m II INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY CALIFORNIA STATE SERIES INTRODUCTORY GEOGRAPHY TAKE AND McMURKY REVISED BY THE STATE TEXT-BOOK COMMITTEE AND APPROVED BY THE STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION A NATIVE DAUGHTER SACRAMENTO W. W. SHANNON, SUPERINTENDENT OF STATE PRINTING 1910 COPYRIGHT, 1904, 1910, BY THE PEOPLE OF THE STATE OF CALIFORNIA. COPYRIGHT, 1900, 1907, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. In the compilation of this work, certain matter from the Elementary Geografjiytby Ealph 8. Tarr and Frank McMurry has been used. All *. .*siio*iJr$a(iteJis protected by the copyright entries noted above. 1 E 50 M 3 '10 PREFACE THIS is the first of a series of geographies; the more advanced treatment deals at greater length with the world and its inhabitants. Since Part I of the present volume is a radical innovation, it perhaps needs an explanatory foreword. NECESSITY OF HOME GEOGRAPHY. The final basis for all study of geography is actual experience. Yet text-books on that subject rarely treat Home Geography at all, and those that do, devote but feAV pages to it. - This subject should, we think, receive far more careful attention. NECESSITY OF OTHER BASAL NOTIONS. Home ex- perience alone, however, cannot offer a complete basis for the later study of geography, because no one locality presents all the features required. From this it happens that the best books have contained some definitions and illustrations, as of mountain, river, valley, harbor, and factory, and have planned to build the later text with the ideas these gave as a foundation. Such conceptions are certainly necessary in the early part of geography ; but mere definitions fail to produce vivid, accurate pic- tures. The average pupil who has pursued geography for a year has little notion of the great importance of soil, of what a mountain or a river really is, of the value of good trade routes, and why a vessel cannot find a harbor wherever it will cast anchor along the coast. 855755 VI PREFACE Yet such ideas are the proper basis for the study of geography in the higher grades. The fact that they are so often wanting is proof that our geography still lacks foundation. How THESE NEEDS ARE MET. The first 110 pages of this volume attempt to supply this foundation by treating first, such common things as soil, hills, valleys, industries, .climate, and government, which are part of every child's environment ; and secondly, other features, as mountains, rivers, lakes, and the ocean, which, though absent from many localities, are still necessary as a preparation for later study. Definitions, however, are not relied upon for giving the child this extra knowledge, but detailed descriptions and discussions instead. This by no means involves neglect of the child's own environment from the time the unfamiliar matter is introduced, for through- out the geographies home experiences are frequently used. We believe that our plan gives a fuller guarantee of fitness for advanced study than has heretofore been furnished. RELATIONSHIP TO MANKIND. According to the defi- nition of geography, which treats of the relation be- tween man and the earth, a hill or a lake is worthy of mention only because it bears a relation to us, the men upon the earth ; considered by itself it is not a part of geography. Therefore each chapter which takes up one of the above subjects, either closes with the bearing of the given topic upon mankind, or it deals with the human relationship throughout. EARTH A8 A WHOLE. The most difficult portion of our task has been that which presents the Earth as a Whole. That a bird's-eye view should be given at an PREFACE yii early period in the child's instruction is not questioned; but it is not easy, in limited space, to support the prin- cipal facts with sufficient detail to produce vivid and interesting pictures. The authors have found that some topics commonly included in the early study, such, for instance, as latitude and longitude, should be postponed. They have also found that many other minor subjects usually presented are comparatively irrelevant to the geographical knowledge necessary to a pupil. By setting these aside for the time, space has been secured for a physiographic basis, and for a fairly close sequence in tracing the effects of physical conditions upon plants and animals, and also upon mankind. Throughout each chapter much care has been taken to present a closely related chain of thought, and at the same time to keep the leading facts in their proper foreground. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER HOME STUDY. A study of books alone can never furnish an adequate knowl- edge of geography. Therefore it has been thought ex- pedient to add numerous suggestions at the end of each section, in order to remind both teacher and pupil of suitable excursions, experiments, etc., and to show at the same time the breadth of the subject. In this way physi- cal activity the love of exercise may be employed in the service of the study, and a habit of investigating the home environment encouraged. FREQUENT REVIEWS. Believing in the value of fre- quent reviews, the authors have suggested review material in frequent comparisons and contrasts, and in introducing new topics through others that have already been pre- sented. This method has been used throughout this book, and in the more advanced treatment. viii PREFACE MAPS. Contrary to the usual custom, the political maps include the principal physical features, so that any place is always seen in connection with its physiographic surround- ings. The colors have been so selected as to secure har- mony, and at the same time to show the boundaries clearly. Unimportant names are excluded, even where space might have permitted their introduction ; and, to an unusual degree, the size of print is proportionate to the importance of places, so that the names of leading divisions, cities, etc., can be distinguished at a glance. ILLUSTRATIONS. The illustrations have been selected with great care to illustrate specific points ; and for the sake of accuracy, photographs have in most cases been employed. They are not inserted merely for the purpose of entertainment, but in every case bear a direct relation- ship to the text. They are not intended as mere pictures, but as illustrations; and being numbered and referred to frequently, they pay for their space by contributing mate- rially to the book's fund of instruction. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The photographs have been ob- tained from many sources ; the globe drawings were made by Mr. Murray of the Matthews-Northrup Company; and the other drawings were mostly prepared by Mr. C. W. Furlong, instructor in Cornell University. The maps have been prepared by the Matthews-Northrup Company of Buffalo, who have obtained an enviable reputation as map engravers for the Century Atlas. The authors of this book are responsible for any short- comings that it may prove to have. They have had the benefit of much criticism of the best sort. Space does not permit them to refer to each one who has kindly extended aid ; yet mention should be made of the ex- PREFACE ix ceedingly valuable criticisms and suggestions of Mr. Philip Emerson of the Gobbet School, Lynn, Mass. The State Text-book Committee is under obligations to the following parties for photographs : S. P. Co. ; S. F. 0. & S. J. Ry. ; P. C. Steamship Co. ; State Fish Commis- sion; California Promotion Committee; Standard Oil Com- pany; South Africa British Company; Holt Mfg. Company; Superintendents J. G. O'Neill, E. B. Wright, H. F. Pin- nell, James E. Reynolds, Belle S. Gribi, Florence Boggs, Hettie Irwin; Maud A. Minthorn ; D. A. Munger; L. E. Chenoweth ; George E. Knox ; Major J. A. Driffill ; Lewis E. Aubury; Senators E. S. Birdsall, W. F. Price; Warden W. H. Reilly, Capt. Peter Jensen ; also to Chambers of Commerce of Sacramento, Stockton, San Jose', Fresno, Oak- land, San Diego, Minneapolis, Minn., and the Sacramento Valley Development Association. Entrance to the Campus of the University of California. TABLE OF CONTENTS PART I. HOME GEOGRAPHY SECTION I. THE SOIL . SECTION II. HILLS .... SECTION III. MOUNTAINS SECTION IV. VALLEYS .... SECTION V. RIVERS .... SECTION VI. PONDS AND LAKES . SECTION VII. THE OCEAN SECTION VIII. THE AIR. SECTION IX. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE SECTION X. GOVERNMENT . SECTION XI. MAPS .... REFERENCES TO BOOKS, ETC. . PAGE 1 10 18 30 42 57 67 ' 77 87 99 109 115 PART II. THE EARTH AS A WHOLE SECTION I. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH . 119 ITS FORM, 119. SIZE OF THE EARTH, 121. SECTION II. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH AND ITS RESULTS . 123 THE Axis AND POLES, 123. THE EQUATOR, 124. GRAVITY, 124. SUNRISE AND SUNSET, 125. DAY AND NIGHT, 125. SECTION III. THE ZONES 128 BOUNDARIES OF THE ZONES,. 128. TORRID ZONE, 129. TEM- PERATE ZONES, 129. FRIGID ZONES, 130. HEMISPHERES, 131. SECTION IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH AND ITS EFFECTS . . 132 HEAT IN MINES, 132. MELTED ROCK, 133. THE EARTH'S "CRUST, 133. CAUSE OF MOUNTAINS, 134. CAUSE OF CONTI- xi xii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE NENT8 AND OCEAN BASINS, 134. CHANGE IN THE LEVEL OF THE LAND, 135. SECTION V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS ..... 137 LAND AND WATER, 137. The Continents, 137. NORTH AMER- ICA, 138. SOUTH AMERICA, 138. EURASIA, 139. AFRICA, 142. AUSTRALIA, 143. The Oceans, 143. THE ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC, 143. THE ATLANTIC, 144. THE PACIFIC, 144. THE INDIAN, 144. THE OCEAN BOTTOM, 144. MOUN- TAINS IN THE OCEANS, 145. CORAL ISLANDS, 145. SECTION VI. MAPS . . . . ' . . . . .149 SECTION VII. NORTH AMERICA . . . . . . 151 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, 151. POLITICAL DIVISIONS, 152. SECTION VIII. THE UNITED STATES . . ... . 153 SECTION IX. NEW ENGLAND . . . . . . . .154 NAMES, 154. SEAPORTS, 154. FISHING, 155. FARMING, 155. QUARRYING, 156. LUMBERING, 157. MANUFACTURING, 158. COMMERCE, 159. SECTION X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 161 THE COAST LINE, 161. THE SEAPORTS, 161. Reasons for the Great Size of New York City, 161. CITIES NEAR BY, 161. WATER ROUTE TO THE INTERIOR, 162. LUMBERING, 163. FARMING, 163. SALT, 164. MANUFACTURING, 164. COMMERCE, 165. Reasons why Philadelphia has become a Great City, 165. CITIES NEAR BY, 165. FARMING, 165. IRON, 166. COAL, 166. OIL AND GAS, 168. COMMERCE, 168. Other Cities, 168. BALTIMORE, 168. WASHINGTON, 168. VIRGINIA AND WEST VIRGINIA, 169. SECTION XI. SOUTHERN STATES 171 RELIEF, 171. COAL AND IRON, 172. COTTON, 172. RANCH- ING, 173. SUGAR AND RICE, 174. FRUITS, 174. LUMBER- ING, 175. MANUFACTURING, 175. NEW ORLEANS, 176. OTHER SEAPORTS, 177. OKLAHOMA, 177. CLIMATE, 177. SECTION XII. CENTRAL STATES 180 RAW PRODUCTS, 180. THE MANUFACTURING AND TRADE CEN- TERS, 183. REVIEW AND COMPARISONS, 188. SECTION XIII. WESTERN STATES . 190 REASONS WHY THERE ARE so FEW PEOPLE, 190. WONDERFUL TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii PAGE SCENERY, 192. MINING, 193. RANCHING, 196. THE DESERT, 196. IRRIGATION, 197. FRUIT RAISING, 198. INDUSTRIES ALONG THE PACIFIC COAST, 198. THE ClTIES OF THE PACIFIC SLOPE, 200. SECTION XIV. ALASKA . 203 SECTION XV. CANADA AND OTHER COUNTRIES NORTH OF THE UNITED STATES ......... 205 Canada and Newfoundland, 205. INDUSTRIES, 205. CITIES, 207. THE FAR NORTH, 208. Islands North of North America, 209. SECTION XVI. COUNTRIES SOUTH OF THE UNITED STATES . . 211 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA, 211. THE WEST INDIES AND BERMUDA, 213. SECTION XVII. SOUTH AMERICA ....... 216 RELIEF, 216. CLIMATE, 216. HISTORY, 218. BRAZIL, 218. VENEZUELA AND GUIANA, 220. LA PLATA COUNTRIES, 221. ANDEAN COUNTRIES, 222. SECTION XVIII. EUROPE 225 THE BRITISH ISLES, 225. NORSE COUNTRIES, 229. RUSSIA, 231. GERMANY, 238. HOLLAND, 234. BELGIUM, 236. FRANCE, 236. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL, 238. ITALY, 240. SWITZERLAND, 241. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, 242. GREECE, 243. TURKEY, 244. SECTION XIX. ASIA 250 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, 250. SOUTHWESTERN ASIA, 251. SIBE- RIA, 254. THE CHINESE EMPIRE AND KOREA, 255. JAPAN, 257. INDIA AND INDO-CHINA, 258. SECTION XX. AFRICA . 263 THE DARK CONTINENT, 263. NORTHERN AFRICA, 264. CEN- TRAL AFRICA, 267. SOUTH AFRICA, 269. SECTION XXI. AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, PHILIPPINES, AND OTHER ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC 271 AUSTRALIA, 271. THE EAST INDIES, 274. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 275. ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC, 276. SECTION XXII. CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT .... 279 MAP QUESTIONS, 282. EXTENT, 285. RELIEF, 285. DRAIN- AGE, 287. CLIMATE, 288. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT, 291. XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS AGRICULTURE, 294. FRUIT RAISING, 297. STOCK RAISING, 301. MANUFACTURING, 305. MINING, 308. LUMBERING, 310. FISHERIES, 311. COMMERCE, 312. CITIES, 313. RE- VIEW QUESTIONS, 319. APPENDIX TO SUPPLEMENT, 321. INDEX TO SUPPLEMENT, 323. BOOKS OF REFERENCE ...... APPENDIX TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC. . . 327 333 Public Playgrounds near Lincoln School, Santa Barbara. LIST OF MAPS FIGURE FACING PACK 91. TO ILLUSTRATE THE MEANING OF MAPS 114 119. THE HEMISPHERES 149 120. MERCATOR MAP OF THE WORLD 149 121. RELIEF MAP OF NORTH AMERICA .... On page 150 123. NORTH AMERICA 152 124. UNITED STATES 153 126. NEW ENGLAND 154 132. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES . . . . . .161 140. SOUTHERN STATES . 171 149. CENTRAL STATES 180 157. WESTERN STATES 190 177. SOUTH AMERICA 216 183. EUROPE 225 203. ASIA . . " 250 214. AFRICA . 263 221. AUSTRALIA, EAST INDIES, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, AND ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC ......... 271 225. RAILROAD MAP OF CALIFORNIA 278 227. CALIFORNIA (NORTHERN SECTION) 280 228. CALIFORNIA (SOUTHERN SECTION) . . ... . . 281 229. RELIEF MAP OF CALIFORNIA 283 230. SAN FRANCISCO AND VICINITY 284 244. Los ANGELES, SAN DIEGO, SANTA BARBARA AND VICINITY . 299 xv Mariposa " big trees " ; on the road to Yosemite Valley. Notice that the -four- horse stagecoach is driven through a hole cut in the trunk of the tree. PAET I HOME GEOGRAPHY; I. THE SOIL You have often played in the dirt. Did you ever stop to think what it is made of ? It was not always what it now is. You know that the wood in your desk was not always a part of the desk ; it used to be part of a tree, and has a long story to tell about itself before it was brought to your school. So all the dirt or soil that you have ever seen has a long story to tell about how it be- came what it is now. Let us see what that story is. When mud dries upon your hands and you rub them together, you can notice an unpleasant, gritty feeling. This is caused by the scraping together of hard bits of something in the soil. If you rub some of this dirt against a smooth piece of glass, you can often hear it scratch the glass. This shows that these little bits must be very hard, for if they were not, they could not scratch anything so hard as glass. They must be even harder than a pin, for you cannot scratch glass with a pin. It will help you to find out what these bits are if you examine some sand. The grains in it are tiny bits of rock, large enough to be clearly seen. When they are B 1 2 HOME GEOGRAPHY rubbed against glass, they scratch it, because they are hard and sharp. Sand is made of rock that has been broken up into very fine pieces. Soil is also made of rock, but the pieces are ,4ner Jbi}lj ; r Tfcs soil that you have seen, such as that in **he school ^aVd,* or. by the side of the walk, was once rock. \ Sf&f&'&nb Tfeeii>m&de from rock. Since soil is found almost everj^where, you may wonder how so much rock has been changed to it. The answer is not hard to find. Did you ever pound a brick up into bits until you made brick dust ? You can change a stone to dust in the same way. Break one into small bits and see how much it resembles dirt. Sometimes one sees men drilling holes into stone ; the tiny pieces that are broken oft' collect in and round the hole, and look much like dirt. When a grindstone is used to sharpen tools, small pieces of the stone are ground off, and if water is poured upon it, this dust makes the water muddy, just as soil would. Much rock has been changed to dirt by the rubbing of pieces of stone against one another. In this way tiny bits have been worn off, as chalk is worn away when rubbed against the blackboard, or slate pencils against the slate. Perhaps some of the dirt that you have seen has been made in this manner. Later you will learn about the glaciers which have caused much of this rubbing. The grinding of rocks together has made much soil. But this is not the only way in which rock has been changed into soil. Much of it has decayed and fallen to pieces as wood does. Yon know that, after a long time, stumps of trees, and the boards in sidewalks, grow so soft that they fall to pieces. Perhaps you have called TEE SOIL FIG. 1. A decaying stump of a tree. it rotting, but this means the same as decaying. The pic- ture (Fig. 1) shows such a stump. Other things even harder than wood decay in much the same way, although per- haps more slowly. Hard nails, at first bright and shiny, decay until they become a soft, yellow rust. Iron pipes and tin pails rust until holes ap- pear in them and they leak. You may not have thought that stones also \ decay, but they do. The headstones in old grave- yards are often so crumbled that the letters can scarcely be read, and sometimes the stones have even fallen apart. The decay of rock may also be seen in old stone buildings, boulders, and rock cliffs. Have you ever noticed this ? Soil has been formed, also, by the decay of rocks. There are several things that help to cause this de- A rocky cliff containing many cracks. ca y- A11 rocks have cracks Point to some of them. in them (Fig. 2). Usually some of these are so large that they can be plainly seen; but there are many others so tiny that they cannot be seen without a magnifying glass. When it rains, the FIG. 2. HOME GEOGRAPHY water steals into them, and by eating and rotting the rock, very slowly changes it to a powder. The water may also freeze in these cracks and pry the stone apart. If you have seen iron water pipes, or water pitchers, burst in cold weather, you know how this is done. Some of the pieces of rock pried off in this way are very small, others quite large (Fig. 3). FIG. 3. Pieces of rock broken from a cliff by the weather. Can you also see the cracks in the rock of the cliff ? Find some broken pieces in Fig. 2. . Plants help the water in this work. In search of food they push their hair-like roots into the cracks, and there remain until they grow so large that they also pry off pieces. The earthworms that you may often see after a heavy rain also help in crumbling the rock. In order to get food, they take soil into their bodies and grind the coarse bits together until they become very fine. Water stealing into the cracks causes rock to decay and crumble. Plants and earthworms also help to break it up. THE SOIL 5 Rock changes to soil most rapidly near the surface ; for the rain, roots of plants, and earthworms can reach it more easily there than elsewhere. So the deeper into the earth one goes, the less the rock is changed (Fig. 4) ; and, no matter where you live, if you should dig deep enough, you would come to solid rock. FIG. 4. A section, as if the earth were sliced through, like a loaf of bread, so that the part below the surface is seen. Tell what you see in this picture. Notice the roots of the tree on the left side. Figure 5 shows soil about one and one half feet deep. Sometimes there is much more than this, and men may even dig deep wells without finding rock ; but in many places there are only a few inches of soil, or, sometimes, not even enough to hide the rock. One reason for such differences in the depth of soil is that some rocks decay more easily than others. Another reason is that in some places the rain washes the bits away as fast as the rocks crumble. This may leave the rock quite bare in one place and make the soil very deep in another. There is solid rock beneath all soil. 6 HOME GEOGRAPHY How different it would be if no rock had ever changed into soil ! There could then be no grass, flowers, or trees around your home, because they grow by means of the food that they get from the soil. Without grass there could be no cattle, horses, or sheep ; in fact, few animals such as are found upon the land could live ; for what would they eat ? What, then, could you yourself find to eat ? There would be no vegetables, no FIG. 5. A picture showing solid rock beneath the soil. Notice the cracks in the rock. bread, butter, and milk, and no meat. You see that, if there were no soil, few people could live ; so that the dirt under our feet is a very valuable substance. Without soil, few plants, animals, or people could live on the land. Soil is needed by plants because it holds water. They become thirsty as well as you. Where the dirt is only a few inches deep, it may dry out on hot summer days, and then the plants die ; but where it is deep, the roots may reach down several feet till they find damp earth. THE SOIL It is surprising how long the roots of some small plants are (Fig. 6) . For example, the clover in the picture is less than a foot high, but its roots are longer than you are tall. They reach so deep down that even in dry weather the clover is green while other plants, with shorter roots, are withered and dry. Some trees push their roots down a greater distance still. Can you find out how long the roots of any weeds are ? The soil holds food, as well as water, for plants. In it is found something which plants need, and which they take up through their roots ; it is a part of the soil itself, and is called plant food. Each blade of grass and each limb of a tree contains some of it ; and when a piece of wood is burned, some of this food is left behind in the ashes. Every person even has a quantity of it in his body; your bones and teeth are partly made of it. But you did not take it directly from the soil; the plants took it for you, and you received it from them in flour and other foods that you have eaten. Soil furnishes water and food to plants. All plants do not need the same kind of food any more than all animals do. Horses eat hay and grain, while dogs eat meat ; so some plants need .one kind of food, FIG. 6. Some of the roots of the clover that the boy is picking have reached out into the air through the side of the bank. They are seeking water. 8 HOME GEOGRAPHY others another. These different kinds of plant food are found in the different kinds of soil, of which there are very many. For example, some soils are fine, while others are coarse, because some rocks have crumbled to finer bits than others. Then, too, there are many kinds of rock, such as granite, marble, and sandstone; and when they decay they make different kinds of soil. In some places great numbers of plants have grown up and died. During their growth they took substances from the air, as well as from the soil, and when they died and decayed they returned some of these to the soil. These plant remains have become mingled with the soil, making it dark and sometimes almost black. In some places this dark-colored layer -may be several feet deep, as in forests, or in swamps, where plants have been growing and decaying for hundreds of years. This is an excellent soil for farming, because it produces large crops. There are many different kinds of soil. Soil that has much plant food in it is said to be rich or fertile; if it has little, it is said to be poor or sterile. The plants are taking away some of this food ; they are really robbing the soil. But when weeds and trees fall and decay on the spot where they grew, they pay back what they took away. In fact, some of this food is returned to the earth every autumn when the leaves fall from the trees. But if plants are carried away from the spot where they grew, there is danger lest fertile land shall be robbed of so much plant food that it will become sterile. Now this often happens ; for farmers send away their wheat to make flour, and haul their corn, hay, and oats to market. Some farmers have done this for so many years that they are no longer able to support their families on their land, but have been obliged to move away to find other farms where the soil has not been robbed of its plant food. THE SOIL 9 The wise farmer takes care to put some plant food back upon the soil to pay for what he has taken, so that he may continue to raise good crops. That which he puts back upon the soil is called a fertilizer, because it keeps the soil fertile. People in the city often use a fertilizer to feed the grass of their lawns and keep it green. Fertile soil may be robbed of its food and become sterile. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Of what is the soil made? (2) How can you show that the little bits in it are hard like rock? (3) What happens when rocks are rubbed together? (4) If you have ever seen rocks that were decaying and crumbling, tell about it. (5) How does water enter rocks? (6) What happens when water freezes in the cracks? (7) What else helps to crumble the rocks and soil? (8) What is beneath the soil? (9) Make a drawing, like Fig. 4, showing the rock beneath the soil. (10) Tell about the depth of the soil. (11) Why is there no soil in some places? (12) Why is the soil worth studying? (13) Name two things that plants take from it. (14) Of what advantage is a deep soil ? (15) Do all plants want the same kind of food ? (16) What causes the different kinds of soil? (17) What has made some soils so black? (18) What is fertile soil? (19) Sterile soil? (20) How are some soils robbed of their plant food ? (21) What is used to make them fertile once more ? (22) Tell what you see in Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AT HOME AND OUT OF DOORS. Here are things, some of which, at least, you will be able to see or do for yourselves : (1) Find a place where men are digging a ditch or cellar, to see how the dirt looks below the surface. (2) Find a boulder, cliff, old stone wall, or an old headstone in a graveyard, and see if the stone is crumbling. (3) Break some pebbles open to see whether or not they are decayed on the outside and fresh within. (4) Change a stone to dust. (5) Collect several different kinds of soil. (6) Plant beans in each kind, at the same time, and see in which one they grow best. (7) See what the effect would be if no water were given to some of them. (8) Find out what trees and vegetables grow best near your home. (9) What do the farmers prefer to raise? (10) Go to a hot-house to find out what kind of soil is used there, and what is done to keep it fertile. (11) Write a short story about the soil. For REFERENCES, see page 115. II. HILLS THE soil that has been formed from rock has not been left smooth and level like a floor. The surface of the land is usually uneven or rolling ; and even those places which at first sight appear level, are really sloping (Fig. 7). Besides such gentle slopes, there are many FIG. 7. A very level plain ; but since a stream is flowing through it, there must be others steep enough to allow coasting in winter, and others still that are much too steep for this purpose. In other words, hills, some gently sloping, some steep, are found almost everywhere upon the surface of the earth (Fig. 8). 10 HILLS 11 These hills have not always been here. Even the ones you may have seen and climbed have been slowly made. Let us see what has caused them. When it rains slightly, the water soaks into the ground and disappears ; but when there is a heavy rain, all of FIG. 8. A picture in a hilly country. The surface of the lake is level ; but the hills, some steep, others gently sloping, are very irregular. the water cannot sink into the soil as rapidly as it falls. Some then begins to flow away. One little stream, per- haps hardly an inch wide, begins at one point ; another joins it ; quickly several of them unite, and soon a good- sized brook or creek is formed. Have you not noticed this flowing water in the school yard, in the roads, and on the sides of hills ? But did the water flow off without taking something 12 HOME GEOGRAPHY with it ? Was it not muddy ? This means that soil had become mixed with the water and was being borne away. Every heavy rain bears along much soil, cutting out little channels, washing out roads, and perhaps even destroying the beds of railways, so that trains must stop running for a time. During such a rain little channels, or valleys, and tiny FIG. 9. Little hills and valleys cut in the soil by heavy rains. Point to some of them. hills and ridges are carved in the soil (Fig. 9). No doubt you have seen these formed very many times. If not, you can easily make them by pouring water from a sprinkler upon a pile of loose dirt. During many hundreds of years the water has washed away an enormous amount of soil and rock which the large streams and rivers have carried away to the sea. HILLS 13 By this means deep valleys have been formed, with hills between them, much as the tiny channels in the school yard are cut in the dirt by the rain water. Then, also, some rocks are not so hard as others, and the softer ones, as they break up, are naturally carried away faster than those that are harder. This leaves high ground where the rocks are hardest. What a change water must have made in the appear- ance of the surface of the earth ! No doubt, in the very beginning there were hills and valleys ; but every year, for thousands of years, these have been slowly changing, so that they are now very different from what they were long ago. And after many more years they will be very different from what they now are, for they are even now changing. Most hills have been carved out by running water. In every neighborhood there are hills, although they may not be very high. The picture shows one with a somewhat gentle slope FIG. 10. To show the difference hetween the slope of a hill and its height. 14 HOME GEOGRAPHY (Fig. 10). If a person were to walk up this hill, going from its base to the top, or summit, he would walk more than a mile ; but this, of course, does not mean that the hill is a mile high. For example, in Fig. 11 you see a board ten feet long, with one end resting on the ground and the other on a fence four feet above the ground. If a person starts at the lower end and walks to the upper end, he travels ten feet ; but he is then only four feet above the ground. The height of a hill is much less than the length of its slope. FIG. 11. Perhaps you have heard that it is colder on the summit, or crest, of a high hill than at its base. If one takes a thermometer with him when going to the top of the Washington Monument (Fig. 85), which is 550 feet high, he finds that it is about two degrees colder at the top than at the base. People who live where there are high hills often observe that it snows upon them while it rains upon the lower ground at their base (Fig. 12). Explain why this is so. It is colder at the crest of the hill than at its base. HILLS 15 Many people prefer to build their houses upon hills, partly because the air is cooler and fresher in summer; but another and more important reason is, that it is more healthful to live on this high ground. Where the land is low, the slope is pften so gentle that the water cannot flow off readily, so it stands, sometimes making wet places Fio. 12. Do you see any reason for thinking that it is colder near the summit of this high mountain than at its base ? This is Mt. Chimborazo in South America, where it is very hot in the lowlands. called swamps (Fig. 33). Houses in such places often have cellars and foundation walls that are damp, and the people who live in them are in danger of fever, and of other kinds of sickness caused by this dampness. But the water usually runs quickly away from a hill, so that even after a heavy rain the ground soon becomes dry. In large cities, where land is very expensive, people build almost anywhere; but in these cities there are so 16 HOME GEOGRAPHY many drain pipes, or sewers, to carry off the water, that even the low places are quite dry. In times past some men were in the habit of building great castles, with thick walls, on the crests of hills (Fig. 13). From these they could look out over the country for a long distance and spy approach- ing enemies in time to prepare for them. Then, too, the steep sides of the hills were difficult for the enemy to climb, so that the people living in castles on hilltops were quite safe. Some of the Pueblo Indians built their towns upon the tops of FIG. 13. A castle built upon the brow of a high hill. Describe the view from there. steep hills in order to be safe from the more savage Indians who attacked them. For much the same reason the Puritans, many years ago, were in the habit of building their churches upon the hilltops. Hills at present are little needed for such a purpose ; but there is another reason why people like to live upon them. From their tops they can look out over the fields for long distances and enjoy the beautiful views. Have you yourself ever enjoyed such a view? People like to build their houses upon hills, because it is healthful there and the views are beautiful. HILLS 17 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Is there much land that is really level ? (2) What do you understand by rolling land ? (3) Were the hills that you know always there ? (4) Have you seen water carrying away soil ? If so, tell about it. (5) Explain how hills have been made. (6) W T hat is the base of a hill ? (7) The summit ? (8) Tell what you learn from Fig. 10. (9) From Fig. 11. (10) Make a drawing somewhat like Fig. 11. (11) On what part of a hill is it coolest ? (12) How could you prove it ? (13) Why does it often snow on hills while it rains on lower land near by? (14) What is a swamp? (15) Why should not houses be built on swampy ground? (16) Why are hills liable to be dry? (17) W r hy is the lowland in cities usually so dry ? (18) Why have castles often been built on hills? (19) Wiry did the earlier settlers place their churches on hills? (20) What other reasons can people have for wishing to look far out over the country ? SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY AT HOME AND OUT OF DOORS. (1) Find some ground about your home that seems nearly level. Is it really level ? (2) Where is the longest slope in your neigh- borhood ? The steepest one ? (3) Watch the water carrying off soil after a rain. Where does the soil go? (4) Write a story about it. (5) Hunt for a washout after a heavy rain. (6) Where is your high- est hill ? (7) In what season of the year is it especially pleasant to live on a hill? Why? (8) Can you find any houses built on low, wet soil? (9) Are their cellars ever very damp? (10) Ask some doctor why one should not live in such places. (11) Find some pictures of castles, showing their location. (12) Is your schoolhouse upon a hill? (13) Name any houses in your neighborhood that stand on a hill. (14) Where is your most beautiful view? (15) Do your friends agree with you that it is the most beautiful one? For REFERENCES, see page 115. III. MOUNTAINS You may never have seen mountains, but you have certainly seen something that looks much like them. Often, on a summer evening, the sun sets behind great FIG. 14. A park, or broad, open mountain valley in the Rocky Mountains. Sultan Mountain is in the distance. banks of clouds that reach far up into the sky. Some of them have rough, steep sides and great, rugged peaks, while others have more gentle slopes and rounder tops. 18 MOUNTAINS 19 Oftentimes there are many of them together, and they are so real that it seems as if one might climb their sides if he could only reach them. This is very much the way snow-covered mountains appear in the distance; in fact, the resemblance is so close that, when one is at a distance from mountains, he must often look carefully to note whether he is looking at real mountains, or only at clouds in the sky. The moun- tains in Fig. 14 are much like hills, except that they are larger. Hills are seldom more than a few hundred feet h igh, while mountains rise X FIG. 15. A snowdrift near Lundy schoolhouse, Mono County, California, March, 1909. The children have just reached the school on their skis. Describe what you see in this picture. several thou- sand feet in height. Some mountain peaks rise above the clouds (Fig. 71) and are often wholly hidden by them. Usually where there is one mountain peak there are others near by. They often extend a long distance, per- haps hundreds of miles, forming what is called a mountain chain, or a mountain range (Fig 16). 20 HOME GEOGRAPHY FIG. 16. A spur of the Sierra Nevada Ranges, on trail in Kern River Canon. Such great ranges have been formed in different ways. They may be due to volcanic action, to earthquake movements, to slow folding, as in Fig. 17, or wholly to erosion. You can imitate mountain folding by crumpling a number of sheets of paper. The reason for this folding of the rock layers will be found stated on page 133. Mountains are like hills only they are higher and more rugged. Men often climb to the tops of mountains. It might FIG This is a drawing of a mountain range sliced through so as to show the layers of rock that have been pushed upward. MOUNTAINS 21 seem that this would not take a very long time, nor be very difficult; but to go to the crest of even a low moun- tain is often quite a task. Upon a level road one can easily walk a mile in less than half an hour. But it might require a whole day of steady climbing to reach the summit of a mountain only one mile high. It would be a long journey even if one could go in a straight line to the top. It has al- ready been stated (p. 14) that to climb a hill two or three hundred feet high it is necessary to walk a longer distance than this. The same is true of mountains. Most mountains are so steep that one would grow very tired climb- ing directly up their slopes; so a much longer, zigzag path is usually followed. Then, too, there are often steep cliffs, or precipices, that could not be climbed (Fig. 18), and one must travel round these to find a place where the slope is gentle. This makes the path still longer, so that to climb a mountain one mile high it might be necessary to walk ten miles, or even more. FIG. 18. A mountain precipice in the Yosemite Park among the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. No one could possibly climb the face of this steep rock cliff. 22 HOME GEOGRAPHY If the air is colder at the crest of a hill than at its base, one might expect that it would be very much colder on the top of a high mountain, and this is true (Fig. 12, p. 15). In fact, it grows so much colder near the summit of the higher mountains that it never rains there, but snows instead; and it may even be so cold that trees cannot grow there. It is a Ion/ distance to the top of a high mountain, and the air is cold there. FIG. 10. Mt. Shasta from Sisson, showing the timber line. Many people visit Mt. Shasta, Fig. 19; but while they enjoy climb- ing aboilt on the sides, and looking at the beautiful views, very few reach the summit of the higher peaks. It is the best-known moun- tain of California, and is over two and one half miles in height. Suppose we make an imaginary trip up a high mountain. We start early in the morning so as to have a long day. Each of us carries a few light articles, but the guides carry most, for they are strong and used to climbing. At first we walk along a pleasant path in a beautiful wood. MOUNTAINS 23 A house is occasionally passed and perhaps a green field. But soon there are no more houses and fields, and the trees become smaller and smaller until the line is reached above which it is so cold that no trees can grow. This is called the tree line or timber line (Fig. 19). From this point on, no plants larger than bushes are seen, and after a while even these disappear. Meanwhile the soil and the grass have become more scarce, while here and there banks of snow are found in the shady hollows. Soon we have climbed to the snow line. This is the line above which snow is found all the year round. Now, no mat- ter in what direction we look, rock and snow are everywhere to be seen, the latter often being many feet deep. What a beautiful view before us ! It repays us for all the hard work. We look down upon the woods through which we have just passed ; then, over beyond them, to the deep valleys, with the green fields, pretty houses, and villages far below us ; and, beyond these, to the other steep mountains upon the opposite side of the valley. The guide takes his place in front of us, and often tells us to stop while he goes ahead to examine the way. It may be that the snow has bridged over and hidden a deep and narrow chasm, so that if one were to step upon this snow he might fall through. As we advance higher and higher, it is often necessary to take a narrow path on the steep side of the mountain. On the right you can look hundreds of feet almost directly downward ; on the left are great stones and masses of snow almost directly overhead. The snow sometimes falls, forming snow slides or avalanches, which are very dangerous. You have seen the same thing, on a much smaller scale, when snow has slid from the roofs of houses on warm winter days. After much hard work we reach the summit. Here, in spite of our wraps, we are all shivering ; for upon high mountain summits there are winds which seem to go through even the thickest cloth. On this barren mountain top there are no birds, no trees, no grass : nothing but snow and rock ; but if it is a clear day, and there are no clouds clinging to the mountain sides below, we may be able to look down into the beautiful green valleys, only a few miles away. There the birds are singing, flowers are blossoming, and men, working in the fields, are complaining of the heat. It is a difficult and dangerous journey to the top of a high mountain. Why? FIG. 20. Foot of the Eclio Mountain incline, Mt. Lowe Railway, Los Angeles County. Length of incline, 3000 feet; direct ascent, 1325 feet. At the end of this inclined railway is an electric line which carries passengers around and up the mountain five miles to Alpine Tavern, Fig. 21. 24 MOUNTAINS 25 It is by no means so difficult to reach the summits of all mountains. Many of them are so low that there is no snow upon them in summer, arid trees live and thrive even at the top. Roads or car lines (Fig. 20) may have been built to the summit, so that one may ride up instead of walking. FIG. 21. Alpine Tavern, Echo Mountain, Los Angeles County. A noted summer resort. Among some of these mountains hotels are built (Fig. 21) to which people go in summer to escape the hot weather. There they may walk through the woods, and climb to many interesting places, where fine views are to be had. Mountains are important summer resorts. Perhaps you already know that the rocks inside the moun- tains sometimes contain gold and silver (Figs. 22 and 23). Iron, lead, and other metals are also found there. When FIG. 22. Li these buildings metal is obtained from the ore that is mined in the moun- tain rocks far below the surfaces. FIG. 23. Mule hauling gold ore on 2200-foot level, Empire Mine, Nevada County, California. This mule has been in the mine for five years and will no't be taken to the surf ace until his days of usefulness are over. MOUNTAINS '21 they are dug out from the 'rocks they are ores, which do not look much like these metals as we know them. But the metal in the rings, watches, and silver dollars that you have seen, and even the iron parts of your school desk, may have come from the rocks of some mountain. FIG.' 24. "Mossbrae Falls," Shasta Springs, California. Fed by the melting snow of Mt. Shasta. The trees in the mountain forests are also valuable. The most common kinds are evergreens, such as the pine, hemlock, and spruce, which are green even through the winter, and which can live on the cold mountain sides as far up as the timber line. Mountains are covered for miles and miles with dense forests. This is fortunate, for the trees may be cut down and sawed into lumber, from which all sorts of wooden articles are made. Possibly 28 HOME GEOGRAPHY the very seat in which you are sitting was once a part of a tree that grew on the side of a mountain. Mountains are of further use because of the abundance of water they supply. We have already seen that there is much ice and snow upon some of them ; in fact, there is so much upon the higher ones that it can never all melt away, no matter how hot the summer may be. During hot weather many streams dry up ; but at such times the ice and snow of the mountains only melt the faster, so that the streams which flow forth from these mountains are even more swollen than usual (Fig. 24). This water may run along for many miles until it finally reaches towns and cities where people need it to drink. Do you know of any city that gets its drinking water from such a river ? Mountains furnish metals, lumber, and water. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What can you say about the height of mountains? (2) How have they been made? (3) What is a mountain chain or range? (4) How long might it take to climb a mountain a mile high? (5) Why so long? (6) What can you tell about the cold at the summit? (7) How do the trees change in appearance as one mounts higher and higher ? (8) What would you need for a journey up Mt. Shasta? (9) De- scribe the first part of the journey. (10) What is the timber line? (11) What is the snow line ? (12) What are avalanches ? (13) De- scribe the view from the top of the mountain. (14) Mention some reasons why mountains are favorite sum- mer resorts. (15) What kinds of mines are found in mountains ? (16) Why is it fortunate that trees grow so well on mountain sides? (17) What is done with them ? (18) Tell what you can about the streams that flow from mountains. SUGGESTIONS. (1) Watch for clouds that resemble mountains. Make a drawing of them. (2) Find pictures of mountains; note the timber line, the snow line, and other points of interest. (3) Rep- resent a mountain in sand. Show the tree line; the snow line ; steep and gentle slopes. (4) Represent a mountain range in sand. (5) In what direction are the nearest mountains? What are they called? How far away are they ? Find out an interesting fact about them. (6) Ask some one who has climbed a mountain to tell you about it. (7) Would you care to climb one yourself? Why? (8) Write a MOUNTAINS 29 story relating the adventures you would expect in mountain climbing. Describe some of the views you would expect to find. (9) Why do few people live high up on the mountain sides ? For REFERENCES, see page 115. U. S. Forest Service, camp and party. Calaveras Grove, ander Von Humboldt." Big tree "Alex- IV. VALLEYS FIG. 25. WE have seen how water is always washing away soil, making hills and changing their appearance. Wherever hills are found there are al- ways low places or hollows, and these are called valleys. Some very small valleys yon have al- ready seen in Fig. 9. They are only a few A beautiful stream in the Yosemite Valley. inches wide, and the tiny hills or ridges between them are only a few inches high. Every stream of water, whether great or small, when flowing over soft earth, is carrying some of it away and forming valleys. Even when flowing over hard rock, the water is doing the same thing, but more slowly. It grinds the rock away by dragging pebbles and grains of sand over it, thus scouring it out. This work of the water is never finished, for every rain is slightly changing the valleys. Are there any valleys in your neighborhood ? Do you live in one ? If you have traveled on the railway, you have certainly seen many of them. Figures 11, 14, and 25 30 VALLEYS 31 show valleys. Can you find others in the book ? In Fig. 25 is shown a small stream with the land on either side gently sloping toward it. Since there are very few places without slopes and hills of some kind, there must be few places without valleys. Although some of these are narrow, others are so wide that one cannot see across them. Wherever two downward slopes come together, a valley is formed, whether the slopes be long or short. In those that you can find, notice the difference in the slopes. If in one of the valleys there is a stream, notice the direction in which it flows. Why does the water flow at all? Which way is down the valley ? Point up the valley. You see, of course, that val- leys have not only width, but ~ length. Perhaps your home is in a valley that is many miles The dotted lines show the divides be ~ .., ji TT i j. -/.LI tween the valleys. Trace them. What in length. Find out if this is else do you see in the picture ? true. Most valleys have been cut ant of the land by running water. In the picture (Fig. 26) you see several valleys. Rain falls into each of these, some of it sinking into the soil and some running off down the slopes. Into which valley will the water flow that falls on the top of the ridge ? When it rains upon' the roof of a house (Fig. 27), the water is divided along the highest part, some flowing down one side, some down the other. The same thing happens when water falls on the land. Because the water parts, or divides, at the highest place between two valleys, 32 HOME GEOGRAPHY this place is called a divide or water parting, or sometimes a watershed. The dotted lines in the picture (Fig. 26) show some divides. How irregular the lines are ! A divide some- times stands out sharply, as on the roof of a house ; but in many places it is difficult to find, for the land there may appear to be Can you point out such a place in Fig. 26 ? FIG. 27.