1 I
 
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 HENRY F R O W I) E 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAKKIIOUSK 
 AMEN CORNER, K.C. 
 
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 MACMll.LAN & CO., 66 FIFTH AVENUK
 
 A 
 
 STUDENT'S PASTIME 
 
 A SELECT SERIES OF ARTICLES REPRINTED FROM 
 
 'Qtofee anfc Queries' 
 
 . JWALTER W. SKEAT, LiTT.D. 
 
 D.C.L., LL.D., PH.D. 
 
 Elrington and Bosivorth Professor of Anglo-Saxon 
 and Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge 
 
 ' The greatest corasive that you can give unto the ignoraunte, is to prosper in 
 knowledge ; the greatest commoditie that you can yeelde unto your countrey, 
 is with wisedome to bestowe that talent, that by grace was given you.' T,YLY, 
 Euphues and his Eph&bus. 
 
 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 1896 
 \All rights reserved}
 
 PCr 
 
 Ojeforfc 
 
 PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 BY HORACE HART 
 PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION vii 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . Ixxix 
 
 SELECT EXTRACTS FROM ' NOTES AND QUERIES ' : 
 
 The Third Series (1866-1867) I 
 
 The Fourth Series (1868-1873) . . . . 31 
 
 The Fifth Series (1874-1879) 81 
 
 The Sixth Series (1880-1885) 129 
 
 The Seventh Series (1886-1891) .... 212 
 The Eighth Series (1892-1896) . . . .316 
 
 INDEX 43
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 Now that my attention has been definitely given to 
 the study of English for more than thirty years (to say the 
 least), it is high time for me to consider the question of 
 venturing to reprint some of my scattered utterances on 
 the subject. 
 
 A good friend of mine once asked me ' How came 
 you to think of studying English?' The fact that such 
 a question was possible suggests that to do so is an 
 uncommon course ; and this is certainly the case, extra- 
 ordinary as the assertion may seem to the foreigner. 
 Under the circumstances, perhaps a few personal details 
 are allowable. 
 
 The book entitled Men of the Time correctly gives the 
 day of my birth as November 21, 1835; five years before 
 that of the Princess Royal, as she was once called, on the 
 same day. The place of it was Mount Street, Park Lane ; 
 but, from the age of two to somewhere about fourteen, we 
 lived at Perry Hill, Sydenham, at that time quite in the 
 country ; and certainly a boy brought up (in holiday-time) 
 in the country has much to be thankful for. It was then 
 that I acquired, by help of various opportunities, some 
 acquaintance with the dialects of West Kent, London, and 
 Essex. But the speech which became most familiar to me
 
 viu INTRODUCTION. 
 
 was that of South Shropshire, where I had many relatives, 
 and which I often visited in company with my parents. 
 My mother once knew the dialect well, and occasionally 
 exemplified it. This explains why Miss Jackson's Shropshire 
 Word-book, of which I read all the proof-sheets, was 
 dedicated to myself ; and why the lamented authoress, but 
 lately dead, made me a present of the copyright of the work. 
 The result is that the English Dialect Dictionary will be 
 able to make very free use of it ; and this is a point of 
 some moment, as the work in question is one of the best 
 of its kind. 
 
 It will be understood that I shall only mention such 
 details as bear more or less directly upon my friend's 
 question. It is of small interest to give the names of the 
 five schools with which I was connected, but I will mention 
 two of them. During part of the time when I was at King's 
 College School, in the fetrand, it was my singular fate to 
 have for my class-master the Rev. Oswald Cockayne, well 
 known to students as a careful and excellent Anglo-Saxon 
 scholar, perhaps one of the best of those of his own date. 
 He was an excellent and painstaking teacher, and it was, 
 I believe, from him that I imbibed the notion of what is 
 known as scholarship. In after life, it was my good fortune 
 to know him personally, and I always experienced from him 
 the greatest kindness and readiness to help. After his 
 death, I acquired some of his books, including his well- 
 known and useful work entitled Anglo-Saxon Lecchdoms, 
 and some of his carefully executed transcripts. His 
 transcript of yElfric's Lives of the Saints, in particular, has 
 often proved useful. 
 
 One of his chief objects was the preparation of a new 
 Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, a work which he undertook 
 because he was dissatisfied with the first edition of 
 Bosworth, which is, in fact, little more than a translation 
 of Lye and Manning. At the time of his death, he had
 
 HIGHGATE SCHOOL. ix 
 
 actually completed, on clearly written slips, the letters 
 A to E ; and these came into my hands with the other 
 papers. By that time, the new edition of Bosworth had 
 already advanced to F, so that they were not available for 
 collation. Nevertheless, I sent them to Professor Toller, 
 in the hope that they may afford some materials for 
 a Supplement ; and I may add that I have since bought 
 a copy of Somner's Dictionary containing a considerable 
 number of MS. references. These are added in a most 
 delicate handwriting resembling print, a handwriting ob- 
 viously adopted on account of the difficulty of writing upon 
 the old paper, which is by no means well sized. Notwith- 
 standing this change in the style of the handwriting, 
 I cannot doubt that these references are Cockayne's own, 
 and should some day deserve attention. 
 
 The last school that received me was that of Sir Roger 
 Cholmeley at Highgate, founded in the reign of Elizabeth, 
 in 1565. The three years which I spent there was a time 
 of much profit and pleasure ; the head-master being then 
 the Rev. John Bradley Dyne. It was in the year of the 
 Great Exhibition of 1851 that I obtained as a prize a copy 
 of Steevens and Malone's Shakespeare ; and this edition 
 was, at any rate, good enough for purposes of common use. 
 The glossary, of course, has no references, but it was an 
 amusement to supply them for myself. 
 
 It was at this school that I gained some notion of the 
 excellence of English literature. For it was customary to 
 give us occasional scraps of it, on which to exercise our 
 skill by translating them into Greek and Latin verse. 
 Probably it is by the same curious and circuitous course 
 that boys still have English authors brought under their 
 notice. However this may be, it is certain that no portion 
 of our literature was ever explained to me at any of my five 
 schools. It was then considered as a thing altogether apart 
 from our ordinary curriculum, and only to be seriously
 
 x INTRODUCTION. 
 
 regarded when in the privacy of our own homes during 
 holidays. And what an astounding fact this now seems to 
 me to be ! If we really possess, as many think, one of the 
 finest literatures in the world, why are not boys informed of 
 its value, and why are they not shown how to approach it 
 with profit to themselves? There is only one thing yet 
 more extraordinary, viz. the total disregard of the history 
 of the English language. All we knew of its etymology 
 was that many English words are derived from Latin and 
 Greek ; but I doubt if even our masters could have told us 
 the history of such common words as home or ransom. 
 
 But there were some gleams of light accorded us, which 
 were by no means devoid of benefit. There was a school 
 library, and one of its possessions was a glorious copy 
 of Spenser. He must have felt rather solitary, from the 
 dearth of brother-poets around him ; but doubtless, his 
 isolation has long ago been remedied. 
 
 Our head-master had one somewhat uncommon idea, 
 which savoured, as it has always seemed to me, of great 
 wisdom. Instead of invariably requiring us to turn English 
 poetry into Latin verse, he sometimes gave us pieces of 
 Latin poetry to turn into English verse ; a change which 
 was delightful and refreshing. The English verse was 
 usually poor enough, but the attempt to produce it was 
 stimulating and valuable. And he did more than this; 
 for our usual holiday-task, in the longest holidays, was 
 to produce an English poem of 200 lines on a given 
 theme. I can conscientiously say that such tasks did 
 me a great deal of good, and the advantages of it are 
 obvious, namely these. In the first place, a boy who has 
 done English verses at school soon gets to understand what 
 genius he has in that direction. If he finds it to be very 
 small, he has learnt a most valuable lesson, viz. to refrain, 
 when he comes of age, from publishing a volume of ' poems.' 
 This alone is a gain both to himself and to the public.
 
 PHILIP S. IVORSLEY. xi 
 
 Again, the frequent habit of writing 'verses' is a most 
 valuable introduction to the art of writing prose. The 
 verse-writer soon forms a habit of considering what words 
 will best suit the idea which he wishes to express ; so that 
 when he has, for example, a letter to write, he does not feel 
 quite all abroad. This is a benefit to his correspondent as 
 well as to himself. 
 
 Moreover, the experiment produced one result which was 
 probably unexpected. One of my schoolfellows actually 
 exhibited the true poetic faculty, and his short life was 
 full of promise of much excellence. This was Philip 
 Stanhope Worsley, scholar of Corpus Christi College, 
 Oxford ; whose splendid translation of Homer's Odyssey 
 into Spenserian stanzas has met with a fair meed of admira- 
 tion. He afterwards attempted a translation of the Iliad, 
 which he did not live to complete ; it was completed, as is 
 well known, by Professor Conington. One of my treasures 
 is his small volume of Poems and Translations, published 
 in 1863. It is probably little known, but it contains some 
 beautiful lines. 
 
 'Who once hath chosen the ranks of right, 
 
 With clenched resolve by his choice to stand, 
 Saves a people oft in their own despite, 
 And loveth wisely his native land.' 
 
 I am thankful to say that, in my time, there were few 
 (if any) ' open ' scholarships. Instead of being ' crammed ' 
 at school for the special purpose of being examined, we 
 honestly earned our scholarships by hard work at college 
 during our ' first year ' ; the year which some freshmen 
 now think they can easily afford to despise. For myself, 
 I had the special advantage of residing in Cambridge before 
 entering college at all ; my private tutor, in mathematics, 
 being the Rev. Harvey Goodwin, afterwards Bishop of 
 Carlisle. It is not many years since I again met the bishop
 
 xil INTRODUCTION. 
 
 at Ely, on which occasion I reminded his lordship of his 
 former helpfulness, when he replied with that geniality 
 which made him so attractive ' Well, do you know I had 
 quite forgotten it ! ' immediately adding, to my intense 
 surprise 'I wish you'd teach me something!' And it 
 turned out that he, at any rate, knew my books. He also 
 spoke feelingly of the great interest which his deceased 
 brother used to take in Anglo-Saxon ; this brother being 
 Charles Wycliffe Goodwin, formerly fellow of Catharine Hall, 
 and editor of The Life of St. Guthlac. 
 
 This year of preparation for college was not wholly 
 given to mathematics. English literature was, at all times, 
 a delightful change and recreation ; and I gained at least 
 one special advantage at this time, fiom a careful and 
 systematic study of the glorious Faerie Queen. I was never, 
 to use Macaulay's phrase, 'in at the death of the Blatant 
 Beast,' for the simple reason that he never was slain, but is 
 still alive ; as the curious reader may discover for himself, 
 unless he is aware of the fact already. Moreover, the 
 Blatant Beast appears in the Sixth Book, not at the end of 
 the extant portion of the poem ; for we must not ignore the 
 two splendid cantos on Mutability. 
 
 I early formed the habit of endeavouring to study poets 
 by the perusal of the texts themselves, rather than by judging 
 of their merits from accidental scraps as presented in books 
 of extracts. I do not mean to say that in the case of 
 Byron, for example, one is bound to read Marino Faliero 
 and Sardanapalus along with the rest at the first time of 
 reading ; but it is surely best to examine a considerable 
 portion of his works at the same time, and there is no 
 reason for neglecting Lara after perusing The Giaour. Some 
 poets, like Keats and Campbell and Milton and Longfellow, 
 wrote nothing that one would like to miss ; and it is no 
 bad plan to extend one's domain of English poetry so 
 as to include such works as Gary's Dante and Fairfax's
 
 MRS. MARKHAM'S 'HISTORY.' xiii 
 
 translation of Tasso. It does not take much longer to 
 read the Paradise Regained than a second-rate three-volume 
 novel ; and, for my part, I prefer the poem. I am aware 
 that others are of a different opinion. 
 
 It will thus be seen that, in my case, a love of our 
 splendid literature was early formed, and at no time required 
 any external stimulus. But this does not explain how I came 
 to take a special delight in the linguistic and philological 
 side of it, whilst revelling in its appeals to the imagination. 
 Some are tempted to suppose that a critical examination of 
 language is likely to interfere with the romantic element. 
 I have never found it so in any appreciable degree ; and 
 I sometimes suspect that those who decry philology want 
 to make us believe, with the fox. that the grapes are sour. 
 Why are we to be debarred from examining a poet's 
 language because his words are sweet and his descriptions 
 entrancing? That is only one more reason for weighing 
 every word that he uses. As to the charge sometimes made 
 against philologists, that they have no real love for literature 
 and are incapable of tracing the indebtedness of one writer 
 to another, it is all pure assumption, cunningly put forward 
 for the purpose of decrying philology. The philologist, on 
 the contrary, has the larger view, and can see the value both 
 of the language and of the ideas ; but there are some critics 
 who care nothing for the language, and prefer to regard our 
 great masters with but one eye. 
 
 It so happens that I can even now remember how my 
 attention was drawn to our earlier writers. As in the case 
 of many others in my time, one of my lesson-books was 
 Mrs. Markham's History of England; and I was of course 
 attracted, as many others have been, by the 'Conversations' 
 which she appended to her historical chapters. The Con- 
 versation on the reign of Richard II is one of special 
 interest, containing as it does, a mention of ' Chaucer, the 
 father of English poetry,' and a quotation comprising a
 
 xiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 pretty description of a morning, which you will find 
 intelligible. 
 
 ' The busy lark, the messenger of day, 
 Saluteth with her song the morning gray ; 
 And fiery Phebus riseth up so bright 
 That all the orient laugheth at the sight, 
 And with his beames drieth in the greves 
 The silver droppes hanging on the leves.' 
 
 And when her son Richard wants to know what greves 
 means, Mrs. M. informs him that it is the same as groves. 
 Next, this good lady tells us something about Langland, 
 ' who wrote a very severe satire against persons of all pro- 
 fessions, called the Vision of Piers Plowman, which, for the 
 insight it gives into the manners of the times, is a very 
 valuable relic.' Asked, if it is as difficult to understand as 
 Chaucer's poetry, she replies : ' You will find it more so.' 
 She then gives some idea of what is meant by ' alliterative ' 
 poetry, and selects for our instruction the following extract ' : 
 
 ' I found there 
 
 A hall for a high king, a household to holden, 
 With broad boards abouten, y-benched well clean ; 
 With windows of glass wrought as a church, 
 And chambers with chimneys, and chapels gay.' 
 
 Young as I then was, these quotations haunted me ; and 
 I well remember making an internal resolution that, if ever 
 I lived to grow up, I would desire better acquaintance with 
 the originals, little dreaming that it would be my good 
 fortune to edit both of the works which the extracts 
 represent, as well as the Vision of Piers Plowman, which, 
 as we are here told, is certainly 'a very valuable relic.' 
 
 Nor was this all. The words ' holden ' and ' abouten ' 
 and ' y-benched ' seemed so quaint, that their forms irre- 
 sistibly invited further consideration. Why and when did 
 
 1 It is not from Piers Plowman, but from Pierce Plowman's Crede, 
 by a different author.
 
 CHRIST'S COLLEGE. XV 
 
 people say 'abouten,' and what did they mean by the prefix 
 y- in ' y-benched ' ? These were problems to be seriously 
 considered ; they could not be beyond human discovery, 
 and discovered they must some day be ! 
 
 Hence it was that, throughout my college life, classics, 
 mathematics, and theology were my more serious studies, 
 whilst Chaucer, and Spenser, and Shakespeare were an 
 unfailing resource in many an hour of leisure. My future 
 was, as I then supposed, to be spent in the obscurity of 
 a country curacy, and our great writers could be safely 
 depended on for affording excellent companionship on 
 a rainy day. 
 
 I had come to Cambridge because I was supposed to 
 have ' a turn ' for mathematics ; and the next question was 
 the choice of a college. Taking counsel with a very old 
 friend and schoolfellow, at that time an undergraduate of 
 Peterhouse, and being desirous of entering a college which 
 should be large enough for forming acquaintances, and not 
 so large as to overwhelm me with competition, he suggested 
 that Christ's College would probably suit me ; and the 
 advice was gratefully received. 
 
 No loyal student, whose affection for his own college is 
 sincere and ineradicable, will blame me for entertaining the 
 pious belief that it is a college of the highest merit. Milton 
 and Darwin are great names ; and even in my own time 
 good men were not altogether lacking. It was a treat to 
 hear Charles Stuart Calverley, more familiarly known by his 
 own chosen title of ' C. S. C.,' accompany himself on the 
 pianoforte whilst singing his ' Italian ' songs. If perchance 
 a line of La donna e mobile slipped his memory, its place 
 was readily supplied by any other words that would suit the 
 scansion, such as ' mezzo soprano,' or ' la piano forte,' or 
 the English phrase ' mili potaato ' ; and even such a word 
 as c celery ' sounded like Italian when the c before the e was 
 duly pronounced like the ch in chin. With John Robert
 
 xvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Seeley, historian and true patriot, I was well acquainted ; 
 not only during his latter years at college, but to the end of 
 his useful life ; and none could wish for a more amiable or 
 gentle companion. I remember the time when he began to 
 study German seriously ; we even read Faust together. 
 
 Other friends were Sir Walter Joseph Sendall, now 
 Governor of Cyprus ; Sir Walter Besant, a familiar name 
 throughout England's wide dominions ; Dr. John Peile, our 
 much-revered Master of the college ; and John Wesley 
 Hales, Professor of English Literature in King's College, 
 London. But this is not the place for dwelling on such 
 recollections. 
 
 I was elected to a Fellowship at Christ's College, on the 
 same day with Hales, in July, 1870 ; shortly after which my 
 college career came to an end. The time came for my 
 ordination, and in December of the same year I became 
 curate of East Dereham, in the centre of Norfolk, where 
 the first two years of my married life were happily spent. 
 In the north aisle of the parish church is the tomb of the 
 poet Cowper, and in the hall of one of the principal houses 
 in the market-place I was shown the veritable sofa which 
 gave occasion to his Task. It was easy to acquire a good 
 deal of the Norfolk dialect ; indeed, it surprised me to find 
 how very well known some of the dialect words were to 
 most of the townspeople. Nearly every one seemed to know 
 what was meant by ' haining' a hedge, and could distinguish 
 between a ' dor ' and a * hodmandod.' 
 
 On February 27, 1861, I ventured to give a popular 
 lecture at East Dereham, 'On the Origin and Progress 
 of the English Language.' It was received with some 
 favour, and, with a few alterations, appeared in all the glory 
 of print. This little pamphlet of forty pages, now (happily) 
 no longer procurable, was the beginning of a long series of 
 works on the same subject, some of which, for the present 
 at least, are useful to students. I find, on reference,
 
 MY LECTURE AT DEREHAM. xvii 
 
 that it opens with words which, in 1861, were almost 
 prophetic : 
 
 ' Any one who is a little acquainted with the history of 
 philology in England must, I think, be aware that the state 
 of that science at the present time is very different from 
 what it was only a few years ago. We live in an age, not of 
 progress merely, but of rapid progress.' 
 
 I make no apology for transcribing a few more sentences 
 from this extinct ' work ' : 
 
 ' It is to be hoped that the foolish custom of making out 
 forced and far-fetched derivations has gone by ; nothing is 
 learnt by it, because the meaning is not thereby simplified.' 
 
 ' It is clear that English grammar depends upon that of 
 Anglo-Saxon almost wholly.' (This, by the way, was clean 
 contrary to the prevalent idea in schools.) 
 
 ' Our grammar has become simplified in some points, and 
 rendered puzzling in others. We never know, for instance, 
 whether we ought to say he sang or he sung 1 ; but, according 
 to Saxon usage, we ought to conjugate the tense thus : 
 I sang, thou sungest, he sang ; we, ye, or I hey sung. Whence 
 we see that the two forms are not to be used indifferently, 
 but vary according to the pronoun that precedes them.' 
 
 ' Most of our older grammars ignore Saxon so completely 
 that they are of little use except for the mere beginner.' 
 
 ' It was owing to a want of knowledge of Anglo-Saxon 
 that Dr. Johnson, in his Dictionary, committed some of 
 those astounding blunders which were so ably and unmer- 
 cifully exposed by Home Tooke in that brilliant, curious, 
 but by no means reliable book 2 which he capriciously 
 named The Diversions of Purley. He points out, for 
 
 1 This very problem was again brought under m}- notice last year 
 
 (1895)- 
 
 2 The book is, practically, obsolete ; but it did good service in its 
 time. Many of its principles are right ; but the examples are faulty 
 and cannot be trusted. Nevertheless, I revere the author's memory. 
 
 b
 
 xviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 instance, a statement of Dr. Johnson's, according to which 
 one meaning of the word down is " a valley " ; the truth 
 being that it always means precisely the opposite, viz. "a 
 hill," or perhaps, more strictly, an exalted table-land ; and 
 for a very sufficient reason that it is merely the modern 
 form of the Anglo-Saxon word dun, which means a rolling 
 hill, down, or dune.'' 
 
 'There is, however, a better way of studying English 
 than by having recourse to dictionaries and grammars ; and 
 this is, to read some good standard author of the Eliza- 
 bethan period, such as Shakespeare or Spenser or Bacon, 
 and to observe in them all the phrases which strike a 
 modern reader as peculiar. Such peculiar phrases should 
 be carefully noticed, and, if possible, remembered ; after 
 a while, the .reader will find himself gradually enabled to 
 account for and explain some of them ; and then he will 
 have made a considerable advance ; ... so may he 
 come at last to be able to read and understand Chaucer, 
 of whom Spenser says, that he is " a well of English 
 undefiled." 
 
 ' The knowledge of older English that may thus be 
 readily acquired will be of far greater service in explaining 
 modern English than any laborious search in dictionaries. 
 Besides, one thus kills two birds with one stone ; whilst 
 acquiring some knowledge of old English, one is reading 
 books that are worthy of being read for their own sake ; 
 and it is by far the more interesting method. 
 
 ' But what is of still more importance than an acquaint- 
 ance with languages, is a habit of careful observation. The 
 chief aim should be to try and understand every word that 
 occurs in common passages of standard authors. Few but 
 those who have looked into the matter with a little care, can 
 have any idea of the utter misconception that often prevails * 
 
 1 Remember, this applies to 1861 ; since which a great deal has 
 happened.
 
 MY LECTURE AT DEREHAM. xix 
 
 as to the meaning of some common passages even in Shake- 
 speare.' [I here quoted the famous passage from the Tempest, 
 Act iv, ending 'leave not a wreck behind,' as it was then 
 usually cited.] . . . ' Only imagine the absurdity of talking 
 about "a baseless fabric of a vision," or "an unsubstantial 
 pageant faded," leaving behind them a wreck! . . . Such 
 blunders often arise thus : Shakespeare uses some word 
 which, though common in his day, is now nearly obsolete, 
 or quite so. Thereupon comes some editor who, not under- 
 standing such a word, makes what he calls a conjectural 
 emendation. . . . Shakespeare wrote '' racke," or, as we 
 should now spell it, " rack " ; upon which Home Tooke 
 remarks : " Rack is a common word, and ought not to be 
 displaced because the commentators know not its meaning " ; 
 and he adds, with brilliant but bitter sarcasm " If such 
 a rule for banishing words were adopted, the commentators 
 themselves would, most of them, become speechless ! " . . . 
 What makes the wrong reading the more remarkable is that 
 rack occurs elsewhere in Shakespeare, always in the sense 
 of " drifting vapour " ; see Hamlet, ii. 2. 506 ; Antony, iv. 
 14. 10 ; Sonn. 33. 6 [passages which were quoted at length]. 
 But the most lamentable effect of this false reading remains 
 to be told. The passage is inscribed upon Shakespeare's 
 tomb in the Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey, and, as 
 may be verified by inspection, this mistaken reading is there 
 adopted ! The monument was erected in A. D. 1 740 ; and 
 it is exactly the kind of blunder we should expect to be 
 made by the critics of the reign of George the Second. 
 Considering how Englishmen venerate Shakespeare, it is 
 not a pleasant fact to meditate upon, that on his public 
 monument his words have been quoted incorrectly.' 
 
 After two years had been spent at East Dereham, we left 
 that place, with much regret, to be nearer to relatives in 
 London. My next curacy was, consequently, at Godalming, 
 in the midst of much charming and picturesque scenery. 
 
 b 2
 
 XX INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The church has lately undergone a much-needed transfor- 
 mation, and is no longer remarkable for an almost incredible 
 ugliness. The lower part of the central tower has been 
 much lightened in appearance ; it was formerly an almost 
 solid mass, with a low tunnel cut through the centre, 
 whereby to reach the chancel from the aisle. On the 
 north side of the chancel is the memorial tablet of Owen 
 Manning, S.T.P., editor of Lye's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary in 
 1772. He is described on the title-page of that work as 
 ' Canon. Lincoln. Vicarius de Godelming, et Rector de 
 Peperharow in Agro Surreiensi.' 
 
 The neighbourhood was beautiful, but the climate proved 
 unsuitable ; and at last an alarming attack, of a diphtheritic 
 character, totally unfitted me for clerical work and rendered 
 a long rest absolutely necessary ; and I thus found myself, in 
 the end of 1863, at the age of twenty-eight, in the desolate con- 
 dition of finding my chosen career brought to a sudden end, 
 without any idea as to my future course, and even without 
 much prospect of ever again rendering any help to my 
 fellow-creatures, which (I can truly say) has always been my 
 object as regards this present world. 
 
 Man proposes, but God disposes. I have never doubted 
 that the work of a country clergyman is work of the noblest 
 kind, with abundant opportunities for unobtrusive helpful- 
 ness, especially if he is not wholly dependent on having to 
 eke out his subsistence by some form of additional labour. 
 With such honest Christian work I could have been well 
 content, and I had no ambition beyond it. 
 
 But I can now believe that I was meant to labour in 
 a different field. Each man has his appointed task ; and 
 I have long since loyally accepted the educational duty of 
 endeavouring to instil into the minds of Englishmen the 
 respect in which they ought to hold their noble literature 
 and their noble language, and the desirability of fighting 
 against all the forms of error that beset the study of these
 
 RETURN TO CAMBRIDGE. xxi 
 
 invaluable treasures. Every true scholar is in some degree 
 a missionary ; he must hold fast to that which is good 
 without wavering, and spare no pains to allure men to the 
 reception of the truth. 
 
 A period of enforced idleness soon gave rise to a wish for 
 some form of employment ; and I could think of nothing 
 better than to return to Cambridge. In October, 1864, 
 I was appointed a mathematical lecturer at my own college, 
 and I occasionally took a few pupils ; but this left me a good 
 deal of leisure time. 
 
 After some inquiry, I could not find that any one in 
 Cambridge had any very accurate or extensive knowledge of 
 Anglo-Saxon ; and the idea occurred to me that, as it was 
 obviously a useful study and in a fair way of becoming one 
 of considerable importance, it would be a good plan to take 
 up the subject seriously. It is fair to say that I formed this 
 resolve with the sincere intention of assisting in the pro- 
 motion of English scholarship, without any idea that it 
 would afterwards fit me for doing work as a professor ; for 
 no one could then foresee that Dr. Bosworth would, in 1867, 
 provide means for founding a Professorship of Anglo-Saxon \ 
 
 It is now time to consider the history of the Philological 
 Society's Dictionary, with which I have, indirectly, been 
 much concerned. 
 
 At a meeting of the Philological Society of London, held 
 on January 7, 1858, it was resolved 'that, instead of the 
 Supplement to the standard English Dictionaries, then in 
 the course of preparation by the Society's Unregistered 
 Words Committee, a New Dictionary of the English 
 Language should be prepared under the authority of the 
 Philological Society.' 
 
 The work was placed in the hands of two Committees, 
 the one, Literary and Historical, consisting of the Very 
 
 1 The money was left to accumulate for over ten years ; so that 
 the actual establishment of the Professorship was put off till 1878.
 
 am INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Rev. the Dean of Westminster (Dean R. C. 
 F. T- Fumivall, Esq., and H. Coleridge. Scad 
 
 die other, Etymological, consisting of H. Wedgwood, : 
 and Professor Malde: - _::er. Mr. Coleridge and 
 Mr. Fumivall vac appointed editors of the Diftionary. 
 
 The practical results of die work of these Committees 
 were remarkable. They soon discunacd that, in both 
 -..7- i7r^r:r.-.7-:>. :>..--. ~:.^ - :. :": r i _--r:.: i = ^". :: - 
 
 Iwe 
 
 Let us first consider die historical evidence. None 
 could doubt that oar linguistic lieasmes were abundant, 
 hot a great number of them ^gjml only in manuscript, 
 or had never been printed in any accessible form. The 
 
 _!'.". "!_"_- r 1 .- 1 . -~ '. . T t r. 7 .'-.". ' " JLT. ~ '..".'_ 7v "._"_"" ^.J~~ 
 
 were beyond the means of students ; and it has lately been 
 
 >:^r:i--i :'-i: -::rr -f :ht r-i:::r>~e:e r.:: rer/.^rk- :".r 
 for any ciose acquaintance with their subiects. 
 
 Tbe publication, in 1859, of Herbert Coleridge's Glos- 
 smriml Imiex to the printed English Literatnre of die 
 Thirteenth Century was timely and useful; bat die practical 
 - _ : ::" : :- : :.- i-~ :: :.r_rer :::.-. f. .: T.;: :he : r.\- 
 niiraimt of die pnblcatinn of fatDictigmmrj at too early 
 a date mild be drasUmK, and voold only demonstrate 
 how htde was known, from a philological point of view, 
 ~: : ~~ :: :"_* ~-: : 
 
 There was only one coarse to be taken. The 
 
 r- . 7 .1- " t .7 "' ~~~^~.~.~. 2-~. I. '. _T~7r~"^ " r."". VJ."~. r~. 
 
 had to be punted at a reasonable price, and such of them 
 as had only been edited in an expensive form, had to be 
 pi Met! over again. With this end in view, and at the 
 argent request of Dr. \ioms. Mr. Puuuvau stalled rt*** 
 Early English Text Society in 1864, widi a goodly fist 
 of subscribers at a gninea apiece ; and he had to look about 
 for patriotic fdrtof \ who were wflbng to do the 
 tf the Society woold pay for the printing.
 
 EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY. xxiii 
 
 The Society was extremely fortunate in its first editor. 
 This was Dr. Richard Morris, who had already edited, for 
 the Philological Society, a small book entitled Liber Cure 
 Cocorum, as well as a more important one, viz. Hampole's 
 Pricke of Conscience. Morris was gifted with a remarkable 
 activity of mind and swiftness of comprehension, an 
 excellent memory, and an unusual capacity for mastering 
 minute grammatical details. In his preface to the Pricke 
 of Conscience, he described, with great precision 1 , the 
 peculiarities of the Northumbrian or Northern English 
 Dialect ; and thus laid the foundation of a more accurate 
 study of Middle English. In his preface to Early English 
 Alliterative Poems (the Text Society's first volume), he 
 brought out the peculiarities of the dialect and grammar 
 of the West Midland district; and in 1867, viz. in the first 
 edition of his Specimens of Early English, he clearly made 
 out the chief characteristics of the three main dialects, 
 Northern, Midland, and Southern. The results of his work 
 are now common property, and almost every beginner of 
 the study of Middle English is perfectly familiar with facts 
 which, in 1866, were quite unknown. Every such student 
 ought to know, further, what a debt of gratitude he owes, 
 for this and many other lessons, to Richard Morris. 
 
 At any rate, let me acknowledge, with all thankfulness, 
 how much I learnt from him. His Specimens of Early 
 English was, in my eyes, of such great value, that I could 
 not rest till I had provided it with a new Glossarial Index 
 and furnished the author with such notes and small emen- 
 dations as it was in my power to offer. With these he 
 
 1 Morris's work was founded on a minute investigation of Middle- 
 English poems. An earlier worker in the field was the Rev. Richard 
 Garnett, who contributed an article on the ' Local Dialects of England* 
 to the Quarterly Review, in Feb. 1836, and several papers to the 
 Philological Society's Transactions in 1844-5. These were afterwards 
 reprinted in Garnett's Philological Essays, edited by his son in 1859.
 
 XXIV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 was so well satisfied that he practically put the book into 
 my hands, and allowed my name to be added to the 
 title-page. I also prepared an additional volume, containing 
 extracts from our literature from 1394 to 1579; and, at 
 a subsequent period, Morris produced a third volume, 
 ranking as the first of the three in chronological order, 
 as it contains 'Specimens' from 1150 to 1300. And even 
 this was not all ; for the idea afterwards occurred to me 
 that the very numerous references given in these three 
 books of ' Specimens ' ought certainly to be registered 
 under one alphabet ; an idea which was taken up by my 
 friend Mr. A. L. Mayhew, of Oxford, and made the foun- 
 dation of the still more comprehensive volume entitled 
 A Concise Middle- English Dictionary, edited by Mr. Mayhew 
 and myself. 
 
 But Morris's work for the English Text Society extended 
 far beyond his first very useful volume. It is to him that 
 we are also indebted for an accessible reprint ' of Sir 
 Gawayne and the Grene Knight (1864), a poem of great 
 merit, written by the same unknown hand that wrote those 
 edited in his first volume ; a Metrical Paraphrase of the 
 Books of Genesis and Exodus (1865), a poem written about 
 1250; the very valuable prose work by Dan Michel of 
 Northgate, known as The Ayenbite of Inwit, or Remorse 
 of Conscience*, dated 1340, and the chief source of our 
 knowledge of the dialect of Kent ; two series of Early 
 English Homilies of the thirteenth century (1867-8, and" 
 1873); Legends of the Holy Rood (1871); An Old English 
 Miscellany (1872); the long religious poem known as the 
 
 1 It had previously been edited by Sir Frederic Madden, one of the 
 few of the earlier editors whose work was remarkable for true 
 scholarship and accuracy. His edition of Layamon's Brut is also 
 excellent; and he was joint-editor of the splendid Oxford edition of 
 Wycliffe's Bible. 
 
 * Previously edited by the Rev. J. Stevenson.
 
 HENRY BRAD SHAW. XX v 
 
 Cursor Mundi (begun in 1874); The Blickling Homilies, from 
 a MS. dated 971 (1874-1880); and a new edition of 
 Chaucer's Boethius, from the two best MSS. (1868). No 
 student can afford to neglect these justly esteemed editions 
 by Dr. Morris, if he wishes to have a correct notion of the 
 state of the English language in the thirteenth century. 
 
 The Early English Text Society being thus well started 
 on its long and useful career, Dr. Furnivall, who has 
 throughout been the chief source of the energy expended 
 upon it and has himself edited considerably more than 
 a dozen of its publications, began to cast about for more 
 editors. My name was mentioned to him as that of one 
 who was fond of Early English and had some leisure ; 
 and the result was that I was entrusted with the duty of 
 re-editing a poem of no great value, entitled Lancelot of 
 the Laik, formerly edited by the Rev. Joseph Stevenson 
 for the Maitland Club in 1839. My objection, that I was 
 unable to read a MS., was over-ruled on the grounds, 
 first, that the sole MS. was always at hand in the Canv 
 bridge University Library ; and secondly, that I could 
 learn. 
 
 My first inspection of the MS. was not reassuring ; in 
 fact, any one who can thoroughly master a Scottish MS. 
 of the end of the fifteenth century is in a fair position to 
 be not easily daunted by MSS. of an earlier date. But 
 there was a teacher at hand such as few men ever had. 
 To this day I can remember the smile cf amused satisfaction 
 with which the MS. was brought to me by our justly 
 celebrated librarian, Henry Bradshaw by name, of King's 
 College. I much suspect that he thought he had extin- 
 guished me ; indeed, after puzzling over the first page 
 for a couple of hours, I was not conscious of having 
 advanced beyond some twenty lines ; and so retreated for 
 that time. But as I gradually gained the courage to 
 maintain that, if the MS. was right, the printed copy was
 
 xxvi IXTRODUCTION. 
 
 sometimes wrong, Bradshaw became interested, authori- 
 tatively confirmed all my emendations, and never failed 
 to give me his most valuable aid, in every case of doubt 
 and difficulty, from that day forward till that which brought 
 me the unexpected and startling news that my kind teacher 
 and most sincere friend had died of a disease of the heart. 
 
 The announcement, in my preface to Lancelot, published 
 in 1865, that the Maitland Club edition contained some 
 strange errors it must have been printed from a faulty 
 transcript without any subsequent collation created, at 
 the time, quite a nine-days' wonder. It showed, at any 
 rate, that the editors for the Early English Text Society 
 really aimed at a reasonable accuracy ; and it was urged 
 that it was incumbent upon me to take up some more 
 important work. In particular, a new edition of Piers 
 PIou>man was suggested, for which purpose it was necessary 
 to examine all the available MSS. The generous help 
 afforded me on this occasion is a thing to be remembered. 
 A particular passage of the poem was selected by Dr. Fur- 
 nivall, and transcripts of this passage came to hand from 
 many helpers; from Dr. Furnivall himself, from the Rev. 
 H. O. Coxe, Bodley's Librarian, and from Mr. W. Aldis 
 Wright ; whilst other aid was forthcoming from many 
 quarters. Mr. (now Dr.) E. A. Bond gave his opinion 
 as to the age of some of the MSS.; and, at a later date, 
 MSS. were either lent or shown to me by the Earl of 
 Ilchester, the Duke of Westminster, Mr. Henry Yates 
 Thompson, and Lord Ashburnham. Not the least pleasant 
 of my experiences were some valuable hints sent me by 
 Mr. Thomas Wright, who had made a very useful edition 
 of this great poem on his own account. 
 
 And so it came to pass that I began editing this poem 
 in 1866, and only finished the last page of the General 
 Introduction in 1885. A complete edition of the three 
 principal texts, together with a sufficient reproduction of
 
 ALLITERATIVE POEMS. xxvii 
 
 the Notes and Glossary, was reprinted by the Clarendon 
 Press in 1886. 
 
 My work upon this edition of Piers Plowman suggested 
 to me the idea of endeavouring to print or reprint, in due 
 course, all the Early English poems that have come down 
 to us in the form of alliterative verse without rime. This 
 intention was never wholly fulfilled, but I nevertheless 
 made considerable progress in this direction. The poems 
 of this character edited by me were Pierce the Ploughman's 
 Crede, the fragmentary Romance of Joseph of Arimathea (from 
 the Vernon MS.), Richard the Redeless (by the author of 
 The Vision of Piers Plowman] ; the short piece which I 
 have called The Crowned King: ]]'illiam of Palerne ; The 
 Romance of Alexander and Dindimus; and the Wars of 
 Alexander. Nearly all these poems are of considerable 
 service to the lexicographer owing to the abundance in 
 them of unusual, dialectal, and obsolescent words. By 
 the difficulties which they thus frequently present I was 
 especially attracted. 
 
 Most of these poems belong to the fourteenth century, 
 and I was thus led to a special study of the language of 
 this period, so that it has long been as familiar to me 
 (as far as such a result is possible) as the language of 
 the present day. I shall always be glad of having had a 
 main hand in the editing and interpretation of three great 
 authors of this period, viz. John Barbour, William Langland, 
 and Geoffrey Chaucer. Future editors may do better ; but 
 my work will never (I hope) become quite superfluous. 
 
 It will now readily be understood that the foundation 
 of the Early English Text Society was the first outcome 
 of the desire of the Philological Society to provide for 
 the publication of the New English Dictionary. But there 
 were other results, of much importance for the study, 
 which should be briefly mentioned. 
 
 The next result was this. We had (nearly?) all been
 
 xxvin INTRODUCTION. 
 
 taught at school to pronounce Latin like modern Victorian 
 English, a statement which ought to seem ludicrous, but 
 is rather to be accounted as a lamentable disgrace. Con- 
 sequently, it came natural to us to pronounce Early English 
 after the same extraordinary and chaotic fashion. Neither 
 did the evil stop there ; for when I began the study of 
 Anglo-Saxon, I knew no better than to pronounce the I in 
 the A. S. ridan like the i in the modern English ride ; 
 whereas, like the I in Latin, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish, 
 French, Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Greek, and Russian, 
 it was pronounced like the / in machine. 
 
 It was obvious that this would never do. It was useless 
 to produce texts unless we could correctly pronounce the 
 words which they gave us ; and it was fortunate that the 
 highly complex problem of the study of our old pronun- 
 ciation was undertaken by the two men who were most 
 competent to deal with it, as being intimately acquainted 
 with the actual pronunciation of many languages. In 
 England, men often ' spring up wherever they are wanted, 
 capable of ruling, of conquering, of mastering difficulties 1 ' ; 
 and the two men who mastered this particular difficulty 
 were Alexander John Ellis and Henry Sweet. The great 
 work by the former on Early English Pronunciation, and 
 the History of English Sounds by the latter, have made 
 it abundantly clear that our pronunciation has suffered 
 many and startling alterations from time to time, and most 
 of these changes can now be approximately dated. Anglo- 
 Saxon was written with letters which were Celtic adaptations 
 from the Latin alphabet, and the pronunciation of Anglo- 
 Saxon did not greatly differ from that of Latin. Early 
 English was respelt by Anglo-French scribes, but their 
 pronunciation was much the same, so that it made no great 
 difference. The vowel-sounds used by Chaucer were much 
 
 1 J. R. Seeley; in Literary Remains of C. S. Calvcrley, p. 113
 
 STUDY OF PHONETICS. xxix 
 
 the same as those used by his great Italian cotemporaries, 
 Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio. It was not till after 1400 
 that most of the new vowel-sounds began to arise which 
 have been developed, in course of time, into those which 
 we now use. The difference, in some cases, is very great ; 
 so that it is indeed difficult for any one who is inexperienced 
 in our older literature to realize that our a in dame was once 
 the French a in the French dame ; that our e in deity was 
 once the French / in de'ite; that our diphthongal / in 
 silence was once the French i in silence and that our 
 diphthongal ou in doubt was once the French ou in doute. 
 Yet such statements as these ought to be self-evident ; we 
 cannot even conceive that a Norman noble could have 
 pronounced dame, deity, doubt, and silence with the modern 
 English vowels. 
 
 The conclusions obtained by the labours of Ellis and 
 Sweet have had far-reaching consequences. Englishmen 
 are awaking to the value of phonetics generally. It is hardly 
 too much to say that the study of etymology, in England, 
 has been quite revolutionized by the use of newer and surer 
 methods, based upon the careful observations of sounds and 
 of the method of representing them by symbols. The 
 student who understands the history of English sounds can 
 no longer put up with the old and slovenly neglect of the 
 history of the sounds in Latin and Greek ; he awakes to the 
 facts that language is a living thing, and that the spoken 
 tongue is full of information as regards the written repre- 
 sentation of it ; he learns to listen to what he hears around 
 him, and to make mental notes of the many varieties of 
 pronunciation which are, literally, always in the air. In 
 this way the subject of his study is quickened into full and 
 active life ; forms that are written down in old manuscripts 
 by hands that are now mere dust may be, and continually 
 are, illustrated, as by a revealing flash, by the chance word 
 of an unknown stranger ; and if the problems presented by
 
 xxx INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the subtle changes in sounds are almost endless, we have at 
 the same time a never-failing supply of undoubted facts ever 
 filling the air around us, asking only for recognition, for 
 memory, and for record. The position of learners is one of 
 highest hope. There was a time when Greek accents were 
 mere unmeaning marks, to be set over certain syllables 
 because it was unreasonably esteemed a sign of scholar- 
 ship (!) to do so ; but to-day they are being severely 
 scrutinized, for they tell us which syllable received the 
 pitch, and afford much valuable information as to the way 
 in which each word was sounded. 
 
 We now come to another matter altogether, though it has 
 a close relationship to English philology, viz. the utility of 
 a knowledge of our modern English dialects. In compiling 
 the vocabulary of words admitted into the New English 
 Dictionary, it was often extremely difficult to know where 
 to draw the line. It has sometimes happened that a word 
 which in olden times may fairly be said to have been in 
 general use, or at any rate, in use over a large area, is now 
 only heard in some provincial dialect, being unknown to 
 nearly all the inhabitants of the rest of England ; and, on 
 the other hand, a word which was once used, as it would 
 seem from the evidence, in one dialect only, has now 
 become familiar to everybody. It follows from this that 
 the collection of provincial words is absolutely necessary 
 for completing the material with which the lexicographer 
 has to deal ; and hence Mr. Ellis and others suggested 
 the establishment of an English Dialect Society. A letter 
 written by Mr. Aldis Wright to Notes and Queries in 
 March, 1870, was particularly explicit as to this necessity, 
 and contained the ominous warning that ' in a few years it 
 will be too late.' 
 
 Being deeply impressed with the incontrovertible truth 
 of this statement, and finding that still the work could not 
 be done till some one would definitely undertake the trouble
 
 ENGLISH DIALECT SOCIETY. xxxi 
 
 of performing all the duties of an honorary secretary, I at 
 last resolved to follow Dr. Furnivall's example, and to write 
 the necessary prospectus for the formation of such a society. 
 This was the beginning of the English Dialect Society, 
 established in 1873, and commencing with a Bibliographical 
 List of works written in English dialects, or directly concerned 
 with the same. The Society is now (in 1896) still in 
 existence, and in the course of its career has issued no less 
 than seventy-six parts or numbers, including some highly 
 valuable special glossaries, such as those of Mr. Elworthy 
 (West Somerset), Mr. F. K. Robinson (Whitby), Messrs. 
 Nodal and Milner (Lancashire), Mr. C. Clough Robinson 
 (Mid Yorkshire), Mr. E. Peacock (Lincolnshire), and many 
 more, for which I must refer the reader to the Society's list. 
 Indeed, the work already accomplished is so considerable 
 that we have arrived, as it were, in sight of land, and can 
 contemplate the probable extinction of the Society in a not 
 very distant future without any great anxiety. We are 
 already beginning to gather together all the material ; and, 
 under the able editorship of Professor Wright, a general 
 English Dialect Dictionary is already in the press. We 
 may fairly hope for the completion of this truly national 
 work in the course of another eight years. 
 
 As the publications of the Early English Text Society 
 were specially designed, from the outset, for the use of 
 future lexicographers, most of them were accompanied with 
 glossaries, more or less complete, giving very copious and 
 exact references to the passages which contain the harder 
 words. But it was soon felt that something like a general 
 Dictionary of Middle English was much needed, in order to 
 exhibit results collected from many various sources. The 
 two chief Dictionaries of this character were both under- 
 taken, in the first instance, by Germans ; we are much 
 indebted, in this respect, to Dr. Francis Henry Stratmann, 
 of Krefeld, and to Dr. Eduard Matzner, of Berlin.
 
 xxxn INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The first edition of Dr. Stratmann's Dictionary of Middle 
 English was not wholly satisfactory. It was open to three 
 objections, from a practical point of view. In the first place, 
 the meanings assigned were too briefly given, and frequently 
 rendered unintelligible by the use of provincial English 
 words which represented the old word as to form, but not 
 always as to sense. Secondly, many words were given 
 under twelfth-century forms, without any recognition, in the 
 alphabet, of forms with more usual spellings. And thirdly, 
 which was worst of all, the author at first devoted himself 
 solely to the explanation of words of Germanic origin, thus 
 leaving the highly important Anglo-French element almost 
 unrepresented. The third and latest edition, in a much 
 improved form, was published in 1878, and an extensive 
 supplement was issued in 1881 ; but in 1884 the author died. 
 At the suggestion of Dr. Furnivall, the copyright of the work 
 was purchased by the Clarendon Press, and all the materials, 
 including the author's collections for a new edition, were 
 placed in the hands of Mr. Henry Bradley. With almost 
 incredible industry and perseverance, Mr. Bradley recon- 
 structed the whole work, removing the above-mentioned 
 obvious defects and largely increasing the vocabulary. 
 The new edition (technically, the fourth) appeared in 1891, 
 and is a book which every serious student of historical 
 English keeps within easy reach, as a matter of course. 
 A mere glance at this volume affords almost instantaneous 
 proof that the Early English Text Society was not 
 established in vain, and was founded none too soon. 
 
 The second Middle English Dictionary, by E. Matzner, 
 was originally planned as an accompanying glossarial volume 
 to the Altcnglische Sprachproben, or Specimens of Early 
 English, issued by Matzner and Goldbeck in 1867-9. But 
 the work grew under the author's hands, till at length he 
 formed the ambitious design of including in it references to 
 all the chief works existing in our Middle English Literature.
 
 NEW ENGLISH DICTIONARY. xxxiii 
 
 It was, from the first, a better planned book than that of 
 Stratmann. The explanations are fuller, the quotations 
 more extended, and the vocabulary more complete ; at the 
 same time, the forms chosen as normal ones are such as 
 very frequently occur. It had but one drawback, but that 
 proved to be a very great one. The scale on which it was 
 planned was such that the author could not complete it, 
 though he lived till over eighty years of age, and was at 
 work upon it almost to the last. The eleventh and last 
 part appeared in 1891 ; and the last word discussed in it is 
 the verb makien, to make. Whether it is in contemplation 
 to continue this great work any further, I am unable to say. 
 It thus appears that, in the quarter of a century which 
 elapsed between 1857 and 1882, an enormous advance had 
 been made towards providing the New English Dictionary 
 with better materials. It must further be borne in mind 
 that, during all this period, hundreds of readers had been 
 employed in making suitable extracts from thousands of 
 books ; and the precaution had been taken of requesting 
 all the readers to write out their extracts on one side only 
 of a half-sheet of ordinary note-paper, so that they might be 
 duly sorted out in alphabetical order and tied up in bundles 
 for ready reference. In this way several tons in weight of 
 most valuable materials have been accumulated by the 
 united efforts of a small army of workers ; and though it 
 frequently happens that, owing to imperfections in the work 
 or a want of legibility, a given extract has to be re-compared 
 with the source whence it was originally taken (causing 
 much delay and trouble in the case of works that are 
 difficult of access), yet the references alone are of infinite 
 service, as without them the work would have remained 
 impossible of execution in any satisfactory manner. And 
 when all things are taken into account, viz. the establish- 
 ment during this period of the Early English Text Society 
 and of the Chaucer Society by Dr. Furnivall, and of the
 
 xxxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 English Dialect Society the numerous editions of previously 
 unprinted MSS. which have appeared not in England only, 
 hut also in Germany and America the numerous re- 
 editions of pieces that had previously been edited in an 
 unsatisfactory or insufficient manner the splendid success 
 of Dr. Ellis and Dr. Sweet in recovering the almost lost 
 history of our pronunciation and the hearty co-operation 
 of so many readers in preparing useful extracts it may be 
 doubted whether any similar enterprise was ever carried out 
 with such sustained vigour and so much practical success. 
 It is also of great importance to observe that, during the 
 same period, very great advances have been made, especially 
 in Germany, in the study of comparative grammar. 
 
 So far, I have spoken mainly of the historical side of the 
 development of our venerable and venerated language. It 
 remains to add a brief account of what has been done from 
 a purely etymological point of view. 
 
 I have no space here to explore a subject which would, 
 I think, prove to be of great interest, viz. the history of the 
 progress of English etymology, beginning (let us say) with 
 Minsheu and Blount and Skinner, and so onwards to Bailey 
 and Johnson, with an occasional excursus on the wonderful 
 vagaries of Richard Verstegan and the Rev. G. W. Lemon, 
 and others like unto them. Let us begin at once with 
 much more recent times. 
 
 It must be remembered that English, considered as to its 
 vocabulary, is as a great river derived from many rills. 
 Setting aside such words as have been adopted from sources 
 of less importance, we may confine our attention, at the 
 outset, to three streams which supplied us more copiously 
 than others, viz. the Old English (including Scandinavian), 
 the Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman, and the 'classical,' 
 which includes Latin and Greek. Ever since the period of 
 the Renaissance, to the end of the last century, and even 
 later, abundant attention has been bestowed upon the third
 
 SOMNER AND TOOKE. xxxv 
 
 of these, almost as if it were all-sufficient and all-important, 
 whilst the other two have been treated with an indifference 
 that has often savoured of contempt. No man is a 'scholar ' 
 unless he can account for the spelling and etymology of 
 system ; but he is not expected to know anything of the 
 history of such words as home or ransom, which are at once 
 of earlier introduction and in much more extended use. It 
 is difficult to conceive of anything more perverse. 
 
 The publication, in 1659, of Somner's Anglo-Saxon 
 Dictionary was (or rather might have been) a great step in 
 advance; but Skinner, in 1691, failed, for the most part, to 
 make any satisfactory use of it, owing to his want of 
 knowledge of the grammar and phonetic laws of the oldest 
 stage of English. Dr. Johnson trusted much to the 
 guidance of Skinner, so that but little progress was 
 possible. 
 
 Just at the beginning of the present century appeared the 
 remarkable work by Home Tooke entitled The Diversions 
 of Purley. In this the author assailed the etymologies in 
 Johnson with much smartness and pitiless logic ; showing, 
 with great force, the value of Anglo-Saxon and Mceso- 
 Gothic in questions relating to words of native origin, and 
 opening the way to a better appreciation of our old 
 expressions. Unfortunately, however, he was led to the 
 construction of two most grotesque and crazy theories ; 
 the one, that conjunctions are derived from verbs in the 
 imperative mood ; and the other, that substantives ending 
 in -th are formed from the third person singular of indica- 
 tives ! And so it has come to pass that his book is obsolete, 
 though it may still be read with pleasure by a student who 
 is curious as to the history of the study of our language. 
 
 It was necessary to mention this work of Home Tooke, 
 in order to explain the singular phenomena presented by 
 Richardson's Dictionary, of which a new edition appeared, 
 in two fine quarto volumes, as late as 1863. This great 
 
 c 2
 
 xxxvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 work has two chief features, viz. its etymologies and its 
 quotations. As regards the latter, its excellence and 
 copiousness are surpassed by the great New English Dic- 
 tionary only ; indeed, we owe to Richardson the valuable 
 habit of making a free use of our older authors. But when 
 we come to investigate his etymologies, we find that he has 
 not only adopted Tooke's theories, but carried them out 
 with a boldness of invention that almost surpasses belief. 
 Thus he expressly selects, for our approval and admiration, 
 his account of the verbs //'// and tell ( which happen to be 
 unrelated), by repeating it complacently in his Preface : 
 ' Again, to tell and to //'// are the same word, and mean to 
 lift, to raise. To till with the plough is to raise (sc. the 
 ground) with it. To tell with the tongue is to raise (sc. 
 the voice) with it.' And all this, because Tooke had a fancy 
 of deriving these words from the Latin tollere ; which, by 
 Grimm's Law, is impossible. 
 
 It soon became clear that this kind of roundabout reason- 
 ing, if reasoning it can be called, enabled anybody to derive 
 any one word from any other, if only a case could somehow 
 be made out ; and the method had the inherent weakness 
 of satisfying no one but the particular inventor of the guess. 
 There was no stability or finality about such a process, and 
 another one had to be resorted to. 
 
 It has already been remarked that Mr. Wedgwood was 
 one of the committee appointed by the Philological 
 Society to look after etymologies. To this circumstance 
 we owe the highly ingenious and suggestive Dictionary 
 of English Etymology written by my fellow-collegian 
 Hensleigh Wedgwood, late Fellow of Christ's College, 
 Cambridge ; which was undertaken at the urgent solicita- 
 tion of Dr. Furnivall, the Society's honorary secretary. The 
 second edition, revised and enlarged, appeared in 1872, 
 and the third edition in 1878. The Introduction, con- 
 taining an essay on the Origin of Language, is of great
 
 HEN SLEIGH WEDGWOOD. xxxvii 
 
 interest, as the author maintains, with much skill and 
 abundant illustrations, the theory that language took its 
 rise from the imitation of natural sounds and cries and 
 from expressive interjections, in opposition to the theory of 
 Max Miiller that linguistic roots are 'phonetic types pro- 
 duced by a power inherent in human nature,' whatever that 
 may mean. 
 
 The theory here advocated by Wedgwood is (as I believe) 
 right in the main, and I may refer the reader to the treat- 
 ment of it by Whitney and Sweet. Unluckily, it influenced 
 the author far too much in his account of various words ; 
 for in many cases the forms in use are too modern or too 
 much altered from their primitive shape for us to be still 
 able to trace how they first arose. In the case of the verb 
 to plunge, for example, Wedgwood's statement that its origin, 
 ' like that of plump, is a representation of the noise made 
 by the fall,' is purely fanciful ; for it is merely borrowed 
 from the F. plonger, answering to the Low Latin type 
 *plumbicare, a derivative of plumbum, lead ; see the account 
 of the F. word in Littre and Uiez. 
 
 It will be found, in fact, that several of Wedgwood's 
 articles refer us to imitative types, where it is very doubtful 
 if any such imitation was really intended. There is much 
 in the book that is very useful, but the treatment of words 
 of native origin leaves much to be desired. It is surprising 
 that the word home should be referred to ham-let, and 
 treated as if the a in the A. S. ham (printed hani] was 
 a short vowel. So under horn, we are referred to the 
 ' Goth, haurn, Lat. cornu, Bret, corn, Gr. Kepus, Heb. 
 keren ' ; without any mention of the A. S. horn as being the 
 actual source. Very little regard is paid to the length of 
 vowels, and the historical method is hardly pursued at all. 
 There is no scientific treatment of the consonants, nor any 
 recognition of the phenomena which are formulated and sum- 
 marized in the convenient canon known as ' Grimm's Law.'
 
 xxxviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Briefly, Wedgwood's Etymological Dictionary, though it 
 represents an enormous advance beyond the methods 
 employed by Skinner and Richardson, is sadly deficient 
 in scientific method, and could not be regarded as 
 approaching finality. 
 
 The first English etymological dictionary in which the 
 scientific treatment of language is sufficiently recognized was 
 written, as might have been expected, in Germany; and 
 remains to this day, owing to the excellence of its method, 
 a reasonably good authority. This is the Etymologisches 
 Worterbuch der englischen Sprache by E. Miiller, of which the 
 first edition was published at Cothen in 1865, and the second 
 and much improved edition at the same place in 1878. 
 This is a thoroughly good and sound work; and the author 
 took the precaution of consulting the best authorities then 
 available. The chief English works to which he refers are 
 the dictionaries by Johnson, Richardson, Webster (with the 
 etymologies revised by Dr. Mahn), Worcester, and Wedg- 
 wood ; but he also availed himself of the excellent works 
 by German authorities, such as Grimm, Koch, Fiedler, 
 Matzner, and Stratmann. The results are presented in 
 a brief but usually accurate form, so that most of the 
 articles require little or no correction. But it does not 
 seem to be much known or much used in England, owing, 
 I suppose, to the fact that the text is written in German. 
 
 The mention of the second edition of E. Miiller's 
 Dictionary has already brought us on to the year 1878. 
 Meanwhile, the preparations for the New English Dictionary 
 had been much advanced, and there seemed good hope 
 that in a few years more, the time would have arrived for 
 commencing to print and publish it. At this stage, the 
 idea occurred to me that, as Wedgwood's work had been 
 printed in advance as a contribution to the labour of 
 furnishing the etymologies, and at the same time did not 
 present the results in a well-assorted form, it would be
 
 MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xxxix 
 
 helpful for some one to attempt to revise the whole of it, 
 in a form more available for immediate use. I had the 
 temerity to undertake this important task myself, having 
 then hardly arrived at the age when one ceases to be 
 infallible ; and I began to bethink me of the improvements 
 that could be made ; and I took particular note of what 
 seemed to be the more obvious defects in the existing 
 dictionaries. 
 
 As I cannot explain the state of the case more clearly 
 than I have already done in the Preface to the first edition 
 (in 1882) of my Etymological Dictionary, I make no apology 
 for citing a considerable portion of it here. Few people 
 read a preface to a dictionary printed in a quarto form ; 
 so that it will probably be new to most of my readers : 
 
 ' The present work was undertaken with the intention of 
 furnishing students with materials for a more scientific 
 study of English etymology than is commonly to be found 
 in previous works upon the subject. It is not intended to 
 be always authoritative, nor are the conclusions arrived at 
 to be accepted as final. It is rather intended as a guide to 
 future writers, showing them in some cases what ought 
 certainly to be accepted, and in other cases, it may be, what 
 to avoid. The idea of it arose out of my own wants. 
 I could find no single book containing the facts about 
 a given word which it most concerns a student to know, 
 whilst, at the same time, there exist numerous books 
 containing information too important to be omitted. Thus 
 Richardson's Dictionary is an admirable store-house of 
 quotations illustrating such words as are of no great antiquity 
 in the language, and his selected examples are the more 
 valuable from the fact that he in general adds the exact 
 reference. Todd's Johnson likewise contains numerous 
 well-chosen quotations, but perhaps no greater mistake 
 was ever made than that of citing from authors like Dryden 
 or Addison at large, without the slightest hint as to the
 
 xl INTRODUCTION. 
 
 whereabouts of the context. But in both of these works 
 the etymology is, commonly, of the poorest description ; 
 and it would probably be difficult to find a worse philologist 
 than Richardson, who adopted many suggestions from 
 Home Tooke without enquiry, and was capable of saying 
 that hod is " perhaps hoved, hov'd, hod, past part, of heafan, 
 to heave." It is easily ascertained that the A. S. for heave 
 is hebban, and that, being a strong verb, its past participle 
 did not originally end in -ed. 
 
 ' It would be tedious to mention the numerous other 
 books which help to throw such light on the history of 
 words as is necessary for the right investigation of their 
 etymology. The great defect of most of them is that they 
 do not carry back that history far enough, and are very 
 weak in the highly important Middle English period. But 
 the publications of the Camden Society, of the Early 
 English Text Society, and of many other printing clubs, 
 have lately materially advanced our knowledge, and have 
 rendered possible such excellent books of reference as are 
 exemplified in Stratmann's Old English Dictionary and in 
 the still more admirable but (as yet) incomplete Worterbuch 
 by Eduard Matzner. In particular, the study of phonetics, 
 as applied to Early English pronunciation by Mr. Ellis and 
 Mr. Sweet, and carefully carried out by nearly all students 
 of Early English in Germany, has almost revolutionized the 
 study of etymology as hitherto pursued in England. We 
 can no longer consent to disregard vowel-sounds as if they 
 formed no essential part of the word, which seems to have 
 been the old doctrine; indeed, the idea is by no means 
 yet discarded even by those who ought to know better. 
 
 ' On the other hand, we have, in Eduard Muller's 
 Etymologisches Worterbuch der englischen Sprache, an ex- 
 cellent collection of etymologies and cognate words, but 
 without any illustrations of the use or history of words, 
 or any indication of the period when they first came into
 
 MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xli 
 
 use. We have also Webster's Dictionary, with the etymologies 
 as revised by Dr. Mahn, a very useful and comprehensive 
 volume ; but the plan of the work does not allow of much 
 explanation of a purely philological character. 
 
 ' It is many years since a new and comprehensive 
 dictionary was first planned by the Philological Society, and 
 we have now good hope that, under the able editorship of 
 Dr. Murray, some portion of this great work may ere long 
 see the light. For the illustration of the history of words, 
 this will be all-important, and the etymologies will, I believe, 
 be briefly but sufficiently indicated. It was chiefly with the 
 hope of assisting in this national work, that, many years 
 ago, I began collecting materials and making notes upon 
 points relating to etymology. The result of such work, in 
 a modified form, and with very large additions, is here 
 offered to the reader. My object has been to clear the way 
 for the improvement of the etymologies by a previous dis- 
 cussion of all the more important words, executed on 
 a plan so far differing from that which will be adopted by 
 Dr. Murray as not to interfere with his labours, but rather, 
 as far as possible, to assist them. It will, accordingly, be 
 found that I have studied brevity by refraining from any 
 detailed account of the changes of meaning of words, except 
 where absolutely necessary for purely etymological purposes. 
 The numerous very curious and highly interesting examples 
 of words which, especially in later times, took up new 
 meanings will not, in general, be found here ; and the 
 definitions of words are only given in a very brief and bald 
 manner, only the more usual senses being indicated. On 
 the other hand, I have sometimes permitted myself to 
 indulge in comments, discussions, and even suggestions 
 and speculations, which would be out of place in a dictionary 
 of the usual character. Some of these, where the results 
 are right, will, I hope, save much future discussion and 
 investigation ; whilst others, where the results prove to be
 
 xlii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 wrong, can be avoided and rejected. In one respect I have 
 attempted considerably more than is usually done by the 
 writers of works upon English etymology. I have en- 
 deavoured, where possible, to trace back words to their 
 Aryan roots, by availing myself of the latest works upon 
 comparative philology. In doing this, I have especially 
 endeavoured to link one word with another, and the reader 
 will find a perfect network of cross-references enabling him 
 to collect all the forms of any given word of which various 
 forms exist ; so that many of the principal words in the 
 Aryan languages can be thus traced. Instead of considering 
 English as an isolated language, as is sometimes actually- 
 done, I endeavour, in every case, to exhibit its relation to 
 cognate tongues ; and as, by this process, considerable light 
 is thrown upon English by Latin and Greek, so also, at the 
 same time, considerable light is thrown upon Latin and Greek 
 by Anglo-Saxon and Icelandic. Thus, whilst under the word 
 bite will be found a mention of the cognate Latin findere, 
 conversely, under the word fissure, is given a cross-reference 
 to bite. In both cases, reference is also made to the root 
 BHID ; and, by referring to this root (No. 240, on p. 738); 
 some further account of it will be found, with further 
 examples of allied words. It is only by thus comparing all 
 the Aryan languages together, and by considering them as 
 one harmonious whole, that we can get a clear conception 
 of the original forms ; a conception which must precede all 
 theory as to how those forms came to be invented. 
 Another great advantage of the comparative method is 
 that, though the present work is nominally one on English 
 etymology, it is equally explicit, as far as it has occasion to 
 deal with them, with regard to the related words in other 
 languages ; and may be taken as a guide to the etymology 
 of many of the leading words in Latin and Greek, and to 
 all the more important words in the various Scandinavian 
 and Teutonic tongues.
 
 MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xliii 
 
 ' I have chiefly been guided throughout by the results of 
 my own experience. Much use of many dictionaries has 
 shown me the exact points where an enquirer is often 
 baffled, and I have especially addressed myself to the task 
 of solving difficulties and passing beyond obstacles. Not 
 inconsiderable has been the trouble of verifying references. 
 A few examples will put this in a clear light. 
 
 ' Richardson has numerous references (to take a single 
 case) to the Romaunt of the Rose. He probably used some 
 edition in which the lines are not numbered ; at any rate, 
 he never gives an exact reference to it. The few references 
 to it in Tyrwhitt's Glossary and in Stratmann do not help 
 us very greatly. To find a particular word in this poem of 
 7700 lines is often troublesome; but, in every case where 
 I wanted the quotation, I have found and noted it. I can 
 recall several half-hours spent in this particular work. 
 
 ' Another not very hopeful book in which to find one's 
 place, is the Faerie Queene. References to this are usually 
 given to the book and canto, and of these one or other is 
 (in Richardson) occasionally incorrect ; in every case, I have 
 added the number of the stanza. 
 
 ' One very remarkable fact about Richardson's Dictionary 
 is that, in many cases, references are given only to obscure 
 and late authors, when all the while the word occurs in 
 Shakespeare. By keeping Dr. Schmidt's comprehensive 
 Shakespeare Lexicon always open before me, this fault has 
 been easily remedied. 
 
 ' To pass on to matters more purely etymological. I have 
 constantly been troubled with the vagueness and inaccuracy 
 of words quoted, in various books, as specimens of Old 
 English or foreign languages. The spelling of " Anglo- 
 Saxon " in some books is often simply outrageous. Accents 
 are put in or left out at pleasure ; impossible combinations 
 of letters are given ; the number of syllables is disregarded ; 
 and grammatical terminations have to take their chance.
 
 xliv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Words taken from Ettmiiller are spelt with a and ce ; words 
 taken from Bosworth are spelt with ce and & 1 , without any 
 hint that the a and ce of the former answer to ce and CB in 
 the latter. I do not wish to give examples of these things ; 
 they are so abundant that they may easily be found by the 
 curious. In many cases, writers of " etymological " dic- 
 tionaries do not trouble to learn even the alphabets of the 
 languages cited from, or the most elementary grammatical 
 facts. I have met with supposed Welsh words spelt with 
 a v, with Swedish words spelt with a, with Danish infinitives 
 ending in -a*, with Icelandic infinitives in -an, and so on ; 
 the only languages correctly spelt being Latin and Greek, 
 and commonly French and German. It is clearly assumed, 
 and probably with safety, that most readers will not detect 
 mis-spellings beyond this limited range. 
 
 ' But this was not a matter which troubled me long. At 
 a very early stage of my studies, I perceived clearly enough, 
 that the spelling given by some authorities is not necessarily 
 to be taken as the true one ; and it was then easy to make 
 allowances for possible errors, and to refer to some book 
 with reasonable sj ellings, such as E. Miiller, or Mann's 
 Webster, or Wedgwood. A little research revealed far more 
 curious pieces of information than the citing of words in 
 impossible or mistaken spellings. Statements abound 
 which it is difficult to account for except on the supposition 
 that it must once have been usual to manufacture words for 
 the express purpose of deriving others from them. To take 
 an example, I open Todd's Johnson at random, and find 
 that under bolster is cited " Gothic bolster, a heap of hay." 
 Now the fragments of Gothic that have reached us are very 
 
 1 Usually also printed ce, without the accent. I suspect that a is 
 seldom provided for. 
 
 2 Todd's Johnson, s.v. Boll, has ' Su. Goth, bulna, Dan. bttlner.' 
 Here bulna is the Swedish infinitive, whilst bulner is the first person 
 of the Danish present tense. Similar jumbles abound.
 
 MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xlv 
 
 precious but very insufficient, and they certainly contain no 
 such word as bolster. Neither is bolster a Gothic spelling. 
 Holster is represented in Gothic by hulistr, so that bolster 
 might, possibly, be bulistr. In any case, as the word 
 certainly does not occur, it can only be a pure invention, 
 due to some blunder; the explanation "a heap of hay" is 
 a happy and graphic touch, regarded in the light of a fiction, 
 but is out of place in a work of reference. 
 
 ' A mistake of this nature would not greatly matter if 
 such instances were rare ; but the extraordinary part of the 
 matter is that they are extremely common, owing probably 
 to the trust reposed by former writers in such etymologists 
 as Skinner and Junius, men who did good work in their 
 day, but whose statements require careful verification in 
 this nineteenth century. What Skinner was capable of, 
 I have shown in my introduction to the reprint of Ray's 
 Glossary published for the English Dialect Society. It is 
 sufficient to say that the net result is this ; that words cited 
 in etymological dictionaries (with very few exceptions) 
 cannot be accepted without verification. Not only do we 
 find puzzling mis-spellings, but we find actual fictions ; 
 words are said to be "Anglo-Saxon" that are not to be 
 found in the existing texts ; " Gothic " words are con- 
 structed for the mere purpose of " etymology " ; Icelandic 
 words have meanings assigned to them which are incredible 
 or misleading : and so on of the rest. 
 
 ' Another source of trouble is that, when real words are 
 cited, they are wrongly explained. Thus, in T odd's Johnson, 
 we find a derivation of bond from A. S. " bond, bound." 
 Now bond is not strictly Anglo-Saxon, but an Early English 
 form, signifying "a band," and is not a past participle at 
 all ; the A. S. for " bound " being gebunden. The error is 
 easily traced ; Dr. Bosworth cites " bond, bound, ligatus " 
 from Somner's Dictionary, whence it was also copied into 
 Lye's Dictionary in the form : " bond, ligatus, obligatus,
 
 xlvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 bound" Where Somner found it, is a mystery indeed, as it 
 is absurd on the face of it. We should take a man to be 
 a very poor German scholar who imagined that band, in 
 German, is a past participle ; but when the same mistake is 
 made by Somner, we find that it is copied by Lye, copied 
 by Bosworth (who, however, marks it as Somner's), copied 
 into Todd's Johnson, amplified by Richardson into the 
 misleading statement that " bond is the past tense J and past 
 participle of the verb to bind" and has doubtless been 
 copied by numerous other writers who have wished to come 
 at their etymologies with the least trouble to themselves. 
 It is precisely this continual reproduction of errors which so 
 disgraces many English works, and renders investigation 
 so difficult. 
 
 ' But when I had grasped the facts that spellings are often 
 false, that words can be invented, and that explanations are 
 often wrong, I found that worse remained behind. The 
 science of philology is comparatively modern, so that our 
 earlier writers had no means of ascertaining principles that 
 are now well established, and, instead of proceeding by rule, 
 had to go blindly by guesswork, thus sowing crops of errors 
 which have sprung up and multiplied till it requires very 
 careful investigation to enable a modern writer to avoid all 
 the pitfalls prepared for him by the false suggestions which 
 he meets with at every turn. Many derivations that have 
 been long current and are even generally accepted will not 
 be found in this volume, for the plain reason that I have 
 found them to be false ; I think I may at any rate believe 
 myself to be profoundly versed in most of the old fables of 
 this character, and I shall only say, briefly, that the reader 
 need not assume me to be ignorant of them because I do 
 not mention them. The most extraordinary fact about 
 
 1 Bond is a form of the past tense in Middle English, and indeed the 
 sb. bond is itself derived from the grade of bindan found in the A. S. 
 pt. t. band; but bond is certainly not ' the past participle.'
 
 MY ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARY. xlvi 
 
 comparative philology is that, whilst its principles are well 
 understood by numerous students in Germany and America, 
 they are far from being well known in England, so that it is 
 easy to meet even with classical scholars who have no notion 
 what " Grimm's Law " really means, and who are entirely at 
 a loss to understand why the English care has no connexion 
 with the Latin cura, nor the English whole with the Greek 
 oXor, nor the French charite with the Greek x^P LS - Yet 
 for the understanding of these things nothing more is 
 needed than a knowledge of the relative values of the letters 
 of the English, Latin, and Greek alphabets. A knowledge 
 of these alphabets is strangely neglected at our public 
 schools ; whereas a few hours carefully devoted to each 
 would save scholars from innumerable blunders, and a boy 
 of sixteen who understood them would be far more than 
 a match, in matters of etymology, for a man of fifty who 
 did. not. In particular, some knowledge of the vowel- 
 sounds is essential. Modern philology will, in future, turn 
 more and more upon phonetics ; and the truth now confined 
 to a very few will at last become general, that the vowel is 
 commonly the very life, the most essential part of the word, 
 and that, just as pre-scientific etymologists frequently went 
 wrong because they considered the consonants as being of 
 small consequence and the vowels of none at all, the 
 scientific student of the present day may hope to go right, 
 if he considers the consonants as being of great consequence 
 and the vowels as all-important. 
 
 'The foregoing remarks are, I think, sufficient to show 
 my reasons for undertaking the work, and the nature of 
 some of the difficulties which I have endeavoured to 
 encounter or remove.' 
 
 However far my performance has fallen short of my 
 intentions, it was encouraging to find that my Etymological 
 Dictionary supplied to some extent a real want, and was 
 very well received. Indeed, I have more than once been
 
 xlviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 informed that some of the articles are quite readable, owing, 
 no doubt, to the historical information which they contain, 
 or to the curious changes of form which they record. 
 
 As regards method, at any rate two great improvements 
 were made ; the former of these has relation to chronology, 
 the latter to the exact source of a word's origin. 
 
 The value of chronology is insisted upon throughout. 
 We cannot rest satisfied with any account of a word that 
 does not give at least some approximate notion of the date 
 when it first came into use. This is the first step towards 
 tracing its source ; and the truth of this is so obvious that 
 no more need be said. The New English Dictionary 
 assumes the necessity of this principle in every case. 
 
 The other improvement was in the attempt to discriminate 
 the exact source of a word's origin. I am not aware that 
 this had ever been attempted before, though the utility of 
 doing so was explicitly asserted by Trench in his First 
 Lecture upon ' English Past and Present,' in his account 
 of ' The English Vocabulary.' We want to know, in every 
 case, whether the word is native or foreign. If it be adapted 
 from French, we again want to know the source whence the 
 word found its way into that unoriginal language ; and the 
 like, in other cases. By taking notes of this kind in every 
 case, it became possible to compile, for the first time, long 
 lists showing the comparative influence upon English of 
 various foreign languages. Another great practical advantage 
 is that these lists can be studied and corrected by specialists, 
 or by books which treat of special languages. The list of 
 Malay words, for example, can be revised by help of a Malay 
 dictionary, or by help of some one who can speak the 
 language, without the trouble of going through the whole 
 Dictionary in order to pick them out. 
 
 The preparation for press of this rather ambitious work 
 occupied four years ; and it would have occupied a much 
 longer time if I had not made some previous preparation
 
 ETYMOLOGICAL DICTIONARIES. xlix 
 
 for work of this character, and if, on the other hand, I had 
 exercised fuller research in some cases of unusual difficulty. 
 I am ready to confess, with all candour, that it seemed to 
 me more necessary that the work should be completed 
 within a somewhat short time than that it should be delayed 
 too long. The publication, soon afterwards, of a second 
 edition enabled me to correct some of the more obvious 
 errors ; and several more corrections and additions have 
 been made, from time to time, in the successive editions of 
 the epitome called A Concise Etymological Dictionary. 
 
 With all its errors, the work has been of much use. The 
 references are numerous and not often incorrect ; and, 
 though many were taken from Richardson and Stratmann 
 and Morris, a considerable number of them were due to my 
 own reading. Many of the etymologies are more correct 
 than in most of the preceding works of a similar character, 
 and point out the immediate sources of words with a greater 
 degree of exactness. 
 
 One test of comparative success is imitation ; and of this 
 form of compliment the work has had its fair share. Most 
 of the Dictionaries which have appeared since 1882 have 
 borrowed from it more or less. 
 
 The increased interest now shown in etymological study 
 of a stricter and more scientific kind is best shown by the 
 books that have appeared of late years in foreign languages. 
 Foremost among these is the excellent Etymologisches 
 Worterbuch der deutschen Sprache by Friedrich Kluge, 
 Professor in the University of Jena. In Dutch, we have 
 not only the Etymologisch Woordenboek der Nederlandsche 
 Taal by Dr. Johannes Franck, of Bonn, but also the 
 Beknopt Etymologisch Woordenboek, by J. Vercoullie, of 
 Ghent. Others are the Dansk Etymologisk Ordbog, by 
 E. Jessen, printed at Copenhagen, in 1893 ; the Vocabolario 
 Etymologico Italiano, by F. Zambaldi ; and the Greek and 
 Persian Etymological Dictionaries, by Dr. Prellwitz and 
 
 d
 
 1 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Paul Horn respectively. These and other recent works on 
 the subject, several of which are of much value, have greatly 
 contributed to help the more advanced student. The 
 highest place is taken by the valuable and erudite Grundriss 
 der vergleichenden Grammatik der Indogermanischen Sprachen, 
 by Karl Brugmann, completed in 1893. 
 
 I now return to the history of the New English Dictionary, 
 for which so much preparation had thus been made, both 
 directly and indirectly. The net result was that a work 
 which, in 1858, could not have been safely commenced, was, 
 in 1878, being seriously considered. Twenty years of faithful 
 work of various kinds had made a great difference. A fairly 
 complete history of the whole movement is given in the 
 Transactions of the Philological Society, the most interesting 
 portion of it being from the year 1879 onwards. In that 
 year, Dr. Murray had been elected President of the Society, 
 in recognition of the fact that he had definitely undertaken 
 the editorship of the Dictionary; and on May 16, he 
 delivered the Presidential Address, which dealt with the 
 subject at length. On the preceding March i, the contracts 
 between the Society, the Delegates of the Clarendon 
 Press, and the Editor were signed. ' A fortnight before that 
 day,' says Dr. Murray, ' I had commenced the erection of 
 an iron building, detached from my dwelling-house, to serve 
 as a Scriptorium, and to accommodate safely and con- 
 veniently the materials. This has been fitted up with 
 blocks of pigeon-holes, 1,029 in number, for the reception 
 of the alphabetically arranged slips, and other conveniences 
 for the extensive apparatus required. On Lady Day, when 
 I was joined by my assistant, Mr. S. J. Herrtage, I received 
 from Mr. Furnivall some ton and three-quarters of materials 
 which had accumulated under his roof as sub-editor after 
 sub-editor fell off in his labours. . . . One or two of the 
 letters are in excellent order and really sub-edited, in a 
 true sense of the word. This refers to F, K, parts of C
 
 NEW ENGLISH DICTIONARY. li 
 
 and R l in a less degree to A, E, N, parts of O and U ; 
 of others of the letters it may be said that the slips have 
 received some amount of alphabetic arrangement ; of one 
 or two unhappily I have to report that they are in primitive 
 chaos.' 
 
 In 1880 Dr. Murray reported that 'during the year our 
 readers have risen to the number of 754. ... Altogether 
 1,568 books have been undertaken, of which 924 have been 
 finished.' A most interesting feature of this report is the 
 notice of the great help received from America. Among 
 American readers he names ' three to whom we are pre- 
 eminently obliged ' the Rev. J. Pierson, of Ionia, Michigan, 
 ' our first helper in the States/ who has also sent in 7,650 
 quotations from important sixteenth and seventeenth century 
 works ; Prof. G. M. Philips, of the University, Lewisburg, 
 Pennsylvania, and Dr. Henry Phillipps, of Philadelphia. 
 The same report gives many interesting details as to 
 particular words beginning with A. 
 
 In 1881, the editor again reported excellent progress. 
 The number of readers had then risen to upwards of 800, 
 and the total number of authors represented in the Reference 
 Index was 2,700. 'In the alphabetical arrangement of 
 the old slips, we are in sight of the end, only W remaining 
 to be put in order.' Much careful sub-editing of various 
 letters had been accomplished. By way of example, it may 
 be noted that the division of the meanings of the verb Set, 
 and the attempt to put them in satisfactory order, had 
 occupied a sub-editor for over forty hours. 
 
 In 1882, the editor was able to report that ' the Dictionary 
 
 1 The material for this letter was, at one time, entrusted to myself, 
 and I found it in tolerably good order. Mr. Cornelius Payne had 
 prepared a portion, as if for press, down to the word Ravel, or there- 
 abouts. I finished Ra, and began Re, but the pressure of editorial 
 work made it impossible for me to proceed ; and I soon relinquished 
 the responsibility. 
 
 d 2
 
 lii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 is at last really launched, and some forty pages are in type.' 
 From that time the work proceeded without further inter- 
 ruption ; and the first part, from the beginning of A down 
 to Ant, appeared in 1884. In 1888, Mr. Henry Bradley, 
 whose excellent edition of Stratmann's Middle-English 
 Dictionary has been already mentioned, was appointed 
 joint-editor. He has finished E and a large portion of F, 
 whilst Dr. Murray, having completed A-C, is engaged upon 
 the latter part of D. So that now, in 1896, it is a great 
 satisfaction to think that more than a quarter of this 
 monumental work has already appeared, and to remember 
 the old days when it was brought home to its well-wishers 
 that a great number of MSS. had still to be edited, or else 
 edited anew, before it could reasonably be commenced. 
 
 Now that I have traced the outlines of the history of 
 the great Dictionary, and shown how the endeavour to 
 provide for it worthy -materials led to the formation of 
 the English Text Society and the printing of many 
 previously inedited MSS. ; and how the impulse thus given 
 to the historical study of our own language originated many 
 other collateral movements, such as the foundation of the 
 English Dialect Society, and the Chaucer and Shakespeare 
 Societies, the phonetic researches of Dr. Ellis and Dr. 
 Sweet, the compilation of the Middle-English Dictionaries 
 by Stratmann and Matzner, and a greatly increased and 
 more rational interest in the study of English etymology ; 
 it may, perhaps, be allowed me to return to matters more 
 personal. 
 
 The training which I gained by the editing of Middle- 
 English texts proved particularly beneficial ; chiefly because 
 I thus came to learn the spelling of the fourteenth 
 century from MSS. written during that period. Knowledge 
 of old texts, as derived at second-hand from printed texts, 
 is a very poor thing in comparison with that obtained from 
 the MSS. themselves. From the MSS. themselves it is
 
 GHOST-WORDS. liii 
 
 possible to learn, precisely and accurately, the character and 
 origin of such mistakes as the scribes sometimes perpetrate, 
 as well as the sources of such peculiar fancies as some 
 editors, either consciously or unconsciously, adopt. It is 
 often easy, for one who is thus familiar with all (or most) 
 of the causes of error, to see through and correct the 
 blunders of the editor who is new to his trade, viz. by help 
 of the ability to recognize forms, which the editor, even 
 with the MS. before him, could not decipher. Of this 
 many instances could be given, from the marginal notes 
 in some of my books, or they may be found in my paper on 
 Ghost- Words. By way of specimen of editorial ingenuity 
 of this character, I may cite one from my Notes to Piers 
 the Plowman, C. ix. 2. In that passage we find the expres- 
 sion half acre, meaning a small plot of ground, about half 
 an acre in size. The same expression occurs in Gammer 
 Gurtoris Needle, Act i. sc. 2, where ' Tom Tankard's cow ' 
 is described as ' flinging [i. e. capering] about his halfe aker, 
 fisking [flourishing] with her tail.' But unluckily, when 
 Mr. Hazlitt reprinted this play in Dodsley's collection, the 
 expression appeared as halse aker, by the usual confusion 
 between / and the long s (f) ; and he was consequently 
 much exercised to find an explanation. At last he was 
 driven to suggest that it must be an error for halse anker, 
 because ' a halse or halser was a particular kind of cable ' ; 
 to which a tail might, conceivably, be likened. The point 
 is, of course, that even this gratuitous alteration gives little 
 more sense than before. Moreover, ' his ' refers to ' Tom ' ! 
 I have frequently been asked how I managed to turn 
 out so much work, and to edit so many texts. The answer 
 is, simply, that it was done by devoting to them nearly 
 all my spare time, and that of spare time I had abundance, 
 having not much else to do. It is astonishing how much 
 can be done by steady work at the same subject for many 
 hours every day, and by continuing the same during most
 
 liv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 months in the year. It is also necessary to be an enthu- 
 siast, working with an ever-present hope of doing something 
 to increase our knowledge in every available direction. 
 Then the merest drudgery becomes a sincere pleasure ; 
 and, if any one would learn what drudgery means, let 
 him make glossaries, and verify the references. 
 
 Of making many glossaries I have had much experience ; 
 on which account I here presume to explain how it may 
 best be done J . 
 
 The best way is to make a note of every word that 
 requires explanation on a separate slip of paper, with 
 a reference to the place where it occurs. I keep the 
 slips in the order in which the words occur in the book, 
 and afterwards go over each one again separately, adding 
 the part of speech and the sense (unless this has already 
 been done), at the same time verifying the references and 
 making sure that the sense is correct. Then, and not 
 till then, the slips are all sorted into alphabetical order : 
 after which, I go over them once more, collecting the 
 references from several slips on to one, where necessary, 
 putting all the information together, and sometimes adding 
 etymologies where required. The rejected slips can be 
 thrown away ; the rest go to press without rewriting. 
 This is the best plan, but very few will believe it ; most 
 people try to put down the words, in approximately 
 alphabetical order, in a note-book kept wholly for the 
 purpose. But the attempt will assuredly break down or 
 lead to trouble, if the text is of any great length. 
 
 It is, of course, absolutely necessary that the slips should 
 all be exactly of the same shape and size. My favourite 
 size is that of a slip five inches and three-quarters long, 
 and two inches and a quarter wide. The number of them 
 is of no consequence. For example, the original number 
 
 1 This method is copied from a note at p. Ixvi of my General 
 Preface to Piers the Plowman.
 
 BOS WORTH PROFESSORSHIP. Iv 
 
 of slips for the Glossarial Index in the sixth volume of 
 Chaucer's Works considerably exceeded 30,000 ; and even 
 when a large number had been weeded out and thrown 
 aside, there were so many left that, when piled one upon 
 the other, the whole depth of them was quite two inches 
 over nine feet. And the result is decidedly useful. 
 
 My work of editing and explaining texts began, as has 
 been said, in 1864, and had been continued (of course 
 without payment) for fourteen years when, in 1878, I had 
 the honour to be unanimously elected the first Professor of 
 Anglo-Saxon in Cambridge on the foundation of Dr. Bos- 
 worth 1 ; a most gratifying result, as it was precisely the 
 post which I most coveted, so that I thus attained the very 
 summit of my ambition. The kindness of the friends 
 who furnished me with testimonials on that occasion is 
 a thing not to be forgotten ; and one of my chief treasures 
 is a small volume in which all the original letters then 
 sent me are bound together. Opening it, I find the 
 autograph signatures of some who, alas ! are no longer 
 with us such as Professor J. S. Brewer (of King's College, 
 London), the Rev. H. O. Coxe (Bodley's well-known and 
 much-regretted Librarian), Dr. Ellis, Professor Freeman, 
 Professor Morley, Dr. Morris, Dr. Swainson (Norrisian 
 Professor of Divinity), Dr. Small of Edinburgh, the Arch- 
 bishop of Dublin (better known by the name of Richard 
 
 1 I am careful to say ' the first ... on the foundation of Dr. Bos- 
 worth.' For it is a matter of history, that a Professorship of Anglo- 
 Saxon was established in Cambridge by Sir Henry Spelman more 
 than two centuries ago. The first Professor on his foundation was 
 Abraham Whelock, who had previously been elected the first Pro- 
 fessor of Arabic in 1632, on the foundation of Sir Thomas Adams. 
 Whelock published his edition of the Anglo-Saxon version of Beda's 
 History in 1644 ; and was succeeded in the chair by William Somner, 
 whose Dictionary and text of jElfrics Grammar were published at 
 Oxford in 1659. But the professorship came to an end during the 
 civil wars, when the Spelman family were no longer in a position to 
 continue this useful benefaction.
 
 Ivi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Chenevix Trench), Professor Stephens of Copenhagen, 
 Professor Ten Brink of Strassburg, Dr. Stratmann of 
 Krefeld, and Professor Zupitza of Berlin. Of the many 
 others who are still living I will say no more than that 
 it is delightful to experience from nearly all of them, even 
 up to the present time, most ready sympathy and kindly 
 help whenever difficulties arise. 
 
 The chief result of my promotion has been that the 
 work which was before a pleasure only has now become, 
 at the same time, a duty. And perhaps no man is more 
 fortunate than one whose self-chosen occupation has become 
 his allotted task. 
 
 Another piece of exceptional good fortune was my 
 election to a Professorial Fellowship at my own college, 
 in 1883; for it was the fortune of some professors to be 
 elected to fellowships at colleges with which they had no 
 previous connexion ; a fate which I did not much desire. 
 My dear friend, Sir John Seeley, Regius Professor of 
 History, had obviously a prior claim ; but he had been 
 promptly secured by Gonville and Caius College, for which 
 wise choice I have always been grateful. 
 
 Considering that Anglo-Saxon is not a subject in very 
 great request, it might very easily have happened, especially 
 at the beginning of my professional work, that I might 
 some day be prepared to lecture, and might find no one 
 to listen. Curiously enough, this has never actually 
 happened ; in every year there have been some two or three 
 at least who, for some reason or other, have wanted 
 instruction. And in 1886, a new Tripos for Medieval 
 and Modern Languages was established, in which candidates 
 have the opportunity of choosing English as one of their 
 subjects, if they are so minded ; and for those who choose 
 it a fair knowledge of Anglo-Saxon is, of course, essential. 
 Hence the work in this department has become regular 
 and constant, and is likely, we may hope, to remain so.
 
 SKEAT ENGLISH PRIZE. Ivii 
 
 The known gentleness of the courteous reader will excuse 
 a few more notes ; they are not intended to claim merit, 
 but to inform and encourage others. 
 
 As far back as 1865, I gave 100 to found a small prize, 
 at Christ's College, for the encouragement of English 
 literature. The candidates are usually examined in a 
 selected piece of Middle-English, a couple of Shakespeare's 
 plays, and some third subject, such as Sidney's Apology for 
 Poetry. Small as the prize is, it has been a considerable 
 success, inasmuch as it has been gained, in some years, 
 by men of some mark. I may instance, for example, 
 Dr. J. S. Reid, well known as a classical scholar, Professor 
 Gardner of Oxford, Sir J. W. Bonser, Chief Justice of 
 Ceylon, and Mr. I. Gollancz, Editor of the Temple Shake- 
 speare. 
 
 Shortly after the death of Charles Darwin, a memorial 
 fund was raised among the members of Christ's College, 
 of which I had the honour to be treasurer. After paying 
 for an excellent portrait, by Ouless, which now adorns 
 the college-hall, a small sum was left which, it was thought, 
 might be gradually expended in giving occasional prizes 
 for natural science. As it seemed to me a pity that this 
 design should, in the course of a few years, come to a 
 sudden end, I again gave 100, in 1888, to make the 
 prize permanent. 
 
 My chief anxiety, in connexion with the University of 
 Cambridge, has been, for some years past, the establish- 
 ment of a University Lectureship in English. For more 
 than ten years, we have had University Lecturers in French 
 and German, each of whom are in the receipt of 200 
 a year; but when the endeavour was made, in 1889, to 
 secure a Lecturer in English at half that stipend, no funds 
 were any longer available for the purpose, owing to the 
 impossibility of meeting ever-increasing needs upon an 
 ever-diminishing income. In this dilemma, I could think
 
 Iviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 of nothing better than to appeal to the generosity of the 
 public in general, and wrote a letter to The Times to that 
 effect. To this appeal I received precisely one answer, 
 but it made a good beginning. The late Mr. S. Sandars, 
 a well-known benefactor to Cambridge on many occasions, 
 at once offered the sum of 50; and adding this to a 
 promise of 100 from Mr. Mocatta, I was encouraged 
 to proceed. A splendid gift of 200 guineas came from 
 the Company of Merchant Taylors, fifty guineas from the 
 Company of Mercers, 100 from the Master of Trinity 
 Hall, and another 200 guineas from an 'anonymous donor.' 
 The result has been the appointment, in March, 1896, 
 of Mr. Gollancz as the Lecturer, at the modest stipend 
 of 50 per annum ; and it is at least somewhat of a triumph 
 to find that the importance of the subject has at last 
 found some sort of public recognition. 
 
 One of my most delightful experiences has been my 
 connexion with the University of Oxford, as it has led 
 to my finding there many sincere friends. When I first 
 had to visit the Bodleian Library for the purpose of con- 
 sulting MSS., I found (notwithstanding many kindnesses) 
 that my evenings were often spent alone ; and I found 
 it depressing to be, practically, a stranger. Some years 
 ago, it was possible for a Cambridge M.A. to take an ad 
 eundem degree at Oxford without joining any college ; but 
 there was not much to be gained by this, in the case 
 of one not usually resident there. Under the new statutes, 
 it is necessary for one who seeks this degree to join a 
 college, which is a much better arrangement. The college 
 of my choice was Exeter, which proved a very happy one ; 
 and I went through what I believe to be a wholly unique 
 experience ; at least, I have never heard of a similar case. 
 The Oxford University statutes require a term's residence 
 in the case of one who, besides seeking the M.A. degree, 
 also desires to become a full member of Convocation ;
 
 INCORPORATION AT OXFORD. lix 
 
 and though I had no object in desiring this privilege in 
 itself, I was glad of an opportunity of seeing something 
 of the Oxford life. One of the fellows of Exeter who 
 happened to be for a while abroad kindly lent me his 
 rooms, and I duly completed my term's residence in 
 college with much satisfaction. The kindness which I there 
 experienced, and the opportunities thus given me of making 
 friends, proved a very great advantage ; and now it is 
 a most pleasant change to visit Oxford rather frequently, 
 and to find myself among many friends in that famous 
 University ; in fact, I am quite at home there, finding all 
 the attractions of a student's life, without any responsibility 
 in the way of lecturing or otherwise. It is a good thing 
 for a student of one university to know something of the 
 ways of the other, without actual migration ; and I rather 
 wonder that the idea is not more frequently entertained. 
 The chief reason against it is to be found in the detestable 
 arrangement whereby the London and North-Western 
 Railway compels every traveller to spend three hours over 
 a journey that might be completed in little more than two. 
 An enforced wait of three-quarters of an hour or so at the 
 cheerless Bletchley station is decidedly unaccommodating 
 and ruthless ; and there can be little doubt that this is the 
 chief cause that keeps the two Universities apart. 
 
 The reader who has, by this time, had enough of my 
 own doings may perhaps be interested in a few remarks 
 about other people. 
 
 The revival of the study of Anglo-Saxon in the present 
 century was largely due to Benjamin Thorpe and John 
 Mitchell Kemble. Thorpe's editions of the Anglo-Saxon 
 Chronicle and of the Ancient Laws and Institutes of England 
 are well-known and useful books ; he also gave us an edition 
 of Ccedmon in 1832, of the Codex Exoniensis in 1842, 
 of the Homilies of the Anglo-Saxon Church in 1844-46, and 
 of Beoivulf'vn. 1855 ; besides issuing a translation of Rask's
 
 Ix INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Grammar and a good selection of short pieces 
 entitled Analecta Anglo-Saxonica. The student who desires 
 a complete account of Anglo-Saxon studies will find it all in 
 Dr. Wiilker's Grundriss zur Geschichte der angelsachsischen 
 Litteratur, published at Leipzig in 1885. 
 
 To Kemble we owe an edition of Beowulf \^ 1833, which 
 reached a second edition in 1835, and was followed by 
 a translation, with notes and a glossary, in 1837: a collec- 
 tion of Anglo-Saxon charters, in six volumes, known as 
 the Codex Diplomaticus ^Evi Saxonict; the poetry of the 
 Codex Vercellensis, 1843-56; and the Dialogue of Salomon 
 and Saturn, 1848. He also wrote the esteemed historical 
 work known as The Saxons in England, published in two 
 volumes in 1849. The latest work which he undertook, on 
 behalf of the University of Cambridge, was an edition of 
 all the known MSS. of the Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, 
 and Mercian versions of the four Gospels ; but at the time 
 of his death, in the spring of 1857, the portion actually 
 completed did not reach much beyond the beginning of 
 the twenty-fifth chapter of St. Matthew. The small portion 
 of this Gospel thus left unfinished was completed by Charles 
 Hard wick in 1858 ; and there the matter rested for more 
 than ten years. After this lapse of time, the Syndics of 
 the Pitt Press, being unwilling that the work should be 
 abandoned, entrusted me with the task of continuing the 
 work ; and I was able gradually to complete it, issuing 
 the Gospel of St. Mark in 1871, that of St. Luke in 1874, 
 and that of St. John in 1878. After this, I was permitted to 
 bring out a second and revised edition of St. Matthew's 
 Gospel in 1887 ; and all four Gospels can now be obtained 
 in a single quarto volume, which is a convenient form 
 for use. 
 
 I was never so fortunate as to meet with Thorpe or 
 Kemble, but I heard something about the latter from 
 Mr. Thomas Wright, whom I met frequently. Kemble
 
 KEMBLE AND WRIGHT. Ixi 
 
 had taken his B.A. degree in 1830, at Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, a year later than Archbishop Trench. In 1834 
 Kemble, being then well versed in Anglo-Saxon, was anxious 
 to impart some of his knowledge to his fellow-collegians, 
 and designed an ambitious course of twenty lectures, of 
 which he issued a printed prospectus, twenty pages long, 
 interleaved with blank paper for the convenience of such 
 as were disposed to take notes '. When the day appointed 
 for the first lecture came, he duly donned his cap and gown, 
 and appeared in the lecture-room which the college had 
 assigned for the purpose. But where was the audience ? 
 There was precisely one person present, Thomas Wright by 
 name, at that time (I believe) an undergraduate of the 
 same college. As this one hearer evidently meant business, 
 the lecture was duly delivered. But when, on the second 
 occasion, the same thing happened again, notwithstanding 
 that the main subject of the lecture was the poem of 
 Beowulf, and that one of the things noted in the Syllabus 
 was the 'arrogance and ignorance of Mr. Ritson,' which 
 ought in itself to have drawn a crowd of hearers. Kemble 
 could stand it no longer, but invited his young friend to 
 come to his own rooms, and discuss the subject freely over 
 a tankard of beer. And certainly that undergraduate had 
 a pleasant experience, and considered himself more than 
 usually fortunate. Wright's extraordinary industry is shown 
 most clearly by the fact that the mere enumeration of his 
 books fills a whole column of small print in the English 
 Encyclopaedia; a large number of them .being especially 
 concerned with Anglo-Saxon and Middle-English. I re- 
 member him as a quiet but cheery old gentleman, who 
 more than once stayed with me when he came to Cambridge 
 
 1 I possess a copy of this syllabus. It bears, on the title-page, the 
 following: History of the English Language. First, or Anglo- Saxon 
 Period. By J. M. Kemble, Esq., A.M., Trinity College, Cambridge: 
 printed for J. and J. J. Deighton, Trinity Street, 1834.
 
 Ixii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to consult MSS. He had sharp quick eye-sight, and wrote 
 a very legible hand at a quite unusual pace ; he used to say 
 of himself that he was ' pretty quick,' and perhaps he trusted 
 to his quickness a little too much in later years, as some of 
 his errors of reading are somewhat surprising. His ency- 
 clopaedic literary knowledge of many various subjects, 
 especially antiquarian, was very remarkable. We were 
 excellent friends, with a common interest in Middle-English 
 and in things relating to Shropshire \ 
 
 I possess a copy of a small work entitled Bibliotheque 
 Anglo- Saxonne, par F. Michel (Paris, 1837). This is a 
 catalogue of the chief works printed before that date that 
 relate to Anglo-Saxon studies. But it is especially remark- 
 able for the Letter by Kemble to M. Francisque Michel, 
 which occupies the first forty-three pages. This is an 
 excellent outline of the general history of the study, 
 containing several remarks of interest. Thus, in a note at 
 p. 24, he pursues his quarrel with Ritson's work with much 
 energy. He declares that Ritson's print of The Frere and 
 the Boy contains sixty-four mistakes, and that in his print of 
 The King and the Barker, there are 140 errors in the course 
 of 128 lines. 'Yet this man dared to run down and 
 persecute Warton ! It is now beginning to be felt, that it 
 was not Warton's inaccuracy which moved Ritson's bile : 
 oh, no ! it was the unhappy fact that Warton was a fellow of 
 a college, a scholar, a gentleman, and a Christian, to no one 
 of which titles Ritson had the slightest claim.' Of Home 
 Tooke, Kemble asserts that ' he was barbarously ignorant 
 
 1 He had a favourite dialect story, which I fear has often done duty 
 under various forms. Seeing a peasant at work in a field abounding 
 with mole-hills, he pointed to them, saying ' My good man, what be 
 those ? ' The reply was, of course, ' they bin 6&nty-tumps ! ' ' But, 
 pray, what do you mean by 66nty-tumps? ' ' Why, 66nty-tumps bin 
 the tumps as the 66nts maken.' ' But what do you mean by 66nts?' 
 ' I think yo' mun be a fool ; the 66nts bin the things as maken the 
 tumps ! '
 
 JOHN MITCHELL KEMBLE. Ixiii 
 
 of all the Teutonic tongues ; and owes what reputation he 
 has enjoyed solely to a happy knack of outbullying his 
 opponents upon subjects with which he and they were alike 
 conversant.' ' Sharon Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons, 
 1801,' is 'a learned and laborious work; yet in all that 
 relates to the language and the poetry of our forefathers, 
 often deficient, often mistaken.' ' Sir F. Palgrave's Anglo- 
 Saxon Commonwealth, 1832, . . . cannot be too highly 
 valued, as a clear and learned exposition of the Saxon 
 polity. Nevertheless one must, as a philologist, quarrel 
 with Sir Francis for false etymology. As long as he is at 
 work with his Latin or Saxon charters, he reads them well 
 and no man can more safely be followed ; but set him once 
 upon a bit of etymology, up go the heels of his hobby, and 
 down comes Sir Francis into the mire, no better informed, 
 as it appears, than most of his English predecessors have 
 been, respecting the true form and power of many words 1 .' 
 But the most valuable contribution made by Kemble to 
 the study of Anglo-Saxon was that he was the first to call 
 attention to the value of scientific philology, as illustrated 
 by the great German scholar, Wilhelm Grimm. 'The 
 system of this scholar,' he says, ' which can henceforth 
 alone form the basis of any philosophical study of the 
 Teutonic tongues, rests upon two propositions : (i) that 
 the roots of these languages, their methods of declension, 
 conjugation, and derivation, are common to them all ; and 
 (2) that each language, according to fixed laws of its own, 
 differences 2 the common element.' He gives two excellent 
 examples of Grimm's methods. He first quotes ' msegca 
 
 1 It is but too true. Sir Francis was one of those who thought 
 that any sound-changes could take place in any direction and to any 
 extent Thus in the preface to his History of the Anglo-Saxons, 
 p. xiii, he argues that bet is merely another form of ivager\ Bet, he 
 tells us, is derived from bad; and it appears that, by bad, he mean* 
 A. S. bad, a pledge, with long a \ 
 
 3 We should now say ' differentiates.'
 
 Ixiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 hose ' from Bernini!/, \. 924, an expression of which the 
 meaning was quite unknown till Grimm pointed it out. 
 The word hose occurs nowhere else in A.S. ; yet, by the 
 method of comparison, the solution is easy. For, just as 
 the A.S. gas, 'a goose,' answers to the G. Cans, it is clear 
 that the A. S. hos answers to the M. H. G. hans (mod. G. 
 Jlanse) and the Goth, hansa, ' a company.' Accordingly, 
 ' maegcfa hose' simply means 'with a company of maidens.' 
 Next, he illustrates Grimm's law (which requires that a Latin 
 / should be represented in English by/) by pointing out 
 that the A. S. word corresponding to the Lat. palma is 
 precisely the A. S. fern. sb. folm, meaning the palm of the 
 hand, or the hand itself. We have indeed adopted the 
 wordfla/m in English, but it is merely the Latin form, not 
 the native one. 
 
 Speaking of his edition of Beowulf, in 1833, Kemble 
 claims that, in that book, he was the first who ever attempted, 
 in England, 'to separate the long from the short sounds, 
 upon a philosophical principle of analogy and the authority 
 of MSS. '; and felt himself justified accordingly in ' claiming 
 favour for errors.' Finally, he concludes this interesting 
 ' Letter' with words of hope : ' From the activity which all 
 at once appears to prevail among the Saxonists of England, 
 there is hope that we may make some important advances, 
 and escape the reproach, at present too well deserved, of 
 suffering foreigners to outstrip us in acquaintance with our 
 native tongue. Surely, while we have all the MSS., it 
 cannot be right that they should have all the knowledge? 
 
 These are words of encouragement that may well be laid 
 to heart. Dr. Sweet's useful Anglo-Saxon Reader, and, 
 still better, his accurate edition of The Oldest English Texts-, 
 well exemplify how much can be done by a scholar who 
 knows what he is about. Perhaps the most unexpected 
 result of modern times is the extension of Anglo-Saxon 
 studies to the continent of America. But whatever progress
 
 OSWALD COCKAYNE. Ixv 
 
 may be made in the future, we must not forget that the 
 Englishman who first vindicated the importance of the 
 application of philological principles to the study of English 
 was certainly JOHN MITCHELL KEMBLE. 
 
 I have good reason to remember very well the Rev. 
 Oswald Cockayne, because, as I have already said (at p. viii), 
 he was my class-master at King's College School. It will 
 readily be understood that he did not teach me Anglo- 
 Saxon, but Latin and Greek. He was an excellent teacher, 
 and I profited by his instruction sufficiently to obtain the 
 first prize in the Lower Third form. It must have been 
 some twenty years before we again met, and discussed the 
 subject in which we had a common interest. I was even 
 able to afford him, occasionally, some humble assistance by 
 consulting for him some of the precious MSS. in the library 
 of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. His knowledge was 
 very extensive and extremely accurate ; and it was fortunate 
 that the peculiarly difficult task of editing the Leechdoms, 
 Wortcunning, and Starcraft of Early England fell into such 
 able hands. His own copy of this work is now in my 
 possession, and I observe in vol. i. just a few minute 
 corrections, of no real consequence ; such as, for example, 
 that at p. 156, in the fourth line from the bottom, the word 
 'waestme' is written, in the MS., with the usual short s, and 
 not, as printed, with a long one. His love of exactness 
 led him to the use of the ' Anglo-Saxon ' type, which 
 is rightly now discarded as being needless and clumsy. 
 Another objection is that some letters are liable to be 
 confused ; for I observe in the same volume, at p. 74, 1. 1 2, 
 the curious word ' f>yrte,' translated by ' wort,' where it is 
 obvious that the first letter was intended for a w. A mis- 
 print of this kind is of course extremely rare in any of 
 his books, as he was obliged to watch such letters very 
 closely. 
 
 A very characteristic book of his is that entitled, The 
 Q
 
 Ixvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Shrine : A Collection of Occasional Papers on Dry Subjects. 
 My copy of it, presented by the author, ends abruptly at 
 p. 208 ; but I am not aware that it ever went any further. 
 The corrections for Bosworth's Dictionary, at pp. i-n and 
 23-28, have proved of service. One very curious criticism 
 is that wherein Mr. Cockayne accuses Dr. Bosworth of 
 making the sb. dust, ' dust,' masculine. It is undoubtedly 
 marked with ' m.' in the smaller Dictionary of 1848; but 
 this may well be due to a misprint, seeing that it is marked 
 ' n.' in the first edition of the larger work, printed ten years 
 earlier. 
 
 It was once my fortune to hear Mr. Cockayne preach 
 a sermon without notes, and I was much struck with his 
 eloquence of expression. His language had the classic 
 elegance of the well-read scholar, and approached more 
 nearly to the style of Johnson than I should have 
 expected. He told me that he preferred to preach 
 extempore, as he disliked the labour of writing down 
 the discourse ; and there was certainly no need for him 
 to do so. 
 
 I can well recall the tall and upright figure of Dr. Bosworth, 
 founder of the Professorship which I now hold, and author 
 of two Anglo-Saxon Dictionaries. He was born in Derby- 
 shire, more than a century ago, in 1789, and educated at 
 Repton, Aberdeen, and Trinity College, Cambridge. In 
 1817 he became vicar of Little Horwood, in Buckingham- 
 shire, and in 1823 he published the work entitled The 
 Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar. In 1829 he was 
 appointed British Chaplain in Holland, where he acquired 
 a knowledge of Dutch, in which he was able to converse 
 fluently. In 1840 he became vicar of Waith in Lincoln- 
 shire; and in 1857 rector of Water Stratford, Bucks., where 
 he remained but a short time, being appointed Rawlinsonian 
 Professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford in 1858. His larger 
 Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, published in 1838, when he was
 
 DR. JOSEPH BOSWORTH. Ixvii 
 
 chaplain at Rotterdam, was, at that date, a very useful book. 
 It was largely a translation of the Dictionary by Lye and 
 Manning, with some additions and alterations, and is a much 
 more convenient book to handle than the two folio volumes 
 that preceded it. Still more useful, for many students, was 
 the cheaper Compendious Anglo-Saxon Dictionary published 
 in 1848. But the dictionaries published in Germany by 
 Ettmiiller in 1851, and by Leo in 1872-7, as well as the 
 extremely exhaustive Glossary of the poetical A. S. literature 
 by Grein in 1861-4 rendered it necessary for him to prepare 
 a new edition, on a fuller plan. ^Vhen my edition of 
 St. Mark's Gospel in the Anglo-Saxon and Northumbrian 
 versions was published by the Pitt Press in 1871, the 
 Syndics of the Press sent a copy of it to Dr. Bosworth, who, 
 in his reply (dated Dec. 15, 1871) acknowledging the 
 present of the book, made an interesting allusion to the 
 work upon which he was then engaged. He was glad to 
 find that the readings of all the MSS. were presented to the 
 reader at once, and observed that ' instead of having the 
 trouble of referring to the MSS. or the various books in 
 which some of them are printed, I find, at once, all I want 
 to quote in my large Anglo-Saxon Dictionary preparing for 
 the Clarendon Press, on which I and my amanuenses are 
 employed at least seven hours a day.' He was working at 
 the Dictionary up to the very last ; and at his death, which 
 took place on May 27, 1876, had finally revised the first 
 288 pages of the work, down to the word firgen-stream. It 
 was some time before it was possible to make preparations 
 for the continuation of the work ; but it was at last under- 
 taken by Professor Toller, of Manchester, who completed 
 Part II (down to hzvistlian} in 1882, Part III (to sar) in 
 1887, and Part IV, section i (to swithriati) in 1892 ; 
 so that we may reasonably hope for the completion of this 
 important work at no very distant date. 
 
 Dr. Bosworth once told me how he made a considerable 
 e 2
 
 Ixviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 sum of money in a very simple way. There was formerly 
 a stupid fashion in vogue of writing Greek Grammars in 
 Latin. I have now before me the one which I used 
 at school Graecae Grammaticae Rudimenta in usum 
 scholarum printed at Oxford in 1849. As this, naturally 
 enough, appeared to him a useless piece of tyranny on the 
 part of pedagogues, he brought out a Greek Grammar 
 containing very similar information, the text of which was 
 entirely written in perfectly plain English, such as every 
 schoolboy could understand ; and he had his reward in an 
 enormous sale. 
 
 Dr. Bosworth will always be remembered by a grateful 
 University for his liberal gift, in 1867, of the sum of p^io,ooo, 
 which, after accumulating till it produced ^500 per annum, 
 provided the stipend of the Elrington and Bosworth 
 Professorship of Anglo-Saxon. The reason for the founder's 
 adoption of this title is easily discovered. The doctor was 
 thrice married, and the name of his second wife, who had 
 herself been previously married, was Mrs. Elrington. She 
 took much interest in the study of Anglo-Saxon, and we 
 find, from a remark in Dr. Bosworth's edition of Orosius 
 (p. Ixii), that she assisted him in collating the manuscript 
 readings of that work. If I rightly interpret the following 
 extracts from the Gentleman's Magazine, her maiden name 
 was Anne Margaret Elliot. 
 
 ' Married, Dec. 13, 1828. At St. Margaret's, Westminster, Lieut. - 
 Col. Elrington, of the 3rd Guards, to Anne Margaret, second daughter 
 of John Elliot, Esq., of Pimlico Lodge.' 
 
 ' Died, July 6, 1842. Sarah, wife of Dr. Bosworth, at Quorn, 
 Derbyshire.' 
 
 ' Died, Nov. 26, 1842. At Berkley Square, John Hamilton Elrington, 
 late Lieut. -Col. Scots Fusilier Guards.' 
 
 ' Married, Dec. 8, 1853. At Leckhampton, Cheltenham, the 
 Rev. J. Bosworth, D.D., F.R.S., to Anne Margaret, widow of 
 Col. Hamilton Elrington ' (Gent. Mag., March, 1854). 
 
 Another good friend of mine was Miss Georgina Jackson,
 
 MISS JACKSON. Ixix 
 
 authoress of the Shropshire Glossary, one of the very best 
 of its kind. After many years employed in collecting 
 dialect words, some of which were acquired when travelling 
 in a third-class railway-carriage on a market-day, she con- 
 sulted me then a total stranger to her as to the best 
 method of preparing her work for press. I recommended 
 the use of slips each slip to be of the size of a half-sheet 
 of note-paper a suggestion which she adopted. I also 
 took occasion to recommend the use of 'glossic,' or, at any 
 rate, of some fixed mode of representing sounds by symbols. 
 At this she at first rebelled, on the grounds that it was quite 
 unintelligible to her, and that she could never acquire it. 
 I could only reply that it was worth while to acquire either 
 that system or something like it ; at the same time alluding 
 to the difficulty of discussing sounds through the medium 
 of writing. At once, with characteristic decision, she 
 started from Chester for Cambridge, to discuss the matter 
 personally ; whereupon ensued a long and amusing argu- 
 ment, conducted on both sides with due spirit and vigour. 
 Being very anxious to render her work as useful as possible, 
 she soon found that ' glossic ' was not so very difficult, and 
 that it could be adapted to the Shropshire pronunciation 
 with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes. She then 
 had an interview with Dr. Ellis, with the most satisfactory 
 results; and the end of it was that he described her 
 investigation of the dialect-sounds as ' perhaps the most 
 searching that has been made.' It was quite a treat to hear 
 her give the sounds which I had so often myself heard in 
 the neighbourhood of Corve-dale. Her favourite story was 
 that of Betty Andrews, of Church Pulverbatch. Betty was 
 going in a market-train from Hanwood to Shrewsbury, and 
 while talking with her usual rapidity, was thus addressed by 
 a man who was her fellow-traveller : ' Wy, Missis, I should 
 think as yo' mun a 'ad yore tongue lied [oiled] this mornin' 
 afore yo' started.' ' No, indeed. Sir,' said Betty, ' I hanna ;
 
 Ixx INTRODUCTION. 
 
 fur if it 'ad a bin lied it ood never a stopped. No 
 danger ] ! ' 
 
 Miss Jackson became a sad invalid in her later years, 
 being confined to one room and often to bed for long 
 periods, and suffering much pain ; but she bore her trials 
 with much courage and even cheerfulness, and at all times 
 took much interest in English dialects and etymology. 
 
 It has always been a great pleasure to me to welcome 
 English scholars to Cambridge ; and to find that they are 
 not unfrequently attracted here. The manuscript treasures 
 of the University library and of Corpus Christi College are 
 an inducement to them to visit us ; and it is a great privilege 
 for us to meet them. It is thus that I became personally 
 acquainted with many scholars from Germany ; such as 
 Professors Ten Brink, Zupitza, Kolbing, Schroer, Koch, 
 and Brandl ; and with Professors Child, Bright, Cook, and 
 several others, from America. Zupitza was one of the most 
 kindly and delightful of companions, a great enthusiast in 
 his subject, and an excellent teacher. As a critic, he 
 possessed a faculty of too great rarity, in that he could 
 detect an error and set one right without causing even the 
 slightest annoyance. We all know how prone are critics, 
 in general, and especially, perhaps, the German critics, to 
 give the impression that they like seeing the victim wince 
 while they forcibly stick in the pin. To Professor Child 
 belongs, as I believe, the honour of being one of the first 
 to show that England could learn from America in matters 
 relating to the philology of our common language. His 
 wonderful essays on the Language of Chaucer and on the 
 
 1 In glossic ' Wi Mis'is, ei shud thing'k uz yoa mun a ad' yoa'r' 
 tung'g ei'ld dhis maur'-nin ufoa'r' yoa staa'r'tid.' ' Noa indee'd 
 Sur, ei arru fur' if it ad- u bin ei'ld it 66d nevur' u stop't. Noa' 
 dernjuV ! ' The use of yoa for you, of mun a for must have, of an'tt 
 for have not, and the total loss of initial h, are very characteristic of 
 Shropshire. And as for 'no danger,' i.e. not at all likely, it is quite 
 the usual way of concluding a reply.
 
 PROFESSOR CHILD. Ixxi 
 
 language of Gower laid the foundation of nearly all that 
 we have learnt as to the grammar and metre of these poets : 
 and any one who examines his splendid collection of 
 English Ballads will marvel at the erudition he displays 
 with regard to all the numerous ballads that are found 
 among Teutonic peoples. 
 
 Perhaps the most remarkable sign of the times is the 
 recognition of English philological studies at the universities 
 by the conferring of honorary degrees. I can recall three 
 examples at Cambridge within recent years. I have seen 
 Stephens, of Copenhagen, Zupitza, of Berlin, and Alexander 
 John Ellis, all presented, in different years, for the honorary 
 degree of Doctor of Letters in the Senate House. The last 
 of these cases is the most striking, as the degree was 
 conferred upon one who was himself a Cambridge man. 
 Dr. Ellis, of Trinity College, took his B.A. degree as sixth 
 wrangler, as far back as 1837, and was at the head of the 
 second class in the classical tripos in the same year ; but, 
 owing to certain theological restrictions then in vogue he 
 was never elected a fellow of any college, nor even took the 
 M.A. degree. Fifty-three years later, in 1890, he was made 
 a Litt. D. ; an honour which he did not long survive. 
 
 ACCOUNT OF THE EXTRACTS IN THE PRESENT VOLUME. 
 
 The present volume is entirely occupied with selected 
 extracts from the articles contributed by me at various 
 times to the well-known weekly periodical entitled Notes 
 and Queries. 
 
 As these amount to several hundred, and many of them 
 relate to questions which were chiefly of interest at the 
 moment, or give results which have since found their way 
 into books, it became necessary to make a selection. The
 
 Ixxii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 number of articles which are omitted because the suggestions 
 which they expressed have been disproved, is very small. 
 
 On the other hand, a considerable number of etymologies 
 have been here reprinted, notwithstanding their appearance in 
 later works, because I had much to do with their enuncia- 
 tion or explanation, and their appearance in N. and Q. has 
 become a matter of history. 
 
