 2 
 
 Fir and English oak... 
 
 14 
 
 125 
 
 1 
 
 To find the Breaking Weight in Ibs. use tJus Tabular No. below. 
 
 Thickness not exceeding j 
 
 1 inch for iron. 
 3 ins. for wood. 
 
 2 ins. for iron. 
 G iiis. for wood. 
 
 3 ins. for iron. 
 12 ins. for wood. 
 
 Square and Rectangular. 
 
 Iron 
 
 1 2240 
 
 1900 
 
 1570 
 
 Teak 
 
 800 
 
 710 
 
 570 
 
 Fir and oak 
 
 1 400 
 
 855 
 
 285 
 
 Round. 
 
 
 1 1800 
 
 1570 
 
 
 Teak 
 
 .... 640 
 
 670 
 
 460 
 
 
 ....| 320 
 
 285 
 
 230 
 
 fwith 1 ton. 
 :: it :: 
 
 Though wrought and cast iron are represented in these rules 
 as of equal strength, it should be observed that while a cast iron 
 bar 1 inch X 1 ich X 1 foot inch long, of average quality, will 
 break with one ton, a similar bar of wrought iron only loses its 
 elasticity, and deflects J 6 th of an inch, yet as it can only carry 
 a further weight by destroying its shape and increasing the de- 
 flection, it is best to calculate on the above basis: 
 
 A wrought iron bar 
 
 1 in. XI in-Xlft-Oin. ]ongj de 
 
 The above rule gives the weight that will break the beam if put 
 on the middle. If the weight is laid equally all over, it would re- 
 quire double the weight to break it. 
 
 A beam should not be loaded with more than of the breaking 
 weight in any case, and as a general rule not with more than 1 
 for purposes of machinery, not with more than 1 to A, depending 
 on circumstances. 
 
 To find the proper size for any given purpose. 
 
 Rectangular. 
 Weight X Length ft. 
 
 Tabular NoT X 3 or 4 or 6, etc., according to circumstances 
 = B D 2 ins.
 
 SOLID COLUMNS, 
 Round. 
 
 135 
 
 VWeight X I**!* 
 
 Tabular No. 
 
 stances = Diam. ins. 
 
 of of accordiD8 to circum . 
 
 SOLID COLUMNS. 
 
 Fail by crushing with length under. 
 
 6 diameters. 
 
 Principally by crushing from 5 to 15 
 
 Partly by crushing, partly by bending, from. 15 to 26 " 
 Altogether by bending above ~ 25 " 
 
 Cast iron of average quality is crushed with 49 tons per sq. in. 
 
 Wrought iron of average quality is crushed with 10 " " 
 
 Wrought iron is permanently injured with 12 ' " 
 
 Oak wrought is crushed with 4 ' " 
 
 Deal wrought is crushed with 2 " " 
 
 The comparative strength of different columns, of different 
 lengths, will be seen very clearly from the following table derived 
 from experiments by Mr. llodgkinson : 
 
 Wrought Iron Bars. 
 
 Proportion of length 
 to Thickness. 
 
 GIT 
 
 a way with 
 
 
 Square. 
 
 Length. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ins. 
 
 ft. ins. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1X1 
 
 H 
 
 7} 
 
 tol 
 
 21-7 tons per sq 
 
 inch. 
 
 
 I 8 
 
 15 
 
 to 1 
 
 15-4 
 
 
 
 
 
 it 
 
 2 6 
 
 80 
 
 to 1 
 
 11-8 
 
 M 
 
 u 
 
 it 
 
 5 
 
 60 
 
 tol 
 
 7-5 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 < 
 
 7 6 
 
 90 
 
 to 1 
 
 4-3 
 
 II 
 
 ii 
 
 IXi 
 
 5 
 
 120 
 
 tol 
 
 2-6 
 
 II 
 
 ii 
 
 
 7 6 
 
 180 
 
 to 1 
 
 1- 
 
 " 
 
 " 
 
 To find the Strength of any "Wrought Iron Column with 
 Square Ends. 
 
 Area of column sq. inches x tons per inch corresponding to pro- 
 portion of length, as per table above = Breaking weight, tons. 
 
 If the ends are rounded, divide the final result by 3 to find the 
 breaking weight. 
 
 In columns of oblong section, the narrowest side must always 
 be taken in calculating the proportion of height to width.
 
 136 
 
 STRENGTH OF COLUMNS, 
 
 To find the Strength of Round Columns exceeding 25 
 Diameters in Length. (Mr. Hodgkinson's Rule.) 
 
 (Diameter, ins.)" 
 (Length, ft.) 1 -* 
 
 ' 
 
 Breaking weight, tons. 
 
 
 Square Ends. 
 
 Rounded or Movable 
 Ends. 
 
 
 77 
 
 26 
 
 
 44 
 
 15 
 
 
 4-5 
 
 1.7 
 
 Eed deal 
 
 8-3 
 
 1-2 
 
 
 
 
 A column should not be loaded with more than of the breaking 
 weight in any case, and as a general rule, not with more than \ ; 
 for purposes of machinery, not with more than to -j^, according 
 to circumstances. 
 
 TABLES OF POWERS FOR THE DIAMETERS AND LENGTHS OF 
 COLUMNS. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 3-6 Power. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 3-6 Power. 
 
 Length. 
 
 1-7 Power. 
 
 1 in. 
 
 1- 
 
 7 in. 
 
 1102-04 
 
 1 
 
 1- 
 
 
 2-23 
 
 
 1261- 
 
 2 
 
 3-25 
 
 
 4-3 
 
 
 1413-3 
 
 8 
 
 6-47 
 
 
 7-5 
 
 
 1590-3 
 
 4 
 
 10-566 
 
 2 
 
 12-1 
 
 8 
 
 1782-9 
 
 5 
 
 16-426 
 
 t 
 
 18-5 
 27- 
 38-16 
 
 I 
 
 1991-7 
 2217-7 
 2461-7 
 
 6 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 21 -031 
 27-332 
 34-297 
 
 3 
 
 62-2 
 
 9 
 
 2724-4 
 
 9 
 
 41-9 
 
 
 69-63 
 
 * 
 
 3006-85 
 
 10 
 
 60-119 
 
 
 90-9 
 
 I 
 
 3809-8 
 
 11 
 
 68-934 
 
 . 
 
 116-55 
 
 ! 
 
 3634-3 
 
 12 
 
 68-329 
 
 4 
 
 147- 
 
 10 
 
 8981-07 
 
 13 
 
 78-289 
 
 
 182-9 
 
 
 4351-2 
 
 14 
 
 88-8 
 
 
 224-68 
 
 
 4745-6 
 
 16 
 
 99-86 
 
 
 272-96 
 
 
 5165- 
 
 16 
 
 111-43 
 
 5 
 
 328-3 
 
 11 
 
 5610-7 
 
 17 
 
 123-53 
 
 
 391-36 
 
 
 6083-4 
 
 18 
 
 136-13 
 
 
 462-71 
 
 
 6584-3 
 
 19 
 
 149-24 
 
 
 643-01 
 
 
 7114-4 
 
 20 
 
 162-84 
 
 6 
 
 632-91 
 
 12 
 
 7674-5 
 
 21 
 
 176-92 
 
 
 733-11 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 191-48 
 
 
 844-28 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 206-51 
 
 
 967-15 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 222.
 
 HOLLOW COLUMNS. 
 
 137 
 
 HOLLOW COLUMNS. 
 
 Hollow columns fail principally by crushing, provided the length 
 does not exceed 25 diameters ; indeed, the length does not appear 
 to affect the strength much till it exceeds 60 diameters. 
 
 The comparative strength of different forms and of different 
 thicknesses will appear so distinctly from the experiments below, 
 made by Mr. Hodgkinson, that no difficulty will be found in ascer- 
 taining the strength due to any size or form of column that may 
 be required. 
 
 SQUABE COLUMNS OF PLATE IBON BIVETED. 
 Column* in frtt O inches long. 
 
 SlM. 
 
 Thick- 
 
 !! M 
 
 Proportion of 
 Thickness to Width. 
 
 Proportion 
 of Length 
 to Width. 
 
 Break'g weight 
 Tons per sq.in. 
 Of flection. 
 
 4 in. X 4 > 
 
 03 
 06 
 
 J 
 
 80 to 1 
 
 4-9 
 8-6 
 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 10- 
 
 t 
 
 2 
 
 *"fr 
 
 
 
 12- 
 
 8 in. X 8 in. 
 
 06 
 
 
 15tol 
 
 6- 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 
 it 
 
 9- 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 11-5 
 
 ' 
 
 25 
 
 A 
 
 it 
 
 12- 
 
 Column 8 feet O inches long. 
 
 18 X 18 | -5 
 
 practically 5-4 to 1 | 13-6 
 
 Column 1O feet O inches long, with cells. 
 
 8 in. X 8 in. -06 |^of width of oellsj 15 to 1 8-6 
 
 To find the strength of any Hollow "Wrought Iron 
 Column. 
 
 Tons per inch, corresponding to the 
 Sec. area. sq. ins. X proportions of length and thick- = 
 
 ness to width as per tables 
 Breaking weight, tons. 
 
 COLUMNS OF OBLONG SECTION. 
 
 The strength of these may be ascertained by the same rule aa 
 that of square columns. The smallest width being taken in calcu- 
 lating the proportion of height to width, while the longest side 
 must be taken into consideration in calculating the proportion of 
 thickness to width.
 
 138 
 
 CRANE. 
 Column 10f,;tOi,irhfg long. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Thick- 
 
 Proportion of 
 
 Thickness to 
 
 : Width. 
 
 Proportion of 
 
 truth. 
 
 Actual Breaking 
 weight I 
 sq. in. of Section. 
 
 8 in. X 4 in. 
 
 06 
 
 Th 
 
 30 to 1 
 
 6-78 
 
 ROUND COLUMNS OF PLATE IEON RIVETED. 
 
 Columns 1O feet O /-,</,-> long. 
 
 .^'i UK- ( ni >i tn n.i 
 Reduced in L.-,< ; /t/i. 
 
 Di. 
 
 Thick- 
 
 Proportion 
 
 of thick. 
 
 Proportion 
 ofli-nirth io 
 
 Brnklng 
 - " 
 
 BmklDK WelgbU. 
 Tnos per nquare inch. 
 
 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Uiuuftcr. 
 
 i5. 
 
 6ft.01a.kNV. 
 
 ine ID. long. 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 & 
 
 BOtol 
 
 6-5 
 
 13-9 
 
 5-8 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 60 to 1 
 
 10-35 
 
 14-8 
 
 16-5 
 
 2* 
 
 1 
 
 2*5 
 
 48 to 1 
 
 13-3 
 
 15-6 
 
 16-3 
 
 2* 
 
 24 
 
 .^ 
 
 48tol 
 
 9-6 
 
 15-6 
 
 16- 
 
 2* 
 
 21 
 
 T^T 
 
 48tol 
 
 9-9 
 
 IS- 
 
 17- 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 sV 
 
 40 to 1 
 
 12-36 
 
 IS- 
 
 16-5 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 "fa 
 
 30 to 1 
 
 12-34 
 
 IB- 
 
 
 6 
 6 
 
 1 
 18 
 
 s 
 
 20 to 1 
 20 to 1 
 
 15- 
 
 18-6 
 
 n- 
 
 18-6 
 
 It would seem from this that a thickness of ^. or J inch in 
 thickness for every foot in diameter is a good proportion lor this 
 kind of column. . 
 
 It will be seen from these experiments, that it is the proportion 
 of thickness to the width of cell which regulates the strength 
 within certain limits of height. 
 
 And that a thickness of ^ or J inch for every 4 inches in width 
 will give the highest result practicable for square columns. 
 
 CRANE. 
 
 The strains on the principal parts can be ascertained with great 
 ease in the following manner the strength being proportioned 
 accordingly. 
 
 To find the Strain on the Post. 
 
 Weight suspended, tons X Projection, feet _ Strain on top of post, 
 Height of post above ground, feet tous - 
 
 The post can then be calculated as a beam, twice as long as this 
 height from ground, with twice the weight oa the middle. [Set 
 earns.]
 
 COLD WATER PUMP, ETC. 139 
 
 COLD WATER PUMP. 
 
 Usually } of cylinder diameter when the stroke is } that of piston. 
 
 To find the proper size, under any circumstances, capa- 
 ble of supplying twice the quantity ordinarily used 
 for injection. 
 
 Cub. ft. water per hour used In cylinder in form of steam . 
 
 Stroke of pump, ft. X strokes per minute 
 
 of pump in square feet. 
 
 PEDESTAL BRACKET. 
 
 Pedestal. 
 Good proportions. 
 
 Thickness of cover -4 of diameter of bearing. 
 
 " of sole plate *8 " " 
 
 Diameter of bolts -26 " " if 2. 
 
 " " -18 " ifihereare4. 
 
 Distance between bolts twice diameter of bearing. 
 
 Bracket. 
 
 Solid. Metal round brass equal to J diameter of bearing. 
 
 General thickness web, etc., equal to j diameter oi bearing. 
 With Feathen. Width at lightest equal to diameter of bearing. 
 Thickness equal to J " " 
 
 FRICTION. 
 
 From Mr. Rennie't Experiment*. 
 
 The friction of metal on metal, without unguents, 
 May be taken at \ of the weight up to 40 Ibs. per square inch. 
 
 | 100 
 
 Brass on cast iron \ " " 800 " 
 
 Wrought on cast iron J " " 500 " 
 
 With tallow at & ot the weight. 
 
 " olive oil atyJy " 
 
 800 Ibs. per inch forces out the oil. 
 
 Friction of journals under ordinary circumstances ,V of weight. 
 " well oiled, sometimes only ^ " 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. 
 
 5 per mi 
 in terms of weight. 
 
 (Revolutions per nin.)X Ka. in ft. X weight = Ccntrifugal force
 
 140 
 
 WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND VOLUMES OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES IN 
 ORDINARY USE. 
 
 SUBSTANCES. 
 
 Cubic 
 Foot. 
 
 si 
 
 n 
 
 SUBSTANCES. 
 
 II 
 
 Oh 
 
 HI 
 
 METALS. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 Brass. / copper 67. ) 
 " (zinc 83.j 
 
 488.75 
 
 .2829 
 
 Pine, yellow 
 
 81.25 
 
 66.248 
 71 68 
 
 " gun metal. 
 
 543.75 
 
 .3147 
 
 Walnut, bl'k, dry. 
 
 31.2") 
 
 7L68 
 
 sheets 
 
 513.6 
 
 .297 
 
 Willow 
 
 <;..-,. 12 
 
 sun 
 
 " wire 
 
 521.16 
 
 .3033 
 
 dry 
 
 30.375 
 
 7o.744 
 
 Copper cast 
 
 547. L'5 
 
 .3179 
 
 
 
 
 ' v plates 
 
 543.825 
 
 .3167 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 
 
 Iron, cast 
 
 4.VM.-J7 
 
 .2607 
 
 
 
 
 ' gun Mii-lal 
 
 466.5 
 
 .27 
 
 Air 
 
 .075291 
 
 
 
 1 lieavy forging 
 
 <7M 
 
 SB 
 
 Basalt, mean 
 
 175. 
 
 12.8 
 
 1 plates 
 
 4M.5 
 
 .27K7 
 
 Brick, fire 
 
 1:17528 
 
 16284 
 
 " wrought bars. 
 
 486.75 
 
 .2816 
 
 " nil-all 
 
 10.'. 
 
 21961 
 
 Lead, cast. 
 " rolled 
 
 709.5 
 711.75 
 
 .4106 
 .4119 
 
 Coal, anthracite, j 
 
 .71 
 MU 
 
 24.95S 
 21.854 
 
 Mercury, 60 
 
 848.7487 
 
 .491174 
 
 " bitum. mean 
 
 Ml. 
 
 2*. 
 
 Steel, plates 
 
 :^7.7.-, 
 
 ,2833 
 
 " Cannel 
 
 M.-7-, 
 
 23609 
 
 " soft 
 
 480.563 
 
 .2833 
 
 ' Cumberland 
 
 
 26.451 
 
 Tin 
 
 
 .2637 
 
 " Welsh mean 
 
 S'.viS 
 
 27 569 
 
 Zinc, cast. 
 
 I-J-.SI2 
 
 .24s2 
 
 Coke 
 
 ii '"> 
 
 :%:, ^ i 
 
 " rolled 
 
 440.437 
 
 .2601 
 
 Cotton, bale, mean 
 
 148 
 
 154.48 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 
 Cub. Ft. 
 
 " " pressd | 
 
 20. 
 25. 
 
 114. 
 89. 
 
 
 
 in a ton. 
 
 Earth, clav . 
 
 I'll fi5 
 
 18569 
 
 Ash 
 
 52.812 
 
 J2 in 
 
 " com'n soil.. 
 
 fr! -. 
 
 16 3'i5 
 
 Bav _ 
 
 51.375 
 
 43601 
 
 gravel 
 
 1'f 4 * 312 
 
 20.49 
 
 Coik.. . 
 
 15. 
 
 n ;:;; 
 
 " dry, sand... 
 
 l.ii! 
 
 I8.M7 
 
 Ce<lar '...."'.. 
 
 85062 
 
 
 " loose 
 
 M.75 
 
 25893 
 
 Chesliiut 
 
 88.125 
 
 5S.754 
 
 moist, sand 
 
 
 17 482 
 
 Hickory, pignut 
 Sh.-ll-baik 
 
 495 
 43125 
 
 4.- 2.VJ 
 51.942 
 
 " niDiilil... 
 " mud 
 
 12- .-.'.-, 
 Ill' -7.5 
 
 17.482 
 
 I'l !)>7 
 
 Llgnumvitae 
 Logwood 
 Mahog. Hondur's j 
 Oak, Cana<llan 
 
 S:( :i _' 
 57.062 
 &5. 
 <i<U37 
 51.5 
 
 IUM 
 MJH 
 
 64. 
 Si.714 
 4. 101 
 
 " with gravel 
 Granite, Qulncy... 
 " Su.squeh na 
 Hay, bale 
 " pressi-d 
 
 lL'ti.2-> 
 l5,7 
 . 
 Jt,525 
 Z\ 
 
 17.742 
 
 I.'! 11 
 
 2H .il7 
 89.6 
 
 " English 
 " live, seasoned 
 
 58.25 
 
 (K7.-> 
 
 83..>>8 
 
 India rubber 
 ' vulcanized 
 
 66437 
 
 S9.60 
 
 " white, dry 
 
 6<.75 
 
 41.574 
 
 Mmestone 
 
 19725 
 
 11.355 
 
 " upland 
 Pine, pitch 
 " red, 
 
 42.937 
 
 41.25 
 
 :-.-; s?o 
 
 52.169 
 54.*i3 
 W 745 
 
 Marble, mean 
 VIortnr, dry, mean 
 Water fresh 
 
 it;7.-7.-> 
 
 97.98 
 
 I8.S48 
 
 ."."> * l 
 
 ' white 
 
 84.696 
 
 64.fi! 
 
 " 'salt 
 
 61 125 
 
 34931 
 
 " well seasoned 
 
 29..i62 
 
 7.5.773 
 
 steam.... ...::::; 
 
 .0 C7J7 

 
 TABLES FOR ENGINEERS, ETC. 
 
 141 
 
 WEIGHT OF ONE FOOT OF FLAT BAR IRON. 
 If a bar of iron be thick* r tuun c<>iiiutnt-d in tl 
 
 the weight of two numbers, or treble the wt-lght of one number. 
 Wanted the wM>;litof 1 foot of bar iron, 4 inches broad and 2 1-1 In h-s 
 thick. Opposite 4 and under 1 is 13.304, which doubled Is 26.728; add 
 the weight of 1-lth (3.341). equal 30.009 Ibs. 
 
 Breadth in 
 
 inches. 
 
 THICKNESS IN PARTS OF AN INCH. 
 
 * 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 A 
 
 i 
 
 * 
 
 } 
 
 i 
 
 lin. 
 
 1 
 
 .835 
 
 1.044 
 
 1.253 
 
 1.461 
 
 1.670 
 
 2.088 
 
 2.506 
 
 2.923 
 
 3.340 
 
 Ij^ 
 
 J6B 
 
 1.174 
 
 1.409 
 
 1.644 
 
 1.878 
 
 2.348 
 
 2.818 
 
 3.287 
 
 B.700 
 
 \\ 
 
 1.044 
 
 1.305 
 
 1.566 
 
 1.826 
 
 2.088 
 
 2.609 
 
 3.132 
 
 3.653 
 
 4.176 
 
 % 
 
 1.148 
 
 1.435 
 
 1.722 
 
 2.009 
 
 2.296 
 
 2.870 
 
 3.444 
 
 4.018 
 
 4.592 
 
 i/ 
 
 1.252 
 
 i.. -,;,; 
 
 1.879 
 
 2.192 
 
 2.504 
 
 3.131 
 
 3.758 
 
 4.384 
 
 6.008 
 
 /& 
 
 1.358 
 
 1.696 
 
 2.035 
 
 2.374 
 
 2.716 
 
 3.392 
 
 4.070 
 
 4.749 
 
 5.432 
 
 ax 
 
 1.462 
 
 1.827 
 
 2.192 
 
 2.557 
 
 2.924 
 
 3.653 
 
 4.384 
 
 6.114 
 
 5.848 
 
 r/ 
 
 1.566 
 
 1.957 
 
 2.348 
 
 2.740 
 
 3.132 ."..'.Ml 
 
 4.696 
 
 5.479 
 
 6.264 
 
 2 
 
 1.671 
 
 2.088 
 
 2.505 
 
 2.922 
 
 3.342 4.175 
 
 5.010 
 
 B4M 
 
 6.684 
 
 2\4 
 
 1.775 
 
 2.218 
 
 2.662 
 
 3.105 
 
 3.550 4.435 
 
 5.324 
 
 6.210 
 
 7.100 
 
 2\ 
 
 1.880 
 
 2.348 
 
 2.818 
 
 3.288 
 
 3.760 4.696 
 
 5.630 
 
 6.575 
 
 7.520 
 
 2% 
 
 1.984 
 
 2.479 
 
 2.975 
 
 3.470 
 
 3.968 4.957 
 
 5.950 
 
 6.941 
 
 7.936 
 
 2/4 
 
 2.088 
 
 2.609 
 
 3.131 
 
 3.653 
 
 4.176 
 
 5.218 
 
 6.262 
 
 7.306 
 
 8.352 
 
 2% 2.193 
 
 2.740 
 
 3.288 
 
 3.836 
 
 4.386 
 
 5.479 
 
 6.576 
 
 7.671 
 
 8.772 
 
 2% 2.297 
 
 2.870 
 
 3.444 
 
 4.018 
 
 4.594 
 
 5.740 
 
 6.888 
 
 8.036 
 
 9.188 
 
 1% 2.402 
 
 3.001 
 
 3.601 
 
 4.201 
 
 4.804 6.001 
 
 7.202 
 
 8.402 
 
 9.608 
 
 3 
 
 2.506 
 
 3.131 
 
 3.758 
 
 4.384 
 
 5.012 6.262 
 
 7.516 
 
 8.767 
 
 10.024 
 
 3^ 
 
 2.715 
 
 3.392 
 
 4.071 
 
 4.749 
 
 5.430 
 
 6.784 
 
 8.142 
 
 9.498 10.860 
 
 3/4 
 
 2.923 
 
 3.653 
 
 4.384 
 
 5.114 
 
 5.846 
 
 7.306 
 
 8.768 
 
 10. __'* n.c'.tu 
 
 3^ 
 
 3.132 
 
 3.914 
 
 4.697 
 
 5.479 
 
 6.264 
 
 7.828 
 
 9.394 
 
 10.960 12.528 
 
 4 
 
 3.341 
 
 4.175 
 
 5.010 
 
 5.845 
 
 6.682 
 
 8.350 
 
 10.020 
 
 UL690|18JM 
 
 41^ 
 
 3.549 
 
 4.436 
 
 5.323 
 
 6.210 
 
 7.098 
 
 8.871 
 
 10.646 
 
 12.421 14.196 
 
 A IS 
 
 3.758 
 
 4.697 
 
 5.636 
 
 6.575 
 
 7.516 
 
 9.393 
 
 11.272 
 
 13.151 
 
 15.032 
 
 4% 
 
 3.966 
 
 4.958 
 
 5.949 
 
 6.941 
 
 7.932 
 
 9.915 
 
 11.898 
 
 13.881 
 
 15.864 
 
 6 
 
 4.175 
 
 6.219 
 
 6.263 
 
 7.306 
 
 8.350 10.437 
 
 12.526 
 
 14.612 16.700 
 
 6>/ 
 
 4.384 
 
 5.479 
 
 6.576 
 
 7.671 
 
 8.768 10.958 
 
 13.152 
 
 15.343 17.536 
 
 8/4 
 
 4.593 
 
 6.741 
 
 B.880 
 
 8.037 
 
 9.186 1 11.480 13.778 
 
 16.073 1 18.372 
 
 65^ 
 
 4.801 
 
 6.001 
 
 7.202 
 
 8.402 
 
 9.602 12.002 14.404 
 
 16.804 19.204 
 
 6 
 
 6.010 
 
 6.262 
 
 7.515 
 
 8.767 1 10.020 12.524 15.030 
 
 17.535 20.042 
 
 WEIGHT OF ONE SQUARE FOOT OF SHEET IRON, ETC. 
 
 i 
 
 Iron.. 
 Cop... 
 enm 
 
 Thickness by the Birmingham (Eng.) Wire Gauge. 
 
 1 1 
 126012.0011.00 
 
 14.50 13.90 12.75 
 13.75 13.20 12.10 
 
 4 1 5 
 
 1000 ~874 
 H.tO 10.10 
 
 11. > >...! 
 
 6 1 7 | 8 
 
 si. 7.50 <;>'; 
 
 9.40 8.70 7.90 
 8.93 8.25 7.54 
 
 
 
 JiTI 
 7.20 
 UN 
 
 10 11 1J 
 
 5.62'5.00 4.38 
 0.50 5>0 5.08 
 6.18:5.50 4.81 
 
 13 
 
 ITS 
 L84 
 
 1.1-2 
 
 14 
 
 ua 
 
 8.60 
 tM 
 
 II 
 
 2>2 
 ::.-7 
 3.10 
 
 Thickness by the Wire Gauge. 
 
 
 16 
 
 17 | 18 
 
 19 | 20 
 
 21 22 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 -'> 
 
 .<> 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 M 
 
 Iron.. 
 
 ?50 
 
 2. IS l.gfl 
 
 1.701.54 
 
 1.40 1.25 
 
 1.12 
 
 1 Oil 
 
 n 
 
 V 
 
 7-. 1 
 
 11 
 
 .56 
 
 n 
 
 C,p.. 
 Briiss 
 
 2.90 
 2.75 
 
 2.52 2.15 
 2.40:2.04 
 
 1.9711.78 
 1.87 1.69 
 
 1.02 1.45 
 1.54 1.37 
 
 1.301 1.16 
 1.23 1.10 
 
 1.1 '-i 
 M 
 
 JI 
 
 36 
 
 M 
 
 .711 
 
 .71 
 
 .70 
 
 .64 
 .61 
 
 M 
 
 a 
 
 No. 1 Wire Gauge is 5-10th of an inch : No. 4 Is l-4th : No. 11 is l-8th : 
 No. 13 is 1-12U> ; No. 15 is l-14th ; No. 16 Is l-18th ; No. 17 Is l-18th ; No. 19 
 IB 1-23; No. 22 is 1-32.
 
 142 
 
 WEIGHT OF BAB IRON, ETC, 
 
 RUSSIA SHEET IRON 
 
 Measures 56 bv2S Inches, and is ruled by tho \vHfsh t per sheet The 
 nutnbern run from 8 to 18 Ku^i 'ii li>. p. r she, i. s Russian pounds 
 e<|Ual 7.2 KimlMi ,.i, t r -Is; < <.l M>.; 1" 'Jll.s.; 11 --lOll.s.; ll' 11. 'J Ihs. 
 
 &j. 100 Russian lb-. qu.ii '.o li>-. English. 
 
 WEIGHT OF ONE SftTJABE FOOT OF PLATE IBON, ETC. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 III 
 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 a$a 
 
 
 Si 
 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 | 
 
 ! 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Iff 
 
 I 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 PQ 
 
 1 
 
 
 2.5 
 
 29 
 
 2.7 
 
 37 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 203 
 
 19.0 
 
 259 
 
 
 50 
 
 6.8 
 
 5.5 
 
 7.4 
 
 1 
 
 200 
 
 23.2 
 
 21.8 
 
 29.6 
 
 
 75 
 
 87 
 
 82 
 
 11.1 
 
 | 
 
 25.0 
 
 288 
 
 271 
 
 37.0 
 
 | 
 
 10.0 
 
 116 
 
 10.9 
 
 148 
 
 1 
 
 30.0 
 
 34.7 
 
 325 
 
 444 
 
 ~ff 
 
 125 
 
 145 
 
 136 
 
 185 
 
 | 
 
 35.0 
 
 40.4 
 
 379 
 
 67.8 
 
 1 
 
 150 
 
 174 
 
 163 
 
 222 
 
 1 
 
 400 
 
 462 
 
 433 
 
 69.2 
 
 WEIGHT ONE FOOT IN LENGTH OF SO.UABE AND BOUND BAB 
 IBON. 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 .2 
 
 g 
 
 fl 
 
 c 
 
 5 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 o 
 
 .5 
 
 fi 
 
 a . 
 
 K 
 
 fl . 
 
 et . 
 
 r. 
 
 1 
 
 _j 
 
 a . 
 
 Tj.a 
 
 If 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 202 
 6 
 
 M a 
 
 :1 
 
 ' 
 ~ 
 
 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 B*3 
 
 -" a 
 
 
 a a 
 
 il 
 
 o| 
 
 e'^ 
 
 ll 
 
 a , 
 
 a 
 r: 
 
 a 
 
 |l 
 
 c| 
 
 ll 
 
 3 
 OD 
 
 i 
 
 11 
 
 I 
 
 o 
 
 Q5 
 
 55 
 
 ~a 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 | 
 
 .209 
 
 ,1(14 
 
 Ii 
 
 8820 
 
 6928 
 
 8 
 
 \ 
 
 46.969 
 
 36.895 
 
 A 
 
 .326 
 
 .25fi 
 
 If 
 
 10229 
 
 8.043 
 
 ;; 
 
 ; 
 
 60153 
 
 39.390 
 
 1 
 
 .470 
 
 .3K9 
 
 1 
 
 11.743 
 
 9224 
 
 4 
 
 
 53.440 
 
 41.984 
 
 tV 
 
 .640 
 
 5o:> 
 
 2 
 
 13.360 
 
 10496 
 
 4 
 
 , 
 
 56.833 
 
 44637 
 
 | 
 
 .835 
 
 .656 
 
 2i 
 
 15.083 
 
 11846 
 
 4 
 
 
 (j i :\'2\) 
 
 47.385 
 
 A 
 
 1.057 
 
 .831 
 
 2^ 
 
 16908 
 
 13283 
 
 -J 
 
 
 63930 
 
 50.211 
 
 1 
 
 1305 
 
 1.025 
 
 2| 
 
 18.840 
 
 14797 
 
 4 
 
 
 67.637 
 
 63.132 
 
 .u. 
 
 1.579 
 
 1.241 
 
 2J 
 
 20.875 
 
 16.396 
 
 4 
 
 
 71445 
 
 66113 
 
 ^ 
 
 1.879 
 
 1.476 
 
 ll" 
 
 23.115 
 
 18146 
 
 4 
 
 
 75359 
 
 V.) is? 
 
 i4 
 
 2205 
 
 1732 
 
 2| 
 
 2-5.259 19.842 
 
 -! 
 
 
 79378 
 
 62344 
 
 ^. 
 
 2558 
 
 2.011 
 
 2i 
 
 27.608 
 
 21.C.S4 
 
 5 
 
 
 83.510 
 
 65585 
 
 it 
 
 2936 
 
 2.306 
 
 3 
 
 30.070 
 
 28.658 
 
 r- 
 
 \ 
 
 92459 
 
 72.618 
 
 1 
 
 3340 
 
 2624 
 
 31 
 
 32618 
 
 2.5.620 
 
 6 
 
 , 
 
 101.036 
 
 79370 
 
 n 
 
 4.22S 
 
 3 321 
 
 4 
 
 35.279 
 
 27.709 
 
 
 
 110.429 
 
 86 7.51 
 
 it 
 
 5.219 
 
 4099 
 
 31 
 
 38.04n 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 11:0243 
 
 94.610 
 
 if 
 
 6.315 
 7.516 
 
 4961 
 5.913 
 
 3. 
 
 40916 
 43 890 
 
 '- 1 "' fhewelghl oflMrlroi 
 
 34472|i ;; ;; ;; ^, lron " ,-^
 
 WEIGHT OP METALS. 
 
 143 
 
 CAST IBON. 
 
 WEIGHT OF A FOOT IN LENGTH OF SQUARE 
 AND ROUND. 
 
 SQUARE. 
 
 ROUND. 
 
 Size. | Weight;! Size. Weight [ Size. 
 
 Weight | Size. (Weight 
 
 Inches 
 Siuurr 
 
 g 
 
 Pounds 
 
 .78 
 1.22 
 1.75 
 2.39 
 3.12 
 3.95 
 4.88 
 5.90 
 7.03 
 8.25 
 
 m98 
 
 12.50 
 
 14.11 
 
 15.81 
 
 17.62 
 
 19.53 
 
 21.53 
 
 23.63 
 
 25.83 
 
 28.12 
 
 80.B 
 
 33. 
 
 35.59 
 
 38. '.'8 
 
 41.06 
 
 43.94 
 
 46.92 
 
 50. 
 
 53.14 
 
 56.44 
 
 59.81 
 
 63.28 
 
 66.84 
 
 70.50 
 
 Inches 
 Square 
 
 | 
 
 6% 
 
 10 
 
 Pounds 
 
 74.26 
 78.12 
 82.08 
 86.13 
 90.28 
 94.53 
 98.87 
 103.32 
 107.86 
 112.50 
 122.08 
 132.03 
 142.38 
 158.12 
 164.25 
 175.78 
 187.08 
 200. 
 212.56 
 225.78 
 239.25 
 253.12 
 207.38 
 282. 
 297.07 
 312.50 
 328.32 
 344.53 
 361.13 
 378.12 
 395.50 
 413.28 
 431.44 
 450. 
 
 ' Inches 
 Diam. 
 
 Pounds 
 
 .61 
 
 .95 
 
 1.38 
 
 1.87 
 
 2.45 
 
 3.10 
 
 3.83 
 
 4.04 
 
 5.52 
 
 6.48 
 
 7.51 
 
 8.62 
 
 9.81 
 
 11.08 
 
 12.42 
 
 1384 
 
 15.33 
 
 16.91 
 
 18.56 
 
 20.28 
 
 22.18 
 
 23.96 
 
 25.92 
 
 27.95 
 
 30.16 
 
 32.25 
 
 34.51 
 
 36.85 
 
 39.27 
 
 41.76 
 
 44.27 
 
 46.97 
 
 49.70 
 
 52.50 
 
 55.37 
 
 Inches I 
 
 Pounds 
 
 58.32 
 61.35 
 64.46 
 67.04 
 70.09 
 74.24 
 77.05 
 81.14 
 84.71 
 88.35 
 95.87 
 
 111.8-J 
 
 120.26 
 
 129. 
 
 138.05 
 
 147. -41 
 
 157-08 
 
 167.05 
 
 177.10 
 
 187.91 
 
 198.79 
 
 210. 
 
 221.50 
 
 233.31 
 
 245.43 
 
 WT.fifl 
 
 270.69 
 
 ISM;. -.17 
 
 824.59 
 
 3.-W.85 
 353.43 
 
 STEEL. WEIGHT OF A FOOT IN LENGTH OF FLAT. 
 
 Size. 
 
 Thick. 
 1-4 In. 
 
 . hi.-k. 
 3-8ths. 
 
 Thick. 
 1-2 in. 
 
 181*6. 
 
 Thid; 
 1-4 in. 
 
 Thick, 
 38ths 
 
 Thick, 
 1-2 In. 
 
 Thl.-k, 
 .3-8th& 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Ihs. 
 
 M.S. 
 
 RM 
 
 In^-h. 
 
 ]h 
 
 n> 
 
 ]h 
 
 Ihs. 
 
 1 
 
 .852 
 .958 
 
 1.-J7 
 1.43 
 
 1.70 
 1.91 
 
 z.io 2>^' 
 2.39 I'-; 
 
 2.13 
 8.34 
 
 3.20 
 3.51 
 
 4.26 
 4.'58 
 
 5.32 
 5.85 
 
 \\ 
 
 1.06 
 
 LW 
 
 2.13 
 
 2.66 3 
 
 
 3.83 
 
 5.11 
 
 6.39 
 
 1% ( 1.17 
 
 1.75 
 
 
 2.!'2 3'^ 
 
 2.77 
 
 4.15 
 
 5.53 
 
 6.92 
 
 1.-J7 
 
 L91 
 
 2.55 
 
 3.19 3U 
 
 2.98 
 
 4.47 
 
 5.98 
 
 7.45 
 
 1^ 
 
 1.49 
 
 2.23 
 
 2.98 
 
 q "1> q/ 
 .V I J tJ^j 
 
 3.19 
 
 479 
 
 6.38 
 
 7.98 
 
 2 
 
 1.70 
 
 L55 
 
 3.40 
 
 4.26 4 
 
 3.40 
 
 5.10 
 
 6.80 
 
 8.52 
 
 2j^ 
 
 1.91 
 
 2.87 
 
 3.83 
 
 4.79 |J 
 
 
 
 
 
 10
 
 144 
 
 WEIGHT OF METALS. 
 
 PATENT IMPEOVED LEAD PIPE. 
 SIZES AND WEIGHT PEK FOOT. 
 
 Weight 
 per toot 
 
 10 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 1 8 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 1 
 
 Weight 
 
 ii-.-r ( -i 
 
 Ibs. oz 
 1 4 
 
 1 
 
 1 8 
 
 2 
 2 12 
 
 12 
 14 
 
 Calibre 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Weight 
 perl . 
 
 Ibs. oz. 
 1 4 
 
 2 8 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 1 8 
 
 1 12 
 
 2 
 
 2 8 
 
 3 
 
 SHEET LEAD. Weight of a Square Foot, 2*4, 3, 3X, 4, 4}*, 5, 6, 
 7, 8)*, 9, 10 Ibs., and upwards. 
 
 BRASS, COPPER, STEEL AND LEAD. 
 WEIGHT OF A FOOT. 
 
 Diam.& 
 side of 
 Square. 
 
 BR 
 
 Weight 
 of 
 Round. 
 
 VSS. 1 1 COPPER. 
 
 8TE 
 Weight 
 of 
 Round. 
 
 EL. LEAD. 
 
 wjB 
 
 Square. 
 
 Weight 
 Round. 
 
 WJ* 
 
 Square. 
 
 *5= 
 
 Square. 
 
 Weight 
 of 
 Round. 
 
 Weight 
 Square. 
 
 In. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbi. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 
 .17 
 
 .22 
 
 .19 
 
 .24 
 
 .17 
 
 .21 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 .39 
 
 .50 
 
 .42 
 
 .64 
 
 .88 
 
 .4S 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 .70 
 
 .90 
 
 .75 
 
 .96 
 
 .67 
 
 .85 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.40 
 
 1.17 
 
 1.50 
 
 1.04 
 
 LSI 
 
 
 
 H7 
 
 1.59 
 
 2.02 
 
 1.69 
 
 2.16 
 
 1.60 
 
 I.M 
 
 
 
 my 
 
 2.16 
 
 2.75 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.94 
 
 2.05 
 
 2.61 
 
 
 
 
 2.83 
 
 8.60 
 
 Ml 
 
 8.S4 
 
 2.67 
 
 3.40 
 
 Ml 
 
 4.93 
 
 \s 
 
 3.58 
 
 -4 .-,; 
 
 s -J 
 
 4.86 
 
 3.33 
 
 4.34 
 
 4.90 
 
 MB 
 
 o 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.*) 
 
 4.71 
 
 6. 
 
 4.18 
 
 Ml 
 
 6.06 
 
 7.71 
 
 .1 ' 
 
 6.35 
 
 6.81 
 
 6.71 
 
 7.27 
 
 6.06 
 
 6.44 
 
 7.33 
 
 9.33 
 
 i? 
 
 6.36 
 
 8.10 
 
 6.79 
 
 > ,..-, 
 
 UM 
 
 7.67 
 
 8.72 
 
 11 11 
 
 i? 
 
 7.47 
 
 9.51 
 
 7.94 
 
 10.15 
 
 7.07 
 
 9. 
 
 IftJN 
 
 1X.01 
 
 K 
 
 8.66 
 
 1LM 
 
 9.21 
 
 11.77 
 
 8.20 
 
 10.14 
 
 11.W 
 
 15.12 
 
 J7Z 
 
 9.95 
 
 J2.66 
 
 10.61 
 
 13.52 
 
 9.41 
 
 11 '..-i 
 
 i3.a 
 
 17.36 
 
 2 
 
 11.32 
 
 14.41 
 
 1208 
 
 15.:* 
 
 10.71 
 
 13.63 
 
 15.51 
 
 10.75 
 
 2V^ 
 
 12.78 
 
 16.27 
 
 13.64 
 
 17.36 
 
 12.05 
 
 
 17 .'.I 
 
 2. .29 
 
 2 1 ** 
 
 14.32 
 
 18.24 
 
 15.29 
 
 19.47 
 
 13.51 
 
 17.20 
 
 19.63 
 
 B, 
 
 99 
 
 15.!6 
 
 KM 
 
 17.03 
 
 21.69 
 
 15.05 
 
 19.17 
 
 21.HO 
 
 a7.0 
 
 2V* 
 
 17.68 
 
 22.53 
 
 i> vr 
 
 -.'i: 
 
 1668 
 
 21.21 
 
 24.24 
 
 30.88 
 
 2^7 
 
 19.50 
 
 21.S3 
 
 20.81 
 
 26.50 
 
 18.39 
 
 23.41 
 
 2672 
 
 31.02 
 
 2/4 
 
 21.40 
 
 27.25 
 
 2_'sj 
 
 29.08 
 
 20.18 
 
 25.70 
 
 29.: 
 
 37.31 
 
 2j2 
 
 21.89 
 
 29.78 
 
 24.92 
 
 81.79 
 
 2206 
 
 28.10 
 
 S.'.oi 
 
 40.81 
 
 3 
 
 25.47 
 
 32.43 
 
 27.18 
 
 34.61 
 
 24.21 
 
 80.60 
 
 34.90 
 
 44.44 
 
 CAST IRON. 
 WEIGHT OF A SUPERFICIAL FOOT FROM \i TO 2 INCHES THICK. 
 
 In. 
 
 Weight!) SiJ 
 
 Lbs. 
 9.37 
 14.06 
 
 18.75 
 
 Weight) [ Size. |Weighi 
 
 Lbs. 
 23.43 
 88.13 
 
 32.81 
 
 . 
 
 37.50 
 42.18 
 46.87 
 
 "Size. iWeighT 
 
 Lbs. 
 51..V5 
 
 Sire. I Weight 
 
 In. 
 
 2 " 
 
 70.31 
 75.
 
 EQUAL-SIDED TIMBER MEASURE. 145 
 
 CAST IRON. 
 Weight of a Foot in Length of Flat Cast 1 
 
 f<m. 
 ThickT 
 Kin. 
 
 Thick, 
 1 inch. 
 
 Width of 
 Iron. 
 
 Thick, 
 ^in. 
 
 Thick, 
 Kin- 
 
 Thick, 
 Kin. 
 
 Thick, 
 Kin. 
 
 Thick, 
 Kin. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 11)3. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 2 
 
 1.56 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.12 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.68 
 
 5.46 
 
 6.25 
 
 2j^ 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.63 
 
 3.51 
 
 4.39 
 
 5.27 
 
 6.15 
 
 7.03 
 
 2Ji 
 
 1.95 
 
 2.92 
 
 3.90 
 
 4.88 
 
 5.85 
 
 6.83 
 
 7.81 
 
 2j 
 
 2.14 
 
 3.22 
 
 4.29 
 
 5.37 
 
 6.44 
 
 7.51 
 
 8.59 
 
 3 
 
 2.34 
 
 3.51 
 
 4.68 
 
 5.85 
 
 7.03 
 
 8.20 
 
 9.37 
 
 3Vi 
 
 2.53 
 
 3.80 
 
 5.07 
 
 6.34 
 
 7.61 
 
 8.88 
 
 10.15 
 
 3M 
 
 2.73 
 
 4.10 
 
 5.46 
 
 6.83 
 
 8.20 
 
 9.57 
 
 10.93 
 
 3^ 
 
 2.93 
 
 4.39 
 
 5.85 
 
 7.32 
 
 8.78 
 
 10.25 
 
 11.71 
 
 4 
 
 3.12 
 
 4.6S 
 
 6.25 
 
 7.81 
 
 9.37 
 
 10.93 
 
 12.50 
 
 4}* 
 
 3.32 
 
 4.97 
 
 6.64 
 
 8.30 
 
 9.96 
 
 11.62 
 
 13.28 
 
 *5f 
 
 3-51 
 
 5.27 
 
 7.03 
 
 8.78 
 
 10.54 
 
 12.30 
 
 14.06 
 
 4* 
 
 3.71 
 
 5.56 
 
 7.42 
 
 9.27 
 
 11.13 
 
 12.98 
 
 14.84 
 
 5 
 
 3.90 
 
 0.86 
 
 7.81 
 
 9.76 
 
 11.71 
 
 13.67 
 
 15.62 
 
 6}^ 
 
 4.10 
 
 6.15 
 
 8.20 
 
 10.25 
 
 12.30 
 
 14.35 
 
 16.40 
 
 51^ 
 
 4.29 
 
 6.44 
 
 8.59 
 
 10.74 
 
 12.89 
 
 15.03 
 
 17.18 
 
 53^ 
 
 4.49 
 
 6.73 
 
 8.98 
 
 11.23 
 
 13.46 
 
 15.72 
 
 17.96 
 
 6 
 
 l.'i.S 
 
 7.03 
 
 9.37 
 
 11.71 
 
 14.06 
 
 16.40 
 
 IK. 7^5 
 
 SOLID CONTENTS OF EQUAL-SIDED TIMBER. 
 If the log is shorter than is contained in the table, take, half or 
 quarter of some length; if longer, double some length. The length 
 of the log is given on the top of the columns, the diameter in the 
 left hand column. To obtain the cubical contents of masts, spars, 
 round logs, &c., subtract one- fourth from the contents. 
 
 c -= Lft 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. L. 
 
 T 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 14 15 
 
 16 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 ^ 
 
 23 
 30 
 
 j | 
 
 2 i 
 3 4 
 
 2 II 
 8 7 
 
 3 
 4 1 
 
 3 8 
 4 5 
 
 8639 
 4951 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 4 3 
 6 9 
 
 il 
 
 8 10 
 
 11 
 
 9 8 
 
 6 
 610 
 9 8 
 
 I 
 
 52 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 2 
 
 A 9 
 
 7 4 
 
 7 111 869 
 
 9 8 
 
 10 8 
 
 1010 
 
 11 6 
 
 H 
 
 62 
 
 6 10 
 
 7 8 
 
 8 4 
 
 9 
 
 9 8 10 4 H 
 
 11 8 
 
 12 4 
 
 13 
 
 13 8 
 
 11 
 
 76 
 
 8 4 
 
 9 8 
 
 10 1 
 
 1011 
 
 11 9 12 7 
 
 13 
 
 14 8 
 
 15 1 
 
 
 16 9 
 
 u 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 11 C 
 
 12 13 
 
 14 15 
 
 16 ( 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 l ; 
 n 
 ] , 
 
 104 
 122 
 14 2 
 
 11 711210 
 13 7 14 11 
 15 9 17 2 
 
 14 111 8 
 16 4 17 8 
 18 920 4 
 
 16 617 9 
 131120 3 
 21 10 23 6 
 
 18 
 21 
 25 
 
 19 11 
 2211 
 28 7 
 
 21 1 
 
 H! 
 
 22 8 
 29 
 
 23 6 
 2611 
 31 4 
 
 i.i 
 
 160 
 
 17 HI 
 
 19 6 
 
 21 4|23 1 
 
 24 10 28 7 
 
 28 
 
 80 1 
 
 21 10 
 
 S3 
 
 35 4 
 
 17 
 
 180 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 24 I :; 1 
 
 28 1 30 1 
 
 82 
 
 84 1 
 
 86 1 
 
 38 
 
 40 1 
 
 is 
 
 jo :! 
 
 22 6 
 
 21 9 
 
 27 029 3 
 
 41 6 43 9 
 
 86 
 
 88 8 
 
 40 6 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 1'.' 
 
 226 
 
 r, o 
 
 ft 830 1 
 
 32 7 
 
 35 1 37 7 
 
 41 
 
 43 7 
 
 46 1 
 
 48 
 
 62 
 
 
 
 2>0 
 
 27 10 
 
 30 10:33 4 
 
 36 1133 10 41 7 
 
 44 
 
 47 2 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 65 9 
 
 B 
 
 2/7 
 
 M s 
 
 936 9 
 
 39 10 42 11 46 
 
 49 
 
 52 2 
 
 65 3 
 
 53 
 
 61 6 
 
 
 
 302 
 
 ;t i; 
 
 16 10 40 4 
 
 44 8 47 050 41 63 
 
 57 
 
 60 4 
 
 63 
 
 67 
 
 
 :?l 
 
 36 8 
 
 40 4 44 1 
 
 47 9 
 
 .51 6 55 1 
 
 68 
 
 62 5 
 
 66 1 
 
 69 
 
 73 5 
 
 II 
 
 360 
 
 40 
 
 41 048 
 
 >! 
 
 56 60 
 
 61 
 
 63 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 43 4 
 
 43 152 1 
 
 -..; r, 
 
 60 9 65 1 
 
 69 5 
 
 73 9 
 
 78 1 
 
 82 5 
 
 86 9 
 
 
 
 4J 2 
 
 4611 
 
 51 756 4 
 
 61 
 
 05 870 4 
 
 75 
 
 79 8 
 
 84 4 
 
 89 93 8 
 
 LT 
 
 4.57 
 
 .-, s 
 
 55 9160 9 
 
 (H 10 
 
 ;.> n 71! n 
 
 81 1 
 
 86 2 
 
 91 7 
 
 M 8 liil 11 
 
 
 
 49 
 
 51 6 
 
 59 10,65 4 
 
 70 9 
 
 78 2 81 7 
 
 85 
 
 92 6 
 
 97 10 '103 3 108 8 
 
 
 
 536 
 
 5S 4 
 
 04 2(70 1 
 
 7511 
 
 81 9 87 7 
 
 H .5 
 
 99 3 
 
 108 1 
 
 11211 
 
 117 9 
 
 M 
 
 55 9 
 
 62 0,63 3175 
 
 81 8 
 
 87 6 93 9 100 
 
 106 3 
 
 112 6 
 
 118 9 125
 
 146 LOGS REDUCED TO BOARD MEASURE. 
 
 LOGS REDUCED TO ONE INCH BOAED MEASURE. 
 If the log is longer than is contained in tin- table, take any two 
 
 Tin- first column on the left gives the length of the log in feet. 
 The figures under D denote the diameters of the logs in inches. 
 Fractional parts of inches are not given. 
 
 The diameter of timber is usually taken 120 f.-.-t from the butt. 
 All logs short of 20 feet, take the diameter at the top, or small end. 
 
 To find the number of feet of boards which a log will produce 
 when sawed, take the length of feet in the first column on the left 
 hand, and the diameter at the top of the page in inches. 
 
 Suppose a log 12 feet long and 24 inches in diameter; in the left 
 hand column is the length, and opposite 12 under 24 is 300, the 
 number of feet of boards in a log of that length and diameter. 
 
 D. D. D. D. 1>. D. D. I D. D. D. D. D. D. 
 
 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 I i 20 21 22 23 24 
 
 !.-,!( 
 
 11.-, 
 
 198 
 
 188 
 
 If, I 
 
 146 
 
 IU 
 
 217 
 
 1.11 
 
 217 
 
 111 
 
 21 
 
 171 
 
 459 
 
 S--7 
 
 108 
 
 I'.T 
 
 .7.7 
 
 42(5 
 
 51 'J 
 
 4,r, 
 
 57<> 
 
 57S 
 
 71!) 
 
 S:!4 
 872 
 910 I 98*2 
 9 IS 1023 
 986 lOW 
 lo.'l IK r> 
 liltij II IK 
 1100 | 1187 
 1138 12-28 
 1176 ! 1269 
 
 978 
 
 !7K 
 
 1 1 )_>.-> 
 
 1270 
 
 1417 
 
 12R6 
 
 1116 
 
 746 
 803 
 861 
 919 
 976 
 1034 
 10J2 
 1148 
 1 06 
 1264 
 
 1310 I 1376 
 1365 I 1434 
 
 14-JO 
 
 1550
 
 WEIGHT OF CASTINGS. 147 
 
 RELATIVE STRENGTH OF CAST AND MALLE- 
 ABLE IRON. 
 
 It has been found, in the course of the experiments made by 
 Mr. Hodgkinson and Mr. Fairbairn, that the average strain that 
 oast iron will bear in the way of tension, before breaking, is about 
 seven tons and a half per square inch ; the weakest, in the course 
 of 16 trials on various descriptions, bearing 6 tons, and the strong- 
 est 9} tons. The experiments of Telford and Brown show that 
 malleable iron will bear, on an average, 27 tons; the weakest 
 bearing 24, and the strongest 29 tons. On approaching the break- 
 ing point, cast iron may snap in an instant, without any previous 
 symptom, while wrought iron begins to stretch, with half its 
 breaking weight, and so continues to stretch till it breaks. The 
 experiments of Hodgkinson and Fairbairn show also that cast iron 
 is capable of sustaining compression to the extent of nearly 50 
 tons on the square inch ; the weakest bearing 36} tons, and the 
 strongest 60 tons. In this respect, malleable iron is much inferior 
 to cast iron. With 12 tons on the square inch it yields, contracts 
 in length, and expands laterally ; though it will bear 27 tons, or 
 more, without actual fracture. 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 To find the Weight of any Casting. 
 
 Width in } ins. x Thickness in ins., or rice versa, -f- 10 X 
 Length, ft. = Weight, Ibs. cast iron. 
 
 For instance: to find the weight of a casting 31 ins. V li ins- 
 X 2 ft. 6 ins. long. 
 
 13 X 9 -T- 10 = 11-7 X 2-5 = 29-25 Ibs. 
 
 This rule is very useful, and can easily be remembered in the 
 following form. 
 
 Width in J ins. X Thickness in } ins. or vice versa, cut off 1 
 figure for decimal, the result is Ibs. per foot of length. 
 
 For wrought iron add .-,',.,' 'i to the result ; for lead add } ; for 
 brass add }th ; for copper add $th. 
 
 To find the Weight from the Areas. 
 
 Area, sq. ins. X Length, ft. X 3f = Weight, Ibs. cast iron. 
 
 Multiplier for Cast iron 3-1-56 or 31. 
 
 ' Wrought iron 8-312 or 3*. 
 
 Lead 4-854. 
 
 " Brass 3-644. 
 
 " Copper 3-87. 
 
 Or, Area, sq. ins. X 10 = Ibs. per yard for wrought iron.
 
 148 WHEEL GEARING. 
 
 To find the "Weight in cwts. 
 
 Area, aq. ins. X Length, ft. H- 31-9 = Weight, cwts. cast iron. 
 For wrought iron, divide by 33-6. 
 
 WHEEL GEARING. 
 
 The Pitch Line of a wheel, is the circle upon which the pitch 
 is measured, and it is the circumference by which the diameter, 
 or the velocity of the wheel, is measured. 
 
 The Pitch, is the arc of the circle of the pitch line, and is de- 
 termined by the number of the teeth in the wheel. 
 
 The True Pitch (Chordial), or that by which the dimensions 
 of the tooth of a wheel are alone determined, is a straight line 
 drawn from the centres of two contiguous teeth upon the pitch 
 line. 
 
 The Line of Centres, is the line between the centres of two 
 wheels. 
 
 The Radius of a wheel, is the semi-diameter running to the 
 periphery of a tooth. The Pitch Radius, is the semi-diameter 
 running to the pitch line. 
 
 The Length of a Tooth, is the distance from its base to its 
 extremity. 
 
 The Breadth of a Tooth, is the length of the face of wheel. 
 
 A Cog Wheel, is the general term for a wheel having a num- 
 ber of cogs or teeth set upon or radiating from its circumference. 
 
 A Mortise Wheel, is a wheel constructed for the reception 
 of teeth or cogs, which are fitted into recesses or sockets upon 
 the face of the wheel. 
 
 Plate Wheels, are wheels without arms. 
 
 A Rack, is a series of teeth set in a plane. 
 
 A Sector, is a wheel which reciprocates without forming a full 
 revolution. 
 
 A Spur Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth perpendicular to 
 its axis. 
 
 A Bevel Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth at an angle with 
 its axis. 
 
 A Crown Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth at a right angle 
 with its axis. 
 
 A Mitre Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth at an angle of 45 
 with its axis. 
 
 A Face Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth set upon one of its 
 sides. 
 
 An Annular or Internal Wheel, is a wheel having its teeth con- 
 vergent to its centre. 
 
 Spur Gear. Wheels which act upon each other in the same 
 plane. 
 
 Bevel Gear. Wheels which act upon each other at an angle. 
 
 When the tooth of a wheel is made of a material different from
 
 WHEEL GEARING. 149 
 
 that of the wheel, it is termed a Cog; in a pinion it is termed a 
 Leaf, and in a trundle a Stave. 
 
 A wheel which impels another is termed the Spur, Driver, or 
 Leader ; the one impelled is the Pinion, Driven, or Follower. 
 
 A series of wheels iti connection with each other is termed a 
 Train. 
 
 When two wheels act upon one another, the greater is termed 
 the "Wheel and the lesser the Pinion. 
 
 A Trundle, Lantern, or Wallower is when the teeth of a 
 pinion are constructed of round brass or solid cylinders set into 
 two discs. 
 
 A Trundle with less than eight staves cannot be operated 
 uniformly by a wheel with any number of teeth. 
 
 The material of which cogs are made is about one-fourth the 
 strength of cast iron. The product of their bd* should be four 
 times that of iron teeth. 
 
 Buchanan: Rules that to increase or diminish velocity in a 
 given proportion, and with the lea^t quantity of wheel-work, the 
 number of teeth in each pinion should be to the number of teeth 
 in its wheel as 1 : 3-59. Even to save space and expense, the ratio 
 should never exceed 1 : 6. 
 
 The least number of teeth that it is practicable to give to a wheel 
 is regulated by the necessity of having at least one pair always in 
 action, in order to provide for the contingency of a tooth breaking. 
 
 The teeth of wheels should be as small and numerous as is con- 
 sistent with strength. 
 
 When a Pinion is driven by a wheel, the number of teeth 
 in the pinion should not be less than eight. 
 
 When a Wheel is driven by a pinion, the number of teeth 
 in the pinion should not be less than ten. 
 
 The Number of teeth in a wheel should always be prime to the 
 number of the pinion; that is, the number of teeth in the wheel 
 should not be divisible by the number of teeth in the pinion with- 
 out a remainder. This is in order to prevent the same teeth 
 coming together so often as to cause an irregular wear of their 
 faces. An odd tooth introduced into a wheel is termed a hunting 
 tooth or cog. 
 
 To Compute the Pitch of a "Wheel. 
 
 RULK. Divide circumference at the pitch-line by the number 
 of teeth. 
 
 Example. A wheel 40 ins. in diameter requires 75 teeth ; what 
 is its pitch T 
 
 8-1416 X 40 = 1 .- 
 76 
 
 To Compute the True or Chordial Pitch. 
 RULE. Divide 180 by the number of teeth, ascertain the sine 
 of the quotient and multiply it by the diameter of the wheel.
 
 150 WHEEL GEARING. 
 
 Example. The number of teeth is 75, and the diameter 40 
 inches ; what is the true pitch ? 
 