- A house roof, to show that the water is divided along the highest part. flat. If you wish to know how wide one of these valleys is, where would you begin to measure ? Would it not be from the divide on one side to the divide directly across on the other side? Of course it would, for the divides form the boundaries of the valley (Fig. 28). A divide or water- shed is the highest ground separating two valleys. FIG. 28. The line A-B shows the width of this valley. Observe that the valley is much wider than the stream. VALLEYS 33 While the valleys that one usually sees are both narrow and short, there are some so long and wide that one could not travel their whole length or width, even if he were to spend all day and all night upon a fast train (Fig. 29). In our own country there is such a one, called the Missis- sippi Valley, which is over three thousand miles long and many hundred miles wide. FIG. 29. Picture of a river winding through a broad and very long valley. When valleys are as large as this, their slopes must be very gentle. On that account many people who live in the Mississippi Valley scarcely know that they are in a valley. The river flows through the lowest part, and the homes of these people may be so far away that they have never seen it. All about them the land appears so level that it does not seem to form a part of a slope. It is 34 HOME GEOGRAPHY FIG. 30. A valley sliced through to illustrate how valleys may be formed by the fold- ing of the rock layers. therefore called a plain. But when rain falls there, it immediately flows toward the river, thus proving that the plain is a part of the great Mississippi Valley slopes. Such an immense valley was not cat out by running water. You have learned that hills are made in that way, but that niountains are formed by the rising of great FIG. 31. Truckee, California, a mining town among the Sierra Nevada Mountains. VALLEYS 35 masses of rock. Some of the great valleys, like the Mis- sissippi, have also been made by changes in the level of the land. But even the valleys that have been formed in this way have generally been greatly changed by the water that has run through them. Some great valleys have been formed by the rising or sinking of the land. People generally choose the valleys for their homes. Even among high mountains, where it is im- possible to live on the steep and cold sides, they often dwell in the bottom of the valleys. Here they are sur- rounded by lofty peaks which ap- pear to shut them in almost entirely (Fig. 31). Hills are often too cool, or else have too shallow a soil for farming. The rains have washed the dirt down the steep slopes into the lower part of the valleys, making a deep and fertile soil there. In the valleys, therefore, the best farms are found, with their great fields of corn, oats, wheat, and grass. Here, also, cattle and horses are raised FIG. 32. A "prize winner" grazing on alfalfa growing in the deep, rich soil in a valley bottom of Kern County, California. 36 HOME GEOGEAPHY (Fig. 32), many large cities have sprung up, and railways have been built. Most of the land is really made up of slopes,- and we are living upon them. It may not seem that your home is upon one, but it probably is. Your house may even be upon a hilltop, and yet you may be living in a broad valley. Most people Hue in some part of a valley. The soil is all the more valuable because of the slopes of valleys. Were it not for them the water, after a heavy rain, would stand in a thin sheet upon the ground. But where there are slopes down which the water can freely run, it quickly flows off and does not drown the crops or make the region unhealthful for man and animals. The great importance of this matter is shown when farmers buy land. One of the first things that they inquire about is drainage, that is, the slopes, which allow the water to rim off quickly. If the water does not freely flow away, they even dig ditches in order to carry it off (Fig. 33). Sometimes these ditches are left open, as in the picture ; but, more often, tiles are placed in the bottom, forming a kind of pipe, and then the earth is thrown back again. The water finds its way into the pipes, through small openings that are left for this purpose, and flows away. Good drainage is so im- portant that men are often willing to incur great expense in order to secure it. In some places the land is so nearly level that the standing water produces swamps. There are thousands of swamps in this country, and great sums of money are spent in digging ditches to drain them. This makes the swamp dry; and since the soil in such places is very fer- tile, a great deal of land that was once of little value is now changed to rich farms. The slopes of valleys are valuable for drainage. VALLEYS 37 Valleys have had a great influence upon the roads of a country. For instance, in going across mountains men generally follow a valley, going higher and higher until FIG. 33. A ditch dug to drain a swamp. they come to what is called a mountain pass (Fig. 34), which is nothing more than a valley between mountain peaks. After crossing this, they go down another valley on the other side of the mountain. Railroads also cross mountains through the valleys and over the lower passes ; they wind in and out, often mak- ing sharp curves in order to avoid cutting directly through the rock. 38 HOME GEOGRAPHY Even in hilly regions it is usually easier to get from one place to another by traveling in the valleys. In the lower parts, near the streams, the land is most nearly level; but as soon as one attempts to go directly across the coun- try, the roads become rough and hilly. FIG. 34. Inspiration Point on White Pass Route the old-time route to the gold fields of the Klondike. On that account, when white men first came to this country, and settled among the hills and mountains, they built their roads in the valleys, often quite near the streams. Men do the same thing still. Where the country is more level, as upon a plain, it is not so difficult to travel directly forward ; but even in such places both the wagon roads and the railways are often built round a small hill rather than over it. The location of wagon roads and railways depends on the valleys. VALLEYS 39 We have seen that hills and mountains afford many beautiful views. But it is not necessary to go to the mountains to see fine views. You may see them in almost any valley or plain. Those living in cities, or even small towns, may see roadways well graded and shaded by beautiful evergreen trees (Fig. 35). The advent of the automobile has been the means of securing better roads. Why? FIG. 35. A beautiful tree-lined roadway for automobiles and carriages. In the country, also, there are many beautiful sights, such as the variously colored fields, the waving grain, the graceful trees, and the shady roads. In the spring the plants are fresh and bright ; in the autumn they are prettily colored; in the winter the damp snow clings to the trees, bushes, fences, and houses until everything is robed in white (Fig 36). Again, the rain freezes to the trees, and when the sun appears, every- 40 HOME GEOGRAPHY thing sparkles in the bright light as if it were covered with a thou- sand jewels. It is not necessary, then, to travel far in order to find beautiful views ; they are to be found everywhere, not only among the moun- tains, but on the hills, in the valleys, in the country, and in the city. The hills, mountains, and valleys are very beautiful. A scene in a city park after a heavy fall of damp snow. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What makes the little valleys? (2) Tell why they must change from year to year. (3) Describe some of those that you have crossed on the railway. (4) How many slopes are necessary to make a valley? (5) What is a divide? (6) Tell how large some of the largest valleys may be. (7) How have these very large valleys been formed ? (8) What is a plain ? (9) In what parts of mountains do most people live? Why? (10) What is meant by drainage? (11) How do farmers sometimes provide drainage? (12) What is a swamp? (13) Why do roads and railways among the mountains follow the valleys? (14) What VALLEYS 41 is a mountain pass? (15) Where is the most .level land usually found? (16) What fields or yards near you are beautiful? (17) Are there any walks or drives that you greatly enjoy ? (18) How do the views change from time to time ? SUGGESTIONS. (1) Find a tiny valley and watch to see if it is changed in any way by a heavy rain. (2) Find a still larger valley in your neighborhood. (3) Find the divide on each side of it. (4) Show that streets and roads are so made that they have a water- shed. (5) Make some valleys in clay or sand and show the divides. (6) Where is the largest valley in your neighborhood ? (7) Is your home in one of the very large valleys, or in a small one ? (8) Show by a drawing like Fig. 30 how the largest valleys have been made. (9) Can you show it in any other way? (10) Why should swamp land that has been drained raise uncommonly good crops? (11) Do you know of any roads or railways that follow valleys and wind about the hills? Tell about them. (12) Find some beautiful views in your neighborhood. (13) Make a collection of pictures of valleys. (14) Write a story telling how valleys have been formed. For REFERENCES, see page 116. A beautiful home in the Sacramento Valley, Colusa, California. V. RIVERS EVERY heavy rain causes the water to collect, here and there, and flow down the slopes. At first only tiny rills are formed; but these unite to form the little streams and brooks. FIG. 37. A noisy brook in the Adirondacks of New York, tumbling over its rocky bed. 42 RIVERS 43 In some places a brook is narrow and deep, in others broad and shallow ; here it flows swiftly and there slowly. Place a chip or a boat in such a brook, and it floats quietly in some places, and then, coming to a rapid, it is whirled along swiftly and perhaps upset (Fig. 37). Or it may float to a waterfall, where the water tumbles down from the top of a ledge, and then it is surely overturned (Fig. 38). FIG. 38. Pitt River Falls, Shasta County, California. There are large rivers in the world much like these little brooks, the main difference being in their size. But even such rivers are generally small at their beginning or source. Some of the largest have their sources far up the mountains, where they are so small that a person can easily step across them. 44 HOME GEOGRAPHY The water of these rivers may come from the melting snows ; and, as it dashes along, beating itself into foam by striking against the rocks, it is joined by other streams like itself. Often the water must rush round or leap over large boulders which lie in its path ; and often it falls directly downward for many feet with a great roar (Fig. 75). Great rivers at their source are usually no larger than a brook. The water of a mountain stream seems to be quite help- less, with the great, hard rocks all about it; but it never gives up its struggle with them. Rocky cliffs may reach far up into the sky on either side, and the slopes may be so steep that loose pieces of stones often fall into the water. But the torrent dashes these against one another, and grinds them against its rocky bed, until they are worn into pebbles. These pebbles are borne downstream and are slowly ground up into grains of sand and bits of clay. If we should travel down such a stream, starting near its source among the wild mountains, we should find it constantly changing. In the first place, it gradually grows larger, because other streams, called branches or tributa- ries, enter it (Fig. 39). The banks become lower and the river grows broader and deeper. In places there may still be rapids and falls, but the country on either side is not so steep and rocky as it was among the mountains. Now, houses, farms, and men are seen, and horses and cattle are grazing in the fields near the banks. At first, the slope of the stream bed was so great that the river hurried along faster than you could run. Now the water no longer flows rapidly enough to drag boulders RIVERS 45 or even pebbles ; but it can still carry the sand and mud brought by the rain from the soil of the hillsides. FIG. 39. Two streams, the Allegheny and Monongahela, uniting at the great city of Pittsburg in Pennsylvania. It has now been many days since this water left the mountains. The river has become so wide that a long bridge is needed to cross it (Fig. 40), and so deep that boats navi- gate it, carrying freight and pas- sengers (Fig. 41). At last, per- FlG - 40 - , , - The long bridge across the Mississippi Elver at haps weeks after St. Louis. HOME GEOGRAPHY FIG. 41. Sacramento River at Sacramento, California. It flows through a splendid farming country. it started, the water approaches the ocean ; and now the downward slope of the river bed is so gentle that the current cannot drag even grains of sand ; but it still carries fine bits of rock-mud with it. These bits may be so tiny that if you were to place some of the muddy water in a glass, it would take hours for all of them to settle and leave the water clear. When the river enters the quiet waters of the ocean, even this mud, or sediment, settles, We have followed the river from the source to the mouth, where it empties its waters into the great ocean. At first it was a little stream, but by the addition of water from many tributaries, it has grown larger and larger, until at its mouth it may be more than a mile in width. A great river is 'broad and deep at its mouth, and its current is very slow ; but it carries sediment even to the ocean, Where does so much water come from ? Taken up from the ocean, it falls from the sky in the form of rain RIVERS 47 or snow. But we all know that small streams dry up and disappear soon after a rain. Even large streams may be- come quite dry in summer (Fig. 42). Why, then, do not great rivers also dry up ? One reason is that many rivers have a constant supply at their source. That this is true of a stream starting in a high mountain is clear, because we have seen (p. 28) FIG. 42. Paso Robles, California. Notice in the foreground the Salinas River bed, which is filled with water when the rain falls or the snow in the mountains melts, but dry during the summer. that the snow in such places never entirely melts away. It is also true of streams that have their sources in lakes and swamps. Then, again, not all of the rain water flows off, but some sinks down into the ground. There is a great deal of water in the ground, and it is this which men find when they dig wells. This underground water trickles through the soil, and through crevices in the rocks,' often bubbling 48 HOME GEOGRAPHY forth as a spring, weeks after it has fallen as rain some- where else. Most large rivers are supplied with water from hundreds and even thousands of such springs. It is to be remembered, too, that a great river, with its many tribu- taries, flows through a very large tract of country, so that when it is not raining in one part, the rain may be falling in another. Thus, while one tributary carries little water, heavy rain may keep others full, and this flows into the main stream, preventing it from drying up. FIG. 43. Photograph of a river flood on the Ohio, which has forced the people out of their home. Tell what you see in this picture. If a heavy rain falls, or -if the snow melts rapidly, so much water may flow into a river that it rises and over- flows its banks (Fig. 43). Those who live near such streams are in danger of being drowned by the floods, and in some places men have built banks of earth, RIVERS 49 called levees, to keep the water from overflowing the towns and farms. The supply of river water comes from rain or melting snow, fro7n lakes and swamps, and from underground. FIG. 44. A small river basin drained by a valley stream. Tell what you see in this picture. Every one has seen muddy water flowing in gutters, or in rills on the hillsides. Great quantities of soil are washed away in this man- ner, as has been shown (p. 12). But what becomes of it all ? If you have seen a sidewalk or a field flooded with water, you per- haps remember that when the flood disappeared, a thin layer of fine mud was left. This mud was carried along by the current until it reached a place where the water stood almost still, then it slowly set- tled. The same thing will happen if some muddy water is allowed to stand in a glass for a time. Try it. 50 HOME GEOGRAPHY I'eah* In much the same way, when there is a river flood (Fig. 43), the water spreads out on either side of the river in a great, thin sheet, flow- ing slowly along and depositing a thin layer of mud. Each flood adds a layer, making the land higher, until, after many years, it is lifted considerably above the usual level of the river. Such land is gener- ally a level plain ; and since it is made by river floods, it is called a flood plain. Some of the sediment carried by rivers forms flood plains. Much of the sediment is carried on until it reaches a lake or the ocean. Here, opposite the river mouth, the water is generally quiet, so that the mud sinks to the bottom. : At first only enough sedi- ment is collected to form low, swampy land ; but this is gradu- ally lifted higher and higher, by layers of mud from each flood, until it becomes high enough to make dry land. These plains at the mouths of rivers form what are called deltas (Fig. 45). Many streams have such wide deltas that one cannot see across them, most of the sediment having come from fields, hills, and mountains, perhaps hundreds of miles away. The surface of the delta is a plain, because it cannot be built any higher than the floods themselves have reached. .Plain Island FlG. 4o. This picture shows a river delta. What else do you see in the picture ? RIVERS 51 From year to year more sediment is brought down, and the land is built farther and farther into the water, so that deltas are constantly growing. The slope of the river bed is usually so gentle that all of the water cannot flow out in a single channel. For this reason it enters the sea through several arms, cutting the delta into several parts. Some of the sediment car- ried by rivers builds deltas at their mouths. A river entering the sea may re- ceive water brought by hundreds of tributaries. Thus the rain that falls in places even hundreds of miles apart may at last be brought together in a single main stream. Such a main stream with all of its tributaries is called a river system (Fig. 46). For instance, we speak of the Mississippi River system, meaning the Mississippi and its many tributaries. All the country which is drained by a single main stream is called a ricer basin. Thus all the land drained by picture of a river system and the Mississippi River is included in the Mississippi basin. One should not think of this as a true basin. A real basin, as a wash- basin, has a rim extending all around it. The rim of a river basin is the divide; but there is no divide, or rim, near the mouth of a river, since the water runs out into the sea. If it were a true basin, with a rim all around it, the water would collect and form a lake. All the land whose waters are drained by a single river is called a river basin, and all these streams together form a river system. FIG. 46. river basin. Point to some of the tributaries ; to their source ; to the mouth ; to the delta. 52 HOME GEOGRAPHY Some ways have already been suggested in which rivers are of much use. They build flood plains and deltas, thus making some of the most fertile land in the world. Rivers also furnish water to plants, animals, and man. On page 6 it was shown that plants sometimes wither during hot weather, because the soil is dry. But near rivers the soil is usually kept so moist that plants grow well even in dry weather. There are some places in the world where there is not enough rain for crops to grow. The people in such regions sometimes lead the water out of the rivers into ditches, through which it flows for long distances. Then it is spread out over the thirsty soil, so that plants can thrive. This is called irrigation, and in some places no crops can be raised without it. Many animals and people depend on rivers for all the water they use. Even whole cities obtain their drinking water solely from rivers (Fig. 49). Streams not only bring water that is needed, but they also carry away that which is not wanted. A river is really a great ditch for draining the land, so that when- ever the snow melts rapidly, or a heavy rain falls, the rivers quickly remove the water. They also carry off the filthy water, or sewage, of many towns and cities. Rivers supply water that is needed, and remove that which is not wanted. The water of rivers is also used for turning wheels to help make many articles, such as cloth and flour. You have perhaps noticed how windmills work (Fig. 68). The wind blows the large wheel round and round, and it is so connected with other wheels that it can pump water, or turn a saw for sawing wood, or grind corn. Likewise steam is used to turn the wheels of a railway engine, so that it drags the heavy cars along. River water is made to do work in much the same man- RIVERS 53 ner. The water, racing rapidly along, strikes a wheel and makes it whirl round. This wheel, being connected with others, causes them to turn also, much as one wheel in a clock causes others to revolve. FIG. 47. Old mill and wheel covered with moss. Saint Helena, California. Thus machinery is set in motion by which logs are sawed into lumber, grain is ground into flour, cotton is made into cloth, and many other kinds of work are done. The water that furnishes the power to turn the wheels is called the water power, and the buildings in which such manufacturing is carried on are called factories or mills. In many places the river water does not flow fast enough to strike a wheel with much force ; water power is found 54 HOME GEOGRAPHY mainly in rivers with swift currents, and especially near rapids and falls. Here mills have been built, and then great cities have often sprung up (Fig. 75, p. 91). Elvers also supply water power for manufacturing. There is still another way in which rivers are extremely valuable. It has always been difficult to find a conven- ient means for carrying goods from one place to another. In some places there are no roads ; and even where there are, they are often hilly, rough, and muddy. Yet most of the articles that we use every day, like sugar, flour, oil, meat, coal, lumber, and clothing, have been carried long distances, sometimes thousands of miles. Even if the roads were excellent, it would take a great deal of time, arid cost much money, to bring these things i in wagons. To carry them by railway takes less time, but is expensive. A broad, deep river is really one of the finest roads in the world. To be sure, no wagons or cars can be drawn over it, but boats move there with ease. A river boat can carry as much as scores of wagons or cars (Fig. 48), and many may be going and coming at the same time, so that a large river is equal to several railroads ; it costs little, too, to keep it in repair. For these reasons carrying goods by boat upon rivers, or river navigation, is a very important business. Indeed, it is so important that in man}^ places broad ditches, called canals, have been cut in the soil and rock in order to carry goods by boat. Before the railways were built, which is no longer ago than when your grandfathers were boys, boats were used for carrying all sorts of articles from place to place. RIVERS 55 Even to-day, when there are so many good wagon roads and railways, it is cheaper to carry crops and other prod- ucts on boats than in cars, and this is often done. We see, then, why many people have preferred to build their homes near rivers. A farmer prefers to live near a good wagon road, or near the railway station, so that he may easily send his crops away ; and, for the same reason, FIG. 48. A view across the broad Mississippi at New Orleans. The other bank is seen dimly in the distance. A loaded river boat is just coming in, and others are tied up to the levee. people have always liked to live near a river, which is a good road or waterway. It is partly on this account that many of the large cities of the world stand on the banks of large rivers. Do you know of any such cities ? Rivers are also of value for navigation. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Describe a stream that you have seen. (2) What are rapids and falls? (3) Describe a small stream in the mountains. (4) What does it do with the rocks in its way? (5) W r hat are tributaries ? (6) Does the current grow more or less 56 HOME GEOGRAPHY swift as one goes farther downstream? (7) How does the country change in appearance ? (8) What becomes of the pebbles ? Why ? (9) What is meant by the source of a river? By its mouth? (10) Where do rivers obtain their water? (11) W T hat is a spring? (12) What effect has a heavy rain upon a stream ? (13) Why do not large rivers dry up in summer? (14) Why does not sediment sink where the current is swift? (15) What is a flood plain ? Why is it level? (16) Explain how a delta is made. (17) What is a river basin? (18) A river system ? (19) Why do plants grow well on the banks of a river? (20) What is irrigation? (21) How are rivers useful for drainage? (22) What is water power? (23) In what ways is a river a fine road? (24) Give some of the reasons why many cities have sprung up near great rivers. SUGGESTIONS. (1) After a heavy rain, follow a small stream from its source to its mouth. (2) Throw a chip into the water, and follow it as far as you can. (3) Why are the rocks in river beds usually so smooth and round ? (4) If there is a brook or river near you, examine its banks. Is it a tributary of another stream ? (5) How deep and how wide is it ? (6) Trace a brook to its source, if possible. Find several tributaries. (7) What large river is nearest your home? What are its largest tributaries? (8) What is meant by "up a river"? By "down a river"? By right bank? By left bank? By river channel? By river bed? (9) Find a spring. Why is its water cool? (10) Watch a well that is being dug, to see if underground water is found. (11) Find a flood plain along the side of a stream. (12) Find a delta. (13) Do you know of a city that gets its water from a river? (14) Make a small water wheel, and arrange for a stream of water to turn it round. (15) Visit a mill that is run by water power. (16) Find out more about canals. (17) Make a collection of pictures of rivers, and notice as many things as you can about them. (18) Find some poems describing brooks and rivers. (19) Write a story of a journey from the source to the mouth of a river. For REFERENCES, see page 116. VI. PONDS AND LAKES RIVERS supply towns and cities with water, and also turn the wheels of factories ; but some streams become so low in summer that they lack water for these pur- poses. To prevent this difficulty men often build dams FIG. 49. Merced Falls, California. Water supply for domestic use and for irrigation. of wood, earth, or stone across the rivers, and in this way collect sufficient water to make ponds (Fig. 49). When the rivers are high, these ponds are rilled, and enough water gathers to last through the dry season. Lakes may be made in a similar manner, for they are like ponds, only larger. Sometimes they are several hundred miles in length, and perhaps one hundred miles in width. Some of the largest in the 57 58 HOME GEOGRAPHY world, the Great Lakes in the northern United States, were made by dams formed ages ago across parts of the great St. Lawrence River system. But in most cases these dams have not been built by men. Beavers have made a few of them. There used to be a great many of these little animals in this country, and some are still left. Since they pre- fer quiet, shallow ponds in which to live, they gnaw down trees and build dams with the logs ; then they build their homes in the water thus collected. In other places, where the sides of a valley are steep, great masses of rock and earth have sometimes fallen, in the form of avalanches, and blocked or dammed the streams. Also it was stated (p. 20) that the earth has been warped or bent upward in some places, forming low ridges, or even lofty mountain ranges. In this way the ground has sometimes slowly risen across river valleys, making high dams ; in such cases large lakes have been formed. There are many other ways in which dams have been built, espe- cially by means of glaciers, which you will study about later. Most ponds and lakes have been formed by dams across valleys. Since a lake is generally a part of a stream, it is evident that water must flow into it. The river that flows into a lake is called the inlet, and that which flows out is called the outlet. There are also many streams entering from the sides. Each of these brings sediment, which settles in the lake, slowly filling it. At first deltas are built opposite to the stream mouths ; then, in time, the whole lake is filled and changed to a swamp. Many a swamp is really the last stage in the life of a lake. The surface of a lake appears to be level ; but one part is really slightly higher than the other, otherwise the water would not flow out of it. The higher part of the lake, near the inlet, is called the head of the lake, the lower part, near PONUS AND LAKES 59 the outlet, the foot of the lake. It is correct, then, to speak of going up or down a lake, just as we speak of going up or down a river. Some lakes have no outlets, because there is so little water that the basin cannot fill up and overflow. This lias a very peculiar effect upon the water, for in time it becomes salt. Probably you have heard of the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake of Utah. These are salt lakes of this kind, and no one would drink their water, even if he were dying of thirst. FIG. 50. A mountain stream. An outlet to a lake. But why do such lakes become salt ? There is some salt in all water, even in that which we drink, although so little that we do not notice it. When water flows into a lake, the salt is carried with it. If there is no outlet, the salt can go no farther ; but each day some of the water is changed to vapor and carried away in the air. As the bits of salt cannot go off in this way, they remain, and increase in number, until, in time, the water becomes so salt that we have a salt lake. Most lakes have inlets and outlets ; but some, having no outlets, become salt. 60 HOME GEOGRAPHY The land at the margin of a river is called the bank, but that along the margin of a lake is called the shore. Some- times the lake shore is low and wet, being overgrown with swamp plants. Again, it is pleasant to walk upon, being made of sand and pebbles brought there by the waves. This kind of shore is called a beach (Fig. 51). FIG. 61. Lake shore. Clear Lake, California. Many lake shores are regular, but many more are irreg- ular. In some places points of land, called headlands, ex- tend into the water (Fig. 52). If small, these are called points or capes ; if large, peninsulas. A narrow neck of land joining two larger pieces is an isthmus. Bodies of land entirely surrounded by water are known as islands. PONDS AND LAKES 61 FIG. 52. A view of Moosehead Lake in Maine. Learn what each of the names means. The water that is partly shut in between two headlands is called a bay. When a bay has deep water, and is so nearly surrounded by land that vessels can enter it and be protected from the wind and waves, it is called a harbor. A narrow strip of water connecting two larger bodies of water is known as a strait. When the water gathers behind a dam to form a lake, it enters many valleys, forming bays and harbors, with capes, and perhaps islands between. This is the chief reason for the irregular shores of many lakes. If you will make a little valley in clay, with two or three tributaries entering, then put a dam across it and fill it with water, you will see just how this is done. The shores of lakes are often ii^regular, producing bodies of land and water of many shapes. Ponds and lakes are useful in many of the same ways as rivers. They help to keep the ground moist; they 62 HOME GEOGRAPHY FIG. 53. How many of the features just mentioned can you find in this picture ? Find some also on Fig. 60. furnish water to cities, and they supply water to turn the wheels of factories. Besides this, many valuable fish are caught in lakes, and much ice is cut from their surface. Again, like rivers, lakes are important waterways. Upon large lakes, like the Great Lakes, hundreds of ves- sels are going and coming, carrying men, grain, coal, lum- ber, and countless other things. On this account many people have settled on the shores of large lakes ; and, as a result, many towns and cities have been built there. Do you know of any ? The shores of lakes are often very beautiful, and many persons go to them in summer to hunt, fish, and canoe. There are hotels there, too (Fig. 52), and some lakes are important summer resorts. Lakes supply drinking water, water power, fish, and ice. They are also useful for navigation and for sum- mer resorts. PONDS AND LAKES 63 How are vessels loaded with goods ? And again, how can these cargoes be unloaded ? Wagons may be driven beside a railway car, and be filled or emptied speedily. But a large boat sinks down many feet into the water (Fig. 54), so that if it came near the shore, it might strike the bot- tom and be wrecked. Flo> 4> ,^ , , A picture to show how deep a vessel sinks in the water. Fortunately, here and there along the lake shore, there are small bays with deep water. The opening is large enough for vessels to enter easily, but small enough to keep out the fierce waves. Here we have a fine harbor (Fig. 55). From the shores of the harbor men build piers of wood or stone, called wharves. These reach into the deeper water, where ships may be fastened or moored to them. Large cities are sometimes found on parts of a lake shore where there are no such natural harbors. In that case harbors have to be made, even though it is expensive to do so. Walls of rock, or of posts driven deep into the ground, are built in such a way as nearly to inclose a body of water, very much as capes inclose the water of a natural harbor. Such a wall is called a breakwater (Fig. 56), because it breaks the force of the waves, and prevents them from entering the space behind. When a harbor is not deep enough for vessels to enter, it is necessary to dig out the dirt and rock from the bottom. This is quite often done in the inlet and outlet streams at the ends of a lake. 64 HOME GEOGRAPHY FIG. 55. Avalon, Catalina Island, California. A noted resort. Harbors are places where vessels find safety from storms and where cargoes are loaded and unloaded with ease. FIG. 56. Breakwater at San Pedro, where the coast has no natural harbor. Built by U. S. Government. PONDS AND LAKES 65 REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Why are dams built in rivers? (2) Ex- plain how ponds are made. (3) How do lakes differ from ponds? (4) How are lakes made? (5) Tell what you can about beaver dams. (6) In what other ways may lake dams be made? (7) What is the inlet of a lake? The outlet? The head? The foot? (8) How does it happen that some lakes have no outlet? (9) What about the water then ? Why ? (10) What is meant by shore? By beach? (11) What do you understand by a regular lake shore? (12) Make a drawing of a cape; peninsula; isthmus; island; bay; strait. (13) Tell in words what each of these is. (14) What is the cause of these irregularities ? (15) Mention a few uses of ponds and lakes. (16) What is a harbor? (17) Why must the water be deep? (18) How can a harbor protect ships from storms? (19) What is a wharf ? (20) How are harbors often made ? (21) What is a breakwater ? SUGGESTIONS. (1) Build a dam in some small stream and note how rapidly the water collects. (2) Find out more about bsavers. (3) Look for a pond or lake and examine the dam that caused it. (4) See if there are both an inlet and an outlet. (5) W T alk up the lake; walk down the lake. (6) Examine the shore and notice the different forms of land and water. (7) Find a small harbor. Would every bay make a good harbor? (8) Make a small, irregular hollow in clay and fill it with water to form capes, harbors, and islands. (9) Find some of these in the pictures and maps of this book. (10) How do men get ice from a lake ? (11) In what ways do men catch fish? What kinds of fish have you seen caught? (12) Find pictures of good harbors. Look for the wharves and the breakwater. (13) Build a breakwater to form a little harbor in a small stream or pond. (14) Find just how many feet some of our largest ships sink into the water. (15) Walk toward the nearest large lake. What are some of its tributaries? Where is the inlet stream? The outlet? What are their names? (16) Name some cities that are on lake harbors. (17) Write a story telling what you would expect to see along a lake shore. For REFERENCES, see page 116. 66 HOME GEOGRAPHY Matchless Lake Tahoe, California. Stowe Lake, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco. VII. THE OCEAN THE great rivers, starting as tiny brooks, grow into larger and still larger streams, until, after days and per- haps weeks, they reach the mighty ocean. No doubt much of the rain falling in your neighborhood finally reaches the sea in this way ; and if you could float along upon it in a light boat, in time you too would reach the ocean. We can see across most lakes, and can sail across even the largest in a day or two ; but the ocean is far larger. One could sail upon it in the same direction fpr many days without coming to land (Fig. 57). It is so great that it surrounds all the land on which people live, and no matter in which direction you might travel, if you went far enough you would come to it. If you were to start out to reach the ocean, the journey might last many days. It might be necessary to go up hills and across valleys, to pass around lakes, and possibly over great ranges of mountains. You would be surprised to find how much land there is, and how many farms, villages, towns, and cities there are. But there is far more water than land. In fact, the water covers about three fourths of the earth's surface and the land only one fourth. If one were to travel entirely around the earth, he would probably spend much more than one half of his time upon the ocean. The ocean is so immense that the great rivers in all parts of the earth pour their water into it. Their mouths may be thousands of miles apart, yet the sea stretches far enough to reach them all. 67 68 HOME GEOGRAPHY The water of the ocean is too salt to drink ; but river water is fresh. Since there are many thousands of rivers catering the sea, would you not expect that their water would make the ocean less salt ? It does do so near the mouths of great rivers ; but soon it becomes mixed and swallowed up in the salt water. This is another way of showing the size of the ocean, for all the river water that enters it is not enough to make it fresh. The salt water of the ocean surrounds all the land. FIG. 57. A view of the great ocean. Different parts of the ocean have different names. For instance, the Atlantic Ocean is the part lying between the United States and the land called Europe, where the English, German, and other peoples live. We buy many articles from these countries, such as woolen cloth, knives, oranges, and olives ; and they likewise purchase other THE OCEAN 69 articles from us, such as wheat, cotton, and meat. The way to reach these people is to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The fastest steamers need five or six days for the voyage. In all parts of the earth the ocean is a great highway. It is so large that thousands of ships are traveling upon it in all directions, carrying people, cattle, grain, fruit, iron, different kinds of machines, and many other things. Although there are so many ships, the ocean is so large that one ship may sail for days without seeing another. FIG. 58. Ocean steamer, about to leave for the Orient. Ocean navigation is therefore a great business, and many thousands of men are engaged in it. Most of the ships used are larger than the vessels upon lakes, and they sink deeper into the water (Fig. 58). Very large ones, when loaded, reach down about thirty feet below the surface. 70 HOME GEOGRAPHY Of course the ships meet with storms upon the ocean, as upon lakes. In fact, the ocean waves are at times so high that they sweep over and almost cover up the largest vessels (Fig. 59). FIG. 59. Ocean waves during a storm. The coast of the ocean resembles the lake shore in hav- ing capes, peninsulas, islands, isthmuses, straits, and bays (Fig. 60). We have learned (p. 35) that the land in places has been raised or lowered. When it is lowered near the seacoast, the water enters the valleys and partly FIG. 60. A picture of Castine harbor on the irregular coast of Maine. Here the land has been lowered so that the salt water of the ocean has entered the val- leys, covering their bottoms, but leaving the hilltops as islands, capes, etc. THE OCEAN 71 drowns the land, as it does in lakes (p. 61). This, of course, makes an irregular coast. Naturally, on such an irregular coast there are harbors which large vessels enter, and in which they are safe from storms. For example, New York harbor is so broad and deep that hundreds of ships (Fig. 61) are found in it at all times, either loading or unloading their cargoes, or waiting for storms to pass. FIG. 61. A view among the ships along the wharves of New York harbor. The great Brooklyn Bridge is seen behind the masts. Goods are brought to New York, not only from Europe, but also from China and Australia, and, in fact, from all parts of the world. It is quite possible that the tea and coffee which are used on your table, and the bananas and pineapples which ycu have eaten, were brought over the ocean and unloaded in this harbor. If not, they were unloaded in some other fine harbor, such as Boston, San Fran- cisco, Philadelphia, Baltimore, or New Orleans, 72 HOME GEOGRAPHY Since the ocean easily connects such harbors with all parts of the world, it is natural that great cities should spring up where the best ocean harbors are found. It is partly on this account that New York, Philadelphia, Bos- ton, and San Francisco have become such large cities. Vessels come toward these seaports from all parts of the world ; but it is often difficult to tell just where to enter the harbors, espe- cially at night. Ships are in danger of going out of the way, and of running upon rocks, or reefs, in the shallow water near the coast FIG. 62. A vessel wrecked by running aground upon a shallow reef. (Fig. 62). On that account, tall lighthouses are built on many islands and capes, so that captains may know by their lights which way to go in order to enter the harbors (Fig. 63). The ocean is a great waterway connecting different parts of the world. Not only are goods carried on vessels, but many men go out in them, often out of sight of -land, in order to catch the fish which live in such great numbers in the sea. Instead of hooks and lines, long nets are often used, and in them so many fish are caught that the vessel is loaded down with fish. No doubt some of the mackerel that you have eaten have been caught in this way. Picture 67, page 79, shows a vessel that is used to catch ocean fish. In summer the ocean shore is cooler than the land far away from the sea. This is because the air is cooled as THE OCEAN 73 it passes over the water. Many people therefore go to the seashore to avoid the hot weather, just as others go to the mountains. Here they spend day after day climbing about over the rocks or walking upon the clean, sandy beach, breathing the fresh air, enjoying the beautiful scenery, and bathing in the cool salt water (Fig. 64). FIG. 63. Point Loma Lighthouse, California. A bright light is placed at the top of the tower so that it may be seen far away. On this account many houses, and even towns, have been built at those places along the seashore where people wish to spend their vaca- tions. There are large hotels to accommodate the visitors (p. 76) ; and in the summer these places are crowded ; but very few people remain at summer resorts during the winter. There is another way in which the ocean is even more useful to man. It is the sea water which supplies us with moisture, so that there can be rain. If it were not for the 74 HOME GEOGRAPHY great ocean, very little rain would fall. So every one is deeply indebted to the ocean, even though he may live thousands of miles from it. Soon you will learn (p. 80) how its water reaches us in the form of rain. The seashore is a popular summer resort; the ocean water supplies food and makes rain possible. FIG. 64. Bath House, Ocean Park, California. Rivers, lakes, and the ocean present many beautiful views. You may have observed that in cities, where people plan for fine parks, they arrange, if possible, to have a lake or stream as part of the scenery. A body of water, even if but a brook, greatly improves a view. A brook is a beautiful object (Fig. 65). How pleasant to see its green banks, to listen to its rippling waters, and to watch its tiny rapids, whirlpools, and falls, as it travels onward to the ocean ! Rivers are not less attractive ; like the brooks, their rushing waters seem to tell a story, and one loves to linger by them, to listen and to look. At times, when swollen by floods, they are wild and savage ; again, they are quiet, peaceful, and beautiful. They wind in and out among the steep and wooded hills ; now they flow along noiselessly, then they rush over rapids and falls with a roar; here their banks are low and green, there they are high, steep, and rocky. THE OCEAN 75 The lakes and the ocean are sparkling sheets of silvery water, often dotted here and there with white sails. Sometimes the color is green, . FIG. 65. A quaint bridge across a beautiful brook in New York State. again it is blue ; and when the clouds hang over it, it is dark and gloomy. There are beautiful sunrises and sunsets to watch; and one can see the storms come and go, with the waves dashing into the whitest of foam. In fact, the water, the sky, and the coast are always changing in appearance, so that the lake shore and the seashore are among the most attractive of places. The land and the water together furnish many beauti- ful views. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What place does the water of brooks and rivers finally reach? (2) How much of the earth's surface is water? (3) What other facts show that the ocean is very large? (4) Tell about ocean navigation. (5) What is the cause for irregular ocean shores? (6) Tell what you can about New York harbor. (7) Why are large cities found on the fine ocean harbors ? (8) Of what use are lighthouses? (9) Name some foods obtained from the ocean. (10) Why do many people go to the seashore in summer ? (11) Do you know of any park or meadow with a stream or lake in it? If so, describe it. (12) Did you ever enjoy watching the water? 