 I may note, for example, that the etymology of Carfax 
 was suggested to me by the perusal of the French MS. of 
 Melusine, and has since been adopted in all the newer 
 dictionaries. The etymology of puzzle was put together 
 from certain examples of the word in Lydgate and Skelton. 
 The etymology of spawn came out of Walter of Biblesworth. 
 The right explanation of talon and pounce is in the Book of 
 Hawking. The full explanation of the prefixes to- and 
 ail-to- was due to collation of the usages of many English 
 writers. Lammas was explained by King Alfred ; and the 
 provincial word ollands by Ray. The first clear light as to 
 the origin of nuncheon came from Mr. Riley ; following in 
 whose trace the true explanation was given by Mr. Walford, 
 and at a later time, but independently, by myself. Our use 
 of atone is due to imitation of a French idiom. Sparable is 
 a modern spelling of sparrmv-bill ; and wag is short for 
 wag-halter. Hogs-head was formerly ox-head, whatever may 
 have been the reason for so naming it. I found the 
 etymology of the provincial words aund, reckan, and wicks 
 (of the mouth) in the Icelandic Dictionary. Before we can 
 explain hugger-mugger, we must know that the older spelling 
 is hoder-moder. All these things, and many more like them, 
 prove that there is no royal road to etymology ; it is simply 
 a matter of pure research, conducted in accordance with 
 very careful study of the phonetic changes that have taken 
 place in our language from time to time. 
 
 Besides preserving here many illustrations of difficult 
 words, such as caddy, cap-a-pie, beef-eater, bernar, blake-beryed,
 
 ETYMOLOGIES. Ixxiii 
 
 bydand, carminative, gist, and many others of a like kind, 
 I have brought together, from almost countless sources, 
 illustrations of phrases of interest, such as key-cold, as dead 
 as a doornail, a year and a day, by hook or by crook, 
 a baker's dozen, exceptio probat regulam, and others like 
 them ; all gathered by the simple process of diving into all 
 kinds of books of all periods. In fact, one never knows 
 whence help may come; Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-French, Middle- 
 English, and Elizabethan texts all abound with possibilities for 
 the discovery of ' origins,' for those who have the courage to 
 attack them. I found, for example, the true etymology of 
 dismal^ in the catalogue of the MSS. in the Glasgow Library ; 
 and I am not aware that it has, till lately, been given any- 
 where else; though it was duly pointed out by M. Paul Meyer, 
 who made the catalogue. 
 
 In reading such old texts, there is no reason for confining 
 one's attention to the language only ; nor have I ever 
 omitted to learn from them whatever else I could there 
 find. Hence the reader may find here discussions on 
 several literary points of some interest, such as the Middle- 
 English accounts of the Seven Ages of man, of the creation 
 of roses, of Cain's jaw-bone, and of the story of 'the 
 pound of flesh.' The Jackdaw of Rheims is illustrated by 
 the Knight de la Tour, and the Lay of Havelok by the 
 poems of Robert of Brunne. There are some remarkable 
 parallelisms of expression between Chaucer's Troilus and 
 his Knightes Tale ; and the passage in Piers the Plowman 
 about Lucifer's seat in the north can be illustrated from the 
 Vulgate version of the Bible and from Milton's Paradise 
 Lost. There is no end to the interest to be derived from 
 the study of our splendid literature ; and it is just as easy, 
 for a mind not already debilitated by the perusal of magazines, 
 
 1 From A. F. dis tnal, evil days ; whence the common old phrase 
 ' dismal days.' See my note to Chaucer's Works, vol. i. poem iii. 
 1. 1206.
 
 Ixxiv INTRODUCTION. 
 
 to cultivate a taste for the Elizabethan drama as for Tit-bits 
 and the Yellow Book. All that is needed is to read the 
 former first. The works of our best authors form a true 
 4 Pastime of Pleasure,' and are a source of rational recreation ; 
 magazines are chiefly good for killing time in hours of 
 intentional idleness. 
 
 One of the queerest crazes in English etymology is the 
 love of paradox, which is often carried to such an extent 
 that it is considered mean, if not despicable, to accept an 
 etymology that is obvious. It is of no use to prove, to 
 some people, by the clearest evidence, that beef-eater is 
 derived from beef and eater ; or fox-glove from fox andg/0ve ; 
 or offal from off "and fall '; or garret from the French garite ; 
 or the A. S. hlafmczsse (Lammas) from hldf, a loaf; or 
 marigold from Mary and gold; or Whitsunday from white 
 and Sunday : all this is to them but food for babes, and 
 they crave for strong meat, such as only themselves can 
 digest. Most of these questions are here touched upon ; 
 but I only attempt to convince such as are more humble- 
 minded. 
 
 Against this desire of seeing ' corruption ' in almost every 
 word, I have always waged war ; and that is why many of 
 the articles in this volume have a controversial tone. 
 Moreover, it has always seemed to me legitimate to show 
 up the absurdity and crudity of many of these notable ideas ; 
 but I have always attacked the ideas, not the persons who 
 utter them. The trouble is, of course, that the originators 
 of the ideas do not like it, and are far too apt to hide the 
 weakness of their case by assuming that they are personally 
 affronted. Surely this is hardly in accordance with common 
 sense. If a man has a good case, he can base it upon facts 
 and quotations ; and it is no answer to tell me, when I ask 
 for proof, that it is ungentlemanly to dare to contradict. 
 Moreover, it is very strange, as I have often argued, that it 
 is only in the case of etymology that such tactics are
 
 FIRST PRINCIPLES. Ixxv 
 
 resorted to If the question were one of chemistry, botany, 
 or any form of science, the appeal would lie to the facts ; 
 and we should be amazed if any one who asserted that the 
 chief constituents of water are oxygen and nitrogen were to 
 take offence at contradiction. The whole matter lies in 
 a nutshell ; if etymology is to be scientific, the appeal lies 
 to the facts ; and the facts, in this case, are accurate quota- 
 tions, with exact references, from all available authors. To 
 attempt to etymologize without the help of quotations, is 
 like learning geology without inspecting specimens ; and 
 we may well ask, what good can come of it ? 
 
 Yet this very absurdity happens. A man sees a piece of 
 quartz for the first time, and writes 'a note' that he has 
 discovered a piece of malachite. This is no unfair descrip- 
 tion of some of the wonderful crazes which I have often 
 taken upon myself to ' contradict.' Take, for example, my 
 article on ampersand at p. 67. It was written to put an end 
 to the extraordinary notion that it is a ' corruption ' (oh ! 
 this beloved word!) of and-pussy-and, 'because' (another 
 very precious word) the symbol (&) suggests a cat sitting 
 well up, and holding up one fore paw. The lowest curl, 
 I believe, was thought to be due to the end of the tail. 
 One wonders where was the inventor's sense of humour. 
 
 Here are a few more specimens of pure invention, viz. 
 that swine is the plural of smv; that glove is of Celtic 
 origin ; that the Whitby word gaut, a narrow lane, is of 
 Hindustani origin ; that the phrase ' he dare not ' is modern, 
 an assertion which was shifted to another one equally 
 baseless, that it does not occur in Elizabethan literature; 
 that sweetheart is a ' corruption ' of a form sweetard, which 
 never existed ; that the Latin word laburnum is derived 
 from French (!); that, in the phrase 'to set the Thames on 
 fire,' the word temse means ' a sieve ' ; that offal is derived 
 from or-val, refuse, which is not, in any case, a correct 
 form ; that balloon is derived from the name of M. Ballon^
 
 Ixxvi INTRODUCTION. 
 
 who was a dancing-master (this precious specimen actually 
 appeared in the Times newspaper) ; that ing is Swedish (!) 
 for a meadow ; and a great many more things of the same 
 kind. For the forgers of these curiosities are not in the 
 least bound by the authority of dictionaries and grammars, 
 but coin words for the nonce with the same freedom as is 
 indulged in by the providers of canards for our daily papers. 
 Even good writers make curious mistakes, as the reader will 
 discover. Spenser thought that yede was an infinitive mood, 
 with a past tense yode. Keats seems to have been under 
 the impression that darkling is a present participle ; but let 
 us charitably hope that he knew it to be an adverb. 
 Blackmore imagined that the old word watchet, signifying 
 ' blue,' is derived from Watchet in Somersetshire. Browning 
 thought that slughorn (variant of slogan) was a kind of horn 
 that could be blown. Nearly all the world has gone wrong 
 over the interpretation of ' one touch of nature,' owing to 
 a contemptuous disregard of the context. 
 
 And then there are the critics ! One of them opines 
 that the O. French word serfs cannot mean ' stags,' because 
 his limited experience only recognises the spelling cerfs. 
 Richardson, in his Dictionary, misunderstands Chaucer's 
 fape're (meaning 'to appear'), and enters it to illustrate 
 taper. Another critic wants to rewrite a line of Dryden's, 
 because he did not know that instinct was, in those days, 
 accented on the second syllable ; with many more vagaries 
 of a like kind. 
 
 And then there are the editors ! Caxton turned the old 
 word estres into eftures, which has no meaning at all. An 
 editor of Hudibras turns tricker into trigger^ because he is 
 unaware that tricker is merely a Dutch word anglicized. 
 An editor of Cowper's John Gilpin turns lumbering into 
 rumbling. Crabbe's own son altered rimpling to rippling. 
 And so the game goes on. 
 
 My position has always been, that things of this kind are
 
 INGLORIOUS GUESSES. Ixxvii 
 
 not glorious, but sad ; not laudable, but discreditable, if not 
 dishonest. And few things have surprised me more, in the 
 course of my experience, than the eager recklessness with 
 which such puerilities are vented, the extraordinary readiness 
 with which they are accepted and applauded, and the 
 tenacity with which they are defended against the clearest 
 exhibition of evidence Paradox and grotesqueness are 
 powerful in their favour, whilst the simple truth is but plain 
 and prosaic. Are we therefore to give way, to let fancy 
 have its free fling, and allow ignorance to revel in its 
 recklessness ? I have always maintained that, if truth be 
 simple, it is also instructive, and that only docility promotes 
 progress. Of course I have found mistakes in ideas of my 
 own, but have always thought it wisest to drop such 
 notions like a red-hot coal ; which is the teaching of common 
 sense. 
 
 Indeed, the very point for which I here contend was well 
 stated by a writer with the signature ' H. de B. H. ' in 
 N. and Q. 7 S. ix. 442 ; and I appended some remarks of 
 my own which I here beg leave to quote 1 : 
 
 ' I am extremely thankful to the author of this article for 
 saying that " people who touch on specialist points should 
 have special knowledge." This is what I have been saying 
 for years with respect to the English language, concerning 
 which floods of untruths are continually being poured out 
 by persons absolutely ignorant of the fact that its study 
 does require special knowledge, and is full of "specialist 
 points" a phrase, by the way, that is a little awkward. 
 Because I have said this I have been told that I am rude, 
 and it has been plainly hinted that I can be no gentleman. 
 Nevertheless, I shall maintain my position, and I can at 
 once illustrate it by a very clear example from the same 
 number of A", and Q. (7 S. ix. 453). We are there told, 
 
 1 From N. and Q. 7 S. ix. 495 (1890% in an article headed 'Critical 
 Carelessness.'
 
 Ixxviii INTRODUCTION. 
 
 under the heading " Heriots," that Coke derives it [heriot] 
 from here, " lord," and geat, " beste." We thus learn that 
 even so great an authority as Coke was entirely ignorant of 
 the subject concerning which he professed to give informa- 
 tion. It so happens that here does not mean " lord," neither 
 does geat mean " beste." And it is clear, too, that he made 
 yet a third blunder in writing geat, when the word to which 
 he meant to refer is geatu. Geat means a gate ! ' 
 
 It is a pleasure to observe that, in spite of recurring out- 
 breaks, guess-work is no longer adored with that blind 
 admiration which it once evoked. Its ancient glory is 
 waning, and its acceptance is transitory and hesitating ; 
 towards which hopeful change in public opinion I claim to 
 have contributed somewhat, by means of the very articles 
 which are here collected and reprinted. 
 
 I have only to add that I have contributed a large 
 number of articles, on linguistic and literary subjects, to 
 many other publications besides Notes and Queries. If the 
 reception of the present book is sufficiently encouraging, it 
 will be easy to produce another volume, or even two more, 
 of a like kind.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 (From A 7 , and Q. 8 S. ii. 241 (1892); with subsequent 
 additions). 
 
 I HOPE there is no harm in my attempting to give some 
 account of my books. I suppose it must be done some 
 day, and I am more likely than another to be able to do it 
 correctly. I begin with books and editions, excluding 
 letters and pamphlets. As many of the editions mentioned 
 below came out in parts, at different dates, it is clearest to 
 adopt a perfectly chronological order, mentioning each part 
 separately, and denoting it by the letters a, b, c; different 
 editions I denote by the letters A, B, C : 
 
 i. The Songs and Ballads of Uhland : translated from the 
 German. London, Williams and Norgate, 1864. Post 8vo, pp. xxviii, 
 
 455- 
 
 2 (A). Lancelot of the Laik : a Scottish Metrical Romance. 
 Re-edited with an Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. (Early English 
 Text Society, No. 6.) London, Trflbner and Co., 1865. Demy 8vo, 
 pp. Ivi, 132. B) Revised ed., 1870. Pp. Ivii, 132. 
 
 3 (A). Parallel Extracts from MSS. of Piers the Plowman. 
 (E.E.T.S., No. 17.) Trubner, 1866. Pp.24. (B) Second edition, with 
 alterations and additions, 1885. Pp. 34. 
 
 4. The Komance of Partenay, or the Tale of Melusire. 
 (E.E.T.S. No. 22.) Trubner, 1866. Pp. xix, 299. 
 
 5. A Tale of Ludlow Castle. A Poem. Bell and Daldy, 1866. 
 Fcap. 8vo, pp. x, 101.
 
 1 x x x BIBLIOGRA PH Y. 
 
 6 'a}. The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman. 
 By Wm. Langland. Part I, or the A-Text. (E.E.T.S., No. 28.) 
 Triibner, 1867. Pp. xliii, 158. 
 
 7 (A). Pierce the Ploughman's Crede, with God Spede the 
 Plough. v E.E.T.S.,No.3o.) Trubner, 1867. Pp. xx, 75. (B) Revised 
 ed., 1895. 
 
 8. The Bomance of William of Palerne, or William and the 
 Werwolf ; with a fragment of an Alliterative Romance of Alisaunder. 
 (E.E.T.S., Extra Series, No. i.) Trubner, 1867. Pp. xliv, 328. 
 
 9 (A). The Lay of Havelok the Dane. (E.E.T.S., Extra Series, 
 No. 4.) Trubner, 1868. Pp. Iv, 159. (B) Re-issued, with Corrections 
 and Additions, 1889. Pp. Ixii, 159. 
 
 10. A Mceso-G-othic Glossary. (Philological Society.) London, 
 Asher and Co., 1868. Small 410, pp. xxiv, 341. 
 
 1 1 (A). The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman. 
 B-Text ; Prologue and Passus i-vii. Oxford, 1869. Extra fcap. 8vo, 
 pp. xlii, 195. (Bl Second edition, revised, 1874. (C) Third edition, 
 revised, 1879. Pp. xlviii, 216. (D) Fourth edition, revised, 1886. 
 (E) Fifth edition, revised, 1889. (F) Sixth edition, revised, 1891. 
 
 6 (6). The Vision of William concerning Piers the Plowman. 
 Part II, or the B-Text. (E.E.T.S., No. 38.) Trubner, 1869. Pp. Ivi, 
 427. N.B. Appended to this part is a Supplement to Part I, pp. 
 numbered I37*-I44*. 
 
 12 (a). The Bruce. By John Barbour. Parti. (E.E.T.S., Extra 
 Series, No. n.) Trubner, 1870. Pp. 1-256. 
 
 13. Joseph of Arimathie ; or the Holy Grail ; with the Life of 
 Joseph of Arimathea. (E.E.T.S., No. 44.) Trubner, 1871. Pp. xlvii, 
 100. 
 
 14 (A\ The Poems of Thomas Chatterton ; with an Essay on the 
 Rowley Poems and a Memoir by E. Bell. Bell and Daldy, 1871. 
 
 2 vols. fcap. 8vo. Vol. I, pp. cvii, 379 ; vol. II, pp. xlvi, 346. (B) 
 Re-issued, 1890. 
 
 15 (A). Specimens of English, from A.D. 1394 to 1597. Oxford, 
 1871. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xxxii, 536. (B) Second edition, revised, 
 1879. (C) Third edition, revised, 1880. (D) Fourth edition, revised, 
 1887, pp. xxxi, 550. (El Fifth edition, 1890. 
 
 16 (a). The Gospel according to St. Mark; in the Anglo-Saxon 
 and Northumbrian Versions. Cambridge, 1871. Demy 410, pp. 
 xxxii, 144. 
 
 17 (A\ Specimens of Early English, from A.D. 1298 to 
 1393. By Dr. Morris, and the Rev. W. W. Skeat. Oxford, 1872. 
 Extra fcap. 8vo. (B) Second edition, 1873. Pp. xl, 490. (C) Third 
 edition, 1894. 
 
 18. Chaucer's Treatise on the Astrolabe. (E.E.T.S., Extra
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. l xxx { 
 
 Series, No. 16, and Chaucer Soc.) Trubner, 18712. Pp. Ixix, ng 
 (with seven plates). 
 
 6 (c). The Vision of William, &c. Part III. ; or the C-Text. 
 Together with Richard the Redeles, and the Crowned King. 
 (E.E.T.S., No. 54.) Trubner, 1873. Pp. cxxviii, 534 ^\vith a facsimile' 1 . 
 
 19 (A). Questions for Examination in English Literature, with 
 an introduction on the Study of English. Bell and Daldy, 1873. 
 Pp. xxvii, 100. (B) Second and revised edition, 1887. Pp. xxx, 
 no. 
 
 20. Seven Reprinted Glossaries. (English Dialect Society. 
 No. O Trubner, 1873. Demy 8vo, pp. vi, 112. 
 
 16 (6X The Gospel according to St. Luke, &c. Cambridge. 
 1874. Pp. xii, 252. 
 
 21 (A). Chaucer : The Prioresses Tale, Sir Thopas, The Monkes 
 Tale, The Clerkes Tale, The Squieres Tale, &c. Oxford, 1874. 
 Extra fcap. 8vo. (B) Second edition, revised, 1877. Pp. Ixxx, 312. 
 (C) Third edition, revised, 1880. Pp. xcv, 316. D) Fourth edition, 
 revised, 1888. (E) Fifth edition, revised, 1891. 
 
 22. Seven Reprinted Glossaries. (E.D.S., No. 5.) Trubner. 
 1874. Pp. viii, 92. 
 
 12 (b). The Bruce. Part II. (E.E.T.S.. Extra Series, No. 21). 
 
 Pp. 257-336. 
 
 23. Ray's Collection of English Words not generally used. 
 Reprinted, with rearrangement and additions, from the edition of 
 1691. (E.D.S., No. 6.) Trubner, 1874. Pp. xxix, 122. 
 
 24. The Two Noble Kinsmen. By Shakespeare and Fletcher. 
 Cambridge, 1875. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xxiv, 159. 
 
 25. Shakespeare's Plutarch. London, Macmillan, 1875. Crown 
 8vo, pp. xxii, 352. 
 
 26. Five Original Provincial Glossaries. (E.D.S., No. xa.) 
 Trubner, 1876. Pp. xiv, 149. 
 
 27. A List of English Words, the Etymology of which is illus- 
 trated by comparison with Icelandic. (Supplement to Vigfusson's 
 Icelandic Dictionary.} Oxford, 1876. 410, pp. iv, 20. 
 
 28 ^A\ Chaucer: The Tale of the Man of Lawe, The Pardoneres 
 Tale, The Second Nonnes Tale, The Chanouns Yemannes Tale. 
 Oxford, 1877. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xlviii, 275. (B) Second edition, 
 revised, 1879. Pp. xlviii, 282. (C) New edition, revised, 1889. (D) 
 New edition, revised, 1889. 
 
 29. A Bibliographical List of the Works illustrative of the 
 various Dialects of English. By the Rev. W. W. Skeat and 
 J. H. Nodal. (E.D.S.) Part I, 1873, pp. 1-48, and Part II, 1875, 
 pp. 49-131, by W. W. S. ; Part III, 1877, pp. i-viii, by W. W S., 
 PP- 133-201, by J. H. N., inclusive of an Index by W. E. A. Axon. 
 
 f
 
 Ixxxii BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 6 (d}. Notes on Piers the Plowman. Part IV, sect. i. (E.E.T.S.. 
 No. 67.) Triibner, 1877. Pp. 1-512. 
 
 12 (c). The Bruce. Part III. (E.E.T.S., Extra Series, No. 29.) 
 Trubner, 1877. Pp. 337-785. 
 
 16 (c). The Gospel according to St. John, &c. Cambridge. 
 
 1878. Pp. xx, 197. 
 
 30. Alexander and Dindimus. i^E.E.T.S., Extra Series, No. 31.) 
 Trubner, 1878. Pp. xxxvi, 93. 
 
 31. Wycliffe's New Testament, ed. Forshall and Madden. Re- 
 printed, with Introduction and Glossary. Oxford, 1879. Extra fcap. 
 8vo, pp. xxiii, 541. 
 
 32. Five Reprinted Glossaries. (E.D.S., No. 23.) Trubner. 
 
 1879. Demy 8vo, pp. viii, 191. 
 
 33. Specimens of English Dialects : including a Bran New Wark. 
 V E.D.S., No. 25.) Trubner, 1879. Demy 8vo, pp. viii, 222. 
 
 34. Wycliffe's Translation of Job, Psalms, &c. Ed. Forshall 
 and Madden. Reprinted, with Introduction and Glossary ; Oxford, 
 1 88 1. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xi, 300. 
 
 35 (). ^Ifric's Lives of Saints. Part I. E.E.T.S., No. 76.) 
 Trubner, 1881. Pp. vii and 1-256. 
 
 36. The Gospel of St. Mark in Gothic. Oxford, 1882. Extra 
 fcap. 8vo, pp. Ixxv, 103. 
 
 [36*. I was entrusted with the reissue of the following work, to 
 which I supplied many references and an index. 
 
 The History of English Bhythms, by Edwin Guest, LL.D. Ed. by 
 W. W. S London, G. Bell and Sons, 1882. Demy 8vo, pp. xviii, 730.] 
 
 37. Fitzherbert's Book of Husbandry. 1534. (E.D.S., No. 37." 
 Trubner, 1882. Demy 8vo, pp. xxx, 167. 
 
 38 V A). An Etymological Dictionary of the English Language. 
 (Part I, A-Dor, 1879. Part HI Dor-Lit, 1880. Part III, Lit- 
 Red, 1881. Part IV, Red-Z, &c., 1882.) Oxford, 1882, 4 to, 
 pp. xxviii, 799. (B) Supplement to the first edition ; pp. 775-846. 
 Oxford, 1884, 410. (C) Second edition, including the Supplement. 
 Oxford, 1884. 4to, pp. xxxii, 844. 
 
 39 (A\ A Concise Etymological Dictionary of the English 
 Language. Oxford, 1882. Crown 8vo, pp xii, 616. (B) Second 
 edition, revised, 1885. Pp. xii. 625. (C) Third edition, 1887. Pp. 
 xii, 633. (D) Fourth edition, 1890. Pp. xii, 633. 
 
 40. The Tale of Gamelyn, with Notes and a Glossary. Oxford, 
 1884. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xxxix, 64. 
 
 6 (e). Notes on Piers the Plowman. Part IV, section ii. 
 (E.E.T.S., No 81.) Trubner, 1884. Pp. Ixxvii, and 513-910. 
 
 41. The Kingis Quair. By King James I of Scotland. ^Scottish 
 Text Society, No. i.) Edinburgh, 1884. Demy 8vo, pp. Iv, 113.
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. l xxx jjj 
 
 35 (6\ ^Elfric's Lives of Saints. Part II. E.E.T.S.. No. 8*. 
 Trubner, 1886. Pp. 257-554. 
 
 42. The "Wars of Alexander ; an Alliterative Romance. ^E.E.T.S., 
 Extra Series, No. 47.^ Trubner. 1886. Pp. xxiv, 478. 
 
 43 Piers the Plowman. By W. Langland. In three parallel 
 Texts; with Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. Oxford, 1886. In 
 two vols. demy 8vo ; vol. I, pp. viii, 628 : vol. II, pp. xciii, 484. 
 
 16 (d). The Gospel according to St. Matthew, &c. Cambridge. 
 1887. Pp. xi, 258. 
 
 The complete work, in one volume, is entitled, ' The Holy Gospels 
 in Anglo-Saxon, Northumbrian, and Old Mercian Versions, synoptically 
 arranged,' &c. Cambridge, 18711887. Demy 8vo. Paged as before. 
 
 44 (A). Principles of English Etymology. First Series. The 
 Native Element. Oxford, 1887. Crown 8vo, pp. xxxiv, 541. (B) 
 Second and revised edition. 1892. Pp. xxxix, 547. 
 
 45. A Concise Dictionary of Middle English. By A. L. 
 Mayhew and W. W. S. Oxford, 1888. Crown 8vo. pp. xv, 272. 
 
 46. Chaucer: the Minor Poems. Oxford, 1888, Crown 8vo, pp. 
 Ixxxvi, 462. 
 
 12 (d). The Bruce. Part IV. E.E.T.S., Extra Series. No. 55.' 
 Trubner. 1889. Pp. i-cv. 
 
 47. Chaucer : the Legend of Good Women. Oxford, 1889. Crown 
 8vo, pp. liv, 229. 
 
 35 (c). ^Ifric's Lives of Saints. Part III. (E.E.T.S., No. 94.) 
 Trubner, 1890. Vol. II, pp. 1-224. 
 
 48. Principles of English Etymology. Second Series. The 
 Foreign Element. Oxford, 1891. Crown 8vo, pp. xxix, 505. 
 
 49. (A) Chaucer ; the Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. Oxford. 
 1891. Extra fcap. 8vo, pp. xvi, 83. B) Second and revised edition. 
 
 50 (A). A Primer of English Etymology. Oxford, 1892. Extra 
 fcap. 8vo, pp. viii, 112. (B Second and revised edition, 1895. 
 
 51. Twelve Facsimiles of Old English MSS. Oxford, 1892. 
 Demy 410, pp. 1-36 ; with twelve plates. 
 
 52. Chaucer's House of Fame. Oxford, 1893. Crown 8vo, 
 pp. 136. 
 
 53 (a). The Bruce. By John Barbour. Part I. ^Scottish Text 
 Society.) Edinburgh, 1893-4. Demy 8vo, pp. 1-351. (6) The 
 same; Part II, 1893-4. Pp. i-viii, 1-431. (c) The same ; Part III. 
 1894-5. Pp- i-xci. N.B. (c) and (a) make up vol. I ; (6 N constitutes 
 vol. II. 
 
 54. The Complete Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Oxford, 1894. 
 Six vols. demy 8vo. Vol. I. The Romaunt of the Rose, and Minor 
 Poems; pp. Ixiv, 568. Vol. II. Boethius ; Troilus ; pp. Ixxx, 506.
 
 Ixxxiv BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Vol. III. House of Fame ; Legend of Good Women ; Astrolabe ; 
 Sources of the Tales ; pp. Ixxx, 504. Vol. IV. Canterbury Tales ; 
 Tale of Gamelyn ; pp. xxxii, 667. Vol. V. Notes to the Canterbury 
 Tales ; pp. xxviii, 515. Vol. VI. Introduction ; Glossary ; Indexes ; 
 pp. ciii, 445. 
 
 55. The Student's Chaucer. Oxford, 1895. Crown 8vo, pp. 
 xxiv, 732 ; with Glossarial Index, pp. 149. 
 
 56. Nine Specimens of English Dialects. (E.D.S., No. 76.) 
 Oxford, 1895. Demy 8vo, pp. xxiv, 193. 
 
 57. Two Collections of Derbicisms ; by S. Pegge, A.M. Edited 
 by W. W.S. and Thomas Hallam. (E.D.S., No. 78.) Oxford, 1896. 
 Demy 8vo, pp. c, 138. 
 
 58. A Student's Pastime ; being a select series of articles re- 
 printed from Notes and Queries. Oxford, 1896.. Cr. 8vo, pp. Ixxxiv, 
 410. 
 
 59. The Complete "Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. Vol. VII 
 i supplementary). Works printed in old editions. Oxford. Demy 
 8vo. (In the press.) 
 
 35 (d). -ffilfric's Lives of Saints. Part IV. E.E.T.S.) Vol. II ; 
 concluding part. (/ the press.) 
 
 ERRATA. 
 
 P. 46, 1. ii. For Libra read Liber. 
 
 P. 108, 1. 3. For 187 read 1877. 
 
 P. 129, 1. 10. For parables read parable. 
 
 P. 137, 1. 12. for ofel read ofer.
 
 A STUDENT'S PASTIME 
 
 FROM 'NOTES AND QUERIES: 
 
 ONE of my earliest contributions to Notes and Queries appeared in 
 the Third Series, vii. 407 ; May 20, 1865. Later contributions can 
 be found in the Indexes to the various years, under my name. 
 
 I here give a selection from the numerous articles contributed by 
 me to that periodical from the year 1866 onwards. In a few cases, 
 I have slightly altered the wording, but as a rule it is unaltered. In 
 other cases, I give only a portion of the article, when the rest of it is 
 of no general interest. 
 
 The articles are, for the most part, arranged in chronological 
 order. The Index at the end of the volume is a sufficient guide to 
 the subjects under discussion. 
 
 The reference to ' 3 S. ix. 379 ' means Third Series, vol. ix. p. 379 ; 
 and so in other cases. 
 
 1. Conrad: derivation of (3 S. ix. 379; 1866). 
 
 Of Teutonic origin. From Old High Germ. Kuon-rdt, 
 i.e. keen (in) counsel. [See kuoni, keen, rdf, counsel, and 
 Kuonrdt (s.v. Chuonzo), in Schade's O. Ger. Diet.] The 
 Ital. Currado, in Dante, Farad, xv. 139, is borrowed from 
 the German. The Dutch words koen, keen or bold, and 
 raad, counsel, still strikingly resemble the old Kuon-rdt. 
 
 B
 
 4 ANOINTED. 
 
 intrusion of h into the word was doubtless due to confusion 
 with the Greek pu#//.os ; but it should be noted that English 
 is the only language which has admitted this pedantic 
 innovation l . Compare A. S. rim, Icelandic rima, Dutch 
 rijm, German Reim, Danish Him, Swedish rim, French rime, 
 Ital. rima, Span, and Port, rima, Prov. rim. [Even Polish 
 has rym.~\ 
 
 4. Anointed; in a depraved sense (3 S. ix. 422 ; i866\ 
 
 [Murray's New English Dictionary has : ' Anoint : 
 ironically, to beat soundly, to baste. In the North they 
 say humorously " to anoint with the sap of a hazel rod." ' 
 He then quotes the very passage to which I called attention 
 in 1866.] 
 
 I have just met with so singular a use of this word, that 
 I make a note of it at once. In the French MS. Romance 
 of Melusine is an account of a man who had received 
 a thorough and severe beating, which is thus referred to : 
 ' Qui auoit este si bien oingt? The English version, which 
 I am now editing for the E. E. T. Society, says : 'Which 
 so well was Anoynted indede V It is clear that to anoint 
 a man, was to give him a sound drubbing, and that the word 
 was so used in the fifteenth century. This, I think, explains 
 all. ' An anointed rogue ' means either one who has been 
 well thrashed, or who deserves to be. In the latter case, it 
 expresses the opinion and the wish of the speaker. 
 
 5. Carfax. I (3 S. x. 184; 1866). 
 
 Having duly read all I can find in N. and Q. about 
 Carfax, well known as the name of a place in Oxford, I feel 
 bound to say that none of the derivations proposed for it 
 
 1 The insertion of the ft into the word is not much earlier 
 than 1550. 
 
 2 See the Romance of Partenay, ed. Skeat, 1866, 1. 5653 ; and 
 the note.
 
 CARFAX. 5 
 
 seem to me to be properly proved, and I therefore ven- 
 ture to propose another which is something more than 
 a guess, as a good deal can be shown in its favour, it being 
 capable of being traced through all its changes. The best 
 of those proposed are quatre-faces and quatre-voies, the latter 
 being the favourite, and adopted in the Oxford guide-books. 
 But I submit that it remains to be shown that the phrase 
 quatre-voies was ever commonly used ; quadrivium was 
 used in Latin, but was quartre-voies used in French? The 
 answer is, no ; the word commonly used in Old French was 
 carrefourg, and the word still commonly used in French is 
 its modern form, carrefour. 
 
 Now the history of this word is very much to the purpose. 
 First, let us see what Burguy says of it : he says, ' quarefor, 
 quarefort, carrefour ; compose de quadrifurcum, propr. 
 quadruple fourche.' This is quite sound ; there is"no doubt 
 that the Latin root-words are quatuor and furca. Next, 
 hear Cotgrave ; he says, ' Quarrefour : the place in, or 
 part of, a towne whereat four streets meet at a head. Par 
 tous les quarrefours de : Throughout all the four quarters, 
 corners, or streets of; and this is a good sound explanation. 
 I must now remark that, according to N. and Q., an old 
 spelling for Carfax is ' Carfox,' and I can then trace the 
 word from beginning to end as follows. In MS. Camb. LI. 
 2. 5, fol. 41, are the lines 
 
 ' A lentree de luxenbourg, 
 Lieu ny auoit ne carrcfourg 
 Dont len neust veu venir les gens,' &c. 
 
 In MS. Trin. R. 3. 1 7, which is a translation of the above 
 Romance of Melusine, we find on fol. 39 the corresponding 
 lines 
 
 No place ther had, neither carfoukes non, 
 But peple shold se ther come many one *.' 
 
 1 Printed in the Romance of Partenay. ed. Skeat (E. E. T. S.\ 
 1866 ; lines 1819-20.
 
 6 CARFAX. 
 
 \Vhence it is easy to see that Carfox is a contraction of 
 Carfoukes, and from Carfox comes, as has been admitted, 
 the modern form Carfax. I propose, therefore, to give up 
 the derivations quatuor fades and quatuor vias, and to adopt 
 quatuor furcas ; to suppose, in fact, that the -fax or -fox 
 answers to the English forks. Those who think votes the 
 true original have to show how the ^-sound got in to the 
 word ; I make the simpler supposition that an r has dropped 
 out. By way of corollary, it may be noted that the French 
 have retained the r, but have dropped the k or^: thus they 
 no longer write carrefourg, but carrefour. 
 
 A correspondent has made the curious objection that, at 
 Horsham, Carfax means a place where three ways meet, 
 and he actually thinks this fatal to the etymology ! 
 
 Of couse, the idea vifour was easily lost, but the idea of 
 crossivays, or roads meeting, retained. How would such 
 a person understand Peter's ' passing through all quarters ' 
 (Acts ix. 32) ? Or, we might thus .argue that journal has 
 no connexion with the Latin diurnus, because the London 
 Journal is published once a week. Or again (and this is yet 
 more to the purpose), it may be shown that even carrefour 
 may denote, not four crossways, but one street only. For 
 Froissart uses le souverain carrefour to denote the principal 
 street; Froissart, vol. iv. c. 28. 
 
 [PS. The above etymology is adopted in the New Eng. 
 Diet. ; and the above passage is there cited. It had previously 
 appeared in my own Etym. Dictionary, in 1882.] 
 
 6. Carfax. II (4 S. Hi. 273 ; 1869). 
 
 The word carfukes occurs in the Memorials of London, 
 ed. Riley, p. 300. I am sorry Mr. Riley reproduces in his 
 note the erroneous notion of a derivation from quatre faces, 
 four faces. It is, on the contrary, one more instance which 
 illustrates the true derivation from the Latin quadrifurcum 
 (or quatuor furcas), as I have explained in N. and Q. in
 
 'AS NICE AS A NUN'S HEN.' 7 
 
 the passage to which I here refer; (see p. 4 above). 
 Mr. Wedgwood has adopted my suggestion in the Appendix 
 to his Etymological Dictionary, and gives further informa- 
 tion concerning the etymology. 
 
 7. 'As nice as a Nun's Hen' (3 S. x. 215 ; 1866). 
 
 The word fastidious very nearly expresses the sense of 
 nice here. The priest alluded to was fastidious and mincing 
 in his talk ; and, by a sort of pun, was said to be as fastidious 
 and particular as a nun's hen ; according to a proverb in the 
 north, which makes a nun's hen to be something peculiarly 
 delicate and pure. The following quotation well exemplifies 
 this : 
 
 ' Women, women, loue of women 
 Make bare purs with some men. 
 Some be nyse as a nonne hene, 
 
 Yet al thei be nat soo ; 
 Some be lewde, some all be schreude, 
 Go schrewes wher thei goo.' 
 
 From a poem on 'Women,' appended to the Wright's 
 Chaste Wife, ed. F. J. Furnivall (Early English Text 
 Society). 
 
 8. Rhyme nor Reason (3 S. x. 236 ; 1866). 
 
 Two or three correspondents have already explained that 
 the phrase probably has reference to some poetical attempt 
 which was recommended neither by metre nor meaning. 
 I merely write to ' make a note ' that the phrase seems to 
 be of considerable antiquity, and is probably of French 
 origin. In a MS. written before 1500 (Camb. Univ. LI. 2. 
 5, fol. 9 b .) is the line 
 
 ' En toy na Ryme tie Raison,' 
 
 i. e. there is neither rime nor reason in thee. 
 
 [PS. This MS. is the French original of the Romance of
 
 8 RESPLEND. 
 
 Partenay. The translation does not reproduce the line 
 here quoted. See note to 1. 279 of the Romance of 
 Partenay, ed. Skeat, E. E.T. S.,i866 ; p. 235.] 
 
 9. Resplend (3 S. x. 258 ; 1866). 
 
 Resplend occurs in the following passage : ' He sees 
 Berinthia's modesty resplend and shine in her affection.' 
 (Reynolds's God 's Revenge against Murder (1622), booke ii. 
 hy. vii. p. 57.) I take it to be closely related to the 
 verb resplendish, which is not uncommon in early English, 
 as in the following: 'The fame of Ffabius resplendysshed 
 and floured after his deth more thanne at that tyme when 
 he lyved.' (Caxton's Boke of Tulle, Of Old Age (1481)). 
 Resplendence and resplendent are common enough, probably 
 owing to their having been used by Milton, as, e. g. in 
 Paradise Lost, v. 720, ' in full resplendence,' and ix. 568, 
 ' resplendent Eve.' 
 
 10. Curious Tradition : Roses (3 S. x. 276; 1866). 
 
 May I suggest that there were no roses in Paradise ? They 
 are, comparatively, quite a recent creation ! At any 
 rate, Sir John Maundeville gives the full and true account 
 of their first appearance on earth, and says expressly they 
 were the first ' that euer ony man saughe.' See Southey's 
 fine poem called ' The Rose/ at the head of which the 
 quotation from Maundeville is fully given. But Southey is 
 not true to his original ; for, instead of saying that the rose 
 was then seen for the first time, he says 
 
 ' First seen on earth since Paradise was lost? 
 
 Whence it appears that he had also read Milton (see P. L. 
 iv. 256), and had combined his information. The 'rose of 
 Sharon ' was only a narcissus. See Smith's Dictionary of 
 the Bible, s. v. ' Rose.'
 
 CADDY 9 
 
 11. Caddy (38. x. 323; 1866). 
 
 The following curious passage in a lately-published work 
 is worth notice, and may perhaps at the same time suggest 
 to W. S. J. 1 an etymology for the word caddy : 
 
 The standard currency of Borneo is brass guns. This is not 
 a figure of speech, nor do I mean small pistols or blunderbusses ; but 
 real cannon, five to ten feet long, and heavy in proportion. The 
 metal is estimated at so much a picul, and articles are bought and sold, 
 and change given, by means of this awkward coinage. The picul 
 contains 100 catties, each of which weighs about ij English pounds. 
 There is one advantage about this currency, it is not easily stolen.' 
 F. Boyle, Advent KITS among tlic Dyaks, p. 100. 
 
 To the word catties the author subjoins a footnote as 
 follows : 
 
 ' Tea purchased in small quantities is frequently enclosed in boxes 
 containing one catty. I offer a diffident suggestion that this may 
 possibly be the derivation of our familiar tea-caddy.' 
 
 I may add that the use of this weight is not confined to 
 Borneo; it is used also in China, and is (as I am informed) 
 the only weight in use in Japan. 
 
 [PS. A note by R. W. W., also printed in N. and Q., con- 
 tained the information that ' an original package of tea, less 
 than a half-chest, is called in the trade a box, caddy, or 
 catty. This latter is a Malay word kati, a catty or weight, 
 equivalent to iglb. avoirdupois.' 
 
 This etymology was repeated in my Etym. Diet., 1882, 
 and is adopted in the New Eng. Dictionary.} 
 
 12. Expulse (3 S. x. 437; 1866). 
 
 Expulse is simply the French and old English form of 
 the word expel, and is now used but rarely ; so that it may 
 be more justly deemed a term of the past than of the future. 
 I find ' Expulser, to expulse, expell,' in Cotgrave's French 
 Dictionary, editon of 1660; and ''Expulser, to expulse,' in 
 
 1 My dear brother-in-law, since dead.
 
 10 FRENCH PROVERB : 'GRATE.' 
 
 Nugent's French Dictionary, dated 1844. It occurs in 
 Shakespeare (i Hen. VI. iii. 3. 25) as equivalent to 
 extirp : 
 
 Charles. 'Nor should that nation boast it so with us, 
 
 But be extifped from our provinces. 
 Alen. For ever should they be expulsed from France ; 
 And not have title of an earldom here.' 
 
 Nares, in his Glossary, also quotes the following : 
 'He was expulsed the senate.' North's Plutarch, p. 499. 
 
 And 
 
 4 If he, expiilsing King Richard, as a man not meet for the office he 
 bare, would take upon him the scepter.' Holinshed, vol. ii. vv. 8. 
 
 But why the writer in The Guardian could not use the 
 simpler term expel, seems odd ; perhaps he may have 
 thought expulse more expressive and forcible, from the con- 
 sideration that, in Latin, expulsare is the frequentative form 
 of expellere ; or, more probably, he was thinking of the 
 French form expulser, which is in common use. I may 
 add, that expulse is a favourite word with dictionary-makers. 
 I find it in Meadows' Spanish and Italian dictionaries, in 
 Vieyra's Portuguese dictionary, and in the Tauchnitz Dutch 
 and Swedish dictionaries. Both forms, expeler and expulsar, 
 occur in Spanish, and expellir and expulsar in Portuguese ; 
 but the Italian has expellere only, which is counterbalanced 
 by the sole French form, expulser. 
 
 13. French Proverb : ' Grate' (3 S. x. 523 ; 1866). 
 
 MR. B. says that he wants an explanation of grate in 
 the phrase ' Tant grate chievre que mal gist,' and suggests 
 that it will be found in Cotgrave. There it is, sure enough ; 
 for Cotgrave gives, ' Grater, to scratch, to scrape, to scrub, 
 claw, rub. Tant grate la chevre que mal gist (a proverb 
 applicable to such as cannot be quiet when they are well).' 
 
 [PS. The mod. F. form is gratterJ]
 
 ENGLISH WITHOUT ARTICLES. II 
 
 14. English without Articles (3 S. xi. 52 ; 1867). 
 
 It is, worth noting that Sir William Davenant contrived 
 to write a poem, ' The London Vacation,' almost without 
 the use of articles. In the course of 162 lines, the only 
 occurs about four times, and a about thrice. The effect is 
 rather odd, as may be seen from this specimen : 
 
 ' Now wight that acts on stage of Bull 
 In scullers' bark does lie at Hull, 
 Which he for pennies two does rig, 
 All day on Thames to bob for grig. 
 Whilst fencer pocr does by him stand 
 In old dung-lighter, hook in hand ; 
 Between knees rod, with canvas crib 
 To girdle tied, close under rib ; 
 Where worms are put, which must small fish 
 Betray at night to earthen dish.' 
 
 It may be noted, too, that grig here occurs in the sense of 
 a little eel. (See 3 S. x. 413.) 
 
 15. Keycold (3 S. xi. 171 1867). 
 
 Shakespeare speaks of 'key-cold Lucrece ' ; and again, we 
 find the line 
 
 ' Poor key-cold figure of a holy king ! ' 
 
 Richard HI, Act I. Sc. 2. 
 
 It may be noted that a similar idea is found in Gower. 
 Compare 
 
 'And so it coldeth at min herte 
 That wonder is, how I asterte (escape), 
 In such a point that I ne deie. 
 For certes, there was never keie 
 Ne frosen is (ice) upon the walle 
 More inly cold, than I am alle.' 
 
 Gower, Confessio Amantis, ed. Pauli, iii. 9. 
 
 16. 'As Dead as a Door-Nail' (3 S. xi. 173 ; 1867). 
 
 That this proverb is old enough, is easily shown. It 
 occurs in the following passages :
 
 12 BERN A R. 
 
 ' For but ich haue bote of mi bale bi a schort time, 
 I am ded as dore-nail ; now do all thi wille ! ' 
 
 William and the IVenvolf, p. 23, 1. 628. 
 ' Thurth the bold bodi he bar him to the erthe 
 As ded as dornayl, to deme the sothe.' 
 
 Id. p. 122, 1. 3396. 
 
 ' Feith withouten the feet is right nothyng worthi, 
 And as deed as a door-tree, but if the dedes folwe.' 
 
 Piers Ploughman, ed. Wright, p. 26. 
 
 For which another MS. (Trin. Coll. R. 3. 14) reads 
 
 ' Feith withoute fait is feblere than nought, 
 And as ded as a dorenail, but ghif the dede folewe ' ; 
 
 both of which latter are free translations of St. James's 
 saying, that ' faith without works is dead.' 
 
 Sir F. Madden, in his glossary to William and the Wer- 
 wolf, calls it ' a proverb which has become indigenous, but 
 the sense of which it is difficult to analyze ' ; and I am very 
 much of the same opinion. ' As dead as a door-tree] i. e. 
 as a door-post, is somewhat more intelligible, for the wood 
 of which the post is formed was part of a live tree once. 
 There is then a possibility that such was the original expres- 
 sion, and that the proverb was transferred from the door- 
 post itself to the nails that studded the door, without any 
 very great care as to maintaining the sense of the expression. 
 There are other sayings in the same plight. 
 
 [PS. See my note to P. Plowman, B. i. 185 (C. ii. 184), 
 where I also quote from Shak. 2 Hen. IV. v. 3. 125-6.] 
 
 17. Bernar (3 S. xi. 191; 1867). 
 
 In Jesse's Researches into the History of the British Dog, 
 I find the following passages : 
 
 ' We send you also William Fitz-R : chard, Guy the huntsman, and 
 Robert de Stanton, commanding you to provide necessaries for the 
 same greyhounds and " veltrars/' and our dogs ''de motis," and 
 brachets, with their bernars,' &c. Vol. ii. p. 27. 
 
 ' And than shuld ye beerners on foot, and ye gromes lede home ye 
 houndes,' &c. Vol. ii. p. 123.
 
 BERNAR. 13 
 
 'And whan ye 3 T emen, beerners, and gromes ban ladde home ye 
 houndes, and sette hem wel up, and ordeynne water and strawe 
 after yat hem nedeth,' &c. Ibid. 
 
 Observing that the learned author is for once somewhat 
 at fault about the meaning and origin of the term, I send 
 you the following note : 
 
 Mr. Jesse says : 
 
 ' Bernars, qy., bowmen, or huntsmen, from bersare, to hunt or 
 shoot. Coivel. Or from bernage, equipage, train, &c. Cotgrave? 
 
 But the true meaning is better given in Roquefort. We 
 there find 
 
 ' Berniers, vassaux qui payoient le droit de brenage! 
 
 And again : 
 
 ' Brcnage, redevance en son, que des vassaux payoient d'abord a 
 certains seigneurs pour la nourriture de ieurs chiens ; en bas-Lat. 
 breiiagiinii.' 
 
 And again : 
 
 ' Bren, bran, brem'e, ordure, et du son, ou ce qui reste dans le sas 
 de la farine sassee ; en bas-Bret. brcn, son.' 
 
 It hence appears that a bernar might, in modern English, be 
 well named a branner ; i. e. a man who provides bran for 
 dogs, where by bran may be denoted refuse of various kinds, 
 and not only that obtained from husks of corn. Wedgwood, 
 s. v. Bran, explains that it means refuse, draff, leavings, 
 ordure ; and instances the Breton brenn hesken as meaning 
 refuse of the saw, sawdust. The duty of the berner was, no 
 doubt, to feed the dogs ; for Mr. Jesse says again : 
 
 ' Besides the foregoing, and not included, was the wages of a 
 certain valet (' berner ') for the keep of fifteen running-dogs during 
 forty days in Lent.' Vol. ii. p. 132. 
 
 Yet again we read : 
 
 ' Mention is made likewise of " the Pantryes, Chippinges, and 
 broken breade," a kind of food which is frequently spoken of about 
 this period.' Vol. ii. p. 125. 
 
 This may be the signification of bran in its wider sense.
 
 14 PUTTING A MAN UNDER A POT. 
 
 One more quotation (referring to the 49th year of 
 Henry III) is too important to be omitted : 
 
 ' In acquittance of the expenses of Richard de Candevere and 
 William de Candevere going for bran,'' &c. Vol. ii. p. 36. 
 
 It might easily happen that a person who engaged to pro- 
 vide food for hounds was a man of wealth : for numerous 
 examples of such ' dog tenures,' see the same volume, 
 pp. 41, 42, 43. This perhaps may account for the name 
 being applied to persons of higher station, and I suppose 
 such to have been the origin of the name Berners, of which 
 Juliana Berners and Lord Berners are such bright orna- 
 ments. 
 
 [PS. This etymology appears in the New Eng. Diet., s. v. 
 
 18. Putting a Man under a Pot (3 S. xi. 277 ; 1867). 
 
 I have seldom met with a more amazing statement than 
 there is in Piers Ploughman 's Crede, and I should greatly 
 like to know of something that would corroborate it. The 
 author distinctly asserts that there was a regular system of 
 making away with friars who were not sufficiently active in 
 begging for the good of their house. He says : 
 
 ' But 1 [except] he may beggen his bred, His bed is y-greithed 
 
 (prepared for him) ; 
 
 Under a pot he shall be put In a pryvye chambre, 
 That he shall lyuen ne laste But lytel whyle after.' 
 
 Ed. Wright, 1. 1247. 
 
 This clearly means that a useless friar is//// under a pot, 
 and that he soon dies in consequence. 
 
 The only passage I know of that throws any light on this 
 is also in the Crede : 
 
 ' For thei ben nere dede ; 
 And put al in pur clath With pottes on her hedes.' 
 
 Id. 1. 1222. 
 
 1 The Trinity MS. has ' But.' The printed texts have ' That.'
 
 LIVING. 15 
 
 Now why, I ask, should a pot be put on a man's head 
 when he lies on his death-bed ? 
 
 [This question remains unanswered.] 
 
 19. Living (3 S. xi. 286 ; 1877). 
 
 Wright's Provincial Dictionary gives ' Living, a farm : 
 Leicestershire. ' 
 
 In Norfolk it is a very common word. 
 
 A London man might call a person's house and grounds 
 a nice place, but a Norfolk man would use the word living. 
 In this sense, too, it occurs in Ben Jonson : ' I have 
 a pretty living o' mine own too, beside, hard by here : ' 
 Every Man in his Humour, Act I. Sc. i (or 2). 
 
 [Nares misses the word. There is no note on it in 
 Wheatley's edition of Every Man, Act I. Sc. 2, 1. 8. I fre- 
 quently heard it when residing in Norfolk. I was once told 
 that I seemed to have a nice living (i. e. a pleasantly 
 situated house). It seemed to me a queer thing to say to 
 a curate.] 
 
 20. Two-faced Pictures (3 S. xi. 346 1867). 
 
 Few things are easier to make. Get two pictures of the 
 same size ; cut them vertically into strips half an inch 
 broad; paste the corresponding strips back to back (you 
 will see which these are by trial), and then set them up on 
 their edges in a row from left to right at equal distances of 
 about three-quarters of an inch or an inch apart. Then, if 
 you stand to the left, you see the whole of one picture ; if 
 to the right, the whole of the other. If, instead of setting 
 them up above plain paper, you set them up above a third 
 uncut picture, you will see this one only by standing directly 
 in front; and the double picture thus becomes a treble 
 picture without any increase of difficulty in the construction. 
 
 [PS. Now (in 1895) use d to advertise 'Sunlight Soap.']
 
 16 CHRIST-CROSS. 
 
 21. Christ-cross (3 S. xi. 352 ; 1867). 
 In Piers Ploughman's Crede, 1. i, we find ' Cros and 
 curteis Christ this begynnyng spede,' where there seems to 
 be an allusion to the prefixing of a cross to the beginning 
 of a piece of writing, especially of an alphabet in a primer ; 
 see Nares's Glossary, s. v. Cross-row and Christ-cross-row. 
 Also in a poem, by the Rev. R. S. Hawker, called 'A Christ- 
 cross Rhyme,' we find at the very beginning 
 
 ' Christ his cross shall be my speed, 
 Teach me, father John, to read.' 
 
 Now it is to be observed, that in Chaucer's Treatise on the 
 Astrolabe occurs the following : ' This border is devided 
 also with xxiii letters, and a small crosse aboue the south 
 line that sheweth the xxiiij houres equales of the clocke ' ; 
 and in the diagrams accompanying this in the MSS. we 
 accordingly see a cross at the south or starting-point, 
 followed by the twenty-three letters of the alphabet, _/, v, and 
 iv being omitted. The fact is, that the true use of a cross, 
 in drawing, is to define or mark a point, especially a point 
 to start or measure from (there being no more convenient 
 way of defining a point than by thus considering it as the 
 spot where two short lines intersect} ; and I believe this to 
 be its simple sole and original use when prefixed to the 
 alphabet in an astrolabe, except that it was also found 
 convenient to increase the number of symbols from the 
 awkward number of twenty-tfiree to the very convenient 
 one of twenty-four. But it was impossible that it could 
 be used long without reference being supposed to be 
 made to the cross of Christ, and it must soon have been 
 regarded as invoking Christ's blessing upon the commence- 
 ment of any writing. Hence the term Christ-cross-row, or 
 shortly, cross-row. Archdeacon Nares has another sug- 
 gestion, that the cross-row was probably named from 
 a superstitious custom of writing the alphabet in the form 
 of a cross, by way of charm ; but I prefer the former
 
 AS RIGHT AS A TRIVET. 17 
 
 explanation. He also says, 'the mark of noon on a dial 
 is in the following passage jocularly called the Christ-cross 
 of the dial, being the figure of a cross placed instead of 
 xii : 
 
 " Fall to your business roundly ; the fescue [Lat.festnca] of the dial 
 is upon the Christ-cross of noon." ' Puritan iv. 2, Suppl. to Sli. ii. 607. 
 
 But there is no need to insert the \\mdijocularly* it was 
 natural enough that it should come to be so called. 
 
 [See Christ-cross and Cross-row in the New Eng. 
 Dictionary^ 
 
 22. As right as a trivet : As clean as a whistle 
 
 (38. xi. 361; 1867). 
 
 These are excellent examples of the way in which proverbs 
 rapidly become obscure when based on something that is 
 a sort of pun upon words. Thus, we use such a word as 
 deep in two senses, and we might facetiously call a very 
 astute man ' as deep as the Bay of Biscay,' which would be 
 readily intelligible at first, but might easily, by a slight 
 alteration, become almost meaningless. I suppose the 
 same sort of process to have been at work in the case of 
 the two above proverbs. ' The ' rectitude of a trivet ' con- 
 sists in its rectangularity ] . If that sort of trivet which is 
 placed upon the upper bar of a grate is not accurately 
 made, the kettle that stands upon it will not stand even, 
 but will inconveniently slouch forward or backward. The 
 trivet, to be a good one, must be right-angled, or made 
 ' right and true.' In the next proverb a further stage 
 of corruption of the sense has been reached, the word 
 clean being put for clear. No sound is more clear than 
 that of a whistle ; hence ' as clear as a whistle ' is good 
 sense. 
 
 1 [Or, if we take trivet in the sense of ' a three-legged support,' the 
 sense is quite clear, in that case also. You cannot make a three- 
 legged stool stand unsteadily.] 
 
 C
 
 1 8 MILTON'S USE OF ' CHARM.' 
 
 But if a man speaks of cutting anything off with perfect 
 smoothness and evenness, he would say he has cut it off 
 dear or sheer, or dean, with equal readiness ; and he would 
 probably add the words ' as a whistle ' to one phrase quite 
 as soon as to the other, without any great amount of 
 reflection as to the congruity of his speech. Just in the 
 same way, a church is a safe place of sanctuary, or may be 
 regarded as safely built, secure and fast ; whence arises 
 such a question and answer as the following, which is not 
 uncommon : ' Is he fast asleep ? ' ' Aye, as safe as 
 a church.' A play upon words necessarily leads to a play 
 upon phrases. See note on ' as dead as a door-nail,' ^V. 
 and Q., 3 S. xi. 173. 
 
 23. Milton's use of the word ' charm.' I (3 S. xi. 382 ; 
 
 1867). 
 
 The word charm is well explained by Wedgwood. The 
 root of it is preserved in the A. S. cyrtn, loud noise. 
 Another quotation for it is : 
 
 'Vor thi ich am loth smale foghle 
 Hit me bichermit and bigredeth.' 
 
 Owl and Nightingale, 280. 
 
 It also occurs in one of our Early English Text Society's 
 Books : 
 
 ' Tentes, pauilons freshly wrought and good, 
 Doucet songes hurde of briddes enuiron, 
 Whych meryly chirmed in the grene wood.' 
 
 Romance ofPartenay (ed. Skeat, 1866), p. 37, 1. 876; 
 
 which is thus explained in the Glossarial Index : 
 
 ' Chirmed, made a loud noise, chirped loudly, 878. Cf. " synniga 
 cyrm, the uproar of sinners" ; Caedmon, ed. Thorpe, 145, 17. 
 
 "With charm of earliest birds"; Milton, P. L., iv. 642. See 
 Forby.' 
 
 By ' Forby ' I mean ' Forby's East- Anglian Glossary? 
 [See Charm (2) and Chirm in the New Eng. Dictionary^
 
 MILTON'S USE OF 'CHARM.' 19 
 
 24. ' Charm.' II (5 S. vii. 278 ; 1877). 
 This word has been often discussed ; see, e. g., N. and 
 Q., 3 S. xi. 221, 382, 510. It is a perfectly common 
 English word, used, to my own knowledge, in Shropshire, 
 and is not a Celtic, but an English word, being the A. S. 
 cirm (cyrm\ the hard c turning into ch as usual. Jamieson 
 has it in his Dictionary, with the spelling chirm ; and though 
 he fails to give the A. S. form, he gives the correct equivalent 
 Dutch verb, viz. kermen, to lament. The A. S. substantive is 
 better spelt cirm; and Grein, in his A.S. Dictionary, s. v. cirm, 
 gives fifteen examples of its use as a substantive, and six 
 examples of the verb cirman, which he rightly compares 
 with O. H. G. karmian, to make a noise. The word is per- 
 fectly well known, and the supposed ' Gaelic ' equivalent is 
 all moonshine; so, too, is a supposed connexion with the 
 Latin carmen. 
 
 25. Luther's Distich (3 S. xi. 449 ; 1867). 
 
 This distich is attributed to Luther by the poet Uhland, 
 who was no bad judge in such matters. See ' Gedichte ' 
 von L. Uhland Die Geisterkelter. 
 
 The passage runs thus in my translation : 
 
 ' At Weinsberg, town well known to fame, 
 That doth from wine derive its name, 
 Where songs are heard of joy and youth, 
 Where stands the fort, hight ''Woman's Truth" 
 Where Luther e'en, 'mid women, song, 
 And wine, would find the time not long, 
 And might, perchance, find room to spare 
 For Satan and an inkhorn there 
 (For there a host of spirits dwell) ; 
 Hear what at Weinsberg once befel ! ' 
 Songs and Ballads of Uhland, translated by Skeat, p. 318. 
 
 There is a note on the passage by Mr. Platt, at p. 497 of 
 his translation of Uhland's poems. He says : 
 
 ' The great Martin Luther was no ascetic. In one of his merry 
 moments he is reported to have written the following couplet, which 
 
 C 2
 
 20 ' HONI,' ITS MEANING AND ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 frequently adorns the margin of the wine-bills, drinking-cups, &c., in 
 houses of glad resort in Germany : 
 
 "Who loves not woman, wine, and song, 
 
 Remains a fool his whole life long." 
 
 The story of Luther's conflict with the devil, when he put the fiend 
 to flight by throwing his inkstand at him, is well known.' 
 
 This, by the way, is precisely how Mr. Pickwick vented 
 his rage upon A. Jingle, Esq., of No-hall, Nowhere. 
 
 26. 'Honi/ its meaning and etymology in the phrase 
 
 'Honi soit qui mal y pense ' (3 S. xi. 481 ,-1867). 
 This is a common enough word in Old French. Thus 
 we find in Roquefort 
 
 ' HONIR (honier, honnir, hontager, hontir, hounir, hounnir) ; mepriser, 
 biamer, deshonorer, maltraiter, diffamer.' 
 
 And in Cotgrave 
 
 ' HONNIR. To reproach, disgrace, dishonour, defame, shame, 
 revile, curse, or outrage, in words ; also, to spot, blemish, pollute, 
 foule, file, defile.' 
 
 When we consider how many Teutonic words there are 
 in French, and more especially in Old French, the deriva- 
 tion becomes not far to seek. I take it to be simply allied 
 to the Moeso-Gothic hauns (low), which was used as 
 a contrasted word to hauhs (high). In Ulfilas's translation 
 of St. Paul's Epistles, we have this well brought out in the 
 following : ' Ni waiht bi haifstai aiththau lausai haukeinai 
 ak in allai hauneinai gahugdais,' &c. i. e. ' No whit by 
 strife or empty haughtiness, but in all loivliness of mind,' 
 Phil. ii. 3 ; and again, only five verses farther on, we read 
 that Christ * gahaunida sik silban,' i. e. humbled himself, 
 where the Greek is fTHircivaxrei; and the Latin kumiliauit. 
 Hence haunjan (Greek raneti/oCi/, Lat. humiliart), means ' to 
 make low,' ' to humiliate ' : whence the meanings given by 
 Cotgrave, ' to reproach, disgrace, dishonour,' &c., follow 
 easily enough. Compare also the German hohn, an 
 affront. I do not see why we should quarrel with the com-
 
 DRYDEN QUERIES: 'NEYES.' 21 
 
 monly-received translation. Literacy, the phrase means, 
 ' Disgraced be he who thinks evil thereat ' ; of which ' Evil 
 be to him who evil thinks ' is no bad version. Its chief 
 defect is, that it ignores the word y. 
 
 [Strictly, the O.F. honir is from the O. H. G. honjan (see 
 Schade\ which is cognate with the Goth, haunjan. See 
 Diez, s. v. onire ; cf. F. honfeJ] 
 
 27. Dryden Queries: 'Neyes' 13 S. xii. 56 ; 1867). 
 
 I have not Dryden's plays to refer to, but probably neves 
 means eyes. There is an undoubted instance of this in 
 a quotation given in Jesse's History of the British Dog, 
 vol. ii., where, at a bear-baiting, the bear is described ' with 
 his two pink neves.' Is not this, by the way, the etymology 
 of the name Pinckeney ? It is an instance of the ' epenthetic 
 ,' so common in old English. In my new edition of 
 Piers Plowman, the first volume of which is just ready, the 
 various readings furnish several instances. Thus, in the pro- 
 logue, 1. 42, instead of 'at the ale,' some MSS. have 'at the 
 nale] or 'at nale' 1 ; and again, in Passus v. 1. 115, 
 instead of ' at the oke (oak) ' most MSS. have ' at the noke ' 
 or ' atte noke? Hence the explanation of the phrase ' for 
 the nonce,' which simply means ' for the once ' (A. S. for 
 than anes), but which so puzzled Tyrwhitt, one of our 
 greatest scholars, that he was driven to conjecture a deriva- 
 tion from the Latin pro mine. The history of this n seems 
 to be simply this, that the dative of the article takes the 
 form than or then in the masculine and neuter in early 
 English. . . But when the noun following began with a vowel, 
 this n was transferred to the beginning of such words ; and 
 this transfer took place, not only in the dative case, but 
 often in all cases for the mere sake of euphony, so that we 
 not only find ' the neyes ' in the dative case, but even in the 
 nominative. Nor did this addition of n stop here ; we 
 may go a step further, and dismiss the article altogether,
 
 22 LUCIFER. 
 
 and speak of ' two pinke neyes.' To add to the confusion 
 thus introduced, we have numerous instances of the reverse 
 process, the taking away of an n, so that instead of a nadder, 
 we now absurdly write an adder. See Ulphilas's translation 
 of Luke iii. 7 ' kuni nadre,' i. e. O kin c&nadders, O genera- 
 tion of vipers. Other instances are, an anger, an umpire, 
 miswritten for a nauger (A. S. nafegdr], and a numpire 
 (O. F. noumpere}. 
 
 [See further in the Remarks on the letter N in my Etym. 
 Diet., at the beginning of N; and my Principles of Eng. 
 Etymology, First Series, 346, 347.] 
 
 28. Lucifer (3 S. xii. no; 1867). 
 
 I think it should be noted that Lucifer was applied to 
 Satan, in English literature, at least four hundred years before 
 Milton's time, and probably long before that 1 . In some 
 Early English Homilies, which Mr. Morris is editing for 
 the Early English Text Society, and the date of which is 
 about 1220-30 A. D., it is stated most explicitly. The book is 
 not yet published, but I quote from a proof-sheet, p. 219 : 
 
 ' Tha wes thes tyendes hades alder swithe feir isceapan, swa that 
 heo was gehoten leoht-berinde ' ; i. e. ' Then was this tenth order's 
 elder very fair shapen, so that he was called light-bearing.' 
 
 The context explains that there were originally ten orders 
 of angels; nine of which are angels still, but the tenth 
 order fell from heaven through pride, and their chiefs 
 name was Light-bearing, or Lucifer. 
 
 So again, in A. D. 1362, Langland wrote : 
 ' Lucifer with legiouns lerede hit in heuene ; 
 He was louelokest of siht after vr lord. 
 Til he brak boxsumnes thorw bost of himseluen.' 
 
 Langland, Piers Plowman, pass. i. 1. 109. 
 
 That is : 
 ' Lucifer with his legions learnt it (viz. obedience) in heaven. He 
 
 1 It has been so applied ' from St. Jerome downwards.' Smith's 
 Dictionary of the Bible.
 
 LUCIFER. 23 
 
 was loveliest to look upon, next to our Lord, until he brake obedi- 
 ence, through boast of himself.' 
 
 Still more curious is the English form of the name, 
 Ligber (A. S. llg-bcer, flame-bearing), as in the following : 
 
 1 Ligber he sridde a dere srud. 
 And he wurthe in himseluen prud,' &c. 
 
 i. e. ' Ligber, he shrouded him in a noble shroud, and he 
 became in himself proud.' 
 
 This I quote from Mr. Morris's Genesis and Exodus, 
 1. 271 : the date is about 1250 A. D. 
 
 No doubt this is all derived from a misapplication of 
 Isaiah xiv. 12. But I think it is worth while to add, in 
 confirmation of this, and by way of further illustration, that 
 we hardly ever find an allusion to Lucifer in early English, 
 without finding, at the same time, a mention of his trying to 
 seat himself in the north- -a curious perversion of the verse 
 following, viz. Isaiah xiv. 1 3, which is, in the Vulgate : 
 
 ' Qui dicebas in corde tuo : in caelum conscendam, super astra Dei 
 exaltabo solium meum, sedebo in monte testamenti, in lateribus 
 aquilonis.' 
 
 Compare the Septuagint version eVt ra Sprj TO. \^Xa 
 irpbs ftoppav and the English, ' in the sides of the north' 
 
 Thus, even as early as Csedmon, who speaks of Satan as 
 'like to the light stars,' we find, 'that he west and north 
 would prepare structures ' ; as Thorpe translates it in his 
 edition, at p. 18. So, too, in the English Homilies, three 
 lines below the quotation already given ; ' and sitte on 
 north[d]ele hefene riches,' i. e. and sit on the north-part 
 of the kingdom of heaven. So again in Genesis and 
 Exodus, I. 277 : 
 
 ' Min flight he seide Ic wile uptaken, 
 Min sete twii/i on heuene maken.' 
 
 So again in some (not in au") of the MSS. of Piers 
 Plowman, as, e. g. :
 
 24 NOTES ON FLY-LEAVES. 
 
 ' Lorde, why wolde he tho, thulke wrechede Lucifer, 
 Lepen on a-lofte in the northe syde ? ' 
 
 Langland, Piers Plowman, C. ii. 112, ed. Whitaker, p. 18. 
 
 In fact, Satan's name of Lucifer, and his sitting in the 
 north, are generally found in company. Even Milton 
 has : 
 
 'At length into the limits of the north 
 They came : and Satan to his royal seat 
 
 The palace of great Lucifer,' &c. 
 
 Paradise Lost, v. 755-760. 
 
 29. Notes on Fly-leaves (3 S. xii. 126 ; 1867). 
 At the end of the MS. No. xlv., in University College, 
 Oxford which contains a copy of Piers Plowman in its 
 earliest form is the following note : 
 
 Euery man whoes wife wereth a great horse must keep a frenche 
 hood, quod Josua SI in the parlement house. 
 
 ' Euery man whoes wife wereth a frenche hode must kepe a great 
 horse ; all one to hym. 
 
 ' the kynge was borne thre year after I cam to y e court. 
 ' I cam to y 6 court iij yeer after the king was borne. 
 
 Drinke er you goe horse-mylle. 
 goe er you drinke \ mylle-horse. 
 
 If Hunue had nat sued the premimire, he shuld nat haue ben 
 accused of heresie. 
 
 If Hunne had nat ben accused of heresie, he shuld nat have sued 
 the premuiiire. 
 
 'The cat kylled the mouse. Mus necabatur a cato. 
 
 The mouse kylled the cat. Catus necuit murem. 
 
 catus muri mortem egit. 
 
 mus interemit catum.' 
 
 All this obviously refers to some member of Parliament 
 who was unfortunate enough to put the cart before the 
 horse, evidently to the great amusement of some hearer 
 who ' made a note ' of it. 
 
 30. Cap-a-pie (3 S. xii. 135; 1867). 
 I think your correspondent D. P. S. does very wisely in 
 thus asking for examples of the occurrence of this phrase 
 before proceeding to give his theory of the etymology ; for
 
 CAP-A-PIE. 25 
 
 it is not uncommon for etymologists to construct a theory 
 first, and look about for facts afterwards, and it is this 
 practice which has often brought etymology into contempt. 
 In the present instance, I think the received explanation 
 may stand. 
 
 First, by way of examples. The phrase occurs, accord- 
 ing to the dictionaries, both in Prescott and Swift. In A. D. 
 1755 we meet with : 
 
 ' Armed cap-a-pee, forth marched the fairy king.' 
 
 Cooper, Tomb of Shakspear. 
 
 Tracing back, we come to : 
 
 Armed cap-a-pie, with reverence low they bent.' 
 
 Dryden, Palamon and Arcite, \. 1765. 
 
 There is also another curious instance. In a poem 
 called Psyche, or Love's Mystery, by Joseph Beaumont, 
 published in 1651, we have: 
 
 ' For knowing well what strength they have within. 
 
 By stiff tenacious faith they hold it fast ; 
 How can these champions ever fail to win, 
 Amidst whose armour heaven itself is plac'd.' 
 
 Pysche, canto xii. st. 136. 
 
 At that time Joseph Beaumont was an ejected Fellow of 
 St. Peter's College, but he lived to be master of the college 
 nevertheless, and half-a-century later this poem attained to 
 a second edition, viz. in 1702. In its second form, the 
 poem was much expanded, so that the above stanza, 136, 
 became stanza 154, and at the same time a variation was 
 made, so that it ran thus : 
 
 ' How can those champions ever fail to win, 
 Who, cap-a-pc, for arms, with heaven are drest.' 
 
 I have little doubt that many more examples might be 
 found ; and now for the etymology. 
 
 The received one is, that cap-a-pied means from head to 
 foot, and surely it is simply equivalent to the usual French 
 phrase, ' arme de pied en cap,' for which Raynouard gives 
 the quotation :
 
 26 THE SEVEN AGES OF MAN. 
 
 1 De pied en cap s'armera tout en fer.' 
 
 Laboderie, Hymn EccL, p. 282. 
 
 The only objection to this seems to be that there is 
 a reversal of the order of the words. But if, leaving the 
 Langue d'O'ii, we consult the Langue d'Oc, we shall then 
 find the words in the right order, and at the same time 
 establish, as I think, the right explanation beyond a doubt, 
 besides showing that the phrase existed in the twelfth 
 century. 
 
 In his Provengal Lexicon, Raynouard gives 'CAP, KAP, 
 .*. m, Lat. caput, tete, chef ; and he goes on to explain the 
 phrases de cap en cap (from one end to the other) ; del cap 
 tro als pes (from the head to the foot) ; del premier cap tro 
 en la fi (from the first beginning even to the end). The 
 second of these is clearly the one we want, and he gives the 
 following example : 
 
 ' Que dol si del cap tro als pes.'' 
 
 Guillaume Adhemar (died A. D. 1190). 
 
 This he translates by ' Qu'il se plaint de la tete jusqu'aux 
 pieds.' 
 
 When your correspondent says he doubts this explanation, 
 I suspect he is being misled by a French proverb given by 
 Cotgrave, viz. ' n'avoir que la cape et repeej which means, 
 ' to have nothing left but your mantle and your sword, 
 to be brought to dependence on your own exertions.' The 
 resemblance between the two phrases cap-a-pie (head to 
 foot), and cape et I'epee (mantle and sword), is certainly 
 striking, but they seem to be quite distinct nevertheless, 
 and I do not think they can be proved to be otherwise. 
 
 [See Cap-a-pie in the New Eng. Dictionary^ 
 
 31. The Seven Ages of Man. I (3 S. xii. 145 ; 1867). 
 
 In a poem entitled This World is but a Vanyte, from 
 the Lambert MS. 853, about 1430 A.D., printed in Hymns 
 to the Virgin and Christ (edited by F, J. Furnivall for the
 
 THE SEVEN AGES OF MAN. 27 
 
 Early English Text Society), at p. 83 we have a very 
 curious comparison of the life of man to the seven times of 
 the day. The number seven is here determined apparently 
 by the hours of the Romish Church. Thus, correspond- 
 ing to matins, prime, tierce, sext, nones, vespers, and 
 compline, which were called in Old English uhtsang, 
 primesang, undernsatig, middaysang, nonsang, evensong, 
 nightsang, we have the following periods of the day and 
 of man's life : 
 
 1. Morning. The infant is like the morning, at first 
 born spotless and innocent. 
 
 2. Midmorrow. This is the period of childhood. 
 
 3. Undern (9 A. M. }. The boy is put to school. 
 
 4. Midday. He is knighted, and fights battles. 
 
 5. High Noon (i.e. nones or gth hour, 3 P.M.). He is 
 crowned a king, and fulfils all his pleasure. 
 
 6. Mid-overnoon (i. e. the middle of the period between 
 high noon and evensong). The man begins to droop, and 
 cares little for the pleasures of youth. 
 
 7. Evensong. The man walks with a staff, and death 
 seeks him. After this follows the last stanza : 
 
 'Thus is the day come to nyght. 
 
 That me lothith of my tyuynge. 
 And doolful deeth to me is dight. 
 
 And in coold clay now schal y clinge." 
 Thus an oold man y herde mornynge 
 
 Biside an nolle vndir a tree. 
 God graunte us his blis euerlastinge ! 
 
 This world is but a vanite ! ' 
 
 The resemblance of this to Shakespeare's ' Seven Ages ' 
 is curious and interesting. 
 
 32. The Seven Ages of Man. II (4 S. iv. 303 ; 1869). 
 
 I have already pointed out a description of the seven ages 
 of man in the old poem entitled This World is but a Vanyte. 
 I have just come across a paragraph in Arnold's Chronicle
 
 28 NOTES ON FLY-LEAVES. 
 
 (ed. 1811, p. 157) which seems worth noting. Arnold is 
 supposed to have died about A. D. 1521 : 
 
 ' The vij Ages of Man lining in the World. The first age is infancie 
 and lastith from y e byrth vnto vij. yere of age The ij. childhod 
 and endurith vnto xv. yere age. The iij. age is adholecencye and 
 endurith vnto xxv. yere age. The iiij. age is youthe and endurith 
 vnto xxxv. yere age. The v. age is manhood and endurith vnto 
 1. yere age. The vi. age is [elde] * and lasteth vnto Ixx. 3 - ere age. 
 The vij. age of man is crepill and endurith vnto dethe.' 
 
 33. Notes on Fly-leaves (3 S. xii. 412 ; 1867). 
 
 On the fly-leaf of a Collection of Musical Tunes, by 
 John Dowlande, M.B., in MS. Camb. Univ. Dd. ii. n, is 
 the following specimen of alliteration : 
 
 ' Musica mentis medicina moestae.' 
 
 There are also the lines : 
 
 ' Qu an di tris dul pa 
 
 os guis rus ti cedine vit,' 
 
 H san mi Chris mul la 
 
 which have been already discussed in N. and Q., 3 S. 
 x. 414, 503 2 ; and also the following, in the same style, 
 which I had not before seen, but which I dare say may be 
 common enough : 
 
 pit rem nam pit rem 
 
 ' Qui ca uxo poe ca atque dolo 
 
 ret re na ret re.' 
 
 In one respect these latter verses are the more curious of 
 the two, as they are Leonine verses, wherein uxorem and 
 uxore rime to dolorem and dolore. 
 
 [Read the lines by taking the first and second lines 
 together Quos anguis dirus, &c.; and the third and 
 second lines together Hos sanguis mirus, &c.] 
 
 1 A blank space here. Probably it should be elde, i. e. old age. 
 '-' This version is the one which I said would be found to be the 
 correct one of these lines.
 
 THE WORD 'ALL-TO.' 29 
 
 34. The word 'Ail-to.' I (3 S. xii. 464 ; 1867). 
 
 On the subject of ' A Tobroken Word,' I beg to refer 
 Mr. H. to my letter in The Athenaeum of October 5. The 
 fact is that, wherever alto (in Mid. English) is apparently 
 a separate word, it is so by a blunder of an editor. It is 
 common enough in MSS. to separate a prefix from its 
 verb. Any one who has ever seen an Anglo-Saxon MS. 
 knows that the prefix ge- is far more often written separately 
 from the word it belongs to, than it is joined to it ; and an 
 editor ought to represent this by a hyphen, unless, professing 
 to give a facsimile of the MS., he discards hyphens altogether, 
 as in Sir F. Madden's excellent edition of William and the 
 Werwolf. Hence, the mere fact of to or alto being written 
 apart from the word it belongs to, is not at all surprising : 
 it is only what we expect. 
 
 I think it is not quite safe, for the purpose of argument, 
 to assert that ' there is no instance, I believe, of the use of 
 the word to-troublid? I found two, in less than two 
 minutes, in the very first book I laid my hands on. I quote 
 from the Wicliffite Glossary, where I find 'to-truble, to 
 greatly trouble, Ecclus. xxxv. 22, 23 ; v. 'al-to-trublist.' This 
 second reference gives : ' al-to-trublist, extremely afflictest, 
 Ps. Ixxiii. 13 ; //. al-to-trubleden, Dan. v. 6 ; v. to-truble.' 
 
 I have only to repeat that 
 
 'Ail-to, as equivalent to all to pieces, and as separable 
 from the verb, is comparatively modern. As the force of 
 to as an intensive prefix was less understood, and as verbs 
 beginning with it became rarer, it was regarded as leaning 
 upon and eking out the meaning of all, whereas in older 
 times it was all that added force to the meaning of to! 
 
 Halliwell, I now find (for I had not noticed it before^ 
 says much the same thing : 
 
 ' In earlier writers, the to would of course be a prefix to the verb, 
 but the phrase ail-to, in Elizabethan writers, can scarcely be al\va3 - s 
 so explained.'
 
 30 THE WORD ' ALL-TO.' 
 
 It is not the only blunder perpetrated by these later 
 writers. Some one of them took to spelling rime with an 
 /i, and produced the word rhyme thus giving a Greek 
 commencement to a Saxon word ; and this was thought so 
 happy and classical an emendation, that nearly every one has 
 followed suit ever since. 
 
 A somewhat wider search through English literature 
 would disclose the not recondite fact, that all is used before 
 other prefixes besides to. 
 
 Thus (i) it is used before a (I write as it stands in the 
 MS., omitting hyphens) in the line 
 
 ' here of was sche al a wondred and a waked sone.' 
 
 William and the Werwolf, 1. 2912. 
 
 (2) It is used with the prefix for 
 
 ' as weigh al for waked for wo vpon nightes,' 
 
 Id. i. 790. 
 
 which should be compared with 1. 785 just above, viz. 
 ' Febul wax he and feynt for waked a nightes.' 
 
 (3) It is used before the prefix bi; as in 
 
 ' al bi weped for wo wisly him thought.' 
 
 Id. \. 661. 
 
 Perhaps when alto has been proved, in early English, 
 to be a complete word in itself, distinct from the past 
 participle which, oddly enough, is always found not far off 
 it we may hope to have an explanation of the words alfor, 
 ala, and albi \ But surely, the simpler explanation is that, 
 when the later writers looked on the to- as separable, they 
 did so because they knew no better. 
 
 [Admirably explained on similar lines, in the New Eng. 
 Diet. s. v. All, C. 14, 15; p. 227, col. 2.] 
 
 35. The word 'Ail-to.' II (3 S. xii. 535; 1867). 
 May I add two quotations of great importance? The 
 
 first is 
 
 ' Al to-tare his a-tir that he to-lere might.' 
 
 William and the Werwolf, 1. 3884.
 
 WOLWARDE. 31 
 
 That is, ' he completely tare-in-pieces his attire, whatever 
 of it he could tear-in-pieces.' 
 
 And, if this be not thought decisive enough as to the 
 separation of the al from the to, here is another more 
 decisive still 
 
 ' For hapnyt ony to slyd and fall, 
 He suld sone be to-fruschyt all.' 
 
 Bat-hour's Bms, ed. Jamieson, p. 207. 
 
 That is, ' For, if any one had happened to slide and fall, 
 he would soon have been broken-in-pieces utterly.' 
 
 36. Wolwarde. I (4 S. i. 65 ; 1868). 
 
 I quite agree with Mr. Addis in thinking Mr. Morris is 
 here, for once, wrong in his explanation of the word, because 
 I do not see how to join -ward on to wol, so as to make 
 sense. But the explanation wolwarde, ' with wool next the 
 body,' satisfies all three quotations, viz. in the Pricke of 
 Conscience, in Piers Ploivman, and in the Crede. It is 
 always connected with the idea of penance or of poor 
 clothing. The quotation from the Pricke of Conscience is 
 very much to the point : 
 
 ' And fast and ga wolwarde, and wake.' 
 
 Accordingly, when Mr. Addis receives my edition of the 
 Crede from the E. E. T. S., he will find in the glossary : 
 
 ' " Wolwarde, without any lynnen next one's body, sans chemyse." 
 Palsgrave. To go woolward was a common way of doing penance, 
 viz. with the wool towards * one's skin.' 
 
 37. Wolwarde. II (4 S. i. 254 ; 1868). 
 
 I fail to understand the point of the note by A. H. What 
 is the ' simpler meaning ' he suggests ? Merely, I suppose, 
 that he thinks woohvard, in that it means with the ivool 
 towards one, does not necessarily imply penance, and might 
 
 1 [Unless it meant ' with the skin towards the wool.']
 
 32 WOLWARDE. 
 
 be found very comfortable. No doubt of it. But the idea 
 of penance, or poor clothing, was connected with it in early 
 English, though the quotation from Shakespeare shows that 
 it was ceasing to be a penance in his time, and it seems that 
 the common people of Russia at the present day like it. 
 A. H. ought, in all fairness, to read over the passages referred 
 to, together with the context. The references are : 
 Hampole's Pricke of Conscience, ed. Morris, 1. 3514; Lang- 
 land's Vision of Piers Ploughman, ed. Wright, p. 369 (see 
 p. 497 of the same volume) ; and Pierce the Ploughman's 
 Crede, ed. Skeat, 1. 788. Besides these, Halliwell gives one 
 more example, and Nares five, with an excellent note, that 
 will convince A. H. more than I seem to have done. The 
 example of it in Shakespeare occurs in Love's Labour 's Lost, 
 Act V. Sc. 2, 1. 717. 
 
 38. Wolwarde. Ill (4 S. i. 425 ; 1868). 
 
 If A. H. will only take time enough he will find my 
 explanations quite right ; and if so, he will not need to be 
 at the trouble of proving them wrong. 
 
 Meanwhile, I must comment upon his two new state- 
 ments. His first is, that there is no allusion \.o penance in 
 the quotation from the Crede. Of course this is quite right, 
 for it is' in the quotation from Hampole that penance is 
 implied. Secondly, he thinks that to go zvolwarde means to 
 go woohvards. Certainly not. In the first expression, 
 u'olwarde is an adjective and he has not distinguished 
 between the endings ivard and wards, which were seldom 
 confounded till recently in English writings. To go wool- 
 ivard means to go about ' with the woolly side in ' ; and the 
 verb to go is here used, as elsewhere in old English, for to 
 go about, much as in the Bible (see Gen. iii. 14). To go 
 woohvards, if it ever were to be used (for it never has been), 
 could only mean that which we more commonly express by 
 the phrase ' to go a wool-gathering.'
 
 ' RABBIT. ' 33 
 
 39. 'Rabbit' (4 S. i. 279 ; 1868). 
 
 No doubt F. C. H. is right. Compare the account of the 
 word in Hartshorne's Salopia Antigua, which contains a list 
 of Salopian expressions : 
 
 ; RABBIT IT, pin: The evidently profane phrase " Od rabbit it " is 
 not local. The Od in this case is but a corruption of God, and the 
 other part of the oath has become changed to its present form from 
 the Old English rabatc, rebate, which in its turn is altered from the 
 French rebatre ; Teut. rabatten, de summa detrahere.' 
 
 Rebate, in Old English, means to drive back, repulse : 
 
 ' This is the city of great Bab\ T lon, 
 Where proud Darius was rebated from.' 
 R. Greene, ' Orlando Furioso,' Works, vol. i. p. 34 (ed. 1831". 
 
 40. Hogshead (4 S. i. 613 ; 1868). 
 
 The great point in etymology but the lesson will never 
 be learnt is, that we should be guided by facts, and not 
 by guess. The guess hogs-hide is very ingenious, but against 
 it we must set these facts. The first is, that, in Dutch, the 
 word for a hogshead is okshoofd ; the second is, that the 
 Swedish is oxhitfvud ; and thirdly, the Danish is oxehofved. 
 Hence hogshead is a corruption, not of hog's-hide, but of 
 ox-head. The suggestion hog's-hide does not explain things 
 at all ; because it leaves the Dutch, Danish, and Swedish 
 words quite untouched ; and indeed, if we are to guess at 
 all, ox-hide would be, undoubtedly, half right. Permit me, 
 then, to put the query in a form more likely to produce 
 a true answer. How comes it that the Swedish w r ord 
 oxhufvud means both an ox's head and the measure called 
 a hogshead! It is clear that an ox, not a hog, is the animal 
 meant. 
 
 41. Lister (4 S. i. 547 ; 1868). 
 
 A Lister is a dyer. Jamieson gives Lit, to dye ; Isl. lita, 
 to dye ; Suio-Goth. lit, colour. Also Lidstar, a dyer. In 
 the Promptorium Parvulorum, we have Lytyn, littyn, or lytyn,
 
 34 THE 'JACKDAW OF RHEIMS.' 
 
 to dye ; and again, Lytynge or littinge of cloth, i. e. dyeing. 
 Mr. Way, the editor of this book, gives other instances. 
 Lit also means dye-stuffs ; and to /// is sometimes used in 
 Lowland Scotch for to blush deeply, to be suffused with 
 blushes. Dyer is used as a surname as well as Lister. 
 
 42. The ' Jackdaw of Rheims ' (4 S. i. 577 ; 1868). 
 
 Many readers must remember the story about the scalded 
 magpie, which the author of the Ingoldsby Legends says was 
 told him by Cannon. Hence he adopted the notion about 
 the ' Jackdaw of Rheims,' which he expressed in the line : 
 
 ' His head was as bald as the palm of your hand.' 
 
 It is amusing to compare this with a similar one in The 
 Knight of La Tour-Landry (E.E.T.S.), p. 22. This relates 
 how a magpie told a man that his wife had eaten an eel 
 which he was fattening in a pond in his garden for himself 
 and friends. The wife tried to excuse herself by saying the 
 husband had eaten it ; but the husband told her he knew 
 better, as he had heard about it from the magpie. In 
 revenge, the lady and her maid plucked the bird's feathers 
 off, saying : ' Thou hast discovered us of the eel.' And 
 ever after, the magpie repeated this to any one whom he 
 saw with a bald head. Surely this is curiously like the con- 
 clusion of Cannon's story, as told in the Memoir of the Rev. 
 F. H. Barham. [It is, practically, the same story as that 
 in Chaucer's Manciples Tale ; respecting the oriental origin 
 of which see my ed. of Chaucer, iii. 501. Chaucer took it 
 from Ovid.] 
 
 43. Walter pronounced as ' Water' (4 S. i. 595 ; 1868). 
 A very early instance is the following : 
 
 ' Byhold opon Wat Brut whou \}iow\ bisiliche thei pursueden.' 
 Pierce the Ploughman's Crede, 1. 657. 
 
 Here Wat is the reading of the Trinity MS., but the 
 British Museum MS. and the early printed edition of 1553
 
 GIST. 35 
 
 both have Water, which represents Walter at full length. 
 The short form Wat is spelt without an /. Similarly the 
 common Old English word tor fault is /ante, and for assault 
 is assaut. 
 
 [This illustrates Shak., 2 Hen. VI. iv. i. 31-35. My own 
 name as a boy, in Shropshire, was ' our Wat.'] 
 
 44. Gist (4 S. ii. 42 ; 1868 ; curtailed). 
 
 The derivation of gist is very obvious, being the French 
 word gite, formerly spelt giste, a derivative of gesir ; Lat. 
 iacere, to lie. The gist of a thing is the point in law 
 whereon the action rests. According to analogy, the 
 pronunciation ought to be with the soft g [i. e. as j\ ; and 
 as there is hardly an instance where a soft g is hardened, 
 but many of the contrary, there is no sort of excuse for 
 pronouncing it hard [i. e. as g in go\. 
 
 45. 'Lene' and 'leue' (4 S. ii. 126; 1868). 
 
 I wish to draw attention to the two words lene and leue 
 as occurring in Chaucer, Piers Plowman, and other poems, 
 which have, as I think, been utterly confused by most 
 editors ; probably, because they can hardly be distinguished 
 in the MSS. In Halliwell's Dictionary I find ' LENE, to 
 give. Hence our word lend. The editor of Havelok 
 absurdly prints leue! 
 
 In Morris's Specimens of Early English, ed. 1867, at 
 p. 395, we read ' Lene, grant. Many editors of Old 
 English works print leue (leve, give leave to), for lene, as if 
 from A.S. lefan, to permit ; lene is from Icenan, to give, lend.' 
 
 Here, I submit, there is the most dire confusion. The 
 editor of Havelok did not act absurdly in printing leue, 
 because he had to deal with another word, quite different 
 from lene ; and secondly, Mr. Morris, after making the 
 right distinction between the words, proceeds to confound 
 them. But it is proper to add that he now writes to tell 
 
 D 2
 
 36 ' LENE ' AND ' LEUE. ' 
 
 me that he has discovered the mistake, and holds the view 
 which I proceed to state. 
 
 This is, that Sir F. Madden and Dr. Stratmann, who do 
 put a difference between the words, are right; and what 
 I wish to do now, is to show the exact difference between 
 them, and to offer some arguments in place of assertions. 
 
 In the first place, all scholars agree in accepting that the 
 old spelling of lend is lene or ten, just as the old spelling of 
 sound is soun. This shows, too, why the past tense and 
 past participle are alike ; for lent (as the past tense) is con- 
 tracted from the old past tense knde, and lent (as the past 
 participle) from the old past participle lened; both of 
 which are formed from len or lene. Now the old meaning 
 of lene is to give, deliver, hand over, impart, and it 
 answers to the German leihen. None would deny that the 
 following are correct examples of it : 
 
 ' To yeue and lene him of his owne good.' 
 
 Chaucer, Prol. 611. 
 
 ' That hote cultre in the chymney heere 
 As lene it me, I have therwith to doone.' 
 
 Chaucer, Millers Talc, 589. 
 ' Lene me a mark,' quod he, ' but dayes thre.' 
 
 Chaucer, Chan. Yetn. Tale, 15. 
 ' I shal lene the a bowr.' Havelok, 2072. 
 
 But what Mr. Halliwell appears to deny is, the existence 
 of the verb leue ; and this is the point to come to. 
 
 Dr. Stratmann's account of it is, that leue or leve is the 
 A.S. lefan, German erlauben, to give leave to, permit, allow. 
 Now this word in various forms, Ivfan, lefan, atyfan, gelj'fati, 
 is common enough in Anglo-Saxon, and as / between two 
 vowels had the sound of v, it would' necessarily produce 
 leve in Old English. There are three undoubted examples 
 of its occurrence. Thus, in the Ormulum, we have (vol. i. 
 p. 308) the line : 
 
 ' Godd allmahhtigg lefe uss swa 
 To forthenn Cristess wille,'
 
 'LENE' AND ' LEUE.' 37 
 
 i. e. ' God Almighty grant (or permit] us so to further 
 Christ's will.' Here the spelling with / makes the word 
 certain ; and to make doubly sure, we have a similar ex- 
 pression in the same volume, at p. 357. But there is 
 a third instance. In Douglas's Virgil is the phrase ' Gif us 
 war lewitj which is equivalent to leuit, as explained by 
 Jamieson. Here again, the use of the w makes the word 
 altogether certain ; for w has the force of v very commonly 
 in Lowland Scotch. The signification of the phrase is 
 ' if it were, permitted to us.' 
 
 That the two words have been so hopelessly jumbled 
 together is no doubt owing to the fact that each can be 
 represented by the verb to grant; but it really makes all 
 the difference whether we are speaking of to grant a thing 
 to a person, or to grant that a thing may happen. ' God 
 lene thee grace ' means, ' God grant thee grace,' where 
 to grant is to impart ; but ' God hue we may do right ' 
 means, ' God grant we may do right,' where to grant is 
 to permit. 
 
 The difference between the two is distinct enough, and 
 the instances of hfe in the Ormulum render the blunder 
 here protested against quite unjustifiable. Briefly, lene 
 requires an accusative case after it, hue is followed by a 
 dependent clause. 
 
 And now for the results. The following are true examples 
 of hue : 
 
 ' God . . . save and gyde us alle and some, 
 And lene this sompnour good man to become.' 
 
 Chaucer, Freres Tale, 346. 
 
 Printed lene by Tyrwhitt, and hene by Morris. 
 
 ' Then he is now, God lene us for to meete.' 
 
 Prioresses Tale, 231. 
 
 Printed lene by Tyrwhitt and Morris. 
 
 ' Depardieux ' quod she 'God lene all be wele.' 
 
 Trail, and Creseide, ii. 1212.
 
 38 PORCELAIN. 
 
 ' God leue hym werken as he can dev r yse.' 
 
 Trail, and Creseide, ii. 7. 
 
 ' God leue us for to take it for the best.' 
 
 Ibid. v. 1749. 
 
 Morris prints lenc. Moxon prints /eve, but Tyrwhitt has 
 lene in his Glossary (s. v. ' Leveth '), in all three instances. 
 
 The three instances in Havelok occur in similar ex- 
 clamations, in the forms ' God leue,' or ' Crist leue,' and 
 Halliwell need not have called such a spelling absurd. 
 The quotations from the Ormulum entirely establish the 
 phrase. 
 
 Lastly, by way of a crucial test, take Pierce the Plough- 
 man's Crede. I regret that I have, in all four places, 
 printed lene in the text. Yet, strictly speaking, there are 
 two instances of lene, in lines 445, 741 ; and two of leue, in 
 lines 366, 573, where the phrase is 'God leue,' etc. And 
 now observe a circumstance that clinches the whole result. 
 In lines 445 and 741 all three copies of the Crede have 
 lene; but in lines 366 and 573 the best MS. can be read 
 either way ; the British Museum MS. has /eve, and the 
 old printed edition has leue, as shown by my footnotes. 
 Surely future editors of Chaucer ought to note these 
 corrections. 
 
 Of course I have not taken into consideration here the 
 other senses of the word leue, viz. (i) to believe, (2) to 
 leave, and (3) dear. Curiously enough, all these three 
 occur in one line : 
 
 ' What ! leuestow, leue lemman, that i the leue wold ? ' 
 
 William of Palerne, 2358. 
 
 46. Porcelain (4 S. ii. 155 ; 1868). 
 Mr. Wedgwood derives this from ' Ptg. porcellana, china 
 ware, said to be so called from the surface being like that 
 of the porcellana, a large univalve, commonly known as the 
 tiger-shell, or Venus' shell.' But this does not tell us why 
 the sfallitsetf wa& so named.
 
 AGE OF THE WORLD. 39 
 
 In the Catalogue of the Chinese Co/lection exhibited some 
 years ago near Hyde Park Corner, at p. 63, I met with the 
 following remark, which seems worth preserving : 
 
 ' Marsden, as quoted by Davis, shows that it [porcelain] was applied 
 by the Europeans to the ware of China, from the resemblance of its 
 finely polished surface to that of the univalve shell so named [in 
 Portuguese] ; while the shell itself derived its appellation from the 
 curved shape of its upper surface, which was thought to resemble the 
 raised back of a porcella, or little hog.' 
 
 Thus the word porcelain is finally traced back to the 
 Latin porcus ; just as porpoise is the pork-fish, and porcupine 
 means spiny pig. 
 
 [See further in Littre, s. v. porcelaine and in the larger 
 edition of my Etym. Diet.] 
 
 47. Age of the World. I (4 S. ii. 156 : i! 
 
 In two MSS. only of Piers Plowman, viz. that belonging 
 to Oriel College, Oxford, and one in the Cambridge Uni- 
 versity Library, marked LI. 4. 14, are the two following 
 lines, which have reference to the plenitudo temporis, the 
 ' fulness of time ' of Christ's birth : 
 
 ' Annis quingentis decies, rursumque ducentis 
 Unus defuerat, cum Deus ortus erat.' 
 
 My query is, whence did the monks in the fourteenth 
 century derive the idea that Christ was to be born exactly 
 5199 years after the Creation ? 
 
 [Answered by myself, in a later number ; see below.] 
 
 48. Age of the World. II (4 S. iii. 203 ; 1869). 
 
 I can now answer my own question, as to why Christ's 
 birth is made to have taken place 5199 years after the 
 Creation. The reckoning is British, and is very curious. 
 In A Chronicle of London, p. 183, there is a copy of the 
 great tablet which was once hung up in Old St. Paul's, and 
 which contained the curious chronological facts which I 
 here tabulate. (Cf. MS. Harl. 565.)
 
 40 'YEDE,' MISUSED BY SPENSER, 
 
 Destruction of Troy, Anno Mundi 4030. 
 
 Building of New Troy, called London, A. M. 4094. 
 
 Building of Rome, A. M. 4484. 
 
 Christ born, in the igth year of Cymbeline, A. M. 5199. 
 
 Add to these, that Brutus landed at Totness, in Cornwall 
 (it was in Cornwall then), A. M. 4063, where he destroyed, 
 amongst other giants, three who were named respectively 
 Geomagog, Hastripoldius, and Rascalbundy, as we learn 
 from a MS. in the Heralds' College ; the one, namely, which 
 contains the original French version of Havelok. 
 
 49. ' Yede,' misused by Spenser (4 S. ii. 199 ; 1868). 
 It is strange that no one seems to have remarked the 
 curious blunder made by Spenser respecting the verb yede. 
 In yielding to his propensity for archaic diction, he has, in 
 this instance at least, not perfectly learnt his lesson, and 
 fallen into a remarkable grammatical error. Yede and yode 
 are both, as every student of Early English should know, 
 various forms of the A.S. code, a past tense without any 
 corresponding present tense, employed with the sense of 
 ' went.' But Spenser, observing the differing forms of the 
 word, came to the extraordinary, yet somewhat logical, 
 conclusion that yede must be the infinitive mood, and yode 
 the past tense of the same. This did not mislead him as 
 regards yode, so that he wrote correctly enough 
 
 ' Before them yode a lustie tabrere.' 
 
 Shepheard's Calendar, May, 22. 
 
 But, with respect to yede, he has erred in at least three 
 places : 
 
 ' Then badd the knight his lady yede aloof.' 
 
 Faerie Queene, I. xi. 5. 
 ' The whiles on foot was forced for to yeed? 
 
 Ibid. II. iv. 2. 
 ' But if they with thy gotes should yede' 
 
 Shepheard's Calendar, July, 109. 
 
 Nares gives no instance from any other author beyond
 
 A YEAR AND A DAY. 41 
 
 quoting yede as a preterite ; and it would be curious to 
 know if the mistake really occurs in any other author's 
 works. Spenser certainly did not find it so used by his 
 master Chaucer, nor by any other writer of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 50. A Year and a Day (4 S. iii. 222 ; 1868). 
 
 Perhaps several of your readers, like myself, have felt 
 inclined to smile at the expression, 'a year and a day,' 
 occurring so frequently in old ballads. The words ' and 
 a day ' seem so unnecessary. But I now feel inclined to 
 smile at my own want of perception ; there is very good 
 reason for the phrase. 
 
 If, in a passage of a melody, we wish to rise from one C 
 to the C above, we ascend by the seven notes of the scale, 
 C to B, and by one more, i. e. we arrive at the octave. In 
 the same way, Low Sunday is not said to be seven days 
 after Easter, but is called the octave. The phrase ' in 
 a week's time ' is felt to be vague ; and therefore people 
 say ' this day week.' But this is sometimes expressed in 
 old books by ' in eight days,' and a fortnight is sometimes 
 denoted by ' in fifteen days ' ; cf. Fr. quinzaine. Now the 
 period of the octave might also be fairly called ' a week and 
 a day,' as well as a period of eight days ; and in the same 
 way, a year and a day must mean on the 366th day from 
 the present, i. e. on the same day of the month as the 
 present, in next year. The intention of it is to show that 
 not only has a year elapsed, but that the day now spoken 
 of is the same day of the month as the day before mentioned. 
 Cf. Exod. xii. 41. 
 
 Again, the present 251)1 of August being a Tuesday, the 
 25th next year will be Wednesday; and by that time we 
 shall have advanced not only by a year (reckoned by years), 
 but by a day (reckoned by days of the week). Here is 
 another reason for choosing the phrase.
 
 42 CHRONOLOGY OF THE ' KNIGHTES TALE.' 
 
 [Cf. Chaucer, ' Knightes Tale,' Group A, 1. 1850; and 
 my note on the passage.] 
 
 51. Chronology of Chaucer's ' Knightes Tale ' 
 
 (4 S. ii. 243 ; 1868). 
 
 After some little trouble, I have arrived at the conclusion 
 that Chaucer has given us sufficient data for ascertaining both 
 the days of the month and of the week of many of the 
 principal events of the ' Knightes Tale.' The following 
 scheme will explain many things hitherto unnoticed. 
 I refer to the lines of the Aldine edition, ed. Morris, 1866. 
 
 On Friday, May 4, before i A. M. Palamon breaks out of 
 prison. For (1. 605) it was during the ' third night of May, 
 but (1. 609) a little after midnight.' That it was Friday is 
 evident also, from, observing that Palamon hides himself at 
 day's approach, whilst Arcite rises ' for to doon his observ- 
 ance to May, remembryng of the poynt of his desire.' To 
 do this best, he would go into the fields at sunrise (1. 633), 
 during the hour dedicated to Venus, i. e. during the hour 
 after sunrise on a Friday. If however this seem for 
 a moment doubtful, all doubt is removed by the following 
 lines : 
 
 ' Right as the Friday, sothly for to telle, 
 Now it schyneth, now it reyneth faste, 
 Right so gan gery Venus overcaste 
 The hertes of hire folke, right as hir day 
 Is gerful, right so chaungeth hire aray. 
 Selde is the Fryday al the wyke alike.' 
 
 All this is very little to the point unless we suppose 
 Friday to be the day. Or, if the reader have still any 
 doubt about this, let him observe the curious accumulation 
 of evidence which is to follow. 
 
 Palamon and Arcite meet, and a duel is arranged for an 
 early hour on the day following. That is, they meet on 
 Saturday, May 5. But, as Saturday is presided over by the 
 inauspicious planet Saturn, it is no wonder that they arc
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE ' KNIGHTES TALE.' 43 
 
 both unfortunate enough to have their duel interrupted by 
 Theseus, and to find themselves threatened with death. 
 Still, at the intercession of the queen and Emily, a day of 
 assembly for a tournament is fixed for 'this day fyfty wekes' 
 (1.992). Now we must understand 'fyfty wekes ' to be 
 a poetical expression for a year. This is not mere supposi- 
 tion, however, but a certainty ; because the appointed day 
 was in the month of May, whereas fifty weeks and no more 
 would land us in April 1 . Then 'this day fyfty wekes' 
 means 'this day year,' viz. on May 5. Now, in the year 
 following (supposed not a leap-year), the 5th of May would 
 be Sunday. But this we are expressly told in 1. 1330. It 
 must be noted, however, that this is not the day of the 
 tournament, but of the muster for it, as may be gleaned 
 from 11. 992-995 and 1238. The tenth hour 'inequal' of 
 Sunday night, or the second hour before sunrise of Monday, 
 is dedicated to Venus, as explained by Tyrwhitt (1. 1359) : 
 and therefore Palamon then goes to the temple of Venus. 
 The third hour after this, the first after sunrise on Monday, 
 is dedicated to Luna or Diana, and during this Emily goes 
 to Diana's temple. The third hour after this again, the 
 fourth after sunrise, is dedicated to Mars, and therefore 
 Arcite then goes to the temple of Mars. But the rest of 
 the day is spent merely in jousting and preparations 
 
 ' Al the Monday jousten they and daunce ' (1628). 
 
 The tournament therefore takes place on Tuesday, May 7, 
 on the day of the week presided over by Mars, as was very 
 fitting ; and this perhaps helps to explain Saturn's exclama- 
 tion in 1. 1811, < Mars hath his wille ; 
 
 Thus far all the principal days, with their events, are exactly 
 accounted for. In what follows I merely throw out a 
 suggestion for what it is worth. It is clear that Chaucer 
 
 1 It turns out that Boccaccio, whom Chaucer here follows, actually 
 uses the expression ' un anno intero,' a complete year.
 
 44 A BAKER'S DOZEN. 
 
 would have been assisted in arranging all these matters thus 
 exactly, if he had chosen to calculate them according to the 
 year then current. Now the years (not bissextile) in which 
 May 5 is on a Sunday, during the last half of the fourteenth 
 century, are these : 1359,1370,1381,1387,1398. Of these 
 five, it is at least curious that the date 1387 exactly coincides 
 with this sentence in Sir H. Nicolas's Life of Chaucer: 
 ' From internal evidence it appears that the " Canterbury 
 Pilgrimage" was written after the year 1386.' 
 
 52. A Baker's Dozen (4. S. ii. 464 ; 1868). 
 I do not know if the following passage in the Liber Albus 
 has been noticed- It occurs at p. 232 of the translation by 
 Mr. Riley : 
 
 ' And that no baker of the town shall give unto the regratresses 
 the six pence on Monday morning by way of hansel-money, or the 
 three pence on Friday for curtesy-money ; but, after tlie ancient 
 manner, let him give thirteen articles of bread for twelve.' 
 
 That is, the retailers of bread from house to house were 
 allowed a thirteenth loaf by the baker, as a payment for 
 their trouble. 
 
 53. Pied Friars (4 S. ii. 496 ; 1868). 
 A further investigation, has convinced me that my note 
 upon ' Pied Friars,' instead of being wrong, as is now sug- 
 gested, is perfectly correct 1 . They are not, or at any rate 
 were not originally, the same as the Carmelites. The latter 
 were (not the Pied, but) the White Friars. The truth is, 
 that we know very little about these Pied Friars. They only 
 had one house in all England, viz. at Norwich, and this only 
 for a time; so that any allusion to them, or account of 
 
 ' My note to 1. 65 of Pierce the Ploughman's Crede, which 
 mentions thefreres of the Pye, is : i They would appear to be not very 
 different from the Carmelites ; they were called Pied Friars from 
 their dress being a mixture of black and white, like a magpie.'
 
 PIED FRIARS. 45 
 
 them, is very difficult to obtain. In Thomas Walsingham's 
 history [ed. H. T. Riley, i. 102], there is an allusion which 
 seems to imply, and probably does imply, that they once 
 had a burial-ground in London; but that, in A. D. 1326, 
 their name, as that of a separate fraternity, was no longer 
 used. In describing the murder by the Londoners of 
 Walter de Stapleton, Bishop of Exeter, he says that the 
 dead body was cast in an old cemetery which had once 
 belonged to the Friars, whom our ancestors used to call 
 ' Pied Friars' : ' quod fuerat quondam Fratrum, quosJ*reres 
 Pyes veteres appellabant.' All that is said about them, in 
 the course of the eight large volumes of Dugdale's Monas- 
 ticon, is contained in one short paragraph ; and even this is 
 copied from Blomefield's Norfolk. It is in the latter work 
 that we at last find some account of them. After describing 
 the church of St. Peter per Mountergate, in Norwich, he says 
 that there was a college at the north-east corner of the 
 churchyard, which was 'first given to the Pied Friars, so 
 named from their habit ; and after they quitted it, which 
 was when they were obliged to join one of the four principal 
 orders, it came to the Hospital of Bek, in Billingford, in 
 Norfolk.' Blomefield's Norfolk, ii. 537; cf. Dugdale's 
 Monasticon, viii. 1 6 1 1 . 
 
 The only other reference to them that I can discover, is 
 the one already cited in my notes, viz. Political Poems, i. 262 ; 
 where some change is evidently expressed by the words 
 fuerunt and mutati sunt, though I forget the context at this 
 moment \ It will be observed that Blomefield himself is 
 quite at a loss as to which of the four orders they joined, 
 but the passage in the Crede furnishes evidence that they 
 joined the Carmelites. I may then repeat my original note ; 
 
 1 [The lines are : 
 
 ' With an O and an I, fuerunt pyed freres 
 Quomodo mutati sunt, rogo dicat Per[e]s.' 
 But they throw no special light upon the matter.]
 
 46 GENTEEL DOGS. 
 
 ' that they were not very different from the Carmelites.' 
 They were different once, but not at a later period. Their 
 Latin name was ' Fratres de Pica.' 
 
 54. Genteel Dogs (4 S. ii. 507 ; 1868). 
 
 ' Also, to avoid the noise, damage, and strife that used to arise 
 therefrom, it is forbidden that any person shall keep a dog accus- 
 tomed to go at large out of his own enclosure without guard thereof, 
 by day or night, within the franchise of the City, genteel dogs 
 excepted ; under pain of paying forty pence, to the use of the 
 Chamber.' 
 
 Mr. Riley's note to this passage (Libra Albus, p. 389) is 
 that the word gentilx may mean ' gentle ' or pet dogs of 
 the then known description. But ' gentyll houndes ' are 
 such as were kept for hawking and hunting, as ' grayhoundes, 
 braches, spanyellis, or suche other.' See Laurens Andrewe 
 on the Dog, quoted in Mr. FurnivalPs Babees Book, p. 225. 
 
 55. 'Ye' for 'The' (4 S. ii. 545 ; 1868). 
 The reason why ' y e ' is sometimes used for ' the ' in old 
 books wherein ' the ' is the more usual form, is simply that 
 printers in former times had difficulties about ' spacing out.' 
 When pressed for room, they put 'y e '; when they had 
 plenty of room, they put ' the.' This distinction is made 
 over and over again in Crowley's edition of Piers Plowman, 
 printed in 1550. Many people use 'y e ' still, but few of 
 those who use it know what it means, as is shown by their 
 pronouncing itye. But the proper pronunciation is the, for 
 the y is only a corruption of the old thorn-letter, or symbol 
 for th. In the MS. of Barbour's Brus, for instance, ye, yai, 
 yair, yaim, yat, &c., occur frequently, and are to be pro- 
 nounced the, thai, thair, thaim (them), that. The methods 
 of printing the e above the line, and of putting ' y* ' for that, 
 are borrowed from the abbreviations ' J? e ' and ']?* ' in MSS. 
 Another common abbreviation is ' j? u ' for thou, which would 
 be printed ' y 11 .'
 
 CO A T, IS IT PROPER ? 47 
 
 56. Coat, a name for the dress of women : is it 
 proper? (4 S. ii. 586 ; 1868). 
 
 There is here no difficulty. Whatever be the ultimate 
 etymology of the word, which is the French cotte, Italian 
 cotta, German kutte, it implies a covering. There is no 
 reason for restricting it to male dress, except that it is now 
 customary to do so. We still apply it widely when we 
 speak of a coat of plaster, or of a pony having a rough coat. 
 In early English it is much more frequently applied to male 
 than to female attire ; but the following are a few examples 
 of the latter use : 
 
 This was her cote, and her mantel.' 
 
 Chaucer, Rom. of the Rose, 459. 
 ; And she hadde on a cote of grene.' Ibid. 573. 
 How Hej^ne hath a new cote, and his wif another' 
 
 Piers Plowman, A. v. 91. 
 I have put off my coat ; how shall I put it on ? ' 
 
 The Bible (Authorised Version), Sol. Song. v. 3. 
 The cotc-hardic was also worn by the ladies in this reign [Edw. 
 III].' British Costume, p. 133. 
 
 The first, second, and fourth examples are given in that 
 excellent book entitled The Bible Word-Book. The word 
 gown is, on the other hand, very frequently used of male 
 attire, as in Chaucer. So also in Piers Plcnvman, ed. 
 Wright, p. 259. And Stow says, anno 1507 : 
 
 ' The Duke of Buckingham wore a gowne wrought of needle- work, 
 and set upon cloth of tissue, furred with sables, the which goune was 
 valued at 15007.' 
 
 We still have gownsmen in plenty. 
 
 [See Coat in the New Eng. Dictionary.] 
 
 57. Soc-lamb (4 S. ii. 592 ; 1868). 
 
 According to Halliwell, this term is also used in Sussex. 
 The A.S. soc means the act of suction, and the existence 
 of the Germ. Saugelamtn, Dutch zuig-lam, both meaning 
 a sucking-lamb, leaves us in no doubt as to the true
 
 48 THE TRISECTION OF AN ANGLE. 
 
 etymology. Compare sokerel, an unwearied child ; souking- 
 fere, a foster-brother ; sokeling, a suckling plant or a young 
 animal. Jamieson also tells us that one of the designations 
 among the vulgar for a simpleton is a sookirf turkey. 
 
 58. The problem of ' the trisection of an angle ' 
 
 (4 S. iii. 94 ; 1869). 
 
 The locus of the points of trisection of any arc which has 
 a given chord is an hyperbola, of which the eccentricity is 2, 
 the foci are the ends of the chord, and the directrix is the 
 sagitta of the arc. Hence it follows that the problem 
 cannot be solved by the ordinary methods of geometry, i.e. 
 by the rule and compasses only. But it is easily solved by 
 constructing the hyperbola, which can be done by tolerably 
 simple means viz. merely with the aid of a piece of string, 
 a ruler revolving round a fixed end, and a tracing-pencil. 
 
 59. Monkey (4 S. iii. 183; 1869). 
 
 I see no reason for doubting the etymology commonly 
 accepted (as e. g. in Ogilvie and Wedgwood), that monkey, 
 though formed with an English suffix, is equivalent to the 
 Italian monicchio. It is clearly a diminutive, and the fact 
 that we have the older word ape shows that monkey is an 
 imported word. The original word is Italian mona, an 
 ape ; Spanish mono (masculine), and mona (feminine). We 
 find also Spanish monillo, a small monkey ; Italian monna, 
 monnino, monnone. The Italian monna meant originally 
 mistress, and seems to be a mere abbreviation of madonna, 
 my lady ; hence it came to mean dame, old woman, &c. 
 The degradation of the term is certainly very great ; but 
 there is an exactly parallel instance in the case of the word 
 dam, which has been degraded from the Latin domina, 
 in French ' notre dame,' till it now means only the mother 
 of a racehorse, or of a less important animal. 
 
 [Cf. Monkey in my larger Etym. Dictionary.]
 
 IV A TERSHED. 49 
 
 60. Watershed (4 S. iii. 215 ; 1869). 
 
 Some time ago there was a discussion about this word in 
 The Athenaeum, some of the correspondents of that paper 
 not understanding its derivation. Others, better informed, 
 pointed out that it is simply equivalent to the German 
 Wasserscheide, and that to shed is still used, locally, in the 
 sense of parting the hair. I have little doubt that many 
 quotations might be adduced assigning to shed (German 
 scheiden) the sense of to part or divide. Still, as the word 
 is not very common, it may be as well to note the following, 
 where it is used as a neuter verb, meaning to separate : 
 
 'The River Don or Dun (says Dodsworth in his Yorkshire collec- 
 tions riseth in the upper part of Pennystone parish near Lady's 
 Cross which may be called our Apennines, because the rain-water 
 that falleth sheddeth from sea to sea.' 
 
 Southey's The Doctor, and edition, vol. ii. p. 4. 
 
 The exact meaning of watershed, I may add, is the ridge 
 or elevation which causes the streams of water on either 
 side of it to flow in opposite directions, and so parts them 
 asunder. 
 
 61. Final -e in Early English (4 S. iii. 215 ; 1869^. 
 
 There is a curious instance of careful spelling in MS. 
 Camb. Univ. Lib. Dd. i. 17, which shows that the scribes 
 did pay some regard to the final e even in alliterative 
 poems, where a syllable more or less in the line is not 
 of much consequence. It is in the passage of Piers Plow- 
 man (B. xi. 166) which is thus given in that MS. : 
 
 ' Or any science vndir sonne, the seuene artz and alle, 
 But thay be lerned for oure lordes loue, lost is al the tyme. 
 
 Cf. Wright's ed., p. 212. 
 
 Here all occurs twice : once in the pi. alle, and once 
 in the sing. al. In the second place, the scribe had at 
 first written alle as before ; but on second thoughts, he 
 became aware of his mistake, and destroyed the le by placing 
 
 E
 
 50 ROODEE. 
 
 a point beneath each letter in the usual manner. It 
 evidently made a difference to him. 
 
 62. Rood.ee (4 S. iii. 228; 1869). 
 
 The origin of this word [the name of a piece of ground 
 at Chester] has not yet, I believe, been shown, although the 
 Editor pointed out that the old form of the word was Rood 
 Eye. The answer is to be found, however, in Mr. Wright's 
 note to his edition of Piers Ploughman. (See vol. ii. p. 521.) 
 There was a famous Rood or cross at Chester, mentioned 
 by Langland, which stood on an eye, or piece of ground 
 surrounded by water. Hence this plot of ground was 
 named Rood Eye or cross-island, as explained by Pennant 
 in his Tour in Wales, edit. 1778, p. 191. Nowadays this 
 level space is used as a race-course ; the cross has probably 
 disappeared (though its base was to be seen in 1789), and 
 the name made into Roodee ; and this, owing to the 
 proximity of the river Dee, is again most absurdly corrupted 
 into Roo-Dee. In the English Cyclopaedia it is thus spelt. 
 No wonder that Roo cannot be explained ! 
 
 63. Poetic diction of the Anglo-Saxons 
 
 (4 S. iii. 268 ; 1869). 
 
 The difference between Anglo-Saxon prose and Anglo- 
 Saxon poetry is best understood by reading a little of both. 
 In poetry, the requirements of alliterative verse tend to 
 render the sentences involved and disjointed. The principal 
 characteristics of our old poetry are, among others, these 
 following. 
 
 1. Inversion of the order of words. Example : 
 (I only give the translation, not the original) 
 
 ' For us it is very right that we the Guardian of the skies, the 
 Glory-king of hosts, with our words praise, in our minds love.' 
 Caedmon ; the opening lines. 
 
 2. Insertion of numerous epithets and equivalent ex-
 
 POETIC DICTION OF THE AXGLO-SAXONS. 51 
 
 pressions. Thus, in the above, the Lord is called in one 
 line 'the Guardian of the skies,' and in the next 'the Glory- 
 king of hosts.' In one line we have 'with our words 
 praise,' in the next ' in our minds love,' which are paral- 
 lelisms. 
 
 3. An abundance of names for the same object. Thus, 
 even in the later English, a man is called a man, a freke, 
 a renk, a segge, a bnrne, or a gome, merely to satisfy the 
 requirements of alliteration. These names are picked out 
 just as required : that is, if the alliteration requires /, it 
 is freke ; if s, it is segge, and so on. So also in Anglo- 
 Saxon, very numerous are the expressions for a sword, or 
 a ship, &c. 
 