 ^2 = 2 24' and fin. of 2 24' = -04188, which X 40 = 1-6752 im. 
 70 
 
 To Compute the Diameter of a Wheel. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the number of teeih by the pitch, and divide 
 the product by 3-1416. 
 
 Example. The number of teeth in a wheel is 75, and the pitch 
 1-675 ins. ; what is the diameter of it? 
 
 To Compute the Number of Teeth in a Wheel. 
 RULE. Divide the circumference by the pitch. 
 
 To Compute the Diameter when the True Pitch is 
 given. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the number of teeth in the wheel by the true 
 pitch, and again by -3184. 
 
 Example. Take the elements of the preceding case. 
 75 X 1-6762 X '3184 = 40 ins. 
 
 To Compute the Number of Teeth in a Pinion or Fol- 
 lower to have a given Velocity. 
 
 RULB. Multiply the velocity of the driver by its number of 
 teeth, and divide the product by the velocity of the driven. 
 
 Example. The velocity of a driver is 16 revolutions, the num- 
 ber of its teeth 54, and the velocity of the pinion is 48 ; what is 
 the number of its teeth ? 
 
 2. A wheel having 75 teeth is making 16 revolutions per minute ; 
 what is the number of teeth required in the pinion to make 24 
 revolutions in the same time? 
 
 To Compute the Proportional Radius of a Wheel or 
 Pinion. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the length of the line of centres by the number 
 of teeth in the wheel for the wheel, and in the pinion for the 
 pinion, and divide by the number of teeth in both the wheel and 
 pinion.
 
 WHEEL GEARING. 151 
 
 To Compute the Diameter of a Pinion, when the Di- 
 ameter of the Wheel and Number of Teeth in the 
 Wheel and Pinion are given. 
 
 RULB. Multiply the diameter of the wheel bj the number of 
 teeth in the pinion, and divide the product by the number of teeth 
 in the wheel. 
 
 Example. The diameter of a wheel is 25 inches, the number of 
 its teeth 210, and the number of teeth in the pinion 30; what is 
 the diameter of the pinion T 
 
 210 
 
 To Compute the Number of Teeth required in a Train 
 of Wheels to produce a given Velocity. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the number of teeth in the driver by its num- 
 ber of revolutions, and divide the product by the number of revo- 
 lutions of each pinion, for each driver and pinion. 
 
 Example. If a driver in a train of three wheels has 90 teeth, 
 and makes 2 revolutions, and the velocities required are 2, 10, 
 and 18, what are the number of teeth in each of the other two? 
 
 10 : 90 : : 2 : 18 = teeth in Id wheel. 
 18: 90 : : 2 : 10 = teeth in Zd wheel. 
 
 To Compute the Circumference of a Wheel. 
 RCLB. Multiply the number of teeth by their pitch. 
 
 To Compute the Revolutions of a Wheel or Pinion. 
 
 . Multiply the diameter or circumference of the wheel or 
 the number of its teeth, as the case may be, by (he number of its 
 revolutions, and divide the product by the diameter, circumfer- 
 ence, or number of teeth in the pinion. 
 
 Examplf. A pinion 10 inches in diameter is driven by a wheel 
 2 feet in diameter, making 46 revolutions per minute; what is the 
 number of revolutions of the pinion? 
 
 To Compute the Velocity of a Pinion. 
 
 RULE. Divide the diameter, circumference, or number of teeth 
 in the driver, as the case may be, by the diameter, etc., of the 
 pinion.
 
 152 WHEEL GEARING. 
 
 When there are a Series or Train of Wheels and Pinions. 
 
 RULE. Divide the continued product of the diameter, circum- 
 ference, or number of teeth in the wheels by the continued pro- 
 duct of the diameter, etc., of the pinions. 
 
 Example 1. If a wheel of 32 teeth drive a pinion of 10, upon 
 the axis of which there is one of 30 teeth, driving a pinion of 8, 
 what are the revolutions of the last? 
 32 30 960 
 
 Example 2. The diameters of a train of wheels are 6, 9, 9, 10, 
 and 12 inches ; of the pinions, 6, 6, 6, 6, and 6 inches ; and the 
 number of revolutions of the driving shaft or prime mover is 10; 
 what are the revolutions of the last pinion ? 
 
 To Compute the Proportion that the Velocities of the 
 Wheels in a Train should bear to one another. 
 
 RULE. Subtract the less velocity from the greater, and divide 
 the remainder by one less than the number of wheels in the train ; 
 the quotient is the number, rising in arithmetical progression from 
 the less to the greater velocity. 
 
 Example. What should be the velocities of 3 wheels to produce 
 18 revolutions, the driver making 3 ? 
 
 . _ _ = 7'5 = number to be added to velocity of the driver 
 
 = 7-5 + 3 = 10-5, and 10-5 -f 7-5 == 18 revolutions. Hence 3, 10 5, 
 and 18 are the velocities of the three wheels. 
 
 General Illustrations. 
 
 1. A wheel 96 inches in diameter, having 42 revolutions per 
 minute, is to drive a shaft 75 revolutions per minute ; what should 
 be the diameter of the pinion ? 
 
 = 
 7o 
 
 2. If a pinion is to make 20 revolutions per minute, required 
 the diameter of another to make 68 revolutions in the same time. 
 
 68 -7- 20 = 2-9 = the ratio of their diameters. Hence, if one to 
 make 20 revolutions is given a diameter of 30 inches, the other 
 will be 30 -7- 2-9 = 10-345 inches. 
 
 3. Required the diameter of a pinion to make 12J revolutions 
 in the same time as one of 32 inches diameter making 26.
 
 WHEEL GEARINQ. 153 
 
 4. A shaft, having 22 revolutions per minute, is to drive another 
 shaft at the rate of 15, the distance between the two shafts upon 
 the line of centres is 45 inches ; what should be the diameter of 
 the wheels? 
 
 Then, 1st. 22 -}- 16 : 22 : : 45 : 26-75 = inches in the radius of (he 
 pinion. 
 2d. 22 + 15 : 15 : : 45 : 18-24 = inches in the radius of the spur. 
 
 6. A driving shaft, having 16 revolutions per minute, is to drive 
 a shaft 81 revolutions per minute, the motion to be communicated 
 by two geared wheels and two pulleys, with an intermediate shaft; 
 the driving wheel is to contain 54 teeth, and the driving pulley 
 upon the driven shaft is to be 25 inches in diameter; required the 
 number of teeth in the driven wheel, and the diameter of the 
 driven pulley. 
 
 Let the driven wheel have a velocity of y/lfi x 81=36, a mean 
 proportional between the extreme velocities 16 and 81. 
 
 Then, 1st. 86 : 16 : : 54 : 24 = teeth in the driven wheel. 
 
 2d. 81 : 36 : : 25 : 11-11 = inches diameter of the driven pulley. 
 
 6. If, as in the preceding case, the whole number of revolu- 
 tions of the driving shaft, the number of teeth in its wheel, and 
 the diameters of the pulleys are given, what are the revolutions 
 of the shafts ? 
 
 Then, 1st. 18 : 16 : : 64 : 48 = revolutions of the intermediate shaft. 
 2d. 15 : 48 : : 25 : 80 = revolutions of the driven shaft. 
 
 To Compute the Diameter of a "Wheel for a given Pitch 
 and Number of Teeth. 
 
 RULE. Multiply the diameter in the following table for the 
 number of teeth by the pitch, and the product will give the diam- 
 eter at the pitch circle. 
 
 Example. What is the diameter of a wheel to contain 48 teeth 
 of 2-5 inches pitch? 
 
 15-29 X 2-5 = 88-225 inches. 
 
 To Compute the Pitch of a "Wheel for a given Diameter 
 and Number of Teeth. 
 
 RULE. Divide the diameter of the wheel by the diameter in 
 the table for the number of teeth, and the product will give the 
 pitch. 
 
 Example. What is the pitch of a wheel when the diameter of 
 it is 50-94 inches, and the number of its teeth 80? 
 50-94
 
 154 
 
 WHEEL GEARING. 
 
 PITCH OF "WHEELS. 
 
 A TABLE WHEREBY TO COMPUTE THE DIAMETER OF A 
 WHEEL FOR A GIVEN PITCH, OR THE PITCH FOR A GIVEN 
 DIAMETER. 
 
 From 8 to 192 feet. 
 
 No. of 
 
 Diame- 
 
 No. of 
 
 Diame- 
 
 No. of 
 
 Diame- 
 
 No. of 
 
 Diame- 
 
 No of 
 
 Diame- 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 ter- 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 ter. 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 ter. 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 ter. 
 
 Teeth. 
 
 ter. 
 
 8 
 
 261 
 
 45 
 
 14-33 
 
 82 
 
 26-11 
 
 119 
 
 37-88 
 
 156 
 
 49-66 
 
 9 
 
 2-93 
 
 46 
 
 14-65 
 
 83 
 
 26-43 
 
 120 
 
 38-2 
 
 157 
 
 49-98 
 
 10 
 
 3-24 
 
 47 
 
 14-97 
 
 84 
 
 26-74 
 
 121 
 
 38-52 
 
 168 
 
 603 
 
 11 
 
 3-65 
 
 48 
 
 15-29 
 
 85 
 
 27-06 
 
 122 
 
 3884 
 
 169 
 
 50-61 
 
 12 
 
 3-86 
 
 49 
 
 15-61 
 
 86 
 
 27-38 
 
 123 
 
 39-16 
 
 1GO 
 
 60-93 
 
 13 
 
 4-18 
 
 50 
 
 15-93 
 
 87 
 
 27-7 
 
 124 
 
 39-47 
 
 161 
 
 51-25 
 
 14 
 
 4-49 
 
 51 
 
 16-24 
 
 88 
 
 28-02 
 
 125 
 
 39-79 
 
 162 
 
 51-67 
 
 15 
 
 4-81 
 
 52 
 
 16-56 
 
 89 
 
 28-33 
 
 126 
 
 40-11 
 
 163 
 
 51-89 
 
 16 
 
 6-12 
 
 53 
 
 16-88 
 
 90 
 
 28-65 
 
 127 
 
 40-43 
 
 164 
 
 62-21 
 
 17 
 
 6-44 
 
 54 
 
 17-2 
 
 91 
 
 28-97 
 
 128 
 
 40-75 
 
 165 
 
 52-52 
 
 18 
 
 5-76 
 
 65 
 
 17-52 
 
 92 
 
 29-29 
 
 129 
 
 41-07 
 
 166 
 
 52-84 
 
 19 
 
 6-07 
 
 56 
 
 17-8 
 
 93 
 
 29-61 
 
 130 
 
 41-38 
 
 167 
 
 63-16 
 
 20 
 
 6-39 
 
 57 
 
 18-15 
 
 94 
 
 29-93 
 
 131 
 
 41-7 
 
 168 
 
 68-48 
 
 21 
 
 6-71 
 
 58 
 
 18-47 
 
 95 
 
 30-24 
 
 132 
 
 42-02 
 
 169 
 
 53-8 
 
 22 
 
 7-03 
 
 59 
 
 18-79 
 
 96 
 
 30-66 
 
 133 
 
 42-34 
 
 170 
 
 54-12 
 
 23 
 
 7-34 
 
 60 
 
 19-11 
 
 97 
 
 30-88 
 
 134 
 
 42-66 
 
 171 
 
 54-43 
 
 24 
 
 7-66 
 
 61 
 
 19-42 
 
 98 
 
 31-2 
 
 135 
 
 42-98 
 
 172 
 
 54-75 
 
 25 
 
 7-98 
 
 62 
 
 19-74 
 
 99 
 
 31-52 
 
 136 
 
 43-29 
 
 178 
 
 65-07 
 
 26 
 
 8-3 
 
 63 
 
 20-06 
 
 100 
 
 31-84 
 
 137 
 
 43-61 
 
 174 
 
 55-39 
 
 27 
 
 8-61 
 
 64 
 
 20-38 
 
 101 
 
 82-15 
 
 138 
 
 43-93 
 
 175 
 
 55-71 
 
 28 
 
 8-93 
 
 65 
 
 20-7 
 
 102 
 
 8247 
 
 139 
 
 44-25 
 
 176 
 
 66-02 
 
 29 
 
 9-25 
 
 t;o 
 
 21-02 
 
 103 
 
 82-79 
 
 140 
 
 44-57 
 
 177 
 
 56-34 
 
 30 
 
 9-57 
 
 67 
 
 21-33 
 
 104 
 
 33-11 
 
 141 
 
 44-88 
 
 178 
 
 56-66 
 
 81 
 
 9-88 
 
 68 
 
 21-65 
 
 105 
 
 33-43 
 
 142 
 
 462 
 
 179 
 
 56-98 
 
 32 
 
 10-2 
 
 08 
 
 21-97 
 
 106 
 
 33-74 
 
 143 
 
 45-62 
 
 180 
 
 57-23 
 
 83 
 
 10-52 
 
 TO 
 
 22-29 
 
 107 
 
 34-06 
 
 144 
 
 45-84 
 
 181 
 
 57-62 
 
 34 
 
 10-84 
 
 71 
 
 22-61 
 
 108 
 
 34-38 
 
 145 
 
 4616 
 
 182 
 
 57-93 
 
 85 
 
 11-16 
 
 72 
 
 22-92 
 
 109 
 
 34-7 
 
 146 
 
 46-48 
 
 183 
 
 58-25 
 
 36 
 
 11-47 
 
 73 
 
 23-24 
 
 110 
 
 35-02 
 
 147 
 
 46-79 
 
 184 
 
 6867 
 
 37 
 
 11-79 
 
 74 
 
 23-56 
 
 111 
 
 35-34 
 
 148 
 
 47-11 
 
 185 
 
 58-89 
 
 88 
 
 12-11 
 
 75 
 
 23-88 
 
 112 
 
 35-65 
 
 149 
 
 47-43 
 
 186 
 
 59-21 
 
 39 
 
 1243 
 
 76 
 
 24-2 
 
 113 
 
 35-97 
 
 150 
 
 47-75 
 
 187 
 
 59-53 
 
 40 
 
 12-74 
 
 77 
 
 24-52 
 
 114 
 
 36-29 
 
 161 
 
 48-07 
 
 '188 
 
 59-84 
 
 41 
 
 13-06 
 
 78 
 
 24-83 
 
 115 
 
 36-61 
 
 162 
 
 48-39 
 
 189 
 
 60-16 
 
 42 
 
 13-38 
 
 79 
 
 25-15 
 
 116 
 
 36-93 
 
 153 
 
 48-7 
 
 190 
 
 60-48 
 
 43 
 
 13-7 
 
 80 
 
 25.47 
 
 117 
 
 37-25 
 
 154 
 
 49-02 
 
 191 
 
 60-81 
 
 44 
 
 14-02 
 
 81 
 
 25-79 
 
 118 
 
 37-56 
 
 155 
 
 49-34 
 
 192 
 
 61-13 
 
 NOTE. The pitch in this table is the true pitch, 
 scribed. 
 
 before de-
 
 WHEEL GEARING. 155 
 
 To Compute the Number of Teeth of a Wheel for a given 
 Diameter and Pitch. 
 
 RULK. Divide the diameter by the pitch, and opposite to the 
 quotient in the table is given the number of teeth. (See p. 154.) 
 
 Change 'Wheels in Screw-cutting Lathes, 
 yp I = N ; -pj = S. T representing number of teeth in traverse 
 
 tcrew ; 8 number in stud-wheel gearing in mandril ; t number in wheel 
 upon mandril, and t' number in gearing upon stud pinion, gearing in T ; 
 I number of threads per inch upon traverse screw ; N number to be cut. 
 
 To determine the Proportion of Wheels for Screw-cut- 
 ting by a Lathe. 
 
 In a lathe properly adapted, screws to any degree of pitch, or 
 number of threads in a given length, may be cut by means of a 
 leading screw of any given pitch, accompanied with change wheels 
 and pinions; coarse pitches being effected generally hy means of 
 one wheel and one pinion with a carrier, or intermediate wheel, which 
 cause no variation or change of motion to take place. Hence the 
 following 
 
 RULE. Divide the number of threads in a given length of the 
 screw which is to be cut by the number of threads in the same 
 length of the leading screw attached to the lathe; and the quotient 
 is the ratio that the wheel on the end of the screw must bear to 
 that on the end of the lathe spindle. 
 
 Example. Let it be required to cut a screw with 5 threads in 
 an inch, the leading screw being of J inch pitch, or containing 2 
 threads in an inch ; what must be the ratio of wheels applied? 
 6 -T- 2 = 2-5, the ratio they must bear to each other. 
 
 Then suppose a pinion of 40 teeth be fixed upon for the spindle. 
 
 40 X 2-5 = 100 teeth for the wheel on the end of the screw. 
 
 But screws of a greater degree of fineness than about 8 threads 
 in an inch are more conveniently cut by an additional wheel and 
 pinion, because of the proper degree of velocity being more 
 effectively attained ; and these, on account of revolving upon a 
 stud, are commonly designated the stud wheels, or stud-wheel and 
 pinion; but the mode of calculation and ratio of screw are the same 
 as in the preceding rule. Hence, all that is further necessary is 
 to fix upon any three wheels at pleasure, as those for the spindle 
 and stud-wheels ; then multiply the number of teeth in the spindle- 
 wheel by the ratio of the screw, and hy the number of teeth in that 
 wheel or pinion which is in contact with the wheel on the end of 
 the screw; divide the product by the stud-wheel in contact with 
 the spindle-wheel; and the quotient is the number of teeth re- 
 quired in the wheel on the end of the leading screw. 
 
 Example. Suppose a screw is required to be cut containing 25
 
 156 
 
 WHEEL GEARING. 
 
 threads in an inch, and the leading screw, as before, having two 
 threads in an inch, and that a wheel of GO teeth is fixed upon for 
 the end of the spindle, 20 for the pinion in contact with the screw- 
 wheel, and 100 for that in contact with the wheel on the end of 
 the spindle ; required the number of teeth in the wheel for the 
 end of the leading screw. 
 
 25 4- 2 = 12-5, and 
 
 150 teeth. 
 
 Or suppose the spindle and screw-wheels to be those fixed upon, 
 also any one of the stud-wheels, to find the number of teeth in the 
 other. 
 
 100 teeth. 
 
 TABLE OF CHANGE WHEELS FOE SCEEW-CTJTTINO. 
 The leading Screw being * inch pitch, or containing 2 threads in an inch. 
 
 
 Number of 
 tee thin 
 
 
 Number of teeth In 
 
 
 Number of teeth In 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 JL 
 
 j, 
 
 1 
 
 li 
 
 j 
 
 r 
 
 ll 
 
 I 
 
 Pinion in contact 
 with Krew- wheel. 
 
 ji 
 
 Number of thread! in 
 
 3* 
 
 Wheel in contact 
 with spindle wheel. 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 80 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 lo~ 
 
 55 
 
 20 
 
 ~60~ 
 
 19 
 
 50 
 
 95 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 H 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 19* 
 
 80 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 130 
 
 1* 
 
 80 
 
 60 
 
 8; 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 75 
 
 20 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 if 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 9; 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 95 
 
 20J 
 
 40 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 9' 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 65 
 
 21 
 
 SI. 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 140 
 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 20 
 
 80 
 
 22 
 
 DO 
 
 110 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 10* 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 20 
 
 75 
 
 22* 
 
 HI 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 
 80 
 
 110 
 
 11 
 
 60 
 
 55 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 22| 
 
 80 
 
 130 
 
 20 
 
 140 
 
 3 
 
 80 
 
 120 
 
 12 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 23J 
 
 40 
 
 95 
 
 20 
 
 100 
 
 3J 
 
 80 
 
 130 
 
 12J 
 
 60 
 
 85 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 24 
 
 65 
 
 120 
 
 20 
 
 130 
 
 3* 
 
 80 
 
 140 
 
 13 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 130 
 
 25 
 
 60 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 3| 
 
 40 
 
 150 
 
 13* 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 25* 
 
 30 
 
 85 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 80 
 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 110 
 
 26 
 
 70 
 
 130 
 
 20 
 
 140 
 
 
 40 
 
 85 
 
 14 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 140 
 
 27 
 
 40 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 
 40 
 
 90 
 
 14J 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 95 
 
 27* 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 110 
 
 
 40 
 
 95 
 
 15 
 
 90 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 28 
 
 75 
 
 140 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 5 
 
 40 
 
 100 
 
 16 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 28* 
 
 30 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 95 
 
 6* 
 
 40 
 
 110 
 
 16J 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 130 
 
 30 
 
 70 
 
 140 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 6 
 
 40 
 
 120 
 
 16* 
 
 80 
 
 110 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 S* 
 
 40 
 
 130 
 
 17 
 
 45 
 
 85 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 33 
 
 40 
 
 110 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 
 40 
 
 140 
 
 17* 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 140 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 85 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 7* 
 
 40 
 
 150 
 
 18 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 20 
 
 120 
 
 35 
 
 60 
 
 140 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 210 
 
 18J 
 
 80 
 
 100 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 190 
 
 20 
 
 120
 
 WHEELS AND GUDGEONS. 
 
 157 
 
 Example 1. Required the number of teeth that a wheel of 16 
 inches diameter will contain of a 10 pitch. 
 
 16 X 1= 16 teeth, and the circular pitch = -314 inch. 
 Example 2. What must be the diameter of a wheel for a 9 
 pitch of 126 teeth ? 
 
 126 -~ 9 = 14 inches diameter, circular pitch -349 inch. 
 NOTE. The pitch is reckoned on the diameter of the wheel 
 instead of the circumference, and designated wheels of 8 pitch, 12 
 pitch, etc. 
 
 STRENGTH OF THE TEETH OF CAST IRON WHEELS AT A GIVEN 
 VELOCITY. 
 
 Pitch 
 of teeth 
 in inches. 
 
 Thickness 
 of teeth 
 in inches. 
 
 Breadth 
 of teeth 
 in inches. 
 
 Strength of teeth in horse-power at 
 
 3 feet per 
 second. 
 
 4 feet per 
 second. 
 
 6 feet per 
 second. 
 
 8 feet per 
 second. 
 
 3-99 
 
 1-9 
 
 7-6 
 
 20-57 
 
 27-43 
 
 41-14 
 
 54-85 
 
 8-78 
 
 1-8 
 
 7-2 
 
 17-49 
 
 23-32 
 
 34-98 
 
 46-64 
 
 367 
 
 1-7 
 
 6-8 
 
 14-73 
 
 19-65 
 
 29-46 
 
 39-28 
 
 3-36 
 
 1-6 
 
 6-4 
 
 12-28 
 
 16-38 
 
 24-56 
 
 82-74 
 
 815 
 
 1-5 
 
 6- 
 
 10-12 
 
 13-50 
 
 20-24 
 
 26-98 
 
 2-94 
 
 1-4 
 
 6-6 
 
 8-22 
 
 10-97 
 
 16-44 
 
 21-92 
 
 2-78 
 
 1-8 
 
 6-2 
 
 6-58 
 
 8-78 
 
 13 16 
 
 17-54 
 
 2-52 
 
 1-2 
 
 4-8 
 
 6-18 
 
 691 
 
 10-36 
 
 13-81 
 
 2-31 
 
 1-1 
 
 4-4 
 
 399 
 
 5-32 
 
 7-98 
 
 10-64 
 
 2-1 
 
 1-0 
 
 4- 
 
 8-00 
 
 4-00 
 
 6-00 
 
 8-00 
 
 1-89 
 
 9 
 
 8-6 
 
 2-18 
 
 2-91 
 
 4-36 
 
 6-81 
 
 1-68 
 
 8 
 
 8-2 
 
 1-53 
 
 2-04 
 
 06 
 
 8-08 
 
 1-47 
 
 7 
 
 2-8 
 
 1-027 
 
 1-37 
 
 2-04 
 
 272 
 
 1.26 
 
 6 
 
 2-4 
 
 64 
 
 86 
 
 1-38 
 
 1-84 
 
 1-05 
 
 6 
 
 2- 
 
 375 
 
 60 
 
 75 
 
 1-00 
 
 WHEELS AND GUDGEONS. 
 
 To find size of Teeth necessary to Transmit a given 
 Horse Power. (Tredgold.) 
 
 Horse power X 240 
 
 Diameter of wheel, ft. X Revs, per min. 
 
 / Strength Strength 
 
 \ 
 
 = Strength of tooth. 
 
 Strength 
 readth! ins. 
 
 (Pitch. 
 
 = B " adth ' 
 
 The above rule will be found very suitable for a speed of cir- 
 cumference of about 240 feet per minute. For speeds above, add 
 to 240 half the difference ; for speeds below, deduct half the dif-
 
 158 WHEELS AND GUDGEONS. 
 
 ference between 240 and the actual speed, the result being a suit- 
 able multiplier. 
 
 For instance : at 300 feet per minute, 60 being the difference, 
 240 -f 30 = 270 multiplier. 
 
 At 160 feet per minute, 80 being the difference, 240 40 = 200 
 multiplier. 
 
 The reason being that, with higher speeds, the friction, wear, 
 and liability to shocks is increased, at lower speeds decreased, 
 and the teeth may advantageously be proportioned accordingly. 
 
 To find the Horse Power that any Wheel will Transmit. 
 (Pitch, ins.)* X Breadth, ins. X Diameter, ft. X Revs, per minute 
 
 Appropriate No. according to speed, as above 
 = Horse Power. 
 
 To find the Multiplying Number for any Wheel. 
 
 (Pitch, ins.)* X Breadth, ins. X Diameter, ft. X R ev. per minute 
 
 Horse Power 
 = Multiplying No. as above. 
 
 To find the Size of Teeth to carry a given Load in 
 Founds. 
 
 Load, Ibs. 1120 = Breaking strength of teeth. 
 
 Load, Ibs. -f- 280 = Strength for very low speeds, and for steady 
 
 work ; being 4 times the breaking strength. 
 Load, Ibs. -7- 140 = Strength for ordinary purposes of machinery ; 
 
 being 8 times the breaking strength. 
 Load, Ibs. 100 = Strength for high speeds and irregular work ; 
 
 or when the teeth are exposed to shocks. 
 
 As before,
 
 WATER. 
 
 159 
 
 WATER. 
 
 To find the Quantity of Water that will be Discharged 
 through an Orifice or Pipe in the Side or Bottom of a 
 Vessel. 
 
 Are. of .rise., . in. X { N ' 
 
 = Cubic feet discharged per minute. 
 
 Height of 
 
 Hui: . .' .ii- 
 Urifiee. 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 Height at 
 
 vfc . i .. M 
 
 OriOoe. 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 32L&. 
 
 Orlflot. 
 
 Multiplier. 
 
 FeM. 
 
 
 Peek 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 1 
 
 2-25 
 
 18 
 
 9-5 
 
 40 
 
 142 
 
 2 
 
 8-2 
 
 20 
 
 10- 
 
 46 
 
 16-1 
 
 4 
 
 45 
 
 22 
 
 10-6 
 
 60 
 
 16- 
 
 6 
 
 5-44 
 
 24 
 
 11- 
 
 60 
 
 17-4 
 
 8 
 
 6-4 
 
 26 
 
 11-5 
 
 70 
 
 18-8 
 
 10 
 
 7-1 
 
 28 
 
 12- 
 
 80 
 
 201 
 
 12 
 
 7-8 
 
 80 
 
 128 
 
 90 
 
 21-8 
 
 14 
 
 8-4 
 
 82 
 
 12-7 
 
 100 
 
 22-6 
 
 16 
 
 9- 
 
 85 
 
 18-8 
 
 
 
 To find the Size of Hole necessary to Discharge a given 
 Quantity of Water under a given Head. 
 
 Cubic feet water discharged 
 No. corresponding to height, as per table 
 
 = Area of orifice, sq. in. 
 
 To find the Height necessary to Discharge a given 
 Quantity through a given Orifice. 
 
 Cubic feet water discharged 
 Area orifice, sq. inches 
 
 = No. corresp. to height, as per table. 
 
 The Velocity of Water issuing from an Orifice in the 
 Side or Bottom of a Vessel being ascertained to be 
 as follows: 
 
 ,/Height ft. surface above orifice X 6-4 = { Velo j ^^nd"' * 
 j/Height ft. X Area orifice, ft, X 324 = | 
 
 _ / Cubic feet discharged 
 
 per minute. 
 
 eight ft. X Area orifice, ins. X 2 - 2 = Do - D- 
 
 11
 
 160 GAUGING OF CASKS. 
 
 It may be observed that the above rules represent the netual 
 quantities that will be delivered through a hole cut in the plate : 
 if a short pipe be attached, the quantity will be increased, the 
 greatest delivery with a straight pipe being attained with a length 
 equal to 4 diameters, and being more than the delivery through 
 the plain hole; the quantity gradually decreasing as the length 
 of pipe is increased, till, with a length equal to GO diameters, the 
 discharge again equals the discharge through the plain orifice. 
 If a taper pipe be attached, the delivery will be still greater, 
 being 1 times the delivery through the plain orifice; and it is 
 probable that if a pipe with curved decreasing taper were to be 
 tried, the delivery through it would be equal to the theoretical 
 discharge, which is about 1.65 the actual discharge through a 
 plain hole. 
 
 To find the Quantity of Water that will run through 
 any Orifice, the top of which is level with the Surface 
 of Water as over a Sluice or Dam. 
 
 /Height, ft. from water surface to > Area of water 
 \/ bottom of orifice or top of dam | X passage.sq.ft. | /* 
 
 = Cubic feet discharged per minute. 
 Or, 
 
 Two-thirds area of water passage, sq. ins. X No. corresponding 
 to height as per table = Cubic feet discharged per minute. 
 
 To find the time in -which a Vessel will empty itself 
 through a given Orifice. 
 
 y Height, feet surface above orifice X Area water surface, sq. ins. 
 
 Area orifice, square inch X 3'7 
 = Time required, seconds. 
 
 The above rules are founded on Bank's experiments. 
 
 GAUGING OF CASKS. 
 
 In taking the dimensions of a Cask, it must be carefully ob- 
 served: 1st, That the bung-hole be in the middle of the cask; 2d, 
 That the bung-stave, and the stave opposite to the bung-hole, are 
 both regular and even within ; 3d. That the heads of the Cask nre 
 equal, and truly circular; if so, the distance between the inside 
 of the chime to the outside of the opposite stave will be the head 
 diameter within the cask, very near.
 
 GAUGING OP CASKS. 161 
 
 RULK. Take, in inches, the inside diatneters of a cask at the 
 head and the bung, and also the length ; subtract the head-diam- 
 eter from the bung-diameter, and note the difference. 
 
 If the measure of the Cask is taken outside, with callipers, from 
 head to head, then a deduction must be made of from 1 to 2 inches 
 for the thickness of the heads, according to (he size of the Cask. 
 
 1. If the staves of the Cask, between the bung and the head, are con- 
 siderably curved, (the shape of a pipe,) multiply the difference 
 between the bung and head by -7. 
 
 2. If the staves be of a medium curve, (the shape of a molasses 
 hogshead,) multiply the difference by -66. 
 
 3. If the staves curve very little, (less than a molasses hogshead,) 
 multiply the difference by -6. 
 
 4. If the staves are nearly straight, (almost a cylinder,) multiply 
 the difference by -55. 
 
 5. Add the product, in each case, to the head-diameter; the 
 sum will be a mean diameter, and thus the Cask is reduced to a 
 cylinder. 
 
 6. Multiply the mean diameter by itself, and then by the length, 
 and multiply, if for Wine gallons, by -0034. The difference of 
 dividing by 294, (the usual method,) and multiplying by -0034, 
 (the most expeditious method,) is less than 500ths of a gallon in 
 100 gallons. 
 
 Example. Supposing the head-diameter of a Cask to be 24 
 inches, the bung-diameter 32 inches, and the length of Cask 40 
 inches, what is the contents in Wine gallons ? 
 
 First variety. 
 
 Bung-Diameter, 82 Brought up, 876-16 
 
 Head-Diameter, 24 Length, 40 
 
 Difference, 8 35046-40 
 
 Multiplier, -7 -0034 
 
 6-6 14018560 
 
 Head-Diam., 24 10513920 
 
 29-6 119-157760 
 Multiply by 29-6 
 
 [Carry up] Square, 876-16 Ant. 119 galls. 1 pint. 
 
 To obtain the contents of a similar Cask in Ale gallons, multiply 
 35046-40 by -002786, and we get 97-6042, (or 97 gallons 6 pints.) 
 
 Gauging of Casks in Imperial (British) Gallons, and 
 also in United States Gallons. 
 
 Having ascertained the variety of the Cask, and its interior 
 dimensions, the following Table will facilitate the calculation of 
 its capacity.
 
 162 
 
 GAUGING OF CASKS. 
 
 TABLE OF THE CAPACITIES OF CASKS, WHOSE BUNG DIAM- 
 ETEKS AND LENGTHS AEE 1 OR UNITY. 
 
 H.| 1st Var. 
 
 2d Var. 1 3(J Var. j 4th Var. 
 
 H. 
 
 1st Var. 
 
 2.1 Var. 
 
 3<3 Var. 
 
 4th Var. 
 
 50-0021244 
 
 0020300 -0017704 -0.il---23 
 
 76 0024337 
 
 0024120 -0022343 -00.2071 
 
 51-0021340 
 
 O020483 
 
 O017847 O018718 
 
 77 
 
 0024482 
 
 
 0022560 -0022310 
 
 52 -00211:17 
 
 0020681 
 
 O01T90B O018006 
 
 78 
 
 
 0024445 
 
 
 53 -002153t; 
 
 0020702 
 
 O018141 O0170B8 
 
 79 
 
 
 0024610 
 
 0023002 (K 12-27 '.4 
 
 64 
 65 
 
 00216:17 
 0021740 
 
 O090888 
 
 0020075 
 
 00 ls-2'.3' -0017294 
 001S447 -0017491 
 
 80 
 81 
 
 0024 127 
 
 0025079 
 
 0024776 -00215227 0023038 
 0024-J42 00234661-0023286 
 
 66 
 
 0021845 
 
 0021114 
 
 ooisix>4 -oour.'.io 
 
 82 
 
 
 0025110 
 
 0023686; -0023533 
 
 57 
 8 
 
 0021951 
 0022080 
 
 iH)2i::'J4 
 
 0018764 -0017v.il 
 0018927 -001*094 
 
 83 
 84 
 
 0096388 
 
 0025046 
 
 002.V279 '( 
 0025449 -di.2 11;.'. 
 
 59 
 
 0! 1-2-2 17.1 
 
 0021588 
 
 0019093 
 
 0018300 
 
 85 
 
 0025706 0025021 
 
 H0242MI 
 
 60 
 
 00222s:: 
 
 0021670 
 
 O010981 
 
 001S506 
 
 86 
 
 0025867 
 
 O02670; 
 
 (N>2J':iS -0024545 
 
 61 
 
 0022807 
 
 0021828 
 
 0019433 
 
 O018716 
 
 S7 
 
 O098080 
 
 O02690? 
 
 00248S3 -0024803 
 
 62 
 
 0022513 
 
 O021088 
 
 0019007 
 
 0018925 
 
 88 
 
 0091 L08 
 
 0026141 
 
 0026181 O096088 
 
 63 
 
 0029831 
 
 0022114 
 
 0019784 
 
 o-i '.H:;- 
 
 89 
 
 0096188 
 
 O028817 
 
 
 64 
 
 0022751 
 
 002J2U2 
 
 0010084 
 
 0010863 
 
 80 
 
 O096639 
 
 00264y4 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 (K)22873 
 
 0022410 
 
 0)20147 
 
 O0106M 
 
 Hi 
 
 0026703 -0026672 
 
 
 cv, 
 
 0022907 
 
 0022980 
 
 O090833 
 
 OOIOTM 
 
 92 
 
 oo2t>7.- 
 
 0026150 (Ki-2-.rj) 
 
 07 
 
 0023122 
 
 0022711 
 
 0020521 
 
 0090008 
 
 93 
 
 O027060 0027082 
 
 O028412 
 
 
 
 0028260 
 
 0022883 
 
 0020712 
 
 0020228 
 
 94 
 
 0027227 
 
 UI27213 
 
 0898077 
 
 002<T,tO 
 
 69 
 
 ui 12: ;:::'-< 
 
 0023016 
 
 O090808 
 
 O020463 
 
 96 
 
 0027405 
 
 OO278W 
 
 OQ9804C 
 
 
 70 
 
 0023510 
 
 0023170 
 
 0021103 
 
 mi2 ;:< 
 
 .;., 
 
 0027686 
 
 O02767( 
 
 0027215 
 
 
 71 
 
 oi>23<;i:i 
 
 0023898 
 
 0021302 
 
 0020905 
 
 97 
 
 O0277M 
 
 0027764 
 
 DQ2748S 
 
 
 72 
 
 00 2377 s 
 
 0028489 
 
 O09U06 
 
 0021186 
 
 98 
 
 ii 27062 
 
 O0279* 
 
 0027788 
 
 0027763 
 
 
 002:5915 
 
 0023640 
 
 0021710 
 
 O0218M 
 
 99 
 
 O02818B 
 
 0028187 
 
 00880M 
 
 
 74 
 
 0024o:,4 
 
 0028700 
 
 O0210U 
 
 O021690 
 
 1-00 
 
 0028326 
 
 0028326 
 
 0028326 
 
 DHBfSJ 
 
 75 
 
 O0241'.i5 
 
 0023959 
 
 0022129 
 
 0021834 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Divide the head by the bung diameter, and opposite the quotient 
 in the column H, and under its proper variety, is the tabular 
 number for unity. Multiply the tabular number by the square 
 of the bung diameter of the given cask, and by its length, the 
 product equals its capacity in Imperial gallons. 
 
 Required the number of gallons in a Cask, (1st variety,) 24 inches 
 head-diameter, 32 bung-diameter, and 40 inches in length? 
 82) 24-0 (-75 see Table for tabular No. 
 
 0024195 tabular No. for unity. 
 82 X 32 is 1024 square of bung diam. 
 
 96780 
 48390 
 24195 
 
 2-4775680 
 
 40 Inches long. 
 
 rE. Multiply- 
 uperial gallons by 
 id two-tenths (1-2) 
 
 99-1027200 Imperial gallons 
 1-2 
 
 NOTE. 
 ing Im 
 e-He an 
 
 will convert them into 
 U.S. gallons; and U.S. 
 gallons multiplied by 
 833 equal Imperial 
 gallons. 
 
 1982054400 
 991027200 
 
 118-92326400 United States gallons.
 
 ULLAGE OF CASKS. 163 
 
 To Ullage, or find the Contents in Gallons of a Cask 
 partly filled. 
 
 To find the contents of the occupied part of a lying cask in gallons. 
 
 RULE. Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the 
 bmi-<liameter, and if the quotient is under -5, deduct from the 
 quotient one-fourth of what it is less than '>. and multiply the re- 
 mainder by the whole capacity of the cask ; this product will be 
 the number of gallons in the cask. But if the quotient exceeds -6, 
 add one-fourth of that excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum 
 by the whole capacity of the cask ; this product will be the num- 
 ber of gallons. 
 
 Example 1. Suppose the bung-diameter of a cask, on its bilge, 
 is 32 inches, and the whole contents of the cask 118-80 U. S. 
 standard gallons ; required the ullage of 15 wet inches. 
 32) 15.00 (-46875 -5 -46875 = -03125 4 = -0078125 -46876 
 0078125 = -4609376X118-80 = 64-759376 U. S. gallons. 
 
 Example 2. Required the ullage of 17 wet inches in a cask of 
 the above capacity. 
 32)17-00(-53125 -6= -03126 -i- 4= -0078125+ -53125=-6390626 
 
 X 11880 = 64-040625 U. S. gallons. 
 PROOF. 64-040625 -f 64-769875 = 1 1 8-80 gallont. 
 
 To find the ullage of a filled part of a standing Cask, in gallons. 
 
 Ki I.K. Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the 
 length of the cask; then, if the quotient is less than -5, deduct 
 from the quotient one-tenth of what it is less than -5, and multiply 
 the remainder by the whole capacity of the cask; this product will 
 be the number of gallons. But if the quotient exceeds -5, add one- 
 tenth of that excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum by the 
 whole capacity of the cask; this product will be the ullage, or con- 
 tents in U. S. standard gallons. 
 
 Example. Suppose a cask, 40 inches in length, and the capac- 
 ity 118-80 gallons, as above: required the ullage of 21 wet inches. 
 40) 21-000 (-526 .5 = -0264- 10 = -0025 + -526 = -5275 XH8-80 
 = 62-667 U. S. gallons. 
 
 NOTE. Formerly the British Wine and Ale gallon measures were 
 similar to those now used in the United States and British Colonies. 
 
 The following Tables exhibit the comparative value between the 
 United States and the present British measures. 
 
 tJ. S. measure for Britlih (Im.) meunre. 
 
 wine, spirits, etc. galls, qu. pu. gills. 
 
 42 K 'alls.= 1 tierce,= 34 3 1 3 
 
 63 " = 1 hogsh.= 52 1 1 3 
 
 126 " =lpipe, = 104 3 1 8 
 
 252 " =1 tun, = 209 3 1 2 
 
 U. 8. mcs.nr* for British am.) measure, 
 
 ale and beer. galls, qu. pu. gills. 
 
 9 galls. = 1 firkin, = 9011 
 
 36 " ^ 1 barrel, = 36 2 3 
 
 54 " =1 hogsh. = 64 3 1 
 
 108 " =lbutt, =109 3 1 3 
 
 To convert Imperial gallons into United States Wine gallons, 
 multiply the imperial by 1-2. To convert U. S. gallons into Impe- 
 rial, multiply the U. States Wine gallons by -833. 
 
 51 U. S. Ale gallons equal 60 Imperial gallons, therefore to 
 convert one into other add or deduct ^th.
 
 164 ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 ALLOY is the proportion of a baser metal mixed with a fiuer or 
 purer, as when copper is mixed with gold, c. 
 
 AMALGAM is a compound of mercury and a metal a soft alloy. 
 
 All compositions of copper contract in the admixture, and all 
 amalgams expand. 
 
 In the manufacture of alloys and compositions, the more infusible 
 metals should be melted first. 
 
 In compositions of brass, as the proportion of zinc is increased, 
 BO is the malleability decreased. 
 
 The tenacity of brass is impaired by the addition of lead or tin. 
 
 Steel alloyed with T ^th part of platinum, or silver, is rendered 
 harder, more malleable, and better adapted for cutting instruments. 
 
 Any alloy which is slowly heated and gradually cooled (annealed, 
 that is), is softer than when the compound is suddenly chilled; 
 hence the hardness of chill-cast iron. 
 
 In moulding, no casting of any kind should be removed until it is 
 cooled down to within a few degrees of the atmosphere; and in open 
 sand castings, a thick covering of sand should be applied to retain 
 the heat. 
 
 Neglect of this caution is certain to weaken the piece, and fre- 
 quently is the cause of accidents.
 
 ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 165 
 
 ALLOYS AND COMPOSITIONS. 
 
 
 I 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 S 
 
 Antimony 
 
 Bismuth. 
 
 1 
 
 j| 
 
 1 
 
 Arsenic. I 
 
 Argentan 
 
 , . 
 
 24 
 
 
 "I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ...Z 
 
 Argentiferous. 
 Babbitt's metal* 
 Brass, common 
 
 'hard'.'." 
 " Mathematical 
 Instruments. 
 ' pinchbeck 
 " red tombac 
 " rolled- 
 ' tutenag 
 ' very tenacious.. 
 1 wheels, valves... 
 " white 
 " wire 
 
 "',- 
 -;. : 
 
 n. 
 
 7,'.. 
 
 .:. 
 
 74J 
 
 :,> 
 -v.i 
 '.'. 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.5 
 89. 
 10.5 
 
 
 u 
 
 _-v, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 52 
 25. 
 6.4 
 
 20." 
 11.2 
 
 3L 
 2.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 14.8 
 
 7.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .. 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3.4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8.3 
 10. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ....'.'. 
 
 = 
 
 SS* 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ...... 
 
 
 
 -~ 
 
 " yellow, nne 
 Britannia metal 
 
 n. 
 
 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 -, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 When fused, add... 
 
 -- 
 
 18" 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 -'.->. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 " red 
 M yellow 
 " Cyrn baN 
 
 -.. 
 
 "7.".' 
 
 -.,! 
 
 11 1 
 312 
 
 U 
 
 16 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " gun metul.large 
 " " small 
 " Medals 
 Statuary 
 Chinese Kllver 
 Chinese while copper- 
 Church bells_ 
 
 ".'. 
 
 -.. 
 
 91.4 
 
 KJ 
 
 i .: 
 
 n. 
 
 -i 
 
 
 10. 
 7. 
 7. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ...... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 JJ 
 
 EE 
 
 ~m 
 
 55 
 193 
 23.4 
 5.6 
 
 1.4 
 
 "2.6 
 10.1 
 31 
 
 18L 
 
 u..; 
 
 1.7 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 i.; 
 
 ~~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 '.".'.". 
 
 T.6 
 
 i 
 
 Clock bells 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cocks, Musical bells.. 
 German sUver 
 
 ** ** fine 
 
 -7/. 
 
 88 . 
 ; 1.4 
 i US 
 
 v ; ,; 
 
 
 12.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 83.4 
 
 2.J.4 
 24. 
 
 
 ... . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i i: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 
 18 4 
 
 -1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " "i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lathe bushes 
 
 V.I 
 
 
 20. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Machinery bearings. . 
 ' " hard 
 Metal that expands In 
 cooling 
 
 77.-1 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 
 7. 
 
 15.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7-,. 
 
 ma 
 
 .s:; 
 
 
 
 
 Muntz metal 
 Pewter, best. 
 
 "" 
 
 40. 
 
 86 
 
 
 
 \ t 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS. 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Printing characters ... 
 
 
 
 
 
 0. 
 
 -M. 
 
 
 
 ~~ 
 
 
 
 '.'.'."'. 
 
 Sheathing metal 
 
 ,' 
 
 45. 
 
 
 
 22. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -.". 
 
 : . .' 
 
 21. 
 
 29. 
 33 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Temp, if 
 Type ami stereotype 
 plates. 
 White im-tal 
 " " hard- 
 Oreide., .. 
 
 7.4 
 BJ 
 
 -... 
 
 "7.4 
 12.3 
 
 66.6 
 
 28.*4 
 1.4 
 }Ma 
 ^sal 
 
 ^nr- 
 -am 
 
 
 
 -!'.! 
 
 uu 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 :::: 
 
 
 
 
 
 lia 4.4 Crm of tartar 6.5 
 moninn2.5 Quick-lime ...-1.33 
 
 See page 16 i for directions. tFor adding small quantities of copper.
 
 166 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 RARE Am) VALUABLE RECEIPTS AND 
 TABLES FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Yellow Brass, for Turning. (Common article.) Copper, 20 
 Ibs. ; zinc, 10 Ibs. ; lead from 1 to 5 oz. Put in the lead last before 
 pouring off. 
 
 Red Brass, for Turning. Copper, 24 Ibs.; zinc, 5 Ibs., lead, 8 oz. 
 Put in the lead last before pouring off. 
 
 Red Brass, free, for Turning. Copper, 160 Ibs.; zinc, 50 Ibs.; 
 lead, 10 Ibs. ; antimony, 44 oz. 
 
 Another Brass, for Turning. Copper, 32 Ibs.; zinc, 10 Ibs: 
 lead, 1 Ib. 
 
 Best Red Brass, for Fine Castings. Copper, 24 Ibs.; zinc, 5 
 Ibs. ; bismuth, 1 oz. Put in the bismuth last before pouring off. 
 
 Bronze Metal. Copper, 7 Ibs. ; zinc, 3 Ibs. ; tin, 2 Ibs. 
 Bronze Metal. Copper, 1 Ib.; zinc, 12 Ibs.; tin, 8 Ibs. 
 
 Bell Metal, for Large Bells. Copper, 100 Ibs.; tin, from 20 to 
 25 Ibs. 
 
 Bell Metal, for Small Bells. Copper, 3 Ibs.; tin, 1 Ib. 
 
 Cock Metal. Copper, 20 Ibs.; lead, 8 Ibs.; litharge, 1 oz.; anti- 
 mony, 3 oz. 
 
 Hardening for Britannia. (To be mixed separately from the 
 other ingredients.) Copper, 2 Ibs.; tin, 1 Ib. 
 
 Good Britannia Metal. Tin, 150 Ibs.; copper, 3 Ibs.; antimony. 
 10 Ibs. 
 
 Britannia Metal, second Quality. Tin, 140 Ibs.; copper, 3 
 Ibs.; antimony, i Ibs. 
 
 Britannia Metal, for Casting. Tin, 210 Ibs.; copper, 4 Ibs.; 
 
 antimony, li> Ibs. 
 
 Britannia Metal, for Spinning. Tin, 100 Ibs. ; Britannia har- 
 dening, 4 Ibs.; antimony, 4 Ibs. 
 
 White Solder, for Raised Britannia Ware. Tin, 100 Ibs.; 
 copper, 3 oz., to make it free; and lead, 3 oz.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 167 
 
 Britannia Metal, for Registers. Tin, 100 Ibs.; hardening, 8 
 Ibs.; antimony, 8 Ibs. 
 
 Best Britannia, for Spouts. Tin, 140 Ibs.; copper 3 Ibs.; anti- 
 mony, 6 Ibs. 
 
 Best Britannia, for Spoons. Tin, 100 Ibs.; hardening, 5 Ibs.,- 
 antimony, 10 Ibs. 
 
 Best Britannia, for Handles. Tin, 140 Ibs. ; copper, 2 Ibs. ; anti- 
 mony 5 Ibs. 
 
 Best Britannia, for Lamps, Pillars and Spouts. Tin, 30& 
 Ibs.; copper, 4 Ibs.; antimony, 15 Ibs. 
 
 Casting. Tin, 100 Ibs. ; hardening, 5 Ibs. ; antimony, 5 Ibs. 
 
 Lining Metal, for Boxes of Railroad Cars. Mix tin, 24 Ibs.; 
 copper, 4 Ibs.; antimony, 8 Ibs. (for a hardening); then add tin, 72 
 Ibs. 
 
 Fine Silver Colored Metal. Tin, 100 Ibs.; antimony, 8 Ibs.; 
 copper, 4 Ibs.; bismuth, 1 Ib. 
 
 German Silver, First Quality, for Casting. Copper, 50 Ibs.: 
 zinc, 25 Ibs: ; nickel, 25 Ibs. 
 
 German Silver, Second Quality, for Casting. Copper, 60 
 Ibs.; zinc, -'0 Ibs.; nickel (best pulverized), 10 Ibs. 
 
 German Silver, for Rolling. Copper, 60 Ibs.; zinc, 20 Ibs.; 
 nickel, 25 Ibs. 
 
 German Silver, for Bells and other Castings. Cop]er, 60 Ibs.; 
 zinc, 20 Ibs. ; nickel, 20 Ibs. ; lead, 3 Ibs. ; iron (that of tin plate being 
 best,) 2 Ibs. 
 
 Imitation of Silver. Tin, 3 oz.; copper, 4 Ibs. 
 
 Pinchbeck. Copper, 5 Ibs. ; zinc, 1 Ib. 
 
 Tombac. Copper, 16 Ibs.; tin, 1 Ib. ; zinc, 1 Ib. 
 
 Red Tombac. Copper, 10 Ibs. ; zinc, 1 Ib. 
 
 Hard White Metal. Sheet brass, 32 oz.; lead, 2 oz.; tin, 2 oz.; 
 zinc, 1 oz. 
 
 Metal for taking Impressions. Lead, 3 Ibs.; tin, 2 Ibs.; bis- 
 muth, 5 Ibs. 
 
 Spanish Tutania. Iron or stool, 8 oz.; antimony, 16 oz.; nitre, 
 3 oz. Melt and harden 8 oz. tin with 1 oz. of the above compound. 
 
 Rivet Metal. Copper, 32 oz.; tin, 2 oz.; zinc, 1 oz. 
 
 Rivet Metal, for Hose. Tin, 64 Ibs.; copper, 1 Ib. 
 
 Fusible Alloy. (Which melts in boiling water). Bismuth, 8 
 oz.; tin, 3oz.; lead, 5 oz. 
 
 Fusible Alloy, for Silvering Glass. Tin, 6oz., lead, 10 oz.; 
 bismuth, '-'I oz.; mercury, a small quantity. 
 
 Best Soft Solder for Cast Britannia Ware. Tin, 8 Ibs. ; 
 lead, 5 Ibs. 
 
 Yellow Solder, for Brass or Copper. Copper, 32 Ibs. ; zinc, 
 29 Ibs.; tin, 1 Ib. 
 
 Brass Solder. 1. Copper, 61.25 parts; zinc, 38.75 parts; 2. (Yel- 
 low and easily fusible) copper, 45 parts; zinc, 55 parts; 3. (White) 
 copper, 57.41 parts, tin, 14.60 parts; zinc, 27.99 parts.
 
 168 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Solder, for Copper, Copper, 10 Ibs. ; ziiv 
 Black Solder. Copper, ~2 Ibs. ; zinc. :; li>s. : tin. '_' 07.. 
 Black Solder. Sheet brass, '20 !!>. /.inc, 1 Ib. 
 
 Soft Solder. Tin, 15 Ibs. ; lead, 15 Ibs. 
 
 Pewterer's Soft Solders. 1. Bismuth, 2; lead, 4; tin, 3. 2. 
 Bismuth. 1; lead, 1; till, 2. 
 
 Plumber's Soldev. Lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part. 
 
 Solder. Fon LEAD, the solder is one part tin, 1 to 2 of lead; for 
 TIN, 1 to 2 parts tin to 1 of lead; for ZINC, 1 part tin to 1 to L' of lead; 
 for PEWTER, 1 part tin to 1 of lead, and 1 to 2 parts of bismuth. 
 
 The surfaces to be joined are made perfectly clean and smooth, 
 and then covered with sal ammoniac, or re>in. or both: th solder is 
 then applied, being melted in, and smoothed over by the soldering 
 iron. 
 
 Coppersmith's Cement, &c. Bullock's blood thickened with 
 finely-powdered lime. Use as soon as mixed, as it rapidly Lrcts 
 hard. COPPERSMITH'S SOLDKU. Tin 2 parts, lead 1 part. \Vht-n 
 the copper is thick, heat it by a naked fire; if thin, use a tinned nip- 
 per tool. Use muriate or chloride of zinc, or resin, as a flux. The 
 same solder will do for IRON, CAST IRON, or STEEL; if thick, heat by 
 a naked fire, or immerse in the solder. 
 
 Solder for Gold. Gold, f> dwts.; silver, 1 dwt.; copper, 2 dwts. 
 
 Soft Gold Solder. Gold, 4 parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 
 part. 
 
 Solder for Silver. (For the use of jewellers. ) Fine silver, 19 
 dwts.; copper, 1 dwt., sheet brass, 10 dwts. 
 
 "White Solder, for Silver. Silver, 1 oz. ; tin, 1 oz. 
 
 Silver Solder, for Plated Metal. Fine silver, 1 OT;.; brass, 
 10 dwts. 
 
 Solders. Fon STEEL JOINTS. Silver, 19 parts; copper, 1 part; 
 brass, 2 parts; melt altogether. 
 
 HARD SOLDER. Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; melt together. 
 
 FOR GOLD. 1. Silver, 1 parts; copper, 1 part, with borax. 2. 
 Gold, '-' parts; silver, 1 part; copper, 1 part. 3. Gold, 3 parts; silver, 
 
 3 parts; copper, 1 part; zinc, % part. 
 
 FOR SILVER. Silver, 2 parts; brass, 1 part, with borax; or, silver, 
 
 4 parts; brass, 3 parts; zinc, 1-1G, with borax. 
 
 FOR BRASS. Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part, with borax. 
 
 FOR PLATINA. Gold, with borax. 
 
 Foil IRON. The best solder for iron is good tough brass, with a 
 little borax. 
 
 FOR COPPER. Brass, 6 parts; zinc, l part; tin, 1 part; melt all 
 together, mix well, and pour out to cool. 
 
 Gold Solders. 1. Copper, 24.24 parts; silver, 27.57 parts; gold, 
 48.19 parts. 2. ENAMEL SOLDER Copper, 25 parts; silver, 7.07 
 parts; gold, 67.93 parts. 3. Copper, 2t>.25 parts: /.inc, 0.25 parts; 
 silver, 31.28 parts; gold, 36.25 parts. 4. ENAMEL SOLDER Silver, 
 19.57 parts; gold, 80.43 parts.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 169 
 
 Solders. FOR 22 CARAT GOLD Gold of 22 carats, 1 dwt. ; silver, 
 2 gr. ; copper, 1 gr. 
 
 Foil is CARAT GOLD Gold of 13 carats, 1 dwt. ; silver, 2 gr. ; cop- 
 per, 1 gr. 
 
 FOR CHEAPER GOLD Gold, 1 dwt.; silver, 10 gr.; copper, 8gr. 
 
 STILL Fine gold, 1 dwt.; silver, 1 dwt.; copper, 1 dwt. 
 
 Silver Solders. 1. (hard.) Copper, 30 parts; zinc, 12.85 parts; 
 silver, 57.15 parts. 2. Copper, 23. 33 parts; zinc, 10.00 parts; silver, 
 66.67 parts. 3, Copper, 26.66 parts; zinc, 10.00 parts; silver, 63.34 
 parts. 4. (.toft.) Copper, 14.75 parts; zinc, 8.20 parts; silver, 77.05 
 parts. 5. Copper, 22.34 parts; zinc, 10.48 parts; silver, 67.18 parts. 
 6. Tin, 63.00 parts; lead, 37 parts. 
 
 Colored Gold. 1. FTTLT, RED GOLD. Gold, 5 dwt.; copper, 5 
 dwt. 2. RED GOLD. Gold, 10 dwt.; silver, 1 dwt.; copper, 4 dwt. 
 3. GREEN GOLD. Gold, 5 dwt. ; silver, 21 gr. 4. GRAY GOLD. Gold, 
 3 dwt. 15 gr.; silver, 1 dwt. 9 gr. 5. BLUE GOLD. Gold, 5 dwt.; 
 steel filings, 5 dwt. 6. ANTIQUE GOLD, GREENISH-YELLOW. Gold, 
 18 dwt. 9 gr. ; silver, 21 gr. ; copper, 18 gr. These all require to be 
 submitted to the process of wet-coloring. 7. FACTITIOUS GOLD, 
 VERY BRIGHT. Copper, 16 parts; platina, 7 parts; zinc, 1 part; fused 
 together. 
 
 Alloys for Gold. 1. RED GOLD. Copper, 66.67 parts; gold 
 33.33 parts. 2. YELLOW GOLD. Copper, 12.50 parts; silver, 37.50 
 parts; gold, 50 parts. 3 GREEN GOLD. Silver, 25 parts; gold, 75 
 parts. 4. YELIX>W GOLD. Silver, 66.67 parts; gold, 33.33, parts; 
 5. GRAY GOLD. Silver, 5.89 parts; gold, 88.23 parts; iron, 5.89 
 parts. 6. DENTISTS' GOLD. Silver, 8.34 parts; platinum, 66.67 
 parts; gold, 24.29 parts. 7. ENGLISH GOLD COIN. Copper, 8.34 
 parts; gold, 91.66 parts. 8. AMERICAN GOLD COIN. Copper, 10 
 parts; gold, 90 parts. French gold coin same as American. 
 
 Alloys for Silver Coin and Plate. 1. ENGLISH STANDARD. 
 Copper, 7.50 parts; silver, 92.50 parts. 2. AMERICAN STANDARD. 
 Copper, 10 parts; silver, 90 parts. French the same. 
 
 Gilding Metal for common jewelry is made by mixing 4 parts 
 copper with one of calamine brass. Sometimes 1 Ib. copper with 6 
 oz. of brass. 
 
 Jeweller's Gold Compositions, Common Gold. Silver, 1 
 part; Spanish copper, 16 parts; gold, 2 parts; mix. RING GOLD. 
 Spanish copper, 6 parts; silver, 3 parts; gold, 5 parts; mix. MAN- 
 HEIM GOLD Copper, 3 parts; zinc, 1 part; melt, and stir well. 
 MOSAIC GOLD. Copper and zinc, equal parts; melt at the lowest 
 temperature that will fuse the former, then mix by stirring, and add 
 6 per cent, more zinc. PARKER'S MOSAIC GOLD. Copper, 100 parts; 
 zinc 54 parts; mix. Fou COMMON JEWELRY. Copper, 3 parts; 1 of 
 old brass, and 4 oz. of tin to every pound of copper. 
 