76 HOME GEOGRAPHY Where was it? (13) How does the surface of a lake or ocean change at different times ? SUGGESTIONS. (1) In what direction would you go to reach the ocean ? How far is it ? (2) Find pictures of large harbors with ships in them. (3) Name several seaport cities. (4) Have some one tell you about a journey across the ocean. (5) Name as many arti- cles as you can that come from over the ocean. (6) How does the captain of a vessel know in what direction he is going, after losing sight of land? (7) How are ships made to move through the water? (8) What use is made of whales ? (9) Find out how fish are caught. (10) Ask some one who has visited a summer resort on the seashore to tell you about it. (11) Is there any brook or river that you enjoy visiting? Where is it most beautiful? (12) Tell about some of the storms on the ocean described in Robinson Crusoe. (13) Do you know of any views that are made more beautiful by the presence of water ? If so, where are they? Describe them. (14) Collect, from magazines, pictures of beautiful views with water in them. (15) Write a story, telling what you would expect to see in crossing the ocean. (16) Make a drawing of a ship. For REFERENCES, see page 116. Coronado Beach, San Diego, California. Coronado Hotel in the distance. VIII. THE AIR SINCE air cannot be seen, people often forget that it really is something ; but a fire will not burn without it, and plants, animals, and men must have it to breathe. In fact, drowning means nothing more than sinking under water, where there is not enough air to breathe. This is proof that the air is really something, even though it cannot be seen ; and you can prove the same thing in other ways. For instance, if you stand with your face to a breeze, you feel the air moving. Some- times this movement of the air, which we call wind, is so rapid that it blows down trees and houses. Here is an experiment to prove that the air is something and that it fills space. Find an empty bottle without a cork and sink it in water with the open end up. Notice the gurgling noise as the bubbles of air rise to the surface, while the bottle slowly fills. Where does this air come from? And why does not the bottle fill more quickly? You see that although we called the bottle empty, it was really filled with air which could not be seen. The water could not enter the bottle until it pushed the air out, because the bottle could not be filled with two substances at the same time. So, as the air was leaving, the water was entering. If the bottle is turned bottom upward, and pushed perfectly straight into water, the air will be given no chance to slip out, and then the bottle cannot be filled with water. Air is something real and occupies space. There is air all around the earth, and it extends many miles above us. This air, often called the atmosphere, is 77 78 HOME GEOGRAPHY usually in motion, now in one direction, now in another, and it often moves fast enough to cause a breeze, or wind. Even when the wind is not blowing near the ground, it may be doing so far above, where the clouds are. You can see that this is so if you watch the clouds as they are driven along by the winds. Let us see what causes the air to move. Heat has much to do with it. If you watch smoke in a room where there is a lighted lamp, you will see that it moves toward the lamp, and then rises above it (Fig. 66). Hot air also rises above a stove, or above a furnace through the regis- ters ; and during the winter, when there is a hot fire, the air near the ceiling of a room is much warmer than that near the floor. The reason for all this is, that when air is warmed, it is expanded and made lighter. Light objects, such as wood, will rise and float in water. So, also, when air is warmed and made light near a lamp, the cooler, heavy air all around flows toward the lamp and the warm air is forced to rise. It is, in fact, pushed up by the current of heavy, cool air. Now we can understand the cause of winds. The at- mosphere in one place, perhaps to the north of you, is FIG. 66. Smoke rising from the table above the lighted lamp. THE AIR 79 colder than that where you are. This cold air, being denser and heavier than the" warm air, begins to push it away, and thus moves toward you, forming a cold north wind. People on the sea or lake shore often have such winds in summer, when, during a hot day, the air over the land becomes heated, while that over the water remains cool. The cool air then commences to move landward, and a cool sea breeze begins to blow. Whenever the air is heavy in one place, and light in another, winds will blow toward the place where it is light. Since this lightness of the air is usually caused by heat, we say that Most winds are caused l>y differences in the tempera- ture of the air. They drive sailing Winds are useful in many ways, vessels through the water, and they turn wind- mills (Fig. 68), which are often used to pump water from wells. But what is most important, they carry water all over the earth. At all times there is enough water in the at- FlG - 67 - niOSDhere to fill ^ sailing vessel driven through the water by the force of the wind. This is the picture of a fishing schooner many large lakes. going out of the harbor after a load of fish. 80 HOME GEOGRAPHY You know that there must be some water in the air, for wet clothes hung out on, a line become dry as the water passes off into the air. Some of the water in the atmosphere enters it after every rainstorm, when the muddy roads and wet fields are drying ; but most of it comes from rivers, lakes, and the ocean. We have already learned (p. 67) that the ocean covers about three fourths of the surface of the earth. The air is taking water from all parts of it, so that each minute enough water to fill thousands and thousands of barrels is leaving the ocean and floating away in the atmosphere. Another reason why we know that there must be much water in the air, is that much comes out of it in the form of rain, snow, hail, dew, and frost. The air takes up water from one place and holds it, per- haps for many days, during which time the winds may have carried it hundreds of miles ; it may then be allowed to fall. Thus it is by the help of the wind that rocks are wet and caused to change to soil, plants are made to grow, rivers are furnished with water, and animals and people are given water to drink. Persons living where there is plenty of rain perhaps do not realize how important it is ; but there are some parts of the earth where the air is so dry that very little rain can fall from.it. In these places, called deserts (Fig. 69), only a few kinds of plants and animals can live, while men generally avoid them. The air obtains water from the ocean, and the winds carry it about. FIG. 68. A windmill. THE AIR 81 What causes water to rise into the air ? And why can we not see it there ? If you watch a boiling kettle, you will see that " steam " rises from it. In a short time all the water will be boiled out of the kettle, passing into the air, where you can no longer see it. The water in the kettle was a liquid, which could be seen ; but heat has changed it to a gas, which, like air, is colorless and cannot be seen. Then, too, it is so light that it floats round in the air. This water gas is called water vapor, and the change from liquid water to vapor is called evaporation. FIG. 69. A Caravan on the Desert of Persia. It is not necessary to boil water to make it evaporate ; for all over the earth, where there is water, vapor is rising from it into the air. You can prove this for yourself by placing a pan of water on a table and leaving it for some days, and then noticing how much of it has evaporated. It is in this way that the great amount of water, which every moment is rising from the ocean, is able to pass into the atmosphere. Water vapor is obtained by evaporation. 82 HOME GEOGRAPHY When it falls from the sky as rain, the water vapor has changed back to liquid water. What causes it to do this? Have you ever noticed a glass or pitcher of ice water " sweat " on a hot summer day (Fig. 70) ? The water that collects on the glass has not leaked through, for there are no holes in the glass. What has really happened is that the air near the dish has been cooled so that the vapor in the air has collected in drops on the cold surface of the glass. Drops would gather there just the same, even if no water were in the glass, provided the surface remained just as cold. On wash day, when a great deal of water vapor rises from the boiler, the windows are often cov- ered with drops of water, because the vapor has been changed back to liquid, or condensed, on the cold window pane. Your own breath contains vapor, and you can change it to water by breathing on a cold window pane. So you see that if air loaded with vapor is cooled, some of the vapor gas is changed back to water. There are several ways in which air may be cooled. You know that mountains are colder than the lower lands (p. 22) ; so that winds blowing over them are often chilled, and their vapor condensed. It is evident from this that mountains are an important help in causing rain. FIG. 70. Little drops of water con- densed from the vapor of the air on the outside of a glass of cold water. THE AIR 83 Vapor may also be condensed when a cold wind blows against a warm one. Again, during summer the sun may shine down so hot that the air near the earth becomes warm. This makes it so light that it often rises high into the sky, where the air is so cold that the vapor condenses into rain. The summer thunder showers, which often come on hot afternoons, are caused in this way. Vapor is condensed by the cooling of the air. FIG. 71. Mt. St. Helena, California. There are several different forms of condensed vapor. When you breath into the air on a cold, frosty morning, your breath forms a little fog or cloud. The cold air has made the vapor change to tiny particles of water, so small that you cannot see a single one, though many of them together make a thin mist. You have no doubt seen fogs in valleys, on lakes, or over the ocean. These are always made of tiny drops of water condensed from vapor in the air. Most clouds are also made of tiny fog and mist parti- cles. These, too, are caused by the cooling of the air, sometimes when it moves against mountain slopes (Fig. 71), sometimes when cold winds blow against warm ones, 84 HOME GEOGRAPHY and sometimes when warm air rises high in the heavens and becomes cool (Fig. 72). Another form of condensed vapor is the raindrop which falls from the clouds. These drops begin as tiny mist or fog par- ticles, and then, becom- ing larger and larger, grow so heavy that they can no longer float, but must fall to the ground. We have seen that water may be either a liquid or a gas. There is still another form, the solid, which is produced when vapor condenses in a temperature below 32, or the freezing point. Then snow or hail is formed instead of rain (Fig. 73). At night, drops of water often collect on the cold ground, on grass and leaves, some- what as it does on an ice pitcher or the window pane. This is - dew, which gathers because the ground cools quickly after the sun sets, FIG. 72. A summer cloud, often called a " thunder head," formed by the rising of warm air to such a height that the vapor is condensed. FIG. 73. Photographs of snowflakes. Sometime, when light, feathery snow is falling, notice what beautiful forms it takes. THE AIR 85 so that the warm, vapor-laden air is chilled until the vapor is condensed. If the temperature is below the freezing point, frost is formed instead. You will notice that raindrops, fog particles, and snow- flakes form in the air, while dew gathers on grass and the drops of water on window panes. Really the raindrops and fog particles also gather on solid substances ; for there are many tiny, solid particles of dust floating in the air, which you can often see dancing in a beam of sunlight, and it is around these that the rain, fog, and snow form. It is condensed vapor that forms fog, mist, rain, snow, hail, dew, and frost. Usually winds from certain directions, as from the ocean, are liable to bring rain, while others indicate fair weather. By keeping a daily record of the direction of the wind, and of the kind of weather it brings, you will be able to find out for yourself which of your winds cause fair weather and which rainy. You might also look at the thermometer at the same time and note the temperature. By these means you can learn something about the weather around your home. A record of this kind, which would be called a weather record, might be kept somewhat as follows: 1 DATE AND TIME OF DAY. DIRECTION OF WIND. KIND OF WEATHER. TEMP. Aug. 17, 1899, 8 A.M. Aug. 17, 1899, 8 P.M. Aug. 18, 1899, 8 A.M. Southeast. Calm. West. Cloudy. Gentle Rain. Clear. 70 72 68 i If it is practicable, the teacher should at this point introduce an ele- mentary study of weather maps and have the pupils read them each day. 86 HOME GEOGRAPHY REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Of what use is air ? (2) How can you prove that air is something? (3) Describe the experiments with the bottle. (4) What do they prove? (5) What are winds? (6) Prove that there are winds high above the ground. (7) Why does the air rise over a lighted lamp ? (8) What causes winds ? (9) In what ways are winds useful ? (10) How can you prove that there is water in the air? (11) Where does most of it come from? (12) What do the winds do with this water ? (13) Of what service is the rain? (14) What becomes of water as it boils? (15) What is water vapor? (16) What is evaporation ? (17) What happens to vapor when cooled? (18) Tell some ways in which you can see condensed vapor. (19) In what ways can the vapor in the air be condensed? (20) Why can you " see your breath " on cold mornings? (21) How are clouds formed? (22) How cold must it be to form snow? (23) How is dew caused? Frost? (24) Of what importance are the dust particles in the air ? (25) Tell how you would keep a weather record. SUGGESTIONS. (1) Why are stoves made so as to let in air for the fire ? (2) What becomes of the air after it enters ? (3) How does air reach the wick of a lamp ? (4) Try a common drinking glass, instead of a bottle, to show that air takes up space. (5) Heat some muddy water and watch its movement. (6) Why does smoke go up, and not down, the chimney? (7) Show how a hot stove causes a movement, or circulation, of the air in a room. (8) Find out how your schoolhouse is ventilated. (9) How many examples can you give of evaporation of water? (10) Cool a piece of glass or iron and notice the vapor condense upon it, when the air is " muggy " or when steam is passing into the air. (11) Why do clouds frequently sur- round mountain tops? (12) See how early in the evening the dew begins to collect upon the ground. (13) What causes fogs to dis- appear? (14) Which winds usually bring rain to you ? (15) How far have they probably carried the vapor ? How long would it take them to do this, if they traveled at the rate of eight miles per hour ? (16) Write a story, giving the history of a raindrop. For REFERENCES, see page 116. IX. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE EVERY man is expected to engage in some kind of work, or industry, in order to earn a living. For instance, fanners raise stock and grain, while gardeners produce vegetables and fruit. The crops they raise vary with the locality. Some men, instead of working in the soil, are engaged in manufacturing such articles as shoes, cloth, and ma- terials used in building and furnishing houses. Are there any of these men in your vicinity ? If so, what do they make ? You can at least find a blacksmith shop, or a tin shop, or a house that is being built. Notice how many different materials are used by the workmen. Storekeepers do neither of these two kinds of work. What, then, do they do ? Notice how many articles the grocer keeps in his store, also the dry-goods merchant, and others whose stores you visit. Where do they get them all ? At the present time it is easy, where most of us live, to buy almost anything, and to find men who can do almost any kind of work. We are so accustomed to all this that we are apt to forget that it has not always been so. Not many hundred years ago there were no stores or houses in this country; and each family, as it settled here, was obliged to find its own food, make its own .clothing, and build its own house. 87 88 HOME GEOGEAPHY Let us study more fully how people lived in those days, and how changes have gradually been made until the present manner of living was reached. The first persons who left Europe, and crossed the Atlantic Ocean to live in this country, naturally settled along the coast, because that was the first place reached. But soon men began to push into the wilderness farther west. Often several families settled together, miles away from other people. Sometimes a single family would go off alone, and make a home ten or twelve miles from the nearest neighbor. Most of the United States was first settled by these scat- tered pioneer families. Of course when a man started out he took some articles with him, as a gun, with powder and bullets, some clothing, and some blankets; but upon arriving at his new home he was obliged, like Robinson Crusoe, to rely upon himself. In 1816, when Abraham Lincoln was seven years of age, his father moved to Indiana. He had to cut down trees in order to make room for a house, which he built of logs with mud between the cracks (Fig. 74). It had no floor except the earth, and only one room. Abraham slept in the loft, climbing up each night by pegs fastened in the logs. The beds were some posts driven into the ground with crosspieces, the chairs were three-legged stools, and the table was a part of a log supported upon four legs. When a young boy, Abraham wore trousers FIG. 74. A log house, such as the pioneers used to build in the forests. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 89 of deerskin, and when he was not barefooted he probably used moc- casins for shoes. His father raised enough corn for corn bread ; their tea was often made from roots in the forest, and meat was obtained by shooting wild game. Abraham was very fond of books ; but at night he read by the light of burning wood, for he had neither candle nor lamp. He wrote with ink made from brier root, and with a pen made from the quill of a large feather. Almost everything that the family used was raised or made by the father and mother, so that they had to do many kinds of work. Such was the life of the early frontier settlers. Usu- ally they raised their grain and wheat for bread. They kept sheep and made the wool into yarn, blankets, and cloth. If a boy needed a new suit of clothes, his mother would make the cloth, cut it, and sew it. They were obliged to do nearly everything for themselves. As a rule, each man raised more of some things than his own family could use, as wheat, wool, or hogs ; but there were others that he had to buy, as powder, sugar, salt, pepper, and coffee. It was the custom, therefore, to drive two or three times a year to the nearest large town, perhaps a hundred miles away, taking the products of the farm and exchanging them for necessary articles. These trips had to be few, for the roads were often rough, muddy, and dangerous. It might require two weeks or more to haul a load of grain to town and bring back the coffee and other materials the family wanted. In parts of the world, where there are few settlers, people are still living in this manner. But one family did not usually live long alone, for soon others came and settled near them. Perhaps several built their houses near together, forming a little village. 90 HOME GEOGRAPHY Now that there were more people, the kind of work that each did began to change. Perhaps one of them built a sawmill, and sawed lumber for the others when they needed it. Another spent part of his time at car- pentry work for his neighbors. A third built a gristmill, and occasionally ground grain into flour. A fourth made shoes, or clothes, a part of his time, or he doctored the sick, or preached, or taught school. Perhaps the blacksmith spent all of his time in his shop, shoeing horses, making plows, etc., while the storekeeper did nothing but buy and sell goods. He went to the city and bought the supplies that he thought his neighbors would need, such as matches, boots, shovels, calico, and drugs, and these he kept in his store for sale. It was not then necessary for the farmer to go to the distant town, because he could usually find what he wanted at the store ; and if he raised more potatoes than he needed, he could take them to the storekeeper and get coffee in return. Or he would receive money for them, and with this pay the blacksmith who had shod his horses, or the doctor, or teacher. In many of the less settled parts of the country this is the way people are still living. Each year more people took up land, until most of it was carefully cultivated, and towns and cities grew up (Fig. 75). Then they began to live in the way that is now so common. That is, each man now confines himself to one or a very few kinds of work, and depends upon other men for the other things that he needs. Those who live in the country are chiefly farmers, and raise the food that we eat. Others work in mines, digging coal, iron, lead, copper, silver, or gold out of the ground. Many, instead of raising crops or working in mines, are employed in mills and factories. One saws logs into INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 91 lumber, or makes doors ; another manufactures cloth, an- other needles, another shoes. Others follow the industry of tailoring, tanning hides for leather, making clocks, etc. Still others are engaged in a third kind of work. They do nothing but buy and sell such articles, and among these are all the merchants that we stores. see in the Under these conditions the work that one man does is not only of one kind, but it may be of a very narrow kind. For example, a man may do nothing but drive a team. Or he may make shingles, or drive nails, or tie up sacks of flour, or put in the heads of barrels. How different this is from the work of the pioneers ! As a rule, each town or city is spe- cially interested in one or a few kinds of business. For exam- ple, a town surrounded by extensive woods is likely to have an important lumbering industry. Another, in the midst of mountains, may make mining its especial work; or another, near great wheat fields, may have immense flour mills. Thus each town, like each man, is apt to be interested in the production of few things ; what they raise or manu- FIG. 7."). The city of Rochester, in New York, has grown up near these beautiful falls on the Gene- see River. Some of the factories that use the water power are seen in the picture. 92 HOME GEOGRAPHY facture is sent away in all directions, and the other arti- cles, that the people in the town want, are brought to them from the many places in which they are produced. Find out what is made in your own town, and some of the substances that are brought to it. When people are so dependent upon others for most of the materials that they use, it is clear that roadways be- come of great importance. For if the best wheat for flour is raised in Dakota, if the best shoes and cloth are made in New England, and if the best cotton, corn, and tobacco are grown in the South, what good will they do us if they cannot be brought to us? The pioneers had no roads at first. The early, settlers who crossed the Alleghany Mountains into the region from which has been formed the present states of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois had to find their way through the dense forests. One of the early customs was to follow a trail, or narrow path, and, instead of using a wagon, to carry goods strapped upon one's own back, or else upon horses or mules. A number of horses carrying packs formed a pack train (Fig. 76). Pack trains are still common in some places. FIG. 76. A pack train on a mountain road, carrying supplies to a mine on the mountain side. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 93 A great deal of labor has been spent in making good roads. Not only must trees be cut down and stumps and stones be removed, but steep places must often be lev- eled. Bridges are also necessary, .and much work must be done to keep the roads in repair. In some places where there is much travel, as in eastern Massachusetts, great sums of money are spent in making excellent roads. There is so much carting in cities that their streets must be paved. Bricks are often used ; or stones larger FIG. 77. Train load of sugar-beets on way to factory. California. than bricks are laid down side by side ; and in many cities, asphalt pavements are common. What kind of streets have you seen, and how were they built ? We have already (p. 54) considered the importance of rivers as roadways. For a long time the Mississippi River with its chief tributaries, such as the Ohio, the Ar- kansas, and the Missouri, was the only roadway to the great city of New Orleans, and to-day these rivers are the commercial highways of parts of sixteen states situated in the Mississippi basin. Between New Orleans and cities 94 HOME GEOGEAPHT on these rivers numerous boats constantly ply, carrying grain and cotton, and goods of all kinds. Even with the finest of wagon roads, people and goods cannot usually be carried more than twenty to forty miles in a day. Boats are somewhat faster ; but railway trains travel from four hundred to a thousand miles per day, FIG. 78. A view in a freight depot at St. Paul, Minnesota. and they take both passengers and freight much more cheaply than they can be carried in wagons. As we ourselves travel on passenger trains, we are in- clined to think that the chief business of railways is to carry people ; but this is not generally the case. Their main business is to carry freight, such as grain, cattle, groceries, and machinery; and by doing this they have had a great influence upon the development of the country. INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 95 For example, a few years ago it would have done little -good to raise sheep, wheat, and fruit in the far West, be- cause they could not be sent to the great cities to be sold; but since the railways were built, these industries, and many others, . i have become of great importance. There is therefore much more buy- ing, selling, and carrying that is, much more com- merce than be- fore the railways were built. Letters, news- papers, and ex- press packages are now carried very rapidly on the trains. Formerly they were sent in stagecoaches or on horseback ; but now many passenger trains have one or two cars used for these purposes alone. It is clear that good roadways, whether made of soil, water, or iron, are a great help to trade. In fact, without them there could be very little commerce. The wagon roads in the country and city are of great value in carry- ing goods for short distances as, for instance, to the river wharf or the railway station. Then boats and trains are used to carry them farther. Not only is there commerce on the land, but, as we have already seen (p. 69), thousands of vessels are engaged in -carrying freight on the ocean. They are constantly pass- FIG. 79. A freight yard with many freight cars. 96 HOME GEOGRAPHY ing up and down the coast of the United States, going from one city to another (Fig. 80) with loads of cloth, iron, grain, lumber, and hundreds of other articles. FIG. 80. A view in New York harbor, showing the vessels coming and going. Vessels are also going and coming at all times between the United States and foreign countries (Fig. 58), bring- ing materials which we need and taking back some of our products. This is known as foreign commerce. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What do merchants do? (2) Who are pioneers ? (3) Describe a house such as the early pioneer was com- monly accustomed to live in. (4) Tell what you can of the life and the dress of the early settler. (5) Tell about the trips to the nearest large town. (6) How did the work of each man change when the people began to live in villages ? (7) Give some examples. (8) What would you expect to see in a general store ? (9) Make a list of articles that are INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 97 manufactured. (10) Name several industries. (11) How has the work of each man changed as great numbers of them have settled to- gether? (12) In what ways have men become dependent upon one another ? Give examples. (13) Show that roads are of great importance. (14) What kind of roads did the early pioneers have ? (15) How did they cross the streams? (16) Why must streets in cities be paved? (17) In what respects are railways better than other roads ? (18) Tell how railways have helped to develop our country. (19) What is meant by com- merce ? (20) By foreign commerce ? SUGGESTIONS. (1) Make a list of the crops grown in your neigh- borhood. How is the work done ? (2) Do the same for manufactured articles. (3) Tell something of the life of Daniel Boone or that of Electric Train, Los Angeles. A network of these electric lines radiates from Los Angeles to the beaches and adjacent cities and towns. Lincoln. (4) What were some of the things Robinson Crusoe had to do for himself ? (5) Write a story describing an early pioneer's journey to the nearest large town. (6) Visit a general store in the country. (7) Visit a factory, a blacksmith shop, or a mill. Describe the visit. (8) Make a list of articles that you use which were probably brought from a distance on the railroad or on water. (9) Find out where some of them came from. (10) Name as many substances as you can that come from over 98 HOME GEOGRAPHY the ocean. (11) Write a story giving the history of the material of your dress or coat ; of your shoes. (12) How has the use of elec- tricity influenced commercial life? For REFERENCES, see page 117. Key Route Ferry System " operating between Oakland, Berkeley, and San Francisco, California. Upper, Claremont Ferryboat ; Middle, Pier and Station; Lower, Electric Train. Thousands of passengers are carried daily back and forth over this system. X. GOVERNMENT EVERY boy and girl has heard men talk about voting, and has noticed how interested they often become as election time approaches. But do you know what voting is for ? Do you know why the day for voting is called election day? Find out what you can about voting and election. Laws and officers are frequently mentioned when men are talking about election. Can you name some laws ; and do you know any officers ? You have certainly seen a policeman : what does he do ? You have heard of judges, and of the President : can you state anything about them? Can you mention any other officers ? In our study of commerce we saw that it required a long time to reach our present way of living and carrying on trade. So it is with our government. At present we have many laws and officers, while long ago there were very few of each. Let us see why this is so. The farmer manages his farm nearly as he pleases. He puts up fences, sells his grain, or feeds it to stock, as seems to him best ; and when repairs are needed, he looks after them himself. The miller builds a large or small mill, uses old or new machinery, grinds much or little corn, and makes repairs, as he chooses. In each case, one man owns and uses the property. But there are some things that no one man owns and that all wish to use. This is true, for instance, of roads. All people drive or walk over them, yet they belong to no 99 100 HOME GEOGRAPHY one person. Who, then, should build roads in the first place, and who should decide upon and make necessary repairs on them ? Again, there are public schools which no one man owns and which many wish to use. Large yards, good build- ings, and good teachers are all desirable, but who should provide for them ? This and many other questions arose in early days (and still arise) and had early to be dealt with in some way. The organization which any com- munity has for dealing with these public questions is called its government. The first permanent English settlement in America was at James- town, in Virginia, and its government was managed by seven men appointed by the King of England. At first the people had no right to vote, but later, when Virginia came to have a number of settle- ments, a body called the House of Burgesses, composed of two men from each settlement, was elected to make the rules or laws for all parts of the colony. In the New England settlements, government was introduced in a different way. The people lived in towns and each town governed itself. Town meetings were held which adopted rules or laws regard- ing roads and schools and elected. officers to enforce them. The same meetings passed laws to punish persons who committed crimes, and elected officers called constables to arrest offenders. All the people in the small towns (Fig. 81), therefore, had a voice in making the laws by which they were to be governed. When towns became more numerous, there were many things which concerned more than one town to be decided. For example, in early days questions arose as to the high- ways which joined these towns, just as to-day there is the question of regulating railway companies which charge too much for carrying passengers and freight. In such cases laws may need to be passed, compelling them to charge reasonable rates. But as these railways are scores, GOVERNMENT 101 or even hundreds, of miles long, the people of a single town could do very little with them. In that case it would be necessary for those living perhaps hundreds of miles apart to unite in some way in order to make laws.. FIG. 81. Auburn, nestled in a valley among the hills, fields, and forests of California. Again, it is important that there be buildings in which blind people may be properly cared for, in which the deaf and dumb may be edu- cated, and insane people confined (p. 108). There must also be strong prisons where criminals must be sent (Fig. 82). Therefore, while there must be a toivn government, there must be also a state government. Virginia started with the state government and worked down to the town, or rather county, government, while New England began with the town and worked up to the state. All the men of a state cannot assemble at one point, 102 HOME GEOGRAPHY from a distance of one or two hundred miles, in order to attend to such matters. Even if they could make the journey at the time appointed, there would be so many of them that they could not hear one another speak, and little business could be carried on. For these reasons it is necessary for one man to be elected to represent many others. Where there are a great number of people, he may represent many thousands. FIG. 82. State Prison, Folsom, California. Such men, being chosen to represent the others, are often called representatives; and because they legislate (which means " make laws "), they are together called the legislature. The legislature meets at the capital (capital means head city) of the state. This is a city, often near the center of the state, in which there is a fine building, called the state capital (Fig. 226), where the representatives hold their meetings. GOVERNMENT 103 We saw that in the town the people not only made laws, but elected men to see that they were enforced. Such men are necessary for the state also. The leading officer, chosen to en- force or execute the laws, is the governor, some- times called the chief executive. In large cities (Fig. 83) there are so many people that they must also be governed by representatives, as the people of the whole state are governed. The men who make the laws are often called aldermen and council- ors, and the highest officer, elected to execute the laws, is known as the mayor. The building in which these rep- resentatives meet, and in which the mayor has his office, is the City Hall (Fig. 8 1) . "VVh ile a city is governed by its own officers in some matters, it is still a part of a state, and elects representa- tives to the state legislature. FIG. 83. Market Street. San Francisco. "Call" Building in the center. Many officers are needed in such a large city. Indeed, there are more officers in San Francisco than there are men, women, and chil- dren in some towns. In our country there are many states, and there are some matters that no one state can decide alone, because all the others are equally interested in them. For in- stance, it would be a great hindrance to travel and trade if each state made its own money ; for then each one might have a different kind, with coins of different names 104 HOME GEOGRAPHY and weights, and travelers passing from one state to another might be obliged to exchange their money for a new kind. Again, in case of war it would be impossible to make much prog- ress if each state acted independently. Perhaps you can give some of the reasons why. Mail is another matter that concerns all the states, and there are still others besides. Can you mention some? So it is evident that we need a United /States Govern- ment, as well as state, city, and town governments. The i i reason for calling it the United States Government is also plain ; for the states have really united in order to have one central government for some of their most important affairs. If the people of a single state cannot meet in a body to make laws, certainly those of the entire United States cannot do so. Representatives are elected and sent, from all the states of the Union, to one place where they consider the affairs of the whole nation. The place where they meet is the city of Washington, and it is on that account the capital of the United States. Here is a magnificent capitol building (Fig. 85) in which the meetings are held ; and there are many other great government buildings besides. (See Fig. 85.) The representatives from all the forty-six states of the Union form what is known as Congress. This corre- FIG. 84. City Hall, Petaluma, California. 105 106 HOME GEOGRAPHY spends to the legislature of the states, the congressmen making laws for the nation, as the legislators do for the state. The members of Congress are called senators and representatives. The executive officer of the United States, corresponding to the mayor of a city and the governor of a state, is called the President. He lives in Washington, and his residence is called the Executive Mansion, or the White House, since it is painted white (Fig. 85). Besides these officers who are elected by the people, there are a great many others appointed by the President to carry on the government work. Many live in Wash- ington, but some, as postmasters, live in other places. We have seen how the people in small towns arrange for their home government, and how, uniting with those in other towns, they elect some men to represent them at the state capital and others to represent them at the national capital. These representatives are elected by means of votes that are cast for them. Because the people make their own laws, our govern- ment is called a democracy. The first part of this word means " people," and the last part " government," so that the whole word means " government by the people." Be- cause the people do not make all the laws themselves, but allow their representatives to make them, it is often called a representative government or a republic. It is often said that our form of government makes us free and equal. People are by no means so free and equal in all countries. Under some governments, in Europe and Asia, the people have very little to say about the laws that shall govern them. Nor do the laws protect them all equally, for the high officers say freely what they think, while others do not dare to do this. They must obey GOVERNMENT 107 their rulers blindly, just as little children are expected to obey their parents. Such a government cannot be called a democracy or a republic ; it is indeed a despotism, or an absolute monarchy. This means that the ruler is a despot, or a monarch, hav- ing complete or absolute power to do what he chooses. For instance, he puts men to death without any trial, a thing that the laws of our country do not allow. China and Turkey are examples of this kind of government. There are other nations in which the people have more freedom than this, but not so much as we have. They are allowed freedom to do some things which they wish, while in other matters they are compelled to obey, with- out even asking any questions. Spain -has a government of this kind. Since the people have some rights by which the monarch's power is checked or limited, this govern- ment is called a limited monarchy. Some limited mon- archies, however, like England, allow a very considerable freedom. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Name a few things that no one person owns and that all wish to use. (2) How did the pioneers arrange for roads? (3) Why was a constable necessary? (4) What are laws? (5) Why must a great many towns and villages unite in order to make laws? (6) Name some of the objects for which they must unite. (7) What is a state ? (8) How are laws made in states? (9) Why are the men that are elected called representa- tives? (10) What is a legislature? (11) Where does it meet? In what building? (12) Where does the governor live? (13) Why must large cities also be governed by representatives ? (14) Name some of the city officers. Where do they meet ? (15) Why should not each state make its own money? (16) Why are these states called the United States? (17) Where do the repre- sentatives of the United States meet ? In what building? (18) What is Congress? (19) What is the White House ? (20) What does the 108 HOME GEOGRAPHY word democracy mean? (21) Why is this government called a repub- lic? (22) How are people in many other countries less free and equal than we are ? (23) What is a despotism ? An absolute monarchy ? A limited monarchy ? Give examples. SUGGESTIONS. (1) What persons repair the roads or streets where you live ? (2) How are they chosen ? (3) What officers look after the schools? (4) Attend a trial to see how it is conducted. (5) What are taxes? (6) In what state do you live? (7) What is the name of your state capital? (8) How far is it from your home, and in what direction? (9) Who is the governor of your state? (10) If you live in a city, who is the mayor? Where is the City Hall? (11) What does U. S. stand for? For REFERENCES, see page 117. Upper picture, Institution for the Deaf and the Blind, Berkeley, California. Lower picture, State Hospital for the Insane, Napa, California. XI. MAPS WE often wish to represent a country upon a map so as to tell, at a glance, its shape, and where the mountains, rivers, and cities are located. Such a drawing can be made of any place, no matter how large or small it is. Suppose we desire to draw only a school- room (Fig. 86), which is per- haps 32 feet long and 32 feet wide. It would not be easy to find a piece of paper so large as that, and it would not be necessary to do so. A small piece would do, because 1 inch upon it could be allowed to represent several feet in the room. In this case let an inch stand for 16 feet. Since the room is 32 feet on each side, and there are two 16's in 32, the drawing will be just two inches long and two wide. To place the desks and aisles properly, we will need to use a ruler divided into sixteenths, for one foot in the room represents ^ of an inch on the ruler. The ends and sides are marked (Fig. 87) north, east, south, and west. The teacher's desk is 31 feet in front of the north wall. There is a row of desks about 4 feet from the west wall. The desks are just 109 FIG. 80. Picture of a schoolroom which is 32 feet long and 32 feet wide. 110 HOME GEOGRAPHY NORTH WEST 2 feet long, with eight in a row \\ feet apart. There are seven rows ; and the aisles between them are each 1 \ feet wide. Here is a map of the schoolroom (Fig. 87). Measure each part to see if it has been drawn correctly, using a foot rule that shows the sixteenths of inches. How large is the desk? The a a a a a a a a a a a a a aa aaaa a a a a a a a LU a a a a a a a aa a LUEZI a a aa aa a a SOUTH I I I t t . I I I I I I I 3 4 6 8 10 W 14 10 SCALE OF FEET: 1 INCH=I e FEET ORl^BOFANINCH^ FOOT FIG. 87. A map of the schoolroom shown in Fig. 86. piano ? When a person draws in this way, letting a certain distance on the paper represent a much greater one, he is said to use a scale, or to make a map according to a scale. In the schoolroom just described (Fig. 87), the scale is 1 inch to 16 feet. In the next drawing (Fig. 88), one inch represents 140 feet. According to this scale, find out how large the yard and the school building are. Find how far the trees are from each other, from the nearest fence, and from the building. Can you not make a map of your own schoolroom? What scale will you use ? Put in your own desk, but omit the others, if you wish. You might also draw a map of your school yard. If you prefer to do so, find its size by stepping or pacing it off, making each of your steps about two feet long. Measure the building in the same way. After having finished these two maps, draw a third one, including in MAPS 111 it not only the school yard, but also a few of the neighboring streets and houses. The scale for this might perhaps be 1 inch for every 500 steps. All maps are drawn to a scale in this way, whether they represent a school yard, a state, the United States, or even something still larger. Opposite page 152 you will find a map of North America. On what scale is it drawn? Look at some other maps to find out the scale. ScMfous, FIG. 88. A map of the school yard shown in the picture, Fig. 89. Maps are used a great deal to show the direc- tion of one place from another. But a person must first understand what is meant by north, south, east, and west. Probably you already know that. FIG. 89. A typical rural school of one teacher. California. 112 HOME GEOGRAPHY One of the easiest ways to find the direction is by a compass (Fig. 90). This is simply a piece of steel, called a needle, that swings about easily and always points to the north. It is magnetized, like the horseshoe magnets that you have seen, and it points north- ward, because something draws it in that direction ; but no one knows certainly what this " something " is. When the stars are shining, one can tell which direction is north by the help of the Great Dipper. The two stars on the edge of the Dipper point toward the North Star. It is so bright that it can be easily picked out, and it is always to the north of us. One can also find direction by the help of the sun ; for twice a year, about March twenty-first and September twenty-first, it rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west. Where does it rise in winter? In summer? Which direction is on his right and left when a man faces the east? The west? The south? The north? Northeast means halfway between north and east. Southeast means halfway between south and east. What, then, do northwest and southwest mean? Point north, east, west, south, southwest, northeast, northwest. Walk a few feet in each direction. What direction is your desk from that of your teacher? From the desks of your friends? .From, the door? What direction is your home from the schoolhouse? From other houses? In what directions do some of the streets extend? Now let us tell directions on the map. Lay your draw- ing of the schoolroom upon your desk, so that the line FIG. 90. compass. The letter N means north. What do the other letters stand for ? In California the needle points a little east of north. MAPS 113 representing the north side of the room is toward the north. Also place yourself so that you are facing di- rectly north as you look at the map. If your desk faces the wrong way for this, turn round, or put your map upon the floor. Now, north on the map is also north in the room, and the other directions on the map correspond with those in the room. In which direction, on the map, is the door from your desk ? From the teacher's desk ? Place your map of the school yard in the same position and give the directions. You see that the north side of this map is the side fur- thest from you ; the east side is on your right, the south next to you, and the west is on your left. When a map is lying before us, we usually look at it from this position. But it is not always convenient to have a map lying down, especially in the schoolroom, where it must be hung up so that the whole class may see it. Let us hang up one of these maps and take particular pains to put it upon the north wall. Which direction on the map is north now ? It is evident that the north side must be up, while east is on the right, south is down, and west is on the left. Certain lines, called lines of longi- tude, extend due north and south, and others, called lines of latitude, east and west. You should drill yourself to understand directions on maps. Give the directions of objects from one another while the map is hanging up. Put up the map of the school yard, and any others that you have, and tell the directions from one place to another. 1 1 After the children are quite at home in using the map when it is hung on the north wall, hang it on other sides of the room and have them give the directions. This is easy work if properly graded ; but many children are confused in regard to directions on the map. At the proper time show that toward the top of the map is not always north. See Fig. 203. 