 4. A curious chopping up of sentences into pieces of the 
 same metrical length. Every line being divided into 
 hemistichs by a metrical pause, it will be found that, in 
 many cases, there is a pause in the sense as well as in the 
 sound. This is seen in the specimen given above. ' For 
 us it is very right- that we the Guardian of the skies the 
 Glory-king of hosts with our words praise with our 
 minds love.' We thus get each sentence piecemeal as it 
 were, and it is often necessary to get to the end of each 
 sentence before the drift of it can be even guessed at. 
 These are a few of the points which must strike every 
 reader who peruses but one page of Anglo-Saxon poetry. 
 To appreciate the matter fully, your correspondent should 
 consult Conybeare's Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry, or 
 (which would be far better) steadily make his way through 
 a good long portion of Caedmon or Beowulf. This may be 
 done in part, without a knowledge of Anglo-Saxon, by help 
 of Mr. Thorpe's translations. On Early English Alliterative 
 Poetry of a somewhat later date, see my Essay 1 in vol. iii. 
 of the Percy Folio MS., by Hales and Furnivall. 
 
 1 [It is rather obsolete now. and not very correct ; but contains 
 some useful information.] 
 
 E 2
 
 52 DID ADAM A.\D EVE FALL INTO THE SEA ? 
 
 64. Did Adam and Eve fall into the Sea ? 
 
 (4 S. iii. 275; 1869). 
 
 Certainly they did so. How they did it, is sufficiently 
 explained by the context of the passage cited. Philip de 
 Thuan carefully explains that the sea means this world, and 
 the miseries of it. They were driven out of Paradise, 
 and into the world of sorrows. This is all that is meant 
 by their falling into the sea. The same idea is found in 
 Langland's Piers Plowman, ed. Wright, p. 153; ed. Skeat, 
 B. viii. 40. 
 
 65. ' Havelok' and Robert of Brunne (4 S. iii. 357 ; 
 
 1869). 
 
 Robert Mannyng of Brunne, himself a Lincolnshire man, 
 was probably alive and of sufficient age to compose poetry 
 when the English version of Havelok was written in the 
 Lincolnshire dialect. In a passage to which Sir F. Madden 
 has drawn attention, he uses expressions which show clearly 
 (i) that he was well acquainted with Havelok, and (2) 
 that it was no work of his own, as might perhaps for 
 a moment be imagined. But that he knew it tolerably 
 well can be verified by internal evidence, which also shows 
 that Robert of Brunne's Handlyng Synne was written 
 offer Havelok; which is precisely in accordance with other 
 evidence. I think the following is a clear example of 
 plagiarism : 
 
 'Al J>at he )>er-fore tok 
 With-held he nouth a ferpinges nok.' 
 
 Havelok, 1. 819. 
 ' Plenerly, alle )>at he toke 
 
 Wy])helde he nat a ferjjynge noke.' 
 Robert of Brunne, Handlyng Synne, 5811, in Morris' Specimens. 
 
 This case is so clear that other instances are hardly 
 needed, though I think it very likely that a fair number 
 of such imitations could be found : and it is very interesting 
 to know where to look for the original of some of Robert's
 
 B YD AND. 53 
 
 expressions. The word to swill, to wash dishes, is very 
 rare, both in Anglo-Saxon and Early English. Here is one 
 example of it : 
 
 ' Ful wel kan ich dishes sivilen.' 
 
 Have/ok, 919- 
 And here is another : 
 
 ' Pottes and dyss/ifs for to swele.'' 
 
 Handlyng Synne, 5828 i'Morris\ 
 
 One of the most curious stories about Havelok is, that 
 a flame was often seen to proceed out of his mouth as 
 he slept. Compare 
 
 ' Out of hys moufi me Jjoghte brak 
 A flamme of fyre bryght and clere.' 
 
 Handlyng Synne, 5922 (Morris). 
 
 Now that I have pointed this out, I dare say some of 
 your readers can multiply instances of similar plagiarism. 
 Observe, too, that the metre of the Handlyng Synne is 
 precisely the same as that of Havelok, although on other 
 occasions Robert wrote in long lines, averaging fourteen 
 syllables. 
 
 66. Bydand (4 S. iii. 494 ; 1869). 
 
 There is no difficulty in this word : why Halliwell did 
 not explain it, I cannot guess. It simply means abiding, 
 \. e. never budging an inch. When Fitz-James said to 
 Roderick Dhu 
 
 ' Come one, come all ! this rock shall fly 
 From its firm base as soon as I,' 
 
 he approved himself to be bydand. Cf. Halliwell's quota- 
 tion 
 
 ' And ye, Ser Gye, a thousande, 
 Bolde men and wele bydande,' 
 
 where ' wele bydande ' means well abiding, unflinching. 
 There is a passage in Langland's Piers the Plowman which 
 is very much to the point. Avarice is described as righting 
 on the side of Antichrist, and is represented as fighting
 
 54 AN ERROR IN FABYAN'S CHRONICLES. 
 
 without flinching as long as his bag of money holds out. 
 It runs thus : 
 
 '"Alias!" quod Conscience, and cryde tho, "wolde Crist of 
 
 his grace, 
 
 That Coveitise were Cristene ! that is so kene a fightere. 
 And boold and bidynge, while his bagge lasteth."' 
 Langland's Piers the Plowman, (B. xx. 139 , ed. Wright, p. 433. 
 
 Some MSS. read abydynge in this passage. Our word 
 staunch expresses the sense of it tolerably well. The 
 ending -and is northern. 
 
 [Cf. Biding in the New. Eng. DlcfJ] 
 
 67. An error in Fabyan's Chronicles (4 S. iv. 152 ; 
 1869). 
 
 There is a singular error in the dates of the reign of 
 Edward III in Fabyarfs Chronicles, which seems to have 
 escaped the notice of the editor, Sir H. Ellis, and is 
 of some importance. The year of our Lord is given 
 wrongly during nearly the whole of this reign, and this may 
 easily mislead a reader who trusts to this author. I am 
 referring to the edition of 1811, wherein the reader, by 
 turning to p. 441, will find the entry, 'Anno Domini. 
 MCCCXXX-I ; Anno v/ meaning that the fifth year of Edward's 
 reign began in the last-mentioned date, viz. 1331 (Jan. 25). 
 But on the next page we have the following entry : ' Anno 
 Domini M.CCCXXXI Anno Domini M.CCCXXXII ; Anno 
 vii,' which is as much as to say that the next year to the 
 fifth year was the seventh. The sixth year, in fact, is 
 simply lost sight of, and the error is continued down to the 
 very end of the reign. One consequence is that the years 
 are wrongly calculated down to the end of the reign ; 
 another is, that Edward's reign is made a year longer than 
 it was. He died in the fifty-first year of his reign, having 
 reigned fifty years and about five months ; but at p. 487 of 
 Fabyan we have the entry, ' Anno Hi.' The regnal years 
 and mayors' years are difficult to arrange, because the)-
 
 AN ERROR IN FAB VAN'S CHRONICLES. 55 
 
 began at different times. Fabyan begins the reign by- 
 passing over the mayoralty of Chickvvell, and calls Betayne 
 the first mayor ; whereas he was not elected till October, 
 1327, when Edward had reigned about nine months. 
 
 This explains the expression on p. 439 ' In the ende 
 of y e firste yere of this kynge Edwarde, & begynnynge of 
 this mayres yere'; where 'this mayre' is Fabyan's first, the 
 above-named Betayne. But, if he begins to reckon thus, 
 he should have continued it. By the same reckoning the 
 fourth mayor would be elected in the end of the fourtli 
 year of the king; yet on p. 441 we read 'In this .iiii. 
 mayres yere, & ende of y e thyrde yere of thys kynge.' 
 where for thyrde we must certainly read fourth. In the 
 same way, the battle of Cressy is said to have taken place 
 in the twenty -first year of Edward's reign, but it was fought 
 during the twentieth (1346). And so on throughout. 
 
 By way of further example, let me explain the entry 
 on p. 480. We there find 'Anno Domini. M.CCCLXVIII. 
 John Chychester Anno Domini. M.CCCLXIX. Anno XLIIII.' 
 This refers, not to the 44th, but to the 43rd year, from 
 Jan. 1369 to Jan. 1370, towards the close of which 
 viz. in October 1369 Chichester was elected as mayor. 
 Hence the entry, under this year, of the death of Queen 
 Philippa (Aug. 15, 1369). It follows that Chichester was 
 still mayor in April 1370, as is proved also by a notice 
 of him as mayor in that very month and year in Riley's 
 Memorials of London, p. 344. Hence follows the complete 
 solution of the date of Piers the Plowman. When Lang- 
 land mentions 1370 as Chichester's year, he is right enough. 
 I have said, at p. xxxii of the preface to text A of the poem, 
 that ' our author seems to be a year wrong.' But I am 
 glad to find that the error lies, not with Langland, but with 
 Fabyan ; and the date of the second version of the poem is 
 irrefragably proved to be later than 1370. Other indications 
 point to the year 1377 as the date thereof.
 
 56 ENNUI. 
 
 68. Ennui (4 S. iv. 223; 1869). 
 
 I cannot allow that English is unequal to translate this 
 word. Our language, which possesses the fulness of several 
 languages rolled into one, is equal to every emergency ; 
 and the more so, if we are allowed to fall back upon words 
 that are obsolescent or provincial. It is from the dulness 
 of translators that the frequent miserable wailing over the 
 inadequacy of English arises. Ennui is not so expressive 
 as dumps. It means, I suppose, to quote Roget's Thesaurus, 
 ' melancholiness, the dismals, mumps, dumps, blue devils, 
 vapours, megrims, spleen ' ; also weariness, tedium, lassitude, 
 and in fact, boredom. Mr. Besant, in his pleasant and 
 scholarly book on Early French Poetry, in speaking of the 
 English poems of Charles of Orleans, says: 'What is 
 newous thought ? The French explains it : it is pensee 
 ennuyeuse. I believe this is the only attempt to adopt this 
 word in English, though we want it badly.' 
 
 I am certainly a little surprised at this remark, for we 
 actually possess the word annoyance from the same root ; 
 and so far from newous or noyous being an uncommon 
 word, and only used by Charles, it is a word that is suffi- 
 ciently familiar to readers of our older literature. Chaucer 
 has anoyful, disagreeable ; anoyous, with the same meaning ; 
 anoyaunce, grievance ; noyous, troublesome ; whilst Lang- 
 land not only uses the verb noyen, to plague, but actually 
 has the very word anoy or noy, used as a substantive, which 
 is exactly equivalent to ennui in form, and very nearly so in 
 meaning. Even Spenser has the word, and uses it so as to 
 bring out with much clearness the meaning which we now 
 attach to it (F. Q. i. 6. 17): 
 
 ' For griefe whereof the lad n'ould after joy, 
 But pynd away in anguish and selfewild annoy.'' 
 
 What better epithet for it than selfwilled'*
 
 CHAUCER PARALLELS. 57 
 
 And again, Spenser say (F. Q. ii. 9. 35) : 
 
 But other some could not abide to toy, 
 All plesaunce was to them griefe and annoy.' 
 
 This is just what happens to those who suffer from 
 ennui \ they cannot 'abide to toy.' If, then, neither 
 mumps, nor dumps, nor boredom be considered sufficiently 
 near to ennui to represent the true force of it, there can be 
 no objection to reviving the English form of the word, viz. 
 annoy. As for the amazing number of English words 
 which can be used to translate a single French one, is 
 there not Cotgrave's Dictionary! 
 
 69. Chaucer Parallels : ' The Knightes Tale ' and 
 Troilus and Cressida ' (4 S. iv. 292 ; 1869). 
 
 Since, in both these works, Chaucer was to some measure 
 indebted to the same poet, Boccaccio, it is not unreasonable 
 to suppose that they were composed ' nearly at the same 
 time. The following parallels seem to point to the same 
 result. I believe their number might be increased. The 
 references are to the Aldine edition [and to my own] : 
 
 1. ' And forth he iyt : ther [n]is no more to telle.' 
 
 K. T. 116 (A. 974). 
 ' And forth she rit, ful scrwfullv, a pas.' 
 
 Tr. v. 60. 
 
 2. ' Thurgh girt ivith many a grevous blody zvoutide.' 
 
 K. T. 152 (A. 1010;. 
 ' Thoru'gh gyrt uith many wyde and blody ivonnde.' 
 
 Tr. iv. 599 (627). 
 
 3. ' That never, for to dryen in the payncS 
 
 K. T. 275 ,A. 1133). 
 ' That certein. for to deyen in the peyne.' 
 
 Tr. i. 674. 
 
 4. ' And lou.-dc he song aycns the sonne scheene.' 
 
 K. T. 651 (A. i 5 o 9 V 
 'Ful loivdc song a win the moone s/icne.' 1 Tr. ii. 920. 
 
 1 [This refers, of course, to the first draught of the Knightes Tale, 
 called Palamon and Arcite.]
 
 58 SERFS. 
 
 5. ' He may go fypen in an ivy lerf.'K. T. 980 'A. 1838 . 
 Pipe in a* ivy leefc V that the leste/ TV. v. 1433. 
 
 6. 'As soth K W. edde hath grtt arvanu. 
 
 Af MTT /** edde ml nmm, but JM* mt-ntk." 
 
 K. T. 1589 (A. 24- 
 
 4 Your sine is wis. and sevdt ts oat of drede, 
 Mem imrr the wise ai-mtttt. and nought ai-rtdt? 
 
 Tr. iv. 1427 1456 . 
 
 To MMJIT* nerte of nfcessite,' A". 7". 2184 A. 3:.. 
 'Thus ntakcth vert* of nfcessite.' Tr. iv. 1558 (1586 . 
 And in Sq. To. iL 247 F. 593 . 
 
 7O. Serfs (4 S. iv. 302 ; 1869). 
 
 There is DO reason why serfs may not mean stags without 
 any alteration to cerfs. I suppose it to be a parallel case to 
 a passage in the French prose romance of Alexander N - 
 tu pas ven par plusieurs fois que ung [lyon] meit a la fbite 
 ^rant quantite de serfs ? ' 
 
 To this passage the French editor appends a note 
 
 On reconnait la. les idees provenant de la sup>eriorite si marquee 
 de la cbeTaknie. an moyen age, sor les serfs et sur les vilaius.* 
 
 This is a delicious blunder, when it is remembered that the 
 parallel passage in the Latin version is 'an nescis quod 
 unus leo multos cervos in fugam vertit?' and the Greek 
 version has eAcu^ovs. See the passages quoted at length in 
 my edition of William of Palerne (E. E. T. S.), p. 240. 
 
 7L ' Bue with a difference ' in * Hamlet ' 
 (48. iv. 559; 1869). 
 
 In explaining Shakespeare's phrases, I think that many 
 commentators refine too much. If he indeed ' had in his 
 mind " all the intricate allusions he is said to have had, his 
 mind must have been even greater than most of us grant 
 it to have been. In Ophelia's speech ' there 's rue for 
 you ; and here ? s some for me : we may call it herb-grace on 
 .Sundays ; O, you must wear your rue with a difference '-
 
 ' JERESG1VE ' A MISTAKE FOR ' YERESGIUE.' 59 
 
 there is no difficulty if we do not force the words 'with 
 a difference ' into some ' heraldic ' phrase. It merely means 
 this : ' I offer you rue, which has two meanings ; it is some- 
 times called herb of grace, and in that sense I take some for 
 myself; but, with a difference of meaning, it means ri/t/i. 
 and in that respect will do for you.' This explanation is not 
 mine; it is Shakespeare's own. 
 
 ' Here did she fall a tear ; here, in this place, 
 I'll set a bank of rue, sour herb of grace \ 
 Rue, even for rttf/i, here shortly shall be seen. 
 In the iniifnihraticr of a n'ff/>iiiif t/inrn.' 
 
 Richard 77, Act iii. Sc. 4. 
 
 [The fact is, there is a play upon words. There are two 
 distinct words, both spelt rue. Rue, the herb, is from O.F. 
 rue, which Cotgrave explains by ' rue, herb grace ' ; and this 
 is from Lat. ruta. But rue, the verb, is English ; A. S. 
 
 Some wrongly explain the word crants by garlands, 
 whereas it is a garland, in the singular number. Long notes 
 have been written about it, but no one seems to have 
 noticed that Shakespeare not only understood the word, but 
 knew it to be singular. Otherwise he would hardly have 
 used the name of Rosenkrantz as that of one of his 
 characters. What need of search for explaining a word 
 which is under one's nose all the while ? Surely Rosenkrant: 
 is a rose-garland. 
 
 72. ' Jeresgive,' a mistake for ' Yeresgiuo ' 
 
 (48. v. 74; 1870). 
 
 I am much obliged to MR. T. for his quotation ; the 
 explanation is not difficult. It is the old English yresyue, 
 which may be represented by yeresyiue or yeresgiue, but not 
 byjeresgiue, as the letter 3 may be denoted byj or g, but 
 not by j (except in German). It is a yeaSs-gift, i. e. an 
 annual donation, or new-year's gift ; or, in common parlance,
 
 60 THE SUN : ITS GENDER. 
 
 a Christmas-box. The first part of the word is the genitive 
 case of year ; the latter partis the A.S. gifn, G. gabe, a gift. 
 It occurs in Piers the Plowman, iii. 99 (ed. Skeat, Clarendon 
 Press Series, p. 27) : 
 
 ' Ignis devorabit tabernacula eorum qui libenter accipiunt mu- 
 nera, &c. 
 
 ' Amonge this lettered ledes this latyn is to mene, 
 That fyre shal falle, and brenne al to bio askes 
 The houses and the homes of hem that desireth 
 Yiftes or yeresyyues bi cause of here offices.' 
 
 That is to say, Langland explains the text (Job xv. 34) by 
 the phrase : 
 
 ' Among these learned people this Latin signifies, that fire shall 
 fall, and burn all to blue ashes the houses and homes of them that 
 desire gifts or ycresyiues by reason of their offices.' 
 
 The word is duly explained in my Glossary. 
 
 73. The Sun : its Gender (4 S. v. 75 ; 1870). 
 
 The statement of E. H. A. that he has never seen the sun 
 used of the feminine gender, except in the works of Mede, 
 is exceedingly amusing. The difficulty would rather be to 
 find any instance of its being masculine in any English 
 writer from the time of the author of Beowulf to nearly the 
 end of the fourteenth century. I at once give a couple of 
 examples, viz. : ' the sonne gaf hire litht ' (the sun gave her 
 light), Layamon's Brut, ed. Madden, 1. 7239; and 'the 
 sonne gan louke her lighte in her-self (the sun locked up 
 her light within herself, or was eclipsed), Piers the Plow- 
 man, ed. Skeat, B. xviii. 243. My ' B-text ' of Langland's 
 Piers the Plowman, containing the latter quotation, is now 
 being published. 
 
 In our early writers the sun is feminine, and the moon 
 masculine. The question is rather, what are the earliest 
 instances of the contrary ? According to Dr. Bosworth's 
 edition, we find the moon masculine in the Old English
 
 THE SANGREAL, OR HOLY GRAIL. 6 1 
 
 version of St. Matt. xxiv. 29, which he dates at about A. n. 
 995, but feminine in Wycliffe's version, A. D. 1389. 
 
 74. The Sangreal, or Holy Grail (4 S. v. 251 ; i8yo\ 
 
 That Sangreal should be a corruption of sang real is such 
 a very obvious derivation, that it will possibly always find 
 acceptance ; although it is always safe to regard popular 
 etymologies with suspicion, and the more so if they were 
 constructed in medieval times. As in all other cases, we 
 must have some regard to chronology ; and I believe it will 
 be found that the word graal existed long before the idea of 
 prefixing the epithet san was at all common, and conse- 
 quently long before the corrupt etymology sang real was 
 thought of. The history of the word is given at pp. 102, 
 378 of torn. i er of Les Romans de la table ronde, by 
 M. Paulin Paris (see also the word gradale in Ducange). 
 The many difficulties about the word are there carefully 
 discussed. See also the edition of The History of the Holy 
 Graal, edited by Mr. Furnivall for the Roxburghe Club, at 
 the end of the first volume of which the original early French 
 version of the romance was reprinted. At 1. 2653 of this 
 romance the question is asked by some sinful men, 'and 
 what is the name of the vessel ? ' The answer being 
 
 ' Qui a droit le vourra nummer, 
 Par droit Graal 1'apelera ' ; 
 
 where the prefex san or saint is not used. 
 
 The most ancient notice of the word is certainly to be 
 found in Helinandus, who was a Cistercian monk in the 
 abbey of Froidmond, in the diocese of Beauvais, and 
 died either in 1219 or 1223. His works are printed in 
 vol. ccxii. of Migne's Cursus Patrologice. The passage is 
 a curious one, and worthy of a corner in N. and Q. 
 
 'Anno 717. Hoc tempore, cuidam eremitae monstrata est 
 mirabilis quaedam visio per angelum, de Sancto Josepho, decurione 
 nobili, qui corpus Domini deposuit de cruce ; et de catino illo vel
 
 62 'CRY BO TO A GOOSE.' 
 
 paropside in quo Dominus ccenavit cum discipulis suis ; de qua ab 
 eodem eremita descripta est historia quae dicit[ur] Gradal. Gmdalis 
 autem vel gradale dicitur gallice scutella lata et aliquantulum pro- 
 tunda in qua preciosse dapes cum suo jure \_gravy~\ divitibus solent 
 apponi, et dicitur nomine graal,' &c. 
 
 The word Gradale sometimes means a service-book con- 
 taining the responses, &c., sung before the steps (gradus] of 
 the altar ; but in the sense of an open platter, it is said to be 
 allied to cratella, the diminutive of crater, and four whole 
 pages are devoted to a consideration of it in Roquefort's 
 Glossaire de la Langue romane. 
 
 I have no space to plunge into a long explanation of the 
 shape of the vessel, or to decide whether it ought to be 
 called a cup or a dish it is safest to call it a vessel. Spenser 
 calls it holy grayle (F. Q., b. ii. c. x. st. liii). 
 
 As for the combination sang real, it is used in Old English 
 as well as in French, but much more commonly in the 
 sense of royal than of true blood. I give two examples : 
 
 ' Alle with taghte men and towne in togers sulle [? fulle] ryche, 
 Of saunke realle in suyte, sexty at ones.' 
 
 Morte Arthure (ed. Perry), 1. 178. 
 ' He came of the sank royall, 
 That was cast out of a bochers stall.' 
 
 Skelton, Why Come ye not to Court, 1. 490. 
 
 Considerations as to space render this a very imperfect 
 notice of the word. 
 
 75. ' Cry Bo to a Goose ' (4 S. vi. 221 ; 1870). 
 I doubt the coincidence of this phrase with that of saying 
 ' Bee to a battledore.' This latter expression means rather 
 to be possessed of elementary knowledge, to have learnt the 
 rudiments. A hornbook, which was originally a flat board 
 with a handle, with a piece of horn in front, was shaped 
 something like a battledore, and was at times so named. 
 (See the cut of one in Chambers's Book of Days, i. 47.) 
 To be able to say B when B was pointed to in the hornbook, 
 was called 'to say B to a battledore,' or sometimes 'to
 
 THE SIEGE OF METZ. 63 
 
 know B from a battledore,' the words to and from in these 
 phrases being nearly equal to at the sight of, or as exhibited 
 upon. The phrase means, proverbially, to be possessed of 
 a knowledge of the alphabet, &c., as already said. 
 
 76. The Siege of Metz (4 S. vi. 296 ; 1870). 
 
 It is perhaps not generally known that Metz was once 
 besieged by King Arthur. It was defended by the Duke of 
 Lorraine ; some of whose men complained that he had 
 defrauded them of their pay, and urged him to treat for 
 peace. The Duke refused, and charged Arthur's knights 
 upon a dromedary. Arthur's knights assaulted the city, 
 throwing down stone steeples and most of the inns. At 
 last the city surrendered, and Arthur (to quote Mr. Perry's 
 words) ' provides for the government of Lorraine, which he 
 had conquered.' See the long account in Morte Arthure 
 (ed. Perry, 1865, for the Early English Text Society), pp. 
 71-91. The whole passage is very curious. 
 
 77. Peas or Pease ? (4 S. vi. 139 ; 1870). 
 
 The explanation of this word ought to be well known. 
 It is not a plural at all, but a singular noun, the plural of 
 which ought to be peasen, sometimes misspelt peason, as in 
 Nares. It is the A.S. pisa, Lat. pisum; cf. Ital. pisello. 
 In Mid. English it isflesein the singular, pesen in the plural, 
 as a few extracts will show. 
 
 ' Pese , frute of corne. Pisa. 1 Prompt. Parvulorum, ed. Way. 
 
 P- 395- 
 
 ' The vaunting poets found nought worth a pease.' 
 
 Spenser, Shep. Cat., Oct. 69. 
 ' He poureth pesen upon the hacches slidre.' 
 
 Chaucer, Leg. G. IV., Cleop. 69. 
 
 See also the numerous examples in Nares, s. v. Peason. 
 
 In Langland's Vision of Piers the Plowman, edited by 
 me, in the Clarendon Press Series, the word is fully
 
 64 CHATTERTON'S KNOWLEDGE OF ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 explained in the Glossary. Langland's scribe uses pees in 
 the singular, and both pesen and peses in the plural. The 
 French pois and Welsh pys also show clearly that the final 
 s is not inflexional. In composition we find the words 
 peascod, pease-porridge, where peas or pease is still the singular 
 noun ; cf. the Mid. Eng. pese-codde used by Langland. Thus 
 the e \npease is merely a relic of the old spelling pese ; but 
 when, in process of time, this final e was dropped, the word 
 peas came to be regarded as a plural, and the singular word 
 pea was invented by some one ' with a turn for grammar ' ' ; 
 just as the words alms and riches, once singular nouns, are 
 beginning to be used as plurals, and only await the touch of 
 genius to develop the singulars aim and rich. 
 
 78. Chatterton's knowledge of Anglo-Saxon 
 
 (4 S. vii. 278 ; 1871). 
 
 In the paper written by Rowley on the ' Rise of Paint- 
 ing in England in 1469,' and communicated by Chatterton 
 to Walpole, are several Anglo-Saxon words. Most of 
 these are used wrongly ; but if we rightly explain them, 
 and tabulate them in alphabetical order, they are as 
 follows : 
 
 Aad, a heap. 
 
 Adronct, drowned. 
 
 Adrifene (fatu "', embossed (vessels\ 
 
 ^Ecccd-fcet, an acid-vat, vessel for vinegar. 
 
 AZsc, a ship ; lit. an ash. 
 
 jESellice, nobly. 
 
 Afcegrod, coloured, adorned. 
 
 Afgod, an idol. 
 
 Agrafen, engraven. 
 
 Ahrered, reared up. 
 
 It thus appears that Rowley was possessed of an Anglo-Saxon 
 dictionary (the earliest was printed in 1659", an d he only 
 
 1 Beau Brummel said that he 'once ate a pea,' a saying which has 
 often been quoted for its imagined brilliancy.
 
 'BY HOOK OR BY CROOK.' 65 
 
 succeeded in acquiring some knowledge of the language as 
 far as AH. Chatterton's letter on ' Saxon Achievements,' 
 printed in Southey's edition, vol. iii. p. 89, exhibits precisely 
 the same singular result. He there explains the words 
 Aadod, Afgod, Afgodod, Afraten, Amezz, with the addition 
 of Thunder-flcegod. The last of these he explains by ' thun- 
 der-blasted,' but he has mistaken /for s. The word which 
 suggested this notion to him is Thunder-sltzge, a clap of 
 thunder. The exception in Rowley's letter is Heofnas, 
 which he uses for the colour azure. This is how he came 
 by it; he looked into Bailey, and found ' Azure, blue (in 
 heraldry),' &c., and again 'Azure, the sky or firmament.' 
 This suggested the idea of Jieaven. 
 
 He then found that Bailey gives heafian as the derivation 
 of the word. This led him to look into an Anglo-Saxon 
 dictionary, and he accordingly found heofon, pi. heofenas, 
 and he adopted the plural as quainter-looking. Afraten is 
 either miscopied from i Afsetan, to appoint, design, 'or simply 
 made up from the heraldic word fret. Amezz is miscopied 
 from ' Amett, decked, adorned.' It thus appears that 
 Chatterton knew no more Anglo-Saxon than he might have 
 picked up in an hour from a glossary, and was unable to 
 distinguish between s and f, and probably misread other 
 letters also. 
 
 [PS. Chatterton is known to have used Benson's Anglo- 
 Saxon Vocabulary, printed in 1701. It is a miserable com- 
 pilation, made from Somner's Dictionary.] 
 
 79. 'By Hook or by Crook ' (4 S. viii. 133 ; 1871). 
 This proverb is at least a century older than Skelton's 
 time. It occurs in the works of Wyclif. See Mr. Arnold's 
 new edition of Wyclifs English Works, iii. 331. On the 
 very next page is the proverb about ' turning the cat in the 
 pan,' which Bacon has also in his Essays : see Essay xxii, 
 ' On Cunning.' 
 
 F
 
 66 CHAUCER'S 'MAN OF LA WES TALE.' 
 
 80. Chaucer's * Man of Lawes Tale ' (4 S. viii. 201 ; 
 1871). 
 
 It may be interesting to note that the events narrated in 
 the Man of Lames Tale, and in Gower's Confessio Amantis, 
 lib. ii. (where the same story occurs), may be connected 
 more or less with the date A. D. 580 or thereabouts. Gower 
 gives the name of the Emperor of Rome as Tiberius Con- 
 stantinus. A Latin note in the MSS. of Gower refers to 
 Pelagius as pope. The son of Constance is Maurice, after- 
 wards emperor. Constance marries ^Klla, king of Northum- 
 bria. The name of the constable's wife, Hermegyld, may 
 have been suggested by the so-called martyrdom of the 
 Visi-Gothic prince St. Hermenegild *. The following are 
 the dates : 
 
 Tiberius II, emperor (not of Rome, but of the East), 
 A. D. 578. 
 
 Succeeded by Maurice of Cappadocia, A. D. 582. 
 
 Pelagius II, pope, A. D. 578-590. 
 
 ^Ella of Northumbria, A. D. 560-588. 
 
 Martyrdom of St. Hermenegild, A.D. 584, or 586. 
 
 Thus the story has a certain consistency, but is open to 
 the objection that Tiberius, reigning only four years, could 
 hardly have been succeeded in 582 by his own grandson, 
 born (according to Chaucer) later than 578. 
 
 81. English Prepositions (4 S. viii. 241 ; 1871). 
 I observe that in some remarks upon the word partake 
 (the accuracy of which, by the way, I do not admit) your 
 correspondent C. A. W. says : 
 
 ' I wish there was a good treatise upon English prepositions, their 
 individual significance, their significance in composition, and their 
 power of modifying meaning when used in connection with verbs.' 
 
 Permit me to refer him to Matzner's Englische Grammatik, 
 
 1 [So spelt in Alban Butler's Lives of the Saints, under April 13. 
 Better Hermengild.~\
 
 PORTRESS. 67 
 
 wherein, to take but one example, the word of is discussed 
 at the length of forty pages of close type, with quotations 
 (to the number of several hundreds) from English writers 
 of every date, from Layamon to Dickens. (See part ii. 
 p. 222.) English prepositions are also treated of in 
 Koch's Gramm. der engl. Sprache, in Diefenbach's Gothic 
 Glossary, in March's Anglo-Saxon Grammar, &c. ; but 
 the grammars by Matzner and Koch give the most copious 
 examples from English authors. There is plenty of infor- 
 mation to be obtained by those who will seek for it, and 
 who will remember that philology has made some advances 
 since the days of Dr. Johnson. 
 
 82. Portress (4 S. viii. 271 ; 1871). 
 
 I do not think this is a very rare word. A much earlier 
 example than the one in Milton is the following: 
 
 ' And fayre Observaunce, the goodly /w/nv>, 
 
 Did us receyve with solempne gladnes.' 
 Stephen Hawes, Pastime of Pleasure, cap. xxxiii. st. 26. 
 
 83. Amperzand (4 S. viii. 468; 1871). 
 
 [In reply to the guess that it was originally and-pussy-and, 
 and that its shape (&) suggests a cat sitting up, and raising 
 one fore-paw !] 
 
 This word has been explained long ago. It is merely 
 a corruption of And-per-se-and, which means that the 
 character <\r, standing by itself (Lat. per se], spells 'and.' 
 The old lady who pronounced it ' and-pussy-and ' came 
 much nearer to the old pronunciation than the modern 
 spelling does. It does not follow that it is therefore 
 derived from a pussy-cat. As for the shape of it, I have 
 nowhere seen an explanation. Yet it is not far to seek ; it 
 is merely a rough and ready way of writing the Latin word 
 et. How this is so I cannot here show without a diagram ; 
 but any one may see it repeatedly occurring in the Rush- 
 
 F 2
 
 68 ' BLAKEBERYED ' IN CHAUCER. 
 
 worth MS. at Oxford, or in any tolerably Old Latin MS. 
 The shape of the character has, in fact, no more to do with 
 a cat than the etymology has. Why should the English 
 language be selected as the ' corpus vile ' on which to make 
 such unmeaning experiments ? Any one who should derive 
 the Latin vicus, a street, from via, a way, and causa, a cause, 
 whence a cause-way, a street, would not get a hearing. But 
 in English etymology (so low is the general level of English 
 scholarship), grotesqueness seems to be especially aimed at. 
 The phrase per se is not confined to this character only. 
 The letter A was often called the A-per-se because it can 
 constitute a whole word when standing alone. From its 
 position at the head of the alphabet, the A-per-se became 
 a proverbial symbol of excellence. It was said of Melu- 
 
 gifjp 
 
 ' She was a woman A-per-sc, alone.' 
 
 Romans of Partenay, ed. Skeat, 1. 1148. 
 
 In Old English MSS., any letter which constituted a word 
 in itself, as A, I, O, and even E (Old English for eye), was 
 frequently written with a point before and after it ; to isolate 
 it, as it were. Examples may be seen in the Vernon MS. at 
 Oxford. 
 
 As another example of guessing etymology I may refer to 
 prise, a word which also received attention in the last 
 number of N. and Q., and was said to be short for 
 upraise (!). It is merely the French prise y which denoted 
 an advantageous way of seizing a thing, as explained by 
 Cotgrave two centuries and a half ago ; from which we 
 have developed a word prise, to seize with advantage, 
 to force by leverage. The root is the Latin prehendere. 
 
 84. ' Blakeberyed ' in Chaucer (4 S. x. 222 ; 1872). 
 
 This word presents a difficulty, as is well known ; and 
 occurs once only, viz., in the lines where the Pardoner says, 
 in his prologue or preamble :
 
 ' BLAKEBER YED ' IN CHAUCER. 69 
 
 ' I rekke neuere, whan that they been beryed, 
 Though that hir soules goon a blakeberyed.' 
 
 Six- Text Edition, ed. Furnivall, C. 405, p. 316. 
 
 The obvious meaning is ' I care not a whit, after people 
 are buried, what becomes of their souls.' The only question 
 is, as to the literal meaning. We know, first of all, that 
 when Chaucer uses identical sounds in place of a rime, he 
 invariably takes care that the words denoted by those 
 sounds shall differ in meaning. Thus seke (to seek), in the 
 seventeenth line of his Prologue, rimes with seke (sick) in 
 the line following, because the word seke is used with 
 different meanings. Hence we know, at the outset, that 
 the word blakeberyed has nothing to do with burying; and 
 the suggested explanation ' buried in black ' (which gives no 
 good sense after all) falls through. When we consider 
 further that blakebery means simply a blackberry, we are 
 driven to suppose that goo?i a blakeberyed means ' go 
 a black-berrying,' which is simply a phrase for 'go where 
 they list'; just like to 'go a wool-gathering,' or to 'go 
 pipen in an ivy leef ' (Knightes Tale, 1. 980). 
 
 The only difficulty is in the construction; we have to 
 find instances in which 'go' is used with words ending in 
 -ed ; and it is because I have met with this construction 
 that I write the present note. For, if no examples could 
 be furnished, the explanation would remain a mere guess, 
 and valueless, as such guesses generally are ; but now that 
 other examples have been found, the guess becomes, I 
 venture to think, a certainty. The instances are these : 
 
 i. ' Hye treuthe wolde 
 
 That no faiterye were founde : in folk that gon abegged.' 
 
 Piers the Plowman (C-text, pass. ix. 136) ; 
 see Whitaker's edition, p. 135. 
 
 Here three MSS. read a-begged or abegged ; one has 
 a-begg}'d, another abeggeth, and a sixth and beggen. No one 
 can doubt that gon abegged has here the meaning of
 
 70 DR. JOHNSON'S DEFINITION OF 'OATS.' 
 
 2. 'In somere for his slewthe : he shal haue defaute, 
 
 Arid gon abrybeth and beggen : and no man bete his hunger. 
 Piers the Plowman (C-text, pass. ix. 244) ; 
 see Whitaker's edition, p. 141. 
 
 Here two MSS. have gon abrybeth, .but two others have 
 gon abribed or abribid ; one has gon abribeth and abeggeth, 
 whilst another has gon abribid and a-begged. So that we 
 have here not only fresh evidence of gon abegged for to go 
 a-begging, but are introduced to the phrase gon abribed for 
 to go a-bribing i. e. to go a-robbing, since bribe in Mid. 
 English means to rob. No doubt fresh instances of this 
 peculiar construction will be found. I think, too, it can be 
 explained; but the explanation is long, and of less conse- 
 quence than the /act of its occurrence. 
 
 [The suffix -ed, -eth, represents A. S. -ad, -off, in hunt-ad.\ 
 
 85. Dr. Johnson's Definition of ' Oats ' (4 S. x. 309 ; 
 
 1872). 
 
 Dr. Johnson's definition of Oats, as ' a grain which in 
 England is given to horses, but in Scotland supports the 
 people,' is well known. It is also reported that he declared 
 Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy to have been the only 
 book which ever took him out of bed two hours sooner 
 than he wished to rise. Putting these two things together, 
 it is interesting to observe that something very like the 
 famous definition of ' oats ' occurs in Burton. Here is the 
 passage : 
 
 'John Mayor, in the first book of his History of Scotland, contends 
 much for the wholesomeness of oaten bread. It was objected to 
 him, then living at Paris, in France, that his countrymen fed on oats 
 and base grain, as a disgrace. . . . And yet Wecker ^out of Galen) calls 
 it horsenteat, and fitter for juvnents [beasts of burden] than men to feed 
 on.' 1 Anatomy of Melancholy, Part I., sec. 2, mem. 2, sub-sec. I. 
 
 86. ' -mas ' (4 S. x. 397 ; 1872). 
 
 The ending -mas in Christmas, Lammas, Michaelmas. 
 Martinmas, &c., is the A. S. vicssse, Ger. and Dan. messe,
 
 MAS : LAMMAS. 71 
 
 Swed. and Icel. messa and the most probable account of it 
 is, that it is from Lat. missa. Grein explains A. S. masse 
 as the mass, or the festival on which high mass is said. 
 We find also A. S. m&sse-dag, a festival ; masse-afen, a vigil 
 before a festival ; nmsse-boc, a mass-book, &c. In the 
 rubrics to my A. S. edition of St. Mark's Gospel, we find 
 that the passage beginning at Mark vi. 17 is to be read on 
 ' sancte iohannes maessan,' i.e. on the festival of St. John 
 the Baptist; and the passage beginning at Mark viii. 27 is 
 to be read on ' sancte petres maesse-daege/' on the festival 
 of St. Peter. The occurrence of the single s in -mas is 
 really due to the loss of the final e in Old English. Thus 
 richesse has been cut down to riches, not richess, probably 
 on account of the accent being thrown back. Lammas is 
 certainly the A.S. hlaf-mcesse or loaf-mass, a festival of first- 
 fruits on the ist of August. 
 
 87. -mas: Lammas (4 S. x. 521 ; 1872). 
 
 After working for many years at English etymology, I am 
 well aware of the doubtfulness of many derivations that 
 have been proposed. But of the derivation of Lammas no 
 one who cares to look at the authorities can have the 
 slightest doubt ; it is merely the modernized spelling of the 
 A. S. klaf-masse, and its sense is Loaf-mass. The difficulty of 
 supposing that first-fruits should have been offered on the 
 ist of August vanishes on examination. A couple of loaves 
 made of new corn could as easily be made before the 
 general harvest as after it ; it would not be necessary that 
 they should be eatable loaves, and they may have been 
 made of any small quantity of new corn that could be 
 obtained, whether properly ripened or not. But, however 
 this may have been, the testimony of our old authors is most 
 express. Not only was the ist of August called hlaf-massan 
 dag, but the 7th was actually named ' Harvest,' irrespective 
 of the fact that the real harvest must frequently have been
 
 72 -MAS : LAMMAS. 
 
 much later 1 . This we know on the best possible authority, 
 viz. the so-called Menologium, or Metrical Calendar of the 
 Months, wherein we read that 'bringeth Agustus yrmen- 
 theodum hlaf-maessan dseg ; Swa thaes haerfest cymth ymb 
 other swylc, butan anre wanan, wlitig waestmum hladen ; 
 wela byth geyped faegere on foldan,' i.e. 'August brings to 
 all men the loaf-mass day ; so afterwards, harvest comes 
 about another such space (of seven days) later, wanting one 
 day ; fair (harvest), laden with fruits ; abundance is fairly 
 manifested upon the earth.' In the next sentence, by way 
 of making sure that Lammas-day is thefirsf, and ' Harvest' 
 the seventh of the month, we are told that three days later 
 is Lawrence's day ; and this we know to be the tenth. See 
 Grein, Bibliothek der Angelsdchsischen Poesie, vol. ii. p. 4. 
 
 The word also occurs in Alfred's translation of Orosius, 
 where we are told that Octavianus defeated Antonius and 
 Cleopatra ' on thsere tide [Calendas] Agustus, and on tham 
 daege the we hatath hlafmassan* \ i.e. on the Calends of 
 August, on the day which we call loaf-mass ; where Calendas 
 is a reading taken from the older, or Lauderdale MS. This 
 battle, by the way, is not the sea-fight of Actium ; for that 
 is mentioned in the next sentence, and we know that it 
 occurred on the 2nd of September, B.C. 31. See Dr. Bos- 
 worth's edition of Orosius, p. 113. 
 
 But in the A. S. Chronicle, under the date A.D. 1009, we 
 get various spellings of the word in the MSS. Where two 
 of them have after laf-nuzssan, a third has cefter h/ammcessan, 
 which enables us to state confidently that the internal 
 change from fm to mm must have been made before the 
 
 1 [The precession of the equinoxes makes some difference. The 
 sun entered Aries on March 12 in Chaucer's time, but the vernal 
 equinox is now some eight days later. Four centuries earlier than 
 Chaucer, it was some six days earlier ; giving a difference of nearly 
 a fortnight between 993 and 1893. Harvest in the tenth century 
 may have been (nominally) two weeks earlier than now.]
 
 TYING A KNOT IN A HANDKERCHIEF. 73 
 
 time of Stephen, as this MS. ends with the year 1154, and 
 the events of Stephen's reign seem to have been written 
 down at the time. In later authors the word occurs more 
 than once ; see the quotations given for lammasse from 
 Robert of Gloucester and Robert of Brunne in Richardson's 
 Dictionary. The word occurs also in many later authors. 
 
 To show that harvest was expected to take place by 
 lemmas-time, I need but quote a well-known passage in 
 Piers the Plowman, B-text, vi. 291 : 
 
 ' And bi this lyflode we mot lyue til latnnias$e fvinr. 
 And. bi that, I hope to haue licntcst in my croft.' 
 
 It is thus clearly traced from early times through the 
 successive spellings hlafmtzsse, (h}lafni(Esse, hlammasse, 
 /ammasse, down to lammas. It were to be wished that all 
 our English words could be traced as easily. See the 
 article on Lammas in Chambers's Book of Days. The 
 suggestion that lammas is from Vinculamass is obviously 
 a guess, and nothing more. I have never seen the latter 
 expression in any Old English MS., and should be much 
 surprised to meet with it. I may add, that harvest was not 
 generally used in so restricted a sense as it is in the 
 Menologium. 
 
 88. Tying a knot in a handkerchief (4 S. xi. 53 ; 1873). 
 
 There is an early allusion to a similar practice in the 
 Ancren Riwle (ed. Morton, p. 396), written about A.D. 
 1230 : ' Mon knut his kurtel uorte habben J-ouht of one 
 )?inge ; auh ure louerd, uor he nolde neuer uorgiten us, he 
 dude merke of ]-urlunge ine bo two his honden ' : a man 
 ties a knot in his girdle, to remember a thing ; but our 
 Lord, in order never to forget us, made a mark of piercing 
 in both His hands. Kurtel is more correctly written gurdel 
 in the Cotton MS.
 
 74 SUPPRESSION OF S IN THE GENITIVE. 
 
 89. Suppression of s in the Genitive (4 S. xi. 79 ; 1873). 
 
 The tolerably common usage here referred to is explained 
 and exemplified in Morris's Historical Accidence, p. 102, 
 sect. 100 ; and in Abbott's Shakespearian Grammar, 3rd ed. 
 p. 356, sect. 471. A very common example of the suppres- 
 sion of s to avoid too much sibilation occurs in the phrase 
 ' for conscience sake,' sometimes written with an apostrophe 
 at the end of conscience, though the apostrophe is hardly 
 needed. We find ' for al Conscience caste,' i. e. ' for all 
 Conscience's contrivance,' in Piers the Plowman, B-text, 
 pass. iii. 1. 19. Observe also ' for goodness sake,' Psalm 
 xxv. 7; and 'righteousness sake,' Isaiah xlii. 21. 
 
 90. Galoches : a Term for Unattached Students 
 (48. xi. 112; 1873). 
 
 It would appear from Cotgrave's French Dictionary that 
 the idea of admitting unattached students to the universities 
 is not a new one. In former times they were termed 
 ' galoches ' or 'galloches' (the word being spelt with one or 
 two I's indifferently). The following are the quotations 
 explaining the words : 
 
 ' Galoche, f. : A woodden Shoe, or Patten, made all of a piece, 
 without any latchet, or tie of leather, and worne by the poor Clowne 
 in winter.' 
 
 ' Galloches, m. : Schollers in Universities, admitted of no Colledge. 
 but lying in the Towne, and being at liberty to resort unto what 
 (publike) readers or lectures they please : tearmed thus, because, in 
 passing in the streets, they commonly weare galloches.' 
 
 91. ' To hell a building' (4 S. xi. 392 ; 1873). 
 
 The verb hell is more often spelt hele in Old English, 
 being the A. S. helan, to cover, hide, cognate with the 
 Latin celare, and therefore related to the latter syllable in 
 conceal. It was once so common that we may expect to 
 find it in many parts of England still. Thus, Halliwell 
 gives hele as a Devonshire word, with the sense of to roof
 
 EXGLISH DIALECTS. 75 
 
 or slate, to earth up potatoes, cover anything up ; hellier, 
 a thatcher or tiler, he marks as West of England ; hiling. 
 a covering, occurs in the Chester Plays. He also cites hull, 
 a covering, shell, and huttings, husks, but without assigning 
 their locality. The verb hyllen, to cover, is in the Promp- 
 torium Paruulorum, which is Norfolk. With the spelling 
 /ie/e, it is used by John of Trevisa, a Cornishman. Hull, 
 a shell, is in Atkinson's Cleveland Glossary, which is York- 
 shire. The verb was used also by Barbour and Gawain 
 Douglas. It must have been once in common use in 
 almost every district from Cornwall to Scotland, and 
 probably survives locally in many counties. This can only 
 be ascertained by consulting all the various extant county 
 glossaries. 
 
 92. English Dialects ( S. xi. 385 ; 1873). 
 
 It certainly would be a good plan to make a new list of 
 books in the English dialects, as supplementary to that 
 published some years ago by Mr. Smith. Instead, however, 
 of sending occasional notes to N. and Q. about such works, 
 how much better it would be if some one would undertake 
 to receive all such notes, with a view to their publication in 
 N, and Q., when a considerable number of them, enough 
 to fill a page at least, has been accumulated ! If the editor 
 approves, this may easily be done J ; and failing any one 
 else, I am ready to undertake the work of receiving and 
 arranging the titles of the works in question. What is 
 wanted is that we should have the correct titles, the authors' 
 names (when known), the date and place of publication, &c. 
 A very brief description of the drift of each book would 
 be useful, but all wandering talk and irrelevant remarks 
 
 1 We highly approve of our valued correspondent's suggestion, 
 and gladly accept his kind offer. All communications, therefore, on 
 this subject should be addressed to the Rev. W. W. Skeat, Cintra 
 Terrace, Cambridge. Ed. A T . and Q.
 
 76 ENGLISH DIALECTS. 
 
 would, of course, be rigidly suppressed. The best way of 
 collecting titles is to adhere strictly to the indispensable rule, 
 that everything must be written lengthways on one side 
 only of half-a-shcet of note-paper of the ordinary size. 
 I subjoin a title as a specimen : 
 
 ' Laycock, Samuel. Lancashire Songs. London : Simpkin and 
 Marshall, 1866; pp. i-vi, 1-77. Contains 20 Songs, in various 
 metres, in a Lancashire dialect.' 
 
 If we can also, in the same way, accumulate a list of all 
 works in MS. upon this subject, it will be a great gain : as 
 also a list of workers who really understand the subject. 
 All this must be done before a complete provincial glossary 
 can be made. Some years ago, when this subject was 
 discussed, Mr. Ellis very properly insisted that some 
 uniform spelling, such as Glossic or Palaeotype, should be 
 employed ; but the result was, that the whole scheme fell 
 through. Palaeotype is not likely to be understood by 
 those who have made no special and careful study of it ; 
 and, if employed incorrectly, is worse than useless. The 
 only practical plan seems to be for each word-collector to 
 use his own method of recording sounds (for which he 
 should certainly employ Glossic, if he can, or most of the 
 Glossic symbols, or at least give an account of his own 
 system of spelling according to the pronunciation given by 
 Walker or Webster), and then the Glossic or Palaeotype 
 spelling can be inserted afterwards, between brackets, by 
 some one who understands it. The following rules ought 
 also to be strictly observed by word-collectors : 
 
 1. Avoid etymology ; leave it to those who have made it 
 a special study. Strive rather to record the words themselves, 
 with their meanings ; add also scraps of real (not invented) 
 talk, to illustrate the occasional uses of the words. 
 
 2. Put down everything that is not in standard English. 
 To miss a word current in Shropshire, because it is also used 
 in Herefordshire, is an utter mistake ; indeed, many good
 
 TENNYSON: 'ALL THE SIVINE WERE SOWS.' 77 
 
 lists have been ruined this way. Words can always be 
 struck out, but they are hard to put in. Accordingly, the 
 locality of every word should be noted, without stopping to 
 ascertain if it is peculiar to that locality. Other rules can 
 be supplied to those who apply for them. 
 
 [A second letter on the same subject appeared in 
 JV. and Q. 4 S. xi. 406, on May 17 of the same year. 
 
 These letters led to considerable results, tending to 
 establish the English Dialect Society, which was started in 
 1873, ar >d (in 1895) is still vigorous. 
 
 The first publication of the Society was ' A Bibliographical 
 List of the Works that have been published, or are known 
 to exist in MS., illustrative of the various dialects of Eng- 
 lish ; compiled by members of the E. D. S., and edited by 
 the Rev. W. W. Skeat and J. H. Nodal. London: Triibner, 
 1873-7.'] 
 
 93. Tennyson : ' All the swine were sows ' 
 (The Princess] (4 S. xi. 346 ; 1873). 
 
 It seems hard that Tennyson should be accused of an 
 error on the ground that ' swine is the plural of sow'' \ an 
 assertion of which no proof is offered. In English it is 
 certainly not the case ; the A.S. sunn was a collective neuter 
 noun, commonly used as a plural ; but it could also be used 
 as a singular. See the example in Bosworth's Dictionary, 
 in which sw'mes is used as the genitive singular, meaning of 
 a pig ; the gen. pi. was swlna, as in swlna heard, a herd of 
 swine. Another example of the singular is in Sivlnes-hafed, 
 now Swineshead, in Huntingdonshire ; whilst the adjective 
 sunnen, like the modern swinish, is derived from swine as 
 distinct from sow. In German, the sing, is Schwein, and the 
 pi. Schiveine ; cf. also the Dutch zzvijn, Icel. svin, &c. But 
 sow is the A. S. sugu, which is not even of the same gender 
 with swine, being a. feminine noun, like the G. Sau, and Icel. 
 sjr. The plural of sugu would be sitga ; in German the
 
 78 ' MUCH ' IN THE SENSE OF ' GREA T. ' 
 
 plural has two forms, Siiue and Sauen. I may here also 
 correct the singular error in a new grammar edited by 
 Dr. Smith, viz. that kine is contracted from coiven, for which 
 eccentric form no authority is cited. The A. S. 7, a cow, 
 made its plural in the form fj/, by vowel-change ; the Mid. 
 Eng. kin was formed from cy by adding the plural ending 
 -en, whence ky-en or km ; the final -e is a modern addition. 
 
 94. ' Much' in the sense of 'Great' (4 S. xi. 220 ; 1873). 
 Instances of much used in the sense of great are probably 
 common. Thus, every Shropshire man must know oiMuch 
 Wenlock, as distinguished from Little Wenlock. Three 
 examples of this use of the word in English poetry at once 
 occur to me : 
 
 (i). 'A muche mon, me thouhte, lyk to myselue.' 
 
 Piers the Plowman, A. ix. 61. 
 
 From which interesting allusion we gather that the author 
 of the poem was a big man, as regarded his stature. 
 
 (2). ; The uutckle devil blaw ye south.' 
 
 Burns Author's Earnest Cry. 
 (3). ' Rise, lass, and mak a clean fireside, 
 Put on the muckle pot.' 
 
 Mickle There's Nae Luck about the House. 
 
 Besides which, the common surname, Mitchell, simply 
 stands for mickle, i. e. a tall or big man ; cf. Lat. magnus, 
 &c. Observe that one quotation is from Mickle ! 
 
 95. 'Exceptio probat regulam' (4 S. xi. 197 ; 1873). 
 
 I wish to point out that the phrase 'Exceptio probat 
 regulam ' involves no mistake, and is a maxim of perfectly 
 sound sense. It means, 'The exception tests the rule,' 
 a maxim of the highest value in all scientific investigations. 
 The older English equivalent, ' The exception proves the 
 rule,' had once the same signification, the use of prove for 
 test being familiar to all readers of the Bible ; as, e. g., in the 
 wise advice of St. Paul that we should 'prove (i.e test) all
 
 ' EXCEPTIO PROBAT REGULAM.' 79 
 
 things,' so that we may know how 'to hold fast that which 
 is good.' Unhappily, the expression, ' The exception proves 
 the rule.' has become meaningless to all who forget that it 
 is an old, not a modern expression ; and perhaps no really 
 wise saying has ever been so frequently taken to mean utter 
 nonsense. Every one who reflects for an instant must see 
 that an exception does not prove, but rather tends to invali- 
 date, a rule. It tests it, and we hence obtain one of three 
 results : either (i) the exception can be perfectly explained, 
 in which case it ceases to be an exception, and the rule 
 becomes, in relation to it, absolute; or (2) the exception 
 resists all explanation, because the rule itself is wrong ; or 
 (3) the exception resists explanation, not because the rule 
 itself is wrong, but because the power to explain the excep- 
 tion fails, from a lack of sufficient knowledge. 
 
 In like manner, the proverb, ' The more haste, the worse 
 speed,' is now often taken to mean, ' The more haste, the 
 worse haste,' which is but harsh, and tends to nonsense. 
 But, when we remember that speed really meant success in 
 Old English, the sense becomes ' The more haste, the worse 
 success,' which is a perfectly wise and sensible saying. So 
 also ' God speed the plough ' does not mean ' God hasten 
 the plough,' but ' God prosper the plough.' 
 
 In the proverb 'God sends the shrewd cow short horns.' 
 shrewd means mischievous or ill-tempered, not clever or 
 intelligent. 
 
 In the proverb ' Handsome is as handsome does,' hand- 
 some means neat, with reference to skilfulness of execution, 
 not beautiful in the usual modern sense. In ' Good wine 
 needs no bush,' the bush is well known to be that which was 
 tied to the end of an ale-stake. 
 
 In ' To buy a pig in a poke,' we have the old spelling of 
 pouch, with the sense of bag. 
 
 And of course there are numerous other examples of the 
 perfectly general rule, that all our proverbs have come down
 
 80 BRIG A. 
 
 to us from olden times, and must be interpreted according 
 to the sense of words in old, not in modern English. 
 
 98. Briga (4 S. xii. 457 ; 1873). 
 
 [N.B. This article is a skit upon the usual methods 
 employed by guessing etymologists. Many readers, I believe, 
 took it quite seriously !] 
 
 At the last reference W. B. traces a large number of 
 English words from briga, which he says is from the root 
 earth. Has he really secured the right root"? Surely all 
 the words which he mentions, and many more, are rather 
 to be referred to the Latin terra. Thus plough and breeches, 
 which he instances, are obviously not from earth, but from 
 terra, as a little reflection will show. From terra would 
 come terrare, to tear the earth (our English tear\ and by 
 the well-known interchange of/ with / (cf. Gk. tessares with 
 ^Eol pisures] we get a dialectal form^errare, also to till the 
 earth, whence perratum (xpratum, a meadow, Eng. prairie. 
 By the usual shifting of r (as in bird, from Old Eng. brid} 
 we get preare ; and, by the common change of r into /, 
 pleare, a word adopted by the Anglo-Saxons as pleogan, to 
 till ; and hence our plough. From the same root, pleogan, 
 come play and ply, and the adjective pliant. So, too, with 
 breeks (braccce]. The compound word terri-braccce, breeches 
 to protect from the earth or soil, is the obvious origin of our 
 supposed nautical word tarry-breeks , or, by loss of the first 
 part of the word, breeks. The liability of these to tear (the 
 connexion of which word with terra has been already shown) 
 gives the verb to break, as also the substantive brick, literally 
 broken pieces of earth. Just as we find bacca written for 
 vacca, in Old Latin, we may suppose breeks to become vreeks, 
 whence the Southern-English vrock, our standard English 
 frock. By loss ofyj comes the German Rock, also meaning 
 coat, the garment which covers the ridge or back, since in 
 Old English rugge often occurs with the sense of back.
 
 WHY ADAM MEANS NORTH, SOUTH, ETC. 8 1 
 
 Rock is clearly the same as rug or rag, also used for covering 
 the body. All these, it will be observed, are obviously from 
 the Latin terra. Then, again, the earth was regarded as an 
 object of mystery or wonder, whence our terror; as, also, 
 terrier, lit. the scarer, the dog who terrifies or scares the 
 sheep. The English drag is known to be cognate with Lat. 
 trahere ; but this is a shortened form of ter-rahere, lit. to 
 drag or draw along the ground ; so that from the same root, 
 terra, come also such words as drag or draw, trail, and, 
 by loss of /, rail (rails still are laid along the eartK) ; and by 
 loss of r, ail or ale (made from the produce of the earth ) ; by 
 loss of a, ill (from the effects produced by ale), and so on. 
 It is especially curious to see how W. B., not remembering 
 the Latin terra, has failed to solve the word Albion. Granting 
 that Albion is, as he says, from arb, heights, he must allow 
 that arb or arp is merely a metathesis of the/r in pratum, 
 the connexion of which with terra has been shown above. 
 This is verified by observing the Latin arbor, lit. the fruit of 
 the earth, just as our tree (Old Eng. tre) is short for terre, 
 the old spelling of terrae, the genitive case of terra. I have 
 thus shown that tree, Albion, ill, ale, drag, &c., are all from 
 the Latin terra, and I am prepared to derive from this pro- 
 lific root, not merely all the words w r hich W. B. mentions, 
 but every word in our language ; so that, instead of referring 
 all our words to a few roots, I would refer them all to one 
 root, and that root is the Latin terra, and not the Armenian 
 ard. If W. B. is serious, I am sure that my derivations are 
 quite as convincing. But, alas, that English etymology 
 should ever, in these days, be trailed through the dirt after 
 such a fashion. 
 
 97. Why Adam means North, South. East, and West 
 (5 S. i. 305; 1874). 
 
 In the Dialogue of Solomon and Saturn, ed. Kemble, 
 p. 178, is the following singular passage : ' Tell me, whence 
 
 G
 
 82 SHAKESPEARE'S NAME. 
 
 was the name of Adam formed ? Answer. I tell thee, of 
 four stars. Tell me, how are they called ? Answer. I tell 
 thee, Arthox, Dux, Arotholem, Minsymbrie ' (I give here 
 Kemble's translation, instead of the Anglo-Saxon original, 
 because it answers my purpose quite as well). 
 
 These names have never been explained, to my knowledge, 
 and I confess that I never expected to know what they 
 mean. There are no stars with such names. 
 
 But in the Cursor Mundi, ed. Morris, p. 42, is a passage, 
 equally hopeless as it stands, to this effect : ' Hear now the 
 reason of his name, why he was called Adam. In this name 
 are laid four letters, that are derived from the four ways ; so 
 that Adam is as much as to say, as East, West, North, and 
 South.' It is obvious that the initials of these words do not 
 make up Adam in English. 
 
 The two passages, both unintelligible in themselves, com- 
 pletely explain each other ; for, though these words do not 
 spell Adam in English, they do so in Greek. Here, then, 
 is the answer to the riddle ; the ' four stars ' is a mistake for 
 the four ' quarters,' and the words, apparently so mysterious, 
 are merely Arctos, Dusis, Anatole, Mesembria ; apKros, 8wo-is, 
 draroA.?/, pconf/u^pfa. Moral : never guess, but wait for fresh 
 information to turn up. 
 
 98. Shakespeare's Name (5 S. ii. 444 ; 1874^. 
 
 What is meant by saying that ' Fewtarspeare is, doubtless, 
 a local surname,' I cannot understand. Just as Shakespeare 
 means a man who shakes a spear, just as Breakspear means 
 one who breaks a spear, so Fewtarspeare means one who 
 fewtars or feutres a spear, i. e. who lays it in rest. 
 
 ' His speare he feutred, and at him it bore.' 
 
 F. Q. iv. 5, 45. 
 
 I do not see why English etymology should be considered 
 a fit subject for such unintelligent guess-work.
 
 ' O THER WHILES. ' 83 
 
 [With Shake-spear and Fewtar-speare, cf. Wag-staff. I 
 once saw the name Shake-shaft over a shop door at 
 Lichfield.] 
 
 99. ' Other-whiles' (5 S. ii. 435 ; 1874). 
 Certainly this word is nothing new. See Dr. Stratmann's 
 Old English Dictionary (which correspondents should con- 
 sult for themselves), where these references are given. 
 Otherwhile, Layamon, 1. 7062 ; Reliquiae Antiquae, vol. i. 
 p. no; Robert of Gloucester, p. 100; other hwute, Ancren 
 Riwle, p. 82 ; other hu<iles, another reading, at the last 
 reference. Besides which, I may add a reference to Piers 
 the Pl<nvman, B. xix. 99. 
 
 100. A Stick of Eels' (5 S. ii. 52 ; 1874). 
 The following quotation furnishes an answer to the query, 
 how much is a stick ? 
 
 ' A stick of fish, a term applied to eels when strung on a row, ' sic 
 dicta, quod trajecta vimine quod stic dicimus) connectabantur "; 
 Sf>elni<in. A stica consisted of 25 eels, and 10 sticce made a bitide ; 
 Glanv. lib. ii. c. 9.' 
 
 This is a note by Sir F. Madden, reprinted in my edition of 
 Have/ok the Dane, s. v. S/ac, in the Glossarial Index, p. 144. 
 
 101. English Etymology in 1875. (From a note upon 
 
 Tangled' in JV. and Q. 5 S. iii. 310.) 
 . . . This brings me to the great principle to which I wish 
 to draw attention, viz., that the publications of the Early 
 English Text Society, the investigations of Mr. Ellis, the 
 strictly scientific methods pursued at the present day in 
 Greek and Latin etymology, and other similar aids, are fast 
 tending to revolutionize, none too soon, the whole study of 
 English etymology. I have great hope that we pioneers 
 have done real good ; and that the next generation of philo- 
 logists, applying to English the same strictly scientific 
 methods as have already been applied to Latin and Greek, 
 
 G 2
 
 84 THE SUFFIX -STER IN ENGLISH. 
 
 will make a clean sweep of the thousand and one ludicrous 
 guesses with which even the best of our dictionaries are 
 still encumbered, and will unhesitatingly reject, as useless 
 lumber, all that is of the nature of guess-work, all that 
 cannot be supported by ample, or, at any rate, by sufficient 
 evidence. If in this process some of my work is swept 
 away with the rest, I can fully forgive, by anticipation, those 
 who weigh it and find it wanting. . . . Etymology is, in fact, 
 not a personal matter at all ; if an etymology rests merely on 
 the basis that so-and-so suggested it, it is rotten and useless ; 
 and I entirely repudiate the notion, so extremely common 
 even in our best periodicals, that etymology is a mere 
 system of bad puns, and that anything may be ' derived ' 
 from anything else, provided there is some ' apparent ' out- 
 ward likeness between the forms compared. 
 
 102. The suffix -ster in English. I (5 S. iii. 371 ; 1875). 
 
 See, on this suffix, Marsh's Lectures on the English 
 Language, ed. Smith, 1862, pp. 207, 208, and the note at 
 p. 217 ; Matzner's Eng. Gram. i. 434; Loth's Eng. Gram. 
 p. 309 ; Koch's Eng. Gram. iii. 47 ; and Morris's Historical 
 Outlines of English Accidence, p. 89. The accounts given by 
 Marsh and Koch are much more satisfactory, in my opinion, 
 than that given by Dr. Brewer. The assertion that ' -ster is 
 not a female suffix at all, and never was ' (?), argues a very 
 slight acquaintance with our older literature. Granting 
 that it was not exclusively so, and that, in the fourteenth 
 century, the distinction between -er and -ster was not always 
 well preserved, there are quite enough examples extant to 
 show that the termination was very often used as a feminine 
 suffix, and that, too, by evident design. Several examples 
 will be found at the references cited above, to which I add 
 the following. Lye and Manning's Anglo-Saxon Dictionary 
 gives the following examples : 
 
 ' Fithelere, fidicen,' as distinguished from 'jithelstre, fidicina ' ;
 
 THE SUFFIX -STER IN ENGLISH. 85 
 
 heat-par, a harper, as distinguished from hcarpestrc, a female harper ; 
 hoppere. a dancer ; hoppestrc, a female dancer ; sangere, a singer ; 
 sangestre, a female singer ; seamestre, a sempster ; tieppere, a male 
 tapster ; txppestre, a female tapster ; ivcbba, a male weaver ; webbcstre, 
 a female weaver. 
 
 To some of these words references are given, and they may 
 be found in ^Ifric's Glossary, printed at the end of Somner's 
 A.-S. Dictionary, and in another copy of the same, to be 
 found in the Bodley MS. Junius 77 ; see also the MSS. of 
 .Hfric's Glossary described by Wanley. Bosworth's Diction- 
 ary also gives cennestre, genitrix ; crencestre, a female weaver ; 
 liiristre, a female teacher ; myltestre, meretrix (which occurs 
 in the A.-S. version of Lev. xix. 29; Gen. xxxviii. 15; and 
 Matt. xxi. 31). Many more examples will be found in the 
 books cited above. 
 
 But in order to establish the case, one example is quite 
 sufficient. We find, then, in the A.-S. version of the Gospels 
 that the word witega occurs repeatedly in the sense of 
 prophet. Thus, in St. Mark i. 2, we have, ' Swa awriten is 
 on f>aes ivitegan bee isaiam,' as it is written in the book 
 of the prophet Isaiah. But when it is intended to express 
 the idea of prophetess instead of prophet, the feminine 
 termination is duly added, as in St. Luke ii. 36, ' And Anna 
 waes witegystre, fanueles dohtor,' and Anna was a pro- 
 phetess, the daughter of Phanuel. 
 
 103. The suffix -ster in English. II (5 S.iii. 449; 1875). 
 
 It is quite true, at the same time, though it has long been 
 notorious, that the termination -ster in a great many in- 
 stances lost its feminine force, and, in some instances, 
 never had that force at all. This was simply due to course 
 of time, and probably in some measure to confusion with 
 the Old French ending -s/re, as seen in Chaucer's idolastre 
 or ydolastre, in the sense of idolater. But we have had 
 something like this before ; see N. and Q. i S. vi. 409,
 
 86 A FEAT IN SWIMMING. 
 
 568 ; 3 S. iv. 350 ; especially the article at the first of these 
 references. 
 
 Each word has its separate history, and should be kept 
 apart from the rest ; the chronology is, in each case, of the 
 highest importance. There are some words, such as 
 bakester, which appear in Anglo-Saxon, cf. A. S. bczcestre ; 
 there are others, such as punster, which are of modern 
 formation ; and there are others again, such as lobster, 
 holster, which are not properly personal substantives at all. 
 To show how necessary it is to take words separately, I will 
 instance lobster. It is clear that A. S. loppe, a flea, North- 
 Eng. lop, meant a leaper ; and it is probable that the A. S. 
 loppestre was made to match it, with the same signification 
 of leaper, but with no very definite idea of gender, merely 
 by way of giving the word a sort of sense. The alternative 
 spelling lopust (for loppestre] makes it highly probable that 
 the word was merely a vulgar adaptation of the Lat. locusta 
 or locusta marina, as suggested in Mahn's Webster, in 
 Wedgwood, and in E. Miiller. Cf. crayfish, from ecrevisse. 
 
 104. A Feat in Swimming (5 S. iv. 186 ; 1875). 
 In connexion with Captain Webb's achievement, recent 
 as it is, it is well worthy of notice that the notion of swim- 
 ming for a very protracted time is to be found, with full 
 particulars, in the very oldest piece of writing which exists 
 in the English language ; proving, as I think, that our 
 English race has always been familiar with the exercise. 
 In the poem of Beowulf is a long and full account of the 
 swimming match between Beowulf and Breca. I fear the 
 description is exaggerated, as it tells us that these two 
 athletes swam side by side for five days, whilst ' the ocean 
 boiled with waves, with winter's fury ' ; or whilst, in the 
 words of the original, ' geofon ythum weol, wintres wylme.' 
 At the end of the five days, says Beowulf, ' unc flod todraf,' 
 the flood drave us two asunder ; after which he met with
 
 COMETS. 87 
 
 some thrilling adventures, attacking and killing several 
 sea-monsters with his sword, and (amongst the rest) slaying 
 ' niceras nigene,' i. e. nine nickers, or water-demons ; and 
 finally he landed on the .shores of Finland. The whole 
 account in Thorpe's edition of Betrtntlf, pp. 35-40, is worth 
 referring to. And I think we may congratulate our gallant 
 countryman that, though he was unfortunately stung by 
 a jelly-fish, he was not under the necessity of slaying nine 
 nickers, nor of remaining, as Beowulf is said to have done, 
 for more than seven days in the water. 
 
 105. Comets (5 S. iv. 146 ; 1875). 
 Milton has . , 
 
 ' Like a comet burn a 
 
 That fires the length of Ophiuchus huge 
 In the Arctic sky, and from his horrid hair 
 Shakes pestilence and war.' P. L. ii. 708. 
 
 In Batman uppon Bartholome, lib. viii. c. 32, we read 
 
 that 
 
 ' Comeia is a starre beclipped with burning gleames, as Beda doth 
 say, and is sodeinly bred, and betokeneth changing of kings, and is 
 a token of pestilence, or of war, or of winds, or of great heate . . . and 
 they spread their beanies toward the North, and ne\-er towards the 
 West.' 
 
 With the phrase, ' changing of kings,' cf. Paradise Lost, i. 
 
 jy/t jy < And with fear of change 
 
 Perplexes monarchs. 1 
 
 106. 'Tetter' (5 S. iv. 126 ; 1875). 
 
 The word is in Hamlet, i. 5. The German form Zitter- 
 mal shows that tetter is a Low German (English or Dutch) 
 form of the same word. Cf. A. S. teter. 
 
 ' Impetigo. Zerua and Zarua, called of the Greekes Lichen, of some 
 Lichena. There are two kinds, the viscous scab and watrie is called 
 a Ringworme. the other is a drye Tettar: this is infectious, and is 
 soone taken by lyeing in an vncleane bedde. The drye scabbe
 
 88 'SPIT WHITE.' 
 
 commeth of melancholy, the wet commeth of putrified fleame and 
 corrupt bloud.' Batman uppon Bartholome, Addition to lib. vii. 
 c. 49. 
 
 107. 'Spit white' (5 S. iv. 106; 1875.) 
 
 Falstaff says, ' If it be a hot day, and I brandish anything 
 but a bottle, I would I might never spit white again.' This 
 means, of course, ' be in perfect health again.' See the 
 Addition to lib. vii. c. 29 of Batman uppon Bartholome 
 (ed. 1582, fol. 97), where all kinds of spittle are described 
 with reference to health : ' If the spettle be white viscus, 
 the sickenesse commeth of fleame ; if black ... of melan- 
 choly . . . The whitte [sic] spettle not knottie, signifieth 
 health: 
 
 [Dr. Schmidt, in his admirable Shakespeare Lexicon, 
 observes ' Nares adduces some passages from contem- 
 porary writers to prove that to spit white was thought to be 
 the consequence of intemperance in drinking ; but he has 
 forgotten to ascertain the colour of other people's spittle.' 
 The remark is just ; but our ancestors did not go by facts, 
 but by opinions ; and the above extract shows that there 
 was a notion that people could spit ' black.' I leave my 
 note as I wrote it, though it excited some derision ; I know 
 not why.] 
 
 1O8. Cicero speaking Greek (5 S. iv. 266 ; 1875). 
 
 ' Cassius. Did Cicero say anything ? 
 Casca. Ay, he spoke Greek.' 
 
 _. i /- 11 Julius Caesar, i. 2. 281. 
 
 Compare the following : 
 
 ' Wherefore when he [Cicero] came to Rome, at the first he pro- 
 ceeded very warily and discreetly, and did vnwillingly seeke for any 
 Office, and when he did, he was not greatly esteemed : for they 
 commonly called him the Grecian and scholer, which are two words 
 which the Artificers (and such base Mechanicall people at Rome) 
 have euer readie at their tongues' end.' North's Plutarch, ' Life of 
 Cicero,' ed. 1612, p. 861 ; see the whole passage. 
 
 [This note afterwards appeared in Mr. W. Aldis Wright's
 
 TREEXWARE. 89 
 
 edition of Julius Caesar, published in 1878. But of course 
 Mr. Wright observed the coincidence for himself.] 
 
 109. Treenware (5 S. iv. 331 ; 1875). 
 
 Without doubt the explanation of treenware by ' earthen 
 vessels ' is, at least etymologically, incorrect. Of course, it 
 ought to mean ' wooden vessels.' But the explanation 
 occurs in both the early editions of Ray's Collection, and it 
 hardly seemed to me to be worth a note. It is possible, 
 after all, that Ray noted correctly the use of the word as 
 current in his own day, for nothing is more common than 
 a change of meaning in English words in course of time. 
 Names are often retained long after the things which they 
 denote have suffered alteration. Thus, a tureen (formerly 
 terrene) means a vessel made of earth ; but for all that, 
 people do not hesitate to talk of a ' silver soup-tureen,' for 
 the simple reason that the vessels which were once made of 
 earth are now often made of silver. Similarly, the name of 
 treenware may very well have been continued in use long 
 after the vessels themselves had ceased to be invariably of 
 wood. 
 
 I add a good example of tre in the old sense of wood. 
 In Trevisa's Description of Britain (Specimens of English, 
 ed. Morris and Skeat, p. 239) we have a description of 
 a petrifying well that turned wooden things into stone : 
 ' Thar ys also a pond that turneth tre into yre \iron\ and 
 [if] hyt be ther-ynne al a yer [year] ; and so tren [pieces 
 of u>ood\ buth yschape [are made] into whestones ' \whet- 
 stones\. 
 
 110. Nuncheon.' I (5 S. iv. 366 ; 1875). 
 The etymology of this word is a puzzle of long standing \ 
 The guess-work writers have long ago made the desperate 
 
 1 It had been solved, previously and independently, by Mr. Walford ; 
 see the next article.
 
 90 ' NUNCHEON.' 
 
 attempt to connect it with noon-shun, because (note the 
 'because,' that marks the work of your guesser) labourers 
 shun the heat of noon when they eat their nuncheon. But 
 of course it is obvious that the labourer does not shun the 
 noon itself, but only the heat of it. When the etymology 
 of a word is unknown, there is but one thing to do, viz. 
 to wait in patience till the light comes. In this case the 
 first ray of light came when Mr. Riley printed his valuable 
 and well-edited Memorials of London. We there find, at 
 P- 265 : 
 
 'These donations for drink to workmen are called in Letter-Book 
 G, fol. iv. (27 Edw. III\ nonechenche, probably " noon's quench." 
 whence the later nuncheon or luncheon? 
 
 This half solves the difficulty, as it gives the old form of 
 the word ; but the suggestion of quench is rather too much 
 of a wrench. The reader of Middle English may here 
 recognize the word schenche, meaning a drink ; and the 
 verb schenchen (A. S. scencan\ to pour out drink. Cf. G. 
 schenk, a cup-bearer, in English a skinker ; and schenken, to 
 skink, or pour out liquor. Thus nonechenche simply means 
 the noon-drink, with the implied sense of its being poured 
 out and carried round in fixed quantities, in accordance 
 with the skinker's known duties. Thus nuncheon is merely 
 noon-skink, with the usual palatalisation of the k to ch which 
 so abounds in English. When nuncheon lost all meaning, 
 popular etymology, always at work to corrupt, desperately 
 confused it with the lump of bread instead of the cup of 
 drink, thus producing the absurd luncheon, which has so 
 baffled all inquirers. 
 
 [Similarly, the A. S. non-mete, M. E. nonmete, nonmet, i. e. 
 noon-meat, is now the Southern prov. E. nammet, nummet, 
 a luncheon. See mtncheon and luncheon in my Etym. Diet., 
 larger edition.]
 
 ' NUNCHEOX.- 91 
 
 111. 'Nuncheon.' II (5 S. iv. 398 ; 1875). 
 
 It is evident, from Mr. Skeat's note, that he was not 
 aware that the same etymology of the word nuncheon had 
 been given by me, about twenty-five years ago, in the 
 Proceedings of the Bury and Suffolk Archaeological Institute. 
 I have not the volume by me, but I believe it was in vol. i. 
 p. 1 80. It will there be seen to be probable that the word 
 noonscench came to mean something to eat, as well as some- 
 thing to drink, between meals. 
 
 W. S. WALFORD, F.S.A. 
 
 112. ' Nuncheon.' Ill (5 S. iv. 434 ; 1875). 
 
 I am glad to know that Mr. Walford had already solved 
 this word, and cheerfully accord to him whatever merit 
 attaches to the first enunciation of the truth concerning it. 
 I had noted it some years ago, independently, but omitted 
 to publish the result. 
 
 Mr. K. has made a curious mistake ; for his parallel does 
 not hold. He thinks that chenche is put for quench, because 
 we find church put for kirk. With a slight amendment 
 I accept his reasoning, and admit that I do not see how 
 chenche can come out of qiiench, because I am quite sure 
 that church is not a corruption of quirk. Chenche is an 
 instance of that common substitution of ch for s/i or sc/i 
 with which all readers of Early English manuscripts must be 
 familiar. 
 
 There was not only the term nonechenche for noon-drink. 
 but none-mete for noon-meat, or noon-eating. See Halliwell's 
 Dictionary. The Spanish words cited by Mr. Peacock are 
 hardly to the point. Mere resemblances prove little, and 
 it is far more likely that luncheon was an extension of the 
 provincial-English lunch, meaning a lump, than that our 
 labourers took to talking Spanish. 
 
 The Spanish word loncha, meaning a slice of meat, not
 
 92 ' AWN'D,' < AUND.' 
 
 a lump of it, was suggested by Minshew, and rejected by 
 Richardson ; and rightly, in my opinion. 
 
 113. 'Awn'd,' 'Aund' (5 S. iv. 384; 1875). 
 
 In Halliwell's excellent Dictionary is the following 
 entry : 
 
 ' Awn'd, ordained; Yorksh. Kennett (MS. Lansd. 1033) gives the 
 example I am awn'd to ill luck, i. e. it is my peculiar destiny or 
 fortune.' 
 
 In Ray's Glossary of North Country Words is the entry : 
 
 'Aund, ordained; forsan per contractionem. I am aund to this 
 luck ; i. e. ordained.' 
 
 In reprinting Ray's collection for the English Dialect 
 Society I added the note, by way of protest against such 
 a guess, that ' aund being short for ordained is out of the 
 question.' I now ' make a note ' that the true etymology has 
 appeared. 
 
 Mr. Atkinson, in his Cleveland Glossary, has the right 
 idea. He connects the word with the ' O. N. audid] 
 meaning thereby the Icelandic audit. But if any one who 
 consults Cleasby and Vigfusson's Icelandic Dictionary will 
 (after finding audit on p. 31) just turn over the leaf and 
 examine the word audna to be ordained by fate he will 
 find there all that he wants. He will also find that the 
 verb audna is a derivative of the substantive aufir, fate, of 
 which the Old Swedish form was ode. This is the very 
 result which Mr. Atkinson suspected. I have merely 
 supplied the missing link in the chain of his evidence. 
 [This provincial word is not in the New Eng. Dict?\ 
 
 114. <Vant'( 5 S. iv. 4 55 ', 1875)- 
 
 With respect to the suggestion that vant may have been 
 'a stupid churchwarden's spelling of font,' I would suggest 
 that this peculiar spelling might have been due to the fact 
 of the churchwarden's being familiar with the dialect of his 
 county. Perhaps he may even have been familiar with
 
 GLOVE. 93 
 
 English literature. The spelling is not new, but may be 
 found in Robert of Gloucester, who wrote in 1298. In 
 Hearne's edition of that poet we find (under the word 
 ' vonge ' in the Glossary) this note : ' To vang, in some 
 parts of England, is even now used for " to answer at the 
 font as godfather," particularly in Somersetshire, where 
 Mr. Somner, in his Dictionary, observes that the country 
 people have this expression " he vanged to me at the vant," 
 i. e. " in baptisterio pro me suscepit." ' It is instructive to 
 find that, in some cases, this substitution of v for/has been 
 accepted as standard English. The word fitches (A. V. Isa. 
 xxviii. 25 ; Ezek. iv. 9) has been supplanted by the South- 
 country form vetches. The word fat (Joel ii. 24 ; iii. 13), 
 with its derivative winefat (Isa. Ixiii. 2 ; Mark xii. i }, has 
 been ousted by the Kentish [or Dutch] form vat, with the 
 derivative winevat, probably owing to the influence of the 
 hop interest. We all use vixen (for fixeti) as the feminine 
 of fox. The word fane (A. S. fana) is now spelt vane. 
 Milton turned fans into vans (P. L. ii. 927). Shakespeare 
 wrote vade for fade (Sonnet 54). But I do not allow that 
 these poets were ' stupid.' 
 
 115. Glove (5 S. iv. 409 ; 1875). 
 
 The notion that glove is of Gaelic origin is easily shown 
 to be out of the question. Dr. Mackay knows, as well as 
 I do, that there is no such word in Gaelic as ceillamh with 
 the sense of glove ; or if there is, perhaps he will kindly 
 give us the reference to the passage in which he has found it. 
 The Gaelic for glove is lamhainn, from lamh, a hand. There 
 is no mystery about the Gaelic words ceill or lamh. The 
 first is cognate with the Latin celare, A. S. helan, and, in the 
 form hele, is still one of the commonest of our dialectal 
 words. If we had wished to express the idea in English, 
 we could have said hele-hand, or helland, without taking the 
 slightest trouble to search for the Gaelic equivalent. The
 
 94 
 
 derivation of glove from the Icelandic glofi is, again, just 
 one of those mistakes which are made by those to whom 
 chronology is of no importance ; for it just so happens that 
 the borrowing has been in the other direction, and that the 
 Icelandic glofi was borrowed from England. I know of 
 nothing so useless as the attempt that is made by so many 
 to ' derive ' English words from some other language. Are 
 there, I would ask, no native words ? Must we never rest 
 till we have chased every word to death, and are we to 
 write ourselves down as a nation whose language has not 
 a single native word in it 1 Nothing can be clearer than 
 that glove is a word of our own. We can boast the oldest 
 monument in all Teutonic literature (the Moeso-Gothic frag- 
 ments being excepted), viz. the poem of Beowulf. And in 
 this poem we find the word 'glof'; see Thorpe's edition, 
 p. 140, 1. 4177. How could the word /<*/" have been known 
 in Anglo-Saxon, if, as Dr. Mackay pretends, it was a corrup- 
 tion of a compound Gaelic word, of which I can find no 
 proof that it existed, till it pleased our Gaelic friend to coin 
 it ? I think writers would do well to let English etymology 
 alone unless they can take pains with their chronology, and 
 can condescend to give quotations in place of inventions. 
 
 It is quite a mistake- to suppose that Gaelic is the only 
 language that lends itself to a system of verbal quibbles. 
 When once we begin to coin etymologies, any language will 
 serve the turn. For every Gaelic etymology that Dr. Mackay 
 can invent, I can easily invent one in some other tongue 
 that will look quite as well. Take, for instance, glove, and 
 try a Sanskrit dictionary. I do this, and find at once that 
 kal&pa means a quiver or case ; see the Mahdbhdrata, 3, 
 11454. Suppose it pleased me to say that glove is an 
 obvious corruption of kalapa ? The change from one form 
 to the other is not very violent, and the change in meaning 
 is conceivable. Or again, if we try Greek, we at once light 
 upon KoAvTrreiv, to hide or cover. Or again, the Icelandic
 
 GHA UTS. ' 95 
 
 llifi, the palm, comes as near to glove as the Gaelic 
 does. But I am very strongly of opinion that this sort of 
 guessing is (or ought to be) out of date, and that it is high 
 time for those who propose ' derivations ' to propose them 
 in a credible form. 
 
 116. ' Ghauts.' I (5 S. iv. 456; 1875). 
 
 Beyond all question, the Whitby gaut is a mere variation 
 of gate, a drain. Cf. Icel. gjota, Dan. gyde, a narrow lane, 
 and see l gote or water-schetelys, goote or water-schedyllys, 
 aquagium, sinoglodtorium] in Prompt. Parv. Another 
 form of the word is gut, a channel ; every Cambridge rowing 
 man knows whereabouts on the Cam to find ' The Gut.' 
 The root is the A. S. geotan, to pour, cognate with the Greek 
 \etiv. Much more might be added, but perhaps it will 
 suffice to learn the lesson that ghaut, as a mis-spelling of 
 .^aut, furnishes an additional instance of the absurdity 
 whereby gost has been turned into ghost, and gastly and 
 agast into ghastly and aghast. It is odd that g should be 
 unable to run alone in all cases. 
 
 [The M-hitby Glossary (E. D. S.) gives ' Gauts or Gotes ; 
 see Gooats? Also ' Gooats or Gotes, openings or slopes 
 from the streets to the water-side. Spelt goutes in Camden.'] 
 
 117. ' Ghauts.' II (5 S. v. 114; 1876). 
 
 C. S. G. confidently affirms that ghaut cannot be another 
 form of gate or gut, because the latter form a/ways means 
 a canal or drain for water, and has no other signification. 
 I commend to his consideration the following instance, 
 which I found in almost the first book I consulted, vi/. 
 Richardson's Dictionary : 
 
 ' You pass a narrow gut between two stone terrasses, that rose 
 above your head, and which were crowned by a line of pyramidal 
 j ews.' Walpole, ' On Gardening.'
 
 g6 WRITER'S ERRORS. 
 
 Will C. S. G. seriously contend that gut in this passage 
 means a channel for water ? 
 
 When we find in Icelandic the word gjota, a narrow lane, 
 taking the same form as gjota, to pour ; when we find in 
 Danish gyde, a narrow lane, again taking the same form as 
 gyde, to pour, what is the use of going to India l for an 
 explanation that can be had from Denmark ? 
 
 I suppose that the spelling ghaut (of course it should be 
 gaut) originated with some one else who had learnt a little 
 geography at school, and chose to spell it so. It looks as if 
 it originated with some one ignorant of Anglo-Saxon, Ice- 
 landic, and Danish. What is the authority for it ? 
 
 118. Writer's Errors (5 S. v. 206 ; 1876). 
 
 As the phrase ' clerical errors ' has by some been deemed 
 ambiguous, I would point out that it can be avoided by 
 saying 'errors of the scribe,' or 'errors of the writer,' or 
 simply ' writer's errors.' To say that such or such a mistake 
 was due to ' a writer's error,' or to an ' error in writing,' is 
 intelligible enough, and is distinct from an author's error on 
 the one hand, and from a printer's error, or error of the 
 press, on the other. I have seen ' scribal error ' used, but 
 the adjective sounds, to me, rather clumsy. 
 
 I was reminded of this by having just discovered one of 
 the oddest writer's errors I ever remember to have seen. 
 I had occasion to quote the text, from i Tim. vi. 10, that 
 ' the love of money is the root of all evil 2 ,' and just as 
 I was writing it out, some noise called off my attention. 
 On looking again at the MS. I found, to my great surprise, 
 that, instead of 'money/ I had inadvertently written 
 'woman.' I am glad the quotation did not go to press in 
 that remarkable form. 
 
 1 I. e. the Ghauts, from the Hindustani ghat. 
 
 2 In my note on the Title of the Pardoneres Tale.
 
 ALLITERATIVE POETRY. 97 
 
 119. Alliterative Poetry (5 S. v. 224 ; 1876). 
 
 Many of your readers who are aware that much of our 
 early poetry is alliterative may be at a loss where to find an 
 easy example of the force and swing of it. I have ventured 
 to throw together the following lines by way of specimen, in 
 imitation rather of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries 
 than of the earlier examples. All that the reader need 
 observe is that there are commonly three emphatic syllables 
 in a line which begin with the same letter. To these 
 syllables a special stress may be given, and the result is 
 a metre of a rough but forcible character, by no means 
 unsuited to the genius of the language. If the stress falls 
 upon initial vowels, the vowels need not be the same ; and, 
 in fact, are most often different. It will be understood that 
 the subject is chosen in accordance with the national 
 character of the metre. 
 
 AN ENGLISHMAN'S SONG. 
 
 A curse on the croakers who cowardly prattle 
 How England is aging to abject abasement, 
 No longer a leader, no law to the nations ! 
 Though foul birds defile thus the nest that defends them, 
 The hearts of our heroes beat high in their yearning, 
 Where dangers are densest, to dash to the onset ! 
 Sweet Peace let us prize, with her pleasures and treasures, 
 Nor ween to wage wars of a wanton aggression ; 
 Ever firm for defence, not defiant in folly, 
 Yet weighing with wisdom the words that we utter, 
 As conscious, though calm, that our counsels are heeded. 
 We rest, but we rust not : once roused into action, 
 The life of the old land will leap up in earnest, 
 With prayers to the Prime Source of progress in goodness, 
 With trust in the triumph of truth, though it tarry, 
 And woe to the workers of wicked devices ! 
 The hate of all harm that is hostile to justice 
 Still steels us to sternness and steady endeavour. 
 Unfolding the flag that is feared by oppressors, 
 We dare to the death, never daunted by evil, 
 Still foremost in fighting where Freedom leads onward! 
 H
 
 98 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. 
 
 120. Chronology of English (5 S. v. 302 ; 1876.) 
 
 With the editor's permission, I propose to contribute, 
 occasionally, some remarks on the chronology of English, 
 not by way of proposing anything new, but of tabulating 
 what fs old, in a more accessible form than heretofore. 
 Our etymology is, perhaps, in want rather of a Kepler than 
 Newton. 
 
 One of the most important matters is the date of the 
 introduction of French words. Dr. Morris has given us 
 a most important list of words introduced into English from 
 French before A. D. 1300, at p. 337 of his Historical Outlines 
 of English Accidence, but I find it wants to be recast into an 
 alphabetical form before it can be easily used. I now 
 attempt a first instalment of such work, in a form that seems 
 to me more convenient. 
 
 List I. French words in the Saxon Chronicle, with their 
 dates (I have verified both spellings and dates, and added 
 the modern forms) : Cuntesse (countess), 1 140. Curt (acourt), 
 1154. Dubbade (dubbed as a knight), 1086. Emperice 
 (empress), 1140. Justise (justice), 1137. Miracles, 1137. 
 Pais (peace), 1135. Prisun (prison\ 1137. Priuiligies 
 (privileges), 1137. Processiun, 1154. Rentes (rents of 
 lands), 1137. Standard, 1138. Tresor (treasure), 1137. 
 Tur (tower), 1140. 
 
 I am surprised to find that Dr. Morris has omitted the 
 word charity. This occurs in the true Old French form, 
 viz. carited, in 1137. It ought decidedly to be included 
 in the list; so ought caste! 1 (castle\ 1053, 1069, 1075; 
 and serfis (service), 1070. Repeated in the shortest form, 
 we here have authority for these words : castle, charity, 
 countess, court, dub, empress, justice, miracle, peace, prison, 
 privilege, procession, rent, service, standard, treasure, tower. 
 
 1 Castel is of French origin, according to Kiuge, though it occurs 
 in the A. S. Gospels.
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. 99 
 
 List II. French words in Old English Homilies, ed. 
 Morris, first series. This volume contains several pieces, 
 and the lists of French words in each are given separately 
 by Dr. Morris. For convenience, I throw all into one list, 
 with symbols to give the references, which are to the pages 
 of the volume. The pieces are : ' Lambeth Homilies,' 
 before 1200, denoted by /. h. ; 'An Orison of our Lord,' 
 about 1220, o.ld.; 'An Orison of our Lady,' o.ly.; 'A 
 Lofsong (Hymn of Praise) of our Lady,' /. ly. ; 'A Lofsong 
 of our Lord,' /. Id. ; ' Soul's Ward,' s. w. ; ' Wooing of our 
 Lord,' w. I. 
 
 The words are these, omitting some which I shall discuss 
 afterwards. I have verified the spellings, added the 
 meanings, and, in one or two places, corrected the 
 references : 
 
 Abandun (in subjection), o. Id., 189. 
 
 Asottie (to besot), 1. h., 17. 
 
 Beastes (beast's), w. 1., 277. 
 
 Blanchet (fine wheaten flour), 1. h., 53. 
 
 Buflet (both as vb. and sb. ), w. 1., 281. 
 
 Buffetunge (^buffeting), 1. ly., 207. 
 
 Cachepol ^catchpoll), 1. h., 97. 
 
 Calenges (2 p. s. challenges!), w. 1., 275. 
 
 Chaumbre (chamber), w. 1., 285. 
 
 I-cheret (pp. lit. cheered, i.e. having the appearance), s. w., 257. 
 
 Cherite (charity), o. ly., 199 ; 1. h., 69. 
 
 Cherubine (cherubim), o. ly., 191. 
 
 Ciclatune (a rich stuff, mentioned in Chaucer's Sir Thopas. 
 
 o. ly., 193. 
 Clerk, 1. h., 133. 
 Crune (crown, sb.), w. 1., 281. 
 Cruneth (crowns), Crunede (crowned, pt. t.), s. w., 247 ; 1. h., 
 
 129. 
 
 Crununge (crowning), 1. ly., 207. 
 Cunestable (constable), s. w., 247. 
 Cunfessurs (confessors), s. w., 261. 
 Cunfort (comfort), o. Id., 185. 
 Cunig (coney, rabbit; cf. O. F. cow'/), 1. h., 181. 
 Debonairte, w. 1., 269, 275; Deboneirschipe, w. 1., 275. 
 Delit (delight, sb.), o. Id., 187. 
 H 2
 
 100 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. 
 
 Derennedes (2 p. didst fight out ; Chaucer's dereyne or darrayne}. 
 
 w. 1., 285). 
 
 Dol (sorrow), w. 1., 285. 
 Druri (love-token), w. 1., 271. 
 Druth (love), w. 1., 269. 
 Eise (ease\ w. 1., 287. 
 Erites (heretics), 1. h., 143. 
 Ermine, 1. h., 181. 
 Ewangeliste, 1. h., 81 ; 1. Id., 209. 
 Fals (false^, o. Id., 185. 
 Flum (river, Lat. Jlutnen), 1. h., 141. 
 Font (in fon-stan/or fontstan, i. e. font-stone), 1. h., 73. 
 Fou (yellow, Fr. fauve\ 1. h., 181. 
 Fructe ^ fruit), 1. h., 7. 
 
 Gentile (gentle), Gentiller, Gentileste, w. 1., 273. 
 Grace, 1. ly., 207; s. w., 255; w. 1., 275. 
 Hardi (bold, hardy), w. 1., 271. 
 Jugulere (juggler), 1. h., 29. 
 
 Keiser (emperor), pi. Keiseres, w. 1., 271 ; s. w., 261. 
 Krune (crown, sb.), o. ly., 193 ; see Crune. 
 I-kruned (crowned), o. ly., 193. 
 Large (liberal), w. 1., 271 ; 1. h., 143. 
 Largesce (liberality), w. 1., 269. 
 Lechurs (lechers), 1. h., 53. 
 Lettres (letters), w. 1., 283. 
 Liureisun (delivery, award), 1. h., 85. 
 Mealies (malls, mallets), s. w., 253. 
 Manere (manner), 1. h., 51. 
 Medicine, o. Id., 187 [not 185]. 
 Meister (master), 1. h. 41 ; Meistre, s. w., 247; Meoster, s. w.. 
 
 257- 
 
 Meistreth (mastereth), s. w., 247. 
 Meosure (measure), s. w., 247 ; Mesure, 255. 
 Merci, 1. h., 43 ; 1. Id., 2091 
 Merciable (merciful), 1. Id., 211. 
 Mesaise (misease), w. 1., 279. 
 Noble, w. 1., 273. 
 Noblesce (nobility), w. 1., 269. 
 Obedience, 1. Id., 213. 
 
 Offrien (to offer), 1. h., 87; I-offred (offered), 87. 
 Orison, see Ureisun. 
 Paie (v. to pay, satisfy), w. 1., 285. 
 Palefrai (palfrey), 1. h., 5. 
 Paradise, o. ly., 191, 193 ; Parais, 1. h., 61.
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. TOT 
 
 Passiun, 1. h., 119 ; 1. ly., 205 ; w. 1., 275. 
 
 Filer (pillar), w. 1., 281. 
 
 Pouerte (poverty), 1. h., 143. 
 
 Poure (poor), w. 1., 277 ; Pourere (poorer), 277. 
 
 Praie (sb. prey), w. 1., 273. 
 
 Prei (pray thou), w. 1., 287. 
 
 Preoouin (to prove), s. w., 249. 
 
 Prince, w. 1., 281. 
 
 Pris (price, praise), 1. ly., 205. 
 
 Prisun (prisoner, not prison), w. 1., 273. 
 
 Priuete (privity), o. Id., 185. 
 
 Processiun, 1. h., 5 \_not 3], 
 
 Prophete, 1. h., 5. 
 
 Prud (proud), 1. h., 5 ; pi. prude, 1. h., 143 ; prude (pride), 1. ly., 
 
 205. 
 
 Psalm, Psalter ; see Salm, Saltere. 
 Ribauz (ribalds), w. 1., 279. 
 Riche, 1. h., 53 ; Richere, w. 1., 271. 
 Robbedes (didst rob), w. 1., 273 ; I-robbet (pp. robbed), s. w., 
 
 247. 
 
 Rubbere (robber), 1. h., 29 \_not 19 ] ; Rupere, 1. h., 29. 
 Sabeline (sable, fur), 1. h., 181. 
 Sacrement, 1. ly., 207 ; pi. Sacremens, 1. h., 5. 
 Sacreth (consecrates), 1. ly., 207; I-sacred, 1. Id. 209. 
 Salm (psalm), 1. h., 73. 
 Saltere (psalter), 1. h., 7 [not 5] ; Sauter, 1. h., 155; Sawter, 
 
 1. Id., 215. 
 
 Salue (salvation), o. Id., 187. 
 Salui (to save), o. Id., 189; Unsauuet (unsaved), o. Id., 187; 
 
 Sauuin (to save), 187. 
 Schurges (scourges), w. 1., 283. 
 Seinte (saint), 1. h., 131. 
 Semblant (semblance), s. w., 247. 
 Seraphine (seraphs), o. ly., 191. 
 Sermonen (vb. to discourse), 1. h., 8r. 
 Seruise (service), o. ly., 193. 
 Seruunge (serving), 1. Id., 215; Of-seruunge (deserving), 215; 
 
 Un-ofserued (undeserved), 215. 
 Sottes (sots), 1. h., 29. 
 
 Spuse (spouse), w. 1., 277 : Spus-had (matrimony" 1 , 1. h., 143. 
 Treitur (traitor), w. 1., 279. 
 Tresor (treasure), s. w., 247; Tresur, 247. 
 Tresun (treason), w. 1 , 279. 
 Trones (thrones), s. w., 261. 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALlfCRNiA 
 RIVERSIDE
 
 102 CHRONOLOGY OF ENGLISH. 
 
 Turnen (to turn), 1. Id., 213 ; A-turnet, s. w., 257. 
 Ureisun (orison), o. Id., 183 ; Ureisuns, 1. h., 51. 
 Warant (sb. warrant, guard), 1. Id., 211. 
 
 This list does not include the following, which seem to 
 me to be mistaken or uncertain. Carpe (to speak), w. 1., 
 287 ; possibly from Lat. carpere, but proof of it in French is 
 wanting; there is an Icelandic karpa, to boast, brag. . . 
 Elmesse (alms), clearly A. S. celmesse, introduced long before 
 this, and found in the A. S. version of the Gospels. Messe 
 (mass) is A. S. masse ; Munt (mount) is A. S. munt, both 
 used long ere this. Munek, Munuch (monk), A. S. munuc, 
 direct from monachus. Ocqiierne (a squirrel), 1. h., 181 ; 
 which is A. S. acwern. Strete, which goes back to the time 
 of the Romans in England. . . On the other hand, I would 
 insert chatels (chattels, wealth), w. 1., 271. 
 
 I repeat the list, partly modernized, marking by italics the 
 words in the Chronicle, and by a dagger those that are 
 obsolete : 
 
 Abandon, assot, beast, blanchett, buffet, castle, catchpoll, 
 challenge, chamber, charity, chattel, cheer, cherubim, 
 ciclatount, clerk, comfort, coney, confessor, constable, 
 crown, crowning, debonair, delight, darraynet, doolt, drutht, 
 druryt, ease, ermine, evangelist, fals, flumt, font, fout, fruit, 
 gentle, grace, hardy, juggler, keisert, large, largesse, lecher, 
 letter, livreisont, mall (mallet), manner, master, measure, 
 medicine, mercy, merciablet, miseaset, noble, noblesset, 
 obedience, offer, orison, palfrey, paradise, passion, pay, 
 pillar, poor, poverty, pray, prey, price, prince, prison, 
 privity, procession, prophet, proud, prove, psalm, psalter, 
 ribald, rich, rob, sable (fur), sacret, sacrament, saint, save, 
 scourge, semblantt, seraphin, sermon, serve, service, sot, 
 spouse, throne, traitor, treason, treasure, turn, warrant. 
 
 Lists like these, I venture to think, give us a surer footing 
 in attempting to make our way amidst the difficulties that 
 attend English etymology.
 
 'AS DRUNK .4S MICE.' 103 
 
 121. ' As drunk as mice ' (5 S. v. 314 ; 1876). 
 The explanation is very simple. A mouse is a small 
 animal, and it takes very little to make him extremely 
 drunk. The phrase is familiar to readers of Chaucer. See 
 his Knightes Tale, 1. 402 ; and my note on the same. 
 
 122. Buft ' and ' Miff' (5 S. vi. 114 ; 1876). 
 
 Buft is a mere variation of buff, to stammer, which is 
 duly entered in the Herefordshire Glossary, In the east of 
 England we have buffle and boffle with the same meaning. 
 Hence the familiar buffer, a stammerer, or secondarily, 
 a bungler. Lydgate has buffard, with the sense of foolish 
 fellow. All these terms are in Halliwell. Cf. O. Fr. bufer, 
 to puff, and our own//^. Chaucer uses buf "to denote the 
 sound of eructation. The verb to buff also means to strike 
 with a rebound, whence a buffet (a blow) and the railway 
 buffer. 
 
 Miff, a tiff, is common in many counties. It is entered 
 in Halliwell as known to various dialects, but is omitted in 
 the Herefordshire Glossary. 
 
 123. ' Mill' in the sense of Conflict ' (5 S. vi. 186 ; 
 1876). 
 
 The word ;///// is generally regarded as a slang term, but 
 it was not always so. It is a contraction of the old Lowland 
 Scottish melle or mellay, a conflict, fight, battle, which was 
 merely borrowed from the Old French meslee, signifying (i) 
 a mixture, (2) a fray. In other words, mill is still in use in 
 the refined form melee. Jamieson gives the verb mell, to 
 intermeddle, to join in battle, showing the shortened form 
 of it. In Barbour's Bruce (vii. 622 in my edition) it is said 
 that Clifford and Vaux came to blows, and that they maid 
 a melle, or in other words, ' had a mill? The derivation is, 
 accordingly, from the Lat. misculare, which is from miscere. 
 In a fray, the combatants are sometimes considerably 
 ' mixed up.'
 
 104 ' EDYLLYS BE.' 
 
 Perhaps I ought to add that, at school, at a time when 
 it was generally believed that all English was derived from 
 Greek and Latin, we were taught to regard mill as a shortened 
 form of the Greek uyu,iAAa ; and even to this day there are 
 many whose only notion of etymology is, that any connexion 
 suggested by a mere jingle of sound is superior to all 
 historical investigation. 
 
 124. Edyllys be ' (5 S. vi. 209 ; 1876;. 
 
 After just ten years, I think I have hit upon a possible, 
 perhaps a probable, solution of this phrase, which seems 
 hitherto to have baffled every one. It occurs in Mr. Furni- 
 wall's Babees Book, p. 22, note 14, where a tract for teaching 
 children courtesy is thus entitled. One title of the tract is 
 The Lytylle Childrenes Lytil Boke, and the other is given by 
 the line, ' Lerny the thys boke that ys called Edyllys be.' My 
 view of the matter is that it means 'these be secrets,' and 
 thus the phrase means no more than ' learn these secrets 
 which will teach you true courtesy.' This idea pervades 
 the whole tract. I proceed to show how it is possible for 
 the word edyllys to mean 'secrets,' though I should be 
 prepared to maintain that the word is not very correctly 
 applied, but only used, in a freak, by a writer who scarcely 
 knew the true sense of a word which, even in the fifteenth 
 century, was obsolescent. Even if my solution be incorrect, 
 it will teach something by the way, and afford some cor- 
 rections for the dictionaries. 
 
 The A. S. hydels means a hiding-place. It is not very 
 common, perhaps, but regularly derived from hydan, to 
 hide. It occurs in the Rushworth MS. of the Northum- 
 brian Gospels, where the phrase ' speluncam latronum ' 
 (Mark xi. 17) is glossed by 'cofa vel hydels Seafana,' 
 a cove or a hiding-place of thieves. Upon this I would 
 observe as follows : 
 
 i. Mr. Wedgwood, in his long article on cove, ignores
 
 ' EDYLLYS BE.' 105 
 
 the A. S. cofa, which, however, is cited by Mahn and 
 E. Muller. 
 
 2. In Lye's Dictionary the reference for cofa is wrongly 
 given as ' Mat. xi. 17.' For ' Mat.' read ' Mk.' 
 
 3. In Bosworth's Dictionary the reference is still more 
 wrongly given as ' Mat. xi. i.' 
 
 4. The word hyd-els belongs to the set of substantives 
 with the suffix -els, on which see March's A. -S. Grammar. 
 p. 1 20. Other examples are: rcedels, a riddle; mete/s, 
 a dream ; byrigels, a sepulchre ; and others, for which see 
 Koch, Englische Grammatik, iii. 44. 
 
 5. The ending in s is deceptive ; such words are easily 
 mistaken for plurals, just as eaves is often mistaken for 
 a plural. Yet the plural eveses occurs in Piers the Plow- 
 man, B. 17. 227. 
 
 6. Mr. Halliwell, in his Dictionary, has fallen, I think, 
 into the trap. He gives hide I as a singular substantive, 
 though it is quite an improper form, and the sole example 
 which he offers is a sentence saying that 'they went and 
 helde thame in hidilsj i. e., in a hiding-place. See several 
 more examples in Stratmann, s. v. hudels, which is the form 
 which the word takes in the Ancren Riwle. 
 
 7. Hence, naturally enough, as the word became obso- 
 lescent, the false form hidel or hiddel arose, with a false 
 plural hideles or hiddelis. Of this there is an example in 
 Barbour's Bruce (bk. v. 1. 306, of my edition), where Sir 
 James Douglas is said to have lurked 'in hyddilis and in 
 preuate,' that is, in hiding-places and in privacy. Here -is 
 is the usual Lowland Scottish plural ending, used as a false 
 interpretation of the s in the A. S. suffix -els. 
 
 8. The word hiddel being once thus manufactured, the 
 sense of it had to be modified. It was then supposed to 
 mean 'a secret.' The proof is in the existence of the 
 adverb hiddil or hid/ins, used in the sense of secretly, whilst 
 the men of Perthshire and Fife developed the verb to hiddle,
 
 ic6 ' IV1CKS ' OF THE MOUTH. 
 
 in the sense of to conceal or keep secret. For these words 
 see Jamieson's Dictionary. 
 
 9. I conclude that, hiddil being thus at length falsely 
 formed, and supposed to mean ' a secret,' the word hiddilis 
 would, of course, at times mean ' secrets.' The dropping of 
 the h would give idillis or ydyllys, from which the change 
 to edyllys is easy enough. We have just such changes in 
 the case of tiie A. S. yrnan, to run, which is spelt irnen, 
 urnen, eornen (all three), in Layamon, and ernen in the 
 Castle of Love, 1. 730, whilst the h appears in the Somerset- 
 shire form to him. 
 
 10. If it be granted that edyllys can mean secrets, there 
 is little difficulty in edyllys be being used to mean ' these be 
 secrets.' 
 
 [I find no reference to edyllys in the New Eng. Dictionary. 
 Cf. hidel-like, secretly, in Genesis and Exodus, 2882 ; and 
 see hudels in Stratmann.] 
 
 125. 'Wicks' of the Mouth (5 S. vi. 271 ; 1876). 
 
 I would beg leave to recommend that all who are in 
 search of information concerning provincial English words 
 should consult Halliwell's Dictionary. I have long observed 
 that it is very rarely that words are inquired about which are 
 not to be found there. In the present case, ' Wikes, the 
 corners of the mouth,' is duly inserted therein. 
 
 The word was noted by Ray more than two hundred 
 years ago. See the reprint of Ray's Collection in the English 
 Dialect Society's publications, p. 74. 
 
 Thoresby, in 1 703, made the note, ' Waivks, the, or corners 
 of the mustachios.' This is also reprinted in the same volume, 
 p. 108. 
 
 In Bailey's Dictionary, ed. 1735, * s tne entry, The u>ikes 
 of the mouth, the corners of the mouth, N. C. ' ; where 
 ' N. C.' means ' North Country.' 
 
 Brockett, in the first edition of his North Country Words,
 
 FEN: FEND. 107 
 
 in 1825, has ' Wiks, wicks, corners; as, the wiks of the 
 mouth. Su.-Goth. wik, angulus.' 
 
 I find it also in Grose's Glossary, ed. 1790 ; in the Teesdule 
 Glossary, 1849; in Mr. Atkinson's Cleveland Glossary; in 
 the Whitby Glossary, where it is also spelt weaks ; and 
 I suppose it may be found in half a dozen other books, 
 as it is not likely that a glossary of Northern English would 
 omit it. 
 
 The word is Scandinavian, viz. Icel. vik; Old Swedish 
 wik, a corner ; Dan. mund-vig, the corner of the mouth. 
 It is closely related to a verb which is represented by the 
 Icel. vikja, to turn, to recede ; cf. G. weichen, Gk. e"/ceiv. 
 
 126. Fen: Fend (5 S. vi. 412 ; 1876). 
 The exclamation ' fen placings ' is short for ' I fend 
 placings,' i.e. I forbid them. Fend is used for defend in 
 Middle English (see Halliwell) ; and defend in olden times 
 often meant to forbid. In place of fen, some boys say 
 'fain;' hence the unmeaning expression, 'fain I,' used to 
 signify ' I decline that.' It really stands for ' I forbid you 
 to choose me.' 
 
 127. The phrase ' He dare not.' I (5 S. vii. 173 ; 1877). 
 I wish that correspondents who are zealous for the purity 
 of English would learn a little about the matter before 
 proceeding to lay down the law. The phrase ' He dare not ' 
 (though, perhaps, going out of fashion) is of course quite 
 right. Dare is one of the verbs which use an old past tense 
 for a present, and 'he dares' is, grammatically, as bad as 
 ' he mays,' or ' he cans,' or ' he shalls? This fact is perfectly 
 familiar to any one who has ever seen an old English MS. 
 of any value or age. The appearance of ' he dares ' in 
 a thirteenth-century or even in a fourteenth-century MS. 
 would brand it as a forgery, just as poor Chatterton thought 
 that its was good fifteenth-century English. The phrase 
 ' He dear ' occurs in Beowulf, \. 684, which I do not think
 
 108 THE USE OF 'DARE.' 
 
 could have been written by ' one of the Kingsleys ' [who was 
 credited with inventing he dare\. 
 
 128. The use of Dare.' II (5 S. vii. 371 ; 187). 
 
 I think our good friend C. S. need not have repeated 
 his protest, because all readers of English can judge for 
 themselves, and I hope the time is coming when students 
 really will do so, and then questions like the present will 
 cease to be a matter of opinion at all. He now appeals to 
 the facts, as is quite right ; only, unluckily for him, the facts 
 are the other way. 
 
 It is needless to prove this, for it has been already 
 admitted. His first protest against the use of dare was due 
 to the fact that he supposed it to be modern. He now 
 objects to it because it has been shown to be old. The 
 admitted fact is that it is both. The statement that ' dares, 
 dared, and durst have been used, and used exclusively, by 
 good English writers for the last two or three centuries ' is 
 a mere mistake. Dare has also been used, as we all know 
 (for we have all read the Bible, Job xli. 10, and Shakespeare), 
 as well as the other forms, but not quite so freely, because 
 authors have probably been a little afraid of it 1 . Before 
 making any wild statements, C. S. should have looked at 
 his Shakespearian grammar, and he would have found ' But 
 this thing dare not,' quoted from The Tempest, iii. 2. 63. 
 with the remark that dare is ' stronger than dares.' 
 Dr. Abbott quotes an excellent example of the indiscri- 
 minate use of dare and dares from Beaumont and Fletcher, 
 Faithful Shepherd, iii. i : 
 
 ' Here boldly spread thy hands ; no venomed weed 
 Dares blister them, no slimy snail dare creep.' 
 
 1 I find it in the first book I open : 
 
 'And scarce an arm dare rise to guard its head.' 
 
 Byron, Corsair, c. ii. 
 'And who dare question aught that he decides.' 
 
 Id., c. i. st. 8.
 
 THE USE OF 'DARE.' 109 
 
 As to the present use of the word, we might learn some- 
 thing from the dialect of our peasantry. Surely no country- 
 man uses 'he dares '; at least, I have never heard it. But 
 I can certify that I have heard, ' He dar'n't do it,' and, ' He 
 dus'n't do it ' (which, like ' I dus'n't do it,' is for ' durst 
 not,' i. e. would not dare, the past tense subjunctive), at 
 least a score of times; and I suppose the experience of others 
 is much the same. 
 
 If the appeal is to the facts, let us abide by the facts. 
 Now the facts are that the modern usage admits of ' he dare 
 not/ and ' he dares not,' both in the present tense ; and of 
 ' he durst not ' and ' he dared not,' both in the past tense. 
 Only, as is often the case when there are double forms, 
 these are being gradually differentiated, and will some day 
 be used differently. Already ' he dared not ' is beginning 
 to be used more with reference to direct assertions, and ' he 
 durst not ' with respect to hypotheses. See Matzner, Eng. 
 Grammatik, vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 4. If your correspondent 
 really means, as I suspect he does, that dare is going out of 
 fashion, and will, if no longer wanted in indirect clauses, 
 probable become obsolete, then I quite agree with him. 
 But it is a very different way of putting the matter ; and it 
 is well to remember that all ' protests ' are perfectly useless, 
 and are so much effort thrown away. The language will go 
 its own way, and the effect of critical dicta upon it has at 
 all times been ridiculously small, except, perhaps, in a few 
 cases ; of which I can, however, recall none. 
 
 I hope it will be every day better understood that our 
 plain duty is, before we criticize, to study the phenomena 
 and to investigate the history. The notion that the study 
 of Old English has nothing to do with Modern English is 
 becoming obsolescent, and it will be a good thing when it 
 is obsolete. But let me not be misunderstood to mean that 
 the study of Old English is all-sufficient. I mean nothing 
 less. We must study Old English, Middle English, Modern
 
 110 CHAUCER'S PROLOGUE, L. 152; TRETYS. 
 
 English, and Dialectal English, all with equal care, and 
 range over the whole literature of every date, if we would 
 wish our remarks to be worth reading. I am very sorry if, 
 by the expressions used by C. S., he thinks I have answered 
 him unfairly ; for the study of English can make its own 
 way, and needs not to be supported by any rudeness. 
 I think, if my remarks be read again, it will be seen that 
 the plainness of speech was no more than was fairly suited 
 to the occasion. I do not see on what principle assertions 
 are to be respected, when they are made in direct violation 
 of historical facts. And for myself, I can promise that, 
 when shown to have made an error, I will own it quite as 
 frankly as I point out errors elsewhere. 
 
 129. Chaucer's Prologue. 1. 152; Tretys (5 S. vii. 291 ; 
 
 1877). 
 
 The commentators on Chaucer have certainly taken small 
 pains about explaining the reading tretys, which is perfectly 
 right, streyt being but a gloss on it. Surely it is rather rash 
 to pronounce a word in Chaucer to be wrong, without even 
 so much as glancing at Tynvhitt's ' Glossary ' to see whether 
 it occurs elsewhere ! I do not say that the particular trans- 
 lation of the Romaunt of the Rose which we possess is 
 Chaucer's version *, but I do say that the word tretys occurs 
 twice in it 11. 1016, 1216 ; and that Tyrwhitt gives the 
 references. Here are the passages : 
 
 'As whyt as lily or rose on rys, 
 Her face gentil and tretys.' 
 
 ' Her nose was wrought at point devys, 
 For it was gentil and tretys.' 
 
 Here we have tretys applied to a nose. We see that it is 
 accented on the second syllable ; also, it rimes with rys 
 
 1 [I now say that Fragment A of the Romaunt (11. 1-1705) really is 
 Chaucer's own ; and both the quotations for tretys here cited occur 
 within it.]
 
 SWEET-HEART. Ill 
 
 (Mid. Eng. for bough, and pronounced as Mod. Eng. rees) ; 
 and again with devys. We also see that nose, properly 
 a dissyllable, was pronounced (occasionally, at least) almost 
 as a monosyllable, the final e being very light; see 1. 123 
 of the Prologue. The word tretys is really common enough 
 in Old French, which students of Middle English might 
 study to some advantage. Roquefort gives seven spellings 
 of it, and a quotation from the Roman de Gerard de Nevers. 
 And Bartsch, in his Chrestomathie Franfaise, has, ' Traitis. 
 doux, joli, bien fait, suss, niedlich, hiibsch,' giving explana- 
 tions both in French and German, to show that he at least 
 knows the word well. Instances in Bartsch are given at 
 pp. 122, 178, 1 90 : 
 
 ' Plaint et sospir, qui d'amor vienent, 
 Sont molt traitis, pres del coer tienent.' 
 
 Roman <t Eneas. 
 ' Membres orent bien fais, vis formes et fraitis.' 
 
 Roman cTAlixandre. 
 ' Clere ot le face, le vis fraitis ases.' 
 
 Huon de Bo deaux. 
 
 Thus it was specially used as an epithet of the features. 
 I think this may suffice for the present, though of course 
 many more examples of so common a word may easily be 
 found. My experience of the Chaucer MSS. is this, that 
 when the Ellesmere, Hengwrt, and Cambridge MSS. agree, 
 it is fifty to one that they are right. It is not a question of 
 the number of the MSS. that give the reading, but of their 
 value. The Harleian MS., beautifully written as it is, really 
 exhibits several inferior readings ; and the Lansdowne MS. 
 is a very poor one. 
 