 Factitious Gold. Copper, 16 parts; platinum, 7 parts; zinc, 1 
 part; fused together. This alloy resembles gold of 16 carats tine, 
 or %, and will resist the action of nitric acid, unless very concen- 
 trated and boiling.
 
 170 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Harmstadt's True Imitation of Gold is stated not only to 
 resemble gold in color, but also in specific gravity and ductility. 
 Platinum, It! parts; copper, 7 parts; zinc, 1 part; put in a cnicible, 
 cover with charcoal powder, and uiult into a mass. 
 
 Do. of Silver. Copper, \4 oz.; brass, 2 oz.; pure silver, 3 oz.; 
 bismuth, - <>/..; saltpetre, L' <>/..; connnon salt, 1 oz.; arsenic, 1 oz.; 
 potash, 1 oz.; melt in a crucible with powdered charcoal. This 
 compound was used by a German chemist for unlawful purposes 
 to tne amount of thousands, and is so period that he was never 
 discovered. 
 
 Artificial Gold. This is a new metallic alloy which is now 
 very extensively used in France as a substitute lor gold. Pure cop- 
 per, 100 parts; zinc, or, preferably, tin, 17 parts; magn-sia, ti parts; 
 sal-a.umoniac, 3-6 parts; quick-lime, % part; tartar of commerce, 
 9 parts; are mixed as follows: The copper is first melted, and the 
 magnesia, sal-ammoniac, lime, and tartar are then added, sepa- 
 rately, and by degrees, in the form of powder. The whole is now 
 briskly stirred for about half an hour, so as to mix thoroughly: and 
 then the zinc is added in small grains by throwing it on the surface, 
 and stirring till it is entirely fused; the crucible is then covered, 
 and the fusion maintained for about thirty-five minutes. The sur- 
 face is then skimmed, and tin- alloy is ready for casting. 
 
 It has a fine grain, is malleable, and takes a splendid polish. It 
 does not corrode readily, and, for many purposes, is an excellent 
 substitute for gold. When tarnished, its brilliancy can be restored 
 by a little, acidulated wat T. If tin be employed instead of zinc, 
 the alloy will be more brilliant. It is very much used in France, 
 and must ultimately attain equal popularity here. 
 
 New French Patent Alloy for Silver. Messieurs DeKuolz 
 A- Font"nay have invented the following alloy, which may be used 
 for almost all purposes for which silver is usually employed: Silver, 
 20 parts; purified nickel, 28 parts; copper, 52 parts. Melt the cop- 
 per and nickel in the granular state, then introduce the silver. The 
 flux to be employed is charcoal and borax, both in the state of pow- 
 der; and the ingots obtained are to be rendered malleable by an- 
 nealing for a considerable time in powdered charcoal. 
 
 Alloys for Gold. 22 parts gold, 2 parts copper, is 22 carats fine; 
 20 parts gold, and 4 parts copper, is 20 carats fine; 18 parts gold, 
 and 6 parts copper, is 18 carats fine. 
 
 English Standard for Silver. Pure silver, 11 oz. 2 dwts. ; 
 copper, 22 dwts. Melt. 
 
 Silver Imitations. Copper 1 lb.; tin, ^oz.; melt. This com- 
 position will roll and ring very near to silver. BRITANNIA MKTAL. 
 Copper, 1 IV).; tin, 1 11).; regulus of antim/my, 2 Ibs.: melt to- 
 gether, with or without a little bismuth. GKNU'INK GKIOIAN Sib- 
 VEK. Iron, 2% parts; nickel, 31> parts; zinc, -jr.^ paru. copper, 
 40^ parts; melt. FINE WHITE GERMAN SILVKU' Iron, 1 part; 
 nickel, 10 parts; zinc, 10 parts; copper, 20 parts; melt. PINCH-
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MEQHANICAL PURPOSES. 171 
 
 BECK. Copper, 5 parts; zinc, 1 part; melt the copper, then add the 
 zinc. JEWELLER'S METAL. Copper, 30 parts; tin, 7 parts; brass, 
 10 parts. Mix. 
 
 French Gold Plate. 1. Gold, 92 parts; copper, 8 parts. 2. 
 Gold, 84 parts; copper, 10 parts. 3. Gold, 75 parts; copper, 25 
 parts. 
 
 Bidery. Copper, 48.48 parts; tin, 6.60 parts; zinc, 33.80 parts; 
 lead, 12.12 parts. 
 
 Best Brass for Clocks. Rose copper, 85 parts; zinc, 14 parts; 
 lead, 1 part. 
 
 Alloy for Watch Pinion Sockets. Gold, 31 parts; silver, 19 
 parts; copper, 3D parts; palladium, 1 part. 
 
 To Reduce Hair-Springs. Immerse the springs about 2 or 3 
 seconds in nitric arid, 3 drops to one teaspoonful of water. By this 
 means you can reduce them to any extent. It requires very' care- 
 ful manipulation, experience, and good judgment 
 
 Albata Metal. Nickel, 3 to 4 parts; copper, 20 parts; zinc, 16 
 parts. Used for plated goods. 
 
 British Plate. Nickel, 5 to 6 parts; copper, 20 parts; zinc, 8 to 
 10 parts. Used for plated goods. 
 
 Chantry's Hard Alloy. Copper, 1 lb.; zinc, 2^ oz.; tin, 2H 
 oz. Razors as hard as tempered steel have been made from this 
 alloy. 
 
 Hard White Metal for Buttons. Brass, 1 lb.; zinc, 2 oz.; 
 tin, 1 oz. 
 
 Birmingham Platin. Copper, 8 parts; zinc, 5 parts. 
 
 German Silver. 1. Copper, 40.02 parts; zinc, 43. 76 parts; nickel, 
 15.62 parts. 2. Copper, 41.47 parts; zinn, 26.0H parts; nickel, 32.45 
 
 rrts. 3. Copper, 55.55 parts; zinc, 5.55 parts; nickel, 38.90 parts. 
 Copper, 53.40 parts: zinc, 29.10 parts; nickel, 17.50 parts. 5. 
 (Alfentd-t contains a trace of iron.) Copper, 59.60 parts; zinc, 30.30 
 parts; nickel, 10.10 parts. 
 
 Britannia Metal. 1. Copper, 0.30 parts; tin, 89.70 parts; zinc, 
 0.30 parts; antimony, 9.70 parts. 2. Copper, 1.85 parts; tin, 81 64 
 parts; antimony, 16.51 parts. 3. Copper, 0.91 parts; tin, 89.97 
 parts; antimony, 9.12 parts. 4. Tin, 90.00 parts; antimony, 10 
 parts. 5. Copper, 1.78 parts; tin; 89.30 parts; antimony, 7.14 parts; 
 bismuth, 1.78 parts. 
 
 Gun Metal. Copper, 90 parts; tin, 10 parts. 
 
 Melting Poirt of Metals. Iron fuses nt 2787 Fahr.; pold at 
 2016; silver, 187:;; copper, 1996O; zinc, 773; antimony, 809; bis- 
 muth, 476 to 5070; nickel, 630; tin, 442; lead, 334; mercury 
 volatilizes at 670. 
 
 Chinese Gong Metal. Copper, 78.00 parts: tin, 22.00. 
 
 Alloy for Gun Mountings. Copper, 80 parts; tin, 3; zinc, 17. 
 
 Bell Metal. 1. Copper, 60 parts; tin, 40 parts. 2. Copper, 80 
 parts; tin, 20 parts. 3. (Thomson'*) Copper, 80 parts; tin, 10.10 
 parts; zinc, 5.60 parts; lead, 4.30 parts.
 
 172 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 White Metal for Table Bells. Copper 2.06 parts, tin 97.31 
 parts, bismuth 0.03 parts. 
 
 Clock Bell Metal. Copper 75.19 parts, tin 48.81 parts. 
 
 Socket Metal for Locomotive Axle-trees. 1. Copper sn. 03, 
 tin 13. 97; 2. (FiviK-h) Copper S2 parts, tin 10 parts, zinc s parts; 3. 
 (8t0phenton') Copper 7: parts, tin 8 parts, zinc 5 parts, lead 8 
 parts; 4. (Belgian) Copper 89.02 parts, tin 2.41 parts, zinc 7.7G parts 
 iron, 0.78 parts; 5. (Ki.'/lixli) Copper, 73.96 puts, tin, 9.49 parts, 
 zinc, 9.03 parts, lead, 7.09 parts, iron, 0.43 parts. 
 
 . 1. Copper 73 parts, zinc 27 parts; 2. Copper 65 parts, 
 zinc 35 parts; 3. Copper 70 parts; zinc 30 parts. 
 
 Alloy for Mechanical Instruments. Copper 1 lb., tin 1 oz. 
 
 Malleable Brass. 1. Copper 70.10 parts, zinc 29.90 parts- 2. 
 ' Copper 60 parts, zinc 40 parts. 
 
 Button Maker's Metal. 1. Copper 43 parts, zinc 67 parts; 2. 
 Copper 62.22 parts, tin 2.78 parts, zinc 35.00 parts. 
 
 Metal for Sliding Levers of Locomotives.!. Copper 85.25 
 parts, tin 12.75 parts, zinc 2.00 parts; 2. (Fknton's) Copper o.iO 
 parts, tin 14.50 parts, zinc 80 parts. 
 
 Alloy for Cylinders of Locomotives. Copper 88.63 parts, 
 tin 2.38 parts, zinc 6.99 parts. 
 
 Alloy for Stuffing Boxes of Locomotives. Copper 90.06 
 parts, tin 3.56 parts, zinc 6.38 parts. 
 
 Amalgam for Mirrors. 1. Tin 70 parts, mercury 30 parts; 2, 
 (Fur curved mirrors) tin 80 parts, mercury 20 parts; 3. Tin 8.33 
 parts It-ad s.34 parts, bismuth s.:>:> parts, mercury 7. "> parts; 4. (For 
 spherical mirrors) Bismuth 80 parts, mercury 26 parts. 
 
 Reflector Metal. 1. (Duppler's) Zinc 20 parts, silver 80 parts, 
 2. Copper 66.22 parts, tin 33.11 parts, arsenic 0.67 parts; 3. (f'oo/i- 
 er's) Copper 57.86 parts, tin 27.28 parts, zinc 3.30 parts, arsenic 1.65 
 parts, platinum 9.91 parts; 4. Copper <>4 parts, tin 32.00 parts, arse- 
 nic 4.00 parts; 5. Copper 82. is parts, lead <t.22 parts, antimony 8.60 
 parts: ti. (Zfttirt) Copper 69.01 parts, tin 30.82 parts, zinc 2.44 
 parts, arsenic 1.83 parts. 
 
 Metal for Gilt Wares. 1. Copper 7.47 parts, tin 2.S7 parts, 
 zinc 17.23 parts, lead 1.43 parts; L'. Copper 64.43 parts, tin 0.25 
 parts, zinc 32.44 parts, lead 2.86 parts; 9. Copper 72.43 parts, tin 
 1.87 parts, zinc 22.75 parts, lead 2.96 parts; 4. Copper 70.90 parts, 
 tin 2.00 parts, zinc 24.05 parts, lead 3.05 parts. 
 
 Spurious Silver Leaf. Tin 90.00 parts, zinc 9.91 parts. 
 
 Shot Metal.!. Lead 97.07 parts, arsenic 2.93 parts; 2. Load 
 99.60 parts, arsenic 0.40 parts. 
 
 Bismuth Solder. Tin, 33.33 parts; lead, 33.33 parts, bismuth, 
 33.34 parts. 
 
 Alloy for Calico Printing Blocks. Tin, 50.00 parts; lead, 
 33.M; bismuth, 16.66 parts.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 173 
 
 Amalgam for Electrical Machines.! . Tin, 25 parts; zinc, 26 
 parts; mercury, 50 parts; 2. Tin, 11.11 parts; zinc, 22.22 parts; mer- 
 cury, 6G.G7 parts. 
 
 Type Metal. 1. (Tbr smnttatt find most brittle types) Lead, 3; 
 antimony, 1; 2. (For itrnall, bird, brittle type*") Lead, 4; antimony, 
 1; 3. ( for tyws of medium si&) Lead, 5; antimony, 1; 4. (Fbr large 
 types) Lead, 6; antimony, 1; 5. ( Fbr largest and softest tyjtes) Load, 
 7; antimony, 1. In addition to lead and antimony, type metal also 
 contains 4 to 8 per cent, of tin, and sometimes 1 to 2 per cent, of 
 copper. Stereotype plates are made of lead, 20 parts; antimony, 4 
 parts; tin, 1 part. 
 
 Brass for Wire. Copper, 34 parts; calamine, 56 parts; mix. 
 
 Britannia Metal. 1. Tin, 82 parts; lead, 18 parts; brass, 5 
 parts; antimony 5 parts; mix. 2. Brass, 1 part; antimony, 4 parts; 
 tin, 20 parts; mix. 3. Plate-brass, tin, bismuth, and antimony, of 
 each equal parts. Add this mixture to melted tin until it acquires 
 the proper color and hardness. 
 
 Bronze. 1. Copper, 83 parts; zinc, 11 parts; tin, 4 parts; lead, 
 2 parts; mix. 2. Copper, 14 parts; melt, and add zinc, 6 parts; tin, 
 4 parts; mix. 
 
 Ancient Bronze. Copper, 100 parts; lead and tin, each 7 parts; 
 mix. 
 
 Alloy for Bronze Ornaments. Copper, 82 parts; zinc, 18 parts; 
 tin, 3 parts: mix. 
 
 Beautiful Red Bronze Powder. Sulphate of copper, 100 
 parts; carbonate of soda, <>0 parts; apply heat until they unite into 
 a mass; then cool, and add copper-filings, 15 parts. Well mix, and 
 keep them at & white heat for 20 minutes; then cool, powder, wash 
 and dry. 
 
 Bronzing Fluid for Guns. Nitric acid, sp. gr. 1.2; nitric 
 ether, alcohol, murate of iron, each 1 part; mix, then add sulphate 
 of copper, 2 parts, dissolved in water, 10 parts. 
 
 Cannon Metal. Take tin, 10 parts; copper, 90 parts; melt. 
 
 Statuary Bronze. 1. Copper, 88 parts; tin, 9 parts; zinc, 2 
 parts; lead", 1 part. 2. Copper, 82*4 parts; tin, 5 parts; zinc, 10}$ 
 parts; lead, 2 parts. 3. Copper, 90 parts; tin, 9 parts; lead, 1 part. 
 
 Bronze for Medals. Copper, 89 parts; tin, 8 parts; zinc, 3 
 parts. 
 
 Bronze for Large Cannon. Copper, 90; tin, 7. 
 
 Bronze for Small Cannon. Copper, 93; tin, 7. 
 
 Alloy for Symbals. Copper, 80; tin, 20. 
 
 Mirrors of Reflecting Telescopes. Copper, 100; tin, 60. 
 
 "White Argentine. Copper, 8; nickel, 3; zinc, 35. This beauti- 
 ful composition is in imitation of silver. 
 
 Chinese Silver. Silver, 2.5; copper, 65.24; zinc, 19.52; cobalt of 
 Iron, 0.12; nickel, 13.
 
 174 RECEIPTS FOR MEC-IIANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Tutenag. Copper, 8; nickel, 3; zinc, 6. 
 
 Printing Characters. Load. 4; antimony, 1. For stereotype 
 plates, lead, 25; antimony, 4; tin, 1. 
 
 Fine White German Silver. 1. For Coatings. Lead, 3 parts; 
 nicki-1, 20 parts; tine 20 parte; copp-r, (in parts; mix. 2. for Rolling. 
 Nickel, 5 parts; zinc, 4 parts; copper, 12 parts; mix. 
 
 Imitation Platinum. Melt together 8 parts brass and 5 of zinc. 
 This alloy very closely resembles platinum. 
 
 Imitation Gold. Platina, 8 parts; silver, 4 parts; copper, 12 
 parts; melt all together. 
 
 Imitation Silver. Block-tin, inn parts; antimony, 8 parts; bis- 
 muth, 1 part; copper, 4 parts; melt all together. 
 
 Tombac, or Red Brass. Melt together, 8 parts of copper and 1 
 part of zinc. 
 
 Parisian Bell Metal. Copper, 72 parts; tin, 2fi^ parts; iron, 
 \% parts; used for the bells of small ornamental clocks. 
 
 Bell Metal. 1. Copper, 25 parts; tin, 5 parts; mix. 2. Copper, 
 79 parts; tin, 2G parts; mix. 3. Copper, 78 parts; tin, '22 parts; mix. 
 
 Prince's Metal. 1. Copper, 3 parts; zino, 1 part. 2. Brass, 8 
 parts; zinc, 1 part. 3. Zinc and copper, equal parts : mix. 
 
 Queen's Metal. 1. Lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part; antimony, 1 
 part; tin, 9 parts; mix. 2. Tin, 9 parts; bismuth, 1 part; lead, 2 
 parts; antimony, 1 part, mix by melting. 
 
 Brass. Copper, 3 parts; melt, then add zinc 1 part. 
 Button-Maker's Fine Brass. Brass, 8 parts; zinc 5 parts. 
 
 Button-Maker's Common Brass. Button-brass, 6 parts; tin, 
 1 part; lead, 1 part; mix. 
 
 Fine Brass. Copper, 2 parts; zinc, 1 part; mix. 
 
 Organ Pipes consist of lead alloyed with about half its quantity 
 of tin to harden it. The mottled or'crystalline appearance so much 
 admired shows an abundance of tin. 
 
 Baron Wetterstedt's Patent Sheathing for ships consists of 
 lead, with from 2 to 8 per cent, of antimony; about 3 per cent, is 
 the usual quantity. The alloy is rolled into sheets. 
 
 Lead Pipes are cast as hollow cylinders, and drawn out upon 
 triblets; they are also cast of any length without drawing. 
 
 Lead Shot are rast by letting the metal run through a narrow 
 slit into a species of colander at the top of a lolty tower; the metal 
 escapes in drops, which, for the most part, assume the spherical 
 form before they reach the tank of water into which they fall at the 
 foot of the tower, and tin's prevents their being bruised. They are 
 afterwards riddled or sifted for size, and afterwards churned in a 
 barrel with black lead. 
 
 Metal for Anatomical Injections. Tin, 1fi.4l parts; lead, 9.27 
 
 parts; bismuth, 27. SI parts; mercury. 4*1.41 parts. 
 
 Yellow Dipping Metal. Copper, 32 Ibs.; 6 to 7 oz. zinc to 
 every Ib. of copper.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL, PURPOSES. 176 
 
 Quick Bright Dipping Acid, for Brass which has been 
 Ormolued. Sulphuric acid, 1 gal.; nitric acid, 1 gal. 
 
 Dipping Acid. Sulphuric acid, 12 Ibs. -.nitric acid, 1 pint; nitre, 
 4 Ibs.; soot, 2 handfuls; brimstone, 2 oz. Pulverize the brimstone, 
 and soak it hi water au hour. Add the nitric acid last. 
 
 Good Dipping Acid for Cast Brass. Sulphuric acid, 1 qt.; 
 nitre, 1 qt.; water, 1 qt. A little muriatic acid may be added or 
 omitted. 
 
 Dipping Acid. Sulphuric acid, 4 gals.; nitric acid, 2 gals.: 
 saturated solution of sulphate of iron (copperas,) 1 pint; solution of 
 sulphate of copper, 1 qt. 
 
 Ormolu Dipping Acid, for Sheet Brass. Sulphuric acid, 2 
 gals.; nitric acuf, 1 pt. ; muriatic acid, 1 pt.; water, 1 pint.; nitre, 12 
 Ibs. Put in tin- muriatic acid last, a little at a time, and stir the 
 mixture with a stick. 
 
 Ormolu Dipping Acid, for Sheet or Cast Brass. Sulphuric 
 acid, 1 gal.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; sulphur (in flour,) 1 oz. ; blue 
 vitriol, 1 oz.; saturated solution of zinc in nitric acid, mixed with an 
 equal quantity of sulphuric acid, 1 gal. 
 
 To Prepare Brass Work for Ormolu Dipping. If the work 
 
 Is oily, boil it in lye; and if it is finished work, nit-dor turned, dip 
 it in old acid, and then it is ready to be ormolued; but if it is un- 
 finished, and free from oil, pickle it in strong sulphuric acid, dip 
 in pure nitric acid, and then in the old acid, after which it will be 
 ready for orinoluing. 
 
 To Repair Old Nitric Acid Ormolu Dips. If the work after 
 dipping appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol till it answers the 
 purpose. If the work after dipping appears too smooth, add muri- 
 atic acid and nitre till it gives the right appearance. 
 
 The other ormolu dips should be repaired according to the re- 
 ceipts, putting in the proper ingredients, to strengthen them. They 
 should not be allowed to settle, but should be stirred often while 
 using. 
 
 Tinning Acid, for Brass or Zinc. Muriatic acid, 1 qt.; zinc, 
 6 oz. To a solution of this, add water, 1 qt; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. 
 
 Vinegar Bronze, for Brass. Vinegar, 10 gals.; blue vitriol, 3 
 Ibs.; muriatic acid, 3 Ibs. ; corrosive sublimate, 4 grs.; sal ammoniac, 
 2 Ibs.; alum, 8 oz. 
 
 Directions for making Lacquer. Mix the ingredients, and let 
 the vessel containing: them stand in the sun, or in a place slightly 
 warmed, three or four days, shaking it frequently till the gum is 
 dissolved, after which, let it settle from twenty-four to forty-eight 
 hours, when the clear liquor in.iy be poured off for use. Pulverized 
 glass is sometimes used, in making lacquer, to carry down the im- 
 purities. 
 
 Lacquer, for Dipped Brass. Alcohol, proof specific gravity 
 not l.-ss than 95-lOOths, 2 gals.; seed lac, 1 Ib.; gum copal 1 oz.; 
 English saffron, 1 oz.; aunotto, 1 oz. 
 12
 
 gal 
 lac 
 
 176 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Lacquer for Bronzed Brass. To one pint of the above 
 lacquer, add gamboge, l <>/..; and, after mixing it, add an equal 
 quantity of the first iaequer. 
 
 Deep Gold-Colored Lacquer. Best alcohol, 40 oz.: 
 Spanish annotto, 8 gr.s.; turmeric, 2 drs.; shellac, % oz.; red 
 sanders, 12 grs.; when dissolved, add spirits of turpentine, 30 
 drops. 
 
 Gold-Colored Lacquer, for Brass not Dipped. Alcohol, 4 
 
 ls.; turmeric, 3 Ibs.; gamboge, 3 oz.; gum sauderach, 7 Ibs; shel- 
 Ibs.; turpentine varnish, 1 pint. 
 
 Gold-Colored Lacquer, for Dipped Brass. Alcohol, 36 oz.; 
 B6ed lac, 6 OK.; amber, 2 oz.; gum gutta, L'o/.; red sandal wood, 
 24 grs.; dragon's blood, 60 grs.; oriental saffron, 36 grs.; pulverized 
 glass, 4 oz. 
 
 Gold Lacquer, for Brass. Seed lac, 6 oz.; amber or co- 
 pal, 2oz.; best alcohol, 4 gals.; pulverized glass, 4 oz.; dragon's 
 blood, 40 grs.; extract of red sandal wood obtained by water, 30 
 grains. 
 
 Lacquer for Dipped Brass. Alcohol, 12 gals.; seed lac, 8 
 Ibs.; turmeric, 1 Ib.to a gallon of the above mixture; Spanish 
 saffron, 4 oz. The saffron is to be added for bronze work. 
 
 Good Lacquer. Alcohol, 8 oz.; gamboge, loz.; shellac, 3oz.; 
 annotto, 1 <>/.; solution of 3 oz. of seed lac in 1 pint of alcohol; 
 when dissolved, add ^ oz. Venice turpentine, ^ oz. dragon's 
 blood, will make it dark; keep it in a warm place four or five days. 
 
 To Bronze Iron Castings. Cleanse thoroughly, and after- 
 wards immerse in a solution of sulphate of copper, when the 
 castings will acquire a coat of the latter metal. They must be 
 then washed in water. 
 
 Antique Bronze Paint. Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; cream tartar, 3 
 oz. ; common salt, (5 ox. Dissolve in 1 pint hot water, then add 
 2 oz. of nitrate of copper dissolved in '.j pint water, mix well, 
 and apply it repeatedly to the article, in a damp situation, with a 
 brush 
 
 To Fill Holes in Castings. A mixture of putty and black 
 lead is good, but a better method is a metal that expands in cool- 
 ing : Lead, 9 parts; antimony, 2; and bismuth 1. To be melted 
 and poured in. 
 
 Pale Lacquer for Tin Plate. Best alcohol, 8 oz.; turmeric, 
 4 drs.; hay saffron, 2 scs.; dragon blood, 4 MS.; red sanders, 1 sc.; 
 shellac, 1 oz. ; gum sanderach, 2 drs. ; gum mastic, 2 drs. ; 
 Canada balsam, 2 drs.; when dissolved, add spirits of turpentine, 
 80 drops. 
 
 Red Lacquer, for Brass. Alcohol, 8 gallons; dragon's 
 blood, 4 Ibs.; Spanish annotto, 12 pounds; gum sanderach, 13 
 pounds; turpentine, 1 gallon. 
 
 Pale Lacquer, for Brass. Alcohol, 2 gals.; Cape aloes, cut 
 small, 3 oz.; pale shellac, 1 lb.; gamboge, 1 oz.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 177 
 
 Bronze Dip. Sal-ammoniac, 1 oz. ; salt of sorrel (binoxolate of 
 potash), >^ <)/.. dissolved in vinegar. 
 
 Parisian Bronze Dip. Sal-ammoniac, % oz. ; common salt, )^ 
 o/.; spirits of hartshorn, 1 oz. dissolved in an English quart of 
 vinegar. A good result will be obtained by adding % oz. of sal- 
 ammoniac, instead of the spirits of hartshorn. The piece of 
 metal, being well cleaned; is to be rubbed with one of these solu- 
 tions, then dried by friction with a flesh brush. 
 
 Best Lacquer for Brass. Alcohol, 4 gals.; shellac, 2 Ibs.; am- 
 ber gum, 1 lb.; copal, 20 oz.; seed lac, 3 Ibs.; saffron, to color; 
 pulverized glass, 8 oz. 
 
 Color for Lacquer. Alcohol, 1 qt.; annotto, 4 oz. 
 
 Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments. Alcohol, 80 oz.; 
 gum gutta, 3oz.; gum sandarac, 8 oz.; gum elemi, 8 oz.; dragon's 
 blood, 4 oz.; seed lac, 4 oz.; terra merita, 3 oz.; saffron, 8 grs.; 
 pulverized glass, 12 oz. 
 
 Brown Bronze Dip. Iron scales, 1 lb.; arsenic, 1 oz.; muriatic 
 acid, 1 lb.; zinc (solid), 1 oz. Let the zinc be kept in only while 
 it is in use. 
 
 Green Bronze Dip. Wine vinegar, 2 qts.; verditer green, 2 
 oz.; sal ammoniac, 1 oz. ; salt, 2oz.; alum, } oz. French berries, 
 8 oz. ; boil the ingredients together. 
 
 Aqua-fortis Bronze Dip. Nitric acid, 8 oz.; muriatic acid, 1 
 qt. ; sal-ammoniac, 2 oz.; alum, 1 oz.; salt, 2 oz.; wator, 2 gals. 
 Add the salt after boiling the other ingredients, and use it hot. 
 
 Olive Bronze Dip, for Brass. Nitric acid, 3 oz.; muriatic 
 acid, 2 oz.; add titanium or palladium; when the metal is dissolved, 
 add 2 gals, pure soft water to each pint of the solution. 
 
 Brown Bronze Paint, for Copper Vessels. Tincture of 
 steel, 4 oz.; spirits of nitre, 4 oz.; essence of dendi, 4 oz. ; blue 
 vitriol, t oz.; water, ^ pint. Mix in a bottle; apply it with a fine 
 brush, the vessel being full of boiling water; varnish after the ap- 
 plication of the bronze. 
 
 Bronze for All Kinds of Metal. Muriate of ammonia (sal- 
 ammoniac), 4 drs.; oxalic acid, 1 dr.; vinegar, 1 pint. Dissolve 
 the oxalic acid first; let the work be clean; put on the bronze with 
 a brush, repeating the operation as many times as may be neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Bronze Paint, for Iron or Brass. Chrome green, 2 Ibs.; 
 ivory black, 1 oz. ; chrome yallow, 1 oz.; good Japan, 1 gill: grind 
 all together, and mix with linseed oil. 
 
 For Tinning Brass. Water, 2 pails full; cream of tartar, } 
 lb. ; salt, y y pint. 
 
 Shaved or Grained Tin. Boil the work in the mixture, keep- 
 ing it in motion during the time of boiling. 
 
 Silvering by Heat. Dissolve 1 oz. of silver in nitric acid; add 
 a small quantity of salt; then wash it, and add sal ammoniac, or 6 
 oz. of salt and white vitriol; also, % oz. of corrosive sublimate;
 
 178 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 rub them together till they form a paste; rub the piece which is to 
 be silvered with the paste; heat it till the silver runs, after which 
 dip it in a weak vitriol pickle to clean it. 
 
 Mixture for Silvering. Dissolve 2 oz. of silver with 3 grs. of 
 corrosive sublimate; add tartaric acid, 4 Ibs.; salt, 8 qts. 
 
 Separate Silver from Copper. Mix Sulphuric acid, 1 part; 
 nitric ac-id, 1 part; water, 1 part; boil the metal in the mixture till 
 it is dissolved, and throw in a little salt to cause the silver to 
 subside. 
 
 Chinese White Copper. Copper, 40.4; nickel, 31.6; zinc, 25.4; 
 and iron, -'.6 parts. 
 Bath Metal. Brass, 32; and zinc, 9 parts. 
 
 Speculum Metal. Copper, 6; tin, 2; and arsenic, 1 part. Or 
 copper, 7; zinc, 3; and tin, 4 parts. 
 
 Britannia Metal. Brass, 4; tin, 4 parts; when fused, add bis- 
 ninth, 4; and antimony, 4 parts. This composition is added at dis- 
 cretion to melted tin. 
 
 Jeweler's Soldering Fluid. Take alcohol, and add to it all 
 the chloride of zinc it will dissolve, and it is ready for use. A good 
 soft aolder for repairing, equal quantities of tin, and lead from tea- 
 boxes. 
 
 Tinman's Solder. Lead, 1; tin, 1 part. 
 Pewterer's Solder. Tin, 2; lead, 1 part. 
 Common Pewter. Tin, 4; lead, 1 part. 
 Best Pewter. Tin, 100; antimony, 17 parts. 
 
 Queen's Metal. Tin, 9; antimony, 1; bismuth, 1; lead. 1 
 part. 
 
 Tinning Iron. Cleanse the metal to be tinned; and rub with a 
 coarse cloth, previously dipped in hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid,) 
 and then rub on French putty with" the same cloth. French putty 
 is made by mixing tin filings with mercury. 
 
 Tinning. 1. Plates or vessels of brass or copper boiled with a 
 solution of stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, heroine, 
 in the course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached 
 layer of pure tin. 2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the 
 articles with tin-filings and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar. In 
 the above way, chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be 
 easily and perfectly tinned. 
 
 New Tinning Process. The articles to be tinned are first cov- 
 ered with dilute sulphuric acid, and, when quite clean, are placed 
 in warm water, then dipped in a solution of muriatic acid, copper, 
 and zinc, and then plunged into a tin bath to which a small quantity 
 of zinc has been added. When the tinning is finished, the articles 
 are taken out and plunged into boiling water. The operation is 
 completed by placing them in a very warm sand-bath. This last 
 process softens the iron.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 179 
 
 Kustitien'B Metal for Tinning. Malleable iron, 1 lb., heat to 
 whiteness; add 5 o/.. ragullM of antimony, and Molucca tin, 24 
 pound*. 
 
 Watchmaker's Brass. Copper, 1 part; zinc, 2 parts. 
 
 German Brass. Copper, 1 part; zinc, 1 part. 
 
 Brass for Heavy Castings. Copper, 6 to 7 parts; tin, 1 part; 
 ziiic, 1 part. 
 
 Yellow Brass. (FOR CASTTNGS). 1. Copper, 61.6 parts; zinc, 
 35.3 parts; lead, 2.9 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 2. BRASS OF JEMAPPES. 
 Copper, 64.6 parts; zinc, 33.7 parts; lead, 1.4 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 
 3. SHEET BRASS OF STOLBERG NEAR AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. Copper, 
 64.8 parts; zinc, 32.8 parts; lead, 2.0 parts; tin, 0.4 parts. 4. D'AR- 
 CET'S HRASS FOR GILDING Copper, 63.70 parts; zinc, 33.65 parts; 
 load, 0.25 parts; tin, 2.50 parts. 5. ANOTHER. Copper, 64. 45j>arts; 
 zinc, 32.44 parts; lead, 2.86 parts; tin, 0.25 parts. 6. SHEET BRASS 
 OF ROMILLY. Copper, 70.1 parts; zinc, 29.9 parts. 7. ENGLISH 
 BRASS WIRE. Copper, 70.29 parts; zinc, 29.26 parts; lead, 0.28 
 parts; tin, 0.17 parts. 8. AUGSBURG BRASS WIRE. Copper, 71.89 
 parts; zinc, 27.63 parts; tin, 0.85 parts. 
 
 Red Brass for Gilt Articles. 1. Copper, 82.0 parts; zinc, 18.0 
 parts; lead, 1.5 parts; tin, 3.0 parts. 2. ANOTHER. Copper, 82 
 parts; zinc, 18 parts; lead, 3 parts; tin, 1 part. 3. ANOTHI.H. 
 Copper, 82.3 parts; zinc, 17.5 parts; tin, 0.2 parts. 4. FRENCH 
 TOMBAC FOR SWORD HANDLES. Copper, 80 parts; zinc, 17 parts; 
 tin, 3 parts. 5. FOR PARISIAN ORNAMENTS. Copper, 85 parts; 
 zinc, 15 parts; tin, a trace. 6. USED FOR GERMAN ORNAMENTS. 
 Copper, 85.3 parts; zinc, 14.7 parts. 7. CHRYSOCHALK. Copper, 
 90.0 parts; zinc, 7.9 parts; lead, 1.6 parts. 8. RED TOMBAC FROM 
 PARIS. Copper, 92 parts; zinc, 8 parts. 
 
 Compositions. 1. FOR STRONG PUMPS, Ac. Copper, 1 lb. ; zinc, 
 X oz. ; fin, 1% oz. 2. FOR TOOTHED WHEELS. Copper, 1 lb. ; brass, 
 2oz.; tin, 2 oz. 3. Copper, 1 lb.; brass, 2 oz.; tin, 1% oz. 4 FOR 
 TURNING WORK. Copper, 1 lb.; brass, 1% oz.; tin, 2 oz. 5. FOR 
 NUTS OF COARSE THREADS AND BEARINGS. Copper, 1 lb. ; brass, 
 1U oz., tin, 2^ oz. 6. FOR BEARINGS TO SUSTAIN GREAT 
 WEIGHTS. Copper, 1 lb.; zinc, X oz.; tin, 2% oz. 7. PEWTKKKK'S 
 TEMPER. Tin, 2 lb.; copper, 1 lb. Used to add in small quantities 
 to tin. 8. HAKD BEARINGS FOR MACHINERY. Copper, 1 lb.; tin, 
 2oz. 9. VEUY HARD DITTO. Copper, 1 lb.; tin, 2}$ oz. 
 
 Babbitt Metal. Copper, 4 Ibs.; regulus of antimony, 8 Ibs.; 
 Banca tin, 96 Ibs. 
 
 Fenton's Anti-Friction Metal. Grain zinc, 7J Ibs.; purified 
 zince, 1]4 Ibs.; antimony, 1 lb. 
 
 Anti-Friction/Alloy for Journal Boxes. Zinc, 17 parts; 
 per, 1 part; antimony, 1)4 parts. This possesses unsu 
 anti-friction qualities, 'and does not require the protection of outer 
 casings of a-harder metal. 
 
 Babbitt Metal. Block tin, 8 Ibs.; antimony, 2 Ibs.; copper, 
 1 lb. If the metal be too hard, it may be softened by adding some 
 lead.
 
 180 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Alloy for Journal Boxes. The best alloy for journal 
 composed of copper, iM ll>s. ; tin, 'J4 Ibs. ; ami antimony, * Ibs. Melt 
 tho copper first, then add the tin, and lastly the 'antimony. It 
 should be first run into ingots, then melted, and cast in the form 
 required for the boxes. 
 
 To Gild Steel. Pour some of the ethereal solution of gold into 
 a wine glass, and dip into it the blade of a new penknile, ra/or, 
 lancet, Arc.; withdraw the instrument, and allow the ether to evapo- 
 rate. The blade will then be found covered with a beautiful coat 
 Of gold. The blade may be moiMened with a dean ray, or a small 
 piece of very dry sponge, dipped into the ether; and the same effects 
 will be produced. 
 
 To Weld Cast Iron. Take of good clear white sand, 3 parts; 
 refined solton, 1 part; fosterine, 1 part: roek salt, 1 part: mix all 
 together. Take _' pieces of cast iron, heat them in a moderate char- 
 coal fire, occasionally taking them out while heating, and dipping 
 them into the composition, until they are of a proper heat to weld; 
 then at once lay them on the anvil, and gently hammer them 
 together, and, if done carefully by one who understands welding 
 iron, you will have them nicely welded together. One man prefers 
 heatiim the metal, then cooling it in the water of common beans, 
 and heat it again for welding. 
 
 To Galvanize Iron. Cleanse the surface of the iron perfectly 
 by the joint action of dilute acid and friction, plunge it into a bath 
 or melted zinc covered with sal-ammoniac, and stir it about till it 
 be alloyed superficially with this metal. AVhen the metal thus pre- 
 pared is exposed to humidity, the xinc oxidizes slowly by a galvanic 
 action, and protects the iron within from rust; whereby the outer 
 surface remains fora long time perfectly white, in drcnmfltanoea 
 under which iron tinned in the usual way would be corroded with 
 rust. 
 
 Muntz Metal for Ships. Best selected copper, fin pirts; best 
 zinc, 40 parts: melt together in the usual manner, and roll into 
 sheets of suitable thickness. This composition resists oxidation 
 from exposure to sea water, and prevents the adhesion of bar- 
 nacles. 
 
 Tempering Saws, &c. The visual method of tempering saws 
 is to heat, and then dip them in oil. This process is slow, costly, 
 and laborious. It is also disadvantageous, because the saws become 
 warped, and require to be hammered up straight again by hand. 
 A late improvement consists in tempering and straightening the 
 saws at one operation. This is done by heathm the saw- to the 
 proper degree, and then pressing them wi'th a sudden and powerful 
 stroke between two surfaces of cold iron. A drop press is employed 
 for the purpose. The mechanism is quite simple and inexpensive. 
 Its use effects an important economy in the manufacture of nearly 
 all kinds of saws, and aiso improves their quality. 
 
 Silvering .Shells. Silver leaf and gum water a sufficient quan- 
 tity; grind to a proper thickness, and cover the inside of the shells.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 18 
 
 For a fjold color, grind up gold-leaf with gum water, and apply t 
 
 the inside of tin- shells. 
 
 Liquid Foil for Silvering Glass Globes, &c. Lead, 
 part ; tin, 1 part; bismuth, 1 part: melt, and, just before it sets 
 add mercury, 10 parts. Pour this into the globe, and turn it rapidl; 
 round. 
 
 To Soften Iron or Steel. Either of the following method 
 will make iron or steel as soft as lead: 1. Anoint it all over wit] 
 tallow, temper it in a gentle charcoal fire, and let it cool of itsell 
 2. Take a little clay, cover your iron with it, temper in a charcoa 
 fire. 3. When the iron or steel is red hot, strew hellebore on H 
 4. Quench the iron or steel in the juice or water of common beans. 
 
 Tempering. The article, after being completed, is hardened b; 
 being heated gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into col< 
 water: it is then tempered by being warmed gradually and equably 
 either over a fire, or on a piece of heated metal, till of the color cor 
 responding to the purpose for which it is required, as pe- Mi 
 below; when it is again plunged into water. 
 
 CORRESPONDING TEMPERATURE. 
 
 A very pale straw, - 430 Lancets, t 
 
 Straw, ...... 4.10 Razors. $ 
 
 Darker Straw - - - 470 Penknives. / All kinds of wood tools. 
 
 Yellow, ..... 490 Scissors. $ Screw taps. 
 
 Brown yellow, - - - 600 ) Hatehets, chipping chisels, 
 
 Slightly tinged purple, 520 $ Saws. 
 
 Purple, ..... 530 ) All kinds of percussive tools. 
 
 Dark blue, .... 600 Soft for saws. 
 
 Cast Iron Cement. Clean borings or turnings of east iron, 
 16; sal ammoniac, -'; flour of sulphur, 1 part; mix them well togethei 
 in a mortar; and keep them dry. When required for use, take ol 
 the mixture, 1; clean borings, 'JO parts; mix thoroughly, and add a 
 sufficient quantity of water. A little grindstone dust added im- 
 proves the cement. 
 
 Cement for Steam Pipe Joints, Etc., with Faced 
 Flanges. White lead, mixed, 2; red lead, dry, 1 part; grind. 01 
 otherwise mix them to a consistence of thin putty; apply interposed 
 layers with one or two thicknesses of canvas, or gauze wire, as the 
 necessity of the case may be. 
 
 Crucibles. The best crucibles are made from a pure fire clay, 
 mixed with finely ground c<innit of old crucibles, and a portion ol 
 black lead or graphite: some pounded coke may be mixed with the 
 plumbago. The clay should be prepared in a similar way as for 
 making pottery ware: the vessels alter being formed, must be 
 slowly dried, and then properly baked in the kiln. 
 
 BLACK LEAD CRUCIBLES are made of 2 parts graphite, and 1 of 
 fire-clav, mixed with water into a paste, pressed in moulds, and 
 well dried, but not baked hard in the kiln. This compound forma 
 excellent small or portable furnaces.
 
 182 RECEIPTS FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 To Purify Gas. The purifier is to lx> filled with milk of lime, 
 made by mixing 1 part of shirked lime with 25 parts of water. A 
 very threat Improvement in the purification of <jas has been effected 
 by Mr. Shifter, of England, by the employment of hydrated clay 
 long with the lime employed for this purpose, Hydrated clay 
 unites with the ammonia of the gas as with a base, and, at the same 
 time, with its sulphuret of carbon as an acid, and thus removes both 
 of these noxious impurities from the gas exposed to its influence. 
 It assists also, in conjunction with the lime, in removing tarry vapor 
 and other impurities from the gas. The illuminating power of the 
 gas is positively increased by the clay purification from. 22 to 33% per 
 cent. 
 
 To Joint Lead Plates. The joints of lead plates for some pur- 
 poses are made as follows: The edges are brought together, ham- 
 mered down into a sort of channel cut out of wood, and secured with 
 a few tacks. The hollow is then scraped dean with a scraper, rub- 
 bed over with candle grease, and a stream of hot lead is poured into 
 it, the surface being afterwards smoothed with a red hot plumber's 
 iron. 
 
 To Joint Lead Pipes. Widen out the end of one pipe with a 
 
 taper wood drift, and scrape it dean inside; scrape the end of the 
 other pipe outside a little tapered, and insert it in the former, then 
 solder it with common lead solder as before described; or, if it re- 
 quires to be strong, rub a little tallow over, and cover the joint with 
 a ball of melted lead, holding a cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bed- 
 tick) on the under side; and smoothing over with it and the 
 plumber's iron. 
 
 Composition used in Welding Cast Steel. Borax, 10; 
 sal ammoniac, 1 part; grind or pound them roughly together; then 
 fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to continue 
 the heat until all spume lias disappeared from the surface. When 
 the liquid appears dear, the composition is ready to be poured out 
 to cool and concrete; afterwards being ground to a fine powder it is 
 ready for use. To use this composition, th<- steel to be welded is 
 raised to a heat which maybe expressed by "bright yellow;" it is 
 then dipped among the welding powder, anil again placed in the fire 
 until it attains the sam degree of heat as before; it is then ready to 
 be placed under the hammer. 
 
 To prevent Deposits of Lime In Boilers. Throw into the 
 tank or reservoir from which your boiler is fed, a quantity of rough 
 bark, in the piece, such as tanners use, sufficient to turn the water 
 of a brown color; if you have no tank, put into the boiler from a 
 half to a bushel of ground bark when you blow off; repeat every 
 month, using only half the quantity after the first time. 
 
 Scaling Cast Iron. Vitriol, 1 part; water, 2 parts; mix and lay 
 on the diluted vitriol with some old cloth in the form of a brush, 
 enough to w t th surface well: after s or 10 hours, wash off with 
 water, when the hard, scaly surface will be completely removed.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 183 
 
 Varnish, for Smooth Moulding Patterns. Alcohol, 1 gallon; 
 shellac, 1 lb.; lump or ivory black, sufficient to color it. 
 
 Cast Iron Ornaments are rendered susceptible of being finished 
 with ii scraper, win-re they cannot be reached with files, after having 
 the above liquid applied to them. 
 
 Iron Lustre is obtained by dissolving a piece of zinc with muriatic 
 acid, nnd mixing the solution with spirit of tar, and applying it to 
 the surface of iron. 
 
 To Melt Steel as Easily as Lead. This apparent impossi- 
 bility is easily performed by heating the bar of iron or steel ren hot, 
 and then touching it with a roll of brimstone, when the metal will 
 drop like water. 
 
 Patent Lubricating Oil. Water, 1 gal.; clean tallow, 3 Ibs.: 
 palm oil. 10 Ibs. : common soda, ^ lb. Heat the mixture to about 
 210 F.; stir well till it cools down to 70 F., when it is fit for use. 
 
 Black Having a Polish for Iron- Pulverized gum asphal- 
 tum, 2 Ibs. ; gum benzoin, V^ lb. ; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. ; to make 
 quick, k<>ep in a warm place, aim shake often; shade to suit with 
 finely ground ivory black. Apply with a brush. And it ought to 
 be used on iron exposed to the weather as well as on inside work, 
 desiring a nice appearance or polish. Or: 
 
 Varnish for Iron. Asphaltum, 8 Ibs.; melt in an iron kettle, 
 slowly adding boiled linseed oil, 5 gals.; litharge, 1 lb., and sulphate 
 of zinc, % lb. ; continuing to boil for 3 hours; then add dark gum 
 amber, \% Ibs.; and continue to boil 2 hours longer. When cool, 
 reduce to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, with spirits of 
 turpentine. 
 
 To Restore Burnt Steel, and improve Poor Steel. Borax, 3 
 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 8 o?.. ; prussiate of potash, :$ oz. ; blue clay, 2 oz.: 
 resin, 1^ Ibs.; water, 1 gill; alcohol, 1 gill. Put all on the fire, and 
 simmer till it dries to a powder. The steel is to be heated, and dipped, 
 into this powder, and afterwards hammered. 
 
 Composition to toughen Steel. Resin, 2 Ibs.; tallow, 2 Ibs.; 
 black pitch, 1 lb.; melt togother, aud dip in the steel when hot. 
 
 Burglar and Drill Proof Diamond Chill. Take 1 gal. urine, 
 and add to it 1 oz. borax and 1 oz. salt. 
 
 How to Re-cut Old Piles and Rasps. Dissolve 4 oz. of 
 sal.Tatus in l <it. of water, and boil the files in it for half an hour; 
 then remove, wash and dry them. Now have ready, in a glass or 
 stone- ware vessel, 1 qt. of 'rain water, into which you have slowly 
 added 4 oz. of best sulphuric acid, and keep the proportions for any 
 amount used. Immerse the files in this preparation for from six to 
 twelve hours, according to fineness or coarseness of the file; then 
 remove; wash them clean, dry quickly, and put a little sweei oil on 
 them to cover the surface. If the files are coarse, they will need to 
 remain in about twelve hours, but for fine files six to eight hours is 
 sufficient. This plan is applicable to blacksmiths', gunsmiths', tin-
 
 184 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 ners', coppersmiths', and machinists' files. Copper and tin workers 
 will only require a snort time to take tin- articles out of their files, 
 
 as the soil metals with which they become tilled arc soon dissolved. 
 Blacksmiths' and saw-mill files require full time. Files may he re- 
 cut three times by thb, prooeM. The liquid may lie u>ed at different 
 times if required. Keep away from children, as it is poisonous. 
 
 Substitute for Borax. Copperas, 2 oz.; saltpetre, 1 oz.; com- 
 mon salt, (i o/..; black oxide of manganese, 1 oz.; prussiate of pot- 
 ash, 1 o/.; all pulverized and mixed with .'5 Ibs. nice welding >and, 
 and UM- the same as you would sand. High-tempered M.-.-l can be 
 Welded with this at a lower heat than is required for borax. 
 
 Tempering Liquid. To 6 qts. soft water put in corrosive subli- 
 mate, 1 o/..; common salt, - handl'uls; when dissolved, it is read\ for 
 use. The first gives toughness to the steel, while the latter gives 
 the hardness. Bo careful with this preparation, as it is a dangerous 
 poison. 
 
 Another. Salt, % tea-cup; saltpetre, % oz., alum, pulverized, 
 1 teaspoon; soft water, 1 gallon; never heat over a cherry red, nor 
 draw any temper. 
 
 Another. Saltpetre, sal-ammoniac and alum, of each 2 oz. ; salt, 
 1% Ibs.; water, 3 gallons, and draw no temper 
 
 Another. Saltpetre and alum each, 2 oz.; sal-ammoniac, % oz.; 
 salt, JH Ibs.; soft water, L' gallons. Heat to a cherry red, and plunge 
 in, drawing no temper. 
 
 Another. Water, 3 gallons; salt, 2 qts.; sal-ammoniac and salt- 
 petre, of each L' o/.; a.-.he> from white-a>h bark, 1 shovel, which 
 causes the steel to scale white and smooth as silver. Do not ham- 
 mer too cold, to avoid flaws; do not heat too high, which opens the 
 pores of the steel; and do not heat more than one or two incin-s of 
 the steel at a time while tempering, if you wish the hardness and 
 toughness of the steel to be of the first quality. 
 
 To Improve Poor Iron. Black oxide of manganese, 1 part; 
 
 copperas and common salt, 4 pans e.i--h; dissolve in -,olt water, and 
 boil till dry; when cool, pulvcri/.e and mix quite freely with nice 
 welding Band. When you have poor iron which yon cannot afford 
 to throw away, heat it, and -roll it in this mixture; \\orkinglnr a 
 time, reheating, Arc., will soon tree it from all impurities, which is 
 the cause of its rottenness. By this process you can make good 
 horse-nails out of common iron. 
 
 Case Hardening for Iron. Case iron may be case-hardened by 
 heating to a red heat, and then rolling it in a composition composed 
 of equal parts of prussiate of potash, sal-ammoniac, and saltpetre, 
 all pulverized and thoroughly mixed. This mu.4 be got to every 
 part of the surface; then plunged, while yet hot, into a bath con- 
 taining '2 07.. prussiate of potash, and 4 oz. sal-ammoniac to each 
 gallon of cold water. 
 
 For Malleable Iron. Put the articles in an iron box, and 
 Stratify them among animal carbon, that is, pieces of horns, hoofs,
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 185 
 
 skins or leather, lust sufficiently burned to be reduced to powder. 
 
 Lulc tln> box with equal parts o'f siind aii'l Hay; then place it in the 
 tin-. and keep at a light red heat for ;i length of time proportioned 
 to the depth of >teel required, when the contents of the box are 
 emptied into water. 
 
 Another for Wrought Iron. Take the prussfate of potash, 
 finely pahrerlzed. and roll the article in it, if its shape admits of it; 
 if not, sprinkle the powder upon it freely while the iron is hot. 
 
 To Soften Cast Iron for Drilling. TTeattoacherryred, having 
 It lie level in the fire; then with a pair of cold tongs put on a piece 
 of brimstone, a little, less in size than the hole to be, when drilled, and 
 it softens entirely through the piece; let it lie in the fire until a little 
 cool, when it is ready for drilling. 
 
 To Temper Springs. For tempering cast-steel trap springs, all 
 that is necessary is to neat them in the dark, just so that you can 
 see that they are red; then cool them in luke-warm water. You 
 can observe a much lower degree of heat in the dark than by day- 
 light, and the low heat and warm water give the desired temper. 
 
 To Mend Broken Saws. Pure silver, 19 parts; pure copper, 1 
 part; pure brass, 2 parts; all to be filed into powder, and thoroughly 
 mixed; place the saw level on the anvil, broken edges in contact, 
 and hold them so; now put a small line of the mixture along the 
 soam, covering it with a larger bulk of powdered charcoal; now 
 with a spirit lamp and a jeweller's blow-pipe, hold the coal dust in 
 place, and blow sufficient to melt the solder mixture; then with a 
 hammer set the joint smooth, and lile away any superfluous solder, 
 and you will be surprised at its strength; the neat will not injure 
 the temper of the saw. 
 
 "Writing Inscriptions on Metals. Take \/ Ib. nitric acfd and 
 1 m. muriatic acid. Mix, shake well together, and it is ready for 
 use. Cover the place you wish to mark with melted bees- wax; 
 when cold, write your inscription plainly in the, wax clear to the 
 metal with a sharp instrument; then apply the mixed acids with a 
 feather, carefully filling each letter. Let it remain from one to ten 
 
 minutes, according to appearance desired; then throw on water, 
 which stops the process, and remove the wax. 
 
 Black Varnish for Iron Work. Asphalhim, 1 Ib. ; lampblack, 
 >^lb.; resin, % Ib.; spirits turpentine, 1 qt.; linseed oil, just suffi- 
 cient to rub up the lampblack with before mixing it with the others. 
 Apply with a camel's hair brush. 
 
 . To Petrify Wood. Gem salt, rock alum, white vinegar, chalk 
 and peebles powder, of each an equal quantity. Mix well together. 
 If, after the ebullition is over, you throw into this liquid any wood 
 or porous substance, it will petrify it. 
 
 The Finest Bronze. Put in a clean crucible 7 Ihs. copper, melt, 
 then add 3 Ihs. zinc, afterwards '_> Ib;. tin. In order to gild polished 
 Bteel or polished iron, dip the article into an ethereal solution of
 
 186 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 go 
 th 
 
 old, withdraw from the solution, and the ether flies off and leaves 
 gold deposited. 
 
 Soft Cement, for Steam Boilers, Steam Pipes, &c. Red or 
 
 white lead, in oil, 4; iron borings, '2 to ii parts. 
 
 Hard Cement. Iron borings and salt water, and a small quan- 
 tity of sal ammoniac with fresh \\ater. 
 
 Black Varnish, for Coal Buckets. Asphaltum, 1 lb.; lamp- 
 black, >i lb.; resin, % 11).; spirits of turpentine, 1 41. Dissolve the 
 asphaltum ami resin in the turpentine; then rub the lampblack with 
 linseed oil, only sulHcient to form a paste, and mix with the others. 
 Apply with a brush. 
 
 Soldering Fluid. Take 2 oz. muriatic acid; add zinc till bub- 
 
 bles eease to rise; add > teaspoonful of sal ammoniac and :.' o/.. of 
 water. Damp the part you wish to solder with this lluid; lay on a 
 small pieee ot solder, and with a piece of hot iron or soldering iron 
 solder the part. 
 
 Japan Flow for Tin. ALL. COLORS. Gum sandarac, 1 lb.; 
 
 balsam of tit, balsam of Tolu, and acetate of lead, of each, L'ox.; 
 lin-vi'il oil, ^ pint; spirits of turp.-ntine, -2 qts. Put all into a 
 suitable kettle, except the turpentine, over a slow fire, at first; 
 then rai>e to a higher h'-at till all are metled; now take from the 
 lire, and, when a little cool, stir in the spirits of turpentine, and 
 strain through a fine cloth. This is transparent; but by the fol- 
 lowing modifications any or all the various colors are made from 
 it. 
 
 2. BLACK. Prussian blue, 1 oz.; asphaltum, 2 oz.; spirits of tur- 
 pentine, >i pint. Melt the asphaltum in the turpentine; rub up the 
 blue with a little of it; mix well, and strain; then add the whole to 
 1 pint of thejint, above. 
 
 3. BLUE. Indigo, and Prussian blue, both finely pulverized, of 
 each ]4 oz.; spirits of turpentine, 1 pint. Mix well, and strain. 
 Add of this to one pint of theji/vtf until the color suits. 
 
 4. RED. Take spirits of turpentine, % pt; add cochineal, % oz.; 
 let stand 1"> hours, and strain. Add ot this to the jir*(in suit the 
 fancy. It earmine is used instead of cochineal, it will make a fine 
 color for watch hands. 
 
 5. YELLOW. Take 1 oz. of pulverized root of curcuma, and stir 
 of it into 1 pt. of thejffrt until the color pleases you; let stand a few 
 hours, and strain. 
 
 6. GREEN. Mix equal parts of the blue and yellow together, then 
 mix with ttivjirat until it suits the fancy. 
 
 7. ORANGE. Mix a little of the red with more of the yellow, and 
 then with the first as heretofore, until pleased. 
 
 8. PINK. Mix a little of the blue to more in quantity of the red, 
 and then with thujint until suited. Apply with a brush. 
 
 Transparent Blue for Iron or Steel. Demar varnish, J gal.; 
 fine MViuiul Prussian blue, y oz.; mix thoroughly. Makes a splen- 
 did appearance. Excellent for blueing watch hands.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 187 
 
 To Tin Copper Stew Dishes, etc. Wash the surface of the 
 
 article to be tinned with sulphuric arid, and ruh the surface well, 
 so a-, to have it smooth ami fro:' of blaeklMM caused by the acid; 
 then sprinkl" calcined and finely pulverized sal-annii'iniae upon the 
 surface, holding it over a fire, when it will be, sufficiently hot to 
 melt a bar of solder which is to be rubbed over the surface: any 
 copper dish or vessel may be tinned in this way. 
 
 To Copper the Surface of Iron, Steel, or Iron Wire. 
 Have the article perfectly clean, then wash with the following solu- 
 tion, and it presents at once a coppered surface. Rain water, 3 Ibs. ; 
 sulphate of copper, 1 Ib. 
 
 To Tin Iron for Soldering, Ac. Take any quantity of mu- 
 riatic acid, and dissolve all the zinc in it that it will cut; dilute 
 it with one-fourth as much soft water as of acid, and it is ready for 
 use. Rub this liquid on iron; and no matter how rusty it may 
 be, it will brighten it up so that solder will readily adhere to it; or 
 the above copper solution may be applied, giving it a coat of cop- 
 per. 
 
 Gold Lacquer for Tin. TRANSPARENT, ALL COLORS. Alco- 
 hol in a flask, ]4 pt. ; add gum shellac, 1 oz.; turmeric, % o/..; red 
 sanders, \ ox. Set the flask in a warm place, shake frequently for 
 12 hours or more, then strain off the liquor, rinse the bottle, and 
 return it, corking tightly for use. 
 
 When this varnish is used, it must be applied to the work freely 
 and flowing; and the article must be hot when applied. One or 
 more coats may be laid on, as the color is required more or less 
 light or deep. If any of it should become thick from evaporation, 
 at any time, thin it with alcohol. And by the following modifica- 
 tions, all the various colors are obtained. 
 
 2. ROSK COLOR. Proceed as above, substituting \ or., of finely 
 ground best lake in place of the turmeric. 
 
 3. BLUE. The blue is made by substituting pulverized Prussian 
 blue, % oz., in place of the turmeric. 
 
 4. PURPLE. Add a little of the blue to the/rrt. 
 
 5. GREEN. Add a little of the rose-color to the first. 
 
 Crystallized Tin Plate. The figures are more or less beau- 
 tiful and diversified, according to the degree of heat, and rela- 
 tive dilution of the acid. Place the tin-plate, slightly heated, over 
 
 a tub of water, and rub its surface with a sponge dipped in a liquor 
 composed of four parts of aquafortis, and two of distilled water, 
 holding one part of common salt or sal ammoniac in solution. 
 