114 HOME GEOGRAPHY It is clear now what a map is. It is a drawing telling something about a country, just as a letter may be some writing telling something concerning a friend. When you read such a letter, you think of your friend, how he looks, what he has been doing, etc. So when you look at a map, you should think about the country, how it looks, how far apart the places are, etc. The maps that you have been drawing are flat maps, representing the country as if it were a flat surface. In Fig. 91 you will see the way in which these maps are made to represent the tand and water. No attempt is made on the flat maps to show just what the country looks like. They represent the position and direction of towns, rivers, lakes, etc., just as if the country were perfectly flat. Later on you will study relief maps. These show the mountains and valleys. They are pictures of the land as it might appear if one were to look down upon it from some point far above. For REFERENCES, see page 117. The Diamond Match Factory, Chico, California. FIG. 91. To show what maps mean. The left-hand figures show the country as if you were looking down upon it; the right-hand figures represent the same country on maps. Tell what you see in each of these. REFERENCES TO DESCRIPTIONS, IN PROSE AND POETRY, OF TOPICS TREATED IN HOME GEOGRAPHY. FOR TEACHER AND PUPIL McM. means The Macmillan Co., New York ; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. ; A. B. C., The American Book Co., New York ; S. B. C., Silver, Burdett & Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. Section I. The Soil. King, The Soil " (McM., f 0.75) ; Tarr, " Elementary Geology," Chapters VI, XI, and pp. 475-487 (McM., $1.40); Shaler, "First Book in Geology," pp. 24-29 (Heath, $0.60). Also other geologies. Nature Study Quarterly, No. 2, October, 1899 (Cornell University, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y. Free on application) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter IV, "The Transformation of a Grain of Soil" (McM., $0.50); Wilson, "Nature Study in Elementary Schools. Teacher's Manual," p. 177 (McM., $0.90) ; Frye, " Brooks and Brook Basins," section on " How Soil is made and carried" (Ginn, $0.58); Strong, "All the Year Round," Part II, sections 7 and 8 (Ginn, $0.30). Section II. Hills. Whittier, "Among the Hills" (poem) ; Whit- tier, " The Hilltop " (poem) ; Hutchinson, The Story of the Hills " (McM., $1.50). Section III. Mountains. Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapters V and VI (the former on forests) (McM., $1.50) ; Jordan, " Science Sketches," section on " The Ascent of the Matterhorn " (A. C. McClurg & Co., Chicago, $1.50) ; Whymper, " Chamonix and Mont Blanc" (Scribner, New York, $1.20); Whymper, "Travels amongst the Great Andes " (Scribner, New York, $2.50) ; Tarr, " Ele- mentary Geology," Chapter XVII (McM., $1.40) ; Tarr, "Elementary Physical Geography," Chapter XIX (McM., $1.40) ; Shaler, " First Book in Geology," Chapter V (Heath, $0.60) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter V, "The Ice Plough" (McM., $0.50). 115 116 HOME GEOGRAPHY Sections IV and V. Valleys and Rivers. Tarr, " Elementary Geology," Chapters VI-X ; " Elementary Physical Geography," Chap- ters XV and XVI (each, McM., $1.40); Shaler, "First Book in Geology," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.60) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," sections on " Valleys," " Plants of the Valleys," and " Animals of the Valleys" (A.B. C., $0.25) ; Kingsley, "Madam How and Lady Why," Chapter I, " The Glen " (McM., $0.50) ; Frye, " Brooks and Brook Basins " (Giim, $0.58) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapters VII and VIII (McM., $1.50). Poems : " The Brook," Ten- nyson ; "The River," Samuel G. Goodrich ; " The Mad River," Long- fellow ; " The Falls of Lodore," Southey ; " The Brook and the Wave," Longfellow ; " A Water Song," E. G. W. Rowe ; " The Endless Story," A. K. Eggleston; " The Impatient River," E. G. W. Rowe ; The last three sections in Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies" (A. B. C., $0.25). Section VI. Ponds and Lakes. Shaler, " First Book in Geology," pp. 125-129 (Heath, $0.60) ; Tarr, "Elementary Geology," pp. 188-193, and " Elementary Physical Geography," pp. 298-304 (each, McM., $1.40) ; Lubbock, "The Beauties of Nature," Chapter VIII (McM., $1.50); Payne, "Geographical Nature Studies," section on "Pools, Ponds, and Lakes" (A. B. C., $0.25) ;" The Lakeside," poem, by Whittier. Section VII. The Ocean. Shaler, " Sea and Land" (Scri-bner, New York, $2.50) ; Tarr, " First Book of Physical Geography," Part III (McM., $1.10) ; Lubbock, " The Beauties of Nature," Chapter IX (McM., $1.50) ; Andrews, " Stories Mother Nature Told Her Chil- dren," section on " Sea Life " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Holland, " The Sea Voyage," in " Arthur Bonnicastle " ; Dickens, " David Copperfield," Chapter V ; " Robinson Crusoe," Chapter III ; Taylor, " The Waves," " Wind and Sea," in Marble's " Nature Pictures by American Poets" (McM., $1.25) ; Coleridge, " The Ancient Mariner." Section VIII. The Air. Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geog- raphy," Part II (McM., $1.10); "A Summer Shower," "Cornell Nature Study Bulletin," No. 1, June, 1899 (free on application to Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.) ; Murche, " Science Reader," Book III, sections on u Air," " Vapor in the Air," " Vapor : What becomes of It? " " What the Atmosphere Is," " Ice, Hail, and Snow " (McM., $0.40); Frye, "Brooks and Brook Basins," sections on "Forms of Water" and "The Atmosphere in Motion" (Ginn, $0.58) ; Strong, EEFEEENCES 117 " All the Year Round," Part II, sections 33-39 (Ginn, $0.30) ; Andrews, " Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on " The Frost Giants " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," many excellent stories and poems (A. B. C., $0.25) ; " Nature Pic- tures by American Poets " : " Summer Shower," Dickinson ; " Rain," De Land ; " Song of the Snowflakes," Cheney ; " Cloudland," Cheney (McM., $1.25) ; Wilson, "Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Sec- ond Reader, the following poems : " The Rain Shower," " The Wind Song," " The Bag of Winds," "The Sunbeams," "Snowflakes," "Signs of Rain," " The Rainbow " (McM., $0.35) ; Lovejoy, " Nature in Verse," the following poems : "Merry Rain," " The Clouds," " The Dew," " The Fog," " The Rain," " The Snow," " The Frost," " Jack Frost," " Little Snowflakes " (S. B. C., $0.60) ; Shelley, The Cloud " ; Whittier, " The Frost Spirit " ; Bryant, " The Hurricane " ; Whittier, " Snow-Bound " ; Irving, " The Thunderstorm " (prose). Section IX. Industry and Commerce. Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," sections on " Occupations," " Trade or Commerce," " Trans- portation by Land," " Transportation by Water" (A. B. C., $0.25) ; Andrews, " The Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children," section on " The Carrying Trade " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Whittier, " Songs of Labor." Section X. The Government. Brooks, " Century Book for Young Americans " (Century Co., New York, $1.50) ; Brooks, " The Story of the United States " (The Lothrop Publishing Co., Boston, $1.50) ; Payne, " Geographical Nature Studies," section on " Government " (A. B. C., $0.25). Section XI. Maps. Excellent outline maps of states and conti- nents, costing 1| to 2 cents each, can be purchased from D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Rand, McNally, & Co., Chicago, and other publishers. Maltby, " Map Modeling " (A. S. Barnes and Co., New York, $1.00) ; Kellogg, " Geography by Map Drawing " (same publishers, $0.30) ; Redway, " The Reproduction of Geographical Forms" ($0.30), and " Teacher's Manual of Geography " ($0.65) (both by Heath) ; Frye, " The Child and Nature " (Ginn, $0.80) ; Frye, " Sand and Clay Modeling " (American Book Co., New York, $0. 10) ; Frye, " Teacher's Manual of Methods in Geography " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Kellogg, " How to Teach Clay Modeling " (A. S. Barnes & Co., New York, $0.25) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, Lesson XIII (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). 118 PABT II THE EARTH AS A WHOLE T. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 1 Its Form. Hundreds of years ago, before America was discovered, men thought the earth was flat. They traveled so little that they had no idea of its form or of its*size. A few men who had studied the matter believed that the earth was a round ball, and that if one traveled straight on in any direction, he would in time return to the place from which he started. You can understand this by pushing your finger around on the outside of an orange, until it comes back to the starting point. Christopher Columbus believed this, and went to Spain, hoping to obtain money to secure ships for a long voyage to prove it. Men were at that time in the habit of going to a land called India, for spices, silks, and jewels. To reach India from Spain they traveled thousands of miles eastward ; but Columbus said that if the earth were round, like a ball, India might be reached by going westward across the ocean, and the distance would be much less. He therefore asked the king of Spain for ships and men to make such a journey. The king refused the request, because the idea seemed ridiculous ; but the queen came to his aid, and, at last, on August 3, 1492, he 1 The use of a globe in this study is very important. Small globes may be obtained from dealers in school supplies at a very slight cost. 119 120 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE sailed westward on a voyage from which many thought he would never return ; but, after a journey of several weeks, land was reached on October 12th. Thinking he had reached India, he called the natives Indians ; but instead of that he had discovered Cuba and other islands near the coast of North America; a continent and large ocean still lay between him and India. These newly discovered lands became known as the New World, to distinguish them from the Old World, where all white men then lived. FIG. 92. Columbus landing in America and taking possession of it in the name of the king of Spain. After Columbus returned in safety, other men dared to explore the New World. One of them, named Magellan, started to sail around the earth ; and though he was killed when he had reached the Philippine Islands, his ships went on and completed the journey. Since then many people have made the voyage in various directions, and the earth has been studied so carefully that every one now knows it is round. The great, round earth is also called the globe or sphere. FORM AND SIZE OF THE EARTH 121 The reason that it does not seem round to us, is that we see so little of it at a time. If you see very little of an orange, it will not look round either. To prove this, place upon an orange a piece of paper with a small hole in it, so that none of the surface is seen excepting that which shows through the hole. This part does not appear round, but flat. If we could get far enough away from the earth to see a large part of it at once, as we are when looking at an orange, or at the moon, we would easily be able to observe its roundness (Fig. 93). Size of the Earth. Our sphere is so large that even the highest mountains, when compared to the whole earth, are no larger than a speck of dust when compared to an apple. Lofty mountains are rarely more than three or four miles high ; but the diameter of the earth, or the distance from one side to the other, through the center of the earth, is nearly eight thousand miles. FIG. 93. The sphere. FIG. 94. Figure of the earth cut in two, to show the diameter, the line passing thro ugh the center (c). The circumference of the earth, or the dis- tance around the outside of it, is about twenty- five thousand miles. This is a little more than three times the diameter, and you will find that the circumference of any sphere is always a little more than three times its diameter. Prove this with an orange. 122 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What did people formerly know about the shape of the earth ? (2) What is its form ? (3) Tell the story of Columbus. (4) Why did he call the savages Indians? (5) Why was the land he discovered called the New World ? (6) Tell about Magellan's voyage. (7) Explain why the earth does not appear to us to be a sphere. (8) What is the diameter of the earth ? The cir- cumference V (9) The latter is how many times the former ? SUGGESTIONS. (1) Read something about the life of Columbus. (2) Read about Magellan. (3) Find the names of some other early explorers and read about them. (4) Trace Columbus's journey on a globe to see where he actually went. Find India in order to see where he thought he had gone, and notice how one can go to India by traveling eastward as well as westward. (5) Make a sphere in clay. Measure its diameter with a needle. (6) How many proofs can you find that the earth is round ? Find out how we know that it is like a ball and not like a cylinder. (7) Write a story about Columbus. For REFERENCES, see page 328. El Carmel Mission, near Monterey. Within the walls of this Mission lies buried the body of Father Junipero Serra, California's premier missionary. II. DAILY MOTION OF THE ITS RESULTS EARTH, AND The Axis and Poles. The earth seems to us to be motionless, while the sun appears to move round it each day, rising in the east and setting in . 6 the west. But in reality neither of tfoi^ these things happens. ^^fjiifi', Instead of being without motion, JM the earth is turning round at a uni- JB form rate of speed. You have per- at haps watched a wheel spin about on a rod or pin, and have noticed that the outside goes rapidly, while the part near the pin moves much more slowly. It is the same with the earth ; and just as we speak of the wheel turning upon a pin, so we speak of the earth turning upon its axis. But the axis of a wheel is something real, while the axis of the earth is merely a line that we think of as reaching through the earth's center and extending to the surface in both directions. The two ends of this axis are called the poles of the earth, one end being the north pole, the other the south pole. Allowing an apple to represent the earth, a knitting needle or a stick pushed through its center would represent its axis, and the two 123 FIG. 05. A drawing of the earth cut through to show the axis and poles. 124 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE fo/9 ends on the surface, the two poles. You can then spin the apple, very much as the earth spins (Fig. 97). If you were to go directly north from the place where you live, you would in time come to the north pole ; or, if far enough south, to the south pole. Many men have tried to cross the icy seas (Fig. 100) that surround the north pole. If one ever reaches that point, he will not find a pole ; but the north star, toward which the axis points, will be almost directly overhead. The Equator. Midway between these poles, we think of another line drawn around the earth on the outside. This is called the equator, be- cause all parts of it are equally distant from each of the poles. On page 121 the distance around the earth was given ; what, then, is the length of the equator ? As the earth spins on its axis, all points on the surface must go with it, as every part of the skin of an apple turns with it. Since the earth makes one complete turn .each day, a man at the equator travels twenty- five thousand miles every twenty-four hours. What a whirling motion that is ! It is at the rate of over one thousand miles an hour, while the fastest trains run little more than sixty miles an hour. Why do not places considerably north or south of the equator move as rapidly as those at the equator ? Gravity. What, then, is to hinder our flying away from the earth, just as, when a stone is whirled about on a string, it flies away the moment the string breaks ? And why is not all the water hurled from the ocean ? FIG. 96. A drawing of that half of the sphere containing the New World, to show the position of the poles and the equator. DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 125 The reason is that the earth draws everything toward it. If you push a book from your desk, it falls to the floor ; and when you spring into the air, you quickly return to the ground. All objects are drawn downward, because the earth is pulling upon them. It attracts them much as a horseshoe magnet attracts pieces of iron. The force with which the earth draws all objects toward it is called gravity ; and it is because of gravity that the water, trees, houses, and we ourselves, do not fly off when the earth is turning at such a tremendous speed. Sunrise and Sunset. The sun seems to rise in the east and set in the west. This could not be the case if the earth did not turn or rotate toward the east; for all heavenly bodies must first appear in the direction toward which the earth turns. This eastward rotation of the earth, therefore, explains why the sun seems to rise and set as it does. Hundreds of years ago people thought that the sun actually rose, and, after moving across the heavens, set in the west. We still use the words " sunrise " and " sunset " which they used, although we know that the sun appears to rise only because the earth rotates. Day and Night. It is this rotation that causes day and night. A lamp can light only one half of a ball at a time, as you know. So the sun can light only half of the great earth ball at one time. This being the case, if our globe stood perfectly still, there would always be day on the half next to the sun, and night on the other half. But since the earth rotates, the place where it is day is constantly changing ; and while the sun is setting for people far to the east of us, it is rising for those far to the west. When it is noon where you live, it is midnight on the other side of the earth. Thus each place has its 126 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE period of daylight and darkness ; and as the earth makes one complete rotation every twenty-four hours, the day and night together must last just that length of time. FIG. 97. An apple lighted by a candle on one side, to illustrate the cause of day and night. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What motion has the earth ? (2) What is the axis of the earth? (3) The north pole? The south pole? (4) Represent the axis and poles by using an apple. (5) Walk toward the north pole. Toward the south pole. (6) What is the equator? (7) How long does it require for the earth to turn completely around once? (8) What rate of travel is that, for a point upon the equator? (9) Why are we not thrown away from the earth? (10) Give sev- eral examples showing what is meant by gravity. (11) In what direction is the earth rotating? (12) How does that explain sunrise and sunset? (13) What causes night? (14) What would be the result if the earth did not rotate? (15) When it is noon here, what time is it on the other side of the earth? (16) How long must the day and night together last? Why? DAILY MOTION OF THE EARTH 127 SUGGESTIONS. (1) Point out the axis of a wheel; of a top; of a rotating ball; of a spinning globe. (2) Mark the two poles on an apple or ball, and then draw a line for the equator. (3) Mold a sphere in clay, and show the poles and the equator. Cut it in half, and mark a line for the axis. (4) Find exactly how many miles a point on the equator moves each hour. (5) Use a horseshoe magnet to attract pieces of iron. (6) Use a globe, or apple, and a lamp to show why the sun appears to rise and set, and why it is day on one side while it is night on the other. (7) Watch the stars in the east some night, to see which way they appear to move. (8) Why do not the clouds appear to move westward also? (9) Is the sun always shining during the day? Why, then, do we not always see it? (10) Who was Atlas? Who was Aurora? (11) Find out what the ancients supposed became of the sun each night. (12) When it is noon here, what time is it one fourth of the distance around the earth to the east? To the west? For REFERENCES, see page 328. Sunset at Fort Wrangel, Alaska, 10.15 o'clock, P.M. TIL THE ZONES Boundaries of the Zones. The sun's rays feel warmer at noon than toward evening because the sun is more nearly overhead at noon, and the rays then reach us nearly vertically. For the same reason the sun seems hotter in summer than in winter, and in some parts of the earth than in others. The hottest part of the earth is near the equator, for in that region the sun at midday is directly over the heads of the people. That is the case, for a part of the year, as far north as the line on the map (Fig. 98) marked tropic of Cancer, and as far south as the one marked tropic of Capri- corn. Point to them on Figs. 119 and 120. These lines are more than three thousand miles apart, a dis- tance greater than that across the United States from Boston to San Francisco ; and over that vast area the heat is intense, or torrid. Those who live there wear only the very lightest clothing, and the savages have almost none (Fig. 99). But farther north and south the heat becomes less and 128 FIG. 98. A map of the zones. THE ZONES 129 less intense, because the rays of the sun, even at noon, approach the earth at a greater slant. There is a region, then, on each side of this broad hot belt, where it is neither very hot nor very cold, but temperate. Finally, near the poles, the rays are very slanting, as they are in our early morning or late afternoon. There it is so cold, or frigid, that the ground never thaws out, the ice never entirely disappears, and very little vegeta- tion can grow. Torrid Zone. Thus one part of the earth has a hot climate. There the noonday sun is al- ways so directly over the heads of the in- habitants that they never have winter. This hot region extends entirely around the earth, like a great belt, and the equator is in the middle of it. This is called the tropical belt, or the tropical or torrid zone, arid sometimes the equa- FIG. 99. torial belt. Why the Philippine savages hunting ; their home is in the torrid zone, and they need almost no clothing. latter name ? Temperate Zones. On the north and south sides of this are the two temperate zones. People living in the north temperate zone find the sun to the south of them at noon, even in summer; and their shadows always fall toward 130 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE the north. But in the south temperate zone the midday sun is always in the north. Which way must the shadows fall in that zone ? Notice the position of the sun at midday where you live, and also the direction and length of your shadow at that time. In which of the temperate zones do you live ? FIG. Cape York Eskimos, Greenland, in their summer dress, standing by their sleds on the ice-covered sea. Frigid Zones. North of the north temperate zone, and south of the south temperate, are the frigid zones, where the sun is never high in the heavens, but even at midday is near the horizon. There the shadows are very long, as they are with us in the late afternoon. In consequence, while at the equator there is never any winter, near the poles there is never any real summer weather. The northern of these zones is called the north frigid THE ZONES 131 zone (Fig. 100) ; the southern, the south frigid zone. They are also known as the polar zones, since they sur- round the poles. It is so cold that no one has ever been able to reach either of the poles. These are surrounded by miles and miles of snow and ice, and vessels hundreds of miles away from them are in danger of being crushed by ice, or held by it so that they cannot move. Hemispheres. The half of our sphere north of the equator is called the northern hemisphere (or half sphere), the southern half, the southern hemisphere. The earth is also divided into halves by a circle running north and south through both poles, the western half, con- taining the New World, being called the western hemisphere, and the eastern half, containing the Old World, the eastern hemisphere. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What is the cause for the great heat in the torrid zone ? (2) What are its boundaries ? (3) What other zones are there? What are their boundaries ? (4) In which direction does the midday sun lie in each zone? (5) In which direction do the shadows then fall ? (6) Why should the heat grow less, the farther one travels from the equator? (7) Why has no one ever been able to reach either pole ? (8) Which part of the earth has no cold weather ? (9) Which part has no hot weather? (10) Point out the zones in Fig. 98. (11) Represent them in a drawing of your own. (12) Name the hemispheres and tell where each is. SUGGESTIONS. (1) Find out more about the reason why the sun's rays are hotter when the sun is overhead than when it is low in the heavens. (2) Write a story telling about the changes in clothing you would need to make in passing from the north to the south pole. (3) In which direction would you look to see the sun at noon on such a journey? (4) How might the changes in heat affect the growth of trees and other plants? (5) How would the direction of your shadow change? Its length? (6) If there were no watches or clocks, how could you tell the time of day from the sun? (7) Find out about some of the men who have tried to reach the north pole. (8) In which zone would you prefer to live? Why ? (9) Explain how some places in the temperate zone are warmer than some in the torrid zone. For REFERENCES, see page 328. IV. HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH, AND ITS EFFECTS Heat in Mines. While much is known about the sur- face of the earth, very little is certain about its interior. The reason for this is that people cannot go far down below the surface in order to see what is there. In some places there are mines reaching fully a mile below the surface. This may seem a great depth ; but when it is remembered that it would be necessary to go four FIG. 101. Melted rock, from a volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, flowing over the face of a precipice into the water. 132 HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 133 thousand times as far to reach the center, it is plain that this is really a short distance. A mile below the surface of the earth is not so much as the thickness of the skin of an apple, compared with the thickness of the apple itself. In all of these mines, and in many deep wells, men find solid rock, usually covered at the surface with soil ; but no one has ever gone beyond this rock. It is interesting to note that the farther miners have dug down into the earth, the warmer they have found it. The thermometer rises about one degree for every fifty or sixty feet, and some mines, as they have been deepened, have become so hot that men could no longer work in them. Melted Rock. This has led to the belief that, if it were possible to -go still deeper, the earth would be found to grow hotter and hot- ter, until, several miles below the surface, it might be hot enough to melt rocks. Another fact leading to the same belief is that, in some regions, melted rock, called lava, actually flows out of the earth, and then cools to form solid rock (Fig. 101). In some places so much lava has flowed forth at different times, and collected about the opening called the crater, that a moun- tain peak has been built. Such peaks are called volcanoes (Fig. 102), and some of them are many thousand feet high. The Earth's Crust. From a study of the earth it seems certain that, al- though the outside is now cold, it was FIG. 102. Vesuvius, in Italy, sending out lava, ashes, and Once hot, and that steam during an eruption some years ago 134 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE the mass within is still hot. It may be compared to a biscuit that is still hot inside, although its crust has become cool. In fact, this cold outside part of the earth is gener- ally called the earth's crust. Cause of Mountains. It was stated on page 20 that some parts of the earth have been raised to form mountain ranges, while others have been lowered to form valleys. We are now ready to explain how this has happened. You have, perhaps, seen a blacksmith put a tire upon a wheel. He heats the tire so hot that it expands, and it is then easily placed over the wheel. But when the iron cools it shrinks, so that the tire then fits the wheel tightly. The hot interior of the earth is undergoing a similar change, since every year it is slowly growing cooler, FIG. 103. and, therefore, shrinking or contracting. An apple wrinkled xhis allows the cool crust to settle ; through drying. . but, being too large, it wrinkles, or puckers, causing the rocks to bend and break, and forming great mountain ranges and valleys. One sees something of the same kind in an apple that has become dry and wrinkled (Fig. 103). It has dried because some of the water beneath the tough skin has gone into the air as vapor ; thus the inside has been made smaller. The skin of the apple, like the crust of the earth, has then settled down and become wrinkled. Cause of Continents and Ocean Basins. The moun- tains and valleys are not the largest wrinkles on the earth's surface. As the crust has settled, some portions have been lowered several miles further than others, HEAT WITHIN THE EARTH 135 and in these great depressions the waters have collected, forming the oceans, which in places are four or five miles deep. Those great portions of the earth's crust which rise above the ocean are called continents ; and the highest mountain peak upon them is fully eleven miles above the deepest part of the ocean. Change in the Level of the Land. The contracting of the earth has caused many changes, and is still causing them. Some parts of the land have risen out of the ocean, and other parts have sunk beneath it. Perhaps the place where you live, even though it be among the mountains, was once below the ocean. This can be proved, in some places, by finding certain shells, called fossils, in the rocks. Ages ago these shells were parts of animals living in the ocean; but on the death of their owners they became buried in the mud and lay there for centuries until the layers of mud be- came slowly hardened into rock. This was later lifted above the water, and then frost, rain, and rivers wore the upper layers away, bringing the fossils to light. We have already seen (p. 2) how rock is changing to soil-and being washed from the land into the ocean. We now learn that this settles upon the ocean bottom, hardens into rock, and then, perhaps, is lifted into the air. These changes are very slow, but they are going on all the time. Places once inhabited by men are now beneath the sea, and others where they now live have risen above it. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What is known about the temperature of the earth below the surface? (2) What does that suggest? (3) What other proof of this conclusion is there ? (4) What is a volcano ? (5) What is the crust of the earth ? (6) What happens as the interior cools ? (7) Compare this with the drying of an apple. FIG. 104. A rock containing many fossil shells. 136 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE (8) How have the ocean basins and continents been formed ? (9) What do fossils in the rocks prove? SUGGESTIONS. (1) Collect pictures of volcanoes. Of earth- quakes. Read about some volcanic eruption. (2) Make a drawing of a volcano. (3) Dry an apple and notice the change. (4) Not all rocks contain fossils; but examine those in your section to find if they do. (5) If you live near a beach, notice how shells are covered by the sands. (6) Jf a mine were a mile deep, what would be the temperature at the bottom, if the average temperature at the sur- face is 45 ? For REFERENCES, see page 328. Whitney Domes, Kern River Canon, California. V. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS Land and Water. The greater part of the land is found in the northern hemisphere, the greater part of the water in the southern (Figs. 106 and 114). FIG. 105. Land (on left-hand side) and water (on right-hand side) hemispheres. sphere means half sphere ; that is, half the earth. Hemi- It is possible to divide the earth into halves, in one of which the land hemisphere nearly all the land is situated, while in the other the water hemisphere there is very little land. This is shown in Fig. 105. THE CONTINENTS In Fig. 106, or, better, on a globe, notice that two great masses of land extend from the north polar zone. One of these lies in the western hemisphere, and is the land on which we live; the other is in the eastern hemisphere. 137 138 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE North America. The western land, which is better shown in Fig. 107, is broad near the north pole, and tapers down nearly to a point just north of the equator, having the form of a triangle. What is the name of this part ? FIG. 106. The northern hemisphere, showing the land about the north pole, Eurasia in the eastern hemisphere, and America in the western. Show where New York, Washington, and Chicago should be on this map. (See the map, Fig. 120.) Point also to your home. Find some rivers, mountains, peninsulas, gulfs, and other forms of land and water. South America. South of North America, and con- nected with it by a long neck of land, the Isthmus of Panama, lies the continent of South America. The two THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 139 continents together are called the two Americas, forming the New World which Columbus discovered (p. 119). Notice how much alike they are in shape ; draw triangles to show this. Through what zones does North America extend? (See Fig. 98, p. 128.) South America? Point to the places where there is snow all the time ; to the part where there is never any snow. Where must the Eskimo girl, Agoonack, one of the Seven Little Sisters, have lived? Read about the Eski- mos on page 208. Tell how the cli- mate would change if you were to travel from the northern end of North Amer- ica to the southern end of South Amer- ica. What changes would you expect to find in the plants? In the clothing of people? Write a story about such a journey. On page 141 are pictures of some of the wild animals of South America (Fig. 109). What wild animals live in North America? Collect pictures of them. Have you ever seen any of them? Eurasia. East of us, across the Atlantic Ocean, is the Old World (Figs. 108 and 115). More land is found there than in the New World, and the largest mass of it is called Eurasia. FIG. 107. The half of the sphere containing the New World. 140 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE The northern part of Eurasia is in the North Frigid zone, on the opposite side of the north pole from North America (Fig. 106), and extends a great distance east and west. Find for yourself how far south it reaches, and through what zones it passes. NORTH srouTir FIG. 108. A hemisphere, showing a part of Eurasia and Africa. Long ago, before Columbus made his voyage to the New World, the most civilized people lived in Europe, the western part of that great continent. The homes of Jeannette and Louise, two of the Seven Little Sisters, were in that country. If you have read the story, can you not tell something about each of them? FIG. 109. Some of the animals of South America. 141 142 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE The eastern part of the con- tinent is called Asia. Read in the " Seven Little Sis- ters " about Ge- mila, the child of the desert, and of Pen-se, the Chinese girl, whose homes were in Asia. Europe is usually consid- ered one conti- nent and Asia another, al- though, as you can see from the maps, especially Fig. 106, they are not so clearly separated as the other continents are. For this reason Europe and Asia are often called one continent, Eurasia, the name being made up of " Eur," from Europe, and " Asia." Point toward this continent. Walk toward it. Which is probably its warmest part ? Africa. South of Europe is the continent of Africa. Here lived the little dark girl, Manenko, one of the Seven Sisters, and this is the place the negroes came from. In what zones does Africa lie ? How does it compare with South America in temperature? In shape ? In what direction would you start in order to go directly to Africa ? FIG. 110. The home of Jeannette among the Swiss mountains. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 143 FIG. 111. The tiger, one of the wild animals of Africa and Asia. Australia. South of Asia are many large islands called the East India Islands (Fig. 120). Find the zone in which they lie. Southeast of these is a large island known as the continent of Australia (Fig. 119). In what zones is it ? THE OCEANS The Arctic and Antarctic. There seems to be a great deal of land ; but, as we have learned (p-. 67), three fourths of the earth is covered by ocean water. The water around the north pole (Fig. 106) is called the Arctic Ocean. Find it on a globe. There are many islands in this ocean, and the water between them is covered with ice. The climate is so cold that there are very few people, and no crops of any kind can be raised. Here the Eskimos live, hunting the polar bear, seal, and walrus to obtain meat for food, fur for clothing, and oil for fuel and light (see p. 208). 144 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Much less is known about the Antarctic Ocean (Fig. 114), which surrounds the south pole, and in which there is also a great deal of floating ice. The Atlantic. Extending from the Arctic to the Ant- arctic is the Atlantic Ocean, having the Old World on the east and the New World 011 the west. This is the water that we cross in going to Europe, and many of the things we eat and wear are brought across it. Can you name some of them? Find what continents the Atlantic bathes. The Pacific. The water west of North America is called the Pacific Ocean, which is the largest of all oceans, occupying more than one third of the earth's surface. What continents does it bathe? Walk toward it. The Indian. There is still another- great body of water called the Indian Ocean (Fig. 108). It lies south of India in Asia, and between Africa on one side and Aus- tralia and the East Indies on the other. The Ocean Bottom. The depth of the ocean water varies considerably ; on the average it is a little over two miles, but in some places it is more than four miles, deep. THE CONTINENTS AND OCEANS 145 In this immense body of water are millions of animals, some of them, as the whale, shark, codfish, and seal, being of use to man. The bed of the ocean is mainly a great plain, where it is as dark as our darkest night, because the sunlight can- not pass through so much water. In consequence, the fish living there have little use for eyes, and some have none. The mud which covers the bottom is in many places made up of the shells of tiny animals, many of them even smaller than a pinhead. Some of the chalk used in schools was just such mud before it was raised to form rock layers on the dry land. Mountains in the Oceans. While most of the bottom of the sea is a plain, some parts are not so level. Here and there are mountain peaks, and chains of islands, extending above the sea far away from the continents. Many of these are portions of mountain chains rising above the water ; but many, like the Hawaiian Islands, are vol- canoes which have been built up by lava flow- ing from the in- terior of the earth (p. 133). Coral Islands. In the open ocean there is another interesting kind of island known as the coral island (Fig. 113). Some very tiny creatures, called coral polyps, build hard, limy FIG. 113. A ring-like coral island, called an atoll, in the open ocean. 146 147 148 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE coral, such as you have no doubt seen. Where the ocean water is warm, as in the torrid zone, these little animals live in immense numbers, millions of them around a single island. Each polyp resembles a fully blossomed flower ; and they vary greatly in color, being white, pink, purple, red, yellow, brown, and many other colors. It is a truly beautiful sight to see them spread out in the water, looking like a flower garden in the sea (Fig. 118). When these coral animals FlG 118> die, the hard coral part re- A piece of coral, with the polyps mains. Then other polyps projecting from the hard coral build upon these skeletons, like a bunch of flowers. 1,1-. . , and this is continued until the surface of the water is reached and coral islands are formed. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Name the five continents, counting Eurasia as one. (2) Write their names. (3) Walk toward each of them. (4) Tell what you can about each. (5) Where is the Arctic Ocean? The Antarctic? (6) Tell something about the people and animals of the Arctic region. (7) What oceans touch North Amer- ica? (8) Name five oceans. Which is the largest? (9) What are the conditions on the ocean bottom ? (10) In what ways are islands in the open ocean formed? (11) How are coral islands made? SUGGESTIONS. (1) Make an outline drawing of each of the con- tinents. (2) Of each ocean. (3) Collect pictures of the animals, peo- ple, and scenery of the continents. (4) Write a story about one of the pictures. (5) Obtain pieces of coral for the school collection. For REFERENCES, see page 329. VI. MAPS THE maps that have been thus far used are all hemi- spheres, and represent the earth as it would appear if we looked down upon it from above. Such maps are especially desirable because they call attention to the roundness of the earth ; but they are so difficult to make that it is customary to represent the earth on flat maps instead. In Fig. 119 you can see the difference between the two. While the lower ones show the roundness of the earth, the upper two represent it as quite flat. Although they are unlike, the latter show the position of the land and the water quite as plainly as the former. Since this is true, and since it is much easier to make the flat maps, these will be the ones chiefly used hereafter in this book. But in studying flat maps one should always remember to think of the earth as round, and not as a flat surface. 1 It should also be noticed that on flat maps it is impossible to show correctly both the shape and the size of countries. Compare Greenland and South America in Fig. 119 with the same countries in Fig. 120. If you should draw a picture on half of a toy balloon made of rubber, and then stretch the rubber flat, would the picture look the same ? Examine Fig. 120 also. 2 1 The teacher should see that this is done by frequent use of a globe. It is advisable to have one large globe and several small ones, so that each pupil may have one for frequent use. 2 These maps (Figs. 119 and 120) should be carefully studied, the pupil following map questions given by the teacher to cover form, location, etc., of continents, oceans, and important places. 149 FIG. 121. Relief map of North America. (Modeled by E. E. Howell.) 150 VII. NORTH AMERICA Physical Geography. Here is a relief map of the con- tinent 'on which we live. What great highland 'do you find in the west ? In the east? In -what direction does each extend ? Which is the broader and higher ? Where is the lowest land between these two highlands ? Trace the Mississippi River. Name some of its largest tribu- taries. (You will find these rivers on the map, Fig. 123.) Find the Rio Grande River in the south ; the St.- Law- rence River in the northeast; the Yukon in the north- west. What two great rivers flow westward from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean ? Notice the slope east of the Appalachian Mountains. Is it longer or shorter than that west of the Rockies? What, then, are the main slopes in North America-? Upon which, of these slopes do you live ? Point as nearly as you can to the place where your home is. FIG. 122. Section across United States, from east to west, to show mountains, plains, and principal slopes. Find New York and San Francisco on Fig. 123. If you were to go westward from the former to the latter, you would travel over many hills, valleys, and mountains. Some of the slopes would be short and gentle; others would "be very long, and sometimes gentle, sometimes steep. Here is a drawing showing the chief slopes you would cross in making that journey. Point on Fig. 121 to the slopes A, B, C, D, E, and F, of the drawing. Draw a section like this. 151 152 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Political Divisions. You will remember that Spain was the nation that helped Columbus make his discovery of America. The Spaniards afterward settled in the south- ern part of the continent, and introduced the Spanish language there. That is still the chief language spoken in Mexico, in the southern part of North America. Mexico became independent of Spain many years ago. Other nations also sent explorers and made settlements. Among these were the English, who settled chiefly along the Atlantic coast, and finally came to own the greater part of the continent north of Mexico. In time the English who lived in the central portion of eastern North America waged war against England, and chose George Washington as their leader. On the 4th of July, 1776, they declared their independence of England, and finally won it completely. This part became known as the United States; but the region to the north, which England was able to keep, and which she still possesses, is called Canada. Find each of these countries on the map (Fig. 123). Point toward Canada and Mexico. Besides these three large nations, several smaller ones occupy Central America, which lies south of Mexico. Of course there must be so ie place where one country ends and another begins. Such a place is called a boundary, and the boundary lines between the different nations are shown on this map by heavy lines. Point them out. In some parts you see that a natural boundary has been chosen, such as a river or a chain of lakes ; but it is often only a straight line, cutting across rivers, lakes, and mountains. Examine the boundary of the United States to determine how much of it is natural. Where the boundary is only a straight line, it is marked by a row of posts or stone pillars a fsw rods apart, and if you were to cross from one country to another you could easily see them- FIG. 123. K Street, Sacramento. United States Post Office Building on right, with tower. One of the principal business streets of Stockton. A business street in San Jose. One of the main business streets of Fresno. County Court House in the distance. "~~~~~4r2J UNITED STATES W WESTERN SECTION Scale of Miles FIG. 124. FIG. 124. Street scene in San Bernardino, California. Courthouse on the left. Fifth Street, San Diego. VIII. THE UNITED STATES MAP QUESTIONS. (1) What waters border the United States? (2) What countries? (3) What is the greatest distance across the United States, east and west ? (Notice the scale of miles on the map.) North and south ? (4) Where are the main divides ? (5) Do you see any part that has very few streams? What does that suggest. to you? (6) Find New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Baltimore, Washington, Chicago, New Orleans, St. Louis, Denver, and San Francisco, and tell where each is. When our war for independence began there were thir- teen large groups of settlements, each of which was abso- lutely independent of the others, called colonies, which at the close of the war became known as states. Our flag still has its thirteen red and white stripes to remind us of them. There were at first only thirteen stars in the blue field of the flag; but one has been added for each new state until now there are many more. Count the stars on a flag to see how many states there are. For a long time after the war for independence, the in- terior and western parts of what is now the, United States formed an unknown wilderness belonging to other nations, and inhabited chiefly by Indians. The United States has obtained part of this land by war, and part of it by pur- chase, so that the country is now several times as large as it was at first. Many large states have been added ; but there are still some parts, called territories, which have not yet been made into states. In order that they may be more easily studied, the states are usually divided into groups. Let us take first the northeastern group called the New England States; and afterwards, others. 