 130. Sweet-heart (5 S. ix. in ; 1878). 
 
 The origin of this phrase is much earlier than O. W. T. 
 supposes. It is due to Chaucer, and to his great influence. 
 In Troilus and Creseide, bk. iii. 1. 988, we have, ' Lo ! herte 
 mine ! ' In the next stanza is ' my dere herte ' ; and, lastly,
 
 112 BUCKLES ON SHOES. 
 
 in 1. 1173, the phrase, ' swete herte myn, Creseide.' 1 The 
 talk about its derivation from swetard^ is all sheer inven- 
 tion, and we may draw two morals : (i) that Chaucer has 
 been neglected by the authorities ; and (2) that some etymo- 
 logies are too clever to be true. Ingenuity is the sworn foe 
 of true philology. 
 
 131. Buckles on Shoes (5 S. ix. 433 ; 1878). 
 
 There are numerous examples of buckles on belts or 
 girdles. Thus we have ' the bocle of the gerdle ' (Ayenbitt 
 of Inwit, ed. Morris, p. 236). As to buckles on shoes, they 
 were certainly used in the fourteenth century. There is 
 a well-known line in Chaucer, alluding to St. Mark, i. 7, 
 ' Ne were worthy vnbokele his galoche ' (Squieres Tale, C. T. 
 Group F, 555). Wyclif uses the word thwong, i.e- thong, 
 not buckle. 
 
 132. ' Sparling' (5 S. x. 392 ; 1878). 
 
 A sparling or Sperling is a kind of small fish ; some say 
 a smelt. The word occurs in Specimens of English, ed. 
 Morris and Skeat, p. 90, 1. 48. The cognate German form 
 is Spierling; but the Dutch has spiering. The root is 
 uncertain. The G. Sperling, meaning a sparrow, is a 
 different word (see Kluge). A moment's reflection will 
 show that the Fr. eperlan stands for an Old Fr. esperlan, 
 which is merely the Teutonic word in a French dress. To 
 derive the English from the French word is impossible ; the 
 stream runs the other way. 
 
 133. Embezzle, its etymology (5 S. x. 461 ; 1878). 
 
 [I wrote a long article on this word, which was only par- 
 tially right. It is a compound from the verb to bezzle, for 
 
 1 [Not the only quotation ; swete herte occurs in Chaucer very 
 many times.] 
 
 2 [No one pretends to have found a quotation for this imaginary 
 form.]
 
 EMBEZZLE, ITS ETYMOLOGY. 113 
 
 which see the New Eng. Dictionary. But it was frequently 
 regarded (as I endeavoured to show) as being connected 
 with imbed/, which we now pronounce imbecile. I subjoin 
 the quotations, which give some idea of the way in which it 
 was formerly used.] 
 
 Some of the chief quotations for this word are the 
 following : 
 
 i. 'These wicked wretches, these houndes of hell, 
 As I have told playn here in this sentence, 
 Were not content my dere love thus to quell, 
 But yet they must embesile his presence, 
 As I perceive, by covert violence; 
 They have him conveyed to my displeasure, 
 For here is left but naked sepulture.' 
 
 Lament of Mary Magdalen, st. 39. 
 
 In this fifteenth-century poem, often printed in Chaucer's 
 works to fill up the place of his lost poem, entitled Origenes 
 upon the Maudeleyne, Mary laments that the soldiers have 
 embezzled, i. e. taken away, the body of her Lord. 
 
 2. ' I concele, I embesyll a thynge, I kepe a thing secret. I embesell. 
 I hyde or consoyle [read conseyle], Je cele. I embesyll a thynge, or 
 put it out of the way, Je substrays. He that embtsylleth "a thyng 
 intendeth to steale it if he can convoye it clenly.' Palsgrave's French 
 Diet., temp. Hen. VIII. 
 
 Observe that here to embezzle is not to steal, but to prepare 
 to steal. It means, then, to take away Q? put aside, with the 
 intention of filching. 
 
 3. ' Embler, to steal, filch, lurch, pilfer, nim, purloin, itnbezel, convey 
 away.' Cotgrave's French Diet. 
 
 4. Imbeseled is used as equivalent to 'conveyed out of the waye.' 
 Brende, Quintits Cmiius, fol. 275. 
 
 5. ' Imbesselledzudi conueighed away underhand.' North'sP/Mfa/rA, 
 p. 358 (Richardson). 
 
 6. 'Without any concealment or imbezling.' Milton, Observations 
 on Peace with the Irish. 
 
 These examples show the modern sense, nearly ; but the 
 following are more curious : 
 
 I
 
 114 EMBEZZLE, ITS ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 7. 'Of this full well thou art resolude [resolved] 
 
 before Kyng Tullie gan 
 So tyrannous a monarchic 
 
 imbecelyng freedome, than, 
 By vertues spray, the basest borne 
 
 might be the noblest man.' 
 
 Drant, tr. of Horace, Sat. i. 6, 11. 8-n. 
 
 Imbecelyng is weakening, detracting from ; there is nothing 
 answering to it in the Latin. 
 
 8. ' Those wryng and wrest the meaner sorte 
 
 whose myndes and tongues are free, 
 And so imbecill all theyr strengthe 
 that they are naught to me.' 
 
 Drant, tr. of Horace, Sat. i. 5. 
 
 9. ' This is imbeselynge and diminyshe [diminution] of their power 
 and dominion, many landes and people falling from them.' Udall, 
 Revelation, c. 16. 
 
 10. ' Princes must ... be guardians of pupils and widows, not 
 suffering their persons to be oppressed, or their states imbedlled.' 1 
 Bp. Taylor, Holy Living, c. iii. s. 2, subsect. 8. 
 
 11. ' It is a sad calamity that the fear of death shall so imbecill 
 man's courage and understanding.' Bp. Taylor, Holy Dying, c. iii. 
 s. 7, subsect. i. 
 
 Hence also to imbezzle means to diminish from one's own 
 substance by squandering it away, just as much as it means 
 to diminish from the store of others by taking things to one- 
 self ; this is because the true sense is merely to diminish, 
 without reference to the manner of it. 
 
 12. 'What, when thou hast embezefd all thy store?' 
 
 Dryden, Persius, Sat. vi. 
 
 13. Religion ' will not allow us to embezzle our money in drinking 
 or gaming.' Sharp, vol. i. ser. i. 
 
 PS. to 133 ; added in N. and Q. 5 S. xi. 30. 
 A friend has kindly sent me a good new quotation. He 
 writes : In a letter from Reginald (afterwards Cardinal) 
 Pole to Henry VIII, dated July 7, 1530, he speaks of the 
 consultation of divines at Paris in the king's ' great matter,' 
 and says it was ' achieved ' according to the king's purpose.
 
 GORILLA. 115 
 
 The adverse party, he adds, use every means to embecyll 
 the whole determination, that it may not take effect. See 
 Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, of the Reign 
 of Henry VIII, ed. Brewer, vol. iv. pt. iii. p. 2927. Another 
 friend tells me that he has often heard the word imbecile 
 accented imbecile, which is to the purpose. 
 
 134. Gorilla (5 S. xi. 205; 1879). 
 
 It is well known that this word occurs in the Periplus or 
 Circumnavigation of Hanno the Carthaginian. As the book 
 may not be known to some readers, I make a note of the 
 passage. The original treatise, written probably in Punic, 
 is lost, but a Greek translation has come down to us, from 
 which a Latin translation was also made. The treatise is 
 a very short one, and the passage about the gorillas occurs 
 just at the end of it. I quote from an edition printed in 
 1675, which contains both the Latin and Greek trans- 
 lations : 
 
 ' Erant autem multo plures viris mulieres. corporibus hirsutae, quas 
 interpretes nostri Gorillas vocabant. [Greek text as ol ip^vtis 
 tKaXovv yo/xAAa?]. Nos persequendo virum capere ullum nequivimus : 
 omnes enim per praecipitia, quae facile scandebant, et lapides in nos 
 conjiciebant, evaserunt. Foeminas tamen cepimus tres, quas, cum 
 mordendo et lacerando abducturis reniterentur, occidimus, et pelles 
 eis detractas in Carthaginem retulimus.' 
 
 I. e. there were many more females than males, with their 
 bodies covered with hair, whom our interpreters called 
 gorillas. We could never take a male by pursuing him ; 
 for they all got away up the precipices, which they easily 
 climbed, whence they threw stones at us. But we caught 
 three females, which, because they struggled with their 
 captors by biting and tearing, we slew ; and having skinned 
 them, we took their skins home to Carthage. 
 
 In Smith's Dictionary we are told that the Periplus 
 was also edited by Falconer in 1797, with an English 
 translation. 
 
 I 2
 
 Tl6 IVAPPERED. 
 
 135. Wappered (5 S. xi. 264 ; 1879). 
 
 The form wappened in Shakespeare is an old crux. 
 Without wishing to discuss again what has been already- 
 discussed too much, I will merely make a note that I have 
 found either the word itself, or something like it. In 
 Caxton's translation of Reynard the /foe (1481), edit. Arber, 
 p. 16, is a description of the sufferings of poor Bruin when 
 beguiled by the fox. All the village came out against 
 him. 
 
 ' They were alle fiers and wroth on the here, grete and smal ; ye, 
 Hughelyn wyth the croked lege, and Ludolf with the brode longe 
 noose [nose] : they were booth wroth. That one had an leden malle. 
 and that other a grete leden wapper ; therwyth they wappred and al 
 for-slyngred hym.' 
 
 I do not remember seeing the remarkable verb to for- 
 sfynger before. As usual, the suffix -er is frequentative, 
 and to wapper means to beat continually, from the verb 
 ivap or whop, to beat. For-slynger is a similar frequenta- 
 tive of sling, with the intensive prefix for. 
 
 136. The word ' Eighteen ' in Chaucer (5 S. xi. 503 : 
 
 1879). 
 
 A good deal turns upon Chaucer's spelling of the word 
 eighteen, because the dates of the days on which the tales 
 are supposed to be told depend upon the reading in the 
 fifth line of the dialogue prefixed to the Man of Law's 
 Prologue. All this I have explained at much length in my 
 notes upon this line and upon 1. 3, in the Clarendon Press 
 edition of the Prioress's Tale, &c. I have there shown that the 
 abbreviation ' xviij. the ' is to be written at length eightetethe, 
 and the word has four syllables. Similarly, if Chaucer has 
 the word for eighteen, it must be eightetene, in four syllables. 
 I have just found the right line ; and here it is, as printed 
 in Tyrwhitt's edition :
 
 THE WORD 'EIGHTEEN' IN CHAUCER. II 7 
 
 ' Of eighteen yere she was, I gesse, of age.' 
 
 Cant. Tales, 1. 3223. 
 
 Of course, the reader will exclaim that the word is mani- 
 festly a mere dissyllable, or the line cannot be scanned. 
 But if the matter be considered carefully, it will be found 
 that it proves exactly the converse. Turn to any old edition, 
 and what do we find ? 
 
 ' Of eightene yere she was of age.' Ed. 1532. 
 
 So also in ed. 1561. Both these editions have the line in 
 this form, in spite of the fact that it will not scan. This is 
 very significant. 
 
 Let us now turn to the splendid six-text edition, and 
 consult the best MSS. Five of these have the line thus : 
 ; Of xviij. yeer she was of age.' 
 
 The sixth, the Cambridge MS., has the same reading, but 
 expands ' xviij. ' as eightene, incorrectly. The Harleian 
 MS., as printed by Wright, has eyghteteene, which is per- 
 fectly correct ; but whether the word is written at length in 
 the MS., or whether Mr. Wright expanded it from 'xviij.', 
 I do not know \ It does not much matter, as the form 
 eighte is amply justified by the A.S. eahta, and the forms 
 eightetene, eightetethe, by the A.S. eahtatine, eahtateoda. 
 We may safely conclude that the words I gesse, inserted by 
 Tyrwhitt, resting on no respectable authority 2 , are to be 
 discarded ; also that eighteen must, consequently, be ex- 
 panded into four syllables instead of two ; and, lastly, that 
 the reading eightetethe in the other passage is amply 
 supported. 
 
 It is not a little consolation to find that the old editions 
 of 1532 and 1561 both have eightene in the Matt of Law 
 passage. These old editions are, in fact, of some value ; 
 
 1 [It is written at length in the MS. ' ey5teteene.'] 
 1 [Really, on no authority. ' The words / gesse are not in the 
 MSS.' Tynvhitt.]
 
 Il8 HUNDRED. 
 
 they are quite unsophisticated l , and follow the words of 
 the old MSS., without regard to the spelling or scansion. 
 They are, accordingly, unprejudiced witnesses, and deserve 
 attention. 
 
 137. Hundred (5 S. xii. 24 ; 1879). 
 
 Mr. Wedgwood explains the hund- in hundred as ' a 
 docked form of taihun, ten ' ; the suffix -red being equivalent 
 to A.S. r&d, with the sense of ' rate.' This is very nearly 
 right, but we may approach a little closer still. The Gothic 
 taihunte-hund, a hundred, is equivalent to ' of tens the 
 tenth Y and hund is a docked form of taihund, tenth, the 
 ordinal, not the cardinal number. It is equivalent, in fact, 
 to the -enth in tenth, and to the -ithe in tithe. It is worth 
 noting that the word is similarly docked in other languages. 
 Thus, Lat. centum is short for decentum, tenth, an old 
 ordinal form from decem, ten ; the suffix -turn answering to 
 E. -th by Grimm's law. Gk. e/caroV is for e-Karov. where 
 -KO.TOV is for SeKarov, tenth. The Skt. fata, a hundred, also 
 appears in the form dacati, lit. tenth, from da$an, ten. We 
 also find Skt. dafat, meaning an aggregate of ten, a decade. 
 The Lithuanian szimtas, a hundred, is short for deszimtas, 
 tenth. It will be easily seen that there is not merely 
 a docking of the form for tenth, but an absolute omission 
 of the form for ' of tens ' as well. Thus the Latin centum 
 really does duty for decentornm-decentum, and so on. It 
 was a very pardonable abbreviation, and arose from dealing 
 with large numbers. Thus the Gothic for 100 is taihunte- 
 hund, as above stated ; but the Gothic for 200 is simply 
 twa hunda, a neut. plural form used as an abbreviation for 
 tiva taihunte-(tai}hunda, which was naturally found to be too 
 long for practical purposes. The same abbreviation was 
 
 1 [Not qut'fe, but to a great extent. Thynne actually altered kyte 
 to cur in 1. 1179.] 
 
 2 See Brugmann, iii. 179 (in the translation).
 
 SIDE MEN. 119 
 
 used for any number of hundreds beyond the first. We 
 thus get a complete solution of the word. Similarly the 
 Gk. -/carov really stands for Se/carwv Se'/caroi', and so on. 
 There is practically a loss of a word and a bittock, not 
 of a single letter. 
 
 138. Sidemen (5 S. xii. 31 ; 1879). 
 I do not think Mr. Marshall has left much to be said. 
 Surely the etymology from side and man is quite sufficient. 
 The Latin assistens means little else ; it is only ' one who 
 stands (or is) beside.' The absurd attempt to make sides- 
 men stand for synodsmen is just one of those fancies which 
 were so abundant in the sixteenth century, when it seems to 
 have been held that all English was derived from Latin and 
 Greek, and that there was no originality in it. We find 
 side-bench, side-board, and side-wagh (i. e. side-wall) all in 
 the Middle-English period. Hence side-man is a perfectly 
 consistent and intelligible formation. We need seek no 
 further. 
 
 139. Division of Words into Syllables (5 S. xii. 42 : 
 
 1879). 
 
 It is qurious to observe the rules which have grown up 
 for dividing English words into syllables. In practice these 
 rules are ready and convenient enough, and have the great 
 merit of following the rules for pronunciation. In other 
 words, they are usually phonetically correct ; so that there 
 is no reason for altering them. But it may still be worth 
 while to show that, from a purely theoretical Q* etymological 
 point of view, they break down entirely, and constantly con- 
 tradict the theory of the words' origin. A few examples 
 will make this clear. 
 
 The rough-and-ready rule is, I suppose, in practice, this. 
 Begin a new syllable with a consonant rather than a vowel, 
 and if two consonants come together, put the former into 
 one syllable, and the latter into another. I take up a well-
 
 120 'WAR1SH.' 
 
 known handy edition of Pickwick Papers, and I find the 
 following examples in the opening pages : Impera-tive, 
 explana-tion, unques-tionably, asto-nishment, conti-nued, 
 impu-dence, solilo-quize, peru-sal, pros-perity, fes-tivity, 
 counte-nance, uncer-tain, distin-guished, plea-sure, par-tide, 
 princi-pals, indivi-dual. I omit others which are less odd. 
 Nearly every one of these is, etymologically and theoreti- 
 cally, misdivided, as may easily appear to a Latin scholar. 
 Even those who know no Latin must perceive that we 
 should never think of writing peru-se (cf. peru-sal), feas-t 
 (cf. fes-tivity), plea-se (cf. plea-sure), par-t (cf. par-ticle), or 
 divi-de (cf. indivi-dual). In many cases, the root or base is 
 cut right in half. Thus, ' continue ' and ' countenance ' are 
 from the base TEN, ' impudence ' from PUD, ' soliloquize ' 
 from LOQ, ' prosperity ' from SPE, ' distinguished ' from 
 STING, ' principal ' from CAP. These examples may serve to 
 remind us that our present rules (doubtless convenient, 
 easy, phonetic, and sufficient) nevertheless frequently pro- 
 duce forms which give no hint as to the true form of the 
 verbal root. 
 
 [This requires further explanation. I merely mean that 
 such word-division has nothing to do with etymology. From 
 a practical point of view, it is right, being based on true 
 phonetic principles, i. e. on the spoken language. We 
 really do say ' im-pu-dence.' It is only when we take the 
 word to pieces, for etymological purposes, that we at last 
 discover that it is formed from im- (for in), the base -pud-, 
 and the suffix -ence. Practice is here one thing, and theory 
 another. The spoken language \\&s pe-ruse at one moment, 
 and pe-ru-sal at another ; it rightly regards ease of utterance, 
 and nothing else.] 
 
 14O. 'Warish' (5 S. xii. 238; 1879). 
 
 The word warish (i. e. to cure) occurs in Chaucer, Cant. 
 Tales, 12840 (ed. Tyrwhitt) or C. 906 (ed. Skeat) ; in Piers
 
 ORIGIN OF THE WORD ' GARRET.' 121 
 
 Plowman, B. xvi. 105 (E. E. T. S.) ; and in William of 
 Paler ne, 1. 4283 (E. E. T. S.). It is not derived from the 
 French guerir, which is a modern word, but from the stem 
 waris- of warisant, the pres. part, of warir, an O. French 
 word of Teutonic origin, represented by guerir in the 
 modern language. The O. F. warir became garir, whence 
 also garite, a watch-tower, E. garret. Garir became 
 guarir, as in Cotgrave, and lastly guerir. It is connected, 
 etymologically, with ware and wary. 
 
 141. Origin of the word * Garret ' (5 S. xii. 351 ; 1879). 
 
 I do not admit that F. galetas, a garret, which is rightly 
 derived by Littre from Galata, is the same word as our 
 garret! Why should I, or where is there a tittle of 
 evidence to that effect ? Littre does not say anything of 
 the kind ; he merely says that galetas means a garret, not 
 that the words are the same. Of course the M. E. garite 
 and the F. galetas both meant at one time an upper 
 chamber, and they now mean a garret; but this does not 
 identify the words it is only one more proof that similar 
 words are apt to run together. Until Mr. P. can produce 
 historical proof that the words garite and galetas (which 
 Cotgrave separates, and which Littre and Diez practically 
 separate by assigning different origins to them) were origin- 
 ally identical, his whole case breaks down. If the words be 
 examined, they are not particularly alike. The interchange 
 of r and / is, of course, common ; but garite has i in the 
 second syllable and terminates in e, whilst galetas has e in 
 the second syllable and terminates in -as. Modern philo- 
 logy exacts that vowel-changes should be accounted for. 
 
 The old use of the words seem to me frequently different. 
 Galetas was, most often, a chamber in a castle or mansion. 
 But garite, though afterwards assimilated to galetas in use, 
 was a military term, and could be used to mean a watch- 
 tower for sentinels. It occurs in this sense in the Alexander
 
 122 LABURNUM. 
 
 Romance, ed. Stevenson, 1. 1417. But we do not find 
 galetas, so spelt, with the same sense in Early French. 
 And if we did, the difference of form would have to be 
 accounted for. I may add that I find myself not alone in 
 the belief that the proposed identification is a mistake. 
 
 142. Laburnum (5 S. xii. 416 ; 1879). 
 
 The Notes on Natural History, cited by Mr. S., must be 
 an amusing book if it contains many suggestions like that 
 of the derivation of laburnum from Fare bois. Once more, 
 for about the tenth time, let me press the value of chronology 
 in etymology. How could Pliny, who uses the word 
 laburnum, have learnt French before French was invented ? 
 
 143. 'Leer' = Hungry (5 S. xii. 431 ; 1879). 
 
 Certainly lear or leer means ' empty ' in some dialects, as 
 in the excellent Wiltshire song by Akerman of the Hornet 
 and the Beetle, cited in the preface to Halliwell's Dictionary, 
 ' His bill was shearp, his stomach lear' The Middle- 
 English form is lere, as in Rob. of Gloucester, ed. Hearne, 
 p. 81. Cf. A. S. /iernes, emptiness (Bosworth) ; O. Du. 
 laer, 'voyd, or emptie' (Hexham). The original sense 
 seems to have been ' gleaned,' from A. S. lesan, prov. E. 
 lease, to glean. So also the O. H. G. Idre, empty, G. leer ; 
 from O. H. G. lesan, G. lesen '. 
 
 144. 'Apple-cart' (5 S. xii. 472 ; 1879). 
 
 Brogden did well in claiming this as a Lincolnshire word, 
 as he had no doubt heard it there. But it is more general. 
 I used to hear it in Kent in my earliest days. If a child 
 falls down, you first inquire if he is much hurt. If he is 
 
 1 [Suggested in Schade, from Grimm. It is just possible, as the pt. 
 pi. stem of A. S. lesan was las-. Kluge suggests a connexion with 
 Goth, las-iws, weak, which is also possible ; moreover, the pt. s. 
 stem of Goth, lisan (= A. S. lesan'] was las.]
 
 LOCKS LEY HALL. 123 
 
 merely a little frightened, you say, ' Well, never mind, then ; 
 you 've only upset your apple-cart and spilt all the goose- 
 berries.' The child perhaps laughs at the very venerable 
 joke, and all is well again. 
 
 I think the expression is purely jocular, as in the case of 
 'bread-basket,' similarly used to express the body. The 
 body, regarded as a food-carrying machine, is at one time 
 a bread-basket, at another an apple-cart, and so on. It is 
 like expressing growth by the eating of more pudding. 
 
 145. Locksley Hall (5 S. xii. 471 ; 1879). 
 The resemblance of Tennyson's line ' For a sorrow's 
 crown of sorrow is remembering happier things ' to 
 a passage in Chaucer was commented on by Mr. Sala 
 in the Illustrated London News, on the 2oth of last 
 September. I at once informed him that it was pointed 
 out by Dr. Morris, in 1868, that both Chaucer and Dante 
 alike copied from Boethius, De Consolatione Philosophiae, 
 lib. ii. prose 4 : ' Sed hoc est, quod recolentem me vehe- 
 mentius coquit. Nam in omni adversitate fortunae infelicis- 
 simum genus est infortunii, fuisse felicem.' Chaucer's prose 
 translation of this may be seen in Dr. Morris's edition of 
 Chaucer's translation of Boethius, p. 39 : ' For in alle 
 aduersitees of fortune the most unsely kynde of contrarious 
 fortune is to han bene weleful.' The same passage is to 
 be found in King /Elfred's translation of Boethius also. 
 He says : ' Thaet is seo msste unsselth on this andweardan 
 life, thaet mon serest weorthe gessilig, and aefter tham un- 
 gesselig '; i.e. It is the greatest misfortune in this present life, 
 that one be at first happy, and 'afterwards unhappy. 
 
 146. ' Halfen dale' (5 S. xii. 455 ; 1879). 
 This is not 'a tenure' at all, strictly so speaking. It 
 merely means that So-and-so takes the half. If I were to 
 rent the half of a field, I should be said to rent the ' halfen
 
 124 DULCARNON. 
 
 deal.' Halfcn or halven is nothing but the word half \\it\i 
 an old case-ending, and deal is the old word for part or 
 share. It is the usual old expression for it, and deal was 
 a necessary addition at a time when /^//usually meant side; 
 thus the 'right half of a man was his right side. I have 
 seen the phrase ' halven deal ' repeatedly, but can only at 
 present refer to Mandeville's Travels, ed. Halliwell, p. 166. 
 Dale exactly represents an old (Mid. English) pronunciation 
 of the word which we now spell deal, formerly del, deel, 
 or dele. 
 
 147. Dulcarnon (5 S. xii. 454 ; 1879). 
 
 I have explained this word, its etymology, and everything 
 belonging to it at great length, but I forget where ; I think 
 in the Academy '. Briefly to recount the chief points, it 
 comes to this. Dulcarnon, or the 'two-horned,' was an 
 epithet of Alexander. It was also applied, in jest, to the 
 forty-seventh proposition of the first book of Euclid, with 
 its two squares sticking up like horns. Hence it meant 
 a difficult problem, the sense in Chaucer. Besides this, 
 the fifth proposition, now called the asses' bridge, was once 
 called 'the putting to flight of the miserable,' or, as Chaucer 
 calls it, ' the flemyng of the wrecches,' which has the same 
 sense. Chaucer has mixed up the two propositions. 
 
 148. Jamieson's 'Dictionary of the Scottish Language' 
 
 (5 S. xii. 321 ; 1879). 
 
 \An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language, 
 illustrating the Words in their different Significations, etc. 
 By John Jamieson, D.D. A new Edition, carefully revised 
 and collated, with the entire Supplement incorporated, by 
 John Longmuir, A.M., LL.D., and David Donaldson, 
 F.E.I.S. Vol. i. (Paisley, Alexander Gardner.)] 
 
 1 [Now reprinted in my edition of Chaucer, vol. ii. My article did 
 not appear in the Academy, but in the Athenaum, Sept. 23, 1871, 
 p. 393 ; in an unsigned review.]
 
 'DICTIONARY OF THE SCOTTISH LANGUAGE.' 125 
 
 As to the great value of this work, there can be no doubt. 
 The original edition of 1808 has become very scarce, and 
 it was high time that a reprint should be issued. The 
 incorporation of the supplement is a great boon to the 
 student who consults the volume ; he has now only one 
 alphabet to search in, instead of two. This was also 
 one great advantage of the abridged edition published by 
 Nimmo, of Edinburgh, in 1867, which is a most handy and 
 useful volume, giving the words and explanations as in the 
 larger book, but omitting the illustrative quotations and 
 abridging the etymological remarks. Such abridgment, 
 instead of being a loss, was a positive gain ; and in this 
 respect the smaller edition is the better book of the two. 
 But the omission of the splendid selection of illustrative 
 quotation's was a heavy loss ; and on this account we 
 welcome the reprint of the original edition, and wish all 
 success to the undertaking. The reprinting of such a book 
 as Jamieson's Dictionary is a serious and difficult task ; and 
 the editors may as well at once make up their minds to find 
 that their work will hardly give satisfaction. They have 
 taken what is, perhaps, on the whole, the best course, viz., 
 to alter as little as possible, and they are extremely chary of 
 correcting even the most obvious mistake. Thus, if the 
 book is no great improvement on the original edition, it is 
 at least as good ; and even so, it possesses a high and almost 
 unique value. So well known a work needs not that much 
 should be said about it ; most students who are moderately 
 acquainted with Northern English must know something as 
 to the quality of Jamieson's work. His copious collection 
 of words, his explanations, and his quotations are all 
 excellent. The only part of the work which is unsatis- 
 factory is his etymology. This was as good as it could 
 be expected to be at that date, but it has now, unfortu- 
 nately, chiefly only an antiquarian value; and it is some 
 consolation to see what great strides the science of philology
 
 126 'DICTIONARY OF THE SCOTTISH LANGUAGE.' 
 
 has made since the beginning of the present century. His 
 chief avoidable fault was in frequently misspelling or mis- 
 interpreting the foreign words which he cited from the 
 dictionaries then in use. In this respect the editors might 
 advantageously correct obvious blunders, and perhaps they 
 may in some cases have done so ; but this can hardly be 
 determined without a more searching investigation than 
 we have at present the leisure to make. We are glad to 
 see that they have occasionally consulted the corrections 
 made by Prof. Skeat in his edition of Barbour's Bruce, but 
 they do not seem to have done so either from the beginning 
 or sufficiently. Thus the mysterious word allryn, which 
 originated in a mere printer's error for alkyn, still has 
 a place in the vocabulary, without the slightest hint as to 
 its unauthenticity. The articles on apayn and beleif 'are as 
 wrong as ever. The word belene is still to be found, without 
 a hint that it is an error for beleue. The word bredis, though 
 it occurs in Jamieson's own edition of Barbour, is absent 
 from the vocabulary, except in another connexion. 
 
 It deserves to be noted that a correspondent, signing 
 himself J. S., in a communication to the Athenaeum, 
 March 13, 1869, gave the following list of words not in 
 Jamieson : Benner-gowan, bulldairy, boose, clabber, cow- 
 cracker, flapper-bags, gairy, gorachan, kent, kinvaig, peever- 
 alls, peever, semmit, scuddy, shine, teer, teerers ; waebrun, 
 yaws ; also spenser, spud, spods, yochel, otter, kyaw. All 
 of these were explained at the same time. If their arrange- 
 ments permit of it, a fresh supplement of words, due to the 
 industry of the editors themselves, might very well be added 
 at the end of Z. The editors, in fact, promise something of 
 the kind, as they give notice that ' lists of corrigenda and 
 addenda will be collected as the work proceeds, which, when 
 properly sifted and arranged, will form an interesting and 
 valuable addition to the great work by Dr. Jamieson.' If 
 this means that the etymologies will be corrected, they will
 
 'IVYCLIFFE'S NEW TESTAMENT.' 127 
 
 certainly not lack material for an extra volume. That the 
 services of Mr. Donaldson have, at rather a late stage of 
 the first volume, been secured by the publisher, augurs well 
 for the success of the work. That he is ' specially qualified 
 for the work ' there can be little doubt. The present volume 
 contains ' Dr. Jamieson's original Prefaces, his Dissertation 
 on the Origin of the Scottish Language, a List of the Books 
 referred to or quoted by the Author throughout his Dictionary 
 and Supplement, and the list of original subscribers.' Vol. ii. 
 is promised for March, 1880. The work will be completed 
 in four volumes. 
 
 [PS. As here suggested, a fifth and supplemental volume 
 was added, edited by Mr. D. Donaldson, and containing 
 many corrections and additions.] 
 
 149. ' Wycliffe's New Testament' (5 S. xii. 419 ; 1879). 
 
 \The New Testament in English, According to the Version 
 by John Wycliffe about A. D. 1380, and Revised by John 
 Purvey about A. D. 1388. Formerly edited by the Rev. J. 
 Forshall and Sir F. Madden, and now Reprinted. (Oxford, 
 Clarendon Press).] 
 
 It was a great reproach to England that, till about fifty 
 years ago, no adequate attempt was made to give us a full 
 account of Wycliffe's version of the Bible. But at last the 
 task was undertaken, and some reparation to Wycliffe's 
 memory was made by the thorough way in which the 
 editors set about their work. Certainly the Rev. Josiah 
 Forshall and Sir Frederic Madden deserve to be for ever 
 remembered by English scholars for their patience, in- 
 dustry, and accuracy. For twenty-two years they toiled at 
 the task of examining, classifying, choosing, and editing the 
 MSS. They examined no less than 170 manuscripts, and 
 divided them into two sets. One of these sets they distin- 
 guished by the name of the earlier version, principally due 
 to the work of Nicholas de Hereford and John Wycliffe ;
 
 128 'WYCLIFFE'S NEW TESTAMENT.' 
 
 the other set gives us the later version, mainly revised by- 
 John Purvey. As both of the versions are of much im- 
 portance, and the variations between them of high interest, 
 they decided on printing both in extenso, in parallel 
 columns, selecting for this purpose the best manuscript (or 
 manuscripts) of each class and collating it with numerous 
 others, so as to secure, in each instance, a perfectly accurate 
 text. How often they must have read over the whole 
 Bible in English of the fourteenth century it is not easy to 
 tell ; but they must have become more familiar with it than 
 many are with the authorized version at the present day. 
 The result of their labours was published in four splendid 
 quarto volumes in 1850, and has been of great service 
 to English philologists, as well as of great interest to 
 theologians. But the price of the publication, though 
 not a high one when the bulk of it is considered, has 
 placed it beyond the reach of many who would be glad 
 to have it. Accordingly, for the benefit of that increasing 
 class of students who are becoming aware that the Latin 
 grammar alone will never teach English idioms, the Dele- 
 gates of the Clarendon Press have now issued, in one small 
 inexpensive volume, the whole of the New Testament as it 
 stands in the later version, omitting the critical apparatus of 
 various readings, but with an excellent glossary, abridged 
 from the original one and carefully revised. 
 
 The later version was chosen because the English of it is 
 easier, more flowing, and in many respects better ; though 
 the earlier one is of more interest from a purely philological 
 point of view. We hope that the success of the venture 
 will be such as to enable the Delegates, at no very distant 
 date, to issue the Old Testament also '. A short introduc- 
 tion by Prof. Skeat explains the whole history of the book, 
 
 1 The whole of the Old Testament never appeared ; but a subsequent 
 volume was issued, containing Job, the Psalms, the Proverbs, 
 Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon (1881).
 
 A 'PUZZLE' SOLVED. 129 
 
 gives examples comparing the two versions, explains the 
 methods adopted by the editors, and concludes with 
 remarks upon the language. These remarks discuss the 
 dialect, the pronunciation, the spelling, the alphabet, and the 
 vocabulary ; and show how, in some passages, obscurities 
 have arisen which are only to be solved by a comparison 
 with the Latin Vulgate version, from which Wycliffe's trans- 
 lation was made. The reader is thus put in possession of 
 the most material facts necessary for a due appreciation of 
 the text. We here give the parables of the ten virgins, as 
 a specimen of the text itself : 
 
 'Thanne the kyngdoom of heuenes schal be lijk to ten virgyns, 
 \vhiche token her laumpis, and wenten out ayens the hosebonde and 
 the wijf; and fyue of hem 1 weren foolis, and fyue prudent. But the 
 fyue foolis token her laumpis, and token not oile with hem ; but the 
 prudent token oile in her 2 vessels with the laumpis. And whilis the 
 hosebonde tariede, alle thei nappiden and slepten. But at mydnyght 
 a crygh was maad, Lo ! the spouse cometh. go ye oute to mete with 
 him. Thanne alle tho : virgyns risen 4 vp, and araieden her laumpis. 
 And the foolis seiden to the wise, Yyue 5 ye to vs of youre oile, for 
 oure laumpis ben quenchid. The prudent answeriden, and seiden, 
 Lest peraduenture it suffice not to vs and to you, go ye rather to men 
 that sellen, and bie to you. And while they wenten for to bie, the 
 spouse cam ; and tho 3 that weren redi, entreden with him to the 
 weddyngis; and the yate 6 was schit 7 . And at the last the othere 
 virgyns camen, and seiden, Lord, lord, opene to vs. And he 
 answeride, and seide, Treuli Y seie to you, Y knowe you not. 
 Therfor wake" ye, for ye witen 9 not the dai ne the our 10 .' 
 
 150. A 'Puzzle ' solved (6 S. i. 12 ; 1880). 
 
 It is well known that no adequate solution of the word 
 puzzle has ever been offered. I now proceed to solve it. 
 It occurs as a verb in Hamlet, iii. i . 80, and in other passages ; 
 but it was originally a substantive. From its familiar use as 
 
 1 Them. 2 Their. 3 Those. 
 
 4 Rose, past tense plural; sing. roos. 
 
 5 Yyue. yive. give. 6 Gate. 7 Shut. 
 
 8 Watch. Know, plural o/woot. 10 Hour. 
 
 K
 
 130 A ' PUZZLE ' SOLVED. 
 
 a verb it seems to have been regarded as a frequentative 
 form of the verb to pose, with the addition of the usual 
 suffix -/<?; such, indeed, is Skinner's explanation, hitherto 
 accepted only because no better one has yet appeared. 
 The connexion with pose is right, as indeed our instincts 
 assure us ; but the suffix, though long regarded as verbal, 
 is not really so, as will appear. Before proceeding, it 
 is necessary to say a word as to the word pose itself. This is 
 usually regarded as an abbreviation of appose, and this is 
 true ; but we must also go back a step further, and acknow- 
 ledge appose to be an adaptation of oppose. To appose or 
 pose was to propose questions ; examples are plentiful, 
 especially in Richardson's Dictionary, s. v. ' Appose.' But 
 no such sense is commonly found in the French apposer or 
 the Latin apponere. The true Latin word is opponere, which 
 was a regular term in the schools ; see Ducange. The old 
 method of examination was by argument, and the examiner 
 was really an umpire, who decided questions put by an 
 opponent to the examinee, so that the old word for to 
 examine was also opponere. Now it so happened that neat 
 answers were called apposite answers ; and between the 
 opponent on one side, and the apponent (or neat answerer) 
 on the other, a complete confusion easily arose, at any rate 
 in English, as testified by numerous instances. We thus 
 have, as the right order of things, first to oppose in the 
 schools ; secondly, to oppose or appose by asking questions ; 
 and finally to pose, by putting a hard question to a 
 candidate. 
 
 We have numerous words formed from verbs by a suffix 
 -al, as in the case of deni-al, refus-al, and the like. Similarly, 
 a hard question was an oppos-al, and this is the word which 
 has now become puzzle. The whole of this would be but 
 guess-work if it were not that I have been so fortunate as to 
 find the necessary examples which support and elucidate 
 the solution.
 
 A PAIR OF ORGANS. 131 
 
 We are really indebted for it to Dyce's She/ton, which 
 (I say it advisedly) is one of the best edited books in our 
 literature, and a great credit to the honoured name of 
 Alexander Dyce. The references will be found in that 
 book, at vol. i. p. 367, and vol. ii. p. 304, and here they 
 are : 
 
 ' And to pouert she put this opposayle.' 
 Lydgate, Fall of Princes, ed. Wayland, sig. B iii. leaf Ixvi. 
 
 ' Made vnto her this vncouth apposaile, 
 Why wepe ye so?' Id., sig. B v. leaf cxxviii. 
 
 ' Madame, your apposelle is wele inferrid ' 
 (i. e. your question is well put). 
 
 Skelton, Garlande of Laurel, 1. 141. 
 
 In this last instance the ' various reading ' is opposelle 
 (Dyce). In all these cases the sense is a question hard of 
 solution, or, in modern language, a puzzle. 
 
 [See Appose (i) in the New E. Dictionary, and Puzzle in 
 my (larger) Etym. Dictionary. The Century Dictionary has 
 adopted this etymology of Puzzle, and Dr. Murray confirms 
 my view of Appose?^ 
 
 151. A pair of Organs (6 S. i. 82 ; 1880). 
 
 There is a note on this in my edition of Piers Plowman 
 see index to the notes. A pair of organs means a set of 
 organ-pipes, i. e. an organ. It is quite a mistake to suppose 
 that a pair, in old books, always means two. It usually 
 means a set. Hence a pair of beads, a set of them 
 (Chaucer) ; a pair of cards, i. e. a pack ; a pair of stairs, 
 i. e. a flight, whence ' two-pair back.' 
 
 152. Gill' (6 S. i. 102 ; 1880). 
 
 In giving a definition of gill, I of course followed the 
 usual one in Webster's Dictionary and elsewhere. I venture 
 to think that if ST. SWITHIN had taken trouble to consult 
 any ordinary arithmetic-book, or had questioned the nearest 
 child, he would probably have found that ' four gills make 
 
 K 2
 
 132 'TO HOLD UP OIL.' 
 
 one pint.' I cite this, first from Colenso's Arithmetic, and 
 secondly from the oral statement of the first child I asked, 
 who gave me that answer. And surely nothing is also 
 better known than that weights and measures differ widely 
 in different parts of England. If, at Whitby, a gill is half 
 a pint, I may mention that I have been informed that, in 
 Cambridgeshire, a gallon sometimes means two gallons. In 
 Philips, ed. 1706, is this remarkable definition, which defies 
 explanation, except on the hypothesis that a pint is a quart : 
 'Jill, the smallest sort of wine measure, the eighth part of 
 an English quart, or half a quarter of a pint.' Of course he 
 meant ' a quarter of a pint ' simply. 
 
 153. To hold up Oil ' (6 S. i. 1 1 8 ; 1 880). 
 
 I am most grateful to MR. MAYHEW for his quotation ; 
 it makes one more in the set which I have tried to get 
 together. It is certain that 'to hold up oil ' or ' to bear up 
 oil ' was an old proverbial phrase. It does not mean ' to 
 assent,' but ' to aid and abet,' or ' consent in a flattering 
 way.' It answers very nearly to the modern phrase ' to 
 back a person up.' In the quotation given the sense is, 
 ' Alexander began to boast, and most of his friends backed 
 him up,' or 'bore out what he said.' I have had this 
 phrase under consideration for seven years, and a new 
 instance, like that now furnished, is a great gain. It first 
 came under my notice -in editing Richard the Redeles, 
 appended to the C-text of Piers the Plowman. (See Rich. 
 Redeles, iii. 186). We there read that, in the days of 
 Richard II, men did not get promotion for good deeds, but 
 for bragging and flattery, or, as the author puts it, 'for 
 braggynge and for bostynge, and berynge vppon oilles, for 
 cursidnesse of conscience, and comynge to the assises.' My 
 note on it is, that it is plainly written in the MS. 
 
 I have since found a capital instance in Gower's Conf. 
 Amantis, bk. vii. vol. iii. p. 159 :
 
 PAMPHLET. 133 
 
 ' For, when he doth extorcion, 
 Men shall not finden one of tho 
 To grucche or speke there agein, 
 But holden up his oile and sain, 
 That all is well that ever he doth.' 
 
 That is, when a king is extortionate, people do not 
 reprove him, but aid and abet him, or flatter him up, or 
 bear him out, and say that whatever he does must be right. 
 And again, at p. 172 of the same, we find that the false 
 prophets told Ahab to go and prosper : 
 
 ' Anone they were of his accorde, 
 Prophetes false many mo 
 To here up oile ; and alle tho 
 Affermen that which he hath told.' 
 
 In all these instances it is remarkable that the flatterers 
 assure the great man he is perfectly right, though he is 
 really wrong. And this, at any rate, clears up the general 
 sense. We have now four instances of the phrase. If the 
 passage in Piers P/mvman be examined, it will be found to 
 refer to the practices at the king's court, and practically 
 to Richard himself. In all four passages the reference is 
 to the flatterers who uphold a king; in one place it is 
 a nameless king (Gower, iii. 158), and in the other places 
 the reference is, respectively, to Alexander, Richard II, and 
 Ahab. I therefore offer, with all diffidence, the suggestion 
 that the proverb may refer to the anointing of kings with oil 
 at their coronation. ' To hold up oil ' or ' to bear up oil ' 
 may mean to hold up the sacred vessel containing holy oil, 
 ready to anoint the chosen monarch. The sense is 
 remarkably preserved in the modern English phrase ' to 
 butter a person.' 
 
 154. Pamphlet (6 S. i. 389; 1880). 
 The usual etymologies of this difficult word are not very 
 satisfactory. I have found a much earlier example of it 
 than any which I have yet seen mentioned. It occurs,
 
 134 PAMPHLET. 
 
 spelt pamflet, in the Testament of Love, pt. iii., near the 
 end; to be found in Chaucer's Works, ed. 1561, fol. 317 
 back, col. i. This takes us back at once to about A. D. 1400, 
 and renders it tolerably certain that the word can only be 
 French, whilst the peculiar form pamf- can hardly be of any 
 origin but Greek. Taylor, in his Words and Places, says : 
 ' Phamphylla, a Greek lady, who compiled a history of the 
 world in thirty-five little books, has given her name to the 
 pamphlet' Such statements are, in general, to be received 
 with great distrust, and I have met with so many unsup- 
 ported statements in the same book, that it can hardly be 
 accepted without further search. Such slight search as 
 I have been able to make does, however, -greatly strengthen 
 the suggestion. In the first place, her name was not 
 Pamphylla, but Pamphila, which helps us on. There is 
 a short account of her in Smith's Dictionary of Biography. 
 She lived in the reign of Nero, and ' her principal work was 
 a kind of historical miscellany. It was not arranged accord- 
 ing to subjects, or according to any settled plan, but it was 
 more like a commonplace-book, in which each piece of 
 information was set down as it fell under the notice of the 
 writer.' She seems to have dealt in anecdotes, epitomes, 
 and short notes ; and hence we really have some ground for 
 connecting her name with the pamphlet, or short tract on 
 a subject. Moreover, Halliwell cites the form pamfilet, 
 though without authority. The phonology of such a deriva- 
 tion is unimpeachable. From the Latin name Pamphila (of 
 course of Greek origin) we have a French Pamfile, whence 
 the sb. pamfilet, a diminutive form to express 'a work by 
 Pamphila,' and, by contraction, the Middle-English pamjlet. 
 There is a notice of her in Suidas, ed. Wolff; he says that 
 she wrote thirty-three books of historical commentaries, an 
 epitome of Ctesias in three books, and very numerous 
 epitomes of histories and of books of all kinds, ' epitomas 
 historiarum, aliorumque librorum plurimas, de controversiis,
 
 ' PIMPLE,' ITS ETYMOLOGY. 135 
 
 de rebus Veneriis, et aliis multis.' This testimony is of 
 importance as showing the character of her work. In the 
 Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, translated by Beloe, we find 
 the remark : ' This story is taken from the twenty-ninth 
 commentary of Pamphila,' bk. xv. c. 17. The translator 
 has, indeed, really written Pamphilas instead of Pamphila, 
 but he corrects himself a few pages further on, saying: 
 'This remark is from the eleventh book of Pamphila,' 
 bk. xv. c. 23. 
 
 In the translation of Diogenes Laertius, by C. D. Yonge 
 (in Bohn's Library), at p. 35, we find, in the ' Life of 
 Pittacus,' sect. 3, the remark : ' But Pamphila says, in the 
 second book of his [read her] commentaries, that he had 
 a son named Tyrrhaeus,' <Scc. I conclude that there really 
 is some evidence for the etymology here proposed. We 
 see that the works of Pamphila were of a peculiar character, 
 and that, though now lost, they were once well known and 
 quoted by respectable writers. Any further information as 
 to Pamphila, or an early example of the use Q{ pamphlet, or 
 a citation giving the spelling pamfilet, would obviously be 
 a gain. [The Lat. ace. pi. panfletos occurs in Richard of 
 Bury, Philobiblon, c. 8. I can now account for the suffix 
 -et. It was an O. F. suffix added to names of treatises. 
 Thus Isop-et meant ' a book of ^Esop ' ; whence pamfil-et 
 must have meant ' a book by Pamphila.' Precisely so. 
 The Pam mentioned in Pope, Rape of the Rock, iii. 61, 
 represents F. Pamfile, from Lat. Pamphi/usJ] 
 
 155. 'Pimple,' its Etymology (6 S. i. 414 ; 1880). 
 That pimple is a nasalized form connected with A. S. 
 pipligend, pimply, is the usual explanation, and is probably 
 right (see A. S. Leechdoms, ed. Cockayne, i. 234, 266). 
 But it is usual to cite A. S. pinpel, a pimple, also. This is 
 an excellent instance of how mistakes are spread. In 
 Glossary, ed. Somner, p. 6 1 (Wright's Vocab., i. 26,
 
 136 BIRNAM WOOD. 
 
 1. i), is the entry, ' Anabala, winpel.' This was copied into 
 Lye's Dictionary, with a change of winpel into pinpel, and 
 the explanation that anabala (= anabole) means 'a pustule,' 
 the fact being that it means a mantle, or ivimple. This has 
 been copied by Bosworth, Ettmiiller, Mahn (in Webster), 
 E. Miiller, Todd (Johnson's Dictionary], Wedgwood, and 
 Worcester. The last calmly alters it \.Q pimpel. The verifi- 
 cation of references often reveals such things as these. 
 
 [The Century Dictionary adopts the gist of the above, 
 and explains that pinpel is an error]. 
 
 156. Birnam Wood (6 S. i. 434 ; 1880). 
 Readers of Macbeth should note that the story of the 
 moving wood occurs in the Romance of Alexander : 
 
 ' Interea Alexander, amoto exercilu, appropinquavit se ciuitati 
 Perses, in qua Darius consistebat ; Ita vt sublimia loca montium que 
 erant supra ipsam ciuitatem conspiciebat. Alexander autem precepit 
 militibus suis vt inciderent ramos arborum et herbas euellerent, casque 
 inferrent equorum pedibus et mulorum ; quos videntes [printed 
 videntis] Perses ab excelsis montibus stupebant.' Histona Alexandri 
 magni de preliis, ed. 1490, fol. C i, back. 
 
 The Middle-English version of the Wars of Alexander 
 (1. 2850) has : 
 
 'With that comaunds he his knightis to cutte doune belyue 
 Bowis of buskis and braunches of bolis and of lyndis,' &c. 
 
 157. Railway English (6 S. ii. 84 ; 1880). 
 The following curious sentence has been for years ex- 
 hibited as a ' Public Notice ' at the Cannon Street Terminus 
 and other stations belonging to the South-Eastern Railway 
 Company : 
 
 ' Tickets once nipped and defaced at the barriers, and the passengers 
 admitted to the platform, will have to be delivered up to the Company, 
 in the event of the holders subsequently retiring from the platform 
 without travelling, and cannot be recognized for re-admission.' 
 
 I hope it is generally understood. It is enough to deter
 
 CAIN'S JAW-BONE. 137 
 
 passengers from travelling at all to be told that they will 
 ' have to be delivered up to the Company ' when once 
 ' admitted to the platform.' The ' holders ' of tickets are 
 also, it would appear, holders of passengers. Can anything 
 be more slip-shod ? 
 
 158. Cain's Jaw-bone ^6 S. ii. 143 ; 1880). 
 
 ' As if it were Cain's jaw-bone, that did the first murder ' 
 (Hamlet, v. i. 85). Surely a remarkable expression, but 
 there is no comment on it in the Clarendon Press edition. 
 Compare it with the following tradition : ' Saga me, forhwam 
 stanas ne sint berende ? Ic the secge, fortham the Abeles 
 blod gefeol ofel stan, tha hine Chain his brother of-sloh mid 
 anes esoles cinbane ' ; i.e. ' Tell me, why stones are not 
 fruitful ? I tell thee, because Abel's blood fell upon a stone 
 when Chain, his brother, slew him with the jawbone of an 
 ass'; Solomon and Saturn, ed. Kemble, p. 186. Hence 
 the jawbone was not Cain's oivn. (Cf. Cursor Mundi, 1. 1073.) 
 
 159. Whittling (6 S. ii. 193 ; 1880). 
 
 At the last reference we have an extract from Brockett's 
 Glossary (for ' Brochett ' read Brockett]. It seems worth 
 while to warn readers (if they will kindly accept the warning) 
 that the etymologies offered by Brockett and Jamieson 
 abound with the most curious errors, and are, in fact, in 
 many instances, learned nonsense. In the present case 
 Brockett tells us that whittle is derived from ' Sax. whytel, 
 and that probably [!] from Goth, huet tol, a sharp instru- 
 ment.' Now let us investigate this solemn absurdity, and 
 we may learn something by the way. 
 
 First, 'Sax. ivhyter means the alleged A. S. hwitel given 
 in Somners Dictionary. Brockett, in altering the spelling 
 from hw to wh, gives us the measure of his knowledge of 
 Anglo-Saxon : he had not learnt so much as the alphabet, or 
 he would have known there is no wh in it.
 
 138 WHITTLING. 
 
 Next, let us take Somner. 
 
 The A, S. hwitel only means a whittle in the sense of 
 'a white cloth,' such as we now call a blanket (from F. 
 blanc, white) ; it is a mere derivative of white. Somner 
 knew there was such a modern English word as ivhtttle, 
 meaning a knife, and rushed to the conclusion that a hivitel 
 must mean a knife. Down went his guess, and people have 
 quoted it ever since, and will do so probably for another 
 century. [Let us hope for better things]. 
 
 It so happens that the spelling whittle, for 'a knife,' is 
 a mere mistake, due to the loss of th at the beginning of 
 M. E. thwitel, used by Chaucer. The loss of th was plainly 
 due to confusion with whet, to sharpen, according to which 
 Z0&'//&Was supposed to mean something sharp ; and a knife 
 being sharp, that was quite enough for popular etymology. 
 Unfortunately, according to the laws of English Grammar, 
 a ivhettle (for ivhittle would not give the right vowel) could 
 only mean a sharpener, i. e. a whetstone or hone. As to 
 thwittle, M. E. thwitel, the etymology is rightly given, by 
 Wedgwood and E. Mtiller, from A. S. thwltan, to cut off. 
 Hence the old verb thwite, to cut, strong verb (pp. thwitteri) ; 
 the sb. thwit-el, a cutter, with suffix -le of the agent, as in 
 sickle , a cutter (from the root SEK, to cut) ; and the frequen- 
 tative verb thwittle, to keep on cutting, to cut away all the 
 while by little and little, which, as is well known in America, 
 is the real and true sense of that verb. Thwyte occurs in 
 Palsgrave. 
 
 I call attention to this to show what unsafe guides the 
 old etymologists are, and what a mistake it is to quote 
 them ; they knew nothing, and cared less, about grammar or 
 comparative philology, and coined words at pleasure, 
 labelling them with the name of the first language that came 
 to hand. This is exemplified easily enough by Brockett's 
 next statement. Having first treated us to 'Saxon whytel, 
 formed by two mis-spellings from a word given by Somner
 
 BEDE'S VERSION OF ST. JOHN'S GOSPEL. 139 
 
 and wrongly explained, he next presents us with ' Goth, hiiet 
 to/, a sharp instrument.' 
 
 This is a piece of humbug, pure and simple. If he 
 means Mceso-Gothic, there is no hu (before e) in the 
 alphabet ; but he really means, I suppose, the common 
 English w r ord whet, duly turned into ' Gothic ' by a little 
 false spelling. Next, tol is not ' Gothic ' at all, but only the 
 English tool. A. S. tol. So that the alleged etymology merely 
 comes to this, that whittle is derived from whet-tool. As 
 this would hardly impose on the most credulous if left in 
 plain language, the reader is mystified by finding it turned 
 into huet tol (an impossible spelling), after which it is called 
 ' Gothic,' on the chance that the reader will accept it. 
 
 This is the kind of etymology with which our old 
 ' authorities ' abound, and it was honest in the sense that 
 they believed it themselves. But it is amazing that such 
 guesses should still impose on any one, and it can only be 
 accounted for by supposing that English scholars have paid 
 such attention to Latin and Greek that they have had no 
 time for Gothic or Anglo-Saxon. f a Latin quotation were 
 to appear as ' Crescet amore nummo, quanto ipse pecuniae 
 crescat,' people would be horrified at seeing seven glaring 
 mistakes ; but I dare say such a sentence as ' And foregyv 
 ous ura giltum, as wee foregyvum urer giltendas/ might 
 pass muster as an Anglo-Saxon version of a sentence 
 in the Lord's Prayer, although every word but the first is 
 entirely inadmissible in the English of the ' Anglo-Saxon 
 period. 
 
 160. Bede's Version of St. John's Gospel 
 
 (6 S. ii. 214; 1880). 
 
 It is certain that Bede's version of St. John's Gospel is 
 lost. It cannot possibly have anything to do with the 
 Northumbrian gloss in the Lindisfarne MS., because, as 
 I have already explained, a gloss and a version are.
 
 140 ' SUMPTER.' 
 
 in strictness, different things, written on totally different 
 principles. A gloss may be called a version, but a version 
 should not be called a gloss. 
 
 161. 'Sumpter' (6 S. ii. 343 ; 1880). 
 
 The word sumpter occurs but once in Shakespeare, 
 K. Lear, ii. 4. I have nothing to say against Mr. Wright's 
 excellent note, but I have somewhat to add. It may have 
 meant ' literally a pack-horse ' in Shakespeare's time, and 
 this makes sufficiently good sense. But it is worth notice 
 that a sumpter was originally not a horse at all, but a man ; 
 not a pack-horse, but a baggage-driver. A pack-horse was, 
 in Middle-English, called a somer or summer (Low Lat. 
 sagmarius), but the man who drove the pack-horses was 
 called a sumpter, answering to O. F. sommetier, ' conducteur 
 de betes de somme ' (Roquefort). This answers to a Low 
 Lat. type sagmatarius. Roquefort also gives, ' Sommier, 
 bete de somme.' Thus summer is pack-horse ; sumpter, 
 pack-horse driver, or baggage-driver ; and sumpter-horse is 
 not a pack-horse's horse, but a baggage-driver's horse, and 
 so equivalent to the original summer. And this is why we 
 never hear of a summer-horse, only of a sumpter-horse. In 
 the octosyllabic King Alisaunder, edited by Weber, the 
 words are kept quite distinct. Thus, at 1. 850, we have : 
 
 ' And trussed heore sonteris, 
 And lopen on heore destreris,' 
 
 i. e. and packed their baggage-horses, and leapt on their 
 war-horses ; the two kinds of horses being contrasted. At 
 1. 6022 we have : 
 
 ' Withowte pages and skuyeris, 
 Divers gyours and sumpterisj 
 
 \. e. not counting fin the number of the army) the pages and 
 squires, and certain guides and baggage-drivers. 
 
 I would venture to suggest that the true sense of baggage-
 
 A CURIOUS ILLUSTRATION. 14-1 
 
 driver will suit the passage in K. Lear even better than that 
 of the supposed sense (not proven) of pack-horse : 
 
 ' Persuade me rather to be slave and sumpter 
 To this detested groom.' 
 
 [See Sumpter in my (larger) Etym. Dictionary. The 
 same etymology and a similar explanation of sumpter in 
 K. Lear are given in the Century Dictionary^ 
 
 182. A Curious Illustration (6 S. ii. 405 ; 1880). 
 
 In using Richardson's Dictionary it is impossible not to 
 be struck with the singular manner in which illustrations of 
 words are introduced that really have nothing to do with 
 the matter in hand. One of the most whimsical is a quota- 
 tion from Chaucer's (meaning Henrysoun's) Testament of 
 Creseide, which concludes with : ' And in the night she 
 listeth best taperej i. e. and she is best pleased to appear in 
 the night. This is given as a quotation in illustration of 
 the sb. taper, explained to mean ' a wax-light.' 
 
 [I beg leave to notice here a similar extraordinary mis- 
 conception. In the Promptorium Parvulorum, we have the 
 entry ' A-yen wylle, Invite' This means that the M. E. ayen 
 wylle, i. e. against one's will, can be expressed in Latin by 
 invite. But a certain editor took invite to be an English 
 word ; hence this extraordinary entry in Cassell's Ency- 
 clopaedic Dictionary : ' A-yen-wylle, v. t. to invite. {Prompt. 
 Parv.}.' See that work, vol. i. p. 381, col. i.] 
 
 163. ' Wage,' used instead of ' Wages ' 
 (6 S. iii. ii ; 1881). 
 
 Both wage and wages are respectable forms enough, just 
 as are house and houses, or any other pairs of singular and 
 plural words. I find wage in Langtoft (ed. Hearne), p. 319. 
 Wage occurs also in the Promptorium Parvulorum, and 
 (according to Stratmann) in KingAlisaunder, 904; Hoccleve,
 
 142 jESTEL. 
 
 i. 119 ; whilst the plural wages is in Piers Plowman, B. xi. 
 283. I find Dr. Stratmann's references troublesome, from 
 his tacit alterations of the spellings ; on actual reference to 
 King Alisaunder, 904, the form turns out to be gage, the 
 same word, no doubt, but he should have given it as it 
 stands \ As to what is asserted in these matters, it will 
 generally be found that the less a man knows about them, 
 the more dogmatic he is ; the way to test a man's know- 
 ledge is to ask him to produce his authorities, and to require 
 of him a quotation or two. 
 
 164. JEstel(6 S. iii. 14; 1881). 
 
 The word is not cestell, but cestel, with one /. It is not 
 plural, but singular, used with the article an, one. There is 
 a note on it in Sweet's edition of Gregory's Pastoral Care, 
 p. 473. In an A. S. vocabulary by ^Elfric we have, ' Indica- 
 torium, tzstel' (Wright's Vocab,, i. 81, col. i) ; and again in 
 ^Elfric's Grammar (ed. Zupitza), p. 31. Mr. Sweet says it 
 occurs to translate Lat. stylus in ^Elfric's Glossary, but it is 
 not there ; except as translating indicatorium. It is by no 
 means so easy as seems to be supposed. I cannot see 
 that the W. estyll, pi. sb., helps us at all, nor is estyll cer- 
 tainly a Celtic word ; it seems to be nothing but the Low 
 Lat. astulae (Ducange), put for Lat. assulae, thin boards, 
 
 [The A. S. cestel still remains in some obscurity.] 
 
 165. Culpable Emendations (6 S. iii. 24 ; 1881). 
 
 One of the most grievous things in English literature is 
 that editors and printers are continually altering texts when- 
 ever a word occurs that is in the least unusual. It is 
 a little too bad that they should treat readers as children, 
 and always assume that they are at least as stupid as them- 
 
 1 [The new edition of Stratmann, edited by Mr. Bradley, corrects 
 a very large number of these eccentricities. But this one has escaped 
 notice.]
 
 CULPABLE EMENDATIONS. 143 
 
 selves. I have lately noticed three gross instances of this 
 character, and I think some good might be done by noting 
 more specimens of the same sort. My examples are these, 
 all taken from Richardson's Dictionary. In each instance 
 Richardson gives the correct reading : 
 
 1. ' The postboy's horse right glad to miss 
 
 The lumbering of the wheels.' 
 Cowper, John Gilpin, sixth stanza from end, ed. 1818. 
 
 Altered by some blockhead to rumbling. Who was the 
 blockhead ? 
 
 2. ' As gilds the moon the rimpling of the brook.' 
 
 Crabbe. Parish Register, pt. i. 
 
 Altered by Crabbe s own son to rippling. This is indeed 
 a sad instance. 
 
 3. 'And as a goose 
 
 In death contracts his talons close, 
 
 So did the knight, and with one claw 
 
 The tricker of his pistol draw.' Hudibras, pt. i. c. 3. 
 
 Altered in Bell's edition, with calm effrontery and without 
 any notice given, to trigger. Yet tricker had not long been 
 introduced into the language from the Dutch trekker, and 
 the later form trigger is less correct. The first duty of 
 every editor is to let his text alone, unless there is certainly 
 a corruption in it. Unfortunately editors often measure 
 their authors by themselves, and think that everything must 
 be corrupt that is not at once obvious to their own under- 
 standings. The reason is plain enough. It is less trouble 
 to alter than to investigate, and the chances are considerably 
 in favour of their escaping detection. [Cf. p. 151, 1. 9.] 
 
 166. The Pronunciation of ' er ' as ' ar ' (6 S. iii. 4 ; 
 1881). 
 
 As the pronunciation of eras aris often discussed, I have 
 collected more than fifty examples of it, as will be seen 
 below.
 
 144 THE PRONUNCIATION OF <ER' AS ' AR.' 
 
 It ought to be well understood that the change of er into 
 ar is a real law of pronunciation in our language. In 
 Middle-English er was pronounced as in F. serve, with 
 a strong trilling of the r. It is a universal and well-known 
 law of change in English pronunciation always to suppress 
 the trilling of r as much as possible. But this caused a slight 
 change of the vowel sound, so that er (as in F. serve] became 
 aa, as in baa, or as in vulgar English saav for serve. 
 
 This law of change has been to some extent interfered 
 with by the spelling, for, whilst uneducated people freely 
 retain this change, the educated classes, who read much, 
 have reduced the pronunciation of serve to that now in use 
 by a further change of aa to an indistinct vowel-sound with 
 which we are all familiar, and which we indicate by er, 
 though the r is really silent, being wholly untrilled. We 
 may find sarve for serve in use as early as in Tyndale ; we 
 now pretend to be ashamed of it. Sarmon for sermon occurs 
 in the fourteenth century. 
 
 Opponents of spelling reform are often unacquainted with 
 the history of the language, and are wholly unconscious of 
 the fact that in many words we have already adopted 
 a phonetic spelling. Such is peculiarly the case with 
 words of this class ; a large number of them are actually 
 spelt with ar, so that the law of change is thereby con- 
 cealed. I now give examples : 
 
 i. The Middle-English word berne is now phonetically 
 spelt barn ; the same is the case with bernacle, a barnacle ; 
 herte, the heart (where the old e still lingers) ; tere, tar ; 
 terien, to tarry ; tern, a tarn ; perseley, parsley ; berken, to 
 bark as a dog ; derk, dark ; herknen, to hearken (again the 
 ed) merke, a mark ; querelle, a quarrel (pronounced quarrel, 
 because the sound of w precedes) ; smert, smart ; sterten, 
 to start ; yerde, a yard ; Dertemouthe, Dartmouth ; kerven, 
 to carve ; fer, far ; ferme, a farm ; wernen, to warn ; werre, 
 w.ar ; merren, to mar ; mersh, a marsh ; merveile, a marvel ;
 
 THE PRONUNCIATION OF ' ER ' AS ' AR,' 145 
 
 gerner, a garner ; gernet, a garnet ; werblen, to warble ; 
 werpen, to warp ; serk, a sark, or shirt. And doubtless 
 more might be added ; [as berme, barm, yeast ; dernel, 
 darnel ; gerland, a garland ; herien, to harry ; hereberye, 
 a harbour ; hervest, harvest ; kerlok, charlock ; perchemin, 
 parchment pertriche, partridge, c.]. In particular note 
 persone, a parson ; ferrier, a farrier ; and werriour, a warrior. 
 
 2. In some words we boldly retain the changed pro- 
 nunciation in spite of the spelling I allude to- clerk, 
 sergeant, Hertford, and the like. 
 
 3. As to many words we are in a state of hesitancy ; some 
 people shrink from saying Darby, Barkley, and from sound- 
 ing Kerr as Carr, fearing hostile criticism, and unaware 
 that Darby is rather the regular than the exceptional 
 pronunciation. Here in Cambridge we have a Sherman 
 who always calls himself Sharman, whilst another has 
 Shannon over his shop-door. We say Merchant, yet 
 Marchant occurs as a name. As for the berberis, we call 
 it a barberry, insinuating a third r with a clutch at a new 
 sense in berry. We say fern, but also Farnecombe. Perilous 
 also appears as parlous. 
 
 4. Lastly, when we allow the law of change free play (as 
 among the lower classes, who have not yet adopted the 
 last modern refinements) we shall find plenty of examples, 
 familiar to all of us. Such are sarve for serve; sarvant, 
 larn, sarten for certain ; varjus (verjuice), yarb (Shropshire 
 for herb), sarpint, starn, consarn, detarmine, 'varsity, 'tarnal, 
 'tarnation (short for 'tarnal'nati0n\ sarmon, varmin, marcy, 
 narvous, Jarmany ; besides many more which our readers 
 can supply for themselves. 
 
 It will now, I think, be seen that there are really three 
 pronunciations, in chronological order : 
 
 1 . Er, as in F. serve, with trilled r ; probably obsolete. 
 
 2. Er, as in clerk, with untrilled r ; very common, but 
 concealed by a phonetic spelling when we write Clark. 
 
 L
 
 I4 6 ' UNKED,' I.E. LONELY. 
 
 3. Er, with a modern refined pronunciation, as in the 
 highly polite ' your servant? 
 
 167. The Pronunciation of ' er ' as ' ar ' and of ' e ' 
 as 'a.' II (6 S. iii. 393 ; 1881). 
 
 Surely it will be readily understood that in calling the 
 pronunciation of er as ar a singular habit of English, 
 I meant that no other modern language uses the written 
 symbol er where the pronunciation ar is intended. The 
 French words mentioned in Dr. Chance's interesting letter 
 are words in which ar is written ar according to the pro- 
 nunciation, and the fact that the ar in them corresponds 
 to a Latin er is not quite the same thing ; we should not 
 say that in the word almond we have an instance of the 
 pronunciation of -ygdalum as -ond. At the same time, 
 I have little doubt that the frequent use of the sound ar 
 is partly due to French influence. Certainly hearth and 
 Middle English sterven belong to the set ; hearth was 
 formerly herth, from A. S. heorth ; whilst M. E. sterve is 
 derived, not from Dutch or German, but from A. S. steorfan. 
 [P.S. I have seen, in Old French, the spelling Harri for 
 Henri; whence E. Harry '.] 
 
 168. ' Unked,' i.e. Lonely (6 S. iii. 245 ; 1881). 
 
 This common provincial word is seldom cited without 
 the usual ' etymology ' being appended. It is always said 
 to be derived from the A. S. uncuyd, explained in Bosworth 
 by ' without speech or strife, quiet, solitary ; hence the 
 provincial word unkid; sine lite, quietus, solitarius.' 
 
 It never occurs to the easily satisfied compilers of glossaries 
 who so glibly quote the above (with or without acknowledg- 
 ment) to verify the matter. The fact is that the word 
 uncwyd occurs twice, and that in both cases it means 
 ' without contradiction,' or ' unspoken against,' or ' un- 
 contested'; see Thorpe, Ancient Laws, i. 298, 1. 9 ; i. 414,
 
 ' WINDLESTRAE.' 147 
 
 1. 20 ; Laws of Ethelred, sect. 14; Laws of Cnut, Secular, 
 sect. 73. There is not the least pretence for the meaning 
 ' solitary,' and it has nothing in the world to do with unked. 
 The word unkid (as it is also spelt) is formed by prefixing 
 un- to the M. E. kid, known, famous, manifest, &c. Kid is 
 the pp. of kythe, causal of kunnen, to know ; so that it is the 
 pp. of the secondary verb formed from couth, known. Unkid 
 and uncouth mean much the same thing, viz. unknown, 
 strange, out of the way ; hence the sense of lonely, &c. 
 
 169. ' Windlestrae ' (6 S. iii. 249 ; 1881). 
 
 This common northern word is in Jamieson's Dictionary. 
 Bosworth gives us A. S. windel-strecnve, with an unintelligible 
 reference 1 . Strae is straw; and windel is a derivative of 
 the verb to wind, to twist about, &c. So also we have, 
 in Wright's Vocabularies, p. 285, 'Oleaster, windel-treowj 
 where treou> means tree. Anglo-Saxon botanical names 
 were conferred in the wildest and most confused way. 
 and frequently transferred from one plant to another not 
 particularly resembling it. In the first instance ivindel- 
 straw meant ' straw for plaiting,' and windel-tree meant ' tree 
 for basket-work.' I look upon MR. H.'s candid confession 
 of his notion of the word as a valuable aid to the under- 
 standing of etymology. He tells us that he had interpreted 
 the word, from his own consciousness, as meaning 'the 
 wind-strewn leaves of the forest,' and afterwards found, to 
 his 'intense disgust,' that it meant nothing of the kind. 
 This is precisely what has been going on in the minds of 
 thousands for many centuries, though we can seldom so 
 clearly trace it. Ever}' educated man when he hears a new 
 word is tempted to guess at its etymology, and thence 
 
 1 [Easily found, in 1895, by help of Wulker's Indices. The 
 reference is to ' Cara]mum, windel-streow' in the Glossaries. 273. 23, 
 and 369. 4. Calntum is the accusative of Lat. calamus, Eng. haulm.] 
 
 L 2
 
 148 HEARNE'S ' CHRONICLES.' 
 
 deduce its sense. After guessing wrongly, and thus forcing 
 the word into a wrong sense, he probably misuses it accord- 
 ingly, and a second person uses the word as newly modified, 
 and hence the endless corruptions in language. The true 
 rule is never to guess at an etymology, but this requires 
 a strength of mind beyond that of most of us. 
 
 170. Hearne's 'Chronicles' (6 S. iii. 425 ; 1881). 
 
 It deserves to be mentioned, as one of the curiosities of 
 literature, that the following notice is almost invariably 
 repeated whenever a copy of Hearne's editions of Robert 
 of Gloucester and of Robert Manning's translation of 
 Langtoft is offered for sale in a second-hand bookseller's 
 catalogue : ' Contains the best Anglo-Saxon Glossaries that 
 have ever been published.' 
 
 Of course some one was once weak enough to say this, 
 and it has been repeated ever since. But it is most 
 amusingly unveracious. In the first place, the glossaries 
 are not 'Anglo-Saxon' at all, but register the language of 
 the thirteenth century ; and next, the glossaries are almost 
 valueless, even as regards Middle English. Hearne gives 
 no references, and his explanations are not always correct. 
 We may safely conclude that the difference between English 
 of the tenth and thirteenth centuries is still unappreciated 
 by the many, and that Stratmann's and Matzner's glossaries 
 of Middle English (the latter, alas ! still incomplete) are 
 unknown, even by name, to a large portion of the book- 
 buying public. Halliwell's Dictionary is also far more 
 useful than Hearne's glossaries, though the references in 
 it are but few. Even the glossary to the Specimens of 
 English edited by Dr. Morris and myself is more worthy 
 of mention, since it, at any rate, gives references to many 
 thousand passages. [And now, in 1893, even Mayhew and 
 Skeat's Concise Middle-English Dictionary is better than 
 Hearne.]
 
 'WALKING WIDTH AND STRIDING SIDTH.' 149 
 
 171. ' Walking width and striding sidth ' 
 
 (6 S. iv. 95 : 1881). 
 
 Whether this phrase is still in common use I cannot say, 
 but it is clearly an amplification of the phrase 'wide and 
 side,' i. e. ' wide and long,' which is so common in Anglo- 
 Saxon poetry. See examples, s. v. ' Sid,' in Grein's Glossary, 
 ii. 442. Width refers to the breadth of the garment from 
 side to side ; sidth, to the length of it. A side garment in 
 Middle English commonly meant one that trailed on the 
 ground because over-long. 
 
 172. The name ' Howard' (6 S. iv. 277 ; 1881). 
 
 Yerstegan's book (On the Restitution of Decayed In- 
 telligence] is almost worthless ; he invents his facts, and 
 had no notion of Anglo-Saxon, which he grossly misre- 
 presents. Surely Howard is the same as haw-ward, also 
 spelt haii'ard. Hayward, another common name, is the 
 M. E. heiward. Haw, from A. S. haga, and hay or hei, 
 from A. S. hege, both mean ' hedge.' The hayward was 
 well known in former times, and is constantly alluded to ; 
 see Prompt. Parv., p. 234, and my notes on Piers Plowman. 
 Sherwood gives both spellings in his index to Cotgrave. 
 ' A hau'ard or hayward, qui garde, en commun, tout le 
 bestail d'un bourg.' As to holdward, I do not believe any 
 such word ever existed till Verstegan coined it. What we 
 want for the etymology of any word is a good collection 
 of illustrative quotations. Any one can theorize more easily 
 -without the facts ; but only the facts can guide us to the 
 truth. 
 
 173. Bad copy and good printers (6 S. v. 72 ; 1882). 
 
 I have often heard this story (viz. that it is advisable to 
 write badly, in order that a good compositor may be set 
 on to the 'copy'); but never so circumstantially. I think 
 it has probably been repeated rather too often, as it is
 
 150 CLdTURE. 
 
 a standing excuse for bad writers. The morality of it is 
 more than questionable ; and it ought surely to be under- 
 stood, amongst gentlemen, that a writer who purposely writes 
 illegibly commits a most cowardly and unjustifiable crime 
 against the unfortunate compositors. 
 
 [PS. in 1895. I have always found that the compositors 
 set up my ' copy ' admirably ; precisely because they appre- 
 ciate its legibility. The Controller of the Clarendon Press 
 is my witness to this.] 
 
 174. C16ture (6 S. v. 126 ; 1882). 
 
 The etymology of this word is easy enough, viz. from the 
 O. F. closture, Low Lat. claustura, the original sense being 
 merely ' an enclosure.' 1 write this to note a passage in 
 which the word occurs. ' II deyt enclore la place ; et si 
 nuly bestes y entrent par defaute de closture,'' &c. ' He 
 ought to enclose the place ; and if any beasts come in for 
 want of fencing,' &c. Year-Books of Edward /, ed. Hor- 
 wood, vol. iii. p. 65. 
 
 175. Turken. I (6 S. v. 165 ; 1882). 
 
 This curious word is noticed in Davies's Supplementary 
 Glossary, where the meaning of furbish is assigned to it, 
 copied from the Index to the Parker Society's Publications. 
 But I have found other instances of it, and have no hesita- 
 tion in saying that this assigned sense of it is the wrong one. 
 The right sense is ' to turn and twist about,' and it is merely 
 a frequentative form of the O. F. torquer, to twist (Cotgrave), 
 which is obviously the Latin torquere. Roquefort gives 
 O. F. torcenouse, violent ; torcenus, a tormenting tyrant ; 
 torconnere, extortionate ; torquelon, a torch ; all from the 
 same source. I first quote the instance cited by Davies, 
 and then two more which I have found in Gascoigne : 
 
 ' His majesty calleth for subscription unto articles of religion ; but 
 they are not either articles of his own lately devised, or the old
 
 SUPPOSED CHANGE OF LATIN L INTO U. 151 
 
 newly turkened' ; i.e. twisted about (Rogers, On the Thirty-nine 
 Articles, p. 24). 
 
 ' And for the rest, you shall find it [a certain story] now in this 
 second imprinting so turquened and turned'; i.e. so twisted about 
 and altered (Gascoigne 1 s Works, ed. Hazlitt, i. 5, last line). 
 
 ' This poeticall license is a shrewde fellow, and couereth many 
 faults in a verse . . . and, to conclude, it turkeneth [alters] all things at 
 pleasure' ^Gascoigne, Extracts from, ed. Arber, p. 37). 
 
 Mr. Hazlitt calmly alters turkeneth to turneth ( Works, 
 i. 505) without a word of comment. 
 
 Mr. Davies notes that turkis also occurs. And it occurs 
 precisely in the same sense. It is formed from the stem 
 of an O. F. pres. part, torquiss-ant, from the verb torquir, 
 by-form of torquer. Such changes of conjugation are 
 common in French. 
 
 ' Yet he taketh the same sentence out of Esay, somewhat 
 turkised,' i. e. altered or turned about (Bancroft, Survey of Pretended 
 Holy Discipline, 1593, p. 6). 
 
 176. Turken. II (6 S. xii. 33 ; 1885). 
 
 I have explained that turken, a very rare word, means to 
 turn, twist, alter, and that it should rather be torken, being 
 ultimately from the Latin torquere. And I now find this 
 proved by the occurrence of the word in the fourteenth 
 century. In the Wars of Alexander, 1. 2967, he torkans 
 with means ' he turns [himself] towards.' 
 
 [Quoted in Stratmann, ed. Bradley, s. v. turken, from my 
 edition of the romance. Godefroy has the sb. torquen, in the 
 sense of ' necklace.'] 
 
 177. On the supposed Change of a Latin L into U 
 in French (6 S. v. 311 ; 1882). 
 
 I am quite willing to accept DR. CHANCE'S explanation, 
 and I think we ought to be much obliged to him for the 
 care he has taken in this investigation. But I hope I may 
 be allowed to plead that there is still a sense in which the /
 
 152 LINCOLNSHIRE PROVINCIALISMS: RAUKY. 
 
 can be said to pass into u, viz. that, whereas there was once 
 an / between a and i in regalimen, there is now a u between 
 the a and m in royaume, the z* having dropped. This is 
 what I call the practical result, the ' rule of thumb,' and 
 this was all that I meant. DR. CHANCE explains quite 
 clearly that this resultant spelling, as it appears to the eye, 
 does not explain the real nature of the phonetic change, and 
 that consequently to talk of a change of / to u is philologi- 
 cally misleading. What really happens is, that al becomes 
 aul, and then / drops, giving us au, with the result that, to 
 the eye, / seems to become u. The real secret is that this 
 peculiarity is due to the action of / on the vowel ; compare 
 the pronunciation of father with that of fall. 
 
 For similar loss of /compare would, should, calm, psalm, 
 calf, &c. . . . Note that falcon is an artificial spelling, the 
 M. E. form being faucoun. 
 
 178. Lincolnshire Provincialisms : Rauky 
 
 (6S. v. 353; 1882). 
 
 Rauky cannot be derived from raw, because this does 
 not account for the k ; and it cannot be derived from the 
 Latin raucus, because provincial English words are not 
 Latin, save under exceptional circumstances. It is too bad 
 in these days to go on guessing as if the iniquity of guessing 
 had never been pointed out. Rauky is the Norfolk roky 
 and the common English reeky. The form reeky, from 
 A. S. rec, smoke, is English ; the forms raitky and roky are 
 Norse '. German substitutes ch for k ; hence German 
 Rauch, smoke. English often has the sound of long e 
 where German has au, as in beam, belief (Baum, Glaube], 
 &c. With E. reek, as cognate with G. Rauch, compare 
 E. leek, as cognate with Lauch. 
 
 1 [Perhaps. Cf. Svved. dial, rank, smoke (Rietz, p. 546 ; Nonveg. 
 rck (Aasen). The Icel. form is reykr .from a base
 
 TALOX. 153 
 
 179. Talon. I (6 S. v. 394 ; 1882). 
 I think I have solved this problem in my Etymological 
 Dictionary. There is evidence that talon meant ' bird's 
 claw ' in English at least as early as the fourteenth century. 
 The English version of Mandeville's Travels tells us that 
 a griffin ' hath his talouns so longe and so large and grete 
 upon his feet, as though thei weren homes of grete oxen ' ; 
 and again, in the alliterative Romance of Alexander, 
 ed. Stevenson, 1. 5454, some griffins are described as 
 taking knights up ' in thaire talons! Palsgrave has, 
 1 Talant of a byrde, the hynder claw, [in French] talon.' 
 There cannot be a moment's doubt as to the etymology ; 
 it meant originally the hinder claw of a bird's foot, from 
 Low Lat. ace. talonem, a derivative of talus. I suspect that 
 the peculiar sense is English or Norman only, and due to 
 the old terms of hawking. It was quite the etiquette of 
 hawking to have a peculiar name for every conceivable part 
 of a hawk's body. 
 
 180. Talon. II (6 S. vi. 417 ; 1882). 
 I am now in a position to explain this word fully. 
 DR. CHANCE has told us that it must have meant, not the 
 hinder claw of a bird merely, but the hinder claw 
 together with the toe, taking ' claw ' in the fuller sense. 
 No doubt this is what the word ought to have meant ; 
 but, as a matter of fact, it is not what it did mean. 
 The misuse of the word, that is, its employment in the 
 restricted sense of a mere claw, was due to the absurd 
 affectation of the terms used by hawkers. It is an old 
 story that a hawk had no feathers, only plumes, and so 
 forth, though the word feathers was frequently used by 
 hawkers when they were off their guard, or when explaining 
 things to the uninitiated. The authoritative passage on the 
 subject is the following : 
 
 ' Talons. Fyrst, the grete Clees [claws] behynde, that strenj-th
 
 154 'MANACUS.' 
 
 the bake of the hande, ye shall call horn [thent~\ Talons. Pawnees. 
 The Clees, within the fote, ye shall call of right her Pownces ' (Book 
 of St. Allans, fol. a 8). 
 
 Thus we find that it pleased the inventors of the terms of 
 hawking to confine the sense of talon to the claw, at the 
 back of the foot, whilst the claws of the toes in front were 
 called pounces a use which occurs again in Spenser, 
 F. Q.,i. n. 19, as I have already elsewhere noted. From 
 the latter substantive the verb Bounce is derived, though the 
 substantive itself is obsolete ; and the modern talon includes 
 the Bounce. 
 
 181. 'Manacus' (6 S. v. 464 ; 1882). 
 
 I have been referred to the curious word manacus, given 
 both by Scheller and Forcellini, as being just possibly allied 
 to almanac. On investigation there turns out to be no 
 such word in the Latin language ; it is a pure fiction, due 
 to a misreading. The only reference is to Vitruvius, 1. 9, 
 c. 3 (for which read c. 8). The best edition of Vitruvius, 
 by Rose and Miiller-Strubing, Leipzig, 1867, gives menaeus, 
 with the variants maneus, manaeus. Menaeus is merely the 
 Greek /^raios in a Latin dress, and is used substantively 
 to signify the ecliptic. This is one more instance of the 
 soundness of the advice to ' verify quotations.' 
 
 [I hunted up this reference (with the help of my late dear 
 friend, Mr. Boase, of Exeter College) for Dr. Murray. He 
 gives it in ' Note 3,' at the end of AlmanqcJ] 
 
 182. The Etymology of Spawn ' (6 S. v. 465 ; 1882). 
 
 The etymology suggested by Mr. Wedgwood, and adopted 
 by me as being most likely right (viz. from O. F. espandre), 
 admits of exact proof, as I have just discovered. 
 
 The O. F. espaundre, a variant of espandre, occurs in 
 Thomas Wright's Vocabularies, i. 164, and is glossed by 
 scheden him frame, as Wright prints it. But Mr. Aldis 
 Wright tells me that the MS. has been misread, and the
 
 'WELTED.' 155 
 
 right reading is ' scheden his rounej i. e. shed his roe. With 
 this correction we now read : ' Soffret le peysoun en ewe 
 espaundre/ with the gloss 'scheden his roune.' Thus 
 espaundre is precisely spawn, from Latin expandere. 
 
 183. ' Welted' (6 S. vi. 113 ; 1882). 
 This word is duly entered in the E. D. S. List of Surrey 
 Provincialisms, and is a mere variant of welked, used by 
 Sackville in his Induction, st. 12, and by Spenser in his 
 Shep. Kal., November, 1. 13. The latter uses it as a transi- 
 tive verb ; Chaucer also has it, Pard. Tale, 1. 738, and it 
 occurs much earlier. See Stratmann's Old English Dic- 
 tionary. It is found, in fact, in Old English, in Old and 
 Modern Dutch, and in Old and Modern High-German. It 
 is discussed by Fick, iii. 298, who connects it with A. S. 
 wlac, O. H. G. welc, welh, soft, moist, flabby ; Russian 
 vlaga, moisture ; Lithuanian wilgyti, to soften, moisten. 
 It properly means ' rendered flabby by moisture,' hence 
 ' spoilt ' ; but is also used, by an easy tradition, to signify 
 ' dried up by heat.' 
 
 184. ' Wimbledon ' (6 S. vi. 94 ; 1882). 
 
 The quotation from the A. S. Chronicle (containing the 
 words on Wibbandune) serves to explain the name at once, 
 if it be rightly interpreted. The supposition that the last 
 syllable ' is the A. S. dune ' is incorrect. There is no such 
 word in A. S. in the nominative case, which takes the form 
 dun ; but in the dative it becomes dun-e, with final -e, being 
 governed by the preposition on. The other supposition, 
 that if the former part of the word were a proper name ' it 
 would have the letter s,' is also incorrect. A large number 
 of proper names, including all masculines in -a, make the 
 genitive in -an. The true interpretation is as follows : 
 Wibbandune is the dative of Wibbandun, meaning ' Wibba's 
 down.' Next, dun is not a true A. S. word, but borrowed
 
 156 LYT7ON. 
 
 from Celtic, as explained in my Dictionary the equivalent 
 English word being tun, mod. E. town. 
 
 185. Lytton (6 S. vi. 273 ; 1882). 
 
 Lytton for ' churchyard ' is the same as litten, given by 
 Halliwell with the same sense. The etymological spelling 
 should rather be litton ; and, of course, this word explains 
 Lytton, when occurring as a proper name. It is formed, 
 by assimilation of tt from ct, from A. S. He-tun, lit. ' a corpse- 
 town,' compounded of lie, body, and tun, town. Compare 
 lichgate. The word is not very common, but is used in the 
 Old English translation of Beda, lib. iii. c. 1 7, where it occurs 
 in the dative case : ' And thser on thdera brothra llctune 
 bebyriged,' i.e. and there buried in the, cemetery of the 
 brethren. 
 
 186. The Names of Chanticleer's Wives 
 
 (6 S. vi. 304 ; 1882). 
 
 In Gawain Douglas's Prologue to the twelfth book of 
 Virgil, 1. 159, we have an allusion to Chanticleer's wives. 
 In my Specimens of English Literature, p. 132, I printed 
 their names as ' Coppa and Partelot,' because I found them 
 so written in the MS. In Mr. Small's edition the former 
 name appears as Toppa, and he obviously follows the 
 edition printed at Edinburgh in 1839. My belief has 
 always been that this old edition misled him, and that he 
 would not otherwise have imagined the Trinity MS. to have 
 the letter T. I have also always thought his note upon the 
 line to be mistaken. It runs thus : 
 
 'The Rev. Mr. Skeat thinks that this word should be Coppa, 
 although written Toppa in all the MSS. ... It does not seem difficult 
 to recognize in Toppa the old Scottish description of a hen with a 
 good head or tuft "a weel-tappit hen" being an expression still in 
 use.' 
 
 To this my reply would be that the Trinity MS. contains, 
 in my opinion, the reading Coppa, and that I cannot under-
 
 BEEF-EATER. 157 
 
 stand how it can be read otherwise ; also, that I do not see 
 how 'a weel-tappit hen ' opposes my solution. However, as 
 I always avoid discussion till I think I see sufficient evidence 
 in my favour, I have never till now protested against the 
 above criticism. But there is a most conclusive piece of 
 evidence which, to my mind, settles the matter. We have 
 both of us missed the point which we ought not to have 
 missed. The name Coppa was not invented by Douglas, 
 but is simply copied from the old Flemish story known as 
 Reynard the fox. In Mr. Arber's reprint of Caxton's 
 translation of this wonderful epic, the name of Chaunticleer's 
 daughter appears as Coppe and Coppen (see pp. 9 and n). 
 Similarly the name of Pertelot was borrowed from Chaucer's 
 Nun's Priesfs Tale. My present contention is that this 
 fact ought to settle the question. Moreover, the name is 
 Dutch. In Hexham's Dutch Dictionary I find : ' een kop, 
 koppe, kobbe, ofte hinne, a hen, or a pullet ' ; also, ' kop, 
 a head, pate, or noddle.' This precisely agrees with the 
 explanation which I gave in 1871. 
 
 187. Beef-eater (6 S. vi. 432 1882). 
 
 I think DR. C. strains the supposed points in favour of 
 the ' opinion now so commonly entertained,' rather beyond 
 the fair interpretation of the known facts. At the outset he 
 suggests that Steevens ' lived before the time of Johnson,' 
 whereas they were, in fact, contemporaries, Steevens being 
 the younger man of the two, as may be seen by a glance at 
 Hole's Brief Biographical Dictionary. It is clear that 
 Steevens was trying to gain a reputation, and that his hint 
 to Johnson was one of his attempts in this direction. The 
 facts are these : 
 
 (i) No English book knows of any spelling but beef -eater. 
 In my additional note, at p. 780 of my Dictionary, I gave 
 an example from the play of Histrwmastrix, which cannot, 
 I suppose, be later than A. D. 1610.
 
 158 BEEF-EA TER. 
 
 (2) I know of no proof that beef-eater ever meant ' a waiter 
 at a sideboard.' It is a pure assertion, made in the interests 
 of forcing upon us the supposed French origin. It merely 
 means servant or yeoman. 
 
 (3) I have shown that a servant was familiarly called 'an 
 eater.' 
 
 (4) I have also shown (p. 780) that a servant was called 
 ' a loaf-eater ' long before the Norman Conquest. Surely this 
 is to the point, and proves that at any rate the English were 
 capable of making such a compound without any borrowing 
 from French. If we had eater, loaf-eater, wine-bibber, and 
 the like, why not beef-eater ? Where is the difficulty ? 
 
 (5) There is absolutely no link fairly joining beef-eater 
 with buffetier. As to form, the junction breaks down, the 
 English spelling having always been what it is now. As to 
 sense, it equally breaks down, (i) because it cannot be 
 proved that the English beef-eater ever meant specifically 
 a waiter at a sideboard ; and (2) because it is admitted that, 
 if the French buffetier ever meant a waiter at a sideboard 
 (and even this is only a guess made in the interests of this 
 precious etymology), at any rate it was not the usual sense 
 of the word. If we had borrowed the word, it would have 
 been more sensible to have given it the sense of ' wine- 
 taster.' On the whole, I see no good reason for going out 
 of our way to make a supposition involving all sorts of diffi- 
 culties, when we have a homely derivation at hand from 
 a pure English source. The word stands on quite a different 
 footing from those of known corruptions. The latter can 
 be accounted for ; but the alleged ' corruption ' in beef-eater 
 rests upon mere paradoxes. 
 
 [My explanation of this word is adopted in the New 
 Eng. Dictionary and in the Century Dictionary. The 
 former cites A. S. hldf-ceta, a loaf-eater. The latter quotes 
 the passage from Ben Jonson, which I give in my (larger) 
 Etym. Dictionary^
 
 WRINKLE = NEW IDEA. 159 
 
 188. Wrinkle = New Idea (6 S. vi. 456 ; 1882). 
 
 MR. TERRY'S quotations are very acceptable. I have 
 already pointed out that A. S. wrenc had a meaning not 
 very dissimilar. Perhaps a quotation from King ^Elfred 
 may help to show how old the word really is : ' Tha for 
 Theodosius thyderweard, and wiste thaet hine man wolde 
 mid tham ilcan wrence bethridian,' i. e. Then went Theo- 
 dosius thither, and knew that they wanted to surround him 
 by (using) the same wrinkle (or stratagem). See Alfred's 
 translation of Oroshts, bk. vi. chap, xxxvi. 2. 
 
 189. Ollands, a Norfolk Word (6 S. vi. 475 ; 1882). 
 
 It is the old story. Men cannot be content with telling 
 us about a word of this sort without insinuating an 
 etymology, while, of course, they never dream of investi- 
 gating before guessing. The suggested etymology of olland 
 from out-land is really too much. In 1691, Ray spelt it old 
 land, in two words (E. D. S., B. 16, p. 88); and it is always 
 a comfort to crush a bad guess easily. 
 
 190. Tennis (6 S. vi. 543 ; 1882). 
 
 I am quite ready to bow to MR. J. MARSHALL'S decision 
 as to the original form of the game itself. What I say is 
 that, if we really wish to discover the etymology, it would be 
 better to consider the old forms tenise, teneys, and the Latin 
 names tenista, teniludus, instead of persistently ignoring 
 these forms. We should also remember that e frequently 
 means a in Latin MSS. of this period, the cz being seldom 
 written. The word is almost certainly French, as no other 
 language could have given the suffix -eys or -ise. It does not 
 in the least follow that we got the game from France ; for 
 Anglo-French (less correctly called Norman-French) was 
 practically a distinct language from the French of France, 
 with its own peculiar laws, and with a power of throwing out
 
 l6o THE DUX.MOir FLITCH, 
 
 new forms. The collection of Anglo-French words lately 
 made by me for the Philological Society suggests how very 
 little has hitherto been done for the study of forms which, 
 for explaining English, are of the highest value. 
 
 [Gower has an older form tenetz. The etymology is un- 
 known. Is it from A. F. tenez, meaning ' play ' ?j 
 
 191. The Dunmow Flitch (6 S. vii. 135 ; 1883). 
 
 The earliest allusion to this is in Piers the Plowmati, 
 A-text, pass. x. 188. It is also mentioned in Chaucer, M \f 
 of Bathes Ta/e, and in a poem in MS. Laud 416 (about 
 1460). There is a note, a page and a half long, on the 
 subject in a book which abounds with illustrations of old 
 words and manners, but seems to be only known to few ; 
 viz. my Notes to Piers the Plmvman, published by the 
 Early English Text Society in 1877. See- p. 227 of that 
 work. 
 
 192. Devonshire Dialect (6 S. vii. 272 ; 1883). 
 
 The explanation of stain is as follows. The A. S. for 
 stone is stdn ; whence, by the usual vowel-change, was 
 formed the adj. stienen, pronounced nearly as stain-en (but 
 with a more ' open ' vowel), and meaning, literally, ' made 
 of stone.' But the sense seems to have been extended to 
 mean ' made of earthenware,' because of the stone-like 
 hardness of such pans, &c. In St. John, ii. 6, we are told 
 that there were set six stUnene waler-fatu, i. e. six ' stain-en ' 
 water-vats; and in Exodus, vii. 19, there is mention, in the 
 A. S. version, of vats or vessels of tree (i.e. wood) and 
 ' stain-en ' vats. In these passages the use of ' stain-en ' is, 
 of course, due to the occurrence of the words lapidea and 
 saxeis in the Vulgate version, from which the A. S. transla- 
 tion was made ; but, independently of this, there is reason 
 to believe that vessels for kitchen use were commonly 
 divided by our ancestors into vessels of metal, tree, and
 
 Ill EL. 1 6 1 
 
 stone. Thus, Lye cites from a glossary the A. S. stcena, 
 sb., Lat. gillo, i. e. a stone vessel holding a gill. . . . Pegge, 
 in his Kenticisms (E. I). S., C. 3, p. 49), tells us that in 
 Derbyshire a stean pot means a stone pot, whilst in Kent 
 to stean a wall is to build up the sides with stones. This 
 Kentish verb is precisely the A. S. staman, to stone, also 
 formed from stan. I think it is quite clear that the Devon- 
 shire stain represents, not the A. S. stdn, stone, but the 
 modified form sta>n- as occurring in the adjective stcen-en 
 and the verb stan-an. It is highly important in scientific 
 etymology to pay great heed to the vowel-sounds. 
 
 [Mr. Elworthy, in his Dialect of West Somerset, gives 
 glossic 'stoo'an' for stone, and ' wai't ' for A. S. hurcete, 
 wheat. Cf. stcinen in Toller's A. S. Dictionary.] 
 
 193. Thel (6 S. vii. 293 ; 1883). 
 
 MR. NORTH has found a good example of a rare and 
 valuable word, illustrating a rather dark place in English 
 etymology. I regret that in [the first edition of] my Dic- 
 tionary the account of deal, in the sense of ' deal board,' 
 is utterly wrong ; it has no connexion with Du. deel, a deal 
 or part (which is neuter, and answers to A. S. dcel], but 
 is borrowed from Du. deel, a deal board, plank, which is 
 feminine. Now thel is the true English word corresponding 
 to deal board, and has the same sense of ' board ' or ' plank '; 
 if there was any difference, it is probable that a thel was 
 thinner or smaller than a plank. The A. S. thel, a plank, 
 occurs in several compounds, all given in Grein's Dic- 
 tionary ; and the closely allied word thill, the shaft of 
 a cart, is still in use, and is fully treated of in my Dictionary. 
 Corresponding to the theoretical Teutonic form *theliz, 
 we have A. S. thel, Icel. thili, a wainscot, plank, O. H. G. 
 dil, dilo, a plank ; and corresponding to the theoretical 
 Teutonic form *thiljon, a substantive of the weak declen- 
 sion, we have A. S. thille, E. thill, Icel. thilja, planking, 
 
 M
 
 1 62 ANGLO-SAXON NUMERALS. 
 
 a bench for rowers, a deck ; Du. [or Low G.] deel, a plank, 
 deal board ; G. diele, a deal, plank. The interesting point 
 is this, and should be noted, that at least three Dutch [or 
 Low German] words have been taken into English in which 
 d corresponds to an original th, and we have sometimes 
 retained, nevertheless, the allied E. words. Examples are 
 seen in drill (Dutch), the native E. word being thrill; deal 
 board (Dutch), the native E. word being thel, allied to 
 thill; and lastly deck (Dutch), the native E. word being 
 thatch. One result is that drill, deal, deck cannot be found 
 at an early date. For the first, I know of no examples 
 earlier than Cotgrave and Ben Jonson ; for the last, none 
 earlier than Lord Surrey ; whilst for deal I can find nothing 
 earlier than the mention of ' a thousand deal boards ' in 
 Clarendon's Civil War, ii. 675, cited by Richardson. Any 
 earlier quotations for any of these words would be a gain. 
 
 [A correspondent in N. and Q., 6 S. viii. 389, cited ' xvj 
 Je/es' as being mentioned in 1600; but Dr. Murray finds 
 that deles occurs as early as in 1402, in the records of Hull. 
 And see the article on Deal (3) in the Errata and Addenda 
 to my Etym. Diet., p. 799.] 
 
 194. Anglo-Saxon Numerals (6 S. vii. 365 ; 1883). 
 
 Many persons who have some acquaintance with Anglo- 
 Saxon must have felt puzzled at the curious use of the prefix 
 hund- before certain numerals. If we write out the numbers 
 10, 20, 30, &c., up to 120 in Anglo-Saxon, the series is tyn. 
 hventig, thrittig, feowertig, &c. ; or, expressing the same as 
 nearly as possible in modern English spelling, we get the 
 series ten, twenty, thirty, forty, fifty, sixty, hund-seventy, 
 hund-eighty, hund-ninety, hund (also hundred], hund-eleventy, 
 and finally hund-twelvety (also called hund-hventy]. As to 
 the meaning of hund there is no dispute ; it means decade 
 (p. 1 1 8), and is merely short for Goth, taihund, just as Latin 
 centum is short for decentum. But the point is, why should the
 
 EVER-. 163 
 
 addition of the prefix hund- begin with the numeral seventy 
 rather than at any other point ? The answer is, simply, that 
 this reckoning refers to a time when what is still called ' the 
 great hundred,' meaning thereby 120, was in common use. 
 The half of 120 is 60 ; and up to 60 all is straightforward. 
 But after passing 60 we come to a reckoning of the latter 
 half of the 120, involving higher numbers, and perhaps 
 regarded as requiring greater effort to secure accuracy. 
 These higher numbers were, of course, in less frequent 
 use than the lower ones, and the prefix served to mark 
 the notion that 60, the half of 120, had been reached, and 
 that the reckoning of the second half had begun. Hence 
 the prefix was continued throughout, with the necessary 
 introduction of the curious words eleventy and twelvety, 
 which are perfectly legitimate formations, and were once 
 in actual use. The most curious use of the 'great hundred' 
 which I remember to have met with is in Fitzherbert's 
 Husbandry (E. D. S., p. 41), where the symbol 'C' is 
 actually used to denote, not 100, but 120. 
 
 This consideration of reckoning by the ' great hundred ' 
 is the obvious explanation of the French numerals also. 
 The reckoning is regular up to soixante, i. e. 60 ; after that 
 the reckoning proceeds by scores, the next resting-place (so 
 to speak) being quatre-vingt, or four score, whilst 70 is merely 
 called soixante-dix, 60 and 10. So also 90 is 80 and 10, or 
 quatre-vingt-dix, and the next score is reached at 100. The 
 last score of the 'great hundred' is reached at 120, formerly 
 called six vingts, or six score, as noted by Littre", s. v. 
 ' Vingt.' 
 
 195. Ever- (6 S. vii. 456 ; 1883). 
 
 I would remark that it is perfectly well known that the 
 prefix Ever- [in some place-names] is derived neither from 
 the Latin aper nor from the German Eber; for neither of 
 these forms could give us ever-. The modern ever- is merely 
 
 M 2
 
 164 DARBIES; OR 'DARBY'S BONDS.' 
 
 the modern way of representing the A. S. eofor, a boar, which 
 is cognate with the Latin and German forms, and not derived 
 from either of them ; the same is true of the Russian word 
 vepre. It would conduce much to clearness of thought if 
 the difference between cognation and derivation were more 
 clearly apprehended. 
 
 196. Darbies; or Darby's Bonds' (6 S. vii. 498; 1883). 
 The phrase ' Darby's bonds ' occurs in Gascoigne's Steel 
 
 Glass, 1. 787, which runs thus : 
 
 ' To binde such babes in father Derbies bands.' 
 
 The passage is given in Skeat's Specimens of English 
 Literature, p. 316. My note on it is as follows : 
 
 ' Father Derbies bands, handcuffs. Why so called, I know not, but 
 darbies is still a slang term for the same.' 
 
 We shall not obtain any further light upon the term until 
 we can discover who was ' father Derby.' All we know of 
 him at present is that his name was already proverbial 
 in 1576. 
 
 197. Basque = Gascon =Euskarian (6 S. vii. 516 ; 1883). 
 I am not aware whether any reader knows what this 
 
 article means, but it is perhaps as well to point out that 
 the writer expects us to accept, as ' familiar examples ' of 
 letter-change, that wood is the same word as F. bois, that 
 good and better are from the same root, that boor and vir 
 are likewise one word, that wet is the German nass, that 
 nigh is merely vtcinus, and so forth. I am quite sure that 
 such statements would not be tolerated in discussing 
 geology and botany ; but in matters of ' philology ' such 
 crudities are thought worthy of being written [and printed]. 
 
 198. The Story of ' The pound of flesh ' (6 S. viii. 105 ; 
 
 1883). 
 
 I do not know whether it has been pointed out that the 
 story of 'the pound of flesh,' in the Merchant of Venice,
 
 CHAUCER :' CANTERBURY TALES.' 165 
 
 occurs in the Cursor Mundi, 11. 21413-21496. I suspect 
 this to be the earliest version of the tale in the English 
 language. 
 
 199. Chaucer: 'Canterbury Tales' (6 S. viii. 125 ; 1883). 
 
 In the Parson's Prologue, \. 43, we have the well-known 
 lines : 
 
 ' I can nat geste, rom, mm, ruf, by lettre. 
 Ne, god wot, rym holde I but litel bettre.' 
 
 Compare the curious use of rim ram in the Walloon dialect. 
 Sigart gives two examples : ' Ca n'a ni rim ni ram, it has 
 neither rime nor reason ; c'est toudi I'meme rim ram, it 's 
 always the same song.' 
 
 200. Three-way Leet (6 S. viii. 217 ; 1883). 
 MR. TERRY does not give all the latest information. I have 
 since shown, in the Academy, that the Essex three releet 
 [a place where three ways meet] is not particularly corrupt, 
 but is merely misdivided. It should be threere leet, A. S. 
 threora Icetu, meetings of three ways. The suffix -re, 
 A. S. -ra, is the mark of the genitive plural. So also twegra 
 wega gelietu, meetings of two ways, in a gloss quoted in 
 Bosworth's Dictionary. 
 
 201. Skellum (6 S. viii. 375 ; 1883). 
 In reply to MR. J., I have to say that sk does not always 
 point to a Scandinavian origin for a word. It may point to 
 a Dutch origin, as in landscape, the Dutch sch being difficult 
 to an Englishman, who likens it to sk*. Skellum, as in 
 Nares, was borrowed immediately, in the Tudor period, 
 from Du. schelm, explained by Hexham as 'a rogue, 
 a villaine, or a wicked person.' The etymology is given 
 by Weigand. The m is a noun suffix, and the root-verb is 
 the same as that which gives the E. skill. The original 
 
 1 So also in skipper, from Du. schlpper.
 
 1 66 . MODERN LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 sense was a thing separated or cast away ; hence M. H. G. 
 schelme, carrion, offal, whence finally it came to mean 
 a worthless fellow. See Weigand, Etym. G. Did., and 
 the remarks on Dutch words in the preface (p. xiv.) to my 
 Etymological Dictionary. 
 
 [Most words beginning with sk are of Scandinavian origin. 
 The A. S. sc became sh. Many words beginning with sc are 
 French ; as scald, verb, scandal, scarce.~\ 
 
 202. Modern Letter-writing (6 S. viii. 376 ; 1883). 
 
 I beg leave to endorse the statements made at the above 
 reference. I frequently receive letters which are perfectly 
 legible throughout, except that neither the name nor the 
 address can be deciphered. How to reply to them is a most 
 harrowing question. I also observe a growing tendency, 
 chiefly in correspondents of whom one knows nothing, to 
 exact immediate answers, regardless of the trouble they 
 may cause. In particular, I would allude to the subject 
 of place-names. I am often expected to solve the sense 
 of a place-name, though it might cost a week's labour to 
 collect the old spellings and all the available facts. I find 
 the answering of letters of this class is harder task-work 
 than any book-writing. A little mercy would be much 
 appreciated. 
 
 [As to place-names, I now always expect my correspondent 
 to tell me the earliest known spelling, in old charters.] 
 
 203. Foxglove (6 S. viii. 392 ; 1883). 
 I beg leave to protest against the etymology (!) from 
 folk's glove. I do so on principle ; it seems to me most 
 mischievous to suggest how a name might have arisen, 
 when all the while the facts are on record. As to the 
 suggestion itself, I have heard it only too often, and it is 
 given in Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. Any 
 attempt at ascertaining the facts would have disposed of the 
 theory at once ; for it is perfectly well known that the A. S.
 
 V1LD. 167 
 
 name was foxes glofa, meaning fox's glove, which occurs in 
 vol. iii. p. 327 of Cockayne's Anglo-Saxon Leechdoms. It is 
 obviously impossible that the A. S. foxes can be a corruption 
 of a form folk's, which is of later date. The Norwegian 
 name revhandskje, foxglove, is derived from rev, a fox, and 
 handskje, a glove ; and how are we to explain this aw r ay ? 
 The fact is that Englishmen are always making 'suggestions' 
 of this character, being apparently of opinion that unaided 
 guess-work is the only method of value ; yet we do not 
 thus attempt to explain the ordinary facts of botany and 
 chemistry. Dr. Brewer explains foxes glofa by ' red or fox- 
 coloured glove.' It means nothing of the kind ; it means 
 just simply 'glove of the fox.' It is only another example 
 of ' suggestion ' ; it is far better to take the fact as it stands. 
 A study of such a book as Earle's Plant-Names will show- 
 that our ancestors delighted in names formed from the 
 names of animals ; and this fact cannot be upset by merely 
 modern notions as to their inappropriateness. If we exercise 
 our imagination by making bad guesses, we should not blame 
 our ancestors, who exercised theirs quite harmlessly. [It is 
 now considered 'scientific' to turn the old name hare-bell 
 into ' hair-bell,' as being descriptive of its slender stalk ! 
 That is not the question. The question is, not what ought 
 it to be called, but what was it called, as a matter of fact.] 
 
 204. Vild (6 S. viii. 476 ; 1883). 
 
 Vild is merely vile with an excrescent d, due to stress, like 
 the d in sound, from F. son. It is very common, and occurs 
 in Shakespeare and Spenser. Excrescent d after / does not 
 seem to have received much attention ; yet the old spelling 
 of hold of a ship was hole ; iron-mould is for iron-mole, i. e. 
 iron-spot; and I believe the old word cole-prophet (false 
 prophet) appears as cold prophet. 
 
 [Such is the case ; see Cole-prophet in the New E. 
 Dictionary?^
 
 1 68 SETTING THE THAMES ON FIRE. 
 
 205. Setting the Thames on Fire. I (6 S. viii. 476 ; 
 1883). 
 
 I have a profound disbelief in this alleged origin of 
 the saying, which is an old popular etymology, given in 
 Dr. Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and Fable. I should 
 like to ask whether a South Lancashire labourer would 
 understand the phrase who uses it of him ; and, in 
 particular, whether it is possible to set a sieve \temse\ on 
 fire by friction? These assertions are easily made, but 
 they commonly turn out upon inquiry to be no better than 
 mares' nests. Where can we find ' Set the temse on fire ' in 
 an old book ? Of course the word temse itself is common 
 enough, and occurs in the Promptorium Parvulorum. [And 
 how do such gentlemen explain to set the Seine on fire ? 
 Probably they think that a seine is a fishing-net (and so it 
 is), and that the fishermen pull it on board with such heart) 
 diligence that it is easily set on fire by the friction against 
 the boat's side. See further below.] 
 
 206. Setting the Thames on Fire. II (6 S. ix. 14 ; 
 
 1884). 
 
 We have now got a little further in this question. It 
 appears that this fable (as I suspect it will turn out to be) 
 can be traced as far back as March 25, 1865, when it was 
 first started by a correspondent signing himself P. in N. 
 and Q. 3 S. viii. 239. Observe that P. puts forward his 
 solution quite as a mere guess, saying that ' the long misuse 
 of the word temse . . . may possibly have tended to the sub- 
 stitution of sound for sense.' Mr. Hazlitt merely copies 
 what is there said. The statement made is that ' an active 
 fellow, who worked hard, not unfrequently [the italics are 
 mine] set the rim of the temse on fire by force of friction 
 against the rim of the flour-barrel.' Mr. Hazlitt improves 
 this into the 'iron rim of the temse,' it being, of course, 
 quite easy to set iron ' on fire.' Now I think we have
 
 THE ll'ORD ' GA.' 169 
 
 a right to expect some sort of proof of the statement. If 
 ' an active fellow ' could do this once, he can do it now \ 
 Well, I should like to see him do it. Who can quote the 
 phrase from a book older than 1865? See P. Plowman, 
 C. 7- 335- 
 
 207. The Word Ga' (6 S. ix. 14 ; 1884). 
 
 MR. TAYLOR'S statement that the suffix -gay is the same 
 as the German gait, and his identification of gau with 
 Kemble's explanation of gd, cannot be admitted without 
 proof. They are against all phonetic laws. The E. day is 
 A. S. dag, so that -gay would be -g<zg ; or else, since E. hay 
 (in names) is A. S. hege, -gay would be -gege. How E. ay= 
 A. S. il, is a mystery. Again, the G. ## = A. S. ea, as in 
 G. t>aum = A.S. beam. Anything can be said if phonetic 
 laws are not to count. 
 
 [In Kemble's Saxons in England there is a good deal 
 about the gd or stir. I once asked Mr. Freeman his 
 authority for this gd ; and he referred me to Spelman. It 
 turns out that Spelman evolved the word out of two names, 
 viz. Ohtgaga and Noxgaga, the authorities for these names 
 being themselves by no means clear. We have no right to 
 conclude from them that ga was an independent word, with 
 long d. If it were, it would be go in mod. E., and gehe 
 (probably) in German. It could not possibly be the 
 G. GauJ] 
 
 208. By-and-by (6 S. ix. 34; 1884). 
 
 The statement that by was repeated in order to signify 
 ' as near as possible ' has no true foundation. Examples 
 show that it means rather ' in due order.' Such phrases 
 are best understood by consulting the right books, viz. 
 Matzner's and Stratmann's Old English dictionaries. 
 Matzner is quite clear about it. He says that bi and bi 
 
 1 This is the old suggestion made in the fable, to the man who had 
 taken an extraordinary leap ' at Ephesus.'
 
 170 THETHORNE. 
 
 sometimes indicates 'in order, with reference to space.' 
 He cites, ' Two yonge knightes, liggyng by and by,' i. e. side 
 by side (Chaucer, C. T., 1013); 'He slouh twenti, Ther 
 hedes quyte and clene he laid tham bi and bi' (Rob. of 
 Brunne, tr. of Langtoft, ed. Hearne, p. 267) ; ' His doughter 
 had a bed al by hir-selve, Right in the same chambre by 
 and by' (Chaucer, C. T., 4140). Here it means in a 
 parallel direction ; not as near as possible. Further, says 
 Matzner, it is used with reference to the succession of 
 separate circumstances ; hence, in due order, successively, 
 gradually, separately, singly. ' These were his wordes by 
 and by' (Rom. of the Rose, 4581) ; ' Whan William ... had 
 taken homage of barons bi and bi' (Rob. of Brunne, as 
 above, p. 73) ; ' This is the genelogie ... Of kynges bi and 
 bi' (id. p. 1 1 1) ; ' By and by, si[n]gillatim ' (Prompt. Parv.\ 
 To these examples may be added those already cited. In 
 later times the phrase came to mean ' in course of time,' 
 and hence either (i) immediately, as in the A. V. of the 
 Bible, or (2) after a while, as usual at present. On this 
 later use see Wright's Bible Word-book, new edition. We 
 thus see that the earliest authority for the phrase is Robert 
 of Brunne, who is one of the most important authors in the 
 whole of English literature, seeing that Mr. Oliphant has 
 shown that it is his form of English rather than Chaucer's 
 which is actually the literary language. It seems a pity, 
 under the circumstances, that he should be ' a source 
 unknown ' to any one ; but Hearne's edition is out of 
 print and scarce, and we still wait for a new one in an 
 easily accessible form. [Dr. Furnivall's edition has since 
 appeared, in the Record Series. See By in the New E. 
 Dictionary^ 
 
 209. Thethorne (6 S. ix. 245 ; 1884). 
 
 In Halliwell's Dictionary we find that the thethorne-tre 
 is explained in the Promptorium by ramnus. To this
 
 EFTURES. 171 
 
 Halliwell appends the note, l ramnus is the medlar-tree.' 
 Certainly not ; ramnus, or rather rhamnus, is the buck- 
 thorn. 
 
 \Thethorn is short for thef thorn or thevethorn; the latter 
 occurs in Wyclif ; see Stratmann. The A. S. forms are : 
 })eofef>orn, a gloss to ramnus in the Corpus Glossary' (eighth 
 century), and jyfefiorn in ^Elfric's Glossary (tenth century). 
 Hence, probably, the prov. E. forms thebes, theses, thapes, 
 febes,feabes,fepes,feapes y usually applied to the fruit of the 
 gooseberry-tree.] 
 
 210. Eftures (6 S. ix. 245 ; 1884). 
 
 This word is entered in Halliwell, but it has no true 
 existence. There is no such word in English or French, 
 but it has arisen from one of those blunders which dic- 
 tionaries often perpetrate. The entry stands thus : ' Eftures, 
 passages; Malory, ii. 376.' It is due to the following 
 sentence in Caxton's edition of Malory's Morte Arthure, 
 bk. xix. ch. vii : 'And sir Meligraunce said to sir Launcelot, 
 " Pleaseth it you to see the eftures of this castle ? " ' I 
 quote from Sir E. Strachey's reprint. But eftures is an 
 obvious error for estures, or rather estres, by that confusion 
 between f and long .$ which is so common. The word 
 estres occurs in a well-known passage in Chaucer's Knighfs 
 Tale. Cotgrave has : ' Les estres d'une maison, the inward 
 conveyances, private windings and turnings within, entries 
 into, issues out of, a house.' This fully explains the above 
 passage. I believe the combination ft is almost unknown 
 to Latin and French, so that such a form as eftures is 
 hardly possible. In fact, the curious use of// in Icelandic 
 to represent the sound of ft is due to following a Latin 
 model; for Latin has// only, and knows nothing of//. 
 It follows that Halli well's Dictionary, like every other dic- 
 tionary with which I am acquainted, cannot be always 
 implicitly relied upon. Such an error as the above should
 
 172 ETYMOLOGY OF SULPHUR. 
 
 have been corrected, especially as estres is duly given and 
 rightly explained. 
 
 [A note of this mistake duly appears in the New English 
 Dictionary, s. v. 
 
 211. Etymology of Sulphur (6 S. ix. 471 ; 1884). 
 The etymology of the Sanskrit culvari from fulva, copper, 
 is by no means certain, and is more likely to be a popular 
 etymology, of no value. The suffix -dri can hardly stand 
 for vairin (rather than vairi\ hostile. It is more likely 
 that culvari is a word foreign to Sanskrit, having no con- 
 nexion with fu/va, copper, beyond an accidental partial 
 resemblance. Benfey gives both words, without any hint 
 of a connexion between them. I do not see the use of 
 giving mere guess-work. 
 
 212. A few words on * Anglo-Saxon.' I 
 (6 S. ix. 302 ; 1884). 
 
 With regard to the language commonly called Anglo- 
 Saxon, I have already pointed out in my Dictionary that it 
 means one of the three main dialects of the oldest English, 
 viz. the Southern, or Wessex, dialect. The other two are 
 the Old Northumbrian and the Old Midland. 
 
 I now wish to draw particular attention to the fact that 
 there are also two distinct kinds of Anglo-Saxon. The 
 former is the real language, as exhibited in extant manu- 
 scripts, in trustworthy editions that are not manipulated, 
 and in the best dictionaries only. The other Anglo-Saxon 
 is a pure fiction, a conglomeration of misleading rubbish, 
 but is to be found only too plentifully. It is cited ad 
 nauseam by Bailey, Skinner, Johnson, and the rest, and is 
 extremely familiar to those who learn Anglo-Saxon only 
 from books. It is highly prized by some etymologists, 
 because it provides them with etymologies ready made; 
 and no wonder, seeing that it was expressly invented for 
 the purpose !
 
 A FEW WORDS ON 'ANGLO-SAXON.' 173 
 
 I give three specimens of this wonderful language, and 
 perhaps may some day give more ; they are plentiful 
 enough. 
 
 ' Adastrigan, to discourage; hence dastard, a coward' (Somner . 
 
 Clearly invented to account for dastard. Bosworth records 
 it in his old edition ; from the new one it has, happily, 
 disappeared l . 
 