 Whenever the crystalline spangles seem to be thoroughly brought 
 out, the plate must be imm Tsed in water, 'washed either with a 
 feather or a little cotton (taking ear not to ru!> off the film of tin 
 that, forms the feathering), forthwith dried with a low heat, and 
 coated with a lacker varnish, otherwise it loses its lustre in the air. 
 If the whole surface is not plunged at once in cold water, but if it 
 be partially cooled by sprinkling water on it, the crystallization 
 will be finely variegated with large and small figures. Similar
 
 188 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 results will be obtained by blowing cold air through a pipe on the 
 tinned .-.urfaee, while it is just passing from the fused to the solid 
 state. 
 
 To Crystallize Tin. Sulphuric acid, 4 oz.; soft water, 2 to 3 
 07.., according to strength of tin- acid: salt, !'. <)/.; mix; heat the 
 tin hot over a stove, then witli a sponge apply the mixture, then 
 wasli oil' directly with clean water. Dry the tin, and varnish with 
 deuiar varnish. 
 
 Improved Tinning Pluac. Muriatic acid, lib.; put into it all 
 the /.inc. it will dissolve and 1 oz. sal ammoniac, and it is ready fur 
 use. 
 
 To Clean and Polish Brass. Oil of vitriol, 1 oz.; sweet oil, 
 14 gill; pulveri/ed ret ten stone, 1 gill; rain water. I 1 ..: pints: mix 
 all, and shake as used. Apply with a rag, and polish with buck- 
 skin or old woolen. 
 
 Silvering Powder. Nitrate of silver and common salt, of 
 each, :M grs; cream of tartar, ',% drs. I'ulveri/.e finely, mix thor- 
 oughly, and bottle for use. Unequalled for polishing copper and 
 plated goods. 
 
 Tin Cans. SIZE OP SHEET, FOR FROM 1 TO 100 GALLONS: 
 For 1 gallon, 7 by 20 inches. For 25 gallons, 30 by 56 inches. 
 
 10 by 28 
 12 by 40 
 14 by 40 
 20 by 42 
 30 by 42 
 
 40 " :; by 
 
 50 " 40 by 70 
 
 75 " 40 by 84 
 
 100 " 40 by 98 
 
 This includes all the laps, seams, &c., which will be found suffi- 
 ciently correct for all practical purposes. 
 
 To Mend Tinware. Take a vial two-thirds full of muriatic 
 acid, put into it all the ehippiugs of sheet y.inc it will dissolve, f hen 
 put in a eniml) of >al ammoniac, and fill up with water. Wet the 
 plae" to he mended with this liquid, put a piece of zinc over the 
 hole, and apply a spirit lamp or candle Ivlow it, which melts the 
 solder on the tin and causes the zinc to adhere. 
 
 Brunswick Black for Grates, &c. Asphaltura, 5 Ibs.; melt, 
 ami add boiled oil, 2 Ibs.; spirits of turpentine, 1 gal. Mix. 
 
 Gas Fitter's Cement. Mix together rosin, four and a half 
 parts; wax, 1 part; and Venetian red, o parts. 
 
 Plumber's Cement. Black resin, l part: brick dust. 2 parts; 
 well Incorporated by a melting heat. Boiled linked oil and red 
 lead mixed together into a putty are often used by coppersmiths 
 and engineers to secure joints; the washers of leather or cloth are 
 smeared with tlus mixture in a pa.-ty state. 
 
 Browning for Gun Barrels. Spirits of nitre. 1 lb.: alcohol, l 
 Ib. ; corrosive sublimate, 1 o/,. ; mix in a bottle, and cork for use. 
 Directions: Polish the barrel perfect; then rub it with quick-lime 
 with a cloth, which removes grease and dirt; now apply the brown- 
 ing lluid with a cl -an white cloth; apply one coat, arid set it in a 
 warm dark place for from 10 to 20 hours until a red rust forms on
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 189 
 
 it; then cord it down with a gunmaker's cord, and rub off with a 
 clean doth. Kcpeat the process if you wish a dark shade. 
 
 Browning for Twist Barrels. Spirits of nitre, ^oz.; tinc- 
 ture of steel, % oz.; or use the unmedicated tincture of iron if the 
 tincture of steel cannot be obtained; black brimstone, >^oz.; blue 
 vitriol, \$ oz.; corrosive sublimate, \ oz.; nitric acid, 1 drachm; 
 copperas, !^oz.; mix with 1'^ pints rain water, and bottle for use. 
 This is to he applied the same as the first. It causes the twist of 
 tin barrel to be visible after application, a quality which the other 
 liquid does not possess. 
 
 Browning Compositions for Gun Barrels.!. Blue vitriol, 
 4 oz.; tincture of muriate of iron, 2 oz.; water, 1 quart; dissolve, 
 and acid aquafortis and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 1 oz. 2. 
 Blue vitriol and sweet spirits of nitre, of each, 1 oz. ; aquafortis, \f 
 oz. ; water, 1 pint. To be used in the same manner as previously 
 described in this work. 
 
 Varnish and Polish for Gun Stocks. Gum shellac, 10 oz.; 
 gum sandarac, 1 oz.; Venice turpentine, 1 drachm; 98 per cent, 
 alcohol, 1 gallon; shake the jug occasionally for a day or two, and 
 it is ready for use. Apply a few coats of this to your gunstocks, 
 polish by rubbing smooth, and your work is complete. 
 
 Hardening and Pilling for Fire-proof Safes. Experience 
 has shown that the fire and burglar proof diamond cliill for 
 iron or steel, described in another part of this work, lias no supe- 
 rior as a hardening for security in the construction of safes; and, 
 as a non-conductor of heat, we would recommend a filling of plas- 
 ter of Paris or alum. 
 
 Tempering Razors, Cutlery, Saws, &c. Razors and pen- 
 knives are too frequently hardened without the removal of the MM!O 
 arising from the forging. Thii -nracticf., whifh i never done with 
 tlw best works, cannot be too mwh aeprecated. The blades are heated 
 in a coke or charcoal fire, and dipped in the water obliquely. In 
 tempering razors, they are laid on their backs upon a clean fire, 
 about half a dozen together, and they are removed one at a time, 
 when the edges, which are as yet thick, come down to a pale straw 
 color. Should the backs accidentally get heated beyond the straw- 
 color, the blades are cooled in water, but not otherwise. Pen- 
 blades are tempered a dozen or two at a time, on a plate of iron or 
 copper, about 12 inches long, 3 or 4 inches wide, and about } of an 
 inch thick. The blades are arranged close together on their backs, 
 and lean at an angle against each other. As they come down to 
 the temper, they are picked out \vitli small pliers and thrown into 
 water, if necessary; other blades are then thrust forward from the 
 cooler parts of the plate to take their place. Axes, adzes, cold 
 clii-i'K and other edge tools, in which the total bulk is considerable 
 compared with the part to be hardened, are only partially dipped; 
 they are afterwards let down by the heat of the remainder of the 
 tool; and, when the color indicative of the temper is attained, they
 
 190 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL, PURPOSES. 
 
 are entirely quenched. With the view of removing the loose 
 scales, or the oxidation acquired in tin- fin-, some workmen rub the 
 objects hastily in dry salt before plunging tliem in the water, in 
 order to give them a cleaner and brighter face. 
 
 Oil, or resinous mixtures of oil, tallow, wax, and resin, are used 
 for many thin and ela>tie objects, sucli as needles, fi>hhooks, steel- 
 pens and springs, which require a milder decree of hardness than 
 is given by water. Gunlock springs are sometimes t'rt <l in oil for 
 a considerable time over a tire, in an iron tray; the thick parts are 
 then sure to bjj sufficiently reduced, and the thin parts do not be- 
 come the more softened from the continuance of the blazing heat. 
 
 Saws and springs are generally hardened in various composition! 
 of oil, suet, wax, etc. The saws are heated in long furnaces, and 
 then immersed hori/.ontallv and edgeways into a long trough con- 
 taining the composition. rUtof the composition is 'wiped off the 
 saws with a pie -e of leather, when they are removed from the 
 trough, and heated one by one, until the grease intlaines. This is 
 called " bluziity off." The composition used by a large saw manu- 
 facturer U 2 Ibs. suet, and '^ Ib. of beeswax, to every gallon of 
 whale oil'; these, are boiled together, and will serve for thin works 
 and most kinds of steel. The addition of black resin, about 1 Ib. to 
 each gallon, makes it serve for thicker pieces, and for those it re- 
 fused to harden before; but resin should be added with judgment, 
 or the works will become too hard and brittle. 
 
 Silversmith's Stripping Liquid. Sulphuric acid, 8 parts; 
 nitre, 1 part. Jse to re-cover silver on old plated ware. 
 
 To Silver Clock Paces, Etc. Old silver lace, % oz.; nitric 
 acid, 1 oz. Boil them over a gentle lire for about ~> mfnutes in an 
 earthen pot. After the silver is dissolved, take the mixture off, and 
 mix it in a pint of clean water, then pour it into another vessel, free 
 from sediment; then add a tablespoonl'ul of common salt, and the 
 silver will be precipitated in the form of a white powder or curd; 
 pour off the acid, and mix the curd with 2 oz. salt of tartar, and % 
 oz. whiting, all together, and it is ready for use. To USE. Clean 
 your brass or copper plate with rotten stone and a piece of old hat; 
 rub it with salt and water with your hand. Then take a little or 
 the composition on your finger, and rub it over your plate, and it 
 will firmly adhere and completly silver it. Wash it well with water. 
 When dry, rub it with a clean "rag, and varnish with this VARNISH 
 FOR CLOCK-FACES: Spirits of wine, 1 pt.; divide into 3 parts, mix 
 one part with gum mastic in a bottle by itself; 1 part spirits, and % 
 oz. sandarac in another bottle; and 1 part spirits, and % oz. of 
 whitest gum benjamin, in another bottle; mix and temper to your 
 mind. If too thin, some, mastic; if too soft, some sandarac or ben- 
 jamin. When you use it, warm the silvered plate before the fire, 
 and, with a flat camel's hair pencil, stroke it over till no white 
 streaks appear, and this will preserve the silvering for many years. 
 
 "Watchmaker's Drills. Drills of the. smallest kind are heated 
 in the blue part of the name of a candle; larger drills are heated 
 with the blow-pipe flame, applied very obliquely, and a little below 
 the point. When very thin, they may be wliisked in the air to
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 191 
 
 cool thorn; but they are; generally thrust into the tallow of a candle 
 or the oil of a lamp. They are temjK'ml either hy their own heat, 
 or by immersion in the flame below the point of the tool. 
 
 To Reduce Metallic Oxides. This may be effected by the 
 dry and the moist processes; but tlie deoxidizing agent of the great- 
 est value to the metallurgist is coal in its several varieties, and the 
 derivative materials yielded by its combustion. When coal is burned 
 in a furnace, the first product of combustion may be considered to 
 be carbonic acid gas; but inasmuch as the latter is readily decom- 
 posod by permeating ignited pieces of solid carbon (coke) losing a 
 portion of its oxygen, and becoming carbonic acid gas, we may say 
 that the product* of the combustion of coal are, firstly, carbonic 
 acid; secondly, carbonic oxide and carbonic acid; and lastly, car- 
 bonic oxide alone. The latter, in combination with heat, is a most 
 powerful deoxidizing agent. Were it not for the production in fur- 
 naces of carbonic oxide gas were it necessary that the solid car- 
 bon of the coke should be alone the deoxidizing body" then it 
 follows that every particle of the ore to be reduced must be brought 
 into intimate contact with the reducing body; a process involving 
 more care and trouble than are compatible with large metallurgic 
 operations. The reducing agent being a gas, there is no longer a 
 necessity for that intimate mixture of fuel and ore which would 
 otherwise be necessary. Provided that the gaseous results of com- 
 bustion are placed under circumstances of readily permeating the 
 ore, the necessities of practice are amply subserved. There is great 
 difference as to the amount of heat at which the reduction of differ- 
 ent metallic oxides can be effected. The oxides of lead, bismuth, 
 antimony, nickel, cobalt, copper, and iron, require a strong red 
 heat in the. furnace, whilst the oxides of manganese, chromium, tin, 
 and zinc, do not lose their oxygen until h< ad d to whiteness. 
 
 On a large scale, the reduction of oxides is generally effected by 
 mixing charcoal, together with the oxide to be reduced, in a refrac- 
 
 tory clay crucible, the charcoal furnishing the carbon nece-s;u\ to 
 the proper performance of the work. Some use a cnicihle thickly 
 lined with charcoal, putting in the oxide on the top of the charcoal. 
 
 It is necessary, however, when using the crucible and charcoal, to 
 use a flux, say a little borax in powder, stewed on the mixture to 
 accelerate the reduction of the oxide. Tiie borax is generally the 
 first to fuse, and, as the metal is eliminated, seems to purify and 
 cleanse it, as it gathers into a button at the bottom of the crucible. 
 It is all the better if you give the crucible a few sharp taps when 
 you take it off the fire. 
 
 Copper Plates or Rods may be covered with a superficial coat- 
 ing of brass by exposing them to the /VMM! given off bv melted zinc 
 at a light temperature. The coated plates or rods can then be rolled 
 into thin sheets; or drawn into wire. 
 
 Solution of Copper on Zinc. Dissolve 8 oz. (troy) cyanide 
 of potassium, and 3 oz. cyanide of copper or zinc, in 1 gallon of 
 rainwater. To be used at about 160 F., with a compound battery 
 pf 3 to 12 cells. 
 
 13
 
 192 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Brass Solution. Dissolve 1 Ib. (troy) cyanide of potassium, 2 
 ozs. cyanide of copper, and 1 oz. cyanide of zinc, in 1 gal. of rain- 
 water then add 2 oz. of muriate ammonia. To be used at 160 
 F for smooth work, with a compound battery of from 3 to 12 
 cells. 
 
 Brassing Iron. Iron ornaments are covered with copper or 
 brass bv properly preparing tin- surface so as to remove all organic 
 matter which would prevent adhesion and then plunging them into 
 melted brass. A thin coating is thus spread over the iron, and it 
 admits of being polished or burnished. 
 
 To Enamel Cast Iron and Hollow "Ware. Calcined flints 
 6 parts; Cornish stone or MMMtOtM two purls, litharge 9 parts, 
 borax 6 parts, argillaceous earth 1 part, nitre 1 part, calx of tin 6 
 parts, purified potash 1 part. 2. Calcined flints 8 parts, red lead 8 
 parts borax 6 parts, calx of tin 5 parts, nitre 1 part. 3. Potter's 
 composition 12 parts, borax 8 pails, white lead 10 parts, nitre 2 
 parts, white marble calcined 1 part, purified potash 2 parts, calx of 
 fin 5 parts. 4. Calcined flints 4 parts, potter's composition 1 part, 
 nitre 2 parts, borax 8 parts, white marble calcined 1 part, argilla- 
 ceous earth % part, calx of tin 2 parts. Whichever of the above 
 compositions is taken must be finely powdered, mixed and fused. 
 The vitreous mass is to be ground when cold, sifted, and levigated 
 with water; it is then made into a pap with water, or gum-water. 
 This pap is smeared or brushed over the interior of the vessel, 
 dried, and fused with a proper heat in a muffle. Clean the vessels 
 perfectly before applying. 
 
 Enameled Cast Iron. Clean and brighten the ircn before 
 applying. The enamel consists of two coats the body and the 
 glaze. The body is made by fusing 100 Ibs. ground flints, 75 of 
 borax, and grinding 40 Ibs. of this frit with 5 Ibs. of potter's clay, 
 in water, till it is brought to the consistence of a pap. A coat of 
 this being applied and dried, but not hard, the glaze powder is 
 sifted over it This consists of 100 Ibs. Cornish stone in fine pow- 
 der, 117 of borax, 35 of soda ash, 35 of nitre, 35 of sifted slaked 
 lime, 13 of white sand, and 50 of pounded white glass. These are 
 all fused together; the frit obtained is pulverized. Of this powder, 
 45 Ibs. are mixed with 1 Ib. of soda ash, in hot water, and the mix- 
 ture dried in a stove is the glaze-powder. After sifting this over 
 the body-coat, the cast iron article, is put into a stove, kept at a 
 temperature of about 212, to dry it hard, after which it is set in a 
 muffle-kiln, to fuse it into a glaze. The inside of pipes is enamelled 
 (after being cleaned) by pouring the above body-composition 
 through them while the pipe is being turned around to 
 insure an equal coating; after the body has become set, the 
 glaze pap is poured in in like manner. The pipe is finally fired 
 m the kiln. 
 
 To Enamel Copper and other Vessels. Flint glass 6 parts, 
 borax 3 parts, red lead 1 part, oxide of tiu 1 part. Mix all to-
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 193 
 
 gether, frit, grind into powder, make into a thin paste with water, 
 apply with a brush to the surface of the vessels (after scaling by 
 he;it and cleaning them"), repeat with a second or even a third 
 coat, afterwards dry, and lastly fuse on by heat of an enamelled 
 
 Emery "Wheels for Polishing. Coarse emery powder is 
 mixed with about half its weight of pulverized Stourbridge loam, 
 and a little water or other liquid to make a thick paste; this is 
 pressed into a metallic mould by means of a screw-press, and, after 
 being thoroughly dried, is baked or burned in a muffle at a tempera- 
 ture above a red, and below a white heat. This forms an artifi- 
 cial emery-stone, which cuts very greedily, with very little wear to 
 itself. Unequalled for grinding and polishing glass, metals, 
 enamels, stoues, &c. 
 
 Refining Gold and Silver. The art of assaying gold and 
 silver is founded upon the feeble affinity which these have for 
 oxygen in comparison with copper, tin, and other cheap metals, 
 anil on the tendency which the latter metals have to oxidize rap- 
 idly in contact with lead at a li'-Ji temperature, and sink with it 
 into any porous, earthy vssel in a thin, glassy, vitrified mass. 
 The precious metal hayjfltf'previously been accurately weighed and 
 prepared, the first process is CUPELLATION. The muffle with 
 cupel properly arranged on the " muffle plate," is placed in the fur- 
 nace, and the charcoal added, and lighted at the top by means of a 
 few ignited pieces thrown on last. After the cupels have been ex- 
 posed to a strong white heat for about half an hour, and have be- 
 come white hot, the lead is put into them by means of tongs. As 
 BOOH as this becomes bright red and "circulating," as it is called, 
 the specimen for assay, wrapped in a small piece of paper or lead- 
 foil, is added; the fire is now kept up strongly until the metal en- 
 ters the lead and " circulate* " well, when the heat, slightly di- 
 minished, is so regulated that the assay appears convex and more 
 glowing than the cupel itself, whilst the "vndulationt" circulate 
 in all directions, and the middle of the metel appears smooth-with 
 a margin of litharge, which is freely absorbed by the cupel. When 
 the metal becomes bright and shining, or, in the technical lan- 
 guage, begins to "lighten," and prismatic hues suddenly flash 
 across the globules, and undulate and cross each other, followed by 
 the metal becoming very brilliant and clear, and at length bright 
 and solid (called the brightening), the separation is ended, and the 
 process complete. The cupels are then drawn to the mouth of the 
 " muffle," and allowed to cool slowly. When quite cold, the re- 
 sulting "button," if of SILVER, is removed by the "pliers" or 
 "tongs " from the cupels, and after being flattened on a small anvil 
 of polished stxel, with a polished steel hammer, to detach adhering 
 oxide of lead, and cleaned with a small, hard brush, is very atcu- 
 ratdy weighsd. The weight is that of pure silver, and the differ- 
 ence between the weight before cupellation and that of the pure 
 r.ietal represents the proportion of alloy in the sample examined. 
 In the case of GOLD, the metal has next to undergo the operations 
 of QDAKTATION. The cupelled sample is fused with three times
 
 194 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL, PURPOSES. 
 
 its weight of pure silver (called the "witness,") and in this sfato 
 may be easily removed by PARTING. The alloy, alter quartation, 
 is hammered or rolled out into a thin strip or leaf, curled into a 
 spiral form, and boiled for a quarter of an hour with about L" : t>:{ 
 ounces of nitric acid (specific gravity, l.:l); and the fluid being 
 poured olr, it is again boiled in a similar manner, with 1^ to 2 
 Ouncefl more nitric arid (sp. gr., l.l.'); nftiT which tbe gold is care- 
 fully collected, washed in pure water, and dried. When the ope- 
 ration of parting is skilfully conducted, the acid not too strong, 
 the metal preserves its spiral form; otherwise it falls into Hakes or 
 powder. The second boiling is termed the " r. ////*'." The loss 
 of \\vightby parting corresponds to the quantity of SILVEU origi- 
 nally iu the specimen. 
 
 For Alloys containing Platinum, which usually consist of 
 copp T, silver, platinum, and gold, the method of assaying is as 
 follows: Tlu^ alloy is cupelled in the usual way. the kfeMOl weight 
 expresses the amount of <v>/w r, and the "button," made into a 
 riband and treated with sulphuric acid, indicates by the portion 
 dissolved that also of the xilotir present. By submitting the resi- 
 duum to quartation, the platinum becomes soluble in nitric acid. 
 The loss after digestion in this menstruum expresses the weight of 
 that metal, and the weight of the portion now remaining is that of 
 pure gold. Gold containing PALLADIUM may be assayed in the 
 same manner. 
 
 Annealing. This consists in putting the pure gold into a small, 
 porous crucible, or cupel, and heating it to redness in the inutile. 
 WEIGHING must be done with the utmost accuracy. The weight in 
 grains troy, doubled or quadrupled as the case may be, give, the 
 number of earattjbu of the alloy examined, without calculation. 
 
 According to the OLD FRENCH METHOD of assaying gold, the fol- 
 lowing quantities were taken: For the assay pouiul, 12 gr. ; fine 
 silver, SOgrs.; lead, 108 grs. These having been cupelled together, 
 the perfect button is rolled into a leaf (1'^ by r> inches), twisted on 
 a quill, and submitted to parting with 2J4 oz. and l]4. oz. of nitric 
 acid, sp. gr., 1.16 (20 Baume). The remainder of the process is 
 similar to that above described. 
 
 The usual weight of silver taken for the assay pound, when the 
 fineness is reckoned in lOOOths, is _'> grs., evry real grain of which 
 represents 50-1000ths of lineuess, and so on of smaller divisions. 
 
 Enamelling on Gold and Copper. The basis of all enamels 
 is a highly transparent and fusible glass, called FRIT, FLUX, or 
 PASTE, which readily receives a color on the addition of the metal- 
 lic oxides. PREPARATION. Red lead, 16 parts ; calcined borax, 3 
 Krts; pounded flint glass, 12 parts; flints, 4 parts. Fuse j n a 
 ssian crucible for 12 hours, then pour it out into water, and 
 reduce it to powder in a biscuit- ware mortar. The following direc- 
 tions will serve to show how the coloring preparations are made: 
 BLACK enamels are made with peroxide of manganese, or prot- 
 oxide of iron, to which more depth of color is given with a little 
 cobalt. VIOLET enamel of a very fine hue is made from peroxyde
 
 RECEIPTS FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 195 
 
 of manganese in small qmntity with saline or alkaline fluxes. RED 
 enamel is made, fru-.ii protoxide of copper. Boil a solution of equal 
 parts of sugar anl a-.vtate of copper in four parts of water. The 
 sugar takes possession of a portion of the cupreous oxide, and re- 
 du-vs it to t'ae protoxide; when it may be precipitated in the 
 form of a granular powder of a brilliant red. Alter about two 
 hours of moderate boiling, the liquid is sot aside to settle, decanted 
 off the precipitate, which is washed and dried. By this pure 
 oxido any tint may be obtained from red to orange "by adding a 
 greater or smaller quantity of peroxide of iron. The oxide and 
 purple of cassius are likewise employed to colored enamel. This 
 composition resists a strong fire very well. GUEEN enamel can be 
 produced by a mixture of yellow and blue, but is generally obtained 
 direct from the oxide of copper, or better still with the oxide of 
 chrome, which last will resist a strong heat YELLOW. Take one 
 part of whiti3 oxide of antimony, with from one to three parts of 
 whitit lead, one of alum, and one of sal ammoniac. Each of these 
 substances is to be pulverized, then all are to be exactly mixed, 
 and exposed to a heat adequate to decompose the sal ammoniac. 
 This operation is judged to be finished when the yellow color is 
 well brought out. BLUE. This color is obtained from the oxide 
 of cobalt, or some of its combinations, and it produces it with such 
 intensity that only a very littlo can be used lest the shade should 
 pass into black. A WHITE enamel may be prepared with a calcine 
 formed of 2 parts of tin and 1 of lead, calcined together: of this 
 combined oxide, 1 part is melted with two parts of fine crystal and a 
 very little manganese, all previously ground together. When the 
 fusion is complete, the vitreous matter is to be poured into clear 
 water, and the frit is then dried and melted anew. Repeat the 
 pouring into water three or four times, to insure a perfect combi- 
 nation. Screen the crucible from smoke and flame. The smallest 
 portions of oxide of iron or copper admitted into this enamel will 
 destroy its value. 
 
 The artist prepares his enamel colors bv pounding them In an 
 agate mortar, with an agate pestle, and grinding them on an agate 
 slab, with oil of lavender rendered viscid by exposure to the sun, in 
 a shallow vessel, loosely covered with gauze or glass. He should 
 have alongside of him a stove, in which a moderate fire is kept up, 
 for drying his work whenever the fignres are finished. It is then 
 passed through the muffle. 
 
 Silver Plating. File the parts which are to receive the plate 
 very smooth; then apply over the surface the muriate of zinc, 
 which is made by dissolving zinc in muriatic acid: now hold this 
 part over a dish containing hot soft solder, and with a swab apply 
 the solder to the part to which it will adhere; brush off all super- 
 fluous solder, so as to leave the surface smooth; you will now take 
 Xo. 2 fair silver plate, of the right size to cover the prepared sur- 
 face, and lay the plate upon it, and rub down smooth with a cloth 
 moistened with oil; then, with a turned soldering iron, pass slowly 
 over all the surface of the plate, which melts the solder underneath 
 it, causing the plate to adhere as firmly as the solder does to the 
 iron; then polish the surface, and finish with buckskin.
 
 196 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Electro Gold Plating. Take a $2.50 piece of gold, and put 
 it into a mixture of 1 oz. nitric, and 4 oz. muriatic acid (trlass ves- 
 sels only are to be used in this work;) when it is all cut, dissohv i.< 
 oz. of sulphate of potasli in 1 pint of pure rain water, and mix 
 with the gold solution, stirring well; then let it stand, and the gold 
 will be thrown down; then pour off the acid fluid, and wash the 
 gold in two or three waters, or until no acid is tasted by touching 
 the 
 
 tongue to the gold. Now dissolve 1 oz. of cyanuret of 
 siuiu iu 1 pint of pure rain water, to which add the gold, and it is 
 ready for use. Clean the article to be plated fiom all grease and 
 dirt, with whiting and a good brush; if there are cracks, it may bo 
 necessary to put the article in a solution of caustic potash; at all 
 events clean it perfectly; then suspend it in the cyanuret of gold 
 solution with a small strip of zinc, cut about the width of a com- 
 mon knitting needle, hooking the top over a stick which will reach 
 across the top of the vessel holding the solution. If the zinc is too 
 large, the deposit will be made so fast it will scale off. The slower 
 the plating goes on the better, and this is arranged by the size of 
 the zinc used. When not in use keep it well corked and out of the 
 way of children, for it is very poisonous. 
 
 Electro Silver Plating is done every way the same as gold 
 (using coin,) except that rock-salt is used instead of the cyanuret 
 of potassium, to hold the silver in solution for use, and wlien it is 
 of the proper strength of salt, it has a thick curdy appearance, or 
 you can add salt until the silver will deposit on the article to bo 
 plated, which is all that is required. This method entails no 
 trouble with using a battery, and is the successful result of a long 
 series of experiments in electro-plating. 
 
 Elklngton'a Patent Gilding. Fine gold, 5 07. (troy.) nirro- 
 muriatic acid, 52 oz. (avoirdupois;) dissolve by heat, and'continue 
 the heat until red or yellow vapors cease to be evolved; decant the 
 clear liquor into a suitable vessel; add distilled water, 4 gallons; 
 pure bi-carbonate of potassa, 20 Ibs.; and boil for 2 hours. N. B. 
 The nitro-muriatic acid is made with purt nitric acid (sp. gr. 1.4.">.) 
 21 oz.; pure muriatic acid (sp. gr. 1.15,) 17 oz.; and distilled water, 
 14 oz. 
 
 The articles, after being perfectly cleaned from scale or grease, 
 and receiving a proper face, are to be suspended on wires, dipped 
 into the liquid boiliny hot, and moved about therein, when, in from 
 a few seconds to a minute, depending on the newness and strength 
 of the liquid, the requisite coating of gold will be deposited on 
 them. By a little practice the time to withdraw the articles is 
 readily known; the. duration of the immersion required to produce 
 any given effect gradually increases as the liquid weakens by use. 
 When properly gilded, the articles are withdrawn from the solution 
 of gold, washed in clean water and dried; after which they un- 
 dergo the usual operation of coloring, &c. 
 
 A "dead gold" appfnnm^\ is produced by the application to the 
 articles of a weak solution of nitrttt:', of mermtrjf previously to the 
 immersion in the gilding liquor, or the deadening may be given by 
 applying a solution of the nitrate to the newly gilded surface, and 
 then expelling the mercury by heat.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 197 
 
 Gold Silvering on Metals.-Mix 1 part of chloride of silver 
 witli :> parts of pearlsish, l]4 parts common salt, and 1 part whiting; 
 and well nil) tin- mixture on the surface of brass or copper, (pre- 
 viously well eleuiii'd,) liy mean-, of ;i pieee of soft leather, or a 
 cork noMened with water, and dipped in the powder. When 
 pn>)x'rly silvered, the metal should be well washed in hot water, 
 slightly alkalized, then wiped dry. 
 
 To Heighten the Color of Yellow Gold. Saltpetre, 6 oz.: 
 green copperas, 2 oz.: white vitriol and alnin, of each, 1 oz. If 
 wanted redder, a small quantity of blue vitriol must be added. 
 
 For Green Gold. Saltpetre, 1 oz. 10 dwts.; sal ammoniac, 
 1 oz. 4 d\vts. ; Roman vitriol, 1 oz. 4 dwts.; verdigris, 18 dwts. 
 
 For Red Gold. To 4 oz. melted yellow wax, add, In fine pow- 
 der, 1J^ oz. of red ochre; 1!^ oz. verdigris, calcined till it yields no 
 fumes; and % oz. of calcined borax. Mix them well together. 
 Dissolve either of above mixtures in water, as the color is wanted, 
 and use as required. 
 
 Coloring of Gliding. Defective colored gilding mny also be 
 Improved by the help of the following mixture: Nitrate of potash, 
 3oz.; alum, \\$ oz.; sulphate of zinc, 1M oz.; common salt, 1U oz. 
 These ingredients are to l>e put into a small quantity of water to 
 form a sort of paste, which is put upon the articles to be colored; 
 they are then placed upon an iron plate over a clear fire, so that 
 they will attain nearly to a black heat, when they are suddenly 
 plunged into cold water; this gives them a beautiful high color. 
 Different hues may be had by a variation in the mixture. 
 
 Gold is taken from the surface of silver bv spreading over It 
 a paste made of powdered sal-ammoniac, with aqua fort is, and 
 heating it till the matter smokes, and it is nearly dry; when the 
 gold may be separated by rubbing it with a scratch brush. 
 
 Moulds and Dies. Copper, zinc, and silver in equal propor- 
 tions, melt together under a coat of powdered charcoal, and mould 
 Into the form you desire. Bring them to nearly a white heat, and 
 lay on the thine; you would take the impression of, press with suffi- 
 cient force, and you will get a perfect and beautiful impression. 
 
 Polishing Powder for Gold and Silver. Rock alum (burnt 
 and finely po \vderetl,) 5 parts; levigated chalk, Ipart Mix; apply 
 with a dry brush. 
 
 Silver Plating Fluid. Dissolve 1 ounce of nitrate of silver In 
 crystal, in 12 ounces of soft water; then dissolve in the water 2 oz. 
 cyanuret of potash; shake the whole together, and let it stand till
 
 198 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 it becomes cl-ar. Have ready some half-ounce vi;iK and fill half 
 full of i'aris white, or fin.' whiting; and then fill up the bottles 
 with the liquor, and it is ready for use. The whiting does not in- 
 crease the coating power; it only helps to clean the articles, and 
 save the silver fluid, by half filling the bottles. 
 
 To Temper Gravers and Drills. TVhen the graver or drill is 
 too hard, which may be known by tin- frequent breaking of the 
 point, temper a-; follows: Heat a poker red hot, and hold the 
 graver to it within an inch of the point, waving it to and fro till 
 the steel changes to a light straw color; then put the point into oil 
 to cool, or hold the graver close to the llame of a candle till it be of the 
 same color, and cool in tallow; but be careful either way not to hold 
 it too long, for then it will be too soft, in which case the point will 
 be blue, and nin^t. be broken off. and whetted and tempered anew. 
 For jewellers' drills, no better tempering liquid can be got than the 
 first-named liquid under the blacksmiths' department, which see. 
 
 Jeweler's Armenian Cement. Isinglass soaked in water and 
 dissolved in spirit, L' ox. (thick); dissolve in this 10 grains of very 
 pale gum ammonia (in tears) by rubbing them together: then add 
 t> large tears of gum mastic, di^-olved in the l--a-t possible quantity 
 of rectified spirit. When carefully made, this cement resists mois- 
 ture and dries colorless. Keep in a closely stopped vial. 
 
 Jeweler's Turkish Cement. Put Into a bottle 2 oz. of isinglass 
 
 d 1 i/.. of the best gum arable; cover them with proof spirits, 
 rk loosely, and place the bottle in a vessel of water, and hoil it 
 
 and 
 cor 
 till 
 known. 
 
 .. , 
 
 cork loosely, and place the bottle in a vessel of water, and hoil it 
 till a thorough solution is effected; then strain for use; host cement 
 known. 
 
 Reviver of Old Jewelry. Dissolve sal-ammoniac in urine, 
 and put the jewelry in it. for a short, time; tin n take it out, and rub 
 with chamois leather, and it will appear equal to new. 
 
 To Recover Gold From Gilt Metal. Take a solution of 
 
 borax water, apply to the pit surface, and sprinkle over it some, 
 finely powdered sulphur; make the article red hot, and quench it 
 in water; then scrape off the gold, and recover it by means of lead. 
 
 To Separate Gold and Silver from Lace, &c. Cut in 
 
 pieces the gold or silver lace, tie it tightly, and boil it in soap lye, 
 till the size appears diminished; take the cloth out of the liquid, 
 and, after repeated rinsings in cold water, beat it with a mallet to 
 draw out all the alkali. Open the linen, and the pure metal will be 
 found in ah 1 its beauty. 
 
 Door Plates TO MAKF.--('ut your glass the right size, and 
 make it perfectly clean with alcohol or soap; then cut 'a strip of tin- 
 foil sufficiently long and wide for the name, and with a piece of
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 199 
 
 Ivory or other burnisher rub it length-wise to innko it smooth ; now 
 Wat the glass with tin- tongue (as saliva is the best sticking sub 
 staive,) or if th- glass is very large, use a weak solution of gum 
 arable, or the white of an egg in half a pint of water, and lay on 
 the foil, rubbing it down to Hie glass with a bit of cloth, then also 
 with the burnisher; the more it is burnished the better will it look; 
 now mark the width on the foil which is to be the height of the 
 letter, and put on a straight edge, and hold it firmly to the foil, and 
 with a sharp knife out the foil, and take off the superfluous edges: 
 then cither lay out the, letters on the back of the foil (so they shall 
 read correctly on the front') by your own judgment or by moans of 
 pattern letters, which can be purchased for that purpose; cut with 
 the knife, carefully holding down the pattern or straight edge, 
 whichever you use; then rub down the edge of all the letters with 
 the back of'the knife, or edge of the burnisher, which prevents the 
 black paint or japan which you next put over the bark of the plate 
 fro:u getting under the foil; having put a line above and one below 
 the name, or a border around the whole plate, or not as you bar- 
 gain for the job. The Japan is made by dissolving asnhaltum in 
 just enough turpentine to cut it (see "Asphaltum Vamisn;") apply 
 with a brush, as other paint, over the back of the letters, and over 
 the glass forming a back ground. This is used on the iron plate of the 
 frame, also putting it on when the plate is a little hot; and, as soon 
 as it cools, it is dry. A little lamp-black may be rubbed into it If 
 you desire it any blacker than it is without it. 
 
 Etching on Glass. Druggist bottles, bar-tumblers, signs, 
 and glassware of every description, can be lettered in a beautiful 
 style of art, by simply giving the article to be engraved, or etched, 
 a thin coat of the engraver's varnish (see next receipt), and the 
 application of fluoric acid. Before doing so, the glass must be 
 thoroughly cleaned and heated, so that it can hardly be held. The 
 varnish is th'-n to he applied lightlv over, and made smooth by 
 dabbing it with a small ball of silk, filled with cotton. When dry 
 and even, the lines may be traced on it bv a sharp steel, cutting 
 clear through the varnish to the glass The varnish must be re- 
 moved clean from each letter, otherwise it will be an imperfect job. 
 When all is ready, pour on or apply the fluoric acid with a feather, 
 filling each letter. Let it remain until it etches to the required 
 depth, tlien wash off with water, and remove the varnish. 
 
 Etching Varnish. Take of virgin wax and asphalhim each 
 2 oz.; of black pitch and Burgundy pitch, each % oz.; melt the 
 
 wax and pitch in a new earthenware glazed pot, and add to them, 
 bv degrees, the asnhaltum, finely ]x>wdered. Let the whole boil, 
 Simmering; gradually, till such time as that, taking a drop upon a 
 
 Elate, it will break when it is cold, on landing it double two or three 
 mes betwixt the fingers. The varnish, being then boiled enough, 
 must be tak'Mioff th" fire, and, after it eools a little, must be poured 
 into warm water that it may work the more easily with the hands, 
 so as to be formed into balls, which must be kneaded, and put into 
 a piece of taffety for use.
 
 200 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Fluoric Acid, to Make for Etching Purposes. You 
 can make your own fluoric (sometimes called hydro-fluoric) arid, 
 by getting tin' ihior or Derbyshire spar, pulverizing it, ami putting 
 all of it into sulphuric acid which ihe acid will cut or di-solve. 
 Inasmuch as lluoric acid is destructive to glass, it cannot he k--pt 
 iu comiiiou bottles, but must be kept iu lead or gutta percha bottles. 
 
 Glass-Grinding for Signs, Shades, Etc. Aftrr you have 
 
 etched a name or other design upon uncoloivd ulass, and wish to 
 liave it show off to a better advantage by permitting the light to 
 pass only through the letters, you can do so by taking a piece 
 of Hat brass sufficiently large not to dip into the letters, but pass 
 over th-.'in when gliding upon the surface of the glass ; then, with 
 Hour of emery, and keeping it wet, you can grind the whole surface, 
 very quickly, to look like the ground glass globes often seen upon 
 lamps, except the letter, which is eaten below the general surface. 
 
 Gold and Silver Ink. The metal leaf is ground with honey 
 until of a tine powder: it is then washed to remove the honey, and 
 the powder is mixed with gum water lor use. 
 
 Gold Lustre for Stoneware, China, Etc. Gold, (5 parts; 
 aquaregia. '*> parts. Dissolve, then add tin, 1 part; next add bal- 
 sam of sulphur, .'{ parts; oil of turpentine, 1 part. Mix gradually 
 into a mortar, and rub it until the mixture becomes hard ; then adii 
 oil of turp Mitine, 4 parts. It is then to be applied to a ground pre- 
 pared lor the purpose. 
 
 Gilding China and Glass. Powdered pold is mixed with 
 
 borax and gum water, and the solution applied with a camel-hair 
 pencil. Heat is then applied by a stove until the borax fuses, when 
 the gold is fixed and afterwards burnished. 
 
 Glass Staining. The following colors, after having been pre- 
 pared, and rubbed upon a plate of ground-glass, with the spirit of 
 turpentine or lavender, thickened in the air, are applied with a hair- 
 pencil. IJefore using them, however, it is necessary to try them on 
 small pieces of glas>, and expose them to the fire, to ascertain if the 
 desired tone of color is produced. The artist must be guided by 
 these proof-pieces in using his colors. The glass proper for receiv- 
 tng these pigments should be colorless, uniform and difficult effu- 
 sion. A design must be drawn on paper, and placed beneath the 
 plate of glass. The upper side of the glass, being sponged over 
 with gum-water, affords, when dry, a surface proper for receiving 
 the colors without the risk of their running irregularly, a ; they 
 would otherwise do on the slippery glass. The artist draws on the 
 plate (usually in black), with a fine pencil, all the traces which 
 mark the great outlines or shades of the figures. Afterwards, when 
 it is dry, the vitrifying colors are laid on by means of larger hair- 
 pencils; their selection being regulated by the burnt specimen-tints 
 above mentioned. The following areQ fast colors, which do not 
 run, except the yellow, which must, therefore , be laid on the oppo- 
 site side of the glass. The preparations being all laid on, the glass 
 is ready for being tired in a muffle, in order to fix and bring out the 
 proper colors. The muffle must be made of very refractory fire-
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 201 
 
 clay, flat at Its bottom, and only five or six Inches high, with a 
 strong, arched roof, and close on all sides, to exclude smoke and 
 flame. On the bottom, a smooth bed of sifted lime, freed from 
 water, about half an inch thick, must be prepared for receiving the 
 glass. Sometimes, several plates of glass are laid over each other, 
 with a layer of lime-powder between each. The firo is now lighted, 
 and very' gradually raised, lest the glass should be broken; then 
 keep it at a full heat for three or four hours, more or less, according 
 to the indications of the trial slips; the yellow coloring being princi- 
 pally watched, it furnishing the best criterion of the state of the 
 others. When all is right, let the fire die out, so as to anneal the 
 glass. 
 
 Stained-Glass Pigments. No. 1. Flesh color. Red lead, 1 oz.; 
 red enamel (Venetian glass enamel, from alum and copperas cal- 
 cined together): grind them to a fine powder, and work this up 
 with alcohol upon a hard stone. When slightly baked, this pro- 
 duces a fine flesh color. 
 
 No. 2. BLACK COLOR. Take 14^ 07. of smithy scales of Iron; mix 
 them with -' or. of white glass; antimony 1 oz.; manganese, ^ oz.: 
 pound and grind these ingredients together, with strong vinegar. 
 
 No. 3. BROWN COLOR. White glass or enamel, 1 oz.; good man- 
 ganese, % oz. : grind together. 
 
 No. 4. RED, ROSE AND BROWN COLORS are made from peroxide 
 of iron, prepared by nitric acid. The flux consists of borax, sand 
 and minium, in small quantities. 
 
 RED COLOR may likewise be obtained from 1 oz. of red chalk, 
 pounded, mixed with 2 oz. of white, hard enamel, and a little per- 
 oxide of copper. 
 
 A RED may also be composed of rust of iron, glass of antimony, 
 yellow glass of lead, surh as is used by potters (or litharge,) each 
 in equal quantities; to wh'n-h a little s'ulphuret of silver is added. 
 This composition, well ground, produces a very fine red color on 
 glass. 
 
 No. 5. GREEN. 2 oz. of brass, calcined into an oxide; 2oz.; of 
 minium, and 8 oz. of white sand: reduce them to a fine powder, 
 which is to be enclosed in a well-luted crucible, and heated strongly 
 in an air-furnace for an hour. When the mixture is cold, grind it 
 in a brass mortar. Green may, however, be advantageously pro- 
 duced, by a yellow on one side, and a blue on the other. Oxide of 
 chrome has been also employed to stain glass green. 
 
 No. 6. A FINE YELLOW STATN. Take fine silver, laminated thin, 
 dissolve in nitric acid, dilute with abundance of water, ami precipi- 
 tate with solution of sea-salt; mix this chloride of silver in a dry 
 powder, with three times its weight of pipe-clay, well burnt and 
 pounded. The back of the glass pane is to be "painted with this 
 powder; for; when painted on the face, it is apt to run into the other 
 colors.
 
 202 KECETPTS FOTC MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 A PALE YELLOW can be made by mixing sulphurot of silver with 
 glass of antimony and yellow ochre, previously calcined t> ;: ivd- 
 brown tint, Work all these powders together, and paint (in the 
 back of the glass. Or silver / ';////", melt 'd with sulphur, and ula ;s 
 of antimony, thrown into cold water, and afterwards ground to 
 powder, afford a yellow. 
 
 A PALE YELLOW may be made with the powder resulting from 
 brass, sulphur and glass <>f antimony, calcin* d together in a cruci- 
 ble till they cease to siuoke, aiid then mixed with a little burnt ochre. 
 
 THE FrNE YELLOW of M". Meraud is prepared from chloride of 
 silver, (ixide of /inc, and rust of iron. This mixture, simply 
 ground, is applied on the glass. 
 
 ORANGE COLOR. Take 1 part of silver-powder, as precipitated 
 from the nitrate of that metal, by plates of cupper, and washed; 
 mix with 1 part of red ochre, and 1 of yellow, liy caivful tritura- 
 tion; grind into a thin pap, with oil of turpentine or lavender; apply 
 this with a brush, and burn In. 
 
 Silvering Locking-Glasses with Pure Silver. Prepare a 
 mixture of :5 grs. > ammonia, (> > grs. nitrate of silver, 90 minims of 
 spirits of wine, 90 minims of water; when the nitrate of silver is 
 dissolved, filter the liquid, and add a small 
 (15 grs.,) dissolved in \y* oz. 
 Put the glass into this mixture, having 
 
 nlsh, gum, or some substance to prevent the silver being attached 
 to it. Let It remain for a few days, and yon have a most elegant 
 looking-glass; yet it is far more costly than the quicksilver. 
 
 and add a small quantity of sugar 
 of water and \% oz. spirits of wine, 
 re, having one side covered with var- 
 
 Another Method. A sheet, of tin-foil corresponding to the size 
 of the plate of glass is evenly spread on a perfectly smooth and 
 solid marble table, and every wrinkle on its surface is carefully 
 rubbed down with a brush; a portion of mercury is then poured 
 on, and rubbed over the foil with a clean piece of soft woolen stuff, 
 after which, two rules are applied to the edges and mercury poured 
 on to the depth Of a crown piece; when any oxide on the surface- 
 is carefully removed, and the sheet of glMB, perfectly clean and 
 dry, is slid along over the surface of the liquid metal, so that no 
 air, dirt, or oxide can possibly either remain or get between them. 
 When the glass has arrived at its proper position, gentle pressure 
 is applied, and the table sloped a little to carry off the waste mer- 
 cury; after which it is covered with flannel, and loaded with heavy 
 weights; in twenty-four hours, it is removed to another table, and 
 further slanted, and this position is progressively increased during 
 a month till it becomes perpendicular. 
 
 Porcelain Colors. The following are some of the colors used 
 
 in the celebrat'd poivehrn manufactory of S -vres. and the pro- 
 portions in which they are compounded. Thouch intended for 
 porcelain painting, nearly all are applicable to painting on class. 
 Flux No. 1 minium or red lead, :$ parts; white sand, washed, 1 
 part. This mixture is melted, by which it is converted into a
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 203 
 
 greenish-colored glass. Flux No. 2. GRAY FLUX. Of No. 1, 8 parts; 
 In ! !>'>r:ix in powder, 1 ])art; this mixture, is melted. Flux No. 3. 
 Fou (\\UMINKS AND OREKXS. Melt together fused borax, 5 parts; 
 calcined Hint, 3 parts; pure minium, 1 part. No. 1. INDIGO BUTE. 
 Oxide of cobalt, 1 part; flux No. 3, 2 parts. DEEP AZURE BLUE. 
 Oxide of cobalt, 1 part; oxide of zinc, 2 parts; flux No. 3, 5 parts; 
 No. 2. EMERALD GREEN. Oxide of copper, 1 part; nntimonic acid, 
 10 parts; flux No. 1, 30 parts; pulverize together, and melt. No. 3. 
 GRASS GUI: i :x. (liven oxide of chromium, 1 part; flux No. 3, 3 
 parts; triturate and melt No. 4. YELLOW. Antimonic acid, 1 
 part; subsulphate of the peroxyde of iron, 8 parts; oxide of zinc, 4 
 parts; flux No. 1,36 parts; rub'together, and melt; if this color is 
 too deep, the salt of iron is diminished. No. 5. FIXED YELLOW 
 FOR TOUCHES. No. 4, 1 part; white, enamel of commerce, 2 parts; 
 HP It and pour out; if not sufficiently fixed, a little sand may be 
 added. No. 6. DEEP NANKIN YELIX>W. Subsulphate of iron, 1 
 part; oxide of zinc. 2 parts; flux No. 2. 8 parts: triturate without 
 melting. No. 7. DEEP RED. Subsulphate of iron, calcined in a 
 muffle until it becomes of a beautiful capucine red, 1 part; flux No. 
 2, 3 parts; mix without melting. No. 8. LIVER BROWN. Oxide of 
 Iron made of red brown, and mixed with 3 times its weight of flux. 
 No. 2; a tenth of sienna earth is added to it, if it is not deep enough. 
 No. 9. WHITE. The white enamel of commerce, in cakes. No. 10. 
 DEEP BLACK. Oxide of cobalt, 2 parts; copper, 2 parts; oxide of 
 manganese, 1 part; flux No. 1, 6 parts; fused borax, % part; melt, 
 and add oxide of manganese, 1 part; oxide of copper, 2 parts; 
 triturate without melting. 
 
 THE APPLICATION Follow the general directions given in 
 another part of this work, in relation to staining glass. 
 
 Glass and Porcelain Gliding. Dissolve in boiled linseed oil an 
 equal weight either of copal or amber; add as much oil of turpen- 
 tine as will enable you to apply the compound or size thus formed, 
 as thin as possible, to the parts of the glass intended to be gilt. 
 The glass is to be placed in a stove till it will almost burn the fingers 
 when handled; at this temperature the size becomes adhesive, and 
 a piece of gold-leaf, applied in the usual way, will immediately 
 stick. Sweep off the superfluous portions of the leaf, and when 
 
 ?uite cold it may be burnished; taking care to interpose a piece of 
 ndia paper between the gold and the burnisher. See another pro- 
 cess in a previous part of this work. 
 
 Soluble Glass. 1 . Silica, 1 part; carbonate of soda, 2 parts; fuse 
 together. 2. Carbonate of soda, (dry.) r.l parts; dry carbonate of 
 potassa, 70 parts; silica, l!>2 parts; soluble in boiling water, yielding 
 a fine transparent, semi-elastic varnish. 3. Carbonate of potassa, 
 (dry,) 10 parts; powdered quartz for sand, free from iron or 
 alumina,) 15 parts; charcoal, 1 part; all fused together. Soluble in 
 5 or 6 times its weight of oottiiig water. The filtered solution 
 evaportaed to dry ness' yields a transparent glass, permanent in the 
 air.
 
 204 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 To Drill and Ornament Glass. Glass can ho easily drilled 
 by a steel drill, baldened but not drawn, and driven at a high 
 velocity. Ihilis of any size, from the l<3th of an inch upwards, can 
 be drilled, by using spirits of turpentine as a dip; and, easier still, 
 by using camphor with the turpentine. Do not press the glass 
 very hard against the drill. If you require to ornament glass by 
 turning in a lathe, use a good mill file and the turpentine and cam- 
 phor drip, and you will find it an easy matter to produce any shape 
 you choose. 
 
 Gilding Glass Signs, &c. Cut a piece of thin paper to the size 
 of yourgIMB, draw out your design correctly in black lead-pencil 
 on the paper, then prick through the outline of the letters with a 
 fine needle, tie up a little dry white lead in a piece of ra<_r; this is a 
 
 n nee-bag. 1'l.uv your de.->iu r n upon the glass, right side up, dust 
 r ith the pounce-bag; and, after taking the paper off, the de>ign 
 will appear in white dots upon the glass; these will guide you in 
 laying on the gold on the opposite side, which must \w icM cleaned, 
 preparatory to laying on the gold. PREPARING THE SIZE. Boil 
 perfectly clean water in an enamelled saucepan, and while boiling, 
 add 2 or 3 shreds of best selected isinglass, after a few minutes 
 strain it through a clean linen rag; when cool it is ready for use. 
 CLEAN THE GLASS PERFECTLY. When this is done, use a flat 
 cauiel's-hair brush for lay ing on the size; and let it drain off when 
 
 Siu put the gold on. When the gold is laid on and perfectly dry, 
 keaball of the finest cotton wool and gently rub or polish the 
 gold; you can then lay on another coat of gold if desirable; it is now 
 ready for writing. In doing this, mix a little of the best vegetable 
 black japan; thin with turpentine to a proper working consistency: 
 apply this when thoroughly dry; wash off the superfluous gold, and 
 shade as in sign-writing. 
 
 Gilder's Gold Size. Drying or boiled linseed oil, thickened 
 witli yellow ochre, or calcined red ochre, and carefully reduced to 
 the utmost smoothness by grinding. It is thinned with oil of tur- 
 pentine. 
 
 To Gild Letters on Wood, &c. When your sign is prepared 
 as smooth as possible, go over it with a sizing made by the white of 
 an egg dissolved in about four times its weight of cold wafer; add- 
 ing a small quantity of fuller's earth; this is to prevent the gold 
 sticking to any part but the letters. When dry, set out the letters 
 and commence writing, laying on the size as thinly as possible, 
 with a sable pencil. Let it stand until you can barely feel a slight 
 stickiness, then go to work with your cold leaf knife and cushion, 
 and gild the letters. Take a leaf up on the point of your knife, 
 after iriving it a slight puff into the back part of your cushion, and 
 spread it on the front part of the cushion as straight as possible, 
 giving it another slight puff with your mouth to flatten it out. 
 Now cut it into the proper size, cutting with the heel of your knife 
 forwards. Now rub the tip lightly on your hair; take up the gold
 
 RECEIPTS FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 205 
 
 on the point, and place it neatly on the letters; when they are all 
 ctivi-ivil .n-'t some very fine cotton wool, and gently rub the gold 
 until it is smooth and bright. Then wash the sign with clean water 
 to take off the egg size. 
 
 Compound Colors. LIGHT GRAY is made by mixing white 
 lead with 1 ;i: u i>- black, using more or less of each material, as you 
 wish to obtain a lighter or darker shade. BUFF is made from yel- 
 low ochre and white lead. SILVER OR PEARL GRAY. Mix white 
 lead, indigq. and a very slight portion of black, regulating the 
 quantities you wish to obtain. FLAXEN GRAY is obtained by a mix- 
 ture of white lead and Prussian blue, with a small quantity of lake. 
 BRICK COLOR. Yellow ochre and red lead, with a little white. 
 OAK WOOD COLOR. Three-fourths white lead and one-fourth part 
 umber and yellow ochre, proportions of the last two ingredients 
 being determined by the desired tints. WALNUT-TREE COLOR. 
 Two-thirds white lead, and one-third red ochre, yellow ochre, and 
 umber mixed according to the shade sought. If veining is rrquiivd, 
 use different shades of the same mixture, and for the deepest 
 places, black. JONQUIL. Yellow, pink and white lead. This 
 color is only j>roper for distemper. LKMON YELLOW. Realgar and 
 orpiment. The same color can be obtained by mixing yellow -pink 
 with Naples yellow; but it is then only fit for distemper. ORANGE 
 COLOR. Red lead and yellow ochre. VIOLET COLOR. Vermilion, 
 or red lead, mixed with black or blue, and a small portion of white. 
 Vermilion is far preferable to red lead in mixing this color. PUR- 
 PLE. Dark-red mixed with violet color. CARNATION. Lake and 
 white. GOLD COLOR. Massicot, or Naples yellow, with a small 
 quantity of realgar, and a very little Spanish white. OLIVE COLOR 
 
 may be obtained by black and a little blue, mixed with yellow. 
 
 Yellow-pink, with a little verdigris and lamp- 
 
 a small quantity of white will produce an olive color. For distem- 
 
 per, indigo and yellow-pink mixed with white lead or Spanish white 
 must be used. " If veined it must be done with umber. LEAD 
 COLOR. Indigo and white. CHfc:sTNur COLOR. Red ochre and 
 black, for a dark chestnut. To make it lighter, employ a mixture 
 of yellow ochre. LIGHT TIMBER COLOR. Spruce ochre, white, and 
 a little umber. FLESH COLOR. Lake, white lead, and a little ver- 
 milion. LIGHT WILLOW GREEN. White mixed with verdigris. 
 GRASS GREEN. Yellow-pink mixed with verdigris. STONE COLOR. 
 White, with a little spruce ochre. DARK LEAD COLOR. Black 
 and white, with a little indigo. FAWN COLOR. White lead, stone 
 ochre, with a little vermilion. CHOCOLATE COLOR. Lamp-black 
 and Spanish brown. On account of the fatness of lamp-black, mix 
 some litharge and red lead. PORTLAND STONE COLOR. Umber, 
 yellow ochre, and white lead. 
 
 Dyes for Veneers. A FINE BLACK. Put 6 Ibs. of logwood chips 
 into your copper, with as many veneers as it will hold without 
 pressing too tight;- fill it with water, let it boil slowly for about 
 ;> hours, then add H ID. of powdered verdiyri*, % Ib. copperas, 
 bruised mill-nuts, 4o/..; fill the copper up with vinegar, as the water 
 evaporates; let it boil gently two hours each day till the wood is 
 dyed through. A FLNE BLUE. Put oil of vitrol, 1 Ib., and 4 oz. of
 
 206 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 the best powdered indigo, in a glass bottle. Set it in a glazed 
 earthen pan. as it will term 'lit. Now put your veneers into a cop- 
 per or stone trough; fill it rather more than one-third with wat'-r, 
 and add as much of the vitriol ami indigo (stirring it about) as will 
 make line blue, testing it with a piece of whit.- paper or wood. Let 
 the veneers remain till the dye has struck through. Keep the solu- 
 tion of indigo a few weeks before using it; this improves the color. 
 FINK YKLI.OW. Reduce 4 Ibs. of the root of barberry to dust by 
 sawing, which put in a copper or brass trough; add turmeric, 4 oz.; 
 wat-r', 4 gals.; then put in as many white holly veneers as the 
 liquor will cover. Boil them together for three hours, often turn- 
 ing them. When cool, add aquafortis, 2 {>/.., and the dye will strike 
 through much sooner. BRIGHT CJKKKN. 1'roceed as in the pre- 
 vious receipt to produce a yellow; but, instead of aquafortis, add as 
 much of the vitriolated indigo O/e above, under blue dye) as will 
 produce the desired color. BRIGHT RED. Brazil dust, 2 Ibs.; add 
 water, 4 gal.s. Put in as many veneers as the liquid will cover: 
 boil them for 3 hours, then add alum, 2 ox..; aquafortis, 2 oz.; and 
 ket-p it hike-warm until it has struck through. PURPLE. To 2 Ibs. 
 of chip logwood and % Ib. Brazil dust, add 4 gals, of water; and 
 after putting in your veneers, boil for :5 hours; then add pearlash, 
 <5 oz., and alum, 2 oz.; let them boil for 2 or 3 hours every day till 
 the color has struck through. ORANGE. Take the veneers out of 
 the above yellow dye, and while still wet and saturated, transfer 
 them to the bright red dye till the color penetrates throughout. 
 
 Gilders' Pickle. Alum and common salt, each 1 oz.; nitre, 2 
 oz.; dissolved in water, % pt. Used to impart a rich yellow color 
 to gold surfaces. It is best used largely diluted with water. 
 
 To Silver Ivory. Pound a small piece of nitrate of silver in a 
 mortar, add soft water to it, mix them well together, and keep in a 
 phial for use. When you wish to silver any article, immerse it in 
 this solution, let it remain till it turns of a deep yellow; then place 
 it in clear water, and expose it to the rays of the sun. If you wish 
 to depicture a figure, name, or cipher, on your ivory, dip a camel's 
 hair pencil in the solution, and draw the subject on the ivory. 
 After it has turned a deep yellow, wash it welLwith water, and 
 place it in the sunshine, occasionally wetting it with pure water. 
 In a short time it will turn of a deep black color, which, if well 
 rubbed, will change to a brilliant silver. 
 