153 IX. NEW ENGLAND MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Name the six states included in New Eng- land. (2) Which is largest ? (3) Which smallest? (4) Which has no seacoast? (5) W r hat mountains are found in these states? What rivers? (0) Remembering what was said on pages 72 and 96, where would you expect to find the largest cities ? (7) What is the capital of each state ? (8) Point to Cambridge in Massachusetts, where Long- fellow lived. (9) To Boston. Walk toward Boston. (10) In what direction would one sail from there to reach England ? (See Fig. 120.) FIG. 125. A view of Boston, the largest city in New England, showing its harbor and some of the ships in it. Names. The settlers who came to this part of North America called it New England. Several names on the map also commence with New, as New Hampshire and New Haven. Find others. What reason can you give for their using that word so often ? Seaports. If you examine the map, you will notice that the coast is very irregular, with many small bays, promonr 164 NEW ENGLAND STATES Scale of Miles 10 20 30 40 5,0 FIG. 126. NEW ENGLAND 155 tories, and fine harbors. Draw the coast line, showing some of these. The excellent harbors have determined the places where great cities should grow up. The largest of all is BOSTON, and two others are PORTLAND and PROVIDENCE. Point them out. What di- rection is each from the others, and in what state is each ? Fishing. Some of the towns are located on the coast because the men who live in them are fisher- men, and must have their homes near the water. In the early days, cod, mack- erel, and halibut were easily caught near the shore ; but now it is often necessary to sail far from land, the men being gone perhaps for weeks before filling their vessels (Fig. 67, p. 79) with fish. PORTLAND, BosTON,and GLOUCESTER 1 are important fish markets, the latter being the largest fishing port in the country. Fish is sent from there to all parts of the United States, and even to foreign countries. Farming. A fine harbor by itself cannot make a great city. As you remember (p. 63), this is important simply because it renders the loading and unloading of vessels both easy and safe. But unless there were many people 1 Whenever cities, rivers, etc. , are mentioned in the text, the pupils should be required to locate them on the map, giving state and position. FIG. 127. Fishermen hoisting halibut from a fishing vessel at Gloucester. Notice that these fish are as large as a man. 156 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE supplying and needing materials, there would be little need of using these .harbors. One might expect that there would be much farming here ; but there are so many hills and mountains, and the soil is often so thin and stony, that the farms are usually small, supplying only vegetables, milk, butter, and other products to be used in the cities near by. Some of them, far from the cities, have been abandoned because the land is so hilly and the soil so poor. Quarrying. But while the rocky hills and mountains hinder farm- ing, they often furnish excellent granite, which is used for buildings and street pavements. White marble, used in monuments, is also found among the mountains near RUTLAND, Vermont; and slate, for roofs of houses, and for writing slates, is obtained both in Vermont and Maine. FIG. 128. Lumbermen engaged in floating logs downstream from the forest. NEW ENGLAND 157 Lumbering. Since many of the hills and mountains are still covered with forests, much lumber is obtained from them, es- pecially from the mountainous part of northern Maine. As you can see from the map (Fig. 126), there are very few towns in this section, most of the country be- Map showing the regions from which considerable timber is now being obtained. FIG. 129. ing wooded. During spring freshets, when the winter snows are melting, the logs are floated downstream, often to a place where ocean steamers FIG. 130. An outing on skis over the snow in New England during winter. 158 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE can reach them. Here they are sawed into lumber and loaded upon vessels to be carried in all directions. BAN- GOR, on the Penobscot River, has become a large city, chiefly because of its lumber industry. Other towns on the Kennebec and the Androscoggin rivers have grown in the same way. Manufacturing. But we have not yet come to the most important occupation of the New England people. The short rivers, having their sources in the uplands, flow with swift course to the sea, and are often interrupted by rapids FIG. 131. Great cotton-mills on the Merrimac River at Manchester, New Hampshire. and falls. In one way this is a disadvantage, because vessels cannot go far upstream ; but in another way it is a great advantage. Can you see how ? On page 53 you learned that streams with swift cur- rents and waterfalls furnish the best water power. Where such power is abundant, wheels can be turned and great factories be run. This makes it clear why the chief in- dustry of New England is manufacturing. In fact, the New England states are among the most important manu- facturing states in the Union. The principal rivers that furnish water power are the Merrimac, Connecticut, and the three in Maine already NEW ENGLAND 159 mentioned (p. 158). Find each of these, and trace its course from source to mouth. Make a drawing to rep-- resent each one, and locate upon it some of the large cities. There is so much manufacturing in New England, by the use of water power and steam, that shiploads of cotton are sent there to be made into cloth at such cities as MAN- CHESTER (Fig. 131), LOWELL, NEW BEDFORD, and FALL RIVER. Great quantities of wool are brought to be made into woolen goods at LAWRENCE and PROVIDENCE, which also manufacture cotton goods ; and thousand of hides of cattle and other animals to be made into boots, shoes, gloves, and leather of all kinds at LYNN and other cities. Iron and other metals are also brought to be made into knives, needles, watches, firearms, machines, and hundreds of other articles at WORCESTER, BRIDGEPORT, SPRINGFIELD, NEW HAVEN, and HARTFORD. In Boston itself there is also a vast amount of manufacturing of different kinds. Find each of these cities ; tell in what state it is and upon what river, if the name is given on the map. All of the other cities marked on the map are also engaged in some kind of manufacturing. Perhaps the shoes or some of the clothing that you wear were made in one of these places. Commerce. Some of the manufactured articles are shipped to all parts of the United States, and even to other countries. It is to a considerable extent this im- mense amount of manufacturing that furnishes employ- ment to the people along the coast, and has caused the large cities to grow about the best harbors. Not only do the persons living in the interior produce great quantities of goods to be shipped away, but they require others to be shipped in. Much of their food and 160 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE also the cotton, wool, and hides must be brought to them. The amount of shipping is therefore very great, and this is one of the chief reasons why BOSTON, PORTLAND, and PROVIDENCE have become large cities. To the first two goods are sent by rail from the far West to be shipped abroad. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Why is it an advantage to New Eng- land that its coast is so irregular? (2) Mention some of the larger seaports. (3) Name the principal fishing port in the country. (4) Tell what you can about the farming. (5) What kinds of stones are found, and for what are they used? Where are they found? (6) Describe the lumbering. Which state produces the most lumber ? (7) Explain how the lumber trade has determined the location of Ban- gor. On what river is it situated ? (8) Why cannot vessels go far up the New England rivers ? (9) How are the rivers useful for man- ufacturing ? Name several that furnish water power. (10) What goods are manufactured there? In what cities ? (11) What articles must be shipped to this section? Why? (12) Tell how such com- merce affects the size of the coast cities. SUGGESTIONS. (1) What stories of New England do you know ? (2) Read about the Puritans. (3) Go into a fish store to see a cod- fish, mackerel, halibut, etc. (4) Examine some granite so that you will know it the next time you see it. (5) Find a monument made of white marble. (6) Find a house whose roof is covered with slate. (7) Start a collection for the school by bringing specimens of use- ful stones. (8) Try to find out more about lumbering in Maine. Hunt for pictures illustrating this work. (9) Start a school collec- tion of pictures from magazines, etc. (10) How many articles can you mention that are made of wood? (11) Get some friend to take you through some kind of a factory, and tell the class what you saw. (12) Draw a sketch-map of New England, locating the rivers, capital cities, and principal towns. For REFERENCES, see page 329. A VIEW OF NIAGARA FALLS. .IPia. 132. X. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Which of the Middle Atlantic states bor- der on the Atlantic Ocean? (2) Which does not? (3) Which is smallest? (4) How does Pennsylvania compare in size with New England? (You will find the scale on each rnap.) (5) Xame the chief rivers and tell where they are. (6) Which state extends far- thest east ? Which farthest west ? (7) What natural boundaries do you find between them ? (8) What are the names of the mountain ranges ? (9) Which state has no mountains ? The Coast Line. Observe that, as in New England, the coast line of the Middle Atlantic states is very irregu- lar. At three places the sinking of the land has caused the ocean water to reach far into the land, forming Chesa- peake, Delaware, and New York bays. Find each; also draw the coast line to show these bays. The Seaports. The largest cities in New England were found along the coast on bays similar to these, though smaller. The same is true here. NEW YORK, on the last- named bay, is the largest city in the 'United States and next to the largest in the world. Southwest of it is PHILADELPHIA on the Delaware, just as far up the river as large ocean vessels can go. Farther south, near the head of Chesapeake Bay, is a third great city, named BALTIMORE, in the state of Maryland. REASONS FOR THE GREAT SIZE OF NEW YORK CITY Cities near by. Near New York harbor we find not only NEW YORK, but JERSEY CITY, NEWARK, and BROOKLYN, which has lately become a part of GREATER NEW YORK. Other cities like PATERSON are not far 161 162 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE away. That is, not only one, but several great cities have grown up here very near together. Let us see why more people should have crowded together here than in any other part of the New World. One reason is that from New York harbor, where hun- . dreds of vessels may anchor at one time, goods can be shipped over the Atlan- tic Ocean to various parts of the world. Water Route to the Interior. A second reason is that goods may also be shipped westward by water. Looking at the map, you see that New York Bay is at the mouth of the Hudson River. The sinking of the land has caused the ocean water to enter this river, and thereby to make it so broad and deep that large vessels can ascend it as far as ALBANY. Long ago people saw that if they could construct a waterway from the Hudson River to BUFFALO, they could go by water all the way from New York to Buffalo ; and then, since the Great Lakes are connected with one another, they could go all the way to the western end of Lake Superior. Use the scale of the map (Fig. 124) to find how many miles that is. Through what lakes would the route lead ? The scheme was finally carried out by building the Erie FIG. 133. The broad Hudson River at Poughkeepsie where a railway bridge crosses it. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 163 Canal from BUFFALO, on Lake Erie, to the Mohawk Valley, then down that valley to ALBANY. (See map, Fig. 132.) As the Western country became settled, more and more goods were shipped to and from New York. When rail- ways began to be built, many of them also led there. In this way New York has become a great city, and the chief ship- ping point for a large part of the United States. Let us see what some of the goods are that are sent to New York. Lumbering. On the map (Fig. 132) you will find the Adirondack Mountains north of the Mohawk, and the Catskill Mountains south of it. Among these there are still forests, as in Maine, so that lumbering is an important industry there. Farming. These mountains do not cover all of the state ; most of it is more level, and has a rich soil upon it. Farming is therefore much more important than in New England. Besides butter and cheese, considerable hay and grain are produced, and an abundance of fruit, such as apples, pears, peaches, plums, and grapes. FIG. 134. In a salt mine, a thousand feet beneath the surface, in central New York. The walls and sides of these tunnels are glistening white salt. 164 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE Salt. An extensive bed of salt is found deep down in the earth, in the central part of the state. Salt is taken from it in many places, and it was the important salt industry that determined the location, and much of the early growth, of SYRACUSE. Manufacturing. Again, in this state, as in New Eng- land, there are many streams with waterfalls. Manufac- turing has therefore become extensive. FIG. 135. Niagara Falls, the greatest cataract on the western hemisphere. In ROCHESTER, at the falls of the Genesee River (Fig. 75, p. 91), are many flour mills. The cities on the Mohawk are also engaged in manufacturing. What are their names? In BUFFALO, the second city in size in New York State, much use is made of power from the Niagara Falls, twenty miles away. TROY, near ALBANY, makes shirts, collars, and cuffs. These cities, as you see, are situated along the water route already mentioned. Why ? What others do you find along this route? In NEW YORK CITY itself there is a vast amount of manufacturing, steam being used for power. In fact, in many places, even where there is water power, factories now often use steam ; but when the manufacturing began, people could not use steam because they did not know how, and the first manufacturing towns were built where there was water power. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 165 Commerce. So much manufacturing, together with the farming and other industries of the state, helps to explain the great amount of commerce. People are con- tinually sending goods to New York and receiving others in exchange. It should be remembered, too, that cities hundreds of miles farther west, in the neighborhood of the Great Lakes, are connected with New York by water and rail, and are engaged in trade with it. From this it is plain why the largest city in America is situated where it is, and why other cities have grown up about New York harbor. -REASONS WHY PHILADELPHIA HAS BECOME A GEE AT CITY Cities near by. PHILADELPHIA, like New York, has other important cities near by. Directly across the Dela- ware is CAMDEN in New Jersey ; and to the northeast, also in New Jersey, is TRENTON, where a clay is found that is made into dishes and earthenware. To the south- west is WILMINGTON in Delaware, where many ships and railway cars are built. Farming. The soil and climate in this neighborhood are well adapted to growing such fruits as peaches,- pears, apples, grapes, and berries. On this account there are many factories for canning fruit in some of these cities. To the northwest of Philadelphia are the Appalachian Mountains. Note the direction in which they extend across the state. The valleys among the mountains, and the plateaus and lowlands east and west of them, are fer- tile enough for good farming, especially wheat raising, sheep raising, and dairying ; but lumbering is still carried on among the mountains. 166 THE EAETH AS A WHOLE FIG. 136. Rotary snow plow clearing the railroad tracks in New York. It is pushed through the snow drifts by two or more locomotives, and whirls the snow off to one side in a great arch as high as a telegraph pole. Iron. Several substances found beneath the soil in Pennsylvania are its most important products. In the first place, a great amount of iron ore is found there. When dug out of the ground this often resembles reddish earth, and it never looks exactly like iron ; but by melting the ore, iron is obtained from it, and is then shipped to many places to be made into stoves, engines, guns, ships, knives, and a thousand other things. PITTS- BURG and ALLEGHENY are noted for such manufacturing ; also READING and HARRISBURG, the capital, as well as Philadelphia and its neighboring cities. See how long a list you can make of articles made of iron and steel. Coal. It requires an immense amount of fuel to pro- duce the heat necessary to obtain iron from the ore and to make it into the many articles mentioned. Fortunately great quantities of coal are also found in this state, soft MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 167 FIG. 137. Panorama of Schuylkill Coal Regions. coal. being mined in the western part near PITTSBURG and ALLEGHENY, and hard or anthracite coal in the east- ern part near SCRANTON and WILKESBARRE. Much coal is needed for stoves and furnaces in houses, and also for producing steam for factories. There is, therefore, a great demand for it, and every year it is shipped by thou- sands of car loads to New York, Phil- adelphia, and else- FIG. 138. 168 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE where, often to be loaded upon ships to be sent to Boston and many other cities. Oil and Gas. Gas, much like that used in lighting houses, and petroleum, the oil from which kerosene is made, are also found beneath the soil in the western part of Pennsylvania and New York. There is so much gas in some places that it is burned as a fuel in manufac- turing glass and other articles, as at Pittsburg and elsewhere. Commerce. The products of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Delaware, principally fruit, grain, lumber, iron, coal, gas, and oil, together with the manufacture of iron goods, have helped to make Philadelphia a great city. As in the case of New York, many of these substances are sent to Philadelphia to be manufactured ; and, like New York, Philadelphia is one of the great manufacturing cities of the country. Many other materials are sent there to be shipped away by water ; and many shiploads of goods, for people living in other cities farther west, are unloaded at Philadelphia. OTHER CITIES Baltimore. BALTIMORE has grown in much the same way. Its harbor is excellent, and both coal and iron can easily reach it from Pennsylvania. Like Philadelphia, Boston, and New York, it has an important commerce and much manufacturing. Oysters abound in the shallow waters of Chesapeake Bay, and are shipped from NORFOLK, ANNAPOLIS, and BALTIMORE. Washington. Another large city in this section is WASHINGTON, on the Potomac River in the District of Columbia. Although large vessels are able to reach it, it owes its importance not to commerce, but to the fact that it is the National Capital, where there are many great government buildings (Fig. 85, p. 105), and thousands of MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 169 men and women employed in the service of the govern- ment. Can you describe some of the work which they are required to do ? Virginia and West Virginia. RICHMOND, on the James River, is the capital and most important city of Virginia, the state in which Washington and Jefferson lived. The western part of the state is mountainous,. as is the eastern FIG. 139. Pennsylvania Avenue from the Treasury. part of West Virginia, the mountains furnishing lumber and iron. Also in West Virginia, as in Pennsylvania, there is a great amount of coal, oil, and gas. This leads to extensive manufacturing, especially at WHEELING, on the Ohio River. Farming is the chief work in Virginia. The climate is so mild that tobacco can be raised much more profitably than in the states farther north. The tobacco plant, which white men found the Indians smoking, has a large leaf that is picked and dried, and then made into cigars and 170 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE other forms in which tobacco is used. Factories are needed for such work, and they represent one of the main industries of RICHMOND, which is a great tobacco market. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Name the chief seaports. Walk to- ward each as you name it. (2) What reasons can you give for the great size of New York City? (3) Make a drawing of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers. (4) What cities do you find on the Erie Canal? (5) What can you say -about the farming in New York State? (6) Where is the salt found? (7) What about manufacturing in New York ? (8) What are the chief farm products near Philadelphia and Wilmington? (9) Why is iron manufacture so important in Pennsylvania? (10) Tell why Philadelphia has become a great city. (11) Where are Pittsburg, Allegheny, Scranton. and Wilkesbarre? (12) For what is Baltimore noted? (13) Washington? (14) For what industry is Richmond noted? (15) Where are Richmond and Wheeling? ^16) In which state is each of the cities mentioned? SUGGESTIONS. (l)Make a list of all the cities named. (2) Are any of them not situated either upon the seashore, on rivers, or lakes? (3) Which is farther north, Buffalo or Boston? (See Fig. 124, oppo- site p. 153.) (4) Find what some of the chief difficulties are in build- ing canals. (5) Examine some iron ore and add it to the school collection. (6) Visit a factory where iron goods are manufactured. (7) Why does Buffalo promise to be a growing city? (8) Why have Pittsburg and Allegheny a good location ? (9) Give two reasons why Wilmington is a good place for shipbuilding. (10) Collect some pieces of anthracite or hard, and bituminous or soft, coal, and com- pare them. (11) Head the story of Rip Van Winkle. The mountains described are the Catskills. (12) Draw an outline map of these states and include the capitals. (13) Draw each of the states from memory. (14) Find out some facts about Washington, its build- ings, the people who live there, and what they do. (15) On the map (Fig. 124, United States) the word Delaware is not spelled out be- cause there is not room, but Del. is put in its place. Find out the abbreviation for each state in this group and in New England. Also for the other states as you study about them. For REFERENCES, see page 330. c o SOUTHERN STATES WESTERN SECTION Scale of Miles 50 100 200 300 Capitals of States Other Cities Longitude West 97 fro FIG. 140. SOUTffERN STATES EASTERN SECTION Scale of Miles FIG. 140. XI. SOUTHERN STATES MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Where are the mountains in this group of states? (2) Where are the plains? (See map, Fig. 140.) (3) Notice the direction in which the land slopes. (4) Name the gulf on the south side. (5) How is Texas separated from Mexico ? (6) What large peninsula do you find on this map? (7) Which is the largest state? (8) How does it seem to compare with South Carolina in size? With Pennsylvania ? (9) About how many miles is it by sea from New Orleans to Boston? (See map, Fig. 124, United States.) (10) Notice how near these states are to the Tropic of Cancer. (See map, Fig. 123, opposite p. 152.) What does that tell you about their climate ? Relief. The Appalachian Mountains extend into Ala- bama, passing across several of the Southern states. Name them. There are also some low mountains in west- ern Arkansas and Missouri, and a portion of the Rocky Mountains in western Texas. But this part of the country is mainly a great region of plains. Near the mountains, the plains are quite high above the sea ; but near the coast there is a strip of low, level land known as the coastal plains. Other low land is found along the Mississippi River, where there are broad flood plains protected from the river floods by banks, called levees. Notice especially the Mis- sissippi delta, and explain how it happens that the land projects so far into the gulf. (See pp. 50 and 51.) We observe, then, that in this group of states are some mountains ; between these and the coast are high plains or plateaus ; then along the coast are low plains. Let us see what these three sections produce. 171 172 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE FIG. 141. Children playing on a bag of cotton, just picked. Coal and Iron. Coal and iron are found among the Ap- palachian Mountains here, as in Pennsylvania. You would expect from this to find manufac- turing centers near the moun- tains ; and BIR- MINGHAM, AT- LANTA, CHAT- TANOOGA, and KNOXVILLE are engaged in manufacturing of many kinds. Find each and tell what state it is in. Cotton. On the plains the soil is usually fertile, the climate is warm, and there is plenty of rain everywhere excepting in western Texas and Oklahoma. For these rea- sons farming is the chief occu- pation. The southern farms are commonly called planta- tions, and the principal crop on the higher plains, away from the coast, is cotton. FIG. 142. A small cotton field and a negro home. The cotton bolls look like white flowers. SOUTHERN STATES 173 The cotton plant grows to an average height of two to eight feet. It has a white blossom, and after the flower is gone a small pod, called the boll, grows. This boll enlarges until it ripens, when it bursts, revealing a mass of fluffy white fibers, called cotton. The cotton is picked in the autumn by men, women, and children, and then placed in a machine called the cotton gin; this separates or combs the cotton from the seeds. The cotton is then packed in bales like hay, and shipped away to be made into thread, cotton cloth, and other goods. Name more of them. Corn and wheat are also grown upon these higher plains, and tobacco, especially in the northern part of this section. FIG. 143. Cattle on the Great Plains. Ranching. The drier plains of western Texas are covered with grass, which furnishes food for herds of horses, cattle, and sheep. The work of raising these animals is, therefore, one of the most important industries of this state. The section of land over which a man's cattle roam is not called a farm or plantation, but a cattle ranch, and the business is known as ranching. Since a few men can look after several thousand horses, cattle, or sheep, few people are needed to carry on ranching. On that account there are not many towns in the western part of Texas, as you can see on the map. DALLAS and FT. WORTH are the principal centers of trade for this region. 174 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE FIG. 144. Cutting sugar cane in Louisiana. -| Sugar and Rice. On the low, swampy plains near the coast and along the lower Mississippi River, rice and sugar cane are raised. Rice seeds grow on a grasslike plant in wet soil. Sugar cane looks much like corn; but the juice of the stalk is so sweet that it can be made into sugar and molasses. Fruits. Besides the crops mentioned, the low FIG. 145. A pineapple field in Florida SOUTHERN STATES 175 plain of Florida produces fruits. It is so far south that its climate is warm enough for oranges, lemons, and pineapples ; probably your grocery store has such fruits from Florida and California. Lumbering. Some of these plains, both the high and the low ones, are still wooded. It is from them that the hard or Georgia pine, so often used in floors, is obtained. There are forests also in the moun- tains, so that there is an abundance of timber in this region. Which Northern state already studied has a large amount of timber ? In what section would you expect the climate to prevent the growth of forests ? Manufacturing. Knowing what is produced in the Southern states, we naturally expect much manufactur- ing. There are coal, iron ore, corn, wheat, sugar cane, cattle, sheep, cotton, and lumber, from each of which use- ful articles can be made. Tell what they are. There is also water power in many places. For a long time most of the manufacturing in the United States was done in New England. Great quan- tities of cotton and other raw products were sent there from the South to be manufactured. Then some of the finished articles were brought back for use in the South. This condition has now greatly changed. The Southern states still ship much cotton to New England and Europe, but much is retained for manufacture at home. No other part of the country has shown such rapid progress in manu- facturing as the Southern states. They are one of the greatest cotton-manufacturing regions in the world. Near the coal fields important iron and steel manufac- turing industries have arisen ; near the forest regions are many lumber mills. The abundance of coal, iron, and lum- ber has made possible the manufacture of farm implements and other articles of iron and wood. Each year the impor- tance of manufacturing in the South is rapidly increasing. 176 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE The variety of manufactures is far too great to list. Besides arti- cles of iron, wood, and cotton, tobacco is made into many forms ; wool into cloth and other woolen goods; hides into leather; cotton seed into cotton-seed oil ; sugar cane into sugar and molasses ; the sap of the pine tree into turpentine, tar, and rosin. FIG. 146. Loading and unloading goods on the levee at New Orleans. Notice the mules, one of the most common draft animals of the South. New Orleans. The principal cities in the South are those that have grown up at the best shipping points, that is, on the ocean harbors, on the rivers, or some of the great railways. The greatest city in this entire section is NEW ORLEANS, in Louisiana, on the Mississippi River about one hundred miles from its mouth. SOUTHERN STATES 177 Like New York it can be reached not only by railway, but also by vessels from across the Atlantic Ocean, and by others from distant inland cities. Ocean ships are able to pass up the river from the Gulf ; and river boats can reach it from cities far up the Mississippi and its tributaries. These facts help to explain why New Orleans is a great cotton- shipping port. Quantities of cotton-seed oil, sugar, molasses, and rice are also sent from there. Manufactured goods, as cloth and shoes, and foods, as meat and corn, are brought to this center, and there distributed in all directions. Further up the river are VICKSBURG and MEMPHIS, which are important river ports. Other Seaports. Not many large cities are found on the Gulf coast. One reason is that the entrances to the harbors are often blocked by sand bars. The largest seaport west of New Orleans is GALVESTON. What goods are probably shipped from this harbor ? Remember the low coastal plains and the high dry plains to the west. Along the coast east of New Orleans are MOBILE, a great cotton port, TAMPA, and PENSACOLA, a lumber port. Why lumber? On the Atlantic coast are JACKSONVILLE, the chief shipping port for Florida oranges, SAVANNAH, CHARLESTON, and WILMINGTON. Find each of these and tell what state it is in. In the interior are ATLANTA, COLUMBUS, and AUGUSTA. Oklahoma. A few years ago the section north of Texas, now called Oklahoma, was known under the name of Indian Terri- tory, a place set aside by our government as a home for some of the tribes of Indians. But later, these Indians were collected in the eastern part of Indian Territory. The western part was called Oklahoma Territory and was opened up to white people for settle- ment. Later the two territories were united in the new state of Oklahoma. Climate. The climate of the Southern states is so mild that many 178 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Northern people go South in winter to escape the cold. In the South- ern part it rarely snows, and flowers are in blossom in midwinter. Do you know why the song birds of the North go there in winter ? Fro. 147. Some of the Indians who live in Indian Territory. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) In which Southern and Northern states are the Appalachian Mountains found? (2) Tell what you can about the Southern plains. (3) Near what cities are coal and iron ore mined ? (4) Name and describe the chief crop on the higher plains. (5) What is done with the cotton after it is picked ? (6) What is the occupation of the people in western Texas? Why? Why so few towns there? (7) What two products are raised on the warm coastal plains and flood plains? Describe each. (8) What fruits are raised in Florida ? Why raised there ? (9) What about the lumber indus- try ? (10) Why should one expect to find much manufacturing there? (11) What kinds are there? (12) Why not more? (13) Why are there so few large cities ? (14) Which is the largest of all ? Why ? (15) What goods reach this port? Why? (16) Name and locate the principal seaports. (17) Make a list of the Southern cities studied, and locate each. (18) Tell the direction of each from New Orleans. (19) Tell something about Oklahoma. SUGGESTIONS. (1) Draw the coast line of these states. Add the rivers, the state boundaries, and principal cities. Put in the capitals. SOUTHERN STATES 179 (2) Represent the group in sand, showing the mountains and plains. (3) Examine some cotton. Make a collection of articles made from cotton and add them to the school collection. (4) Inquire of your groceryman where his oranges and other fruits were grown. (5) Examine some rice. (6) You can plant and grow not only wheat, but rice, cotton, sugar cane, and other plants in the schoolroom, especially if you can induce some one who lias a hothouse to allow you to start them there. (7) Why is not New Orleans as large as New York? (8) How are the people of New England and those of the Southern states .dependent upon each other in the work that they do? (9) Beginning with the New England states, name those thus far studied that have mountains in them. (10) Name and locale the chief cities in all these states. (H) Draw the entire Eastern coast line, and put in the larger cities and rivers. For REFERENCES, see page 330. A river swainp in Mississippi. XII. CENTRAL STATES MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Name the states in this group. (2) Which ones border on the Great Lakes ? How can goods be shipped from them by water to New York? (3) Name the Great Lakes. Which is highest above the level of the ocean? Which is lowest? (4) Into what do they empty? (See Fig. 123.) (5) What are the chief rivers in this group? (6) Into what do their waters empty? (See Fig. 124, United States) . (7) Which states drain mainly into the Missouri River ? (8) Into the Mississippi? (9) Into the Ohio? (10) Which one into the Great Lakes? (11) Find Chicago. Can you think of any reason why it should be a great city the greatest in this section? (12) In which of these states did Abraham Lincoln live? Raw Products. This group of states has four cities larger than New Orleans, and several others that are not very much smaller. FIG. 148. A "bunch " of cattle on a farm in Western Kansas. 180 r < w I IT**. -**w s ( V! 7 QzarkMts. \ \ } ^\ j__4^^^ \ j /ig/ 1 A^'KpA^"s A/S '^y/j CENTRAL STATE WESTERN SECTION Scale of Miles FIQ. 149. 69 " Longitu e N et FIG. 149. .^ o e 3 \Magell 45,215 Sguare\Mileg. 70 60 30 20 FIG. 177. Thoroughbred stock raised in Tehama County, California. Sheep feeding in a valley pasture. Tehama County, California. Cattle and sheep raising are important industries in South America as well as in North America. SOUTH AMERICA 217 for this is that the air becomes heated and is thus made very light ; it is then forced to rise to such a height that the vapor is condensed, causing heavy showers. (See p. 83.) There is less rainfall in the south temperate zone, and still less in the narrow strip west of the central part of FIG. 178. Two tunnels on a railway line that crosses the high Andes of Peru. the Andes, in Chile and Peru. There the climate is quite arid because the principal winds are from the south and east, so that the air loses its vapor in passing over the mountains and descends upon the Pacific slope as dry, parching winds. 218 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE History. Knowing now the chief facts about the re- lief and climate, let us look at the countries themselves. After the discovery of South America by Columbus the Spaniards settled in many parts, obtaining great quanti- ties of gold #nd silver, especially in the Andes. Nearly all of South America once belonged to Spain, excepting Brazil, which was settled and for a long time owned by the Portuguese. Although the South American coun- tries are now independent nations, the Spanish language is still spoken nearly everywhere excepting in Brazil. Brazil. This is the largest country, being even larger than the United States without Alaska ; but it has only about one fourth as many inhabitants. Much of the great Amazon valley consists of forest-covered plains, called silvas, in which the trees are so close together, and there is such a mat of vines and underbrush, that it is extremely difficult for one to make his way through. From what was just said about the climate, you may be able to give the reason for such rank growth. You will find pictures of some of the wild forest ani- mals in Fig. 109, page 141. What are their names? Of course this forest is not a good home for men, espe- cially since much of the land is frequently flooded ; in fact, Indians are almost the only people living there. They make a living by hunting, fishing, and selling rub- ber from the rubber tree that grows in the woods. Rubber is obtained by cutting a hole in the bark and catching the milky fluid that flows forth. After being warmed over a fire to make it more solid, it is sent down the river in boats to PARA and then shipped to many parts of the world. Bicycle tires and overshoes are made from it. See how long a list of other rubber articles you can name. SOUTH AMERICA 219 Another common tree is the cocoa tree, on which grow the beans from which cocoa and chocolate are made. It is difficult to travel in this great wilderness, where the rivers are almost the only roadways. FIG. 179. A view in a tropical forest. Most of the inhabitants of Brazil live in the eastern part along the coast. Some of them are white people, but many are either Indians or negroes, or of mixed blood, as in Mexico. You will notice several cities on the coast, of which Rio DE JANEIRO, the capital, is the largest, having over half a million people. It has a splendid harbor. 220 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE There must certainly be some important industries in this region to cause a city to become so large. Besides the raising of cattle upon the plateau of eastern Brazil, farming is an important industry there. The principal crops are the same as those already found in warm coun- tries ; namely, cotton, sugar, tobacco, and coffee. The FIG. 180. Native Indian women washing clothes in Venezuela. Do you see in the picture any reason for thinking it is warm there ? last is most important, and Rio de Janeiro is one of the chief export towns, which is the reason why some of our coffee is called Rio coffee. Venezuela and Guiana. North of Brazil is Venezuela, which includes most of the Orinoco valley. Here are broad plains, called llanos, which produce excellent grass, so that cattle raising is one of the important industries. SOUTH AMERICA 221 Coffee and cocoa are also raised. The capital and largest city is CARACAS, which is located several miles from the coast upon land more than half a mile above the sea. Just north of the mouth of the Orinoco River is Trini- dad Island, on which is a great pitch lake, supplying much of the asphalt used in our street pavements. All of the countries of South America are republics ex- cepting Guiana, which belongs to three European nations. What are their names? FIG. 181. A scene on the pampas of Argentina. La Plata Countries. The country south of Brazil, drained by the Plata River and its tributaries, is one of the most productive parts of South America. Here, at the mouth of the Plata River in Argentina, is BUENOS AIRES, the largest city on the continent. Across the wide river mouth is MONTEVIDEO, another large city, in Uruguay. What other small country lies between Argentina and Brazil ? The plains in this section of the country are called pampas; and because of their excellent grass one of the 222 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE chief industries is ranching. Since most of the country is in the temperate zone, corn and wheat are important farm products ; and in the warm northern part, near the tropics, tobacco and sugar cane are raised. This is the part of South America that most nearly corresponds in climate and products to the United States. Goods are still carried upon the rivers in Argentina, but there are also many railways in that country, more, in fact, than in any other part of South America. Andean Countries. The countries in the western part of South America are very mountainous, since each of them includes a part of the Andean chain. As you might expect, then, one of the principal industries is mining ; and immense quantities of gold and silver have been found there. What are the names of these countries ? Observe that most of the cities are not upon the coast. This is partly because they have grown up in the mining districts among the mountains, and partly because there are so few good harbors. Many of the cities away from the coast have seaports, as CALLAO in Peru, the seaport of LIMA. Find others. VALPARAISO, in Chile, is the largest port on the Pacific coast; but SANTIAGO, the capital, situated fifty miles inland, and about one half mile above the sea, is more than twice as large. Notice how long and narrow Chile is ; what reason can you give for that ? Farming is possible in the northern part of the western coast, where the rainfall is heavy; but 'farther south, as in Peru and northern Chile, agriculture is impossible with- out irrigation. In southern Chile, however, the rainfall is moderate, and many people have settled there because the farming and grazing are excellent. SOUTH AMERICA 223 FIG. 182. A scene among the lofty mountains of Chile. Which of the Andean countries has no seacoast ? Is that a disadvantage ? Ecuador is the Spanish word for equator. Why is that a fitting name for the country? Colombia and Panama have seacoasts on two oceans, and the latter includes the Isthmus of Panama. What cities do you find on the two sides of the Isthmus ? They are connected by a railway. Why is this important ? REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Describe the highland regions of South America. (2) What three great valleys are there? (3) In what zones are the different parts of the continent ? (4) Which is the rainiest region? Why? (5) What about the rainfall elsewhere ? (6) Com- pare Brazil with the United States in size and number of inhabitants. (7) Tell about the silvas and the valuable products obtained from them. (8) Where are the chief cities in Brazil? Which is the largest? (9) Name the main industries in that section. (10) Where is Venezuela? (11) Tell about the industries there. (12) Where is Caracas? (13) For what is Trinidad noted? (14) Which is the 224 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE most productive part of South America? What are the products? (15) Name and locate the largest city on the continent. (16) Name the countries along the western side of South America. (17) Why are most of the cities not directly on the coast? (18) Which is the largest port? (19) What are the five products of these countries? SUGGESTIONS. (1) Draw the outline of South America. Put in the drawing the mountains, chief rivers, and cities. (2) What large cities were found in the interior of North America? How about South America in that respect ? What are the causes for the differ- ence ? (3) Brazil is in the torrid zone, while the United States is in the temperate zone. Which country has the advantage in temper- ature? Why? (4) Write a story telling of a journey by land and river from the mouth of the Orinoco to the mouth of the Plata. (5) Read something about coffee raising. (6) From the table on page 339 find the five largest cities in South America. Add the populations together and compare the result with the total of the five largest cities in North America (see p. 335). For REFERENCKS, see page 331. Raising mules for market. Tehama County, California. Shetland ponies, so protected by a heavy coat of hair that they thrive in the raw climate of the Shetland Islands. FIG. 183. XVIII. EUROPE MAP QUESTIONS. (1) On page 142 it was stated that Eurasia consisted of two continents, Europe and Asia. Trace the boundary line between them, naming the mountains and waters that form it. (2) One of the seas has no outlet; which is it? What kind of water would you expect to find in that sea? (3) How does the coast line of Europe compare with that of South America? Of North America? (4) Would you expect to find many good harbors? (5) Name the largest peninsulas and draw an outline map to show them. (6) Where are the highest mountains? (7) One of the Alpine peaks is Mt. Blanc. (8) Where are the plains? Which very large country is made up mainly of plains? Find Sicily and Sardinia. (9) In what zones is Europe? (10) How do you think its climate would compare with that of the United States? (11) With what European country have we recently been at war? (12) What other countries in Europe do you know something about? (13) By what route would you go from New York to one of them? (See Fig. 120.) Europe is only a little larger than the United States with Alaska, but contains more than five times as many inhabitants, who are separated into a score of nations, with a different language for nearly every one. I. The British Isles. The people in Europe to whom we are most closely related live on the small group of islands, called the BRITISH ISLES, which lie just west of the mainland. This is often called our "mother coun- try." Can you tell why ? There are two islands, Ireland and Great Britain ; what are the names of the three parts of Great Britain ? 225 226 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE On these islands are fine harbors and many great cities, LONDON, in the southern part of England, on the Thames River, being the largest city in the world. Let us see what the people do. Judging from their position one might expect these islands to be too cold for agriculture, for they are farther north than the mouth of the St. Lawrence River ; but the climate is no colder than that of the northern United States. The reason for this is that the western coast FIG. 184. London bridge, across the Thames, over which a busy throng is almost con- stantly passing. of Europe is warmed by a broad current, or drift, of warm ocean water, known as the Gulf Stream, which flows northeast in the Atlantic Ocean from the warm southern seas. The air over it becomes warmed ; and, since the winds of Europe blow chiefly from the west, they carry this warmth with them and produce a climate much milder than one would otherwise expect. Wales and most of Scotland are too hilly to be well suited to agriculture ; but many sheep and cattle are EUROPE 227 raised. In England there is much more farming, and hay is one of the chief crops, since the damp air and the rain cause the grass to grow well. This is a reason, also, why sheep are raised in great numbers. But agriculture and stock raising are not the chief occupations. Having much wool, the people long ago learned to make woolen cloth. In addition to that, they purchased cotton from distant countries, as New Eng- land does to-day from the Southern states, and made cotton goods. Thus extensive manufacturing industries have been developed, which have been made possible because of the vast beds of coal found there, as in Penn- sylvania, Illinois, and neighboring states. The center for this manufacturing is MANCHESTER, and the nearest port is LIVERPOOL, thirty-five miles away. Recently a ship canal, calledr the Manchester Canal, has been built, connecting these two cities. Find them. The coal has helped to make another great industry possible. Beds of iron ore occur in England, and by the use of coal it is made into iron and steel, especially at BIR- MINGHAM, which is the greatest center for iron manufac- turing in Great Britain. Where else have we found a city called Birmingham ? What can you tell about it ? The lowland portion of Scotland, about EDINBURGH and GLASGOW, is likewise noted for its cotton and woolen factories, and for its iron manufacturing. Glasgow is the greatest center for steel shipbuilding in the world. What city in the United States is noted for shipbuilding? Great numbers of people are employed in all this work, so that enough cloth, knives, needles, engines, and so forth are made to supply many parts of the world. Ireland is not so much interested in manufacturing, al- 228 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE though linen is an important product, being manufactured especially at BELFAST. It is really to a great extent a farm for the English, furnishing them butter, eggs, pota- toes, and also meat. The air is so moist that the grass is kept fresh and green, and on that account Ireland is often called the Emerald (or Green) Isle. The two largest cities are naturally on the side next to England. What are their names ? So many manu- factured goods must be shipped away from Great Britain, and so much food imported, that the shipping business is FIG. 185. very important. For Thatched cottages in Ireland. ^ s reason there are many skillful sailors in Great Britain, and that nation has more ships upon the sea than any other in the world. Having so many ships, the British have been led to explore coun- tries in all parts of the world. Whenever they discovered new lands, they laid claim to them in the name of their government, and in that way England has come into possession of Canada, Australia, India, seteral large countries in Africa, and scores of islands. These are called colonies, and the British have more of them than any other nation in the world. Indeed, these colonies cover one hundred times as much surface as the British Isles and have ten times as many inhabitants. LONDON, the capital and the central port for vessels, has an excellent harbor on the Thames River, where hun- dreds of ships can be accommodated at one time. EUROPE 229 Great Britain and Ireland, together with their many colonies, form the British Empire. Its government, un- like our own, is a monarchy ; but it is very liberal, and as in our own country, the people have an important share in the making of laws. FIG. 186. The Thames River and Windsor Castle, where the King of England resides. II. Norse Countries. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. These two countries together occupy the Scandinavian peninsula, and are about as far north as southern Greenland. Were it not for the Gulf Stream, which flows past Norway, this, like Greenland, might be a barren, frozen country. As in Scotland, most of the country is too hilly and rocky for farming, although some grain, cattle, and sheep 230 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE FIG. 187. One of the deep, narrow fjords of Norway. are raised, especially on the lower land of southern Sweden along the Baltic. Few people live in the highlands, and about one fourth of Norway is covered by forests. The coast is very irregular, and many deep, narrow bays, or fjords, reach into the land, making fine harbors. As a re- sult, Norwegians and Swedes are skillful sailors. In the early days these Northmen were the best sailors in the world, and they came to the American shores long before Columbus discovered America. Fishing for cod and herring is now one of their important industries. The principal cities are STOCKHOLM and CHKISTIANIA. Find each. They are the capitals of Sweden and Norway, two prosperous king- doms which until recently were under one king. DENMARK, just south of Norway and Sweden, is inhabited by people similar to those in Scandinavia ; in fact, these three are often called the Norse nations, or Northmen. FIG. 188. Danish women selling fish. the nations of the EUROPE 231 The Danes, also, have been great sailors, and now have possession of Iceland and the west coast of Greenland. Their country presents a very different appearance from Norway and Sweden, for the land is low and level, and farming is the occupation of about one half the people. Fishing is also an important industry. The government is a monarchy, the capital and largest city being COPENHAGEN, situated on an island. '. III. Russia. The Russian Empire not only includes great plains in Europe, but extends several thousand miles beyond the Ural Mountains to the eastern coast of Asia ; it is larger than the whole of the continent of North America and contains a greater number of inhabitants. Most of Russia in Europe is a level country. The northern part, like northern Norway, is in the frigid zone, and so far away from the Gulf Stream that the climate is extremely cold. The plains there, called tundras, are too cold for trees, and the frost never leaves the ground except at the very surface in summer. Nevertheless, a moss flourishes and supports numbers of reindeer, which are used as draft animals by the natives. The southeastern plains, called steppes, are so far from the ocean that the west winds can bring them little rain. They are therefore dry like the arid region in our Western states. But the central and western parts are well suited to farming, and there most of the people live. As in the northern United States, one of their main crops is grain, especially wheat ; and vast numbers of cattle and sheep roam over the broad, grassy steppes. The rivers are excellent waterways, the largest of all being the Volga, the greatest river in Europe. What others do you find? Since the Caspian Sea has no outlet, and the Arctic Ocean on the north side is frozen much of the time, the chief ports for foreign commerce must be either on the 232 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Baltic or the Black Sea. This explains the location of ST. PETERSBURG, the capital and largest city, which is about the size of Philadelphia. ODESSA, on the Black Sea, contains many flour mills and is an important port for the export of wheat. With what two cities northwest of Chicago may it be compared ? The chief railway center and second city in size is Moscow in the interior. FIG. 189. A family of Russian peasants. The great mass of the people, called peasants, are allowed to take little part in the government, and, unlike most of the Europeans, are kept in ignorance and subjection. They are ruled by a man called the Czar, who makes and executes laws very much as he pleases. That kind of government is called an absolute monarchy, or despotism, and is very different from the limited monarchies thus far studied/ EUROPE 233 IV. Germany. The general slope of the land in Ger- many is shown by the rivers ; in what direction do most of them flow ? The southern part of the country consists of mountains and highlands, but the northern part is a great plain, a continuation of the plains of Russia. As in Russia, there is much agriculture, one of the chief products being grain. Much of their bread is made from a grain called rye, and is so dark that it is called "black bread." Beets are grown in enormous quan- tities, and sugar is manufactured from them as it is from sugar cane in Louisiana. Grapes flourish along the upper Rhine River, and from these wine is made ; and more hops for making beer are raised in Germany than in any other country of the world. Both coal and iron ore are mined in abundance; and many articles are manufactured, such as the famous Krupp guns and many kinds of machinery. Germany is noted also for its manufacture of cotton, woolen, and linen goods, ranking next to England as a manufacturing country of Europe. The chief seaport is HAMBURG on the Elbe River, a rapidly growing city. Why should the chief port be at this point rather than farther east on the Baltic Sea? FIG. 190. A castle on the Rhine. 234 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE The schools, universities, and museums of Germany are among the best that exist, and many Americans go to Germany each year to study music, painting, and other subjects. The largest university is in BERLIN ; LEIPZIG also has one, and there are many others. MU- NICH and DRESDEN are noted for their fine picture galleries, and so is BERLIN, which also has other large museums. Find these cities. FIG. 191. The Royal Museum at Berlin. BERLIN, the capital of Germany, is the largest city. The government is a limited monarchy, and the present ruler is Emperor William II. V. Holland, or the Netherlands (a word that means lowlands), is a low, flat country, much of it being lower than the neighboring sea. The inhabitants have built embankments, called dikes, to keep the sea out, and have dug canals across the country to drain it. The water that collects inside the embankments is pumped out by wind- mills, or by steam, into the canals, and these canals are the chief roads, being used in summer by boats and in winter by people on skates or on sleds. The damp soil furnishes excellent grass, so that cattle raising and dairying are the principal occupations. EUROPE 235 The Hollanders, or Dutchmen, living so near the sea, have become great sailors and explorers, like the Englishmen. For this reason they have come into possession of some of the richest islands in the East Indies, from which are obtained valuable products, such as coffee, spices, and precious stones. On the map, Fig. 221, facing FIG. 192. A canal in Holland. page 271, find the names of some of the Dutch East Indies. Find out about the early Dutch settlements in America. What great city did they settle ? The chief city is AMSTERDAM, with a population of half a million people. The government is a mon- archy, and the laws are made at THE HAGUE, on the coast. 236 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE VI. Belgium, like Holland, has some land that is lower than the sea and protected by dikes; but the eastern part is much higher. The people are crowded together more closely than in any other country of Eu- rope. Many live on farms and raise much the same prod- ucts as those of Holland and Germany. What are these? Flax is au important farm prod- uct. It is a plant about two i'eet high, whose fiber is used in mak- ing linen and fine laces. The Bel- gians have long been skillful in such work, and it was from them that the English received some of their knowledge about manufac- turing. BRUSSELS, the largest city, is famous for its fine laces, linens, and Brussels carpets, the latter being made of wool on a mat of linen. There is a great amount of coal and iron in this little king- dom, so that the iron industry is extensive, as in Germany. The government is a monarchy with BRUSSELS for its capital. ANTWERP is the chief seaport. VII. France. The slope of the land in France you see by the course of its rivers. What are their names ? Where do they rise and in what direction do they flow? In the cool northern part the crops are similar to those of Germany ; but in the southern portion the climate is warmer and the crops somewhat different. Besides grapes, which are grown in great quantities in the region of BOR- DEAUX, and made into wine that is sold in many parts of the world, much silk is also produced. FIG. 193. A windmill, in Belgium, like those so common in Holland. EUROPE 237 Silk is manufactured from cocoons spun by a caterpillar called the silkworm. Each one of the cocoons is made of a fine thread several thousand yards long, looking somewhat like the thread of a spider's web. After the cocoons have been softened in hot water the threads are unwound and then wound upon spools. They are later made into thread and woven into silk cloth, ribbons, handkerchiefs, and other silk goods. LYON, the center for the silk industry, is the greatest silk market in the world. FIG. 194. A view of the great city of Paris. PARIS, the largest city in France, is the third in size in the world, and probably the most beautiful. Like several cities in Germany, it has fine picture galleries and mu- seums, and many foreigners go there to study painting, music, and other subjects. It is situated upon the Seine River, and its chief port is HAVRE, at the mouth of the Seine. 238 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE FIG. 195. The harbor of Marseille. BORDEAUX is an important shipping port for wine, and MARSEILLE is the principal port upon the Mediterranean coast. The French government is a republic with PARIS as its capital. VIII. Spain and Portugal. The Pyrenees Mountains form the boundary between France and Spain, rising like a great wall to separate the two countries. You remember that Magellan was a Portuguese and that it was to Spain that Columbus went for help. These were once among the most powerful nations in the world, and they once ruled much of North America and most of South America. Little by little they have lost their colonies in the New World, the last to be taken being Cuba and Porto Rico. Like Mexico, which was settled and for a long time owned by the Spanish, Spain has a dry, mountainous plateau or table-land in the interior, with low land along the coast. EUROPE 239 Being so much like a desert, one would expect few people to make their homes in the interior ; and this is the case, although, strange to say, the greatest city, MADRID, is found in the center of this table-land. Its importance is due to the fact that it is the capital of Spain. FIG. 196. A view of part of Madrid and the great plateau on which it is situated. As upon our dry Western plains and plateaus, cattle and sheep raising are important industries on this high- land. But the rocks of this region contain its chief wealth, for Spain produces more quicksilver and lead than any other nation, and more copper and iron than most others. Farming is carried on in the mountain valleys and on the lowlands along the coast. One of the most valuable crops is grapes. BARCELONA, on the eastern side, is the chief port of Spain ; and the principal city of Portugal is LISBON, the capital. 240 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Both governments are limited monarchies, like those of most European countries. IX. Italy was once the most powerful country in the world. Its principal city was ROME, and the Romans ruled nearly all the other countries then known. But, like Spain, it has lost much of its importance. FIG. 197. St. Peter's Cathedral on the left, and the Vatican, the residence of the Pope, on the right. ROME is still the capital and the residence of the king ; also of the Pope, who is the head of the Roman Catholic Church. The city is especially noted for its many ruins of buildings erected hundreds of years ago. VENICE, at the head of the Adriatic Sea, is another interesting city. It is built upon many islands joined by hundreds of bridges, and its chief streets are canals, where boats, called gondolas, are used in place of wagons and carriages. EUROPE 241 NAPLES, which is on the coast southeast of Rome, and near Mt. Vesuvius, is the largest city in Italy. The steam rising from the crater of Vesuvius is easily seen from the city (Fig. 102). Volcanic ash from Mt. Vesu- vius has entirely buried some of the towns near by, such as the ancient city of Pompeii, from which the ashes have been dug away so as to bring to light the buried build- ings and streets. FIG. 198. One of the canals of Venice, with a gondola floating upon it. The best farm land is in the valley of the Po River in the northern part, where wheat, and other grains, and mulberry trees for silk- worms are raised. MILAN, like Lyon in France, is a great center for silk. The climate is mild enough to produce the same fruits that are grown in Florida and Southern California. Name some of them. X. Switzerland. Any one who has heard the story of William Tell, or who has read about the St. Bernard 242 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE dogs kept by the monks, has some idea of how Switzer- land looks. Here are the snow-capped Alps, with many lakes and fertile valleys between them, and views so beautiful that thou- sands of people go ^every year to enjoy them. One of the occupations of the Swiss is to provide for these visitors in hotels and res- taurants. The green grass in the low-lying valleys and on the mountain FIG. 11)9. The snow-capped Matterhorn, one of the Alpine peaks. sides provides excellent food for cattle and goats, so that butter and cheese are made, as in Holland. Probably you have heard of Swiss and Dutch cheese. Wood carving is also an important industry. During the long winters the wood grown upon the mountains is carved into toys, clocks, and many other articles. Have you ever seen a Swiss clock? Name the countries on each side of Switzerland, and notice that it is surrounded by people who speak German, French, and Italian. In consequence, instead of having one language of their own, the Swiss have these three, those living in each part speaking the language of the foreign country nearest to them. The Swiss government has long been a republic, like our own, and BERNE is the capital. Find the chief cities, ZURICH and GENEVA. XI. Austria-Hungary. Austria and Hungary are united under one monarchy, although they have differ- ent customs and languages. Many of the Austrians are closely related to the Germans ; but the Hungarians are EUROPE 243 a very different race. The capital and largest city is VIENNA, the fourth in size in Europe. It is situated on the Danube River, so that it has water connection with many other places. BUDAPEST is next to Vienna in importance. Like Minneapolis, it is in the midst of a great wheat region, and is a flour-milling center. The cultivation of flax leads to another manufacturing industry. What is it? FIG. 200. A view in Austria. XII. Greece. The country in Europe which has per- haps had the greatest influence upon the rest of the world is Greece. The Romans received many of their beliefs and customs from the Greeks ; and since many of ours come from the Romans, we also are greatly in debt to the Greeks. The center of this influence was ATHENS, once the most famous city in the world. Many years later, at the time of Christ, it was still an important place. Both Athens and Corinth, near by, are mentioned in the Bible. The country is mountainous, producing raisins and other fruits, and much grass for grazing. But there is little mining and manu- facturing. 244 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE At one time the Greeks were conquered by the Turks and very cruelly treated by them ; but they obtained their independence, and their government is now a monarchy with ATHENS for its capital. FIG. 201. The Acropolis with its ruins on top, and the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter on the right, both in ancient Athens. XIII. Turkey. The largest city in southeastern Eu- rope is CONSTANTINOPLE, which has over one million inhabitants. Notice what an excellent location it has. It is the capital of Turkey, which, like Russia, is a country partly in Europe and partly in Asia. The Turkish government is the worst in Europe. The ruler, called the Sultan, is an absolute despot, who governs his people so badly that they are kept ex- tremely ignorant and poor. In all the other nations of Europe the Christian religion, either Catholic or Protes- tant, is followed ; but the Turks are Mohammedans, followers of Mohammed, like many other people in Asia EUROPE 245 and Africa. They are religious fanatics, and dislike Christians very much. One proof that the Turkish government is bad, is the fact that the people in many parts of the Empire have rebelled against it and fought for their freedom. For example, Koumania, east of Austria, used to belong to Turkey, but it is now an independent king- dom. The same is true of Bul- garia, Servia, and Montenegro ; Greece has already been men- tioned. The people in all these countries are largely en- gaged in farming and herding, the Danube Val- ley being especially fertile. Grain, wine, and raisins are important products. FIG. 202. A mosque, or Mohammedan church, in Constantinople. REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS I. The British Isles. QUESTIONS. (1) What are the divisions of the British Isles? Where is each? (2) Why have not the British Isles a colder climate? (3) Tell about the agriculture. (4) What kinds of cloth are manufactured ? Where ? (5) Where is the iron manufacturing carried on ? (6) Of what value are the coal beds ? (7) Tell about Ireland. (8) Explain how Great Britain has come to have so many ships. (9) So many colonies. Name some of them, including several islands near North America. (10) What is the British Empire? What kind of government has it? (11) Locate all the cities mentioned. SUGGESTIONS. (12) What books have you read whose authors lived in Great Britain ? (13) Examine pocket-knives and table-knives to see if you can find some made in England. (14) The iron manufactories of England remind you of what states in this country? (15) When did our country cease to be a colony of Great Britain ? (16) What 246 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE are the people from the four divisions of the British Isles called? (17) Make a drawing of the British Isles. II. Norse Countries. QUESTIONS. (18) What about the climate of Norway and Sweden ? (19) Tell about the agriculture ; the other industries. (20) What are the Norse nations? (21) What colonies have the Danes? (22) Name the chief industries of Denmark. (23) What kind of government have these Norse countries? and what is the capital of each ? SUGGESTIONS. (24) Find out something about Iceland. (25) In what other section that you have studied is fishing important? (26) Find out about the length of days and nights in Norway. (27) Draw a map of the Scandinavian peninsula. III. Russia. QUESTIONS. (28) Tell about the size of Russia. (29) What parts of Russia in Europe are not fitted for farming? Why ? (30) What is the main occupation of the people ? Name the important products. (31) What are the tundras? The steppes? (32) Which is the largest river in Europe ? (33) Where are the lead- ing Russian ports ? (34) Locate three of the largest cities, and state why each is important. (35) Tell about the government. SUGGESTIONS. (36) Why would you not expect Russian sailors to be as numerous as the English sailors? (37) Name some city of the United States which is about as far north as Odessa. (38) How does the northern location of St. Petersburg interfere with its com- merce by sea ? (39) What city on the St. Lawrence has the same difficulty ? (40) Show the route a vessel would take in going from Odessa to London. From Odessa to St. Petersburg. IV. Germany. QUESTIONS. (41) Where is the highest land in Germany? The great plains? (42) Tell about the chief farm prod- ucts. (43) What are the principal manufactures in Germany? (44) Where is Hamburg ? (45) For what is Berlin noted ? Leipzig ? Munich? Dresden? Locate each. (46) Tell about the government. SUGGESTIONS. (47) Do you know any songs or stories about the Rhine River? (48) Make a drawing showing the course of this river. (49) Do you know of any German paintings? Of any music written by Germans ? (50) Make a collection of German pictures. V. Holland. QUESTIONS. (51) Tell about the dikes and canals of Holland. (52) What is the principal industry? Why? (53) What important colonies has Holland ? (54) What are the main cities ? EUROPE 247 SUGGESTIONS. (55) Write a story telling what you think might result if a dike were to give way. (56) Find a picture of a Dutch windmill. (57) Tell what you would expect to see in crossing Hol- land on a railway train. VI. Belgium. QUESTIONS. (58) What are the farm products of Belgium ? (59) Tell what you can about flax. (60) Name and locate the two principal cities. (61) What about coal and iron ? SUGGESTIONS. (62) Examine a piece of Brussels carpet ; a piece of lace also. VII. France. QUESTIONS. (63) Describe the chief slopes of France. (64) What are the products in the northern part ? In the southern part? (65) Tell about the silk industry. (66) What can you say about the capital? (67) About each of the other cities? (68) What kind of government has France? SUGGESTIONS. (69) Examine a cocoon and a piece of silk. Ob- tain a caterpillar, if possible the silkworm, and raise it in the school to see how the silkworm forms silk and what happens to the "worm." (70) Why would the value of a cocoon be destroyed if the chrysalis inside were to break through in order to get out? (71) Can you find any pictures of Paris ? VIII. Spain and Portugal. QUESTIONS. (72) Where are the Pyrenees Mountains? (73) Tell about the former power of these countries. (74) Describe the relief and climate. (75) What are the industries on the plateau? (76) What minerals are found there? (77) Where is most of the farming? What are the chief products? (78) Name and locate the most important coast cities. The two capitals. SUGGESTIONS. (79) Would you expect the rivers to be naviga- ble for any considerable distance from the Spanish coast? Why? (80) Make a sand map of Spain, showing the high and low land. (81) Examine some quicksilver. For what is it used? (82) Can you find out anything about the Moors and the Alhambra in south- ern Spain? Perhaps you can find pictures from there. Washington Irving has written some beautiful stories about the Alhambra. IX. Italy. QUESTIONS. (83) Where is Rome? Venice? Na- ples? Mt. Vesuvius? Milan? (84) Tell something about each of these. (85) Where are the mountains ? (86) Where is the Po Val- ley ? (87) What is raised in Italy ? 248 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE SUGGESTIONS. (88) Find pictures of some of the ruins in Rome. (89) Of some of the buildings in Venice. (90) Look on a globe to see in which direction Rome is from New York. (91) Draw a map of Italy. X. Switzerland. QUESTIONS. (92) What are some of the in- dustries of the Swiss ? (93) What languages are spoken ? (94) Name the principal cities. (95) What is the kind of government? SUGGESTIONS. (96) Read the story of William Tell. (97) Find other stories about Switzerland. (98) What disadvantages do you see in having so many languages? (99) What large rivers rise in Switzerland ? (100) Write a story describing the St. Bernard dogs of Switzerland. XI. Austria-Hungary. QUESTIONS. (101) Name four leading cities in Austria-Hungary. (102) Tell why each is important. SUGGESTIONS. (103) Trace the Danube River from its source to its mouth. (104) How far is Trieste from Venice? (105) Through what waters would a vessel pass in sailing from New York to Trieste? (106) By using the scale on the map, find out how far Vienna is from Munich. From Leipzig. From Berlin. From Paris. From St. Petersburg. (107) In what direction is it from each of these ? XII. Greece. QUESTIONS. (108) What can you say about the influence of Greece upon the world ? (109) Find Athens. (110) Tell about the climate and products. SUGGESTIONS. (111) W T here can you read about Ulysses? (112) Have some one tell you the story of the Trojan War. (113) Find some other stories about the ancient Greeks. XIII. Turkey. QUESTIONS. (114) Where is Turkey? What is its capital? (115) Tell about .its government. (116) What is the chief occupation of the people? (117) What countries have gained their independence from Turkey ? SUGGESTIONS. (118) What is the boundary line between Tur- key in Europe and Turkey in Asia? (119) Examine a Turkish rug. (120) What reasons can you give why Russia would like to own Constantinople ? GENERAL SUGGESTIONS (121) Do you know of any persons who have come from one of these countries of Europe ? If so, ask them to tell you about them. EUROPE 249 Also have them speak in their native language. (122) Ask a merchant to show you some goods from Europe. (123) What diffi- culties would you expect to meet if you were to travel through Europe without knowing any foreign languages? (124) Bound each of the countries of Europe. (125) Draw an outline map of Europe, putting in these boundaries and the principal rivers. (126) Make a dot to represent Berlin; also locate the other large cities. Mark the capitals with stars. (127) Collect pictures of Europe for the school collection. (128) Cut out scraps, from the magazines and papers, relating to the people, animals, plants, cities, etc., of different parts of Europe and present them to the school to be kept for use in the geography class. They can be arranged by countries and will be very useful. For REFERENCES, see page 331. Modern means of travel in Europe, America, and other countries. XIX. ASIA MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Through what zones does Asia extend? (2) What climate would you expect to find? (3) Where are the highest mountains and plateaus? (4) What rivers have their sources in that region 9 (5) What large inland seas do you find? (6) What three large peninsulas on the southern side ? (7) W T hat three were found on the south side of Europe ? (8) How does Asia compare in size with Europe? (0) Find Asia on a globe. (10) How could you reach it, if you wished to go there? (11) On the map, which way is north from the British Isles? From Kamchatka? Physical Geography. Like Europe, the coast of Asia is very irregular, with many peninsulas and islands. Draw an outline map of it, showing these, with the larger bays and seas inclosed by them. Note the direction in which the many mountain ranges extend. The loftiest among them, and in fact the highest in the world, are the Himalaya Mountains, the highest peak, Mt. Everest, being over twenty^nine thousand feet, or about five and one half miles above the sea. Where is it ? How does it compare in height with Mt. Blanc? (Seep. 341.) North of the Himalayas are lofty plateaus, one of them, the plateau of Tibet, being about three miles in height. How does that compare with the Spanish plateau (see p. 342) and with our western plateau . (see p. 342) ? It is so high that the winter climate is very cold ; and since the winds from the ocean have lost their moisture in passing over the mountains, these plateaus are also 250 Fro. 203. Picking Tea in India. Asiatic buffalo, used as a work animal in southern and western Asia, eastern Europe, and northwestern Africa. ASIA 251 dry. Farther north it is drier still, and we find there the great desert of Gobi. These mountains and plateaus form the watershed of the con- tinent. Find three great rivers that flow northward from the water- shed through the vast plain of Siberia. Name three that flow eastward into the Pacific Ocean. What others flow southward? FIG. 204. A native village near Calcutta notice the bamboo on the right. From what has been said about the climate it is plain that the inhabitants of this continent must be found chiefly in the eastern and southern parts. There they live in vast numbers along the coast and the large rivers; in fact, nearly one half of all the people in the world are found in these regions. I. Southwestern Asia. Rome and Athens have been mentioned as cities that have had a great influence upon other countries. But the part of the world which has probably had the greatest influence of all is that at the 252 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. Here is the land that used to be called Palestine, the home of the Jews ; and here is still the city of JERUSALEM (Fig. 205), near which Christ was born about nineteen hundred years ago, and in which He was crucified. The Christian churches and Christmas are in His memory. The home of Christ, where the Christian religion was founded, is now a part of the Turkish empire which extends into Asia. Turkey extends down the western coast of the Arabian peninsula, and includes another famous city called MECCA. The Turks are not Christians but Mohammedans, or followers of Mohammed, who was FIG. 205. A picture of a part of Jerusalem. born at Mecca nearly fourteen hundred years ago. The Mohamme- dans believe in God, and their holy book is called the Koran. A great many other people in Asia and northern Africa are followers of Mohammed. The western part of Asia, including Turkey, Arabia, and Persia, has a very dry or arid climate. This is par- ticularly true of Arabia, which is mainly a desert plateau much more arid than Spain. In this desert country agriculture is not a very impor- ASIA 253 tant industry; but dates and coffee are raised there, espe- cially near the rivers and along the coast. You have per- haps heard of MOCHA coffee, and if you look on the map you can find the place from which it gets its name. Although so much of this region is desert, there are places, called oases, where water is found. As these are usually too small to fur- nish water and grass for large herds during a long time, the Arabs are forced to wander from place to place, having no fixed homes. On FIG. 206. A group of Persian natives on the desert of eastern Asia. that account they are called noways or wanderers (Fig. 206). They take special pride in raising horses, which have become famous throughout the world. They also keep cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. Much of Persia is also a desert; but some parts are well suited 'to grazing, and the climate is warm enough for such fruits as figs and dates. What is the capital? The ruler of the Persians is a despot called the Shah. The people of these countries are not civilized enough to carry on much manufacturing, although beautiful carpets, rugs, and shawls are made in great numbers, especially in Persia and Turkey. The 254 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE work is done by hand, and though it is well done, it requires a great deal of time, while in our great factories carpets are quickly made by machinery. Railways are almost unknown, and even carriage roads are usually lacking. Goods are carried upon camels in groups, called caravans, and men travel upon the backs of horses and camels. II Siberia. Siberia belongs to Russia. It is a region of extensive plains and is much larger than the whole of Russia in Europe. Like northern Canada, much of it is FIG. 207. A village in Siberia. so cold that few people can live there, and it has been made a prison for many Russians who have committed crime, or who have offended their despotic rulers. A large portion of southwestern Siberia is a desert having numerous lakes without outlets. Would you expect them to be salt or fresh? Between this arid section and the bleak northern plains, or tundras, which resemble those of northern Europe, is a region where there are extensive forests, and broad plains suited for grazing and farming. One of the chief sources of wealth of Siberia is in the gold mines of the Ural Mountains. Graphite, from which the " lead " in lead pencils is made, is also found there. Many of the prisoners from Russia are compelled to work in these mines. ASIA 255 The Russian government has built a great railway all the way from St. Petersburg eastward to Vladivostok on the Pacific coast. How far is that ? III. The Chinese Empire and Korea. Some of the most important arts that we have ever learned first came from the Chinese. For instance, they made porcelain dishes long before Europeans knew how, and on that account FIG. 208. Houseboats on the Tientsin River of China. those dishes are still called Chinaware, even though manu- factured in the United States. They invented gunpow- der, and our firecrackers for the Fourth of July used to come from China. They also discovered how to make silk and paper, and they invented the avt of printing. But while this strange-looking, yellow race was once among the foremost nations of the earth, it is now very much behind. This is explained partly by the fact that their religion causes them to wor- ship their ancestors, so that whatever their fathers did, they must do. Since their fathers had no railways, telegraphs, or telephones, none are wanted now. Owing to their fear of new things, they have neither traveled abroad much nor allowed foreigners to visit them. But recently many Chinese have come to this country, working as servants, especially on the Pacific coast, and as laundrymen in all 256 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE parts of our country. Besides that, they now allow foreigners to live in some of their coast cities and trade with the people. CANTON in the southern part is especially noted for its silk. It is the largest city in China. SHANGHAI is an- other large city. Both are important ports for trade with Americans. HONGKONG is a British port. Much of the northern and western portions of the Chinese Empire are so high and dry that few persons can live there. Find the names of those parts. But the lower plains near the coast, especially the fertile flood plains and deltas of the great rivers, support a vast popu- lation, because the soil is fertile, and abundant rainfall is supplied by the damp winds from the Pacific. Here live nearly one fourth of all the inhabitants of the globe, crowded together so closely that many thousands dwell in boats on the rivers. In the northern part a great deal of wheat is raised ; but farther south rice, millet, tea, and silk are important products. China produces more raw silk than any other country in the world. What other regions are noted for these same products ? The govern- ment is an abso- lute monarchy, with the capital at PEKING, situated some distance in the interior. PEKING and TIENTSIN, its seaport, have about three quarters of a million inhabitants each. . FIG. 209. Temple in Peking. ASIA 257 Korea is also a very unprogressive nation which, until recently, would not permit foreigners to enter. IV. Japan. The Japanese live upon islands east of Asia, as the British do west of Europe. Their territory is but slightly larger than the British Isles, and there are not many more inhabitants. Many of the islands are small, but there are five large ones, the southernmost being Formosa. They are really the crest of a mountain range ris- ing above the sea, and some of the mountain FIG. 210. peaks are volcanoes. A Japanese woman being carried in a traveling chair by two Japanese men. The Japanese used to be much like their neighbors, the Chinese ; that is, they believed foreigners inferior, and wanted nothing to do with them. But in 1853 an American naval officer, with several war- ships, entered the harbor of Yokohama and persuaded the Japanese to allow us to trade with them. Before many years had passed the Japanese not only allowed for- eigners to enter, but they invited them to come as teachers, and even sent some of their own young men abroad to study. There have been many Japanese students in the colleges and universities of the United States during the last twenty years. The great war between Russia and Japan (1904-05) was fought for the control of Korea and proved that Japan had learned much from the western nations in the arts of war and peace. Japan is now far in advance of all other countries of Asia. Railways, telephones, and newspapers are common, and there are many good schools, while v apid progress has been made in manufacturing. 258 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE That the Japanese are very skillful in many kinds of handiwork is suggested by the Japanese fans, parasols, napkins, dolls, and screens so often seen in this country. Whatever they make they try to ^make beautiful, be- ing one of the most artistic races in the world. Japan, like China, produces a great amount of silk, rice, and tea. There is also some mining. The principal city and capital is FlQ 211 TOKIO, one of the The way Japanese babies are carried by the young large cities of the girls. The baby leaning back is asleep. world and the home of the emperor, called the Mikado. Its seaport is YOKOHAMA, at the entrance of Tokio Bay. V. India and Indo-China. India, the central one of the three peninsulas on the southern side of Asia, is the country that Columbus thought he had reached when he discovered America. Hence the name " Indians " for the savages whom he met. The damp winds from the Indian Ocean furnish the plains and mountains of India with so much rain that in places the forests form a perfect tangle or jungle of luxuriant vegetation, in which live tigers, elephants, and many other wild animals. ASIA 259 Several very large rivers rise in the Himalayas and flow across the plains. One is the Indus, from which the word India comes, and also the word Hindoos, as the inhabitants are sometimes called. The river flowing southeast is the Ganges, on which is the capital and largest city, CALCUTTA. One of the chief reasons why England holds India is for the important crops raised there. Cotton, one of the FIG. 212. Idols in a cave near Bombay. principal products, is shipped to England to be made into cloth, and then some of this cloth is shipped back to India and sold. Where else have we found a similar situation ? Wheat is another great product, and since England cannot raise enough of that food for herself, she se- cures some of it from India. Other crops are poppies, from which opium is made, silk, rice, tea, coffee, and sugar. 260 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE FIG. 213. A view in the palace grounds at Bangkok, Siam. The peninsula east of India, called Indo- China, and the East Indian Islands south of it, are other places that Columbus wished to reach. Here are found precious stones, such spices as pepper, nutmeg, and cinnamon, and other valuable products, which were carried by caravans to Europe long before the time of Columbus. Many of these prod- ucts are now shipped from SINGAPORE, an English city on an is- land at the southern end of the Malay pen- insula. The greatest city in Indo-China is BANGKOK, the chief seaport and the capital of the kingdom of Siam. REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS I. Southwestern Asia. QUESTIONS. (1) What part of Asia has had the greatest influence upon the civilized world ? Tell about it. (2) To what nation does Palestine belong? (3) What other parts of Asia belong to it? (4) Tell about Mecca. (5) Describe Arabia. (6) How do the Arabians live? (7) What do you know about Per- sia? (8) How do people travel in those countries? SUGGESTIONS. (9) What is meant by the date 1900? (10) What buildings in your neighborhood have been erected in the memory of ASIA 261 Christ? (11) What stories in the Bible have you read that tell about places mentioned in this book or on the map? (12) What reasons can you suggest why the Turks have not taken possession of the inte- rior of Arabia, as well as of the coast? (13) Does your grocer sell Mocha coffee ? (14) Examine a Persian or Turkish rug. (15) Learn how camels are especially fitted to live in desert countries. II. Siberia. QUESTIONS. (16) Point toward Siberia. (17) Tell about the climate. (18) In what occupations are the people engaged? (19) How does Siberia compare in size with Russia? SUGGESTIONS. (20) What advantage will the railway be to Russia ? (21) How does that railway compare in length with those reaching across the United States ? (22) What object do you see in having the eastern terminus, Port Arthur, so far south ? III. Chinese Empire and Korea. QUESTIONS. (23) Name some of the arts that we have learned from the Chinese. (24) What has made them so backward? (25) What special ports are open to American traders? (26) In what part of China do most of the peo- ple live? Why there? (27) What are the principal products? (28) What kind of a government has China? (29) Tell about Korea. SUGGESTIONS. (30) How can you distinguish a Chinaman from other men? (31) How does the number of people in China compare with the number in the whole of Europe ? (See the table on p. 333.) (32) Write a story telling some of the differences between life in America and in China. (33) Draw the two chief rivers in China. (34) How might railways in China help to prevent the awful famines that they have there ? (35) Find out about Confucius. About the Great Wall of China. IV. Japan. QUESTIONS. (36) Where is Japan ? (37) In what way have the Japanese been like the Chinese? (38) How have they differed? (39) Why are they called an artistic race? (40) What are their chief products ? (41) Name and locate the chief cities. SUGGESTIONS. (42) Make a collection of Japanese articles, as paper napkins, fans, etc. (43) Examine them to see in what respect they are artistic. (44) Collect pictures of Japanese houses and people. V. India and Indo-China. QUESTIONS. (45) What nation owns India? (46) What rivers in northern India ? (47) Locate the chief 262 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE cities. (48) What are the products? (49) What advantages does England enjoy in owning India? (50) Name the peninsula east of India. (51) What comes from there ? (52) Find Singapore. SUGGESTIONS. (53) How far was Columbus from India when he discovered America ? (54) What route should he have taken if he had continued his voyage to India? (55) What is the shortest route from Bombay to London ? Through what waters would a vessel pass? VI. REVIEW. (56) Draw an outline map of Asia and put in the boundary lines of the principal countries; also the rivers, mountains, and cities. (57) Find out about foreign missions to Asia. For REFERENCES, see page 331. U. S. Barracks, "Goat Island," San Francisco Bay. Victgria Falls, Africa. XX. AFRICA MAP QUESTIONS. < (1) What continent does Africa most resem- ble in shape ? (2) In what parts are the chief mountain ranges ? (3) Find the main slopes on the continent by a study of the rivers. (4) Name and trace the three largest rivers. (5) About how much of Africa lies in the torrid zone ? (6) How does its coast line compare with that of Europe as to regularity ? (7) What influence must that have upon the harbors ? The Dark Continent. Although Africa is so near Europe that they almost join at the Strait of Gibraltar, and although it is one of the oldest continents that history tells about, it is the least known of them all. There are several reasons for this. In the first place, south of the Mediterranean Sea is a broad desert, extend- ing entirely across the continent. This, a part of which is called the Sahara Desert (Fig. 69), is about a thousand miles wide, and very difficult to cross. Far south of this desert, for more than a thousand miles, the country is covered with a forest where the rainfall is heavy ; and near the equator the vegetation is so rank that an almost impenetrable, jungle is formed, like the Amazon jungle. It is inhabited by large and fierce ani- mals, such as the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion. The rivers offer further obstacles to travel. The con- tinent is mainly a plateau, varying from one fourth to one and one half miles in height ; and its rivers on approach- ing the ocean have numerous rapids and falls, so that boats cannot make their way upstream. 263 264 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE Not only are there deserts, unnavigable rivers, and dense forests with fierce animals, but there are hordes of savages belonging to the black race. It was from Africa that negroes were first brought to our country as slaves, and on that account those now here are often called Africans. Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N. Y. FIG. 215. The Great Pyramid and the Sphinx. What animals are those standing on the desert sands near the Sphinx ? Here, then, are several reasons why we know so little about Africa, which, because of this, and because so many blacks live there, is sometimes called the "dark continent." Northern Africa. The African side of the Mediter- ranean Sea, being so close to Asia and Europe, has long been settled by the white race. Many of the inhabitants are Arabs, who, being believers in Mohammed, still make AFRICA 265 pilgrimages to Mecca in Arabia, like other followers of that prophet. The best-known country in this section is Egypt, and CAIRO, its capital, is the largest city in Africa, having more than half a million people. ALEXANDRIA is the chief Egyptian port. This is the country over which the Pharaohs, the kings of Egypt, used to rule ; and the ruins of the immense pyramids and monu- ments that they built thousands of years ago may still be seen. Here, the Bible tells, Moses once lived ; and Joseph also. What stories do you remember about them ? FIG. 216. A family camped on an oasis in the desert of Morocco. Most of Egypt is a desert country, like Arabia on the one side and the Sahara Desert on the other. The Nile River flows through this desert, and every year the heavy floods, from the mountains of Abyssinia and the forest country near the equator, cause it to rise higher and higher until it 266 TUE EARTH AS A WHOLE overflows its banks. These floods, spreading out over the flood plain and level delta of the Nile, irrigate the land. As in other rivers, the water carries with it an abundance of mud, which settles in a thin layer of rich soil upon the flood plain, making it so fertile that excellent crops of cotton, sugar cane, and grain can be raised after the water is gone. By this means millions of people obtain food, although they live in a desert region. FIG. 217. The Suez Canal at Port Said. The eastern part of Egypt includes the Isthmus of Suez, which con- nects Africa with Asia. Because of this narrow neck of land, ships sailing from Europe to Asia were compelled to go all the way round Africa; but in 1869 a canal one hundred miles long (Fig. 217) was completed across the isthmus, so that vessels can now make a short cut. Estimate how many miles are saved by the Suez Canal in going from London to Calcutta. Name the countries west of Egypt along the Mediter- ranean coast. What are their capitals ? Most of them, AFRICA 267 like Egypt itself, are controlled by countries of Europe. Their products are similar to those on the northern side of the Mediterranean. What are some of them? On the desert of Sahara few people are able to live. Some parts are sandy plains, while others are rocky and hilly, and in places even Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N. Y. FIG. 218. Kaffirs, South African savages. 268 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE mountainous. But here and there, as in Arabia, are oases where water comes from underground, so that grass and date palms are able to grow. Sometimes these oases are so large that villages are built upon them ; and the caravans that cross the desert to bring ivory and other products from the south, make their stops at these places. Some of these caravans consist of hundreds of camels, so that there is need of much food and water. Central Africa. Until a few years ago this was a wil- derness that no civilized man had ever visited; but now much of it has been explored. The natives are mainly savage blacks; and the Arabs, who go there to purchase ivory, still carry large numbers of them away as slaves. The northern part is called the Sudan. Near the borders of the Sa- hara the country is a desert ; but this condi- tion gradually changes until, farther south, the land is covered with a dense tropical forest, for the rains are heavy near the equator. In this region live the lion, rhinoceros, giraffe, and elephant, the latter be- ing killed for the sake of its ivory tusks. Some of the forest woods are valuable, and the rubber tree flourishes there. The two great rivers of this region are the Niger, north of the equator, and the Kongo, south of it. They are the main roads lead- ing inland, although their falls and rapids greatly interfere with FIG. 219. A pair of ostriches in South Africa. AFRICA 269 travel. Throughout that entire region there are almost no wagon roads, so that goods must be carried either on the rivers or over paths or trails in pack trains. But this situation is improving as the nations of Europe obtain more and more control. At the present time, several European countries claim parts of Africa. South Africa. Southern Africa is the best-developed section of the continent. It was originally settled by the Dutch, though England has taken possession of a portion of it. Part of it is a high plateau, with a warm temperate FIG. 220. A diamond mine at Kimberley. climate, having many of the same products as our own country. Most of the people are engaged in farming and ranching, producing grain, wool, and hides. Ostrich farming is an important industry in Cape Colony, the beautiful feathers of the male bird being very valuable. JOHANNESBURG is the center of the richest gold-mining 270 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE region in the world, and more diamonds are obtained from near KIMBERLEY than from any other part of the globe. Portions of southern Africa have long been settled by Europeans and much of it is now owned by England, the oldest colony being Cape Colony, the capital of which is CAPE TOWN. Consequently many railways and good wagon roads have been built, and many other advances have been made. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Why is so little known about Africa? (2) Why is it called the " dark continent " ? (3) Which is the best- known country in northern Africa ? (4) Name and locate its two chief cities. (5) Tell about the Nile River. (6) About the Suez Canal. (7) About the Sahara Desert. (8) Where is the Sudan? W T hat animals live there ? (9) What two great rivers are in Central Africa? (10) How are goods carried from place to place? (11) What influence are the nations of Europe having upon Africa? (12) What climate has Southern Africa? What are the occupations of the people ? SUGGESTIONS. (1) What reasons can you give why Timbuktu should be an important trade center? (2) The caravans composed of camels travel at the rate of about sixteen miles per day. How long would it probably take for a caravan to travel from Timbuktu to Tripoli on the Mediterranean coast? (3) One camel can carry about four hundred pounds. How many tons could a caravan of six hundred camels carry? (4) What are some of the dangers of a journey across the desert? (5) Beginning with the western Sahara, trace the desert .country that extends across Africa and Asia. (6) Why should the two largest cities in Africa be located at or near the mouth of the Nile River? (7) Find some object made of ivory and show it to the class. (8) Examine an ostrich feather and a diamond. (9) Why are there no tributaries to the northern half of the Nile? W 7 hat part of the river, then, probably has most water? (10) Find out about the war between the Boers (those living in the South Afri- can Republic and Orange Free State) and the British. (11) Draw an outline map of Africa and put in the main rivers and cities. For REFERENCES, see page 332. A pineapple field in the Hawaiian Islands. Native Kanaka boys with surf boards and canoe, Hawaiian Islands, boys and girls are expert swimmers. Kanaka XXI. AUSTRALIA, THE EAST INDIES, PHILIP- PINES, AND THE OTHER ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Find Australia on a globe and show how you would reach it from New York in a vessel. Through what waters would you pass? (See Fig. 120.) (2) From San Francisco? From London ? (3) In what part are most of the mountains ? (4) The rivers ? (5) The cities ? (6) In what zones is Australia ? (7) Will there be any cold winter on this continent ? (8) Look on a globe to see what other continents are in the same zones. (9) What are the principal islands of the East Indies? Find Bata- via. (10) In what direction are the Philippine Islands from Austra- lia? (11) Estimate the distance. (12) Find the Hawaiian Islands. I. Australia. The names of the three eastern divi- sions of Australia, Victoria, New South Wales, and Queensland suggest the country to which this continent belongs. Which is it ? The various sections of Austra- lia have been joined into one confederation similar to Canada and our own confederation of states. Australia is the smallest of the continents, being about the size of the United States, not including Alaska. It is a low plateau, with the chief mountain range on the eastern side. These mountains have much influence on the climate ; for, since the prevailing winds are from the southeast, as they reach this range, and rise to pass over it, they grow cooler and lose most of their moisture. If the mountains were on the western side, as the Andes are in South America, nearly the whole country might be well watered, like the Amazon Valley. As it is, however, s 271 272 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE the eastern coast of Australia has abundant rain, while farther westward it becomes drier, until, at a distance of one hundred and fifty miles from the coast, farming is almost impossible. What about the country farther west? With what part of Africa should it be compared? Where must the FIG. 222. A sheep run in Australia. The water in this artesian well rises from a layer of porous rock over six hundred feet below the surface. chief rivers be? Where might we expect to find salt lakes? The best farm land? The principal cities and most of the people? Now examine the map to see if you are right. Where is the large desert? (It is dotted.) What is the name of the main river? There is often so little rain, even on the lower part of the Murray River Basin, that the river grows AUSTRALIA 273 smaller toward its mouth, and its chief tributary, the Dar- ling, dries up almost entirely. When the English began to colonize this country, they found it inhabited by a very low class of savages ; and the plants and animals were found to be different from those elsewhere. A great part of the interior was covered with a low bush, called "scrub," having hard, prickly leaves and often growing so dense that it was difficult for one to make his way through it. It caused the country to look desolate indeed. There were none of the fierce animals common to other countries, the largest being the kangaroo, which is furnished with a sack or pouch for carrying its young. Instead of running on all fours, it jumps along on its hind legs, using its tail for support. Finding the plants and animals of little use, the English began to import some. Sheep were taken there and found to thrive ; for the temperature is so mild that they are not exposed to cold, and some of the plants fur- nish excellent food. Consequently, great sheep ranches or sheep runs, as they are called there, have been established. The best sections for this purpose are Victoria and New South Wales, where ' , FIG. 223. wool has become An Australian kangaroo. one of the chief exports. Indeed, Australian wool is the best in the world. The imported cattle have likewise multiplied, so that hides and meat are produced in abundance. Wheat and corn also nourish, and many fruits, such as we know, are now plentiful in that region. 274 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE The presence of mountains suggests that metals might exist there, which is the case. For many years Australia has ranked as one of the most important gold-producing countries of the world. Since these industries have become very extensive, espe- cially in the rainy southeastern part, we see why several great cities have grown up in that section. The largest is MELBOURNE, the capital of Victoria, which has about a half million people. The next is SYDNEY, the capital of New South Wales, nearly as large ; and the third is ADE- LAIDE, the capital of South Australia. An island, Tasmania, just south of Australia, is owned by the British, and has almost the same industries as Victoria. The New Zealand Islands are also British, and in the climate and the customs of the people they resemble Aus- tralia. What is the capital? What other city is found there? Do you remember the geysers for which the Yellowstone National Park is noted (p. 193)? New Zealand and Iceland are the only two other parts of the world where geysers are found. Manufacturing is not yet greatly developed, so that quantities of wool, hides, metals, etc., are exported, going mainly to England, since these are colonies of Great Brit- ain. Some of the imports that must be received in return you can probably name. II. The East Indies. Between Australia and Asia are a large number of islands, many of them too small to place upon the map. What are the names of some of the largest of this group, or archipelago, known as the East Indies ? The one that you have probably heard about most often is Java, from which the Java coffee comes. Among the AUSTRALIA 275 forests of these islands are many different kinds of valu- able tropical woods. Sugar, tobacco, pepper, spices, and precious stones are other valuable products. These islands, like those of the Japanese Empire, are the crests of mountains in the sea. Among them are many very active volcanoes, some of them having caused terrible destruction by their frightful eruptions. The islands belong to European countries, and you will find the names of these countries marked on the map. III. The Philippine Islands. The principal city on the Philippine Islands is MANILA, on Luzon Island, where Admiral Dewey de- stroyed the Spanish fleet. Notice (Fig. 203) that they lie between the Japanese Islands and the East Indies, both of which were said to be mountain ranges in the sea. The Philippines are also mountains, form- ing a part of the same chain. There are valuable FIG. 224. A native house in Manila. In order to be well above the damp ground, the people live in the upper part. Notice the bamboo fence. kinds of wood in the forests, and many mineral deposits; but these were never much used by the Spaniards. The chief products have been sugar, tobacco, and hemp, which is used in making ropes. Now that the United States is in control of the islands, it is probable that their mineral and other resources will be developed. 276 THE EARTH AS A WHOLE On these islands dwell several different races. There are still many savages there, especially in the dense for- ests of the interior (Fig. 99). Some of them are called Negritos or little negroes. On the Sulu Islands are Mohammedans called Moros. The Tagalogs belong to the more advanced tribes, who have learned the arts of civilization from the Spaniards. IV. Islands of the Pacific. There are many hundreds of islands in the Pacific Ocean, some of them being tiny coral islands, others large and mountainous. They are all located where mountain ranges or volcanic peaks rise from the great plain of the ocean floor. Find the Fiji Islands. They are also British, What other group of small islands do you see in that region ? Find the Samoan Islands. One of these belongs to the United States. What large island is just north of Aus- tralia? In what zone does it lie ? One partis British, one part Dutch, and one part German. All of its prod- ucts are tropical, and it is covered with a dense forest and inhabited by fierce savages. Very few Europeans live there. Among the islands of the Pacific we must not forget to mention the HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, for they now form a part of our own country. They are situated in the mid- Pacific on the way from San Francisco to Australia, and consist of a number of islands, the largest being Hawaii. All of them are volcanic, and on Hawaii are two of the largest volcanoes in the world (Fig. 101). Being in the torrid zone, their climate is warm enough for sugar raising, and this is one of the principal industries of the islands. Where else have we found this industry ? HONOLULU is the capital and largest city. AUSTRALIA 277 REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS I. Australia. QUESTIONS. (1) To what country does Australia belong ? (2) How does it compare in size with the United States ? (3) How does the mountain range on the east affect the climate? (4) Which, then, is the most valuable part of the country? (5) Tell about the native plants and animals. (6) What animals and plants have been imported? (7) What industries have resulted ? (8) Name the principal exports. (9) Locate the chief cities. SUGGESTIONS. (10) Sketch Australia, putting in the Murray River and the principal cities. (11) What other places in the world are noted for sheep and cattle raising? (12) For gold mining? (13) Read about the great trouble the imported rabbits have caused in Australia. (14) Where are the desert countries of the world? Make a sketch map to show tl|em. II. East Indies. QUESTIONS. (15) Name several of the larger islands of the East Indies. (16) What are the products? SUGGESTIONS. (17) Why were they named the East Indies ? (18) Find what spices are used in cooking at your home. (19) Make a collection of spices, trying to find where each kind came from. (20) See on the map (Fig. 221) to what European countries each of the larger islands belongs. (21) Find where the tea and coffee used at your home came from. By what route are they probably brought ? III. Philippine Islands. QUESTIONS. (22) \Vhere are the Philip- pine Islands? (23) Name the principal city. (24) .What has re- cently made it famous? (25) What are the names of the largest islands? (26) How far is Manila from China? (27) What races occupy these islands? SUGGESTIONS. (28) Collect some Manila hemp rope. (29) Find out about the battle of Manila Bay and also about the war with the Filipinos. (30) Collect pictures from the Philippines. IV. Islands of the Pacific. QUESTIONS. (31) Find Tasmania; New Zealand ; the Fiji Islands. (32) What large island lies north of Australia ? Tell about it. (33) Tell about the Hawaiian Islands. SUGGESTIONS. (34) Find out something about the Fiji Islands. (35) How are the Hawaiian Islands governed ? (36) Find out some events that have happened on the Samoan Islands. For REFERENCES, see page 332. RAILROAD MAP OF CALIFORNIA Miles in Operation 9361.22 Total Valuation. $122,082,273.00 FIG. 225. CALIFORNIA THE LAND OF SUNSHINE FRUIT AND FLOWERS " FIG. 226. The State Capitol and Grounds, Sacramento. A SUPPLEMENT BY JAMES A. BARR AND EDWARD HUGHES REVISED BY THE STATE TEXT-BOOK COMMITTEE 1910 ! H %? S^' "iV^%,~'3^?i, I N/ MAP QUESTIONS Refer to the maps and (1) Compare the size of California with that of Texas ; New York ; Massachusetts. (2) Find points on the Atlan- tic coast that have the same latitude as the northern and southern boundaries of California. (3) What states are included between these points? (4) Give the boundaries of California. (5) What moun- tains in the eastern part? (6) In what direction do they extend? (7) Find Mt. Whitney. (8) What direction is it from San Francisco? (9) What ranges in the western part ? (10) Compare their direction with that of the coast. (11) What is the highest mountain peak in the northern part of the state? (12) What great lowland region between the Sierra Nevada and Coast Range Mountains ? (13) What river drains its northern part ? (14) Describe it. (15) What river drains the southern part ? (16) Describe it. (17) What river on the southeastern boundary of the state? (18) Describe the Klamath River; the Eel ; the Russian. (19) In what direction are these rivers from San Francisco Bay ? (20) Describe the Salinas River; the Santa Maria; the Santa Clara. (21) What direction are these from San Francisco Bay? (22) Where is San Diego Bay? Monterey Bay? (23) Find a harbor in the northern part of the state. (24) What is the entrance to San Francisco Bay called? (25) Locate Lake Tahoe; Clear Lake ; Honey Lake ; Goose Lake ; Salton Sea. (26) Give loca- tion of the following cities : San Francisco, Los Angeles, Oakland, Sacramento, San Jose, San Diego, Stockton, Alameda, Berkeley, Fresno, Santa Barbara. (27) Locate three principal cities of the northern coast region. (28) Locate six important cities of the southern coast region. (29) Locate fonr cities in the San Joaquin Valley ; four in the Sacramento Valley. (30) Name the leading com- mercial cities of California. Why commercial? (31) Name some of the natural resources of the state. Where found? 282 RELIEF MAP OF CALIFORNIA By N. F. DRAKE Department of Geology, Stanford University Issued "by the CALIFOMIi STATE MIXING LEWIS E. AUBURY State Mineralogist Area of California, 153.650 sqjnite Area of 10 other States, 153,130 wj milg FIG. 229. SAN FRANCISCO AND VICINITY I a \ FlG. 230. XXII. CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT Extent. In size California ranks second among the states of the Union (Fig. 229). Its greatest length is about 775 miles ; its average width, about 200 miles. Relief. California contains the lowest, and, with the exception of Alaska, the highest lands in the United States, ranging from depressions 263 feet below the sea level (Fig. 233) in the ex- treme southern part, to mountain peaks nearly 15,000 feet in height (Fig. 19). The great interior valley is the most extensive low- land region in the state. This fertile valley is about 400 miles long, with an average width of 40 miles. Except for a narrow break at San Francisco Bay (Fig. 230), it is completely inclosed by the Sierra Nevada Mountains on the east and the Coast Ranges on the west. The northern part of this great plain is known as the Sacramento Valley, while the southern part is called the San Joaquin Valley. 285 FIG. A. Not a "Bad man from Bodie" but a young snow-shoer, two years old, of the high Sierras near Bodie, Mono County. 286 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT There are many smaller valleys in both the Sierra Nevada and Coast ranges and in the southern part of the state. Among the most important are the Russian River, Napa, Santa Clara, and Sa- linas valleys and the plain of Los Angeles. On the western slope of the Sierras is the famous Yosem- ite Valley (Fig. 234). The coast line is more than a thousand miles long, with few good harbors. However, San Francisco Bay (Fig. 230) is one of the largest and best har- bors in the world . San Diego Bay (Fig. 261) in the south and Humboldt Bay on the north coast are also excellent harbors. The scenic features of the state, whether of the coast and islands or of the mountains, are unsurpassed and are visited by tourists from all over the world. FIG. 231. Armstrong Grove of Redwoods, Sonoma County. DRAINAGE 287 Drainage. The most important rivers of the state are the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, which drain the great interior valley. Both rise in the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The San Joaquin, flowing from the south, is about 350 miles long, while the Sacramento, from the FIG. 232. At the base of Mt. Whitney, California. north, is about 400 miles in length. The two rivers unite about 60 miles northeast of San Francisco and flow into San Francisco Bay through the strait of Carquinez (Fig. 230). Both rivers have many important tributaries from the Sierras. The western slope of the coast region drains directly into the Pacific by numerous smaller rivers, among which are the Russian and Eel, north of San Fran- cisco Bay, and the Salinas, Santa Clara and Santa Maria, 288 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT south of it. The Klamath in the extreme north breaks through the Coast Range on its way to the sea. In the southern part of the state the streams are small. The Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers are navigable (Fig. 236). Most of the streams of the state are of great importance in furnishing water for irrigation (Fig. 239), for mining, and as sources of electric power. The principal lake region is in the northeastern FIG. 233. Plowing salt near Salton in the Colorado Desert, 263 feet below the level. part . Lake Tahoe (p. 66), on the border line between California and Nevada, is a noted resort. Climate. California has every kind of climate to be found in North America. In the desert regions the summers are extremely hot, while above the snow limit on the mountains the climate re- sembles that of arctic countries (Fig. A, p. 285). At ordinary altitudes, however, the state enjoys a mild cli- mate without great summer heat or winter cold. The principal reason for this is the fact that it is a coast state in a region of prevailing westerly winds. The temperature of the waters of the Pacific is nearly the same summer and winter, and the winds that cross the state from this great ocean equalize temperatures for CLIMATE 289 both seasons (Fig. 238). For the reasons given, there are no marked seasonal changes except in the mountains. The year naturally divides itself into two parts : a season of rainfall corresponding to winter; and the summer season, in which there is no rainfall except local thunder- storms in the high mountains. FIG. 234. A. view from the Yosemite Valley. The storms which bring rain to California form in the north Pacific and drift easterly over the state or over the states immediately to the north. Storms that are central as far north as Puget Sound produce abundant rainfall over a large part of California. As the moist winds from the ocean rise to pass over the Coast Ranges much of their moisture is condensed and falls as rain. Naturally 290 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT this region, especially north of San Francisco Bay, is one of heavy rainfall. At San Francisco the yearly average is 23 inches, and at Eureka 46 inches, while at places near FIG. 235. Irrigating a California orange grove. The head ditch or flume lies along the higher side of the orchard. It is made of cement and lets out the water into the furrows through holes as large as broomsticks. The water should run about forty-eight hours continuously. During the hot weather a grove is irrigated about once a month, in the winter time not at all. Eureka, but at greater altitudes, 80 to 100 inches are not unusual. South of San Francisco the rainfall is much less, rang- ing as low as 10 inches at San Diego. In the great INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 291 interior valley, the rainfall also increases from south to north. At Visalia, in the southern part, the annual aver- age is 10 inches, at Sacramento 19 inches, and at Red Bluff 25 inches. On the western slope of the Sierras and FIG. 236. Passenger and freight steamer on the San Joaquin River, plying between Stockton and San Francisco. at their summit, the rainfall is about equal to that of the northern coast counties. Much of the precipitation here is in the form of snow, which remains on the ground, slowly melting until late in the summer, keeping the streams and irrigating ditches well filled. Industrial Development. During the time of Spanish occupation, owing to distance from markets and lack of 292 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT means of transportation, little was done to develop agri- culture. Cattle were raised, driven to the seaboard, and slaughtered for their hides, horns, and tallow, the only Orange orchard of Riverside County. Orange orchard of Sacramento County, six hun- dred miles far- ther north. FIG. 237. . Orange Groves. products that could be shipped long distances in slow sail- ing vessels. The grape, the olive, the fig, and other fruits were planted about the Missions, and enough grain and fruit were grown to supply the needs of the padres and their followers; but the work of agriculture went no further. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 293 The discovery of gold and the rapid increase of popu- lation that followed, brought new needs and American energy to supply them. Provisions of all kinds reached high prices. Some of those who came West to make their fortunes soon saw that farming and the plying of trades FIG. 238. Under the Oaks at Monterey in mid-winter. to meet local demands would be quite as profitable as mining. The soil, which had at first been considered almost worthless, was found to be enormously productive, and where water could be supplied, suited to almost every form of agriculture. Labor-saving machinery for use in mining, in farming, in fruit raising was introduced. Railroads were built 294 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT connecting the state with the older states on the Atlantic Coast and in the Mississippi Valley. With the increase of exports steamship lines were extended. As the demand for California fruits, wines, produce, and grains increased, more and more people came to the state to make their homes. With the increase in population, an excellent public school system was established (Figs. 240, 266). In all FIG. 239. La Grange Dam, source of supply of the Modesto-Turlock Irrigation Districts. ways, California is now one of the most prosperous slates in the Union. Agriculture. Formerly, in California, agriculture meant grain farming almost exclusively. In the great interior valley, wheat was the principal crop because it could be grown without irrigation and shipped by sailing vessels to foreign markets at small cost. It is still one of the most important crops ; but the building of extensive irri- gation systems, the cutting up of the great land grants into smaller farms, and the rapid improvement in the means of transportation, have led to the introduction of many more profitable kinds of farming. All cereals, ex- cept rice, are grown in the great valley and the bordering AGRICULTURE 295 Grammar School, Modesto. High School, San Diego. FIQ. 240. Typical school buildings. 296 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT foothills. The annual value of the wheat, hay, and barley crops of the state is more than 150,000,000, more than three times the value of the annual output of its gold mines. A trip through the grain region at any time is full of interest. In the plowing season, one sees huge tmction engines drag- ging long lines of gang-plows, turning up the rich soil (Fig. 241), where six months later will wave the ripening grain. Then the same engines may be seen drawing the combined harvesters, which cut, thresh, and sack the grain, ready for delivery at the warehouses. In the rich reclaimed lands in the delta region of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, along the shores of FIG. 241. From seedtime to harvest in the grain region of the great valley. FEUIT EAISING 297 San Francisco Bay, and in the productive irrigated region near Los Angeles, truck farming and gardening are im- portant industries. In these parts of the state may be seen thousands of acres of potatoes, beans, and asparagus, fields of onions, celery (Fig. 242), and other miscellaneous FIG. 242. Growing celery ; Orange County. vegetable crops, which not only supply the near-by cities, but are shipped in large quantities to eastern markets. The state excels in the production of sugar beets (Fig. 251). Among other important farm crops are oats, hops, alfalfa, rye, corn, and garden and flower seeds. Flax, hemp, broom- corn, chicory, and peanuts are among the minor crops. Fruit Raising. Fruit raising in California began to grow in importance after the completion of the first over- 298 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT land railroad in 1869. The invention and improvement of the refrigerator car, by which fresh fruits can be sent in perfect condition to such distant cities as New York and Boston, have opened the markets of the Eastern states to California fresh fruits. The fruits, fruit products, and vegetables exported from the state increased from 100 car FIG. 243. One man plowing with "gang" plow and fourteen-horse team. loads in 1871 to nearly 85,000 car loads in 1901. , Year by year, irrigation is increasing the area devoted to fruit raising. California is now the leading state in the production of fruit. It produces 1 nine tenths of the oranges (Figs. 237, 245), four fifths of the figs, more than half of the peaches, prunes (Fig. 265), plums, and grapes, and practi- cally all the olives, lemons, apricots, raisins, English wal- nuts, and almonds grown in the United States. Fruits 1 Census of 1900. STOC.fi: RAISING 301 succeed at all altitudes, from the sea level up to 4000 or 5000 feet. Such semitropical fruits as the orange and the fig are grown in the warm belt on the eastern side of the great valley as far north as Redding, 600 miles north of Los Angeles, the center of the orange industry. The variety FIG. 246. Vacation at home on the farm. Write a composition on what this picture reveals to you of home and farm life. and quality of small fruits are unexcelled. Strawberries may be had in the city markets eleven months in the year. Stock Raising. Recent years have witnessed many important changes in the methods and results of breeding and rearing domestic animals. Formerly the state con- tained vast areas of uninclosed range lands, and the meth- ods still followed in many of the Western states were the methods of California. The results were a great num- ber of half- wild animals, hardy, and able to take care of 302 CA LIFO ENIA S UPPLEMENT FIG. 247. A chicken ranch. Describe all you see in this picture. themselves during favorable seasons, but suffering almost to the extinction of entire herds in times of drought and during heavy snowstorms in the mountains. When ready FIG. 248. Creamery, Merced. Tell the story of butter-making. STOCK RAISING 303 for the market such animals in favorable seasons were worth only half what stock carefully bred and cared for should bring. The extending of irrigation on a large scale in many parts of the state has resulted in bringing much of the former cattle-range land under cultivation. Stock raising FIG. 249. A dairy ranch. Milking the cows out of doors in a corral. is now becoming more and more a part of real farm work, as it is in the Eastern states. Enterprising stockmen are at work improving their herds by the importation of blooded animals from the older states and from Europe, with the result of greatly increasing the value of the stock products. Cattle raising is the most important division of the stock industry. In 1899 there were in California nearly 1,500,000 head of cattle, including dairy herds. The greater number of these are raised on the larger ranges, 304 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT being driven into the mountains in summer and pastured on the pasture-lands and stubble-fields of the lowlands dur- ing winter. Smaller herds are found on most of the farms of the state. Dairying (Fig. 249) is an important and FIG. 250. View in the Los Angeles Oil District. Oil is a cheap and convenient fuel, and its discovery in large quantities has been of the greatest importance in manufacturing. growing industry. This is especially true near the larger cities, in the plateau counties of the northeastern part of the state, and throughout the coast region. The breeding of fine horses and mules (p. 224) is another important branch of the animal industry, and California thoroughbreds now command good prices in eastern mar- MANUFACTURING 305 kets. More than 2,500,000 sheep share, with the other animals mentioned, the pasturage of the state, produc- ing annually, besides other valuable products, more than 13,000,000 pounds of wool. Swine in large numbers are raised in many parts of the state. Poultry and poultry FIG. 251. Sugar factory at Oxnard. products are rapidly increasing in importance (Fig. 247). Ostriches are raised for their feathers on the celebrated ostrich farms near Los Angeles and at San Jose and Sacramento. Manufacturing. Although California is principally an agricultural state, manufactures are of growing impor- tance. The state produces a great amount of raw mate- rials of many kinds, and is well supplied with steam and electric railroads and steamship lines for shipping prod- ucts. The position of the state on the west coast of the 306 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT United States gives control of much of the growing trade with countries bordering on the Pacific Ocean. Manufac- turing in California has been kept back for many years because of the high price of fuel used for running machinery. FIG. 252. Standard oil refinery Point Richmond. This need for cheap fuel has been met during the last few years, however, by the finding of great quantities of petroleum, which is even better than coal for many uses. Natural gas has also been found in considerable quanti- ties, and the use of electricity has further helped to solve the question of cheap power. Now electricity can be cheaply generated by water power in the mountains. By MA N UFA CTUEIN G 307 means of wires it is taken to cities a hundred miles or more away to run street cars, light the streets and houses, and furnish power for manufacturing. One of the longest electric power lines in the world runs from Colgate in the Sierras to San Francisco, a distance of 212 miles. FIG. 253. Miners ready to go down into a deep mine. Tesla mine near Stockton. Notice each miner has a candle in his hand. Among the more important manufactures which de- pend upon agriculture are flour, canned and dried fruits and vegetables, wines and raisins from grapes, malt liquors from barley, dairy products such as butter, cheese, and condensed milk, refined sugar, and agri- 308 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT cultural implements. In addition to these the man- ufacture of lumber, ships, boats, and barges, mining machinery, railway and street cars, explosives, furniture, clothing, woolen goods, leather, and glassware is impor- FiG. 254. Miners at work in a gold mine hundreds of feet below the surface, what you see in this picture. Describe taut. Large manufacturing interests are generally found in the larger cities and towns, especially those that have cheap power and good railroad or water connections. Mining. The discovery of gold in 1848 first drew the attention of the world to California. The gravel along the streams of the gold-producing sections has practi- cally all been turned over in search of the precious metal. MINING 309 When the supply from this source began to fail, quartz mining began, and it is still one of the most important industries. Gold is found in most parts of the state, but the most important gold deposits are in the Sierra region and in the northern Coast Range. Silver is found in the FIG. 255. Gold dredger, on the American River, near Folsom. eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in the Shasta region, and in the southern part of the state. Copper mining is very important. The most valuable copper mines are in the Shasta country. Quicksilver is found throughout the Coast Ranges. Other important minerals are coal, soda, asphaltum, salt, pottery clays, and borax. Of special importance is petroleum, found in 310 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT great quantities in the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley and in the southern part of the state. Building stone, including granite, sandstone, limestone, onyx, and marble, is quarried in many places. Lumbering. In the regions of heavy rainfall in the Coast Ranges and in the Sierras are some of the grandest FIG. 25G. Lumber scene. forests of cone- bearing trees in the world. The largest of these are the giant sequoias, found on the western slopes of the Sierras. Some of these measure more than 30 feet in diameter and 325 feet in height. John Muir estimates the age of some of the largest of these trees at 5000 years. The redwood found in the coast region, from near the FISHERIES 311 Oregon line south to Santa Cruz, is another sequoia of wonderful size and beauty and is the most important lum- ber tree of the state. Besides these the yellow pine, sugar-pine, silver fir, Douglas spruce, and incense cedar are valuable lumber trees. The sawmills are usually located in the high mountains. The lumber is floated down to the railroad or coast in long flumes or hauled by teams or traction engines. FIG 257. Hauling logs from the forest to the sawmill, Humboldt County. Fisheries. The number and variety of fine food fishes found in California are almost without limit. With the present population of the state the supply far exceeds the demand. The more important salt-water fishes include the salmon, halibut, cod, rock-cod, sea-bass, tuna, yellow- tail, flounder, smelt, tomcod, herring, and many others. The native fishes taken in fresh waters are the salmon, steelhead, and several varieties of trout. Many valuable food fishes have been transplanted from eastern waters. Among these are the striped bass, shad, black bass, and two kinds of catfish. 312 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT The shellfish of importance are the native oyster, abalone, mussel, and clams of several varieties. Eastern oysters are planted in San Francisco Bay and do well. Crabs of several species, the shrimp, and a large lobster- like crawfish are also found in the waters of the ocean and FIG. 258. Shipping scene, Brooklyn Basin, Oakland Harbor. bays. San Francisco is the leading whaling port of the world. Commerce. The extensive commerce of the state de- pends upon its railroads, steamship lines (Fig. 225), and navigable inland waters, and the very great number and importance of its products. Through railroads it is con- nected with the eastern United States, to which it ships large quantities of fresh, dried, and canned fruits, wine, vegetables, nuts, sugar, and wool, and from which it re- ceives many manufactures. The steamship lines connect it with the Hawaiian Islands, Japan, China, the Philip- pines, Australia, New Zealand, and Pacific ports from CITIES 313 Alaska to Chile. Throughout the year steamers ply the San Joaquin River between San Francisco and Stockton ; the Sacramento between San Francisco and the capital city of the state. The leading foreign exports are wheat, FIG, 259. Ferry Building, Sail Francisco, from the bay, showing ferryboats. flour, fruits, and wine. The chief imports are tea, coffee, sugar, rice, coal, arid manufactured articles. Cities. SAN FRANCISCO is the largest city and prin- cipal seaport of the Pacific coast. It is situated on a peninsula south of the Golden Gate, and its hilltops over- look the busy harbor. It is the key to the foreign com- merce not only of California, but to much of that of the Eastern states as well. Its manufactures are of great and growing importance. Its shipyards rank with those of the Atlantic seaboard. Some of the great battleships and cruisers of the United States navy were built here. Among its important manufactures are mining machin- 314 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT ery, flour, refined sugar, malt liquors, leather, canned and preserved fruits, soap and candles, boots, shoes, and cloth- ing. Among its points of interest are the United States Mint, the Presidio and other military posts, the State Min- ing Bureau, Hopkins Art Gallery, the Museum of the Academy of Sciences, and the Park Museum. Golden Gate Park (p. 66) has an area of nearly two square miles, and contains a very large collection of trees and other plants from all parts of the world. Los ANGELES, the second city in size and importance, is the county seat of Los Angeles County, and the center of the great orange industry of the southern part of the state. Its fine climate and orange groves make it a favor- ite resort for tourists during all seasons of the year. Al- though twentjr-five miles from the coast, good railway (p. 97) connections make it an important port of entry. Other things that contribute to the growth and wealth of Los Angeles are its olives, deciduous fruits, and truck farm and vineyard products. Its manufacturing interests have increased since the discovery of petroleum (Fig. 250) in and near the city. OAKLAND (p. 118), the county seat of Alameda County, is closely connected with San Francisco by means of ferries and local trains (Fig. 259 and p. 98). Many people living in Oakland have their business in San Francisco, and great ferryboats run between the two cities at intervals of fifteen minutes for the greater part of the day. The city has a very pleasant climate, good schools, and other features which make it a favorite place of residence. Its commercial and manufacturing inter- ests are important. Oakland has grown rapidly in recent years. CITIES 315 SACRAMENTO is the capital of California and the county seat of Sacramento County. It is an important railroad center and is located on the navigable Sacramento River. It is the center of the early fruit district and a shipping point for grains, produce, and orchard fruits. Flour and FIG. 260. Curing prunes iu the sun near San Jose, in the Santa Clara Valley. agricultural implements are important manufactures, and railway cars are built and repaired. The capitol is a building of great beauty and is surrounded by a large and beautiful park of about thirty-five acres. SAN JOSE is the county seat of Santa Clara County, and the chief city of the rich Santa Clara Valley (Figs. 260-5). 316 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT It owes its importance to the immense fruit product of the surrounding region. Its natural beauty of surroundings and fine climate make it popular as a place of residence. The famous Lick Observatory is near by, on the summit of Mt. Hamilton, and can be plainly seen and easily reached from San Jose. The Leland Stanford Junior University is at PALO ALTO, eighteen miles northwest. FIG. 261. San Diego Harbor. SAN DIEGO, in the extreme south, is located on San Diego Bay (Fig. 261), one of the best harbors on the coast. The city is important as a shipping point for oranges, lemons, apples, and honey. Its particularly fine climate makes it a noted winter resort. STOCKTON is situated at the head of tide-water naviga- tion, on the San Joaquin River. Near the city are the rich reclaimed peat lands of the San Joaquin delta. It is the center of an important truck farming, grain, dairying, vineyard, and orchard region. By reason of its excellent railroad and water connections, it is an important shipping point. Its manufactures are important, including com- CITIES 317 bined harvesters, traction engines, dredging machinery, flour, window glass, coal briquettes, leather, and woolen goods. The Tesla mines of coal, clay, manganese, glass sand, and limestone in the Coast Range are connected with the city by rail. (Figs. 236, 241, 253.) FIG. 262. Harvesting the grape crop. ALAMEDA is situated on the eastern side of San Fran- cisco Bay, and like Oakland has good ferry connections with San Francisco. It is chiefly a residence city for San Francisco business men. BERKELEY, on the bay shore north of Oakland, is the seat of the University of California, and also of the State 318 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind (p. 108). It is an attractive residence town and has important manu- factures. FRESNO, the county seat of Fresno County, in the south- central part of the San Joaquin Valley, is an important FIG. 263. Upper picture University of California, Berkeley. Lower picture Leland Stanford Jr. University. fruit center. It is especially noted for the quantity of fine raisins annually produced. (Fig. 262.) Other important and growing towns are PASADENA, a residence town and health resort in the southern orange belt; RIVERSIDE, the county seat of Riverside County, where oranges were first grown in considerable quantities ; CITIES REVIEW QUESTIONS 319 VALLEJO, in Solano County, with the United States Navy- yard and manufactures of importance ; EUREKA, on Hum- boldt Bay, the outlet of the northern redwood belt ; SANTA ROSA, Sonoma County, the principal city of the Russian River region ; SANTA BARBARA, a famous coast resort, the county seat of Santa Barbara County ; SAN BERNARDINO, noted for its artesian wells, vineyards, and orange groves ; SANTA CRUZ, at the entrance of Monterey Bay, a summer resort. REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Is California principally lowland or mountainous? (2) Where are the principal mountains ? (3) Name and locate the principal lowland regions. (4) What is said of the different kinds of climate in California ? (5) Is rainfall heavier in the northern or southern portion? (6) Is it heavier in the lowlands or mountains? Why? (7) What kind of climate is required for oranges, figs, and olives? (8) Name the navigable rivers of the state. (9) Why are smaller streams important? (10) What are the chief industries of the state? (11) Name the principal field crop. (12) Name other important field crops. (13) Name the principal fruit crops. (14) Tell about stock raising. (15) What has prevented extensive manufacturing in California? (16) What recent discov- eries have helped manufacturing? (17) Name the principal manu- factures that depend upon agriculture. (18) What is the most important mineral product of the state? (19) Name other im- portant mineral products. (20) In what regions is each found? (21) Where are the forest regions of the state ? (22) Where is the redwood found? The giant sequoia? (23) What are other impor- tant lumber trees? (24) Tell about the fisheries of California. (25) Which of the fishes mentioned have you seen ? (26) What are some of the things that help commerce ? (27) Name important exports of California; imports. (28) Name, in order of size, the ten largest cities of California. (29) For what is each noted? GENERAL QUESTIONS. (1) Where does the water of California rivers come from ? (2) What keeps water in the largest streams in dry seasons? (3) From where did the deep rich soil of the lowlands come? (4) How was it brought? (5) Can you think of a reason 320 CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT why the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers are nearer to the Coast Range than to the Sierra Nevada Mountains ? (6) Why are there few bays on the coast? (7) Give reasons why San Francisco became the most important city. (8) How are fresh fruits shipped to Eastern states ? (9) Why are there no great forests in the lowland region of the state? (10) 'How is water power in the mountains made useful in the valley and coast regions ? SUGGESTIONS. Discuss with classes the importance of irrigation. How does it increase the number, size, and variety of crops? Irrigation from streams ; from artesian wells ; from deep wells by engines or windmills ; through flood gates in levees. Discuss also the native plants and animals, especially those of local interest and those which are noted outside of the state. Read and discuss selections from John Muir's "Mountains of California" and " Our National Parks" on such subjects as the Yosemite, giant sequoias, redwoods, mountain storms, deer, bear, Douglas squirrel, etc. Make a study with children of some of the wild flowers and trees and shrubs of the immediate neighborhood of the school. FIG. 264. Interior of Sutter's Fort, Sacramento. CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT APPENDIX AREA AND POPULATION Area, 158,360 square miles. Population (1900), 1,485,053. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS (California State Board of Trade Report, 1909) Orchard Products : Fresh deciduous fruits . . . . . . $12,306,400 Citrus fruits . . . t . , . . . 23,545,400 Dried fruits other than prunes and raisins . . 11,973,060 Prunes 2,500,000 Canned fruits 15,624,387 Olives and olive oil 1,850,000 Nuts 2,360,000 Vineyard products : Table grapes 3,816,000 Raisins 3,600,000 Wine 15,687,500 Brandy 1,750,000 Farm products : Barley 26,841,394 Wheat 18.894,961 Oats 6', 527, 140 Corn 1,146,449 Rye and other grain ...... 448,180 Other field crops : Beet sugar 7,460,975 Potatoes, Irish and sweet 5,779,145 Beans 6,493,650 Onions 980,000 Hops 1,052,280 Seeds, Melons, etc 1,600,000 Other products : Vegetables, fresh and canned ..... 8,257,912 Butter, cheese, etc. 25,224,150 Poultry and eggs 12,559,738 Fish and game 5,500,000 Forest products . . 23,775,027 Petroleum . . . 28,980,454 Gold 16,727,928 Copper 6,341,387 Cement and others 15,844,691 Farm animals and products, wool, hides, etc. . . 30,762,150 Grand total- $346,210,358 321 INDEX TO CALIFORNIA SUPPLEMENT Almonds, 298. Agriculture, 294-21)7. Alameda, 317. Alaska, 313. Alfalfa, 297. American River, 309, Fig. 255. Apricots, 298.' Area, 285. Asparagus, 297. Asphaltum, 309. Atlantic Coast, 294. Australia, 312. Barley, 296, 307. Beans, 297. Beets, 297. Berkeley, 317, Fig. 2G3. Bodie, 285, Fig. A. Borax, 309. Boston, 298. Broom-corn, 297. Building materials, 310. Butter, 307. California extent, 285 ; relief, 285 ; drainage, 287 ; climate, 288 ; industrial development, 291; agriculture, 294; fruit raising, 297 ; stock raising, 301 ; manufacturing, 305 ; mining. 308; lumbering, 310: fisheries, 311 ; commerce, 312 ; cities, 313. Capitol. 279. Fig. 226. Carquinez, Strait of, 287. Cattle, 292. Cedar, 311. Celery, 297, Fig. 242. Cheese, 307. Chicken ranch, 302, Fig. 247. Chicory, 297. Chile, 313. China, 312. Cities, 313-319. Clays, pottery. 309. Climate, 288-291. Coal, 309, Fig. 253. Coast ranges, 285, 286, 288, 289, 309, 310. Colgate, 307. Colorado Desert, 288, Fig. 233. Commerce, 312-313. Condensed milk, 307. Copper, 309. Corn, 297. Creamery, 302, Fig. 248. Dairying, 304, Fig. 249. . Dairy products, 307. Douglas spruce, 311. Drainage, 287-288. Eel (river), 287. Electricity, 306. Elevation of surface, 285. English walnuts, 298. Eureka (rainfall), 290. Exports, 298, 312-313. Factories creamery, 302, Fig. 248; oil refinery/ 306, Fig. 252; sawmill, 311, Fig. 257; sugar refinery, 305, Fig. 251. Farm animals, 301. Farm life, 301, Figs. 243, 246. Farm products, 297. Ferries. 313, Fig. 259; 317. Figs. 292, 298. Fir, 311. Fisheries, 311, 312. Flax. 297. Flour, 307. Folsom, 309, Fig. 255. Forests, 310. Forts, 320, Fig. 264. Fresno, 318. Fruit farm, 322, Figs. 235, 237, 245, 260, 265. Fruit raising, 297. Fruits, 298, 307, 312. Fuels, 306. Gold, 293, 308, 309, Fig. 255. Golden Gate, 313. Grains. 294, 296, Fig. 241. Granite, 310. 323. 324 INDEX Grapes, 292, 298, 307, Fig. 202. Harbors, 286, 31G, Fig. 261. Harvesting, 296, Fig. 241. , Hawaiian Islands, 312. Hay, 296. Health resorts San Diego, 316; Pasadena, 318; Santa Barbara, 319; Santa Cruz, 319. Hemp, 297. Hopkins Art Gallery, 314. Hops, 297. Horses, 304. Humboldt Bay, 286. Imports, 313. Incense cedar, 311. < Indians, 350, Fig. 268. Industrial development, 291-294. Industrial education, 326, Fig. 266. Industries, 291. Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, 318. Irrigation, 294, 297, 303. Japan, 312. Klamath (river), 288. La Grange Dam, 294, Fig. 239. Lake Tahoe, 288. Leland Stanford Junior Univer- sity, 316, 318, Fig. 263. Lemons, 298. Lick Observatory, 316. Limestone, 310. Los Angeles, 286, 297, 301, Fig. 250, 314. Lumbering, 310, 311, Figs. 256-7. Malt liquors, 307. Manufacturing, 305-308. Marble, 310. Merced, 302, Fig. 248. Mineral products, 308-310. Mines coal, clay, manganese, glass sand, limestone. 317. Mining, 308, Figs. 253-254. Mississippi Valley, 294. Modesto Grammar School, 295, Fig. 240. Modesto-Turlock Irrigation Dis- tricts, 294, Fig. 239. Mono County, 285, Fig. A'. Monterey, 293, Fig. 238. Mountains, 285. Fig. 232. Mt. Hamilton, 316. Muir, John, 310. Museum of the Academy of Sciences, 314. Napa Valley, 286. Natural gas, 306. Nevada, 288. New York, 298. New Zealand, 312. Oakland, 314, 317, Fig. 258. Oak trees, 293,. Fig. 238. Oats, 297. Oil, 304, Fig. 250 ; 306, Fig. 252. Olives, 292, 298. Onions, 297. Onyx, 310. Orange groves. 290, Fig. 235 ; 292, Fig. 237, 300, Fig. 245. Oranges, 298, 301. Ostriches, 305. Oxnard, 305, Fig. 251. Pacific Ocean, 287, 288, 289, 306. Palo Alto, 316. Park Museum. 314. Pasadena, 318. Peaches, 298. Peanuts, 297. Petroleum, 306. 309. Philippines, 312. Pine, 311. Pioneers. 332, Fig. 267. Plums, 298. Point Richmond, 306, Fig. 252. Potatoes. 297. Poultry, 305. Fig. 247. Products of the soil, 296-301. Prunes, 298, 315, Fig. 260; (orchard) 322, Fig. 265. Puget Sound, 289. INDEX 325 Quartz, 309. Quicksilver, 309. Railro/uls, 298, Fig. 225. Rainfall, 289-291. Raisins, 298, 307, Fig. 202. Red Bluff (rainfall), 291. Redding, 301. Redlands, 300, Fig. 245. Redwood, 310. Redwoods (trees), 280, Fig. 231 319. Refineries oil, 304, Fig. 250 sugar, 305, Fig. 251; 306, Fig 252. Rice, 294. Richmond, 306, Fig. 252. Rivers, 286-28^. Riverside, 318, Fig. 237. Russian River, 286, 319. Rye, 297. Sacramento (city). 305, 31.5; (rainfall), 291; (river), 287, 288, 313; (valley), 285, Fig. 264. Salinas (river), 287; (valley), 286. Salt, 309, Fig. 233. Salton, 288, Fig. 233. San Bernardino (mountains), 300, Fig. 245; (city), 319. San Diego (bay ) , 286, 316 ; (city) , 316; (harbor), 316, Fig. 261; (rainfall), 290; (school), 295, Figs. 240, 266. Sandstone, 310. San Francisco (bay), 286, 287, 290, 297, 312; (city), 287, 307, 313; (port), 312; (rainfall), 290, Fig. 259. San Joaquin (river), 287, 288, 296, 313, 316; (valley), 285, 310. San Jos, 305, 315, Figs. 260, 265. Santa Barbara, 319. Santa Clara (river), 287; (val- ley), 286, 315, Figs. 260, 265. Santa Cruz, 311, 319. Santa Maria (river), 287. Santa Rosa: 319. Sawmills, 311. Schools, 294, 295, Fig. 240; (special), 326, Fig. 266. Seeds, 297. Sequoias, 310, 311. Shasta, 309. Sheep, 305. Sierra Nevada Mountains, 285, 286, 287, Fig. 232; 291, 307, 309, 310. Silver, 309. Silver fir, 311. Soda, 309. Sonoma County, 286, Fig. 231. Spruce, 311. State institutions capitol, Fig. 226; Institution for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, 318 ; Military, 314 ; Mining Bureau, 314 ; State Normal School, 326, Fig. 200; University of California, 317, 318, Fig. 263. Stock farm, 303, Fig. 249. Stock raising, 301-304. Stockton, 313, 316, Figs. 236,253. Strawberries, 301. Sugar, 305, Fig. 251; 307. Sugar beets, 297. Sugar pine, 311. Swine, 305. Tahoe, Lake, 288. Trees, 311. United States institutions mint, 314; navy yard, 319. University of California, 317, 318, Fig. 263. Vallejo, 319. Valleys, 285, 286, 291, 294. Vegetables, 307. Visalia (rainfall), 291. Walnuts, English, 298. Wheat, 294, 296. Wines, 294, 307. Yellow pine, 311. Yosemite Valley, 289, Fig. 234. Home economics Santa Barbara schools. Davis University farm. Cooking school San Diego State Normal. FIG 266. Industrial Education. BOOKS OF REFERENCE McM. means The Macraillan Co., New York; Ginn, Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. ; A. B. C., American Book Co., New York; S. B. C., Silver, Burdett & Co., New York; Heath, D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass.; E. P. C., Educational Publishing Co., Boston, Mass. ; Scribner, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. METHODS, AIDS, ETC. Geikie, "The Teaching of Geography" (McM., $0.60); King, "Methods and Aids in Geography" (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $1.20); Parker, " How to Study Geography" (D. Appleton & Co., New York, $1.50); Nichols, "Topics in Geography" (Heath, $0.65); Trotter, " Lessons in the New Geography" (Heath, $1.00); McMurray, "Spe- cial Method in Geography" (Public School Publishing Co., Blooming- ton, 111., $0.50); McCormick, "Suggestions on Teaching Geography" (same publisher, $0.50); Frye, "The Child and Nature" (Ginn, $0.80); Frye, "Teacher's Manual of Methods in Geography" (Ginn, $0.50); Redway, "Manual of Geography" (Heath, $0.65); McCor- mick, "Practical Work in Geography" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, 111., $0.80). Journal of School Geography (R. E. Dodge, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York City, $1.00 per year); "The States- man's Year Book," published each year, gives latest statistics, etc. (McM., $3.00); Ritter, "Comparative Geography" (A. B. C., $1.00); i These references are not intended to be exhaustive, but, rather, sug- gestive. Most, if not all, are to first-class sources. The attempt has been to make few references, assuming that the teacher will have others in mind. While there may seem to be many here, a careful examination will reveal the fact that really few books are referred to. Some of those mentioned at the end of Part I will be found useful for Part II also. v 327 328 REFERENCES Shaler, "Nature and Man in America" (Scribner, $1.50) ; Guyot, " Earth and Man " (Scribner, $1.75) ; Chainplin, " Cyclopedia of Com- mon Things " (H. Holt & Co., New York, $2.50) ; Champlin, " Cyclo- pedia of Persons and Places" (same publisher, $2.50) ; Murche, " Science Readers " (McM., I and II, $0.25 each, III and IV, $0.40, each, V and VI, $0.50 each) ; Lange, " Handbook of Nature Study " (McM., $1.00); Yonge, "Little Lucy's Wonderful Globe " (McM., $0.50); Strong, "All the Year Round" (Ginn, three volumes, $0.30 each) ; Carpenter, " Geographical Readers " (A. B. C., Vol. II, Asia, $0.60; volume on North America, $0.60); Guyot, "Geographical Reader" (A. B. C., $0.60); Chisholm, "Commercial Geography" (Longmans, Green & Co., New York, $1.00) ; Mill, "General Geogra- phy " (McM., $0.90); Lyde, "Man and His Markets " (McM., $0.50) ; Herbertson, " Man and His Work " (McM., $0.60) ; Pratt, " American History Stories " (E. P. C., four volumes, $0.36 each) ; Pratt, "Stories of Colonial Children " (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Shaler, " First Book in Geology " (Heath, $9.60) ; Davis, " Physical Geography " (Ginn, $1.25) ; Tarr, " Elementary Physical Geography " (McM., $1.40). Section I. Form and Size of the Earth. Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," section on " The Ball Itself " (Ginn. $0.50) ; Irving, " Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus " (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, $1.75) ; " Columbus," by Tennyson D'Anvers, " Science Lad- ders," Vol. I (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowl- edge," section on "The Great Globe Itself " (McM., $1.10); Ritter, "Comparative Geography," First Part (A. B. C., $1.00). Section II. Daily Motion of the Earth and its Results. Redway, " Manual of Geography," Chapter VI (Heath, $0.65) ; " Daybreak " (poem), Longfellow. Section III. The Zones. Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," section on " Adventures in Alaska " (A. B. C.,$0.50) ; Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," sections on " The Little Brown Baby," "Agoonack, the Esquimau Sister, "and "How Agoonack Lives" (Ginn, $0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C., $1.25); Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters XXIX and XXX (Ginn, $1.00); King, "The Picturesque Geographical Readers," First Book, Part 2 (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.50). Section IV. Heat within the Earth and its Results. Tarr, "First Book of Physical Geography," Chapters I (p. 8), XIX, and XX REFERENCES 329 (McM., $1.10); Trotter, " Lessons in the New Geography," pp. 16-17 (Heath, $1.00); Redway, "Manual of Geography," Chapter VII (Heath, $0.65) ; Kingsley, " Madam How and Lady Why," section on " Volcanoes " (McM., $0.50) ; Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowl- edge," Chapter XI (McM., $1.10) ; Kelly, " Leaves from Nature's Story Book," Vol. Ill, " The Records of the Rocks " (E. P. C., $0.40). Section V. The Continents and Oceans. Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters " (Ginn, $0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel " (Ginn, $1.00); Gee, "Short Studies in Nature Knowledge," Chapter IV, "The Sea" (McM., $1.10); Kelly, "Leaves from Nature's Story Book," Vol. Ill, " A Visit to the Bottom of the Ocean " (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Shaler, " The Story of our Continent," section on " Coral Reefs " (Ginn, $0.75) ; Tarr, " Elementary Geology," p. 251 (McM., $1.40) ; D'Anvers, " Science Ladders," Vol. Ill, Lesson VIII (E. P. C., $0.40). Poems: Shelley, "A Vision of the Sea"; Longfellow, " The Secret of the Sea " ; Longfellow, " The Wreck of the Hespe- rus"; Holmes, " The Chambered Nautilus"; Byron, "The Ocean." Section VI. Maps. For References, see bottom of page ll7. Section VII. North America. Shaler, " The Story of Our Conti- nent " (Ginn, $0.75) ; Lyde, "North America" (McM., $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shep- ard, Boston, $0.72). Section VIII. The United States. Brooks, " Century Book for Young Americans" (The Century Co., New York, $1.50); Brooks, "The Story of the United States" (The Lothrop Publishing Co., Boston, $1.50) ; Channing, " Students' History of the United States " (McM., $1.40) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters I and XXV (Ginn, $1.00); Gannet, "The United States," Stanford's Com- pendium of Geography (Scribner, $4.50) ; King, " The Picturesque GeographicalReaders," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72) ; "Our Country" (poem), Holmes. Section IX. New England. Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," " Stories of Whaling" and " A Whaling Song " (A. B. C., $0.50) ; Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book I, " Granite," " Marble," and " Slate " ; Book II, " Cotton Manufactur- ing" and " Lumbering " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, each $0.50); Chase and Clow, "Stories of Industry," Vol. I, "Lumbering," "Ship Build- ing," " Marble and Granite," " Slate and Brick " ; Vol. II, " Manufac- 880 REFERENCES taring," " Fisheries," and " Whaling" (E. P. C., each $0.40) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books (Lee & Shepard, Boston, each $0.56) ; Wilson, " Nature Study in Elementary Schools," Second Reader, " The Tree," by Bjb'rnson (McM., $0.35). Poems : Whittier, " Mogg Megone " ; " Peri tucket " " The Bridal of Pennacook "; " The Merrimack " ; "The Norsemen" Longfellow, " The Woods in Winter " ; " The Building of the Ship " " The River Charles " ; Emerson, " Boston." Section X. Middle Atlantic States. Chase and Clow, " Stories of Industry," Vol. I and Yol. II, various stories on Iron, Coal, Mining, Manufacturing, Farming, etc. (E. P. C., each $0.40) ; Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book I, sections on " Coal Mining," " Natural Gas," " Petroleum," and " Iron " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, $0.50) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Adventure," sec- tion on " A Story of Niagara " (A. B. C., $0.50) ; King, " The Pictur- esque Geographical Readers," Third and Fourth Books (Lee & Shepard, Boston, each $0.56). Section XI. The Southern States. Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book II, section on "Cotton and Sugar" (A. Flanagan, Chicago, $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Fourth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). Section XII. The Central States. Garland, " Boy Life on the Prairie " (McM., $1.50) ; McMurry, " Pioneer Stories of the Missis- sippi Valley " (Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111., $0.50) ; Rocheleau, " Great American Industries," Book II, sections on " Grain Raising," " Wheat Raising," and " Milling " (A. Flanagan, Chicago, $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Fourth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56). Poems: "When the Frost is on the Punkin," Riley; "Knee Deep in June,"Riley; "The Prairies," Bryant ; " The Hunter of the Prairies," Bryant. Section XIII. The Western States. Ballon, " Footprints of Travel," Chapter XXV (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, Stories of Ameri- can Life and Adventure," sections on "How Fremont Crossed the Mountains," " The Finding of Gold in California," " Descending the Grand Canon," and several Indian stories (A. B. C., $0.50) ; Chase and Clow, " Stories of Industry," Vol. I, several sections on " Mines and Mining " (E. P. C., $0.40) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Fifth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.56) ; " The Pass of REFERENCES 331 the Sierra" (poem), Whittier ; "In the Yosemite Valley," Joaquin Miller. Section XIV. Alaska. Ballon, " Footprints of Travel," Chapter XXVI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Eggleston, " Stories of American Life and Ad- venture," " Adventures in Alaska " (A. B. C., $0.50). Section XV. Countries North of the United States. Coe, " Our American Neighbors," Chapters I-XII (S. B. C., $0.60) ; Lyde, " A Geography of North America" (McM., $0.50); Dawson, "Canada and Newfoundland," Stanford's Compendium (Scribner, $0.50) ; An- drews, " Seven Little Sisters," the two sections on Agoonack (Ginn, $0.50); Schwatka, "The Children of the Cold" (E. P. C., $1.25); Gee, " Short Studies in Nature Knowledge " (McM., $1.10) ; King, "The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee andShep- ard, Boston, $0.72) ; " An Arctic Vision," Bret Harte; " Evaugeline," Longfellow. Section XVI. Countries South of the United States. Coe, "Our American Neighbors," Chapters XIII-XVII (S. B. C., $0.60) ; Conk- lin, " Guide to Mexico " (D. Appleton & Co., New York, $1.50) ; Lyde, " A Geography of North America " (McM., $0.50) ; Ballou, " Foot- prints of Travel," Chapters XXIII, XXIV, XXV, XXVII, and XXVIII (Ginn, $1.00); King, "The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Second Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.72). Section XVII. South America. Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapters XXIX-XXXI (Ginn, $1.00) ; Coe, "Our American Neigh- bors" (S. B. C., $0.60). Section XVIII. Europe. Lyde, " A Geography of Europe " (McM., $0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters X-XXII (Ginn, $1.00) ; Coe, "Northern Europe" (S. B. C.,$0.60) ; Pratt, "Northern Europe " (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Lyde, " A Geography of the British Isles" (McM., $0.50) ; King, " The Picturesque Geographical Readers," Sixth Book (Lee & Shepard, Boston, $0.60) ; Pratt, " Stories of England " (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," "The Little Mountain Maiden," and "Louise" (Ginn, $0.50). Poems: Alice Carey, "The Leak in the Dike"; Longfellow, "Venice"; Joaquin Miller, " Sunrise in Venice " ; " In a Gondola." Section XIX. Asia. Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters III, VIII, and IX (Ginn, $1.00) ; Andrews, " Seven Little Sisters," "The Story of Pen-se," also " Gemila" (Ginn, $0.50) ; Smith, "Life 332 REFERENCES in Asia" (S. B. C., $0.60); Pratt, " Stories of India" (E. P. C., $0.40) ; Pratt, " Stories oi China " (E. P. C., $0.40). Poems by Whittier: "The Holy Land"; "Palestine"; "The Pipes of Luck- now." Section XX. Africa. Lyde, " A Geography of Africa " (McM., $0.50) ; Ballou, " Footprints of Travel," Chapters IX and X (Ginn, $1.00); Badlam, "Views in Africa" (S. B. C., $0.72); Andrews, "Seven Little Sisters," section on "The Little Dark Girl" and "Gemila" (Ginn, $0.59). Section XXI. Australia, etc. Ballou, "Footprints of Travel," Chapters II, IV, VI, V, VII (Ginn, $1.00) ; Kellogg, " Australia and the Islands of the Sea" (S. B. C., $0.68) ; Pratt, "Stories of Aus- tralasia " (E. P. C., $0.40). Poem, Western Australia," O'Reilly. FIG. 267. Pioneers on their way to California in " the days of old, the days of gold, the days of '49." APPENDIX CONTINENTS. AND PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES NOTE. The figures 1897, 1901, etc., refer to the year in which the estimate was made. Most of the figures are obtained from the "States- man's Year Book' 1 for 1909, or from the " Century Atlas." NORTH AMERICA United States (with Area in Square Miles . 8,614,658 Alaska) 3,624,122 767,005 1906 1900 1900 Population 100,913,840 84,216,433 13 607 259 Canada. Central America . Cuba . SOUTH AMERICA Brazil . Argentina . Peru . 3,745,570 169,365 45,883 . 7,960,733 . 3,218,130 . 1,135,840 697 640 1906 1906 1899 1908 1908 1908 1908 5,983,560 11,659,770 1,722,953 46,879,001 19,910,646 5,974,771 2 971 814 Chile . 291,544 1908 5 000 000 EUROPE Russia . German Empire . Austria-Hungary . . 3,233,916 . 1,862,524 208,730 241,330 207,054 1907 1906 1905 1906 1906 401,590,739 109,354,600 60,641,278 45,405,307 39 950 245 British Isles . Italy . . Spain . Turkey in Europe ASIA (with East Indies) Chinese Empire . 121,390 96,500 190,050 65,350 . 16,631,559 . 4,277,170 1,097,901 1901 1907 1900 1907 1906 1907 1901 41,609,091 33,640,000 18,618,086 6,130,200 886,427,255 438,214,000 232 072 832 Japan . Turkey in Asia . Siberia AFRICA Kongo State . Egypt . Cape Colony . . Transvaal Colony 147,655 693,610 . - . 4,786,730 . 11,514,000 900,000 400,000 276,909 117,730 1903 1901 1906 1906 1901 1901 1907 1906 46,732,138 17,683,500 6,740,600 127,000,000 30,000,000 9,734,405 2,487,882 1,355,440 ass 334 APPENDIX AUSTRALIA New South Wales Victoria Queensland . South Australia . Tasmania Western Australia Area in Square Miles . 3,065,120 1906 310,370 1906 87,884 1906 670,500 1906 903,690 1906 26,220 1906 975,920 1906 SIZE OF THE EARTH LENGTH OF THE EARTH'S DIAMETER at equator (miles) LENGTH OF THE EQUATOR (miles) . . THE EARTH'S SURFACE (square miles) Pacific Ocean (square miles) , Atlantic Ocean (square miles) . . . . Antarctic Ocean and the great southern sea sur- rounding the south pole (square miles) Indian Ocean (square miles) .... Arctic Ocean (square miles) The sea (square miles) . . . Population 4,479,840 1,533,000 1,238,000 535,100 383,830 180,160 261,750 7,926 24,903 196,971,984 55,660,000 33,720,000 30,605,000 16,720,000 4,781,000 141,486,000 AREA AND POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California . Colorado Connecticut . Delaware District of Columbia . Florida Georgia Guam .... Hawaiian Islands Idaho . . . . Illinois Indiana Iowa .... Kansas Kentucky . Louisiana . Area in Square Miles 52,250 . 590,884 . 113,020 . 53,850 . 158,360 . 103,925 . 4,990 . 2,050 . 70 . 58,680 . 59,475 . 180 . 6,449 . 84,800 . 56,650 . 36,350 . 56,025 . 82,080 . 4,400 . 48,720 . Population, est., 1906 . 2,017,877 82,516 143,745 . 1,421,574 . 1,648,049 . . 615,570 . 1,005,716 194,479 307,716 629,341 . 2,443,719 9,698 192,407 . 205,704 . 5,418,670 . 2,710,898 . 2,205,690 . 1,612,471 . 2,320,298 . 1,539,440 APPENDIX 335 Maine . Maryland . Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota . Mississippi . Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire . New Jersey . New Mexico New York . North Carolina . North Dakota Ohio . Oklahoma . Oregon Pennsylvania Philippine Islands Porto Rico . Rhode Island South Carolina . South Dakota Tennessee . Texas . Tutuila Utah ... Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin . Wyoming Area in Square Miles 33,040 . 12,210 . 8,315 . 58,915' . 83,365 . 46,810 . 69,415 . 146,080 . 77,510 . 110,700 . 9,305 . 7,815 . 122,580 . 49,170 . 52,250 . 70,795 . 41,060 . 39,030 . 96,030 . 45,215 . 114,326 . 3,550 . 1,250 . 30,570 . 77,650 . 42,050 . 265,780 . 55 . 84,970 . 9,565 . 42,450 . 69,180 . 24,780 . 56,040 . 97,890 . Population, est., 1906 714,494 . 1,275,434 . 3,043,346 . 2,584,533 . 2,025,615 . 1,708,272 . 3,363,153 303,575 . 1,068,484 42,335 432,624 . 2,196,237 . . . 216,328 . 8,226,990 . 2,059,326 . 463,784 . 4,448,677 590,247 . 474,738 . 6,928,515 . 7,912,243 . 1,037,028 . 490,387 . 1,453,818 . 465,908 . 2,172,476 . 3,536,618 3,800 316,331 350,373 . 1,973,104 614,625 . 1,076,406 . 2,260,930 103,673 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES NOTE. The great increase in size of New York is due to the joining of Brooklyn and other cities to it, making Greater New York. 1. New York, N.Y. 2. Chicago, 111. . Population, est., 1906 4,113,043 2,049,185 Population, Census of 1900 . 3,437,202 . 1,698,575 336 APPENDIX 3. Philadelphia, Pa. . 4. St. Louis, Mo. 5. Boston, Mass. 6. Baltimore, Md. . 7. Cleveland, Ohio . 8. Buffalo, N.Y. 9. San Francisco, Cal. 10. Pittsburg, Pa. 11. Detroit, Mich. 12. Cincinnati, Ohio . 13. Milwaukee, Wis. . 14. New Orleans, La. . 15. Washington, D.C. 16. Newark, N.J. 17. Minneapolis, Minn. 18. Jersey City, N.J. . 19. Louisville, Ky. 20. Indianapolis, Ind. 21. St. Paul, Minn. . 22. Providence, R.I. . 23. Rochester, N.Y. . 24. Kansas City, Mo. . 25. Toledo, Ohio Population, est., 1906 1,441,735 649,320 602,278 553,669 460,327 381,819 450,100 375,082 353,535 345,230 317,903 314,146 307,716 289,634 273,825 237,952 226,129 219,154 203,815 203,243 185,703 182,376 159,980 Population, Census of 1900 . 1,293,697 575,238 560,892 508,957 381,768 352,387 342,782 321,616 285,704 325,902 285,315 287,104 278,718 246,070 . 202,718 206,433 201,731 169,164 163,065 175,597 162,608 163,752 131,822 CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES AND ITS DEPEND- ENCIES MENTIONED IN THIS BOOK Albany, N.Y. . Allegheny, Pa. Annapolis, Md. . Atlanta, Ga. Baltimore, Md. . Bangor, Me. Birmingham, Ala. Boston, Mass. Bridgeport, Conn. Buffalo, N.Y. Butte, Mont. Cambridge, Mass. Camden, N.J. Charleston, S.C. . Chattanooga, Tenn. Population, est., 1906 170,609 145,240 9,077 109,984 553,669 23,500 45,864 602,278 84,274 381,819 43,624 98,544 84,849 56,317 34,297 Population, Census of 1900 94,151 129,896 8,402 89,872 508,957 21,850 38,415 560,892 70,996 352,387 30,470 91,886 75,935 55,807 32,490 APPENDIX 337 Chicago, 111. ... Population, est, 1906 . 2,049,185 Cincinnati, O. 345,230 Cleveland, O. 460,327 Columbus, O. 145,414 Dallas, Tex. 52,793 Denver, Col. 151,920 Detroit, Mich. 353,535 Dulufch, Minn. 67,337 Fall River, Mass. 105,942 Galveston, Tex. . 34,355 Gloucester, Mass. 25,989 Grand Rapids, Mich. . . ' 99,794 Harrisburg, Pa. . 55,735 Hartford, Conn. . 95,822 Havana, Cuba 202,395 Honolulu . . . 39,306 Indianapolis, Ind. 219,154 Jacksonville, Fla. 36,675 Jersey City, N.J. 237,952 Kansas City, Mo. 77,912 Knoxville, Tenn. . 36,051 Lawrence, Mass. . 71,548 Los Angeles, Cal. 250,000 Louisville, Ky. 226,129 Lowell, Mass. 95,173 Lynn, Mass. 78,748 Manchester, N.H. 64,703 Manila, Philippines 219,928 Memphis, Tenn. . 125,018 Milwaukee, Wis. 317,903 Minneapolis, Minn. 273,825 Mobile, Ala. 42,903 Newark, N.J. 289,634 New Bedford, Mass. . 76,746 New Haven, Conn. 121,227 New Orleans, La. 314,146 New York, N.Y. . 4,113,043 Norfolk, Va. 66,931 Oakland, Cal. 200,000 Ogden, Utah 17,165 Omaha, Neb. 124,167 Paterson, N.J. 112,801 Pensacola, Fla. . * . 22,256 Philadelphia, Pa. . 1,441,735 Pittsburg, Pa. 375,082 Population. Census of 1900 . 1,698,575 325,902 381,768 125,560 42,638 . 133,859 285,704 52,969 104,863 37,789 26,121 87,565 50,167 79,850 (1899) 235,981 39,306 169,164 28,429 206,433 163,752 32,637 62,559 102,479 . 204,731 94,969 68,513 56,987 (1901) 350,000 102,320 285,315 202,718 38,469 246,070 62,442 108,027 287,104 . 3,437,202 46,624 16,313 102,555 105,171 17,747 1,293,697 321,616 338 APPENDIX Portland, Me. Portland, Ore. . Providence, R.I. . Pueblo, Col. Reading, Pa. Richmond, Va. Rochester, N.Y. . Rutland, Vt. Saginaw, Mich. . St. Louis, Mo. St. Paul, Minn. . Salt Lake City, Utah San Francisco, Cal. Savannah, Ga. Scran ton, Pa. Seattle, Wash. . Sitka, Alaska Spokane, Wash. . Springfield, Mas-. Syracuse, N.Y. Tacoma, Wash. . Tampa, Fla. Toledo, O. . Trenton, N.J. Troy, N.Y. . . Vicksburg, Miss. . Washington, B.C. Wheeling, West Va. Wilkesbarre, Pa. . Wilmington, Del. Wilmington, N.C. Worcester, Mass. Population, eat., 1906 55,167 109,884 203,243 30,824 91,141 87,246 185,703 11,961 48,742 614,320 203,815 61,202 450,000 68,596 118,692 104,169 1,396 47,006 75,836 118,880 55,392 24,220 159,980 86,355 76,513 14,834 307,716 41,494 60,121 85,140 21,528 130,07'8 Population, Census of 1900 50,145 90,426 175,597 28,157 78,961 85,050 162,608 11,499 42,345 575,238 163,065 53,531 342,782 54,244 102,026 80,671 1,396 36,848 62,059 108,374 37,714 15,839 131,822 73,307 60,651 14,834 278,718 38,878 51,721 76,508 20,976 118,421 TWENTY-FIVE LARGEST CITIES OF THE WORLD 1. London, England, est., 1907 . Greater London, est., 1907 2. New York, United States, est., 1906 3. Paris, France, 1906 . 4. Chicago, United States, est., 1906 . 5. Berlin, Germany, 1905 . . ' . 6. Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1907 7. Tokio, Japan, 1903 . Population 4,758,218 7,217,941 4,113,043 2,763,393 2,049,185 2,040,148 1,999,912 1,818,655 APPENDIX 339 Population 8. Philadelphia, United States, est., 1906 . 1,441,735 9. St. Petersburg, Russia, 1905 . . . 1,429,000 10. Moscow, Russia, 1907 .... 1,359,254 11. Constantinople, Turkey (recent) . . 1,106,000 12. Calcutta, India, 1901 .... 1,026,987 13. Buenos Aires, Argentina, est., 1905 . 1,025,653 14. Osaka, Japan, 1903 995,945 15. Canton, China, est, 1906 ... 900,000 16. Glasgow, Scotland, est., 1907 . . . 847,584 17. Tientsin, China, est. . . 750,000-900,000 18. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1906 . . . 811,265 19. Hamburg, Germany, 1905 . . . 802,793 20. Bombay, India, est., 1901 . . . 776,006 21. Warsaw, Russia, 1901 .... 756,426 22. Liverpool, England, est., 1907 . . . 746,144 23. Budapest, Austria-Hungary, 1900 . . 732,322 24. Peking, China, est 700,000 25. St. Louis, United States, est., 1906 . . 649,320 IMPORTANT FOREIGN CITIES Population Adelaide, South Australia, 1906 . . . 174,438 Alexandria, Egypt, 1897 .... 319,766 Amsterdam, Netherlands, 1906 . . . 564,186 Antwerp, Belgium, 1906 . . . . 304,032 Athens, Greece, 1906 170,000 Bangkok, Siarn, 1906 . . . 400,000-600,000 Barcelona, Spain, 1900 533,000 Belfast, Ireland, 1901 349,180 Berlin, Germany, 1905 2,040,148 Berne, Switzerland, 1907 . . . . 73,185 Birmingham, England, 1907 .... 553,155 Bombay, India, 1901 776,006 Bordeaux, France, 1906 . . . . . 251,917 Brussels, Belgium, 1906 623,041 Budapest, Austria-Hungary, 1900 . . . 732,322 Buenos Aires, Argentina, 1905 . . . 1,025,653 Cairo, Kgypt, 1897 570,062 Calcutta, India, 1901 1,026,987 Callao, Peru, 1906 31,000 Canton, China, 1906 900,000 Cape Town, Cape Colony, 1904 . . . 77,668 Caracas, Venezuela, 1894 .... 72,429 340 APPENDIX Population Christiania, Norway, 1900 .... 227,626 Constantinople, Turkey, 1906 ... 1,106,000 Copenhagen, Denmark, 1906 .... 426,450 Dresden, Germany, 1905 . . . . 516,996 Dublin, Ireland, 1901 290,636 Edinburgh, Scotland, 1907 . . . . 345,479 Geneva, Switzerland, 1907 . . . 116,387 Glasgow, Scotland, 1907 .... 847,584 Hague-, The, Netherlands, 1906 . . . 248,995 Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1901 .... 40,832 Hamburg, Germany, 1905 .... 802,793 Havre, France, 1906 132,430 Hongkong, China, 1906 319,803 Jerusalem, Turkey in Asia, 1906 . . . 70,000 Johannesburg, Transvaal, 1904 . . . 158,850 Kimberley, Cape Colony, 1904 . . . 77,668 Leipzig, Germany, 1905 503,672 Lima, Peru, 1908 130,000 Lisbon, Portugal, 1900 356,009 Liverpool, England, 1907 .... 746,141 London, England, 1907 4,758,218 London, Greater, 1907 . . . . . . 7,217,914 Lyon, France, 1906 472,114 Madras, India, 1901 509,346 Madrid, Spain, 1900 539,835 Malaga, Spain, 1900 130,109 Manchester, England, 1907 .... 643,148 Marseille, France, 1906 517,498 Mecca, Turkey in Asia, 1907 .... 60,000 Melbourne, Victoria, 1906 .... 526,400 Mexico, Mexico, 1900 344^721 Milan, Italy, 1901 493,241 Mocha, Turkey in Asia, 1900 . . . . 5,000 Montevideo, Uruguay, 1907 . . . . 309,390 Montreal, Canada, 1901 . . ' . . . 267,730 Moscow, Russia, 1907 1,359,254 Munich, Germany, 1905 538,983 Naples, Italy, 1901 . . . . . . 563,540 Odessa, Russia, 1900 449,673 Ottawa, Canada. 1901 59,928 Para, Brazil, 1900 100,000 Paris, France, 1906 ..... 2,763,393 Peking, China, 1906 . . . .700,000-800,000 Prague, Austria-Hungary, 1907 . . . 228,645 Quebec, Canada, 1901 68,840 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 1906 .... 811,265 APPENDIX 341 Population Rome, Italy, 1901 462,743 St. John, New Brunswick, 1901 . . . 40,711 St. Petersburg, Russia, 1905 .... 1,429,000 Santiago, Chile, 1905 378,000 Shanghai, China, 1906 .-. . . . 651,000 Singapore, Malay Peninsula, 1901 . . . 228,555 Stockholm, Sweden, 1906 .... 332,738 Sydney, New South Wales, 1901 . . . 487,900 Teheran, Persia, 1906 280,000 Tientsin, China, 1906 . . 750,000-900,000 Tokio, Japan, 1905 1,818,655 Toronto, Canada, 1901 208,040 Trieste, Austria-Hungary, 1907 . . . 205,136 Valparaiso, Chile, 1907 175,000 Vancouver, Canada, 1901 . . . . 26,133 Venice, Italy, 1901 151,840 Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1900 .... 29,164 Victoria, Canada, 1901 . . . . . 20,816 Vienna, Austria-Hungary, 1907 . . . 1,999,912 Warsaw, Poland, 1901 756,426 Winnepeg, Canada, 1906 . . . . 90,153 Yokohama, Japan, 1903 326,035 Zurich, Switzerland, 1907 .... 186,846 HEIGHT OF A FEW MOUNTAIN PEAKS Feet Mt. Everest, Himalaya Mountains, Asia .... 29,002 Aconcagua, Andes Mountains, Chile ..... 22,860 Mt. McKinley, Alaskan Mountains, Alaska . . . 20,464 Mt. Logan, Coast Ranges, Canada . . 19,539 Mt. Elburz, Caucasus Mountains, Russia .... 18,200 Orizaba, Sierra Madre, Mexico ....'.. 18,314 Mt. St. Elias, Coast Ranges, Alaska 18,025 Mt. Blanc, Alps Mountains, France ..... 15,781 Mt. Whitney, Sierra Nevada Mountains, California . . 14,502 Mt. Rainier, Cascade Mountains, Washington . . . 14,363 Mt. Shasta, Cascade Mountains, California . . . 14,380 Pikes Peak, Rocky Mountains, Colorado .... 14,108 Mauna Loa, Hawaiian Islands . . . . . 13,675 Fremont Peak, Rocky Mountains, Wyoming . . . 13,790 Fujiyama, Japan 12,365 Mt. Mitchell, Appalachian Mountains, North Carolina . 6,711 Mt. Washington, White Mountains, New Hampshire . 6,279 Mt. Marcy, Adirondacks, New York . , . . 5,344 342 APPENDIX SOME OF THE LARGEST RIVERS OF THE WORLD Name Country Missouri-M ississippi United States Nile . Africa Amazon South America Ob ' . Siberia Yangtse Kiang - . China Kongo . Africa Lena . Siberia Hoang-Ho . China Niger . Africa Plata . South America Mackenzie . Canada Volga . Russia St. Lawrence North America Yukon . Alaska Indus . India Danube Europe Length in Miles Basin Area (Tcean 4,300 1,257,000 Atlantic 3,400 1,273,000 Atlantic 3,300 2,500,000 Atlantic 3,200 1,000,000 Arctic 3,200 548,000 Pacific 2,900 1,200,000 Atlantic 2,800 950,000 Arctic 2,700 570,000 Pacific 2,600 563,300 Atlantic 2,580 1,200,000 Atlantic 2,000 590,000 Arctic 2,400 563,300 Caspian 2,200 519,000 Atlantic 2,000 440,000 Pacific 1,800 372,700 Indian 1,770 300,000 Atlantic TEN OF THE GREAT LAKES OF THE WORLD Name Length Breadth Area in Square r, in Miles in Miles Miles Caspian 680 270 169,000 Russia Superior 390 160 31,200 U. S. and Canada Victoria Nyanza 230 220 30,000 Africa Aral 225 185 26,900 Asiatic Russia Huron 250 100 17,400 U. S. and Canada Michigan 335 85 20,000 United States Tanganyika 420 50 12,650 Africa Baikal 397 45 12,500 Siberia Erie 250 58 10,000 LI. S. and Canada Chad (a shallow lake which grows very large in the rainy season about and shrinks in the dry season) 10,000 Africa APPROXIMATE AVERAGE HEIGHT OF SOME PLATEAUS Feet . 10,000-15,000 . 10,000-13,000 2,000-3,000 5,000-6,000 5,000-6,000 2,000-2,500 Tibet Bolivia ..... Spain . . Mexico ... Western United States Plateau Brazil INDEX OF PLACES AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY KEY TO PRONUNCIATION Vowel Sounds : a, as in fate ; a, as in .senate ; a, as in fat ; a, as in final ; a, as in far ; , as in last ; g, as in fall ; a, as in care ; e, as in mete ; e, as in event ; e, as in pen ; e, as in recent ; e, as in term ; i, as in pine ; ?, as in ^/ra ; i, as in basin ; o, as in note ; 6, as in obey ; o, as in not ; o, as in beckon ; 6, as in for ; w, as in mute ; w, as in tub ; M, as in rule ; w, as in furl ; oo, as in food ; oo, as in foot ; o, as in oil ; ow, as in house. Consonant Sounds : ch, as in chin ; , as in get ; w, as in linger, link ; ng, as in smgr ; jy, similar in sound to w^ ; A, as in thin ; fh, as in thine ; # and ^, like the German ch ; //, strongly aspirated, as in hiss. The sign ' tells upon which syllable the accent is placed. The numbers refer to pages in the book excepting where Fig. is before them, when they refer to figures in the book. Abyssinia (ab-is-sin'i-a), 265. Aconcagua (a-kon-ka'gwa), Fig. 177. Acropolis (a-krop'6-lis), Fig. 201. Adelaide (ad'e-lad), 274. Adirondacks (ad-i-r5n'daks), 163. Adriatic (ad-re-St'ik), 240. Afghanistan (af-gan-is-tan'), Fig. 203. Africa (&f ri-ka), 142, 263. Alabama (al-a-'ba'ma), 171. Alameda, 200. Alaska (a-laVka), 203, Fig. 167-8. Albany (al'ba-ni), 162. Aleutian (a-lu'shi-an), Fig. 203. Alexandria (al-egs-an'dri-a), 265. Algeria (al-je'ri-a), Fig. 214. Allegheny (al'e-ga-m), 45. 166, 167. Amazon (am'aT-zon), 216, 218. Amsterdam (am'ster-dam), 235. Amur (a-moor'), Fig. 203. Andes (Sn'dez), 216, 222. Androscoggiu (an-dros-kog'm), 158. Annapolis (an-nap'6-lis), 168. Antarctic (an-tark'tik), 143. Antilles (an-til'lez), 215. Antwerp (Snt'werp), 236. Appalachians (ap-pa-la'chi-anz), 151, 165, 171, 172. Arabia (a-ra'bi-a), 252. Aral (ar'al), Fig. 203. Ararat (ar'a-rat), Fig. 203. 343 344 INDEX Arctic (ark'tik), 143, Figs. 171-2. Argentina (ar-jen-te'na), 221. Arizona (ar-I-zo'na), 190. Arkansas (ar'kan-sa), 171. Asia (a'shi-a), 142,"250. Athabasca (ath-a-bas'ka), Fig. 123. Athens (ath'enz), 244. Atlanta (at-lan'ta), 172. Atlantic (at-lan'tlk), 68, 144. Auburn, Fig. 81. Augusta (a-gus'ta), Fig. 125. Australia (as-tra'11-a), 143, 271. Austria (as'tii-a), 242. Azores (a-zorz'), Fig. 214. Baikal (bi'kal), Fig. 203. Baltic (bal'tik), 230, 232. Baltimore (bal'ti-mor or -mor), 161, 168. Bangkok (ban-kok'), 263. Bangor (ban'gdr), 158. Bakersfield, 200. Barcelona (bar-se-lo'na), 239. Baton Kouge (bat'un roozh), Fig. 140. Belfast (bel-fasf), 228. Belgium (bel'ji-um), 236. Bengal (ben-gal'), Fig. 203. Bering Sea (be'ring), Fig. 203. Berlin (ber'lin), 234. Bermuda (ber-inu'da), 214. Berne (bern), 242. Berkeley, 200. Birmingham (ber'ming-um) , 172. Big Trees, XVI. Birmingham, Eng., 227. Black II ills, 195. Bogota (bo-go-ta'), Fig. 177. Boise (boi'za), Fig. 157. Bokhara (b5k-a'ra), Fig. 203. Bolivia (bo-liv'i-a), Fig. 177. Bombay (bom-ba/), 259. Bordeaux (b6r-do'), 236, 238. Borneo (b6r'ne-o), Fig. 221. Boston (bos'ton), 71, 154, 155, 159. Brahmaputra (bra-ma-poo'tra), Kig. 203. Brazil (bra-zil'), 216. Bridgeport (brij'port), 159. British Isles (brit'ish), 225. Brooklyn (brook'lin), 161. Brussels (bras'selz), 236. Budapest (boo'd6-pest), 243. Buenos Aires (bo'nusa'riz), 221. Buffalo (buf'a-lo), 162, 163, 164. Bulgaria (bocTl-ga'ri-a), 245. Butte (but), 195. Cairo (ki'ro), Egypt, 265. Calcutta (kal-kut'ta), 259. California (kal-i-f6r'm-a), 193. Callao (kal-la'o or kal-ya/o), 222. Cambridge (kam'brij), 154. Camden (kam'den), 165. Canada (kan'a-da), 152, 205. Cancer (kan'ser), Tropic, 128. Canton (kan-ton'), 256. Cape Town, 270. Cape Verde Islands (verd), Fig. 214. Capricorn (kap'rl-k6rn) , Tropic, 1-J8. Caracas (ka-ra'kas), 221. Caribbean (kar-Ib-be'an) , 214. Cascade Range (kS,s-kad'), 191. Caspian (kas'pT-an), 231. Castine (kas-ten'), 70. Catalina Island, Fig. 55. Catskills (kats'kilz), 163. Caucasus (ka/ka-sus), Fig. 183. Cayenne (ka-yen' or kl-en'), Fig. 177. Celebes (sel'e-bez), Fig. 221. Central America (a-mer'i-ka), 152, 213. Ceylon (se-16n' orsi-lon'), Fig. 203. Chad (chad), Fig. 214. Champlain (sham-plan'), Fig. 132. INDEX 345 Charleston (charlz'ton), 177. Chattanooga (chat-ta-noo'ga), 172. Chesapeake (ches'a-pek), 161. Cheyenne (shi-en'). Fig. 157. Chicago (she-ka'goj, 184, 185. Cbico, 114, 215. Chile (che'la), 222, 223. Chimborazo (chlm-bo-ra'zo), 15. China (chi'na), 107, 255. Christiania (krls-te-a'ne-a), 230. Cincinnati (s!n-sin-na'ti), 188. Cleveland (kleVland), 186. Coast Ranges, 190. Colombia (ko-lom'be-a), 223. Colorado (kol-o-ra'do), 194. Colorado Canyon, 193. Columbia (ko-luin'bi-a) , Dist.,108. Columbia River, 200. Columbus (ko-lum'bus), 188. Colusa, 41. Connecticut (k5n-net'I-kut), 158. Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-no'pl), 244. Copenhagen (k5-pen-ha'gen), 231. Cordilleras (k5r-dil'ler-az)~ 191, 194. Coronado, 76. Corinth (kor'inth), 243. Corsica (k6r'si-ka), Fig. 183. Crete (kret), Fig. 183. Cuba (ku'ba), 120, 214. Dallas (dal'as), 173. Danube (dan'ub), 243, 245. Darling River, 273. Dead Sea, 59. Delaware (del'a-war), 161. Denmark (den'inark), 230. Denver (den'ver), 194. Des Moines (de moin'), Fig. 148. Detroit (de-troif), 186. Dnieper (ne'per), Fig. 183. Dniester (nes'ter), Fig. 183. Dresden (dr6z'den), 234. Dublin (dub'lm), Fig. 183. Duluth (du-looth'), 186. East India (m'di-a), 143, 274. EchoMt., Figs. 20~, 21. Ecuador (ek-wa-dor'), 223. Edinburgh (ed'in-bur-ro), 227. Egypt (e'jipt), 265. Elbe (elb), 233. Elburz (el-boorz'), Fig. 183. England (in'gland), 107, 227. Erie (e'ri), Lake, 163. Eskimos (es'kl-moz), 130, 209. Eurasia (u-ra/shi-a) , 139. Europe (u'rup), 140, 225. Everest (ev'er-est), Mt., 250. Fall River, 159. Fiji (fe'je), 276. Florida (flor'I-da), 175. Formosa (for-mo'sa), 257. France (frans), 236. Fresno, 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. Galveston (pl'ves-ton), 177. Ganges (gan'jez), 259. Genesee (jen-e-se'), 164. Geneva (je-ne^'va), 242. Georgia (j6r'ji-a), 175. Germany (jer'ma-ni)j 233. Gibraltar (ji-bral'tar), 263. Glasgow (glas'go), 227. Gloucester (glos'ter) , 155, 200. Gobi (go'be), 251? Golden Gate, X, op. 118, Park 66. Grand Rapids, 187. Great Britain (brlt'an), 225. Great Lakes, 58, 62. Great Salt Lake, 59, 197. Greece (gres), 243. Greenland (gren'land), 209. Guam (gwam), Fig. 221. Guiana (ge-a'na), 221. 346 INDEX Guthrie (guth're), Fig. 140. Haiti (ha'ti), 215. Halifax (hal'e-faks), 208. Hamburg (ham' burg), 233. Harrisburg (haVIs-burg), 166. Hartford (hart'ford), 159. Havana (ha-van'a), 214. Havre (ha/ver), 237. Hawaii (ha-wl'e), 276. Hawaiian (ha-wi'yan) Islands, 132, 145, 201, 276. Helena (hel'e-na), Fig. 157. Himalaya (hlm-a'la-ya) , 250. Hoangho (ho-ang-ho'), Fig. 203. Holland (hol'land), 234. Hongkong (hong-kong'), 256. Honolulu (ho-no-loo'loo), 276. Hudson (hud'son) River, 162. Hungary (hun'ga-ri), 242. Huron (hu'ron), Lake, Fig. 148. Iceland (is'land), 231. Idaho (i'da-ho), Fig. 157. Illinois (il-H-noi' or -noiz'), 181, 182. Iloilo (e-lo-e 7 lo), Fig. 221. India (m'di-a), 258. Indian, 144, Fig. 268. Indiana (m-di-an'a), 182. Indianapolis (in-di-an-ap'o-lis) , 188. Indian Territory, 177. Indo-China (In'do chl'na), 260. Indus (in'dus), 259. Iowa (1'6-wa), 181. Ireland (ir'land), 225. Irkutsk (ir-kootsk'), Fig. 203. Italy (it'a-li), 240. Jacksonville (jak'son-vil), 177. Jamaica (ja-ma'ka), 215. Japan (ja-pan'), 257. Java (ja'va), 274. Jersey (jer'zi) City, 161. Jerusalem (je-ru'sa-lem), 252. Johannesburg (yo-han'nes-burg) , 269. Kamchatka (kam-chat'ka), Fig. 203. Kansas (kan'sas), 181. Kansas City, 188. Katahdin (ka-ta'din), Fig. 125. Kennebec (ken-e-bek'), 158. Kentucky (ken-tuk'I), 181. Key Route, 98. Kimberley (ktm'ber-li), 270. Klondike (klon'dlk), 203, 206, Fig. 34. Knoxville (noks'vil), 172. - Kongo (kon'go), 268. Korea (ko-re'a), 257. Labrador (Iab-ra-d6r') , 205. Lachine (la-shen') Rapids, 206. Ladrone (la-dron'), Fig. 221. Lawrence (lar'ens), 159. Leipzig (Hp'tsiG), 234. Lena (le'na), Fig. 203. Lima (le'ma), 222. Lisbon (liz'bon), 239. Liverpool (liv'er-pool) , 227. Loire (Iwar), Fig. 183. London (lun'dun), 226, 228. Los Angeles (los an'g61-es), bet. pp. 148-149, 198, 201, Fig. 244. Louisiana (]yo-e-ze-a'na), Fig. 140. Louisville (loo'is-vilorloo'I-vil), 188. Lowell (lo'el), 159. Luzon (loo-zon'), 275. Lynn(lTn), 151). Lyon (li'on). 237. Madagascar (mad-a-gas'kar), Fi 214. Madeira (ma-de'ra), Fig. 214. Madrid (ma-drid'), 239. Maine (man), 156, 157. Malay (ina-la/), Fig. 203. INDEX 347 Manchester (m&n'ckes-ter) , Eng. , 227. Manchester, N.H., 158, 159. Manchuria (man-choo're-a) ,Fig. 203. Manila (ma-nll'a), 275. Manitoba (man-I-to-ba'), 206. Marseille (mar-sal'), 238. Maryland (mer'I-land or ma'ri- land), 161. Marysville, 189. Massachusetts (inas-a-chu'sets) , Fig. 125. Matterhorn (mat'ter-horn) , 242. . Mecca (mek'a), 252. Mediterranean (med-i-ter-ra'ne-an), 252, 263. Mekong (ma-kong'), Fig. 203. Melbourne (mel'burn), 274. Memphis (mem'fis), 177. Merced Falls, Cal., Fig. 49. Merrimac (mer'i-mak), 158. Mexico (meks'I-ko), 152, 211. Mexico City, 213. Michigan (mish'I-gan) , 183. Michigan, Lake, 184. Milan (mil'an or mi-Ian'), 241. Milwaukee (mil-wa'ke), 184. Mindanao (men-da-na/o), Fig. 221. Mindoro (men-do'ro), Fig. 221. Minneapolis (min-e-ap'o-lis), 185. Minnesota (mm-e-so'ta), 182, 183. Mississippi (mis-fs-ip'i), 185. Mississippi River, 33, 45, 51, 55, 151, 171, 174. Missouri (mis-oo'rl), 171, 187. Mobile (mo-bel'), 177. Mocha (mo'ka), 253. Mohammedan (mo-ha'm'ine'd-an), 244, 252. Mohawk (mo'hak), 163, 164. Mongolia (mon-go'11-a), Fig. 203. Monongahela (rno-n5n-ga-he'la), 45. Montana (m5n-ta'na), 195. Montenegro (mon-ta-na'gro), 245. Montevideo (mon-ta-ve'da-o), 221. Montpelier (mont-pe'H-er), Fig. 125. Montreal (m5nt-re-al')r207, 208. Mt. Shasta (shas'ta), Figs. 19, 24. Mt. Whitney Range, 287. Mt. Lowe Ry., Fig. 20. Moosehead (mws'hed) Lake, 61. Morocco (mo-rok'o), Fig. 214. Moros (mC'roz), 276. Moscow (mos'ko), 232. Munich (mu'mk), 234. Murray (mur'rl) River, 272. Nantucket (n5n-tuk'et), Fig. 125. Naples (na'plz), 241. Nashville (nash'vil), Fig. 140. Nebraska (ne-bras'ka), 181. Negritos (ne-grl'toz) , 276. Netherlands (ngfh'er-landz), 234. Nevada (ne-va'da),~ 195. Newark (na'ark), 161. New Bedford (bed'ford), 169. New Caledonia (kal-e-do'm-a), Fig. 221. New England (m'gland), 100, 154. Newfoundland (nu'fond-land), 205. New Guinea (gm'e), ~Fig. 221. New Hampshire (hamp'shir), 154. New Haven, 154, 159. New Hebrides (heb'ri-dez), Fig. 221. New Jersey (jer'zl), 165. New Mexico (meks'I-ko), 190. New Orleans (6r'le-anz), 55, 93, 176, 177. New South Wales (walz), 271. New York (y6rk), 71, 72, 96, 161, 164. New Zealand (ze'land), 274. Niagara (m-ag'a-ra) Falls, 164. Nicaragua (ne-ka-ra'gwa) , Fig. 123. Niger (ni'jer), 268. Nile (nil), 265, 266. Norfolk (ndr'fok), 168. 348 INDEX North Ainerica(a-nier'i-ka), 138, 151. North Carolina (kar-6-ll'na), Fig. 140. North Dakota (da-ko'ta), Fig. 148. Norway (ndr'wa), 229. Nova Scotia (no'va sko'shi-a), 205. Oakland, 98, 118, 200. Ocean Park, Cal., Fig. 64. Odessa (6-des'sa), 232. Ogden (og'den), 197. Ohio (o-hi'6), 48, 182, 183. Oklahoma (6k-la-h6'ma), 172, 177. Olympia (6-lIm'pI-a), Fig. 157. Omaha (o'ma-ha), 187. Ontario(on-ta'ri-d), Lake, Fig. 132, Oregon (or'e-gon), 200. Orinoco (o-ri-no'ko) , 216, 220. Ottawa (6t'ta-wa), 207. Pacific (pa-sif'ik), 144. Palawan (pa-la-wan'), Fig. 221. Palestine (pal'es-tln), 252. Panama (pan-a-ma') Canal, 201. Panama Isthmus (is'mus), 138, 213, 223. Panay (pa-ni f ), Fig. 221. Para (pa-ra'), 218. Paramaribo (par-a-mar'i-bo), Fig. 177. Paris (par 'is), 237. Pasadena, 201. Paso Robles, Fig. 42. Patagonia (p&t-a-go'm-a) , Fig. 177. Paterson (pat'er-son), 161. Peking (pe-king'), 256. Pennsylvania (pe"n-sil-va'ni-a) , 161, 165-168. Penobscot (pe-nob'scot), 158. Pensacola (pen-sa-ko'la), 177. Persia (per'slri-a)~ 252.' Peru (pe-roo'), 222. Petchora (pet-cho'ra), Fig. 183. Petaluma, Fig. 84. Philadelphia (fil-a-del'fi-a), 71, 161, 165, 168. Philippine (fll'ip-in), 129, 201, 275. Phosnix (fe'mks), Fig. 157. Pierre (per), Fig. 148. Pittsburg (pits' burg), 45, 166, 167, 168. Pitt River Falls, Fig. 38. Plata (pla'ta), 221. Popocatepetl (po-po'kat-a-pa-tl), 211, Playgrounds, XIV. Portland (pdrt'land), Me., 155, 160. Portland, Oregon, 200. Porto Rico (por'to re'ko), 215. Portugal (por'tu-gal), 238. Potomac (po-to'mak), 168. Poughkeepsie (po-kip'sT), 162. Pribilof (pre-be-fov') Islands, 204. Providence (prov'i-dens), 155, 159. Pueblo (pweb'lo), 194. Puget (pu'jet) Sound, 200. Pyrenees (plr'e-nez), 238. Quebec (kwe-bek'), 207. Queensland (kwenz'laud), 271. Quito (ke'to), Fig. 177. Rainier (ra'ner), Fig, 157. Raleigh (ra'la), Fig. 140. Reading (rgd^ing), 166. Rhine (rln), 233. Rhode (rod) Island, Fig. 125. Richmond (rich''mond), 169. Rio de Janeiro (re'6 da zha-na'e-ro), 220. Rio Grande (re'6 gran'da), 151. Rochester (roch'es-ter), 91, 164. Rocky Mountains, 151, 191. Rome (rom), 240. Roumania (roo-ma'ni-a), 245. Russia (rush'a), 281. Rutland (rut'land), 156. INDEX 349 Sacramento (sa"k-ra-men't6), 200, Figs. 41, 157. Saginaw (sag'm-a), 187. Sahara (sa-har'a), 263. St. Anthony (an'tho-m) Falls, 186. St. Helena (Mt.), Fig. 71. St. Lawrence (la'rens), 58, 151,207. St. Louis (lod'is orWi), 45, 187. St. Paul, 94, 185. St. Petersburg (pe'terz-burg), 232. Salinas River, Fig. 42. Salt Lake City, 197. Samar (sa-mar'), Fig. 221. Samoa (sa-mo'a), 276. San Bernardino, op. .p. 153. San Diego, 201, op. p. 153. San Francisco (s&n fran-sis'ko), 72, 194, 200, 201, op. p. 118, Fig. 83. San Jose", 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. San Pedro, Fig. 56. Santa Barbara, 201. Santa Fe (san'ta fa ), Fig. 157. Santiago (san-te-a'go), 222. Sardinia (sar-dm'i-a), Fig. 183. Savannah (sa-van'a), 177. Scotland (skot'land), 226. Scranton (skran'ton), 167. Seattle (se-at'l), 200. Shanghai (sh&ng-ha'i), 256. Shasta (shas'ta), Figs. 19, 124. Siam (si-am' or se-am'), 260. Siberia (sl-be'ri-a), 254. Sierra Madre, Fig. 123. Sierra Nevada (ne-va'da), 21, 190. Fig. 16. Singapore (sm-ga-por'), 260. South America (a-mer'I-ka) , 138, 216. South Dakota (da-ko'ta), Fig. 148. Spain (span), 107, 238. Spokane (spo-kau'), 200. Springfield (spring'feld), 159. State Inst., Fig. 82, p. 108. Stockholm (stok'holm), 230. Stockton, 200, bet. pp. 152, 153. Sucre (soo'kre), Fig. 177. Sudan (soo-diin'), 268. Suez (soo-ez'), 266. Sulu (sod-loo'), 276. Sumatra (soo-ma'tra), Fig. 221. Superior (su-pe'ri-er), Lake, 162, 182. Sweden (swe'den), 229. Switzerland (swit'zer-land), 142,241. Sydney (sid'm), 27~4. ~ Syracuse (sir'a-kus) , 164. Tacoma (ta-ko'ma), 200. Tagalogs (ta-ga'logz), 276. Tahoe (Lake), 66. Tallahassee (tal-a-h^s'e), Fig. 140. Tampa (t&m'pa), 177. Tanganyika (tan-gan-ye'ka) , Fig. 214. Tasmania (taz-ma'ni-a), 274. Tennessee (ten-nes-se'), Fig. 140. Texas (teks'as), 171, 173. Thames (temz), 226. The Hague (hag), 235. Tibet (tl-beV), or tib'et'), Fig. 203. Tientsin (te-en'tsen), 256. Tierra del Fuego (te-6r'ra dSl fwa'go), Fig. 177. Timbuktu (tim-book'too), Fig. 214. Titicaca (tit-^-ka'ka), Fig. 177. Tokio (to'ke-o), 258. Toledo (to-le'do), 187. Topeka (to-pe'ka), Fig. 148. Toronto (to-ron'to), 208. Trenton (tren'ton), 165. Trieste (tre-6sf), Fig. 183. Trinidad (trm-i-dad'), 221. Tripoli (trip'o-li), Fig. 214. Troy, 164. Truckee, Cal., Fig. 81. Tunis (tu'nls), Fig. 214. Turkestan (toor'kls-tan'), Fig. 203. Turkey (tur'ki), 107, 244. United States, 29, 104, 136, 152, 153, 262, op. p. 179, Fig. 124. 350 INDEX Ural (u'rai) Mountains, 231, 254. Uruguay (oo-roo-gwl' or u'rod-gwa), 221. Utah (u'ta or u'ta), 195, Fig. 164. Valparaiso (val-pa-rl'so), 222. Venezuela (ven-e-zwe'la), 220. Venice (v6n'is),~240. Vera Cruz (va'ra kroos), 213. Vermont (ver-monf), 156. Vesuvius (vi-su'vi-us), 133, 241. Vicksburg, 177. Victoria (vik-to'ri-a), Australia, 271. Victoria, Canada, 208. Victoria Nyanza (ni-an'za), Fig. 214. Vienna (ve-en'a), 243. Virginia (ver-jin'i-a), 169. Vistula (vis'tu-la). Fig. 183. Volga (vol'ga), 231. Wales (walz), 226. Warsaw (war'sa), Fig. 183. Washington (wosh'mg-ton) (city), 104, 105, 106, 168, 169.~ Washington (state), 200. West Indies (m'de"z), 213. West Virginia (ver-jin'i-a), 169. Wheeling (hwel'ing), 169. WilkesBarre (wilks'bar-i), 167. Wilmington (wil'mmg-ton), l^el., 165. Wilmington, N.C., 177. Winnipeg (wm'i-peg), 208. Wisconsin (wls-kon'sin), 182. Worcester (woos'ter), 159. Wyoming (wi-o'ming), Fig. 157. Yang-tse-Kiang (y Sng-tse-ki-ang') , Fig. 203. Yellowstone (y61'6-ston),193,Fig. Io9. Yenesei (yen-e-sa'e), Fig. 203. Yokohama (yo-ko-ha'ma), 258. Yosemite (yo-sem'i-t^), 21, 193, Figs. 18, 25, 158. Yucatan (yoo-ka-tan'), Fig. 123. Yukon (yoo'kon), 151, 203. Zurich (tsu'riK), 242. FIG. 208. The home of a typical Piute Indian family. 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