 1 Piga, a little maid ' (Somner). 
 
 The mistake is surprising. In the first place, it should 
 have had a long z ; secondly, it should have ended in <?, 
 supposing it feminine; and thirdly, it is clearly suggested 
 by the Dan. pige. But what is pige ? It is the Danish 
 form of Icel. pika, a girl, of which Vigfusson says that it is 
 ' a foreign word of uncertain origin, first occurring in Norway 
 about the end of the fourteenth (!) century, and in Iceland 
 about the fifteenth} A pretty .word this to make 'Anglo- 
 Saxon ' out of ! Of course it was ' wanted ' to account 
 (wrongly) for piggesnie in Chaucer, and it has also been 
 used to derive Peggy and ' please the pigs ' from (JV. and Q. 
 6 S. ix. 232). Unluckily, by the ordinary phonetic laws, A.S. 
 ' piga ' would become pye in Middle English, and pie in 
 Modern English; so the usefulness of it even for piggesnie, 
 Peggy, andfligs is not apparent. Only it must be remembered 
 that those who utilize these curious forms do so because 
 they are unfamiliar with A. S. manuscripts, and do not 
 sufficiently heed phonetic laws, which are very discouraging 
 to working by guess. 
 
 ' Rascal, a lean worthless deer ; hence a rascal ' (Somner). 
 
 Oh ! the pity of inserting into an A. S. dictionary a word 
 which is so plainly Anglo-French ! 
 
 1 [Somner was quite honest, but he misread the word. I find 
 a note by my old master, the Rev. O. Cockayne ' It is an error 
 for the O. Northumb. adustriga, used to gloss Lat detestari; Matt, 
 xxvi. 74.']
 
 174 A FEW WORDS ON 'ANGLO-SAXON.' 
 
 I hope it may some day occur to those who get so much 
 store by this singular language that these three specimens, 
 and many more of the same character, are such as should 
 be avoided rather than courted. [Somner always has some 
 authority for his statements. He did his best ; but we must 
 beware.] 
 
 213. Pseudo-Saxon Words. II (6 S. ix. 446 ; 1884). 
 
 I make a note of a few more so-called ' Anglo-Saxon ' 
 words, all to be found in the old edition of Bosworth's 
 Dictionary : 
 
 Aisil, vinegar. Quoted as ' A. S.' by Bailey. It is Old 
 French, and may be found in Godefroy. It is derived 
 from a Low Latin diminutive form of acetum. 
 
 Braue, a letter, brief. Evidently an error for M. E. breue, 
 E. brief; a French word. 
 
 Broel, a park, &c. It is O. F. ; from Low Latin 
 brogilus. 
 
 Blendan, to blend. The A. S. blendan means to blind. 
 The A. S. for blend is blandan. 
 
 Canted, charity. This is an O. F. word occurring in the 
 A. S. Chronicle. There is no great harm in inserting such 
 a word in an A S. dictionary ; only readers must not 
 imagine it to be ' Saxon.' 
 
 Cite, a city. Inserted as an A. S. word without any 
 reference. It is French. 
 
 Pouerte, poverty. The same remark applies. 
 
 Pynt, a pint. Mere French. 
 
 Moreover, the A. S. dictionaries abound in words which 
 are pure Latin, or Latin slightly altered, and are not to be 
 regarded as Teutonic. Thus c<zf ester, a halter, is merely 
 capistrum. The citation of A. S. words requires much heed 
 and knowledge ; and that is why people generally rush at it 
 blindfold, to save trouble.
 
 NOTES ON PHRASE AND INFLECTION. 175 
 
 214. Notes on Phrase and Inflection. I (6 S. ix. 32 ; 
 
 1884). 
 
 We ought to be much obliged to SIR J. A. PICTON for 
 protesting against the worthless rubbish which is being 
 printed in Good Words upon this subject, and which seems 
 to prove that any one who is utterly ignorant of the facts of 
 the formation of the English language has a much better 
 chance of being listened to than those who have studied the 
 subject. I have not been able to find, during twenty years' 
 search, that there is any other subject, in which ignorance is 
 commonly regarded as a primary qualification for being 
 chosen to write ' popular ' articles on it. At the same time 
 I am rather sorry to see that SIR J. A. PICTON'S communi- 
 cation contains several inaccuracies ; in many cases he has 
 not followed that historical method which he justly advo- 
 cates. The formation of weak verbs has been, in all details, 
 correctly explained in the introduction to Morris' Specimens 
 of Early English, pt. i. p. Ixi, which the student should 
 consult. It will thus appear that the original suffix in the 
 verd send was -de, not -ed. This gave send-de, written sende, 
 once a common form. 
 
 This became sente, as being more easy to pronounce 
 rapidly, and finally sent. Sende is the only form which is 
 found in Anglo-Saxon, and the word sended never existed, 
 except (perhaps) by misuse. . . . Another inaccuracy is the 
 fancy that the Middle English suffix -te is High German. 
 It has, in English, nothing to do with High German, but 
 depends upon phonetic laws. The suffix appears as -te 
 after voiceless consonants, such as p, t, k (h, gh). Hence 
 the M. E. slep-te, met-te, brough-te, mod. E. slept, met, brought 
 (never slepd, metd, broughd}. Some verbs inserted [what has 
 been called] a connecting vowel * ; hence lov-e-de, hat-e-de, 
 whence lov-ed, hat-ed. It is quite a mistake to suppose that 
 Landor originated such a form as slip-t. As a fact, it is 
 
 1 A misleading term ; see p. 178.
 
 176 i\OTES ON PHRASE AND INFLECTION. 
 
 correct, and occurs, spelt slip-te (dissyllabic), in Gower's 
 Confessio Amantis, ed. Pauli, vol. ii. p. 72, where it rhymes 
 with skip-te. No one who thinks that the putting of / for 
 ed is ' of late years a fashion in certain quarters ' can have 
 examined a certain book known as the first folio of Shake- 
 speare. I open Booth's reprint at random, and my eye 
 lights on p. 91, col. 2, of part ii, and I at once find chanct 
 for chanced; there are several thousand such examples in 
 that work. It is, in fact, a great misfortune that such pure 
 and correct formations as skipt and slipt have been absurdly 
 spelt skipped and slipped, while no one writes slepped. Such 
 is the muddle-headedness of modern English spelling, which 
 seems to be almost worshipped for its inconsistencies. 
 
 215. Notes on Phrase and Inflection. II 
 
 (6 S. ix. 130 ; 1884). 
 
 I must ask for a short space for explanation. I see 
 where I have made myself obscure, viz. by not precisely 
 defining my limits. In saying that the form sended (for 
 sent] never existed, I meant that it does not occur in any 
 extant written English, which is the natural meaning of my 
 words. Before this prehistoric form came in view, it was 
 already cut down to sende (short for send-de}. Now compare 
 this with what SIR J. A. PJCTON tells us. I quote his words : 
 ' Send had its original preterite sended ; but when an attempt 
 was made to reduce it to one syllable, sended, it will be at 
 once seen that sent was the inevitable outcome.' I will 
 now prove formally that this is perfectly well known to be 
 incorrect. The attempt to reduce the word to one syllable 
 was never made till long after the Conquest ; the written 
 history of the word is totally different. What really hap- 
 pened was, that the i of the Gothic sandida dropped out, 
 thus giving sende \ which is the only form in A. S. poetry 
 
 1 Sende shows the /-mutation of a to e, and is thus short for 
 a prehistoric form *send i'de, mutated form of *sandida.
 
 NOTES ON PHRASE AND INFLECTION. 177 
 
 and is extremely common ; see Grein's Worterbuch, ii. 431. 
 The Mid. Eng. sende sometimes became sente, by a natural 
 phonetic law, as being capable of more rapid utterance ; 
 after this the e dropped off, and the modern sent resulted J . 
 This explanation, which is a mere statement of facts easily 
 verified, is quite different from what SIR J. A. PICTON at 
 first told us. I may add that I am perfectly acquainted 
 with the Gothic forms of the weak verbs, having already 
 printed two accounts of them. 
 
 Next take SIR J. A. PICTON'S account oi loved, which is not 
 correct. He tells us : ' Lov-ed was originally lov-dyd or -ded. 
 It required little effortto make the euphonic change to lov-ed.' 
 Here are three mistakes at once. The original form lov-ded 
 is not the right form to take ; the change is not ' euphonic ' 
 when made suddenly, as here directed ; and the effort to 
 make such a change would have been considerable, not 'little.' 
 We must start, rather, from a form lov-e-de, precisely parallel 
 (as a Mid. English form) 2 to the Gothic pt. t. lag-i-da already 
 cited. This lov-e-de lasted down to Chaucer's time. Then 
 the final e dropped, and we obtained lov-ed, in two syllables, 
 now called lov'd, in one. 
 
 The fact is, that SIR J. A. PICTON has fallen into the 
 common mistake of supposing that lov-ed stands for lov-d-ed, 
 by a dropping out of the former d. This error has arisen 
 from not understanding the origin of the e, which even 
 Dr. Morris somewhere calls ' a connecting vowel.' It is 
 nothing of the kind, but a part of the root. Weak verbs 
 end in Gothic in -j-an and in A. S. in -i-an or -ig-an. Thus 
 the A. S. for ' to hate ' was not hatan, but hat-ian (for *hat- 
 jan}. It just makes all the difference. Hat-an would have 
 made a past tense hat-de, turning (of course) into hat-te. 
 This is not a guess, for there is a verb hatan, and its 
 past tense is hat-te. But hat-i-an made its past tense as 
 
 1 This is very nearly what we are now told ; 6 S. ix. 92. 
 The A. S. form is luf-o-de. 
 
 N
 
 178 XOTES O\ PHRASE A\D J.\FLECT1O\. 
 
 */-& usually written hat-o-df. As late as in Chaucer \ve 
 still have kre-e-de, kat-t-dt, in three syllables. Then the e 
 dropped, giving the modern Iw^-cd or lovd, and hated. 
 and there we stop, without bringing in any ' euphonic ' 
 laws at all. I am not aware that this has been clearly 
 explained before, at any rate in any English grammar : but 
 any German accustomed to such matters will at once see 
 (though he probably knows it already, if a student of Old 
 English) that the -e- in hat-e-d is a part of the formative 
 stem of the verb itself (the A. S. infinitive being hat-i-an\. 
 and that all that is now left of the pt. t suffix answering 
 to the third pers. plural -dedttn in Gothic is the initial, not 
 the third letter J . Thus send-e is short for *sand-i-da ; and 
 the plural send(d}on^=*sand-i~dorL t is short for sand-i-didun. 
 
 As to the formation of such words as skiff, it is clear 
 that SIR ]. A. PICTOX takes a very different view from mine. 
 I could explain skiff if I had the space, and I could show- 
 why it is quite 'correct,' and that the unphonetic skipped is 
 a modern error. I will add that those who know what 
 jtmJaut means will see that send-e really stands for sand-i-da, 
 as above, 
 
 I must add one more remark. SIR J. A. PICTOX objects 
 to calling slipt and skipt 'pure and correct formations." 
 But he avoids telling us what name he would give to such 
 forms as slepped or kepped, or why skipt should be wrong 
 and slept and kept right. 
 
 216. Notes on Phrase and Inflection. Ill 
 
 (6 S, ix. 191 ; 1884). 
 
 I had not intended to write more on this subject, but the 
 note at the last reference leaves the matter in such a tangle 
 that it is necessary to put it somewhat straight It gives us 
 the due at last, and shows how SIR J. A. PICTOX has been 
 
 1 Mmx Muller has seen this; see his Lectxrts, eighth ed., L 270. 
 But we no longer believe that the Goth. pL suffix ttdmn Meant < did.'
 
 NOTES ON PHRASE AND INFLECTION. 179 
 
 entirely misled by Bosworth's Dictionary. The fact is that 
 this dictionary contains some errors, there being a misprint 
 in the very passage cited ; whilst at the same time the very 
 best dictionary is likely to mislead any one who trusts to it 
 without entirely comprehending its full meaning. Bosworth l 
 gives the present tense of wendan, to go, as ic wend, thu 
 wentst, he went. Now, ic wend is a pure misprint for ic 
 wende, as any grammar will show ; or perhaps it is simpler 
 to state that ic wende occurs in Elene, 348 ; Solomon 
 and Saturn, 19; see Grein. Hence, in form, the present 
 and past tenses were exactly alike in the first person ; the 
 reason being that wende is the true form for the present, 
 whilst the past wende is short for wend-de, a contraction of 
 *wand-i-da, as explained in my last. But the third person 
 singular indicative is given as went. This occurs in Luke xvii. 
 (not xviii.) 31, where he went does not mean precisely 'let 
 him turn back,' but literally ' he shall turn back ' ; the A. S. 
 always expressing the future by the present form. Now, 
 the tangle arose on this wise. This form went is really 
 a mere contraction of wendeth in the very passage cited, 
 the Rushworth MS. has awendeth, and the Lindisfarne MS. 
 has awoendath. In the metrical Psalms, cxiii. 8, the Latin 
 convertit petram is translated by he wendeth stan (not he went 
 stdn). But this went (for wendeth] is the Mod. E. wends, 
 third person singular indicative, and has nothing whatever 
 to do with our Mod. E. went. Hence all the trouble. 
 
 The Mod. E. went is the same as the M. E. and A. S. 
 wende, past tense, of which the thirteenth century form was 
 wente (with final e), occurring in Genesis and Exodus, ed. 
 Morris, 321. The final e of this wente was essential, the 
 word being dissyllabic ; but the Northern dialect dropped 
 it ; see went (for wente) in the Seven Sages, ed. Wright. 
 
 1 I refer to his older Dictionary, mainly copied from Lye ; but 
 Lye (as to this point) is correct. In the new edition (continued by 
 Toller) no such error will appear. 
 
 N 2
 
 l8o OFFAL, ITS ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 1485. On the other hand, the A. S. went, third person 
 singular indicative, occurs as went as late as in the Ayenbite 
 of Imuyt, p. 1 80. We must no more confuse A. S. went 
 (Mod. E. wendeth or wends] with the A. S. past tense wende, 
 M. E. wende, wente (Mod. E. went], than we must confuse 
 other similar words which are much more distinct. 
 
 The matter is, in fact, somewhat obscure ; but no mistake 
 will be made by such as are wholly familiar with Early and 
 Middle English as well as with Anglo-Saxon literature. 
 Much clearer cases occur in the following. We have rit 
 for rideth, third person singular indicative, quite distinct 
 from rode ; hit for hideth, distinct from past tense hidde ; ret 
 for redeth (reads), distinct from past tense redde (read) ; bit 
 for biddeth; stant for standeth; sit for sitteth; and many 
 more such, which I have often enumerated. Indeed, 
 I begin to wonder how often these things will have to 
 be explained before they are clearly understood. At any 
 rate, it should be known that dictionaries and grammars 
 alone will not explain Early English. More is wanted, viz., 
 a close familiarity with the literature and the manuscripts ; 
 nothing less will help us to avoid the pitfalls. Perhaps it 
 may make the matter clearer if I take a parallel case. The 
 difference between A. S. went, he turns, he goes, and A. S. 
 wende, M. E. wende or wente, Mod. E. went, is very much 
 like the difference between the Lat. servit, he serves, and 
 the Lat. serviit, F. servit, he served. Surely no French 
 grammarian would for a moment imagine that the F. servit, 
 which is a past form, is the same word as the Lat. servit. 
 I hope the matter is now clear. 
 
 217. Offal, its Etymology. I (6 S. ix. 155 ; 1884). 
 
 In one of his interesting papers on ' The Orkneys,' Mr. F. 
 challenges the usual derivation of offal from off and fall. 
 To which I reply, ' Ne sutor ultra crepidam ' ; for had he 
 looked at my Etymological Dictionary, I do not think he
 
 OFFAL, ITS ETYMOLOGY. 181 
 
 would have hazarded his conjecture. He tells us that the 
 Norse equivalent is or-val, i.e. refuse. What he means 
 by Norse, I do not know. The Icelandic word is properly 
 written brvb'l (see Vigfusson), and is derived from or (Goth. 
 us), out ; and velja, to choose. But it is quite a different 
 word from the E. offal, notwithstanding the similarity in 
 sense. This is just how so many errors in etymology arise. 
 A man sees some sort of likeness between two words, and 
 immediately rushes at the conclusion that they are related. 
 This would not happen if people would only condescend to 
 remember that words have a history. For want of doing 
 this, your correspondent falls into the very error which he 
 condemns. His words are : ' The factitious meaning has 
 been given, as is not unfrequently the case in English 
 dictionaries, to suit a supposed etymology.' That is 
 a common error ; but in this case it is the critic who 
 has warped the sense of the word, in order to suit his 
 etymology. The old sense of offal really was 'what falls 
 off,' and it is rightly explained by Lat. caducum in the 
 Prompt. Parvulorum. It meant originally 'what falls off 
 trees,' hence bits of stick, refuse. The equivalent words 
 in other languages are Dan. affald, Du. afval, G. abfall, all 
 of which cannot be so lightly set aside. The practice of 
 most etymologists appears to be the same as in matrimony, 
 viz., to act in haste ; and the result is, or should be, much the 
 same. I will add, that the alleged use of the word wailed, 
 chosen, by Chaucer, is a new discovery ; the usual editions 
 do not give the word. I suppose it is due to some mistake. 
 
 218. Offal, its Etymology. II (6 S. ix. 231 ; 1884). 
 
 I think further controversy about this word will only be 
 unprofitable, as I am sure it is unnecessary. Mr. F. calmly 
 puts aside all analogies as if they did not exist ; but he 
 must remember that he has to convince not me alone, but 
 every one else. He tells us ' that the distance between what
 
 182 OFFAL, ITS ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 falls off trees and refuse is much too great to be bridged 
 over by anything like bits of stick.' This argument I have 
 already answered by anticipation, by referring him to the 
 Danish affald, under the impression that he was acquainted 
 with that language. But if he is not, I must explain that 
 word more particularly, as I think it will suffice, without 
 going into Dutch and German, though those languages 
 have also to be reckoned with, and I have already cited 
 the forms, which can be looked out at leisure. I must first 
 say that the Danish often has Id for //; thus our fall is in 
 Danish fald. The Danish af is our off; and the Danish 
 affald is exactly off-fall, so far as the form is concerned. 
 But the senses of the Danish affald are very instructive ; 
 and, curiously enough, they exactly 'bridge over the 
 distance' in the manner which has been authoritatively 
 declared to be impossible. I take Ferrall and Repp's 
 Dictionary, which is good enough for the purpose. The 
 senses of affald there given are, 'Fall, inclination, declivity, 
 slope; decline, abatement, refuse, offal; lovefs Affald, the 
 fall of the leaf ; at samle Affald i Skoven, to pick up sticks 
 in the woods ; Affald i en Have, windfalls ; Affald i en 
 Huusholding, broken victuals, leavings ; Affald af Metal, 
 refuse, dross, residue, scum,' &c. If we look out offal in 
 the English-Danish part, we shall find affald given as one 
 of the equivalents. Observe that the range of meanings 
 is really far wider than what is declared to be impossible. 
 We pass from declivity to dross, and include sticks and 
 offal by the way. So, in German, abfall, lit. off-fall, is the 
 term for offal actually used by the butchers. We have 
 practically been told that they cannot use such a term, 
 but the answer is that they do use it, which puts the matter 
 past all argument. 
 
 I do not wish to go into technicalities, or it would be 
 easy to show that the Norse v answers to an English w, and 
 not to /at all ; so that there are great phonetic difficulties
 
 BALLOON. 183 
 
 about this new and needless proposal. Curiously enough, 
 this is shown by the very word cited ; for the Icelandic 
 velja was formerly welja, and became wale (not vale, still 
 less_/a/<?) in English. 
 
 I will just touch upon the other points raised. As for 
 orts, it is fully explained in my dictionary as containing the 
 prefix or; but or is not the root, only the prefix. The same 
 prefix occurs in or-deal. Certainly Webster quotes ' wailed 
 wine and meats ' from Chaucer ; but that only proves what 
 we knew before, that his quotations from ' Chaucer ' are 
 worthless. The above words occur in the twenty-ninth line 
 of the Complaint of Creseide, printed in Speght's edition of 
 Chaucer; but this edition includes poems by Gower, Lydgate, 
 Occleve, Henrysoun and others. The author of the line 
 was Henrysoun, who was not born till after Chaucer's death. 
 
 219. Balloon (6 S. x. 17 ; 1884). 
 
 Of course the derivation of this word from ' Ballon, 
 a famous dancing master in the seventeenth century,' is 
 an idle fabrication, which the Times should not have 
 repeated. It is false on the face of it, because it is no 
 solution of the problem ; for it does not tell us how the 
 dancing master came by the name himself. It is well 
 known that the words which are really due to names of 
 men are comparatively few ; whilst, on the other hand, the 
 guessing etymologist usually resorts to the suggestion of 
 such a derivation when he knows not what else to say. It 
 is the last poor shift of a man who pretends to explain what 
 he cannot otherwise solve. Of course the word balloon is far 
 older than the seventeenth century. In Florio's Ital. Diet., 
 ed. 1598, we already find the entry, ' Ballone, a great ball, 
 a ballone (to play at with braces), a footeball.' Cotgrave 
 has ' Ballon, a fardel or small pack/ and in fact it was at 
 first used in French as a diminutive of bale, which is after 
 all a mere doublet of ball. Godefroy gives a quotation for
 
 184 HAG. 
 
 ballon, dated 1485, in this sense of 'small bale.' Littre" 
 has a quotation for it in the sense of ' balloon ' in the 
 sixteenth century. The sense of ' great ball ' was probably 
 borrowed from Italian, for it is a singular fact that the Ital. 
 suffix -one is augmentative, whilst the F. -on is properly 
 diminutive. I would suggest that an ordinary irresponsible 
 newspaper is a very poor guide in questions of etymology, 
 wherein at least some small degree of accuracy is required. 
 
 220. Hag (6 S. x. 31; 1884). 
 
 I fear we shall not get much more information as to this 
 word. I presume the reason why Mr. Wright took the word 
 hcegtesse as better suited to the Latin Tisiphona than to the 
 Lat. parcae was because we find elsewhere the entry ' Erenis, 
 hagtes'' ' ; and it is certainly correct to say that Tisiphone 
 was one of the Erinyes or Furies. Hence it is at once 
 proved that the supposition, even if unneeded here, is far 
 from baseless. 
 
 The best way is to quote all the entries in full. The 
 word occurs in the glossaries not nine times, but eleven 
 times, and it is best to arrange the statements in order of 
 date. They are as follows. 
 
 In the eighth century : Eumenides, haehtisse ; Furia, 
 haehtis ; Erenis, furia (with haegtis added in a later hand) ; 
 Striga, haegtis. 
 
 In the tenth : Pythonissa, hellerune uel haggtesse : Tisi- 
 phona, waslcyrre ; Parcae, haegtesse. 
 
 In the eleventh : Erenis, haegtes ; Eumenides, haegtesse ; 
 Furia, haegtesse ; Furiarum, hsegtessa ; and yet again, 
 Furiarum, haegtessa. It would seem from this that the 
 correct nom. sing, is haehtis, later haegtis, hcegtis ; whilst 
 hcegtesse represents the plural and occasionally the singular, 
 perhaps in an oblique case. Schade gives the O.H.G. form 
 as hagazussa, which was afterwards contracted to hazissa, 
 M. H. G. hecse, Mod. G. Hexe. Mr. Mayhew has cleared
 
 HAG. 185 
 
 the way as to some points. It may now be accepted as 
 certain that the Du. haagdis, a lizard, is the same as the 
 G. Eidechse ; it may be added that the A. S. form is athexe, 
 and that the provincial E. is ask or arsk^ all in the sense of 
 lizard or newt. On the other hand, hag is short for hcegtesse 
 or h&gtis, and the cognate G. word is Hexe. But it does 
 not follow that hceg-t-is, if derived from haga, would mean 
 'a female hedge,' because the -/- might easily make all the 
 difference, and render the substantive personal. The real 
 difficulty is to explain this -/-, and at the same time, the G. 
 -z-. The only three opinions worth considering are those 
 given by Schade. These are (i) the notion of Grimm, that 
 there is a connexion with the Icel. hagr, wise ; (2) the notion 
 of Weigand (adopted by myself), that it is connected with 
 A. S. haga, a hedge ; and (3) the ingenious suggestion, due 
 to Heyne, that the word means 'spoiler of the haw or 
 enclosure stored with corn,' Src., the suffix being allied to 
 A. S. teesu, harm, damage. The suggestion of Grimm 
 cannot well stand, for hagr has not at all the sense of 
 ' wise,' it is merely handy, skilful, and the suffix is left 
 without even an attempt at regarding it. 
 
 Both the other suggestions agree in referring the word 
 to A. S. haga, our haw ; hawe is used in Chaucer to mean 
 a farmyard, a fact worth noting. Perhaps we shall never 
 get any further than this. Meanwhile, the sense suggested 
 by Heyne is just possible. The difficulty clearly resides in 
 the suffix spelt -tis in early A. S., and -zussa in O. H. G., 
 and the suffix is chiefly difficult because it is found nowhere 
 else. The suffix in G. Eidechse is quite a different thing, 
 though that is almost equally obscure. The Gothic spelling 
 of Eidechse would have been *agi-thaiso ; the suggested 
 sense is ' serpent-spindle,' i. e. spindle-shaped snake ; see 
 Schade, s. v. ' EgidehsaV 
 
 It must not be omitted that there is a passage in the 
 A. S. Leechdoms, iii. 54, where the word hagtessan, gen.
 
 1 86 ' HODER-MODER. ' 
 
 sing., from nom. hcegtesse, clearly means 'of a witch,' or 
 ' of a hag.' Thus the problem of the etymology of hag 
 is definitely narrowed to the question, What is the sense 
 of the suffix -tesse or -tis ? 
 
 [Cf. G. Hexe, in Kluge's Etym. G. Diet.] 
 
 221. ' Hoder-moder ' (6 S. x. 51; 1884). 
 
 This word is printed hedermoder, which is certainly a false 
 form for hodermoder, in the Paston Letters, ed. Gairdner, 
 ii. 28. The text in Gairdner is said to be taken from Fenn, 
 iv. 20, yet the spelling differs considerably from that given 
 in ' N. and Q.' I will just remark that confusion between 
 e and o in MSS. of the fifteenth century is common. So 
 also b is frequently misread by editors as v ; and the 
 word blavered in the same passage is a ridiculous error 
 for blabered, the regular frequentative form of blab. The 
 passage in Skelton (where the same word occurs) is in 
 Colyn Cloute, 11. 68-70 : 
 
 ' Alas ! they make me shoder ! 
 For in hoder-moder 
 
 The church is put in faute.' 
 
 The derivation of hugger-mugger, never yet correctly given 
 (to my knowledge), is now plain enough. It is a substitu- 
 tion for the older form hoder-moder. Neither is there here 
 any difficulty. The latter part of the word is merely due 
 to reduplication ; the significant part is hoder. And, as to 
 hoder, I have shown, in my dictionary, that it is the M. E. 
 equivalent of huddle, itself a frequentative form allied to 
 M. E. huden, to hide. In fact, hoder-moder should have 
 become hudder-mudder or huddle-muddle rather than hugger- 
 mugger, and it is, practically, a mere derivative of hide. Cf. 
 Greek Kt.v6f.iv. 
 
 [The Gk. ev is equivalent to Germanic eu (A. S. eo, u), 
 whence A. S. hydan, to hide, by ' mutation ' of the vowel. 
 The zero-grade of Gk. KfvO- is KvO-, answering to A. S. and
 
 A PLEA FOR PLACE-NAMES. 187 
 
 M. E. hud-, whence the frequentative huderen, written hoderen 
 by French scribes, who frequently use the symbol o for short 
 u. The Low G. hudren is cited by Bradley, in his edition 
 of Stratmann, s. v. hodren.\ 
 
 222. A plea for Place-names '> S. - . 109 ; 1884). 
 
 I quite agree with W. M. C. that the collection of place- 
 names will be of great value. We shall never know any- 
 thing certain about the etymology till we condescend to do 
 the drudgery of collection first. All turns upon this ; and 
 Englishmen may as well learn the fact by heart at once. 
 
 I have by me the second edition of Mr. R. C. Hope's 
 Dialectal Place-Nomenclature, which is an attempt in this 
 direction. In his preface he rightly says, at p. xi, that 
 I recommended him to use ' some exact mode of represent- 
 ing pronunciations, such as glossic.' But he did not take 
 my advice, because his work would then have been a sealed 
 book to all who do not understand glossic. I have to reply 
 that I do not care what system is adopted of representing 
 sounds, so long as the system is somewhere explained. He 
 carefully refrains from any explanation of his symbols, so 
 that his work remains a sealed book to all scientific workers. 
 The same will happen in future in the case of all similar 
 collections. They will all alike be useless for scientific 
 purposes, unless some standard system of pronunciation be 
 employed. Glossic, or palseotype, or Mr. Sweet's romic, or 
 the system employed in Mr. Sweet's History of English 
 Sounds will do, or anything else that is definite. But to take 
 the common Protean spelling as a guide will not do ; there 
 is no laying hold of what is meant by it. Thus Mr. Hope 
 tells us that Eye, in Suffolk, is pronounced Aye. Does it, 
 then, rhyme with my or with may 1 We are not ' spinxes,' 
 as Mr. Yellowplush says, to guess such conundrums. 
 
 One thing that has to be done is to have a new name- 
 index to all the Anglo-Saxon charters. Mr. Birch is now
 
 l88 TOTEMISM ; OR, ENGLISH PLACE-NAMES. 
 
 reprinting these, and promises complete indexes. I hope 
 we may get them [!]. 
 
 Another thing that has to be done is to collect and 
 tabulate every name in Domesday Book, adding the modern 
 name where it is certainly known. Guesses are much worse 
 than useless, for they mislead, hinder, discourage, embarrass 
 and perplex. It is desirable that any one who works at 
 this should learn something about Old French and Anglo- 
 Saxon pronunciation, or he will draw such a remarkable 
 conclusion as one that has been already drawn : that 
 Brighthelmston cannot mean ' the town of Brighthelm ' 
 because of the Domesday spelling \ 
 
 223. Totemism ; or, English Place-names 
 (6 S. x. no; 1884). 
 
 Certainly it is well known (or rather, well ascertained) 
 that the syllable -ing has many meanings. I have heard 
 people deride Kemble's statements about the tribal -ing 
 who were in utter ignorance of what he really says. It 
 may as well be said once more that he actually gives a list 
 of the names in -ing to which his tribal explanation applies. 
 Neither Tyningham nor Coldingham is alluded to in that list. 
 
 Perhaps it may interest some to see the original passage 
 in sElfric the Grammarian, written in the eleventh century, 
 about patronymics. It occurs in Zupitza's edition, p. 14: 
 
 ' Sume syndon patronytnica, thaet synd faederlice naman, aefter 
 Greciscum theawe. ac s6o ledensprsec naefth tha naman. Hi synd 
 swa theah on Engliscre sprsece : Penda, and of tham Pending and 
 Pendingas ; Cwicheltn, and of tham Cwichelmingas, and fela Othre.' 
 
 Here he expressly tells us that Pending means the son of 
 Penda, and Cwichelmingas and Pendingas are, respectively, 
 
 1 [This begins with Brist-. How else could a French scribe repre- 
 sent the sound of the A. S. Brihtl. His s is an obvious attempt to 
 express all that he could make out of this (to him) detestable foreign 
 guttural.]
 
 TOTEMISM ; OR, ENGLISH PLACE-NAMES. 189 
 
 the Cwichelmings and Pendings, i. e. men of the tribe of 
 Cwichelm and Penda ; and he observes that there are many 
 others. Certainly there are hundreds. It is not a sure 
 guide to such names that the name should end in -ton or 
 -ham. A simple exception is Newington, formerly Newenton, 
 from the A. S. cet tham riiwan tune, i. e. at the new town. 
 The -ing is here a corruption of the Middle English -en, put 
 for A. S. -an, the inflexion of the definite adjective in the 
 dative case. In the name Newnham we have precisely 
 the same A. S. dative, but differently treated. 
 
 Whoever said that eng is Swedish for ' a meadow ' must 
 have had a very moderate acquaintance with the Swedish 
 alphabet. Eng is the Danish spelling of the word; in 
 Swedish it is written dng. The Icelandic is eng, and it 
 seems probable that the original sense was a ' narrow 
 space,' a ' corner ' or ' bit ' of land, from the Icel. engr, 
 narrow, cognate with A. S. enge, narrow, and the Lat. 
 angusta the Welsh form is ing, but need not be specially 
 invoked. I should guess that ing, in the sense of ' meadow,' 
 is Scandinavian, and I find mention of the Ings, or meadow- 
 land, near Wakefield. We are constantly told that ing, 
 a meadow, is ' Anglo-Saxon.' This statement rests on Lye's 
 Dictionary he calmly assumes it, more suo, to explain the 
 Northern English, i. e. the Scandinavian use ; and adds that 
 it occurs in Basing, Kettering, Reading, Godelming (i.e. 
 Godhelming, now Godalming), Yelling, Exning and Steyning. 
 But all of these, for anything that we know to the contrary, 
 may be of patronymic origin. The question is, simply, is there 
 a single passage in any A. S. writing where ing, a meadow, 
 occurs ? I think not. 
 
 I have only to add that the etymology of place-names is 
 most slippery and difficult, and I have no faith in three- 
 quarters of the explanations which are so lavishly offered. 
 We want something thorough and systematic to guide us, 
 for which we look at present in vain.
 
 190 THE NAMES OF THE SEASONS. 
 
 224. The Names of the Seasons. I (6 S. x. 215 ; 1884). 
 
 [In reply to an argument that, in Old England, there 
 were but tivo seasons ; viz. summer and winter.] 
 
 The whole of this article I take to be fundamentally 
 wrong, and due to a total ignorance of the facts. The 
 common Teutonic word for autumn is harvest, originally 
 'ingathering,' allied to Lat. carpere. On hcerfeste is 
 the translation of in autumno in yfilfric's Colloquy. In 
 the A. S. metrical version of Boethius (xiv. i) haerfest 
 means 'autumn.' The spelling of autumn in Chaucer is 
 not autumpe (!) but autumpne ; I give the quotation and 
 the right reference. The Complaint of the Black Knight 
 was not written by Chaucer, but by Lydgate ; the word 
 autumne occurs in Stanza ix ; the remark that ' harvest is 
 found before autumne' in it I cannot understand, not 
 observing harvest at all. The word spring is purely 
 English, and derived from A. S. springan, to spring up ; 
 the Flemish form does not much matter, and in fact has 
 a different vowel. 
 
 The reason why spring was not early used in English was 
 simply that the old word was lent, A. S. lencten ; but when 
 Lent was appropriated to ecclesiastical purposes, spring 
 came into use. In a supplement to /Elfric's Vocabulary, 
 ed. Wiilcker, col. 1 76, we already find : 
 
 ' Uer, lencten (on which see Wright's note); ^Estas, sumor; 
 Autumnus, hcerfest; Hyems, winter; Uernalis dies, lengtenlic dceg; 
 Uer nouum, foreweard lencten, vel middewcerd lencten ; Uer adultum, 
 cffterwcerd lencten ; Eodem modo et aestas et autumnus uocantur, on 
 tha ylcan tutsan sumor and haerfest bioth gecigede ; ^Estiuus dies, 
 sumorlic dceg; Autumnalis dies, hcerfestlic dceg; Hiemalis dies, winterlic 
 dag.' I 
 
 It is difficult to see how the old glossarist could have 
 been more explicit ; he even recognizes three English 
 divisions of each season, each obviously consisting of 
 a month.
 
 THE NAMES OF THE SEASONS. 191 
 
 The Flemish word lente is a mere contraction, the A. S. 
 being the fuller form. The Flemish lente has no connexion 
 whatever with '///,' which is only a misspelling of lind, and 
 cognate with English lithe. The Middle-English actually 
 had yet another term for spring, viz. ver, used by Barbour, 
 with the spelling were, in The Bruce, v. i. This may have 
 been borrowed from Latin, but there are also cognate (not 
 borrowed) forms in Scandinavian, viz. Icel. vdr, Swed. v&r. 
 I have no time to write more ; I have given summer and 
 winter in my Dictionary. I may just add, however, that 
 the notion of connecting hiems with imber would astonish 
 Vanigek. 
 
 225. The Names of the Seasons. II (6 S. x. 338 ; 1884). 
 
 As MR. M. is the more confirmed in his view that 
 there were only two seasons known to our Teutonic 
 ancestors in proportion to the amount of evidence which 
 is produced to the contrary, I notice a few more points. 
 In Schade's excellent Old (Higti) German Dictionary I find 
 the following : ' Herbist, herpist, M. H. G. herbest, Mod. G. 
 Herbst, auctumnus : der erst herbst, September ; der ander 
 herbst, October ; der drit herbst, November.' This shows 
 that the autumn season was divided into three parts in 
 Germany as well as in England. Another curious thing is 
 that yearly accounts were made up from Michaelmas to 
 Michaelmas in the fourteenth century, at any rate ; and it 
 would be interesting to know at how early a date this 
 custom arose. I suspect it was due to the time of harvest. 
 The Icelandic haust simply means autumn ; see the 
 numerous derived words in Cleasby and Vigfusson. The 
 following passage in ^Elfric's Colloquy, in the article about 
 the fowler, is of some interest. 
 
 In Latin it runs thus : 
 
 ' Ipsi [i. e. the hawks] pascunt se et me in hieme, et in uere dimitto 
 eos avolare ad siluam. et capio mihi pullos in autumno, et domito eos.'
 
 192 CATERWAUL. 
 
 The English is : 
 
 ' Hlg fedath hlg sylfe and me on wintra, and on lencgten ic lte 
 hlg aetwindan to wuda, and genyme me briddas on haerfeste and 
 temige hig,' i.e. they feed themselves and me in the winter, and in 
 spring I let them go away to the wood, and catch for myself young 
 birds in autumn, and tame them.' 
 
 In Kluge's Etymological German Dictionary, s. v. Herbst, 
 it is shown that Tacitus was wrong in imagining that the 
 Germans had no name for autumn. 
 
 226. Caterwaul. I (6 S. x. 237 ; 1884). 
 
 I merely give the old etymology found in Bailey and 
 Todd's Johnson. The statement that it is unconnected 
 with cat is pure assumption, and I do not see how it can 
 be maintained in the face of the extract from Chaucer, 
 which is so carefully ignored, though Pope rightly under- 
 stood it. Phillips, in 1706, explains catterwaul of cats ; 
 Sewel, in 1754, translates it by an equivalent Dutch word 
 kattengelol. In any case, I shall not admit that wail and 
 waul are the same word ; ai and au are different sounds. 
 Wail is formed, by vowel-change, from the Scandinavian for 
 ' woe ' ; but waul from the M. E. wawen, to cry waw. The 
 / is frequentative ; cf. F. miauler, ' to mewl or mew like 
 a cat ' (Cotgrave) ; Ital. miagolare (Florio). As for (the 
 alleged) catter, to chatter, I do not know where to find it in 
 Middle English. 
 
 227. Caterwaul. II (6 S. x. 356 ; 1884). 
 
 The suggestion made in N. and Q. 6 S. x. 3 1 7, that the 
 syllable waul has something to do with A. S. wealh, 
 foreign, is certainly wrong, and could not have been made 
 by any one who had read the article in my dictionary with 
 reasonable care. I have shown that the M. E. verb was 
 not waul, but wawen, which certainly meant 'to make
 
 CATERWAUL. 193 
 
 a disagreeable noise.' Of this verb waul is the frequenta- 
 tive form ; the -/ is the same as in wai-l, mew-l, squea-l, and 
 we have very many instances of final -le with the same fre- 
 quentative meaning. Moreover, the most elementary know- 
 ledge of English phonetics will show that an does not answer 
 to A. S. [short] ea ; as a fact, the A. S. wealh became 
 wale, and is still preserved in Wales, i. e. the foreigners, 
 now misused as the name of a country instead of the 
 name of a people. The adjective is Welsh, i. e. Wale-ish, 
 with the usual umlaut, and this is still further from the 
 sound of English au. 
 
 The real difficulty is in the syllable -er, which I regret 
 that I have not hitherto explained. It is, however, an old 
 Scandinavian genitive suffix, not uncommon in Middle 
 English. Readers who know no more of Chaucer than the 
 first hundred lines must have seen the word night-er-tale, 
 which is precisely the Icelandic ndttar-tal, a number 
 or succession of nights ; so that nightertale really means 
 'for a succession of nights,' but is vaguely used by 
 Chaucer with the general idea of 'night season.' So in the 
 present case, the M. E. cater is the Icel. kattar, of a cat, 
 gen. case of kottr, a cat, and is the form used in composi- 
 tion ; hence kattar-auga, cat's eye (a plant) ; kattar-rbfa, 
 cat's tail; kattar-skinn, cat's skin; kattar-tunga, cat's 
 tongue. Hence cater-waw, sb., would mean 'cat's cry'; 
 and cater-wawen, vb., 'to utter a cat's cry'; whence cater- 
 waul, sb., ' a continuous cat's cry,' and the verb eater-waul, 
 ' to go on uttering a cat's cry.' Cf. W. cathderig, caterwaul- 
 ing, from cath, a cat, and terig, rutting. I hope I have 
 now made this sufficiently plain, and that we may be spared 
 any further discussion of the matter. 
 
 The suggestion that cater is equivalent to the G. Kater 
 is, of course, out of the question. It actually requires the 
 supposition that the final -er is [here] a High German 
 suffix, which is wholly out of place in a Middle English word. 
 
 o
 
 194 SCOTTISH PROVERB IN 'DON JUAN.' 
 
 [The New E. Diet mentions Icel. kattar- as a possible 
 source of cater-, without adopting it. But the analogy of 
 night-er-tale, here very important, has been missed. On 
 the other hand, the r in byrlaw is unhesitatingly explained 
 from by-jar, gen. case otby-r; which is strictly analogous.] 
 
 228. Caterwaul. Ill (6 S. xii. 232 ; 1885). 
 
 I think I am entitled to say a last word about caterwaul, 
 because the whole of the difficulty arose out of a remark by 
 C.M.I., that his intimate acquaintance with the literature 
 of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries enabled him 
 to assert that caterwaul was originally used of apes and 
 monkeys, not of cats. Now in the Retrospective JZevtew for 
 May, 1854, p. 265, the reviewer cites the expression 'heare 
 a dogge howle or a cat wau/e,' from Melton's Astrologaster, 
 printed in 1620. This is in addition to the instance given 
 in 6th S. x. 521. 
 
 229. Scottish Proverb in ' Don Juan ' (6 S. x. 315 ; 
 
 1884). 
 
 The old form of the proverb was certainly ' Ka mee, 
 ka thee ' (see Hazlitt's Collection of Proverbs ; Heywood's 
 Proverbs ; Skelton, ed. Dyce, vol. i. p. Ixv, 1. 7). It is 
 explained to mean, ' Swear for me, and I'll do as much for 
 you,' i. e. ' Call me as a witness, and I'll call you.' Thus 
 ca would appear to be, as usual, the Scottish form of call. 
 I have little doubt that there was a parallel form, 'Claw me, 
 claw thee,' but I suspect it to be a later substitution. I have 
 also somewhere met with it in the plain English form, 'You 
 scratch my back, and I'll scratch your back.' See the 
 illustrations in Hazlitt, which I omit to save space. 
 
 \_Clawe (scratch) me, clawe thee, is used by Tyndale, and 
 subsequently by others ; see Claw, verb, 5 b., in the New E. 
 Dictionary. I fail to find ka me, ka thee, s. v. call^\
 
 PHAETON, 195 
 
 230. Phaeton (6 S. x. 476 ; 1884). 
 
 I am obliged to MR. TERRY for pointing out an unlucky 
 misprint in my reference for this word ; a misprint which 
 really had its origin in my attempt to give fuller information. 
 I ascertained from Todd's Johnson that the word phaeton 
 occurs in ' Night 5 ' of Young's Night Thoughts, and at once 
 endeavoured to verify the reference. I found that in my 
 own copy of the work the lines were not numbered, and 
 that 'Night 5 ' was a canto of considerable length. I thought 
 it would save my readers trouble to count from the end of 
 that canto instead of from the beginning, and accordingly 
 made a note that the required line is 'line 245 from end.' 
 But alas ! after ascertaining this, the words ' Night 5 ' slipped 
 out of the reference, and left it incomplete after all. I now 
 think it probable that (as the new quotations seem to show) 
 we took the word from Latin, but should be very glad of 
 further information as to the date and manner of the 
 introduction of phaetons. I may add that I remember 
 such a carriage nearly forty years ago, which was always 
 called a faytun, or in glossic spelling fai'tn (romic fei'tn). 
 This was in the neighbourhood of London. [At Perry 
 Hill, Sydenham ; the phaeton was my father's.] 
 
 231. Colour in Surnames (6 S. x. 520; 1884). 
 
 At the last reference J. H. Brady is quoted as asserting, 
 ' A Mr. Red we have never yet met with ' ; and the writer 
 adds, 'and most people will agree with him.' I am not 
 among the number of 'most people' in this instance. 
 When we notice that Camden refers to the Latin Rufus 
 and the O. F. Rous we might expect the corresponding 
 English Red to be a very common name. And so it is 
 Only we have to remember that the spelling red is modern, 
 like the pronunciation. The e was originally long, and in 
 Chaucer MSS. the form is usually reed. In later English it 
 was reede, read, reade ; in Scottish, reid. In my experience, 
 
 o 2
 
 196 RECK AN. 
 
 the surnames Reed, Read, Reade, Reid, are all extremely 
 common ; and I think most people must have heard of 
 Charles Reade. I may add that I have already shown, 
 in my Dictionary, that the A. S. form was read, answering 
 to a Gothic raud-s. Cf. Lat. ruf-us, rub-er, Gk. 1-pvO-pos. 
 [Mr. Rouse has helped to translate Brugmann.] 
 
 232. Eeckan (6 S. xi. 65 ; 1885). 
 
 This Northern word is duly explained in Atkinson's 
 Cleveland Glossary as ' an iron crane, on which are 
 suspended the pot-hooks, and which, being hinged at one 
 end to the masonry of the chimney, will move in any 
 direction over the fire.' Mr. Atkinson gives it under the 
 form reek-airn, but observes that it is pronounced reckon 
 or reckan. His reason for spelling it reek-airn is that he 
 supposes this to be the etymological spelling, and that the 
 sense is reek-iron, i. e., ' iron in the smoke.' It is rather hard 
 that words should be quoted under an assumed etymological 
 spelling ; but it is the old, old way, and the source of endless 
 trouble. 
 
 I think it is quite certain that the above etymology is 
 wrong ; for I find in a will, 1454, the following entries : 
 'j. craticula ferrea, j. par tanges de ferro, ij crassetes et j. 
 rekand de ferro/ c., in a list of cooking utensils Testa- 
 menta Eboracensia, ii. 194. Obviously the modern reckan 
 is the old Yorkshire rekand, which cannot stand for reek- 
 iron, and has to be described as being 'de ferro,' because 
 the word rekand in itself does not already contain the idea 
 of ' iron.' 
 
 The etymology is easy and obvious, viz., from the Icel. 
 rekendr, a chain, a derivative of the verb reka. The A. S. 
 word is racenta, a chain, which is sufficiently common ; from 
 the same root as rack and reach. This explains the modern 
 pronunciation, which happens to be quite correct. 
 
 This is one more example of the danger of guessing
 
 BEWRA Y. 197 
 
 without sufficient evidence. We learn also that the true 
 sense of reckan was ' chain ' ; it was doubtless at first 
 applied to a simple plan of suspending pot-hooks from 
 the links of a chain, so as to regulate the height ; and 
 the name was retained when the apparatus became more 
 complex. This is much more satisfactory than the popular 
 etymology from reek. 
 
 233. Bewray (6 S. xi. 66 ; 1885). 
 
 An earlier example of this word than any given by Matzner 
 or myself is in Robert of Brunne's Handlyng Synne, 3621 : 
 ' That y ne wylle telle ne bewrey] \. e. disclose. Matzner 
 well compares it with the O. Friesic biwrogja, which, indeed, 
 1 have already cited. This O. Friesic verb preserves the 
 original o (long), which passed into e (long) in A. S., by the 
 usual vowel-change. 
 
 [An earlier example, in this sense, than any that are given 
 in the New E. Dictionary^ 
 
 234. Awork (6 S. xi. 66 ; 1885). 
 
 I have derived this from on work, though I have hitherto 
 failed to find such an expression. It occurs, however, in 
 the following : ' As for the wagges that set us on work ' ; 
 Lyly, Mother Bombie, V. iii. 
 
 [Cf. Awork in the New E. Dictionary^ 
 
 235. Oil on Troubled Waters (6 S. xi. 72 ; 1885). 
 
 To the references already given add Pliny, Nat. Hist., 
 lib. ii. c. 103. Holland's translation has, 'All seas are made 
 calme and still with oile.' I gave this quotation some two 
 years ago to a friend, and I believe it found its way into 
 print. 
 
 [For some occult reason, the origin of ' pouring oil on 
 troubled waters ' is perpetually being inquired after. It is 
 simply a well-known fact, that it is no bad thing to do. Pliny
 
 198 JANISSARY. 
 
 makes this very remark : ' Now, that all Springs are colder l 
 in Summer than Winter, who knoiveth not? . . . And, that 
 all seas are made calme and still with oile.' Why we need 
 worry over it I do not know.] 
 
 236. Janissary. I (6 S. xi. 138 1885). 
 
 I am surprised to find that I am quoted as giving in 
 my Dictionary the derivation from yeni chert, new soldiery. 
 I cannot find it there, though I heartily wish I could, as it 
 is certainly right. I most unfortunately quoted the wrong 
 Turkish form for ' soldier,' and it was just because I did so 
 that the subject has been discussed 2 . As I have already 
 been corrected several times, and I accept the correction, 
 I think the subject may be allowed to drop. 
 
 At the last reference, however, the old 'popular etymology' 
 from Persian jdn m'sdri, one who throws away his life in 
 battle, is trotted out once more. There is not a tittle of 
 evidence for it ; but we are, forsooth, to accept it because 
 it is ' obvious ' to a layman who is no philologist. We are 
 not even offered any proof that the compound jdn-nisdri 
 was ever used in Turkish to express a 'janissary,' nor any 
 proof that it was ever used at all. The Turkish word is 
 not jdn-nisdri, nor anything like it ; it is yefiicheri, with the 
 specific meaning of 'janissary,' as may be seen in Zenker's 
 Turkish Lexicon. No one says that the English form 
 janissary is derived from yeni and cheri; but every one 
 says that the Turkish word for janissary is so derived. The 
 English word is merely an English spelling of the Italian 
 ianizzeri (Torriano), and the identity of the Italian with the 
 Turkish word is very much closer. The English form is 
 
 1 I suppose he means relatively colder, in comparison with other 
 things near them. Otherwise, it can hardly be true. 
 
 2 [My larger Etym. Diet, cites the Turk, yefii, new, and 'askari, 
 a soldier. But the right words are yefii, new, and cheri, soldiery. 
 My concise Etym. Diet, gives the right forms.]
 
 JANISSARY. 199 
 
 a mere travesty of the original, after passing through Italian 
 and French. The Italian preserves the true Turkish y at 
 the beginning and the e sound in the penultimate. But the 
 English initial letter badly expresses this Italian sound by 
 j, thus producing an accidental coincidence with the Persian/, 
 which is quite misleading. I am quite contented with the 
 explanations of such scholars as Devic and Zenker, and 
 I should think others are the same. Meanwhile we have 
 one more example of the uselessness of an ' obvious ' 
 etymology to anybody but the inventor of it. 
 
 237. Janissary. II (6 S. xi. 270 ; 1885). 
 
 As I am asked to explain this word again, I do so, but 
 must decline further discussion. The mistake lies in calling 
 janissary a ' Turkish ' word ; it is not so, but only a word of 
 Turkish origin, which is quite a different matter. It is an 
 English word ; and, as far as we are concerned, we merely 
 borrowed it from the French janissaire, the plural of which 
 is spelt jannissaires in Cotgrave's Dictionary (1660), where 
 it is explained as 'Janizaries.' The French word, in its 
 turn, was a French misspelling of the Italian plural janizzeri, 
 spelt ianizzeri in Florio's Italian Dictionary (1598), and 
 explained as ' The Turkes gard, Janizers.' So that, in fact, 
 even in English, the earlier form VMS Janizers. The peculiar 
 sounds of the Ital. * (as y) and of the Ital. zz (as ts) at once 
 show that the Ital. word, in its turn, was borrowed from 
 the Turk, yeni-cheri ; and there the matter ends. 
 
 The Turk, yeni is a genuine Turkish word, having the 
 peculiar n which is unknown to the Persian alphabet ; but 
 cheri is merely borrowed from the Pers. charik, auxiliary 
 forces. It is interesting to notice that the Turkish ' noun 
 of multitude ' was ingeniously rendered by an Italian plural, 
 owing to the peculiar luck that / is an Ital. plural suffix ; 
 and being thus established as a plural, it became janissaires 
 in French, and janizers (later form janizaries] in English.
 
 200 JANISSARY. 
 
 Out of this false plural janizaries the singular ionn janizary 
 (later janissary} was at last evolved ; and I believe it will 
 be extremely difficult to find any early instances of the 
 ' singular ' spelling. In old books the English word is 
 common enough, but only (I think) in the plural. The 
 same remark applies to the French and Italian forms. 
 
 The fact is, accordingly, that there is no evidence whatever 
 for the existence, at any date whatever, of the compound 
 word jdn-nisdri, a thrower away of life, either in Persian or 
 in Turkish, or indeed, anywhere at all, except by imaginary 
 connexion with an English word which sounds somewhat 
 like it, but was really evolved out of a false plural. There 
 is no difficulty about a Turkish word being of Persian origin, 
 as the very word cheri shows ; but this proves nothing as to 
 the necessity of a Persian origin for every word in Turkish. 
 We have borrowed thousands of words from French ; it 
 does not follow that house is a French word. The existence 
 of the word /cm-Ms 1 , which I take to be purely modern, has 
 nothing to do with the question, as can easily be perceived. 
 But it may nevertheless be true that jan-baz was at first 
 suggested by previous acquaintance with the English (not 
 the Persian) word janizary^ which was entirely misunder- 
 stood and misderived ; and if so, nothing is more natural 
 than that the supposed connexion of the words should be 
 repeatedly pointed out. There is great confusion constantly 
 at work in every language, owing to the very potent and 
 subtle influence of popular etymology. It is so extremely 
 easy to see resemblances, and so extremely arduous a task 
 for a man to render himself sufficiently acquainted with the 
 secret structure of languages to see that such resemblances 
 are merely superficial. If philological truth (like other forms 
 of truth) is ultimately to prevail, it is quite certain that she 
 will have a very hard time of it beforehand, particularly in 
 
 1 I. e. Pers. jan-baz, playing with life, venturesome ; hence, a rope- 
 dancer, tumbler.
 
 BURNING OF BAIT : BAIT OF HEMP. 2OI 
 
 this country, where the enthusiasm for easy solutions is 
 carried to such a pitch, and where so little pains are taken 
 to learn the rudiments of phonetics. 
 
 238. Burning of Bait : Bait of Hemp (6 S. xi. 178 ; 
 
 1885). 
 
 Perhaps bait is connected with Icel. beit, pasturage. 
 Cf. Icel. beiti, (i) pasturage, (2) heather, ling. 
 
 [But it is shown, in the New E. Did., s. v. Beat, sb. (3), 
 that a better spelling seems to be beat. If so, the etymology 
 remains unknown.] 
 
 239. Definition of Genius (6 S. xi. 190; 1885). 
 I wish to draw attention to the fact that the definition of 
 genius as ' the capacity for taking infinite pains,' or, ' an 
 infinite capacity for taking pains,' is not a true one. At 
 best it merely expresses a portion, and that the least 
 important portion, of the truth. To complete the defini- 
 tion we require the addition of the following words, 
 viz. ' combined with the faculty of discerning whether the 
 object is worth the trouble, and in which direction success 
 is the most probable.' These conditions are absolutely 
 necessary. The true genius is he who sees his way, and 
 who, seeing it, pursues it with the utmost care, neglecting 
 no circumstance as being too trivial, and concentrating his 
 strength upon the most hopeful point of advance. The 
 mere taking of infinite pains, without any guiding power to 
 render such pains successful, is nothing but dunderheaded 
 stupidity. Whilst the dull plodder wastes his energy upon 
 work that leads to nothing further, the genius concentrates 
 it upon work which to every one else around him may seem 
 trivial enough ; but he sees further than others, and knows 
 that a splendid ultimate success is probable. Surely the 
 faculty to know what work is worth *doing is immeasurably 
 greater than the mere dogged resolution which goes round 
 in a hopeless circle.
 
 202 GREEN BAIZE ROAD. 
 
 240. Green Baize Road (6 S. xi. 198 ; 1885). 
 
 There is really no such phrase. Dickens puts together 
 two expressions. One is ' gentlemen of the road,' i. e. high- 
 waymen, robbers. The other is ' green baize,' i. e. whist- 
 table, card-table. Hence 'gentlemen of the green baize 
 road ' means ' plunderers at the card-table/ i. e. card- 
 sharpers. I do not see the use of reference to pages. The 
 right reference is to ''Bleak House, ch. xxvi. par. i.' In 
 prose books readers might count the paragraphs. 
 
 N.B. ' Green cloth ' means billiards ; but ' green baize ' 
 is a whist-table. [The passage from Dickens is quoted in 
 the New E. Diet., s. v. Baize, sb., 3.] 
 
 241. Fratry (6 S. xi. 205 ; 1885). 
 
 I find that Mr. Palmer explains this word quite correctly 
 in his Folk-Etymology, and duly cites from my Notes to Piers 
 Ploiuman, p. 97. Fratry is from frater-y, misspelling (with 
 added -y) of M. E. freitour, short for O. F. refreitour, 
 from Lat. refectorium. Littre, s.v. ^ RefectcireJ gives the 
 O. F. forms refreitoir, refretor, refrictur ; ProvenQal refeitor 
 (without the intrusive r). The puzzle in this word is really 
 the intrusive r ; but there are other instances. I have given 
 several examples of intrusive r and intrusive / in a paper 
 read before the Philological Society, and now in the press. 
 Note, e. g., Y.fronde, a sling, from \jsA..funda ; E. treasure, 
 F. tresor, Ital. tesoro, from Lat. thesaurus. The latter is 
 a most striking example. The E. fringe is somewhat 
 similar, but here the r was suggested by that in the second 
 syllable of Lat. fimbria. The Wallachian for fringe is 
 frimbie. For other examples see cartridge, partridge, jasper, 
 roistering. [Cf. also F. chanvre, encreJ] 
 
 242. Bishopric of Sodor and Man (6 S. xi. 216 ; 1885). 
 
 I hope I may be allowed to make a slight addition to the 
 reply by CANON VENABLES at the last reference. The word
 
 ' WOLF, ' IN MUSIC. 203 
 
 sudreyjar is now written with a stroke through the d. It is 
 from Icel. sudr, south, and eyjar, plural of ev, an island, 
 cognate with A. S. ^(preserved in M. E. i-land, now mis- 
 spelt island) ; so that Sodor= ' southern islands.' My index 
 to Cleasby and Vigfusson's Icelandic Dictionary duly contains 
 the entry, ' Sodor (name), Sudreyjar.' Sodorensis is a mere 
 Latin derivative. 
 
 243. < Wolf,' in Music (6 S. xi. 264 ; 1885). 
 
 This name is applied to a false or harsh fifth. See 
 Webster's Dictionary, &c. The following is the story 
 about it as given in Feme's Blazon of Gentrie (1586), as 
 cited in the Retrospective Revieiv, February, 1853, p. 129 :~- 
 
 ' Nature hath implanted so inveterate a hatred atweene the wolfe 
 and the sheepe, that, being dead, yet, in the secret operation of 
 Nature, appeareth there a sufficient trial of their discording natures, 
 so that the enmity betweene them seemeth not to dye with their 
 bodies : for if there be put upon a harpe, or any such like instrument, 
 strings made of the intralles of a sheep, and amongst them but only 
 one made of the intralles of a wolfe, be the musitian never so cunning 
 in his skil, yet can he not reconcile them to an unity and concord 
 of sounds ; so discording alwayes is that string of the wolfe.' 
 
 The writer who quotes this adds a curious story of a 
 Hindoo who stole a wolfs skin in order to convert it into 
 the head of a tom-tom. His idea was that the sound of his 
 drum would burst the drums of all his neighbours, since 
 theirs were made of sheefi-sk.in. 
 
 244. ' Cut away' (6 S. xi. 264 ; 1885). 
 
 In Holland's translation si Pliny, bk. viii. c. 22, we read 
 as follows : 
 
 4 In the case of presages . . . this is obserued : That if men see 
 a wolfe abroad cut his way and turne to the right hand, it is good.' 
 
 This leads me to suggest that the original sense of to 
 ' cut a way ' was to cut or force one's way through a wood ; 
 for it is clear from the above example that way was once
 
 204 ' ONE TOUCH OF NATURE.' 
 
 a substantive. The change from ' cut a way ' to ' cut away ' 
 was easy, but rendered the phrase unintelligible, so that it 
 degenerated into mere slang, upon which numerous changes 
 were rung. This I suspect to have been the origin of 
 ' Cut away ' ; and perhaps even of ' Cut a stick,' and ' Cut 
 one's sticks.' 
 
 [The laconic ' Cut ' seems to be short for ' cut and run,' 
 
 1. e. cut one's cable and run away ; see the New English 
 Dictionary^ 
 
 245. One Touch of Nature ' (6 S. xi. 396 ; 1885). 
 
 I am afraid it is perfectly useless to hope that this quota- 
 ti6n will ever be rightly used, for the simple reason that 
 those who quote it are those who do not read Shakespeare 
 for themselves ; and the number of those who really read 
 him is, I fear, not very great after all. But I should like to 
 say that I have already explained this error in print twice ; 
 once at p. xvi. of my Questions for Examination in English 
 Literature, published in 1873, and once in a letter to the 
 Academy, which I cannot now find. I have also pointed 
 out that the phrase ' natural touch,' quite in the modern 
 sense, occurs in Shakespeare after all, viz. in Macbeth, iv. 
 
 2. 9. And I have explained that touch in this famous 
 quotation means ' defect ' or ' bad trait,' from confusion with 
 the once common word tache, sometimes misspelt touch *. 
 
 1 [All the trouble arises from taking the line away from its context. 
 
 Of the hundreds who misunderstand it, probably not one knows what 
 
 the context is. So I here quote the whole passage : 
 
 ' One [emphatic] touch [defect] of nature makes the whole world 
 
 kin, 
 
 That all, with one consent, praise new-born gawds, 
 Though they are made and moulded of things past, 
 And give to dust that is a little gilt 
 More laud than gilt o'erdusted.' Trail . iii. 3. 174. 
 
 Observe how the author reprobates this evil tendency in human 
 
 nature.]
 
 'MAGDALENE' AS THE NAME OF A BOAT. 205 
 
 Another point to be noticed is that Messrs. Clark and 
 Wright had no sooner finished their very valuable edition of 
 Shakespeare in a portable form, than the publisher of the 
 volume at once stamped this line (in itself meaningless) on 
 both sides of the cover, in order that ' the whole world ' might 
 call the book the ' Globe ' edition. It is obvious that the 
 author did not know how he ought to have understood his 
 own words either in this, or (according to some commen- 
 tators) in any other passage. 
 
 [I have seen it gravely argued that misconceptions of this 
 character become sacred when once popularized, and ought 
 on no account to be exposed, still less discarded.] 
 
 246. ' Magdalene ' as the Name of a Boat 
 
 (6 S. xii. 47 ; 1885). 
 
 Chaucer's Shipman had a barge named ' The Maude- 
 layne.' There was a ship of that name in 1390, belonging 
 to Robert Titlok de Hornesbek, who left to his brother 
 William ' unam naviculam vocatam Mawdeleyn? The same 
 man had a ship called 'Farcost,' and a third called 'Garland.' 
 See Testamenta Eboracensia, i. 139. Robert Ryllyngton of 
 Scarborough had two ships called ' Saintmarybote ' and ' Le 
 Katerine ' (id. i. 157). [See further in my Notes to Chaucer 
 Works, vol. v.] 
 
 247. Early Notices of Zebra : Kangaroo 
 
 (6 S. xii. 48; 1885). 
 
 In Dampier's Voyages, 1699, i. 533, we read as follows : 
 
 ' There is a very beautiful sort of wild Ass in this Country [Cape of 
 Good Hope], whose body is curiously striped with equal Lists of 
 white and black,' &c. 
 
 This is a very early description of the zebra. The name 
 of the animal is not given. In vol. iii. p. 123, there is 
 a description of the kangaroo, which also is unnamed.
 
 206 KOBINSON CRUSOE ANTICIPATED. 
 
 248. Robinson Crusoe anticipated (6 S. xii. 48; 1885). 
 
 We are all familiar with the story of Alexander Selkirk, 
 who was rescued from the island of Juan Fernandez in 
 1709. But W. Dampier, in his Voyages, ed. 1699, vol. i. 
 p. 84, already tells us the story of an Indian whom he had 
 left behind at John Fernando's Isle in 1681, when chased 
 by some Spanish ships. This Indian lived on the island 
 for three years. He had his gun, a knife, a small horn of 
 powder, and some shot. When the powder failed, he made 
 his gun-barrel into harpoons, lance-heads, hooks, and a long 
 knife. See the story. 
 
 249. The Lord's Prayer in Verse. I (6 S. xii. 169 ; 
 1885). 
 
 The notion of attributing to Nicholas Breakspeare the 
 version of the Lord's Prayer printed in 6 S. xii. 112, is a 
 mournful example of the ignorance prevalent as to the 
 history of the English language. He died in A. D. 1159, 
 quite half a century before the earliest known instance of 
 the metre in which this version is written 1 . Camden's 
 spelling of the old English is abominably bad, and abounds 
 in grammatical errors. 
 
 Of course fonding or fanding does not mean 'confound- 
 ing' (!\ but 'temptation.' The originals may, all three of 
 them, have been written in the time of Henry II, but the 
 existing copies exhibit a mixture of Plantagenet-English and 
 Tudor-English spelling. The language of the time of 
 Henry II was far more antiquated than the oldest form of 
 these versions could ever have been ; and plainly Pope 
 Adrian IV could not have written in a form of language 
 which was at that time known to no one. 
 
 1 The earliest known example of rimed metre with four accents is 
 in Sours Ward, which Dr. Morris dates about A.D. 1210. I should 
 put the prose text rather later; and probably the verses are later 
 still.
 
 THE LORD'S PRAYER IN fERSE. 207 
 
 However, this version is interesting ; and I will venture 
 to restore it to something more like its original spelling 
 and grammar. It is obvious that the fourth line has been 
 lost, and must be supplied. Probably it contained the 
 once common expletive phrase mid iwisse, i. e. ' certainly.' 
 Heuen-riche is all one word, and means the kingdom of 
 heaven. Eche other mon means ' each (of us) another 
 man.' Ponding is temptation, A. . fandung. The final e 
 is a separate syllable. Euer yliche means ' ever alike,' or 
 'continually': 
 
 ' Fader vre, in heuen-riche, 
 Thy name l be haliyed euer yliche. 
 Thou bring vs [to] Thy michel blisse. 
 [Thy wille, Louerd 2 , mid iwissfi,] 
 Als hit is in heuen y-do, 
 Euer in erthe * be hit also. 
 That holi breed that lasteth ay, 
 Thou send hit vs this ilkg day. 
 Forgif vs al that we han don, 
 As we forgiue eche other mon. 
 Ne let vs falle in no fonding, 
 Ac shelde vs fro the foule thing.' 
 
 Even this remains unsatisfactory. The rhyming of don 
 (with long o) with mon (with short o) is against the rule, and 
 is quite unexampled. 
 
 250. The Lord's Prayer in Verse. II (6 S. xii. 258 ; 
 
 1885). 
 
 I have just come across a most remarkable confirmation 
 of all that I have said about the version which Camden 
 gave, and which I attempted to restore. I said it was of 
 the thirteenth century ; that the fourth line was lost, and 
 should be restored as ' Thy wille, Louerd, mid iwisse,' or 
 something of that kind ; and that Camden's version was 
 
 1 Something wrong ; the final e is suppressed, which it should not 
 be. Read hit be in line 6, and the line will then scan. 
 
 2 Louerd, Lord, was then dissyllabic.
 
 208 ENGLISH COMPARED WITH GERMAN. 
 
 corrupt. I now find that there is still extant a copy in 
 a hand of the thirteenth century ; that the fourth line is 
 there given as ' Thi wille to wirche thu us wisse 1 ' ; and 
 that my restoration of the spelling brings it very close to the 
 spelling of the manuscript, and would have agreed with it 
 even more closely if the old scribe had been a little more 
 careful. This MS. copy is extant, is the Harleian MS. 3724, 
 leaf 44, and has been printed in Reliquice Antiques, vol. i. 
 p. 57. This leaves no more to be said as to this version. 
 
 251. English compared with German (6 S. xii. 183 ; 
 
 1885). 
 
 Much experience of the difficulties encountered by the 
 students of English etymologies has led me to see that, 
 in many cases, a knowledge of German, generally advan- 
 tageous, is turned into quite a curse by the failure of the 
 student to understand the essential difference between English 
 and German as to their treatment of consonants and vowels. 
 The current, but most ignorant and pernicious doctrine is, 
 that English is derived from modern German, the latter 
 being looked upon as the standard and correct Teutonic or 
 Germanic form ! The right doctrine is that, of all modern 
 Teutonic languages, the German is, for all practical 
 purposes, the most corrupt and the furthest removed 
 from the original Germanic form ; and the corollary is, 
 that it would be far better to take English as near to the 
 standard form, and to deduce modern German from it. 
 This is a point to which I have drawn attention over and 
 over again ; but it has to be constantly repeated, owing to 
 the extraordinary persistence of the old erroneous notions 
 on the subject. 
 
 The idea of dispraising themselves seems to be inherent 
 in some Englishmen ; they are never tired of comparing 
 
 1 I. e., ' Do thou instruct us how to work thy will.' IVissen is to 
 cause to wit, to instruct, teach.
 
 ENGLISH COMPARED WITH GERMAN. 209 
 
 themselves with other nations, to their own disadvantage. 
 This class of men has seized upon the notion that all 
 English is derived from German, and they will hear of 
 nothing else. It is nothing to them that even the Germans 
 take Gothic as the standard spelling for etymological 
 purposes, and next to that regard the Old English and 
 Icelandic forms. It is nothing to them that many of our 
 Anglo-Saxon MSS. were written down before any but the 
 very scantiest scraps of Old High German. It is nothing 
 to them that one system of spelling, at any rate as 
 regards the consonants, is common (with trivial exceptions) 
 to English, Friesic, Gothic, Dutch, Icelandic, Swedish, 
 Danish, and the Low German specially so called ; whereas 
 the German is in a minority of one, and differs remarkably 
 from all the rest. They happen to have a fair knowledge of 
 German, and therefore idolize it ; and they know nothing of 
 Old English, Friesic, Gothic, Dutch, Icelandic, Swedish, or 
 Danish, and do not care to know anything. It is to their 
 interest to disregard all these ; for why should not their 
 German suffice ? So it would, if they would but study it 
 historically, and condescend to learn the Old High German 
 original forms. But they will not do that either. Hence 
 comes that painful, that disgraceful blundering over many 
 perfectly simple etymologies which renders us the laughing- 
 stock of Germany and America. 
 
 Surely this is a painful subject ! Unfortunately it is 
 made all the worse by the singular fact that false doctrine 
 as regards all that is Teutonic is taught most often by men 
 who are thorough and brilliant Greek and Latin scholars 
 in all respects except as regards phonetics and the physio- 
 logical principles of philology. Yet these are men whom 
 we naturally respect ; these are the men who often know 
 German (except from a philological point of view) well. 
 Their influence is great ; and they know no better than to 
 exercise it even where they are wrong. 
 
 p
 
 210 CAUCUS. 
 
 Such an extraordinary perversion as the German zahn, 
 as compared with the Gothic tunthus, and modern English 
 tooth (for *tonth] ought to make any sensible person think. 
 How can we possibly derive the English am from German 
 bin, or the English are from the German sind ? It is true 
 that are and sind are mere variants, but the English are 
 actually preserves the a (for e) due to the original root, 
 which in German is lost; but am and bin are not even 
 from the same root ! 
 
 If these few lines of remonstrance will only lead some of 
 our great scholars to reconsider one of their favourite 
 doctrines, a great deal of good will result. Nothing keeps 
 us back so much as persistence in old exploded fancies. 
 
 252. Caucus (6 S. xii. 194; i885\ 
 
 I suspect that MR. TRUMBULL is quite right. I can 
 point out the source of his information, viz. Captain John 
 Smith's Works. At p. 347 of Arber's edition we find a 
 notice of ' their Elders called Cawcawwassougkes,' where 
 he is speaking of the Indians of Virginia. At p. 377 he 
 says that caucorouse (not cockarouse) means ' captain.' The 
 date is 1607-9. 
 
 [Given in the New E. Did. as a possible explanation of 
 this difficult word.] 
 
 253. Knout (6 S. xii. 226 ; 1885). 
 
 I have not (in my Etymological Dictionary} given any 
 early example of the use of this word. It occurs so early 
 as 1716, in a book on the State of Russia, by Capt. J. Perry, 
 quoted in the Retrospective Review for February, 1824, 
 P- J 59- 
 
 254. Lammas Monday (6 S. xii. 275 ; 1885). 
 
 Lammas is explained in both the larger and smaller 
 editions of my Dictionary. It merely means loaf-mass, or 
 day of first-fruits (see Chambers 's Book of Days, p. 154). The
 
 PUNT. 21 1 
 
 equivalence of lammas to loaf-mass is an historical fact, 
 easily ascertainable by every one who will look up the 
 references. But in the last century, when guess-work was 
 idolized, a common derivation was lamb-mass, the form 
 lamb-mass being forged for the purpose of deceiving the 
 unwary. This was outdone by Vallancey, who says it is 
 la-ith-mas, where ith is Irish for ' grain,' and mas for 
 'acorns' or 'mast.' What la is he does not say ; perhaps 
 he meant it to be the French definite article. See Brand, 
 Popular Antiquities, vol. i. As to the time when the word 
 first appeared in our calendar, all that is known is that it 
 was before King Alfred's time, for in his translation of 
 Orosius, bk. v. c. 13, he says : ' Thaet was on thaire tide 
 calendas Agustus and on thsem dasge the we hatath hlaf- 
 massse,' i. e. ' It was at the time of the calends of August, 
 and on the day that we call Loaf-mass.' Surely this is 
 sufficient for us to know with certainty. Our good king's 
 writings deserve to be better known. [I know of a clergy- 
 man who, with King Alfred's words before him, persists in 
 saying that the derivation of Lammas from lamb-mass is the 
 only one possible. Such is English reasoning, though it is 
 sane on other points. See above, p. 71.] 
 
 255. Punt (6 S. xii. 306 ; 1885^. 
 
 I have never seen a quotation showing the use of this 
 word in Tudor-English. Here is one : 
 
 ' As for Pamp/ti/us, ... of his making is the picture of Vlysses in 
 a punt or small bottom ' (Holland, tr. of Pliny, bk. xxxv. c. x ; ii. 
 
 537 : 
 
 A small ' bottom ' is a small boat. [So used by Canning.] 
 
 256. En pronounced as In (6 S. xii. 463 ; 1885). 
 
 I do not remember to have seen it noticed that the 
 M. E. en has frequently become in in modern English, 
 though I dare say this note will soon elicit contradiction. 
 
 p 2
 
 212 CARMINA TIVE. 
 
 It is sufficient for me if I contribute something towards the 
 recovery of a note by a former discoverer. 
 
 In the words England. English, we have a clear example 
 of the tendency to pronounce en as in. In many instances 
 an actual change of spelling has taken place. Thus our 
 verb to singe was in M. E. sengen ; similarly we find 
 M. E. henge, a hinge ; M. E. hengil, Mod. Prov. E. hingle, 
 a small hinge ; M. E.frenge, Mod. E. fringe ; M. E. swengen, 
 to swinge ; M. E. twengen, to twinge ; M. E. grennen, to 
 grin ; M. E. wenge, a wing ; M. E. preinte, prente, Mod. E. 
 a print ; M. E. splent, now often called splint ; M. E. 
 pennen, to pen up, is spelt pinnen in P. Plowman ; M. E. 
 lenge, a ling. Here are already twelve examples. We 
 may notice also the Irish rint, sinse, for rent, sense ; 
 Prov. E. rench, to rinse ; agin for ' agen,' i. e. again ; bin 
 for ' ben,' i.e. been ; ingine for engine ; unmmin for 
 ' wimmen,' i.e. women ; sevin (not uncommon) for seven, 
 &c. Dent is also spelt dint. 
 
 The use of the above note consists in its application to 
 other cases. For example, it shows that our link, a chain, 
 is a regular formation from the stem of the A. S. hlence; and 
 ink, from M. E. enke, may be compared with F. encre. 
 
 It also follows that a like change from em to im is to be 
 expected. Accordingly, we find that alembic became 
 limbeck ; and our limp is certainly connected with the 
 A. S. lemp-halt, as seen in the following glosses : ' Lurdus, 
 lemp-halt] Wright's Vocab., ed. Wiilcker, 31, 6. 'Lurdus, 
 lemp-healtj ib., 433, 17; 476, 24. ' Lympe hault, boiteitx] 
 Palsgrave. 
 
 257. Carminative (7 S. i. 276 ; 1886). 
 
 MR. TERRY points out that this word occurs in Swift, 
 'Strephon and Chloe,' 1731, 1. 133, as well as in Arbuthnot. 
 He quotes the etymologies given in Johnson, Ogilvie, and 
 Littre. I find that the word is already in Coles's Dictionary,
 
 CA RMINA TIVE. 213 
 
 1684. It is obviously borrowed from the F. carminatif, 
 explained by Cotgrave as ' wind-voiding . . . also flesh- 
 taming, lust-abating.' Ogilvie derives it from Low Lat. 
 carminare, 'to use incantations, to charm . . . because it 
 acts suddenly, as a charm is supposed to do! This seems 
 to be an invention ; and indeed we may always suspect 
 invention when the fatal word ' because ' is introduced. 
 The Low Lat, carminare means properly ' to make verses ' 
 (see Lewis and Short) ; and though it also means to 
 charm, and even to cure wounds by charms (Ducange, 
 s. v. ' Carmen '), this proves nothing as to carminative. 
 Littre is clearly right in deducing it from the other Lat. 
 carminare, to card wool or flax, from carmen, a card for 
 wool, from carere, to card. [See Carminate in the New 
 E. Dictionary^ 
 
 The idea is extended from the carding of wool to the 
 taming of the flesh (as Cotgrave puts it), or to the expelling 
 of wind. Indeed, we actually find in Blount's Glossographia, 
 1 68 1, the verb car initiate, 'to card wool, to hatchel flax, to 
 sever the good from the bad.' Coles (1684^ gives ' Carminate, 
 to card wool,' and ' Carminative medicines, breaking wind.' 
 In Ducange, we have the following : Carminativum, dis- 
 sipativum, discussivum, in Amalthea, Medicina Salern, p. 59, 
 edit. 1622; 'Innoxia sunt (pyra) si una cum Carminativis 
 vulgo dictis, hoc est, calefacientibus tenuantibus et flatum 
 expellentibus comediantur, vel super his vinum vetus et 
 odoratum bibatur.' I suppose the word is not found at 
 all before the seventeenth century. 
 
 Let me strongly recommend the new and concise Dic- 
 tionnaire Synoptique d' Etymologic Fran$aise, by H. Stappers, 
 published at Brussels last year. Stappers gives the etymology 
 from ' carminare, carder, et par extension, dissiper.' Those 
 who are curious to know how extremely bad a modern book 
 upon etymology can be, may consult the Glossaire Etymo- 
 logique Anglo-Normand, by E. le Hericher, Avranches, 1884.
 
 214 DRYDEN'S USE OF INSTINCT. 
 
 258. Dryden's use of Instinct (7 S. i. 306 ; 1886). 
 In Absalom and Achitophel, pt. i, we find the line : 
 
 ' By natural instinct they change their lord.' 
 
 A note in Bell's edition says : ' A slight alteration would 
 redeem the metre : " How they, by natural instinct, change 
 their lord." . . . This is the only line in which the melody 
 is flattened into prose.' The silliness of this note is only 
 equalled by its impertinence. Of course the line is quite 
 right as it stands. The word natural has its three full 
 syllables, and the word instinct is accented on the second 
 syllable, which the annotator never thought of! Yet he 
 might have found it in Shakespeare, if he ever read that 
 author; see Cor. v. 3. 35; Cymb. iv. 2. 177; v. 5. 381; 
 Rich. III., ii. 3. 42, &c. It is rather hard that ignorance 
 should be made the ground for condemning a good writer. 
 
 259. Meresmen (7 S. i. 312; 1886). 
 
 It simply (I had almost said merely) means ' boundary- 
 men.' Meer-stone, i.e. boundary stone, occurs in Bacon's 
 Essays. From A. S. gemare, a boundary. 
 
 260. Yorkshire Words : Lathe, a barn (7 S. i. 355 ; 
 1886). 
 
 It does not seem to be known that the derivations of 
 a large number of provincial English words are given in my 
 Appendix to Cleasby and Vigfusson's Icelandic Dictionary, 
 published at Oxford in 1876. By merely referring to it, 
 I find at once the following entries : ' Ket (carrion], Icel. 
 kjot? 'Lathe (barn), Icel. hlad, hlada, and hlafii? ' Lea 
 (scythe), Icel. le, Ijdr? The Icel. words are further explained 
 in the Dictionary itself. Surely the true Northern name for 
 barn is lathe, a word actually used by Chaucer when imitating 
 the Northern dialect ; Cant. Tales, 4086 (A. 4088).
 
 KNAVE OF CLUBS = PAM. 215 
 
 261. Knave of Clubs = Pam (7 S. i. 358 ; 1886). 
 
 It is surprising that Johnson's Dictionary should still be 
 seriously consulted for etymologies. His derivation of 
 Pam from palm, because Pam triumphs over other cards, 
 is extremely comic. Of course, Pam is short for Pamphile, 
 the French name for the knave of clubs; for which see 
 Littre's French Dictionary. Cf. p. 135. 
 
 262. Pronunciation in the Time of Chaucer 
 
 (78.1.497; 1886). 
 
 Questions concerning the pronunciation of Middle English 
 are often asked, but it is quite impossible to deal with them 
 within a reasonable space. It is difficult even to give so 
 much as a notion of the vast and extraordinary changes 
 through which English pronunciation has passed. The 
 mere statement that the Anglo-Saxon long I was pro- 
 nounced as modern English ee in beet, and so continued 
 down to at least A. D. 1400, and probably later, when it 
 gradually gave place to the sound of ei in rein, and after 
 that again to the modern / in pride, is quite sufficient to 
 arouse the disbelief, perhaps the derision, of those who 
 have never even attempted to look at the evidence, and 
 would rather disbelieve than do so. Those who know less 
 of the subject than Mr. Ellis does will do wisely to believe 
 what he says. It strikes me that one easy example, familiar 
 to many, may perhaps arouse the attention of the in- 
 credulous. I take the case of the common name Price, 
 which undoubtedy now rhymes to rice. The etymology is 
 well known to be from the Welsh ap Rhys, pronounced 
 ap Reece. The Welsh name is represented in modern 
 English by two forms, viz., Reece or Rees, preserving the 
 old pronunciation, and Rice, in which the pronunciation has 
 changed according to the regular English laws. Similarly, 
 the derivative ap Rhys is likewise represented both by 
 Preece and Price. Here we have an example of the
 
 2l6 SLA RE. 
 
 change from long ee to long 7, which can readily be seen 
 to be real. 
 
 The intermediate change is best seen in German. The 
 Old High German win, pronounced as E. ween, gave way 
 to the Middle High German wein, rhyming with the English 
 rein. This spelling is still retained in the modern form of 
 the language to such an extent that the spelling ei (really 
 due to the sound in the French reine, E. reign or rein) is 
 used almost universally to denote the sound of the modern 
 English long / in mine. The modern German word ought, 
 from a phonetic point of view, to be spelt vain, but we all 
 know that it is not. 
 
 263. Slare (7 S. ii. 12 ; 1886). 
 
 The statement that this word cannot be found in 
 a dictionary is a little odd. A good deal depends on 
 knowing where to look, and what to look for. I found 
 it in the first book I opened, and found some light upon 
 it in each of the next six books which I consulted. Pea- 
 cock's Dictionary of Manley Words /E. D. S.) gives : 
 
 ' Slare, to make a noise by rubbing the boot-soles on an uncarpeted 
 floor. Crockery-ware, when washed in dirty water, or dried badly 
 so as to leave marks thereupon, is said to be slared.' 
 
 It is even in HalliwelFs Dictionary, the best-known and 
 most accessible of all dialect dictionaries. My larger Ety- 
 mological Dictionary gives such an account of slur as to 
 throw much light on the word. (In the smaller one, I find, 
 to my surprise, slur has been omitted, purely by accident.) 
 The Icelandic Dictionary gives slora, to trail, contraction of 
 slofira, from sld<F, a trail, slot. Rietz's Provincial Swed. Diet. 
 gives slora, to be negligent. Aasen's Noru>eg. Diet, gives 
 sloe, to sully ; sloe, short for slode, to trail, and so on. Still 
 closer in form is the Icel. slcedur, a gown that trails on the 
 ground, which would give slceur by the loss of (crossed) d. 
 I have already said that 'the key to slur is that a th or d has
 
 HENCHMAN. 217 
 
 been dropped ; it stands for slather or sloder ; cf. prov. E. 
 slither, to slide ; slodder, slush.' Similarly stare is for sladder 
 or slather. Halliwell gives ' Slather, to slip or slide (Cheshire) ; 
 sladdery, wet and dirty.' Also l Slair, to walk slovenly; slairg, 
 mud ; slare, to smear ; slary, bedaubed.' Also ' Slidder, to 
 slide,' with its contracted form ' Slir, to slide.' [I am not 
 quite happy as to all these points.] 
 
 264. Henchman I. (7 S. ii. 246 ; 1886). 
 
 I find that in Annandale's Dictionary the old bad guess, 
 that this means haunch-man, one who stands at one's 
 haunch, is once more offered. How often must I protest 
 against this utter neglect of vowels ? How can aun pass 
 into en"? The converse is possible, since en may become 
 an, and an may become aun (see below). My own guess, 
 that it stands for hengst-man, i. e. horse-boy, is surely far 
 better. I now write to say that I look upon my guess as 
 being fairly proved. For, firstly, the A. S. hengest was cut 
 down to hengst; see Wright's Vocab., ed. Wiilcker, 119, 37. 
 Secondly, we find Hinxman as a proper name in the Clergy 
 List, where Hinx- is certainly for Hengst. So much we know 
 from the Index to Kemble's Charters, which gives Hengestes- 
 broc, Hinxbrook; Hengestes-geat, Hinxgate; Hengestes-heafod, 
 Hinxhead; Hengestes-lge, Hinxey. Cf. also Dan. and O. 
 Friesic hingst, by-form of hengst. Thirdly, hengst-man is the 
 exact equivalent of the Icelandic hesta-madr, a horse-boy, 
 groom ; cf. O. Swed. h(esta-su<en, a horse-swain, groom. 
 Rietz gives Swed. dial, hasta-man, which he translates as 
 heist-man, i. e. horse-boy. Aasen gives hest, a horse ; heste- 
 dreng, heste-svein, as Norwegian words for horse-boy. The 
 Middle Low German dictionary by Schiller gives hengest, 
 hingest, hinxt, a horse ; and hengestrider, a groom, lit. horse- 
 rider ; and I suspect that the word was borrowed from the 
 Continent shortly before 1400. Fourthly, Blount explained 
 henchman as I do, in 1691, and cites the spelling henxman.
 
 2l8 LIMEHOUSE. 
 
 Spelman says the same. The Prompt. Parv. has heyncemann, 
 hench-manne. The wretched guess about haunch began with 
 Bishop Percy, who may have been misled by the spellings 
 haunsmen, hanshmen (but not haunchtnen\ in a household 
 book of 1511, which can hardly be depended on. Fifthly, 
 it should be remembered that in The Flower and the Leaf, 
 the henchmen are described as riding behind the knights, 
 their masters. I confess I cannot see where this breaks 
 down ; but if there is any flaw in the argument, perhaps 
 some of your readers can find it out. I ought, however, to 
 explain the ch. It arose from turning a sharp s into sh, 
 after n ; so that hensman became henshman, also written 
 henchman. The spelling heyncemann in the Promptorium 
 shows this spelling with s, there written ce. The process is 
 precisely the same as in linchpin for linspin, and in pinch 
 from F. pincer. 
 
 [For a great deal more upon this difficult word, see 
 p. 220 below.] 
 
 265. Limehouse (7 S. ii. 437 ; i886\ 
 
 Lymoste (the old spelling of Limehouse} is the correct 
 Tudor spelling of lime-oast, i.e. lime-kiln. The whole matter 
 is explained in Mr. Scott Robertson's note to Pegge's 
 Kenticisms, published by the English Dialect Society, s. v. 
 ' Oast.' See also ' Oast ' in my Dictionary. 
 
 266. Shakesperian Words (7 S. ii. 491 ; 1886). 
 
 In this article [viz. in one printed at p. 424 of the same 
 volume] we are informed of the following 'facts': (i) the 
 Eng. bale is the same word as the Lat. ma/us ; (2) dirimeo 
 (which does not exist) is the same as the Lat. diribeo (diritno 
 is probably meant) ; (3) the Lat. magnus is the same as the 
 Turkish beg; (4) //efis the same word as love, life, &c., but 
 differs in meaning conventionally. Comment is needless.
 
 BAND A LORE. 219 
 
 267. Bandalore (7 S. iii. 66 ; 1887). 
 
 The earliest quotation given by Dr. Murray is dated 
 1824; but the date of the toy is about 1790. It is also 
 denned by him as ' containing a coiled spring,' which must 
 be a mistake for ' string,' as ' string ' occurs below, in the 
 next line but one. 
 
 Besides, we know it had a string, not a ' spring.' 
 In N. and Q., 5 S. i. 452, there is an extract from 
 Moore's Life, i. n, in which Moore says that his earliest 
 verses were composed on the use of the toy ' called in 
 French a bandalore, and in English a quiz.' Hence the 
 verb to quiz, in the sense to play with a bandalore, and quiz 
 in this sense is plainly nothing but whizz. As no one 
 guesses at the etymology of bandalore, I suggest that it is 
 a mere made-up phrase. French bande de 1'aure, string of 
 the breeze, or whizz. See aure in Cotgrave ; who has : 
 ' Aure, a soft, gentle, coole wind or aire.' [A guess.] 
 
 268. ' The Sele of the Morning ' (7 S. iii. 75 ; 1887). 
 
 Sele, better seel, was once a very common word. It is 
 the A. S. sal, M. E. seel, time, season. ' The sele of the 
 morning ' is simply ' the time of day.' The mod. E. silly is 
 the derived adjective. Haysele, haytime, is common in 
 East Anglia. All this has been explained over and over 
 again. See ' Silly ' in my Dictionary. 
 
 269. Atone (7 S. iii. 86 ; 1887). 
 
 Dr. Murray shows that this verb arose from the use of 
 such phrases as ' to be at one,' or ' to bring, make or set at 
 one.' I wish to point out that I believe I have discovered 
 that such phrases arose out of a translation from similar 
 French phrases, so that it is really of French origin, as doubt- 
 less many of our English phrases are. In Le Livere de Reis 
 de Engleterre, ed. Glover, p. 220, we find that a reconciliation 
 was attempted between Henry II and the Archbishop
 
 220 DARKLING. 
 
 Saint Thomas, but they could not be at one ; or, in the 
 Anglo-French original, ' il ne peusent mie estre a un,' i. e. 
 they could not be reconciled ; or, as Shakespeare would 
 have said, ' they could not " atone together." ' 
 
 270. Darkling ( S. iii. 191 ; 1887). 
 
 Please note that darkling is an adverb. Keats is quite 
 wrong in using it as an adjective ; perhaps it was a beautiful 
 word to him, because he did not clearly understand it. 
 
 It occurs in Shakespeare not once, but thrice. 
 
 Dr. Schmidt explains it quite correctly : ' Darkling, adv., 
 in the dark ; Mids. N. Dr., ii. 2. 86 ; King Lear, i. 4. 237 ; 
 Antony, iv. 15. 10.' 
 
 The adverbial suffix -ling is explained in Morris, Hist. 
 Outlines of Eng. Accidence, p. 220. It is of A. S. origin, 
 and there is no mystery about it. Examples : darkling, 
 /ted ling (Mod. E. headlong], sideling, flailing, hackling. 
 Darkelyng occurs in The Knight of La Tour-Landry (temp. 
 Henry VI), ed. Wright, p. 21. 
 
 271. Cards (7 S. iii. 206 ; 1887). 
 
 The following is a very early mention of card-playing in 
 England : 
 
 ' Item to the Queries grace upon the Feest of Saint Stephen for hur 
 disporte at cardes this Christmas : c. s. (.i. e. 100 shillings).' Privy 
 Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York, ed. N. H. Nicolas, 1830. 
 
 The date is December, 1502 ; and the queen is Elizabeth, 
 wife of Henry VII. Strutt's earliest date for a mention of 
 cards in England is 1495. [Cards are mentioned in the 
 Chester Plays soon after 1400; see the New E. 
 
 272. Henchman II. (7 S. iii. 212 ; 1887). Cf. p. 217. 
 
 I venture to say something more on this subject, because 
 I have a new piece of evidence to adduce. In the Privy 
 Purse Expenses of Elizabeth of York, ed. N. Harris Nicolas,
 
 HENCHMAN. 22 1 
 
 1830, p.QO, we have the entry, ' Item, to the Kinges Hexmen, 
 \\i]s. \\\]d? Here 'hexmen' is obviously miswritten for 
 ' hexmen,' i. e. 'hewxmen.' The date is 1503. A note at 
 p. 200 says : 
 
 ' Pages of honour. They were sons of gentlemen, and in public 
 processions walked by the side of the monarch's horse. See a note 
 on this word in the Privy Purse Expenses of Hetiry VIII, 1532, 
 P- 327-' 
 
 The same volume contains the Wardrobe Accounts of 
 Edward IV, mostly for the year 1480. At p. 167 we find 
 an account 'for th' apparaile off the sayde maister 1 and 
 vij henxmen," which begins : 
 
 ' To John Cheyne, Squier for the Body of oure said Souverain 
 Lorde the King and Maister of his Henxmen for th' apparaile of the 
 saide Maister and vij of the Kinges Henxemcn ayenst the feste of 
 Midsomer in the xxti yere of the mooste noble reigne,' &c. 
 
 Accordingly these men had eight long gowns of camlet, 
 eight of woollen cloth, and sixteen doublets. 
 
 On the next page is an account ' for th' apparaile off the 
 kynges fotemen.' We thus get a distinction drawn between 
 henchmen and footmen. We should also notice the state- 
 ment that the henchmen were 'sons of gentlemen,' and 
 ' walked by the side of the monarch's horse.' 
 
 In the Princess Mary's Privy Purse Expenses, ed. Madden, 
 
 1831, there are New Year's gifts mentioned. These were 
 given, in 1543, to the king's gentlemen ushers, the yeomen 
 ushers, yeomen of the chamber, pages, heralds, ' trompettes ' 
 (i. e. trumpeters), ' henchemen,' players, &c. So again, in 
 1544, to the gentlemen ushers, grooms of the chamber, 
 guards of the king's bed, footmen, heralds, trumpeters, 
 'henchemen,' king's players, minstrels, &c. See pp. 104, 
 140. A note at p. 238 says: -'See Archaelogia, i. 369; 
 Strype's Eccl. Mem. iii. 2, p. 506.' 
 
 [See further at pp. 342-344 below.] 
 
 1 The 'said master' is the ' master of the henxmen.' This ' head- 
 ing' of the account was probably added afterwards.
 
 222 EGLE = ICICLE. 
 
 273. Egle Icicle (7 S. iii. 234 ; 1887). 
 
 The remarkable article on this word is of great interest, 
 as showing the determined way in which Englishmen prefer 
 guess-work to investigation when they have to do with 
 a word belonging to their own language. They never treat 
 Latin and Greek after this fashion. But when it comes to 
 English, then speculation becomes a pleasure and delight 
 to the writer. I can only say that some readers at least feel 
 a humiliating sense of shame and indignation at seeing such 
 speculations in all the ' glory ' of print. 
 
 On the writer's own confession, he first guessed the word 
 egle to be the French aiguille^ which it is not. Then he 
 guessed it to be a diminutive of ice ''which still ends in s to 
 the ear, as it did in our old spelling\ because 'pickle [pikle ?] 
 is a diminutive of pike' 1 ' ; whereas his logic requires that 
 pickle should be a diminutive of pice \ Then he guessed it 
 to be a diminutive Latin suffix ; but rejected this third guess. 
 Then at last he found that aigle is a Leicestershire word ; 
 and that ickle is in the dictionaries (it is in Webster !). 
 Why are we to be treated to all these guesses, which are 
 admittedly wrong? Obviously, because it amuses the 
 writer. But it does not amuse the philologist; it saddens 
 him. 
 
 By way of finish, the worthless suggestion is quoted that 
 the Icel. jokull, carefully misprinted jokul, is ' even the 
 proper name Heckla ! ' Is it, indeed ? Then Dr. Vigfusson 
 has made a very great mistake about Hecla in his Icelandic 
 Dictionary \ 
 
 And all this half-page of speculation is about a perfectly 
 well-known word, merely the A. S. gicel, and the familiar 
 latter half of the well-known ic-icle, explained in full in 
 Ogilvie's Dictionary (new edition), and in my Etymological 
 Dictionary. 
 
 Of course it is in Halliwell, s. v. ' Iccles.' The spelling
 
 PHENOMENON VERSUS PHENOMENON. 223 
 
 aigles occurs in Marshall's Rural Economy of the Midland 
 Counties, 1796. 
 
 274. Phenomenon versus Phenomenon. I (7 S. iii. 235, 
 
 370; 1887). 
 
 This note opens up the whole question of so-called 
 'etymological' spelling. Those who know the whole 
 history of our spelling from the eighth century till the 
 present time best understand the harm done by the per- 
 nicious system of trying to transplant Latin and Greek 
 symbols into the English language. The symbols ce and ce 
 are not English, and are best avoided. Indeed, this is 
 done in practice, when once a word becomes common. 
 jEther and (ztherial have been sensibly replaced by ether 
 and etherial. No one now writes external. Solcecism is 
 now solecism ; and I trust that primeval and medieval will 
 soon prevail over primeval and mediaeval. Pedantic 
 spellings are most objectionable, because they are useless 
 and unphonetic. It is singular that so much zeal is dis- 
 played with regard to words of Greek origin, whilst none at 
 all is displayed with regard to the far more important words 
 of native origin. Such spellings as sithe for scythe, siv for 
 sieve, coud for could, rime for rhyme, and the like (all of them 
 being at once phonetic, historical, and etymological) find no 
 supporters. This is a bitter satire on our ignorance of our 
 own language. The French spelling is bad enough, but is, 
 at any rate, sufficiently independent to prefer phenomene to 
 phenomenon. Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian all have 
 fenomeno. The reason why we write Egypt is because the 
 word is thoroughly naturalized, and was already so spelt in 
 the fourteenth century ; i. e. we do not spell it in the Greek, 
 but in the English fashion. We write JEschylus because we 
 wish to show that it is a Greek name, and not English at 
 all ; curiously enough, even this is wrong, as it ought rather 
 to be Aischulos, if spelt pedantically. Our interest in Egypt
 
 224 PHENOMENON VERSUS PHENOMENON. 
 
 is of a very different character ; at any rate, I am thankful 
 that the spellings Egypt and Egyptian cannot now be dis- 
 placed by any number of ' scholars.' Perhaps ' scholarship ' 
 may one day include a knowledge of the native source of 
 English; it will make a great difference. (See further below.) 
 
 275. Phenomenon versus Phenomenon. II (7 S. iii. 
 370; 1887). 
 
 I think I am entitled to reply that my note was meant 
 for the guidance of the general public. I did not suppose 
 it would convince MR. T. When he asserts that the word 
 archaology has never been spelt with e for ^, he is careful to 
 ignore Dr. Murray's Dictionary. The word was spelt 
 archeologie by Gale in 1669; and it was spelt archaiology 
 by Bishop Hall. The only good reason for retaining the a is 
 phonetic, viz. because a vowel follows. 
 
 The retention of original spellings in borrowed words is 
 not only absurd, but is frequently (I am thankful to say) 
 impossible. We cannot make people write pankhd ; they 
 will be sure to write fiunkah. Written language does not 
 go by logic at all ; it goes by convenience. It is a mere 
 servant-of-all-work, not a schoolmaster. This is the very 
 point which many fail to understand. 
 
 As to the derivation of 'rhyme,' MR. T.'s statement is 
 delicious, viz. that it is a derivative of rhythmus, ' say what 
 I will.' The question is not what / say, but what every 
 other philologist of any note says throughout Europe. 
 Kluge, for example, in giving the etymology of the G. Reitn, 
 neatly observes that the Lat. rhythmus never had the sense 
 of the G. Reim, and naturally enough denies the connexion. 
 Besides, it is useless to deny all the facts in the well-known 
 history of the word. 
 
 The best of it is, that it is the word for ' hoar-frost,' 
 which has the true right to the h. The A. S. word is hrlm, 
 and the Icelandic word is spelt so still.
 
 BREWERY. 225 
 
 276. Brewery (7 S. iii. 278; 1887). 
 
 Hexham's Dutch Dictionary, 1658, has ' Een Brouwerye, 
 a Brewerie, or a brewing-house.' This carries us back more 
 than a century for the name of the place. The Unton 
 Inventories have only brew-house. 
 
 277. Watchet Plates (7 S. iii. 296; 1887). 
 The word watchet, light blue, has been fully discussed by 
 me in a late number of the Philological Society's Trans- 
 actions. I need only say here that it occurs in Chaucer, 
 and is borrowed from Old French ; see vaciet in Roquefort's 
 Old French Dictionary. He says, ' Vaciet, me'galeb, arbris- 
 seau qui porte une graine noiratre propre a teindre en violet ; 
 c'est le fruit et la teinture ; vacdnium hysginum.' Old French 
 is not derived from a town in Somersetshire ; the suggestion 
 is a mere flourish of assumed knowledge, appropriate for 
 a (very splendid) work of fiction. [This last remark refers 
 to a quotation from Lorna Doone, ch. xiii : ' plates from 
 Watchet, . . . with the Watchet blue upon them.'] 
 
 278. Blazer (7 S. iii. 436; 1887). 
 
 Dr. Murray rightly explains the word as ' a light jacket of 
 bright colour,' &c. We should always go by history, not 
 guess. The emblazoning of arms on blazers can hardly 
 have been the original fact. I have seen such arms on 
 blazers, but I remember blazers at Cambridge without 
 them ; and to this day the arms are much less common 
 at Cambridge than at Oxford in fact, quite exceptional. 
 The term has gradually come into use during my residence 
 here [in Cambridge], and I remember its being especially 
 used in the phrase 'Johnian blazer.' This blazer always 
 was, and is still, of the brightest possible scarlet; and 
 I think it not improbable that this fact suggested the name, 
 which became general, and (as applied to many blazers] 
 utterly devoid of meaning. All this is instructive. 
 
 Q
 
 226 DULCARNON. 
 
 279. Dulcarnon (7 S. iv. 76; 1887). 
 
 This is a long story, and a great deal has been said about 
 it. I merely summarize the results. 
 
 1. Dulcarnon is Chaucer's spelling of the Eastern word, 
 meaning ' two-horned,' which was a common medieval 
 epithet of Alexander the Great; for he claimed descent 
 from Ammon. 
 
 2. It was applied, in joke, to Euclid I. 47 ; because the 
 two upper squares stick up like two horns. 
 
 3. Chaucer goes on to call it ' the fleming of wrecches,' 
 i. e. flight of the miserable. This is his translation of Lat. 
 
 fuga miserorum, a jocular name for Euclid, I. 5. That is, 
 he mixes up the two propositions ; both being puzzling. 
 
 4. I do not think any one but Chaucer (or some one 
 quoting or referring to Chaucer) ever employs the word. 
 
 280. Slughorn (7 S. iv. 276 ; 1887). 
 Borrowed by Browning from Chatterton, who took it from 
 
 Kersey, who took it from Gawain Douglas. Not a horn at 
 all, but a mistake for slogan. See the whole story in the 
 second edition of my Etym. Diet, (or in the Supplement to 
 the first edition), p. 828. 
 
 281. Wag (7 S. v. 4 ; 1888). 
 
 It was suggested by Wedgwood that the sb. wag is short 
 for wag-halter and those who know our old plays will 
 accept this. In Saintsbury's Elizabethan Lite ratitre, p. 126, 
 there is a striking proof of it in a poem by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 Sir Walter explains the meaning of the words wood, weed, 
 and wag very clearly, the weed being hemp, and the wag 
 being the wag-halter, or man to be hung. Your readers 
 will no doubt see the application. 
 
 ' Three things there be that prosper all apace, 
 
 And flourish while they are asunder far ; 
 But on a day they meet all in a place, 
 
 And when they meet, they one another mar.
 
 SPARABLE. 227 
 
 And they be these the Wood, the Weed, the Wag; 
 The Wood is that that makes the gallows-tree ; 
 
 The Weed is that that strings the hangman's bag ; 
 The Wag, my pretty knave, betokens tliee. 
 
 Now mark, dear boy while these assemble not, 
 
 Green springs the tree, hemp grows, the wag is wild ; 
 
 But when they meet, it makes the timber rot, 
 It frets the halter, and it chokes the child.' 
 
 2S2. Sparable (7 S. v. 5 ; 1888). 
 
 A sparable, i. e. a small nail used by shoemakers, is said 
 to be a contraction of sparrow-bill. The following quotation 
 helps to prove it : 
 
 ' Hob-nailes to serve the man i' the moone, 
 And sparrotvbils to clout Pan's shoone." 
 
 1629, T. DEKKER, London's Tempe (The Song). 
 
 283. Alwyne (7 S. v. 32 ; 1888). 
 
 In N. and Q. 7 S. iv. 534, we are told that the original 
 form was ALthelwine ; but no reason is given for this singular 
 notion, nor is any reference given either. In the translation 
 of the A. S. Chronicle, in Bohn's Library, we find Alwyne 
 mentioned three times. In each case the original has 
 ALlfivine, i. e. ' elf-friend ' ; the transition from which to 
 Alwyne is easy enough, by mere loss of the/ 
 
 We are also told that ealh means a hall ; but the con- 
 nexion of ealh with either healh or heall may be doubted, 
 whatever the dictionaries may say. It is much more likely 
 that ealh means ' a protected place ' or 'asylum,' as Ettmiiller 
 suggests ; cf. ealgian, to protect. 
 
 284. Additions to Halliwell's ' Dictionary.' I 
 
 (7 S. v. 82, 164; 1888). 
 
 Now that Dr. Murray is at work upon the letter C, the 
 following MS. notes from my interleaved copy of Halliwell's 
 Dictionary may be of interest. I have been too busy to 
 
 Q 2
 
 228 ADDITIONS TO HALLIWELL'S 'DICTIONARY.' 
 
 copy them out earlier. I send the list unweeded. Many 
 of the words are common enough, but references are always 
 useful. 
 
 Caddie, to worry. See ' Scouring of the White Horse,' p. 71. 
 Cadowe. ' A Cadowe is the name of her ' ; Golding's ' Ovid,' fol. 
 
 85 b. It translates monedula in Ovid, ' Met.,' vii. 468. 
 Calk, to calculate, reckon, Bale, 443 ; calked, Tyndale, ii. 308 
 
 (Parker Soc. Index). 
 Caltrop. See Bradford, ii. 214 (ditto). 
 Cambril. ' His crooked cambrils armed with hoof and hair ' ; 
 
 Drayton, ' Muses Elysium,' Nymphal 10. 
 Camelion. In Coverdale's Bible, Deut. xiv. 5, where the A. V. has 
 
 chamois. This does not mean Chameleon, as in Levit. xi. 30. 
 
 Coverdale renders that by stellio. 
 
 Camisado, a night-attack. Jewel, i. no (Parker Soc.). 
 Carle, one of low birth. Pilkington, 125 (ditto). 
 Carling-groat. See Brand, 'Pop. Antiq.,' ed. Ellis, i. 114. 
 Cast. (See 'Cast' (3) in Halliwell), a calculated contrivance; 
 
 Becon, ii. 575; Tyndale ii. 335 (Parker Soc.). 
 Casure, cadence, Calfhill, 298 (ditto). 
 Caterpillars to the Commonwealth. So in Dekker, ' Olde Fortunatus,' 
 
 in his 'Plays,' ed. 1873, i. 140; (with of for to) Hazlitt, 
 
 ' O. Eng. Plays,' vi. 510. 
 
 Cat-in-pan. See Wyclifs ' Works,' ed. Arnold, iii. 332. 
 Causeys. See Somner, 'Antiq. of Canterbury,' ed. 1640, p. 3. 
 Cawthernes, cauldrons. Parish documents at Whitchurch, near 
 
 Reading, about A.D. 1574. The singular is cawtron in 1584 
 
 (so I am told). 
 Chaffs, chops (Aberdeenshire). I probably found this in John 
 
 Gibbie. 
 
 Cham, to chew. Tyndale, iii. 163 (Parker Soc.). 
 Chap, a fellow. Cf. the use of merchant. 
 Chavel, Chavvle, Chevvle ; to keep on chewing (Tadcaster, Yorkshire). 
 
 So I am told. 
 
 Chaws, jaws. Bullinger, i. 4 (Parker Soc.). 
 Cherry-fair. See Brand, ' Pop. Antiq.,' ii. 457 ; my ' Notes to Piers 
 
 Plowman,' p. 114. 
 Cholderin (see 'Chalder' in Hall.), to fall in, as the sides of a pit 
 
 (Brandon, Suffolk). 
 
 Chopine. See Puttenham, ed. Arber, p. 49. 
 Chopological. Tyndale, i. 304, 308 (Parker Soc.). 
 Chowder, a kind of stew, a fish (Boston, U. S.). See ' N. and Q.,' 
 
 4 S. iv. 244, 306.
 
 ADDITIONS TO HALLIWELL'S 'DICTIONARY.' 229 
 
 Clamb, climbed. Tyndale, ii. 256 (Parker Soc.). Clomb, Byron, 
 
 ' Siege of Corinth,' 1. 6. 
 
 Clam-bake, a picnic with clams (U. S.). ' N. and Q.,' 4 S. v. 227. 
 Clang-banger, a gossiping mischief-maker. 'N. and Q.,' 4 S. v. 
 
 487. 
 
 Clau'backs, flatterers. Latimer, i. 133 ^Parker Soc.). 
 Cloven cup, an earthenware cup full of liquor, used on the eve of 
 
 Twelfth Day (Devon). See Brand, ' Pop. Antiq.,' i. 29. 
 deck, to hatch (Hall.). Precisely Swed. klacka. 
 Clene Lente. * The ij Munday of dene Lente ' ; ' Paston Letters,' ed. 
 
 Gairdner, ii. 149. 
 
 Click, to catch hold of ^Newcastle" 1 . ' Gent. Mag.' 1794. pt. i. p. 13. 
 Cloud-berries. Some were seen by me growing on Pen-y-ghent, 
 
 Yorkshire, in 1873. I was informed that they were locally 
 
 called nont-berries (with on as in cloud). 
 Clowres, (apparently"! turves. Golding's ' Ovid,' fol. 47. I suppose 
 
 it corresponds to Ovid's ' cespite,' ' Met.,' iv. 301. 
 Coals, fetched over tlie. In Fuller, ' Holy War,' bk. v. c. 2. See 
 
 < N. and Q.,' 4 S. iv. 57. 
 
 Cobloaf- stealing. See Aubrey's 'Wilts,' Introduction. 
 Cock, to whip the, a sport at fairs (Leic.). Quoted by Brand, ' Pop. 
 
 Antiq.,' ii. 469 (ed. ElhV, from Grose. 
 Cock-a-hoop. Compare ' John at Cok on the Hop,' i.e. John, living 
 
 at the sign of the Cock on the Hoop ; Riley's ' Memorials of 
 
 London,' p. 489. A hoop is the old combination of three hoops, 
 
 also called a garland, common as a sign of an inn, like the ivy- 
 bush or bush. 
 Cock-on-hoop, an exclamation of rejoicing ; hurrah ! ' Then, faith, 
 
 cock-on- hoop, all is ours,' 'Jacob and Esau,' in ' Old Plays,' ed. 
 
 Hazlitt, ii. 246. 
 
 Cock-sure. See references in Parker Soc. Index. 
 Cocket. Explained in Hutchinson, p. 343 (Parker Soc.). 
 Codlings-and-Cream, great willow-herb, Epilobium hirsutum. ' N. 
 
 and Q.,' 4 S. iv. 467. 
 Cods, husks. Ditto. 
 Coil, a noise. Ditto. 
 
 Coke-stole, a cucking-stool. Skelton's ' Works.' ed. Dyce, i. 119. 
 Cokes, v. to coax. Puttenham, ed. Arber, p. 36. 
 Coket, a seal ; also a custom paid when cloths, &c. were sealed with 
 
 a seal ; ' Rot. Parl.' iii. 437 (2 Henry IV). 
 Cole, deceit ; cole under candlestick, deceitful secrecy. Ditto. 
 Coll, to embrace about the neck. Parker Soc. 
 Collop- Monday, Shrove Monday (North). Brand's ' Pop. Antiq.,' 
 
 ed. Ellis, i. 62.
 
 230 ADDITIONS TO HALLIWELL'S 'DICTIONARY.' 
 
 Comber, trouble. Parker Soc. 
 
 Commerouse, troublesome. Ditto. 
 
 Connach, to spoil, destroy (Aberdeensh.). 
 
 Copy, copiousness. Parker Soc. 
 
 Coram, quorum. ' Ov avvTtrayfj.ai, that is, I am none of those which 
 are brought under cot-am ' ; Udall, tr. of ' Apophthegmes ' of 
 Erasmus, ed. 1877, p. 380. 
 
 Cornlaiters (Halliwell; no ref.). From Hutchinson, ' Hist. Cumb.,' 
 i. 553. See Brand's ' Pop. Antiq.,' ed. Ellis, ii. 145. 
 
 Cosy, a husk, shell, or pod (Beds.). So in Halliwell ; but a ridicu- 
 lous error. Cosy is Batchelor's 'phonetic' spelling of cosh, 
 which is the word meant. See Batchelor's 'Bedfordshire 
 Words.' 
 
 Cour, to recover health (Aberdeensh.). 
 
 Couring, crouching down. Puttenham, ed. Arber, p. 292. 
 
 Coye, v. to stroke. Golding's tr. of ' Ovid,' fol. 79, back. 
 
 Cracker, a small baking-dish (Newcastle). 'Gent. Mag.,' 1794. pt. i. 
 
 P- IS- 
 
 Craft, a croft (Aberdeensh.). 
 
 Crake, to boast. ' Fellows, keep my counsel ; by the mass I do but 
 crake' ; Thersites, in ' Old Plays,' ed. Hazlitt, i. 410. 'All the 
 day long is he facing and craking' ; ' Roister Doister/ i. i. 
 
 Cranks, two or more rows of iron crooks in a frame, used as 
 a toaster (Newcastle). See 'Gent. Mag.' 1794, pt. i. p. 13. 
 
 Cms, to-morrow (Latin), compared to the cry of the crow. ' He 
 that cms, eras syngeth with the crowe ' ; Barclay's ' Ship of 
 Fools,' ed. Jamieson, i. 162. 
 
 Crassetes, cressets, A.D. 1454. 'Testamenta Eboracensia,' ii. 194. 
 
 Craumpish, v. 
 
 ' By pouert spoiled, which made hem sore smert, 
 Which, as they thouhte, craumpysshed at here herte.' 
 Quoted (in a MS. note sent to me) as from Lydgate's ' St. Ed- 
 mund,' MS. Harl. 2278. fol. 101. 
 
 Cray, a small ship. ' For skin's, crays, shallops, and the like ' ; 
 Drayton, 'Battle of Agincourt.' 
 
 Creak, Creek, (Glossic, kree'k), an iron plate at the end of a plough- 
 beam, furnished with holes and a pin, for adjusting the horse's 
 draught-power. Heard at Ely by Miss Georgina Jackson. 
 
 Cresset. In Golding's tr. of ' Ovid,' fol. 50. 
 
 Cribble, coarse flour. Parker Soc. 
 
 Crink, a winding turn. Golding's ' Ovid,' fol. 95. 
 
 Crowes, hooks. Parker Soc. ; and ' Paston Letters,' i. 106. 
 
 Crones, old ewes. Ditto. 
 
 Cross-bitten, thwarted. Ditto.
 
 ADDITIONS TO HALLIWELL'S 'DICTIONARY.' 231 
 
 ', to pull. ' He that hir weddyth, hath a crowe to pull'; Barclay's 
 
 ' Ship of Fools,' ed. Jamieson, ii. 8. 
 Croivdie, a mess of oatmeal (Scotch). See Brand's ' Pop. Ant.,' 
 
 ed. Ellis, i. 87. 
 Cucquean (i.e., Cuck-quean in lialliwell). In Golding's 'Ovid,' 
 
 fol. 74, back. 
 
 Cue, humour. Spelt kew in Golding's 'Ovid,' fol. 116, back. 
 Cnlnte, smoke. In Golding's ' Ovid,' fol. 18, back. 
 Curry favel. In Puttenham, ed. Arber, p. 195. 
 Ciirtclasse, a cutlass. Figured in Guillim's 'Display of Heraldry,' 
 
 ed. 1664, p. 316. Like a stumpy scimetar. 
 Cut, voyage. Golding's 'Ovid,' fol. 179. 
 Cut over, sailed over. Ditto, fol. 179, back. 
 
 285. Additions to HalliwelPs 'Dictionary.' II (7 S. v. 
 301 1888). 
 
 Daintrel, a delicacy (Halliwell ; no ref.). It occurs in the Parker 
 
 Soc. Index. 
 Daker, a set of skins, usually ten. See Webster's ' Diet.' ' Lego . . . 
 
 fratri meo unum daykyr de overledder, et unum daykyr de sole- 
 
 ledder'; ' Test. Eboracensia,' ii. 218 (A. D. 1458). 
 Dalk. The ref. to ' Rel. Ant.,' ii. 78, merely gives ' Dalke, un 
 
 fossolet.' 
 
 Damp, astonishment. Becon, i. 276 (Parker Soc.). 
 Dandyprat, a small coin. Tyndale, ii. 306 (Parker Soc.). 
 Dangerous, arrogant. Puttenham, ed. Arber, p. 301. 
 Daubing, erection of a clay hut (Cumb.). Brand, ' Pop. Antiq.,' ed. 
 
 Ellis, ii. 150. 
 
 Debellcth, wars against. Becon, i. 201 (Parker Soc.). 
 Debile, weak. Becon, i. 128 (Parker Soc.). 
 Deck, a pack of cards. Still in use in America; see 'N. and Q.,' 
 
 4 S. v. 198. 
 
 Devoterer. See Becon, i. 450 (Parker Soc.). 
 Dig/it, pt. t. prepared. ' Jacob dig/it a mease of meete ' ; Coverdale's 
 
 Bible, Gen. xxv. 
 
 Diiigly, forcibly. Philpot, 370 (Parker Soc.). 
 Dingy, the word explained. Bradford, i. in ; note ^dltto). 
 Dite, a saying. Parker Soc. Index. 
 Ditty, a song. Ditto. 
 
 Dive-doppil, dab-chick ; Becon, iii. 276 ^Parker Soc.). 
 Dissard, a blockhead. Parker Soc. Index.
 
 232 ADDITIONS TO HALLIWELL'S 'DICTIONARY.' 
 
 Do, if you do (Cambs., common). ' Don't go a-nigh that ditch ; 
 do, you'll fall in.' 
 
 Dockey, a light dough-cake, quickly baked in the mouth of the oven, 
 and eaten hot. Ref. lost ; prob. E. Anglian. 
 
 Dodkin, a small coin. See Parker Soc. Index. 
 
 Dodypole. Ditto. 
 
 Dog-hanging, a money-gathering for a bride (Essex). See Brand, 
 ' Pop. Antiq.,' ed. Ellis, ii. 150. 
 
 Doll, a child's hand ; Golding's ' Ovid,' fol. 71, back. 
 
 Domifying, housing ; a term in astrology. 
 
 ' Nother in the stars search out no difference, 
 By domifying or calculation.' 
 
 Lydgate, ' Dance of Machabre (the Astronomer),' in 
 a miserable modernized edition. 
 ' By domifying of sundry mancions.' 
 