 To Improve the Color of Stains.. Xitric acid, 1 oz.; muriatic, 
 ]4 teaspoouful; grain tin, } oz.; rain water, '2 ox.. Mix it at least 2 
 days before using, and keep your bottle well corked. 
 
 Strong Glue for Inlaying or Veneering. Select the best light 
 brown glue, tree from clouds and streaks. Dissolve this in water, 
 and to every pint add % a gill of the best vinegar and % oz. of 
 
 isiuglass.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 207 
 
 Compound Iron Paint. Finely pulverized iron filings, 1 part; 
 brick dust, 1 part; and allies, l part. Pour over them glue- water or 
 tin- whole, near the lire, and, when warm, stir them well 
 to^etli.T. With this paint cover all the wood-work which may he 
 in danger; \vhn dry, give a second coat, and the wood will be ren- 
 dered incombustible. 
 
 Beat "Wash for Barns and Houses. "Water lime, 1 peck; 
 freshly slacked lime, 1 peck; yellow ochre in powder, 4 Ibs. ; burnt 
 umiMT, 4, Ibs. To be dissolved in hot water, and applied with a 
 brush. 
 
 Durable Outside Paint. Take 2 parts (In bulk) of water 
 lime, ground tine: 1 part (in bulk) of white lead, in oil. Mix 
 them thoroughly, by adding /<>! boiled linseed oil, enough to pre- 
 pare it to pass through a paint mill; alter which, temper with oil 
 till it can be applied with a common paint brush. Make any 
 color to suit It will last 3 times as long as lead paint IT is so* 
 rtauoK. 
 
 Farmers' Paint. Farmers will find the following profitable for 
 house or fence paint: skim milk, 2 quarts; fresh slacked lime, 8 
 oz.; linseed oil, 6 oz., white Burgundy pitch, 2 oz.; Spanish white, 
 three pounds. The lime is to be slacked in water, exposed to the 
 air, and then mixed with about one-fourth of the milk; the oil in 
 which (lie pitch is dissolved to be added, a little at a time; then the 
 rest of the milk, and afterwards the Spanish white. Thi is suffi- 
 cient for 27 yards, 2 coats. This is for white paint If desirable, 
 any other color may be produced; thus, if a cream color is desired, 
 in place of part of the Spanish white, use the ochre alone. 
 
 Painting in Milk. Skimmed milk, \$ gallon; newly slacked 
 lime, 6 oz.; and 4 oz. of poppy, linseed, or nut oil; and 5 Ibs. 
 Spanish white. Put the lime into an earthen vessel or clean bucket: 
 and, having poured on it a sufficient quantity of milk to make it 
 about the thickness of cream, add the oil in small quantities, a 
 little at a time, stirring the mixture well. Then put in the rest of 
 the milk, afterward the Spanish white finely powdered, or any 
 other desired color. For out-door work add 2 oz. each more of od 
 and slacked lime, and 2 oz. of Burgundy pitch dissolved in the oil 
 by a gentle heat 
 
 Premium Paint, Without Oil or Lead. ;Slack stone lime 
 with boiling water in a tub or barrel to keep in the steam; then 
 pass G quarts through a fine sieve. Now to this quantity add 1 
 quart of coarse salt, and 1 gallon of water; boil the mixture, and 
 skim it clear. To every 5 gallons of tMs skimmed mixture, add 1 
 Ib. alum; ^ Ib. copperas; and by slow decrees % Ib. potash, and 4 
 quarts sifted ashes or line sand; add any coloring desired. A more 
 durable paint was never made. 
 
 Green Paint for Garden Stands, Blinds, Etc. Take mineral 
 14
 
 208 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 green, and whit*- lead ground in turpentine; mix up the quantity 
 you wish \vitli a small quantity of turpentine varnish. This serves 
 lor tin' liist coat. For the second, put as much varnish in your 
 mixture as will produce a good gloss. If you desire a brighter 
 given, add a little Prussian blue, which will improve the color. 
 
 Milk Paint for Barns. ANY COLOR. Mix water lime with 
 
 skim-milk, to a proper consistence to apply with a brush, and 
 it is ready to use. It will adhere, well to wood, whether smooth or 
 rough, to brick, mortar, or stone, where oil has not been n-ed (in 
 which ca^e it cleaves to some extent,) and forms a very hard sub- 
 stance, as durable as the best oil paint. It is too cheap to estimate, 
 and any one can put it on who can use a brush. Any color may l>e 
 given to it, by using colors of the tinge de>ired. li a red is pre- 
 ferred, mix Venetian-red with milk, not using any lime. It looks 
 well for fifteen years. 
 
 Paint. To MAKE WITHOUT LEAD OR OIL. Whiting, 5 Ibs.; 
 
 skimmed milk, _' qts. ; iivsh .slacked lime, _' o/.. Put the lime into a 
 stone- ware vessel, pour upon it a sufficient quantity of the milk to 
 make a mixture resembling en-am; the balance of the milk is then 
 to be added; and lastly, the whiting is to be crumbled upon the 
 surface of the fluid, in which it gradually sinks. At this period, it 
 must be well stirred in, or ground as you would other paint, and 
 it is fit for use. 
 
 Substitute for "White Lead. TTard cako stoarlne, 100 Ibs.; 
 
 bleached resin, !Kt Ibs.; fine, potato starch, '2.~> Ibs. Melt and mix 
 well. Then add mucilage, 20 Ibs.; stir well, till nearly cool; then 
 put away for use. 
 
 Paints, Different Sorts. BLUE. Blue-black, 25 Ibs. ; whiting, 
 100 Ibs.; road dust, silted, 200 Ibs.; lime-water, 12 gallons. Facti- 
 tious linseed oil to grind. 
 
 WHITE PAT-NT. Whiting, .wo Ibs.; white-load, 400 Ibs.; lime- 
 water, 20 gallons Factitious linseed-oil to grind. 
 
 BLACK PAINT. Ivory or lamp-Mark, 100 Ibs.; road-dust, sifted, 
 200 Ibs. ; liine-water, 18 gallons. Oil to grind. 
 
 BROWN PAINT. Venetian red, or Spanish brown, 1 cwt.; rond- 
 dust, 3 cwt. ; common soot, 28 Ibs.; lime-water, 15 Ibs. Factitious 
 linseed oil to grind. 
 
 PARTS OREEN. Take unslacked lime of the best quality, slack 
 it with hot water; then take the finest part of the powder, and add 
 alum-water as strong as it can bo made, sufficient to form a thick 
 paste; then color it with bi-chromate of potash and sulphate of 
 copper until the color suits your fancy, and dry it for use. N. B. 
 The sulphate of copper gives a blue tmgBj the" bi-chromate of pot- 
 ash, a yellow. Observe this, and you will get it right 
 
 Beautiful Green Paint for Walls. Take 4 Ibs. Roman vit- 
 riol, and pour on it a tea-kettle full of boiling water. When dis- 
 solved, add 2 Ibs. p'-arlash, and stir the mixture well with a stick 
 until the effervescence ceases; then add X H>. pulverized yellow
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 209 
 
 arsenic, and stir the whole together. Lay it on with a paint-brush; 
 and, if the wall has not been painted before, two, or even three 
 
 coats will h- requisite. If a pea jjreen is required, put in less; if 
 an apple tin-en, more of the yellow arsenic. This paint does not 
 cost tlu' quarter of oil-paint, and looks better. 
 
 Blue Color for Ceilings, &c. Boil slowly for 3 hours 1 Ib. 
 Mm- vitriol and X Ib. of tne best whiting in about 3 qts. water; 
 stir it frequently while boiling, and also on taking it off the fire. 
 When it lias >t(Kvl till quite cold, pour off the blue liquid, then 
 \u\\ the cake of color with good size, and use it with a plasterer's 
 brush in the same manner as whitewash, either for walls or ceil- 
 ings. 
 
 To Harden Whitewash. With % a pail of common white- 
 wash add ]4 pint of flour. Pour on boiling water in a sufficient 
 quantity to thicken it. Then add 6 gab. of the lime and water, 
 and stir well. 
 
 Whitewash that will not mb off. Mix up half a pailful 
 of lime and water, ready to put on the wall; then take }^ pt. of 
 flour, mix it up with water, then pour on it the boiling water, a 
 sufficient quantity to thicken it ; then pour it while hot into the 
 whitewash, stir all well together, and it is ready for use. 
 
 Whitewash. The best method of making a whitewash for 
 outside exposure is to slack half a bushel of lime in a barrel, add 
 one pound of common salt, half a pound of the sulphate of zinc, 
 and a gallon of sweet milk. 
 
 Substitute for Plaster of Paris. Best whitening, 2 Ibs.; 
 glue, 1 Ib. ; linseed oil, 1 Ib. Ileat all together, and stir thoroughly. 
 Let the compound cool, and then lay it on a stone covered with 
 powdered whitening, and heat it well till it becomes of a tough and 
 firm consistence;then put it by for use, covering with wet cloths to 
 keep it fresh. When wanted for use, it must be cut in pieces 
 adapted to the size of the mould, into which it is forced by a screw 
 press. The ornament may be fixed to the wall, picture-frame, 
 &<., with glue or white lead. It becomes in time as hard as stone 
 itself. 
 
 Glne. Powdered chalk added to common glue strengthens it. 
 A glue which will resist the action of water is made by boiling 1 
 Ib. of glue in 2 qts of skimuied milk. 
 
 Cheap Waterproof Glue. Molt common glue with the small- 
 est possible quantity of water; add, by degrees, linseed oil, ren- 
 dered drying by boiling it with litharge'. While the oil is added, 
 the ingredients must be well stirred, to incorporate them thor- 
 oughly. 
 
 Fire and Waterproof Glue. Mix a handful of quick-lime with 
 4 oz. of Unseed oil: thoroughly lixiviate the mixture: boil it to a 
 good thickness, and spread it on tin plates in the shade; it will lie- 
 come very hard, but can be dissolved over a fire, like common glue, 
 aiul is then fit for use. 
 
 Prepared Liquid Glue. Take of best white glue, 16 oz.;
 
 210 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 white-lead, dry, 4 oz.; rain-water, 2 pts.; alcohol, 4 oz. With 
 constant stirring, dissolve the glue and lead in the water, l.y 
 means of a water-bath. Add the alcoliol, and continue tin- heat 
 for a few minutes. Lastly, pour into bottles, while it is still hot. 
 
 Prussian Blue. Take nitric acid, any quantity, and as 
 much iron shavings from the lathe as the acfd will dissolve; heat 
 the iron as hot as it can he handled with the hand: then add to it the 
 acid in small quantities as lone; as the acid will dissolve it; then 
 slowly add double the quantity of soft water that there was of 
 acid, and put in iron again as long as the acid will dissolve it. 2. 
 Take prussiate of potash, dissolve it in hot water to make a strong 
 solution, and make sufficient of it with the first to give the depth 
 of tint desired, and the blue is made. Or, 
 
 Another Method. A very passable Prussian blue is made by 
 taking sulphate of iron (copperas) and prussiate of potash, equal 
 parts of each; and dissolving each separately in water, then mixing 
 the two waters. 
 
 Chrome Yellow . 1. Take sugar of lead and Paris white, of 
 each 5 Ibs. ; dissolve them in hot water. 1!. Take hi-chromate of 
 potash, 6% oz., and dissolve it in hot water al>o; each article to be 
 dissolved separately; then mix all together, putting in the bi-chro- 
 mate last. Let staud twenty-four hours. 
 
 Chrome Green. Take Paris white, r>r< Ibs.; sugar of lead, and 
 blue vitriol, of each, 3% Ibs. ; alum, 10'- oz. ; best >olt Prussian blue 
 and chrome yellow, of each, 3'^ Ibs. Mix thoroughly while in fine 
 powder, and add water, 1 gallon, stirring well and let stand three 
 or four hours. 
 
 Green, Durable and Cheap. Take spruce yellow, and color 
 it with a solution of chrome yellow and Prussian blue, until you 
 give it the shade you wish. 
 
 Another Method. Blue vitriol, 5 Ibs.; sugar of lead 6^ Ibs.; 
 arsenic, 2% Ibs.; bi-chromate of potash, 1% oz. ; mix them thor- 
 oughly in fine powder, and add water 3 parts, mixing well again, 
 and let stand three or four hours. 
 
 Pea Brown. 1. Take sulphate of copper any quantity, and 
 dissolve it in hot water. 2. Take prussiate of potash, dissolve it in 
 hot water to make a strong solution; mix of the two solutions, as 
 in the blue, and the color is made. 
 
 Rose Pink. Brazil wood, 1 lb., and boil It for two hours, 
 having 1 gallon of water at the end; then strain it. and lx.il alum, 1 
 lb., in the same water until dissolved; when sufficiently cool to 
 admit the hand, add muriate of tin, % oz. Now have Paris white, 
 12% Ibs.; moisten up to a salvy consistence, and when the first is 
 cool stir them thoroughly together. Let stand twenty- four hours. 
 
 Patent Yellow. Common salt, 100 Ibs. and litharge, 400 
 Ibs., are ground together with water, and kept for some time in a 
 gentle heat, water being added to supply the loss hv evaporation; 
 the carbonate of soda is then washed out with more water, and the 
 white residuum heated till it acquires a fine yellow color
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 211 
 
 Naples Yellow. No. 1. Metallic antimony, 12 Ibs.; red lead, 
 
 P Hi-;. : oxide of xine, 4 Ibs. Mix; calcine, triturate well together, 
 :unl t use in a crucible: the fused mass must be ground and elutriated 
 to a fine powder. 
 
 Cheap Yellow Paint. Wuitincr, 3 cwt.; ochre, 2 cwt.; ground 
 white lead, -'5 Ibs. Factitious linseed oil to grind. 
 
 Stone Color Paint. T^ond dust, 2 cwt.; ground white lead, 
 ^ cwt,; whiiinu', 1 <-wt.; ground umber, 14 Ibs.; lime water, 6 gals. 
 Factitious linseed oil to grind. 
 
 Glazier's Putty. Whiting, 70 Ibs.; boiled ofl, 30 Ibs.; water, 
 2 yuls. Mix; if too thin, add more whiting; if too thick, add more 
 oiL 
 
 Fish Oil Faints. Dissolve whit* vitriol and litharge, of each 
 14 Ibs., in vinegar, 32 gals.; add whale, seal, or cod oil, 1 tun, and 
 boil to dryness, continually stirring during the ebullition. The 
 next day, decant the clear portion; add linseed oil, 12 gals., oil of 
 turpentine, 3 gals., mix well together. The sediment left is well 
 agitated with half its quantity of lime water, used for some inferior 
 paints under the name of "prepared residue, oft." This oil is used 
 for various common purposes, as a substitute for linseed oil, of 
 which the following paints are examples: 
 
 1. PALE GREEN. Lime water, 6 gals; whiting and road dust, of 
 each, 1 cwt.; blue-black, 30 Ibs.; yellow ochre, 28 Ibs.; wet blue 
 (previously ground in pr>*pard residue, oil,) 20 Ibs.; grind well to- 
 gether. For use, thin with equal parts of prepared residue oil and 
 linseed oil. 
 
 2. BRIGHT GREET*. Yellow ochre and wot bine, of each, 1 cwt. : 
 road dust, 1H cwt.; bine-black, 10 Ibs.; limewater, 6 gals.; prepared 
 fish oil, 4 gals.; prepared residue and linseed oils, of each, 7% gals. 
 
 3. LEAD COLOR. Whiting, 1 cwt. ; blue-black, 7 Ibs. ; white lead, 
 (ground in oil,) 28 Ibs ; road dust, 56 Ibs.; lime water, 5 gals.; pre- 
 pared residue oil, 2V gals. 
 
 4. REDDTSH Bnows. Lime water, 8 gals.; Spanish brown, 1 
 cwt.; road dust, 2 cwt.; prepared fish, prepared residue and linseed 
 oils, of each, 4 gals. 
 
 5. YELLOW. Substitute ochre for Spanish brown in the last re- 
 ceipt. 
 
 f>. BLACK. Substitute lamp or blue-black for Spanish brown in 
 No. 4. 
 
 7. STOXE COLOR. Lime water, 4 gals.; whiting, 1 cwt.; white 
 lead (ground in oil), L'Hlbs.: mul dttK, 56 Ibs.; prepared fish, lin- 
 seed, and prepared residue oils, of each, 3 gals. 
 
 8. CHOCOLATE. Nos. 4 and 6 mixed together so as to form a 
 chocolate color. 
 
 REMARKS. All the above paints require a little ''driers." They 
 are well fitted, by their cheapness, hardness, and durability, for 
 common out-door work. 
 
 Porcelain Finish, very Hard and White for Parlors. To 
 prepare the wootl for finish, if it be pine, give one or two coats of 
 the " Varnish Transparent for Wood," which prevents the pitch
 
 212 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL, PURPOSES. 
 
 from oozing out, causing the finish to turn yellow; next, Rive the 
 room at least four coats of pure zinc, which may t>c (pound in only 
 sufficient oil to enable it to grind properly; then mix to a proper 
 consistence with turpentine or naphtha. Give each coat tune to 
 dry. When it is dry ami hard, sandpaper it to a perfectly smooth 
 surface, when it is ready to receive the finish, whi.-h oonaMfl <>t t\\> 
 coats of French zinc ground in, and thinned with Demar varnish, 
 until it works properly under the brush. 
 
 Japan Drier, BEST QUALITY. Take linseed oil, 1 gallon; put 
 into it gum shellac, % 11).: litharge and burned Turkey umber, -a h 
 ]4 lb.; red lead, ', 11).; sugar of lead, i\ oz. Boil in the oil till nil 
 are dissolved, which will require about four hours; remove from 
 the fire, and stir in spirits turpentine 1 gallon, and it is done. 
 
 Another. Linseed oil, 5 gallons; add red lead and litharge, each 
 3% Ibs.; raw umber, l'< Ibs.; .sugar of lead and sulphate of /inc, 
 each % lb.; pulverize all the articles together, and boil in the oil 
 till dissolved; when a little cool, thin with turpentine, 5 gallons. 
 
 Drying Oil Equal to Patent Driers at One Quarter their 
 Price. Linseed oil, 2 gallons; red lead ami umber, each. 4 o/..; sul- 
 phate of zin , 2 oz.; sn^ir of lead, 2 oz. Boil until it will scorch a 
 leather, when it is ready for use. 
 
 Prepared Oil for Carriages, &c. To 1 gallon linseed oil add 
 2 Ibs. gum shellac; litharge, }4 lb.; red lead, ' ; ' lb.; umber. 1 oz. 
 Boil slowly as usual until the gums are dissolved; grind your paints 
 in this (any color,) and reduce with turpentine. Yellow ochre is 
 used in BOOT painting. 
 
 Drying Oils. 1. Xut or linseed oil, 1 gal.; litharge, 12 oz; 
 sugar of lead and white vitriol, of each 1 oz.; simmer and skim 
 until a pellicle forms; cool, and, when settled, decant the clear. 2. 
 Oil, 1 gal.; litharge, 12 to 16 oz.; as last. 3. Old nut or linseed oil, 
 
 1 pint; litharge, 3 oz. Mix; agitate occasionally for 10 days; then 
 decant the clear. 4. Nut oil and water, of each 2 Ibs.; white vitriol, 
 
 2 oz.; boil to dryness. 5. Mix oil with powdered snow or ice, and 
 keep it for 2 months without thawing. 
 
 To reduce Oil Paint with "Water. Take 8 Ibs. of pure nn- 
 slacked lime, add 12 qts. water, stir it ami let it settle, turn it off 
 gently and bottle it, keep it corked till used. This will mix with 
 oil, and in proportion of half will render paint more durable. 
 
 Oil Paint. To REDUCE WITH WATER. Gum shellac, 1 lb.; sal- 
 soda, K I'M water, 3 parts; boil all together in a kettle, stirring 
 till dissolved. If it does not all dissolve, add a little more sal-sola; 
 when cool, bottle for use; mix up 2 quarts of oil paint as usual, any 
 color desired, using no turpentine; put 1 pint of the gum shellac 
 mixture with the oil paint when it becomes thick; it can then be 
 reduced with water to a proper thickness to lay on with a brush. 
 
 Another Method. Soft water, 1 gallon; dissolve it in penrlash, 
 3oz.; bring to a boil, and slowly add shellac, l lb.; when cold it i3 
 ready to be added to oil paint iu equal proportions. 
 
 How to build Gravel Houses. This is the best building mate- 
 rial in the world. It is four times cheaper than wood, six times
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 213 
 
 cheaper than stone, and superior to either. Proportions for mix- 
 ing: To ei.u'lit barrows of slacked lime, well deluged with water, 
 aild 1.1 barrows <>i sand; mix these to a creamy consistency, then 
 add 60 barrows of coarse gravel, which must be worked well and 
 completely; you can then throw stones into this mixture, of any 
 shape or size, up to ten inches in diameter. Form moulds for the 
 walls of the house by fixing boards horizontally against upright 
 standards which must be immovably braced so that they will not 
 yield to tin- immense pressure outwards as the material settles; set 
 MM standards in pairs around the building where the walls are to 
 stand, from six to eight feet apart, and so wide that the inner space 
 shall form the thickness of the wall, Into the moulds thus formed 
 throw in the concrete material a,s fast as you choose, and the more 
 promiscuously the better. In a short time the gravel will get as 
 hard as the solid rock. 
 
 Flexible Paint for Canvas. Yellow soap, 2^ Ibs., boiling 
 water, 1 1 4 gals., dissolve; grind the solution while hot with good oil 
 paint, \\/i cwt. Use for canvas. 
 
 Painter's Cream. Pale nut oil, fl or., mastic, 1 or.., dissolve; 
 add of sugar of lead, ^ oz., previously ground in the least possible 
 ouantity of oil, then add of water q. *., gradually, until it acquires 
 the consistency of cream, working it well all the time. Used to 
 cover the unfinished work of painters. It will wash off with water. 
 
 Mastic Cement for Covering the Fronts of Houses. Fifty 
 parts, by measure, of clean dry sand, fifty of limestone (not 
 burned) reduced to grains like sand, or marble dust, and ten parts 
 of red lead, mixed with as much boiled linseed oil as will make it 
 slightly moist. The bricks to receive it should be covered with 
 three coats of boiled oil, laid on with a brush, and suffered to dry 
 before the mastic is put on. It is laid on with a trowel like plaster, 
 but it is not so moit. It becomes hard as stone in a few months. 
 Care must be exercised not to use too much oil. 
 
 Cement for Outside of Brick "Walls. Cement for the outside 
 of brick walls, to imitate stone, is made of clean sand, 90 parts; 
 litharge, 5 parts; plaster of Piiris, 5 parts; moistened with boiled 
 linseed oil. The bricks should receive two or three coats of oil 
 before the cement is applied. 
 
 Cement for Tile Roofs. Equal parts of whiting and dry 
 sand, and 25 per cent, of litharge, made into the consistency of 
 putty with linseed oil. It is not liable to crack when cold, nor melt, 
 like coal-tar and asphalt, with the heat of the sun. 
 
 Excellent Cheap Roofing. SHTTOLES SUPERSEDED. Have 
 
 your roof stiff, rafters made of stuff 11$ by 8 inches, well supported 
 and 6 feet apart, with ribs 1 inch by 2 inches, set edgeways, well 
 na'led to the, rafters, about 18 inches apart. The boards may be 
 thin, but must be well seasoned, and nailed close together; this 
 done, lay down and cover the roof with thin, soft, spongy straw 
 paper used in making paper-boxes, which comes in rolls, and comes
 
 214 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 rery low. Lay in course up and down the roof, and lap over, nail- 
 teg doWQ with common No. 6 tacks, \vitli leather under the In ads 
 like carpet-tacks. Then spread on several coatings (if the following 
 composition, previously boiled, stirred, and mixed together: BOM 
 clean tar, s gals. ; h'omau eemeiit, L' gals, (or in its place very line, 
 clean sand maybe used;) resin, .". Ibs.; tallow, .'( HIS.; apply ho't; anil 
 let a hand follow, and shift on sharp grit sand, praMmgn into the 
 tar composition. If wished fire-proof, go over the above with the 
 following preparation: Slake stone lime under cover with hot water 
 till it falls into a line powder; sift and mix 6 qts. of this with 1 <|t. 
 salt, add 2 gals, water, boil and skim. To 5 gals, of this .add 1 lb. 
 alum, and 1>$ Ibs. of copperas, and slowly, while boiling, 1% Ibs. 
 pota-h, and 4 qts. of clean, sharp sand, and any coloring desired. 
 Apply a thick coat with a brush, and you may nave a roof which 
 no lire can injure from the outside. 
 
 "Water Lime at Fifty Cents per Barrel. Fine, clean sand, 
 100 Ibs.; quick lime in powder, 28 IDS.; bone-ashes, 14 Ibs.; for use, 
 beat up with water, and use as quick as possible. 
 
 To Render "Wood Indestructible. Tionnrxs's PROCFP? 
 This seems to be a process of inestimable value, and destined to 
 produce very important results. The apparatus used e.nsi^t> of a 
 retort or still, which can be made of any size or form, in which 
 resin, coal tar, or other oleaginous substances, together with water, 
 are placed in order to subject them to the action of heat. Fire 
 being applied beneath the retort containing the coal tar, &c., oleagi- 
 nous vapor commences to ris--. and pass out through a connecting 
 pipe into a large iron tank or chamber (which can also be built of 
 any si/.e), containing the timber, &c., to be operated upon. The 
 heat acts at once on the wood, causing the sap to flow from every 
 pore, which, rising in the form of steam, condenses on the body 
 of the chamber, and discharges through an escape pipe in the 
 lower part. In this process a temperature of I'll' to 2BOFahr. 
 Is sufficient to remove th- surface moisture from the wood; but 
 after this the temperature should be raised to 300 or more, in order 
 to completely saturate and permeate the body of the wood with the 
 antiseptic vapors and heavier products of the distillation. The hot 
 vapor coaiuhites the albumen of the wood, and opens the pores, so 
 that a large portion of the oily product or creosote is admitted; the 
 contraction resulting from the cooling process hermetically seals 
 them, and decay seems to be almost impossible. There is a man 
 bole in the retort, used to change or clean out the contents; and 
 the wood chamber is furnished with doors made perfectly tight. 
 The whole op >ration is completed in less than one hour, rendering 
 the wood proof against rot, parasites, and the attacks of the Tcralo 
 tutntis or naval worm. 
 
 Cement for Seams In Roofs.-Take equal quantities of white 
 lead and white sand, and as much oil as will make it into the 
 consistence of putty. It will in a few weeks become as hard a3 
 stone.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 215 
 
 Roman Cement. Drift sand, 84 parts; unslacked lime, liMbs.; 
 anil 4 HH. of the poorest cheese grated; mix well; add hot (not boil- 
 ing) water to reduce to a proper consistence for plastering. Work 
 well and quick with a thin, smooth coat. 
 
 Smalt ftoast cobalt ore to drive off the arsenic; make the 
 resiilmiiu into a paste with oil of vitriol, and heat it to redness for 
 sin hour; powder, dissolve in water, and precipitate the oxide of 
 in.ii by carlMHiate of potash, gradually added until a rose-colored 
 ponder begins to fall; then decant the clear, and precipitate by a 
 solution of silicate of potash prepared by fusing together for a hours 
 a mixture of 10 parts of potash, 15 parts of finely ground flints, and 
 1 part charcoal. The precipitate, when dry, may be fused and 
 powdered very fine. 
 
 Fictitious Linseed Oil. Fish or vegetable oil, 100 gallons; 
 acetate of lead, 7 Ibs.: litharge, 7 Ibs.; dissolved in vinegar, 2 gal- 
 lons. Well mixed with heat, then add boiled oil, 7 gallons; turpen- 
 tine, 1 gallon. Again well mix. 
 
 Varnishes. COMMON On, VARNISH. Resin, 4 Ibs.; beeswax, 
 U lb.; boiled oil, 1 gallon; mix with heat; then add spirits turpen- 
 tine, 2 quarts. 
 
 MABTIC VARNISH. Mastic, 1 lb.; white wax, 1 oz.; spirits tur- 
 pentine, 1 gallon; reduce the gums small; then digest it with heat 
 In a close vessel till dissolved. 
 
 TURPENTINE VARNISH. Resin, 1 lb. ; boiled oil, 1 lb. ; melt; then 
 add turpentine, 2 Ibs. Mix well. 
 
 PALE VARNISH. Pale African copal , 1 part; fuse. Then add 
 hot pale oil, 2 parts. Boil the mixture till it is stringy; then cool a 
 little, aud add spirits turpentine, 3 parts. 
 
 LACQUFR VARNISH. A good lacquer Is made by coloring lacquer 
 varnish with turmeric and annotto. Add as much of these two 
 coloring substances to the varnish as will give it the proper color; 
 then squeeze the varnish through a cotton cloth, when it forma 
 lacquer. 
 
 Deep Gold-Colored Lacquer. Seed lac, three ounces; tur- 
 meric, one ounce; dragon's blood, one-fourth ounce; alcohol, 
 one pint; digest for a week, frequently shaking; decant, and 
 filter. 
 
 Lacquers are used upon polished metals and wood to Impart the 
 appearance of gold. If yellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, saf- 
 fron, or gamlioge; for red, use annotto, or dragon's blood, to color. 
 Turmeric, gamboge, and dragon's blood generally afford a sufficient 
 range of colors. 
 
 Gold Varnish. Digest shellac, sixteen parts gum sandarach 
 mastic, of each three patts; crocus, one part; gum gamboge, two 
 parts; all bruised, with alcohol, one hundred and forty-four parts. 
 Or, digest seedlac, sandarach, mastic, of each eight parts; gam- 
 boge, two parts; dragon's blood, one part; white turpentine, six 
 puts; turmeric, four parts; bruised with alcohol, one hundred and 
 twenty parts.
 
 216 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Gold Lacquer. Put into a clean four-gallon tin 1 pound of 
 ground turmeric, l l < <>/.s. of gamboge, 3J^ Ibs. of powd< r d um:i 
 snndaraeh, *{ of a II). of shellac, ami two gaOOM of spirit- < 
 "When shaken, di- -nlved, and strained, add 1 pint of turpentine 
 varnish, well mixed. 
 
 Polish for Turner's Work. Dissolve sardarneh, 1 oz., in 
 spirits of wine, % pt. ; next shave bee-wax, 1 <>/. ; and dissolve it in 
 a sufficient quantity of sj>irits turpentine to DUUEeH into a paste; 
 add the former mixture ly degrees to it. then with a woolen cloth 
 apply it to the work while 'it is*m motion in the lathe, and with a 
 soft linen rag polish it. It will appear as if highly varnished. 
 
 Varnish for Tools. Take tallow, 2 oz.; rosin, 1 07., and molt 
 together. Strain while hot to get rid of specks which are in the, 
 resin; apply a slight coat on your tools with a brush, and it will 
 keep off rust for any length of time. 
 
 Gold Varnish. Turmeric, 1 dram; gambogo, i dram; tur- 
 pentine, 2 pints; shellac, .-> oz.; sandaraeh. ."> <>/..; dragon's Mood, 8 
 drams; thin mastic varnish, u 07..; digest with occasional agitation 
 for 14 days; then set it aside to fine, aud pour off the clear. 
 
 Book-Binder's Varnish. Shellac, eight parts; gum bon- 
 zoin, 3 parts; gum mastic, two parts; bruise, ami digest in alco- 
 hol, 48 parts; oil of lavender, % part. Or, digest ^i--;l.ie, 4 parts; 
 gum mastic, '_' parts; gum dammer and white turpentine, of each 1 
 part; with alcohol (93 per cent.), 28 parts. 
 
 Beautiful Pale Amber Varnish. Amber, pale and trans- 
 parent, 6 Ibs.; fuse; add hot clarified linseed oil, -.'gals.: boil till it 
 strings strongly, cool a little, and add oil of turpentine, I gals. This 
 soon becomes very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes. 
 When wanted to' dry quicker, drying oil may be substituted for 
 linseed, or '"driers" may be added during the cooling. 
 
 Black Coach- Varnish. Ambor, 1 lb.; fuse; add hot drying 
 oil, % pt.; powdered black resin and Naples asphaltum, of each "> 
 o?.. W hen properly incorporated and considerably cooled, add oil 
 of turpentine, 1 pt. 
 
 Body Varnish. Finest African copal, R Ibs.: fuso carefully; 
 add clarified oil, 2 gals.; boil gently for 4% hours, or until quite 
 stringy: cool a little, and thin with oil of turpentine, 3> gals. 
 Drica slowly. 
 
 Carriage Varnish. Sandnrnch, 19 oz.; pale shollao, 9V oz.; 
 very pale transparent resin, viy^ oz.; turpentine. IK 07..; ." per 
 cent, alcohol, "> pts.; dissolve. Used for the internal parts of car- 
 riages, &c. Dries in ten minutes. 
 
 Cabinet-Maker's Varnish. Very pale shellac. 5 Ibs.; ma^tlo. 7 
 oz. ; alcohol, 90 per cent, 5 or (J pts. ; dissolve in the cold with frequent 
 stirring. Used for French polishing, &c. 
 
 Japanner's Copal Varnish. Pale African copal, 1 Ibs; fuse;
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 217 
 
 add clarified linseed oil, K pal.; boil five minutes, remove it into 
 tli- o|Kn air: adit boiling oil of turjtentine, 3 gals.; mix well, strain 
 it into the cistern, and cover it up immediately. Used to varnish 
 furniture, and by japanners, coachmakers, &c. 
 
 Copal Varnish. Pale, hard copal, 8 Ibs.; add hot and pale 
 drying oil, -' gals.; l>oil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin 
 \\ilh hot r.M-tiiifii oil of turpentine, 3 gals.; and strain immediately 
 Into the store can. Very fine. 
 
 Gold Varnish of Watin, for Gilded Articles. Gumlac 
 in grains, gamlMigr. dragon's blood, and annotto, of each 12J$ oz.; 
 saffron, 3'4 oz. Each resin must be dissolved separately in 5 pts. 
 of 90 per cent, alcohol, and two separate tinctures must be made 
 with the dragon's blood and annotto in a like quantity of spirit; 
 and a proper proportion of each mixed together to produce the re- 
 quired shade. 
 
 Varnish for Plaster Casts. White soap and white wax, 
 each ]4 oz. ; water, 2 pts. ; boil together in a clean vessel for a short 
 time. This varnish is to be applied when cold with a soft brush. 
 
 Transparent Varnish for Ploughs, &c. Best alcohol, 1 
 gal.; gum sandaraeh, 2 Ibs.; gum mastic, '; lb.; place all in a tin 
 can which admits of being corked; cork tight, shake it frequently, 
 occasionally placing the can in hot water. When dissolved, it is 
 ready for use. 
 
 Fine Black Varnish for Coaches. Melt In an iron pot, 
 amber, 32 o/.,; resin, 6 oz.; asphaltum, 6 oz.; drying linseed oil, 1 
 pt. ; when partly cooled, add oil of turpentine, warmed, 1 pint 
 
 Mordant Varnish. Dissolve 1 oz. mastic, 1 oz. sandarach, 
 14 oz. gum gamboge, and > 4 ' oz. turpentine in 6 oz. spirits turpen- 
 tine. One of th- siuij-!e>t mordants is that procured by dissolving 
 a little honey in thick glue. It has the effect of greatly heighten- 
 ing the color of the gold, and the leaf sticks extremely well. 
 
 Changing Varnish. To IMITATE GOLD OR SILVER, Ac. Put 
 4 oz. best gum gamboge into 32 oz. spirits of turpentine; 4 oz. 
 dragon's blood into 32 oz. spirits turpentine, and 1 oz. of annotto 
 into 8 oz. spirits turpentine. Make the 3 three mixtures indiffer- 
 ent vessels. Keep them in a warm place, exposed to the sun as 
 much as possible, tor about 2 weeks, when they will be fit for use. 
 Add together such quantities of each liquor as the nature of the 
 color you are desirous of obtaining will point out. 
 
 Varnish, Transparent, for "Wood. Best alcohol, 1 gal.; 
 nice gum shell, 2X ibs. Place the jug or bottle in a situation to 
 keep it just a little warm, and it will dissolve quicker than if hot, 
 or left cold. 
 
 Patent Varnish for "Wood or Canvas. Take spirits of 
 turpentine, Igal.; asphaltum, 2>^lbs. ; put them into an iron kettle 
 which will fit upon a stove, and dissolve the gum by heat. When 
 dissolved and a little cool, add copal varnish, 1 pt.; and boiled lin- 
 seed oil, 1 pt.; when cold it is ready for use. Perhaps a little lamp- 
 black would make it a more perfect black.
 
 218 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Beautiful Varnish for Violins, &c. Rectified spirits of 
 wine, 4 pal.; add t> o/.. mini sandarach, 3 oz. gum mastic, and % 
 pint turpentine varnish; put. the above in a tin can by tin- BtoVCy 
 frequently shaking till well dissolved; strain, and keep for use. 
 ]| you find it harder than you wish, thin with more turpentine- 
 varnish. 
 
 Crimson Satin for Musical Instruments. Ground Brazil 
 wood, 1 lb.; water, 3 (marts; cochineal, % ounce; boil the Brazil 
 with the water for an hour, strain, add the cochineal, boil gently 
 for half an hour, when it will be fit for use. If you wish a gcarlet 
 tint, l)oil an ounce of saffron in a quart of water, and pass over the 
 work before you stain it. 
 
 urple Satin. Chipped logwood, 1 lb.; water, 3 quarts; pearl- 
 ash, 4 ounces; powdered indigo, 2 ounces. 15oil the logwood j n the 
 water half an hour, add the pearl-ash and indigo, and when dis- 
 solved you will have a beautiful purple. 
 
 Green Stain. Strong vinegar, 3 pints; best verdigris, 4 oz. 
 ground fine; sap green, % ounce; mixed together. 
 
 Black Stains for Wood. 1. Drop a little sulphuric acid into 
 a small quantity of water; brush over the wood, and hold it to 
 the tire; it will lie a line black, and receive a good polish. 2. For 
 a beautiful black on wood, nothing can exceed the black Japan 
 mentioned under Tinsmith's Department. Apply two coats; after 
 which, varnish and polish it. 3. To 1 gallon vinegar, add a quarter 
 of a pound of iron-rust; let it stand for a week; then add a pound 
 of dry lamp-black, and three quarters of a pound of copperas; 
 stir it up for a couple of days. Lay on five or six coats with a 
 sponge, allowing it to dry between each; polish with linseed oil and 
 a suit \\oolen rag, and it will look like ebony. Incomparable for 
 iron work, ships' guns, shot, &c. 4. Vinegar, % gallon; dry lamp- 
 black, % lb.; iron-rust sifted, 3 Ibs.; mix, and let stand for a week. 
 
 Lay three coats rtf this on hot, and then rub with lins I oil, and 
 
 you will have a fine deep black. 5. Add to the above stain nut- 
 galls, 1 oz.; logwood chips, }^ lb.; copperas, \4 lb,; lay on three 
 
 coats; oil well, and you will have a black stain that will stand any 
 kind of weather, and is well adapted for ships' combines, &c. 6. 
 Logwood chips, l lb.; Brazil wood, X lb.; bail for 1% hours in one 
 
 gallon water. Hrusli the wood with this decoction while hot; make 
 a decoction of nutgalls, by simmering gently, for three or tour days, 
 a quarter of a pound of the galls in 2 quarts water; give the wood 
 three coats, and, while wet, lay on a solution of sulphate of iron 
 (2 oz. to a quart.) and, when dry, oil or varnish. 7. Give thn e 
 coats with a solution of copper-filings in aquafortis, and repeatedly 
 brush over with the logwood decoction until the greenness of the 
 copper is destroyed. S. Boil 'J lb. logwood chips in '_' (marts water; 
 add an ounce of pearl-ash, and apply hot with a brush. Then take 
 2 quarts of the logwood decoction, and % oz. of verdigris, and the 
 same of copperas; strain, and throw in ^ lb. of iron-rust. Brush 
 the work well with this, and oil.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 219 
 
 Rose-wood Stain, Light Shade. Equal parts of logwood and 
 nd-WOOd chips; boil well in water sulnYicnt to make a strong stain; 
 apply it to the furniture while hot, '2 or 3 coats, according to the 
 depth of color desired. 
 
 Rose Pink Stain and Varnish. Put 1 oz. of potash In 1 qt. 
 water, with red sunders, P.; oz. ; extract the color from the wood, and 
 strain; then add gum shellac, '.;, lit.-, dissolve it by a brisk tire. 
 Used upon logwood stain for rosewood imitation. 
 
 Blue Stain for Wood. 1. Dissolve copper-filings In aqua- 
 fortis, brush the wood with it, and then go over the work with a 
 hot solution of pearlash (2 oz. to 1 pint water) till it assumes a 
 perfectly blue color. 2. Boil 1 Ib. of indigo, 2 Iks. wood, and 3 oz. 
 alum, in 1 gallon water; brush well over until thoroughly stained. 
 
 Imitation of Botany Bay Wood. Boil 14 Ib. of French berries 
 (the unripe berries of the ItJuHHniu inftvtorius) in 2 quarts water 
 till of a deep yellow, and, while boiling hot, give two or three coats 
 to the work. If a deejwr color is desired, give a coat of logwood 
 decoction over the yellow. When nearly dry, form the grain with 
 No. 8 black stain, used hot; and, when dry, rust and varnish. 
 
 Mahogany Color. DARK. 1. Boil % Ib. of madder and 2 
 oz. logwood chips in a gallon of water, and brush well over while 
 hot; when dry, go over the whole with pearlash solution, 2 drs. to 
 the quart. 2. Put 2 oz. dragon's blood, bruised, into a quart of oil 
 ; of turpentine; let the bottle stand in a warm place; shake fre- 
 quently, and, when dissolvod, steep the work in the mixture. 
 
 Box "Wood Brown Stain. ITold your work to the fire, that It 
 may receive a gentle warmth; then take aquafortis, and, with a 
 feather, pass it over the work till you find it change to a fine 
 brown (always keeping it near the fixe;) you may then varnish or 
 polish it 
 
 Light Brown Red. Boil ]4 Ib. madder and X Ib. fustic In 1 
 gnl. water; brush over the work, when boiling hot, until properly 
 stained. 2. The surface of the work being qufce smooth, brush 
 over with a weak solution of aquafortis, X oz. to the pint; then 
 finish with the following: Put \% oz. dragon's blood and 1 oz. 
 soda, both wtll bruised, to 3 pints spirits of wine; let it stand in a 
 warm place, shake frequently, strain, and lay on with a soft brush, 
 repeating until of a proper color. Polish with linseed oil or var- 
 nish. 
 
 Purple. Brnsh the work several times with the logwood de- 
 coction used for No. 6 Mack; and, when dry, give a coat of pearl- 
 ash solution, 1 drachm to a quart; lay it on evealy. 
 
 Red. 1. Boil 1 Ib. Brazil wood and 1 oz. pearlash in 1 gallon 
 water; and, while hot, brush over the work until of a proper color. 
 Dissolve 2 oz. alum in 1 quart water, and brush the solution over 
 the work before it dries. 2. Take a gallon of the. above stain, add 
 2 oz. more pearlash; use hot, and brush over with the alum solu- 
 tion. 3. Use a cold solution of archil, and brush over with the 
 pearlash solution used for No. 1 dark mahogany.
 
 220 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Ebony Stain. Infuse pall-nuts in vinegar wherein you have 
 soaked rusty nails; then rub your wood with this; lot it dry, polish 
 and burnili. 
 
 Bright Yellpw Stain. 1. Brush over with the tincture of 
 turmeric. '2. Warm tin- work, and brush it over with weak aqua- 
 fortis; varnish or oil as usual. 3. A very small hit of aloes put 
 into the varnish will give a rich yellow color to the wood. 
 
 Extra Black Stain for "Wood. Pour 2 qts. boiling water 
 over 1 o/. of powdered extract of logwood, and, when the .solu- 
 tion is effected, 1 dr. of yellow chromate of potash is added, and 
 the whole well stirred. It is then ready for use as a wood-stain, or 
 for writing ink. When rubbed on wood, it produces a pure black. 
 Repeat with two, three, or four applications, till a deep black is 
 produced, which acquires the highest beauty when polished or 
 stained. 
 
 Imitation of Mahogany. Lot the first coat of painting be 
 white lead; the second, orange; and the last, burnt umber or 
 sienna; imitating the veins according to your taste and practice. 
 
 To Imitate Wainscot. Lot the first coat he white; the 
 second, half white and half yellow; and the third, yellow ochre 
 only; shadow with umber or sienna. 
 
 To Imitate Satin Wood. Take white for your first coating, 
 light blue for the second, and dark blue or dark green for the 
 third. 
 
 Rosewood Satin, very Bright Shade. FPFP COTJV 
 Take alcohol, 1 gal.; camwood, u o/.; set them in a warm place, 24 
 hours; then add extract of logwood, 3 oz.; aquafortis, 1 oz.; and 
 when dissolved it is ready for use; it makes a very bright ground, 
 like the most beautiful rosewood; one, two, or more coats as you 
 desire, over the whole surface. 
 
 Varnish for Frames, Etc. Lav the frames over with tfn 
 or silver foil by means of plaster of Paris, or cement of some kind, 
 that the foil mtiy be perfectly adherent to the wood; then apply 
 your gold lacquer varnish, which is made as follows: ground tur- 
 meric, lib.; powdered u r aniboge, P.; ounces; powdered sandarach, 
 3% Ibs. ; powdered shellac, 3 ; Ib. ; spirits of wine, _' gals.; dissolve, 
 and strain; then add turpentine varnish, 1 pt; and it is ready for 
 use. 
 
 Cherry Stain. Tain water, 3 qt<?.; annotto, 4 oz.; boil in 
 a copper kettle till the annotto is dissolved, then put in a piece of 
 potash the size of a walnut, keep it on the fire about half an hour 
 longer, and it is ready to bottle for use. 
 
 Black Walnut Stain. New, very cheap, sinks deep, and 
 very good imitation. Dissolve permanganate of potash in water; 
 about 1 oz. to a pailful. Vary to suit the tnste. It' bought in 
 quantities, this stain should not cost over 60 cents per barrel.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 221 
 
 Miscellaneous Stains. YELLOW is produced by diluted ni- 
 tric acid RED is produced by a solution of dragon's blood in 
 spirits of wine. BLACK is produced by a strong solution of nitric 
 acid. GREEN is produced by a solution of verdigris in nitric acid. 
 Then dipped in a hot solution of pearlash produces a BLUE stain. 
 POKPLE Ls produced by a solution of sal-auiiuoniac in nitric acid. 
 
 Finishing with one Coat of Varnish. VALUABLE PROCESS. 
 Give the furniture a coat of boiled linseed oil, then immediately 
 sprinkle dry starch upon it, and rub it in well with your hand, or 
 a stiff brush, all over the surface; the starch absorbs the oil, and 
 fills the pores of the wood completely. For black walnut, add a 
 little burned umber to the starch: for cherry, a little Venetian 
 red, &c., according to the color of the wood. Turned work can 
 have it applied while in motion in the lathe. Furniture can after- 
 wards be finished with only one coat of varnish. 
 
 Polishes. CARVER'S POLISH. White resin, 2 oz.; seed lac, 
 2 oz.; spirits of wine, 1 pt Dissolve. It should be laid on warm. 
 Avoid moisture and dampness when used. 
 
 2. FRENCH POLISH. Gum shellac, loz.; gum arabic, \ oz. ; 
 gum copal. % oz. Powder, and sift through a piece of muslin; put 
 them in a closely corked bottle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, in a very 
 warm situation, shaking every '/ '// till the gums are dissolved; 
 then strain through muslin, and cork for use. 
 
 3. POLISH FOR DARK-COLORED WOODS. Seed lac, 1 oz.; gum 
 guaiaeum, 2drs.; dragon's blood, 2 drs.; gum mastic, 2 drs.; put in 
 a bottle with 1 pt. spirits of wine, cork close, expose to a moderate 
 heat till the gums are dissolved; strain into a bottle for use, with \.+ 
 gill of linseed oil; shake together. 
 
 4. WATER-PROOF POLISH Gum benjamin, 2 oz. ; gum sandarach, 
 J^ oz.; gum anima, ^oz.; spirits of wine, 1 pt. Mix in a closely 
 Btoppeclbottle, and place either in a sand Itath or in hot water till 
 the gums are dissolved, then strain off the mixture, shake it up 
 with a < gill of the best clear poppy oil, and put it by for use. 
 
 5. FINISHING POLISH. Gum shellac, 2 drs.; gum benjamin, 2 
 drs.; put into % pint of best rectified spirits of wine in a bottle 
 closely corhed, keep in a warm place, shaking frequently till the 
 gums are dissolved. When cold, shake up with it two teaspoon- 
 f ula of the best clear poppy oiL 
 
 Polish for Removing Stains, Spots, and Mildew from 
 
 urniture. Take of 98 per cent, alcohol, % pt.; pulverized resin 
 
 and gum shellac, of each, V oz. Let these cut in the alcohol; then 
 
 add linseed oil, ^ pt.; shake well, and apply with a sponge, brush, 
 or cotton flannel, or an old newspaper, rubbing it well after the ap- 
 plication, which gives a nice polish. 
 
 Polish for Reviving Old Furniture, Equal to the 
 "Brother Jonathan." Take alcohol, \}i oz.; spirits of salts (mu- 
 riatic acid), % oz.; linseed oil, 8 oz.; best vinegar, 14 pt.; and but- 
 ter of antiuiony, \% oz.; mix, putting in the vinegar last. 
 
 Jet or Polish fer Wood or Leather, Black, Red, or 
 Blue. Alcohol (98 per cent.), 1 pt.; sealing wax, the color de- 
 sired, 3 stii'ks; dissolve by heat, and have it warm when applied. 
 A sponge is the best to apply it with.
 
 222 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Furniture Fillings 1. Beeswax, spirits of turpentine and 
 linseed oil, equal parts ""'It and cool. 2. Beeswax, four oz.; tur- 
 pentine, 10 oz.; aikanet root, to color; melt and strain. 3. Bees- 
 wax, 1 11).; linseed oil, 5 oz.; aikanet root, one-half ounce; melt, add 
 6 oz. of turpentine; strain and cool. 4. Beeswax, 4 oz, resin, 1 oz.; 
 oil of turpentine, 2 oz.; Venetian red, to color. 
 
 Furnitxire Polish. Beeswax, X lb.; and a \ oz. of aikanet 
 root; melt together in a pipkin until the fonner is well colored. 
 Then add linseed oil and spirits of turpentine, of each % a gill; 
 strain through a piece of coarse uiusliu. 
 
 French Polishes. 1. Shellac, 3 llw.; wood naphtha, 3 pts.; 
 dissolve. 2. Sh'-llae, 2 Ibs. ; powdered mastic and Nandarach, of 
 each, 1 oz. ; copal varnish, X pt.; spirits of wine, 1 gal. Digest in 
 the cold till dissolved. 
 
 Furniture Fillings. 1. Turpentine, 1 pt. ; aikanet root, i oz.; 
 digest until sufficiently colored, then add beeswax, scraped MIKI!!, 4 
 oz.; put the vessel into hot water, and stir till dissolved. If wanted 
 pale, the aikanet root should be omitted. '2 ( \\'/iit:) White wax, 
 1 lb.; liquor of potassa, % gal.; boil to a prop, r consistence. :<. 
 Beeswax, 1 II).; soap, >^ lb.; p -arlasli, .", o/. (dissolved in water, >^ 
 gal., and strained,) boil as last. 4. Yellow wax, It; parts resin, l 
 part; alkanet root, 1 part; turpentine, ti parts; linseed oil, G parts. 
 First steep the aikanet in the oil with heat, and, when well colored, 
 pour off the clear on the other ingredients, and again heat till all 
 are dissolved. 
 
 Furniture Cream. Beeswax, 1 lb.; soap, 4 
 soft water, 1 gal., boil together until mixed. 
 
 oz.; pearlash, 2 oz.; 
 
 Furniture Oils. 1. Acetic acid, 2 dr.; oil of lavender, X dr.; 
 rectified spirit, 1 dr.; linseed oil, 4 oz. 2. Linseed oil, 1 pt.; aikanet 
 root, 2oz.; heat, strain and add lac varnish, 1 oz. 3. Linseed oil, 
 1 pt. ; rectified spirit, 2 oz.; butter of antimony, 4 oz. 
 
 Mosaic Gold Powder for Bronzing. Melt 1 lb. tin in a 
 crucible, and % lb. of purified quicksilver to it; when this is 
 cold, it is reduced to powder, and Around, with % lb. sal-ammoniac 
 and 7 oz. flour of sulphur, till the whole is thoroughly mixed. They 
 are then calcined in a matrass; and the sublimation of the other in- 
 gredients leaves the tin converted into the mosaic gold powder 
 which is found at the bottom of the glass. Remove any black or 
 discolored particles. The sal-ammoniac used mu>t be very white 
 and clear, and the mercury of the utmost purity. When a "deeper 
 red is required, grind a very small quantity of red lead with the 
 above materials. 
 
 True Gold Powder. Put some gold-leaf, with a little honey, 
 or thick gum-water made with gum arabic, into an earthen mortar, 
 and pound the mixture till the gold is reduced to very small parti-
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 223 
 
 rlfs; then wnh out (he honey or gum repeatedly with warm water, 
 and the gold in powder will be left behind. When dry, it is fit for 
 use. 
 
 Dntch Gold Powder Is made from Dutch gold-leaf, which is 
 sold in hooks at a v-ry low price. Treat in the manner described 
 n!iu\<- fur true gold powder. When this inferior powder is used, 
 o<>\ <: tip- eliding \vitli a coat of clear varnish, otherwise it wili soon 
 kM. Mi bright appearance. 
 
 Copper Powder Is prepared hy dissolving filing or slips of cop- 
 per with nitrous acid in a receiver. When the acid is saturated, 
 the slips are to be removed; or, if filings be. employed, the, solution 
 is to be poured off from what remains undissolved. Small bars are 
 then put in, which will precipitate the copper powder from the 
 saturated acid; and, the liquid being poured from the powder, this 
 is to be washed clean of the crystals by repeated waters. 
 
 General Directions for Bronzing. The choice of the above 
 powders is, of course, determined by the degree of brilliancy 
 you wish to obtain. The powder is mixed with strong ram-water 
 or isinglass, and laid on with a brush or pencil; and, when not so 
 dry as to have still a certain clamminess, a piece of soft leather 
 wrapped round the finger is dipped in the powder, and rubbed over 
 the work. When the work has been all covered with the bronze, it 
 must be left to dry, and any loose powder then cleared away by a 
 hair-pencil. 
 
 The Bronzing of Plaster Casts is effected hy giving them 
 a coat of oil or size varnish, and when this is nearly dry applying 
 with a dabber of cotton or a camel hair-pencil any of the metallic 
 bronze powders; or the powder may be placed fn a little bag of 
 muslin, and dusted over the surface, and afterwards finished with a 
 wad of linen. The surface must be afterwards varnished. 
 
 Bronzing Iron. The subject should be heated to a greater de- 
 greee than the hand can bear, and German gold, mixed with a 
 small quantity of spirit-of-wino varnish, spread over it with tho 
 pencil; should the iron be already polished, you must heat it well, 
 and moisten it with a linen rag dipped hi vinegar. 
 
 French Burnished Gilding. EntoUage, or Kj ue coat. To 
 a decoction of wormwood and garlic in water, strained through a 
 cloth, a little common salt and some vinegar are added. This is 
 mixed with as much good glue, and the mixture spread in a hot 
 state with a brush of boar's hair. When plaster or marble is gilded, 
 leave out the salt. The first glue-coating^ is made thinner than tho 
 second. 2. Whits preparation consists in covering the above sur- 
 face with 8, 10, or 12 coats of Spanish white, mixed up with strong 
 size; each well worked on with the brush. 3. Stop up the pores 
 with thick whiting and glue, and smooth the surface with dog-skin. 
 4. Polish the surface with pumice-stone and very cold water. 5. Re- 
 touch the whole in a skilful manner. 6. Cleanxe with a damp linen 
 rag, and then a soft sponge. 7. Rub with a horse's tail (shave-gran) 
 15
 
 224 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 the parts to be yellowed, to make thorn softer. 8. Yellow with ytl- 
 low ochre carefully ground in water, and mixed with transparent 
 colorless size. Use the thinner part of tin- mixture with a fine 
 brush. 9. Next rub tlie work with shave-grass to remove any 
 granular appearance. 10. (Jold-wntar &ize consists of Armenian 
 bole, 1 lb.; bloodstone (hematite), '-' 07..; and as much galena, each 
 separately ground in water. Then mix all together with a spoonful 
 of olive oil. ThU is tempered with a white sheepskin glue, clear 
 and well strained. Heat and apply three coats with a fine long- 
 haired brush. 11. Hub \yith a clean, dry linen cloth, except the 
 parts to be burnished, which are to receive other two coats of the 
 gold size, tempered with glue. 12. The surface damped with cold 
 water ("iced in summer), has then the gold-leaf applied to it Gild 
 the hollow ground before the more prominent parts; water being 
 dexterously applied by a soft brush, immediately behind the gold- 
 leaf, before laying it down; removing any excess of water with a 
 dry brush. 13. Burnish with bloodstone. 14. Next pass a thin 
 coat of glue, slightly warmed, over the parts that are not to be bur- 
 nished. 15. Next moisten any broken points with a brush, and 
 apply bits of gold-leaf to them. 16. Apply the vermeil coat very 
 lightly over the gold-leaf with a soft brush. It gives lustre and fire 
 to the gold, and is made as follows: annotto, 2 oz.; gamboge, 1 oz.; 
 vermilion, 1 oz.; dragon's blood, % oz.; salt of tartar, 2 oz.; 
 saffron, 18grs.; boil in 2 English pints of water, over a slow lire, 
 till it is reduced to a fourth; then pass the whole through silk or 
 muslin sieve. 17. Next pass over the dead surfa--e> a s-vond coat of 
 deadening glue, hotter than the first This finishes the work and 
 gives it strength. 
 
 Bronzing or Gilding Wood. Pipe clay, 2 oz.; Prussian blue, 
 patent yellow, raw umber, lampblack, of each, 1 oz.: grind separ- 
 ately with water on a stone, and as much of them as will make a 
 good color put into a small vessel three-fourths full of si/e. The 
 wood, being previously cleaned and smoothed, and coated with a 
 mixture of clean size and lampblack, receives a new coating twice 
 successively, with the above compound, having allowed the first 
 to dry. Afterwards the bronze powder is to be laid on with a 
 pencil, and the whole burnished or cleaned anew, observing to re- 
 pair the parts which may be injured by this operation; next the 
 work must be coated over" with a thin layer of Castile soap, which 
 will take the glare off the burnishing; and afterwards be carefully 
 rulilied with a woolen cloth. The superfluous powder may be 
 rubbed off when dry. 
 
 Bronze Powder of a PALE GOLD color is produced from an alloy 
 of 131^ parts of copper, and U% parts zinc, of a CRIMSON METALLIC 
 LUSTRE from copper, of a'pofor color, copper, and a very little zinc; 
 QUEEN bronze with a proportion of verdigris, of a fine ORANGE 
 color, by 14^ parts copper and 1% zince; another ORANGE color, 
 13% parts copper and 2^ zinc. The alloy is laminated into very 
 fine leaves with careful annealing, and these are levieated into im- 
 palpable powders, along with a film of fine oil, to prevent oxidize- 
 ment, and to favor the levigation.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 225 
 
 Reviver for Gilt Frames. White of eggs, 2 oz.; chloride of 
 
 potash or scbla. l oz.; mix well, blow off the dust from th> frames: 
 then go over them with a soft brush dipped in the mixture, ana 
 tin- y will appear equal to ucw. 
 