 Lydgate, ' Fall of Princes,' Prol. st. 43. 
 
 Dor, a drone ; Bullinger, i. 332 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Dories, drone-bees ; Philpot, 308 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Doted (foolish) ; Becon, ii. 646 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Dotel, a dotard ; Pilkington, 586 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Dottrel, bird ; Bale, 363 (^Parker Soc.). 
 
 Dough, a little cake (North) ; Brand, ' Pop. Ant.,' ed. Ellis, i. 526. 
 
 Dough-nut-day, Shrove Tuesday (Baldock, Herts' 1 . ' It being- 
 usual to make a good store of small cakes fried in hog's lard, 
 placed over the fire in a brass skillet, called dough-nuts, where- 
 with the youngsters are plentifully regaled.' Brand, ' Pop. 
 Ant.,' ed. Ellis, i. 83. 
 
 Dover's meetings, apparently the same as Dover's games. Brand, 
 as above, i. 277. 
 
 Dowsepers, grandees ; Bale, 155, 317 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Draffe, hog-wash. Either the coarse liquor or brewer's grains ; 
 Skelton, ed. Dyce, i. 100, ii. 164. Food for swine ; Bale. 
 285 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Drafflesacked, filled with draff; Becon, ii. 591 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Dragges, dregs, or drugs [sic, it makes a difference !] ; Pilkington, 
 121 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Drift, a green lane. Also used in Cambs. 
 
 Drum, an entertainment (A. D. 1751). See ; N. and Q.' 4 S. ii. 157. 
 
 Drumslet, a drum ; Golding's ' Ovid,' fol. 149, back. 
 
 Drunkard's cloak. See Brand, ' Pop. Ant.,' ed. Ellis, iii. 109. 
 
 Dryth, dryness ; Tyndale, ii. 14 (Parker Soc.). 
 
 Dudgeon-dagger. See Hazlitt's Dodsley's ' Old Plays,' v. 271. 
 
 Dummel, stupid, slow to move ; said of wild animals (prov. Eng. ; 
 ref. lost).
 
 ADDITIONS TO HALLIWELL'S 'DICTIONARY.' 233 
 
 During, enduring. Tyndale, iii. 264 (Parker Soc.\ 
 Dyssour, tale-teller, boaster. 'He shal become a dyssour' ; Rob. 
 of Brunne, ' Handlyng Synne,' 8302. 
 
 286. Additions to Halliwell's 'Dictionary.' Ill (7 S. v. 
 
 503; 1888). 
 
 Eargh, adj., frightened, superstitiously afraid (Aberdeenshire). 
 
 This is the word of which eerie is a later form. The A. S. form 
 
 is carh. 
 
 Earn, s., eagle ; Golding's ' Ovid,' fol. 184, back. 
 Earshrift, s., auricular confession. Parker Soc. Index. 
 Eftsoons, adv., soon afterwards. Parker Soc. 
 Egal, adj., equal. Same. 
 Egally, adv., equally. Same. 
 Egalness, s., equality. Same. 
 Eisel, s., vinegar. Also esel, eysil. Same. Old Fr. aisil, extended 
 
 from Old Fr. aisi, answering to Low Lat. acitum, variant of 
 
 Lat. acetum. 
 Embossed. See Dodsley's ' Old Plays,' ed. Hazlitt, xi. 406, and 
 
 note. 
 
 Endote, v., to endow. Parker Soc. 
 Enfortning, pr. pt., forming. Same. 
 Esters. See also ' King Alisaunder,' ed. Weber, 7657. The entry 
 
 eftures in Halliwell is a ridiculous blunder, due to misreading 
 
 a long 5 as an f. The word meant is estures, bad spelling of 
 
 estres ; and eftures is a ghost-word. [See above, p. 171.] 
 Evelong, adj., oblong; Golding's 'Ovid,' fol. 101. [Avelonge in 
 
 N.E.D.] 
 Ewrous,Enrot<s, adj., successful. ' Lothbrok Was more eurotts and 
 
 gracious unto game,' Lydgate, St. Edmund, MS. Harl. 2278. 
 
 fol. 44. From O. F. eiir, Lat. augunmn. 
 Eye, at, at a glance. Parker Soc. Also, to the sight ; Chaucer, 
 
 C. T., Group E, 1168. 
 
 287. Buffetier ; the supposed original of Beef-eater 
 (7 S. v. 216; 1888). 
 
 I wish those who write about this word would read the 
 article in my Dictionary ; they might then come to know 
 what they are talking about. Buffetier is not the word from 
 which Mr. Steevens evolved his famous, much admired
 
 234 LEGERDEMAIN. 
 
 and wholly ridiculous etymology. The form he gave was : 
 Beaufetier, one who waits at a side-board, which was 
 anciently placed in a beaufet? See Todd's Johnson. The 
 real question is this, What was a beaufet, and how could 
 a side-board be placed in it ? But to this question no one 
 will address himself. 
 
 288. Legerdemain (7 S. v. 246 ; 1888). 
 
 Examples of this word have been quoted from Spenser 
 and Sir T. More. But it was used much earlier, by Lydgate ? 
 in his Dance ofMachabre, where the Tregetour is represented 
 as saying : 
 
 'Legerdemain now helpelh me right nought' 
 
 289. ' Familiarity breeds contempt' (7 S. v. 247 ; 
 1888). 
 
 This proverb was already current in the twelfth century, 
 as the following extract shows : ' Ut enim vulgare testatur 
 proverbium, Familiaris rei communicatio contemptus mater 
 existit ' ; Alanus de Insulis, ' Liber de Planctu Naturae,' as 
 printed in Minor Anglo-Latin Satirists, edited by T. Wright 
 (Record Series), vol. ii. p. 454. Perhaps it can be traced 
 still further back. 
 
 290. Robin (7 S. v. 345 ; 1888). 
 
 I quote in my Dictionary the phrase ' Robin redbreast ' 
 from Skelton's Philip Sparoive, 1. 399. In a MS. of the 
 fourteenth century, Camb. Univ. Library, Gg. 4, 27, fol. 9 b, 
 the first line is 
 
 ' Robert redbrest and the wrenne.' 
 
 291. Ghost-word (7 S. v. 465; 1888). 
 
 This useful word was first employed by myself in 1886; 
 and its first appearance in print is at p. 352 of the Philo- 
 logical Society's Transactions for that year. A good example
 
 TO MAKE ORDERS. 235 
 
 is abacot, which is in many dictionaries, but was rightly 
 omitted by Dr. Murray. It is a mistaken form, put for 
 a bycocket) the a being the indefinite article. With reference 
 to words of this class, I say : 
 
 ' As it is convenient to have a short name for words of this 
 character, I shall take leave to call them ghost-words. Like ghosts, 
 we may seem to see them, or may fancy that they exist ; but they 
 have no real entity. We cannot grasp them. When we would do 
 so, they disappear.' 
 
 At p. 373 of the same, I give a list of one hundred and 
 three ghost-words, due, for the most part, to the ignorance 
 of editors of Middle English works. Formerly it was not 
 at all expected of an editor that he should have any real 
 knowledge of the language of his MSS. Even now editors 
 are more adventurous than is quite honest. 
 
 292. To make Orders (7 S. v. 484 ; i! 
 
 I give the explanation of this phrase for the benefit of 
 the sub-editor of O in the New English Dictionary. It is 
 past all guessing, but I happen to know the answer from 
 having met with similar expressions. It occurs in the 
 Sowdone of Baby lone, ed. Hausknecht, 1. 2036. The editor 
 confesses that he can make nothing of it, and his suggestion 
 is beside the mark. When the twelve peers attacked the 
 Sultan and his men, we are told that they 
 
 ' maden orders wondir fast ; 
 Thai slowe doun alle, that were in the halle, 
 And made hem wondirly sore agast.' 
 
 It is a grim medieval joke. A clerk in holy orders was 
 known by wearing the tonsure, that is, he had a shaven 
 crown. A medieval hero sometimes made his foe resemble 
 a clerk by the summary process of shaving off a large 
 portion of his hair by a dexterous sweep of his sword. 
 
 To accomplish this feat was called ' to make orders ' ; 
 and the line implies that they 'sliced pieces off their
 
 236 C.4TSt'P: KETCHl'P. 
 
 adversaries' heads at an amazing rate.' To do this was 
 a frequent amusement with the famous twelve peers. 
 
 293. Catsup: Ketchup (7 S. vi. 12 : iSSSX 
 
 It will be observed that the answers hitherto given to the 
 question as to the derivation of ketchup are all useless. To 
 derive it from the ' Eastern word kitjap ' is ridiculous, for 
 there is no such language as ' Eastern.' Dr. Charnock tells 
 us it is Hindustani, to which I have only to say that I wish 
 he would prove his point by telling us in what Hindustani 
 dictionary it can be found. I have been looking for this 
 word these six years, and am as far off as ever from finding 
 it ; simply because no one condescends to mention the 
 dictionary that contains it. 
 
 I would earnestly commend to the consideration of all 
 contributors to N. and Q. that they should give their 
 references. In philology, especially, it is worse than useless 
 to quote words as belonging to ' an Eastern language ' ; we 
 want to know the precise name of the language. Again, it 
 is useless to say that a word is French, or Spanish, or what 
 else, unless it can be found in any common dictionary. 
 Unfortunately, it is precisely when a word is rare, and only 
 to be found in works of great research, that the language to 
 which it belongs is most airily cited. All inexact knowledge 
 is distressing rather than helpful. 
 
 294. Ohthere's Voyage (7 S. vi. 44: 1888). 
 There is a passage about Ohthere's voyage in -Alfred's 
 
 translation of Orosius which has been curiously misunder- 
 stood. Dr. Bosworth's translation, p. 41, gives it thus : 
 
 He chiefly went thither, in addition to the seeing of the country, 
 on account of the horse-whales [walruses], because they have very 
 good bone in their teeth ; of these teeth they brought some to the 
 king ; and their hides are very good for ship-ropes. This whale is 
 much less than other whales ; it is not longer than seven ells ; but in 
 his own country is the best whale-hunting ; they are eight and forty 
 ells long, and the largest fifty ells long ; of these, he said, that he
 
 KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PEOPLE. 237 
 
 was one of six who killed sixty in two days r \. e. he with five others 
 killed sixty in two days '~\. 
 
 Dr. Bosworth's note is : 
 
 ' Every translator has found a difficulty in this passage, as it 
 appeared impossible for six men to kill sixty whales in two days.' 
 
 After which follows a long discussion, showing the im- 
 possibility of the feat. 
 
 The passage is printed in Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Reader ; 
 but no notice is taken of the difficulty, nor is any solution 
 offered. The true answer is extremely simple when you 
 know it. Any one acquainted with the colloquial character 
 of Anglo-Saxon narrative will, of course, easily see that the 
 words ' of these ' in the last paragraph refer to the walruses. 
 The preceding sentence is a mere parenthesis. Ohthere 
 was a practical man, and an honest, and knew what he was 
 talking about. He tells us that the horse-whale is but seven 
 ells, or fourteen feet long. Then he adds, parenthetically, 
 ' but in my country, the real whales are ninety-six or one 
 hundred feet long; 7 and then, continuing his narrative, 
 ' he said, that he with five others killed sixty of them in two 
 days.' The A. S. th^ra is best translated by ' of them,' 
 as usual. 
 
 Thus the whole difficulty utterly vanishes. I have no 
 doubt whatever that six men could kill five walruses apiece 
 in the course of the day, at a time when they could be 
 found plentifully. Perhaps it could even be done now. 
 A little pamphlet on Orosian Geography has just been 
 published by W. & A. K. Johnston. It is written by 
 J. Mc.Cubbin and T. D. Holmes, and gives a translation 
 of the Voyages of Ohthere andWulfstan, with three illustrative 
 maps. 
 
 295. Knowledge for the People (7 S. vi. 63 ; 1888). 
 In the number of the paper called Knowledge for July 2, 
 p. 196, there is an article on ' English Pronunciation,' con-
 
 238 KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PEOPLE. 
 
 taining some extraordinary mis-statements, which it is worth 
 while to set right. 
 
 The writer first gives us a specimen of the Lord's Prayer 
 in English, which he attributes to Bishop Edfrid, about 
 700. It begins : ' Uren fader thic arth in heofnas,' &c. 
 The mis-spellings throughout are of the most startling 
 description ; such a wonderful form as thic tor thu (i.e. thou) 
 is enough to make the dullest reader suspicious. But what 
 does it all mean ? 
 
 The fact is, that the well-known Lindisfarne MS. in the 
 British Museum was written out by Bishop Eadfrith [not 
 Edfrith], who was Bishop of Durham from 698 to 721. 
 This is clearly the MS. referred to. However, the text of 
 the MS. as written by Eadfrith happens to be not in English 
 at all, but wholly and solely in Latin ! 
 
 At a much later date, variously given as about 950, or 
 about 970, or even (as some contend) much later, a Northern- 
 English gloss was supplied above the Latin text by a certain 
 Aldred. The gloss to S. Matthew, vi. 9, begins the Lord's 
 Prayer with the words : ' fader urer thu arth ... in 
 heofnas ' ; and this is sufficiently near to show us that uren 
 and thic are mere blunders for urer and thu. Thus the 
 error in chronology amounts to nearly three centuries, 
 which is a good deal in the history of a language. 
 
 The writer next gives us another specimen, dated by him 
 about 900. It is difficult to guess what is meant, but the 
 reference is probably to the Mercian Gloss in the Rush- 
 worth MS., which can hardly be earlier than the latter half 
 of the tenth century, though the Latin text dates from 
 about 800. 
 
 Probably the information was taken from Camden's 
 Remains ; if so, he is a very unsafe guide. 
 
 Next we find quoted a rimed version of the Lord's Prayer, 
 attributed to Pope Adrian, who died in 1159; i.e. about 
 half a century before rimes of this character appear in
 
 HEREIVARDS : HOWARD : LEOFWINE. 239 
 
 English for the first time. This is an old fable, which 
 ought to be considered as exploded. (See above, p 206.) 
 
 Next, leaving these specimens, the writer quotes the 
 well-known passage from Trevisa about the English dialects. 
 This a4so contains several errors, and we are referred to 
 Dr. Hicks (mis-spelling of Hickes) for the information that 
 the author of this passage is unknown. However, Dr. Hickes 
 expressly assigns it to Trevisa, at p. xvii. of his well-known 
 Thesaurus. 
 
 Would it not be much better for a writer who is so 
 imperfectly acquainted with his subject to let it alone? 
 It is not the first time that I have called attention to the 
 fact that the English language is the sole subject which is 
 treated of by those who have never properly studied it. If 
 botany or chemistry were so treated it would be considered 
 very strange ; but when the subject happens to be the English 
 language, a want of scientific knowledge seems to be con- 
 sidered as being absolutely meritorious. 
 
 296. Here wards : Howard : Leofwine (78. vi. 93 ; 
 1888). 
 
 I cannot agree with any of the startling propositions in 
 this article. Heward is treated of by Mr. Bardsley as being 
 a variant spelling of Heyward ; and I believe he is quite 
 right. There is no phonetic law against it. But how 
 Hereward can be twisted into Heward is quite beyond me. 
 
 We are further told that Howard is a contraction of ' the 
 Anglo-Saxon Holdivard, the governor of a hold or keep.' 
 The objections to this are overwhelming. 
 
 Howard is a mere variant of Haward, another form of 
 Hay ward ; this has been shown in N. and Q., 3 S. x. 29, 
 60, 74, and still more conclusively from registers, also in 
 JV. and Q. ; but I forget the reference, and cannot just now 
 recover it. 
 
 The derivations from hogward and hall-ward are both bad
 
 240 THE LETTER H. 
 
 guesses and unsupported. However this may be, I, at any 
 rate, should like to ask where we can find ' the A. S. Hold- 
 ward ' ; and, for the matter of that, where we can find the 
 A. S. hold in the sense of stronghold or ' keep.' I do not 
 think it at all right that we should be perpetually troubled 
 with 'bogus ' Anglo-Saxon words that seem to have originated 
 merely in imaginative brains. Every one who knows Anglo- 
 Saxon at all knows that hold is an adjective meaning ' faith- 
 ful ' or ' true.' When (very rarely) it is used as a substantive, 
 it means 'a carcase.' The A. S. form of hold, a fortress, is 
 not hold but heald ! 
 
 Next, we are told that ' Leofwin ' means ' a lover of war. 
 It is really too much that such an astonishing mistake 
 should be inflicted on us. It is a quadruple blunder. For 
 first, it is mis-spelt ; the word meant is Leofwine, and the 
 final e, being agential, makes all the difference. 
 
 Secondly, /<?#/" (rather leof] does not mean 'lover,' nor is 
 it a substantive ; it is an adjective, meaning ' dear,' Modern 
 English lief. Thirdly, win does not mean ' war ' ; the 
 proper spelling of the word is winn with a double n, and 
 it makes a difference in Anglo-Saxon etymology whether 
 an n is really double or not. And fourthly, the word meant 
 is wine, a friend. Leofwine is simply ' dear friend.' What 
 then becomes of ' lover of war ' ? 
 
 297. The letter H (7 S. vi. no ; i! 
 
 Some guesses of mine (they are no better) on this subject 
 will be found in my Principles of English Etymology, p. 359. 
 The mis-pronunciation of initial h is not ' a comparatively 
 late phenomenon,' for some remarkably early examples 
 may be found. It is common in the romance of Havelok, 
 about A.D. 1280. I enumerate several instances in my 
 preface to that poem, at p. xxxvii, such as holde for old, 
 hevere for ever, Henglishe for English, &c. ; whilst, on the 
 other hand, we find Avelok for Havelok, aveden for haveden
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 241 
 
 (had), &c. I believe a few sporadic examples may be found 
 in Anglo-Saxon. Only last week I found ors for hors (horse) 
 in an inedited A. S. manuscript. 
 
 298. English Grammars (7 S. vi. 121, 243, 302 ; 1888;. 
 A collection of the names of some of the older English 
 grammars, and of books more or less interesting to the 
 student of English grammar, was made many years ago by 
 Sir F. Madden, and is now in my possession. It is doubt- 
 less imperfect, but it may prove of some interest l . I there- 
 fore give it nearly as it was made. It was collected by the 
 simple process of making cuttings from booksellers' cata- 
 logues. Few of the books mentioned are of very recent date. 
 I have compared the list with Lowndes's Bibliographer's 
 Manual, which fails to mention several of them. The 
 abbreviations ' E.' and ' G.' mean English and ' Grammar ' : 
 
 Adams, Rev. James. Euphonologia Linguae Anglicanae. 1794. 
 
 8vo. 
 - The Pronunciation of the E. Language Vindicated from 
 
 imputed Anomaly and Caprice. Edinburgh. 1799. 8vo. 
 Adelung's Three Philological Essays. Translated from the German 
 
 by A. F. M. Willich. 1798. 8vo. 
 Anchoran, J. The Gate of Tongues Unlocked and Opened. 1637. 
 
 8vo. Given by Mr. Wheatley in his list of ' Dictionaries,' but 
 
 not with this date. 
 
 Andrew, Dr. Institutes of Grammar. 1817. 8vo. 
 Ascham, R. The Scholemaster. 1571. 4to. A well-known book ; 
 
 the editions are numerous. 
 
 Ash, Dr. Introduction to Dr. Louth's E. G. 1807. ismo. 
 A Comprehensive G. of the E. Tongue. Prefixed to his 
 
 ' Dictionary.' 1775. 8vo. 
 B. I. B. Heroick Education ; or, Choice Maximes for the Facile 
 
 Training up of Youth. 1657. ismo. 
 Also, Of Education, &c. 1699. iamo. 
 
 1 One addition was supplied by a correspondent of N. and Q. In 
 N. and Q. 7 S. vii. 54, we read : ' Prof. Skeat can find a very full 
 list of English grammars, giving several scores that he has not on his 
 roll, in the Catalogue of the New York State Library at Albany. 
 I should think there must be three hundred in all.'
 
 242 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 
 
 Baker, R. Remarks on the E. Language. 1779 and 1799. 8vo. 
 
 Bales, P. Writing Schoolemaster, teaching Brachygraphie, Ortho- 
 graphic, and Calligraphic. 1590. 410. 
 
 Barbour, J. . An Epitome of G. Principles. Oxon. 1668. lamo. 
 
 Barnes, Rev. W. A Philological G. grounded upon E. London. 
 1854. 8vo. 
 
 Early England and the Saxon English. London, fcap. 8vo. 
 
 Batchelor, T. Orthoepical Analysis of the E. Language. 1809. 
 8vo. 
 
 Bayly, Anselm. E. G. 1772. 8vo. 
 
 Beattie, J. Theory of Language. 1788. 8vo. 
 
 Bell, J. System of E. G. Glasgow. 1769. 2 vols. i2mo. 
 
 Bellum Grammaticale ; or the Grammatical Battel Royal, in reflec- 
 tion on the three E. Grammars, published in about a year last 
 past. 1712. 8vo. 
 
 Bertram, Charles. English-Danish Grammar. 1750. 
 
 Essay on the Style of the E. Tongue. Copenhagen. 1749. 
 i2mo. 
 
 Blair, D. Practical G. of the E. Language. 1809. ismo. Also 1816. 
 
 i8mo. 
 
 Bobbit, A. Elements of E. G. 1833. i2mo. 
 Bosworth, Rev. J. Elements of Anglo-Saxon G. 1823. Royal 8vo. 
 
 Compendious Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language. 
 Brightland, J. E. G. 1712. 121110. 
 
 Brinsley, John. Ludus Literarius ; or, the G. Schoole. London, 
 
 1612 ; reprinted 1627. 4to. 
 
 Brittain, Lewis. Rudiments of E. G. Louvain. 1778.121110. 
 Buchanan, Dr. On the Elegant and Uniform Pronunciation of the 
 
 E. Language. 1766. 8vo. Later ed., 1827 (?). 
 Bucke. Classical E. G. 1829. i2mo. 
 Butler, Charles. E. G. Oxford, 1633. See preface to Johnson's 
 
 'Diet.' His system of orthography is exemplified in his 
 
 'Principles of Musick' (1636) and his ' Feminin Monarch!, 
 
 or, the Histori of Bees ' (1634). 
 
 Callander (John ?). Deformities of Dr. S. Johnson. 1782. 8vo. 
 Campbell, A. Lexiphanes [against Dr. Johnson's style]. London, 
 
 1767. iamo. Later, 1783. 
 Care, H. Tutor to True English. 1687. 8vo. 
 Carew, Richard. Survey of Cornwall ; with an Epistle concerning 
 
 the excellencies of the E. Tongue. London, 1769. 410. 
 Casaubon, Meric. De Lingua Hebraica et de Lingua Saxonica. 
 
 London, 1650. i2mo. 
 Cassander, I. Criticisms on Tooke's Diversions of Purley. 1790. 
 
 8vo.
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 243 
 
 Chapman. Rev. J. Rhythmical G. of the E. Language. 1821. 
 
 i2mo. 
 
 Churchill, O. New G. of the E. Language. 1823. i2mo. 
 Cleland, John. Way to Things by Words : an Attempt at the 
 
 Retrieval of the Ancient Celtic. London, 1766. 8vo. Also 
 
 1768-9. 
 
 Cobbett, Wm. E. G. 1819 and 1826, &c. I2mo. 
 Conjectural Observations on the Origin and Progress of Alphabetic 
 
 Writing. 1772. 8vo. 
 
 Cook's (Coote's ?). E. Schoolmaster. 1652. 
 Cooperi Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae. 1685. 12010. 
 Coote, Charles. Elements of E. G. 1778 [1788 ?] 8vo. 
 Coote, Edw. The E. School-master. 1636, 1658, 1665, 1692, 1704. 
 
 4 to. 
 Croft, Herbert. Letter to the Princess Roj'al of England, on the 
 
 E. and German Languages. Hamburg, 1797. 4to. 
 Crombie, Alex. The Etymology and Syntax of the E. Language. 
 
 1802, 1809, 1830, 1838. 8vo. 
 
 Reply to Dr. Gilchrist on E. G. 1817. 8vo. 
 
 Davies, Rev. Edw. Celtic Researches. .London, 1804. Royal 8vo. 
 
 Delamothe, G. The French Alphabet, &c. London, 1595. 8vo. 
 1631. i8mo. 
 
 Devis, Ellin. Accidence ; or, First Rudiments of E. G. 1786. 
 i2mo. 
 
 Dictionnaire de la Prononciation Angloise. London, 1781. 8vo. 
 
 Dissertation on the Beauties and Defects of the E. Language. 
 Paris, 1805. i2mo. 
 
 Dutch and E. Grammar. 1775. 121110. 
 
 Du Wes, Giles. An Introductorie for to Lerne to Rede, to Pro- 
 nounce, and to Speak French Trewly. London, by Nic. 
 Bourman, n. d. [about 1540], Also by J. Waley ; also by 
 T. Godfray. Reprinted, together with Palsgrave's ' Dictionary,' 
 at Paris, 1852. 
 
 Elphinston, James. Analysis of the French and E. Languages. 
 1756. 2 vols. I2mo. 
 
 Principles of the E. Language. London, 1765. 2 vols. I2mo. 
 
 - Propriety ascertained in her Picture ; or, E. Speech and 
 
 Spelling, &c. 1787. 2 vols. 410. 
 E. Orthography Epitomized. London. 1790. 8vo. 
 
 Fifty Years' Correspondence between Geniuses of both Sexes. 
 
 [In reformed Spelling.] London, 1791-4. 8 vols. 12010. 
 - Miniature of Inglish Orthography. 1795. 8vo. 
 Elstob, Elizabeth. Rudiments of G. for the E. Saxon Tongue. 
 London, 1715. 410, 
 
 R 2
 
 244 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 
 
 English, J. Observations on Mr. Sheridan's Dissertation concern- 
 ing the E. Tongue. 1762. 8vo. 
 
 E. G., Royal ; Reformed into a more easie Method. 169^. i2mo. 
 E. Language, Observations upon the. N. d. [about 1715]. 8vo. 
 
 Reflections on the ; being a Detection of many Improper 
 
 Expressions, &c. 1770. 8vo. 
 
 Vulgarisms and Improprieties of. 1833. I2mo. 
 
 E. Orthographic. Oxford, 1668. 4to. Said to be by Owen Price 
 
 (Wood, <Ath. Ox.' ii. 490). 
 E. Tongue, G. of the; with the approbation of Bickerstaff. 1711. 
 
 I2H1O. 
 
 E. Words, Vocabulary of; of dubious Accentuation. 1797. 8vo. 
 Errors of Pronunciation ... by the Inhabitants of London and 
 
 Paris. 1817. 8vo. 
 Essay upon Literature ; an Enquiry into the Antiquity and Original 
 
 of Letters. 1726. 8vo. 
 Essay upon the Harmony of Language ... to Illustrate that of the 
 
 E. Language. 1774. 8vo. 
 
 Explanatory Treatise on the Subjunctive Mode. 1834. 8vo. 
 Familiar E. Synonymes, Critically and Etymologically Illustrated. 
 
 l822. 12010. 
 
 Fearn, Jo. Anti-Tooke : an Analysis of Language. London. 
 
 1824. 8vo. 
 Fenner, Dudley. The Artes of Logike and Rhetorike. Middleburgh. 
 
 1584. 410. 
 
 Fisher and Tryon's New Spelling-Book. 1700. i2mo. 
 Forneworth, R. The Pure Language of the Spirit of Truth ; or 
 
 Thee and Thou, &c. [Defence of Quaker Idiom.] 1656. 8vo. 
 Free, Dr. John. Essay towards a History of the E. Tongue. 
 
 London, 1749, 1773, 1788. 8vo. 
 French Alphabet (a Quaint Assemblage of Grammatical Dialogues, 
 
 in French and E.). 1639. i8mo. 
 Gardiner's E. G. Adapted to Different Classes of Learners. 1809. 
 
 ismo. 
 Grammar. Some New Essays of a Natural and Artificial Grammar 
 
 ... for the Benefit of a Noble Youth (W. Godolphin, Esq. . 
 
 1707. folio. 
 Short Introduction of G., generally to be used. Cambridge, 
 
 1668. 
 G. of the E. Tongue, with Notes, &c. 1711. 8vo. Also n. d. 
 
 i2mo. 
 
 G. of the E. Verb. 1815. i2mo. 
 
 Two Grammatical Essays on a Barbarism in the E. Lan- 
 guage. 1768. 8vo.
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 245 
 
 Greenwood, James. Essay towards a Practical E. G. 1729, 1753. 
 
 ismo. 
 Grimm, Jacob. Deutsche Grammatik Gottingen, 1822-37. 4 vols. 
 
 8vo. 
 Groombridge, H. The Rudiments of the E. Tongue. Bath, 1797. 
 
 8vo. 
 Gwilt, Joseph. Rudiments of a G. of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue. 
 
 London, 1829. 8vo. 
 Hall's Lessons on the Analogy and Syntax of the E. Language. 
 
 1833. i2mo. 
 
 Haltrop (Jo.). E. and Dutch Grammar. Dort, 1791. 8vo. 
 Hampton, Barnaby. Prosodia construed. 1657. I2mo. 
 Harris, J. Hermes ; or, Inquiry concerning Language. London, 
 
 1751. 8vo. Also 1765, 1771, 1777, 1781, 1786. 
 Verbs of the E. Language Explained. 1830. 8vo. 
 Hart, John, Chester Herault. An Orthographic. London. 1569. 
 
 i6mo. 
 
 Hazlitt, Wm. G. of the E. Tongue. 1810. i2mo. 
 Head, Sir E. ' Shall ' and ' Will.' 1858. i2mo. 
 H[eath], W[m.]. Grammatical Drollery. [An accidence in rhyme.] 
 
 1682. 8vo. 
 Henley, J. The Compleat Linguist. London, 1719-21. 8vo. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon Grammar. 1726. 8vo. 
 Henshall, S. The Anglo-Saxon and E. Languages reciprocally 
 
 illustrative of each other. London, 1798. 4to. 
 
 Etymological Organic Reasoner. London, 1807. 8vo. 
 
 Hickes, Dr. Geo. Institutiones Grammaticae Anglo-Saxonicae, &c. 
 
 Oxford, 1689. 410. 
 
 Linguarum Veterum Septentrionalium Thesaurus. Oxford, 
 
 I 75- 3 vols., folio. 
 
 Grammatica Anglo-Saxonica. Oxford, 1711. 8vo. 
 
 Hill, W. Fifteen Lessons on the . . . E. Language. Huddersfield, 
 
 1833. 8vo. 
 Hodges, Rich. A Special Help to Orthographic. London, 1683. 
 
 Small 4to. 
 The Plainest Directions for True Writing of English. London, 
 
 1649. I2mo. 
 
 Holder, W. Elements of Speech. London, 1669. 8vo. 
 Hollyband, Claudius. The French Schoolemaster. London, 1573. 
 
 i2mo. Also 1631. 
 The Italian Schoolemaster. London, 1575. i2mo. Also 
 
 1583, i59i) 1597. *6o8. 
 
 The French Littleton. London, 1625. i8mo. 
 
 Treatise for Declining of (French) Verbs. London, 1641. 8vo.
 
 246 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 
 
 , Hunter. W; Anglo-Saxon Grammar. 1832. 8vo. 
 Hutchinson, F. Many Advantages of a Good Language, with the 
 
 Present State of our Own. 1724. 8vo. 
 Irving, David. Elements of E. Composition. London, 1801 and 
 
 1820. lamo. 
 
 Jamieson, John. Hermes Scythicus. Edinburgh, 1814. 8vo. 
 Jodrell, Rich. Paul. Philology of the E. Language. [Really 
 
 a Dictionary of quotations. ] London, 1820. 4to. 
 Johnson, R. The Scholar's Guide from the Accidence to the 
 
 University. 1665. 
 Johnson. Rich. Grammatical Commentaries. London, 1706. 8vo. 
 
 Also 1718. 8vo. 1818. 8vo. 
 Noctes Nottinghamicae. Nottingham, 1718. 8vo. Also 1814. 
 
 8vo. 
 Jones, J. Practical Phonography. London, 1701, 4to. 
 
 New Art of Spelling. [The Same ?]. London, 1704. 
 4to. 
 
 Jones, Rowland. The Origins of Languages and Nations. London, 
 
 1764. 8vo. 
 
 The Circles of Gomer. London, 1771. 8vo. 
 
 The Philosophy of Words. London, 1769. 8vo. 
 
 lo-Triads, or the Tenth Muse. London, 1773. 8vo. 
 
 English, as a Universal Language. London, 1771. 8vo. 
 
 Jonson, Ben (the Dramatist . An E. G. 1640. Folio. 
 
 Junius, F. Etymologicum Anglicanum. (^With A. S. Grammar. 
 
 Oxford, 1743. Folio. 
 Lane, A. Key to the Art of Letters ; or E. a Learned Language. 
 
 1700, 1705, 1706. ismo. 
 
 Language, a Dissertation on ; more particularly . . . the E. Lan- 
 guage. Paris, 1805. lamo. 
 Latham, Dr. R. G. E. G. (several editions). 
 Leibnitz, G. W. Collectanea Etymologia. Hanover, 1717. 8vo. 
 Leigh, Edw. A Philologicall Commentary ... of Law Words. 
 
 London, 1652. 8vo. Also 1658 and 1671. 
 Lewis, M. Essay to facilitate . . . the Rudiments of Grammar. 
 
 1674. 8vo. 
 
 Lexiphanes. See Campbell, A. 
 Lhuyd, Edw. Archaeologia Britannica. Oxford, 1707. Vol. I. 
 
 Folio. [No second volume]. 
 
 Lilly, Wm. Short Introduction of Grammar. London, 1574. 4to. 
 [several editions 1 . 
 
 E. G. with Preface by John Ward. London, 1732. 8vo. 
 Loughton, W. Practical G. of the E. Tongue. 1739. 12010. 
 Lowth, Bp. Rob. A Short Introduction to E. G. London, 1762.
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 247 
 
 8vo. Later editions, 1764, 1767, 1769, 1772. 1775, 1778, 1787, 
 
 1789, 1791, 1795. 
 
 Ludus Literarius ; or, the Grammar Schoole. Kingston, 1627. 410. 
 Mackintosh's Essay on E. G. 1808. 8vo. 
 Maittaire, Michael. Essay on the Art of E. G. 1712. 8vo. 
 Martin's Lingua Britannica Reformata. 1748. 8vo. 
 Martin, B. Institutions of Language. 1748. 8vo. 
 
 Introduction to the E. Language. 1754. I2mo. Also 1766. 
 Martin, T. Philological E. G. 1824. 
 
 Mitford, W. Essay upon the Harmony of Language. London, 
 1774. 8vo. 
 
 Monboddo, Lord. Of the Origin and Progress of Language. 
 Edinburgh, 1774. 6 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Murray, Dr. Alex. History of the European Languages. Edin- 
 burgh, 1823. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 
 Murray, Lindley. E.G. First edition. York, 1795. iamo. (See the 
 long list in Lowndes). 
 
 Examined by an Oxonian. 1809. 
 
 Nares, Rob. (Archdeacon* Elements of Orthoepy. London, 
 
 1784. 8vo. Reprinted 1792. 
 Nelme, L. D. An Essay on the Origin and Elements of Languages, 
 
 &c. London, 1772. 4to. 
 Odell, J. An Essay on the Element, &c. of the E. Language. 
 
 London. 1806. I2mo. 
 Oliver, S. General Critical G. of the E. Language. London, 1825. 
 
 8vo. Also 1826. 
 Palsgrave, J. Lesclaircissement de la Langue Francaise. London, 
 
 J. Haukyns, 1530. Fol Reprinted at Paris, 1852. 4to. 
 Parsons, J. Remains of Japhet, being Historical Enquiries into 
 
 the Origin of the European Languages. 1767. 4to. 
 Parvulorum Institutio. [Latin and E. G.] London in Southwarke, 
 
 by P. Treveris. N. d. 4to. 
 Pegge, S. Anecdotes of the E. Language. London, 1803. 8vo. 
 
 The Same ; with Supplement to Grose's Glossary. London, 
 1814. 8vo. 
 
 Third edition, ed. by H. Christmas. London, 1844. 8vo. 
 
 Perry. The only sure Guide to the E. Tongue. Edinb., 1776. 
 
 I2mo. 
 Phillips, J. T. Compendious Way of Teaching Antient and 
 
 Modern Languages. 1727. 8vo. 
 Pickbourn, Jas. A Dissertation on the E. Verb. London, 1789. 
 
 8vo. 
 Priestley, Dr. Jos. A Course of Lectures on the Theory of 
 
 Language and Universal G. Warrington. 1762. I2mo.
 
 248 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 
 
 Priestley, Dr. Jos. Rudiments of E. G. London, 1768, 1769, 1771. 
 
 lamo. Reprinted 1826, &c. 
 R., A. M. An E. G. 1641. 8vo. 
 Raine, Rev. Mat. E. Rudiments ; or, an Easy Introduction to 
 
 E. Grammar. Darlington, 1771. ismo. 
 Rask's Anglo-Saxon G. Translated by Thorpe. Copenhagen, 
 
 1830. 8vo. 
 
 Richardson, C. Illustrations of E. Philology. 1815. 4to. 
 Robinson, J. Art of teaching the E. Language by Imitation. 1800. 
 
 ismo. 
 
 Rudd, S. Prodomos ; or, Observations on the E. Language. 1755. 
 Rudiments of E. G. for the Use of Beginners. Falmouth, 1788. 
 Rudiments of the E. Tongue. Newcastle, 1769. isrno. 
 Rylance, R. Vocabulary of E. Words derived from the Saxon, 
 
 with their Signification in Spanish. 1813. 
 S., M. E., Latine, French, and Dutch Scholemaster. By M. S. 
 
 1637. iamo. 
 
 Sharp, G. Short Treatise on the E. Tongue. 1767. 8vo. 
 Sharpe. Essay towards an E. G. 1784. ismo. 
 Shaw, Rev. John. A Methodical E. G. 1778, and four later 
 
 editions. 
 Sheridan, T. Discourse delivered at the Theatre in Oxford on 
 
 Elocution and the E. Language. 1759. 8vo. 
 
 On the Causes of the Difficulties in Learning the E. Tongue, 
 
 with Scheme for a G. 1762. 4to. 
 
 Sinclair [Sir] Jo. Observations on the Scottish Dialect. London, 
 
 1772. 8vo. Also 1782. 
 Smart, Benj. H. Practical G. of E. Pronunciation. London, 1810. 
 
 8vo. 
 
 G. of E. Sounds. London, 1813. ismo. 
 
 Rudiments of E. G. Elucidated. London, 1811. i2mo. 
 
 Guide to Parsing. London, 1825. 12010. 
 
 Accidence and Principles of E. G. London, 1841 and 1847. 
 
 i2mo. 
 
 Smith, Jo. G. of the E. Language. Norwich. 12010. 
 Smith, J. G. for the French, Italian, Spanish, and E. Tongues, 
 
 with Proverbs. 1674. 8vo. 
 Smith, Peter. Practical Guide to the Composition and Application 
 
 of the E. Language. 1824. 8vo. 
 Stackhouse, T. Reflections on Languages, and on the Manner of 
 
 Improving the E. Tongue. 1731. 8vo. 
 
 Stanbridge, John. His Accidence. N. d. [See Lowndes.] 
 Stirling, J. Short View of E. G. 1740. 8vo. 
 
 Short System of E. G. 8vo. Same as above (?).
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 249 
 
 Stockwood, Jo. A Plaine and Easie Laying Open of the Meaning 
 ... of the Rules ... in the E. Accidence. (Black letter.) 
 London, 1590. 4*0. 
 
 Strong, Nathaniel. England's Perfect Schoolmaster. London, 
 1692. lamo. And 1699. 12010. 
 
 Swift, J. Proposal for Improving the E. Tongue. 1712. 8vo. 
 
 Taylor, Bp. Jeremy. A New and Easie Institution of G. London, 
 1647. i2mo. On Latin G. 
 
 Thelwall, Jo. Essay on Rhythmus, and the utterance of the 
 E. Language. London, 1812. 8vo. 
 
 Thomas, E. Traite Complet de Prononciation Angloise. 1796. 8vo. 
 
 Thomas, L. Milke for Children; or, a Plain and Easie Method 
 teaching to Read and Write. 1654. I2mo. 
 
 Thomas, Wm. Principal Rules of the Italian G., with a Diction- 
 arie. (Black letter.) London, 1542. 410. And 1550. 
 
 Thomson, J. Observations Introductory to a Work on E. Etymo- 
 logy. 1818. 8vo. Also 1819. 4to. 
 
 Thornton, W. Cadmus ; or, a Treatise on the Elements of the 
 Written Language. Philadelphia, 1796. 8vo. On Ortho- 
 graphy. 
 
 Tooke, John Home. Diversions of Purley. Vol. i (all published). 
 First edition. London, 1786. 8vo. 
 
 London, 1798-1805. 2 vols. 4to. 
 
 New edition, revised by Rich. Taylor (with the letter to 
 
 J. DunningX London, 1829. 2 vols. 8vo. Reprinted, London, 
 1840 One vol. 8vo. Reprinted, 1857. 
 
 Letter to Jo. Dunning on the E. Language. 1788. 8vo. 
 
 Towgood, M. Remarks on the Profane and Absurd Use of the 
 
 Monosyllable ' Damn.' 1746. 8vo. 
 Townsend, J. Etymological Researches. 1824. 410. 
 Tremblay's Treatise of Languages. 1725. 8vo. 
 
 Many Advantages of a good Language to a Nation. 1724. 8vo. 
 Trusler, Dr. Jo. Synonymous Words of the E. Language. London, 
 
 1766. 2 vols. i2mo. Also 1781. One vol. i2mo. 
 Turner, D. Abstract of E. G. and Rhetoric. 1739. 
 Udall, Nich. Floures for Latine Spekynge . . . oute of Terence 
 
 . . . tr. into E. (Black letter.) London, 1533. 8vo. 
 Vindex Anglicus ; or, the . . . E. Language Defended. 1644.410. 
 Vocabulary of such Words in the E. Language as are of Dubious 
 
 Accentuation. 1797. 8vo. 
 
 Vulgarisms and Improprieties of the E. Language. 1833. I2mo. 
 Vulgarities of Speech Corrected, with Elegant Expressions for 
 
 Provincial and Vulgar E., Scots, and Irish. 1826. i2mo. 
 
 Also 1830. iamo.
 
 250 ENGLISH GRAMMARS. 
 
 Walker, Jo. Rhetorical G. London, 1801. 8vo. Fourth edition. 
 
 1807. 8vo. Sixth edition, 1816. 8vo. And 1823. 8vo. 
 
 Outlines of E. G. London, 1805. lamo. And 1810. isrno. 
 
 Walker, Wm. Treatise of E. Particles. London, 1655. 8vo. 
 
 Phraseologia Anglo-Latina. London, 1672. 8vo. With 
 
 E. and Latin Proverbs. 
 Wallis, Jo. Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae. First ed., Oxford, 
 
 1653. i2mo. Also 1674. 8vo. Sixth ed., London, 1765. 8vo. 
 
 (Valuable.) 
 Ward, Dr. Jo. Four Essays on the E. Language. London, 1758. 
 
 8vo. 
 Ward, Wm. Essay on G., as it may be applied to theE. Language. 
 
 London, 1765. 410. 
 
 Short Questions upon the Eight Parts of Speech. 1629. 410. 
 Webster, Noah. Dissertation on the E. Language. Boston 
 
 (America), 1789. 8vo. 
 Weston, Stephen. Specimen of the Conformity of the European 
 
 Languages, particularly the E., with the Oriental Languages. 
 
 especially the Persian. London, 1802. 8vo. (or ismo. ?) 
 White's Grammatical Essay on the E. Verb. 1761. 8vo. 
 White, T. Holt. Review of Johnson's ' Criticism on the Style of 
 
 Milton's Prose.' 1818. 8vo. 
 Wild, Jo. Twopenny Accidence. Corn without Chaff. Showing 
 
 how to form Verbs without Mood and Tense. Nottingham 
 
 [1720]. I2mo. 
 Whittinton, Rob. Grammatical Works. See the list in 
 
 Lowndes. 
 
 Williams, J Thoughts on the Origin of Language. 1783. 8vo. 
 Willymott, W. English Particles. 1794. 
 Wilson, J. P. Essay on Grammar, exemplified in an E. G. 
 
 Philadelphia, 1817. 8vo. 
 Wilson, Sir Thos. Arte of Rhetorike. London, 1553. 4to. For 
 
 other editions see Lowndes. 
 Winning, Rev. W. B. Manual of Comparative Philology. 1838. 
 
 8vo. 
 
 Withers, E. Observations upon the E. Language. N. d. 8vo. 
 Withers, Dr. Philip. Aristarchus ; or, the Principles of Composi- 
 tion. 1789. 8vo. Also 1790. 8vo. Reprinted, 1822. 8vo. 
 
 ; Praised.) 
 Wodroephe, Jo. The Spared Hours of a Soldier ... or the True 
 
 Marrow of the French Tongue. Dort, 1623. Fol. And 1625. 
 
 Fol. 
 Wotton, H. Essay on the Education of Children in the First 
 
 Rudiments of Learning. 1753. 8vo.
 
 THE MAN WITH THE MUCK-RAKE. 251 
 
 Wotton's Short View of Hickes's Treasure of the Northern 
 
 Languages. By M. Shelton. 1735. 4to. 
 Wynne's Universal G. for the E. Language. 1775. iamo. 
 Young, E. Compleat E. Scholar in Spelling. Reading, and 
 
 Writing. 1722. 8vo. 
 Zankner's German and E. G. Strasbourg. 1806. isrno. 
 
 The above list is extremely imperfect, and only comes 
 down, in the main, to about 1840. But it will suffice for 
 pointing out the names of some of the older works on the 
 subject of English philology, many of which, I believe, 
 might advantageously be read for Dr. Murray's Dictionary. 
 
 Any one who wishes to do the English nation a service 
 may easily do so. We want to know which, among the 
 above, are the best dozen books for such a purpose, 
 especially amongst the older ones. None of them, I am 
 told, has been read hitherto. The works by Coote, Lowth, 
 Priestley, Walker, Wallis, and Whittinton should certainly 
 be examined. 
 
 29 9. The Man with the Muck-rake (7 S. vi. 366; il 
 
 This well-known figure in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress 
 was doubtless described from a scene depicted on tapestry 
 and hung on walls. There is an early mention of it in 
 W. Bullein's Dialogue, first printed in 1578. (See E.E.T.S. 
 reprint, p. 82.) We there find three pictures on tapestry 
 described together : 
 
 'The first of them with a Rake in his hand with teeth of golde, doe 
 stoup verie lowe, groping belike in the Lake after some-thyng that 
 he would finde ; and out of this deepe water, above the Rake, a little 
 steeple.' 
 
 See the context, which gives a full explanation, showing 
 the reference to simony. 
 
 300. Does Mr. Gladstone speak with a Provincial 
 
 Accent? (7 S. vi. 178; 1888). 
 
 The answer is that much depends on the listener. I can 
 tell a story to the point. I never heard Mr. Gladstone
 
 252 WIPPLE-TREE, OR WHIPULTRE: GAYTRE. 
 
 speak but once, and that was in Cambridge, more than 
 a quarter of a century ago. 
 
 I had at the time no idea that he came from Lancashire. 
 
 But, after the speech, I made careful inquiries as to where 
 he came from, and soon obtained the information. I was 
 not then at all accustomed to ' take notice,' and the traces 
 which I observed were very slight. In a large portion of 
 the speech, even after I had noticed some peculiarities, 
 I could detect nothing unusual. At this distance of time 
 I only remember one test word. He undoubtedly at that 
 time said strenth for strength ; and I said to myself, 
 ' North.' 
 
 301. Wipple-Tree, otherwise Whipultre : Gaytre 
 
 (78. vi. 434; 1888). 
 
 Many guesses have been made as to the sense of 
 ' Whipultre' in Chaucer's Knighfs Tale. At last Mr. 
 Mayhew has got it right. It is the cornel-tree or dogwood 
 (Cornus Sanguinea), also called dog-tree, &c. See Britten's 
 Plant Names, p. 577. He points out that it is clearly 
 the Middle Low German wipel-bom, the cornel (Pritzel, 
 later edition). This is verified by the entry in Hexham's 
 Dutch Dictionary ; ' Wepe or weype, the dog-tree.' It is so 
 named from the waving of its branches. Cf. M. Dutch 
 wepelen, to totter, waver (Hexham) ; E. Fries, wepeln, also 
 wippen, to waver, jump. Cf. E. whip about (properly ivip 
 about), whence probably whipp-et, for unpp-et, a kind of dog ; 
 G. wippen, to see-saw. 
 
 The gay-tre in Chaucer's Nun's Priest's Tale is said to be 
 the same tree, the reason being simply this, that whilst 
 wippel-tre was the Southern or Midland name, gaytre was 
 the Northern name; and Chaucer borrowed it from the 
 Northern dialect. 
 
 It is also called gaiter-tree, and the etymology is easy. 
 
 A goat was called goot in Middle English in the Midland
 
 A CURIOUS ETYMOLOGY. 253 
 
 and Southern dialects ; but gait in the North. The one is 
 A. S. gat, the other is Icel. geitr. As for gaiter, it is simply 
 the Icel. gen. geitar, also used in forming compounds. 
 Hence the gaytre is really the gait-tree or goat-tree. It is 
 also called dog-tree and cat-tree ; so there is no great 
 difficulty about goat-tree. 
 
 I have, however, a further suggestion to make, in opposi- 
 tion to the authorities. Seeing the particular purposes for 
 which the cock wanted the berries, it would fit admirably to 
 suppose that for this occasion the gait-tree was the Rhamnus 
 catharticus, which, according to Johns, ' bears black, power- 
 fully cathartic berries.' Now it is not a little remarkable 
 that, according to Rietz, the name in Swedish dialects for 
 this Rhamnus is precisely getbars-tra^ i. e. ' goat-berry tree,' 
 or the tree bearing goat-berries (Chaucer's gaytre-beries]. 
 
 302. A Curious Etymology (7 S. vii. 5 ; 1889). 
 
 If ever an 'etymology' deserved to be 'gibbeted,' cer- 
 tainly the following deserves it richly. It is from the 
 Gentleman's Magazine, Dec., 1888, p. 605 : 
 
 ' One word in conclusion on the word gallows. The old word for 
 the gibbet is galg, and gal-low is the low, or place for the gibbet.' 
 
 It follows that gallows are ' the places for the "gibbet,"' 
 which is highly satisfactory. In what language the 'old 
 word ' galg occurs in a monosyllabic form we are not told. 
 Such is ' etymology ' in the nineteenth century. 
 
 303. Hampole's Version of the Psalms (7 S. vii. 5 ; 
 
 1889). 
 
 I have said in Specimens of English, part ii. p. 107, that 
 Hampole was 'the author of a metrical version of the 
 Psalms,' &c. I took this statement from Prof. Morley's 
 English Writers without suspicion. Since then Mr. Bramley 
 has edited Hampole's version, and lo ! it is in prose ! How, 
 then, did the error arise ? Perhaps thus. The copy of the
 
 254 'THE MORI AN S' LAND.' 
 
 work in MS. Laud. 286, begins with sixty lines of verse, 
 which may easily have induced the consulter of the MS. to 
 suppose it was wholly in verse. However, these sixty lines 
 are a mere prologue ; they are not by Hampole, but by 
 another hand ; and they do not appear in any other of the 
 rather numerous copies. I conclude that a verse translation 
 of the Psalms by Hampole does not exist. 
 
 304. ' The Morians' Land' (7 S. vii. 66 ; 1889). 
 
 For ' the Morians' land ' in the Prayer Book Version of 
 the Psalms, the A. V. has ' Ethiopia.' Wright's Bible Word- 
 book tells us that ' Morian ' is used by old writers for ' moor, 
 blackamoor.' Cotgrave explains More by 'a Moore, Morian, 
 Blackamoore.' But I do not know that any one has explained 
 the etymology. 
 
 At first it might be thought to be Dutch, since Sewel 
 gives Moriaan, and Hexham Morjaen, with the same sense. 
 But the Dutch suffix -aan is from Latin -anus, and is non- 
 Teutonic. Both the English and Dutch forms are doubt- 
 less of Romance origin. Godefroy quotes, from a MS. of 
 the fifteenth century, the O. F. form Moriaine, meaning 
 a Moor. This I take to represent Latin Mauritanicus (or 
 perhaps Mauritanius], the / being dropped as usual between 
 two vowels in the middle of the word. We also find O. F. 
 Moriant for ' the land of the Moors,' which represents the 
 Latin Mauritania. Thus we see that Morian is simply 
 another form of Mauritanian. 
 
 305. Kittering (7 S. vii. 76; 1889). 
 
 This word presents no difficulty. It is a disguised form 
 
 of the Provincial English catering, which the witness probably 
 
 pronounced better than it was taken down, and which the 
 
 judge explained with perfect correctness J . Cater, to cut 
 
 1 In the examination of a witness lately, he was asked how the 
 boy crossed the street ; to which he replied, ' A little bit kittering,
 
 SLOYD. 255 
 
 diagonally, is duly given in Halliwell ; and it is used in 
 Kent and Surrey. In the list of Surrey provincialisms 
 (E. D. S., Gloss., c. 4) we find ' Caterways, Catering, adv. 
 used of crossing diagonally.' It would be of much assist- 
 ance to me if those who inquire after words, and who by so 
 doing confess that they do not quite understand them, would 
 refrain in every case from suggesting an etymology. In the 
 present case the suggestion that kittering represents ' quar- 
 tering' is just the very thing to throw an investigator off the 
 track, precisely because there is a real ultimate connexion 
 between the words. Quartering is ultimately due to the 
 Lat. quartus, an ordinal numeral. Cater, on the other 
 hand, is due to the Lat. quatuor, a cardinal number. It 
 makes all the difference, because the former r in quarter 
 would not have disappeared after that fashion. Cater is 
 the correct Old English word, the number ' four ' on a die 
 being so called. It is the correct descendant of the Old 
 French katre, four. The names of the marks upon dice 
 were formerly (and even now) the following : ace, deuce, 
 tray, cater, sink, size (or six). Cater gave the notion of four 
 corners ; and to cater a field is to cross it corner-wise, 
 i. e. diagonally. It obviously gives double trouble when 
 one has to explain both a word and its mistaken origin. 
 
 306. Sloyd (7 S. vii. 105 ; 1889). 
 
 The following deliciously inaccurate statement appeared 
 in Chambers' s Journal, Dec. 22, 1888, p. 815 : 
 
 ' Slojd, the Scandinavian word which is termed sloyd in English 
 for convenience, means originally cunning, clever, handy.' 
 
 Here ' Scandinavian ' is slipshod English for Swedish. 
 Scandinavian is the name of a group of languages, not of 
 any one language. For ' termed ' read ' spelt ' ; and why it 
 
 I should say. 1 The presiding judge explained to the jury, 'He means 
 obliquely.'
 
 256 ENGLISH. 
 
 cannot be spelt ' sloid ' it is hard to see. We do not write 
 boyl, toyl, voyd, in modern English. Thirdly, ' means ' is 
 false grammar for ' meant.' Lastly, the assigned sense is all 
 wrong, for the word is not an adjective, but a substantive. 
 Let us put it right. The Swedish word is slojd. English 
 people pronounce it sloid, as if it rimed with void, because 
 they cannot give the true sound. Silly people will persist 
 in writing sloyd with a_y, merely to cause more confusion in 
 our confused system. Lastly, the word is merely the same 
 as our word sleight, the substantive formed from the 
 adjective sly ; it originally meant sleight or dexterity, but is 
 now applied to wood-carving in particular. But for this it 
 should have been called sleight in English. 
 
 307. English (7 S. vii. 189; 1889). 
 
 [In reply to the suggestion that the name English is not 
 derived from Angle, but from ing, a field !] 
 
 I am not concerned with the etymology of this word 
 except so far as relates to the following statement : ' The 
 guess that England is named after the Angles, started by 
 Bede, is not supported by history.' The coolness of this 
 assertion is amazing; and it seems to me altogether too 
 bad that no attempt whatever has been made to inquire 
 into the matter. A man who deliberately shuts his eyes 
 to all evidence is not entitled to ask us to follow his 
 leading ; at any rate, we shall be very foolish to take him 
 for a guide. 
 
 Perhaps no fact is better supported by history in the true 
 sense, i. e. by ancient records. If we are bound to ignore 
 Beda, we are not bound to ignore the Old English transla- 
 tion of him. In Hist. iii. 2, where the original has ' in 
 lingua Anglorum,' the translation has ' on Englisc.' Here 
 the E in Englisc is the regular mutation of A ; and we can 
 no more dissociate English from Angle than we can disso- 
 ciate French from France. We find ' Frencisce menn ' and
 
 ENGLISH. 257 
 
 ' Densce ' in the A. S. Chronicle, Laud MS. an. 1700 ; and, 
 of course, we see that the e is the mutation of the a in 
 Frank and Dane. French means Frankish, and has nothing 
 to do \\~\i\\. frink (whatever that may mean) ; and similarly 
 English means Angle-ish, and has nothing to do with ing. 
 
 It is impossible to ignore the known connexion of English 
 with Angle. It is indelibly recorded in such forms as 
 Anglia, Anglicus, Anglicanus, as well as in the common 
 Old English terms Angeltheod, Angel-cynn, meaning English 
 or Angle-people, English or Angle-race, and so on. For 
 these words see the Bosworth-Toller Dictionary, the refer- 
 ences in which might be multiplied largely. Thus Angol- 
 theod{sic] is in yElfred's translation of Beda, ed. Smith, iii. 5 ; 
 and Angel-cynn is in the same chapter. In the next chapter 
 is the gen. pi. Angla, and the dat. Angel-theode. It is tedious 
 to hunt up all the passages, and I do not see what is to be 
 gained by repeating what every one ought to know, and what 
 no one who knows the phonetic laws of Anglo-Saxon can 
 possibly call in question. 
 
 That the E in Engla is really a mutation of the A in 
 Angle appears also from the purely philological considera- 
 tion that we sometimes find the alternative spelling with ^. 
 It is scarce, of course ; but here are references : sEngla- 
 land, A. S. Chronicle, Parker MS. an. 1070 ; other MSS. 
 Engla-land ; sEngla-landes, A. S. Chronicle, Laud MS. 
 an. noo. So also ^Englisc, A. S. Chron., Laud MS. an. 
 1016 ; A.S. Chron., introduction in MS. Cotton, Tib. B. 4, 
 ed. Thorpe, p. 3. If any one wants to realize the diffi- 
 culty of finding such spellings, let him hunt for the form 
 Frczncisc. 
 
 In the introduction to Gregory's Pastoral Care, as trans- 
 lated by ^Elfred, he calls the English people Angelcynn, and 
 their language Englisc in the same sentence. It is absurd 
 to expect the whole English nation to give up such facts at 
 a moment's bidding, and for a whim. 
 
 s
 
 258 LATTEN AND PINCHBECK. 
 
 It seems to me that the whole trouble has arisen from not 
 understanding that the change from M. E. en to modern in, 
 in pronunciation, is sufficiently regular. Many common 
 people talk of the Frinch and Frinchmen. I have explained 
 all this in my Principles of English Etymology, p. 402 ; but 
 I suppose I must repeat some of the instances. Inglish is 
 the pronunciation of English, and is derived from Angle ; 
 mint is from Lat. mentha ; grin is from A. S. grennian, 
 M. E. grennen ; blink, from M. E. blenken ; link (of a chain), 
 from A. S. hlence; sh'nk,from A. S. scencan; think, from A. S; 
 thencan ; wing is M. E. wenge, &c. We get back to original 
 a sometimes. Thus think is allied to thank ; ling to A. S. 
 lang (long) ; mingle is allied to A. S. on-mang (among) ; 
 hinge, M. E. henge, is derived from hang; singe, M.E. 
 sengen, is allied to A. S. sang, pt. t. of singan ; swinge, A. S. 
 swengan, to swang, pt. t. of swing ; string, A. S. streng, 
 is from strong (strong). 
 
 We even find similar changes in words of French and 
 Latin origin. Thus pin is allied to Lat. penna ink, M. E. 
 enke, to Lat. encaustum ; print is from premere, and was 
 often spelt prente. Dr. Murray records bink for bench, and 
 of course stink is allied both to stench and to the pt. t. stank. 
 Strinth for strength is not uncommon. But we do not find 
 en coming out of in, nor eng out of ing. 
 
 It is not at all the case that Dr. Sweet knows nothing at 
 all of this. He marks the old vowels of stench, wrench, 
 French, quench, drench, bench, &c., also of England, English, 
 also of singe, string, wring, mingle, all alike, to show that 
 they all go back to an original a. See his Hist, of English 
 Sounds, p. 313. If the appeal is to phonetics, the answer 
 is decisive. 
 
 308. Latten and Pinchbeck (7 S. vii. 206; 1889). 
 
 In N. and Q., 3 S. xiv. 396, the analysis of the metal 
 called latten is given as being composed of copper, 64 per
 
 'SWEETNESS AND LIGHT.' 259 
 
 cent. ; zinc, 29! per cent. ; lead, 35 per cent. ; and tin, 3 per 
 cent. In the same, 6 S. i. 213, pinchbeck is said to be com- 
 posed of copper, 75 per cent., and zinc, 25 per cent. It is 
 worth while to notice the close resemblance of these com- 
 pounds. Pinchbeck is a simplified latten, with a little more 
 copper and a little less zinc. 
 
 309. ' Sweetness and Light' (7 S. vii. 285 ; 1889). 
 
 This is a meaningless expression unless we know the 
 context. It may, therefore, be useful to give it. In Swift's 
 Battle of the Books there is a dispute between a spider and 
 a bee. Afterwards Aesop takes up the cause of ancient 
 authors, whom he likens to bees, and says that ' instead of 
 dirt and poison [such as are collected by modern authors or 
 spiders] we have rather chose \sic\ to fill our hives with 
 honey and wax, thus furnishing mankind with the two 
 noblest of things, which are sweetness and light? 
 
 31O. The Anglo-Saxon Names of the Months 
 
 (7 S. vii. 301 ; 1889). 
 
 In Verstegan's Restitution of Decayed Intelligence the 
 author gives what he is pleased to call ' the Anglo-Saxon 
 names of the months ' after the following fashion, beginning 
 with January. They were, he says, Wolf-moneth^ Sprout- 
 kele, Lenct-monat, Oster-monat, Tri-mitki, Weyd-monat, 
 Heu-monat, Arn-monat, Gerst-monat, Wyn-monat, Wint- 
 monat, Winter-monat. This is in the true old spirit of hardy 
 guess-work, and is wrong on the face of it, because such 
 forms as monat, Osier, heu, and others, are plainly German, 
 and cannot possibly be Anglo-Saxon. It will suffice to 
 show how he came by the name of Sprout-kele for February, 
 as we can then tell how worthy he is of trust. His own 
 account is : 
 
 ' They called February Sprout-kele, by kele meaning the kele-wurt, 
 which we now call the cole-wurt. ... It was the first herb that in 
 
 S 2
 
 260 ANGLO-SAXON NAMES OF THE MONTHS. 
 
 this moneth began to yeeld out wholesome young sprouts, and con- 
 sequently gave thereunto the name of sprout-kele.' 
 
 This is a specimen of the daring imagination with which 
 the whole book teems. It is all rubbish, of course, and 
 crumbles to pieces on investigation. It will suffice to 
 mention two points. 
 
 The A. S. for cole is not kele at all, but cdwl, being merely 
 the Latin caulis in a slightly disguised form. Secondly, the 
 native Dutch name for February is Sprokkel-maand, where 
 Sprokkel, according to Koolman, means ' thaw ' or ' thawed 
 earth,' whence the adj. sprokkelig, crumbling, friable. It is 
 clear that Verstegan's Sprout-kele is due to a desperate 
 attempt to find an etymology for Sprokkel, a word which 
 he did not understand. 
 
 Not to waste more words upon the above farrago, which 
 is not even correct for the Dutch language, whence several 
 of the examples are drawn, it may suffice to say that not 
 one of the names is correctly given, and most of them are 
 entirely wrong. 
 
 By good fortune the A. S. names of the months are all of 
 them found in a manuscript printed in Cockayne's Shrine, 
 p. 47. Some of them occur in the Menologium, printed by 
 Fox, and reprinted by Grein, and some in a manuscript in 
 Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, described in Wanley's 
 Catalogue, p. 106, and elsewhere. Beginning with January, 
 the names are as follows : (i) Se aeftera Geola (the latter 
 Yule) ; (2) Sol-monath ; (3) Hreth-monath ; (4) Easter- 
 monath ; (5) Thrlmylce ; (6) Se serra Litha (the former 
 Litha); (7) Se aeftera Litha (the latter Litha); (8) Weod- 
 monath ; (9) Halig-mdnath ; (10) Winter-fylleth ; (n) Blot- 
 monath ; (12) Se serra Geola (the former Yule). 
 
 A few notes may be added. The old notion that in the 
 name of February the o should be long, and that the word 
 sol would then mean 'sun,' is absurd. February is not 
 usually a ' sun-month.' Sol means simply mire or mud,
 
 VOWEL-SHORTENING IN ENGLISH PLACE-NAMES. 261 
 
 whence E. sully. I regret to say that ' mud-month ' is sadly 
 appropriate, and answers to the Old Dutch name Sprokkel- 
 maand, discussed above. The name for March is said to 
 be from a certain goddess Hreda (see the note in Bosworth 
 and Toller's Dictionary). I do not quite see why it may 
 not mean simply 'fierce-month.' April is 'Easter-month.' 
 May is ' three-milkings-month,' i. e. the cows might then be 
 milked thrice a day. The name Litha is merely the definite 
 form of lithe, mild, so that June and July are the mild, or 
 warm months. August is ' weed-month.' September is 
 ' holy month,' and it is on record that it was so called as 
 being a great time for sacrifices to idols in the heathen days. 
 Compare the offering of first-fruits. The reason for the 
 name of October is left unexplained '. November is ' sacri- 
 fice-month,' and is also explained to refer to heathen 
 sacrifices. 
 
 It appears that out of Verstegan's twelve names only two 
 are even approximately correct; and these two, Oster-monat 
 and Tri-milki, are given in foreign spelling. 
 
 311. Vowel-shortening in English Place-names 
 
 (7 S. vii. 321 ; 1889). 
 
 In my Principles of English Etymology^ chap, xxv, I 
 have given examples of vowel-shortening in the former 
 syllable of dissyllabic words, and at p. 494 I instance Whit- 
 by, Whit-church, from the adjective white. A few more 
 examples may be interesting by way of making the principle 
 clearer. 
 
 The A. S. dc, oak, with loss of accent, becomes ac ; hence 
 Acton, Ackland. I remember once being at Acle, in Nor- 
 folk, and remarking that it ought to be called Ack-ley, and 
 
 1 As a guess, I should refer fylleth to the verb fyllan, to fell, to 
 cause to fall, and so explain Winter-fyllcth by 'storm-felling,' i.e. the 
 time of year when a storm or colder weather causes the leaves to fall 
 from the trees. Compare the old name full, the equivalent of autumn.
 
 262 VOWEL-SHORTENING IN ENGLISH PLACE-NAMES. 
 
 not Aikl, as is now usual. I was at once informed that 
 ' that was just what the old people did call it.' This piece 
 of information may as well be put on record. It is fair to 
 conclude that it meant oak-lea. 
 
 Perhaps Benacre (Suffolk) means bean-acre. We have 
 Benefield (Northampton). But this is a guess, and guesses 
 are not at all advisable in the present disgracefully backward 
 state of the etymology of place-names. Most books on the 
 subject are ludicrously wrong. 
 
 A word like Black-more presents great difficulty. I do 
 not see how to decide whether it is from A. S. bide, bleak, 
 or from A. S. blac, black. Let us wait for evidence. 
 
 The A. S. brad, broad, becomes brad; hence Bradford. 
 
 The A. S. brom, broom, becomes broom, and then brum ; 
 hence Bromyard, Bromley, Brompton. 
 
 The A. S. die, dyke, becomes die; hence dicton, and by 
 assimilation, Ditton. 
 
 The A. S. dun, a down, becomes dun ; hence Dunton, 
 Dunwich, Dunmow. We also have Downton. In such 
 cases we may expect Downton to be a later form i. e. that 
 the place is of less antiquity than Dunton. 
 
 The A. S. ful, foul, becomes ful ; hence Fulbourne, in 
 which the vowel was formerly long. It is spelt Fuulburne 
 in a charter. 
 
 The A. S. gos, goose, becomes gos ; hence gosling, and 
 Gosfield (Essex). 
 
 The A. S. ham, home, becomes ham ; hence Hampstead, 
 parallel to E. homestead. But there is also A. S. hamm, 
 gen. hammes, an enclosure, quite distinct from ham. So we 
 cannot always be sure as to this prefix. 
 
 The A. S. hicth, a heath, becomes hath, pronounced as 
 E. hath. Slightly altered, this occurs in Hadley and Hat- 
 field, spelt in the charters with the form for heath. 
 
 The A. S. mor becomes mor; hence Morton and Morland 
 and Westmorland.
 
 rOH'EL-SHORTE.\L\\; AY ENGLISH PLACE-NAMES. 263 
 
 The A. S. read, red, is now red ; and the A. S. 
 a reed, also becomes ra/. In Red Hill we probably have 
 the former. In Redbourne ( Hants), the A. S. form Hriod- 
 burne shows that we have the latter. 
 
 The A. S. seep, a sheep, gives a form shep. In Shropshire, 
 sheep are called ships. Hence Shepton, Shipton, Shipley. 
 
 The A. S. stan, a stone, becomes stan ; hence Stanton, 
 Stanford, and perhaps Stamford. We also find Stainton 
 and Stonton, where stain is the Norse form, and ston is 
 from M. E. stwn. 
 
 The A. S. form of Sherborne is Sarc-imme ; from sare, 
 pure, clear, Mod. E. sheer. 
 
 The A. S. strie t becomes str^t, pronounced sfra t ; hence 
 Stratford. The Mercian form was sfrff, which becomes 
 stret ; hence Stretton, Streatham. 
 
 The A. S. Stitr, the river Stour, becomes stur\ hence 
 Sturminster. 
 
 The A. S. stlth, south, becomes suth ; hence Button (for 
 sitth-tmi}, Sudbury (for sit//t-fary\ Sussex (for sutA-sex), 
 and Surrey ( A. S. Suthrige). 
 
 The word wain is of Norse origin. The A. S. form is 
 slain. This, shortened to sivan, appears in Swanswick, as 
 Prof. Earle ' can tell us. 
 
 The A. S. sunn, swine, becomes sunn ; hence Swinden, 
 Swinford, Swindon. 
 
 The A. S. for Tadley is Tadan-leak, i. e. ToadfiekL We 
 find the same vowel-shortening in the common tadpole. 
 
 The river Teme gave its name to Teembury, now spelt 
 Tenbury, at least, so I have been told, and it seems quite 
 reasonable. 
 
 The A. S. ///, town, becomes tun ; hence Tunbridge, 
 Tunstead. 
 
 The A. S. hitwte, wheat, becomes hwt ; hence \Vhatfield 
 
 1 Rawlinsonian Professor of A S., and rector of Swanswick (also 
 spelt Swainswick}, near Bath.
 
 264 EAST SHEEN; 'SHEEN' AND 'SHINE.' 
 
 (Suffolk), and Wheathampstead. There is an A. S. place- 
 name Hwaete-dun, lit. wheat-down. This became Whatdon; 
 then Whotton, by influence of wh on the vowel, and by 
 assimilation ; and it is now Wotton (in Surrey). This is an 
 excellent example of the futility of guessing and of the exact 
 operation of phonetic laws. 
 
 The A. S. hwit, white, became hwit ; hence Whitchurch, 
 Whitfield (A. S. huntfeld\ Whitcliff (near Ludlow). 
 
 We must remember, on the other hand, that modern 
 English sometimes lengthens the A. S. vowel. In this case 
 the place-name may keep the original short vowel. Such is 
 the case with Cranbourne, Cranfield, Cranford, from A. S. 
 cran. The modern word is crane. Ualby is from A. S. dee!, 
 Mod. E. dale. 
 
 Den ton is from A. S. denu, a valley, a dene, with long e 
 in Rottingdean, Ovingdean, though short in Tenterden. 
 
 Compton is for Combe-town, from W. cwm. The name 
 Quinton illustrates the common English change from en to 
 in. We also find Quendon, so that Quinton stands for 
 Quenton. Quen is the A. S. cwen, a queen, with loss of 
 vowel-length, and substitution of the Anglo-French qu for 
 A. S. cm. 
 
 Of course many of these examples are old ; but I have 
 grouped them together so as to illustrate a principle. We 
 shall have to accept principles to guide us if ever any 
 advance is to be made. 
 
 312. East Sheen ; * Sheen ' and Shine '(78. vii. 337 ; 
 1889). 
 
 At the latter reference two correspondents drop into an 
 etymological trap, and say, probably for the thousandth 
 time, that sheen is allied to the verb to shine. One of them 
 compares the G. sckon, which has certainly nothing to do 
 with G. scheinen. Sheen is properly an adjective, meaning 
 ' showy,' or splendid, allied to the verb to show. The
 
 ENGLISH LONG VOWELS. 265 
 
 G. schon is exactly parallel to it, and is allied to G. schauen. 
 The account of the former may be found in my Etymo- 
 logical Dictionary, and that of the latter in Kluge. I know 
 of no example in which a Modern English ee is allied to 
 a long /, and shall be obliged to any one who will give 
 me one. 
 
 [When Lord Byron wrote ' the sheen of their spears,' he 
 doubtless thought that sheen was a sb., and allied to shine^\ 
 
 313. English Long Vowels as compared with German 
 (7 S. vii. 342, 463; 1889). 
 
 Mistakes are constantly being made in etymology, especi- 
 ally by those who have not made any study of phonetics, of 
 the most elementary character. I here throw together a few 
 remarks to remind your readers that laws regulate vowel- 
 sounds, and should be regarded. The student who wishes 
 to compare English with German for the purposes of ety- 
 mology should consult Sievers' Anglo-Saxon Grammar on 
 the one hand and Wright's Old High German Primer 
 (Clarendon Press) on the other. He will then not go far 
 wrong. 
 
 Even in my Principles of English Etymology, I mention 
 most of the facts concerning the long vowels. I selected 
 these for the greater clearness ; because, if any one can be 
 brought to see that the long vowels follow regular laws, he 
 may then be led to believe that short vowels do the same. 
 A half-knowledge is better than none at all, as it may induce 
 caution. 
 
 I here give a few elementary facts, selecting only the 
 more remarkable results. Many details are purposely 
 suppressed. 
 
 Teutonic long a. There is practically none; the pre- 
 Teutonic long a had already become long o in primitive 
 Teutonic. Compare Lat. mater with A. S. modor, and Lat. 
 frdter with Goth, brothar. See, therefore, under ' long o?
 
 266 ENGLISH LONG VOWELS. 
 
 Teutonic long e. Original examples are scarce. But we 
 have a few cases in which A. S. e is written ie in Modern 
 German. Thus A. S. her, E. here, is G. hier. A. S. med, 
 E. meed, is G. Miethe. In most cases the A. S. e arose from 
 a mutation of long o. See, therefore, under ' long o.' 
 
 Teutonic long /'. This is, usually, A. S. J, Modern 
 English long /'. In Old German it was also /, pronounced 
 as Mod. E. ee, but is now written ei, and pronounced as /' in 
 Mod. English. Thus A. S. bitan, E. bite, is G. beissen. 
 This is a very interesting case. The old sound is still kept 
 up in Scandinavian ; the Swed. bita is pronounced as Eng. 
 l>eetdh. In the Middle Ages it was pronounced, both in 
 English and in German, like the ei in E. vein ; at which time 
 the G. spelling was altered to ei, but the English was let 
 alone. Since then, both languages have further developed 
 the sound to the diphthongal ai, as it is written in romic. 
 The English and German spellings remain as in medieval 
 times. Hence the English represents its diphthong by 
 means of the A. S. i, which was once pronounced as ee ; 
 whilst the German represents it by the medieval ei, once 
 pronounced as in French. Both are misleading; but the 
 English is the worse. Dutch follows the English system, 
 but represents the old long /' (ee) by the symbol ij, now 
 pronounced as E. /'in bite. 
 
 Teutonic long o. This was of two sorts, viz. from pre- 
 Teutonic long a (cf. Lat. mater, frdter), and (rarely) from pre- 
 Teutonic long o (cf. Doric Greek TTOK). The usual Mod. E. 
 symbol is double o or oo, but the sound is that of Ital. u, as 
 in E. cool, from A. S. col. The German developed this 
 //-sound at a very early period ; hence G. Mutter, Bruder, 
 Fuss; also the O. H. G. kuole, adv., coolly, though the G. adj. 
 has the mutated form kuhl. 
 
 In the last word the u is written as uh, to make sure of 
 the length ; so also A. S.for, he went, is G.fuhr. English 
 has shortened the sounds of moother, broother, foot (oncq
 
 ENGLISH LONG VOWELS. 267 
 
 rhyming with boot\ in ways with which we are all familiar. 
 Cf. A. S. blod, E. blood, G. Blut. The mutated form of this 
 vowel gave us the A. S. e, as \nfet, feet. The vowel is also 
 mutated in German, as in Fiisse, feet. Hence E. feel, 
 {\.fiihlen, is derived from a stem^/; see Kluge. 
 
 Teutonic long //. This has developed just like long /. 
 Just as long / became ai (romic\ so long u has become au. 
 In English this is written ou, but German correctly writes 
 au. Thus A. S. hils, E. house, G. Hans. The English 
 spelling ou is of French origin ; the French scribes naturally 
 represented A. S. u by the F. ou in soup. Soup retains the 
 French sound only because it was borrowed in modern 
 times. 
 
 For another G. au, see under au below. 
 
 Teutonic long a. This most commonly becomes Mod. E. 
 ee ; but the G. has long a. Ex. : A. S. slccpan, E. sleep, 
 G. Schlafen. Another A. S. long a, which is much com- 
 moner, is the mutated form of A. S. a ; for this see below, 
 under ai. 
 
 Teutonic ai. This is commonly A. S. a, E. long o, G. ei. 
 Ex. : Goth, haims, A. S. ham, E. home, G. Heim. Thus it 
 will be seen that German has two distinct e?s ; the other is 
 given under long /. The mutated form of A. S. a is long 
 (E ; this commonly gives E. ea. Hence from A. S. hal, 
 E. whole, comes A. S. fae/an, E. heal. Here the German 
 has no mutation, but derives heilen from heil at once. 
 
 Teutonic au. This is commonly A . S. ea, E. ea (ee, e), G. au 
 or long o. Exx. : A. S. heafod, E. head (M. E. heed), Goth. 
 haubith, G. Haupt; A. S. stream, E. stream, O. H. G. 
 straum, G. Strom. This diphthong can suffer mutation, 
 giving A. S. long ie (orj), G. o. Ex. : Goth, hausjan, A. S. 
 hieran, E. hear, G. hb'ren. 
 
 Teutonic eu. This is Gothic iu, A. S. eo, E. ee, G. ie. 
 Ex. : Goth, diups, A. S. deop, E. deep, G. tief. Examples of 
 its mutation are rare in English, and the G. ie is not mutated.
 
 268 ENGLISH LONG VOWELS. 
 
 Teut. long e. I now give additional examples. Besides 
 E. here, G. hier, we find A. S. cen, a torch, G. Kienfackel, 
 a pine-torch, Kien, resinous wood. 
 
 Teut. long i. E. dike, G. Teich ; so also drive, treiben ; 
 idle, eitel ' ; ride, reiten tide, Z?zV ; bite, beissen; smite, 
 schmeissen ; white, weiss write, reissen ; thy, dein ; shive, 
 Scheibe ; pipe, Pfeifen ; gripe, greifen ; ripe, reif; glide, 
 gleiten while, weil. These are all taken in order from 
 Appendix A to my English Etymology, where the corre- 
 spondence of the consonants is explained. 
 
 Teut. long o. E. blood, G. Blut ; so also brood, Brut ; 
 good, gut ; hood, Hut ; mood, Muth ; rood , Ruthe ; to, zu ; 
 brother (A. S. brothor), Bruder fother (A.S.fothur), Fuder; 
 mother (A. S. modor\ Mutter ; flood, Fluth ; foot, Fuss. 
 All from the same original o (Indo-Germanic a or <?). 
 
 Under ' Teut. long <?,' I have already mentioned G. kiihl 
 as answering to E. cool. The fact is that the English cool 
 answers to the old G. adverb kuole, coolly ; whilst the G. ad- 
 jective has the mutated ii, answering (as I have shown) to 
 the E. ee. We actually have this mutation in the famous 
 Shakespearian phrase ' to keel the pot,' i. e. to keep it cool 
 by stirring it. 
 
 The mutated forms of long o appear in E. feet, G. Fiisse ; 
 so also breed, briiten brethren (Old North E. brether}, 
 Bruder ; feel, fiihlen heed, hiiten ; greet, griissen ; sweet, 
 suss (for swuss) ; green, griin ; keen, kiihn. In the verb 
 bleed, the German does not mutate, but has bluten ; cf. also 
 seek, G. suchen ; beech, G. Buche. On the other hand, 
 where we have bloom without mutation, the related G. word 
 is Bliithe. 
 
 Teut. long u. E. house, G. Haus ; so also snout, 
 Schnauze; loud, laut; mouse, Maus ; louse, Laus ; foul, 
 faul ; sour, sauer ; sow, Sau ; thousand, tausend. In the 
 word hide, A. S. hyd, as compared with G. Haut, the 
 E. vowel is mutated ; so also mice, Mduse ; lice, Lduse.
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE. 269 
 
 Teut. long ce. E. sleep, G. Schlafen. Examples are rare. 
 E. deed, as compared with G. That, is similar. 
 
 Teut. at. E. home, G. Heim ; so also dough (older form 
 dogh], Teig\ dole, Theil; broad (with the old sound of oa\ 
 breit ; token, Zeichen ; goat, Geiss ; both, beide ; cloth (long 
 o in plural clothes), Kleid oath, Eid ; soap, Seife; oak, 
 Eiche ; stroke, Stretch ; spoke, Speiche ; stone, Stein. 
 
 The mutated form usually appears in English only ; thus 
 E. heal, G. heilen ; so also breadth, Breite ; heath, Heide 
 heat, v., heizen ; lead, v., leiten ; leave, bleiben (for be-leiberi) ; 
 sweat, Schwetss. On comparing E. lore (A. S. lar) with the 
 A. S. Iccran, to teach, we see that the G. lehren, O. H. G. 
 leren, is mutated. 
 
 Teutonic au. E. stream, G. Strom (formerly Strauni) ; 
 so also heap, Haufe ; cheap, Kauf, s. ; East, Ost ; leaf, 
 Laub ; leek, Lauch ; dream, Traum ; leap, laufen ; be-reave, 
 rauben ; lead, s., Z0// ; seam, Saum ; deaf (M. E. deef), 
 taub. 
 
 Teutonic eu. E. deep, G. //<?/"; so also lief, Keb ; freeze, 
 frieren ; deer, 7%/<?r ; sick (M. E. seek), siech ; thief, Dieb ; 
 seethe, sieden. 
 
 The real value of these equations is best tested and per- 
 ceived when the correspondences are at first sight anomalous. 
 Thus G. Stief-mutter answers to E. steep-mother, A. S. steop- 
 modor and such, in fact, is the A. S. form. The Mod. E. 
 e in stepmother has been shortened from an older ee by the 
 stress on the closed syllable. 
 
 314. Theory and Practice (7 S. viii. 26; 1889). 
 
 Not long ago I read the story of a boy who summed up 
 the duties of life by saying that ' you first know your work, 
 and then you go and do it.' There is in this a reminiscence 
 of Mr. Squeers, who first of all instructed a boy how to spell 
 ' winder] and then made him go and clean one. Never- 
 theless, the saying, as old Skelton would say, ' hath some
 
 270 ' TO RIDE BODKIN.' 
 
 pith ' in it. A little alteration will produce quite a Miltonic 
 precept : 
 
 ' First know thy work, then do it, praising God.' 
 
 Perhaps in a few years some querist, with that curious thirst 
 for which the genus is so remarkable, will ' want to know ' 
 from what poem this line is taken. I can, alas ! only assure 
 a discriminating posterity that there is no more of it. 
 
 315. 'To Bide Bodkin' (7 S. viii. 76 ; 1889). 
 
 This phrase is fully explained and illustrated in a recent 
 work by Dr. Murray, entitled A JVeiv English Dictionary on 
 Historical Principles, and printed at Oxford ; s. v. Bodkin. 
 
 316. Bunnel (7 S. viii. 76 ; 1889). 
 
 The A. S. form is rynel ' the pi. rynelas is in Spelman's 
 A. S. Psalter, Ixiv. n, as a gloss to rivos. The A. S. y 
 becomes / ; hence the M. E. form was rinel. It occurs, 
 spelt rynel, in the Troy-Book, ed. Panton and Donaldson, 
 1. 5709. Runnel is formed, analogically, from the verb to 
 run. I mention runnel in my Dictionary, s. v. Run ; and 
 refer to Collins, Ode to the Passions. I offer my thanks for 
 the new quotations. 
 
 [The quotations, furnished by Mr. E. Peacock, are 
 these : 
 
 ' Now let me trace the stream up to its source 
 Among the hills ; its runnel by degrees 
 Diminishing, the murmur turns a tinkle.' 
 
 Jas. Grahame, The Sabbath, &c., 6th ed. 1808, p. 66. 
 
 ' There is a runnel creeps across a fell, 
 Far, noteless, poor.' 
 
 Sonnet by T. D., in BlackwoocFs Maga., Mar. 1824. 
 vol. xv. p. 268. 
 
 ' The little runnels leading to our tarn.' 
 J. E. Taylor, Half-hours in Green Lanes, 4th ed. 1877, p. 35.
 
 MOXON'S ' CHA UCER. ' 271 
 
 317. Moxon's 'Chaucer' (7 S. viii. 133; 1889). 
 
 With reference to the remark by F. N. that it is strange 
 that any one pretending to know anything about Chaucer 
 should ever have been deceived by the dishonest title-page 
 of Moxon's Chaucer, I have to confess, with shame and 
 confusion, that it was really some time before the truth 
 about this title-page dawned upon me ; and hence I have 
 not shrunk from saying, in a note to p. xviii of my edition 
 of Chaucer's Minor Poems, that ' I cannot but think that 
 this title-page may have misled others, as it for a long time 
 misled myself.' I beg leave to say that I have probably 
 instructed more pupils in Chaucer than any one else ; and 
 I never yet met with any one who had not, at the outset, 
 been deceived. To every young student the revelation has 
 been a surprise. 
 
 The reason is simple, viz. that the unsophisticated reader 
 is quite ready to believe that what a respectable publisher 
 says is really true ; though I can quite understand that book- 
 sellers and publishers may know better. I think this title- 
 page cannot but mislead ; and I would fain hope that cases 
 of equal enormity are uncommon. 
 
 The extremely artful way in which the Minor Poems are 
 introduced between portions of Tyrwhitt's genuine work is 
 extremely baffling to the uninitiated. There is not the 
 faintest hint anywhere that any one but Tyrwhitt ever 
 touched the preparation of the book. F. N. is mistaken 
 in saying that there are no notes by Tyrwhitt on the Minor 
 Poems. The fact is that the ' Remarks on the Minor Poems,' 
 printed in Moxon's edition at pp. 445-452, are palpably 
 Tyrwhitt's own; and I may add that many of them are 
 valuable. 
 
 The advertisement at pp. 443, 444, is Tyrwhitt's, and his 
 name is printed on p. 444. The glossary is Tyrwhitt's, 
 bodily.
 
 272 THOMAS A KEMPIS. 
 
 And it is precisely because the book is all Tyrwhitt's 
 down to p. 209, and again all Tyrwhitt's from p. 443 to the 
 end, that the deception is so clever and so complete. 
 
 318. Thomas a Kempis (78. viii. 171 ; 1889). 
 
 The explanation, that Thomas a Kempis is probably 
 nothing more than a corruption or contraction of ' Thomas 
 at Kempen,' is wrong. And it is unnecessary to use the 
 word 'probably' when we know all about it for certain. 
 Mr. Bardsley made the same mistake years ago, when he 
 told us that George a Green meant George at Green (Eng. 
 Surnames, third edition, p. in), and went on to tell us that 
 Thomas a Becket is for Thomas atte Becket, i. e. the stream- 
 let. It is almost too absurd ; for no one calls a cat a ca, or 
 a hat a ha then why should at become a ? And why do 
 not people reason ? 
 
 Of course a is short for of, as in ' what's o'clock,' ' man o' 
 war,' ' John a Gaunt.' And the whole matter is worked out 
 in the New English Dictionary, p. 3, col. 3, admirably and 
 fully. It makes me ashamed of my countrymen to observe 
 how frequently this work is snubbed by being left uncon- 
 sulted ; and it seems altogether too bad that writers should 
 take such pains to set wrong, for the hundredth time, what 
 Dr. Murray (it ought to be once for all) has set right. 
 
 319. Baldacchino (78. viii. 172 ; 1889). 
 
 I suppose this word is related to Arab, baldat, a city, and 
 the Arabic name could be applied to various cities. 
 
 It sometimes means Mecca, and sometimes Constanti- 
 nople, according to Richardson. Florio's Ital. Dictionary 
 has the curious entry, ' Baldacca, Baldacco, an ale-house, 
 a tap-house, a tipling-house, a taverne ; it was woont to be 
 the name of an Inne in Florence. It is taken in an ill sense 
 for Babylon, or the whore of Babylon.' This mention of 
 Babylon is probably the origin of Dr. T.'s mistake [i. e. the
 
 THE ETYMOLOGY OF ' TOWN.' 273 
 
 mistake of supposing that the stuff called baldacco was 
 named from Babylon.] The place really meant in connexion 
 with the stuff for canopies was, however, Bagdad. 
 
 We can hardly have a better authority for this than Devic. 
 See his Supplement to Littre's French Dictionary, which is 
 certainly one of the most valuable works on the etymologies 
 of Oriental words. 
 
 320. The Etymology of ' Town' (7 S. viii. 183 ; 1889). 
 
 The other day I came across the amazing statement that 
 the etymology of town depends upon the Gothic tains, 
 a twig. And, sure enough, it is all in an old edition of 
 Taylor's Words and Places : 
 
 'The primary meaning of the suffix -ton is to be sought in the 
 Goth, tains, the Old Norse ieinn, and the Friesic tene, all of which 
 mean a twig a radical signification which survives in the phrase 
 " the tine of a fork." 'Ed. 1873, p. 79. 
 
 This was all very well in 1873, when the idea still sur- 
 vived that vowels went for nothing, and that the chief 
 qualification for meddling with Gothic, &c., was, not to 
 understand the pronunciation or the phonetic laws of the 
 Teutonic languages. But what complex confusion it is ! 
 
 The Goth, tains is quite as remote from ' the tine of 
 a fork ' as it is from town. The tine of a fork is a slovenly 
 form of tind, just as literary English has turned the beautiful 
 word wood-bind into the unmeaning wood-bine. All the 
 words should be kept distinct, as in Anglo-Saxon. The 
 A. S. for tine is tind. The A. S. for twig is tan and the 
 A. S. for town is tun. They are all quite different words, 
 and all from different roots ; and they all survive in English. 
 
 From tind we have tine ; from tan we have A. S. mistel- 
 tdn, Mod. E. mistletoe, with the n cut off by confusion with 
 A. S. fan, Mid. E. toon, the old plural of toe ; and from tun 
 we have town. To connect E. -toe in mistletoe with E. town 
 is like connecting the E. doe with E. down. 
 
 T
 
 274 THE ETYMOLOGY OF ' TOWN.' 
 
 What, then, is town ? It is A. S. tun, cognate with 
 G. Zaun, a hedge, and with the O. Irish and Celtic dun, 
 a fort, which so often appears in the Latinized suffix -dunum. 
 The original Teutonic form is tu-no, where -no is the suffix, 
 and tu, equivalent to Aryan deu, is the form of the root, 
 though its meaning is unknown. The A. S. tun became 
 -tun, Mod. E. -ton, in unaccented positions, as in Mod. E. 
 Bar-ton. 
 
 Bar-ton is the A. S. bere-tun, a barley enclosure, from 
 A. S. bere, barley. The former e in A. S. bere is a mutated 
 form of a, as shown by Goth, baris, barley. It is therefore 
 quite distinct from the e in A. S. ber-an, \^\.\..fer-re, Greek 
 Yet here again we are told 
 
 'In many parts of England the rickyard is called the barton, i.e. 
 the enclosure for the bear or crop which the land bears.' 
 
 But bear simply means 'barley,' and the connexion with 
 bear is problematical. Note, too, that the A. S. tynan, to 
 hedge (with long y), is merely a derivative of tun, not the 
 original of it, and is quite distinct from the tines of a fork. 
 
 I make these notes just to show the sad confusion of 
 errors which pervade the whole account, and I now 
 enumerate these errors for the reader's convenience : 
 
 1. The suffix -ton is here referred to Got. tains, a twig. 
 
 2. The sense of Goth, tains survives in the tines of a fork. 
 
 3. It is insinuated that tine, to hedge, is allied to the tine 
 of a fork, i. e. that A. S. find is all one with the secondary 
 verb tynan (with longjy). 
 
 4. In Iceland the homestead is called a tun. No ; it is 
 a tun, with a long u. 
 
 5. A barton means an enclosure for what the land bears. 
 
 6. Besides this, the connexion between town and tains is 
 emphasized on the next page by comparing the totally 
 different words yard, a stick, and yard, a court, though these 
 also are from different roots.
 
 THE NAME SHAKESPEARE. 275 
 
 321. The Name Shakespeare (7 S. viii. 246 ; 1889). 
 
 As to the etymology of this name no reasonable man has 
 any doubt. The analogies of Feuterspear and Wagstaff are 
 sufficient. But as many unreasonable people, delighting 
 more in paradox than in plain sense, have tried to derive 
 the name (why this name only ?) from all kinds of extra- 
 neous and impossible sources, I think it is worth while to 
 add to the analogies the following. Being lately in Lich- 
 field, I saw over a shop-door the name of Shakeshaft. 
 
 322. Oandurth ; the Lancashire form of Undern 
 
 (7 S. viii. 278; 1889). 
 
 My respect for A. J. M.'s. contributions is much tried by 
 his astonishing suggestion about this word 1 . I have been 
 accused of caricature in asserting that Englishmen still 
 exist who derive English words, of all languages, from 
 German. The critics say that no one now seriously does 
 so. But alas ! I am right. Is it possible that A. J. M. is 
 unaware that the German th is a mere /, and was formerly 
 so written? The German roth was formerly rot, and is 
 merely the peculiar High German form of the English red; 
 and the German Abend is merely the peculiar High German 
 form of our even, in the sense of evening. The English 
 form of Abend-roth is evening-red, a compound which I do 
 not think was ever used by us. And even if the M.E. euen- 
 reed or A. S. ^fen-read had ever been in use, no force known 
 to me could have twisted either of these phrases into 
 oandurth. So I am obliged to add this guess to my 
 collection of ' awful examples ' ; and I feel sure that the 
 suggestion would never have been made if its author had 
 even the ghost of a glimpse of a notion of its unparalleled 
 comicality. 
 
 The fact that many of our words, such as yea (A. S. gea\ 
 
 1 The proposition was this ; the Lane, oandurth represents the 
 G. Abendroth. 
 
 T 2
 
 276 BOLE : PIG. 
 
 resemble German more or less, is practically accidental, 
 i. e. due to the accident that German is a cognate language. 
 The same is true of Moeso-Gothic, which has perished. 
 And if German had either perished or had never been 
 developed, it would not have made the faintest difference 
 to a single one of any of our dialect words. The case 
 of Old Norse (better called Icelandic) is different. The 
 hardy Norsemen did come to England, and are here still ; 
 so that if any one proposed to derive the Lancashire yah 
 from Icel. ja, perhaps there is not much to be said against 
 it, though it is more likely that yah is really Old Northum- 
 brian, from which Icelandic differed in most respects very 
 slightly. 
 
 I am not able to say what oandurth is precisely, the 
 difficulty lying in the th. But the th is suspiciously like 
 a suffix or an addition. The Shropshire form is oander, 
 and so is the Cheshire. Cheshire also has oander s for the 
 afternoon-meal. Ray, in his Glossary, gives aandorn, 
 orndorn, doundrins, all with a like sense ; and the last form 
 shows a prefixed d, which is a mere ignorant addition, and 
 raises a suspicion that the Lane, suffixed th is no more. 
 I really cannot go into the whole history of the A. S. undern 
 and all its various uses and derivatives, with all the numerous 
 examples that show how precisely it answers to oander. 
 
 As to the pronunciation, the regular development of 
 A. S. undern would naturally be such as to give a Mod. E. 
 ounder, just as A. S. bunden gives bound, whilst the n is 
 lost as in the adj. silvern. That ounder should become 
 oander dialectically can cause no difficulty. 
 
 See further in Ray, Miss Jackson's Shropshire Glossary, 
 Darlington's South Cheshire Glossary, &c. 
 
 323. Bole : Pig (7 S. viii. 396 ; 1889). 
 Under the heading ' Bole,' I remarked that I did not see 
 any reason for supposing that pig is 'the old name for
 
 RECKLING = WRECK LING. 277 
 
 a small bowl or cup.' In reply to this I am told that it is 
 fifty years old, and, again, that Jamieson gives examples 
 of it. 
 
 Well, the earliest example I can find is that in Douglas's 
 Virgil, bk. vii. chap. xiv. 1. 25 (Aen. vii. 792), where 
 'caelata urna' is translated by 'ane payntit pyg.' But this 
 does not take us back even to the Middle English period. 
 In questions of etymology, my idea of ' old,' as applied to 
 English words, extends to that period at least. 
 
 AVhat I desire is some further light upon pig and piggin. 
 The latter occurs in Cotgrave, as I have shown in my 
 Dictionary. I quote [alas !] as the supposed original of 
 the word, the Gaelic pigean, and suppose the word to be 
 Celtic. Other etymologists have done the same. 
 
 But the chances are that the Gaelic pigeon and pigeath, 
 both beginning with the suspicious non-Celtic p, are mere 
 borrowings from English, and do not help us. And my 
 present notion is that pig, piggin, and the rest, are all various 
 broken-down forms of M. E. biker, a drinking-cup, also 
 spelt bicker and beaker see these forms in the New Eng- 
 lish Dictionary, and compare the form pitcher. 
 
 Biker occurs in 1348, more than a century before Douglas 
 was born. I should be very glad of further illustrative 
 quotations. A new quotation that tells us something as 
 yet unrecorded will be more helpful than a ton of argu- 
 mentation. [I do not find that any new quotation was 
 adduced. My experience is, that to ask for a quotation 
 is a sure way of bringing a ridiculous criticism to a sudden 
 stop.] 
 
 324. Reckling =Wreckling (7 S. ix. 490 ; i889\ 
 
 The word reckling is a misprint for, or rather a phonetic 
 
 spelling of wrecking, the old form, as pointed out by 
 
 Wedgwood. See E. Friesic it>rak, as explained by Kool- 
 
 man ; and compare Swedish vrak, refuse. It is closely
 
 278 GRIFT. 
 
 allied to wreck and wretch. Wreckling simply means a 
 wretched or poor creature ; cf. Prov. Eng. wrctfhock, the 
 smallest of a brood of domestic fowls (Halliwell). As for 
 the suffix, compare weakling. 
 
 It would be easy to write a long article on this word, 
 with crowds of examples. 
 
 325. Grift, a slate-pencil (7 S. ix. 67 ; 1890). 
 
 I have frequently had occasion to notice that many of 
 our provincial words (contrary to the received opinion) are 
 of French origin. Grift is formed by adding / to O. F. 
 grefe, a style to write with, which is a variant of O. F. grafe, 
 whence E. graft, also formed with added /. Hence were 
 borrowed also Du., Dan., Swed., G. Griffel, and all are 
 from Low Lat. graphium, from Gk. graphein, to write. 
 Thus a grift means a pencil, and was originally independent 
 of slate. See Franck, Etym. Du. Diet., s. v. ' Griffel.' 
 It is curious to see that Kluge, who inclines to Teutonism 
 overmuch, can see no origin for Griffel but the G. greifen. 
 
 326. The Superlative suffix -erst (7 S. ix. 146 : 1890). 
 
 I make a note that the form -erst is sometimes found as 
 a superlative suffix. It is formed by adding -st (for -est) 
 to the comparative suffix -er. Thus deep would have deep-er 
 for its comparative, whence the superlative deep-er-st might 
 be formed. 
 
 Examples occur in Wyclif s Works, ed. Arnold, vol. iii. 
 
 I note hei-er-ste, highest, p. 363 ; lewid-er-st, most ignorant 
 (lit. lewdest), p. 355 ; blessid-er-ste, most blessed, p. 344 ; 
 and on the same page, both depp-er-ste, adj. and depp-er-st, 
 adv. Perhaps some one can give us a few more examples. 
 
 (POSTSCRIPT; 7 S. ix. 237; 1890.) 
 
 I can now add that the superlative suffix -er-st probably 
 arose with such words as hind-er-est, which occurs in
 
 HEDGES. 279 
 
 Chaucer's Prologue, \. 622. The Modern E. nearest also 
 turns out, on analysis, to contain both a comparative and 
 a superlative suffix. [It is equivalent to nigh-er-estJ\ 
 
 327. Hedges (7 S. ix. 272 ; 1890). 
 
 It is difficult to see why the etymology of this name is 
 asked for, unless the question is meant as a trap. It is 
 obvious to a plain man that hedges is the plural of a well- 
 known English word which must be familiar to all in the 
 form hedge. 
 
 We have a collection of farm-buildings near Cambridge 
 at a place called the King's Hedges; on which I may 
 remark that King is a very common surname in these 
 parts. 
 
 At the same time, it is worth noting that the A. S. dic- 
 tionaries do not give us the origin of hedge ; they only give 
 haga, the origin of the haw- in hawthorn, and heg, the 
 origin of the hey- in heybote and of the hay- in hayward. 
 But there is yet a third form, viz. A. S. hecg, a feminine sb. 
 representing a Teutonic form hag-ja, with the genitive and 
 dative hecge ; and the Modern English hedge is derived, 
 as hundreds of English words are, from the dative case 
 rather than from the nominative. Examples of hecg are 
 very rare, but the genitive occurs, with the late spelling 
 hegge, in a late copy of a charter of King Offa, originally 
 made in 785. See Cartularium Saxonicum, ed. Birch, i. 
 339. [And the dative occurs, spelt hegge, in the A. S. 
 Chronicle, an. 547 (Laud MS.). There is even a dative 
 hecgan in an early genuine charter of ^Ethelstan, A. D. 931 ; 
 see Earle's Land Charters, p. 167, 1. i.] 
 
 328. Ted, Ned (7 S. ix. 305 ; 1890). 
 
 I have often wondered whence came the initial T in 
 Ted; but I think it is clearly due to the final letter in 
 Saint. Similarly we have Tooley from St. Olave ; tawdry
 
 280 TOUTER. 
 
 from St. Audrey ; Tantony from St. Anthony (see Tantony- 
 pig in Halliwell). St. Edward is Edward the Confessor. 
 I am reminded of this by finding 'Sen Tan Welle' in the 
 Records of the Borough of Nottingham, iv. 91. It simply 
 means ' Saint Ann's Well.' [And I have met with ' St. 
 Testing' for 'Saint Austin.'] The N in Ned, Noll, &c., is 
 the final n of mine ; cf. the phrases ' my nuncle,' ' my naunt,' 
 and the like. 
 
 329. Touter (7 S. ix. 315 ; 1890). 
 
 It is odd that simple common sense, used in all other 
 transactions, cannot be applied to etymology. The deriva- 
 tion of touter from Tooting (\) is obviously impossible, because 
 such a man would then have been called a Tootinger; just 
 as an inhabitant of London is not called a Londer, but 
 a Londoner. The origin of touter, formerly tooter (as the 
 quotation given correctly says), is from A. S. totian, to peep 
 or spy about. It was correctly given by Wedgwood years 
 ago; and why it is pretended that there is any difficulty 
 about it, I do not know. 
 
 33O. To send to Jericho (7 S. ix. 343 ; 1890). 
 
 I have never seen a really satisfactory explanation of this 
 phrase, though Nares seems to have understood it rightly, 
 judging from his Glossary, s. v. 'Jericho.' The allusion is, 
 as might be expected, scriptural. The particular story 
 intended will be found twice over, viz. in 2 Sam. x. 5 and 
 i Chron. x. 5. 
 
 When David's servants had half their beards cut off, and 
 were not presentable at court, the king advised them to 
 ' tarry at Jericho till their beards were grown/ Hence it 
 will be seen that to ' tarry at Jericho ' meant, jocularly, to 
 live in retirement, as being not presentable. The phrase 
 could be used, with particular sarcasm, with reference to 
 such young men as had not yet been endowed naturally with
 
 THE SEA'SE OF 'CHAIR' IN ' COR1OLANUS.' 281 
 
 such ornaments ; and, in their case, they would have to wait 
 some time before their beards could suggest their wisdom. 
 
 That this joke was really current is clear from the 
 example which Nares cites from Hey wood's Hierarchic, 
 bk. iv. p. 208 : 
 
 ' Who would to curbe such insolence, I know, 
 Bid such young boys to stay in Jericho 
 Until their beards were growne, their wits more staid." 
 
 But it is remarkable that Nares does not seem to have 
 noticed the above text as being the obvious source of the 
 phrase. We have thus clear evidence that the original 
 phrase was used of bidding young men to ' tarry in Jericho ' 
 or to ' stay in Jericho.' The transition from this to ' sending 
 to Jericho ' was easy enough. We also see that the original 
 phrase really meant, ' Wait till your beard is grown,' i. e. 
 'Wait till your wits are more staid or stronger': and this 
 was satirically equivalent to saying that the party addressed 
 was too young or too inexperienced to give advice. Thus 
 the original saying insinuated a charge of inexperience ; 
 and a sending to Jericho was equivalent to making such 
 a charge. The person sent was deemed not good enough 
 for the rest of the company. And this explains the whole 
 matter. 
 
 There are other current suggestions, but none of them 
 rests on any evidence. I hope that, now r that I have 
 pointed out the allusion quite clearly, we need not be 
 further troubled with their ingenuity. I quite endorse the 
 observation in Nares, that his quotation 'explains the 
 common phrase of wishing a person at Jericho.' All that 
 I have added is a note of the source of that quotation. 
 
 331. The Sense of ' Chair ' in ' Coriolanus ' 
 
 (7 S. ix. 345; 1890). 
 
 In the well-known passage in Coriolanus, iv. 7. 52, 
 over which many have stumbled, the whole sense comes
 
 282 THE OCCURRENCE OF ' TH ' IN A. F. AND A. S. 
 
 out at once by simply calling to mind that chair ^ in Tudor 
 English, was sometimes used in the sense of ' pulpit.' 
 Milton has it so ; see ' Chair ' in the New English Dic- 
 tionary, sect. 5. Cotgrave has, ' Chaire, f. a chair ; also 
 a pulpit for a Preacher.' And in Modern French it still 
 has this sense, as distinct from its doublet chaise. And 
 this is the solution of the whole matter. 
 
 The idea might have been picked up in any church, for, 
 indeed, the pulpit is commonly more ' evident,' i. e. con- 
 spicuous, than any of the fine tombs in the choir. The 
 general sense is just this : ' Power, however commendable 
 it may seem to itself, can find no tomb so conspicuous, no 
 tomb so obvious, as when it chooses for itself a pulpit 
 whence to declaim its own praises.' This agrees very 
 nearly with the explanation in the note to the Clarendon 
 Press edition; but it seems to me to be more emphatic 
 and picturesque to explain the word as ' pulpit ' than 
 merely as 'orator's chair.' 
 
 332. The Occurrence of ' th ' in Anglo-French and 
 Anglo-Saxon (7 S. ix. 445 ; 1890). 
 
 There is an interesting note on the occurrence of /// 
 ( = Lat. d, /) in Anglo-French and Anglo-Saxon in Grober, 
 Grundriss der Romanischen Philologie, i. 397. 
 
 The sole English word in which the A. F. th is still 
 preserved is the English faith, M. E. feith, from the A. F. 
 feith (feid), which again is from the Latin accusative fidem. 
 The same change from the Lat. d (or /) to E. th is found in 
 A. S. and in Early English of the twelfth century ; in a few 
 cases the words survived till about the fourteenth century, 
 but are all now obsolete, or have lost the th. 
 
 Examples in A. S. are : A. S. fithele (fiddle), from Low 
 Lat. fidula, vidula A. S. sinoth, also synoth, seonod, a synod, 
 from Lat. ace. synodum ; A. S. Cathum, from Lat. Cadomum, 
 Caen, in the A. S. Chron., under the date 1105; A. S.
 
 A. S. TRANSLATIONS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 283 
 
 Rothem, from Lat. Rotomagum, Rouen, in the same, under 
 the date 1124. 
 
 So also the place now called Gerberoi or Gerbroi, near 
 Beauvais, appears in the A. S. Chronicle as Gerborneth, 
 A. D. 1079; and Conde appears as A. S. Cundoth, A. D. 883. 
 
 So also A. S. nativiteth, Lat. ace. natiuitatem ; A. S. Chron. 
 1 1 06. M. tL.pknteth (= A. .ptenteth\ Lat. ace. plenitatem ; 
 Genesis and Exodus, 3709. M. E. daynteth (= A. F. 
 deinteth\ I^t. ace. dignitatem ; ' Anturs of Arthur,' st. xiv., 
 Towneley Myst., p. 245. M.E. kariteth, from Lat. ace. 
 can fa fern ; Ormulum, 1. 2998. And the Lowland Scotch 
 poortith must be of F. origin ; from paupertatem. 
 
 The change from / to th took place in Gaulish Latin and 
 very early French, when the t was final. Final d was 
 probably sounded as the voiced th first of all, and then 
 unvoiced, in accordance with the known habit of French, 
 which delights in voiceless letters at the end of a word. 
 
 333. Anglo-Saxon Translations of the New Testament 
 
 (7 S. ix. 475 ; 1890). 
 
 Of course Dr. Scrivener's reference to Anglo-Saxon 
 versions of the New Testament is due to some mistake. 
 Except the four Gospels, there is no trace of a translation 
 into Anglo-Saxon of any part of the New Testament. The 
 passage must have been written from imagination. The 
 only thing of the kind is a translation of the apocryphal 
 Gospel of Nicodemus. This was printed by Thwaites in 
 1698, at the end of his Heptateitchus. Many years ago, 
 I pointed out the existence of a lacuna in the Cambridge 
 MS. whence his text is taken. In the first volume of 
 Grein's Bibliothek der angelsachsischen Prosa we find the 
 A. S. version of the Pentateuch, Joshua, Judges, and Job. 
 There are many A. S. MSS. of the Psalms, and there is an 
 edition by Spelman. I suppose that the only unprinted 
 Biblical specimen is /Elfric's translation of the Book of Esther.
 
 284 PERUSE. 
 
 For further information, see Wiilker's Grundriss zitr 
 Geschichte der.angelsdchsischen Litteratur. 
 
 334. Peruse (7 S. ix. 506; 1890). 
 
 The great difficulty of this word is well known. There 
 are good illustrations of it in Croft's edition of Elyot's 
 Governour ; and he concludes that it cannot be derived 
 from per and use. I have shown, in my Dictionary, the 
 great probability that it really was from that source ; and in 
 the Addenda to the second edition I show that it was really 
 once used in the sense of ' using up.' I now find from 
 Godefroy's O. French Dictionary, that there really was an 
 O. F. verb peruser, in the very same sense. He explains it 
 by ( user entierement, achever, consommer.' This goes far 
 to settle the question. 
 
 335. Prepense (7 S. x. 6 ; 1890). 
 
 In the phrase ' malice prepense? the etymology of prepense 
 is not very easy. I give it from Lat. prae, beforehand, and 
 the French penser. Godefroy's O. F. Dictionary gives an 
 example (s. v. 'Porpenser') of the phrase 'de malice 
 pourpensee'. This may seem decisive, but it is not so. 
 Scheler (s. v. ' Pour ') points out the extraordinary confusion, 
 in French, between pour, O. F. par (properly Lat. pro), and 
 par (Lat. per); and he might have included French pre- as 
 well. The confusion seems to be one of long standing, for 
 in the second section of the Laws of William the Conqueror, 
 Thorpe's edition speaks of ' agweit purpense] i. e. premedi- 
 tated lying in wait. But another reading is prepensed (see 
 Littre, s. v. ' Pourpenser,' and Schmid's Die Gesetze der 
 Angelsachsen, p. 322). This makes it tolerably clear that 
 the above-mentioned confusion existed. At the same time 
 it is certain that the usual Anglo-French verb {Q\ premeditate 
 was purpenser. Cf. the phrase ' felonie purpense ' in Britton, 
 vol. i. p. 15, and the long note in Elyot's Governour, ed. 
 Croft, vol. ii. p. 375.
 
 HONE : HOE. 285 
 
 336. Hone : Hoe (7 S. x. 35 ; 1890). 
 
 It is certainly clear that hone in Tusser {Husbandry, 46, 
 st. 9) is a misprint for hone, i. e. hoe. ' How or Hoe ' is 
 the spelling in Phillips, ed. 1706. It is spelt hough by 
 Ellis (1750), and how by Worlidge (1681) ; see Old Country 
 ll'ords, ed. J. Britten (E. D. S.). The spelling houe is the 
 correct French spelling ; even Cotgrave, s. v. Houe, has, 
 ' opened at the root as a tree with a Houe.' No doubt the 
 spelling houe will turn up elsewhere, to countenance Tusser's 
 spelling. Ray has how (1691). 
 
 337. ' Ictibus Agrestis ' (7 S. x. 48 ; 1890). 
 
 How can I trace this quotation, which I find referred to 
 by Chaucer? In the Miller's Tale (Group A. 1. 338 1\ the 
 Ellesmere MS. has 
 
 ' For som folk wol ben wonnen for richesse, 
 And somme for strokes, and some for gentilesse ' ; 
 
 and the side-note is, ' Unde Ovidius : Ictibus Agrestis.' 
 I fear Chaucer's memory was at fault, as I cannot find it 
 in Ovid. I have also tried Virgil, Statius, and Claudian 
 without success. [The problem remains unsolved.] 
 
 368. The Etymology of Anlas ' (7 S. x. 65 ; 1890). 
 
 The interesting word an/as, a kind of dagger or knife, 
 occurring in Chaucer's Prologue, is fully explained by 
 Dr. Murray in the New English Dictionary. All that is 
 known about the etymology is that it first occurs in the 
 thirteenth century, and is said by Matthew Paris to be 
 a native English word. 
 
 It is, therefore, compounded of two Middle English 
 words ; and these I take to be simply an and facts, i.e. ' on ' 
 and ' lace ' ; and that the knife was so called because hung 
 on a lace, and thus suspended from the neck.
 
 286 MUS TREDEV1LLIA RS. 
 
 There is a precedent for this in the A. S. name for a kind 
 of pouch. It was called a bl-gyrdel, i.e. a 'by-girdle,' 
 because hung at the girdle. Note that in this word the 
 accent was on the prefix. This is clear from the alliterated 
 line in Piers the Plowman, A. ix. 79 ; and Dr. Murray 
 clearly explains that such was the fact. 
 
 With on we have on-set, bn-slaught, with the accent on the 
 prefix. The spelling an for on occurs in M. E. an-lich, 
 alike, and in several compounds noted by Stratmann, 
 s. v. 'an.' 
 
 That laas or las, a lace, was the precise word to use, we 
 know from Chaucer, Pro!. 392 : 
 
 ' A dagger hanging on a laas hadde he.' 
 
 Perhaps we may yet find the variant onlas. 
 
 339. Mustredevilliars (7 S. x. 84; 1890). 
 
 This is given by Halliwell as the name of a kind of mixed 
 grey woollen cloth, which continued in use up to Elizabeth's 
 reign ; also spelt mustard-ivittars. In the Records of 
 Nottingham, iii. 296, is mention of 'ij. yardes and halfe 
 a quarter master devy Her s^ under the date May 17, 1496. 
 At p. 495 of the same, the editor explains that it was made 
 at the town of Montivilliers (Mouster Villers in Froissart, 
 ix. 164) on the Lezarde (Seine Inferieure). See Kervyn de 
 Lettenhove's edition of Froissart, vol. xxv., 'Table Analytique 
 des Noms Ge'ographiques.' It seems that, by a silly popular 
 etymology and by the shameless guesswork for which 
 English editors are so remarkable, it has been often said 
 that the cloth was of a mustard colour ! But it was grey. 
 Moster, mouster, mustre, &c., are the Old French spellings 
 of Lat. monasterium ; see ' moustier ' in Godefroy. Hence 
 the etymology is from master de Villars, ' monastery of 
 Villiers, or Villars.'
 
 ARCHEOLOGY OR ARCHAIOLOGY. 287 
 
 340. Archaeology or Archaiology (7 S. x. 170; 1890). 
 
 I observe that Canon Taylor, on the assumption that we 
 use the Latin, not the Greek, alphabet, has no difficulty in 
 showing that we should write archizology rather than 
 archaiology ; and certainly it is far better. 
 
 But the assumption is not wholly correct. As a fact we 
 do not use the Latin alphabet precisely, but the Anglo- 
 French modification of it ; and if we were only to use our 
 common sense we should adhere to this throughout, instead 
 of occasionally recurring to the Latin type. 
 
 Unfortunately, at the time of the Renaissance the pedants 
 tried to introduce pure Latin spellings, and even wrote 
 (edify for edify; but in a large number of instances the 
 Anglo-French habit has held its own. Still the pedants 
 have succeeded in introducing confusion and doubt, under 
 the impression that they were ' classical.' The whole 
 matter is explained in my Principles of Etymology'. 
 
 It were much to be wished that ' scholarship ' could be 
 taken for granted, instead of being constantly exhibited in 
 Latin and Greek spellings. We do not accuse a man of 
 ignorance of Latin because he writes edify ; and for the 
 same reason it would be well if we could be content with 
 primeval, medieval, pedagogue, orthopedic, and archeology, 
 all with the French e, and not with the Latin tz at all. 
 I have been for many years trying to explain to scholars at 
 Cambridge that medieval is a better (i. e. a more practical) 
 spelling than medi&oal. But no one seems to grasp the 
 argument. They will admit primeval, because it is in 
 dictionaries ; but they will have none of medieval, because 
 it looks ' unclassical.' This is a complete answer to the 
 eminently foolish suggestion, frequently made, that we 
 ought to have an ' academy ' for settling questions such as 
 these. They will never be settled on any principle except 
 popular caprice. In spelling English words it has long ago
 
 288 GIRL PRONOUNCED CURL. 
 
 been agreed, that no rule or habit shall be carried out 
 consistently. There is, in English, nothing ' correct ' unless 
 it be confused, inconsistent, and capricious. 
 
 341. Girl pronounced Gurl. I (7 S. x. 176 ; 1890). 
 
 I beg leave to suggest that spellings convey no true 
 notion of sound to any one, unless they are given according 
 to some phonetic system. I have been wondering, for 
 example, what in the world the above title means. In 
 Southern English we pronounce China, America, &c., in 
 such a way that the final sound is 'the obscure vowel,' 
 represented, in romic notation, by a turned e or (a). 
 The same sound, prolonged and accented, is heard in 
 a large number of words in the neighbourhood of London, 
 in the mouths of people who do not trill the r. I was 
 born in London, and have lived in it, and also at Sydenham, 
 Highgate, Woolwich, &c. ; and I have always heard and 
 used this sound in girl (gssl), burn (baan), churl (ch99l) j 
 heard (hsad), bird (b39d\ &c. 
 
 Mr. Sweet's experience is the same. I should be glad 
 to learn how, and where, any difference is made, even by 
 those who trill the r, between the vowels in girl, and churl, 
 and pearl. But the information will be useless unless 
 conveyed in some phonetic spelling, such as romic, or 
 palaeotype, or the system in the New English Dictionary. 
 
 342. Girl pronounced Gurl. II (7 S. x. 515 ; 1890). 
 
 I recognize the pronunciation to which Dr. C. alludes, now 
 that it is properly explained. Pronunciations can be explained 
 by the ordinary English notation well enough, when test- 
 ivords are added for the purpose. The reason why the 
 ordinary notation is usually a very bad one is, that writers 
 often give a spelling of their own without any hint as to 
 what they mean by it. I should spell the sound of gairl, 
 with at as in air, as (gaeal). And now comes in the
 
 JAMES: JACOB. 289 
 
 trouble. It so happens that whilst Dr. C. was taught to 
 look upon gurl (gasl) as vulgar, wherefore he never uses it, 
 I was taught the exact contrary, so that I never use gairl 
 
 (gtU9i). 
 
 This is what all disputes about pronunciation of English 
 words generally come to. Each man thinks that what he 
 was taught is right ; and there is no real authority. We 
 have to get along the best we can, and if we can pronounce 
 words as they seem to us to be usually pronounced in 
 London, Oxford, and Cambridge, we shall be understood. 
 But we shall not always satisfy all hearers. 
 
 343. James : Jacob (7 S. x. 212 ; 1890). 
 
 Dr. C.'s remarks at the last reference are very helpful. 
 I think we may safely say that the s in James is the Anglo-F. 
 and F. nom. suffix, added to the form fame by analogy 
 with Charles, Jacques, &c. 
 
 Also, that Jame was certainly derived from Lat. ace. 
 Jacobum. The only difficulty is to ascertain the precise 
 historical order of the facts. 
 
 Surely the Mid. Eng. Jame (also James} must be closely 
 connected with the Span. Jaime, in which the initial J 
 (though at present sounded like the G. cK] was originally 
 sounded like the Mod. and Mid. E.J in James. 
 
 I do not remember any early reference to James in Mid. 
 Eng. in which the reference is to any other than the 
 St. James whose shrine was at Compostella. English 
 people (including the Wife of Bath) became familiar with 
 the name by actually resorting to that place. This 
 historical fact seems to me to be of great importance. 
 
 I have given several references in my notes to P. Plow- 
 man, B. prol. 47. 
 
 344. Wayzgoose (7 S. x. 233 ; 1890). 
 Nothing can be sillier than the derivation of this word 
 from German. Surely goose is not a German, but an 
 
 u
 
 290 GRANGE. 
 
 English word, as a moment's reflexion will show. The 
 guess is plainly due to the notion, which I have so often 
 denounced, viz., that all native English words are falsely 
 imagined to be of 'German' origin. I would rather 
 suppose that ways is a phonetic spelling of wase, in the 
 sense of 'stubble'; so that wayzgoose is simply 'stubble- 
 goose.' This is the explanation which I have repeatedly 
 offered to correspondents ; and oh ! the number of times 
 I have been asked ! Wase is used provincially to mean 
 a ( straw-pad ' ; see Halliwell. Cf. Icel. vast Swed. vase, 
 a sheaf; Mid. Du. wase, a torch (i. e. twist of straw), as 
 in the M. E. Tale of Beryn, 2351. 
 
 345. Grange (7 S. x. 253 ; 1890). 
 
 It is clear, I think, that the assertion that granges neces- 
 sarily belonged to religious houses must have been derived 
 from two passages in Chaucer (ed. Tyrwhitt, 11. 3668, 
 12996), i.e. Cant. Tales, A. 3668, B. 1256, which seem to 
 favour that supposition. But, of course, as the word simply 
 meant ( a place for grain,' or ' barn,' there was no reason 
 for its use in a restricted sense, and it is constantly used 
 in the general one. It occurs again in P. Plowman, 
 C. xx. 71, where I explain it duly in the note. Dr. N. did 
 not find it in the Promptorium because he did not look for 
 it under the usual M. E. spellings, viz. graunge, or grawnge, 
 or grange. Oddly enough it occurs twice there, viz., under 
 ' Grawnge,' and under ' Gronge ' ; and Mr. Way gives a note 
 on it, which has been quoted. It also occurs, under 
 ' Grawnge,' in the Catholicon Anglicum, and here again 
 the editor has a note on it. He quotes the note on the 
 passage in the ' Miller's Tale ' in Bell's Chaucer ; and this 
 is where we come to the information about grange being 
 'applied to outlying farms belonging to the abbeys.' No 
 doubt it was, but not exclusively, nor does Mr. Jephson 
 say so. The earliest quotation I have yet found for it is in
 
 ' WRITE YOU.' 291 
 
 the romance of Have/ok, 1. 764, about A. D. 1290. The 
 original Latin form is granea. The forms grangia, &c. are 
 mere Latin travesties of the French form. 
 
 Why the whole of the discussion might not have been 
 saved by simply looking out the word in my Dictionary, 
 where I give the etymology, the sense, and two early 
 references, I am at a loss to understand. But the dic- 
 tionary-maker must expect, on the one hand, to be snubbed 
 when he makes a mistake, and, on the other, to be neglected 
 when he is right. 
 
 346. 'Write you* (7 S. x. 273; 1890). 
 
 Of course ' I will write you ' is an old formula. Even 
 now we should hesitate to insert to in such a phrase as 
 ' I gave to you the book ' ; the you alone is sufficient. 
 
 You is dative as well as accusative. The use of to before 
 you to indicate the former was once needless. It is amazing 
 that such elementary facts remain unknown. No one 
 would like to confess ignorance of the forms of Latin pro- 
 nouns ; but when the language to be learnt is merely 
 English, ignorance at once becomes pardonable. But 
 why? 
 
 347. German and English Head-letters (i. e. the use 
 of Capitals in English and German (7 S. x. 311 ; 
 
 1890). 
 
 This is an extremely difficult and complex problem. 
 I think it clear that there is no proved connexion between 
 English and German habits in this matter ; or, at any rate, 
 they should be considered independently. 
 
 As to the use of capitals in English, I do not see that 
 the date 1680 has anything to do with it. Any one who 
 wants to see a good deal of testimony in a small space may 
 turn to my ' uncooked ' editions of printed passages, as 
 given in my Specimens of English Literature, part III ; 
 
 u 2
 
 OUBIT. 
 
 from 1394 to 1579. Already, in 1552, John Skott's print 
 of Sir David Lyndesay's Monarch} abounds with capitals, 
 especially for substantives ; and there are several in 
 Ascham's Scholemaster, ed. 1570. 
 
 I suppose the practice arose in the case of certain letters. 
 Many MSS. use capitals for initial a, c, and r, for no 
 apparent reason. Thus the Tale of Melusine, or Romance 
 of Partenay, edited by me in 1866, abounds with A for a (in 
 such a word as And), C for c, and other curiosities. Chaucer 
 MSS. abound with examples of capitals for such words 
 as I-wis and lay (a jay). I open the Tale of Gamelyn at 
 a hazard, and find in line 283 in MS. Harl. 7334 the 
 
 line 
 
 ' Thus wan Gamelyn the Ram and the Ryng.' 
 
 The whole subject is far more complex, and runs back 
 to a much remoter antiquity, than your correspondents 
 seem to suppose. 
 
 348. Oubit (7 S. x. 324; 1890). 
 
 Most people are familiar with this word in connexion 
 with Kingsley's poem ; but the etymology has never been 
 given. Other spellings (see Jamieson) are vowbet (for 
 woubef), woubit, wobat, and it is generally explained as 
 'a hairy caterpillar.' Very likely the M. E. warbot (Prompt. 
 JParv.) and the prov. E. warble, are mere variants. Jamieson 
 feebly suggests A. S. wibba, a worm, as the origin, which 
 will not satisfy any student of phonetics. The real origin 
 is suggested by the older spelling welbode, which occurs in 
 two glosses, ' hie multipes, a welbodej and ' hec concipita, 
 idem est' (Wright-Wiilker, Vocab., 706, 15). Compare 
 ' hie multipes, a tuenti-fot wurme' (id., 766, 28). It is easy 
 to see that here, as in a thousand other cases, e is mis- 
 written for <?, and the right form is wolbode. This is 
 curiously illustrated from an unprinted MS. of the Ortus 
 Vocabulorum, which has (at p. 28) the entry, 'Multipes,
 
 ETYMOLOGY OF HIBISCUS. 293 
 
 a wolbede,' in which the second o, not the first, has gone 
 wrong. 
 
 The component parts of the word are clear enough. 
 Wol- represents A. S. wul, Mod. E. wool; and bode repre- 
 sents an A. S. form buda or boda, closely related to A. S. 
 budda, a scarabaeus or beetle (see Wright-Wulker, Vocab., 
 543, 10). I take the E. words bowd, a weevil, and bot, 
 a worm or maggot, to be closely allied. Thus the sense 
 is ' woolly worm,' i. e. hair) 7 caterpillar. Of course wool 
 becomes W in Scotch. 
 
 349. Etymology of Hibiscus (7 S. x. 350 ; 1890). 
 
 I do not suppose it is possible to discover the etymology 
 of this word, which seems to have no root in Greek. 
 Liddell and Scott give an unsatisfactory account. Under 
 e/Sio-icos they say it is the same as iy8to-cos, with a smooth 
 breathing, and that it is feminine. But no such word 
 appears; only i/3io-Kos is given, with a rough breathing, 
 and it is masculine. Of course there is not a tittle of 
 evidence or probability for connecting it with the Egyptian 
 ilu's. And I should like to remark in passing that nowhere 
 can more ignorant etymologies be found than in works 
 on botany and ' scientific ' subjects. Too often, all the 
 science is reserved for the subject, so that there is none to 
 spare for explaining the names. 
 
 350. Banshee (7 S. x. 370; 1890). 
 
 I suppose that Melusine was a kind of banshee ; at any 
 rate, she ' behaved as such.' See my edition of the Romance 
 of Partenay, and the chapter on ' Melusine ' in Baring- 
 Gould's Curious Myths of the Middle Ages. The Irish 
 spelling bean-sighe represents a form in which the gh corre- 
 sponds to an Old Irish d, as the Old Irish form for sighe is 
 side (Windisch).
 
 294 THE UTAS OF EASTER. 
 
 351. The Utas of Easter (7 S. x. 373; 1890). 
 
 The amusing derivation of iitas from the Latin ut (which 
 forms a part of the word gamut] is a fine specimen of 
 ' partial ' etymology \ I define ' partial ' etymology as that 
 which only takes account of a part of a word, as if one were 
 to derive yelloiv from the verb to yell, without any attempt 
 to account for the -ow. But, of course, we must account 
 for the -as just as much as the ut-. May I repeat that utas 
 is merely a variant form of the very word octaves itself, 
 as explained in my Dictionary ? 
 
 I have given further references at p. 832 of the second 
 edition of my larger Dictionary. The Lat. ace. octavas 
 is spelt utaves in Anglo-French, in the Year-books of 
 Edward I, ii. 407 ; and utavs in the same, i. 75. Utas 
 resulted from the loss of v in the awkward form utavs. 
 
 352. Curiosities of Derivation : Inkpen (7 S. x. 374 ; 
 
 1890). 
 
 The notion of deriving Inkpen* from ing, meadow, and 
 the Celtic pen, inverts the order of combination. Surely 
 every one should know that when English and Celtic are 
 combined, the Celtic portion of the word comes first, not 
 second. It is an easy guess that Inkpen is from ing and 
 pen, and, fortunately, it is capable of proof; for the spelling 
 Inge-penne occurs in Kemble's Codex Diplomatics, which 
 is the first book to be consulted, and is, therefore, seldom 
 consulted at all. Perhaps it may now dawn upon some 
 
 1 fit was actually put thus: 'The octave had the same name as 
 the key-note ut. Hence (!) the Utas of Easter are the octaves of 
 Easter.'] 
 
 2 [Inkpen is in Berkshire. In N. and Q. x. 106, a comic sentence 
 was quoted from Cobbett's Rural Rides, 1853, p. 36 : ' At a village, 
 certainly named by some author (!), called Inkpen.' But let us hope 
 that Cobbett was in jest. This was followed up by a serious attempt 
 to derive Inkpen from Saxon and Celtic.]
 
 ' TO ' AS A SIGN OF THE INFINITIVE. 295 
 
 minds that pen is an English word altogether, and that 
 ingpen is merely a pen (for sheep, &c.) in a meadow. 
 
 353. ' To ' as a sign of the Infinitive (7 S. x. 425 ; 1890). 
 This is well treated in Matzner's Grammar; but I do 
 not find any clear example there of the earliest use of to 
 with the simple infinitive, as distinguished from the gerun- 
 dial. I doubt if it can be found before 1066. I here 
 make a note of its occurrence in the latest copy of the 
 A. S. Gospels, after 1150. We there find, in Matt, xi., the 
 gerundial infinitive to cumene in v. 3 ; the simple infinitive 
 geseon in vv. 7, 8 ; but in v. 9 we actually have to geseon, 
 though all the earlier copies omit the to. 
 
 354. For to ' (7 S. x. 472 ; 1890). 
 For to, usually expressive of 'purpose,' occurs centuries 
 before Chaucer, as, e. g., in Layamon's Brut. Matzner's 
 English Grammar, as translated by Grece, vol. iii. pp. 
 53-57, gives four pages of explanation and examples. 
 It occurs even in late Anglo-Saxon, as e. g. in the A. S. 
 Chronicle, anno 1127, but was probably suggested by the use 
 of por (pour) with the infinitive in Anglo-French, so that 
 this usage is due to the Norman Conquest. The A. S. 
 infinitive was simple, without to ; the prefixing of to made 
 it gerundial ; as in Matthew xi. 3, xiii. 3. 
 
 355. Bimer : the name of a tool (7 S. x. 456 ; 1890). 
 
 The meaning and etymology of this word are duly given 
 in my Principles of Eng. Etymology, first series, sect. 197, 
 p. 209. It merely means ' roomer,' or ' enlarger,' being 
 regularly derived, by vowel-change, from A. S. rum, room ; 
 just as mice is the plural of mouse, A. S. mus. The pronun- 
 ciations reamer and rimmer are interesting and regular. 
 The former is the archaic pronunciation of the Middle 
 English period, the latter is the regular shortening of the 
 old long / (pronounced ee] caused by accentual stress.
 
 296 'NINE TED' OR 'NIGHNTED' BOYS. 
 
 356. 'Nineted' or ' Nighnted ' Boys (7 S. xi. 37; 1891). 
 
 Merely bad spellings of 'ninted, a provincial pronunciation 
 of anointed. It has been discussed long ago ; see N. and Q.. 
 3rd S. viii. 452, 547 ; ix. 359, 422. Halliwell gives : 
 
 'Anointed, chief, roguish ; " an anointed scamp ; West. 1 " 
 
 The spelling with ghn is not justifiable in English. 
 Those who can believe that ''ninted is short for ' nigh-unto'd ' 
 must be strangely credulous. [See above, p. 4.] 
 
 357. Kilter. I (7 S. xi. 38; 1891). 
 
 [In answer to the question as to the meaning of kilter, 
 as used by Howells, in his novel The Shadow of a Dream 
 (p. 17, and a little further on). 'He was rather expecting 
 the doctor himself in the afternoon ; he had been out of 
 kilter for two or three years, but he was getting all right 
 now.' Again ' I left him to infer that everybody was out 
 of kilter f\ 
 
 Kilter or kelter was an ' Anglicism ' long before it was an 
 'Americanism.' Skinner, in 1671, has 'kelter; he is not 
 yet in kelter, nondum est paratus.' It is also given in my 
 reprint of Ray's Collection of 1691. The k before / points 
 to a Scandinavian origin. Cf. Dan. kilte, to truss, tuck up. 
 whence E. kilt. Rietz gives Swed. dial, kilter-band, a band 
 for holding up tucked-up clothes ; kiltra sig, to gird up, 
 tuck up and fasten. The metaphor is obvious enough. 
 
 358. Kilter. II (7 S. xi. 96; 1891). 
 
 At the last reference (xi. 38) we are correctly told that in 
 Johnson's Dictionary this word is derived from ' Dan. kelter, 
 to gird.' I merely wish to warn all who care for facts not 
 to trust Johnson's Dictionary for etymologies. The Danish 
 verb is not kelter, but kilte. 
 
 The final r in kelter, as here quoted, really means that 
 Johnson gives Danish verbs under the form of the present
 
 LEEZING OR LEESING = GLEANING. 297 
 
 singular indicative, first person. Thus Dan. kilter (not 
 kelter, after all), means ' I gird.' This peculiarity pervades 
 Johnson's Dictionary; he probably never realized the 
 difference between this part of the verb and the infinitive 
 mood. 
 
 It is a curious fact that our Latin-Dictionary writers are 
 just as bad. They tell us that amo means 'to love.' Does 
 it, indeed ? Then what is Latin for ' I love ' ? 
 
 359. Leezing or Leesing= Gleaning (7 S. xi. 156; 1891). 
 
 The usual spelling is leasing, and it is duly explained in 
 Miss Jackson's Shropshire Word-Book. Why the pro- 
 pounder of the query, whilst deprecating the scorn of 
 etymologists (which means, I suppose, that he is ignorant 
 of the etymology), should nevertheless feel himself con- 
 strained to give a fatuous guess, is one of those things that 
 I never could understand. Guessing is not so meritorious 
 or glorious after all, though it has long been adored as if it 
 were. Lease is simply the A. S. lesan, to glean, which became 
 lease in Tudor English, because the A. S. short e passed 
 into the open e (denoted by ea\ in an open syllable. Cf. 
 brecan, to break. 
 
 360. Mattins (7 S. xi. 196 ; 1891). 
 
 This spelling is nothing new ; it has been discussed over 
 and over again (see e. g. A r . and Q., 3 S. x.). To call the 
 spelling 'trying' is to judge by the eye, whereas spelling 
 should be judged by the ear. Matins is the usual spelling, 
 certainly ; only the word was once matines, with short a and 
 long accented / (ee). When the accent was thrown back, it 
 would have been just as well to double the /, as in matter, 
 from M. E. matere. But it was stupidly left unmended. 
 This is just why our spelling is all in confusion. There is 
 never anything right in spelling, except when (as is often 
 the case) it has the luck to be phonetic.
 
 298 THE SURNAME EGERTON. 
 
 361. The Surname Egerton (7 S. xi. 233 ; 1891). 
 
 The derivation of this name from Lat. agger (!) suggested at 
 the last reference, is wholly out of the question. There is 
 no mystery about it. Eger- is merely a worn-down form of 
 A. S. Ecgheard (lit., edge-hard, i. e. with keen sword), 
 a name which appears in the Liber Vitae and in the A. S. 
 charters. An intermediate form is Ecgerd, appearing in 
 Ecgerdeshel, which Kemble identifies with Eggershall, Hants. 
 Ecgeard regularly became Edgerd or Egerd, whence Eger, 
 by the loss of final d before the / in -ton. 
 
 362. Swastika: Fylfot (7 S. xi. 278; 1891). 
 
 Before this subject is dropped I should like to ask for 
 a reference for the word fylfot in any old book. I really 
 cannot find it, except in books of quite modern date. No 
 one has thrown the faintest light as yet on the history and 
 chronology of the first appearance of this word in English. 
 Even a quotation as old as 1800 would be better than 
 nothing. Where in any reasonable book, not written by an 
 ' etymologist,' can I find it spelt fugelfot, or felafote, or 
 fuelfot, or, in fact, in any form at all ? I have no belief in 
 these spellings, except as representing guesses. 
 
 Svastika is duly explained in Benfey's Sanskrit Dictionary^ 
 with a reference to the ' Malatimadhava,' ed. Calc, 73, 15. 
 
 [No one was able to give an old quotation for fylfot '.] 
 
 363. Anglo-Saxon Personal Names: the 'Liber Vitee' 
 (7 S. xi. 376; 1891). 
 
 I am glad to see that Canon Taylor calls attention to the 
 Liber Vitae, and to the shortcomings of Stevenson's 
 edition. But I do not know that a photographic repro- 
 duction of the MS. is a necessity. There is an edition of 
 it by Dr. Sweet, published only six years ago, which may 
 fairly serve the purpose for a while. The name of the book
 
 ' OUT AND OUT.' 
 
 is The Oldest English Texts, and it was published for the 
 Early English Text Society in 1885. The Liber Vitae 
 occupies pp. 153-166. 
 
 The names are all indexed, I believe ; but the way of 
 working the index is peculiar. Thus, I want, let us say, the 
 name ' Eatthegn.' I look out ' Eat ' in the index, and get 
 a reference to p. 615; but the word is not under ' Eata.' 
 Then I look out 'thegn/ and get a reference to p. 524, and 
 there I find 'Eadthegn,' with its variants. Now that 
 I know that ' Eadthegn ' is a more correct spelling, I can 
 look out 'Ead' in the index, and get a reference to p. 615 
 again. There, at last, I find it, under ' Ead.' The system 
 is peculiar, but it will serve when you have learnt the 
 trick of it. [The diphthong in ead is long.] 
 
 364. ' Out and Out ' (7 S. xii. 5, 95 ; 1891). 
 
 It might be supposed that this is a modern phrase ; but 
 it is at least as old as the fifteenth century. ' Telle us now 
 thi qwestyon alle out and oute ' (i. e. entirely, fully) occurs 
 in the Coventry Mysteries, ed. Halliwell, p. 205. 
 
 Further, Richardson quotes it from Chaucer, but gives 
 an inexact reference. It occurs in Troilus, bk. ii. 1. 739. 
 
 Before that, it occurs in the Lives of the Saints, formerly 
 attributed to Robert of Gloucester. This I gather from the 
 new edition of Kington Oliphant's Old and Middle-English, 
 a book never to be neglected. [This Lives of the Saints is 
 the same as the Southern English Legendary, edited by 
 Dr. Horstmann for the Early English Text Society. But 
 the reference for out and out was unluckily omitted by 
 Mr. Oliphant, and I cannot find the phrase there.] 
 
 365. Sindbad's Voyages (7 S. xii. 30; 1891). 
 
 Surely students of Old English know the mention of the 
 whale in St. Brandan. In Wright's edition of St. Brandon,
 
 300 SIN DEAD'S VOYAGES. 
 
 published for the Camden Society in 1844 (forty-seven 
 years ago\ the editor says, in the very first page : 
 
 ' There are several remarkable points of similarity between 
 St. Brandan and the Sindbad of the Arabian Nights, and at least 
 one incident in the two narratives is identical that of the disaster 
 on the back of the great fish.' 
 
 I have my doubts about the story being brought from 
 the East 'by Crusaders and palmers,' as Mr. Clouston 
 suggests. 
 
 I suggest that it was ' brought from the East ' before either 
 Crusaders or palmers were invented ; for it is a certain fact 
 that the same story is familiar to students of our oldest 
 English, from its occurrence in the Anglo-Saxon poem of 
 ' The Whale,' printed at p. 360 of Thorpe's edition of the 
 Codex Exoniensis, or Exeter Book. Thorpe's translation is 
 so extremely bald that perhaps some of your readers may 
 thank me for a less literal, yet sufficiently exact translation 
 of a few lines of it. Speaking of the whale, the poet 
 says : 
 
 ' Its appearance is like that of a rough rock ; [it seems] as if it 
 extended [lit. wandered] beside the shore of the channel, like the 
 greatest of reedy islands surrounded by sand-dunes. Whence it 
 happens that seafarers imagine that they are gazing with their eyes 
 on some island, and so they fasten their high-stemmed ships with 
 anchor-ropes to this false land ; they make fast their sea-horses as if 
 they were at the sea's brink, and up they climb on the island, bold of 
 heart ; the vessels stand, fast by the shore, surrounded by the stream. 
 And then the voyagers, weary in mind, and without a thought of 
 danger, encamp on the isle. They produce a flame, they kindle 
 a vast fire. Full of joy are the heroes, late so sad of spirit ; they 
 are longing for repose. But when the creature, long skilled in guile, 
 feels that the sailors are securely resting upon him, and are keeping 
 their abode there, in enjoyment of the weather, suddenly into the 
 salt wave, together with his prey, down dives the ocean-dweller and 
 seeks the abyss ; and thus, by drowning them, imprisons the ships, 
 with all their men, in the hall of death.' 
 
 Nor is this the only reference earlier than St. Brandan. 
 The story occurs in the Old English Bestiary, printed in
 
 ' TROW, A BARGE.' 301 
 
 An Old English Miscellany, ed. Morris (E. E. T. S.), p. 1 7, 
 and this poem can hardly be later than 1250. We know, 
 too, the source of it, since it is translated from the Latin 
 Physiologus, by Thetbaldus. Compare, too, the ' Livres des 
 Creatures,' by Philip de Thaun, as printed in Wright's 
 Popular Treatises on Science, pp. xiii, 108. 
 
 It is clear that the stories of the whale, the panther, the 
 sirens, &c., found their way into English at an early period 
 from Latin bestiaries, and the latter contain some embellish- 
 ments of Eastern origin. This is the true history of the 
 matter. 
 
 366. Words in Worcestershire Wills : ' Trow, 
 
 a barge.' I (7 S. xii. 35 ; 1891). 
 
 The derivation of the name Trowman from trow, a 
 Severn barge, is clear enough. But at the last reference 
 (xi. 474) we are told that ' tro^t' is simply the O. E. treo,' 
 a tree. This is not at all ' simple,' but decidedly difficult. 
 The O. E. word was not treo, but treo, and the O. E. eo usually 
 (simply) becomes Mod. E. ee\ so that the result would 
 be tree, as it is. It is true that the O. E. dat. case treowe 
 produced an occasional by-form trou in the Kentish dialect ; 
 but it would be better to suppose that trow represents the 
 Mod. E. trough, which frequently appears as trow in Mid. 
 Eng. ; from O. E. trog. 
 
 367. Words in Worcestershire Wills : ' Trow, 
 
 a barge.' II (7 S. xii. 177 ; 1891). 
 
 I now find more evidence about the word trow. Before, 
 I only suggested that trow represents the A. S. trog (some- 
 times spelt troh\ a trough ; but now I am sure of it. My 
 new witness is our beloved king Alfred. 
 
 In his translation of Orosius, bk. ii. c. 5, we are told 
 how Xerxes was fain to flee homewards in a fisher's boat. 
 ' He eft wass biddende anes lytles troges set anum earmum
 
 302 MUTE. 
 
 men ' ; he was begging from a poor man the use of a little 
 trow. 
 
 It turns out that the word trog, a trough, was also com- 
 monly used (as I expected) in the sense of a small boat. 
 The glossaries published by Wiilker give several examples ; 
 e. g., in a list of boats, at col. 166, we find: ' Littoraria, 
 troh-scipj lit. trough-ship. Littoraria means a small boat 
 that hugs the shore. And again, in another list of boats, 
 at col. 289: 'Littoraria, troch-stip? 
 
 I conclude that it is better to work by phonetic laws than 
 to guess. 
 
 368. Mute (7 S. xii. 46; 1891). 
 
 I find that the account of the word mute in my Dictionary 
 is incorrect. It is not of French origin, but borrowed 
 immediately from Latin. The M. E. muet is not the same 
 word, but is borrowed from the O. F. muet, which represents 
 a diminutive form mutettus, and not the primary form 
 nnitus. Mute is common in Shakespeare, but I presume 
 that it was not in use at a much earlier date. 
 
 369. Drawing, Hanging, and Quartering 
 
 (7 S. xii. 131 ; 1891). 
 
 Surely it is too late in the day to pretend that there is 
 any ambiguity about the meaning of 'drawing' in the 
 above phrase. Any one who has really read our Middle 
 English writers with decent attention must know perfectly 
 well that drawing preceded hanging. It ought not to be 
 difficult to produce a vast number of quotations to prove 
 this, but I do not mean to be at the trouble of looking 
 for them. I will merely adduce the first instance that 
 
 turns up : 
 
 ' Edrik was hanged on the toure, for his trespas. 
 Than said the quene, that Edrik the giloure 
 Had not fully dome, that fell to traytoure. 
 Traytours with runcies [horses] suld men first drawe,' &c. 
 Rob. of Bmnne, tr. of Langtoft, ed. Hearne, p. 50.
 
 RAKE, A TRACK. 303 
 
 370. Rake, a track (7 S. xii. 135 ; 1891). 
 
 Rake, in Gawain and the Grene Knight, 1. 2144, clearly 
 means horse-track, or road : 
 
 ' Ryde me doun this ilk rake, bi yon rokke-S3 T de.' 
 
 In 1886 I published, for the Early English Text Society, 
 the Wars of Alexander. The large glossary to that work 
 is very helpful for Northern words. In 1. 3383, the path 
 of righteousness is called ' the rake of rightwysnes ' ; and, 
 in 1. 5070, a man is advised, of two roads, to choose 'the 
 rake on the right hand.' Cf. Swed. rak, straight ; raka, to 
 run. 
 
 371. ' The Crow, with Voice of Care '(78. xii. 145 ; 
 1891). 
 
 In Chaucer's Par/, of Foules, 1. 363, we have the fine 
 expression: 'The crow with vois of care.' It is curious 
 that this phrase is really due to a mistranslation. 
 
 The original line is in Vergil, Georg. i. 388 : 
 
 ' Turn cornix plena pluuiam uocat improba uoce.' 1 
 
 The same mistake recurs in Batman's translation of 
 Bartholome, lib. xii. c. 9. Batman quotes the above line, 
 and adds : 
 
 'That is to understande, Now the Crowe calleth rayne 
 with an eleinge [sad] voyce* 
 
 372. Flaskisable (7 S. xii. 146; 1891). 
 
 This curious word is given neither in Stratmann nor in 
 Halliwell. It occurs at least twice in Lydgate's Siege of 
 Troye. Speaking of the inconstancy of women, he says 
 that they afford the true ' patron,' i. e. pattern, 
 
 ' Of inconstaunce. whose flaskysable kynde 
 Is to and fro meuynge as a wynde.' 
 
 Book I. ch. v. ed. 1555, fol. C 6, back.
 
 304 KILT. 
 
 Again, in speaking of the common herd of men, he 
 says : 
 
 'The comon people chaungeth as a phane [vane]. 
 To-day they wexe, to-morrow do they wane 
 As doth the mone, they be so flaskesable.' 
 
 Book I. ch. vi. ed. 1555, fol. E 3. 
 
 It is clear that the sense is 'variable, changeable or 
 inconstant.' 
 
 As to the etymology, I suppose it to be a mere variant of 
 O. F. flechisable, the O. F. equivalent of our flexible, from 
 flechir, to bend. Flechisable is sometimes spelt flacisable, 
 and flechir is also fleschir, and even flanchir. Moreover, 
 flechisable occurs in the very sense of 'variable,' and is 
 applied, as in Lydgate, to the nature of women (see 
 examples in Godefroy). Perhaps Lydgate confused it with 
 O. F. flasquir or flachir, which means to soften or render 
 flaccid, from flaccidus. 
 
 373. Kilt (7 S. xii. 156; 1891). 
 
 With regard to the quotation cited at this reference, 
 showing that kelt, sb., was in use in 1786', and the request 
 for an earlier instance, I can give one that is earlier by 
 more than two centuries. In Douglas's translation of Vergil 
 we are told that the goddess Venus wore 'hir skirt kiltit 
 till hir bair kne.' Cf. Nuda genu, Aen. i. 320. Probably 
 she set the fashion. [See Kilter, p. 296.] 
 
 374. Ceriously, or Seriously (78. xii. 183; 1891). 
 
 Ceriously occurs in Chaucer's Man of Lawes Tale, 1. 185, 
 and is merely another spelling of seriously ; but is used 
 in the peculiar sense of Lat. seriatim, in due order, 
 in detail, minutely. In my note on the passage I give 
 a quotation for it from Fabyan's Chronicle. The New 
 
 1 'A volunteer of the 73rd Regiment lost his kelt in the attack.' 
 Capt. Drinkwater, History of the Siege of Gibraltar, 1786 (fourth ed.), 
 
 p. 202.
 
 CERIOUSLY OR SERIOUSLY. 305 
 
 English Dictionary, quite rightly, s. v. ' Ceryows,' refers us 
 to ' Serious.' Meanwhile, some further illustrations of this 
 word will be acceptable to many readers of Chaucer. 
 In Skelton's Garland of Laurell, \. 581, we have: 
 
 ' And seryously she shewyd me ther denomynacyons.' 
 
 Dyce's note (vol. ii. p. 452) has: 
 
 'I.e. seriatim. So in a letter from Tuke to Wolsey : "Thus 
 preceding to the letters, to shevve your Grace summarily; for rehers- 
 ing every thing seriously, I shal over long moleste your Grace." ' 
 (State Papers, 1830, i. 299.) 
 
 But the most interesting point is that Lydgate caught up 
 this word from his master, and in his Siege of Troye has 
 used it over and over again. I give only a few examples : 
 
 ' And whan the kyng had herd ceriously 
 Thentent of Jason sayd so manfully.' 
 
 Book I. ch. v, ed. 1555, fol. C 4, back. 
 ' As in this boke ye may hereafter rede 
 Ceryously, if that ye list take hede.' 
 
 Book II. ch. x, fol. F 2, back. 
 
 ' How seryously Guido doth expresse.' 
 
 Book II. ch. xv, fol. K i. 
 
 (The context is too long to quote.) 
 
 ' I must the trouthe leue 
 Of Troye booke, and my mater breue, 
 And ower passe, and not go by and by, 
 As doth Guydo in ordre, ceryously.' 
 
 Book II. ch. xv, fol. K 2. 
 
 1 And fyrste in Messa he telleth of the fyght, 
 Whan they entred, and of their welcomyng, 
 And ceryously he tolde eke of the kynge.' 
 
 Book II. ch. xx, fol. M 5. 
 
 ' And she him tolde the aunswere of the kynge, 
 Ceryously, gynnynge, and endinge.' 
 
 Book IV. ch. xxx, fol. T 3, back. 
 
 Other references are book IV. ch. xxx, fol. T 5, col. 2 ; 
 id., fol. U 4, col. i ; book IV. ch. xxxii, fol. X 3, 1. i ; 
 id., fol. X 3, back, col. 2, &c. 
 x
 
 306 OLD. 
 
 We thus have the clearest proof of the sense attached by 
 Lydgate to Chaucer's word ; and Lydgate is the best 
 commentator we have upon Chaucer's language. 
 
 In Shakespeare, seriously has its usual sense; but in 
 Chaucer its equivalent ceriously has a sense which has long 
 been obsolete. 
 
 375. Old (7 S. xii. 186 ; 1891). 
 
 Those who are interested in Shakespeare's familiar use 
 of this word in such phrases as ''old swearing,' ' old coil,' 
 and the like, may be pleased to see a fifteenth-century 
 example of the same : 
 
 ' With sharpe swyrdys faght they then. 
 They had be two full doghty men, 
 
 Code old fyghtyng was there.' 
 ' Le Bone Florence,' 1. 679, in Ritson's Metrical Romances, iii. 29. 
 
 376. Styed= Advanced (7 S. xii. 231 ; 1891). 
 
 Certainly ' advanced ' is a very misleading explanation 
 of styed. Styed simply means 'climbed,' and hence 
 'ascended,' as in the illustration given. Sty, a ladder, 
 something to climb by, is one of its derivatives, as has 
 been explained over and over again. Stirrup, 'a rope 
 to climb by,' is another derivative. 
 
 It is inconceivable to me how any one can confuse this 
 with 'stricken in years,' as it has nothing whatever to do 
 with it. However, both words begin with st, and that 
 seems to be enough to send people all astray. 
 
 The Swedish word alderstigen (the first letter is not a, as 
 printed) means ' advanced in years,' and may, if you please, 
 be translated by -'styed in years'; but it is misleading, 
 because, though the Swedish verb stiga came to be used in 
 this way, there is nothing (that I can find to show that 
 the English sty was ever so used. Any one who thinks 
 otherwise can convince me by producing a quotation.
 
 S TYED = ADVA NCED. 307 
 
 But what has styed to do with stricken ? By what process 
 can human ingenuity torture one word into the other? 
 
 It is true that the A. S. stigan (not stigan, for the /" was 
 long) was a strong verb, and should rather have produced 
 the pp. styen, and might conceivably do so in dialects. 
 
 And we may admit that the A. S. pp. form was stigen. 
 
 Then, I suppose, the (imaginary) steps are these : stigen 
 became stiken, on the principle that water runs uphill ; and 
 stiken became striken, and striken came to be written 
 stricken. 
 
 If your correspondent can produce a quotation for ' stiken 
 in years' or ' sticken in years,' I do not care which, I am 
 convinced at once. No one ever saw it yet. 
 
 It is clear that your correspondent knows nothing about 
 the A. S. g. He probably thinks that silgan was pro- 
 nounced with a g like that in go. So it was, just at first, 
 but it soon passed into the sound of y, and practically 
 disappeared. This is why there is no g in sty, to climb ; 
 nor in sty, a ladder ; nor in pig-sty ; nor in stirrup. 
 
 All this is familiar to any student of English philology, 
 and it is all in my book on English Etymology, vol. i. 
 
 Perhaps the insinuation is that we borrowed the term 
 bodily from Scandinavian. But that will not do either, 
 because we should then have borrowed the whole word, 
 and if it had been borrowed at all early, the g in stigen, 
 being between two vowels, would have passed into y and 
 disappeared, like all others in the same condition throughout 
 the language. It certainly could never have become a k, 
 because the tendency is exactly the other way, viz., from 
 k to g; as in flagon for the older flacon. 
 
 And all this impossible theory is put forward to account 
 for stricken, which (it is calmly assumed) cannot (why not ?) 
 be derived from A. S. strican, to advance ! 
 
 And the argument is, that strican did not exist in A. S., 
 because none of the other Teutonic tongues has this verb ! 
 
 x 2
 
 308 WELSH, 'NAUSEOUS.' 
 
 At this rate we are obliged to ask leave of all other nations 
 before we may have a verb of our own a thing which no 
 other nation would dream of doing. I protest strongly 
 against this extraordinary method of limiting English, which 
 is one of the most original of all Teutonic tongues, and 
 abounds with archaisms unknown to them. And the last 
 argument is 'z/the quoted strican goes so far back.' 
 
 Well, the phrase, 'striceth ymbutan,' i.e. goes about, 
 occurs in Rawlinson's edition of Alfred's Boethius, p. 177. 
 What other 'Teutonic tongue' can show a quotation for 
 it as old as Alfred's time ? So that is soon settled. 
 
 However, it is common also in Old German. Schade's 
 Dictionary explains how the O. H. G. strihhan not only 
 meant to 'stroke' and to 'strike,' but also, intransitively, 
 to ' hasten,' to 'go about,' &c. ('sich rasch bewegen, ziehen, 
 wandern, streifen, herumstreifen, eilen '). 
 
 As for the Mid. Eng. use, see Stratmann ; I really 
 cannot quote about the ' streem that striketh (flows) stille ' 
 all over again. The pp. is striken. It never has any other 
 form, but its senses vary wonderfully. A similar phrase 
 is ' he strek into a studie,' he fell into a revery ; William of 
 Paler ne, 4038. 
 
 I am sorry this is so long ; but it takes up much room to 
 unravel a tangle of this description. 
 
 377. Welsh, adj. ' nauseous ' (7 S. xii. 236 ; 1891). 
 
 Welsh means nauseous, insipid, mawkish; it implies 
 something that turns the stomach. It is another form 
 (but with mutation of a to e, as in Welsh from Wales) of 
 wallowish. Halliwell has ' Wallow, flat, insipid ' ; also 
 ' Walloivish, nauseous. Hereford.' In the Promptorium 
 Parvulorutn, p. 515, we have ' walhu>e-sivete, or walow- 
 swete] i. e. so sweet as to make one bilious. It is allied 
 to the Eng. walk and ivallou*, and to Lat. uoluere, all with 
 the notion of rolling about.
 
 WHITS UN DAY. 309 
 
 Still more closely allied are the Low German walgig and 
 walghaftig, adjectives signifying 'productive of nausea'; 
 and the Low German walgen, to feel nausea. The root- 
 verb occurs in the Mid. High German welgen, to roll 
 about, pt. t. walg; see Schade. Schade gives a large 
 number of related words, such as walg, rounded ; walgern, 
 to roll ; walagon, to roll oneself about, also to walk ; wul- 
 gerung, nausea, &c. It is, therefore, quite free from all 
 connexion with Wales. 
 
 378. Whitsun Day. I (7 S. xii. 277 ; 1891). 
 
 At the last reference (7 S. xii. 233) Mr. W. says that 
 'we have the word whitsul? Where, pray, does it occur? 
 Let us have the reference for it. And, after that, let us 
 have the reference for Whitsulday. I believe both forms 
 to be wholly unauthorized ; and I do not see how the 
 process of inventing forms can be justified. 
 
 [It turned out that the word intended was certainly 
 whitsul in form, but the sense of it was so entirely remote 
 from any connexion with Whitsunday, that it is hardly 
 wonderful that I did not, at the moment, recognize it. 
 The argument was this : ' Whitsul is given as a provincial 
 word in Todd's Johnson, with a passage from Carew ex- 
 plaining it. Sool is anything eaten with bread to flavour 
 it, as butter, cheese, milk. With milk it would be whitsul. 
 The white meat given to the poor at Whitsuntide brings 
 the whole into connexion ' (!) The last sentence is delicious. 
 See further in my reply below.] 
 
 379. Whitsun Day. II (7 S. xii. 449; 1891). 
 The etymology of whitsul at the last reference is quite 
 correct, viz., from white and sool. Sool is explained in my 
 notes to Piers Plowman, and again in my glossary to 
 Havelok. It not only occurs at line 767 of that poem, 
 but again at 11. 1143, 2905.
 
 310 WHITSUN DAY. 
 
 Further information about it is given in Herrtage's notes 
 to the Catholicon Anglicum, p. 349, and the etymology 
 is from the A. S. sufol, which occurs in my edition of the 
 A.S. Gospels (John xxi. 5), to translate the Latin pulmen- 
 tarium. 
 
 But all this has nothing whatever to do with Whitsunday, 
 which certainly never was called Whitsulday ; neither is 
 there the slightest evidence that such a compound as Whit- 
 sulday was ever dreamt of. On the other hand, not only 
 is ' Whitsun-week ' a legitimate expression, but I have 
 already given a reference for it in a dictionary which seems 
 to have been neglected. It occurs in Wycliffe's Works, 
 ed. Arnold, ii. 161. It is a mere contraction for Whit- 
 sunday week, which is called hvitasunnudagsvika in Icelandic. 
 In the Ancient Laws of Nonvay, previous to A. D. 1263, 
 as published by Munch and Keyser, Christiania, 1846-47, 
 we already find the expression ' Paskaviku, ok Hvitasunnu- 
 dagsviku] vol. i. p. 150. Curiously enough, it was some- 
 times the syllable sun that was dropped, and then we 
 find mention of ffvitadagavika, lit. ' Whiteday-week,' or 
 ' Whitday-week.' There is nothing remarkable about such 
 dropping of a syllable ; every one says fdc'sle for fore- 
 castle. It would be comic enough if we were to pretend 
 on that account that frfc'sle is 'derived' from fox-hole ; 
 although phonetic laws would certainly admit of such a 
 derivation. 
 
 I showed once, in the Academy, that Palm Sunday is 
 abbreviated to Palmsun, and that even such a phrase as 
 Palmsun Tuesday has been in use. The note at the end 
 of my Supplement to the second edition of my Dictionary 
 seems as applicable now as ever. ' The Welsh name 
 Sulgwyn, Whitsuntide, is literally u'hite sun, from sul, sun, 
 and gwyn, white. This name is old, and is a mere transla- 
 tion from the English name at a time when it was rightly 
 understood. But experience shows that no arguments
 
 COMMENCE TO. 311 
 
 will convince those who prefer guesswork to evidence. 
 The wrong ideas about this word are still persistently 
 cherished.' 
 
 For those who wish to come at the truth I have one 
 more word, which will, I believe, interest them. In West- 
 wood's beautiful book called Palceographia Sacra Pictoria, 
 the last facsimile but one gives a specimen from MS. Addit. 
 503 in the British Museum, an Icelandic MS. which he 
 attributes to the twelfth century. This quotation, acci- 
 dentally chosen, actually refers to the services for Whit- 
 sunday, and the editor has failed to read it correctly. 
 His version is: 'A Himta Sunnu Dag skal fyrst syngia 
 Veni, Creator Spiritus.' There is no such word as ' Himta,' 
 and when we turn to the facsimile, we see that the real 
 word is ' Huyta,' where , as usual, is used for v before 
 a following vowel, and y is miswritten for /", as is so common, 
 not only in Icelandic, but in Anglo-Saxon MSS., owing 
 to the confusion between the sounds which they denoted, 
 viz., the sound of the G. // in tibel, and the sound of the 
 E. ee in deep. 
 
 The real reading of this beautifully written and early 
 MS. is as follows : ' A Huyta Sunnu Dag skal fyrst syngia 
 Veni, Creator Spiritus : Kom thu gode heilage ande,' &c. 
 That is, ' On White Sunday shall (one) first sing Veni, 
 Creator Spiritus : come, thou good holy Spirit,' &c. 
 
 What can be more satisfactory to those who care for 
 evidence ? 
 
 380. Commence to (said to be not an English Idiom) 
 (7 S. xii. 294; 1891). 
 
 Surely this was an English idiom from the outset ! Thus 
 in P. Plowman, C. xv. 203, we are told that Imaginative 
 ' comsed to loure,' i. e. commenced to frown. Many more 
 examples might be given.
 
 312 THE TREATMENT OF TRIPLE CONSONANTS. 
 
 381. The Treatment of Triple Consonants (7 S. xii. 
 322; 1891). 
 
 The occurrence of three consonants together in the 
 middle of a word necessarily gives rise, in many instances, 
 to a difficulty of pronunciation. The simplest way of 
 getting over this is to drop one of them, and the one 
 usually dropped is the middle one. If the middle one be 
 s, it remains ; as in bust for burst, gorse for A. S. gorst. 
 
 We have several examples in English in which, though 
 all three consonants are retained in spelling, the middle 
 one is either not pronounced at all or else is very lightly 
 touched. 
 
 Examples are : castle, nestle, wrestle, thistle, whistle, 
 epistle, bristle, gristle, apostle, jostle, bustle, rustle, and, 
 generally, words ending in -stle. Even for ghastly speakers 
 of dialect are apt to say gashly ; see Tregellas on the 
 Cornish dialect. 
 
 Again, it is quite common to hear people (even those 
 who protest that they certainly do not) drop the / in 
 redemption, exemption, assumption, consumption, presumption, 
 so also in Campbell, Hampden, Hampton. Most people 
 confuse handsome and Hansom, and it is probable that, 
 etymologically, the words are identical. The t is dropped 
 in waistcoat. 
 
 In place-names the same principle is still more strongly 
 at work. Hence the common pronunciation of Windsor, 
 Guildford, Hertford, Lindsey, Landguard, and many 
 others. 
 
 The cases most interesting to the etymologist are those 
 in which the middle consonant has actually disappeared 
 from the spelling. I have noted the following : garment 
 for garn(e]ment, allied to garn-ish ; worship for ivorth- 
 ship ; worsted for Worthstead ; wilderness for wild-deer-ness ; 
 blossom from A. S. blostma, with loss of /; Norman for 
 Northman.
 
 LEIGHTON. 313 
 
 In place-names this result is common; as in Norfolk 
 for Northfolk, Norton for Northton, Weston for West-ton, 
 Easton for East-ton, Kirby for Kirkby; Kirton for Kirk- 
 ton, Sanford for Sandford, Burford for Burghford; Burley 
 for Burghley ; Burstead for Burghstead, Burton for 
 Burghton. 
 
 In some cases especial care must be taken in order 
 to prevent mistakes. Still, when we find that Preston is 
 short for Prest-ton (Priest-town), we shall hardly be wrong 
 in assuming that Prescott is for Prest-cott (Priest-cot). But, 
 in order to be sure, we must always rely, as has been 
 usual, upon the older spellings found in the charters. 
 
 382. Leighton (7 S. xii. 345 ; 1891). 
 
 The explanation of this name is an interesting example 
 of the operation of phonetic laws. The A. S. leac-tun, 
 lit. 'leek-town,' i.e. vegetable enclosure, garden, became 
 leactun, with shortening of u. But the combination ct 
 becomes ht in Anglo-Saxon (see Mayhew, O. E. Phonology, 
 p. 140). Hence we also find the forms leahtun, lehtun. 
 The Latin hortus is glossed by lehtun in the Lindisfarne 
 MS., John xviii. i. The A. S. ht became M. E. ght, and 
 so we should get a Mod. E. Leghton or Leighton (with ei as 
 in vein) quite regularly. 
 
 I believe the derivation of M. E. leih-tun, a garden, from 
 A. S. leak, fallow land, given in Stratmann, to be a pure 
 oversight. It is needless, and gives no sense. A garden 
 and fallow-land are very different things. Of course, some 
 of the place-names of this form may be due to a combina- 
 tion of leak, lea, and tun, town ; but the derivation from 
 A. S. lehtun, a garden, a compound already existing in 
 A. S., really seems more probable. The change from the k in 
 leek to the guttural h (gh) presents, in this case, no difficulty 
 at all, being quite regular.
 
 314 STALLED : STALLED OX. 
 
 It is possible that the spelling Leyton is from a different 
 source, viz. leak ; but I think that our rather numerous 
 Leightons are due to the fact that gardens were not un- 
 common ; and I think they should be dissociated from the 
 form Leigh, a lea. 
 
 383. Stalled (i. e. sated, tired) of walking : Stalled Ox 
 
 (7 S. xii. 357; 1891). 
 
 These phrases are connected. The word is practically 
 explained in my Dictionary, though I do not give all the 
 senses. 
 
 The first occurrence of stall in English is in the Corpus 
 Glossary of the eighth century, written in the true Mercian 
 dialect. We there find 'Stabulum, staT ; see Hessels's 
 ed., under 'S. 512.' Thus the earliest recorded sense is 
 ' stable ' or ' stall for cattle,' still in common use. 
 
 The corresponding Icelandic sb. is stallr, stall, a crib 
 for cattle, whence was made the verb stalla, to put in a stall. 
 The Swedish use is particularly clear ; Widegren's Diction- 
 ary gives : 
 
 ' Stall, a stable for horses ; stalla, to stall-feed, to stall ; stallad 
 boskap, stall-fed cattle ; stalla oxer, to stall-feed bullocks.' 
 
 In Prov. xv. 17,! have already said that stalled means 
 ' stall-fed.' In fact the Vulgate has saginatum, and Wyclif 
 has 'maad fat.' Thus stalled meant stall-fed (for which 
 I refer to Chapman's Homer, Od., xv. 161) i.e. fatted, as 
 in 'fatted calf.' Hence the notion of full-fed, satiated, 
 sated ; and to be stalled of walking is to be sated with 
 walking, hence tired, &c. See Peacock's Manley and 
 Corringham Words (E. D.S.); other publications of the 
 E. D. S. ; Kluge's Germ. Diet.; Skinner's Diet. 1671; 
 Richardson's Dictionary; Johnson's Dictionary; Webster's 
 Dictionary ; the Century Dictionary, &c.
 
 GODIVA. 315 
 
 384. Godiva (7 S. xii. 404; 1891). 
 Tennyson has the line : 
 
 ' Godiva, wife to that grim earl, who ruled,' &c. 
 
 We are all agreed to accent Godiva on the *", and to call 
 it a long vowel (strictly a diphthong*. Still, as a matter 
 of curiosity, there is no harm in knowing that the accent 
 was on the o, and that the / was short, i. e. it was 'Godiva.' 
 For it is a Latinized spelling of A. S. God-gifu, lit. ' God- 
 gift ' ; see Freeman's Old Eng. History. And we do not 
 pronounce give so as to rhyme with strive. 
 
 385. Paragon (7 S. xii. 412 ; 1891). 
 
 Two correspondents kindly suggest a reference to my 
 Dictionary, where I give the etymology from the Span, 
 prepositions para con (for Lat. pro, ad, and cum}. This 
 is the etymology given by Diez, and long accepted without 
 dispute. But an article which has appeared in the Zeit- 
 schrift fur Roman. Philol., iv. 374, makes out a better case 
 for a derivation from the Greek, viz. from Greek TrapaKov?], 
 a touch-storie. Despite the great authority of Diez, the 
 derivation from three prepositions presents much difficulty. 
 
 336. ' Bravo ' : sometimes (wrongly) applied to 
 a woman (7 S. xii. 432 ; 1891). 
 
 Alas ! is the glory of Charles James Yellowplush indeed 
 departed? Does no one recall his weighty words? I, for 
 one, do not forget what he once wrote in his Diary : 
 
 ' Been to the Hopra. Music tol lol. That Lablash is a wopper at 
 singing. I coodn make out why some people called out Bravo, some 
 J3ravar, and some Bravee. 
 
 ' Bravee, Lablash," says I, at which hevery body laft.' 
 
 I withhold the reference. Let your readers discover how 
 great a master they have neglected.
 
 316 WOODCUT; WITH THE LEGEND -STRIKE HERE.' 
 
 387. A Woodcut ; with the legend * Strike here ' 
 (7 S. xii. 478 ; 1891). 
 
 The words 'Strike here' translate Percute hie, a saying 
 on which turns the story of Gerbertus, in the Gesta Romano- 
 rum; Tale 107, in Swan's translation. The story is re- 
 told in my poem entitled The Dyer's Tale, written in 
 imitation of Chaucer, and printed in the Universal Review 
 for December 16, 1889. 
 
 I have since observed that it is also given in William 
 Morris's Earthly Paradise. 
 
 388. Wicket (7 S. xii. 506 ; 1891). 
 
 In my Dictionary, I derive this form from an assumed 
 Anglo-French form wiket, which, as I have shown, must 
 have been the right form, though no quotation occurs for 
 it. And now I have found it ! 
 
 ' Li fol entre enz par le wiket ' ; 
 
 i. e. the fool enters in by the wicket. It occurs in Le 
 Roman de Tristan, ed. Michel, vol. ii. p. 101, 1. 245. It 
 is always a comfort to find a predicted form. 
 
 389. St. Parnell (8 S. i. 10; 1892). 
 
 I thought every one knew that Pernel was a medieval 
 saint. My note to Piers Plowman, C. v. in (B. iv. 116) 
 is clear enough : 
 
 1 Purnele, or Peronelle, from Petronilla, was a proverbial name for 
 a gaily-dressed, bold-faced woman. . . . May 31 was dedicated to 
 St. Petronilla the virgin. She was supposed to be able to cure the 
 quartan ague ; Chambers, Book of Days, ii. 389. The name, once 
 common, now scarcely survives except as a surname, in .the form 
 Parnell; see Bardsley's Eng. Surnames, p. 56.' 
 
 Any book of saints' lives will explain the matter, under 
 the date May 31. That the same person is called Petronilla 
 in Latin, and Peronelle, Pernell, or Purnel in English, is
 
 THE GENDERS OF ENGLISH SUBSTANTIVES. 317 
 
 obvious from a comparison of the various accounts. Cf. 
 Brand's Popular Antiquities, ed. Ellis, pp. 359, 363. 
 
 The inquiry ' by what stages Petronilla became Parnell,'' 
 is one that fills me with delight. For if once scientific 
 explanation comes to be demanded, the day of the etymo- 
 logical guess-mongers will be gone for ever. 
 
 The answer is : by regular and recognized phonetic 
 changes, which have all been duly tabulated by scientific 
 workers. Petronilla became Parnell for the simple reason 
 that it could not, under the circumstances, become anything 
 else. Cf. F. pcre from patrem, F. errer from Lat. iterare, 
 folk-Latin eterare or etrare. Also F. fermer from Lat. 
 firmare, illustrating the change from i to e. The Anglo- 
 French was properly Pernel, which is the usual form in 
 Middle-English ; and this became Parnell, just as person 
 became parson, viz. by the usual change of the M.E. er 
 to the modern English ar. 
 
 39O. The Genders of English Substantives 
 (8S.i. 43; l8 92)- 
 
 Modern English gender is mainly logical, depending 
 upon the thing signified. But Old English gender was 
 purely grammatical, depending, in a great measure, upon 
 the form of the word. 
 
 One of the greatest gains of modern English is the 
 abandonment of grammatical gender, so that we no longer 
 have to burden our memories with the differences of usage 
 due to this source. Grammatical gender has thus become 
 a mere matter of history, and is now only a curiosity. 
 I think many of your readers may be pleased to learn from 
 how much they have thus been delivered. To this end, 
 I here give a brief list, by way of specimen, of a few 
 of our principal substantives, with their original genders. 
 I purposely avoid the mention of things having life. With 
 respect to these, it may suffice to notice that a bear, a fish,
 
 318 THE GENDERS OF ENGLISH SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 a ghost, a hound, and a wolf, were all masculine ; a crow 
 and a fly were feminine ; and a child, a maiden and w# 
 (being things, apparently, of small significance) were all 
 neuter. 
 
 The following nouns in Anglo-Saxon were all masculine: 
 Ache, acre, apple, arm, ash (tree) ; beam, broom ; cove 
 (i. e. creek) ; day, deal, death, dew, dint, doom, dough, 
 drop. 
 
 Ebb (of the tide), end ; field, finger, flight, flood, foot, 
 furze ; gall, gleam, gloom ; hate, helm (i. e. helmet), hip, 
 holm, horn, hunger ; loaf. 
 
 Meat, moon, mouth ; neck ; oath ; path ; rain, ridge, ring. 
 
 Shank, shield, shoe, sleep, smoke, snow, spark, staff, 
 stake, stone, storm, stream, summer ; tear (from the eye), 
 thirst, thorn, thunder, tooth ; way, wedge, well, will. 
 
 The following nouns were all feminine : 
 
 Ashes (of wood), ax ; bench, bliss, book, borough, 
 bridge ; cap, care, chin, chine (i. e. fissure, ravine\ claw, 
 crib (for cattle) ; deed. 
 
 Earth, edge ; feather, furrow ; glove ; half, hall, hand, 
 heart, heat, hell, hide, hose ; liver, lore. 
 
 Mead or meadow, might ; need, needle, night ; oak ; 
 rung (of a ladder). 
 
 Sheath, sedge, shell, sill (of a door), sin, sinew, spade, 
 speed, sun; thought, throat, tongue, toe, turf; week, weird 
 (fate), womb, wort. 
 
 The following nouns were all neuter : 
 
 Bale (evil), bath, bed, blood, bone, brim ; cliff, coal, 
 cud ; dole, deer. 
 
 Ear, errand, eye ; fire, flesh, foam ; glee, gold, grass ; 
 head, hilt, holt ; iron ; kin ; lair, land, leather, lid, light. 
 
 Main (i. e. force), meal (of corn), mood ; net ; seed, 
 ship, shroud, sore; thigh, token, tree; water, web, wed 
 (pledge), wonder, work ; year, yoke. 
 
 Almost the only discoverable principle is that substan-
 
 SAXON: DERIVED FROM ' SIKE.' 319 
 
 lives denoting abstract qualities have a tendency to be 
 feminine. 
 
 Examples are : bliss, care, heat, might, speed, thought, 
 in the above list. Deed and lore are the same, as denoting 
 doing and teaching. And we may add to this list an 
 enormous number of substantives now ending in -ing and 
 -ness. 
 
 It is very striking to observe with what impartiality the 
 parts of the body are distributed. Thus arm, finger, 
 foot, gall, hip, mouth, neck, shank, tooth, are masculine ; 
 chin, claw, hand, heart, hide, liver, sinew, throat, tongue, 
 womb (belly), are feminine ; whilst blood, bone, ear, eye, 
 flesh, head, lid, thigh, are neuter. 
 
 391. Saxon : derived from ' Sike,' a water-course 
 (8S. i. 51; 1892). 
 
 Whatever be the etymology of this word, it cannot be 
 derived from sike \ There is nothing in common but the 
 letter s, so that Saxon is quite as nearly allied to sag, or 
 sack, or sick, or sock, or suck, or half a score words more. 
 Neither is sike an ' overlooked word ' ; it is familiar in the 
 North. Any Northerner will tell you that it is far removed 
 from the sense of ' marsh ' ; it means a ' channel ' or ' water- 
 course,' being the Icel. sik, a ditch. There is a fine 
 specimen between Caldron Snout and High Cup Nick. 
 
 It is certainly the origin of the name Sykes ; but Sykes 
 is not remarkably like Saxon. The usual old guess that 
 connects Saxon with seax, a knife, short sword, is far 
 more plausible, for it is possible ; see Sahso in Schade. 
 It is more sensible to wear a short sword than to squat 
 in a water-course. 
 
 392. Coelum : Coelestis (8 S. i. 74 ; 1892). 
 
 The correct spellings are ctzlum, ccelestis (with ce) ; or 
 caelum, caelestis (with ae). See Lewis and Short's Latin
 
 320 BAYONET. 
 
 Dictionary. No authority now admits the derivation of 
 these words from Greek. See Vanicek's Griechish-Latein- 
 isches Elymologisches Worterbuch, and B real's Dictionnaire 
 Etymologique Latin. Ccelum (with ce] is a mere dream of 
 meddling editors : all MSS. spell it either caelum or celum. 
 The word is, of course, very common even in English 
 MSS. ; it occurs in the Lindisfarne MS. as caelum, Matt. v. 
 18; and as celts (abl. pi.) in Piers Plowman, B. vii. 175. 
 
 393. Bayonet (8 S. i. 95 ; 1892). 
 
 Why not look up bayonet in the Oxford Dictionary! 
 The word is there ; and it is rather hard to ignore a book 
 which, with all its faults, is by far the best dictionary we 
 possess. I do not agree with the attacks that are made 
 upon it. 
 
 The word meant 'a dagger' long before it meant a 
 bayonet. Even the Supplement 'to my own Etymological 
 Dictionary gives the usual quotation from Cotgrave (1611) 
 and refers us to a publication named N. 6 Q. (3 S. xii. 287). 
 The O. F. ba'ion is said by Roquefort to have meant an 
 arrow or bolt of a crossbow. The earliest trace of this that 
 I can find is in Godefroy, who says, ' Les arquebusiers sont 
 appele"s bayonniers dans la vielle Chronique de France, ch. 
 xiv. cite"e par Dedauriere.' We are in great want, not 
 of talk, but of early quotations. 
 
 394. Velvet (8 S. i. 177; 1892). 
 
 The list, with references, given at the last reference 
 (8 S. i. 128) is most valuable 1 . We should be glad of 
 
 1 The list contains early references for many fabrics. For velvet 
 we have these : 'Velvet, 1319 (Wardr. Acct., 13 Edw. II, 22/14) ; 
 velvet on satin, 1497 (Ib. 8-9 Hen. IV, 46/14, Q. R.) ; velvet on 
 velvet, 1444 (Ib. 22-3 Hen. VI, 48/18, Q. R.) ; velvet plunket, 1337 
 (Ib. 10-12 Edw. Ill, 94/1, Q. R.) ; velvet bastard, 1420 (Ib. 8-9 
 Hen. V, 46/14, Q. R.) ; velvet figure, 1465 (Close Roll, 5 Edw. IV).
 
 SUENT : SUANT; A DEVONSHIRE WORD. 321 
 
 more contributions of this kind. I wish there were a law 
 that we must all give our references. I should be glad 
 to know how velvet is spelt in the documents referred to, 
 i. e. if the MS. spellings are accessible. There is a special 
 reason in this case, for it is tolerably certain that the form 
 velvet is really due to a mistake. 
 
 The second v was once the vowel u, not the consonantal 
 v (written as u) ; see my Principles of English Etymology, 
 Second Series, p. 296, note. The old form velu-et (=velou- 
 et) was a trisyllable, in my belief. 
 
 Mr. Planche's earliest reference for the word is 1403, 
 but we are now told that it occurs in 1319 (Wardr. Acct, 
 13 Edw. II, 22/14). 1 m y h' st of English Words in 
 Anglo-French, Second Series, I show that it occurs in 1361, 
 in 1376, and* in 1392 (see Royal Wills, ed. J. Nichols, 
 1780, pp. 48, 69, 130). In 1392 it is spelt vehvet, as in 
 the Promptorium Parvulorum, and this is practically a more 
 original spelling than that with two v's. The M.E. u is 
 of so doubtful a value that it is difficult to tell whether 
 it is a vowel or a consonant. 
 
 The trisyllabic form occurs in 1. 1420 of the Romaunt of 
 the Rose, where we have : 
 
 ' As softe as any velu-et' 
 
 And in Lydgate, Complaint of the Black Knight, 1. 80 
 'And softe as velu-et the yong-e' gras.' 
 
 395. Suent : Suant ; a Devonshire word (8 S. i. 212 ; 
 
 1892). 
 
 The etymological spelling is suant, the pres. part, of sue, 
 to follow, as trenchant is of the vb. to trench. So also 
 pur-suant, from the verb to pursue. Suant means following, 
 hence keeping on, continuous, regular, even, unremitting, 
 and the like. I have explained it twice before. See my 
 Notes to P. Plowman, p. 375 ; and Elworthy's Glossary of 
 W. Somersetshire Words, s. v. ' Suant.' 
 
 Y
 
 322 LEARY, 'KNOWING.' 
 
 396. Leary, 'knowing' (8 S. i. 244; 1892). 
 
 I believe this slang word, often used in the sense of 
 'knowing,' to be a word of quite respectable origin. It 
 has been derived from M. E. leren, to teach ; but that is 
 not the way to form an adjective, and the substantival 
 form is lore. I have no doubt that, like several other 
 slang terms, it is of Dutch origin. 
 
 If we start, not from the E. sb. lore, but from the cognate 
 Du. sb. leer, all comes right. Kilian gives ' Leerigh, 
 docilis ' ; so that the original sense was ' apt to learn.' 
 
 I think it very likely that we borrowed the substantive 
 at the same time, as I find it in the last line but one of 
 ' The Wife Lapped in Morrelles Skin,' printed in Hazlitt's 
 Early Popular Poetry, iv. 226 : 
 
 ' Because she was of a shrewde leere, 
 Thus was she served in this manner[e].' 
 
 The date of this piece is a little before 1575. Words 
 came in from the Dutch in the reign of Elizabeth. 
 
 397. On the Loss of v in English (8 S. i. 245 ; 1892). 
 
 There is still a good deal to be done in the way of 
 tabulating phonetic changes in English, and I hope that 
 the faithful drudges who attempt to register examples con- 
 tribute somewhat to the clearer understanding of the 
 subject. It occurs to me that the loss of v in English 
 words seems to take place most commonly before r, n, 
 and /. 
 
 Before r. We are accustomed, in poetry, to e'er for ever, 
 ne'er for never, o'er for over. A similar effect is observable 
 in Middle-English, where we find discure used for discover, 
 and recure for recover; whilst the simple word cover some- 
 times became cure, as is attested at the present day by the 
 word curfew. Two striking instances occur in poor, for 
 the Middle-English and Anglo-French povre ; and in lark,
 
 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 323 
 
 short for M. E. laverk, from A. S. lawerce, later Idferce 
 (= Idverke], In this connexion, we may compare the 
 E. surplus with the Ital. sovrappiii. I explain the Scotch 
 orra, 'superfluous,' as standing for ovra, as if it meant 
 (so to speak) over-y ; cf. G. iibrig. 
 
 Before n. In poetry we often use e'en for even, cf. also 
 Hallouie'en. Prov. E. has gin for given, and aboon for 
 aboven. M. E. has the infin. han for haven. The most 
 remarkable example is that of laundress for lavandress, 
 from F. laver, to wash. 
 
 Before /. We often see de'il for devil, and the word 
 shovel becomes shool or sh(nvl in Prov. E. 
 
 'I, said the Owl, 
 With my spade and showl, 
 I'll bury Cock Robin.' 
 
 There is a slight tendency to drop final ve, as in gi' for 
 give. In M. E. the word corsive, sb., meaning something 
 corrosive, also occurs as corsy ; and the O. F. pourcif, short- 
 winded, is now pursy. The commonest example is jolly, 
 which even in Chaucer was spelt iolif. The final /in these 
 words was voiced to v, owing to lack of stress, and then 
 dropped. Cf. also braw for brave, and doo for dove also 
 fi-purt-note, and hvel'-pun'-ten. 
 
 I have noted (Eng. Etym. I. 374) the loss of A. S. f in 
 head, lord, lady, women, leman, Lammas, and stem (of 
 a tree) ; in all these cases the f was voiced to v before 
 disappearance. 
 
 398. Curiosities of Interpretation. 1(88.1.309; 1892). 
 
 Perhaps nothing strikes the student of English literature 
 more than the curious helplessness of our editors, especially 
 in former years, whenever they had to deal with somewhat 
 difficult words. No doubt their books of reference were 
 far inferior to what we have now ; but in some cases they 
 
 Y 2
 
 324 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 
 
 really do not seem to have used their common sense. 
 The opinion was no doubt current, and still obtains in 
 some quarters, that there is no such thing as skill or scholar- 
 ship in relation to the English language; for these should 
 be wholly reserved for the 'classical' languages, wherein 
 'accurate' knowledge is of course indispensable; although 
 curiously enough, it does not usually extend to any care 
 about correct pronunciation. 
 
 Almost any book of some slight antiquity yields some 
 amusing specimens. I happen to take up Early Ballads, 
 edited by Robert Bell. It is not worse than other books ; 
 indeed, it is better than many. But it will serve. Page 30 : 
 ' Now lith and listen, gentlemen.' The note is, ' Lith or 
 lithe, to tell or narrate.' This is all pure invention. If we 
 apply it, we obtain as the sense, 'Now narrate and listen/ 
 i. e. the auditors are requested to tell the story themselves. 
 Of course, lithe means 'hearken,' and is synonymous with 
 ' listen.' 
 
 p. 44. ' Each of them slew a hart of greece.' 
 
 The note is, 'Also spelt grize, greese, &c. Literally a 
 step or degree.' It therefore means 'a hart of steps.' 
 But surely a hart is not usually so made as to resemble 
 a staircase ! The greece here meant is grease, in the sense 
 of fatness, not the greece or grees which is the plural of gree, 
 a step. 
 
 p. 58. ' Forth they went, these yeomen two, 
 
 Little John and Moche infere, 
 And looked on moch emys house ; 
 The highway lay full near.' 
 
 The note says that emys means * enemies? What moch 
 means we are not informed. But moch should be Moch, 
 with a capital, and ' Moch emys house ' means ' the house 
 of the uncle of Moch.' If they had resorted for repose to 
 a house of their enemies, they must have been very stupid 
 fellows.
 
 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 325 
 
 p. 61. 'They slew our men upon our walls, 
 And sawtene us every day.' 
 
 The note says, 'Sawtene, assaulted.' But it means 
 'assault'; the form for 'assaulted' would be sawteden. 
 However, to have set this right would have required an 
 elementary knowledge of English grammar. 
 
 p. 64. ' I gave him grithe, said our king.' 
 The note is ' Grithe, grace.' But it means ' protection.' 
 p. 97. ' The Earl of Huntley, cawte and keen.' 
 
 The note is ' Cawte, cautious.' This is obviously a guess, 
 and of course no authority is either given or supposed 
 to be necessary. The right solution is that cawte is written 
 for caute, and cante is an error for ' cante,' i. e. ' brisk,' 
 by the usual confusion of u with n. As for ' cant and keen,' 
 it is the old, old phrase ; as noted by Halliwell. 
 
 399. Curiosities of Interpretation. II (8 S. i. 349 ; 
 1892). 
 
 A famous book is Percy's Reliques of Ancient Poetry. 
 I happen to possess a popular edition, edited by R. A. Will- 
 mott, a favourite book of mine, and convenient enough. 
 Whether the interpretations of the hard words are Willmott's 
 or Percy's, I do not stop to inquire. On the whole they 
 are fairly correct, but the curious critic will find some 
 strange examples in it. 
 
 One striking feature is the minute care with which, in 
 some passages, words are explained which could hardly 
 puzzle a small child, whilst in other cases words of some 
 difficulty are carefully let alone, lest the editor should 
 commit himself. At p. 76, for example, is this terribly 
 tough line : 
 
 ' When we se tyme and nede.' 
 A note informs us that 'se tyme and nede' means 'see
 
 326 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 
 
 time and need.' And now at last we make it out; but 
 what a headache it must have cost the editor ! 
 
 At p. 92, we are informed that pyrats means 'pirates,' 
 and, again, that thow means ' thou.' It is clear that the 
 editor found some difficulty here, and we can but wonder 
 at his want of familiarity with old spelling. 
 
 In the poem of Adam Bell, on the. other hand, at p. 87, 
 we have the lines : 
 
 4 Over Gods forbode, sayde the kinge, 
 That thou shold shote at me ! ' 
 
 The phrase 'Over Gods forbode' is left unexplained, 
 probably because it is really difficult. It is, in fact, a false 
 expression, due to a confusion of ideas. 
 
 The literal sense is ' (may it be) against God's pro- 
 hibition,' involving the confusion of two distinct phrases, 
 such as ' God be against it,' and ' may God's prohibition 
 prevent it ' ; in other words, ' God's forbode (be) over (it) ' 
 is turned precisely upside down, as if it were all one with 
 ' (be it) over God's forbode.' See ofer in Bosworth's A. S. 
 Dictionary, and forbod in Matzner. As this would have 
 required rather a long note, and involves some investigation, 
 the obvious plan was to say nothing. 
 
 In Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne (p. 45), we have : 
 
 ' A sword and a dagger he wore by his side, 
 Of manye a man the bane.' 
 
 And bane rhymes with mayne. The note tells us that 
 bane means 'the curse'; that is to say, the words ban, 
 a curse, and bane, the death, or the slayer, are actually 
 confused together. 
 
 In Henry, Fourth Erie of Northumberland (p. 54) we 
 have the lines : 
 
 ' Moste noble erle ! O fowle mysuryd grounde 
 Whereon he gat his fynal dedely wounde.' 
 
 The only interpretation of mysuryd here given is quoted
 
 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 327 
 
 as Percy's own; and here it is: 'Misused, applied to 
 a bad purpose.' And perhaps we may allow that a man 
 puts a place to a very bad purpose if he. employs it for 
 the sake of getting a final wound on it. But the ure here 
 meant has no connexion with use ; it is merely the O. F. 
 eur (F. heur in bon-heur, mal-heur) which popular etymology 
 usually 'derives' from the Latin hora, though it really 
 represents augurium. When we know this, it is easy to 
 see that mysuryd means 'of ill augury,' i.e. fatal, unfor- 
 tunate, unlucky, which is much more to the ' purpose.' 
 
 In the Tournament of Tottenham, st. xii, one of the 
 combatants thus describes his crest : 
 
 ' I here a reddyl and a rake, 
 Poudred wyth a brenand drake.' 
 
 Reddyl is not explained ; it means ' a riddle,' i. e. a sieve. 
 Poudred is not explained, nor is it easy. It is equivalent, 
 in heraldry, to semee, i. e. strewn over, and is here incor- 
 rectly used, probably of set purpose. Strictly, it is only 
 used of small objects, such as roses or fleur-de-lis, strewn 
 over the field of the shield ; but the poem is a burlesque, 
 and the expression is put in the mouth of an ignorant 
 clown. But when we come to 'a brenand drake' the 
 explanation is given pat : ' Perhaps a firework so called, 
 but here it seems to signify burning embers, or firebrands.' 
 However, a drake is neither a firework, nor embers, nor 
 firebrands, but simply a dragon, and 'a brenand drake' 
 is our old friend ' a fiery dragon.' The joke of ' strewing 
 the shield with a fiery dragon ' has, I fear, been entirely 
 lost upon the editors, and perhaps upon the readers, of 
 Percy's Reliques. 
 
 400. Curiosities of Interpretation. Ill (8 S. i. 410 ; 
 1892). 
 
 I happen to take up a nice copy of the Poetical Works 
 of Surrey and others, edited by Robert Bell. When it
 
 328 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 
 
 appeared I do not know, for it is undated. I find that the 
 explanations of words in it are just of the usual sort ; and 
 that, whilst it is doubtless as good as other books of its 
 kind, some of the statements display precisely such reckless- 
 ness as we should expect to find. It is clear that it never 
 used to be considered the duty of an editor to have any 
 special knowledge of the older forms of English. But 
 it should be known that it will not do to trust, in such 
 a case, to the 'light of nature.' 
 
 I begin with the poems of Surrey. He says that, on 
 reviewing his course : 
 
 ' I looked back to mete the place 
 From whence my weary course begun.' p. 41. 
 
 As mete here means ' measure,' it would hardly seem 
 to need a note ; but we find this : 
 
 ' To dream ; from tneteles, dreams, Anglo-Saxon ; also to measure. 
 Drayton has meterer, a poet, which may be taken in either sense, 
 a dreamer, or measurer of lines.' 
 
 Here are four mistakes at once. For (i) mete does not 
 here mean to dream ; (2) it is not derived from metetes, the 
 derivation being the other way; (3) meteles is not the 
 correct form at any date, neither is it a plural, the word 
 meant being the M. E. metels, a dream" ; and (4) meterer 
 means one who makes metres, and has nothing to do with 
 it. Here is a fine bundle of blunders. 
 
 P. 85 : Reaveth means ' bereaves ' ; but the note says : 
 ' To reave, literally meant to unroof a house.' This is 
 delicious. There was, indeed, a very rare word with this 
 sense ; but it is from another root. 
 
 P. 91, note i : ' Wend is the past participle of the verb 
 wene, or ween, to suppose.' The context proves that it is 
 the past tense. 
 
 P. 177, note 3: Surrey translates Virgil's manes sepultos 
 (Aen. iv. 34) by ' graved ghosts.' The note says that graved
 
 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 329 
 
 is 'the preterite of the verb grave, to bury.' I put this 
 note next the former to show that it is no part of an 
 editor's duty to know a past tense from a past participle 
 in English. But he ought to have known better as regards 
 sepultos ; for Latin grammar is taught in our schools. 
 
 P. 115 : Surrey uses vade for 'to fade,' which is common 
 enough. The note says it is 'from vado? The spelling 
 with /should have warned the editor against so bad a shot. 
 
 P. 1 66, note 3 : Surrey has the form lopen, with the 
 sense ' leapt.' The note says : ' Leapt ; from the verb lope, 
 to leap.' Where the editor found the form lope in MS., he 
 does not tell us. Loopen is mere Dutch ; the M. E. verb is 
 lepen. The Mod. E. leap would make the pp. /open still, 
 if it had not been changed from a strong verb to a weak 
 one. I am not surprised that our editors do not know 
 English grammar; but I am surprised at their supposing 
 that ever)' one is bound to swallow any conjectures about 
 it that it amuses them to make. 
 
 P. 173: Surrey has 'I wot not how.' The note says: 
 ' Knew, from the Saxon verb wote, to know.' Here again 
 the grammar is nowhere. I wot means I know, and the 
 Saxon verb, in the infinitive mood, is witan, pres. t. wdt, 
 pt. t. wiste. No one should edit an old English author till 
 he knows the difference between wit, wot, wist, wissen, and 
 y-wis. This is a fair test, and does not require too much. 
 I-wis (the same as y-wis) is accordingly misinterpreted at 
 p. 1 06. In the very next note the editor complains 
 that Dr. Nott was 'misled by the orthography of betook' 
 (which is perfectly correct). He explains that it is 'the 
 Saxon betokej which is curious, as the word is of Norse 
 origin. He clearly considers that you can manufacture 
 ' Anglo-Saxon ' forms by spelling words badly. And, in 
 this particular, there are many who are of the same mind. 
 
 P. 179 : Surrey translates Aen. iv. 92, thus : 
 
 ' Saturne's daughter thus burdes Venus then.'
 
 33 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 
 
 The note is : 
 
 ' Beards. The word is frequently used by the Elizabethan drama- 
 tists, signifying to oppose face to face, to threaten to the beard, and 
 hence to imply an open menace.' 
 
 Unfortunately this only explains beards, with which burdes 
 has nothing whatever to do. For it is another form of 
 hordes or boards. See the New Eng. Diet. s. v. ' Board,' 
 verb, sense 4, where another quotation, from the same 
 poem by Surrey, shows that burdes means ' accosts.' 
 
 In the same volume are some poems by Grimoald. 
 
 At p. 212 Grimoald uses the common phrase ' and 
 pincheth all to nye,' i. e. too nigh. But, oh ! the note ! 
 It says, ' Nye, annoyance, trouble.' I admit the annoyance 
 to the reader. 
 
 At p. 215, in the fine poem of The Death of Zoroas, 
 Grimoald says : 
 
 'Whether our tunes heav'n's harmony can yield; 
 Of four begyns, among themselves how great 
 Proportion is.' 
 
 As the whole context is about the learning of Zoroas 
 in astronomy and philosophy, we might fairly guess begyn 
 to be a somewhat licentious form for beginning; and we 
 might fairly suppose that this is the very passage which 
 induced Spenser to use the same form in his Faery Queen, 
 iii. 3. 21. Moreover, the 'four beginnings' may fairly be 
 considered to mean the four elements ; but the note knows 
 better. It simply and oracularly says that the sense is 
 ' biggins.' It must therefore mean four child's caps, or 
 four night-caps, or four coifs, or four coffee-pots. To such 
 a choice are we thus reduced. And why, in that case, 
 does Grimoald seem to accent the latter syllable ? 
 
 401. Curiosities of Interpretation. IV (8 S. ii. 3 ; 
 
 1892). 
 
 A famous antiquary and editor was Joseph Ritson. We 
 all remember the acrimony with which he attacked Warton.
 
 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 331 
 
 Frequently, but not always, he had good reasons to show 
 for his strictures. If, however, we were to draw the con- 
 clusion that he was himself accurate, we should be very 
 much mistaken. His throwing of stones was doubtless 
 intended to let us know that he did not himself live in 
 a glass house. Nevertheless that house had an over large 
 proportion of windows in it, as may easily be seen. 
 
 Ritson's Metrical Romancees (to adopt his own peculiar 
 spelling) is a valuable book in its way, but we must not 
 trust it too much. I give a few samples of some of its 
 peculiarities, for which purpose it is simplest to examine 
 the glossary. 
 
 In King Horn, 1120, we read how Horn craved some 
 drink, because he and his companions ' bueth afurste,' i. e. 
 are athirst. The glossary says that afurste here means 
 ' at first,' which makes nonsense of the whole passage. 
 
 In the King of Tars, 605, it is said of a man that he is 
 ' in his herte sore attrayed,' i. e. sorely vexed at heart. 
 
 See Atray in the N. E. D. The glossary has ' Attrayed, 
 poison'd.' This is a very bad shot, for the A. S. dttor, 
 poison, could not possibly produce such a verb as attrayen. 
 
 Blyve, we are told, sometimes means blithe, and is cor- 
 rupted from it. It never has that sense, and the assumed 
 'corruption,' like most others, is unwarranted. [It is for 
 In live, with life ; hence, quickly.] 
 
 ' Borken, barking,' is entered without a reference. It 
 occurs in the King of Tars, p. 400, and is the past tense 
 plural, meaning 'barked.' Mr. Ritson should have known 
 that -en is not the suffix of a present participle. If the 
 hapless Warton had been caught in such an error, Ritson 
 would have called the statement ' a lye.' 
 
 The glossary gives us cronde, unexplained. This is an 
 error for croude, as shown by Price. 
 
 Dang, we are told, is the 'plural' of Ding; but it is 
 charitable to suppose that 'plural ' is a misprint for 'preterite.
 
 332 CURIOSITIES OF INTERPRETATION. 
 
 ' Denketh roun, thinks to run,' is surely comic. The text 
 has roune, i. e. to whisper. 
 
 Druye is unexplained, yet it is merely our ' dry.' 
 
 ' Ernde, yearn, desired.' But it means 'he ran,' as the 
 context requires. See rennen in Stratmann. 
 
 ' Glyste up,' not explained. The .$ is printed as a 'long s'; 
 in fact, it is an error for glyfte up. To gliff is to glance 
 quickly, to look, gaze. It is duly explained in Stratmann. 
 
 Hone is explained by 'shame; Fr. honte? But ' with- 
 outen hone ' means ' without delay,' and is a fairly common 
 phrase. 
 
 ' Pende, hond,' must be a misprint of hond for pond. Pende 
 is explained by Stratmann as a pound, or (perhaps) a pond. 
 
 ' Ryne, rine [sic], the white covering of a nocturnal frost.' 
 This is a complex error, and refers to King Horn, p. T i : 
 ' For reyn ne myhte by ryne.' The answer is simple ; read 
 by-ryne, i. e. be-rain, rain upon. 
 
 In the Erie of Tolous, p. 337, we have, 'He behelde 
 ynly hur face,' where ynly (for in-ly) means inwardly, hence, 
 intently. But Ritson was entirely puzzled by it, and mis- 
 prints it yuly. Hence the curious entry in the glossary, 
 ' Yuly, handsome, beautiful 1 .' This he supports by a 
 quotation about 'a captain's wife most yeivly] adding, 
 ' though it must be confess'd that the original has not 
 yewly, but vewlie, unless the tail of the y have been broken 
 off at the press ' ; that is, his imaginary word is to be ex- 
 plained by manipulating another passage to suit it. 
 
 In Ywaine and Gawaine, p. 677, is a curious passage 
 about Sir Ywaine riding under a portcullis. 
 
 ' Under that than was a swyke.' 
 
 The knight's horse's foot touched the swyke, i. e. the 
 trap or contrivance for letting the portcullis go, and down 
 it came. But Ritson coolly identifies swyke with syke, and 
 explains it by ' sike, hole, or ditch.' 
 
 1 Carefully preserved in Halliwell's Dictionary.
 
 GRUESOME. 333 
 
 Under the word thoghte, however, he succeeds in gib- 
 beting a mistake of ' mister Ellises ' very neatly, as follows : 
 ' In mister Ellises edition, the text has hym poghte ; the 
 comment [is], "In paste, Fr. in power " ; than which nothing 
 can be more ridiculous.' 
 
 402. Gruesome (8 S. i. 420; 1892). 
 
 A reference to my Dictionary will show that Burns 
 speaks of death as 'a grusome carl,' and that ' grousome, 
 horrid,' occurs in Levins, J\Ianip. Vocabulorum, printed in 
 1570 ; so it is nothing new. Not only have we the G. grau- 
 sam and the Du. gruwzaam, but the Middle-Danish grusom, 
 which is probably the real source of our English word. 
 According to Kalkar, the derivative adj. grusommelig occurs 
 in Danish in 1580. The A. S. gryre, horror, is from the 
 same root. See Grduel in Kluge. The E. Friesic form is 
 grausam, so the word must have been rather widely known. 
 
 403. Groundsel (8 S. i. 441 ; 1892). 
 
 I shall be much obliged if I may be allowed to explain 
 the history of this word fully. We must never try to twist 
 etymologies to suit ideas of our own, but must go strictly 
 by evidence. We must be careful as to plant-names, 
 which are peculiarly liable to be recast by popular etymo- 
 logists. There is no doubt at all as to the fact that in the 
 tenth century the plant was named grunde-swelge, with 
 variations in the latter half of the word. The variations 
 are swelige, swilige, swylige, swulie, all given, with refer- 
 ences, in Bosworth's Dictionary. Any one who understands 
 A. S. phonetics will easily see that all these variants have 
 the same sense; and that sense is 'swallower.' Hence, 
 in the tenth century, the popular etymology of the word 
 was that it meant ' ground-swallower ' ; and the only way 
 we can make sense of is by giving it the sense of
 
 334 VERSES BY THE POPE. 
 
 'abundant occupier of the ground.' This is the only 
 result possible as to the meaning of the word at that date. 
 
 With this we should have to remain content but for 
 new evidence, which has not long been known, and has 
 not been explained till recently. To the best of my belief 
 it was explained by me in a review of Mr. Sweet's edition 
 of the Epinal Glossary, which appeared in 1883. My 
 explanation at once became common property, and is 
 reproduced both in the Century Dictionary, and in the new 
 edition of Webster. 
 
 The fault is not in the latter half of the word, but in 
 the former. The A. S. scholar at once observes that grunde 
 is a false form ; the A. S. for ' ground ' is not grund-e, in 
 two syllables, but grund, in one. Hence grunde is probably 
 a substitution for something else. That* ' something else ' 
 first sprang to light on the publication of the Epinal 
 Glossary, and the other early glossaries known as the 
 Erfurt and Corpus Glossaries. These take us back to 
 the eighth century, when the form in use was gunde- 
 swilge or gunde-swelge. This alters the sense altogether, 
 and shows that the original name was ' matter-swallower,' 
 or remedy against a certain disease called the gund, M. E. 
 gound. This was a disease of the eyes, in which matter 
 exudes consequent on inflammation or ailment. It is fully 
 explained in my note to Piers Plowman on the word rade 
 gounde. The disease is still called red-gum, a corruption 
 of red-gund. The intense belief of our ancestors in the 
 virtues of plants is well known ; see all about the virtues of 
 groundsel in Cockayne's Leechdoms. In East Anglia we call 
 it simpson. This is from O. F. senefon, Lat. ace. senecionem. 
 
 404. Verses by the Pope (8 S. i. 452 ; 1892). 
 
 The following paragraph appeared in the Standard, May 3, 
 1892: 
 
 ' Princess Isabella of Bavaria, having had the idea of preparing for
 
 FIRST EDITIONS. 335 
 
 a sale for charitable purposes an album of royal photographs and 
 autographs, begged of Pope Leo XIII the favour of being allowed to 
 inscribe his name among the patrons of the work. His Highness 
 replied by sending the following verses, celebrating the art of photo- 
 graphy : 
 
 Ars Photographica. 
 
 Expressa solis spiculo, 
 Nitens imago, quam bene 
 Frontis decus, vim luminum, 
 Refers, et oris gratiam. 
 
 O mira virtus ingeni 
 Novumque monstrum ! imaginem 
 Naturae Apelles aemulus 
 Non pulchriorem pingeret. 
 
 Leo P.P. XIII.' 
 
 A friend, who sent me this information, asked me for 
 a translation; and I ventured to return him the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 ' Bright picture, drawn by Phoebus' beam, 
 
 How faithfully dost thou retrace 
 The forehead's breadth, the eye's bright gleam, 
 The smiling lip's enchanting grace ! 
 
 ' O wondrous art, invention new ! 
 
 Earth's latest marvel ! Surely ne'er 
 Apelles, Nature's rival, drew 
 A portrait with minuter care !' 
 
 405. First Editions (8 S. i. 480 ; 1892). 
 
 I think that in considering the comparative value of 
 various editions, we must draw a sharp line between real 
 second editions and mere reprints. 
 
 In the sixteenth century, the first edition of a book is, 
 as a rule, much the best. Later editions are mere reprints, 
 each less correct than its predecessor. Take the case of 
 Piers the Plowman, printed thrice in one year by Crowley, 
 and afterwards reprinted by Rogers. Crowley's first edition, 
 dated (by a misprint) 1505 instead of 1550, is worth having.
 
 33 6 FIRST EDITIONS. 
 
 But the later ones grow steadily worse ; and Rogers's edition 
 is highly incorrect. Yet I have seen the worthless fourth 
 edition highly priced, on the speculation that the purchaser 
 would give about thrice its real value. In the present 
 century all depends on the amount of revision. The 
 general rule is that the first edition is by far the worst, 
 especially in cases where much revision is possible. But to 
 take the case of Piers Plowman once more. Mr. Thos. 
 Wright issued a capital edition in 1842; but his second 
 edition, in 1856, though it seems to have been revised, 
 contains eighteen errors in the text, from which the first 
 edition is free. 
 
 I have myself issued various editions of a portion of the 
 text, with notes. As a rule, each of these is better than its 
 predecessor, yet only the other day I discovered a misprint 
 in the text in the later editions which does not appear 
 in the earlier ones. This is one of the dangers of re- 
 printing ; a letter is dropped, and its loss is not perceived 
 in the revision unless the false form happens to catch 
 the eye. 
 
 I conclude that the general rule is this to seek after the 
 first editions of early books, and the last editions of modern 
 ones. But there will always remain special cases to which 
 this rule does not apply. In particular, unrevised reprints 
 are not likely to improve; they will rather be found to 
 deteriorate. There seems to be, moreover, a considerable 
 difference between one text and another. In the case 
 of a novel I should prefer an early copy, but in the case 
 of a scientific treatise a late one. Yet the reprinting of 
 novels is, as a rule, so easy that even the latest copies may 
 be quite correct, or at least free from material errors. This 
 is where the question of sentiment arises ; the relative 
 value of the various editions must be left to the fancy 
 of the purchasers, and the seller must select his purchaser 
 as well as he can.
 
 SWEDISH AND ENGLISH. 337 
 
 406. Swedish and English (8 S. i. 488 ; 1892). 
 
 Every now and then a deliciously innocent article on 
 language escapes editorial supervision, and finds its way 
 into print. An amusing instance may be found in the 
 June number of the Journal of Education (1892^, entitled 
 ' Gleanings amongst Swedes.' 
 
 The author was led to his knowledge of Swedish, he 
 tells us, by observing the word Tandsticker on a box of 
 matches. This, he kindly informs us, is derived from 
 tand, a tooth, and sticker, a splinter. Here there are only 
 four errors. The word is Tandstickor, with a and o (not 
 a and e\ Tdnd has nothing to do with tooth, but is from 
 tanda, to kindle, akin to tinder. And lastly, stickor is not 
 singular, but plural. 
 
 After this somewhat inaccurate introduction to the 
 language, many curious discoveries followed. The fol- 
 lowing are specimens. 
 
 Gammer (which really means grandmother, as gaffer 
 does grandfather) is from Swed. gammel, old. (The right 
 spelling is gammal, but we must not be particular.) 
 
 The Swed. basun, must be a relative of bassoon. Un- 
 luckily, there is no kinship at all ; see Posaune in Kluge. 
 Basun is merely a borrowed word in Swedish, having no 
 original value in that language; and it means a trumpet. 
 The Swedish for bassoon is Bassong. 
 
 Lin (we are told) means flax, as linum does in Latin. 
 Considering that lin is nothing but the Lat. linum done into 
 Swedish, the coincidence, after all, is hardly to be considered 
 as wonderful. 
 
 Next comes a new notion of borrowing native English 
 words from Swedish. Thus, we are told that our acre is 
 either borrowed from the Lat. ager or from Swed. aker. 
 Well, it so happens that our acre is the A. S. cecer, not 
 borrowed from either one or the other, but cognate with 
 both.
 
 338 JULIUS CAESAR, IV. 3. 2l8. 
 
 At any rate, we are told, if we do not admit that acre 
 is borrowed from Swed. dker, we must at least admit that 
 ochre is derived therefrom. This is curious, for ochre is 
 Greek ! Funniest of all is the notion of deriving an English 
 word from a combination of Swedish words. Thus, our 
 hide is not derived merely from Swed. hud, a hide, but 
 at the same time from hy, skin. The forms hud and hy, 
 neatly fused together, give hide. This is our old friend 
 the 'portmanteau' word, familiar to Alice in Wonderland. 
 But the truth is that hy does not primarily mean 'skin,' 
 but 'colour.' It is cognate with A. S. hiw, our hue, and 
 has nothing whatever to do with hide. As to hud, it is 
 merely a cognate form. 
 
 Like Oliver Twist, we can but ' ask for more.' 
 
 407. Julius Caesar, iv. 3. 218 (8 S. ii. 63 ; 1892). 
 
 The famous passage, 'There is a tide in the affairs of 
 men,' &c., may be compared with the following stanza in 
 Chaucer's Troilus, ii. 281 : 
 
 ' For to every wight som goodly aventure 
 Som tyme is shape, if he can it receyven ; 
 And if that he wol take of it no cure, 
 Whan that it comth, but wilfully it weyven, 
 Lo ! neither cas nor fortune him deceyven, 
 But right his verray slouthe and wrecchednesse ; 
 And swich a wight is for to blame, I gesse.' 
 
 Chaucer's stanza is to some extent borrowed from Boc- 
 caccio's Filostrato, book ii. Mr. Rossetti thus translates 
 the Italian passage : ' Every one has a chance in life, but 
 not a second chance.' 
 
 408. Racoon (8 S. ii. in ; 1892). 
 
 I regret that I gave the wrong account of this word in 
 the first edition of my Dictionary. But I corrected it in 
 the second. It is clearly a corruption of the Indian name. 
 
 The earliest quotation I have found is the following,
 
 WINDMILLS. 339 
 
 dated 1607-9 : ' There is a beast they call Aroitghcon, much 
 like a badger, but vseth to Hue on trees as Squirrels doe.' 
 Capt. John Smith, Works, ed. Arber, p. 59. [At p. 355 of 
 the same, it is spelt aroughcun ; and in a glossary of Indian 
 words subjoined to A Historic of Travaile into Virginia, 
 by W. Strachey (published by the Hackluyt Society in 1 849) 
 we find ' Arathkone, a beast like a fox.'] 
 
 409. Windmills (8 S. ii. 138 ; 1892). 
 
 An early instance of an English windmill is that in which 
 Richard, earl of Cornwall and 'King of Almaigne,' took 
 refuge after the battle of Lewes in 1264. In the famous 
 song against the King of Almaigne, the 'sayles' of the 
 'mulne' are mentioned, showing that it really was a wind- 
 mill. 
 
 So also Rob. of Gloucester, 1. 547, has : ' The king of 
 Alemaine was in a windmulle nome.' 
 
 410. 'Buffetier' as an English word (8 S. ii. 194; 1892). 
 The reasoning in the last article seems to me quite 
 beside the mark 1 . Before the word buffeteer (which has 
 not been shown to exist) could have been coined in 
 England, we must have had buffet to coin it out of. Now 
 the earliest known quotation for buffet in English is dated 
 1718. These are precisely the wild suggestions that ' re- 
 quire to be narrowly watched.' 
 
 411. Edwards's ' Words, Facts, and Phrases ' 
 
 (8 S. ii. 246; 1892). 
 
 I am of opinion that this book ought not to be seriously 
 quoted by any scholar. It is a mere compilation, and 
 
 1 Argued ' that buffeteer (sic) is not to be found in the English sense 
 in any French author proves nothing.' And, ' that historical etymology 
 is valuable, but requires to be narrowly watched." [It never occurred 
 to the writer that buffeteer has no more existence in English than 
 buffetier has in French.] 
 
 Z 2
 
 340 LUCE; A QUADRUPED. 
 
 abounds with errors. Yet it is quoted twice in N. and Q., 
 ante, pp. 211, 214. In both instances it contains a blunder. 
 At p. 211 we are told that ' a small figure of the devil 
 stands on the top of Lincoln College ' ; whereas a few lines 
 below we read that it was taken down in 1731. At p. 214 
 the origin of the well-known word maundy is said to be 
 from manducate \ I advise correspondents not to put any 
 trust in this very poor book. 
 
 412. Luce; a quadruped. I (8 S. ii. 353 ; 1892). 
 
 Luce, as a fish, is a pike. But luce, as a quadruped, 
 is a lynx. Cf. A. S. lox, Du. los, O. H. G. luhs, G. Lucks, 
 a lynx. Flower de luce is simply a comic blunder of some 
 one who wished to show off, and was made by prefixing 
 floiuer-de- to luce in the sense of lynx 1 . See ' Lucern, 
 a lynx,' in Halliwell. In a pageant by Dekker, called 
 Britanni(f s Honour (1628), the supporters of the Skinners' 
 arms are said to be ' two luzernes' 
 
 413. Luce ; a quadruped. II (8 S. ii. 435 ; 1892). 
 
 Surely your correspondent at the last reference (ii. 391) 
 cannot have read the articles to which he refers with due care. 
 
 In N. and Q. 8 S. ii. 328, the statement really made is 
 this: 'In Harl. MS. 2125 is recorded the cost of making 
 anew the four beasts called the unicorne, the antelop, the 
 flower-de-luce, and the camell.' My statement was that 
 ' the flou>er-de-luce is a comic blunder.' However, your cor- 
 respondent is entitled to the opinion that it is correct ! 
 
 My suggestion, of course, was that the flower-de-luce was 
 a blunder for luce, and that the luce, which is also a beast, 
 was probably a lynx. No one need adopt this suggestion 
 if he can find a better one. But he must find us a quad- 
 ruped of some sort. 
 
 1 for flower-de-luce, see the next article.
 
 ' STRACHY.' 341 
 
 Again, in the catalogue, 'one unicorn, one dromedary, 
 one luce, one camel,' it is also probable that the luce here 
 meant is a quadruped, and not a pike. 
 
 I cannot produce further authority for luce in the sense 
 of ' lynx,' because it is extremely difficult to find, but I believe 
 it can be found, and that I have met with other instances. 
 And, surely, \iluce ever did mean a quadruped, etymology 
 tells us that it is the lynx, and nothing else. I do not for 
 a moment believe that the existing heraldic authorities are 
 exhaustive, or that the compilers of them necessarily under- 
 stood every old English term they ever met with. There 
 is a large number of words in Randell Holme of which 
 modern heralds have probably never heard. Very likely 
 he explains luce, but I have not the book at hand. Few 
 glossaries of heraldry are more complete than Elvin's, but 
 he does not give luzern at all. 
 
 I do not understand what is meant by saying, ' Part of 
 the charges on the arms of the Skinners' Company, London, 
 is fleurs-de-lys or.' For it so happens that a large, well- 
 painted copy of these arms was kindly given me but a short 
 time ago by the Master of the Company, and I believe 
 it accordingly to be authentic. These arms contain three 
 coronets proper on a chief gules, and the rest of the field 
 is ermine. I cannot find a single ' fleur-de-lys ' anywhere, 
 and the ermine is not ' or,' but ' sable on argent,' as 
 usual. 
 
 As to lucern, see seven quotations in Nares's Glossary ; 
 he does not explain it properly, as he failed to see that 
 it meant a lynx. 
 
 414. * Strachy' in Twelfth-Night, ii. 5. 45 
 
 (8S. iii. 14; 1893). 
 
 I should think that too much has already been said about 
 the hopeless crux of Strachy in Twelfth- Night, ii. 5. 45 ; 
 and I suppose that all that has been said is worthless.
 
 342 HENCHMAN. 
 
 Yet I beg leave to offer one more guess, probably also 
 worthless. The O. F. estrache (see Godefroy) occurs as 
 a variation of estrace (meaning extraction, race, rank, 
 family), from Lat. extrahere. So perhaps ' the lady of the 
 strachey ' (small s) was ' a lady of rank or good extraction.' 
 
 415. Henchman. I (8 S. iii. 194; 1893). 
 
 This word has been several times discussed. I write 
 further about it solely because I have found more evidence. 
 In A Collection of Ordinances and Regulations for the 
 Government of the Royal Household, London, 1790, I find 
 several facts. The oldest spelling [there] is henxmen. 
 In the thirty-third year of Henry VI we find ' Henxmen 3.' 
 This means that their number was then limited to three ; 
 see p. 17* of the above-named work. 
 
 In the time of Edward IV, their number was really five 
 (p. 99), though the Ordinances say that their number was 
 to be ' six or more ' (p. 44) *. But it is more important to 
 observe that they were not mere servants, as is usually 
 believed, but something very different. It is clear that 
 their office was purely honorary, for nowhere are any wages 
 assigned them. Doubtless they were a kind of pages, all 
 quite young men or growing boys, who had a paid master 
 assigned to teach them, and who had, moreover, servants 
 of their own. Their place was one of some honour, and 
 they served the king himself, and him only. They were 
 specially assigned ' to the riding household ' on p. 99 ; and 
 everything points to the fact that they were far removed 
 from being mere servants. I find the latest mention 
 of them in the time of Henry VIII (p. 198). I think all 
 this affects the etymology, and renders all connexion with 
 the word Hans (Jack) unlikely ; [but see later articles by 
 DR. CHANCE.] 
 
 1 Note in 1895. Six; because the Master of the Horse counted 
 along with them. See p. 345 below.
 
 HENCHMAN. 343 
 
 The passages are too long for quotation, I only give 
 a few extracts : 
 
 ' Maistyr of Cramer ... [is to teach] the kings Henxmen, the 
 children of chapell . . . the clerkes of the awmery, and other men 
 and children of courte ; . . . which mayster . . . if he be a preeste,' 
 &c. (p. 51). 
 
 ' Henxmen, vj enfauntes, or more, as it shall please the kinge ; all 
 these etyng in the halle, and sitting at bourde togyder . . . and if 
 these gentlemen, or any of them, be wardes, then after theyre byrthes 
 and degrees . . . and everyche of theym an honest servaunt to kepe 
 theyre chambre and hartleys [i. e. armour], and to array him in this 
 courte ' (p. 44). 
 
 'Maistyr of Henxmen, to shew the schooles of urbanitie and norture 
 of England, to lerne them to ryde clenely and surelye ; to draw hem 
 also tojustes; to lerne them were theyre harneys; to have all curtesy> 
 in wordes, dedes, and degrees, diligently to kepe them in rules of 
 goynges and sittings [i. e. in rules of precedence] after they be of 
 honour [i. e. according to their rank]. Moreover, to teche them 
 sondry languages, and other lernynges vertuous, to harping, to pype, 
 sing, daunce . . . and to kepe . . . with these children dew covenitz 
 [sicl, with corrections in theyr chambres, according to such gentlemen. 
 This maistyr sitteth in the halle, next unto these Henxmen, at the 
 same borde, to have his respect unto theyre demeanynges . . . and 
 for the fees that he claymyth amonges the Henxmen of all theyre 
 apparayle, the chamberlayn is juge ' (p. 45\ 
 
 This shows that they were not menials at all, but young 
 men of high rank, who rode in tournaments. 
 
 'The officers of the rtdinge houshold . . . Item, five Henxmen, 
 and one of the said xij squiers to be maister of them . . . Item, 
 a hackney for the henxmen's man ' (p. 99). 
 
 'Item, the king [Henry VII, A. D. 1494] would . . . suffer noe 
 lord's servaunt to awaite there, but only the henchmen ' (p. 109). 
 
 ' Master of the Henxmen, stabling for six horses ' (p. 198). 
 
 416. Henchman. II (8 S. iv. 16 ; 1893). 
 The quotation of the spelling Henxtmen in the earliest 
 known use of the word, viz. in I400 1 , surely settles, at 
 
 1 'The word is older than 1415. It occurs in 1400 "Henxtmen 
 Dominae " (Wardrobe Account, 2 Hen. IV, 95/30, Q. R.') N. and Q. 
 S. iii. 478.
 
 344 HENCHMAN. 
 
 last, the etymology of the word. I have always contended 
 that it represents the Dutch hengst compounded with man 
 the compounds hengst-loon and hengst-geld are given in 
 Kilian, ed. 1777. The difficulty, for me, was to find 
 the f, as the more usual spelling is henxman. But here 
 is the / in the oldest form ; and my present contention 
 is, that my opponents will now have to explain away this 
 t instead of asking me to produce it ; and till this is done 
 I do not see what more can be said. The easiest course, 
 for those who can bring themselves to do it, will be to 
 admit that appearances are now very much in my favour. 
 
 417. Henchman. Ill (8 S. vi. 245 ; 1894). 
 
 This word has been often discussed in N. and Q. I have 
 to note a very early use of it. 
 
 The Treasurer's Accounts for the Earl of Derby's Ex- 
 peditions in 1390-3, have just been edited by Miss L. 
 Toulmin Smith for the Camden Society. The index gives 
 several references for henksman ; so spelt. 
 
 The Earl of Derby had two henksmen, and they certainly 
 rode on horseback at times. The first entry is : ' Diversis 
 hominibus pro tribus equis ab ipsis conductis pro equita- 
 cione domini et ij henksmen apud Dansk decimo die 
 mensis Augusti, xv. s. pr.' The date is August 20, 
 1392. The henksmen were named Bernard and Henry 
 Tylman. 
 
 On another occasion a horse was hired for one of them 
 to take a journey, and an ass for his return, whilst travelling 
 in Judea. 
 
 418. Henchman. IV (8 S. viii. 335 ; 1895). 
 
 This word has been so frequently discussed that I should 
 not have written again about it, were it not that I have 
 obtained quite a flood of new light upon it. 
 
 I have always contended that henchmen were horsemen,
 
 FOD. 345 
 
 few in number, personally attendant on the king, and some- 
 times men of rank. All this is entirely verified by the 
 account given in the Antiquarian Repository, ii. 241-277, 
 of the coronation of Richard III, in 1483. The word is 
 there spelt 'henxemen.' The king's henchmen were the 
 Master of the Horse (who counted as one) and seven 
 others, one of them being Lord Morley. Moreover, the 
 queen had her henchmen, viz. five ladies, riding upon 
 ' women's saddles.' 
 
 In the account of the expenses we first have mention 
 of the king, and then of his henchmen ; next of the queen, 
 and then of her lady-henchmen (to coin a queer word). 
 Next to them in importance comes 'the Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. It is, therefore, quite idle to pretend that 
 a henchman was a mere page of inferior rank. 
 
 Unless it be remembered that the Master of the Horse 
 was one of them, it will not be understood how it was that 
 the seven henchmen required eight doublets, eight black 
 bonnets, and so on (pp. 255, 256). Note, for instance, 
 p. 248: 'And to the Maister and to each of the same 
 henxemen a paire of blac spurres, and for ledyng-rayns xxij 
 yerds of broode riban silk.' 
 
 419. Fod (8 S. iii. 266 ; 1893). 
 
 I have no doubt that this is a ' ghost-word.' Halliwell's 
 edition of Nares gives it, on the strength of a quotation 
 from the Parody se of Dayntie Devices \ 1576: 'As we for 
 Saunders death have cause \\\ fods of teares to saile.' It 
 is the old story ; a letter has ' dropped out.' Read flods, 
 i. e. floods. 
 
 420. Julius Caesar, iii. 1. 58-7O (8 S. iii. 284; 1893). 
 
 Compare the following lines from the second chapter 
 of the Parabolae of Alanus de Insulis :
 
 346 CHA UCER 'S ' S TILBON. ' 
 
 'Aethereus motus mouet omnia sidera praeter 
 
 Unum, sed semper permanet illud idem ; 
 Sic constans et fidus homo sine fine tenebit 
 Hunc in more modum, quern tenet ipse polus. 
 
 421. Chaucer's 'Stilbon' (8 S. iii. 293 ; 1893). 
 
 ... As to Stilbo \Pard. Tale, C. 603], I am behind the 
 age. Dr. Koppel showed, in Anglia, xiii. 183 (1890), 
 that he was Stilpo, of Megara, mentioned by Seneca ; also, 
 that Chaucer got the name from Walter Map's Valerius, 
 cap. 27. Stilbon, for Mercury, occurs in Alanus, Anti- 
 daudian, iv. 6. 
 
 422. Chaucer's Legend of Good Women, line 16 
 (8 S. iii. 293 ; 1893 ; same article as above). 
 
 It is of no consequence what new opinion may be offered 
 as to the person meant by 'Bernard the Monk.' He is 
 certainly Bernard of Clairvaux, as was expressly explained, 
 more than 200 years ago, in J. J. Hofmann's Lexicon 
 Universale (Basileae, 1677), s. v. BERNARDUS. The passage 
 concludes with the words : ' Nullos habuit praeceptores 
 praeter quercus et fagos. Hinc proverb. Neque enim 
 Bernardus vidit omnia.' I admit that I failed to give this 
 reference in 1889; but that, to a student who is always 
 learning, is a long while ago. 
 
 423. Merestones (8 S. iii. 329; 1893). 
 
 Mere is a pure English word, independent of the Gk. 
 fj.fipofj.aL, ' I receive as a portion.' Merestone is not ' a mis- 
 print for milestone,' but is quite right. The 'old verb to 
 mere] spelt mear by Spenser \Ruines of Rome, st. 22], 
 is not an old verb, but a ' mere ' invention of Spenser him- 
 self, coined out of the substantive ; and the substantive 
 is also used by Spenser, in a quotation duly given in John- 
 son's Dictionary.
 
 THE METRE OF 'IN MEMORIAM.' 347 
 
 Mere-stone is not given in my Etymological Dictionary ; 
 nevertheless, it occurs in a dictionary in which I had 
 a hand ; and I here quote the article. 
 
 ' MERE, sb. limit, boundary, S 2 ; nteer, Prompt. Comb. : tnere-stane, 
 boundary stone, Cath. A. S. (ge)mSre.' Mayhew and Skeat, Concise 
 M. E. Dictionary, Oxford, 1888, p. 146. 
 
 Here 'S. 2'= Specimens of English, ed. Morris and 
 Skeat ; ' Prompt.' = Promptorium Parvulorum (Camden 
 Society). 'Cath.' means that mere-stane is a compound 
 given in the Catholicon Anglicum. A reference to Strat- 
 mann's Mid. Eng. Diet, will furnish quotations from 
 Layamon, the Coventry Plays, the Alliterative Poems, 
 Trevisa, &c. And see the A. S. Dictionary. 
 
 The best example is in St. Mark, v. 17. Here the Vul- 
 gate has : ' A finibus eorum.' The Old Northumbrian 
 version has : ' from gemaerum hiora.' The older A. S. 
 version has : ' Of hyra gemaerum ' ; and the later one : ' of 
 hire maeren.' The <z is long, though not so marked. 
 
 424. The Metre of 'In Memoriam' (8 S. iii. 337; 1893). 
 
 I have always thought that it was derived from Geo. 
 Sandys's ' Paraphrase upon the Psalms of David,' 1636. Thus, 
 in Ps. cxxx, we have the remarkably fine stanza : 
 
 ' What profit can my blood afford 
 
 When I shall to the grave descend ? 
 Can senseless dust thy praise extend ? 
 Can death thy living truth record ? ' 
 
 It is a question of chronology for one thing. Who can 
 give us dates or facts ? 
 
 [In N. and Q. 8 S. iii. p. 430, Mr. Adams quoted from 
 F. Davison, who died about 1619; his translation of Ps. 
 cxxv (in this metre) is given in Farr's Select Poetry, p. 325. 
 But this does not strike one as being very accessible; 
 whilst the tone of Geo. Sandys is strikingly like that of
 
 348 YETMINSTER AND OCKFORD. 
 
 Tennyson's poem. Others pointed to Lord Herbert of 
 Cherbury's Ode, which is of later date (1665); also a 
 Luttrell broadside (about 1660). And Mr. Thomas Bayne 
 referred to an Elegy in Ben Jonson's Underwoods, which 
 appeared in 1641. I still think that Tennyson imitated 
 Sandys ; or, if not, then certainly Ben Jonson.] 
 
 425. Yetminster and Ockford (spellings in Domesday) 
 
 (8 S. iii. 409; 1893). 
 
 [I only quote a part of the article, which was occasioned 
 by Canon Taylor's references to Domesday Book.] 
 
 It cannot be too clearly understood that Domesday 
 abounds with the most ludicrous mistakes, and is only 
 of value when properly collated with and controlled by 
 other authorities. It could not be otherwise. The Anglo- 
 French scribes had to spell, how they could, words which 
 had no meaning for them, and which frequently they could 
 not pronounce. We may illustrate this by considering 
 what value we should attach to the spellings of an English- 
 man ignorant of Arabic when he tries to write down Arabic 
 words. 
 
 For this reason, even modern English pronunciation is 
 often of superior value to the Domesday spellings. It 
 is, at any rate, English, and not a mere travesty of it. And 
 it is easily seen that in the case of Ockford [Domesday, 
 Adford], it is an excellent witness. 
 
 The word ' corruption ' is continually misused. When 
 we are told that the Domesday names Everslage, &c. have 
 become Yearsley, &c., we naturally ask how ? There is, 
 properly speaking, no such thing as 'corruption.' It is 
 a term due to the old and vicious habit of ignoring all 
 phonetic laws. These laws act with surprising regularity, 
 and when exceptions occur, they are not due to 'cor- 
 ruption,' but to ' downright and intentional substitution 
 of an apparently intelligible syllable or word for one of
 
 YETMINSTER AND OCKFORD. 349 
 
 which the meaning has been lost. Till this is better 
 understood, no progress is possible. 
 
 The Domesday spelling Adford is, on the face of it, 
 absurd. If Ad- was written for At- [as was suggested], 
 it is at once conceded that the scribe was writing down 
 what he could not pronounce, and did not understand. 
 If, in another instance, he (or another scribe) wrote Acford 
 for Oakford [as was also alleged], he was clearly trying 
 to reproduce the A. S. Acford, originally de-ford, i. e. oak- 
 ford. Cf. Ashford, The A. S. Acford is correct, because 
 written by an Englishman ; see Kemble for the reference. 
 The A. S. de-ford can appear in modern English in the 
 forms Acford, Ockford, or Oakford, all regular developements, 
 petrified at varying dates ; and when we collate Ockford 
 with the A. S. form, we see at once that the Anglo-French 
 scribe has miswritten Adford for Acford because he did 
 not understand it. These spellings are easily understood 
 when we have the clue to them ; when we have not, it 
 would be quite a mistake to trust them overmuch. 
 
 Next, to take the Domesday Etiminstre for Yetminster. 
 It is obvious that eti- can hardly mean at [as was alleged], 
 because eti for at is unknown. It is equally obvious that it 
 cannot mean atte (for at the), because the scribe had not 
 the gift of prophecy, and could not tell that that form 
 would be invented after his death. But when we collate 
 this Eti- with the Mod. Eng. Yet-, very common for ' gate,' 
 and the direct descendant of A. S. geat (with ge=y), we 
 can see that the scribe simply dropped the initial y for the 
 reason that he could not pronounce it, as it was not in 
 his (pronounced) alphabet . . . My point is, that we must 
 control the Domesday forms by our knowledge of the 
 actual changes that have taken place in English. 
 
 I deny the fact of 'corruption' in language, except by 
 the way of forcible and intentional substitution, which only 
 takes place when an attempt is made to give a thing a
 
 350 DIMANCHE DE QUASIMODO. 
 
 new sense. Thus crayfish from ecrevisse gives an apparent 
 sense to half the word. I think it also likely that the A. S. 
 Eofor-imc, i. e. Boar-town, whence Mod. E. York (where 
 again y is due to eo], was a deliberate substitution for a 
 Celtic name which the English voted to be unintelligible. 
 This is not corruption, but intention. It just makes all 
 the difference. 
 
 426. Dimanche de Quasimodo (8 S. iii. 437 ; 1893). 
 
 The phrase quasi modo geniti occurs in Piers Plowman, 
 B. xi. 196, C. xiii. no. My note on the passage explains 
 that the reference is to the First Sunday after Easter, 
 'because, in the Sarum Missal, the office for that day 
 begins with the text, i Pet. ii. 2 : Quasi modo geniti 
 infantes, rationabile sine dolo lac concupiscite.' 
 
 427. ' Stoat,' its derivation (8 S. iii. 455 ; 1893). 
 
 [In reply to the assertion that clubs tart is a name for the 
 stoat, which shows that stoat is from A. S. steortJ] 
 
 Clubstart, from A. S. steort, a tail, is quite another name 
 from stoat. A moment's reflexion will show that stoat and 
 start are different words, just as coat and cart, or moat and 
 mart. That any one should for a moment deem it possible 
 to derive stoat from A. S. steort, is a clear proof of the 
 inability of the English mind to conceive that etymology 
 obeys fixed laws. 
 
 428. Trouts (8 S. iii. 474; 1893). 
 
 [It was first said that the pi. form trouts occurred in 
 Sir W. Scott's Diary. Next, that it was older, occurring in 
 Beaumont and Fletcher's The Scornful Lady, Act iii. sc. 2. 
 Next, that it is in Shakespeare, Measure for Measure, 
 i. 2. 91.] 
 
 The plural trowtis occurs in Barbour's Bruce, ii. 577. 
 The date of the Bruce is 1375, i.e. 241 years earlier than
 
 'CAVALRY CURATES' AND PREACHING PONIES. 351 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher's Scornful Lady, and nearly 400 
 years earlier than the birth of Sir Walter Scott. This 
 shows how easy it is to ' go one better ' in questions as to 
 English usage. 
 
 [Nor is this the oldest example ; for on the same page 
 of N. and Q., a mention of ' 3 Troghtes ' was cited from 
 the Wardrobe Account, 62/7; A. D. 1344-7. The A. S. 
 truht only occurs in the singular.] 
 
 429. ' Cavalry Curates ' and Preaching Ponies 
 
 (8 S. iv. 25 ; 1893). 
 
 The following remarkable announcement occurred in 
 the Daily Telegraph, June 10, at p. 7 : 
 
 ' The latest development of the mounted brigade is an ecclesiastical 
 corps called " Cavalry Curates," in connexion with the Church of 
 England. ... In out of the way districts, where the population is 
 scant and sparse, small chapels of iron or other material will be con- 
 structed, in which the services will be conducted by ''Cavalry 
 Curates," supplied with lithe and strong ponies for the purpose, who 
 will not only preach in half a dozen places on Sunday, but will 
 arrange to hold galloping ministrations during the week.' 
 
 The suggestion that litheness and strength are requisite 
 for enabling ponies to preach in half a dozen places at 
 once, deserves attention. What is meant by 'galloping 
 ministrations ' I do not quite understand ; it seems to refer 
 to some form of spiritual polo. 
 
 430. Mrs. Cowden Clarke's ' Concordance to Shake- 
 speare ' (8 S. iv. 135; 1893). 
 
 It is startling to find that Astarte still clings to this once 
 useful, but now obsolescent work, and recommends utiliza- 
 tion of the numbered lines in the Globe Shakespeare. 
 
 Let her at once order a copy of Schmidt's Shakespeare 
 Lexicon, first printed in 1874-5, and now (for all I know) 
 in some later edition. It gives all the references, noting 
 acts and scenes and lines ; and it includes the poems.
 
 352 'RUNAWAYES EYES.' 
 
 That any student of Shakespeare should never have heard 
 of Dr. Schmidt is quite sensational. Most sincerely do 
 I trust that the 'labour has paid its expenses.' It is the 
 most meritorious work of its kind in the whole range of 
 our literature. 
 
 The Concordance to the sonnets and poems, to which 
 allusion is made, is that by Mrs. H. H. Furness, printed 
 at Philadelphia in 1874. I am the proud possessor of 
 a copy sent to me by her husband, the editor of several 
 of Shakespeare's plays, the completeness and excellence 
 of whose work leave but little to be further desired. I 
 remember that it was simply addressed to 'Mr. Skeat, 
 London,' and it says something for the intelligence of 
 St. Martin's-le-Grand that it reached me without delay. 
 
 431. ' Runawayes Eyes' (8 S. iv. 84; 1893). 
 
 I cannot for a moment accept the ridiculous guess that 
 we have here a misprint for unawayrs. It is founded on 
 the cool statement that ' the old mode of spelling unawares 
 was unawayrs? Was it, indeed ? Then will any one kindly 
 submit some quotations to prove it? It was certainly not 
 the normal spelling, and I can see no reason for the 
 insertion of the diphthong ay instead of the usual and 
 correct a. This is how Shakespearian ' emendations ' are 
 produced ; they are frequently founded on unsupported 
 assumptions. 
 
 432. English Words ending in '-ther' (8 S. iv. 162 ; 
 
 1893)- 
 
 I wish to draw attention to a remarkable phenomenon, 
 on which much more light is desirable. 
 
 The English words ending in -ther fall into two distinct 
 sets. 
 
 i. The following words are spelt with th in Anglo-Saxon 
 and Middle English, and give no trouble to the etymologist.
 
 ENGLISH WORDS ENDING IN '-THER.' 353 
 
 brother, either, feather, lather, leather, neither, nether, other, 
 rather, whether, wether. With them we may class heather, 
 as being formed from heath ; smother, of which the M. E. 
 form is smorther; and even fathom as compared with 
 A. S. faedm, though ending in -thorn instead of -ther. 
 Related words in German end in -der. Compare Bruder, 
 Feder, Leder, nieder, ander, entweder, Widder; also Faden. 
 
 2. But the following words are spelt with d, not only 
 in Anglo-Saxon, but even in Middle-English : father, gather, 
 hither, mother, tether, thither, together, weather, whither, 
 wither. Related German words end in -ter\ compare 
 Voter, Gaffer, Mutter, Wetter. Of course hither, thither, 
 and whither all changed together, and the words together, 
 and gather (being closely related) did the same. More- 
 over, wither is a mere derivative of weather. Hence the 
 list of independent words is reduced to Father, gather, 
 hither, mother, tether, weather but we may add to the list 
 the provincial word ether, A. S. edor, O. H. G. etar, a 
 pliant rod. The remarkable point is this : that the change 
 in these words from d to th is quite late. Stratmann's 
 Dictionary of Middle English gives only forms with d ; there 
 is (with one exception, for which see p. 354) not a single 
 form with th, so far as I can discover. That is to say, the 
 change was later than 1400, and not long, perhaps, before 
 1500. What was the cause of it ? 
 
 I believe it was due to the Wars of the Roses, when the 
 dialects seem to have been mixed up. I have little doubt 
 that the forms in -ther were Northern ; and perhaps ulti- 
 mately due to Scandinavian influence. 
 
 The most remarkable case is that of the verb to wither. 
 The A. S. verb is wedrian, to weather ; but the Icel. verb 
 is vithra, with an /', as in modern English. I think this 
 goes far to prove my point. 
 
 I would appeal to correspondents to produce, if they 
 can, any dated example in which any of the words in my 
 
 A a
 
 354 SPENSER; F. Q., I. I. 8. 
 
 second list is spelt with th, at an earlier date than 1500. 
 It is no easy task I have, for years, been hunting for 
 the form father, and can find nothing earlier than a quota- 
 tion from Skelton; see Dyce's edition, i. 139. A collection 
 of quotations, for spellings with th, older than 1500, may 
 help us greatly. I repeat the list of words for which they 
 are desired. They are ; ether (a rod), father, gather, hither, 
 mother, tether, thither, together, weather, whither, wither. 
 
 [In the Cambridge MS. of Thomas of Erceldoune, ed. 
 Murray, 1. 437, we find teyryt, probably meant for te^ryt 
 (tethered). The MS. is Northern, and of the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. Cf. Icel. tjbfira, to tether.] 
 
 433. Spenser ; P. Q., i. 1. 8 (8 S. iv. 215 ; 1893). 
 
 The fact that Spenser's ' tree-list ' is imitated from Tasso, 
 Gier. Lib. iii. 75, is perfectly well known. It is printed, 
 for example, in my edition of Chaucer's Minor Poems, 
 1888, p. 292. Warton says : 'Ovid, Seneca, Lucan, Statius, 
 and Claudian, have all left us descriptions of trees,' and 
 gives the references. 
 
 The fact is, that this ' tree-list ' has been trotted out by 
 the poets over and over again. I give a rather long list 
 in my note, but it is easy to make it longer. Some of the 
 poets who have made use of a similar list, are these in 
 chronological order : Ovid, Seneca, Lucan, Statius, Claudian, 
 Guil. de Lorris, Boccaccio, Chaucer, Tasso, Spenser. I 
 daresay there are more of them. The hint for it perhaps 
 came from Vergil, Aen. vi. 179; see Ovid, Met. x. 90; 
 Seneca, Oedip. 532; Lucan, Phars. iii. 440; Statius, Theb. 
 vi. 98 ; Claudian, De Raptu Pros. ii. 107 ; Guil. de Lorris, 
 Rom. Rose, 1338-1368; Boccaccio, Teseide, xi. 22-24; 
 Chaucer, Parl. Foules, 176, and Kn. Tale, 2063; Tasso, 
 Gier. Lib. iii. 75 ; Spenser, F. Q. i. i. 8. As to Spenser, 
 it is quite certain that one of his authorities here was 
 Chaucer's Par lenient of Foules.
 
 ' TO LAUNDER. 3 355 
 
 434. ' To Launder ' (8 S. iv. 216 ; 1893). 
 
 Schmidt's Shakespeare Lexicon duly records laundering; 
 with a reference to A Lover's Complaint, 1. 17. It is 
 never safe to omit consulting him. The pp. landered 
 occurs in Hudibras, ii. i. 171, as the Century Dictionary 
 correctly observes. 
 
 435. A Comic Etymology of ' Beadle ' (8 S. iv. 306 ; 
 
 1893)- 
 
 The following appeared in the Saturday Review, Sep- 
 tember 9, p. 306, in a review of Professor Bright's edition 
 of the A. S. Gospel of Luke : 
 
 ' The officer ... to whom the judge delivers the criminal becomes 
 the beadle, or by-del, who, we need hardly say, is not the modern 
 Bumble, but the officer of the by, or township.' 
 
 This is delicious. If by- in by-del means a township, 
 what is -dell If it is our deal or part, we gain the informa- 
 tion that a beadle is ' a part of a town.' Perhaps he is the 
 parish-pump. Unluckily, the word by, for township, is not 
 Anglo-Saxon, but Norse. It occurs once, in the Northum- 
 brian version of Mark v. 3, as a gloss upon hus, a house, 
 but only as a borrowed word from Norse. 
 
 Again, the y in bydel was short, as the cognate German 
 word biittel shows. It is true that the y was marked long 
 in Bosworth's Dictionary, and I find (somewhat to my 
 surprise) that I inadvertently copied this mark of length in 
 the first edition of my Dictionary ; but it was corrected in 
 the Supplement, at p. 784. However, I gave the right 
 etymology, from beodan, to command ; and the whole 
 account of the word is now given in full in the New 
 English Dictionary. The etymological division of the word 
 is byd-el; where byd- is derived, by mutation, from the zero- 
 grade of the strong verb beodan. 
 
 A a 2
 
 356 MAY-DAY: MARIGOLD. 
 
 436. May-Day: Marigold (8 S. iv. 311 ; 1893). 
 
 At the last reference (iv. 272) we are told marigold has 
 been referred to an A. S. form meregold, gold of the mere. 
 If the A. S. mere is now mere (as is the case), then it cannot 
 also be mary \ Else we should have to admit that a deer is 
 all one with a dairy, and fear is but another form of fairy. 
 The A. S. mere-gold is a pure fiction, invented by some 
 ' etymologist,' in the hope that he would not be detected. 
 A large number of ' Anglo-Saxon ' words were composed in 
 the last century, from a prevalent idea that to invent forms 
 as required was a pious thing to do, as being likely to 
 forward the cause of truth. 
 
 I suspect that this A. S. meregold is due to the amusing 
 suggestion in Dr. Prior's Plant Names, that marsh-marigold 
 is the A. S. mersc mear-gealla, a suggestion which may serve 
 to measure Dr. Prior's knowledge of English phonology. 
 As a fact, mersc means marsh (right so far; ; mear (for 
 mearK) is a horse ; and gealla is the Mod. E. gall, which is 
 quite a different thing from gold. Moreover, this ' marsh 
 horse-gall ' is not a marigold at all, but a gentian, the 
 Gentiana pnenmonanthe, also called bitter-wort, for gall is 
 bitter. 
 
 Surely marigold is just Mary-gold, precisely as beefeater is 
 beaf-eater. The Irish name lus main, leek of Mary, 
 clinches the matter. 
 
 437. Second Sight (8 S. iv. 315 ; 1893). 
 
 The incident here given from the Scotsman is one of 
 those stupid fabrications which carry with them their own 
 refutation. The story amounts to this. A certain incident 
 at Sierra Leone was seen in England at the same moment, 
 as shown by clocks or watches. 
 
 But Sierra Leone is in 13 50' of West longitude, which 
 makes a difference in time of about fifty-three minutes.
 
 TARRING-IRON. 357 
 
 Hence the lady in England saw the incident nearly an 
 hour after it occurred. Clumsy forgers are requested, for 
 the future, to remember that a difference in longitude 
 makes a difference in time. 
 
 438. Tarring-iron (8 S. iv. 317 ; 1893). 
 
 This well-known puzzle is fully described at p. 837 of 
 Cassels' Book of Sports and Pastimes, n. d. It is there 
 called ' The Puzzling Rings,' to which is added, ' but it has 
 been so many times christened, that no list of names could 
 claim to be a complete list.' Even when you know how 
 to do the puzzle, it takes some time to accomplish. It is, 
 or was, extremely common. 
 
 Tarre is another form of tarry. Usually, tarre meant to 
 vex; to tarre on is to set on a dog; but it is, etymo- 
 logically, the same word as tarry. See teryen in Strat- 
 mann. 
 
 439. Sith: Sithence : Since (8 S. iv. 358; 1893). 
 
 Sith is not ' shortened from an older form sithenj but is 
 an independent word. Sith-en is a compound word ; from 
 sith and then. So, also, the German seit is not shortened 
 from an older form seitdem, but is an independent word. 
 Seit-dem is compounded of seit and dem. Explained in my 
 Dictionary, s. v. 'Since.' 
 
 440. ' Gingham ' (8 S. iv. 386 ; 1893). 
 
 According to Littre, s. v. guingam, this stuff is named 
 from Guingamp, in Brittany. 
 
 The Century Dictionary also mentions an unlikely 
 etymology from a Javanese word ginggang, perishable ! 
 No one explains the spelling. I think the right explana- 
 tion is, simply, that gingham is an old English spelling of 
 Guingamp. See the account of ' the towne of Gyngham,' 
 i. e. Guingamp, in the Paston Letters, ed. Gairdner, iii. 357.
 
 358 HOLT '= HILL, 
 
 441. Holt=Hill ! (8 S. iv. 392 ; 1893). 
 
 The interpretation of holt as ' hill ' is somewhat modern, 
 and may have arisen from popular misuse. The fact 
 that both words have an h and an / in them is quite enough 
 to ' establish a connexion ' in the minds of those who do 
 not care to investigate the meanings of words historically. 
 The original sense of holt is ' wood ' ; and this is verified 
 by observing the senses of cognate words ; such are G. ffolz, 
 wood ; Du. hout, wood, timber, fuel (you cannot burn 
 hills !) ; Russ. koloda, trunk, log ; Polish kloda ; Gk. /cAaSos, 
 branch ; Irish coill, a wood. 
 
 442. Sunset (8 S. iv. 521 ; 1893). 
 
 I observe in N. and Q., 8 S. iv. 455, the following 
 question : ' Is the phrase "the sun sets in the west" good 
 grammar? Ought it not to be "sits in the west?" 3 
 
 This shows a very common confusion of thought as to 
 what constitutes grammar. Grammar is wholly concerned 
 with prevalent usage, and is distinct from logic. No one 
 ever said, ever has said, or ever will say, that the sun sits in 
 the west; which is quite enough to show that sits is here 
 ungrammatical. 
 
 Of course the question means, Is the phrase involving 
 sets good logic ? This is a totally different question, and is 
 worth considering. But it is really high time to begin to 
 understand that logic and grammar cover different ground, 
 and should be kept apart. Nearly all the disputed questions 
 about grammar involve this fundamental confusion of ideas ; 
 and this is why such discussions are often so wearisome, 
 so full of useless wrangling, and so unsatisfactory. 
 
 The right way to investigate grammar is to do so 
 historically. Never mind whether 'sets' is 'right' or 
 'wrong,' whatever those terms may seem to imply. We 
 have, first of all, to inquire into the history of the phrase. 
 
 The history shows that there were really two distinct
 
 SUNSET. 359 
 
 uses of set. The usual A. S. settan, the causal of sittan, is 
 regularly transitive. But there was a single instance in 
 which settan was intransitive, viz. when it was used of 
 a swelling that subsided ; in this instance it is probable 
 that the reference was not to the verb to sit, but to the 
 derived substantives set, a seat, set/, a seat ; and to the verb 
 settan, to take a seat, to settle down. To say that a swell- 
 ing sits would have been absurd; subsidence expresses 
 a sort of movement, or alteration of position, which the 
 mere verb to sit entirely fails to suggest. Hence the A. S. 
 verb was, in this case, settan. The A. S. settan, however, is 
 never used of the sun ; this usage is somewhat later, being 
 found, at any rate, in the thirteenth century; but the 
 history of sunset runs upon a line parallel with that already 
 indicated. The sun never sits in the west, as it is always 
 (apparently) in motion ; it subsides there. And these two 
 things, being logically distinct, may well be distinguished in 
 grammar also ; although grammar (as already said) is not 
 pledged to be always logically correct. A ship is feminine 
 in English grammar, and a wife is neuter in German 
 grammar. It may be ' logic ' to refuse to conform to such 
 usage ; but it is not ' grammar.' 
 
 The oldest English expressed sunset by various phrases ; 
 they are all well illustrated in Bosworth and Toller's 
 A. S. Dictionary. Thus the A. S. set meant a seat ; hence, 
 ' to sete code sunne,' the sun went to its seat, the sun set. 
 Another word was set-gang, i. e. a going to one's seat ; 
 as in 'ofer set-gang,' after the seat-going of the sun, after 
 sunset. Much commoner was the sb. setlgang, with 
 a similar sense and use; as in 'aet sunne setlgang,' at 
 the sun's seat-going, at sunset. Sometimes it was setlung ; 
 as in ' sefter sunnan setlunge,' after sunset. 
 
 Out of these usages arose the M. E. use of the verb 
 setten, with reference to the subsidence of the sun. This 
 occurs in Havelok, 1. 2671: 'til that to sette bigan the
 
 360 ' TOOTH-SAW.' 
 
 sunne,' till the sun began to set. It clearly arose from 
 a desire for abbreviation. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to go on. History shows that set, 
 to subside, is properly intransitive, and arose in a somewhat 
 different manner from the ordinary transitive set, the causal 
 of sit. 
 
 The moral is, that we should never call grammatical 
 usages in question till we have first looked at their history. 
 It is just as unfair as it would be to brand a man as wicked 
 of whose conduct we know nothing whatever. 
 
 443. * Tooth-saw ' (8 S. iv. 525 ; .1893). 
 
 We are all fallible ; and even JV. and Q. can err. I have 
 just observed a curious misprint, which has produced 
 a word such as Dr. Murray will carefully avoid ; at any 
 rate, in such a context. 
 
 In N. and Q., 6 S. x. 422, col. 2, is a notice of a book 
 called Chaucer's Beads, which is said to contain 'a con- 
 cordance of Chaucer's proverbs and tooth-saws? 
 
 However, Chaucer was no dentist; he only originated 
 ' sooth saws,' i. e. true sayings. The expression ' sooth sawe ' 
 occurs in his House of Fame, 1. 2089. 
 
 444. To hang out ' (8 S. v. 366 ; 1894). 
 
 The phrase ' to hang out,' in the sense ' to lodge, reside,' 
 is well known. See Pickwick, chap, xxx ; Daniel Deronda, 
 chap, xxxvii, in the Century Dictionary, which adds 'in 
 allusion to the custom of hanging out a sign or " shingle " 
 to indicate one's shop and business.' 
 
 No early instance of this is given ; but I can supply it. 
 In Middleton's play of The Widow, iv. i, there is reference 
 to a'quack doctor who has lately come to reside in a certain 
 town, and has taken up his quarters at the ' Cross Inn.' 
 
 ' His flag hangs out in town here i' the Cross Inn, 
 With admirable cures of all conditions.'
 
 FLOTSAM AND JETSAM. 361 
 
 The editor's note says, ' It was usual for quacks to hang 
 out a flag when they took up their quarters in a town.' 
 
 I presume the custom was not at all confined to quacks ; 
 they would hardly care to proclaim themselves as such. Of 
 course they only did what other tradesmen did ; the practice 
 of hanging out ' signs ' was common amongst tradesmen 
 of all descriptions. In The Alchemist it is Abel Drugger, 
 'a seller of tobacco,' who asks the expert to invent a sign 
 for him. 
 
 The Century Dictionary further explains that in the 
 United States a ' shingle ' means ' a small sign-board, 
 especially that of a professional man,' whence the colloquial 
 phrase 'to hang out one's shingle.' This shows that the 
 custom found its way to America, where it is still practised ; 
 and that the phrase ' to hang out ' is still known there in its 
 original sense. 
 
 445. Flotsam and Jetsam (8 S. v. 475 ; 1894). 
 
 The explanations of these words in my Dictionary are 
 incorrect. The correct explanations were, however, first 
 given by myself in Notes printed for the Philological 
 Society in 1888-90. My paper on the words was read on 
 November 4, 1887. 
 
 Flotsam is an adaptation of the Anglo-French floteson, 
 for which see p. 82 of the Black Book of the Admiralty, 
 ed. Sir Travers Twiss, 1871, vol. i. It occurs, with various 
 spellings, in Cotgrave (s. v. _/?<?), Minsheu (1627) and Blount 
 (1691). I further prove that floteson answers precisely to 
 a Low Latin form * fluctationem, a barbarous variant of the 
 accusative oifluctuatio. 
 
 Jetsam, better spelt jetsom or jetson (as in Minsheu), is an 
 adaptation of the Anglo-French getteson, occurring in the 
 same volume of the Black Book, pp. 96, 170. It presents 
 no difficulty, being precisely the Lat. iactationem ; from 
 iactare, to cast.
 
 362 Sr. SWITHUN, SWITHIN, OR SWITH-HUN. 
 
 My supposition that the words were partly of Scandinavian 
 origin is wrong. They are both of Latin origin ; from the 
 root-verbs fiuere and iacere respectively. 
 
 446. St. Swithun, Swithin, or Swith-hun 
 
 (8 S. vi. 46 ; 1894). 
 
 The A. S. spelling was Swith-hun, as in ^Elfric ; for it is 
 compounded of swith, strong, and hun, savage. One h 
 was dropped (like the one / in eight-th) because Sivithhun 
 looked odd. The spelling Swithin arose from loss of the 
 etymology and indistinctness of speech ; it has nothing 
 to recommend it except that it is much in vogue. 
 
 447. Edinburghean Grammar ; as, ' He told you 
 
 and I' (8 S. vi. 53; 1894). 
 
 We make, in English, no distinction of form between the 
 nominative and accusative in the case of nouns. This has 
 led to occasional confusion between the cases of pronouns ; 
 and that is all. 
 
 The matter is discussed in Matzner's English Grammar, 
 tr. by Grice, vol. i. p. 294. The confusion spoken of is 
 there said to be common in Yorkshire, Hampshire, 
 Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, Worcestershire, and Here- 
 fordshire. In fact, it is common everywhere, and is nothing 
 new, being found in many authors, from the fourteenth 
 century to the present day ; only, of course, meddling 
 editors usually try to suppress the evidence. Matzner 
 gives numerous references. It is sufficient to give one of 
 them : ' Yes, you have seen Cassio and she together ' ; 
 Othello, iv. 2. 3. 
 
 448. 'Boneshaw ' (8 S. vi. 65 ; 1892). 
 
 For this word, see the New English Dictionary. Dr. Murray 
 does not give the etymology of the latter syllable. 
 
 Shaw corresponds to a Norse skag-. The Icel. skaga is
 
 THA CKERA YA NA . 363 
 
 ,to project, stick out ; and skagi is a projection of almost 
 any kind; see Norvveg. skage, sb., anything that sticks out; 
 and see Rietz' Swedish Dialect Dictionary. 
 
 Hence boneshatv, or 'sciatica,' was supposed, originally, 
 to be caused by some sort of lump on the bone. This is 
 not true, so far as I know, but was a natural idea. In 
 modern times, the sense of shaw being lost, it has been 
 altered to shave, as if the disease were due to a scraping of 
 the bone ; hence boneshave. But in Somersetshire, boneshave 
 meant (in 1790) 'a bony or horny excrescence or tumor 
 growing out of horses' heels ' (Grose). Precisely so. 
 
 449. Thackerayana (8 S. vi. 85 ; 1894). 
 The following nonsense verses by Thackeray, quoted 
 in the Daily Telegraph of July 18, 1894, are too good to be 
 lost: 
 
 'When the bee is in the bonnet, and the heather on the brae, 
 And the lilting bubbly-jockey calls forth on every spray ; 
 When the haggis in the muirland, and the estrich at the tree 
 Sing their matins at the sunset, dost thou think, my Jean, of 
 me?' 
 
 Bubbly-jockey is, of course, a turkey. ' The haggis in the 
 muirland ' is a fine image. 
 
 450. Indian Magic : the Mango-growing trick 
 
 (8 S. vi. 94; 1894). 
 
 The explanation of this trick is well known. It is given 
 in detail in a book on conjuring by Hofmann. Practically, 
 it is done by sleight of hand. 
 
 On each occasion the plant is covered up and again 
 uncovered, so as to show its stages of growth ; and on each 
 occasion you see a different plant; so that it is done by 
 repeated substitution. 
 
 Crude and unlikely as this explanation seems, it gives 
 the right answer ; for details, see a printed account. It can 
 be done in any country, and is not peculiar to India.
 
 364 THE PRONUNCIATION OF 'IRON.' 
 
 451. The Pronunciation of 'Iron' (8 S. vi. 96 ; 1894). 
 
 Some say the r is mute ; and some say it is not so, 
 because we say ' iern.' All turns on the difference between 
 sound and symbol. When a Southerner says 'iern/ he 
 does not really sound the r at all. Neither is the r 'mute.' 
 What really happens is, that the supposed non-mute r is 
 really pronounced, as Mr. Sweet says, as ' a vocal murmur.' 
 Instead of the trilled consonant, we hear the 'obscure 
 vowel,' hardly differing (if at all) from the sound of a in 
 China. This is why it rimes to ' thy urn,' as Mr. T. says ; 
 only let it be noted that the ur is really vocalic. 
 
 The obscure vowel is commonly denoted by a ' turned ' e. 
 Hence iron is pronounced as ' aian ' ; urn, as ' 99n ' ; and 
 Byron as ' bairan ' or ' baiaran/ the r being in this case 
 trilled. In some districts the r is trilled, and iron then 
 rimes with Byron. I have heard it, but I forget where. 
 The phonetic symbol for our 'long /' is (ai\ more strictly 
 (art. 
 
 452. A Queer Etymology : ' gnoffe ' (8 S. vi. 143 ; 
 1894). 
 
 I have seen some strange etymologies in my time, but 
 I think the following is the worst case. 
 
 In A Dictionary of Slang, by Barrere and Leland, p. xxi, 
 we are offered the etymology of gnoffe, meaning a churl or 
 miser. 
 
 ' Its true root is probably the A. S. cneov, cnuf, or cnhvan 
 (also cneav, knave), to bend, yield to, cneovjan (genu- 
 flectere).' 
 
 For whom is this written? Certainly not for such as 
 know the A.S. alphabet. The following are the errors. 
 
 1. There is no A. S. cneov. Some Germans write v for 
 w ; but the sound of v is not intended by it. Probably 
 cneow is meant. 
 
 2. But cneow is a sb., and means a knee. It is merely
 
 THE ETYMOLOGY OF JINGO. 365 
 
 the old form of knee. But what has knee to do with 
 gnoffe ? 
 
 3. There is no A. S. cnuf, nor anything like it. 
 
 4. There is no A. S. cnitvan. If cnawan is intended, it 
 is the old spelling of know which has nothing to do with 
 knee, nor yet with gnoffe. 
 
 5. There is no A. S. cneav, nor yet cneaw. The A. S. for 
 ' knave ' is cnafa, or cnapa. 
 
 6. Knave has nothing to do with gnoffe, nor yet with knee, 
 nor yet with know. 
 
 7. By cneovjan is meant cneowian, to kneel. But what 
 has this to do with gnoffe ? 
 
 Surely it is mere charlatanry to cite non-existent words, 
 and to pretend to have a knowledge of Anglo-Saxon when 
 not even the sense of the symbols has been ascertained. 
 It would have been better to say, in plain English, that 
 gnoffe is derived from knee, or from knave, or from know, or 
 from kneel. Then any plain man could have seen at once 
 the absurdity of the suggestions. Of course knee, knave, 
 and know are unrelated words, so we have no clue as to 
 which of them is really meant. Knave comes, perhaps, the 
 nearest, but it does not much matter ; for, even in this 
 case, there is no connexion whatever. 
 
 The days are past when sham Anglo-Saxon can be 
 seriously quoted without discovery. There must be several 
 hundred students by this time in England, Germany, and 
 America, who have learnt the simplest rudiments of the 
 language ; and all such will regard the above performance 
 with more amusement than respect. 
 
 \Gnoffe occurs in Chaucer (see my notes) ; and is derived 
 from Heb. ganav, a thief.] 
 
 453. The Etymology of Jingo (8 S. vi. 149 ; 1894). 
 
 It is an old superstition that Jingo is derived from the 
 Basque word for God ; but I know of no reason why we
 
 366 THE ETYMOLOGY OF JINGO. 
 
 should believe it. This strange notion is, however, put 
 forward for acceptance in the Century Dictionary, which 
 has no evidence to offer, but the following vague and 
 unlikely guess that it is ' probably [!] a form, introduced 
 perhaps [!] by gipsies or soldiers, of the Basque Jinkoa, 
 Jainkoa, contracted forms of Jaungoicoa, Jangoikoa, God, 
 lit. the lord of the high.' So that the true Basque form 
 has first to be contracted ; then it must be used by gipsies, 
 who notoriously come from Biscay, or else by soldiers, 
 who must have come over the Pyrenees, and then across 
 the whole of France to get here ; and then these gipsies 
 or soldiers further mauled the word till they reduced it to 
 a form comfortable to swear by, and so on. And all this 
 is so extremely probable ! It all tallies with the old-world 
 style of etymology viz. that we must always have a 
 make-up story, which is to be accepted without proof, and 
 handed on as an article of faith, to disbelieve which is 
 to be ' ill-informed ! ' 
 
 If we must have a guess, let it at least be a probable 
 one. And this is why the rival theory, given in Webster's 
 Dictionary, is worth notice : ' Said to be a corruption 
 of St. Gingoulf.' Who this was we are not told ; but, of 
 course, it means St. Gengulfus. 
 
 The statement that it is 'a corruption' is erroneous. 
 Jingo comes from Gengulphus or Gengulfus not by corrup- 
 tion, but by the strictest phonetic laws. It was not possible 
 for it to become anything else, as any one who knows the 
 phonetic laws of Anglo-French and of English can easily 
 see for himself. 
 
 Gengulfus must, in French, become Gengoulf, Gengoul, 
 Gengou, and, in English, can only be Jingoo or Jingo. 
 We can test the ending -ulfus by the word werwolf; in the 
 French loup-garou, the ou represents the Latinized -ulfus, 
 corresponding to the Teutonic wulf. The change of en to 
 in is a fixed law in English ; the very word ' English '
 
 GOLF. 367 
 
 itself is pronounced Inglish, and I have given a list of 
 words showing the same sound-change. See p. 258. 
 
 Who was St. Gengulphus ? Alban Butler strangely omits 
 him ; yet most of us must have met with him in the 
 Ingoldsby Legends. His day was May n, and his life 
 is given at length in the Ada Sanctorum. He was a Bur- 
 gundian in the reign of King Pepin (752-768), and was 
 martyred on May n, 760. It is especially noted in the 
 Ada that Belgians called him Gengoal: 'Gengulphum 
 Belgae Gengoal vocant ' ; though the right phonetic form 
 is rather Gengoul. 
 
 Sir H. Nicolas quotes him as ' Gengoul, Gengoux, and 
 Gengou, in the Low Countries, or Gengulph.' Note that 
 a place named St. Gingoulph lies on the lake of Geneva, 
 opposite Vevey. 
 
 That we should love to swear by French saints needs 
 no proof. Even Chaucer's Prioress swore by St. Loy, who 
 was the Eligius of Limoges and Paris, just a century 
 earlier than St. Jingo. Our ancestors swore by St. Martin 
 of Tours, by St. Loy, by St. Denis, and many more. But 
 we shall long wait for evidence that they swore in Basque ! 
 It is a pity that they did not. 
 
 454. Golf (8 S. vi. 158; 1894). 
 
 At the last reference, Webster's Dictionary is misquoted. 
 Webster refers us, not to 'the Danish kolf] but to the 
 ' D. kolf ; and D. means ' Dutch.' He is, of course, quite 
 right ; the Danish form is kolv, the proper sense of which 
 is 'shaft' or 'arrow,' originally, a cross-bow bolt. In my 
 Dictionary, I refer to the account in Jamieson's Dictionary, 
 and I quote the Dutch kolf, 'a club to strike little 
 bouls or balls with,' from Sewel's Dutch Dictionary, 1754. 
 I ought to have cited Hexham's Dutch Dictionary, 1658 
 (ninety-six years earlier). He gives : ' Een kolve, a Banding- 
 staff to strike a ball.' Koolman and Kluge show that
 
 368 A HANDFUL OF QUEER ETYMOLOGIES. 
 
 kolf is related to Eng. club and clump, and even to the Lat. 
 globus. 
 
 455. A Handful of Queer Etymologies (8 S. vi. 204 ; 
 1894). 
 
 To find startling etymologies we have only to consult 
 books upon English antiquities written in the eighteenth 
 century, or in the early part of the present century. The 
 fashion at that time was to favour such as were most 
 outrageous, or, at any rate, to quote them with admiration 
 and respect. 
 
 Hampson's Medii svi Kalendaria (1841) is a capital 
 book with an awkward title. It contains several etymologies 
 which are highly ingenious. I quote a few. 
 
 ' Perseus, from P'Eres Zeus, the sun ' (sic x ; p. 53. 
 
 Zeus is, I suppose, Greek; to what language P'Eres 
 belongs no clue is offered, nor are we informed how it 
 comes to mean ' the sun.' 
 
 ' Charing Cross, as it was erected by Edward pour sa chere reine, 
 has been plausibly derived from the French ' ; p. 190. 
 
 I believe this delicious piece of humbug is still admired. 
 
 ' Gauch) whence jocus '; p. 212. Gauch, here quoted, is 
 the German for a simpleton. Germanic words are so 
 often derived from Latin that it is quite refreshing to find 
 a Latin word derived from German, for a change. 
 
 ' In Yorkshire a third part of the county is of vast extent, and 
 shires, hundreds, and wapentakes being formerly set out per ambula- 
 tionem, by processions on foot, this was performed by processions 
 made on horseback ; and hence the name of '' Ryding " ;' p. 228. 
 
 This is not Hampson's own ; it was invented by Dr. 
 Kuerden, ' a learned antiquary of the seventeenth century.' 
 Hardy guess-work was evidently regarded as 'learning,' 
 not by any means as presumptuous ignorance.
 
 GEASON OR GESON. 369 
 
 ' The word goblin has been derived from God Be/in, who is the 
 same as Bel or Belus ' ; p. 249. 
 
 Certainly God Belin is excellent French. 
 
 ' Pales, the tutelary deity of husbandry and grazing, whose name 
 bears a great affinity to Baal, Belus, the sun ' ; p. 249. 
 
 All our old antiquaries had ' Baal ' on the brain ; it was 
 a blessed name to them. 
 
 ' Hills in England which have been the site of heliacal idolatry [how 
 is this ascertained?] are commonly called Toot Hills, from the Egyptian 
 T/ioth, Taut, Teut, Tet, or Taautres, who is the same as Mercury, 
 or Buddha, Osiris, and Maha Deva. He was known to the Irish as 
 Tuth, and gave rise to the English letter Te, the Greek Tau, and the 
 Hebrew Thau and Teth ' ; p. 254. 
 
 This is all a revelry of delight. It follows that the 
 Hebrew Thau and Teth are the same letter, and that 
 Egyptian was freely spoken all over England. 
 
 ' I suspect that we owe the word aroynt to the rowan-tree . . . quasi, 
 a roant thee, or a roan to thee, witch ' ; p. 272. 
 
 ' La-ith-trtas, the day of the obligation of grain, is pronounced La- 
 ee-mas, a word readily corrupted to Lammas ith signifies all kinds 
 of grain, particularly wheat ; and mas signifies all kinds of fruit, 
 especially the acorn, whence the word mast' ; p. 334. 
 
 La-ith-mas is meant to be Irish. It follows that Candle- 
 mas is ' candle-mast.' 
 
 456. Geason or Geson (8 S. vi. 232 ; 1894). 
 
 The more correct spelling is with ea, as the Middle- 
 English was gesen, with open e. It means 'rare' rather 
 than 'wonderful,' and a still better translation is 'scarce.' 
 It was fairly common in the sixteenth century, and pre- 
 viously; but I should say that it was not much used after 
 1660. The A. S. form was not goesne, because there is no oe 
 in Anglo-Saxon, though the symbol occurs in Northumbrian. 
 The A. S. word was gaisne, with long ce, which produced 
 long open e in Mid. English ; and such words were spelt with 
 ea in Tudor times. It is allied to A. S. gad, Go\\\.gaidw, lack. 
 
 Bb
 
 370 ST. PARNELL. 
 
 For examples, see four in Stratmann's Mid. Eng. Dic- 
 tionary ; five in Halliwell's Dictionary, under ' Geason ' and 
 ' Geson ' ; and further, in my Notes to P. Plowman, p. 318, 
 where I observe that Ray notes ' Geazon, scarce, hard to 
 come by,' as being an Essex word. As Ray wrote in 
 1691, he gives a later instance than that in 1660 ; but he 
 considered the word provincial, and I dare say it is still 
 in use. Nail includes it in his East- Anglian Glossary, 
 printed in 1866. 
 
 457. St. Parnell (8 S. vi. 256; 1894). 
 
 The answer to this question (as to many others, e. g. that 
 about geason on the same page) is given in my Notes to 
 Piers Plowman. These notes have been plentifully pillaged 
 by exactly one writer 1 , but are wholly unknown to the 
 general, who have no conception of their extent and use- 
 fulness. On this occasion I shall quote from p. 80 : 
 
 ' " May 31 was dedicated to St. Petronilla the Virgin. She was 
 supposed to be able to cure the quartan ague." Chambers, Book of 
 Days, ii. 389. The name, once common, scarcely survives, except as 
 a surname in the form Parnell ; see Bardsley's English Surnames, 
 P. 56.' 
 
 458. Lagan (8 S. vi. 265; 1894). 
 
 I suspect that lawyers are quite as much given to bad 
 etymology as other people; and certainly the word lagan 
 has been queerly defined. 
 
 In Cowel's Interpreter, as reprinted in 1701, we find, 
 s. v. Tlotson,' that 'Lagon, alias Lagan or Ligan, is that 
 which lieth in the bottom of the sea.' Cowel here agrees 
 with Blount's Nomolexicon, which has the same, and gives 
 the derivation from A. S. licgan, to lie. 
 
 The very same work, s. v. ' Lagan,' declares that lagan 
 1 [The editor of the Catholicon Anglicum^}
 
 HUCKSHINS.' 371 
 
 are goods cast out of a ship, and that the sailors fastened 
 a buoy to them. ' If the ship be drowned, or otherwise 
 perish, these goods are called ligan, a Uganda ; and so long 
 as they continued upon the sea, they belong to the admiral ; 
 but if they are cast upon the land, they are then called 
 a wreck, and belong to him that hath the wreck.' 
 
 We thus gather that the goods were both at the bottom 
 of the sea, and upon it; that they were stationary and 
 marked with a buoy, and that they also floated about, and 
 could be cast ashore. A very remarkable story. 
 
 Of course the false spelling ligan was invented to get 
 hold of a Latin etymology, from ligare. It is impossible 
 that it can come from ligare, because the Lat. ligamen 
 became lien in French and English ; and the attempt to 
 derive it straight from Lat. ligamen is hardly satisfactory. 
 The whole story is knocked on the head by the fact that 
 the original Old French word was also lagan. 
 
 It is given in Godefroy, who has : ' Lagan, lagand, lagant, 
 laguen, s. m., debris d'un vaisseau que la mer jette sur 
 le rivage, les epaves.' Godefroy gives several quotations. 
 One valuable one is from a letter of Edward II of England, 
 dated July 22, 1315, in which our king says: 'Tous les 
 lagans qui eskieent ou pueent eskier en toute le coste 
 de le mer.' All the quotations refer to wreckage thrown 
 ashore ; there is no word about buoys. 
 
 The problem is thus narrowed to this, viz. to find the 
 origin of the O. French lagan or lagand. 
 
 I have solved many such problems, and have incurred 
 some obloquy, in consequence, from such as had pet 
 theories of their own. Let some one else try his hand 
 this time. [Ducange, s. v. Lagan, is mistaken.] 
 
 459. * Huckshins' (8 S. vi. 326 ; 1894). 
 
 This is explained in Elworthy's Somersetshire Word- 
 book as the ' hock-shins ; under side of the thighs, just 
 
 B b 2
 
 372 ' HORKEY.' 
 
 above the bend of the knee ' ; with a quotation from the 
 Exmoor Scolding. Hailiwell also gives hucksheens, from 
 the same. Please note that this is ' folk-etymology.' The 
 real sense is not 'hock-shins,' but 'hock-sinews,' as any 
 one may see by consulting Stratmann, s.v. ' hoh? The 
 verb to hox (Hailiwell) is merely a truncated form of to 
 hock-sinew. 
 
 460. ' Horkey ' (8 S. vi. 334 ; 1894). 
 
 At the last reference we are told that hawkey is a mis- 
 pronunciation of horkey. It is quite clear, however, that 
 horkey is a misspelling of hawkey. 
 
 We must not follow the late spelling of Bloomfield, but 
 the spelling in older books. 
 
 The information in Brand really helps us. It is clear 
 that hawky, or hoky, or hocky is an adjectival form, from 
 the substantive hawk, hoke, hock, whatever that may mean. 
 The substantive appears in the compound hock-cart, in 
 Herrick's Hesperides, and in Otia Sacra, 1648 (Brand). 
 Hence hockey-cart, in Salmon's Survey ; hoky or seed-cake, 
 in Sir Thos. Overbury ; and in Poor Robiris Almanack for 
 August 1676 : 
 
 ' Hoacky is brought home with hollowing, 
 Boys with plumb-cake the cart following.' 
 
 The real difficulty in this word is to know whether the 
 vowel was originally long or short. If short, which is 
 quite possible, then there may be a connexion with the 
 E. Friesic hokke, a set-up heap of corn or turves ; Low 
 German (Bremen) hokke, a set of four sheaves set up 
 in a small shock ; Ger. hocke, a heap of corn or hay 
 (Kluge). 
 
 The etymological difficulty is very great, so that there 
 is a wide field for talk that cannot easily be shown to be 
 irrelevant. [No such talk ensued.]
 
 SO-HO. 373 
 
 461. So-ho (8 S. vi. 365 ; 1894). 
 
 The origin of so-ho was discussed in N, and Q. some 
 years ago, but the right result was not given. 
 
 I find that the Century Dictionary is also incorrect as 
 regards this matter. It gives the etymology as from the 
 Eng. so, adverb, and ho ! an interjection. 
 
 This, however, is only the popular etymology, due to 
 substitution of the Eng. so (which makes no sense) for 
 an Anglo-French word which was less generally understood. 
 
 By good fortune, the exact origin of the expression is 
 precisely recorded, on high authority. It is given in the 
 Venery de Twety, originally written in the time of Edward II, 
 printed in the Reliquiae Antiquae, by Halliwell and Wright, 
 vol. i. pp. 149-154. On the last of these pages we read : 
 ' Sohow is [as] moche to say as sa-how, for because that 
 it is short to say, we say alway so-how? This means that 
 so-how was the English adaptation of the original Anglo- 
 French saho, in which the sense of sa had been lost. 
 
 The sense of sa is, practically, given more than once. 
 One of the hunting cries is given in full as ' Ho, so [for 
 sa], amy, so, venez a couplere, sa, arere, sohow ' ; and the 
 like. Sa is merely the Norman form of the Mod. French 
 fa, which Cotgrave explains by 'hither, approach, come neer.' 
 Similarly cy is for id, here. Hence the cry means ' Come 
 hither, ho ! ' which makes good sense. [Compare ' Sa, sa, 
 sa, sa,' in King Lear, iv. 6. 207.] 
 
 462. Chaucer's 'Anelida and Arcite' (8 S. vii. 471 ; 
 1895). 
 
 I have frequently been reproved (I do not know why) 
 for correcting others with unmistakable clearness. In the 
 present case I have to thank R. R. for his clear explanation 
 of a most absurd blunder of my own. It is only one 
 more proof that even the most careful students fall, at
 
 374 CHUM. 
 
 times, into error 1 . Let me add that Chaucer himself 
 furnishes an excellent example of staves in the sense of 
 ' sticks ' in the following passage : 
 
 ' By goddes bones ! whan I bete my knaves, 
 She bringeth me forth the grete clobbed staves, 
 And cryeth slee the dogges everichoon.' 
 
 463. Chum. I (8 S. vii. 514 ; 1895). 
 
 At the last reference we are told that the Latin c in cum 
 was originally pronounced as in Italian that is to say, the 
 Italian con is pronounced chon. Is it, indeed? This is 
 news for Italy. We are also informed that the change from 
 ch to k is due to 'phonetic decay,' which simplifies and 
 ' hardens ' sounds. But in fact the change is usually the 
 other way. Decay ' softens ' sounds, if I may for once use 
 a sadly unscientific term. It would be interesting to learn 
 the extremely new lesson, in what language a ch has become 
 a k 2 . We might as well expect water to run uphill. 
 
 Much nonsense is often talked about the Latin c. It 
 was originally pronounced like the Greek k before all vowels. 
 The easy proof is this. The perfect tense of cadere was 
 formed by reduplication, i.e. by doubling the ^-sound. 
 Thus the perfect was ce-cidi (ke-kid-i}. Those who think 
 
 1 In Chaucer's Anelida, 1. 183, we have : 
 
 ' His newe lady holdeth him so narowe 
 Up by the brydel, at the staves ende, 
 That every word, he dradde hit as an arowe.' 
 The metaphor is that of one who rides a horse, and, whilst tight!}' 
 holding the animal in by the bridle, keeps him at the stick's end, 
 i. e. beats him frequently with the end of a stick. As the expression 
 ' at the staves ende ' is awkwardly introduced, I had taken it to refer 
 to the shaft of a cart ; which cannot be right, as riders then rode upon 
 horses, and not behind them. 
 
 2 It was argued that the Spanish /, once palatal, has become a 
 guttural. But this is not really an instance of ' phonetic decay.' 
 I believe it was due to external (i. e. Moorish) influence, which is 
 a different thing.
 
 CHUM. 375 
 
 otherwise have to prove that twice k = double s ; or that 
 twice a cow is equal to two sheep. 
 
 Phonetic decay altered the Latin c before e and * only. 
 In Italian it took the sound of ch in chin \ in Spanish, the 
 sound of th in thin and in French, the sound of s in sin. 
 Only the sound k, and no other, can produce ch, th, and s, 
 all three. 
 
 We are also informed that the original Latin c is preserved 
 in the English chapel ! But how about the Welsh capel, as 
 in Capel Curig? Is that pronounced with the c as ch? 
 Even Englishmen, with their supercilious and ridiculously 
 ostentatious ignorance of Welsh, know better than that. 
 
 464. Chum. II (8 S. viii. 330 ; 1895). 
 
 So far as I am concerned, this is my last letter upon the 
 present subject ; and I am sure this announcement will be 
 thankfully received. 
 
 Whether the change of c (k) to ch in English words went 
 through all its stages or not before 1066 I cannot say. It 
 was quite a gradual process. But the preliminary stages, 
 such as the breaking of a into ea in Southern words, are 
 found quite early. I have nothing to add to Dr. Sweet's 
 explanation in his History of English Sounds, p. 143 ; and 
 I do not know why I need explain all over again what he 
 has there explained so well. 
 
 The change from c to ch only occurs in words of native 
 origin when the c is followed by e or /, or by sounds which 
 naturally cause palatization, such as cz, ea for a, eo for 
 Teutonic i, and the like. If a dialect resists the change of 
 a to ea, then there is no ch. This is remarkably shown in 
 English, where we have the Midland forms calf, care, cold, 
 (A. S. ceald, Mercian cald}, by the side of. chalk, chary (adj. 
 of care), and other Southern forms. 
 
 I have no doubt that whenever ca became cha in Old 
 French, as in chambre from camera, there was an inter-
 
 376 DEFICIENT LINES IN ENGLISH VERSE. 
 
 mediate stage, which we may roughly represent by k(i)amera l . 
 This never happened in the Picard dialect; and I may 
 claim to be the very person who first discovered (in 1882) 
 the etymology of the curious word cark. It is simply the 
 Picard kark or karke, a word which in Parisian and in 
 English is spelt charge. 
 
 But why not consult authorities ? See Sweet, History of 
 English Sounds ; Mayhew, Old English Phonology ; Schwan, 
 Grammatik des A Itfranzosischen ; Horning, Introduction to 
 La Langue et Litterature Franfaises, and the rest. 
 
 One parting shot at those who think that the Latin c was 
 never a k. In the English Authorized Version we find the 
 spellings Kish and Cis for the same person, the latter spelling 
 being taken from the Vulgate. Are we to say that Saul 
 was the son of Sis ? Or, perhaps, in Italian ideas, he was 
 the son of Chis \ 
 
 465. Deficient Lines in English Verse (8 S. viii. 45 ; 
 
 1895)- 
 
 I have shown that Chaucer frequently begins a line of 
 five accents with a single accented syllable, and that similar 
 lines are very common in Lydgate. I suspect they were 
 also fairly common in our old dramatic poetry, only the 
 editors (believing in themselves more than in the author) 
 frequently added a sly additional syllable. Nevertheless, 
 I just note a few that have fallen casually under my notice. 
 In Routledge's reprint (1883) of Greene and Peele's Works, 
 I find these examples : 
 
 ' Proud, | disdainful, cruel, and unjust ' ; p. 98. 
 
 'Mine, | and none but mine, shall honour thee';p. 99. 
 
 ' I | am she that cured thy disease ' ; p. 107. 
 
 Here the editor calmly purposes to read : ' And I am.' 
 That is just what comes of meddlesomeness. 
 
 1 How else the change could have happened we have not yet been 
 informed.
 
 DEFICIENT LINES IN ENGLISH VERSE. 377 
 
 ' Fire, famine, and as cruel death ' ; p. 108. 
 Here Fire is a dissyllable, as usual ; read ' Fi | er.' 
 
 'Gra | cious as the morning-star of heaven'; p. 168. 
 ' Were | I baser born, niy mean estate ' ; p. 206. 
 
 Here the editor proposes two different emendations, none 
 being needed. 
 
 'Bow | thee, Andrew, bend thy sturdy knee;' p. an. 
 
 So, again, in Cunningham's edition of Marlowe's Works, 
 I have already noted these : 
 
 ' Tan | it: I'll first fawn [up]on the wind.' 
 
 Edw. II, i. i ; p. 1 18. 
 
 4 Der | by, Sal-is-bury, Lincoln, Leicester.' 
 
 Edw . II, i. i ; p.i 19. 
 
 Here are two consecutive lines of this character : 
 
 ' Lay | hands on that traitor Mortimer ! 
 Lay | hands on that traitor Gav-es-ton ! ' 
 
 Edw. II, i. 4 ; p. 122. 
 
 ' 'Tis | my hand ; what gather you by this ? ' 
 
 Edw. II, v. 6 ; p. 153. 
 
 Here the editor has done well in resisting the temptation to 
 substitute // is for 'Tis. 
 
 ' Mar j ry, sir, in having a smack in all.' 
 
 Massacre at Paris, i. 8 ; p. 160. 
 
 'Je | rome's Bible, Faustus, view it well.' 
 
 Faustus, i. i ; p. 60. 
 
 ' Ho | mo, fuge ! Whither shall I fly ? ' 
 
 Faustus, ii. i ; p. 65. 
 
 ' Frank | fort, Lubeck, Moscow, and where not.' 
 
 Jew of Malta, iv. i ; p. 107. 
 
 ' Ba | rabas, send me three hundred crowns.' 
 
 Jew of Malta, iv. 5; p. no. 
 
 Truly, times are altered since that (usually) excellent 
 critic James Russell Lowell denied that such lines as these
 
 378 ' PARSON, ' 
 
 existed, or could exist, in English poetry, in his (otherwise) 
 excellent article on Chaucer. The statement that they 
 could not exist I easily refuted by a simple reference to 
 Tennyson's Vision of Sin. The moral is, that editors 
 should let the texts alone when they can. 
 
 466 ' Parson' (8 S. viii. 65 ; 1895). 
 
 Perhaps the clearest old example of this word, as being 
 a variant of person, is in the edition of 1555 of Lydgate's 
 Siege of Troye, fol. H i. col. 2 : 
 
 ' For eche trespasse must consydered be. 
 Justly measured by the qualyty 
 Of hym that is offended, and also 
 After the parson by whom the wrong is do.' 
 
 Probably the original MS. expressed the word in a con- 
 tracted form, with the usual symbol which may be read 
 either as par or per. 
 
 467. Wederoue' in Old French (8 S. viii. 65 ; 1895). 
 
 There is a queer mistake, s. v. 'wederoue,' in Godefroy's 
 Old French Dictionary, He gives wederoue (a scribal error 
 for woderoue, by the usual confusion of e with o in the 
 fifteenth century), with the variant forms wuderoue, wodruffe, 
 which occur in glosses to translate Lat. hastula regia. 
 Hence Godefroy gives the conjectural sense : ' p. -e. une 
 arme de jet, lance ou autre.' But hastula regia was an old 
 name for asphodel (Lewis and Short\ and was translated in 
 English by the word which we now spell woodruff. Hence 
 woderoue is not 'a little lance,' but the English name of 
 a plant. 
 
 468. Hilda (8 S. viii. 72 ; 1895). 
 
 I beg leave to dissent from the dictum at the latter 
 reference to the effect that ' Hilda is derived from Hildur, 
 the war-maiden or chooser of the dead ' ; and I entirely
 
 HILDA. 379 
 
 decline to submit to Miss Yonge's authority as to Christian 
 names. No doubt Miss Yonge's book is the best on this 
 subject ; but only because there is no better. It was 
 written in the time of pre-scientific etymology ; and for 
 purposes of scholarship cannot be depended on for 
 a moment. 
 
 The whole matter is obscured by the terrible inaccuracy 
 of the authorities. Good English names are turned into 
 Latin, and so disfigured as to be almost unrecognizable. 
 For example, ^Ethelthryth is turned into Etheldreda, which 
 is merely bad English without having the merit of being 
 Latin at all. Even Audry is better than that. Again, 
 Swithhun is not only turned into Swithun, with one h, 
 rendering the word meaningless, but is even changed into 
 Swithin. Briefly, no one will ever understand English 
 names until he grasps the fact that they are English, and 
 not Latin, nor yet High-German. What is the use of citing 
 foreign forms when we can get at the native ones? And 
 when will it ever even dawn on the English mind that the 
 forms given in our native manuscripts are usually older, 
 better, and altogether more primitive and original than any 
 other ' Germanic ' forms, with the sole exception of Mceso- 
 Gothic? Possessing manuscripts of priceless authority, 
 we often prefer modern High-German, of all languages ! 
 What can we expect from such a process but darkness ? 
 
 In what language does such a form as ' Hildur ' occur ? 
 In Icelandic we have the masculine form 'Hildir' and the 
 feminine Hildr. ' Hildur ' is probably an ignorant substitu- 
 tion for the latter. 
 
 As to Hilda, ' there is no room for doubt ' that it is the 
 Latinized spelling of the English Hild. Even Beda, though 
 writing in Latin, uses the form Hild as the name of the 
 Abbess of Whitby. The form Hild-a is a Latinism of later 
 date. As to the sense, Hild does not mean ' darkness,' nor 
 does it mean ' mercy.' The word for 'mercy ' is Ger. Huld,
 
 380 ' EFFRONTER Y. ' 
 
 which differs from hild just as pull differs from ////, i. e. 
 totally. The symbols u and * are different, and the 
 difference in the words is in the vowel. Different vowels 
 make different words : a golden sentence, which I recom- 
 mend all readers of this article to learn by heart. 
 
 As to the sense, hild means simply ' battle,' neither more 
 nor less. It does not mean war-maiden at all, but could be 
 applied to an abbess, as every one knows. Neither has it 
 anything whatever to do with choosing the dead. To call 
 a girl simply ' battle ' seems a strange proceeding, but this 
 does not alter the fact. It so happens that the giving of 
 such names to girls was a favourite habit of the English, as 
 is well known to all students of Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 To sum up. Hilda does not mean ' Hildur,' but stands 
 for Hild. It is neither Icelandic nor German, but a bad 
 monkish-Latin form of a native English name. It is 
 unconnected with ' darkness ' and with ' mercy.' It neither 
 means 'war-maiden' nor 'chooser of the slain.' That is, 
 there are at least six mistakes in an article in which we 
 are told that there is ' no room for doubt.' 
 
 I will merely say, to all whom it may concern, that the 
 whole subject of English names and English place-names is 
 in a parlous state ; so much so, that nothing can be taken 
 on trust. Verify your references, and consult the list at the 
 end of Bardsley's book on surnames. And do not put faith 
 in Miss Yonge ; hers was a good book for its date, and that 
 is all that can be said. 
 
 469. ' Effrontery' (8 S. viii. 85 ; 1895). 
 
 According to the New English Dictionary there is some 
 difficulty as to the original sense of the O. Fr. esfronter. It 
 seems worth while to suggest that it has been confused with 
 O. F. afronter. At any rate, I find in the supplement to 
 Godefroy the entry : ' Afronterie^ s. f. bravade insolente, 
 effronterie ' ; and it is remarkable that all the three quota-
 
 'HA-HA.' 381 
 
 tions which Godefroy cites spell the word affronterie with 
 double/ 
 
 470. 'Ha-ha' (8 S. viii. 117; 1895). 
 
 This word has frequently been discussed in N. and Q., 
 but I do not remember seeing the right explanation given. 
 
 It has nothing whatever to do with A. S. haga, a hedge, 
 which comes out in modern English as haw. Cf. haw-thorn. 
 The derivation from the interjection ha ! ha \ is quite 
 correct, as may easily be seen by consulting Littre and the 
 new French etymological dictionary by Hatzfeld. But the 
 usual explanation, viz. that the haha so suddenly surprises 
 you that you involuntarily cry haha ! (which no one ever did 
 yet), is quite absurd. It is the haha itself which, as it were, 
 cries ha \ ha\ that is, 'Stop! or you'll tumble in!' The 
 very look of it is a warning, and that is all that is meant. 
 
 The English word is merely a loan-word from French. 
 The Old French hahe was a hunting term, calling upon the 
 dogs to stop, a fact which gives the clue at once. The 
 variant haha similarly denotes a break in the ground, calling 
 upon one to stop. Scarron actually used haha to denote 
 an old woman of such surpassing ugliness that she came 
 upon the gazer as a surprise ! We should call her ' a 
 caution,' which is just the sense of haha. 
 
 471. Derivation of Theodolite or Theodolith 
 (8 S. viii. 130; 1895). 
 
 I think I have quite a new light upon this curious word. 
 I do not believe that it has any connexion whatever with 
 0e'a, or with 68ds, or with A<$os. It is perfectly certain that 
 it cannot be connected with A.t$o?, as is proved by the 
 early usages of the word. The statement by Dr. H. is not 
 merely a guess, but a very bad one, unsupported by a 
 tittle of evidence. 
 
 My own guess at the word is quite a new one, unlike 
 any that has ever yet been suggested. My belief is that
 
 382 DERIVATION OF THEODOLITE. 
 
 it is derived from the personal name Theodulus, which, as 
 every schoolboy knows, means ' servant of God.' 
 
 Contrary to the usual method of guessers, I have founded 
 my guess on evidence, of a sort. In Godefroy's Old French 
 Dictionary will be found an entry under 'Theodulet,' 
 a substantive which he does not seem to be able to explain ; 
 and my notion is that theodelitus is merely an (ignorant) 
 Latinized form of the same word. 
 
 Though Godefroy cannot explain theodulet, I think I can. 
 It is well known that in medieval times a grammar was 
 called a donet, from its author, a certain Donatus. Again, 
 a certain collection of fables was called an ysopet, from the 
 writer whose name we spell Aesop. And it appears from 
 the quotation in Godefroy that theodulet was the name 
 for some sort of book or treatise, a treatise, namely, by 
 a man called Theodulus. Cf. pamphl-et, from Pamphila. 
 
 This lands us in a track that is extremely difficult to 
 follow up. Who was the Theodulus who, presumably, 
 first marked the rim of a circle (used in measuring) with 
 considerable exactitude? Remember that a theodolite 
 meant at first 'a marked circular rim,' and was originally 
 quite independent of a telescope, or any 'way of seeing '- 
 a fact which entirely upsets the guesses hitherto current. 
 (See the Supplement to my Etym. Dict.\ 
 
 All that I have found out as yet is, that Theodulus was 
 rather a common name, as there was a saint of that name. 
 The last fact is familiar to all who have ever been to 
 Zermatt. [And I am told that a treatise called Theodolet 
 is mentioned in Rabelais (I. xiv.) ; where Theodolet= 
 Edoga Theoduli. This Ecloga Vocum Atticarum is a col- 
 lection of Phrases in Attic Greek, by a medieval monk 
 named Thomas, surnamed Theodulus ; an edition by 
 Ritschel was published at Halle in 1832. He is the same 
 person as the Thomas Magister referred to in Liddell and 
 Scott's Greek Dictionary^
 
 FIRST BURNING FOR HERESY IN ENGLAND. 383 
 
 472. First Burning for Heresy in England 
 
 (8 S. viii. 156; 1895). 
 
 It is quite certain that there were several cases of burning 
 for heresy in England before 1401. This question is 
 discussed in the preface to Arnold's edition of Wyclif's 
 Works, and in the Preface to my edition of the third text 
 (C-text) of Piers the Plowman, p. xiii. William Sautre 
 was the first person burnt for heresy under the new act 
 passed in the beginning of the reign of Henry IV. All 
 that this act did was to facilitate the process. Before 
 it was passed, the ecclesiastics who condemned the heretics 
 were powerless to carry out the sentence themselves ; they 
 had to hand over the criminal to the secular arm. The 
 new act did away with this necessity, and so rendered 
 the criminal's fate the more swift and certain '. And that 
 was all the difference. Hence the popular notion, that 
 no one was burnt before 1401, is a mere delusion. 
 
 473. Roadnight (8 S. viii. 166; 1895). 
 
 Under the heading 'Coincidences' (ante, p. i24\ the 
 question is raised as to the etymology of the surname 
 Roadnight. The answer is simple enough; it certainly 
 stands for ' Road-knight ' ; A. S. radcniht. It does not, 
 however, answer, in sense, to the Modern English 'knight 
 of the road.' The A. S. rad was used with reference to 
 riding, and cniht means servant. So that radcniht was 
 a riding retainer, a servant on horseback. The Mod. E. 
 road was originally 'a path for riding,' as distinguished 
 from a foot-path. 
 
 474. Foxglove (8 S. viii. 186 ; 1895). 
 
 The A. S. name of this plant is foxes glofa, 'glove of the 
 fox.' I make this note because the assertion is constantly 
 
 1 [The words used were to the effect that the punishment might 
 be administered ' uberius et celerius.']
 
 384 CAMBRIDGE. 
 
 being repeated that it is a corruption of ' folk's glove.' 
 See, for example, N. and Q. 8th S. viii. 155. Whenever 
 a writer uses the word 'corruption,' we may commonly 
 suspect him to be guessing. It is the one word that is 
 prized above all others by those who prefer assertion to 
 fact. When any quotation can be found, either in Anglo- 
 Saxon or Early English, for the phrase folces glofa or folkes 
 glove, the ' corruption ' theory may be seriously considered, 
 but not till then. Always bear in mind that during the 
 last century, and the former half of the present, baseless 
 guesses of this character were invented by the hundred. 
 Only old quotations can save us from the nuisance of their 
 tyranny. 
 
 475. Cambridge (8 S. viii. 265 ; 1895). 
 
 Every one who attempts to make any research as to the 
 origin of Cambridge will soon find out for himself that the 
 name of the Cam is quite modern. When any one can 
 produce any example of the form Cam, either with the 
 bridge or without, before A. D. 1350, we may consider the 
 matter further ; but certainly not till then. 
 
 The old name was, practically 1 , Grantabridge, turned by 
 the Normans into Cauntebridge (i 142), afterwards shortened 
 to Caumbridge (Paston Letters], and Cambridge; out of 
 which the modern river-naine Cam was wrongly evolved. 
 I say wrongly, because it was done by help of the written 
 word ; the spoken word would have made it Came 2 . This 
 shows how diligent our old writers were in evolving etymo- 
 logical falsities. 
 
 It is simply a question of historical research, as I have 
 already hinted. 
 
 The A. S. name for the river was Granta, and it is 
 
 1 Really ' Grantan-brycg ' ; of which I give the sense. 
 
 2 The local pronunciation is Kyme-bridge, where kyme rimes with 
 time. Those who know this fact seldom know how to interpret it.
 
 CAMBRIDGE. 385 
 
 called Granta still by the people who have not been taught 
 better. Even educated people admit that the name is 
 Granta at Trumpington. The A. S. name for the place 
 was Grantanbrycg. 
 
 We still speak of Grantchester, for which the A. S. name 
 is Granta-ceaster. For references, see the Dictionary, and 
 the A. S. Chronicle. The fact that the forms Cam and 
 Cambrycg never occur in any MS., from the year 700 
 downwards to 1350, is significant enough to such as are 
 accustomed to work at etymology instead of merely guessing 
 at it. 
 
 In an Old English Miscellany, ed. Morris (E.E.T.S.), 
 p. 145, is a list of the shires and hundreds of England in 
 the thirteenth century. Here we find Grauntebrugge-schire 
 (1. 48), i. e. Grantabridge-shire, as the name for the county. 
 
 The first line of Chaucer's Revels Tale shows the next 
 stage ; the MSS. have Caunter-bruge, Canta-bregge, Canta- 
 brigge ; the very late Lansdowne MS. has Cam-brugge, the 
 oldest instance of the spelling Cam which I can call to 
 mind. Of course the form Cam-brugge destroys the metre 
 of the line, for a trisyllable is imperatively required. Hence 
 the blunder was not the author's. 
 
 This Cam really stands for Caum or Caam ; and the 
 m is due to the following b ; nb turns into mb as a matter 
 of course. This is why the a in Came (so pronounced) 
 is long; cf. ^.chamber, M.E. chambre, chaumbre. 
 
 Spenser (F. Q. iv. n, 34) calls the river the Grant. 
 Drayton's Polyolbion makes a special study of river-names ; 
 and we there learn that the river that flows by Cambridge 
 was called the Grant; Song 21, 1. 51 J . It was my fellow- 
 collegian who in his Lycidas (1. 103) spoke of Camus; 
 observe that, for him, the a was long. 
 
 1 Later on, at I. 107, he has ' That Cam, her daintiest flood, long 
 since entituled Grant' ; showing that he held Grant to be the true old 
 name. 
 
 C C
 
 386 THE KING'S QUAIR. 
 
 476. The King's Quair (8 S. viii. 274; 1895). 
 
 I had not intended to write a note on this subject ; but 
 I now find it necessary to do so. One of the replies at 
 the latter reference attributes the Complaint of the Black 
 Knight to Chaucer, whereas we know, on MS. authority, 
 that it was written by Lydgate. See my note in my larger 
 edition of Chaucer's Works, i. 56, or that in my edition 
 of the Minor Poems, p. xlv. I may add that this poem 
 will appear in its due place in my supplemental volume, 
 which will contain the chief poems that have been at any 
 time wrongly attributed to Chaucer. 
 
 The citation of the ' Icel. kver ' (not ' k^ver ') is also mis- 
 leading. It is not a true Icelandic word at all, but merely 
 the Old French quaier done into modern Icelandic spelling. 
 
 But now that I am about it, I may mention that ' The 
 Kingis Quair' (formerly ill-spelt 'Quhair') is one of the 
 ' curiosities of literature.' My edition of it, for the Scottish 
 Text Society, was the eleventh in point of time ; but it was, 
 nevertheless, the first that was really edited from the MS. 
 itself, and is the only one that is decently correct. I know 
 of no parallel to this. The first edition, in 1785, was 
 printed from an incorrect transcript made by ' an ingenious 
 young gentleman,' who could not read the MS. correctly J ; 
 and the succeeding editions (except my own) were reprints 
 from that first edition. One editor, in 1815, discovered 
 that this original text was incorrect ; but he did not dis- 
 cover it till too late. None of the other editors ever 
 consulted the MS. at all ; such a proceeding was, in those 
 days, considered superfluous. 
 
 My first essay in editing Middle English was in 1865, 
 thirty years ago, when I edited Lancelot of the Laik for the 
 
 1 [This statement was somewhat too courageously denied by a 
 correspondent who asserted that the first editor, Mr. Tytler, copied 
 the MS. himself. However, Mr. Tytler is the very person who says 
 the contraiy !]
 
 ' SL UBBER-DEG ULLION : ' ' S TRA NG UL LION. ' 387 
 
 English Text Society. My announcement that the previous 
 edition (printed from the same MS.) had never been 
 properly re-read with the MS., and swarmed with errors, 
 created quite a sensation at the time. I cited nineteen 
 bad mistakes, and mentioned that four whole lines at a 
 time had been omitted in two places ; but I might have 
 added that the variations from the MS. really amounted 
 to several hundred ! 
 
 Even now some ignorance remains. A gentleman who 
 was so good as to reproduce The Kingis Quair after me. 
 and to speak of my labours with some patronage, took 
 occasion to show his knowledge of the subject by explaining 
 the word conyng as 'skilful 1 .' If he had but condescended 
 to consult my glossary, he would have found out that it 
 meant ' a rabbit.' It occurs in a list of animals at stanza 
 
 157- 
 
 477. ' Slubber-Degullion : ' ' Strangullion ' 
 (8 S. viii. 353 ; 1895). 
 
 The etymology of this word is simple when once pointed 
 out. The M. E. gutton, occurring in Gower (Con/. Amant., 
 n - 359)> is a word of French origin, and meant 'a kind 
 of gown' (Halliwell). Hence slubber-de-gullion, one who 
 slubbers or slobbers his gown or robe a dirty fellow, 
 a paltry fellow. I do not quite understand the de. Perhaps 
 (it is a guess) it should be slubber 'd-y gullion, \. e. the pp. in 
 -ed, with the adjectival suffix -y. 
 
 Strangullion is a totally different word, and the resem- 
 blance is accidental, the suffix being -ullion, whilst strang- 
 le the base. The following extract from Cotgrave sufficiently 
 explains it: ' Estranguillons, m., the strangles, a disease 
 (in horses, &c.).' It is allied apparently to strangle, O. F. 
 estrangler. Cf. ' Poir [sic] $ estranguillon, a choake-peare ' 
 (Cotgrave). 
 
 1 [The MS. has connyng, with two 's, in the senses of ' skill' and 
 ' skilful ' ; and conyng, with one n, in the sense of 'coney' or ' rabbit.' 
 
 C C 2
 
 388 'RUNNING THE GANTLOPE.' 
 
 478. 'Running the Gantlope' (8 S. viii. 392 ; 1895). 
 
 The amazing and amusing quotation which derives the 
 word gantlope from ' a well-known town in Flanders ' is 
 useful to me ; and I am very thankful to have the quotation. 
 If ever I write that book upon 'popular etymologies,' it 
 will serve, though it is not quite new. One always knows 
 the ways of the popular etymologist ; he never gives his 
 dates. So in the present case. If the word had been 
 invented at Ghent, he could have ascertained, approximately, 
 the date of such invention. However, Skinner, in 1671, 
 gave it as a guess. He says ' Gantlope, supplicium mili- 
 tare. Author Diet. Angl. putat a Gandavo, urbe inclyta 
 Flandriae,' &c. 
 
 479. Welsh Place-names (8 S. viii. 396; 1895). 
 
 It is not long since I took a railway-ticket for Llanfair- 
 pwllgwyngyll, the name of which has been humorously 
 extended to astonish the Saxon J . There is no trouble 
 about it; you simply ask for a ticket for Llanfair, which 
 you pronounce, roughly speaking, as ' Hlanver,' with the 
 Anglo-Saxon hi, and you get it at once ; and you find 
 simply ' Llanfair ' on the ticket. The ' pwllgwyngyll ' is 
 superfluous in the neighbourhood, but is useful in directing 
 letters ; and then you merely put ' Llanfair P. G.,' as in 
 Baddeley's excellent guide-book. 
 
 I wish I could impress upon my countrymen the desira- 
 bility of condescending to learn the Welsh alphabet, which 
 is extremely easy and almost perfectly phonetic (if it were 
 not for that stupid double-sounding y). It would be an 
 insult to a Frenchman to ask for a ticket for Lyons, and to 
 pronounce it as the English lions. It is equally an insult 
 
 1 It means ' Saint-Mary's by the white-hazel pool/ to which is 
 added, ' very near the raging whirlpool of Llandisilio and the red 
 rocky islet of Gogo,' all of which is, of course, superfluous.
 
 PATRIOT. 389 
 
 to a Welshman to ignore the native pronunciation ; and 
 I do not see why any gentleman should stoop to such 
 effrontery. As things are, men stay for weeks in Wales, 
 and yet decline to pronounce the Welsh f as a v. 
 
 480. Patriot (8 S. viii. 517 ; 1895). 
 
 I have shown in my Dictionary that the word ' patriot ' 
 occurs in Minsheu's Dictionary, ed. 1627 ; and I quote 
 from Cotgrave's French Dictionary (which first appeared 
 in 1611) the following: ' Patriote, m. a patriot, ones coun- 
 treyman.' Cotgrave also has: ' Patriot, m. A father, or 
 protector of the Countrey, or Commonwealth ; also, as 
 Patriote' Littre shows in his Dictionary, that Voltaire 
 [who ascribes the first use of the F. patriote to Saint-Simon, 
 who died in 1755] made a mistake; for the F. patriote was 
 used, in its modern sense, as early as the sixteenth century. 
 
 481. Led will (8 S. ix. 69 ; 1896). 
 
 Whatever ' led will ' may mean now, it doubtless once 
 meant the same as 'will led,' a phrase which occurs in 
 a specimen of the Norfolk dialect which I have now in the 
 press '. ' Will led ' is said to mean ' demented,' but the 
 original sense was ' bewildered.' 
 
 The solution is this : Will, in this phrase, has no im- 
 mediate connexion with will in the sense of ' inclination,' 
 but represents the Scandinavian form of the English wild, 
 which often had the sense of ' astray, bewildered, all abroad, 
 at a loss,' and the like. See the Icel. villr in Vigfusson, 
 wild in my Dictionary, and will in my glossary to Barbour's 
 Bruce. Ultimately will and wild are from the same root ; 
 but that is a further question. 
 
 1 ' I think she is will-led? explained by ' I think she is out of her 
 mind ' ; Nine Specimens of Eng. Dialects, p. 119.
 
 39 'CHARIVARI.' 
 
 482. 'Charivari' (8 S. ix. 117; 1896). 
 
 In the new French Etymological Dictionary by Hatzfeld 
 it is shown that charivari is composed of chart and vari. 
 Chart is obscure, but seems to have been an interjectional 
 cry, for which no particular etymology is either forth- 
 coming or necessary. As to vari, it occurs in other words, 
 as hour-vari, boule-vari, zanzi-vari, where vari certainly 
 means ' noise, tumult,' and is from the O. H. G. werren 
 (G. wirren\ to confuse. The original sense of charivari 
 was ' confused hubbub.' See further in the New English 
 Dictionary. 
 
 It has no connexion with chery-feire, which means ' a fair 
 for selling cherries,' and is well explained by Halliwell. 
 
 It is to be regretted that Prof. Morley, one of our best 
 writers on English literature, never kept pace with the 
 progress of modern philology, but was ready to accept any 
 accidental resemblance as worthy of mention. Some of 
 his statements of this character are little short of amazing. 
 I can produce fourteen such from his Shorter English 
 Poems, a book which I value highly, and (on other grounds) 
 can strongly recommend. Thus, at p. 35, note 3, he says 
 that fare means ' solemn preparation,' whereas it simply 
 means ' goings-on,' from A. S. faran, to go ; and adds, that 
 it is allied to the G. Feier, solemnity, which is a mere 
 loan-word from Lat. feria, whence the fair in cherry-fair is 
 actually derived. Fare, in fact, is English, and fair (O. F. 
 feyre, G. Feier) is Latin ; and the words are utterly un- 
 connected. Grimm's law shows that they have not even 
 the initial /in common. 
 
 483. Anglo-Saxon Plant-names (8 S. ix. 163; 1896). 
 
 Our ancestors had a curious habit of connecting the 
 names of plants with those of various well-known animals. 
 Our present habits are so different that many moderns
 
 ANGLO-SAXON PLANT-NAMES. 391 
 
 are wholly unable to understand this. To them such 
 names as fox-glove and hare-bell^ seem entirely senseless, 
 and many efforts, more ingenious than well directed, have 
 been made to evade the evidence. 
 
 Yet it is easily understood. The names are simply 
 childish, and such as children would be pleased with. A 
 child only wants a pretty name, and is glad to connect 
 a plant with a more or less familiar animal. This explains 
 the whole matter, and it is the reverse of scientific to deny 
 a fact merely because we dislike or contemn it. 
 
 It will be understood that I can produce my evidence ; 
 but it is tedious from its quantity. I therefore refer readers 
 to the glossary in the third volume of Cockayne's Anglo- 
 Saxon Leechdoms, where the plant-names and references 
 are given in full. Cockayne includes some names, such as 
 crane's-bill, which are not found in Anglo-Saxon or Middle 
 English, but appear in early-printed herbals. These I pass 
 over, and mention only such as are actually found in Anglo- 
 Saxon or Early English. The following are examples. 
 
 Briddes nest, bird's nest, wild carrot; briddes tunge, 
 Stellaria holostea ; kattes minte, cat-mint ; ricena mete, 
 chicken-meat, chickweed; cockes fot, cock's foot, columbine; 
 cocks hedys, cock's heads, melilot ; colts foot, colt's foot ; 
 cow-rattle ; cu-slyppe, cu-sloppe, cowslip ; cronesanke, crane's 
 shank (Polygonum persicaria); crowe-pil, crow-bill (Erodium 
 moschatum) ; crowsope, crow-soap, latherwort; dog-fennel; 
 efor-fearn, ever-fern (ever = boar), polypody; eofor-throtu, 
 ever-throat. boar-throat, carline thistle; foxes elate, fox's 
 clote, bur-dock ; foxes fot, fox's foot (Sparganium simplex) ; 
 foxes glofa, fox's glove ; fugeles leac, fowl's leek ; fugeles 
 bean, fowl's bean, vetch ; fugeles wise, larkspur ; gauk-pintel, 
 cuckoo-pintle (Arum maculatum) ; geaces sure, cuckoo- 
 sorrel ; gate treow, goat-tree, cornel ; haran hyge, hare's 
 
 1 Not found in A. S., but spelt harebelle in the fifteenth century.
 
 392 ANGLO-SAXON PLANT-NAMES. 
 
 foot trefoil ' ; haran wyrt, hare's wort ; haran sprecel, (now) 
 viper's bugloss ; heorot-berge , hart-berries; buckthorn-berries; 
 heorot-bremble, hart-bramble, buckthorn ; heort-dafre, hart- 
 clover, medic ; hind-berien, hind-berries, raspberries ; hind- 
 brer, hind-briar, raspberry plant ; hind-hczlethe, water agri- 
 mony (named from the hind); hors-elene, horse-elecampane; 
 hors-thistel, horse-thistle, chicory ; hound-berry ; hundes 
 cwelcan, berries of the wayfaring tree ; hundes heafod, 
 hound's head, snap-dragon ; hundes tunge, hound's tongue ; 
 larkes fote, lark's foot, larkspur ; tus-sed, louse-seed, trans- 
 lating Gk. if/v\\Lov ; mus-eare, mouse-ear ; nxderwyrt, 
 nadder-wort, adder-wort ; oxes eye, ox-eye ; oxan slyppe, 
 oxlip ; oxna lib, ox-heal, hellebore ; hrcefnes fdt, raven's 
 foot ; hrcefnes leac, raven's leek, orchis ; wulfes camb, wolf's 
 comb ; wulfes fist, lycoperdon : wvlfe$-ttsl t wolf's teasle. 
 
 Even this list is incomplete. I observe the omission 
 of the following words, all of which are in the index to 
 Wiilker's Glossaries: lambes-cerse, lamb's cress; hors-minte, 
 horse-mint ; hundes rose, hound's rose, dog-rose ; hundes 
 fynkelle, hound's fennel ; and there are probably more of 
 them. 
 
 Observe, further, that the above list contains only such 
 names as had the luck to be recorded. The real number 
 must have been much greater. Thus, in connexion with 
 the fox, we find, in Britten and Holland's excellent work 
 on plant-names, that the Anglo-Saxon foxes date, foxes fdt, 
 and foxes glofa are to be supplemented by such names as 
 the following : fox-docken, fox-fingers (Digitalis purpurea), 
 fox-geranium, fox-grass, fox-rose, fox's brush, fox's claws, 
 foxtail, foxtailed asparagus, foxtail grass. 
 
 1 Cockayne omits harebelle, hare-bell, which occurs in Wiilker's 
 Glossaries, col. 715, 1. 7.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 413 (postscript). Zend ' raozha,' a lynx. 
 
 [The following ' postscript ' was appended to article 
 no. 413, on p. 341 above, but was accidentally omitted in 
 its proper place.] 
 
 I now find that I have, unwittingly, solved a doubtful 
 word in Zend ! so I am told by my friend, Professor Cowell. 
 
 The Zend raozha, Pers. rus, hitherto explained (by guess) 
 as 'wolf and 'fox,' is clearly the Russ. ruise, Polish rys, 
 a lynx; and, by change of r to /, is G. Luchs, Du. los, 
 E. luce, the same. 
 
 475 (postscript). Cambridge and the Cam. 
 
 [The article no. 475, printed above (pp. 384-5), was 
 shortly afterwards much expanded, and printed (with the 
 title ' Cambridge and the Cam ') in the Cambridge Review, 
 Jan. 30, 1896. For the further information of the reader, 
 I here append a reprint of the fuller article.] 
 
 Before tracing the history of the name Cambridge, it is 
 necessary to say a few words about Camboritum. 
 
 There is absolutely no proof as to the identity of Cambo- 
 ritum with Cambridge. The idea was due to Camden, who 
 gave it as a pure guess, from the similarity of the names. 
 All that I have to say here is, that the supposed similarity 
 of the names is a mere illusion. It is altogether misleading 
 to compare the form Camboritum, which occurs in an
 
 394 CAMBRIDGE AND THE CAM. 
 
 Itinerary of Antonine, hardly later than the fourth century, 
 with the form Cambridge, which is no older than the four- 
 teenth at earliest. It is impossible to rely upon a chance 
 resemblance of forms which are separated by an interval of 
 a thousand years, and belong, in part, to different languages. 
 I do not say that it may not be possible to place Cambori- 
 tum at or near Cambridge on other grounds ; but I decidedly 
 affirm that it must be done for some other reason than the 
 fact of their apparent resemblance. Note, too, that even 
 this prima facie likeness only extends to the third letter. 
 The b in Cambo-ritum can have no connexion with the b 
 in Cam-bridge. It is an obvious fact that the b, r and / in 
 the former, are different from the b, r and / in the latter ; 
 and it is an ascertained fact (as will be shown) that the Cam 
 in the former is different from the Cam in the latter. Whence 
 it follows that the C, a, m, b, r, and / in the two words are 
 wholly unconnected ; and the external similarity is a mere 
 coincidence, having no linguistic significance. 
 
 The history of the name of our town is quite clear. All 
 turns upon the fact that the river-name Cam is modern, 
 being wholly unknown before the sixteenth century, and 
 being itself evolved out of the name of the town, instead of 
 conversely. Moreover, it was a learned name, evolved out 
 of the written word, in order to furnish a plausible etymology. 
 Had it been evolved by the people from the spoken sound, 
 the name must inevitably have been Came. 
 
 Next, if the old name of the river had really been Cam, 
 the town would have been called Cambridge. It is very 
 common for vowels to be shortened, as in the case of gos- 
 ling, the diminutive of goose ; but I know of no instance in 
 which the reverse process of lengthening has taken place 
 before a combination of three consonants, for the plain 
 reason that it is unnatural, giving unnecessary trouble. 
 Every student of phonetics will see at once that, whatever 
 was the origin of Cambridge, it was certainly not Cam.
 
 CAMBRIDGE AND THE CAM. 395 
 
 We can thus account for Cam easily enough, as being 
 evolved from the written name of the town by a popular 
 etymology ; the next business is to account for the long a 
 (as in came] in the name as it is spoken. This is really 
 a mere matter of history, and only to be arrived at by the 
 historical method. 
 
 We now come to the leading fact, viz. that the true name 
 of the river was Granta, or Grant, a name which still exists, 
 and can be traced back through all the centuries to British 
 times. 
 
 The first mention of it is in Nennius, in the sixth or 
 seventh century. In Gale's edition, p. 115, we are informed 
 that the name of a certain British town was Caer-graunth. 
 The curious spelling, with aun for an, and final th for t, is 
 Anglo-French, the existing MS. being of rather late date ; 
 the right spelling would be Caer-grant. We can only 
 identify this place by remembering that the same word, 
 turned into Anglo-Saxon, will come out as Granta-ceaster, 
 which in modern English would become Grant-chester. 
 
 The archaic form Granta-caestir occurs in the eighth 
 century, in Beda's History, bk. iv. c. 19. We can hence 
 trace the river-name downwards, through many centuries, to 
 the present day ; but I prefer to do this in connexion with 
 the suffix -bridge rather than in connexion with the suffix 
 -Chester. 
 
 The name of our town emerges into history in the ninth 
 century. It is spelt Grantan-brycge (dative) in the Anglo- 
 Saxon Chronicle, under the date 875 ; and, under the date 
 1010, is the first mention of the county, viz. Grantabrycg- 
 scir, i. e. Grantbridge-shire. 
 
 Domesday-book makes mention of the town as ' Burgum 
 de Grentebrige,' the county being Grentebrige-shire. 
 
 In Henry of Huntingdon, where an earlier MS. has 
 Grantebrigesyre, a later one has Kantebrigesire ; see p. 9 of 
 Arnold's edition.
 
 396 CAMBRIDGE AND THE CAM. 
 
 Simeon of Durham (pp. 82, in, Record Series) has 
 Grantabric and Granthebrige ; the MS. is of the twelfth 
 century. He also has the phrase ' super Grentam fluvium.' 
 
 In the Southern English Legendary (E. E. T. S.), p. 347, 
 1. 66, we find Grauntebruggeschire. This is about 1290. 
 
 In Robert of Gloucester, 1. 132, the earlier MS. (ab. 1330) 
 has Grauntebrugge-ssire where the later (ab. 1400) has 
 Cambrugge-schire ; in the same line. See Mr. Aldis 
 Wright's index for numerous examples. 
 
 loiter than 1330, I only find the form Grauntbrigge in 
 a proper name. It came to a sudden end about 1400 ; for 
 in the second year of King Henry IV, we find a reference 
 in the Patent Rolls, p. 242, to a certain ' Johannes de 
 Grauntbrigge qui obiit sine haerede.' He was a man of 
 some mark, and his name appears frequently in various 
 documents. See in particular the index to the Close Rolls. 
 An earlier ' Johannes de Grauntbrigge ' is mentioned 
 A.D. 1283; Abbreviatio Placitorum, p. 275'. 
 
 There was much trouble with the name in the twelfth 
 century, when the Anglo-French scribes, who were often 
 (I suppose) Londoners, took upon themselves to turn the 
 form Grant into Cant, and Graunt into Count. We still 
 find Grantedrigge in the time of William II ; in 1099, the 
 coins which this king struck at Cambridge were marked 
 with the abbreviation Grant (Ruding, Annals of the Coinage, 
 i. 309 ; iii. 6). This takes us down to the year noo. 
 
 Canon Taylor says (N. and Q. 8 S. viii. 314) that the 
 earliest occurrence of the form Cantebruggescir is in a docu- 
 ment dated 1 142. After that date it is common. Examples 
 are : ' Histon in Cantebrugescir,' Rotuli Chartarum in Turri 
 Londinensi, vol. i. pars, i, 80; A.D. 1200. 'Cantebrug,' 
 Close Rolls, i. 381 ; A.D. 1218. ' Absolon de Cantebrug,' 
 
 1 The title 'earl of Cambridge' occurs in 1415; the bearer of it 
 (executed in that year) was created earl by Henry V, who began to 
 reign in 1413.
 
 CAMBRIDGE AND THE CAM. 397 
 
 id. i. 82 ; A. D. 1207. ' Vic(ecomiti) de Cantebrug,' id. i. 38 ; 
 A. D. 1204; &c. It is important to observe that the name 
 'Johannes de Grauntbrigge ' is also written 'Johannes de 
 Cauntebrigge ' in 1331 ; see Spelman's Glossarium, p. 544. 
 
 Before proceeding with the history, I must explain the 
 variations of spelling. First, the A. S. y appears as * in the 
 Midland dialect, and as u in MSS. written in the South ; 
 hence the variation between brigge and brugge. We also 
 find bregge ; which is Kentish. 
 
 Secondly, we must consider the Norman pronunciation of 
 an. The sound of a was nasal, whilst the n was fully 
 sounded ; many scribes used aun to represent this. Hence 
 the forms Graunt and Count are Anglo-French varieties 
 of Grant and Cant. Unless we understand this fact, 
 we cannot account for the long a in Cambridge ; as will 
 presently appear. 
 
 As far as we have gone, the chronology is as follows : The 
 forms Granta-brycg, Grentebruge, Grauntebrugge, and the 
 like, extend from the ninth century down to 1400 ; the 
 spelling with au being Norman. The forms Cantebrigge, 
 Cauntebrugge, and the like, extended from about 1146 to 
 the fifteenth century. Cantebrigge was Latinized as Canta- 
 brigia, which is frequently found in MSS. of the thirteenth 
 and fourteenth centuries, and at all subsequent dates down 
 to the present day. 
 
 The form Cantabrigia is useful ; for it plainly arose at 
 a time when the e in Cant-e-brigge still formed a syllable. 
 There is an excellent example of this form in Chaucer ; for 
 it is well known that his Reves Tale begins with the line 
 
 'At Trumpington, not fer fro Cant-e-brigge.' 
 
 But, in the fourteenth century, this middle e was often 
 dropped ; so that Chaucer's form was somewhat archaic. 
 The dropping of this e led to a new developement. The a 
 was clogged by the occurrence after it of no less than four
 
 398 CAMBRIDGE AND THE CAM. 
 
 consonants, viz. n t b r. In nearly all such cases, the 
 middle consonant drops out ; and in this case, the middle 
 consonant is practically /, as the br belongs to the next 
 syllable. But this gave the dissonant form Canbrigge or 
 Caunbrigge, which must very soon have been shifted to Cdm- 
 brigge or Caumbrigge. At any rate, Canbrigge is seldom 
 found '. We thus see that the ;;/ in Cambridge merely 
 resulted, by the ordinary operation of phonetic laws, from 
 the n in Granta ; so that Granta- or Grannie- first became 
 Cante- or Caunte-, and next Cant- or Caunt- the next step 
 being to Can- or Caun-, and soon after, to Cam- or Caum-, 
 because a b followed. And until this had happened, the 
 coining of the river-name with a final m was simply im- 
 possible. This is quite clear when we can once grasp it. 
 
 I note here that the form with Cam actually occurs in 
 the later MSS. of Chaucer in the line already quoted. The 
 Lansdowne MS. (after 1400) has the hideous line 
 
 'At Trumpington, not fer fro Cambrugge.' 
 
 We now require to know the all-important fact, that, 
 according to the phonetic laws of Anglo-French, the com- 
 binations am or an, having a nasalized vowel, resulted in 
 sounds with long a (really the aa in baa) ; but the a was 
 not written double, the length being understood. Yet, 
 though we hardly ever find the spellings aam, aan, the 
 slightly varying spellings aum, aun, are common. In modern 
 English, the a is sounded like the ei in vein. Examples 
 with an occur in the modern Eng. angel, danger, range, 
 change, mange, &c., all of Anglo-French origin ; whilst an 
 excellent example with the spelling dm occurs in the word 
 chamber, in which the amb is exactly like the amb in Cam- 
 bridge. It follows from this, that we must expect sometimes 
 to find the former syllable appearing as Caum in the fifteenth 
 century. At this stage of the investigation I began to cast 
 
 1 Canbrigge occurs in A. D. 1436 ; Early Eng. IVills, p. 105.
 
 CAMBRIDGE AND THE CAM. 399 
 
 about for examples of Caum in the fifteenth century, and 
 I soon bethought me of the Paston Letters. These examples 
 are very striking. 
 
 In the Paston Letters, ed. Gairdner, i. 82, the famous 
 Margaret Paston herself used the form Kawmbrege in a 
 letter dated 1449. In the same, i. 422, Agnes Paston wrote 
 Caumbrege in 1458; whilst, in the year 1461 (ii. 79), we 
 find the most interesting form Caumbrygg, being the latest 
 form with n which we are likely to find. 
 
 It will now be understood that, when the form appeared 
 as Cam in the fifteenth century the sound intended was 
 Kaam, riming to balm : and this is why we now pronounce 
 it as came or Keim, riming to fame. Most of the long a's 
 in Anglo-French have suffered the same fate, but are pre- 
 served in modern French, which has daam for our dame, 
 and blaam-e for our verb to blame. The old an (aan) is, 
 however, still preserved before the sounds of s and / : as in 
 dance, lance, chance, chant, grant, &c. All that remains is to 
 trace the rise of the Cam. 
 
 It is a most significant fact that, when the name of the 
 town was Cantebrigge, the river made an abortive attempt to 
 gain the name of the Cant ! This appears from Willis and 
 Clark's History of Cambridge (i. 211), where we find an 
 allusion to ' the common bank called Cante ' ; in the year 
 1372. We even find, from the same work (i. viii.), that, as 
 late as in 1573, Dr. Caius alludes to ' the Canta, now called 
 the Rhee.' But I suspect that he evolved this supposed 
 archaic form out of the Latin Canta-brigia. 
 
 The evolution of the form Cam for the river seems to 
 have been due to the revival of learning in the sixteenth 
 century, appearing first in the Latinized form Camus or 
 Chamus. The Cambridge Review for Nov. 14, 1895, quoted 
 at p. 74 some verses by Giles Fletcher, prefixed to an edition 
 of Demosthenes published in 1571, containing the line 
 
 ' Accipe quae nuper Chami flauentis ad undam.'
 
 400 CAMBRIDGE AND THE CAM. 
 
 And again, from Andrew Melvill's Antitamicamicategoria, 
 dated 1620, the line 
 
 ' Ergo vos Cami proceres Tamique.' 
 
 In both these examples the a in Camus is long. Hence 
 we have Camus in the well-known line in Milton's Lycidas. 
 
 It is needless to give further details. I add a few notes, 
 in chronological order, to show that the river-name Grant 
 was never lost ; whilst the Cam seems to have had much 
 ado to get itself recognized. A third name was the Rhee 
 or Ree, which I suspect merely meant ' stream,' as we find 
 two rivers in Shropshire, both called the Rea Brook, a Ray 
 River in Oxfordshire, and a Rae Burn in Dumfriesshire. 
 Indeed, Willis and Clark give an example of ' le Ee ' in 
 1447 ; but this merely means ' the river,' from the A. S. ea, 
 a stream. 
 
 1455. 'Le Ree'; Willis and Clark, i. 212. 
 
 X 573- ' The Canta, now called the Rhee ' ; see above. 
 
 1576. Saxton's map of Cambridgeshire; the western 
 branch of the river is called the Grante. Willis and Clark. 
 
 1586. Camden says the name is doubtful ; ' alii Grantam, 
 Camum alii nuncupant.' 
 
 1590. Spenser's faerie Queene, bk. iv. c. n. st. 34, has 
 ' the Guant,' with u for r, by a misprint. Some editions 
 have 'Grant' correctly. 
 
 1 6 10. Speed's map of Cambridge shows the ' Cam.' 
 
 1613. Drayton, Polyolbion, xxi. 51, 75, speaks of the 
 ' Grant ' ; and in 1. 107, mentions ' Cam, her daintiest flood, 
 long since intituled Grant.' 
 
 1634. A map of this date in Fuller's History of Cambridge 
 (1655) shows 'Granta, sive Cham fluvius.' His- text only 
 mentions ' the river Grant/' 
 
 1688. Loggan's map 'the Cam.' 
 
 1702. 'The river Cham, alias Grant' ; Willis and Clark. 
 
 1831. Pigot's County Atlas : 'the Granta or Cam.'
 
 CAMBRIDGE AND THE CAM. 401 
 
 The simple conclusion of the whole matter is just this : 
 that the A. S. name Grantabrycgew>v\& certainly have become 
 Grantabridge, or Grantbridge, or possibly, even Grambridge, 
 if it had been developed regularly, without external influence. 
 The changes to Cantabridge, Cauntbrige, Caunbridge, Caum- 
 bridge, and the modern Cambridge are due to French influ- 
 ence and to the Norman conquest ; and it has been well 
 suggested that the change from Gr to C may have arisen 
 from a desire to avoid the repetition of r. And this is how 
 the Granta was ultimately turned into the Cam ; a name 
 which, even now, has not quite displaced its original. 
 
 Dd
 
 INDEX 
 
 IN this index, subjects and proper names begin with a capital letter. 
 Words of which the uses or etymologies are discussed begin with 
 a small letter. 
 
 M. E. (Middle-English), A. S. (Anglo-Saxon), and foreign words are 
 printed in italics. 
 
 In every case, the reference is not to the page but to the number of 
 the article. For example, 'charm' is discussed in articles 23 and 24 
 (at pp. 18, 19). 
 
 a Kempis, 318. 
 
 Accent thrown back, 2. 
 
 Adam, meaning of, 97. 
 
 Adam and Eve in the sea, 64. 
 
 adder, 27. 
 
 t or e (in archceology), 340. 
 
 <estel (A. S.), 164. 
 
 afiirste (M. E.), 401. 
 
 Age of the World, 47, 48. 
 
 Ages, the Seven, 31, 32. 
 
 Alliterative poetry, 119. 
 
 ail-to, 34, 35. 
 
 Alwyne, 283. 
 
 amperzand, 83. 
 
 Angle, trisection of an, 58. 
 
 Angles, the, 307. 
 
 Anglo-French words, 120. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, imaginary, 212, 213. 
 
 months, 310. 
 
 names, 363. 
 
 numerals, 194. 
 
 plant-names, 483. 
 
 poem, 'the Whale,' 365. 
 
 - Translations of the N. T., 333. 
 Anglo-Saxons, poetic diction of 
 
 the, 63. 
 
 anlas (M. E.), 338. 
 anointed, 4. 
 
 A-per-se, 83. 
 
 apple-cart, 144. e 
 
 apposite, 150. 
 
 archaeology (ae or e), 340. 
 
 ask (a lizard), 220. 
 
 atone, 269. 
 
 attrayed (M.E.), 401. 
 
 auger, 27. 
 
 aund, awrfd (prov. E.), 113. 
 
 a work, 234. 
 
 B to a battledore, 75. 
 
 Bagdad, 319. 
 
 bait, burning of, 238. 
 
 Baker's dozen, 52. 
 
 balcony, a. 
 
 baldacchino, 319. 
 
 balloon, 219. 
 
 bandalore, 267. 
 
 bane, 399. 
 
 banshee, 350. 
 
 barton, 320. 
 
 Basque, 197. 
 
 bayonet, 393. 
 
 beadle, 435. 
 
 beaker, 323. 
 
 bear (barley), 320. 
 
 Bede's version of St. John, 160. 
 
 d 2
 
 404 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 beefeater, 187, 287, 410. 
 begyns (in Grimoald), 400. 
 bernar, 17. 
 bewray, 233. 
 Birnam wood, 156. 
 blakeberyed (Chaucer), 84. 
 blazer. 2jS. 
 blyve (M. E.\ 401. 
 ' bo to a goose,' 75. 
 bodkin, to ride, 315. 
 Boethius quoted, 145. 
 boneshaw (prov. E.), 448. 
 borken (M. E.), 401. 
 Brandan, St., 365. 
 bravo, brava, 386. 
 brewery, 276. 
 ' Briga,' 96. 
 Buckles on shoes, 131. 
 buffer, 122. 
 buffetier, 287, 410. 
 buft (prov. E.), 122. 
 Bunyan illustrated, 299. 
 burdes (M. E.), 400. 
 Burning for heresy, 472. 
 by-and-by, 208. 
 ' by hook or by crook,' 79- 
 bydand (M. E.), 66. 
 
 c in Latin, 463, 464. 
 
 caddy, n. 
 
 Cain's jaw-bone, 158. 
 
 Cambridge, Cam, 475. (And see 
 
 P- 393-) 
 
 cant and keen (M. E.), 398. 
 cap-a-pie, 30. 
 Capitals, use of, 347. 
 Cards mentioned, 271. 
 Carfax, 5, 6. 
 carminative, 257. 
 carrefour (F.), 5. 
 catsup, 293. 
 
 eater-waul, 226, 227, 228. 
 catty, ii. 
 caucus, 252. 
 Cavalry Curates, 429. 
 ceriously (M. E.), 374. 
 chair (pulpit), 331. 
 Chanticleer's wives, 186. 
 charivari, 482. 
 charm (prov. E), 23, 24. 
 Chatterton's Anglo-Saxon, 78. 
 Chaucer: Anelida (1. 183), 462. 
 
 Chaucer : Kuightes Tale, 51. 
 
 Kn. Tale and Troilus, 69. 
 
 Legend of Good Women (1. 1 6 >, 
 422. 
 
 Man of Law's Tale, 80. 
 
 Manciple's Tale, 42. 
 
 Parl. of Foules (1. 363), 371. 
 
 Parson's prol. (1. 43), 199. 
 
 Prologue (1. 410), 246. 
 
 blakcberyed, 84. 
 
 edition by Moxon, 317. 
 
 Stilbon, 421. 
 Chaucer's pronunciation, 262. 
 cherry- fair, 482. 
 Christ-cross, 21. 
 
 chum, 463, 464. 
 
 Cicero speaking Greek, 108. 
 
 claw me, claw thee, 229. 
 
 clean as a whistle, 22. 
 
 cloture CF.), 174. 
 
 clubstart (prov. E.), 427. 
 
 coat, 56. 
 
 calum, calutn, 392. 
 
 cole-prophet (M. E.), 204. 
 
 Colours as surnames, 231 
 
 Comets, 105. 
 
 Commence to, 380. 
 
 Conrad, i. 
 
 Coppa, a hen, 186. 
 
 Copy for printers, 173. 
 
 corsy, corsive, 397. 
 
 cowslip, 483. 
 
 ' crow with voice of care,' 371. 
 
 Crusoe, Robinson, 248. 
 
 Curiosities of Interpretation, 398, 
 
 399, 400-1. 
 cut away, 244. 
 
 darbies, 196. 
 
 dare, dares, 127, 128. 
 
 darkling, 270. 
 
 Davenant's English, 14. 
 
 -de (ft. t. suffix}, 214, 215, 
 
 216. 
 
 'Dead as a door-nail,' 16. 
 deal board, 193. 
 Devonshire dialect, 192. 
 Dialects, English, 92. 
 discure (M.E.), 397. 
 Distich by Luther, 25. 
 Domesday Book, 425. 
 drake (M. E.), 399.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 405 
 
 Drawing, hanging, and quartering, 
 
 369- 
 
 drunk as mice, 121. 
 Dryden's use of instinct, 258. 
 
 use of neyes, 27. 
 dulcarnon (Chaucer), 147, 279. 
 Dumnow flitch, 191. 
 
 -e, final, 61. 
 
 East Sheen, 312. 
 
 Edinburghean grammar, 447. 
 
 Editions, First, 405. 
 
 Edwards' ' Words, Facts,' &c., 
 
 411. 
 
 edyllys be (M. E.), 124. 
 effrontery, 469. 
 eftures (M. E.), 210. 
 Egerton, 361. 
 egle (icicle\ 273. 
 eightetene (M. E.), 136. 
 embezzle, 133. 
 Emendations, culpable, 165. 
 emys (M.E.), 398. 
 en pronounced as in, 256. 
 English, chronology of, 120. 
 
 Dialects, 92. 
 
 etymology, 101, 
 
 Grammars, 298. 
 , railway, 157. 
 
 , sham specimens of, 295. 
 
 without articles, 14. 
 English and Angle, 307. 
 English and German, 251, 313. 
 ennui, 68. 
 
 -er pronounced as -ar, 166, 
 
 167. 
 
 ernde (M. E.), 401. 
 -er-st (suffix), 326. 
 ether (prov. E.}, 432. 
 Etymologies, ridiculous, 96, 197, 
 
 266, 302, 352, 455. 
 
 specimens of; aroint thee, 455 ; 
 beadle, 435 ; Charing Cross, 455 ; 
 Gauch (G.), 455 ; gallows, 302 ; 
 gnoffe.^2 goblin,^ Inkpen, 
 352 ; Lammas, 455 ; Pales, 455 ; 
 Perseus, 455 ; riding, 455 ; 
 toot-hill, 455. 
 
 Etymology, English, 101. 
 Ever-, 195. 
 
 ' Exc eptio probat regulam? 95. 
 expulse, 12. 
 
 Fabyan's Chronicles, error in, 
 67. 
 
 faith, 332. 
 
 Familiarity breeds contempt, 289. 
 
 father, 432. 
 
 fathom, 432. 
 feabes (prov. E.\ 209. 
 
 fen, fend, 126. 
 
 Fewtarspeare, 98. 
 faskisable (M.E.), 372. 
 
 flotsam, 445. 
 
 Fly-leaves, Notes on, 29, 33. 
 
 fod, 419. 
 
 for to, 354. 
 
 forbode, 399. 
 forslinger (M. E.\ 135. 
 
 fox-glove, 203, 474, 483. 
 f ratty (M.E.), 241. 
 
 French u for /, 177. 
 
 fylfot, 362. 
 
 ga (A. S.), 207. 
 galetas ,F.), 141. 
 galoches (F.\ 90. 
 gantlope, running the, 478. 
 garret, 141. 
 gather, 432. 
 
 gauts (prov. E.\ 116, 117. 
 gaytreberies (M. E.), 301. 
 geason,geson (M.E.), 456. 
 Genders in English, 390. 
 genitive, form of, 89. 
 Genius defined, 239. 
 genteel dogs, 54. 
 Gerbertus, story of, 387. 
 ghauts (prov. E.), 116, 117. 
 ghost-word, 291. 
 eftures, 210. 
 
 giU, I5 2 - 
 
 gingham, 440. 
 
 girl, how pronounced, 341, 342. 
 
 gist, 44. 
 
 Gladstone, Mr., 300. 
 
 Glossaries, 170. 
 
 glove, 115. 
 
 gnoffe (M. E.), 452. 
 
 Godiva, 384. 
 
 go!f> 454- 
 
 ' good wine,' &c., 95. 
 gorilla, 134.^ 
 gradalc (Latin), 74-
 
 406 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 grail, holy, 74. 
 grange, 345. 
 greece (M. E.), 398. 
 green-baize road, 240. 
 grift (prov. E.), 325- 
 grithe (M. E.), 398. 
 groundsel, 403. 
 gruesome, 402. 
 gut, 117. 
 
 H, the letter, 297. 
 
 hag, 220. 
 
 ha-ha, 470. 
 
 halfen-dale (M. E.), 146. 
 
 Halliwell's Dictionary, additions 
 
 to, 284, 285, 286. 
 Hampole's psalter, 303. 
 handsome, 95. 
 hang out, 444. 
 
 harebell, 483 (footnote on p. 392". 
 hauns (Gothic), 26. 
 Havelok and Robert of Brunne, 65. 
 haw, hawthorn, 327. 
 Hawking, 179, 180. 
 hayward, 327. 
 Hearne's Chronicles, 170. 
 hedges, hedge, 327. 
 hell, v. (prov. E.), 91. 
 henchman, 264, 272,415, 416, 417, 
 
 418. 
 
 Hereward, 296. 
 hibiscus, 349. 
 hidels (M. E.), 124. 
 Hilda, 468. 
 hind-berries, 483. 
 hither, 432. 
 
 hoder-tiioder (M. E.), 221. 
 hoe, 336. 
 hogshead, 40. 
 hold (of a ship), 204. 
 hold up oil, 153. 
 holt, 441. 
 
 hone (houe), hoe, 336. 
 hone (M. E.), 401. 
 honi (French), 26. 
 horkey (prov. E.), 460. 
 Howard, 172, 2y6. 
 huckshins (prov. E.), 459. 
 hugger-mugger, 221. 
 hull, 91. 
 hundred, 137. 
 
 icicle, 273. 
 
 'fctibtts agrestis,' 337. 
 
 -?( A. S.), 223. 
 
 Inkpen, 352. 
 
 instinct (in Dryden), 258. 
 
 iron, pronunciation of, 451. 
 
 iron-mould, 204. 
 
 Jackdaw of Rheims, 42. 
 
 James, 343. 
 
 Jamieson's Dictionary, 148. 
 
 janissary, 236, 237. 
 
 jeresgive (yeresghte), 72. 
 
 Jericho, to send to, 330. 
 
 jetsam, 445. 
 
 Jingo, 453- 
 
 Johnson's definition of oats, 85. 
 
 jolly, 397. 
 
 ka me, ka thee, 229. 
 
 Kangaroo, 247. 
 
 kct (prov. E.), 260. 
 
 ketchup, 293. 
 
 key-cold, 15. 
 
 kilt, 373- 
 
 kilter, kelter (prov. E.), 358. 
 
 King's Quair, 476. 
 
 tittering- (prov. E.), 305. 
 
 Knot in a handkerchief, 88. 
 
 knout, 253. 
 
 Knowledge for the people, 295. 
 
 / and u in French, 177. 
 
 laburnum, 142. 
 
 lagan, 458. 
 
 Lammas, 86, 87, 254, 455. 
 
 lathe (prov. E.), 260. 
 
 latten, 308. 
 
 launder, v., 434. 
 
 laundress, 397. 
 
 lea (scythe), 260. 
 
 leary, 396. 
 
 led will, 481. 
 
 leer (hungry), 143. 
 
 leet, three-way (prov. E.), 200. 
 
 leezing, leasing (M. E.), 359. 
 
 legerdemain, 288. 
 
 Leighton, 382. 
 
 lene, hue (M. E.), 45. 
 
 Leofwine, 296.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 407 
 
 Letter- writing, 202. 
 
 leue, lene iM. E.), 45. 
 
 Liber Vitae, 363. 
 
 Limehouse, 265. 
 
 Lines, deficient, 465. 
 
 lister (prov. E.), 41. 
 
 lithe, v. (M. E.), 398. 
 
 litton (prov. E.), 185. 
 
 living, 19. 
 
 lobster, 103. 
 
 lopen (M. E.), 400. 
 
 Lord's prayer in English, 295. 
 
 in English verse, 249, 250. 
 
 luce (lynx), 412, 413; and see p. 
 
 393- 
 
 Lucifer, 28. 
 lumbering, 165. 
 luncheon, 112. 
 Luther's distich, 25. 
 luzern, luccrn, 412, 413. 
 lytton (M. E.), 185. 
 
 Magdalene (a boat\ 246. 
 Man with a muck-rake, 299. 
 manacus ^Lat.), 181. 
 Mango-trick, 450. 
 marigold, 436. 
 -mas, 86, 87. 
 mattins, matins, 360. 
 medieval, 340. 
 meresmen, 259. 
 merestones, 423. 
 mete, metels (M.E.), 400. 
 Metz, siege of, 76. 
 w/^ r (prov. E.), 122. 
 mill (contest), 123. 
 Milton (on comets), 105. 
 missa (Lat.), 86. 
 mistletoe, 320. 
 monkey, 59. 
 Months in A. S., 310. 
 Morian's land, 304. 
 mother, 432. 
 much (i. e. great), 94. 
 mustredevilliars, 339. 
 mute, 368. 
 mysuryd (M. E. N , 399. 
 
 dropped, 27 ; prefixed, 27. 
 Ned, Ted, 328. 
 neyes (eyes), 27. 
 
 'Nice as a nun's hen,' 7- 
 'nineted, Anointed (prov. E.), 356. 
 nonce, for the, 27. 
 North, the abode of Lucifer, 28. 
 Numerals in A.S., 194. 
 mimmet (prov. E.), no. 
 nuncheon, no, in, 112. 
 nye (M. E.), 400. 
 
 oander, oandurth (prov. E.), 322. 
 oats, defined by Dr. Johnson. 
 
 85. 
 
 Ockford, 425. 
 offal, 217, 218. 
 Ohthere's Voyage, 294. 
 Oil on troubled waters, 235. 
 oil, to hold up, 153. 
 old, 375. 
 
 ollands (prov. E.), 189. 
 ' one touch of nature," 245. 
 opposal, 150. 
 orders, to make, 292. 
 orra (Scotch), 397. 
 otherwhiles (M. E.), 99. 
 oubit (Scotch), 348. 
 out and out, 364. 
 oxhead, 40. 
 
 pair of, 151. 
 
 pam, 154, 261. 
 
 Pamphila, 154. 
 
 pamphlet, 154. 
 
 paragon, 385. 
 
 Parnell, St., 389, 457. 
 
 parson, 466. 
 
 Past tense of weak verbs, 214, 215, 
 
 216. 
 
 patriot, 480. 
 peas, pease, 77. 
 peruse, 334. 
 phaeton, 230. 
 phenomenon, 274, 275. 
 Pictures, two-faced, 20. 
 Pied friars, 53. 
 pig, piggin (prov. E.), 323. 
 pimple, 155. 
 pinchbeck, 308. 
 Pinkeney, 27. 
 Place-names, 222, 223; vowels in, 
 
 3H- 
 
 Plant-names, 483.
 
 4 o8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 poke, pig in a, 95. 
 
 poortith (Scotch), 332. 
 
 Pope, verse by the, 404. 
 
 porcelain, 46. 
 
 portress, 82. 
 
 poudred (M. E.), 399. 
 
 pounce, 180. 
 
 ' Pound of flesh, the,' 198. 
 
 prepense, 335. 
 
 Prepositions, English, Si. 
 
 prise, 83. 
 
 Pronouns, use of, 447. 
 
 Pronunciation, 256, 262, 341, 342. 
 
 Proverb, French (tant grate la 
 chevre), 13. 
 
 Proverbs : as clean as a whistle, 
 22 ; as dead as a door-nail, 16 ; 
 as drunk as mice, 121 ; as nice 
 as a nun's hen, 7 ; as right as a 
 trivet, 22 ; buy a pig in a poke, 
 95 ; by hook or by crook, 79 ; 
 cry bo to a goose, 75 ; exceptio 
 probat regulam, 95 ; familiarity 
 breeds contempt, 289 ; God 
 sends the shrewd cow short 
 homs, 95 ; good wine needs no 
 bush, 95 ; handsome is as hand- 
 some does, 95 ; ka me, ka thee, 
 229; more haste, worse speed, 
 95 ; setting the Thames on tire, 
 205, 206. 
 
 Pseudo-Saxon, 212, 213. 
 
 punt, 255. 
 
 pursy, 397. 
 
 Putting a man under a pot, 18. 
 
 puzzle, 150. 
 
 Quasimodo, 426. 
 
 ' Qui capit uxoremj 33. 
 
 ' Quos angtiis? &c., 33. 
 
 rabbit it, 39. 
 racoon, 408. 
 Railway English, 157. 
 rake (track), 370. 
 raozha (Zend), p. 393. 
 rauky (prov. E.), 178. 
 Reade, Reid, 231. 
 reave, 400. 
 
 reckon (prov. E.), 232. 
 reckling (prov. E.), 324. 
 
 recure (M. E.), 397. 
 
 releet (prov. E.), 200. 
 
 resplend, 9. 
 
 rhyme, 3. 
 
 rhyme nor reason, 8. 
 
 ' right as a trivet,' 22. 
 
 rim, ram, ruf (Chaucer), 199. 
 
 rime v. rhyme, 3. 
 
 rimer, 355. 
 
 rimpling, 165. 
 
 Road knight, 473. 
 
 Robert of Brunne, 65. 
 
 robin, 290. 
 
 Robinson Crusoe, 248. 
 
 Roodee, 62. 
 
 Roses, creation of, 10. 
 
 roun (M. E.), 401. 
 
 Rouse, 231. 
 
 ' rue with a difference,' 71. 
 
 runawaye's eyes, 431. 
 
 runnel, 316. 
 
 -s dropped in the genitive, 89. 
 sangreal, 74 ; sang real, 74. 
 sawten (M. E.), 398. 
 Saxon, etymology of, 391. 
 Seasons, four, 224, 225; names of, 
 
 224, 225. 
 
 Second sight, 437. 
 sele (prov. E.), 268. 
 serfs (French), 70. 
 seriously (M. E.), 374. 
 Shakeshaft, 98, 321. 
 Shakespeare: Coriol. (iv. 7. 52), 
 
 331 ; Hamlet (v. I. 85), 158 ; 
 
 Jul. Caesar (iii. i. 58), 420 ; (iv. 
 
 3. 218), 407; Merchant of 
 
 Venice, 198 ; Troilus (iii. 3. 174), 
 
 245 ; Tw. Nt. (ii. 4. 45), 414; 
 
 ' runawayes,' 431. 
 Shakespeare, Concordance to, 430. 
 Shakespeare's name, 98, 321. 
 sheen and shine, 312. 
 shingle, 444. 
 showl (prov. E.), 397. 
 shrewd cow, 95. 
 sidemen, 138. 
 sidth V M. E.), 171. 
 sike (prov. E.\ 391. 
 Sincl bad's Voyages, 365. 
 sith (since), 439. 
 skellum, 201.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 409 
 
 s/are (prov. E.), 263. 
 
 sloycl, 306. 
 
 slubber-de-gullion, 477- 
 
 slughorn, 280. 
 
 soc-lamb, 57. 
 
 Sodor and Man, 242. 
 
 so-ho, 461. 
 
 sool (M. E.), 378, 379- 
 
 sooth saw, 443. 
 
 sparable, 282. 
 
 sparling ( M . E.) , 132. 
 
 spawn, 182. 
 
 Spenser, error in, 49 ; his tree-list, 
 
 433- 
 
 Sperling (M. E.), 132. 
 spit white, 107. 
 stain, steen (stone), 192. 
 stalled (sated), 383; stalled ox, 
 
 383- 
 
 steen (stone), 192. 
 -ster, siiffix, 102, 103. 
 stick of eels, 100. 
 stoat, 427. 
 
 stretchy (Shakespeare), 414. 
 strangullion (M. E.), 477. 
 stricken in years, 376. 
 ' Strike here,' 387. 
 striken (M. E.), 376. 
 styed (advanced !), 376. 
 suant, suent (prov. E.), 395. 
 sulphur, 211. 
 sumpter, 161. 
 sun i, gender of), 73. 
 sunset, 442. 
 Surnames, 231. 
 swastika (Skt.), 362. 
 Swedish and English, 406. 
 sweet-heart, 130. 
 ' sweetness and light,' 309. 
 Swimming feat, 104, 
 swine, 93. 
 Swithin, St., 446. 
 s-wyke (M. E.), 401. 
 Syllabification, 139. 
 
 talon, 179, 1 80. 
 Tantony, 328. 
 tapere (M. E.), 162. 
 tarring-iron. 438. 
 tawdry, 328. 
 Ted, Ned, 328. 
 tennis, 190. 
 
 Tennyson : Locksley Hall, 145 ; 
 
 metre of In Memoriam, 424 ; 
 
 his use of swine, 93. 
 ' Terra,' a root-word, 96. 
 tether, 432. 
 tetter, 106. 
 
 th in A. F. and A. S., 333. 
 Thackeryana, 449. 
 Thames on fire, 205, 206. 
 thel (&.. S.}, 193. 
 theodolite, 471. 
 Theory and Practice, 314. 
 -ther (suffix^, 432. 
 thethorne (M. E.), 209. 
 thither, 432. 
 Thomas a Kempis, 318. 
 three-way leet (prov. E.), 200. 
 thwitel ^M. E.), 159. 
 tine, 320. 
 
 to (with */.), 353, 354. 
 together, 432. 
 Tooley, 328. 
 tooth-saw, 443. 
 touch (tache), 245. 
 touter, 329. 
 town, 320. 
 
 treenware (prov. E.), 109. 
 tretys (M. E.), 129. 
 tricker, 165. 
 Triple consonants, 381. 
 Trisection of an angle, 58. 
 trivet, 22. 
 trouts, 428. 
 
 trow (trough), 366, 367. 
 tureen, 109. 
 
 turken (M.E.), 175, 176. 
 turkis (M. E.), 175. 
 
 umpire, 27. 
 undern (M. E.), 322. 
 linked (prov. E.), 168. 
 utas (M. E.), 351. 
 
 v lost in English, 397. 
 
 vade (M. E.), 400. 
 
 vant (font", 114. 
 
 velvet, 394. 
 
 Verse, deficient lines in English, 
 
 465- 
 
 mid (M. E.), 204. 
 Vowel-shortening, 311.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Vowels in English and German, 
 313. 
 
 wag, 281. 
 wage, wages, 163. 
 walking width, 171. 
 wallowish (prov. E.), 377- 
 Walter, Water, 43. 
 wappered (Shakespeare), 135. 
 warish (M. E.), 140. 
 watchet (prov. E.), 277. 
 Water = Walter, 43. 
 watershed, 60. 
 wayzgoose (prov. E.), 344. 
 Weak verbs, 214, 215, 216. 
 weather, 432. 
 wederoue (M. E.), 467. 
 welsh (prov. E.), 377. 
 Welsh place-names, 479. 
 welted (prov. E.), 183. 
 went ( = he goes), 216. 
 whipultre (M. E.), 301. 
 whither, 432. 
 
 ivhitsul (M. E.), 378, 379. 
 Whitsun Day, 378, 379. 
 whittle, 159. 
 wicket, 388. 
 
 wicks (of the mouth), 125. 
 
 will-led, 481. 
 
 Wimbledon, 184. 
 
 windlestrae (prov. E.), 169. 
 
 Windmills, 409. 
 
 wipple-tree (M. E.), 301. 
 
 wither, 432. 
 
 wolf (in music), 243. 
 
 wolwarde (prov. E.), 36, 37, 38. 
 
 woodruff, 467. 
 
 World's age, 47, 48. 
 
 wreck ling, 324. 
 
 wrinkle (idea 1 ), 188. 
 
 write you, 346. 
 
 Writer's errors, 118. 
 
 Wycliffe's New Testament, 149. 
 
 y(/0rthe), 55- 
 Year and a day, 50. 
 yede,yode (M. E.), 49. 
 yeresgive (M. E.), 72. 
 Yetminster, 425. 
 ynly (M. E.), 401. 
 Yorkshire words, 260. 
 you (dat.~), 346. 
 
 Zebra, 247. 
 
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