 Gliding on Wood. To gild In oil, the wood after being pro- 
 perly smoothed, is eovered with a coat of gold riae, made of drying 
 DMeed <il mixed with yellow ochre; when this has become so dry 
 as to adhere to the fingers without soiling them, the gold leaf is 
 laid on with great care and dexterity, and pressed down with 
 cotton wool; places that have been missed are covered with small 
 pieces of gold leaf, and when the whole is dry, the ragged bits are 
 rubl>ed off with the cotton. This is by far the easiest mode of gild- 
 ing: any other metallic leaves may be. applied in a similar manner. 
 PALE LEAK GOLD has a greenish yellow color, and is an alloy of 
 gold and silver. Dutch gold leaf is only copper leaf colored with 
 the fumes of zinc; being much cheaper than true gold leaf, it is 
 very useful when large quantities of gilding are required in places 
 where it can be defended from the weather, as it changes color if 
 exposed to moisture; and it should be covered with varnish. SIL- 
 VER LEAF is prepared every way the same as gold leaf; but when 
 applied should be kept well covered with varnish, otherwise it is 
 liable to tarnish; a transparent yellow varnish will give it the ap- 
 pearance of gold. Whenever gold is fixed by means of linseed ou. 
 it will bear washing off, which burnished gold will not 
 
 Best Color for Boot, Shoe, and Harness Edge. Alcohol. 
 
 1 pint; tincture of iron, 1H oz.; extract logwood, 1 oz.; pulverized 
 nutgalls, 1 oz.: soft water, ',; pint; sweet oil, '.: oz. ; put this last 
 Into the alcohol before adding the water. Nothing can exceed the 
 beautiful finish imparted to the leather by this preparation. The 
 only objection is the cost. 
 
 Cheap Color for the Edge. Soft water, 1 gallon; extract log- 
 wood, 1 oz. ; boil till the extract is dissolved; remove from the fire, 
 and add copperas, 2 oz.; bi-chromate of potash and gum arable, of 
 each, % oz.; all to be pul"erized. 
 
 Superior Edge Blacking. Soft water, 5 gallons; bring to a 
 boil, and add 8 oz. logwood extract, pulverized; boil 3 minutes, re- 
 move from the fire, and stir in - 1 : oz. gum arable, 1 oz. bi-chromate 
 of potash, and 80 grains prussiateof potash. 
 
 For a small quantity of this, use water, 2 quarts; extract of log- 
 wood, ft oz. ; gum arable, 96 grains: bi-chromate of potash, 48 
 grains; prussiate of potash, 8 grains. Boil the extract in the water 
 
 2 minutes; remove from the fire, and stir in the others; and it is 
 ready for use. 
 
 For tanners' surface blacking, which is not required to take on a 
 high polish, the gum arabic may be omitted. 
 
 Sizing for Boots and Shoes in Treeing Out. Water, 1 
 quart; dissolve in it by heat, isingiass, 1 oz.; adding more water
 
 226 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 to replace loss by evaporation; when dissolved, add starch, 6 oz.; 
 extract of lOffWOOd, beeswax, and tallow, of eaeh L' oz. Hub the 
 starch up first by pourim,' on sullieient hoiliii-,' water for that pur- 
 pose. It makes ixiots ami shoo soit and pliable, and gives a splen- 
 did appearance to old stock on the shelves. 
 
 Black Varnish for the Edge. Take 98 per cent, alcohol, 1 
 pint; shellac, 3 oz.; resin, 2 oz. ; pine turpentine, 1 oz.; lamp-black, 
 ^ oz.; mix; and when the gums :iri . a ll cut, it is ready for use. 
 This preparation makes a most splendid appearance when applied 
 to hoot, shot?, or harness edge, ami is equally applicable to cloth or 
 wood, where a gloss is required after being painted. 
 
 Best Harness Varnish Extant. Alcohol, 1 gallon; white tur- 
 pentine, l>$lbs.;gum shellac, 1^ Ibs.; Venice turpentine, 1 gill. 
 Let them stand by the stove till the gums are dissolve.!, then add 
 sweet oil, 1 gill; and color if you wish it with lamp-black, 2 oz. 
 This will not crack like the old varnish. 
 
 Another. Isinglass, or gelatine, and indigo, of each, J^oz.; 
 logwood, 4 oz. ; soft soap, 2 oz ; glue, 4 oz. ; vinegar, 1 pint; mix by 
 heat, and strain. 
 
 Brilliant French Varnish for Leather. Spirit of wine, 
 % pint; vinegar, 5 pints; gum Senegal in powder, % lb.; loaf suu'ar, 
 6 oz. ; powdered galls, 2 oz. ; green copperas, 4 oz. Dissolve the 
 gum and sugar in the water: strain, and put on a slow fire, but 
 don't boil; now put in the galls, copperas, and the alcohol; stir well 
 for five minutes; set off; and when nearly cool strain through flan- 
 nel, and bottle for use. It is applied with a pencil brush. Most 
 superior. 
 
 Liquid Japan for Leather. Molasses, 8 Ibs.; lamp-black, 1 lb.; 
 sweet oil, 1 lb.; gum arabic, 1 lb.; isinglass, 1 lb. Mix well in 32 
 Ibs. water; apply heat; when cool, add 1 quart alcohol; an ox's gall 
 will improve it 
 
 Waterproof Oil Blacking. Camphene, 1 pint; add all the 
 India rabbet it will dissolve; currier's oil, 1 pint; tallow, 1 Ibs.' 
 lamp-black, 2 oz. Mix thoroughly by heat 
 
 Shoemaker's Heel Ball.' Beeswax, 8 07.; tallow, 1 07.; melt, 
 and add powdered gum arabic, 1 oz., and lamp-black to color. 
 
 Cement for Leather or Rubber Soles and Leather Belt- 
 ing. Gutta perdia, 1 lb.; India rubber, 4 oz.; pitch, 2 oz.; shellac, 
 1 oz. ; oil, 2 oz.; melt and use hot. 
 
 Oil Paste Blacking. Ivory black, 4 lhs. ; molasses, 3 Ibs.; 
 sweet oil, 1 lb. ; oil vitriol, 3 Ibs. ; mix, and put in tins. 
 
 jgwood. 
 
 y a J 8h --Tunneric, 1 drachm; gamboge, 1 drachm; tur- 
 pentine, 2 pints; shellac, 5 oz.; sandarach, 5 oz.; dragon's blood, 8
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 227 
 
 drachms; thin mastic varnish, 8 oz.; digest with occasional agitation 
 fur fourteen days; then set aside to fine, and pour off the clear. 
 
 Grain Black for Harness Leather. First stain in tallow; 
 then take spirits turpentine, 1 pint; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; soda, 1 
 oz. ; gum shellac, \$ oz. ; thick paste reduced thin, 2 quarts. Mix 
 well. This will finish 12 sides. 
 
 Stains for Wood and Leather. RED. Brazil wood, 11 parts: 
 alum, 4 parts; water, 85 parts. Boil. 
 BLUE. Logwood, 7 parts; blue vitriol, 1 part; water, 22 parts- 
 
 . Logwood, 9 parts; sulphate of Iron, 1 part; water, 25 
 parts. Boil. 
 
 GREEN. Verdigris, 1 part; vinegar, 3 parts. Dissolve. 
 
 YELLOW. French berries, 7 parts; water, 10 parts; alum, 1 part 
 Boil. 
 
 PURPLE. Logwood, 11 parts; alum, 3 parts; water, 29 parts. 
 
 Deer Skins. TANNFNO AND BUFFTNO FOR GLOVES. For 
 each skin take a bucket of water, and put into it 1 quart of lime; 
 let the skin or skins lie in from 3 to 4 days; then rinse in clean 
 water, hair, and grain; then soak them in cold water to get out the 
 glue; now scour or pound in good soap-suds for half an hour; after 
 which take white vitriol, alum, and salt, 1 tablespoon of each to a 
 skin; these will be dissolved in sufficient water to cover the skin. 
 and remain in it for 24 hours; wring out as dry as convenient, and 
 spread on with a brush ',' pint of currier's oil, and hang in the sun 
 about two day-;: after which you will scour out the oil with soap- 
 suds, and hang out again until perfectly dry; then pull and work 
 them until they are soft; and if a reasonable time does not make 
 them soft, scour in suds again as before, until complete. The oil 
 may be saved by pouring or taking it from the top of the suds, if 
 left standing for a short time. The buff color is given by spreading 
 yellow ochre evenly over the surface of the skin, when finished, 
 rubbing it in well with a brush. 
 
 WITH ACTD. After having removed the hair, scouring, 
 soaking, and pounding in the suds, Ac., as in the last recipe, in 
 place of the white vitriol, alum, and salt, as there mentioned, take 
 oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid,) and water, equal parts of each, and 
 thoroughly wet the flesh side of the skin with it, by means of a 
 sponge or cloth upon a stick; then folding up the skin, letting it lie 
 for 20 minutes only, having ready a solution of sal-soda and water, 
 say 1 Ib. to a bucket of water, and soak the skin or skins in that 
 for two hours, when you will wash in clean water, and apply a little 
 dry salt, letting lie in the salt over night, or that length of time; 
 then remove the flesh with a blunt knife, or, if doing business on a 
 large scale, by means of the regular beam and flesh-knife; when 
 dry or nearly so, soften by pulling and rubbing with the hands, and 
 also with a piece of pumice-stone. This, of course, is the quickest
 
 228 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 way of tanning, and by only wetting the skins with the acid, and 
 soaking them out in 20 minutes, they are not rotted. 
 
 Another Method. Oil of vitriol, ^ oz.; salt, 1 teacup; milk 
 sufficient to handsomely cover tin- skin, not X'-ceding :i qN., \v;inn 
 the milk, then add the' salt and vitriol; stir tin- skin in the liquid 
 40 minutes, keeping it warm; then dry, and work it as directed in 
 No. 4. 
 
 Liquid Red. Channellers will find that no better or richer 
 color lor their purposes can hi- got than tin- ivd ink described under 
 the Grocer's Deportment, diluted to the n-qnin-d shade. Fur 
 color for the bottoms of shoes use tincture of red sunders. 
 
 Bridle Stain. Skimmed milk, 1 pint; spirits of salts, % oz.; 
 spts. of red lavender, $ o/.. ; gum aral>ic, 1 o/..; and the juice of 2 
 lemons; mix well togMher.and fork I'oriiM-; apply with a a^-onge; 
 when dry, polish with a brush or a piece of tlaiiuel. If wished 
 paler, put in less red lavender. 
 
 Process of Tanning Calf, Kip, and Harness Leather in 
 from Six to Thirty Days. For a l'_' 11). calf skin, take :? Ibs. of 
 terra japoniea, common salt '2 Ihs. ; alum, 1 !!>.; put them into a 
 copper kettle with sufficient water to dissolve, the whole by boiling. 
 The skin will be limed, haired, and treated everv way as for the 
 old process, when it will be put it into a vessel with sufficient water 
 to cover it, at which time yon will put in 1 pint of the composition 
 stirring it well, adding the same amount each night and morning 
 for 3 days, when you will add the whole, handling 2 or * times daily 
 all the time tanning; you can continue to use the tanning liquid by 
 adding half the quantity each time, l>v keeping these proportions for 
 any amount. If you desire to give a bark color to the leather, you 
 will put in 1 Ib. o'f Sicily sumac; kip skins will require al>out 20 
 days, light house hides for harness 30 days, calf skins from 6 to 10 
 days at most. 
 
 To Tan Raw Hide. When taken from the animal, sprond it 
 flesh side up; then put 2 parts of >altpetre and alum combined, 
 make it fine, sprinkle it evenly over the surface . roll it up. let it 
 alone a few days till dissolved; then takeoff what flesh remains, 
 and nail the skin to the side of a barn in the sun; stretch tight, to 
 make it soft like harness leather, put neat's foot oil on it, fa-ten it 
 up in the sun again; then rub out all the oil you can with a wedge- 
 shaped stick, and it is tanned with the hair on. 
 
 French Finish for Leather. Take a common wooden pail- 
 ful of scraps (the legs and pates of calf skins are best), and put a 
 handful each of salt and alum upon them, and let them stand 3 
 days; then boil them until they get a thick paste; in using, you 
 will warm it, and in the fir^t application put a little tallow with it, 
 and for the second time a little soft soap, and use it in the regular 
 way of finishing, and your leather will be soft and pliable, like 
 French leather. 
 
 French Patent Leather. Work into the skin with appro- 
 priate tools 3 or 1 successive coatings of drying varnish, made by
 
 BECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 229 
 
 boiling linseed oil with white load and litharge, in the proportion of 
 1 Ib. of each of the latter to 1 gal. of the former, and adding a 
 portion of chalk or ochre, each coating bring thoroughly dried 
 DefON the application of tin- rest. Ivory black is then substituted 
 for the chalk or ochre, the varnish thinned with spirits of turpentine, 
 and five additional applications mado in the same manner as before, 
 except that it H put on thin and networked in. The leather is 
 rubbed down with pumice stone, in powder, and then placed in a 
 room at 90 degrees, out of the way of dust The last varnish is 
 prepared by boiling \4 Ib. of asphaltum with 10 Ibs. of the drying 
 oil used in the first stage of the process, and then stirring in 5 Ibs. 
 copal varnish and 10 Ibs. of turpentine. It must have 1 mouth's age 
 before using. 
 
 Cheap Tanning without Bark or Mineral Astringents. 
 The astringent liquor is composed of water, 17 gals.; Aleppo 
 galls, u lb. ; Bengal catochn, !> oz. and 5 Ibs. of tormentil, or 
 septfoil root. Powder the ingredients, and boil in the water 1 hour; 
 men cool, put in the skins (which must be prepared by being 
 
 plunged into a preparation of bran and water for 2 days pre- 
 viously); handle them frequently during the first 3 days, let thi 
 alone the next 3 days, then handle 3 or 4 times in one day: 
 them lie undisturbed for 25 days more, when the process will be 
 
 Canadian Process. The Canadians make 4 liquors in using 
 the juponica. 
 
 The FFRST liquor Is made .by dissolving, for 20 sides of upper, 
 15 Ibs. of terra laponica in sufficient water to cover the upper 
 being tanned. The SECOND liquor contains the same amount of 
 japonica, and 8 Ibs. of saltpetre also. The THIRD contains 20 Ibs. 
 of japonica, and 4^ Ibs. of alum. The FOURTH liquor contains 
 only 15 Ibs. of japonica, and 1V$ Ibs. of sulphuric acid; nnd the 
 leather remains 4 days in each liquor for upper; and for sole the 
 quantities and time are lx>th doubled. They count 50 calf skins in 
 place of 20 sides of upper, but let them lie in each liquor only 3 
 days. 
 
 Fifty Dollar Recipe for Tanning Pur and Other Skins. 
 Remove the legs and useless parts, soak the skin soft, and then 
 remove the fleshy substances, and soak it in warm water one hour. 
 Now take for each skin borax, saltpetre, and Glauber-salt, of each 
 X oz. and dissolve or wet with soft water sufficient to allow it to be 
 spread on the flesh side of the skin. Put it on with a brush, thickest 
 in centre or the thickest part of the skin, and double the skin together, 
 flesh side in; keeping it in a cool place for 24 hours, not allowing it 
 to freeze. Then wash the skin clean, and take sal-soda, 1 oz.; 
 borax, % oz.; refined soap, 2 oz.; melt them slowly together, 
 being careful not to allow them to boil, and apply the mixture to 
 the flesh side as at first. Boil up again, and keep in a warm place 
 for 24 hours; then wash the skin clean again, as above, and have 
 saleratua, 2 oz.; dissolved in hot rain water sufficient to well
 
 230 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 saturate the skin; then take alum, 4 oz.; salt, 8 oz.; and dissolve 
 also in hot rain water; when sufficiently cool to allow the handling 
 of it without, scalding, put in the skin for 12 hours; then wring out 
 the water, and hang up for 12 hours more to dry. Repent this la>t 
 soaking and drying two or three times, according to UP- deMivd 
 softness of the'skin when finished. Lastly, finish by pulling and 
 working, and finally by rubbing with a piece of pumice stone and 
 fine sand paper. This works like a charm on sheep skins, fur 
 skins, dog, wolf, bear skins, &c. 
 
 French Polish or Dressing for Leather. Mix 2 pints best 
 vinegar with 1 pt soft water; stir into it \^ lb. glue, broken up, l j 
 Ib. logwood chips, ^ oz. of finely powdered indigo, \ oz. of the 
 l>c-t s.il't soap, } 07,. of isinglass; put'the mixture over tiie lire, and 
 let it boil ten minutes or more: then strain, bottle and cork. When 
 cold, it is fit for use. Apply with a sponge. 
 
 Currier's Size. Take of si7ing, 1 qt.; soft sonp, 1 pill; stuffing, 
 1 gill; sweet milk, ' ', pt.; boil the si/.ing in water to a proper con- 
 sistenee, strain, and add the other ingredients; and when tho- 
 roughly mixed, it is ready for use. 
 
 Currier's Paste. FIRST COAT. Take of water, 2 qK ; flour, 
 % pint; Castile soap, 1 oz.: make into paste. SKI o\n Co.vr. Takn 
 of first paste, }/ y pt.; gum ' tragacanth, 1 gill; water, 1 pt.; mix all 
 together. This will finish eighteen sides of upper. 
 
 Currier's Skirting. This is for finishing skirting and HIP flesh 
 
 of harness lealher, in imitation of oak tanning. Take of chrome 
 yellow, *f, lb.; yellow ochre, 1 lb. ; cream of tartar, 1 o/.. ; ,-uda, "j 
 oz. ; paste, 5 qts. ; mix well. This will finish twelve sides. 
 
 Skirting. For the grain to imitate oak tan. Take of chrome 
 yellow, 'i 11).; yellow ochre, i.< lb.; cream of tartar, 1 oz.; soda, 1 
 <r/.., pMW. - ii|s.; spirits of turpentine, 1 pt; mix well. This will 
 finish twelve sides. 
 
 Dyes for Leather. BLUE. For each skin, take 1 pz. of in- 
 digo, put it into boiling water, and let it Maud one night; then 
 warm it a little, and witii a brush smear the skin twice over, and 
 finish the same as the red. 
 
 RED. After the skin has been properly prepared with sheep, 
 pigs' dung. Arc., then take strong alum water, and sponge over 
 your skin; when dry, boil a strong gall liquor (it cannot be too 
 strong); then boil a strong Ura/.il wood liquor (the stronger the 
 better); take a sponge, dip it into your liquor, and sponge it over 
 your skin; repeat this till it DOOMS to a full red. To finish your 
 skin, take the white of eggs, and a little gum dragon, mix the" two 
 together in half a gill of water, sponge over your skin, and, when 
 dry, polish off. 
 
 Vi i.i.aw. 1. Infuse quercitron bark in vinegar, in which put a 
 little alum, and brush over your skin^ with the infusion: finish tho 
 same as the red. -2. Take 1 pt. of whisky, 4 07.. turmeric: mix them 
 well together; when settled sponge your skins over, and finish as 
 above. 
 
 BLACK. Put your skin on a clean board, sponge it over with gall 
 and sumach liquors, strong; then take a strong logwood liquor, 
 sponge it over tliree or four times; then take a little copperas, mix
 
 RECEIPTS FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 231 
 
 it in the logwood liquor; sponge it over your skin, and finish it the 
 same as the red. 
 
 PURPLE. First sponge with the alum liquor strong, then with 
 logwood liquor strong; or mix them both, and boil thorn, and sponge 
 \\iih th liquor, finish the same as the red. The pleasing hues of 
 vellow, brown, or tan color, are readily imparted to leather by the 
 following simple process: Steep saffron in boiling water for a 
 ninnlwr of hours, wet a sponge or soft brush in the liquor, and 
 with it smear the leather. The Quantity of saffron, as well as of 
 water, will, of course, depend on how much dye may be wanted, 
 and their relative proportions to the depth of color required. 
 
 To Marble Books or Paper. Marhlfng of books or paper 
 Is performed thus: Dissolve four ounces of gum arable in two quarts 
 of fair water; then provide several colors mixed with water in pots 
 or shells, and with pencils peculiar to each color; sprinkle them by 
 way of intermixture upon the gum water, which must be put into 
 n trough, or some broad vessel; then, with a stick, curl them, or 
 draw them out in streaks to as much variety as may be done. 
 Having done this, hold your book or books close together, and only 
 dip the edges in, on the top of the water and colors, very lightly; 
 which done, take them off, and the plain impression of the colors, 
 in mixture, will be upon the leaves; doing as well the ends as 
 the front of the book in like manner, and afterwards glazing the 
 colors. 
 
 Bookbinder's Varnish. vShellnc, eight parts; gnm benzoin, 
 
 3 parts; gum mastic, two parts; bruise, and digest in alcohol, 
 forty-eight parts; oil of lavender, one-half part. Or digest 
 shellac, four parts; gum mastic, two parts; gum aammer and white 
 turpentine, of each, one part; with alcohol (95 per cent.,) twenty- 
 eight parts. 
 
 Red Sprinkle for Bookbinder's Red. Brazil wood (ground,) 
 
 4 parts; alum, 1 part; vinegar, 4 parts; water, 4 parts. Boil until 
 reduced to 7 parts, then add a quantity of loaf sugar and gum; 
 bottle for use. 
 
 BLUE. Strong sulphuric acid, 8 oz.; Spanish Indigo, powdered, 
 2 oz.; mix in a bottle that will hold a quart, and place it in a warm 
 bath to promote solution. For use, dilute a little to the required 
 color in a tea-cup. 
 
 BLACK. No better black can be procured than that made by the 
 receipt for surface blacking, in this work, which see. 
 
 ORANGE COLOR. Ground Brazil wood, 16 parts; annotto, 4 parts; 
 alum, sugar, and gum arabic, each 1 part; water, 70 parts; boil, 
 strain, and bottle. 
 
 PURPLE. Logwood chips, 4 parts; powdered alum, 1 part; soft 
 water, 24 parts; boil until reduced to 10 parts, and bottle for use. 
 
 (iiu.iN. French berries, 1 part; soft water, 8 parts. Boil and 
 add a little powdered alum; then bring it to the required shade of 
 gre-'ii by addinsr liquid blue. 
 
 BBOWTT. ^Logwood chips, 1 part; annotto. 1 part; boil in water, 
 6 parts; if too light, add a piece of copperas the size of a pea. 
 
 Tree Marble. A marble in the form of trees may be done by
 
 232 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 bendine the l>oards a little on the centre, using the same method as 
 th.- common marble, having the covers previously pivpaivd. The 
 end of a caudle may be rubbed on diuVient parts ol tin- board to 
 form knots. 
 
 I iiri :- M AKULE. Color the cover with spirits of wine and t ormerte, 
 then ]>laee on rice in a regular manner, .(lirow on a v<-ry line 
 sprinkle of copperas water till the cover is nearly black, and let it 
 remain till dry. The cover may In- spotted with the red liquid or 
 pota>h water. Very freelv, before the riee is thrown off the boards. 
 
 Si>orn-:i> MAKHLE FOR BOOKS, ETC. After the fun-ed^e of the 
 book is cut, let it remain in the press, and throw on linseeds in a 
 regular manner, sprinkle the edge with any dark color till the paper 
 is covered, then shake off the seeds. Various colors may be used; 
 the edge may be colored with yellow or red belore throw-in-.: on the 
 seeds, and sprinkling with blue. The seeds will make a tine fancy 
 edge when place 1 very thick on different parts, with a few slightly 
 thrown on the spices between. 
 
 JAPAN COLORING FOR LEATHER, BOOK-CO vi us KTC. After the 
 book is covered and dry, color the cover with potash water mixed 
 with a little paste; give two Lrood coats of Ura/.il wash, and gla/.e it; 
 put the book between the hands, allowing the boards to slope a 
 little; dash on copperas water, then with a sponge full of red liquid 
 press out on the back and on different parts large drops, which will 
 run down each board and make a line shaded red, when the cover 
 is dry, wash it over two or three times with Brazil wash to give it a 
 bnghter color. See the various dyes for leather under that head. 
 
 To make Paper into Parchment. To produce this transforma- 
 tion, take unsized paper and plunge it into a solution of two parts 
 of concentrated sulphuric acid combined with 1 part water; with- 
 draw it immediately, and wash it in dean water, and the chan 
 complete. It is now fit for writing; for the acid supplies tV want 
 of size, and it becomes so strong that a strip 2 or 3 inches wide will 
 bear from 60 to 80 Ibs. weight, while a like strio of parchment will 
 bear only about i'5 Ibs. 
 
 Best Cement for Aquaria. It is the same as that used in con- 
 structing the tanks of the Zoological (iardens. London. One part, 
 by measure, say a gill of litharge; 1 gill of plaster of Paris; 1 gill of 
 dry, white sand; % of a gill of finely powdered resin. Sift, and 
 keep corked tight until required for use, when it is to be made into 
 a putty by mixing in boiled oil (linseed) with a little patent drier 
 added" Never use it after it has been mixed (that is, with the oil) 
 over fifteen hours. This cement can be used for marine as well as 
 fresh-water aquaria, as it resists the action of salt water. The tank 
 can be used iuiuiediately, but it is best to give it three or four hours 
 to dry. 
 
 Horn in Imitation of Tortoise Shell. First steam and then 
 
 press the horn into proper shapes, and afterwards lav the following 
 mixture on with a small brush, in imitation of the mottle of tortoise- 
 shell: Take equal parts of quick-lime and litharge, and mix with 
 strong soap-lees; let this remain until it is thoroughly dry; brush 
 off, and repeat two or three times if necessary. Soch para as are 
 required to be of a reddish brown should be covered with a mixture 
 of whiting aud the stain.
 
 RECEIPTS FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 233 
 
 Dyes for Ivory, Horn, and Bone. BLACK. 1. Lay the articles 
 fOTMTCnU hours in a stmnj: solution of nitrate of silver, and ex- 
 ])(.< t.. tin- liirht. -'. Boil the article for some time in a strained 
 drcoetion of logwood, and then steep it in a solution of per-sulphate 
 or acetate of iron. 3. Immerse frequently in ink until of sufficient 
 depth of color. 
 
 i'.u i;. 1. Immerse for some time in a dilute solution of sulphate 
 of imlii," 1 . partly saturated with potash, and it will be fully stained. 
 2. Steep in a strong solution of sulphate of copper. 
 
 (iuKKN. 1. Dip blue-stained articles for a short time in nitro- 
 hydrochlorate of tin, and then in a hot decoction of fustic. 2. Boil 
 in a solution of verdigris in vim-gar until the desired color is 
 obtained. 
 
 RED. 1. Dip the articles first in a tin mordant, used in dyeing, 
 and then plunge into a hot decoction of Kra7.il wood half a pouna 
 to a gallon of water or cochineal. 2. Steep in red ink till suffi- 
 ciently stained. 
 
 SCARLET. Use lac-dye instead of the preceding. 
 
 VIOLET. Dip in the tin mordant, and then immerse in a decoc- 
 tion of logwood. 
 
 YELLOW. Boil the articles in a solution of alum, 1 Ib. to X a 
 gallon, then immerse for half an hour in the following mixture: 
 Take a % Ib. of turmeric, and a M Ib. of pearlash; boil in 1 gal. 
 water: when taken from this, the bone muse be again dipped in the 
 alum solution. 
 
 Etching Fluid for Ivory. Take dilute sulphuric acid, dilute 
 muriatic acid, equal parts: mix. For etching varnish take white 
 wax, 2 parts; tears of mastic, 2 parts: mix. 
 
 To Gild Ivory. Immerse it in a solution of nitio-muriate of 
 gold, and then expose it to hydrogen gas while damp. Wash it 
 afterwards in clean water. 
 
 To Soften Ivory. In 3 oz. spirits of nitre, and 15 oz. of spring 
 water, mixed together, put your ivory to soak; and in three or four 
 days it will obey your fingers. 
 
 To Whiten Ivory. Slack some lime in water; put your ivory 
 
 in that water, after l>eing decanted from the grounds, and boil it 
 till it looks quite white. To polish it afterwards, set it in the 
 turner's wheel; and, after having worked, take rushes and pumice 
 stones, subtile powder, with water, and rub it till it looks perfectly 
 smooth. Next to that, heat it by turning it against a piece of linen 
 or sheepskin leather; and, when hot, rub it over with a little 
 whitening diluted in oil of olive; then, with a little dry whitening 
 alone; finally with a piece of soft white rag. When all this is per- 
 formed as directed, the ivory will look very white. 
 
 Another Way to Bleach Ivory. Take 2 handfuls of lime, 
 
 slake it by sprinkling it with water; then add 3 pints of water, and 
 stir the wnole together; let it settle ten minutes, and pour the water 
 into a pan for your purpose. Then take your ivory and steep it in 
 the lime-water for 24 hours, uft< r which, mil it in a strong alum- 
 water for 1 hour, and dry it in the air.
 
 234 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 To Cut and Polish Marble. Tho marble saw is a thin plate 
 df soft iron, continually supplied, during its sawing motion, with 
 water ami tin- sharped sand. Th" -awing of moderate pieces is 
 performed by liainl; but that of large slabs i, most economically 
 done by a proper mill. The first substance used in the polishing 
 is the sharpest sand, which mu-t be worked with till the 
 surlace becomes perfectly Hat. Then a second, and even a third 
 sand, of Increasing fineness is to be applied. The next substance 
 is emery, of progressive degrees of fineness; after which, tripoli is 
 employed; and the last polMi is given with tin putty. The body 
 with which the sand is rubbed upon the marble is usually a plate 
 of iron; but, for the subsequent process, a plate of lead" is used, 
 with line sand and emery. The polishing rubbers are coarse linen 
 cloths, or bagging, wedged tiuht into an iron planing tool. In 
 every step of the operation, a constant trickling supply of water is 
 required. 
 
 Alabaster, Marble, or Stone may be stained of a yellow, r. !. 
 given. Line, purple, black, or auyof the compound co'lors, by the 
 stains used for wood. 
 
 Powerful Cement for Broken Marble. Take gum Arabic, 1 
 Ib. ; make into a thick mucilage; add to it powdered planter of Paris, 
 \% Ibs.; sifted quick-lime, 5 oz.; mix well; heat the marble, and 
 apply the mixture. 
 
 Seven Colors for Staining Marble. It is necessary to heat 
 the marble, hot, but not so hot as to injure it, the proper beat being 
 that at which the colors nearly boil. BLUE. Alkaline indigo dye, 
 or turnsole with alkali. 
 
 RED. Dragon's blood in spirits of wine. 
 
 YELLOW. Gamboge in spirits of wine. 
 
 GOLD COLOR. Sal-ammoniac, sulphate of zinc, and verdigris, 
 equal parts. 
 
 GRKEN. Sap green, in spirits of potash. 
 
 BROWN. Tincture of logwood. 
 
 CRIMSON. Alkanet root in turpentine. Marble may be veined 
 according to taste. To stain marble wtll is a difficult operation. 
 
 Perpetual Ink for Tombstones, Etc. Pitch, 11 Ibs.; lamp- 
 black, 1 Ib. ; turpentine sufficient; mix with heat. 
 
 To Clean Old Marble. Take a bullock's gall, 1 gill of soap 
 lees, half a gill of turpentine: make into a paste with pipe-Hay, 
 apply it to the marble; let it dry a day or two, then rub it off, aiid 
 it will appear equal to new; if very dirty, repeat the application. 
 
 To Remove Grease. Aqua ammonia, 2 oz. ; soft water, 1 qt. ; 
 
 saltpetre, 1 teaspooiiful: shaving soap in shavings, 1 o/.; mix all 
 together; dissolve the soap well, and any grease or dirt that cannot 
 be removed with this preparation nothing else need be tried for it. 
 
 To Clean Marble. Take two parts of common soda, 1 pnrt 
 pumice stone, anil 1 part of finely powdered chalk: sift it through 
 a fine sieve, and mix it with water: then rub it well all over the 
 marble, and the stains will be removed: then wash the marble over 
 with soap and water, and it will be as clean as it was at first.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 235 
 
 To make a Chemical Barometer. Take a long, narrow bottle, 
 and put into it '2^ lrs. of eamphor: spirits of wine, 11 <lrs. When 
 th- i-ainphor is dissolved, add to it the following mixture: Water, 9 
 itpetre, 38 grs. ; sal-ammoniac, 38 grs. Dissolve these salts 
 in the water prior to mixing with the camphorated spirit; then 
 shake all well together, cork the bottle well, wax the top, hut after- 
 wards make a very small aperture in the cork with a red-hot nee- 
 dle. By observing the different appearances which the materials 
 assume as the weather changes, it becomes an excellent prbgnosti- 
 cator of a coming storm or of a sunny sky. 
 
 "Waterproofing for Clothing. Boiled oil, 15 Ibs. ; beeswax, 1 
 Ib. ; ground litharge, 13 Ibs.; mix, and apply with a brush to the 
 article, previously stretching against a wall or on a table, previously 
 well washing and drying each article before applying the com- 
 position. 
 
 To Renew Old Silks. Unravel and put them in a tub, cover 
 them with cold water, let them remain one hour; dip them up and 
 down, l>ut do not wring; hang up to drain, and iron while very 
 damp, aud it will look beautiful 
 
 Potter's Invisible Waterproofing for Clothing. Tmbue 
 the cloth on the wrong side with a solution of isinglass, alum, 
 and soap dissolved in water, forming an emulsion of a milky thick- 
 ness; apply with a brush, rubbing in well. When dry, it is brushed 
 on the wrong side against the grain, and then gone over with a 
 brush dipped In water; afterwards brushed down smooth. 
 
 To raise a Nap on Cloth. Clean the article, well; soak it In 
 cold water for half an hour; put it on a board, and rub the thread- 
 bare parts with a half-worn hatter's card filled with flocks, or with 
 a teazle or a prickly thistle until a nap is raised; then lay the nap 
 the right way with a hatter's brush, and hang up to dry. 
 
 Black Reviver for Cloth. Bruised galls, 1 Ib. ; logwood, 2 
 Ibs.; green vitriol, % Ib.; water, 5 quarts; boil two hours; strain, and 
 it is ready for use. 
 
 Trapper's and Angler's Secret for Game and Fish. A 
 few drops of oil of anise, or oil rhodium, on any trapper's bait, will 
 entice any wild animal into the snare trap. India cockle mixed 
 with flour dough, and sprinkled on the surface of still water, will 
 intoxicate fish, render them insensible; when coining up to the sur- 
 face, they can be lifted into a tub of fresh water to revive them, 
 when they may be used without fear. 
 
 Easy Method of Preventing Moths In Purs or Woolens. 
 Sprinkle the furs or woolen stufts, as well as the drawers or boxes 
 in which they are kept, with spirits of turpentine, the unpleasant 
 scent of which will speedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to 
 
 the air. Some persons place sheets of paper, moistened with spirits 
 
 ntine, over, under, or between pieces of c 
 it a very effectual method. Many woolen drapers put bits of cam- 
 
 phor, the size of a nutmeg, in 'papers, on different parts of the 
 shelves in their shops; and as they brush their cloths every two,
 
 236 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 three, or four months, this keeps thorn free from moths; and this 
 should be done in boxes where furs, A.-C., ;-re put. A tallow candle 
 is frequently put within each mult when laid by. 
 
 Clothing Renovator. Soft water, 1 gal.; make a stron 
 tion of logwood by boiling the extract with tin- water. Strain; 
 when cool, add '_' (>'/..; gum arahic in powder; bottle, cork well, and 
 set aside for use; clean the coat well from grease and dirt, and apply 
 the above liquid with a sponge evenly. Dilute to suit the color, 
 and hang in the shade to dry; afterwards brush the nap smooth, 
 and it will look like new. 
 
 Waterproofing for Porous Cloth. Dissolve 21$ Ihs. alum 
 
 In 4 gals, water; dissolve also, in a separate vessel the Htm 
 of acetate of load in the same quantity of water. \Vh-n both an; 
 well dissolved, mix the solutions together; and, when the sulphate. 
 of lead resulting from this mixture has been precipitated to the 
 bottom of the vessel in th" form of a powder, pour off the solution, 
 and plunge into it the fabric to be rendered waterproof. Wash 
 and rub it well during a few minutes, and hang it in the air to dry. 
 
 How to Write on Glass In the Snn. Dissolve chalk in aqua 
 fortis to the consistency of milk, and add to that a sirong solu- 
 tion of silver. Keep this in a glass decanter well stopped. Then 
 cut out from a paper the letters you would have appear, and pa>te 
 the paper on the decanter or jar. which you are to place in the sun 
 in such a manner that its rays may pass throng)) the -paces cut out 
 ot the paper, ami fall on the surface of the liquor. The part of the 
 gla~s through which the rays pass will turn black, while that under 
 the paper will remain white. Do not shake the bottle during the 
 operation. Used for lettering jars. 
 
 To Transfer Prints, Etc., to Glsss. Take of gum sanrtarnoh, 
 4oz.; mastic, 1 o/..; Venice turpentine, 1 ox.; alcohol, 15 oz. Digest 
 in a bottle, frequently shaking, and it is ready for use. Direction-,; 
 Vsc, if possible, pood plate -glass of the si/.e of the picture to be 
 transferred, go over it with the above varnish, beginning at one 
 side, press down the picture firmly and evenly as you proceed, so 
 that no air can possibly lodge between; put aside, and let it dry per- 
 fectly, then moisten the paper cautiously with water, and remove 
 it piece-meal by rubbing carefully with the fingers; if managed 
 nicely, a complete transfer of the picture to the glass will be 
 effected. 
 
 Paper for Photographing. Wash the paper with a solution 
 of nitrate of silver, ~> grs.; distilled water, ]4 oz.; dry the paper, 
 and wash it with iodide of potassium, 5 grs.; distilled water, % 07..; 
 dry with a gentle heat; repeat the wash with the silver solution; 
 and, when dry, the paper is ready for use. The sensitive surface 
 is an iodide of silver, and is easily affected by light. 
 
 How to Photograph on Glsss. Take dry saltpetre, ^ o?..; 
 strong oil vitriol, ^ o/..; mi:: in a f.r.nbler. ad i -'0 Drains of dry cot- 
 tou wool, stir with a glass rod five minutes, remove the cotton', aud
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 237 
 
 wash from all traces of the acid in four or five waters; then drj 
 carefully under li'0. This is gun cotton. To make collodion, dis- 
 solve 20 grs. gun-cotton in 6 oz. sulphuric ether, to which add 
 alcohol, X oz.; let it stand a short time, and pour off the clear intc 
 bottle No. 1 for use. In bottle Xo. 2, put 1 oz. alcohol, and as much 
 'm h ! of ammonium as it will dissolve; then add as much iodide of 
 silver (made from nitrate of silver and iodide of potassium) as the 
 solution will take up. Get another bottle. No. 3, with a wide 
 mouth; into it put 1 oz. out of No. 1, to which add 15 or 20 drops 
 out of No. 2. The collodion thus formed is call collodio-iodide ol 
 silver. Having well cleaned a plate of glass of the size of the 
 frame in your camera, coat it completely and very evenly on one 
 side, by pouring the collodion on the centre from 'the bottle; pour 
 back any excess of liquid from one corner of the glass, and in this 
 way you coat the plate in a uniform manner. To prepare the plate 
 thus coated for the camera, plunge it carefully and quickly into a 
 bath of the following proportions, then allow it to remain covered 
 in the solution ahout two minutes: Distilled water, 1 oz.; nitrate of 
 silver, HO grs. ; alcohol, 30 drops; dissolve and filter. Obtain a good 
 focus, place the plate iu the frame and the frame in the camera, 
 pull up the slide in front, and expose a proper length of time: hav- 
 ing closed your slide, remove the frame to your dark room, take out 
 the plate, and develop the picture with the following solution, hold- 
 Ing the plate perfectly level, the collodion side upward, and pour- 
 ing enough of it on the plate to cover it; in a short time the picture 
 will be developed: Water, 1 oz. ; copperas, 14 grs. ; saltpetre, 10 grs.; 
 acetic acid, }4 drachm; nitric acid, 2 drops; then wash with water, 
 and pour over it some of the solution of hyposulphite of soda made 
 thus: Water, 1 pt. ; hyposulphate of soda, 4 oz., allow it to remain 
 for two minutes, then wash off thoroughly, and your picture is 
 finished. By this process, a most beautiful picture is obtained in a 
 space of time varying from a fraction of a second up to 15 seconds, 
 with the most perfect detail of ail the parts. 
 
 Bottle Glass. No. 1. DARK GREEN. Fused glauber-salts, 11 
 Ibs.; soaper's salts, 12 IDS.; waste soap-ashes, % mishel; silicious 
 sand, %cvit.; glass-skimmings, 22 Ibs.; broken green glass, 1 cwt. 
 to l^ cwt. ; basalt, 25 Ibs. to X cwt 
 
 No. 2. PALE GREEN. Pale sand, 100 Ibs.; kelp, 35 Ibs.; lixivia- 
 ted wood ashes, \\$ cwt.; fresh, do., 40 Ibs.; pipe-clay, % cwt.; cul- 
 let, or broken glass, \X cwt. 
 
 No. 3. Yellow or white sand, 120 parts; woodashes, 80 parts; 
 pearlashes, 20 parts; common salt, 15 parts; white arsenic, 1 part; 
 very pale. 
 
 Crystal Glass. No. 1. Refined pot-ashes, 60 Ibs.; sand, 120 Ibs.: 
 chalk, 24 ll).s.; !iilr> and white arsenic, of each '2 Ibs.; oxide of 
 manganese, 1 to 2 oz. No. 2. Pure white sand, 120 parts; refined 
 ashes, 70 parts; saltpetre; 10 parts; white arsenic, % part; oxide of 
 manganese, *4 part. No. 3. Sand, 120 parts; red lead, 50 parts; 
 purified pearlaah, 40 parts; nitre, 20 parts; manganese, % part.
 
 238 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Flask Glass (/">''. MfcUM.) Pnn -i! : <'i<ms sand, fil parts; 
 
 p.!a-!i. :!'.< ]>!irls; lime, 21 parts; heavy .-par, J part>; oxide of 
 nianyaue.M', 4. s. 
 
 Best German Crystal Glass. Take 120 ]bs. of calcined flints 
 or white sail- 1; he^t pearl-ashes, 70 lh..; sa'tpeiiv, I 
 \i lb.; and .", oz. manganese. No. 2. (< H> M-I.K. ) Nmd or Hint, 120 
 rlash, 4; ll>s.; nitre. 7 li>s.; arsenic, 6 Ibs.; magnesia, 5 oz. 
 This will require a long continuance in the furnace, as do all others 
 when much of the arsenic is used. 
 
 Plate Glass. No. 1. Pure sand. 40 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 
 26M parts; lime. 4 parts; nitre, 1'J parts; broken plate 
 parts. N'o. i'. UltE's. Quart/.-saiid, H!> parts; c;i.lein,-(l sulphate 
 of soda, 24 parts; lime, L'O ]>arts; cullet of sod.i-ijhiss, i_' purfs. 
 No. 3. VIENNA. Sand, 100 parts; calcined sulphate of soda. r,n 
 parts; lime, 20 parts; charcoal, i'^ parts. N'o. j. FUKMH. White 
 quart/ sand and cullet, of eaeh 300 parts; dry carbonate of soda, 
 100 parts; slacked lime, 43 parts. 
 
 Crown Glass. No. 1. Rand, 300 Ibs.; soda-ash, 200 ;i,s. ; 
 lime, 30 to :r>lls. ; 20.) to :w Ibs. of br..ken ^'l.i->. Nn. 2. (I)oHK- 
 MIAN.) Pure silicious sand, ('< ' parts; jtotash, 22 parts; lime, 12 
 parts, oxide of manganese, 1 part. No. 3. (Pnop. SCHWI 
 Pure sand, 100 Ibs.; dry sulphate of soda, 50 parts; dry quicklime 
 in powder, 17 to 20 paits; charcoal, 4 parts. PRODUCT White and 
 good. 
 
 Best Window Glass. No. 1. Tako of white sand, fin Ibs.; 
 purified pearlashes, :;.) lls. ; of saltp.-tiv, \:, Ibs.; of borax, 1 lb.; 
 of arsenic, ' 11). This will be very clear and colorless if the ingre- 
 dients be good, and will not be very dear. No. 2. (CHEAPER.) 
 White sand, GO Ibs.; unpurified pearlashes, 25 Ibs.; of common 
 salt, 10 Ibs.; nitre, 5 lhs. ; arsenic, 2 UK.; manganese, 1% oz. No. 3. 
 COMMON (iur.KN WINDOW-GLASS. White sand, <iO Ibs.; unpuri- 
 lied !>earlashes, 30 Ibs.; common salt, 10 Ibs.; arsenic, 2 Ibs.; man- 
 ganese, 2 oz. 
 
 Looking Glass Plate. No. 1. Cleansed white sand. r,0 Ibs.; 
 pearlashes, puriti-d, 2.1 Ibs.; saltpetre, i:. H>s. ; borax. 7 ll>->. Tliis 
 coini)ositiou should be continued lonij in th<- fire, which should be 
 sometimes Strong, *nd afterwards, more nio.lerate, that the glass 
 maybe entirely free from bubbles before it be worked. Nn. 2. 
 White sand, GO Ibs.; pearl-ashes. 20 Ibs.; common salt, 10 !!>;.; 
 nitre, 7 Ibs.; borax, 1 lb. This ylass will run with as little heat as 
 the former; but it will be more brittle, and refract the rays of light 
 in a greater decree. No. 3. Washed white sand, (V) Ibs'.; purified 
 pearl-ashes, 2."> Ibs.; nitre, 15 Ibs.; borax, 7 Ibs. If properly man- 
 aged, this glass will be colorless. 
 
 Window Glass. No. 1. Dried sulphate of soda, 11 Ibs.; 
 BQaper-salt, 10 ibs. ; lixiviated soap-waste, ',; bush.; sand, 
 Ibs.; glass-pot skimmings, 22 Ibs.; brok- :> i lass, i c\vt. 
 
 No. 2. (PALKR). White sand, GO ll)s. ; pearlashes, 30 Ibs.; com- 
 mon salt, 10 Ibs.; arsenic, 10 Ibs.; oxide of manganese, 2 to 4 oz.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 239 
 
 No. 3. (VERT PALE.) White sand, 60 Ibs.; good potashes, 25 Ibs 
 common salt, 10 Ibs.; nitre, 5 Ibs.; arsenic, 2 Ibs.; manganese- 2 to 
 4 oz. as required; broken ptb window-glass, 14 Ibs. 
 
 Magic Paper. Take lard oil, or sweet oil, mixed to the 
 consisfenceyof cream, with either of the following paints, the color 
 of which is desired: Prussian blue, lamp-black, Venetian red, or 
 chrome preen, either of which should be rubbed with a knife on a 
 plate or stone until smooth. Use rather thin but firm paper; put 
 on with a sjmnge, and wipe off as dry as convenient; then lay them 
 between uncolored paper, or between newspapers, and press by 
 laying books or some other flat substance upon them until the sur- 
 plus oil is absorbed, when it is ready for use. 
 
 To Make Grindstones from Common Sand. River sand, 
 30 Ibs.; shellac, 10 part*; powdered glass, 2 parts; melt in an iron 
 pot, and cast into moulds. 
 
 Printing Rollers are made of glue and molasses, with somtv 
 times a little Spanish white. The proportions are 1 Ib. glue to 1 
 pint molasses. Break the glue to pieces, soak for 24 hours is suffi- 
 cient, then melt with the molasses, and cast in a mould previously 
 oiled to prevent it from sticking. When it gets hard after long use 
 remelt it, using a little more molasses. 
 
 Savage's Printing Ink. Pure balsam of copaiba, 9 oz. ; lamp- 
 black, 3 oz.; indigo and Prussian blue, each 5 drachms; Indian red, 
 % oz.; yellow soap, 3 oz. Miz, and grind to the utmost smooth- 
 ness. 
 
 Holes in Millstones are filled with melted alum, mixing 
 burr sand with it. If the hole is large, put some pieces of burr-mill 
 stones in it first, and pour in melted alum. These pieces of block 
 should be cut exactly to fit. There should be small joints, and 
 fastened with plaster of Paris. These holes should be cut at least 
 4 inches deep; there is then no danger of their getting loose. 
 
 Fitting a New Back in an Old Millstone. Block your 
 stone up with a block of wood, having its face down until it lies 
 even, solid, and perfectly level; then pick and scrape off all the 
 old plaster down to the face blocks, so that none remains but what 
 is in the joints of the face blocks; then wash these blocks, and keep 
 them soaked with water. Keep a number of pieces of burr blocks, 
 at the same time, soaked with water. Take a pail half filled with 
 clean water, and mixed with 2 tablespoon luls of glue water, boiled 
 and dissolved; mix in with your hand plaster of Paris until it bo 
 thick enough that it will not run; and, breaking all the lumps, pour 
 this on the stone, rubbing it in with your hand; the stone being at 
 the same time damped; and place small pieces of stone all over the 
 joints of the face blocks; you then, with more plaster, mixed hi the 
 16
 
 240 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 same way, but more stiff, with this and pieces of burr stones, build 
 walls roiind the eye and verge 4 or :> inches high, leaving the 
 surface uneven ami the eye larger, as it v.ill be brought to its 
 proper size by the last operation. It is better to build u]> the wall 
 of the running stone round the verge for 3 inch.-* without any 
 spalls, so that the holes may be cut in to balance it. If you \\i-ii 
 to make your stone heavier, you will take small pieee> of i'ron, per- 
 fectly clean and free from grease, ami lay them evenly all around 
 the s'tone in the hollow phuv between the t\\o \\alls just built; and 
 with plaster mixed a little thicker than milk, pour in under and 
 through all the crevices in the iron until the surface is nearly level 
 with the two walls. If the stones do not require additional \\.-ht 
 added, instead of iron use pieces of stone the same way, )ea\ing 
 the surface rough and uneven. Again, as before, build walls 
 round the verge of the stone, and round tin- eye of the stone, until 
 they are within li inches of the thickness you want your stones tube, 
 the wall round the eye being 2 incbei higher than that round the 
 verge, and tilling the space between the walls with stones; and, 
 pouring in planter again, make it nearly level with the walls, but 
 leaving the surface rough and jagged, to make the plaster adhere 
 well to it. Let it stand until the back is dr\ and perfectly s.-t, 
 when you raise the stone upon it< edge, ami, with a trowel, planter 
 round the edge of the stone neatly, giving it a taper of % inch 
 from the face to the back of the stone. When cased round in this 
 way, lay the stone down on the cock-head; it being in the balance 
 ryne, but the driver off, then raise the spindle, and balance the 
 stone as already directed before putting on the remainder of the 
 back. Then have a tin made the .si/..- of the eye, and to n ach from 
 the balance ryne to th- thickm-s-; you want the .stone to be at the 
 eye. This tin should be exaetiy fitted to its place, and made fast; 
 then fit a hoop of wood or iron round the verire. having the upper 
 edge of the thickness from the face you want the stone to be at the 
 verge, and equal all round. This hoop should be greased; and all 
 the cracks round it, and the tin in the eye, being -topped, you pour 
 thin plaster (with more glue water then in previous operations, to 
 prevent it from setting so quickly, and to give time to finish off the 
 back correctly) until it be level with the hoop round the verge. and 
 with a straight edge, one end resting on the hoop, and the other 
 end resting on the tin at the eye; then, by moving it round, and 
 working the plaster with a trowel, make the surface of the back 
 even and smooth between these two points. The hoop is then 
 taken off. and the back and edges planed smooth; then lower the 
 spindle until your runner lies solid, and put your band or hoop on, 
 it being first made nearly red hot, and taking care that it is of suffi- 
 cient size not to require too much driving; if fitting too tightly, it 
 may loosen the back in driving it to its proper place. It 'may be. 
 cooled gently by pouring water on it; and, when cool, it should 
 fit tight 
 
 Mill Dams. "Wlion building a dam. you should select tho most 
 suitable place. If you can, place it across the stream near a rocky 
 bluff, so that tho ends of the dam may run into the bluff. This will 
 prevent the water running by at the" ends of the dam. Build your 
 dam strong; if this is not done, they are breaking up often, causing 
 ruinous expense in money and loss of time.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 241 
 
 Rock Dama are incomparably the best in use, if there is plenty 
 of material at hand for building, and a rock bottom to the stream- 
 If there is not a rock bottom, you should dig a trench in the bottom 
 deep enongh, so that the water cannot undermine it. This should 
 be the same as if you were building the foundation of a large build- 
 ing. The wali to be built should be of a small, circular form, so 
 that the back of the circle should be next to the body of water 
 which may by its pressure tighten it. To secure the water from 
 leaking through at the ends of the dam, dig a ditch deeper than the 
 bottom of the river; then fill this with small pieces of rock, and pour 
 in cement. This cement is made of hydraulic cement, and is made 
 of one part cement to five parts of pure sand. It will effectually 
 stop all crevices. A rock dam, if well built, will be perfectly tight. 
 Use as large rock as you conveniently can move; building this wall 
 4 to 6 feet thick, according to the length of the dam, with jam or 
 buttresses every place where they are needed to strengthen it. 
 Make true joints to these rocks, especially on the ends, so that they 
 may join close together. When you have the outside walls laid in 
 cement, for every layer fill the middle up with pieces of small rock, 
 pouring in your grout, so that there may not be a crevice but what 
 is filled. If there is any crevice or hole left open, the water will 
 break through, wearing it larger and larger. If the stream is wide 
 and large, it is necessary to build the dam in two sections, which 
 should be divided by a waste way, necessary for the waste or surplus 
 water to run over, to keep the "head in its proper place or height 
 Let each section, next to where the water is to be run over, be 
 abutments, built to strengthen the dam. The last layer of rock, on 
 the top where the waste water runs over, should project 5 or 6 inches 
 over the back of the dam, so that the water may not undermine it. 
 This last layer should be of large rocks, and jointed true; then laid 
 in hydraulic cement, in proportion of 1 of cement to 3 of sand. 
 When the dam is built, the front should be filled up with coarse 
 gravel or clay; this is best done with teams, as the more it is tramped 
 the more durable it becomes. 
 
 Frame Dams. In building a frame dam commence with a good 
 foundation, laying the first sills in the bottom, of sufficient depth. 
 They should be large square timbers that will last in the water 
 without rotting. Where there is a soft foundation, the bottom should 
 first be made level; then dig trenches for the mud sills, abont 7 or 8 
 feet apart, lengthways of the stream, and 10 or 12 feet long. Into 
 these first sills other sills must be framed, and put crosswise of tfhe 
 stream, 6 or 8 feet apart, to reach as far across the stream as neces- 
 sary. Then two outside sills should be piled down with 2-inch 
 plank driven down to a depth of 4 or 5 feet. If this can be done 
 conveniently, they are to be jointed as closely as possible. It 
 would be better to line with some stuff 1 inch thick; then with posts 
 their proper length, about 12 or 14 inches square, which should be 
 framed into the uppermost sills, in both sides, and all the way 
 across the dam, from bank to bank, at a distance of 6 feet apart. 
 Then, with braces to each post, to extend two-thirds of the length 
 of the post, where they should be joined together with a lock, in- 
 stead of a mortise and tenon, with an iron bolt of 1 or \% inches 
 in diameter, going through both, and tightened with a screw and
 
 242 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 nut. When mortises and tenons are used, they often become rot- 
 ten and useless in a few days. Tin -e hr.iees should ! set at an 
 angle of 50 or 60 with the 'other end nn.Ttised into tlio mud sill. 
 These braces require to be about > to s indies, and a^ long a- \\i 
 lind necessary; being covered with dirt, it will not decay fora long 
 time, as the air is excluded. Th- ->.ild be capped from 
 
 one to the other, plate fasliion. The posts should be lined with '2 
 or 2]4 inch plank on tin- insid". pinned to the plank, and should, in 
 the middle, he Tilled ill with dirt. 
 
 If the stream is large and wide, the dam should be built in two 
 sections, which should IK' divided by a waste-way for the surplus 
 water, which should be in the centre of the dam, and sufficient for 
 all the waste-water to run over. Let each section of the dam form 
 an abutment next to the waste- way, placinp cells or sills 4 feet apart 
 the length of the waste-way; in each of these sills, posts should be 
 framed with a brace for the sides. The<.- rows ( .f potto, standing 
 across the dam, will form the sectional abutments; the middle one 
 may be constructed by being lengthways of the stream, with -lore 
 braces, so that .they will not be in the way of driftwood UMBtng 
 down the stream; it being necessary fer stio'ni: pfoeefl for a bridpe. 
 Then cover the sills with an apron of 2-inch plank joined perfectly 
 straight, to extend 30 or 40 feet below the dam, to prevent the 
 undermining of the dam. The planks which are used for the pur- 
 pose of lining the posts which form the abutments of each section 
 of the dam and the ends of the waste-way, should be truly pointed. 
 so as to prevent any leakage. The diim b< ing built." the dirt 
 should be filled in with teams; as the more it is tramped the better. 
 Clay or coarse gravel is the best. Then place your gate-, on the 
 upper side of the waste-way, the si/.e that is mY. >>ai \ to a level 
 with low-water mark; which gates are not to be rais'ed except in 
 times of high water, as the proper height of the mill-pond should 
 be regulated by boards placed over the gate for the desired head. 
 as the water should be allowed to pass at all times freelv over 
 them. To strengthen the dam, if you think neccssarv "'-inch 
 plank may be used in lining the front side of the dam, long enough 
 to reach from the bottom of the stream (on an inclined plane, and 
 next to the body of water) to the top of the dam, and filled up 
 nearly to the top of the dam with clay or gravel well tramped 
 down. 
 
 Brnsh or Log Dams are very often used in small, muddy 
 streams. When the bottom of the stream is of a soft nature; take 
 a flat-boat where you want to fix your dam, and drive piles the 
 whole length of the stream, about 3 or 4 feet apart, as deep as you 
 can. Take young oak saplings, pointed at the end, for the pur- 
 pose. If you can. construct a regular pile-driver, similar to those 
 in use for making trestle-work on the railways. The weight may 
 be pulled up by horses instead of an engine. " When you have fin- 
 ished driving piles, make some boxes or troughs ,,f'o or 3 j nc h 
 plank, about 3 feet wide and as Ion- as the plank is. Sink tlie-e in 
 the water, the length of the dam. dos- to the piles, lv loadino- 
 them with rock, until they are at the bottom of the stream filling 
 in the front part of the dam with dirt and hnnh. n-arlv to the 
 height you want it. This kind of dam will last a loug time.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 243 
 
 Whenever there is a small break in the dam or race, cut up some 
 willows anil brash, put them in the break along with some straw 
 and dirt, and ram them down with clay. 
 
 In regard to the flume, the greatest care must be taken to insure 
 strength and durability, combined with lightness. Every step 
 takrn in its constructiou must be of such a nature as to unite these 
 qualities in the highest possible degree, otherwise the whole is, in a 
 manner, labor lost. 
 
 To Restore Burnt Steel, and Weld Caat Steel. Borax, 48 
 oz.; sal .mi MM MI ir. 10 oz. ; prussiate potash, 8 oz.; rosin, 4 oz.; alco- 
 hol, ',. gill; soft water, ',, pint. Put into an iron pan, and hold 
 over a slow fire till it comes to a slow boil, and until the liquid 
 matter evaporates, not letting it l>oil hard, and being careful to stir 
 it well from the bottom all the time. 
 
 Steel m;i \ 
 and 
 ever. 
 
 xjel may be burned till it drops apart, and the particles gathered 
 welded together with this composition, making it as durable as 
 
 Superior Bell Metal. Copper, 100 Ibs.; tin, 23 Ibs. 
 
 Electrum. Copper, 8 nickel, 4 zinc, 3J4 parts. This compound 
 is unsurpassed for ease of workmanship and beauty of appear- 
 ance. 
 
 To "Write in Silver. Mix 1 oz. of the finest pewter or block tin. 
 and 2 oz. of quicksilver together till both become fluid, then grind 
 it with gum water, and write with it. The writing will then look 
 as if done with silver. 
 
 Best Bronze for Brass. Take 1 Ib. muriatic acid, and H K>- 
 white anu-nic. Put them into an earthen vessel, and then proceed in 
 the usual manner. 
 
 Another Bronze for Brass. One ounce muriate of ammonia, % 
 oz. alum, \i oz. arsenic, dissolved all together hi 1 pint of strong 
 vinegar. 
 
 Zincing. Copper and brass vessels maybe covered with a firmly 
 adherent Taver of pure zinc by boiling them in contact with a solu- 
 tion of chloride of zinc, pure zinc turnings being at the same time 
 present in considerable excess. 
 
 Dentist's Emery "Wheels. Emery, 4 Ibs.; shellac, H ^-J m elt 
 the shellac over a slow fireistir in the emery, and pour it into a 
 mould of plaster of Paris. When cold it is ready for use. 
 
 Incrustation of Boilers.-QELFOSSE's PATENT). -If the boiler 
 be stationary, and fed with fresh vater, the amount of anti-petrily- 
 ing mixture per horse power for 336 hours' consumption may be
 
 244 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 made by mixing together 12 oz. muriate of soda, 2 drs. of dry tan- 
 nie M -allicacid, '2X oz. of hydrate of soda, or 1 or >, o/.. .1 Mb- 
 carbonate of potash. For locomotive boilers travelling an average 
 of 140 mill's per day, the quantity of the mixture per liorsi' p., \\.-r 
 is increased oue-fifth. If the water l>r braekUh, or a mixture of 
 salt and fresh, the muriate of soda is omitted, and in-t. ad of j-j <,/., 
 are used for 2> oz. of hydrate of soda, and .0 di>. in-trad i>i _ ot tin- 
 dry tannic or gallic extract. The mixture is also prepared in this 
 manner when sea water is used in the boiler. The patentee prefers 
 introducing the mixture into stationary boilers in qnai ' 
 two, three, or more days, but locomotive and marine boiler.- ar j to 
 be supplied daily with'a portion of the mixture, corresponding with 
 the amount of duty to be performed. 
 
 To Lessen Friction In Machinery. Grind together black lead 
 with 4 times its weight of lard or tallow. Camphor is sometimes 
 added (7 Ibs, to the hundred weight. ) 
 
 Colored Glass. (FraE BLUE). To 10 Ibs. flint class, previ- 
 ously melted and cast into water, add zaflfer, (i drs., }^ oz. of cal- 
 cined copper, prepared by putting sheet copper into a ernciltle, and 
 exposing it to the action of a fire not Mnmg enough to melt the 
 copper, and you will have the copper in scales, which you pound. 
 
 BRIGHT PURPLE. Use 10 Ibs. flint glass as before; zaffer, 5 drs.; 
 precipitate of calcium, 1 dr. 
 
 GOLD YELLOW. Twenty-eight pounds flint glass, and a quarter 
 pound of the tartar which is found in urine, purify by putting it in 
 a crucible in the fire till it smoke no more; add 2 oz. ot nianga- 
 
 To Take a Plaster of Paris Cast from a Person's Face. The 
 person must lie on his back, and his hair lie tied behind, into each 
 nostril put a conical piece of paper op<;n at each end to allow of 
 breathing. The face is to be lightly oiled over, and the planter, 
 being properly prepared, it is to lx; poured over the face, taking 
 particular care that the eyes are shut, till it is a quarter of an IncfS 
 thick. In a few minutes the plaster may be removed. In this a 
 mold is to be formed, from which a second cast is to be taken, that 
 will furnish casts exactly like the original. 
 
 To Harden and Temper Cast Steel. For saws and springs in 
 general, the following is an excellent liquid: Spermaceti oil, 20 
 gals.; beef suet rendered, 20 Ibs.; neat's-foot oil, 1 gallon; pitch, 1 
 Ib.; black resin, 3 Ibs. The last two articles must be previously 
 melted together, and then added to the other ingredients, when the 
 whole must be heated in a proper iron vessel, with a close oovr 
 fitted to it, until all moisture is evaporated, and the compoMtiuii 
 will take fire on a flaming body being presented to its surface. 
 
 Furniture Oil. Linseed oil, 1 gallon; alkanet root, 3 oz.; rose
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 245 
 
 pink, 1 oz. Boil them together ten minutes, and strain so that the 
 oil be quite clear. 
 
 To Cast Figures in Imitation of Ivory. Make isinglass and 
 brandy into a paste, with powdered egg-shells very finely ground. 
 You may give it what color you choose; but cast it warm into your 
 mould which you previously oil over; leave the figure in the mould 
 till dry. and you will find on taking it out that it bears a very strong 
 resemblance to ivory. 
 
 To Print a Picture from the Print Itself. The page or picture 
 is soaked in a solution, first of potassa, and then of tartaric acid. 
 This produces a perfect diffusion of crystals of bitartrate of potassa 
 through the texture of the unprinted part of the paper. As this 
 salt resists oil, the ink roller may now be passed over the surface, 
 without transferring any part of its contents except to the printed 
 part. 
 
 To Clean Old Oil-paintings. Dissolve a small quantity of salt 
 in stale urine; dip a woolen cloth in the mixture, and rub the 
 paintings over with it till they are clean; then wash them with a 
 sponge and clean water; dry them gradually, and rub them over 
 with a clean cloth. Should the dirt r>e not easily removed by the 
 above preparation, add a small quantity of soft soap. Be very 
 careful not to rub the paintings too hard. 
 
 To Renew Old Oil-paintings. The blackened lights of old 
 pictures may be instantly restored to their original hue by touching 
 them with deutoxide of hydrogen diluted with six or eight times its 
 weight of water. The part must be afterwards washed with a clean 
 sponge and water. 
 
 To Lengthen Levers of Anchor -escapemenfWatches with- 
 out Hammering or Soldering. Cut square across with a screw- 
 head file, a little back from the point above the fork, and, when you 
 have thus cut into it to a sufficient depth, bend forward the desired 
 distance the piece thus partially detached. In the event of the piece 
 snapping off while bending which, however, rarely happens file 
 down the point level with the fork, and insert a pin, English lever 
 style. 
 
 Chain Dip Solution, for Brass Chains, &c. Sulphuric acid, 
 2^ oz; nitric acid, 2 oz.; rain-water, 2 oz.; saltpetre, 1 dr.; mix to- 
 gether in a glass bottle, and let stand a few hours. Apply by dipping 
 the article into the solution quickly, and then at once wash off thor- 
 oughly, and rinse in clean rain-water and dry in saw-dust. Re- 
 moves instantaneously all stains or discolorations, and gives to the 
 article a perfectly bright appearance. 
 
 Pickle for Frosting and Whitening Silver Goods. Sulphu- 
 ric acid, 1 dr.; water, 4 oz.; heat the pickle, and immerse the silver
 
 246 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 in until frosted as desired; then wash off clean, and dry with a soft 
 liiii'ii doth, or in line clean saw-dust. For whitening only, a smaller 
 proportion of ucid uiny be uocd. 
 
 Etruscan Gold Coloring. Alum, 1 oz.; fine table-salt, 1 oz.; 
 saltpetre (powdered,) 3 OZ.; hot rain-water, suflicient to make tin- -o- 
 lutioii, when dissolved, about the consistency of thick air; then add 
 .sufficient muriatic arid to produce the color desired. The d give 
 of success niu^t. always depend, in a greater or le-.s decree, upon 
 the skill or judgment of the operator. Tlie article to be .lored 
 should be from fourteen to eighteen carats fine, of purr pi Id and 
 copper only, and be free from coatings of tin or silver solder. The 
 solution la Deri used warm, and when freshly made the principle on 
 which it acts is to cat out the copper alloy irom the surface of the 
 article, leaving thereon purr, fronted gold only. After coloring, 
 wash off, first in rain-water, then in alcohol, and dry without rub- 
 bing, in fine, clean saw-dust. Fine Ktrusean jewelry that ha> been 
 del iced or tarnished by use may be perfectly renewed by the same 
 process. 
 
 Tarnish on Electro-plated Ware may be removed by immer- 
 sing the article from one to ten or fifteen minutes, or until the tarnish 
 has been removed, but no longer, in the following solution: Rain- 
 water, 2 gals.; cyanuret pota-sa, $ 1!>. ; dissolve, and put into a 
 stone jug or jar and closely cork. After immersion, the articles 
 must be taken out and thoroughly rinsed in two or three waters, 
 then dried with a soft linen cloth, or. if frosted or chased work, 
 with fine, clean saw-dust. Tarnished jewelry may be speedily 
 restored by this process; but make sure work of removing the alkali. 
 otherwise it will corrode the goods. 
 
 A Bright Gold Tinge may be given to silver hy steeping it for a 
 suitable length of time in a weak solution of sulphuric acid and 
 water strongly impregnated with iron-rust. 
 
 To Make a Diamond Mill. Make a brass chuck or wheel, suit- 
 able for use on a foot-lathe, with a flat, even surface or face of 
 about \% or 2 inches in diameter; then place a number of the 
 
 coarsest pieces of your diamond-dust on different parts ot iN face, 
 and with a smooth-faced steel hammer drive the pieces of dust all 
 evnly into the brass to nearly or quite level with the surface. Your 
 mill, thus prepared, is now used for making pallet jewels or lor 
 grinding stone and class of any kind. For polishing, use a bone or 
 boxwood chuck or wheel, of similar form to your mill, and coat it 
 lightly with the finest grade of your diamond-dust and oil; with this 
 a beautiful polish may be given to the hardest stone. 
 
 To Temper Case and other Springs of "Watches. Draw the 
 
 temper from the spring, and fit it property in its place in the watch; 
 then take it out and temp -r itl,:rd in rain-water (thr addition <>f n "ttle 
 table-salt to the water will be an improvement:) aft-r which place 
 it in a small sheet-iron ladle or cup and barely cover it with linseed
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 247 
 
 oil; then hold he ladle over a lighted lamp until the oil ignites- let 
 it burn until the oil is nearly, not quite all, consumed; then re-cover 
 with oil and burn down as before; and so a third time; at the end 
 of which, plunge it again into water. Main and hair springs may, 
 in like manner, be tempered by the same process: first draw the 
 temper, and properly coil and clamp to keep in position, and then 
 proceed the same as with case springs. 
 
 To Make Red Watch Hands. 1 oz. carmine, loz. muriate of 
 
 silver, % oz. tinner's japan; mix together in an earthen vessel, and 
 hold over a spirit-lamp until formed into a paste. Apply this to the 
 watch hand, and then lay it on a copper plate, face side up, and 
 heat the plate sufficiently to produce the color desired. 
 
 To Drill into Hard Steel. Make your drill oval in form, instead 
 of the usual pointed shape, and tempe'r as hard as it will bear with- 
 out breaking; then roughen the surface where you desire to drill 
 with a little diluted muriatic acid, and, instead of oil, use turpen- 
 tine or kerosene, in which a little gum camphor has been dissolved, 
 with vour drill. In operating, keep the pressure on your drill firm 
 and steady ; and if the bottom of the hole should chance to become 
 burnished, so that the drill will not act, as sometimes happens, 
 again roughen with diluted acid as before; then clean out the hole 
 carefully, and proceed again. 
 
 To Case-harden Iron. If you desire to harden to any consider- 
 able depth, put the article into a crucible with cyanide of potash, 
 cover over and heat altogether, then plunge into water. This pro- 
 cess will harden perfectly to the depth of two or three inches. 
 
 To Put Teeth in a Watch or Clock Wheels without Dove- 
 tailing or Soldeiing. Drill a hole somewhat wider than the tooth 
 square through the plate, a little below the base of the tooth; cut from, 
 the edge of the wheel square down to the hole already drilled; then 
 flatten a piece of wire so as to fit snugly into the cut of the saw, 
 and with a light hammer form a head on it like the head of a pin. 
 When thus prepared, press the wire or pin into position in the 
 wheel, the head filling the hole drilled through the plate, and the 
 end projecting out so as to form the tooth; then with a sharp 
 pointed graver cut a small groove each side of the pin from the 
 edge of the wheel down to the hole, and with a blow of yotfr ham- 
 mer spit-ad the face of the pin so as to fill the grooves just cut. 
 Kepeat the same operation on the other side of the wheel, and 
 finish off in the usual way. The tooth will be found perfectly 
 riveted in on every side, and as strong as the original one, while in 
 appearance it will be equal to the best dovetailing. 
 
 To Tighten a Cannon Pinion on the Centre Arbor when 
 too Loose. Grasp the arbor lightly with a pair of cutting nippers, 
 ami, by a single turn of the nippers around the arbor, cut or raise 
 a small thread thereon.
 
 248 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 Jeweller's Alloys. EIGHTEEN CARAT GOLD FOR RINGS. Gold 
 coin, V)% grs.; pure copper, 3 grs.; pure silver, 1>$ grs. 
 
 CHEAP GOLD, TWELVE CARAT. Gold coin, 25 grs.; pure copper, 
 13% grs.; pure silver, 7^ grs. 
 
 VERY CHEAP FOUR CARAT GOLD. Copper, 18 parts; gold, 4 
 parts; silver, 2 parts. 
 
 IMITATIONS OF GOLD. 1. Platina, 4 dwt; pure copper, 2'^ <hvt.; 
 slieet-/.iuc, 1 dwt.; block-tin, 1% dwt.; pure lead, I 1 , <l\\t. If 1hi* 
 should be found too hard or brittle for pnctteal use, re-melt in-,' the 
 composition with a little sal-ammoniac will generally render it malle- 
 able as desired. L'. 1'latina, _' parts; silver, 1 part: copper, .'{ parts. 
 These compositions, v\hen properl\ prepared, so nearly resemble 
 pure gold that it is very difficult to diatinffutefa them therefrom. A 
 little powdered charcoal mixed with metals while melting will be 
 found of service. 
 
 BEST OROIDE OF GOLD. Pure copper, 4 oz.; sheet zinc, \% oz.; 
 magnesia, % oz.; sal-ammoniac, }-^o/.; quicklime, 9-32 oz. ; cream 
 tartar, % oz. First melt the copper at as low a temperature as it 
 will melt; then add the zinc, and afterward* tin- other articles, in 
 powder, in the order named. Use a charcoal fire to melt these 
 metals. 
 
 Bushing Alloy for Pivot Holes, &c. Gold coin, 3 dwt. ; silver, 
 1 dwt., 20 grs.; copper, 3 dwt., 20 grs.; palladium, 1 dwt. The best 
 composition known for the purpose named. 
 
 Gold Solder for Fourteen to Sixteen-Carat Work. Gold 
 coin, 1 dwt.; pure silver, 9 grs.; pure copper, 6 grs.; brass, 3 grs. 
 
 DARKER SOLDER. Gold coin, 1 dwt. ; pure copper, 8 grs. ; pure sil- 
 ver, 5 grs.; brass, 2 grs.; melt together in chareoal fire. 
 
 The Northern-Light Burning Fluid. COSTS ABOTJT EIGHT 
 
 CENTS PER GALLON. i Jet good deodorized benzine, 60 to 65 gravity, 
 and to each barrel of 42 gals, add 2 Ibs. pulverized alum, 3^ oz. 
 gum camphor, and 3% oz. oil of sassafras, or 2 oz. oil beruamot; 
 stir up and mix thoroughly together and it will soon be ready inr 
 use. 
 
 N. B. As this fluid creates a much larger volume of light and 
 flame than carbon oil, it is necessary to use either a high burner, 
 such as the Sun burner, to elevate the llaine away from the lamp, 
 in order to keep it eool, or, instead thereof, to usl- a burner provi- 
 ded with a tube for the escape of the gas generated from the fluid, 
 such, for instance, as the Meridian burner. 
 
 To Reduce Oxide of Zinc. The oxide may be put in quantities 
 of SOttor 600 Ibs. weight into a large pot over the fire; pour a suffi- 
 cient quantity of muriatic acid over the top, to act as a flux, and
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 2' 
 
 the action of the fire will melt the dross, when the pure metal ^ 
 be found at the bottom of the pot 
 
 New Process to Restore Burnt Steel. When your steel 
 burnt, immerse it immediately, for a very short time, in cold wato 
 then hammer it on the anvil, turning, moving, and otherwise manic 
 lating it while undergoing this treatment. A little dexterous pn 
 
 tice will soon enable you to ivstoiv .steel, by this beautiful and'sl 
 that would otherwise be hopelessly ruined. 
 
 pie process, 
 
 To Remove Rust from Iron or Steel. For cleaning purpos< 
 &c., kerosene oil or benzine are probably the best tilings know 
 When articles have become, pitted by rust, however, these can, 
 course, only be removed by mechanical means, such as scourii 
 with fine powder, or flour of emery and oil, or with very fine erne 
 paper. To prevent steel from rusting, rub it with a mixture 
 lime and oil, or with mercurial ointment, either of which will 1 
 found valuable. 
 
 To Restore Frozen Silver Solution. If it is the whitenir 
 solution, add 10 pennyweights of cyanide of potassium to a pint i 
 the solution. For the first, or hard coat solution, add about doub 
 the above quantity. 
 
 On Watch Cleaning. It is hardly necessary to say that gra 
 caution must bt observed in taking the watch down that is, i 
 separating its parts. If you are new at the business think befor 
 you act, and then act slowly. Take off the hands carefully so a 
 not to bend the slender pivots upon which they work; this will b 
 the first step. 2. Loosen and lift the movement from the case. ; 
 Remove the dial and dial wheels. 4. Let down the main-spring b 
 placing your bench key upon the arbor, or "winding post," an 
 turning as though vou were going to wind the watch until the clic 
 rests lightly upon the ratchet; then with your screw-driver pres 
 the point of the click away from the teeth, and ease down th 
 springs. 5. Draw the screws (or pins) and remove the bridges c 
 the train, or the upper plate, as the case may be. 6. Take out th 
 balance. Great care must be observed in this or you will injure th 
 hair-spring. The stud or little square post into which the hah 
 spring is fastened may be removed from the bridge or plate of mos 
 modern watches, without ankering the spring, by slipping a thi 
 instrument, as the edge of a knife blade, under the corner of it an 
 prying upward. This will save, you a considerable amount o 
 trouble, as you will not have the hair-spring to adjust when yo 
 reset the balance. 
 
 If the watch upon which you propose to work has an uppe 
 plate, as an American or an English lever, for instance, loosen th 
 lever' before you have entirely separated the plates, otherwise i 
 will hang and most likely be broken. 
 
 Having the machine now down, brush the dust from its differen 
 parts and subject them to a careful examination with your eye 
 glass. Assure yourself that the teeth of the wheels and leaves o
 
 250 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 tho pinions are all perfect and smooth; that tin' pivots are all 
 straight, round ami highly polished, that the holes tbroagb \\hich 
 they are to work are not too large, ant have not become oval in 
 shape; that every jewel is smooth and perfectly sound; and that 
 none of them an'- IOOM' in their settings. Sri-, ;tNo, that \\, 
 nieiit is not too dfi-p or too shallow; that the lever or c\ Under is 
 p.-rfect; that all the wheels have siiflicient play to avoid friction, but 
 not enough to derange their coming together jiroperly; that none of 
 them work against tin- pillar-plate; that the balance turns horizon- 
 tally and does not rub; that the hair-spring is not bent or wrongly 
 set so that the coils rub on each other, on the plate, or on tho 
 balance; in short, that everything about the whole movement i.s 
 just as reason would teach you it should be. It you find it other- 
 wise, proceed to repair iii accordance with a carefully weighed 
 judgment, and the processes given in the next chapter, alter which 
 clean if not the watch only needs to be cleaned, and therefore 
 you may go ahead with your work at once. 
 
 To CLEAN. Many watchmakers wet tho pillar-plates and 
 bridges with saliva, and then dipping the brusli into pulverized 
 chalk or Spanish whiting, rub vigorously until they appear bright. 
 This is not a good plan, as it rends to remove the plating and 
 roughen the parts, and the chalk gets into the holes and damages 
 them, or sticks around the edm-s of the wheel-beds. The best pro- 
 cess is to simply blow your breath upon the plate or bridge to be 
 cleaned, and then to use your brush with a little prepared chalk 
 (See recipe for preparing it.) The wheels and bridges should be 
 held between the thumb and finger in a piece ot soil paper while 
 undergoing the process; otherwise the oil from the skin will pre\ent 
 their becoming clean. The pinions mav be cleaned by sinking them 
 several times into a piece of pith, and the holes by turning a nicely 
 shaped piece of pivot wood into them, tirst dry and afterwards oiled 
 a very little with watch oil. When the bold pass through jewels 
 you must work gently to avoid breaking them. 
 
 The oiling above named is all the watch will need. A great fault 
 with many 'watchmakers lies in their use of too much oil. 
 
 THE CHEMICAL PROCFSS. Some watchmakers employ what 
 they call the "Chemical Process " to clean and remove discolora- 
 tions from watch movements. It is as follows: 
 
 Remove the screws and other steel parts; then dampen with a 
 sohition of oxalic add and water. Let it remain a few moments, 
 after which immerse in a solution made of one-fourth pound 
 cyanuret potassa to one gallon rainwater. Let remain about five 
 minutes, and then rinse well with clean water, after which you 
 may dry in sawdust, or with a brush and prepared chalk, as suits 
 your convenience. This gives the work an excellent appearance. 
 
 To Prepare Chalk for Cleaning. Pulverize your chalk thor- 
 oughly, and then mix it with clear ram water in the proportion of 
 two pounds to the gallon. Stir well and then let stand about two 
 minutes. In this time the gritty matter will have, settled to the bot- 
 tom. Pour the water into" another vessel, slowly so n* not to .-tir 
 up the settlings. Let stand until entirely settled^ and then pour off
 
 EECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 2i 
 
 as before. The settlings in the second vessel will be your pi 
 pared chalk, ready for use us soon as dried. 
 
 Spanish whiting treated in the same way makes a very goi 
 cleaning or polishing powder. Some operatives add a lit! 
 jeweler's rouge, and we think it an improvement; it gives the po' 
 der a nice color at least, and therefore adds to its importance in tl 
 eyes of the uninitiated. In cases where a sharper polishing po 1 
 der is required, it may be prepared iu the same way from rotti 
 tone. 
 
 Pivot Wood. Watchmakers usually buy this article of watc 
 material dealers. A small shrub known as Indian arrow-wood, 
 be met with in the Northern and Western States, makes an exc< 
 lent pivot wood. It must bo cut when the sap is down, and sp 
 into quarters so as to throw the pith outside of the rod. 
 
 Pith for Cleaning. The stalk of the common mullcn affor 
 the best pith for cleaning pinions. Winter, when the stalk is dr 
 is the time to gather it. Some use cork instead of pith, but it 
 inferior. 
 
 To Pivot. When you find a pivot broken, you will hardly ] 
 at a loss to understand that the easiest mode of repairing tl 
 damage is to drill into the end of the pinion or staff, as the ca 
 may be, and having inserted a new pivot, turn it down to the pr 
 per proportions. This is by no means a difficult thing when tl 
 piece to be drilled is not too hard, or when the temper may 1 
 slightly drawn without injury to the other parts of the article. 
 
 To Tell when the Lever ia of Proper Length. You nu 
 readily learn whether or not a lever is of proper length, by mea 
 uring from the guard point to the pallet staff, and then comparir 
 with the roller or ruby-pin table; the diameter of the table shou 
 always be just half the length measured on the lever. The ru 
 will work both ways, and may be useful in cases when a new rub 
 pin table has to be supplied. 
 
 To Change Depth of Lever Escapement. If you are opera 
 ing on a fine watch the best plan is to put a new staff into tl 
 lever, cutting its pivots a little to one side just as far as you desi 
 to change the escapement. Common watches will not, of cours 
 justify so much trouble. The usual process in their case is 
 knock out the staff, and with a small file cut the hole oblong in 
 direction opposite to that in which you desire to move your pallet 
 then replace the staff, wedge it to the required position, and seen 
 by soft soldering. 
 
 In instances where the staff is put in with a screw you will Iw 
 to proceed differently. Take out the staff, pry the pallets fro 
 the lever, file the pin holes to slant in the direction y< 
 would move the pallets, without changing their size on the oth< 
 Bide of the lever. Connect the pieces as they were before, ai
 
 252 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 with the lever resting on some solid substance you may strike 
 lightly with your hammer until the bending of the pins will allow 
 the pallets to pass iuto position. 
 
 To Tell when the Lever Pallets are of Proper Size. The 
 
 clear spare between tin- pallets should OOmMMMld with the outside 
 measure, on the points, of three teeth of the scape wheel. The 
 usual mode of measuring for new pallets is to -et the wheel as 
 close as possible to free itself when in motion. You can arrange it 
 in your depthing tool, after whieh a measurement between the 
 pivot holes of the two pieces, on the pillar plate, will show you ex- 
 actly what is required. 
 
 To Put Watches in Beat. If a cylinder escapement, or a de- 
 tached lever, put the balance into a position, then turn the regula- 
 tor so that it will point directly to the pivot-hole of the pallet >taiV, 
 if a lever, or of the scape-wheel, if a cylinder. Then lift out the 
 balance with its bridge or clock, turn it over and >et the ruby-pin 
 directly in the line with the regulator, or the square cut of the 
 cylinder at right angles with it. Your watch will then be in per- 
 fect beat. 
 
 In case of an American or an English lever, when the ' 
 is placed upon the plate, you will have to proceed diffcrcir 
 the balance into its place," cut off the connection of the train, if the 
 mainspring is not entirely down, by slipping a fine broach into one 
 of the wheels, look between the p'.at'-s and ascertain how the lever 
 stands. If the end furthest from the balance is eqtii-distant be- 
 tween the two brass pins it U ail right if not, change the hair- 
 spring till it becoiii 
 
 If dealing with a duplex watch, you must see that the roller 
 notch, when the balance is at iv-t is'exa-'tly between the locking 
 tooth and the line of centre that is, a line drawn from the centre 
 of the roller to the centre of the seape-wheel. The balance must 
 start from its rest and move through an arc of about ten de-r. cs 
 before bringing the locking tooth into action. 
 
 To Prevent a Chain Running off the Fusee. In the first 
 place you must look after and ascertain the cau-.e of the difliculty. 
 If it results from the chain's being too large, the only difficulty "is 
 a new chain. If it is not too large, and yet runs ,.ff' without any 
 apparent cause, change it end for end that will generally make ft 
 BO all right. In cases where the channel in the fiiM e 'has been 
 damaged and is rough, you will be under the nee es>ity of 
 it over with a file the proper si/.e and shape. Sometimes you find 
 the chain naturally inclined to work away from the body of the 
 Hi-- be>t way to remedy a difficulty of this kind is to file off 
 a very little from the outer Tower edge "of the chain the entire 
 length tliis, as you can see. will incline it to work on instead of 
 off. Some workmen, when they have a bad ea-e, and a common 
 watch, change the standing of the fu>e.- > ( > as t.- eaiise the winding 
 end of its arbor to incline a little from the barrel. This, of course, 
 cannot do otherwise than make the chain run tu its place.
 
 BECEIPT8 FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 253 
 
 To Weaken the Hair-Spring. This is often effected by grind- 
 ing the spring down. You remove the spring from the collet, and 
 place it upon a piece of pivot wood cut to fit the centre coil. A 
 piece of soft steel wire, flattened so as to pass freely between the 
 coils, and armed with a little pulverized oil stone and oil, will 
 eerve as your grinder, and with it you may soon reduce the 
 Mivn-th of the spring. Your operations will, of course, be con- 
 fined to the centre coil, for no other part of the spring will rest 
 Millii-iently against the wood to enable you to grind it, but this will 
 generally suffice. The effect will be more rapid than one would 
 suppose, therefore it will stand you in hand to be careful or you 
 may get the spring too weak before you suspect it 
 
 To Tighten a Ruby Pin. Set the ruby pin in asphaltum var- 
 nish. It will become hard in a few minutes, and be much firmer 
 and better than gum shellac, as generally used. 
 
 To Temper Brass or to Draw its Temper. Brass is ren- 
 dered hard by hammering or rolling, therefore when you make a 
 thing of brass, necessary to be in temper, you must prepare the 
 material before shaping the article. Temper may be drawn from 
 brass by heating it to a cherry red, and then simply plunging it 
 into water the same as though you were going to temper steel. 
 
 To Temper Drills.-pSelect none but the finest and best steel 
 for your drills. In making them never heat higher than a cherry 
 red, and always hammer till nearly cold. Do all your hammering 
 in one way, for if, after you have flattened your piece out, you at- 
 tempt to hammer it back to a square or a round you spoil it. 
 When your drill is in proper shape heat it to a cherry red, and 
 thrust it into a piece of resin, or into quicksilver. 
 
 Some use a solution of cyanuret potassa and rain water for tem- 
 pering their drills, but for my part I have always found the resin 
 or quicksilver to work best. 
 
 To Temper Gravers.-^-Gravers and other instruments larger than 
 drills, may be tempered in quicksilver as above; or you may use 
 lead instead of quicksilver. Cut down into the lead, say half an 
 inch; then, having heated your instrument to a light cherry red, 
 press it firmly into the cut. The lead will melt around it, and an 
 excellent temper will be imparted. 
 
 Other Methods to Temper Case Springs. Having fitted the 
 spring into the case according to your liking, temper it hard by 
 heating and plunging into water. Next polish the small end so 
 that you may be able to see when the color changes; lay it on a 
 piece" of copper or brass plate, and hold the plate over your lamp, 
 with the blaze directly under the largest part of the spring. Watch 
 the polished part of the steel closely, and when you see it turn blue 
 remove the plate from the lamp, letting all cool gradually together. 
 When cool enough to handle polish the end of the spring again,
 
 254 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 place it on the plate an 1 hoi 1 it ever tin- lamp as bef,,re. The third 
 Blueing Of the polished end will leave the spring in proper temper. 
 Any steel article to which you desire to give a spring temper may 
 be treated in the same way. 
 
 Another process said to bo pood, is to temper the spring as in the 
 fir>t instance; th'-n put it in a >mall iron ladl--. cover it \\ith lin- < d 
 oil and hold over a lamp till the oil take-, lire. Keinove the ladle, 
 but let the oil continue to burn until nearly all consumed, when 
 blow out, re-cover with oil and hold over the lamp a- 
 The third burning out of the oil will leave the spring in the right 
 temper. 
 
 To Temper Clicks, Ratchets, Ac. Hicks TJntch-K or other 
 steel articles requiring a similar decree of hardness should be tem- 
 pered in mercurial ointment. The \>r 89 cmi-iM^ in Minply heating 
 to a cherry n-d ami plunging into the ointment. No other mode \\ili 
 couibiue toughness and hardness to such an extent. 
 
 To Draw the Temper from Delicate Steel Pieces without 
 Springing them. I'lac.- the article irom which you desire to draw 
 the temper into a common iron clock key. Fill around it with brass 
 or iron tilings, and then plug up the open end with a sterl. iron or 
 brass plug, 'made to tit closely. Take the handle of the key with 
 your plyers and hold its pipe into the bla/e of a lamp till near hot, 
 then It it cool gradually. When sufficiently cold to handle, re- 
 move the plug, and you will find the article with its temper fully 
 drawn, but in all other respects ju-t as it \va- : 
 
 You will iMiderstaiid the reason for having the article thus 
 plugged up while passing it through the heating and cooling pro- 
 cess, when we t !! you that spring nt; a! ; Mim the action 
 
 of changeable currents of atmosphere. Tlie temper may be drawn 
 from cylinders, staffs, pinions, or any other delicate pieces by this 
 mode with perfect safety. 
 
 To Temper Staffs, Cylinders or Pinions, without Spring- 
 ing them. Prepare the articles as in the preceding proee**, lining 
 a steel plug. Having heated the key-pipe to a cherry red, plunge it 
 into water; then ]*>lish the end of 'your sterl plug." place the kev 
 upon a plate of brass or copper, and hold it over your lamp with 
 tlv bla/e immediately und T the pipe till \\\-> polished part Iwcomes 
 blue. Let cool gradually, th-n polish ag^m- Blue and cool a sec- 
 ond time, and the work will be done. 
 
 To Draw the Temper from Part of a Small Steel Article. 
 Hold the part from which you wish to draw the temper, with a 
 pair of tweezers, and with your blow-pipe direct the tlame upon 
 thm not the article till sufficient heat is communicated to the 
 article to produce the d -sired effect. 
 
 To Bine Screws Evenly. Take an old watch barrel and drill 
 as many holes into the head of jt as ymi desire to blue screws at a 
 time. Fill it about one-fourth full of "brass or iron tilings, put in the
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 25* 
 
 head, and then fit a wire, long enough to bend over for a handle 
 into the arbor holes head of the barrel upwards. Brighten th< 
 heads of your screws, set them, point downwards, into the holes 
 already drilled, and expose the bottom of the barrel to your lami 
 till the screws assume the color you wish. 
 
 To Remove Blueing from Steel. Immerse in a pickle com 
 pos(d of equal parts muriatic acid and elixir vitriol, liiuse in pun 
 water and dry in tissue paper. 
 
 To Make Diamond Broaches. Make your broaches of brass 
 the size and shape you desire: then, having oiled them slightly, roll 
 their points into fine diamond dust till entirely covered. Hold them 
 then on the face of your anvil and tap with a light hammer till the 
 grains disappear in the brass. Great caution will be necessary in 
 this operation. Do not tap heavy enough to flatten the broach. 
 Very light blows are all that will be required; the grains will be 
 driven in much sooner than one would imagine. 
 
 Some roll the broach between two smooth pieces of steel to imbed 
 the diamond dust. It is a very good way, but somewhat more 
 wasteful of the dust. 
 
 Broaches made on this plan are used for dressing out jewels. 
 
 To Make Polishing Broaches. These are usually made of ivory, 
 and used with diamond dust, loose, instead of having been driven 
 in. You oil the broach lightly, dip it into the finest diamond dust 
 and proceed to work into the jewel the same as you do the brass 
 broach. Unfortunately, too many watchmakers fail to attach sum- 
 cient importance to the polishing broach. The sluggish motion of 
 watches now-a-days, is more often attributable to rough jewels 
 than to any other cause. 
 
 To Make Diamond Files. Shape^your file of brass, and charge 
 with diamond dust, as in the case of the mill. Grade the dust In 
 accordance with the coarse or fine character of the file desired. 
 
 To Make Pivot Piles. Dress up a piece of wood file-fashion, 
 about an inch brood, and glue a piece of fine emery paper upon it. 
 Shape your file then, os you wish it, of the best cast steel, and be- 
 fore tempering pass your emery paper heavily across it several 
 times, diagonally. Temper by heating to a cherry red, and, plung- 
 ing into linseed oil. Old worn pivot files may be made over and 
 made new by this process. At first thought one would be led to 
 regard them too slightly cut to work well, but not so. They dress 
 a pivot more rapidly than any other file. 
 
 To Make Burnishers. Proceed the same as in making pivot 
 files with the exception that you are to use fine flour of emery on 
 a slip of oiled brass or copper, instead of the emery paper. Bur- 
 nishers which have become too smooth may be improved vastly 
 with the flour of emery as above without drawing the temper. 
 17
 
 256 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 To Prepare a Burnisher for Polishing. Melt a little bees- 
 wax on the face of your burnisher. Its eilect then, on lua^ or 
 other finer metals will be equal to the best buff. A small bur- 
 nisher prepared in this way is the very tiling with which to polish 
 up watch wheels. Rest them on a piece of pith while polishing. 
 
 To Clean a Clock. Take the movement of the clock "to- 
 pleces." Brush the wheels and pinions thoroughly with a stiff, 
 coarse brush; also the plates into which the trams'work. Clean 
 the pivots well by turning in a piece of cotton doth held tightly 
 between your thumb and finger, The pivot holes in the plates are 
 generally cleansed by turning a piece of wood in them, but I have 
 always found a strip of cloth or a soft cord drawn lightly through 
 them to act the best. If you use two cords, the first one slightly 
 oiled, and the next dry to ciean the oil out, all the better. Do not 
 use salt or acid to clean your clock it can do no good, but may do 
 a great deal of harm. Boiling the movement in water, as some 
 practice, is also foolishness. 
 
 To Bush. The hole through which the great arbors or wind- 
 tag axles work, are the only ones that usually require bushing. 
 When they have become too much worn the great wheel on the 
 axle before-named strikes too deeply into the pinions above it, and 
 stop the clock. To remedy this bushing K neces>ary, of course. 
 The most common way of aotof it is to drive a steel pant or punch 
 into the plate just abo've the axle hole, thus forcing the bm 
 ward until the hole is reduced to its original size. Another mode 
 is to solder a piece of bra>s upon the plate in such a position as to 
 hold the axle down to its proper place. If you simply wMi your 
 clock to run, and have no ambition to produce a bush that will look 
 workmanlike, about as good a way as any is to fit a piece of hard 
 wood beetween the post which comes through the top oi the plate and 
 the axle. Make it long enough to hold the axle- to its proper place, 
 and so that the axle will run on the end of the grain. Cut notches 
 where the pivots come through, and secure by wrapping around it 
 and the plate a piece of small wire, or a thread. There is no post 
 coming through above the axle on the striking Bide, but this will 
 rarely require bushing. I have known clocks to run well on this 
 kind of bushing, botchified as it may appear, for ten years. 
 
 To Remedy Worn Pinions. Turn the leaves or rollers so the 
 worn places upon them will be towards the arbor or shaft, and 
 fasten them in that position. If they are "rolling pinions," and 
 you cannot secure them otherwise, you had better do it with a little 
 soft solder. 
 
 To Oil Properly. Oil only, and very lightly, the pallets of the 
 verge, the steel pin upon which the verge works, and the point 
 where the loop of the verge wire works over the pendulum wire. 
 Use none but the best watch oil. Though you might be working 
 constantly at the clock repairing busine.-s, - A 'bottle costing you but 
 25 cents, would last you two years at least. You can buy it at any 
 watch-furnishing establishment.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 257 
 
 To Make the Clock Strike Correctly. If not very cautious 
 ID putting up your clock you will get some of the striking-train 
 wheels in wrong, and thus produce, :i derangement in the striking. 
 If this should happen, pry the plates apart on the striking side, 
 slip the pivots of the upper wheels out, and having disconnected 
 them from the train, turn them part around and put them back. If 
 still not right, repeat the experiment. A few efforts at most will 
 get them to working properly. 
 
 A Defect to Look After. Always examine the pendulum-wire 
 at the point where the loop of the verge wire works over it. You 
 will generally find a small notch, or at least a rough place worn 
 there. Dress it out perfectly smooth, or your clock will not be 
 likely to work well. Small as this defect may seem, it stops a large 
 number of clocks. 
 
 To Refine Gold. If you desire to refine your gold from the 
 baser metals, swedge or roll it out very thin, then cut into narrow 
 strips and curl up so as to prevent its lying flatly. Drop the pieces 
 thus prepared into a vessel containing good nitric acid, in the pro- 
 portion of acid 2 oz., and pure rain water > oz. Suffer to remain 
 until thoroughly dissolved, which will be the case in ^ hour to 1 
 hour. Then pour off the liquid carefully and you will find the 
 gold in the form of a yellow powder lying at the bottom of the 
 vessel. Wash this with pure water till it ceases to have an acid 
 taste, after which you may melt and cast into any form you choose. 
 Gold treated in this way may be relied on as perfectly pure. 
 
 In melting gold use none other than a charcoal fire, and during 
 the process sprinkle saltpetre and potash into the crucible occa- 
 sionally. Do not attempt to melt with stone coal, as it renders the 
 metal brittle and otherwise imperfect. 
 
 To Refine Silver. Dissolve in nitric acid as in the case of the 
 cold. When the silver has entirely disappeared, add to the water. 
 Sink, then, a sheet of clean copper into it the silver will collect 
 rapidly upon the copper, and you can scrape it off and melt into 
 bulk at pleasure. 
 
 In the event you were refining gold in accordance with the fore- 
 going formula, and the impurity was silver, the only steps neces- 
 sary to save the latter would be to add the above-named proportion 
 of water to the solution poured from the gold, and then to proceed 
 with your copper plate as just directed. 
 
 To Refine Copper. This process differs from the one em- 
 ployed to refine silver in no respects save the place to be immersed; 
 you use an iron instead of a copper plate to collect Hw metal. 
 
 If the impurities of gold refined were both silver and copper, you 
 micht after saving the silver as above directed, sink your iron plate 
 into the solution yet remaining, and take out the copper. The parte 
 of alloyed gold may be separated by these processes, and leave each 
 In a perfectly pure state.
 
 258 RECEIPTS FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 To Hard Solder Gold, Silver, Copper, Brass, Iron, Steel, 
 or Platina. The solders to b u-"d !<>r gold, silver, copper ana 
 hra-s are given in the preceding part. You commence operations 
 by reducing your solder to small particles and mixing it with 
 pOWdend ni-ammaniM and powdered borax in e<[ual i 
 ened to make il hold tu<'!!i<-r. Having fitti-d up the joint to be 
 soldered, you secure th-- article up-.m a pi !. lay 
 
 your soldering mixture innne<liately over the joint, and then \sith 
 your blow pipe turn the flames of your lamp upon it until fusion 
 takes place. The job is then done and ready to be cooled and 
 dressea up. 
 
 Iron is usually soldered with copper or brass, in accordance with 
 the above process. The In-st solder for ste'l is pure gold or pure 
 silver, though gold or silvr sold.-rs are often used successfully. 
 
 Platina can only be soldered well with gold; and the entente l 
 it, therefore, contributes to the hindrance of a general u^.. ( .i platina 
 vessels, even for chemical purposes, where they are of so much im- 
 portance. 
 
 To Soft Solder Articles. Moisten the parts to be united with 
 soldering fluid; then, having joined them together, lava small piece 
 of solder upon the joint and hold over your lamp, or direct the blaze 
 upon it with your blow pipe until fusion is apparent. Withdraw 
 them from the blaze immediately, as too much heat will render the 
 solder brittle and unsatisfactory. When the parts to be joined can 
 be made to spring or press against each other.it is best to plan- a 
 thin piece of solder between them before exposing to the lamp. 
 
 Where two smooth surfaces are to In- soldered one upon the other, 
 you may make an excellent v>b by moistenini: them with the fluid, 
 and then, having placed a sneet of tin foil between them, holding 
 them pressed firmly together over your lamp till the foil melts. If 
 the surfaces fit nicely a joint may b" made in this way so <-le as to 
 be almost Imperceptible. The brightest looking lead" which comes 
 as a lining to tin boxes works better in the same way than tin foil. 
 
 To Cleanse Gold Tarnished in Soldering. The old English 
 mode was to expose all parts of the article to a uniform heat, allow 
 it to cool and then boil until bright in urine and sr.l-ammoniac. It 
 is now usually cleansed with diluted sulphuric acid. The pickle is 
 made in about the proportion of one-eighth of an oz. acid to 1 oz. 
 rain water. 
 
 To Cleanse Silver Tarnished in Soldering. Some expose to 
 a uniform heat, as in the case of gold, ami then boil in strong alum 
 water. Others immcrs" for a considerable length of time in a liquid 
 made of % anoz. of cyanuret potassa to 1 pt. rain water, and then 
 brush off with prepared chalk. 
 
 To Maks Gold Solution for Electro-Plating. Dissolve five 
 pennyweights gold coin, five grains pure copper and 4 grains pure 
 silver in 3 oz. nitro muriatic acid; which is simply two parti muria-
 
 RECEIPTS FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 259 
 
 tic acid and one part nitric acid. The silver will not be taken into 
 solution as are the other two metals, but will gather at the bottom 
 of the vessel. Add 1 oz. pulverized sulphate of iron, > oz. pul- 
 verized borax, 25 grs. pure table salt, and 1 qt. hot rain water. 
 Upon this the gold and copper will be thrown to the bottom of the 
 ve&HJl with the silver. Let stand till fully settled, then pour oif the 
 liquid carefully, and refill with boiling rain water as before Con- 
 tinue to repeat this operation until the precipitate is thoroughly 
 washed; or, in other words, fill up, let settle, and pour off so long 
 as the accumulation at the bottom of the vessel is acid to the taste. 
 
 You now have about an eighteen carat cliloride of gold. Add 
 to it an oz. and an eighth cyanuret potassa, and 1 qt. rain water 
 the latter heated to the boiling point. Shake up well, then let stand 
 about twenty-four hours and it will be ready for use. 
 
 Some use phitina as an alloy instead of silver, under the impres- 
 sion that plating done with it is harder. I have used both, but never 
 could see much difference. 
 
 Solution for a darker colored plate to imitate Guinea gold may 
 be made by adding to the above 1 oz. of dragon's blood and five 
 grains of iodide of iron. 
 
 If you desire an alloyed plate, proceed as first directed, without 
 the stiver or copper, and with an oz. and a half of sulphuret potassa 
 in place of the iron, borax and salt. 
 
 To Make Silver Solution for Electro-Plating. Put together 
 into a glass vessel, one oz. good silver, made thin and cut into 
 strips; two oz. best nitric acid and % an oz. pure rain water. If 
 solution does not begin at once, add a little more water continue 
 to add a very little at a time till it does. In the event it starts off 
 well, but stops before the silver is fully dissolved, you may generally 
 start it up again all right by adding a little more water. 
 
 When solution is entirely effected, add 1 qt. warm rain water and 
 a large tablespoonful of table salt. Shake well and let settle, then 
 proceed to pour off and wash through other waters as in the case of 
 the gold preparation. When no longer acid to the taste, put in an. 
 oz. and an eighth cyanuret potassa and a qt. pure rain water; after 
 standing about twenty-four hours it will be ready for use. 
 
 To Plate with a Battery. If the plate is to be gold, use the 
 gold solution for electroplating; if silver use the silver solution. 
 Prepare the article to be plated bv immersing it for several minutes 
 in a strong Ive made of potash and rain water, polishing off 
 thoroughly at the end of the time with a soft brush and prepared 
 chalk. Care should be taken not to let the fingers come in contact 
 with the article while polishing, as that has a tendency to prevent 
 the plate from adhering it should be held in two or three thick- 
 nesses of tissue paper. 
 
 Attach the article, when thoroughly cleansed, to the positive pole 
 of your battery, then affix a piece of gold or silver, as the case may 
 be, to the negative pole, and immerse both into the solution in such 
 a way as not to hang in contact with each other. 
 
 After the article has been exposed to the action of the battery 
 about ten minutes, take it out and wash or polish over with a thick
 
 260 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 mixture of water and prepared chalk or jeweller's rouge. If, in 
 
 the (iji.Tat.ioii, you find places win-re tin- plating >eems inclined to 
 peel off, or when it lias not taken well, mix a little of tin- plating 
 solution witli prepared chalk or rouge, ami rub the 
 thoroughly with it. This will be likely to set all right. 
 
 Ghovern your time of exposing the article to the battery by the 
 desired thickness of the plate. During the time it should be taken 
 out and polished up as just directed about every ten mini! 
 often at least as then: is an indication of a growing dai! 
 any part of its surface. When done, finish with the burnisher on 
 prepared chalk and chamois skin, as best suits your taste and con- 
 venience. 
 
 In case the article to be plated is iron, steel. It ad, pewter, or 
 block tin, you must, after first cleansing with the lye and chalk, 
 prepare it by applying with a soft brush a camel's hair pencil is 
 best suited a solution made of the following article^ in the pro- 
 portion named: Nitric acid, half an ounce; muriatic acid, one- 
 third of an ounce; sulphuric acid, one-ninth of an ounce; muri- 
 ate of potash, one-seventh of an ounce; sulphate of iron, one- 
 fourth of an ounce; sulphuric ether, one-fifth of an ounce, and as 
 much sheet zinc as it will dissolve. This prepares a foundation, 
 without which the plate would fail to take well, if at all. 
 
 To Make Gold Amalgam. Eight parts of gold and one of mer- 
 cury are formed into an amalgam for plating, by rendering the 
 gold into thin plates, making it red hot and then potting it into the 
 mercury while the latter is also heated to ebullition. The gold im- 
 mediately disappears in combination with the mercury, after which 
 the mixture may be turned into water to cool. It is then ready for 
 
 To Plate With Gold Amalgam. Gold amalgam is chiefly used 
 
 as a plating for silver, copper, or brass. The article to be plated is 
 washed over with diluted nitric acid or potash lye and prepared 
 chalk, to remove any tarnish or rust that niiirht prevent the amal- 
 gam from adhering. After having been polished perfectly bright, 
 the amalgam is applied as evenly as possible, usually with a fine 
 scratch brush. It is then set upon a grate over a charcoal fire, or 
 placed into an oven and heated to that decree at which mercury 
 exhales. The gold, when the mercury has evaporated, presents a 
 dull yellow color. Cover it with a coating of pulverized nitre and 
 alum in equal parts, mixed t.>a paste with water, and beat again 
 till il is thoroughly melted, then plunge into water. Burnish up 
 with a steel or blooustone burnisher. 
 
 To Make and Apply Gold Plating Solution. Dissolve half 
 an ounce of gold amalgam in one ounce of nitro-muriatic acid. 
 Add two ounces of alcohol, and then, having brightened the article 
 in the usual way, apply the solution with a soft brush. I Muse and 
 dry in saw-dust, or with tissue paper, and polish up with chamois 
 8km.
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 26] 
 
 To Make and Apply Gold Plating Powders. Prepare t 
 chloride ot gold the same as for plating with a battery. Add to it 
 When thoroughly washed out, cyanuret potassa in the proportion oi 
 two ounces to five pennyweights of gold. Pour in a pint of clean rair 
 water, shake up well and then let stand till the chloride is dissolved 
 Add then one pound of prepared Spanish whiting and let evapo 
 rate in the open air till dry, after which put away in a tight vesse 
 for use. To apply it you prepare the article in the usual way, anc 
 having made the powder into a paste with water, rub it upon th< 
 surface with a piece of chamois skin or cotton flannel. 
 
 An old mode of making a gold plating powder was to dip clear 
 linen rags into solution prepared as in the second article preced 
 ing this, and having dried, to fire and burn them into ashes. Th< 
 aslies formed the powder, and were to be applied as above. 
 
 To Make and Apply Silver Plating Solution. Put tc 
 gether in a glass vessel one ounce nitrate of silver, two ounces cya- 
 nuret potassa, four ounces prepared Spanish whiting, and ten 
 ounce* pure rain water. Cleanse the article to be plated as pel 
 preceding directions, and apply with a soft brush. Finish with the 
 chamois skin or burnisher. 
 
 To Make and Apply Silver Plating Powder. Dissolve silvei 
 in nitric acid by the aid of heat; put some pieces of copper intc 
 the solution to precipitate the silver; wash the acid out in the usual 
 way; then with fifteen grains of it mix two drachms of tartar, twc 
 drachms of table salt, and half a drachm of pulverized alum, 
 Brighten the article to be plated with Jye and prepared chalk, and 
 rub on the mixture. When it has assumed a white appearance, 
 expose to heat as in the case of plating with gold amalgam, then 
 polish up with the burnisher or soft leather. 
 
 To Frost Watch Movments. Sink that part of the article tc 
 be frosted for a short time in a compound of nitric acid, muriatic 
 acid and table salt one ounce of each. On removing from the 
 acid, place it in a shallow vessel containing enough sour beer tc 
 merely cover it; then with a fine scratch brush scour thoroughly, 
 letting it remain under the beer during the operation. Next wash 
 off, first in pure water and then in alcohol. Gild or silver in accord- 
 ance with any recipe in the chapter on plating. 
 
 To Enamel Gold and Silver. Take half a pennyweight o1 
 silver, two pennyweights and a half of copper, three pennyweights 
 and a half of lead, and two pennyweights and a half of muriate 01 
 ammonia. Melt together and pour into a crucible with twice a; 
 much pulverized sulphur; the crucible is then to be immediate!} 
 covered that the sulphur may not take fire, and the mixture is t< 
 be calcined over a smelting fire until the superfluous sulphur u 
 burned away. The compound is then to be coarsely pounded, anc
 
 2G2 RECEIPTS FOE MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 with a solution of muriate of ammonia to be formed into a paste 
 which is t<> bi' placed upon tin- article it is d.-sVn-'d t.. enamel. 
 Tli- article must then be held over a spirit lamp till tin- oompooad 
 upon it melts and flows. After this it may be smoothed and pol- 
 ished up in safety. This makes the black enamel now so much 
 used on jewelry. 
 
 To Destroy the Effects of Acid on Clothes. Dampen as 
 
 soon as possible after exposure to the acid with spirits ammonia. 
 It will destroy the effect immediately. 
 
 To Wash Silver Ware. Never use a particle of soap on your 
 
 silverware, as it dulls the lustre, uivinii the article more the ap- 
 pearance of pewter than -liver. When it wants cleaning rub it 
 with a piece .if soft leather ami prepared chalk, tin- latt-r made 
 into a kind of pa-t>- with pure water, for the reason that water not 
 pure might contain gritty particles. 
 
 To Cleanse Brushes. The best method of cleansing watch- 
 
 makers' and jewelers' brushes is to wash them out in strong soda 
 water. When the hacks are wood you must favor that part as 
 much as possible, for, being glued, the water might injure them. 
 
 To Cut Glass Round or Oval Without a Diamond. Scratch 
 the glass around the shape you desire with the corner of a file or 
 graver: thn, having bent a piece of \vir- in the same -.hape. heat 
 it red hot and lay it upon the serateh, sink the glass into cold water 
 just deep enough for the water to come almost upon a level with its 
 upper surface. It will rarely ever fail to break perfectly true. 
 
 To Re-Black Clock Hands. Fso asphaltum varnish. One coat 
 will make old rusty hands look as good as new, and it dries in a 
 few minutes. 
 
 Improved Wood Filing Composition. Japan, } pt.; 
 boiled linseed oil, t> pt. ; turpentine, } pt. ; starch, oz. Mix 
 veil together and apply to the wood. On walnut wood add a 
 little burned umber, ou cherry a little Venetian red, to the above 
 mixture. 
 
 Planing Metals. The first operation about planing is to oil 
 your planer and find out if the lx-d is smooth. If it is not file off 
 the rough places; then cli^ige the do^s to see if they will work 
 
 well, and find out the movements of the planer. After doing this, 
 bolt your work on to the tx-d, and if it is a lout:, thin piece, plane 
 off a chip, then turn it over and finish the other side, taking two 
 chips, the last of which should be very 1'mht. (Jreat care should 
 be taken in bolting the bed not to spring it. After finishiii<; this 
 side turn it to the other side, and take off a light cut to finish it. 
 
 Planing Perpendicularly. In planing perpendicularly, it is 
 necessary ~to swivel the bottom of the small hfad around, so It will 
 Stand about three-fourths of an inch inside of square, towards the 
 piece you are to plane. This prevents breaking the tool when the 
 bed runs back. 
 
 Gear Cutting. In cutting gears, they are reckoned on a certain
 
 RECEIPTS FOR MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 2G3 
 
 number of teeth to the inch, measuring across the diameter to a 
 certain line which Is marked on tin- face or sides of the gear with a 
 tool. This linn is one-half the depth of the teeth from the outer 
 diameter. That is, if the teeth of the gear are two-tenths of an 
 inch deep, this line would be one-tenth of an inch from the edge, 
 and is called the pitch line. 
 
 Depth of Teeth. Every gear cut with a different number of 
 teeth to the inch, should he cut of a depth to the pitch line, to cor- 
 respond with the number of teeth to the inch. This is called pro- 
 portion. Therefore, if you cut a gear eight to the inch, the depth 
 to the pitch line should be one-eighth of an inch, and the whole 
 depth of the tooth would be two-eighths. Again, if you cut a gear 
 twelve to the inch, the depth to pitch line should be one-twelfth of 
 an inch, and the whole depth of tooth two-twelfths. And again, if 
 you cut a gear twenty to the inch, the depth to pitch line should be 
 one-twentieth of an inch, while the whole depth should be two- 
 twentieths, and so on ad iuftnitum. 
 
 Measuring to find the Number of Teeth. To find the size a 
 certain gear should be, for a certain number of t -eth, is an easy 
 matter if you study carefully these rules. If you want a gear with 
 thirty-two teeth and eight to the inch, it should be four inches, 
 measuring across the diameter to the pitch line, and the two- 
 eighths outside of the pitch line would make it four inches and 
 two-eighths. Again, if you want a gear with forty teeth, and ten 
 to the inch, it should measure across Che diameter to pitch line four 
 Inches, and the two-tenths outside the pitch line would make the 
 whole diameter four inches and two-tenths. And again, if you 
 want a gear with eighty teeth, and twenty to the inch, it should 
 measure to the pitch line, across the diameter, four inches, and the 
 two-twentieths outside the pitch line would make it four inches and 
 two-twentieths, and these examples will form a rule for the meas- 
 urement of all except bevel gears. 
 
 Bevel Gears. These are turned a certain bevel to correspond 
 with each other, according to the angle upon which the shafts 
 driven by them are set. For instance, if two shafts are set upon 
 an angle of ninety degrees, the surfaces of the faces of these gears 
 will stand at an angle of forty-five degrees. To get the surface of 
 these gears in turning them, put a straight edge across the face, 
 then set your level on an angle of forty-five degrees, and try the 
 face of the teeth by placing the level on a straight edge. After 
 turning the face of the teeth, square the outer diameter by the face 
 of the teeth: and to get the size to which you wish to cut, measure 
 from the centre of the face of the teeth. Thus if a bevel gear is 
 six inches in diameter, and the face of the teeth is one inch, you 
 will measure from the centre of the face, and find it is five inches. 
 On this line you calculate the number of teeth to the inch, and if 
 you want a gear with twenty teeth, and ten to the inch, it should 
 measure two inches across the face to the centre of the surface of 
 the teeth; and if the face of the teeth were one inch in length, the 
 diameter of the gear would be three inches, and the inside of the 
 teeth would measure, only one inch. Again if you want to cut a
 
 264 RECEIPTS FOB MECHANICAL PURPOSES. 
 
 gear with forty teeth, and ten to the inch, it would measure four 
 inches to the centre of the tn-tl i on the Mirface. And if tin- sur- 
 face of the teeth were one inrh IOHM, tin- diamet-r of th" gear 
 would Iw3 five inches, while it would only III.MMUV three inches 
 inside the teeth. These examples will form a rule for all bevel 
 gear. 
 
 Draw-Filing and Finishing. To draw-file a piece of work 
 smoothly and quickly, it is be>t to lir-t draw-tile it with a medium 
 fine file," and finish with a superfine til". After doing this, polUh 
 the work with dry emery paper, and then with emery paper and 
 oil. 
 
 Lining Boxes with Babbitt Metal. To line boxes properly, so 
 as to insure their filling every time, it is MMMUTtohw the box 
 nearly red hot, or at least hot enough to melt the m.-tal. Then 
 smoke the shaft where the metal is U be poured upon it. This in- 
 sures its coming out of the box easily, utter it is cold. After 
 .smoking the shaft, put it into the box or boxes, and draw some 
 putty around the ends of them, for the purpose of stopping them, 
 taking care not to press upon it, for if you do it will go into the box, 
 and fill a place that ought to he filled with metal; and in the mean- 
 time your metal ought to be heated, and after you have poured it, 
 let the box stand till it is nearly cold; drive out your shaft, and it Is 
 done. 
 
 Making Lining Metal. Molt in a rnHhlo one and a half ponnds 
 of copper, and while the copper is melting, melt in a ladle twenty- 
 five pounds of tin, and three of antimony, nearly red hot, pour the 
 two together, and stir until nearly cool. 'This makes the finest kind 
 of lining metaL 
 
 Putting Machines Together. In putting machines together no 
 part should be finished except where it is necessary to make a fit, 
 as it is sQmetimes the case that machinery is miscalculated, and by 
 finishing it would he spoiled, while if it were not it might be saved 
 by slight alterations in design. And again, in finishing certain 
 parts before you get a machine together, you are unknowingly 
 finishing part's not necessary to lie finished, ami making them of a 
 pliape anything hut de-irahle. This rule, however, is not intended 
 to apply lo machinery beiug made to detail drawings. 
 
 To Drill a Hole where yon have no Reamer. Tt is some- 
 times necessary to drill a hole of an exact si/.e to lit a certain shaft, 
 and at the same time have it smooth without reaming it. This may 
 be done, by first drilling a hole, a one-hundredth of an inch smaller 
 than the size desired, and then making a drill the exact si/.e and 
 running it through to finish with. This last drill should have the 
 corners of its lips rounded, like a reamer, and the hole should be 
 finished without holding the drill with a rest. 
 
 Boring a Hole with a Boring Tool. Tn boring a hoV with 
 a boring tool, it is usually necessary to drill the hole first, and too 
 much cure cannot be taken in finishing. An iron gau-_ r e should be 
 made first; is usually made of a piece of sheet iron or wire. The 
 hole should then be'drilled smaller than the size desired, and then 
 bored to the required size, and it is impossible to bore a hole perfect
 
 CEMENTS. 265 
 
 without taking two or three light chips, mere scrapings with which 
 to finish. Holes, in this way, may be bored as nicely as they can 
 be reuuied. 
 
 Squaring or Facing up Cast Iron Surfaces. A round end 
 tool Is best for Mils. A rough chip should first be taken off, over 
 the entire surface to be faced. Then speed your lathe up and 
 taking a light chip, merely enough to take out tlic first tool marks, 
 run over the entire surface again. In turning up surfaces it is 
 always Inrst to begin at the centre and feed out, as the tool cuts 
 f 1 1 . i and will wear twice as long. 
 
 Boring Holes with Boring Arbor. A boring arbor is a 
 shaft with a sU'e.l set in it, for the purpose of boring holes of great 
 length, and is designed to be, used in a lathe. In doing this pro- 
 perly, you must first see if your latho is set straight. If not, adjust 
 It; having done this, put the piece of work to be bored in the car- 
 riage of your lathe, pass your arbor through the hole to be bored, 
 and put it on the centres of your lathe. Having done this, adjust 
 your work true to the position desired by measuring from the point 
 of the tool, continually turning round the arbor from side to side of 
 the piece to lie bored, while you are bolting it to the carriage, and 
 measure until it is perfectly true. Having done this, bore the hole, 
 and take for the last chip only a hundredth of an inch. This makes 
 a true and smooth hole. It is impossible to make a hole true with 
 any kind of a tool when you are cutting a large chip, for the tool 
 springs so that no dependence can be placed upon it. 
 
 To make a Boring Arbor and Tool that will not Chat- 
 ter. Boring tools, when used in small arbors, are always liable 
 to chatter and make a rough hole. To prevent this, the tool should 
 be turned in a lathe, while in its position in the arbor, upon the 
 circle of the size of the hole to be bored, and the bearing lengthwise 
 of the arbor should be only as wide as the feed of the lathe; for if 
 the bearing of the tool is on the face, the more it will chatter. 
 
 CEMENTS. 
 
 [See other pages also.] 
 
 Rust Joint. QUICK SETTING. 1 Ib. sal ammoniac in powder, 
 2 Ibs. of flour of sulphur, 80 Ibs. iron borings. Made to a paste 
 with water. SLOW SETTING. 2 Ibs. sal ammoniac, 1 Ib. of sulphur, 
 200 Ibs. iron borings. This latter cement is best if the joint is not 
 required for immediate use. 
 
 For Steam Boilers, Steam Pipes, Etc. SOFT. T?ed or white 
 lead in oil, 4 parts; iron borings, 2 to 3 parts. HARD. Iron borings 
 and salt water, and a small quantity of sal ammoniac with fresh 
 water. 
 
 Maltha, or Greek Mastic. Lime and sand mixed in the man- 
 ner of mortar, and made into a proper consistency with milk or 
 size without water.
 
 266 BROWNING. 
 
 For China. Curd of mill;, (Inert and powdered, 10 07.; quick- 
 lime, 1 <)/..; camphor, '_' drachms. Mix, and keep in closely stopped 
 butil'-s. When ns-.-d.a portion is to In; mixed with a little water 
 into a paste. 
 
 Tor Earthen and Glassware. TTcat the article to bo mended 
 ft little above 313. then apply :i thin coating of mim shellac upon 
 both surfaces of the broken vessel. Or, dissolve jruin shellac in 
 alcohol, apply the solution, and bind the parts firmly together until 
 the cement is dry. 
 
 Holes in Casting. Sulphur In powder, 1 part; sal ammoniac, 2 
 parts; powdered iron turnings, 80 parts. Make into a thick paste. 
 The ingredients composing this cement should be kept separate, 
 and not mixed until required for use. 
 
 For Marble. Planter of Pa^is, in a sattirated solution of alum, 
 baked in an oven, and n-due -d to powder. Mixed with water. It 
 may be mixed with various colors. 
 
 For Mirble Workers and Coppersmiths. White of egg, 
 mixed with finely sifted quicklime, will unite objects which arc n<t 
 submitted to moisture. 
 
 Transparent for Glass. India rubber, 1 part in 61 of chloro- 
 form, add cum mastic in powder, 1G to 24 parts. Digest for two 
 days with frequent shaking. 
 
 To Mend Iron Ware. Sulphur, 2 parts; fine black lead, 1 part. 
 Put the sulphur in an iron pan over a tire, until it melts, then add 
 the lead; stir well; then pour out. When cool, lueak into small 
 pieces. A sufficient quantity of this compound heinu placed upon 
 the crack of the ware to be mended, can be soldered by an iron. 
 
 For Cisterns and Water Casks. Melted trine, 8 parts; lin- 
 seed oil, 4 parts; boiled into a varnish with litharge. This cement 
 hardens in about 48 hours, and renders the joints of wooden cisterns 
 and casks air and water tight. 
 
 Hydraulic Cement Paint. Hydraulic, cement mixed with oil 
 forms an incombustible and waterproof paint for roofs of buildings, 
 out-houses, walls, etc. 
 
 Entomologists' Cement. Thick mastic varnish and isinglass 
 size, equal parts. 
 
 BROWNING. 
 
 [See other pages also.] 
 
 Browning, or Bronzing Liquid. Sulphate of copper, 1 01. ; 
 sweet spirit of nitre, 1 oz. ; water, 1 pint. Mix. In a few days it 
 will be fit for use.
 
 GLUES. 207 
 
 Browning for Gun Barrels. Tinct of mur. of iron, 1 oz.- 
 nitrii: ftli.-r, 1 o/..: sulphate of copper, 4 scruples- rain water 1 
 pint. If the proems Is to be hurried, add 2 or 3 grains of oxymuri- 
 ate of mercury. When the barrel is finished, let it remain a short 
 time in une water, to neutralize any acid which may have pene- 
 trated; then rub it well with an iron wire scratch brush. 
 
 Hardening Compound used in Damascus Sword Blades. 
 The blade is covered with a paste formed of equal parts of barilla, 
 powdered egg-shells, borax, common salt, and crude soda; bentcd 
 to a moderate red heat, and just as the red is turning to a black 
 heat, quench it in spring water. 
 
 LACKERS. 
 
 For Small Arms, or "Waterproof Paper. Beeswax, 13 Ibs.; 
 spirits of turpentine, 13 gallons; boiled linseed oil, 1 gallon. All the 
 ingredients should be pure and of the best quality. Heat them to- 
 gether, in a copper or earthen vessel over a gentle fire, in a water- 
 bath, until they are well mixed. 
 
 For Bright Iron "Work. Linseed oil, boiled, 80.5; litharge, 5.5: 
 white lead, in oil, 11.25; resin, pulverized, 2.75. -Add the litharge 
 to the oil; let it simmer over a slow fire 3 hours; strain it, and add 
 the resin and white lead; keep it gently warmed, and stir it until 
 the resin is dissolved. 
 
 INKS. 
 
 Indelible, for Marking Linen, Etc. 1. Juice of sloes, 1 pint; 
 gum, X an ounce. This requires no "preparation" or mordant, 
 and is very durable. 2. Nitrate of silver, 1 part; water, 6 parts; 
 gum, 1 part. Dissolve. MARKING. Lunar caustic, 2 parts; sap 
 green and gum arabic, each 1 part; dissolve with distilled water. 
 THE " PREPARATION." Soda, 1 ounce; water, 1 pint; sap green, 
 X drachm. Dissolve, and wet the article to be marked, then dry 
 and apply the ink. 
 
 PERPETUAL, FOK TOKB STONES, MARBLE, ETC. Pitch, 11 parts; 
 lampblack, 1 part; turpentine sufficient. Warm and stir. 
 
 COPYING INK. Add 1 oz. of sugar to a pint of ordinary ink. 
 
 GLUES. 
 
 [See other pages also.] 
 
 For Parchment. Parchment shavings, 1 lb.; water, 6 quarts. 
 Boil until dissolved, then strain and evaporate slowly to the proper 
 consistence. 
 
 Rice Glue, or Japanese Cement. Rice flour; -water, sufficient 
 quantity. Mix together cold, then boil, stirring it all the time.
 
 268 VARNISHES. 
 
 Liquid. Glue, water, and vinegar, each 2 parts. Dissolve in a 
 water-bath, then add alcohol, 1 part. Or, cologne or strong glue, 
 2.2 Ibs.; water, 1 quart; dissolved over a gentle heat; add nitric 
 acid ;i, 7 <>/.., in .small quantities. Remove from the tire and cool. 
 Or, white glue, 10 >/..; white leail, dry, 4 o/.; rain water, _' pints. 
 Add alcohol, -1 oz., and continue the heat for a few minutes. 
 
 Marine. Dissolve India-rubber, 4 parts, in ."M parts of coal-tar 
 naphtha; add powdered shellac, (54 part-,. While the mixture is hot it 
 is poured upon metal plates in sheets. When required for iise.it is 
 heated, and then applied with a brush. Or, 1 part India-rubher, 12 
 parts of coal-tar; heat gently, mix, and add 20 parts of p. 
 shellac. Pour out to cool. When used, heat to about 250. Or, 
 glue, 12 parts; water, sufficient to dissolve; and yellow resin. .'{ 
 parts; and, when melted, add turpentine, 4 parts. Mix thoroughly 
 together. 
 
 STKONO GLUE. Add powdered chalk to common glue. 
 
 GUM MUCILAGE. A little oil of cloves poured into a bottle con- 
 taining guui mucilage, prevents it from becoming sour. 
 
 Glue to Resist Moisture. 5 parts glue, 4 parts rosin, 2 parts 
 red ochre, mixed with the least practicable quantity of water. 
 Or, 4 parts of glue, 1 part of boiled oil by weight, 1 part oxide 
 of iron. Or, 1 Ib. of glue melted in 2 quarts of slummed milk. 
 
 VARNISHES. 
 
 [See other pages also.] 
 
 Waterproof. Flour of sulphur, 1 Ib. ; Linseed-oil, 1 pal.; 
 boil them until they are thoroughly combined. This forms a 
 good varnish for waterproof textile fabrics. Another is made of 
 oxide of lead, 4 Ibs.; lampblack, 2 Ibs. ; sulphur, 5 oz.; and India- 
 rubber dissolved in turpentine, 10 Ibs. Boil together until they are 
 thoroughly combined. 
 
 To Adhere Engravings or Lithographs upon Wood. 
 
 Sandarach, _'."() parts: mastic in tears, 64; resin, 125; Venice tur- 
 pentine, 250; and alcohol, 1000 parts by measure. 
 
 For Harness. India-rubber, }4 Ib.; spirits of turpentine, 1 
 pal.; dissolve into a jelly; then take hot linseed oil, equal parts 
 with the mass, and incorporate them well over a slow fire. 
 
 For Fastening Leather on Top Rollers. Gum Arabic. 2|^ 
 oz., dissolved in water, and a like volume of isinglass dissolved 
 in water. 
 
 To Preserve Glass from the Rays of the Sun. Reduce 
 a quantity of gum tngmeurth to tine powder, and let it dissolve for 
 24 hours in white ot eggs well beat up. 
 
 For Water-Color Drawings. Canada balsam, 1 part; oil of 
 turpentine, 2 parts, mixed. Size the drawing before applying the 
 varnish.
 
 PAINTING. 269 
 
 POT Objects of Natural History, for Shells, Fish, &c.- 
 Mucilace of gum tragacant.h and mucilage of sum arable, each 1 
 oz. Mix, and add spirit with corrosive sublimate, so as to precipi- 
 tate the more stringy part of the gum. 
 
 For Articles of Iron and Steel. floar grains of mastic, 10 
 parts; camphor, 5 parts; sandarach, 15 parts; and elemi, 5 parts. 
 Dissolve In a sufficient quantity of alcohol, and apply without 
 heat. This varnish will retain its transparancy, and the metallic 
 brilliancy of the article will not be obscured. 
 
 For Gun Barrels, after Browning. Shellac. 1 oz.; Dragon's 
 blood, J^ oz. ; rectified spirit, 1 quart. Dissolve and filter. 
 
 Black. Heat to boiling, 10 parts of linseed oil varnish with 
 burnt umber, 2 parts, and powdered asphaltum, 1 part. When 
 cooled, dilute with spirits of turpentine as required. 
 
 Balloon. Melt India-rubber in small pieces with its weight of 
 boiled linseed oil. Thin with oil of turpentine. 
 
 Transfer. Alcohol, 5 oz. ; pure Venice turpentine, 4 oz. ; mas- 
 tic, 1 oz. 
 
 To Clean Varnish. Mix a lye of potash, or soda, with a little 
 powdered chalk. 
 
 Composition for Rendering Canvas Waterproof and 
 Pliable. Yellow soap, 1 lb., boiled in 6 pints of water, add, 
 while hot, to 112 Ibs. of paint 
 
 Good Painting requires 4 or 6 coals; but usually only 4 are 
 used in principal rooms ; and 3 in inferior ones. Each coat must 
 be allowed to dry perfectly before the next one is put on. One lb. 
 of the keg paint will, after being thinned, cover about 2 sq. yds. of 
 first coat ; 3 yds. of second ; and 4 yds. of each subsequent coat ; or 
 1 sq. yd. of 3 coats will require in all, 1-08 Ibs. ; of 4 coats, 1 Ibs. ; 
 of 5 coats, 1-58 Ibs. The reason why the first coats require so much 
 more than the subsequent ones, is that the bare surface of the wood 
 absorbs it more. 
 
 Painting of Brick Work. A square yard of new brick wall 
 requires for the first coat of paint in oil, | lb. ; and for the second, 
 3; and for the third, -4.
 
 270 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 To Clean Marble. Chalk, powdered, and pumice-stone, each 
 
 1 part; soda. :_' paris. Mix with water. Wa^h tin- spots, then 
 clean and wash off with soap aud water. 
 
 To Extract Grease from Stone or Marble. Soft soap, 1 
 
 part; Fuller's earth, '1 part-; potash, l part. Mix witli boiling 
 water. Lay it upon the spots, and let it remain for a few hours. 
 
 Paint for Window Glass. Chrome green, ^ oz.; sugar of 
 lead, 1 11).; ground line, in sufficient linked oil to iii.i>ti-n it. Mix 
 to toe consistency of cream, and apply with a soft brush. The 
 glass should be well cleaned before the paint is applied. The 
 above quantity is sufficient for about 200 feet of glues. 
 
 Durable Paste. Make common flour paste rather thick (by 
 mixing some tlmir with a little <</'/ wat-r until it is of uniform con- 
 sistency, and then stir it well while bvVin-j water H being added to 
 it;) ad'd a little brown sugar and OOOOHTfl sublimate, which will 
 prevent fermentation, and a few drops of oil of lavender, which 
 will prevent it becoming mouldy. When this pa^te dries it may IKJ 
 used again by dissolving it in water. It will keep for two or three 
 years in a covered vessel. 
 
 Dubbing. Resin, 2 Ibs.; tallow, lib.; train-oil, 1 gallon. 
 
 Blacking for Harness. Bees' wax, *4 lb.; ivory black, 2 oz 
 
 spirit- ot turpentine, 1 o/..; 1'rus-ian blue ground in oil. Lo 
 varnish, \^ oz. Melt the wax and stir it into the other ingredi- 
 ents before the mixture is quite cold; make it into balls. Hub a 
 little upon a brush, and apply it upon the harm s>, then p.li>h lightly 
 with silk. 
 
 To Prevent Iron from Rusting. Warm it; then nib with 
 white wax: put it again to the fire until the wax has pervaded the 
 entire surface. Or, immerse tools or bright work in boiled linseed 
 oil and allow it to dry upon them. 
 
 Paper for Draughtsmen, &c. Powdered tragacanth, 1 part; 
 
 water. 10 parts; dissolve, and strain through cl-an gauze, then lav 
 it smoothly upon the paper, previously stretched upon a board. 
 This paper will take either oil or water-colors. 
 
 To Remove Old Ironmould. Remoisten the part stained with 
 ink. remove this by the use of muriatic acid diluted by 5 or (> times 
 its weight of water, when the old and new stain will'be removed. 
 
 Pastiles for Fumigating. Gum arable, 2 oz.; charcoal powder, 
 , r >o/.. ; oaacariliabark, po\vdcr-d ^o/.. ; saltpetre, y t drachm. Mix to- 
 gether with water, and make into shape. 
 
 For "Writing Upon Zinc Labels Horticultural. Dissolve 
 100 gr. of chloride of platinum in a pin! of water; add ;i little mu- 
 cilage and lamp-black. Or, sal-ammoniac, 1 dr : verdigiis, 1 dr.: 
 lamp-back, % dr.; water, 10 drs. Mix.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 271 
 
 Booth's Grease for Railway Axles. Water, 1 gall,; clean 
 tallow, 3 Ibs.; palm oil, Ibs.; common soda, U lb.; or, tallow, 8 
 Ibs. ; palm oil, 10 Ibs. To be heated to about 212, and to be well 
 stirred until it cools to 70. 
 
 Anti-friction Gras. 100 Ibs. tallow, 70 llw. palm oil. Boiled 
 together, and when cooled to 80, strain through a sieve, and mix 
 with 28 Ibs. of Soda and 1M gals, of water. For winter, take 25 
 Ibs. more oil in place of the tallow. Or black lead, 1 part; lard, 4 
 
 Llard. 50 parts of finest rape oil and 1 part of caoutchouc, cut 
 email. Apply beat until it is nearly all dissolved. 
 
 Stain*. To REMOVE Stains of ladin* are removed by rectified 
 spirit. I a!.- stains by oxalic or superoxalate of potash, tronmoulda 
 by the same; but if obstinate, moisten them with ink, then re- 
 move them in the usual way. 
 
 RED SPOTS upon black cloth from acids are removed by spirts of 
 hartshorn, or other solutions of ammonia. 
 
 STAINS of MARKING-INK, OR NITRATE OP SILVER. Wet the stain 
 witli fre.sh solution of cloride. of lime, and utter 10 or 15 minutes, if 
 the marks have become white, dip the part in solution of ammonia 
 or of hyposulphite of soda. In a few minutes wash with clean water. 
 Or stretch tin- stained linen over a basin of hot water, and wet the 
 mark with tincture of iodine. 
 
 Preservative Paste for Objects of Natural History. 
 White arsenic, 1 lb.; powdered hellebore, 2 Ibs. 
 
 Paste for Cleaning Metals. Oxalic acid, 1 part; rottenstone, 
 6 parta. Mix with equal parts of train oil and spirits of turpentine. 
 
 "Watchmaker's Oil, 'which never Corrodes or Thickens. 
 Place coils of thin sheet lead in a bottle with olive oil. Expose it 
 to the sun for a few weeks, and pour off the clear oil. 
 
 Blacking, Without Polishing. Molasses, 4 oz. ; lamp-black, 
 $oz.; y east, a tablespoon ful; eggs, 2; oliveoil.ateiwpoontnl; turpentine, 
 ateaapoonful. Mix well. To be applied with aaponge, without brushing. 
 
 To Preserve Sails. Slacked lime, 2 bushels. Draw off the 
 lime water, and mix it with 120 gallons water, and with blue vitriol, 
 
 Whitewash. For outside exposure, slack lime, M a bushel, in a 
 barrel: add common salt, 1 lb.; sulphate of zinc, }$ lb.; and sweet 
 milk, 1 gal. 
 
 To Preserve Woodwork.. Boiled oil and finely powdered 
 charcoal, each 1 pait; mix to the consistence of paint. Lay on 2 or 
 3 coats with it. This composition is well adapted for casks, water- 
 spouts, Ac. 
 
 To Polish Wood. Rub surface with pumice stone and water 
 18
 
 272 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 until the rising of the grain is removed. Then, with powdered 
 tripoli and boiled linseed oil, polish to a bright surface. 
 
 To Clean Brass Ornaments. Brass ornaments that have not 
 been gilt or lackered may be cleaned, and a very brilliant color 
 given to them, by washing them in alum boiled in strong lye, In the 
 proportion of an ounce to a pint, uucl afterward rubbing them with 
 strong tripoli. 
 
 Adhesive Cement for Fractures of all Kinds. White load 
 ground with linseed oil varnish, and kept out of contact with the 
 air. It requires a few weeks to harden. When stone or iron an- to 
 be cemented together, use a compound of equal parts of sulphur 
 and pitch.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Alloy and Compositions, 164, 
 
 165. 
 
 Arches and Abutments, 82. 
 Artiilr.-r*' Rules and Tablet. 
 Bricklayers' work, measurement 
 
 of, 71. 
 Carpenters' and Joiners' work, 
 
 measurement of, 74. 
 Glaziers' work, measurement 
 
 of, 79. 
 Masons' work, measurement of, 
 
 73. 
 Pavers' work, measurement of, 
 
 78. 
 Painters' work, measurement of, 
 
 79. 
 Plasterers' work, measurement 
 
 of, 78. 
 Plumbers' work, measurement 
 
 of, 80. 
 Slaters' work, measurement of, 
 
 76. 
 
 Wells and Cisterns, measure- 
 ment of, 73. 
 Jft-iiiHu. Strength and Stiff**** of, 
 
 120, 130, 133. 
 Belts, 61. 
 
 Casks, gauging of, 160. 
 Ullage of, 163. 
 
 Co* tiny*, wright of, 147. 
 
 Shrinkage of, 120. 
 Centrifugal Force, 139. 
 Columns, hollow, 137. 
 
 Solid, 135. 
 Crane, 138. 
 it-mi". 118. 
 Dine, revolving, 120. 
 Epitome of Mensuration, 
 
 Circles, 44. 
 
 Cones, 47. 
 
 Cubes, 45. 
 
 8 
 
 Cylinder, 44. 
 Ellipses, 47. 
 Frustums, 47. 
 Polygons, 46. 
 
 Regular, table of areas of, 
 
 Rectangles, 45. 
 
 Spheres, 44. 
 
 Square, 45. 
 
 Surfaces and solidities of regu- 
 lar bodies, 46. 
 
 Triangles, 46. 
 Friction, 139. 
 Ice, Strength of, 120. 
 l,,-tr,,,n, ,,t,,l Arithmetic. 
 
 Gauge points for common slide 
 rule, 51. 
 
 Gauge points for engineers' 
 rule, 51. 
 
 Mensuration of solidity and ca- 
 pacity, 62. 
 
 Mensuration of surface, 50. 
 
 Numbers, to divide upon the 
 rule, 49. 
 
 Numbers, to find geometrical 
 and mean proportion between 
 two, 50. 
 
 Numbers, to multiply by the 
 rule, 48. 
 
 Numbers, square and cube roots 
 of, 49. 
 
 Numeration, 48. 
 
 Proportion, or rule of three di- 
 rect, 49. 
 
 Rule of three inverse, 49. 
 
 Slide rule, utility of, 48. 
 
 Square and cube roots of num- 
 bers, 49. 
 
 Surface, mensuration of, 50. 
 Iron Chains, 127. 
 Iron Work* (England), 84. 
 273
 
 274 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cements, Mortars and 
 Concretes, 62. 
 Mills, Flour, Saw, Wood Cnttiny, 
 
 84. 
 
 31 in in ff and Wasting, 86. 
 Notts and Spikes, welyht of, 128, 
 
 129. 
 
 Pedestal Bracket, 139. 
 Practical Geometry. 
 Arch, flat, to draw by the in- 
 tersection of lines, 42. 
 Corners of a given square, to cat 
 off so as to form a regular oc- 
 tagon, 36. 
 
 Curved lines, method of draw- 
 ing, 38. 
 Ellipse, to describe, by means of 
 
 a carpenter's square, 40. 
 Ellipse, to draw, by means of 
 
 two concentric circles, 39. 
 Ellipse, to draw, with rule and 
 
 compasses. 38. 
 Ellipse, to find centre and two 
 
 << 4L 
 Equilateral triangle within a 
 
 given circle, to inscribe, 34. 
 Hexagon, regular, within a 
 
 given circle, to inscribe, 36. 
 Line, a given, to divide into 
 any number of parts, equal or 
 unequal, etc., 36. 
 Line, a given, to draw a poly- 
 gon of any number of sides 
 on, etc., 37. 
 
 Lines, curved, method of draw- 
 ing, 38. 
 
 Moulding, raking, to find form or 
 curvature of, to unite with 
 level one, 42. 
 Pentagon, regular, within a 
 
 given circle, to inscribe, 35. 
 IMurn, in open or broken pedi- 
 ment, to mid form or curva- 
 ture of, 43. 
 Square, within a given circle, to 
 
 inscribe, 35. 
 
 Pump, Cold Water, 139. 
 Receipts for Mechanical Pur- 
 pones. 
 Acid, fluoric. 200. 
 
 On clothes, to destroy the 
 
 effects of, 262. 
 Acids, dipping 175. 
 
 Tinning, for brass or zinc, 
 175. 
 
 Alabaster, how to stain, 234. 
 
 Albata metal, 171. 
 
 Alloy, anti-friction, for journal 
 
 boxes, 17!'. 
 Bushing, for pivot holes, 
 
 etc., in watches, 248. 
 For bronze ornaments, 173. 
 For calico printing blocks, 
 
 172. 
 
 For cylinders of locomo- 
 tives, 17-2. 
 For gold, 169, 170. 
 For gun mountings, 171. 
 For journal boxes 180. 
 For mechanical instra- 
 
 ments, 17 1'. 
 
 For silver coin and plate, 169. 
 For silver, French patent, 
 
 170. 
 
 For stuffing -boxes of loco- 
 motives, 172. 
 For symbals, 173. 
 For watch pinion sockets, 
 
 171. 
 
 Fusible, 167. 
 Fusible, for silvering glass, 
 
 167. 
 
 Hard, Chantry's, 171. 
 Jewellers', 248. 
 
 Amalgam, for electrical ma- 
 chines, 173. 
 For mirrors. 172. 
 Gold, to make, 260. 
 Gold, to plate with, 260. 
 Anatomical injections, metal for, 
 
 174. 
 
 Ancient bronze, 173. 
 Angler's secret for fish, 235. 
 Annealing, 194. 
 Antique bronze paint, 176. 
 Argentine, white, 173. 
 Armenian cement, jewellers', 198 
 Artificial gold, 170. 
 Assaying gold and silver, 193. 
 Babbitt metal, 170. 
 
 Lining boxes with, 264. 
 Bath metal, 178. 
 Battery, to plate with a, 259. 
 Bell metal, 166, 171, 172, 174,243. 
 Bevel gears, 263. 
 Bidery, 171. 
 
 Birmingham platin, 171. 
 Bismuth sohk-r, 17-. 
 Black, having a polish for iron, 
 183.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 275 
 
 Blacking, for harness, 270. 
 Blacking, oil paste, 226. 
 
 Water-proof, 226. 
 Blacking without polishing, 271 
 Blue, transparent, for iron o 
 
 steel, 186. 
 Blueing from steel, to remove 
 
 255. 
 
 Boilers, incrustation of, 243. 
 Soft cement for, 186. 
 To prevent deposits of limi 
 
 in, 182. 
 
 Books or paper, to marble, 231. 
 Boot and shoe edge, best color 
 
 for 225. 
 Booth's grease, for railway axles, 
 
 Borax, substitute for, 184. 
 Boring, arbor,. 265. 
 
 Tool boring a hole with, 264. 
 Botany Bay wood, imitation of, 
 
 Bottle glass, 237. 
 Brass, 106, 172, 174, 179. 
 
 Acids for, 175. 
 
 Best, for fine castings, 166. 
 
 Buttonmakers', 174. 
 
 For clocks, 171. 
 
 For heavy castings, 179. 
 
 For wire, 173. 
 
 German, 179. 
 
 Lacquers for, 175, 176, 177. 
 
 Malleable, 172. 
 
 Solder for, 167. 
 
 Solution, 192. 
 
 To clean and polish, 188. 
 
 To hard solder, 258. 
 
 To temper or draw temper 
 from, 253. 
 
 Vinegar, bronze for, 175. 
 
 Watchmakers', 179. 
 
 Work, to prepare for ormolu 
 
 dipping, 175. 
 Bridle stain, 228. 
 Britannia metal, 166, 167, 171, 
 173, 178. 
 
 Hardening for, 166. 
 British plate, 171. 
 Broaches, diamond, to make, 255. 
 
 Polishing, to make, 255. 
 Bronze, 173. 
 
 Dip, 177. 
 
 Metal, 166. 
 
 Ornaments, alloy for, 173. 
 
 Powder, 224. 
 
 Bronze powder, red, 173. 
 Brass, 243. 
 Cannon, 173. 
 Medals, 173. 
 Medals of all kinds, 177. 
 Bronzing fluid for guns, 173. 
 General directions for, 223. 
 Iron, 223. 
 Liquid, 226. 
 
 Mosaic, gold powder for, 222. 
 Plaster casts, 223. 
 Wood, 224. 
 
 Browning for gun barrels, 188, 
 189, 267. 
 For twist, 189. 
 Liquid 226. 
 Brunswick black, for grates, etc., 
 
 188. 
 
 Brushes, to clean, 202. 
 Burning fluid, the northern light, 
 
 248. 
 
 Burnished gilding, French, 223. 
 Burnishers, to make, 255. 
 
 To prepare for polishing, 
 
 Bushing alloy, for pivot holes, 
 
 etc., in watches, 248. 
 Buttonmakers' metal, 172. 
 Buttons, hard white metal for, 
 
 171. 
 
 Cabinetmakers' varnish, 216. 
 Calico printing blocks, alloy for, 
 
 172. 
 Cannon, bronze for, 173. 
 
 Metal, 173. 
 Cans, tin, 188. 
 Canvas, flexible paint for, 213. 
 
 Patent varnish for, 217. 
 Carriage varnish, 216. 
 Carriages, prepared oil for, 212. 
 Case-hardening for iron, 184. 
 Cast brass, dipping acid for, 175. 
 Britannia ware, soft solder 
 
 for, 167. 
 Iron scaling, 182. 
 
 Surfaces, squaring or 
 
 facing up, 265. 
 To enamel, 192. 
 To soften, for drilling, 
 
 185. 
 
 To weld, 180. 
 Castings, 167. 
 
 Heavy brass for, 179. 
 Iron, to bronze, 176. 
 To fill holes in, 176.
 
 276 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cast, plaster of Paris, to take from 
 
 a person's face, 244. 
 Cast steel, to harden and temper, 
 244. 
 
 To weld, 243. 
 
 Ceilings, blue color for, 209. 
 Cements, 181, 186, 188, 198, 213, 
 214, 226, 232, 234, 265, 266, 272. 
 Chains, brass, chain dip solution 
 
 for. 245. 
 Chalk for cleaning, to prepare, 
 
 250. 
 
 Chantry's hard alloy, 171. 
 Cherry stain, 220. 
 China gilding, 200. 
 
 Gold lustre for 200. 
 Chinese gong metal, 171. 
 Silver, 173. 
 White copper, 178. 
 Chrome green, 210. 
 
 Yellow, 210. 
 Clicks, etc., of watches, to temper, 
 
 254. 
 
 Clock, bell metal, 172. 
 Best brass for, 171. 
 Faces, etc., to silver, 190. 
 Hands, to re-black, 262. 
 To clean, 256. 
 To make strike correctly, 
 
 257. 
 
 To oil properly, 256. 
 Wheels, to put teeth in with- 
 out dovetailing or solder- 
 ing, 247. 
 
 Clothing renovator, 236. 
 Cock metal, 166. 
 Colored gold, 169. 
 Color for lacquer, 177. 
 Colors, compound, 205. 
 Coloring of gilding, 197. 
 Compositions, 179, 182, 183, 189, 
 
 Copper, enamelling on, 194. 
 
 Plates or rods, to coat with 
 brass, 191. 
 
 Powder. 223. 
 
 Solder for, 167, 168. 
 
 Solution of, on zinc, 191. 
 
 Stew dishes, etc., 187. 
 
 To hard solder, 258. 
 
 To refine, 257. 
 
 Vessel, etc., to enamel, 192. 
 Cream, painters', 213. 
 Crimson, satin, 218. 
 Crucibles, 265, 266, 272. 
 
 Crystallized tin plate, 187. 
 Curriers' paste, 230. 
 Size, 230. 
 Skirting, 230. 
 Cntlerv, tempering, 189. 
 Cylinders of locomotives, alloy 
 "for. 172. 
 
 Of watches, to temper, 254. 
 Dams, 240, 241, 242. 
 Deer skins, tanning and buffing, 
 
 227. 
 
 Dentists' emery wheels, 243. 
 Deposits of lime in boilers, to pre- 
 vent, 182. 
 
 Diamond files, to make, 255. 
 Diamond mill, to make, 246. 
 Dip bronze, 177. 
 Dipped brass, lacquer for, 175, 
 
 176. 
 
 Dipping acids, 175. 
 Door plates, to make, 198. 
 Draughtsmen, paper for, 270. 
 Draw-filing and finishing. 
 Drills, to temper, 198, 253. 
 
 Watchmakers', 190. 
 Drying oils, 212. 
 Dutch gold powders, 223. 
 Dyes for ivory, horn, and bone, 
 
 233. 
 
 For leather, 230. 
 For veneers, 235. 
 Ebony stain, 220. 
 Edge (boot, shoe, and harness) 
 
 blacking, 225. 
 Edge (boot, shoe, and harness) 
 
 varnish, 226. 
 Electrical machine, amalgam 
 
 for, 173. 
 Electro gold and silver plating, 
 
 19* 
 Electro-plating, to make gold 
 
 solution for, 258. 
 Electro-plating, to make silver 
 
 solution for, 259. 
 Electrum. 243. 
 Emery wheels, dentists', 243. 
 Emery wheels, for polishing, 193. 
 Enamelled cast iron, 192. 
 Enamelling on gold and copper, 
 
 194. 
 
 English standard for silver, 170. 
 Etching fluid for ivory, 233. 
 On glass, 199. 
 Varnish, 199. 
 Etruscan gold coloring, 246.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 277 
 
 Factitious gold, 169. 
 Farmers' paint, 207. 
 Fenton's anti-friction metal, 179. 
 Fictitious linseed oil, 215. 
 Files, diamond, to make, 255. 
 
 Glass gilding, 203. 
 Grinding, for signs, etc., 
 
 How to photograph on, 236. 
 How to write on in the sun, 
 
 Pivot, 255. 
 
 236. 
 
 And rasps, old, how to recut, 
 
 Plate, 238. 
 
 183. 
 
 Soluble, 203. 
 
 Finishing with one coat of var- 
 
 Staining, 200. 
 
 nish, 221. 
 Fish, angler's secret for, 235. 
 
 To cut round or oval without 
 a diamond, 262. 
 
 Oil paints 211. 
 
 To drill and ornament, 204. 
 
 Flask glass, 238. 
 Fluoric acid, 200. 
 
 To preserve from the rays 
 of the sun, 268. 
 
 Foil, liquid, for silvering glass 
 
 To transfer prints, etc., to, 
 
 globes, 181. 
 
 236. 
 
 Frames, etc.. varnish for, 220. 
 French finish for leather, 228. 
 
 Transparent for, 266. 
 Window, 238. 
 
 Gold plate, 171. 
 
 Paint for, 270. 
 
 Patent leather, 228. 
 Polish for leather, 230. 
 
 Glaziers' putty, 211. 
 Globes, glass, liquid foil for sil- 
 
 Friction in machinery, to lessen, 
 
 vering, 181. 
 
 244. 
 
 Glues, 206, 209, 267. 
 
 Frosting and whitening silver 
 goods, pickle for, 245. 
 Fumigating, pastiles for, 270. 
 Furniture, cream, 222. 
 
 Gold, alloys for, 169. 170. 
 Amalgam to make, 260. 
 To plate with, 260. 
 Artificial, 170. 
 
 Fillings, 222. 
 
 Colored, 169. 
 
 Oils, 244. 
 
 Common, 169. 
 
 Polish, 221. 
 
 Dutch, 223. 
 
 Game, trapper's secret for, 235. 
 Gas, to purify, 182. 
 German brass, 179. 
 
 Enamelling on, 194. 
 Factitious, 169. 
 From gilt metal, to recover, 
 
 Silver, 167, 171, 174. 
 
 198. 
 
 Gear, cutting, 262. 
 
 From lace, etc., to separate, 
 
 Gears, bevel. 263. 
 
 198. 
 
 Gilders' gold sice, 204, 
 
 Green and red, 197. 
 
 Pickle. 206. 
 
 Imitation, 174, 248. 
 
 Gilding china and glass, 200. 
 
 Ink, 200. 
 
 Coloring of, 197. 
 
 Lacquer, 176, 187, 216. 
 
 Elkington's patent, 196. 
 French burnished, 223. 
 
 Lustre for stoneware, etc., 
 200. 
 
 Glass signs, etc., 204. 
 Letters on wood, etc., 204. 
 Metal, 169. 
 
 Oroide of, 248. 
 Plate, French, 171. 
 Plating solution, to make 
 
 Wood, 224, 225. 
 
 and apply, 260. 
 
 Gilt frames, reviver for, 225. 
 Wares, metal for, 172. 
 Glass, bottle, 237. 
 
 Plating powders, to make 
 and apply, 261. 
 Polishing powder for, 197. 
 
 Colored, 244. 
 
 Powder, true, 222. 
 
 Crown 238. 
 
 Refining, 193. 
 
 Crystal, 237. 
 
 Silvering on metals, 197. 
 
 German, 238. 
 
 Solders, 168, 248. 
 
 Etching on, 199. 
 
 Solution for electro-plating, 
 
 Flask, 238. 
 
 to make, 258. 
 
 24
 
 278 
 
 IXDEX. 
 
 Gold, tarnished in soldering, to 
 cleanse, 258. 
 
 Tinge, how to give to silver, 
 246. 
 
 To enamel, 261. 
 
 To hard solder, 258. 
 
 To refine, 257. 
 
 Varnish, 216, 217, 226. 
 Gong metal, Chinese, 171. 
 Grain, black, for harness leather, 
 
 tan. 
 
 Grained tin, 177. 
 
 Grates, etc., Brunswick black for, 
 
 188. 
 Gravel houses, how to build, 
 
 212. 
 
 Gravers, to temper, 198, 253. 
 Grease, anti-friction, 271. 
 
 For railway axles, Booth's, 
 
 L'71. 
 From stone or marble, to 
 
 extract, 234, 270. 
 Green bronze dip, 177. 
 Grindstones, from common sand, 
 
 to make, 239. 
 
 Gun barrels, browning for, 188, 
 267. 
 
 Compositions for, 189. 
 Metal, 171. 
 
 Mountings, alloy for, 171. 
 Stocks, varnish and polish 
 
 for, 189. 
 
 Guns, bronzing fluid for, 173. 
 Hair-springs in watches, to re- 
 duce, 171. 
 
 To weaken, 253. 
 Hard alloy, Chantry's, 171. 
 Solder, 168. 
 Steel, to drill into, 247. 
 White metal, 1(>7. 
 
 For buttons, 171. 
 Hardening, compound used in 
 Damascus sword blades, 267. 
 For Britannia, 166. 
 And filling for fire-proof 
 
 safes, 189. 
 Harmstadt's true imitation of 
 
 gold and silver, 170. 
 Harness, blacking for, 270. 
 Varnish, 226, 268. 
 Fxlge, beat color for, 225. 
 Leather, grain black for, 
 
 227. 
 
 Process of tannin?, in from 
 six to thirty days, 228. 
 
 Heel ball, shoemakers', 226. 
 Hide, raw, to tan, 228. 
 Hollow ware, to enamel, 192. 
 Horn, dyes for, 233. 
 
 In imitation of tortoise 
 
 shell, 232. 
 
 Hydraulic cewent paint, 266. 
 Imitation of gold, 170, 174. 
 
 Of ivory, to cast figures in 
 245. 
 
 Of mahogany, 220. 
 
 Of platinum", 174. 
 
 Of silver, 1<I7, 170,174. 
 Impressions, metal for taking, 
 
 167. 
 Injections, anatomical metal for, 
 
 Ink, copying, 267. 
 Gold, 200. 
 Indelible 267. 
 Perpetual, for tombstones, 
 
 etc., 234, 267. 
 Printing, 239. 
 Silver, 200. 
 
 Inscriptions on metals, 185. 
 Iron, brassing, 192. 
 
 Bronze, paint for, 177. 
 
 Case-hardening for, 184. 
 
 Castings, to bronze, 176. 
 
 Lustre, 183. 
 
 Paint, compound, 207. 
 
 Poor, to improve, 184. 
 
 Tinning, 178. 
 
 Transparent blue for, 186. 
 
 Varnish for, 183, 185. 
 
 To case-harden, 247. 
 
 To copper the surface of, 
 
 187 
 
 To galvanize, 180. 
 To prevent, from rusting, 
 
 270. 
 To tin, for soldering, etc., 
 
 187. 
 Wire, to copper the surface 
 
 of, 187. 
 
 Mould, to remove, 270. 
 Ivory etching, fluid for, 233. 
 To gild, 233. 
 To silver, 206. 
 To soften, 233. 
 To whiten, 233. 
 Japan drier, 212. 
 
 Flow, for tin, 186. 
 Liquid, for leather, 226. 
 Japanese cement, 267.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 279 
 
 Japanners' copal varnish, 216. 
 Jewellers' alloys, 248. 
 
 Armenian cement, 198. 
 Gold compositions, 169. 
 Soldering fluid, 178. 
 Turkish cement, 198. 
 Jet black, red or blue, 221. 
 Jewelry, old reviver of, 198. 
 Journal boxes, alloy for, 179, 180. 
 Kustitien's metal for tinning, 
 
 179. 
 Lace, etc., to separate gold and 
 
 silver from, 198. 
 Lacmier, color for, 177. 
 
 Directions for making, 175. 
 For brass, 175, 17ti, 177. 
 For bright iron work ; 267. 
 For philosophical instru- 
 ments, 177. 
 For small arms, 267. 
 For water-proof paper, 267. 
 Good, 176. 
 Gold 216. 
 
 For tin, 187. 
 Lead pipes, 174. 
 
 Plates, to joint, 182. 
 Shot, 174. 
 
 Leather, brilliant, French var- 
 nish for, 226. 
 Cement for, 226. 
 Dyes for, 230. 
 French, finish for, 228. 
 Frencli patent, 228. 
 Polish or dressing for. 230. 
 Harness, grain Mack for, 
 
 227. 
 
 Liquid, Japan, for, 226. 
 Process of tanning in from 
 
 six to thirty days, 228. 
 Stains for, 227. 
 To dye blue, red or purple, 
 
 226. 
 
 Lever escapement of watch, 
 depth of, to change, 251. 
 Of anchor - escapement 
 watches, to lengthen with- 
 out hammering or solder- 
 ing, 245. 
 Of watch, when of proper 
 
 length, to tell, 251. 
 Pallets, when of proper 
 
 size, to tell, 252. 
 Liard, 271. 
 
 Lime, deposits of, in boilers, to 
 prevent, 182. 
 
 Lining metal, for boxes of rail- 
 road cars, 167. 
 To make, 264. 
 
 Linseed oil, fictitious, 215. 
 
 Liquid foil for silvering glass 
 globes, etc., 181. 
 Glue, 209, 268. 
 Red, 228. 
 
 Lithographs upon wood, to ad- 
 here, 268. 
 
 Looking-glass plate, 238. 
 
 Looking-glasses, silvering with 
 pure silver, 202. 
 
 Lubricating oil, patent, 183. 
 
 Lustre gold, for stoneware, 
 china, etc., 200. 
 Iron, 183. 
 
 Machines, putting together, 264. 
 
 Magic Paper, 239. 
 
 Mahogany color 219. 
 Imitation of, 220. 
 
 Marble, broken, powerful cement 
 
 Cement for, 266. 
 
 Perpetual ink for, 267. 
 
 To clean, 234, 270. 
 
 To cut and polish, 234. 
 
 To stain, 234. 
 
 Tree, 231. 
 Marine glue, 268. 
 Maltha or Greek mastic, 265. 
 Mastic cement, 213. 
 
 Varnish, 215. 
 Metal, albata, 171. 
 
 Anti-friction, Fenton's, 179. 
 
 Babbitt, 179. 
 
 Bath, 178. 
 
 Bell, 171, 174. 
 Parisian, 174. 
 Superior, 243. 
 
 Britannia, 171, 173, 178. 
 
 Buttonmakers', 172. 
 
 Cannon, 173. 
 
 Chinese gong, 171. 
 
 Clock, blue, 172. 
 
 For anatomical injections, 
 174. 
 
 For gilt wares, 172. 
 
 For sliding levers of loco- 
 motives, 172. 
 
 For taking impressions, 167. 
 
 Gilding, 169. 
 
 Gun, 171. 
 
 Hard white, 167. 
 
 Hard white for buttons, 171.
 
 280 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Metal, Kustitten's, for tinning, 179. 
 
 Paint, oil, to reduce with water, 
 
 Lining, to make, I 
 
 212. 
 
 Muntz, for ships, 180. 
 
 Paints, 176, 177, 207, 208. 
 
 Prince's, 174. 
 
 Painting, 269. 
 
 Queen's, 174, 178. 
 Reflector, 172. 
 
 Paper for draughtsmen, etc., 270. 
 For photographing, 23li. 
 
 Rivet, 167. 
 
 Magic, 239. 
 
 Shot, 172. 
 
 To marble, 231. 
 
 Silver colored, fine, 167. 
 
 Parchment, glues for, 267. 
 
 Socket, for locomotive axle- 
 
 To make paper into, 232. 
 
 trees, 172. 
 
 Pastes, 2:<o, 27o, 271. 
 
 Speculum, 178. 
 Type, 173. 
 
 Pastiles for fumigating, 270. 
 Patent leather, French, 228. 
 
 White, 172. 
 
 Pea brown, 210. 
 
 Yellow dipping, 174. 
 
 Pewter, 178. 
 
 Metals, gold silvering on, 197. 
 
 Pewterers' solders, 168, 178. 
 
 Melting point of, 171. 
 Paste for cleaning, 271. 
 
 Photograph on glass, how to, 236. 
 Pickle for frosting and whiten- 
 
 Planing, 262. 
 
 ing silver goods, 245. 
 
 Metallic oxides, to reduce, 191. 
 
 Pickle, gilders', 206. 
 
 Mildew from furniture, polish 
 
 Picture, to print a, from the 
 
 for removing, 221. 
 Milk paint for barns, 208. 
 Mill dams, 240. 
 
 print itself, 24.">. 
 Pigments, stained glass, 201. 
 Pinchbeck, 167. 
 
 Millstones, holes in, to fill, 239. 
 Old, fitting new back in,239. 
 Mirrors of reflecting telescopes, 
 
 Pinions, worn, to remedy, 256. 
 Pith for cleaning pinions, 251. 
 Pivot for watches, 2.31. 
 
 173. 
 
 Planing metals, 262. 
 
 Mixture for silvering, 178. 
 Mordant varnish, 217. 
 
 Planing perpendicularly, 262. 
 Plaster of Paris cast, from a per- 
 
 Mosaic gold powder for bronz- 
 
 son's face, to take, 244. 
 
 ing, 222. 
 
 Plaster of Paris, substitute for, 
 
 Moths in furs or woollens, to pre- 
 
 209. 
 
 vent, 235. 
 
 Plate, British, 171. 
 
 Moulds and dies, 197. 
 
 Glass, 2:18. 
 
 Naples yellow, 211. 
 
 Platina, to hard solder, 258. 
 
 Nap on cloth, to raise. 235. 
 
 Platin, Birmingham, 171. 
 
 Nitric acid ormolu dip, old, to 
 
 Plating powders, to make and 
 
 repair, 175. 
 
 applv, 261. 
 
 Northern light burning fluid, 
 
 Plumbers' cement, 188. 
 
 248. 
 
 Solder, 168, 
 
 Oil, drying, 212. 
 
 Polishes, 18!, 216, 221, 222, 230. 
 
 Furniture, 222, 244. 
 Linseed, fictitious, 215. 
 
 Polishing broaches, to make, 255. 
 Porcelain colors, 202. 
 
 Lubricating, 183. 
 
 Finish, 211. 
 
 Paintings, old, to clean and 
 
 Gilding, 203. 
 
 renew, 245. 
 
 Powder, bronze, 224. 
 
 Watchmakers', 271. 
 
 Copper, 223. 
 
 Olive bronze dip for brass, 177. 
 Organ pipes, 174. 
 Ormolu dips and dipping acids, 
 
 Dutch gold, 223. 
 Polishing, for gold and sil- 
 ver, 197. 
 
 175. 
 
 Red bronze, 173. 
 
 Oroide of gold, best, 248. 
 Oxide of zinc, to reduce, 248. 
 Oxides, metallic, to reduce, 191. 
 
 Printing characters, 174. 
 Ink, Savage's, 239. 
 Rollers, 239.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 281 
 
 Prints, etc., to transfer to glass, 
 
 236. 
 
 Prussian blue, 210. 
 Purple satin, 218. 
 
 Stain, 219. 
 Putty, 211. 
 
 Queen's metal, 174, 178. 
 Rasps, old, how to recut, 183. 
 Razors, to temper, 189. 
 Red, light brown stain, 219. 
 Sprinkle, bookbinders', 231. 
 Stain, 219. 
 
 Refining gold and silver, 193. 
 Reflecting telescopes, mirrors of, 
 
 173. 
 
 Reflector, metal, 172. 
 Renovator, clothing. 236. 
 Reviver, block for cloth, 235. 
 Rivet metal, 167. 
 Rollers, printing, 239. 
 Routing, cheap, 213. 
 Bow pink, 210, 219. 
 Rosewood, satin, 220. 
 Ruby pin in watch, to tighten, 
 
 253. 
 
 Rust from iron or steel, to re- 
 move, 249. 
 Safes, fire-proof, hardening and 
 
 filling for, 188. 
 Satin, crimson, 218. 
 Purple, 218. 
 Rosewood, 220. 
 Wood, to imitate, 220. 
 Saws, etc., to temper. 180, 189. 
 
 Broken, to mend, 185. 
 Scaling, cast iron, 182. 
 Screws, to blue evenly, 254. 
 Shaved tin, 177. 
 Shells, silvering, 180. 
 Sheathing, patent, Baron Wet- 
 
 terstedt's, 174. 
 
 Shot, lead, 174. 
 
 Metal, 172. 
 
 Silks, old, to renew, 235. 
 Silver, English standard for, 170 
 From copper, to- MMMte, 
 
 178. 
 From lace, etc., to separate, 
 
 198. 
 
 Imitations, 170, 174. 
 Leaf, spurious, 172. 
 Plating, 195. 
 Fluid, 197. 
 Powder, to make and 
 
 apply, 261. 
 24* 
 
 Silver Plating solution, to make 
 
 and apply, 261. 
 Solution for electro-plating, 
 to make, 259. 
 
 Frozen, to restore, 249. 
 Tarnished in soldering, to 
 
 cleanse, 258. 
 To enamel. 261. 
 To hard solder, 258. 
 To refine, 193, 257. 
 To write in, 243. 
 Ware, to wash, 262. 
 Silvering by heat, 177. 
 
 Glass globes, etc., liquid foil 
 
 lass glo 
 for, 181. 
 
 Powder, 188. 
 Size, curriers', 230. 
 
 Gold, gilders', 204. 
 Sizing for boots and shoes, in 
 
 treeing out, 225. 
 Skirting, 230. - 
 
 Sliding levers for locomotives, 
 
 metal for, 172. 
 Smalt, 215. 
 Socket metal for locomotive 
 
 axletrees, 172. 
 Soft solder articles, to, 258. 
 Solders, 166, 167, 168, 169, 172, 
 
 178, 248. 
 
 Soldering fluid, 186. 
 Soluble glass, 203. 
 Spanish tutania, 167. 
 Speculum metal, 178. 
 Springs, to temper, 185. 
 
 Of watches, to temper, 246, 
 
 253. 
 
 Sprinkle, red 231. 
 Stafls, cylinders, or pinions of 
 watches, to temper without 
 springing them, 254. 
 Stained glass pigments, 201. 
 Statuary bronze, 173. 
 Stains for wood, etc., 218, 219, 
 220, 221, 227, 228, 234. 
 Color of, to improve, 206. 
 To remove, 271. 
 And spots from furniture, 
 
 to remove, 221. 
 Steam-boilers, pipes, etc., soft 
 
 cement for, 186, 265. 
 Stew dishes, copper, to tin, 187. 
 Steel, burnt, to restore, 183, 243, 
 249.
 
 282 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Steel composition, to toughen, 
 
 183. 
 
 Poor, to improve, ! 
 Surface of, to copper, 187. 
 Transparent, blue for, 186. 
 To gild, 180. 
 To hard solder. 28ft. 
 To melt as easily as lead, 
 
 183. 
 To remove blueing from, 
 
 To soften, 181. 
 
 Stone, to extract grease 
 
 from 270. 
 Stripping liquid, silversmiths', 
 
 Stuffing-boxes of locomotives, 
 
 alloy for, 172. 
 Symbals, alloy for, 173. 
 Tannin-, B7, 
 
 Teeth, depth of, in gear, 263. 
 Teeth, number of, in p 
 Temper from delicate steel pieces 
 
 of watches, to draw 
 Tempering, 181. 
 Liquid, 184. 
 Tinning, 178. 
 Acid, 175. 
 
 Flux, improved, 188. 
 Tin cans, size of sheet, 188. 
 Tin plate, crystallized, 187. 
 To crystallize, 188. 
 Ware, to mend, 188. 
 Tombac, I(i7, 174. 
 Transparent blue for iron or 
 
 steel, 186. 
 
 Transparent blue for glass, 266. 
 Trapper's secret for game, 235. 
 Tree marble, 231. 
 Tutania, Spanish, 167. 
 Tutena?, 174. 
 Type metal, 173. 
 Varnishes, 183, 189, 215, 216, 
 
 217, 218. 220, 226, 231, 268. 
 Veneers, dyes for, 245. 
 Wainscot, to imitate. 220. 
 Wash for barns and nouses, 207. 
 Watch cleaning, 249. 
 
 Hands, red, to make, -2\7. 
 
 Movements, to frost, 261. 
 
 Watches, bushing, alloy for pivot 
 
 holes, etc., 248. 
 
 Watches, cannon pinion on cen- 
 tre arbor, to tighteu wheu too 
 
 loose, 247. 
 
 Watches, chain running off the 
 
 , to prevent. I 
 Watches, depth of lever escape- 
 
 incut, to change, 2.~>1. 
 Wat.-h.-s, hair spring, 171, 235. 
 Watches, in b.-at, to put, 252. 
 
 Levers of, to Irnirthni, 245. 
 
 1'ith for clranin.', _'."> 1. 
 
 I'ivot V.-.M..I : 
 
 Kut.y pin, to tighten, 253. 
 
 TO hush, _:.';. 
 
 When lever is of proper 
 
 length, to toll, L'.'.l. 
 Whm pallets are of proper 
 
 H/c, to trll, _.'. 1. 
 
 Watchmakers' biuv,, 17:-. 
 Drill-. 
 
 : . limr, 214. 
 Water-proof glue, 209. 
 
 Yarni-hrs, 268. 
 Wat.-rpr....iin.' f.. r clothing 235. 
 
 For ponuis rl.itli. 
 Welding cast steel, composition 
 
 used in, 182. 
 White, Argentine, 173. 
 White lead, substitute for, 208. 
 Metal for table bells, 172. 
 Hani 
 
 For buttons, 171. 
 Whitewash, 209. 
 
 To harden, 209. 
 Window glass, 238. 
 Wood, bronzing or gilding, 224, 
 
 Wood, stains for, 218, 219, 220, 
 
 Wood, to gild letters on, 204. 
 
 To petrify, 185. 
 
 Wrought iron, case-hardening 
 for, 185. 
 
 Zinc labels for writing upon, 270. 
 Solution of COJIJKT on, 1'Jl. 
 Tinning acid for, ' 
 
 nee of Bodies, 131. 
 Rope, 124. 
 
 Hull's iinil Diar/ram* for ll'nr};- 
 ers in Tin, Sheet Jrow, and 
 
 . sector obtaining, 21. 
 Arithmetical signs used in this 
 
 work, definition of, 33. 
 Breasts for cans, 12, 19. 
 Canisters, oil, quantity and 
 
 quality of tin required, 27.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Can*, trusts for, 12, 19. 
 
 Cans, one inch deep, capacity of, 
 
 Plates, tin, size, length, breadth 
 and width, 26. 
 
 (table,) 32. 
 Circle and its sections, 14. 
 
 Pyramid cake set of patterns 
 for, to describe, 15. 
 
 Area of sector of, t< find, 3. 
 Centre of, to find, 20. 
 
 Pyramid or cone, contents of, 22. 
 Roofs, hipped, 23. 
 
 Circles, etc., 28, 29, 30, 31. 
 Circles, proportion of, 4. 
 Circumference of an ellipse, 7. 
 Circumference of any diameter, 
 
 Sector for obtaining angles, 21. 
 Of a circle, area of, to find 3. 
 Tin plates, size, length, breadth 
 and width, 26. 
 
 to find, 3. 
 
 Vessel, cylindrical, contents in 
 
 Cone, envelope for, 15. 
 Frustum of, 23. 
 
 gallons of, 25. 
 Vessel, flaring, pattern, to de- 
 
 Frustum of, to construct, 21. 
 Or frustum, to describe, 16. 
 
 scribe, 15. 
 Vessel, flaring, to strike the side 
 
 Rule for striking out, 22. 
 
 of, 18. 
 
 Or pyramid, contents of, 22. 
 Covers, bevel, for vessel*, 12, 19. 
 
 Vessel, square, contents in gal- 
 lons of, 24. 
 
 Coven, boiler, oval, 13. 
 
 Knrera, 80. 
 
 Covers, pitched, for paila, etc., 
 
 Steam and Steam-Engine*. 
 
 to describe, 12. 
 
 Air and steam, mixture of, 55. 
 
 Cycloid. 17. 
 PtflJT"l equivalents, (table,) 27. 
 Diameter, circumference of any, 
 
 Boilers, engine, 52. 
 Engines, steam, power of, 52. 
 Expansion with equal volumes 
 
 to find, 3. 
 
 of steam, effect of, 57. 
 
 Elbow, curved, right angled and 
 straight, to describe, 8, 9, 10, 
 
 Fuel, pain in, etc., 57. 
 Giflard's injector, 60. 
 
 11. 
 
 Horse power, 53. 
 
 Ellipse, area and circumference 
 
 Indicated, 55. 
 
 of, to find 7. 
 Ellipse, to describe an, 5, 6. 
 En velo|ie for cone, to describe,15. 
 Flaring vessel pattern, to de- 
 
 Nominal, 53. 
 Of several non-condens- 
 ing engines, 54. 
 Hyperbolic logarithms, 56. 
 
 scribe, 15. 
 
 Injector, Giflard's, 60. 
 
 Flaring vessel, to strike the side 
 of, 18. 
 
 Slide valves, 58. 
 Steam acting expansively, 55. 
 
 Frustum of cone, contents in 
 
 Steam-engines, power of, 52. 
 
 gallons of, 23. 
 
 Strength of material*, 91, 122. 
 
 Frustum of cone, to construct, 21. 
 
 7,,,-.s;,,ji. elasticity of, 132. 
 
 Or cone, rule for striking 
 
 Tunnel*, 118. 
 
 out, 22. 
 
 Vernier scale, 121. 
 
 Frustum or cone, to describe, 16. 
 
 Water, 159. 
 
 Heart, to describe a, 17. 
 
 Power, 87. 
 
 Hipped roofs, 23. 
 Hopper mill, 23. 
 Lip to a measure, to describe, 14. 
 
 Projection of, 86. 
 Weight of, 27. 
 Waves, 88. 
 
 Mill, hopper, 23. 
 Oval, to describe an, 5. 
 
 Wheel gearing, 148-157. 
 Wheels and gudgeons, 157. 
 
 Pipes of various metals, weights 
 of, etc., to ascertain, 25. 
 
 ni,<,l mills, 119. 
 Wire rope, 98, 125. 
 
 THE END.
 
 v> 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 Santa Barbara 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW.