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THE 
 
 CARPENTER'S AND BUILDER'S 
 
 ASSISTANT, • 
 
 AND 
 
 Wood Worker's 
 
 GUIDE. 
 
 BY LUCIUS D. GOULD, 
 
 Architect and Practical Builder. 
 
 NE W YORK: 
 
 -A.. J-. :o I o i^ nsr E ij Hi cfe? oo 
 
 Architectural Book Publishers, 
 1874. 
 
 EIBRARY 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1874, by 
 
 LUCIUS D. GOULD, 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 DAILY ADVERTISER PRINT, 
 Newark, New Jersey. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 I 
 
 Several 3^ears have elapsed since I first published the House 
 Carpenter's Assistant, which met with a ready sale of some seven- 
 teen hundred copies, but in consequence of the death of ihe pub 
 lisher the work is now out of print. 
 
 The object of the author is to revise the former work by omitting 
 the treaties on mathematical instruments, to make room for additional 
 matter that had been overlooked in the former work, in order to fur- 
 nish house carpenters and builders with a new and easy system of 
 lines founded on geometrical principles for framing the most difficult 
 roofs ; for cutting every description of joints and for linding the sec- 
 tions of angular pieces at any point from a horizontal to a 'perpen- 
 dicular, so that their sides shall be in the plane of the sides they are 
 connected with ; for finding the form of the raking mould, for a 
 gable, to intersect with the horizontal mould at any angle diverging 
 from a straight line ; the mitreing of circular mouldings; the rela- 
 tive sizes of timbers framed to support a given weight: to the mitre- 
 ing of planes oblique to the base at any angle. 
 
 Together with these rules, the author also presents tables of the 
 weight and cohesive strength of the different materials used in the 
 construction- of buildings as well as the weight required to crush said 
 materials, with a treatise on the adhesion of nails, screws, iron pins 
 and glue. Also an easy system of stair railing for straight and 
 platform stairs, which will enable carpenters to finish and complete 
 a dwelling without the assistance of a professional stair builder. 
 
 And to all this is added a practical and mathematical demonstra- 
 tion of finding the circumference and squaring the circle when the 
 diameter is given. 
 
 There can be but little doubt that a work of this kind is needed by 
 architects and builders, and especially by carpenters and workmen 
 who are inexperienced in the different kinds of labor which they are 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 called upon to perform. Many a journeyman carpenter has found 
 himself suddenly thrown out of employment simply because he was 
 ignorant of the rules by which he could perform some required task. 
 It is rather for the benefit of such than for the experienced work- 
 men, that this volume is designed, and should it be the means of 
 promoting their interest or inciting them to a study of the noble 
 science and art of construction, the author will feel well compensated 
 for his labor. 
 
 It is but due to acknowledge that we have consulted the valuable 
 works of Thomas Tredgold, for the articles on the strength and 
 weight of materials, also to Mr. Honetus M. Albee, a skillful and 
 experienced stair-builder for the method of finding the distances to 
 kerf the back string for circular stairs. 
 
Plate 1. 
 
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 Fig. 4. 
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 1 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 Carpentry is the art of cutting and jointing timbers in the 
 construction of buildings. 
 
 To cut timbers and adapt them to their various situations, 
 BO that one of the sides of every piece shall be arranged ac- 
 cording to a given plane or surface shown in the designs of 
 the architect, is a department of carpentry which requires a 
 thorough knowledge of the finding of sections of solids, their 
 coverings and the various methods of connecting timbers, etc. 
 
 The art of combining pieces of timber to increase their 
 strength and firmness, is called framing. 
 
 The form of a frame should be adapted to the nature of 
 the load which it is designed to carry. 
 
 In carpentry, the load is usually distributed over the whole 
 length of the framing, but it is generally supported from point 
 to point, by short beams or joists. 
 
 First, let us consider a case where the load is collected at 
 one point of the frame, and in order that the advantage of 
 framing may be more obvious, let us suppose all the parts 
 of a certain piece of frame work to be cut out of a single 
 beam, which in a solid mass, would be too weak for the 
 purpose. 
 
 PLATE 1. 
 
 Let Fig. 1 be a piece of timber cut in the various directions 
 indicated by the lines passing through it ;^and let the tri- 
 angular pieces shown at E and F be removed, then raise the 
 pieces A E and A F till they make close joints at E and F, 
 and increase their lengths till they form a frame or truss, as 
 represented at Fig. 2. A small rod of iron with suitable nuts, 
 will be required to support the centre of the tie, as seen in 
 
CARPENTliY. 
 
 the drawing. If the depth of the frame at the middle be 
 double the depth of the beam, the strength of the frame will 
 be a little more than eight times as great as that of the beam. 
 If the depth ot the frame be three times the depth of the 
 beam as represented at Fig. 2, it will be about six times as 
 strong as the beam, and about eighteen times as firm, that is, it 
 will bend only an eighteenth part of the distance which the 
 beam would bend under the same weight. 
 
 To render the strength more equal and to obtain two points 
 of support, there ma)^ be a level piece of timber placed be- 
 tween the inclining ones, as shown at Fig 3 ; but if a greater 
 weight be placed at G than at H, there will be a tendency 
 to spring upwards at H and inwards at A, which may be 
 effectually prevented by the suspension rod A A, as shown 
 in the same figure. 
 
 It now remains to show why the strength of a piece of 
 timber is increased by forming it into a truss ; and to have a 
 clear conception of this subject is of the utmost importance 
 in the science of carpentry. 
 
 Let ABC Fig. 4 be a truss to support a weight applied at 
 A. It is evident that the force of the weight wnll tend to 
 spread the abutments B and C, and the nearer we make the 
 angle AB C to a straight line, the greater will be the pressure 
 or tendency to spread or increase at A. On the contrary, if 
 the height be increased as at Fig. 5, the tendency to spread 
 the abutment will be less. 
 
 The advantage of framing timbers together for the purpose 
 of giving strength and firmness having been shown, lei us 
 proceed to explain how the strain on any part may be 
 measured. 
 
 To find the pressure on oblique supports or parts of trusses, 
 frames, etc. Let A B Fig. 6 be a heavy beam supported by 
 two posts A and B D, placed at equal distances from E, 
 the centre of the beam. The pressure on each post will 
 obviously be equal to half the weight of the beam. But if 
 the posts be placed obliquely as in Fig. 7, the pressure on 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 each post will be increased in the same proportion as its 
 length is increased, the height A C, being the same as before ; 
 that is, when A F is double A C, the pressure on the post in 
 the direction of its length is double the half weight of the 
 beam. Hence it is very easy to find the pressure in the 
 direction of an inclined strut, for it is as many times half 
 the weight supported as A C is contained in A F. Therefore, 
 if the depth A C of a truss to support a weight of two tons 
 be only one foot, and A F be ten feet, the pressure in the 
 direction of A F will be ten tons. 
 
 It will be observed that when the beam is supported by 
 oblique posts, as in Fig. 7, these posts will slide out at the 
 bottom and together at the top, if not prevented by proper 
 abutments. The force with which the foot F tends to slide 
 out is to half the weight of the beam A B, as F C is to A C. 
 Therefore, when F C is equal to A C, the tendency to slide 
 out is equal to half the weight supported ; and if F C be ten 
 times A C, the tendency to spread out would be ten times 
 the weight supported. Hence it is evident that a flat truss 
 requires a tie of immense strength to prevent it from 
 spreading. If a flat truss produces any degree of stretching 
 in the tie, the truss must obviously settle, and by settling it 
 becomes flat and consequently exerts a greater strain. In a 
 flat truss, therefore, too much caution cannot be used in fitting 
 the joints and choosing good materials. 
 
PROBLEMS 
 
 PLATE 2. 
 
 To form an Ellipsis hy means of a cord : — Let A B 
 (Figure 1) be the longest diameter and D C the sliortest 
 diameter of the required ellipse. Make C F and C G equal 
 to E B, which is one-half the longest diameter. At the 
 points G and F place pins, around the pins place a cord so 
 fastened at the ends that it shall reach around the points C F 
 G ; place your pencil inside the cord and describe the ellipsis. 
 Care must be taken to keep the cord to an even tension. 
 
 Figure 2. — A side of a Polygon of any number of sides 
 heing given to describe the Polygon : — Let A B C be a line 
 and B C the given side of a polygon of five sides. From 
 B as a centre, with B C as a radius, describe a semi-circle 
 and divide it into five parts ; through the points of division 
 1, 2, draw the lines B D and B E indefinitely ; then with one 
 point of the compass at C, w^ith C B as radius, describe the 
 dotted circle B D, cutting the line B D at D ; perpendicular 
 to B C, draw the line C E, join 3, 1, and at the intersection 
 of the lines 3, 1 and C E will be the centre to describe the 
 circle BCD, etc. ; join C D, etc., and the figure will be 
 complete. 
 
 FiouKE 3. — To describe the false ellipsis^ or an elliptical 
 figure hy means of circular arcs : — Let A B be the length 
 and C D the breadth ; join B D through the centre of the 
 line E B, and at right angles to B D draw the line C F 
 indefinitely ; then at the points of intersection of the dotted 
 lines will be found the points to describe the required ellipsis. 
 
 Figure 4. — To inscribe an equilateral triangle in a given 
 circle : — Through the centre A, draw any diameter B C ; from 
 the point C as a centre, with the radius C A, describe tlie arc 
 
Plato 2 
 
 I-i^.l P3 
 
 Fid. 
 
PKOBLEMS. 
 
 DAE; join B D, B E and D E, then D B E is the 
 equilateral-triangle required. 
 
 Figure 5. — To describe a regular Octagon from, a given 
 square: — Draw the diagonal A B, then with half the diagonal 
 as a radius, describe from each of the four angular points of 
 the square, the arcs cutting the centre and sides of the square. 
 Join the points of intersection and the required octagon is 
 obtained. 
 
 Figure h.^-To inscribe a Polygon of six sides : — Describe 
 the circle as shown from the points A B with the same 
 radius, describe the arcs within the circle. Join the points 
 of intersection by the chords as shown and the required 
 polygon will be obtained. 
 
10 PROBLEMS. 
 
 PLATE 3. 
 
 Exhibits a plan of groin arches, designed for brick or 
 stone materials, resting on eight piers, which are represented 
 by the letters A B C, etc. 
 
 Figure 1 — On the line A 11 of the lesser opening between 
 two adjacent piers, describe the semi-circle A G H ; divide 
 the arc A C in any number of equal parts as shown ; drop 
 the lines from the points on the arc, at i-ight angles to A G, 
 cutting the diagonal lines I K in the points 1, 2, 3 ; etc., 
 from the points thus found on the lines I K, draw the perpen- 
 dicular lines 1 1, 2 2, etc., equal to those shown at the semi- 
 circle A G H, and through the points 1, 2, 8, etc., describe 
 the curve lines for the intersecting ribs, over the lines I K 
 and L M as shown on the plan. 
 
 Figure 2 — Shows a method of forming the curves tor the 
 intersecting rib, by using a cord as shown at Fig. 1, Plate 2. 
 
1 
 
 1 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 
 Showing tlie leno^tl 
 
 1 of Brace 
 
 wlien the 
 
 run is given, also 1 
 
 the length of run when the Brace is given. 
 
 i 
 
 RUN. 
 
 BRACK. 
 
 BRACK. 
 
 RUN. 
 
 2 ft. X 2 ft. 
 
 
 2.8284 
 
 2 ft. 
 
 1.4142x1.4142 
 
 1 2 ft. 3 in. X 2 ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 3.1819 
 
 2 ft. 3 in. 
 
 1.5909 X 1.5909 
 
 { 2 ft. 6 in. X 2 ft. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 3.5749 
 
 2 ft. 6 in. 
 
 1.7879 X 1.7879 
 
 1 2 ft. 9 in. X 2 ft. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 3.8903 
 
 2 ft. 9 in. 
 
 1.9451 X 1.9451 
 
 3 ft. X 3 ft. 
 
 
 4.2426 
 
 3 ft. 
 
 2.1213x2.1213 
 
 i 3 ft. 3 in. X 3 ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 4.5961 
 
 3 ft. 3 in. 
 
 2.2980 X 2.2980 
 
 j 3 ft. 6 in. X 3 ft. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 4.9497 
 
 3 ft. 6 in. 
 
 2.4748 X 2.4748 i 
 
 3 ft. 9 in. X 3 ft. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 5.3141 
 
 3 ft. 9 in. 
 
 2.6570x2.6570 
 
 i 4 ft. X 4 ft. 
 
 
 5.6568 
 
 4 ft. 
 
 2.8784x2.8784 
 
 1 4 ft. 3 in. X 4 ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 6.0103 
 
 4 ft. 3 in. 
 
 3.0051x3.0051 
 
 I 4 ft. 6 in. X 4 ft. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 6.3639 
 
 4 ft. 6 in. 
 
 3.1819x3.1819 
 
 1 4 ft. 9 in. X 4 ft. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 6.7162 
 
 4 ft. 9 in. 
 
 3.3581x3 3581 
 
 5 ft. X 5 ft. 
 
 
 7.0705 
 
 5 ft. 
 
 3.5357x3.5357 
 
 1 5 ft. 3 in. X 5 ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 7.4246 
 
 5 ft. 3 in. 
 
 3.7123x3.7123 
 
 ^ 5 ft. 6 in. X 5 ft. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 7.7781 
 
 5 ft. 6 in. 
 
 3.8890x3.8890 
 
 1 5 ft. 9 in. X 5 ft. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 8.1317 
 
 5 ft. 9 in. 
 
 4.0658x4.0658 
 
 6 ft. X 6 ft. 
 
 
 8.4852 
 
 6 ft. 
 
 4 2426x4.2426 
 
 6 ft. 3 in. X 6 ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 8.8388 
 
 6 ft. 3 in. 
 
 4.4194x4.4194 
 
 6 ft. 6 in. X 6 ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 9.1923 
 
 6 ft. 6 in. 
 
 4.5961 X 4.5961 
 
 6 ft. 9 in. X 6 ft. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 9.5459 
 
 6 ft. 9 in. 
 
 4.7729x4.7729 
 
 7 ft. X 7 ft. 
 
 
 9.9000 
 
 7 ft. 
 
 4.9500x4.9500 
 
 7 ft. 3 in. X 7 ft. 
 
 3 in. 
 
 10.2412 
 
 7 ft. 3 in. 
 
 5.1206x5.1206 
 
 7 ft. 6 in. X 7 ft. 
 
 6 in. 
 
 10.8863 
 
 7 ft. 6 in. 
 
 5.4431 X 5.4431 
 
 7 ft. 9 in. X 7 ft. 
 
 9 in. 
 
 10.9181 
 
 7 ft. 9 in. 
 
 5.4590x5.4590 
 
 8 ft. X 8 ft. 
 
 
 11.3132 
 
 8 ft. 
 
 5.6566x5.6566 
 
 To reduce the decimal 
 
 s to inches, 
 
 multiply by 
 
 12 for inches, the 
 
 product by 8 foi 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 eio;hts, 
 
 the eights h} 
 
 ' 2 for six tee 
 
 5.6566= 
 12 
 
 7.8792 
 8 
 
 7.0336 
 2 
 
 mths. Example. 
 =5 ft. 7J in. 
 
 .0672 
 
 
 
 
 
 
BRACKETING. 
 
 Bracketing is the method of forming the angle between 
 the ceiling and the side walls of a room for the lath and 
 plaster cornice. Its form may be elliptical, or of other com- 
 pound curves ; and when they are large, in order to save 
 materials, the plaster is supported on laths w^iich are fastened 
 to wooden brackets, placed from twelve to sixteen inches 
 from centres ; and in order to support the laths at the mitres, 
 brackets are fixed at the internal and external angles. 
 
 PLATE 4. 
 
 Figure 1. — Shows the method of finding the hrachet for an 
 external acicte angle : — Let A C be the projection of the cove ; 
 C B the line of the side wall, B F the line of the ceiling, and 
 BCD the given angle ; produce FA to E, draw E H parallel 
 to D ; divide the given bracket into any number of equal 
 parts and from the points of division on the curve line, drop 
 the lines 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, etc., to the line C E ; draw the line E G 
 perpendicular to E, and equal to A H ; draw 1, 1, 2, 2, 
 parallel to E G ; make the perpendicular equal to those 
 they are connected with on the given bracket, and through 
 the points thus found, draw the curve of the angle rib. The 
 dotted curve shows the bevel or splay of the bracket to 
 form the plane that shall coincide with the plane of the given 
 brackets. 
 
 Figure 2. — Exhibits the method of finding the bracket 
 for an internal right-angle, and is precisely the same as Fig. 
 1, with the exception of bevelling the angle bracket which 
 is not necessary for an internal angle. 
 
riato -i-. 
 
BRACKETING. 13 
 
 -Shows the manner of finding the centre^ or 
 radius of a circle whose centre is lost : — Let A B be the curve, 
 take any points A C B with the same radius, describe the 
 arcs as shown at D E and through the points of intersection 
 of the arcs ; draw the lines E H and G H, and where they 
 intersect each other will be the centre of the circle, which 
 can be proved by application of the compass. 
 
Development of Surfaces. 
 
 PLATE 5. 
 
 Springing and Bending Mouldings : — Figures 1 and 2 
 show at A and B what are termed among carpenters and 
 joiners, spring mouldings, and the stuff from which thej are 
 obtained are thinner than if the anguhir piece were worked 
 on the moukling. These mouldings require brackets placed 
 at proper distances, either in a straight or curved line. If 
 they are curved, the moulding will require to be bent in the 
 same manner as in covering the frustum of a right curve. 
 
 Figure 1. — Shows an elevation of a circular moulding 
 mitered into a level moulding. The form and position is 
 shown at A, and the workmen will perceive that by pro- 
 ducing the line B D to intersect the centre line of the arc at 
 C, he will have the point to describe the circular piece for 
 the moulding required. E B and F D gives the radius for 
 the curve of the out and inside edges, when placed in the 
 position shown on the elevation. 
 
 Figure 2. — Shows the application of the same rules to a 
 circular elevation of a diiferent form standing over a straight 
 plan. The back lines of the moulding are produced until 
 they bisect a horizontal line drawn through the centre, from 
 which the circular cornice was struck, as shown by the lines 
 A B and C D. In other respects the operation is precisely 
 the same as at Fig. 1. 
 
 Figure 3. — A tangent to a circle heing given to find the 
 point of contact with the circle. — Let C be the centre on 
 which to describe the circle and A B the tangent, bisect B C, 
 then with one point of the compass in £, with the same 
 
Plati- 5. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES. 15 
 
 radius, describe the arc B D C, then the intersection of 
 the circular lines shown at D is the point of contact. 
 
 Figure 4. — Having the diameter given to find the circuin- 
 ference of a circle Geometrically : — Let A B be the given 
 diameter ; take the distance A B as a radius, and with A 
 and B as centres, describe the arcs intersecting at C ; join 
 C A and C B, and produce them to the tangent D E, then D 
 E will be the development, or stretch-out of half the circum- 
 ference, nearly. 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 PLATE 6. • 
 
 The carpenter's square is the measure of distance, and is 
 as important and valuable to the workman as the clock is to 
 tlie time-keeper, or the compass to the mariner. The square 
 in general use consists of a blade and tongue placed at right- 
 angles to each other. Tlie blade is two feet; the tongue, 
 twelve, or sixteen inches long, divided into inches and eights 
 of an inch. For convenience of workmen, will be seen at 
 
 Figure 1. — A method of dividing a board in an even 
 number of equal parts, when the same is an uneven number 
 of inches, or parts of an inch in w^idth, by placing the square 
 as shown, with the points of the square on the edges of the 
 board ; then the points of division will be found at 6, 12 
 and 18, for dividing the board in four equal parts. 
 
 Figure 2. — Exhibits a method of finding the lines for 
 eight squaring a piece of timber witli the square, by placing 
 the blade on the piece, and making the points seven inches 
 from the ends of the square, from which to draw the lines 
 for the sides of tlie octagonal piece required. At the heel of 
 the square is shown a method of cutting a board to fit any 
 angle with the square and compass, by placing the square in 
 the angle and taking the distance from the heel of the square 
 to the angle A in the compass ; then lay the- square on the 
 piece to be fitted with the distance taken, and from the point 
 A draw the line A B, which will give the angle to cut the 
 piece required. 
 
 Figure 3. — Exhibits a method of constructing a polygonal 
 figure of eight sides ; by placing the square on the line A B 
 with equal distances on the blade and tongue, as shown ; the 
 curve lines show the method of transferring the distances ; 
 the diagonal gives the intersection at the angles. 
 
Plnlo 6. 
 
CARPENTRY. 17 
 
 Figure 4. — Exhibits a method of finding the cuts in a 
 mitre-box, by placing the square on the line A B at equal 
 distances from the heel of the square, say six inches. The 
 bevel is shown to prove the truth of the lines by applying it 
 to the opposite sides of the square. To find the perpendicu- 
 lar and horizontal cut of rafters, v^ith the square, take the 
 horizontal distance, or half the width of the building for the 
 run, on the blade, and the rise, on the tongue. 
 
 Figure 5. — Exhibits two methods of finding the backing 
 of the angle or hip rafter ; one, which is in Bell's Work on 
 Carpentry Made Easy, is by taking the length of rafter on the 
 blade and the rise or height on the tongue, and placing the 
 square on the line D E, the plan of the hip, the angle is given 
 to bevel the hip rafter, as shown at F. This method gives 
 the angle to bevel the hip-rafter, only for a right-angled plan, 
 where the pitches are the same, and no other ^ which makes it 
 circumstantial, and of little or no value to the workman. 
 
 The other method, which is original with me, applies to 
 right, obtuse and acute angles, where the pitches are the 
 same. At the angle D will be seen the line from the points 
 K L, at the intersection of the sides of the angle rafter with 
 the sides of the plan. With one point of the compass at D, 
 describe the curve from the line K L. Tangential to the curve 
 draw the dotted line, cutting A H at I ; draw I J parallel to 
 A B, the pitch of the angle-rafter. At G will be found a 
 section of the hip or angle-rafter. The rules here shown are 
 onl}^ applicable to certain cases where the pitches are the 
 same. But to enable the workman to construct anything 
 that any one may design, we would refer him to the method 
 shown on Plate 9, which is a principle that applies to the 
 finding of sections of angular pieces to any angle, from the 
 horizontal to the perpendicular. 
 
 3 
 
18 CAKPENTEY. 
 
 PLATE 7. 
 
 Shows a timber foimdation for a frame building with two 
 side elevations, framed in the usual manner for good houses. 
 The object of this and the following Plates, is first to give 
 the inexperienced workman the names used among carpenters 
 and joiners, of the different pieces of timber used in framing 
 and where thej are placed. Also to show the method of con- 
 structing what is called a balloon frame. 
 
 Figure 1. — Shows a timber plan of foundation supported 
 by brick or stone walls. The outside timbers are called sills, 
 and if there are no openings, all other timbers are called 
 beams ; but when there are openings for chimneys or stair- 
 ways, the workman will be required to mortice and tenon the 
 timbers together, as shown on the plan. Then the first piece 
 of timber to prepare will be the trim7aer, shown at A, which 
 is tenoned into the frim?}ier-hea?ns, shown at B B. The short 
 beams tenoned into the trimmer are called tail-heams. Fig. 
 2 and 3 are the front and a portion of the side elevation of 
 the frame, standing on the foundation, showing the posts, 
 beams, enter-ties, plates, rafters and braces, in their proper 
 places. The timbers shown at A A, Fig. 2, are called frame- 
 beams, D D corner posts and C rafters. At Fig. 3, A 
 shows what should be called an intermediate post ; the 
 pieces of timber called enter-ties^ are shown at B B ; the piece 
 of timber supporting the rafters at C, represents the flate^ 
 and B B the hiUs ; the oblique pieces of timber sliown on 
 the elevations, are called hraces ; the timbers shown on each 
 side of the openings, are called joists^ and termed door and 
 window joist ; those placed between doors and windows are 
 called intermediate joists ox fur rings ; all joists cut under or 
 over the braces are called cripjples ; a piece of timber placed 
 on piers for the purpose of supporting other timbers or parti- 
 tions are called summers ; a piece of timber placed on a truss 
 frame for the purpose of supporting the common rafters, is 
 called ^j^urlin. 
 
Plate 7. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CAKPENTKY. 19 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF ROOFS. 
 
 In old Gothic buildings, the roof always had a high pitch, 
 its outline formed a striking feature, and in general had a grace- 
 full proportion with the magnitude of the building ; some- 
 limes, however, it presented a plain surface of too great extent, 
 as the roof of Westminster Hall. Though a high roof is in 
 perfect unison with the aspiring and pyramidal character of 
 Gothic architecture ; in the more chaste and classic style of 
 the Greek, it is a less conspicuous object. Many of the 
 Grecian buildings were never intended to be roofed at all ; 
 but where a roof is necessary, it was not attempted to be 
 hidden, but constituted one of the most ornamental parts of 
 the building. Of timber roofs, we have no examples in 
 Grecian buiklings ; but the beautiful stone roof of the Octa- 
 gon Tower of Andronicus Cyrrhestes, and that of the Choragic 
 Monument of Lysicrates, are sufficient to show that they were 
 more incliricd to ornament than to hide this essential part of 
 a building. 
 
 The height of roofs at the present time, is seldom above 
 one-third of the span, and should never be less than one-sixth. 
 Tlie most usual pitch is that when the height is one-fourth of 
 the span, or when the angle with the horizon is 26^ degrees. 
 
 The pediments of the Greek temples make an angle of 
 from 12 to 16 degrees with tlie horizon ; tlie latter corresponds 
 nearly with one-seventh of the span. The pediments of the 
 Roman buildings vary from 23 to 24 degrees : 24: degrees is 
 nearly two-ninths of the span. 
 
20 CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE 8. 
 
 Shows the method of constructing what is termed a balloon 
 frame. Fig. 1, shows the timber plan ; Fig. 2 and 3, the 
 front and side elevations. The foundation timbers should be 
 of white pine ; all other timbers, of spruce or eastern pine. 
 All the tools the workman requires to construct a frame of 
 this kind, is a saw, hammer and chisel. The side -sills 
 should be 4x4 inches ; front and rear sills four inches thick ; 
 beams 2x8, or ten inches, according to their length and the 
 load they are required to carry. Corner post 4x4 inches; 
 door and window joists, 3x4 inches ; all other intermediate 
 joists, 2x4 inches; plates, 4x4 inches; rafters, 3x5 inches. 
 The two outside beams in second story, are spiked to the 
 joists ; those resting on the plates are spiked to the rafters. 
 The enter-ties require to be 1^x4 inches let into the joists to 
 support second story beams. Each tier of beams should 
 have one or two courses of bridging. When the frame is 
 completed and sheathed with one inch worked boards placed 
 diagonally, and securely nailed to every joist, it will be quite 
 as substantial and safe as a frame made in the usual manner. 
 
Plate 8. 
 
 Tig. I. 
 
 ! 
 
 i_j 
 
 Tun 
 
 n 
 
 __i: 
 
 ,^ 
 
 .__^ 
 
 ^_l 
 
 ._ ^ 
 
 HZl 
 
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 ^ ^ 
 
 _J 
 
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 1 
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 j 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 H ! 
 
 i 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 N 1 
 
 
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 y 
 
 ^ t 
 
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 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 r 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Im 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 If- ir 
 
 ■w-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 T-i 
 
 - w 
 
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 P 
 
 H fe 
 
 "T 
 
 tud 
 
 -^"T 
 
 ^S -| 
 
 Lizil 
 
 ^~i 
 
 A 
 
 ¥tg. 
 
 '2^ 
 
 2 
 
 iU 
 
 ^XZJH 
 
 ^^ 
 
 I-U 
 
 oq 
 
 Tig. 3. 
 
 3E 
 
 3E 
 31 
 
 J<L 
 
 :sz" 
 
CAKPENTKY. 
 
 21 
 
 ROOF COVERINGS. 
 
 The kinds of covering used for timber roofs, are copper, 
 lead, iron, tinned iron, slates of different kinds, tiles, shingles, 
 gravel, felt and cement. Taking the angle for slates to be 
 26^ degrees, the following table will show the degree of 
 inclination that may be given for other materials. 
 
 Kind of covering. 
 
 Tin 
 
 Copper 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Slates, large, 
 
 " ordinary, . 
 
 '' fine, 
 
 Plain tiles, 
 
 Gravel 
 
 Felt and Cement. 
 
 Inclination to the hor- 
 izon in degrees. 
 
 Deg. 
 3 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 22 
 26 
 26 
 29 
 
 Min. 
 50 
 50 
 50 
 00 
 33 
 33 
 41 
 
 Height of roof 
 
 in parts of the 
 
 span. 
 
 A 
 i 
 
 l 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 T 
 
 Weight upon a square 
 of roofing. 
 
 50 pounds. 
 
 100 
 
 700 " 
 1120 
 
 900 " 
 
 500 
 1780 
 
 Felt and Cement or Gravel Rooting can be used at almost any inclination that 
 other materials are used. 
 
FRAMING. 
 
 A knowledge of framing is the foundation of the art and 
 science of building and should be possessed by every person 
 professing to be a carpenter and joiner. To him who under- 
 stands the different methods of finding the various cuts neces- 
 sary in his work, carpentry becomes an agreeable and desira- 
 ble occupation, rather than an unpleasant task, attended with 
 anxiety and uncertainty. 
 
 The experience of workmen generally, will testify that 
 books have, as yet, furnished them but small assistance on 
 this subject. It is intended, therefore, to present at this time 
 a new and complete system for finding the sections of timbers 
 for roofs of every description by means of tangents and 
 circles. 
 
 PLATE 9. 
 
 Exhibits a new and easy system of lines for finding the 
 lengths of rafters / the 'backing of the hips and the lines for 
 Gutting the jaek-r afters and purlins^ for right ^ acute and 
 ohtuse angled huilding^ where the pitches are the sanie^ or of 
 different inclinations. 
 
 Let A B C D be the plan of the roof A E D, and B F C 
 the plan of the hips, A G D the pitch of the roof and G H 
 the height of the roof; then A G and G D will be the leno;th 
 of the common rafters ; make K L equal to the length of the 
 common rafters, join B L, which gives you the length of the 
 hip-rafter. Divide K L into as many parts as you have jack- 
 rafters, and from the points of division, draw the dotted lines 
 parallel to K B, and from the points of intersection with the 
 line B L, draw the jack-rafters i 1, 2 2, etc. The bevel for 
 
mate 9. 
 
FRAMING. 23 
 
 the face of the jack-rafters and hips is shown at M; the down 
 bevel for the jack-rafters, is shown at G ; the down bevel for 
 the hips is shown at N. 
 
 To obtain the backing of the liip-rafter. At any point on 
 the line A H, with one point of the compass, describe the 
 arc to touch the common rafter ; then A C becomes a tangent 
 to the cii'cle P R ; draw the line O S at right-angles to A E ; 
 from the point S, draw the line S T tangential to the circle 
 P R ; join O Y, then S V is a section of the roof, cut 
 perpendicular to the hip-rafter and through the line S O, and 
 consequently S Y O will be the angle to bevel the hips 
 required. 
 
 To find the mitre or butt-joints of the purlin against the hip- 
 rafters, make the line I, 2, Fig. 1, the pitch of the roof; take 
 any point 3 and describe tlie circles, 1, 4 and 5, 6 ; then from 
 the points of intersection with the line 4, 3, draw the lines 4, 
 7 and 6, 8 parallel to C D ; join 8, 9 and 7, 9, then the bevel 
 shown at Y will give the down cut on the side 5, 3, and the 
 bevel shown at 8 will give the face cut of the purlin shown 
 on the line 1, 3. 
 
CARPENTRY 
 
 PLATE 10. 
 
 Exhibits the application of the foregoing principles to 
 obtuse and acute angles. The same process is observed as 
 in Plate 9. The down bevel shown at 10, gives the down 
 cut for the common and jack-rafters ; the bevels shown at 1 
 and 2 are the face bevels for the jack and hip-rafters. 
 Those shown at 3 and 4 are the down bevels for the hip- 
 rafters ; the bevels shown at 6, 6, are for the face of the purlin 
 and applied to the line 7, 8 ; those shown at 5, 5 are applied 
 on the line 9, Y. 
 
Plate 10. 
 
CARPENTKY. 25 
 
 A PRACTICAL METHOD 
 
 OF FINDING THE NUMBER OF CUBIC FEET AND INCHES CONTAINED IN 
 TIMBER AND OTHER METERIALS. 
 
 If the length be given in feet and inches, and the section, 
 or end, in inches, multiply the sides of the section by each 
 other, and divide by twelve. Also divide the length by 12 ; 
 multiply these two dimensions by each other duodecimally, 
 and the product will be the contents in cubic feet and inches. 
 
 Example. — Find the number of cubic feet, in a piece of 
 timber 28 feet long, 11 inches wide, and 3 inches thick. 
 
 ft. 
 in. 12)28 the length, 
 
 the sides. Multiply 2 '4 
 
 by 2-9 
 
 12)33 4-8 
 1-9-0 
 
 2-9 
 
 6*5 gives 6 ft. 5 in. 
 the solidity. 
 
 Example 2. — Find the cubic contents of 4 quarters or studs, 
 each 12 feet 6 inches long, and 6 inches wide, by 2\ inches 
 thick. 
 
 5'2'6 gives 5 ft. 2 in. and 
 6 parts the solidity. 
 
 ^ )■ the sides. 
 
 
 12-6 the length 
 
 4 the number of pieces 
 
 2)15 
 
 
 12)50-0 
 
 1-3 
 
 Multiply 
 
 by 
 
 4-2 
 1-3 
 
 4-2 
 
 1-0-6 
 
 
 
26 CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE Id. 
 
 Shows the method of framing a roof with a transept on 
 one side, where the intersections of the roofs form internal 
 angles on one side of the plan / also the. plan of the gable 
 standing in the line of the side opposite the transepjt. 
 
 Let A B C D E F G H be the plan of the roof, G E and 
 B F, the plan of the angle rafters, B I and B J tlie length of 
 the coramon rafters. Divide the rafters G I and G E. into as 
 many parts as you require jack-rafters, as shown at Fig. 1 and 
 Fig. 3 ; drop the lines from I and J, to IS^ and O ; join N G and K 
 F, also O G and O B, then the bevel shown at O, will be the 
 face bevel for the jack-rafters, shown at Fig. 1, and the bevel 
 shown at N will be the face bevel for the jack-rafters shown at 
 Fig. 3 ; the bevel shown at N and O gives the lines for mitreing 
 the face of the hip-rafters ; the down bevels for the jack- 
 rafters are shown at I and J, and the down bevel for the hip- 
 rafters is shuwn at P. To find the backing for the valley 
 shown at B, draw the line L M at right-angles to B F ; then 
 with one point of the compass in the points L and M, describe 
 the circles touching the lines B J and B I ; then from the 
 points L and M, draw the tangential lines M S and L S, the 
 internal angle thus found will be the angle to bevel the val- 
 ley-rafter. The external angle shown on the opposite side 
 of the tangential lines would be the backing for a hip-rafter, 
 where different pitches of the roof intersect each other. The 
 method of finding the backing for the angle-rafter to support 
 the gable-rafters shown at Fig. 1, is the same as shown on 
 Plates 9 and 10, and consequently needs no explanation. 
 
 Figure 1. — Shows an elevation of the gable with the pitch 
 of the main roof, shown at G T and E S. The object is to 
 
Plat© 11 
 
CAKPENTKY. 27 
 
 show the workman that the cuts for the jack-rafters may be 
 found from the pitches of the roofs when they are known 
 without reference to the plan ; the bevels here shown are 
 the same as those shown at O and !N^. 
 
 Figure 4. — Shows how to erect a perpendicular from the 
 extremity of a given line. Let A B be the given straight 
 line and B the point from which to erect the perpendicular. 
 Take any point C with C B as radius and describe the circle 
 D B E, produce the line D C to E, join E B and the line 
 thus obtained will be the required perpendicular. 
 
28 CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE 12. 
 
 Figure 1. — Exhibits the method of finding the backing of 
 the hip-rafters, the lengths and cuts of jack-rafters, where the 
 pitches are not at the same angle of elevation. Let ABC and 
 D, be the plan of the roof, A E B the plan of the hips, F G 
 and J H the height of the rafters ; join A G and A H, then 
 A G will be the pitch of the roof over the line E J, and A 
 H will be the pitch over the line E F, and E A will be the 
 line of intersection. The down and face bevels for the jack- 
 rafters and hips are all shown ; the principle and method of 
 finding the section of the hip is the same as shown on 
 Plate 9. 
 
 Figure 2. — Exhibits a method of finding the distance to 
 kerf the back string for a circular stairs so that when secured 
 in its place the saw-kerfs shall be closed. To find the distance 
 the saw-kerfs shall be from each other, make C D equal the 
 radius of the required circle shown at A B, then take a piece 
 the thickness of the string-piece, any width ; make a saw- 
 kerf in the centre as shown at C, secure the piece at C and F, 
 move the piece from D until the saw-kerf is closed at C, 
 which will give the points for the saw-kerfs required, as shown 
 on the curve line at E and D. 
 
 Figure 8. — Exhibits a very cheap and expeditious plan for 
 framing a roof to span from forty to seventy feet. It requires 
 no explanation, further than to say that the tie need not be 
 more than 5x8 inches ; the rafters and braces 5x5 inches ; the 
 battens of one inch boards spiked to the timbers with large 
 nails. It is believed to be the best roof than can be con- 
 structed, as it has all the advantages of a solid mass without 
 the great weight and the disadvantages of the shrinkage of 
 material which is almost entirely obviated by the crossing of 
 the fibres of the wood. 
 
Plate 12 
 
CARPENTKY. 29 
 
 A PRACTICAL METHOD 
 
 To find the superficial contents of boards and timber. For 
 boards multiply the width in inches by the length in feet and 
 divide by 12. 
 
 Example. — Find the number of feet in a board 1 inch thick 
 9 inches wide and 13 feet long. 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 12)117 
 
 9-9=9 feet 9 inches. 
 
 JExample. — 2nd, find the number of feet in a piece of tim- 
 ber 3x10 inches 21 feet long. 
 
 10 inches long. 
 3 " thick. 
 
 12)30 
 
 2-6 inches in each foot in length. 
 21 feet long. 
 
 42 
 10-6 
 
 52*6 Gives 52 feet 6 inches, the number 
 of feet in the piece. 
 
30 CAKPENTKY. 
 
 PLATE 13. 
 
 Exhibits the method of framing an obtuse and acute-angled 
 building, the plan being a rhomboid, where the projection 
 of the rafters are supported by braces. The lines for finding 
 the shoulders for braces to lit the obtuse and acute- angles ; 
 also the section or backing of rafters, and the bevel required 
 to cut the rafters so that their ends shall be in the plane of 
 the building. 
 
 Let A (Fig. 1), be the plan of the post, B the plan of the 
 rafter, C the elevation of the post, and D the plate. Fig. 2, and 
 3 the braces, E the elevation of the rafters. To find the 
 shoulders of the braces, draw F G parallel to the edge of the 
 post ; make H, the under side of the brace, equal in width to 
 B, Fioj. 1 : then at the intersection of the lower line of the 
 brace with the line of the post, place one point of the com- 
 pass and describe the arc shown at G ; draw the tangential 
 line at right-angles to the line of the brace, and from the point 
 of intersection, draw the bevel line to the line of the post ; 
 then the bevel shown at H will give the lines for the edges 
 of the braces shown at Fig. 2 and 3. Fig. 4 is an elevation 
 of the rafter. The method of finding the bevel at the edge 
 of the rafter so that it shall be in the plane of the roof, is 
 shown at E. The bevel for the butt-joints at the apex or 
 peak of the roof is shown at F. 
 
 Figure 5. — To draw a line making equal angles with two 
 given converging lines. Let A D and B C be two converging 
 lines ; draw G H parallel to B, and I H parallel to D A ; 
 make G H and H I equal ; from the points G and I, describe 
 the arcs J K, and through the points of intersection J and K, 
 draw the line E F which will be at equal angles with the 
 lines A D and C B. 
 
CARPENTRY. 31 
 
 LONG MEASURE. 
 
 Long measure is used in measuring length or distance only, 
 without regard to breadth or depth. Its denominations are 
 leagues^ miles^ furlongs^ rods^ yards feet and inches. 
 12 inches .... make 1 foot. 
 3 feet - - - - "1 yard. 
 
 5^ yards or 16 ^ feet - - "1 rod. 
 
 40 rods "1 furlong. 
 
 8 furlongs or 320 rods - " 1 mile. 
 
 3 miles "1 league. 
 
 Note. — 4 inches make 1 hand; 9 inches I span; 18 inches 1 
 cubit; 6 feet 1 fathom; 4 rods or 100 links 1 chain; 25 links 1 rod ; 
 1^^ inches 1 link. 
 
 The chain is commonly used in measuring roads and land, 
 and is called Gunter's chain, from the name of the inventor. 
 
 A knot, in sea phrase, answers to a nautical or geographi- 
 cal mile of 5280 feet. 
 
 Mariner's measure is a kind of long measure used in esti- 
 mating distances at sea. 
 
 6 feet - - - make 1 fathom 
 120 fathoms - - "1 cable-length. 
 
 880 fathoms or 7^ cable " 1 mile. 
 
32 CARPENTliY. 
 
 PLATE 14. 
 
 Figure 1. — Shows the method of finding the cuts in a 
 mitre-hox hy which to cut a sprung moulding when a hevel 
 cannot te wpplied. — Let A be the moulding in position C, D 
 the mitre given to find the bevels to cut the mitre-box. With 
 one point of the compass in E, describe the semicircle F G H ; 
 drop the lines from F G I H to K C D J, at right-angles to 
 F H ; draw D J and C K parallel to F H ; join J L and L K, 
 then in the angles E L J and ELK, will be found the bevels 
 required to cut the mitre-box. The bevel shown at M will be 
 applied to the top, and the bevel shown at N will be applied 
 to the side of the box. 
 
 Figure 2. — Shows the jolan and elevation of an octagonal 
 Toof to find the angle and jachr afters. — On the plan produce 
 the lines B A and C D to the line E F ; join E G and F G, 
 then E G F will be the elevation of the roof To find the 
 backing of the angle-rafters. With one point of the compass 
 at H describe the arc, touching the pitch line of the roof as 
 shown ; from the point B draw the line B I, making the 
 line thus drawn a tangent to the circle, and from the point 
 of intersection with the line A C, draw the line to H, then 
 in the angle thus found will be seen the angle to bevel the 
 angle-rafters as shown at J. To find the lengths and cuts of 
 the angle and jack-rafters, draw K L perpendicular to D C, 
 and equal to F G ; join C L and D L, then the bevel shown 
 at N will be for the face of the angle-rafters at their intersec- 
 tion, and for the face of the jack-rafters, the down bevel for 
 jack-rafters is shown at G ; the down bevel for the angle- 
 rafters is found by making C M equal one-half of A C, ^nd 
 L M equal P G, then at O will be seen the down bevel for 
 the angle-rafter. 
 
 Figure 3. — Shows the application of the same principle to 
 the framing of a roof over a polygonal plan of six sides and 
 does not require any explanation. 
 
Plate 14, 
 
34 CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE 15, 
 
 Exhibits plans and elevations of octagonal and square 
 spires for churches or hell-towers^ as shown at Fig. 1 and^. 
 To find the lines for the face of the timbers, make the dotted 
 b'ne A B shown on the plan, Fig. 1, equal D on the eleva- 
 tion ; join E A and F A, then the bevel shovi^n at G will give 
 the lines for the face of the enter-ties ; and the bevel shown at 
 H will give the lines for the upper and lower sides ; the bevel 
 for cutting the angular timbers to intersect each other as 
 shown at D will be found at A. The methods of finding the 
 backing of the angular timbers is precisely the same as 
 shown on Plate 9. 
 
 Figure 2. — Shows the application of the same principles 
 to the framing of a square spire or bell-tower ; a bare inspec- 
 tion of the Figure is suflacient for its comprehension. 
 
 Figure 3. — Through any three poiiits to describe the circum- 
 ference of a circle., or when the centre of a circle is lost., to find 
 it. — Let A B C be the three given points ; join A B and C 
 B, and from the points A B C as centres, describe the arcs E 
 F and D G ; through the points of intersection draw the lines 
 E F and D G, produce them until they meet, which will be 
 the point or centre from which to describe the circle which 
 shall touch the points, ABC. 
 
 Figure 4. — To erect a perpendicular to a given line from 
 a point in the same. From the point C take any two equal 
 distances, as C B and C A, and from the points A B as 
 centres, describe two arcs intersecting each other as at D ; 
 join D and C and the line thus obtained will be the required 
 perpendicular. 
 
r>lale 15. ri 
 
CARPENTRY. 
 
 35 
 
 WEIGHT OR FORCE. 
 
 REQUIRED TO TEAR ASUNDER ONE SQUARE INCH OF THE DIFFERENT 
 MATERIALS USED IN THE COJ^STRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 
 WOODS ANL 
 
 METALS. 
 
 
 Oak, American, 
 
 17,300 
 
 Swedish Iron, 
 
 78,850 
 
 Oak, English, 
 
 - 19,800 
 
 English Iron, - 
 
 - 55,772 
 
 Beach, - 
 
 17,700 
 
 French Iron, 
 
 61,041 
 
 Ash, - 
 
 - 16,700 
 
 Russian Iron, 
 
 59,472 
 
 Elm, 
 
 13,489 
 
 Cast Iron, 
 
 42,000 
 
 Walnut, 
 
 - 8,130 
 
 Steel, Soft, 
 
 - 120,000 
 
 Norway Pine, - 
 
 14,300 
 
 Ivory, - 
 
 16,000 
 
 Georgia Pine, 
 
 - 7,818 
 
 Marble, 
 
 - 8,700 
 
 White Pine, - 
 
 8,800 
 
 Whalebone, - 
 
 7,600 
 
 Iron Wire, - 
 
 113,077 
 
 
 
 To find the strength of Cohesion. Multiply area of section in 
 inches by the weight required to tear one inch asunder, and the 
 product is the strength in pounds. 
 
 WEIGHTS 
 
 REQUIRED TO CRUSH ONE CUBIC INCH OF SEVERAL MATERIALS USED 
 IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 Cast Iron, - - 116,700 
 
 Brass, - - - 154,784 
 
 Copper, Cast, - - 116,102 
 
 Lead, Cast, - - 8,042 
 
 WOODS. 
 
 Elm, - - - 1,284 
 
 American Pine, - - 1,606 
 
 White Deal, - - 1,928 
 
 White Oak, - - 3,240 
 
 English Oak, - - 3,860 
 
 Freestone, 
 Limestone, Black, 
 Granite, Blue, - 
 
 STONES. 
 
 18,000 Brick, hard, 
 - 19,450 Brick, soft, 
 20,890 Chalk, 
 
 1,754 
 
 - 1,224 
 
 1,040 
 
36 CARPENTRY. 
 
 PLATE 16. 
 
 Figure 1. — Shows the method of finding the raking mould 
 to any angle of elevation^ also for a given elevation to any 
 angle inclining towards a straight line. 
 
 Divide the surface of the horizontal moulding, here shown, 
 into any number of parts, and from the points thus obtained, 
 draw the inclining parallel lines to the required angle of 
 elevation ; from the same points draw vertical lines to meet 
 the horizontal line A B, and, with one point of the compass 
 on A, transfer the points between A and B, on the horizontal 
 line, to the inclining line ; perpendicular to the inclining 
 line, draw the corresponding lines to meet the parallels, and 
 through the points of intersection trace the raking moulding 
 required. 
 
 Figure 2. — Shows the method of finding the raking mould- 
 ing to any angle inclining towards a straight line. 
 
 To find the raking mould when the gable is placed over any 
 of the diverging lines shown on the plan. Let B A C be a right 
 angle, A H C a straight line, and A D B the elevation of the 
 roof. Divide the circle F H into any number, of parts, make 
 the line F G equal to the development or stretch-out of 
 the circle ; produce the lines B F A and G H until 
 they intersect each other, and at their intersection w^ill 
 be the point from which to draw the radiating lines, 1 1 
 2 2, etc. ; join G B, then parallel to G B, draw the lines from 
 the points 1 2, etc., to the line F B, and from the line F B 
 parallel to the line B D, to intersect the line D F, then the 
 lines from A to the line F D will give the elevation 
 to draw the raking-moulding for any of the diverging lines 
 shown on the plan ; the line A 1, on the elevation, will be 
 the pitch to draw the raking-mould standing on the line A J 
 on the plan, and the line A 5, would be the pitch to draw 
 
TTat© 16. 
 
SPLAYED WORK. 
 
 PLATE 17. 
 
 Figures 1, 2 and 3. — Shows the method of finding the lines 
 for the face and edges of a piece set to a given angle, ohlique 
 to the base, to nnitre over acute, obtuse, or right-angles. 
 
 Figure 1. — Let A B C be the plan of an acute-angle, B D 
 the line of intersection, and E the piece placed oblique to 
 the base. To find the line for the face of the piece, place one 
 point of the compass at I, and describe the arc A C ; draw 
 the tangential line Gr H parallel to A B ; join B I) and H D, 
 then in the angle G H D will be found the bevel for the face 
 of the piece E. To find the line to cut the edge, place one 
 point of the compass at I, and describe the arc J K ; draw 
 the tangential line K L parallel to A B, join L D ; then in 
 the angle K L D will be found the bevel for the edge of the 
 piece E, 
 
 The Plate will be found very useful to workman, in con- 
 structing boxes where the sides are required to be placed 
 oblique to the vase. 
 
 Figures 2 and 3. — Exhibits the application of the same 
 principle to an obtuse and right-angle, and a bare inspection 
 of the Figure will show that the process is precisely the same 
 as shown at Fig. 1. 
 
 Figure 4. — Represents a method of finding the lines for a 
 butt-joint when required, instead of a mitre and is the same 
 principle shown at Plate 9, for finding the backing of a hip- 
 rafter. 
 
Plate 17 
 
CARPENTRY. 39 
 
 OF POSTS. 
 
 According to the experiments of Rondelet, when the height 
 of a square post is less than about seven or eight times the 
 side of its base, it cannot be bent bj any pressure less than 
 that which would crush it. The internal mechanism of the 
 resisting forces, when timber yields by crushing, is not 
 exactly understood. In timber the resistance to crushing is 
 less than the cohesive force. The resistance of timber to 
 crushing appears to increase in a higher ratio than that of the 
 area of its section. 
 
 The load a piece of timber will bear, when pressed in the 
 direction of its length, without risk of being crushed, may be 
 found by the following rule : 
 
 Multiply the area of the piece of timber, in inches, by the 
 weight that is capable of crushing a square inch of the same 
 kind of wood, then, one-fourth of the product will give the 
 load in pounds that the piece would bear with safety. 
 
 If the area that w^ould support a given weight be required, 
 divide four times the weight by the number of pounds that 
 would crush a square inch, and the quotient is the area in 
 inches. 
 
 The length should never exceed ten times the side of the 
 section to give the above results ; for when the length is 
 greater than about ten times the thickness, the piece will 
 bend before it crushes. 
 
40 SPLAYED WOBK. 
 
 PLATE 18. 
 
 Figure I. — Exhibits an elevation of a box whose sides are 
 of diiferent inclinations. Figure 2, the plan of the box E F, 
 and D C H the lines of the mitres. The bevels for the sides 
 are shown at 1, 2 and 3. Those for the edges at Figures 4, 
 5 and 6. Further explanations are omitted, believing that 
 the workman, after an inspection of the Figures, will be able 
 to construct any thing of the kind when required. 
 
 Figures 3 and 4. — Shows the method of finding the lines 
 for mitreing together a grain-mill hopper / also to find 
 the angle-pieces that are required to secure the pieces together 
 at their intersections. — Let A B C D, Fig 4, be the plan of 
 the angular box, and Fig. 3 the elevation, with one point of 
 the compass on E, describe the dotted curve to intersect the 
 line B C in F ; draw the tangential line F G parallel to D C ; 
 produce A D to G, join I H and I F, then I H F will be the 
 form and size of one side of the grain-mill hopper required ; 
 and as it is usual to place the sides at an angle of 45°, in this 
 case, the same bevel shown at F for the sides will answer for 
 the edges. The method shown on the plan for finding the 
 angle-piece, also shows a butt-joint and are obtained in the 
 same manner as described for finding the backing of hip- 
 rafters on Plate 9. 
 
Plate 18. 
 

 CAKPENTRY. 
 
 
 41 
 
 WEIGHT IN POUNDS 
 
 
 
 OF CUBIC 
 
 FOOT OF 
 
 WOOD AND STONE. 
 
 
 WOOD. 
 
 
 STONE. 
 
 
 
 Apple-tree, 
 
 49.6 
 
 Flint, 
 
 
 163.2 
 
 Ash, . 
 
 - 52.9 
 
 Blue Granite, 
 
 
 164.1 
 
 Birch, 
 
 33.2 
 
 Lime Stone, 
 
 
 199. 
 
 American Cedar, - 
 
 - d5.1 
 
 Grindstone, - 
 
 
 134. 
 
 Elm, 
 
 42. 
 
 Slate Stone, 
 
 
 167. 
 
 White Pine, - 
 
 - 35.6 
 
 Marble, - 
 
 
 170. 
 
 Yellow Pine, 
 
 41.1 
 
 Free Stone, 
 
 
 150. 
 
 Mahogany, 
 
 - 66.5 
 
 African Marble, 
 
 
 169.2 
 
 Maple, 
 
 47. 
 
 Egyptian Marble. 
 
 
 166.8 
 
 Mulberry, 
 
 - 56.1 
 
 Italian Marble, 
 
 
 166.1 
 
 Oak, - - - - 
 
 58-74 
 
 Roman Marble, - 
 
 - 
 
 172.2 
 
 Live Oak, 
 
 - 70. 
 
 
 
 
 
 OTHER SUBSTANCES. 
 
 
 
 Cast Iron, 
 
 450.55 
 
 Air, 
 
 
 07529 
 
 Wrought Iron, - 
 
 - 486.65 
 
 Steam, 
 
 
 C3689 
 
 Steel, 
 
 489.8 
 
 Loose Earth or Sand, 
 
 95. 
 
 
 Copper, 
 
 - 555. 
 
 Common Soil, - 
 
 124. 
 
 
 Lead, 
 
 708.75 
 
 Strong Soil, 
 
 127. 
 
 
 Brass, 
 
 - 537.75 
 
 Clay, ■ - - 
 
 135. 
 
 
 Tin, : 
 
 456. 
 
 Clay and Stones, 
 
 160. 
 
 
 Salt Water, (Sea,) 
 
 - 64.3 
 
 Cork, 
 
 15. 
 
 
 Fresh Water, 
 
 62.5 
 
 Brick, - 
 Tallow, - 
 
 125. 
 59. 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
42 SPLAYED WORK. 
 
 PLATE 19. 
 
 Exhibits a inethod of constructing a circidar desk / also a 
 plan and elevation of a circnlar seat. — Fig. 1 shows the 
 elevation. Fig. 2 the plan of the circular desk. Produce 
 the lines A H and F H indefinitely, draw the line H J, the 
 inclination of the desk. With one point of the compass in 
 H describe the dotted line from L and produce the same to 
 K P; then with K P for radius, and one point of the com- 
 pass in K, describe the curve line P F. At right-angles to 
 H J, draw the line F B tangential to the curve P F, then B 
 F gives the radius to describe the rib standing over the 
 chord line A E on the plan. The same method is used for 
 finding the radius for the rib over the chord line C D. If 
 any more ribs are required, produce the lines H E and H A, 
 and at the intersection of the chord line, draw the radius 
 parallel to the line E I, and where it intersects the line F G, 
 will be the point to place one point of the compass to describe 
 the rib. 
 
 Figure 3. — Shows the side of the piece to be bent to form 
 the inclining circular front. The radius to describe the 
 circles are taken from the line H J, as shown on the plan. 
 The radiated lines shown on the piece, exhibits the method 
 of grooving for the keys required to shape the piece. 
 
 Figures 4 and 5. — Shows the plan and elevation of a 
 circular seat, with an inclining back, and the method of find- 
 ing the curved pieces bent around and forming a continuous 
 back to a circular seat in such a manner that the edges shall 
 be parallel to the plane of the seat. In explanation, it is 
 simply necessary to say that the principle is the same as that 
 applied to finding a veneer for a Gothic-head jamb, splayed 
 alike' all around. 
 
Plate 19. 
 
CARPENTKY. 43 
 
 ADHESION OF NAILS. 
 
 Every carpenter is familiar with the use of the nail, and 
 possesses a practical knowledge, more or less accurate, of the 
 force of adhesion of different nails, and in different substan- 
 ces, so as to decide, without difficulty, what number, and of 
 what length, may be sufficient to fasten together substances 
 of various shapes, and subject to various strains. But 
 interesting as this subject unquestionably is, it has not been 
 till very recently that the necessary experiments have been 
 made to determine, 1st, the adhesive force of different nails 
 when driven into wood of different species, 2d, the actual 
 weight, without impulse, necessary to force a nail a given 
 depth ; and 3d, the force required to extract the nail when so 
 driven. The obtaining of this useful knowledge was reserved 
 for Mr. B. Bevan, a gentleman well known in the mechanical 
 and scientific world for the accuracy with which his experi- 
 ments are conducted. 
 
 Mr. Bevan observes, that the theoretical investigation 
 points out an equality of resistance to the entrance and 
 extraction of a nail, supposing the thickness to be invariable; 
 but as the general shape of nails is tapering towards the 
 points, the resistance of entrance necesarily becomes greater 
 than that of extraction ; in some experiments he found the 
 ratio to b^ about 6 to 5. 
 
 The percussive force required to drive the common six- 
 penny nail to the depth of one inch and a half into dry 
 Christiana deal, with a cast iron weight of 6*275 lbs. was four 
 blows or strokes falling freely the space of 12 inches ; and the 
 steady pressure to produce the same effect was 400 lbs. 
 
'ir ■ "T r I — r - 
 
 44 CIRCULAR MOULDINGS 
 
 MiTREiNG Circular Mouldings. 
 
 PLATE 20. 
 
 Shows the w^ethod of mitreing Circular-monldings. — Fig. 
 1 and 2 shows the method of mitreing a tangential moulding 
 into a circular moulding. 
 
 Figure 3. — Shows a straight moulding mitred into a circle 
 at an angle of 45° with the line drawn through the centre 
 of the circle. 
 
 Figure 4. — Shows how nearly impossible it is to perform 
 work of this kind without the use of the compass, for 
 describing the intersecting line. 
 
Plate 20. 
 
CARPENTRY. 45 
 
 ADHESION OF NAILS. 
 
 A sixpenny nail driven into dry elm, to the depth of one 
 inch across the grain, required a pressure of 327 pounds to 
 extract it ; and the same nail, driven endways, or longitud- 
 inally into the same wood, was extracted with a force of 257 
 pounds. 
 
 The same nail driven two inches endways into dry Christ- 
 iana deal, was drawn by a force of 257 pounds ; and to draw 
 out one inch, under like circumstances, took 87 pounds only. 
 The relative adhesion, therefore, in the same wood, when 
 driven transversely and longitudinally, is 100 to 78, or about 
 4 to 3 in dry elm ; and 100 to 46, or about 2 to 1 in deal ; 
 and in like circumstances, the relative adhesion to elm and 
 deal is as 2 or 3 to 1, 
 
 The progressive depths of a sixpenny nail into dry Christ- 
 iana deal by simple pressure were as follows : — 
 
 One quarter of an inch, a pressure of 24 lbs. 
 
 Half an inch, - - - 76 
 
 One inch, - - - - . - 235 
 
 One inch and a half, - - - 400 
 
 Two inches, 610 
 
 In the above experiments, great care was taken by Mr. 
 Bevan to apply the weight steadily, and towards the conclu- 
 sion of each experiment, the additions did not exceed 10 lbs. 
 at one time, with a moderative interval between, generally 
 about one minute, sometimes 10 or 20 minutes. In other 
 species of wood, the requisite force to extract the nail was 
 different. Thus, to extract a common sixpenny nail from a 
 depth of one inch out of 
 
 Dry Oak, required - - - 507 lbs. 
 
 Dry Beech, 667 
 
 G-reen Sycamore, - - - - 313 
 
 From these experiments, we may infer that a common six- 
 penny nail, driven two inches into oak, would require a force 
 of more than half a ton to extract it by a steady force. 
 
46 HAND RAILING. 
 
 HAND RAILING 
 
 The method here presented for squaring the wreath upon 
 Geometrical principles, without the use of falling moulds for 
 small openings, from 5 to 20 in., for straight flights and plat- 
 form stairs, is the least difficult to comprehend, of any in use. 
 
 PLATE 21. 
 
 Exhibits the elevation of a platform stairs from first to 
 second floor. Fig. 1 shows the method of finding the point 
 to bore for the short baluster on the second step, when, you 
 have the length of the newel and short baluster given. On 
 the pitch-board A C B, make C A equal the difference in 
 the lengths of the newel post and short baluster, say six 
 inches ; place the point B on the line of the centre of the 
 newel post, and the line drawn from A will be the under 
 side of the cap, and C A produced to the rail will give the 
 point to bore for the first short baluster. 
 
 Figure 2. — Shows the plan for the hand railing over a 
 seven inch cylinder. The risers are placed at the point of 
 intersection of the cylinder and string-pieces, as shown on 
 the elevation. 
 
 Figure 3. — Shows the method of forming the face-mould 
 with a cord or string, as shown on Plate i^, Fig. 1, and to be 
 cut square through the plank. 
 
 Figure 4. — Exhibits the piece sawed with the bevel, shown 
 at D, applied to the centre of the plank ; then from the 
 centre set of each side one-half of the rail which leaves a 
 corner, to be removed from the out and inside of the piece ; 
 tack the mould on the opposite side of the corner to be 
 removed on the out and inside of the piece, and form the 
 wreath as shown at Fig. 5, which is an end view of the. hand- 
 rail required ready for moulding. The easing on second fioor 
 terminates one-half the height of the riser above the point 
 to bore for the short baluster. 
 
Plate 21 
 
 Fi^.4.. 
 
 
 
 I© 
 
 e-^e- -e 
 
 ria.2. 
 
 M-'0-'-0-± 
 
OAKPENTRY. 
 
 47 
 
 ADHESION OF SCREWS. 
 
 A common screw, of one-fifth of an inch, was found to 
 have an adhesive force of about three times that of a six- 
 penny nail. 
 
 ADHESION OF IRON PINS. 
 
 The force necessary to break or tear out a half-inch iron 
 pin, applied in the manner of a pin to a tenon in the mortice, 
 has likewise obtained the attention of the same celebrated 
 experimentalist. The thickness of the board was 0.87 inch, 
 and the distance of the centre of the hole from the end of 
 the board 1*05 inch. The force required was 916. 
 
 As the strength of a tenon from the pin-hole may be con- 
 sidered in proportion to the distance from the end, and also 
 as the thickness, we may, for this species of wood, obtain 
 the breaking force in pounds nearly, by multiplying together 
 one thousand times the distance of the hole from the end by 
 the thickness of the tenon in inches. 
 
 LENGTH OF IRON NAILS 
 
 AND NUMBER TO A POUND. 
 
 SIZE. 
 
 LENGTH. 
 
 NO. 
 
 SIZE. 
 
 LENGTH. 
 
 NO. 
 
 s-^ 
 
 liin. 
 
 420 
 
 lO-i 
 
 3 in. 
 
 65 
 
 4d 
 
 l^in. 
 
 270 
 
 12'J 
 
 3iin. 
 
 52 
 
 5^ 
 
 If in. 
 
 220 
 
 20*^ 
 
 3|-in. 
 
 28 
 
 6^ 
 
 2 in. 
 
 175 
 
 SO'i 
 
 4 in. 
 
 24 
 
 8^ 
 
 24- in. 
 
 100 
 
 40^ 
 
 4iin. 
 
 20 
 
 Lead weighs 709 lbs. to cubic foot. 
 Water weighs 62^ lbs. to cubic foot. 
 
48 HAND BAILING. 
 
 PLATE 22. 
 
 Exhibits a plan and elevation of a continued hand-railing 
 from first to third fljoor. — On the plan, Fig. 1, is shown the 
 baluster placed flush with the face of the riser, from the 
 centre will be seen the dotted line drawn parallel to the face 
 of the riser, cutting the under side of the rail at A, then 
 from A to B ; the underside of the level-rail should be equal 
 to half the height of the riser, or second flight. The contin- 
 uation of the level-rail up the second flight is shown over 
 the plan Fig. 2 ; the dotted line from the centre of baluster 
 shows the point to bore for the first short baluster, and should 
 be half the height of the rise, from the lower side of the level- 
 rail. The method of finding the mould for the wreaths, is 
 the same as shown on Plate 21. 
 
 In order to continue the same inclination around the curve 
 and preserve the same thickness of plank for the wreath, in 
 large openings, it is necessary to place the risers in the 
 cylinders, as shown at Fig. 3, the plan of a twelve inch 
 cylinder. To find the position of the risers, draw the tangen- 
 tial A B indefinitely, from the point B, drop the lines B D 
 and B E, (the inclination or rake of the stairs,) above and 
 below draw the parallel lines, showing the thickness of the 
 rail. ]^ow to find their position, make the line F G, equal 
 the height of the rise and parallel to B A ; produce the 
 line F G to H, then where the line G H cuts the cylinder 
 will be the points for the risers. Fig. 4 is an elevation of 
 the rail E, and D represents what is termed the shank, or 
 straight wood, and B the wreaths ; the width of the rail 
 determines the thickness of plank for the wTeath and cas- 
 ings. 
 
Plato 22 
 
 Ji'V 
 
 FJQ. 2 
 
 Q, 
 
 B--- 
 
 --e--o- -" iio o 
 
 Tig.l. 
 
 V— - 
 
 
 F^y 
 
CAKPENTRY. 49 
 
 ADHESION OF GLUE. 
 
 Mr. Bevan ^lued together by tlie ends two cylinders of dry 
 ash-wood, one-fifth of an inch diameter and about eight inches 
 long; after they had been glued together 24 hours, they 
 required a force of 1260 pounds to separate them ; and as 
 the area of the circular ends of the cylinders were 1.76 inches, 
 it follows that the force of Y15 pounds would be required to 
 separate one square inch. 
 
 It is right to observe, that the glue used in this experiment 
 was newly made, and the season very dry. For in some 
 former experiments on this substance, made in the winter 
 season, and upon some glue which had frequently made, with 
 occasional additions of glue and water, he obtained a result 
 of 350 to 560 pounds to the square inch. 
 
 The present experiment, however, was conducted upon a 
 larger scale, and with greater care in the direction of the 
 resultant force, so that it might be, as near as practicable, in 
 a line passing at right angles through the centres of the sur- 
 faces in contact. The pressure was applied gradually, and 
 was sustained two or three minutes before it separated. 
 
 Upon examining the separated surfaces, the glue appeared 
 to be very thin, and did not entirely cover the wood, so that 
 the actual adhesion of glue must be something greater than 
 715 pounds to the square inch. 
 
 Mr. Bevan also tried the lateral cohesion of fir-wood, from 
 a Scotch fir of his own planting, cut down in the autumn, 
 sawn into boards, and, at the time of experiment, quite dry 
 and seasoned. The force required to separate the wood was 
 562 pounds to to the square inch ; consequently, if two pieces 
 of this wood had been well glued together, the wood would 
 have yielded in its substance before the glue. 
 
 For a subsequent experiment, made on solid glue, the cohe- 
 sive force was found to be 4000 pounds per square inch ; 
 from which it may be inferred, that the application of this 
 substance as a cement is susceptible of improvement. 
 

 ORNAMENTAL WORK. 
 
 PLATE 23. 
 
 Exhibits the method of constructing a Corinthian truss. A 
 represents the eye of its volute at large, with tlie centres 
 numbered on which the curves are described. B and C are 
 Geometrical views showing the front and side elevation. A 
 careful inspection of which will enable the workman to con- 
 struct one of any size he may require. 
 
I»late 23 
 
 The Corinlhicui TruJs e^ plain il. 
 
 .? * J e 7 <*/ 
 
 '^ 
 
 If. 
 
A PRACTICAL AND MATHEMATICAL 
 
 DEMONSTRATION 
 
 OF findin:g the circumference and squaring the circle, when 
 
 THE diameter IS GIYEN. 
 
 IT I I 11 I I I r 
 
 / Firf.2. 
 
 M I I t M IJ-J- 
 
 lij.z. 
 
 M 1 1 M 1 1 1 1: 
 
 ^=L XJ I_i EI S . 
 
 1. Eleven -fourteenth (ij) of the diameter will give one-fourth (i) 
 of the circumference. 
 
 2. One-fourth (J) of the circumference multiplied by the diameter 
 will give the area of the .circle. 
 
 3. Eleven fourteenths (^|-) of the area of the circle will give the 
 area of a square whose sides are equal to the circumference. 
 
 4. Seven-elevenths (y'L) of the area of the circle will give the area 
 of an inscribed square. 
 
 5. One-quarter of the circumference multiplied by irne (9) will 
 give the side of an inscribed square. 
 
 6. To find the diameter when the circumfereuce is given, multiply 
 by seven (7) and divide by twenty-two (22.) 
 
 To find the circumference and diameter when the area is given. 
 Eleven-fourteenths (^J) of the area gives the area of a square whose 
 sides are equal to the circumference, the square root of which will 
 give one-fourth of the circumference ; to find the diameter, proceed 
 as in rule 6. 
 
 The Cut represents a practical method of finding the circumference 
 when the diameter is given : 
 
 Suppose Fig. J to be a wheel fourteen (14) feet or fourteen (14) 
 inches in diameter, and A B the plane. Then with the point on the 
 plane at A, roll the wheel over until the point at A strikes the plane 
 
52 MATHEMATICAL DEMONSTRATION. 
 
 at B, which will be the circumference of the wheel. Then divide 
 the distance on the plane between A. and B into forty -four (44) 
 parts, and fourteen (14) of those parts will be the exact diameter of 
 the wheel, and eleven (11) of those parts will equal one-fourth (J) of 
 the circumference, which is a practical demonstration and proves that 
 eleven-fourteenths ({^) of the diameter gives one-fourth (J) of the 
 circumference. 
 
 A mathematical proof is that one-fourth (^) of the circumference 
 multiplied by the diameter gives the area of the circle; seven 
 elevenths {^\) of the area of the circle will give the area of an 
 inscribed square, as shown at Fig. 1 ; eleven-fourteenths (^) of the 
 area of the circle gives the area of a square whose sides are equal 
 to the circuference, as shown at Fig. 2. 
 
 And finally that a quadrialateral figure fourteen by eleven (14 x 11) 
 as shown in Fig. 3, is a square containing the same area as the circle ; 
 fourteen (14) being the diameter of the circle given and eleven (11) 
 one-fourth of the circumference, which is squaring the circle, and its 
 area. 
 
 These rules give the exact circumference of the circle in feet and 
 inches where the diameters are 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. multiplied b}^ 7, with as 
 much certainty as you can find the root of a perfect number, and 
 are original with me, but since their discovery I have learned that 
 Archimedes, a celebrated Greek philosopher, discovered that eleven- 
 fourteenths of the diameter gives one-fourth of the circumference, 
 and had Archimedes given the practical and mathematical proofs of 
 the fact which we claim to have done, they undoubtedly would have 
 been adopted and in general use in all of our institutions of learning. 
 
Miscellaneous Rules. 
 
 The greatest force produced by the wind on a vertical wall, 
 is equal to 40 lbs. to the square foot. 
 
 When a summer or beam has settled one fortieth of its 
 length, it is liable to break. 
 
 Lathes for plastering will lay 48 feet to the bundle, equal 
 to 6^ square yards. 
 
 One barrel of lime to one cubic yard of sand, will plaster 
 17 square yards with two coats. 
 
 It requires 14 bricks to lay 1 foot in length and 1 foot in 
 heiglith of an 8 inch wall ; 20 bricks for a 12 incli wall, and 
 27 bricks for a 16 inch walk 
 
 An acre of ground is 208^- feet square, and contains 43,560 
 square feet. 
 
 In water, sound passes 4,766 feet per second, in air, 1,146 
 feet per second. 
 
 A Winchester bushel is 18^ inches in diameter, 8 inches 
 deep, and contains 2150f cubic inches. 
 
 A box 16 X 16 inches square 8|- inches deep will hold a 
 bushel. 
 
 A box 12 X 12 inches square, 7^ inches deep will hold half 
 bushel. 
 
 A box 9x9 inches square, 6f inches deep will hold one 
 peck. 
 
 A box 7x7 inches square 5j inches deep, will hold 4 qts. 
 or half peck. 
 
 A pile of wood 8 feet long, and 4 feet high, contains 1 cord. 
 
 A cistern 5 feet diameter, and 6 feet deep, w^ill hold 30 
 barrels, of 32 gallons each. 
 
 A cistern 6 feet diameter, and 6 feet deep, will hold ^39 
 barrels. 
 
 A cistern 7 feet diameter, and 6 feet deep, will hold 54 
 barrels. 
 
54 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS RULES. 
 
 At the depth of 45 feet the temperature of the earth is 
 uniform throughout the year. 
 
 Dimensions of drawings for patents in the United States, 
 8.5 X 12 inches. 
 
 The lap of slates varies from 2 to 4 inches ; the standard 
 is assumed to be 3 inches. 
 
 The pitch of a slate roof should not be less than 1 inch in 
 height, to 4 inch in length. 
 
 According to the last census, there are 2,000 Architects, 
 350,000 Carpenters, 45,000 Cabinet makers, and 46,000 
 Carriage makers in the United States. 
 
 The strength of a horse is equivalent to that of 5 men, the 
 daily allowance of water for a horse should be 4 gallons. 
 
 Elasticty and Strength. — The component parts of a rigid 
 body adhere to each other with a force which is termed 
 Cohesion. 
 
 Elasticty is the resistance which a body opposes to a 
 change of form. 
 
 Strength is the resistance which a body opposes to a per- 
 manent separation of its parts. 
 
 A horse can draw upon a plank road three times the load 
 that he can upon an ordinary broken stone or macadamized 
 road. 
 
 AMERICAN VALUATION OF FOREIGN MONEY. 
 
 A British pound sterling is increased from $4.84 to $4.86.65 ; 
 the French, Swiss and Belgian francs from 18.06 to 19.03 
 with a simihir increase on the Greek drachma and Spanish 
 peseta. The Portuguese milreis will be decreased in valua- 
 tion from $1.12 to $1.08.47. 
 
Terms Used in Carpentry. 
 
 Abutment. — The junction or meeting of two pieces of tim- 
 ber, of which the fibres of the one extend perpendicular to 
 the joint, and those of tlie other parallel to it. 
 
 Areis. — The line of concourse or meeting of two surfaces. 
 
 Back of a Hand-rail. — The upper side of it. 
 
 Back of a Hip. — The upper edge of a rafter, between the 
 two sides of a hipped roof, formed to an angle, so as to range 
 with the rafters on each side of it. 
 
 Back-Shutters or Back-Flaps. — Additional breadths 
 hinged to the front shutters for covering the aperture com- 
 pletely, when required to be shut. 
 
 Back of a Window. — The board, or wainscoting between 
 the sash-frame and the floor, uniting with the two elbows, 
 and forming part of the finish of a room. When framed, it 
 has commonly a single pannel, with mouldings on the framing, 
 corresponding with the doors, shutters, &c., in the apartment 
 in which it is fixed. 
 
 Basil. — The sloping edge of a chisel, or of the iron of a 
 plane. 
 
 Batten. — A scantling of stuff from two inches to seven 
 inches in breadth, and from half an inch to one inch and a 
 half in thickness. 
 
 Baulk. — A piece of fir or deal, from four to ten inches 
 square, being the trunk of a tree of that species of wood, 
 generally brought to a square, for the use of building. 
 
 Bead. — A round moulding commonly made upon the edge 
 of a piece of stuff'. Of beads there are two kinds ; one flush 
 with the surface, called a quirk-head, and the other raised, 
 called a cock-head. 
 
 Beam.— A horizontal timber, used to resist a force or 
 weight ; as a tie-heam, where it acts as a string or chain, by 
 its tension ; as a collar-beam, where it acts by compression • 
 
56 
 
 TERMS USED IN CARFENTKY. 
 
 as a hressummer^ where it resists a transverse insisting 
 weight. 
 
 Bearer. — Any thing used' by way of support to another. 
 
 Bearing. — The distance in which a beam or rafter is 
 suspended in the clear : thus, if a piece of timber rests upon 
 two opposite walls, the span of the void is called the hearing^ 
 and not the whole length of the timber. 
 
 Bench. — A platform supported on four legs, and used for 
 planing, upon etc. 
 
 Bevel. — One side is said to be bevelled with respect to 
 another, when the angle formed by these two sides is greater 
 or less than a right angle. 
 
 Bird's Mouth. — An interior angle, formed on the end of a 
 piece of timber, so that it may rest iirmly upon the exterior 
 angle of another piece. 
 
 Blade. — Any part of a tool that is broad and thin ; as the 
 blade of an axe, of an adze, of a chisel, &c. : but the blade 
 of a saw is generally called the plate. 
 
 Blockings. — Small pieces of wood, fitted in, or glued, or 
 fixed, to the interior angle of two boards or other pieces, in 
 order to give strength to the joint. 
 
 BoARD.^^A substance of wood contained between two 
 parallel planes : as Avhen the baulk is divided into several 
 pieces by the pit-saw, the pieces are called hoards. The 
 section of boards is sometimes, however, of a triangular, or 
 rather trapezoidal form ; that is, with one edge very thin ; 
 these are cdMo^di feather-edge hoards. 
 
 Bond-Timbers. — Horizontal pieces, built in stone or brick 
 walls, for strengthening them, and securing, the battening, 
 lath, and plaster, etc. 
 
 Bottom Rail. — The lowest rail of a door. 
 
 Boxings of a Window. — The two ca^es, one on each side 
 of a window, into which the shutters are folded. 
 
 Brace. — A piece of slanting timber, used in truss-parti- 
 tions, or in framed roofs, in order to form a triangle, and 
 thereby rendering the frame immovable ; when a brace is 
 
TEEMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 57 
 
 used by way of support to a rafter, it is called a strut.. Braces, 
 in partitions and spanroofs, are always, or should be, disposed 
 in pairs, and placed in opposite directions. 
 
 Brace and Bits. — The same as stocTc mid lits^ as explained 
 hereafter. 
 
 Brad. — A small nail, having no head except on one edge. 
 The intention is to drive it within the surface of the wood 
 by means of a hammer and punch, and to fill the cavity flush 
 to the surface with putty. 
 
 Breaking Down, in sawing, is dividing the baulk into 
 boards or planks; but, if planks are sawed longitudinally, 
 through their thickness, the saw^-way is called a ripping-cut 
 and the former a hrealcmg-cut. 
 
 To Break-in. — To cut or break a hole in brick-work, with 
 the ripping-chisel, for inserting timber, etc. 
 
 Breaking Joint. — Is the joint formed by the meeting of 
 several heading joints in one continued line, which is some- 
 times the case in folded doors. 
 
 Bressummer or Breastsummer. — A beam supporting a 
 superincumbent part of an exterior wall, and running longi- 
 tudinally below that part. — See Summer. 
 
 Bridged Gutters. — Gutters made with boards, supported 
 below with bearers, and covered over with lead. 
 
 Bridging- Floors. — Floors in which hridging joists are 
 used. 
 
 Bridging Joists. — Tlie smallest beams in naked flooring, 
 for supporting the boarding for walking upon. 
 
 Bu'iTiNG- Joint. — The junction formed by the surfaces of 
 two pieces of wood, of which one surface is pei'pendicular to 
 the fibres, and the other in their direction, or making with 
 them an oblique angle. 
 
 Chamber. — The convexity of a beam upon the upper edge, 
 in order to prevent its becoming straight or concave by its 
 own weight, or by the burden it may have to sustain, in course 
 of time. 
 
 8 
 
58 TERMS USED IN CARPENTKY. 
 
 Chamber-Beams. — Those beams used in the flats of trunca- 
 ted roofs, and raised in the middle with an obtuse angle, for 
 discharging the rain-water towards both sides of the roof. 
 
 Cantalivers. — Horizontal rows of timber, projecting at 
 right angles from the naked part of a wall, for sustaining the 
 eaves or otter mouldings. Sometimes they are planed on the 
 horizontal and verticle sides, and sometimes the carpentry is 
 rough and cased with joinery. 
 
 Carriage of a Stair. — The timber-work which supports 
 the steps. 
 
 Carcase of a Building. — The naked walls, and the rough 
 timber-work of the flooring and quarter partitions, before the 
 building is plastered or the floors laid. 
 
 Carry-up. — A lerm used among builders or workmen, 
 denoting that the walls, or other parts, are intended to be 
 built to a certain given height; thus, the carpenter will say 
 to the bricklayer. Carry -up that wall ; carry -up that stack of 
 chimneys \ which means, build up that wall or stack of 
 chimneys. 
 
 Casting or Warping. — The bending of the surfiices of a 
 piece of wood from their orio^inal position, either by the 
 weight of the wood, or by an unequal exposure to the weather 
 or by unequal texture of the wood. 
 
 Chamfering. — Cutting the edge of any thing, originally 
 right-angled, aslope or bevel. 
 
 Clamp. — A piece of wood fixed to the end of a thin board, 
 by mortise and tenon, or by groove and tongue; so that the 
 fibres of the one piece, thus fixed, traverse those of the board, 
 and by this mean prevent it from casting: the piece at the 
 end is called a clanij) and the board is said to be clamped. 
 
 Clear Story Windows, are those that have no transom. 
 
 Cross-grained Stuff, is that which has its fibres running 
 in contrary positions to the surfaces ; and consequently, 
 cannot be made perfectly smooth, when planed in one direc- 
 tion, without turning it, or turning the plane. 
 
TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 59 
 
 Crown-Post, — The middle post of a trussed roof. — See 
 King-Post. 
 
 Curling Stuff. — That which is occasioned by the winding 
 or coiling of the fibres round the boughs of the tree, w^hen 
 they begin to shoot from the trunk. 
 
 Deal Timber. — The timber of the fir-tree, as cut into 
 boards, planks, etc., for the use of building. 
 
 Discharge. — A post trimmed up under a beam, or part of a 
 building which is weak or overcharged by weight. 
 
 Door-Frame. — The surrounding case of a door, into which, 
 and out of which, the door shuts and opens. 
 
 Dormer, OR Dormer Window. — A projecting window^ in 
 the roof of a house ; the glass-frame, or casements, being set 
 vertically, and not in the inclined sides of the roofs: thus 
 dormers are distinguished from skylights^ which have their 
 sides inclined to the horizon. 
 
 Drag. — A door is said to drag when it rubs on the floor. 
 This arises from the loosening of the hinges, or the settling 
 of the building. 
 
 Dragon-Beam. — The piece of timber which supports the 
 hip-rafter, and bisects the angle formed by the wall-plates. 
 
 Dragon-Piece. — A beam besecting the wall-plate, for 
 receiving the heel or foot of the hip-rafters. 
 
 Edging. — Reducing the edges of ribs or rafters, externally, 
 or internally so as to range in a plane, or in any curved sur- 
 face required. 
 
 Enter. — When the end of a tenon is put into a mortise, it 
 is said to enter the mortise. 
 
 Face-Mould. — A mould for drawing the proper figure of 
 a hand-rail on both sides of the plank; so that, when cut by 
 a saw, held at a required inclination, the two surfaces of the 
 rail-piece, when laid in the right position, will be every where 
 perpendicular to the plan. 
 
 Fang. — The narrow part of the iron of any instrument 
 which passes into the stock. 
 
 Featiier-edged Boards. — Boards, thicker at one edge than 
 
 L_ 
 
60 TERMS USED IN CAKPENTRY. 
 
 the other, and commonly used in the facing of wooden walls, 
 and for the covering of inclined roofs, etc. 
 
 Fence of a Plane. — A guard which obliges it to work to 
 a certain horizontal breadth from the arris. 
 
 FiLLiNG-iN Pieces. — Short timbers less than the full length, 
 as the jack-rafters of a roof, the puncheons or short quarters, 
 in partitions, between braces ^nd sills, or headpieces. 
 
 Fine-set. — A plane is said to be fine-set, when the sole of 
 the plane so projects as to take a very thin broad shaving. 
 
 Fir Poles. — Small trunks of fir trees, from ten to sixteen 
 feet in length, used in rustic buildings and out-houses. 
 
 Free Stuff. — That timber or stuflf which is quite clean, or 
 without knots, and works easily, without tearing. 
 
 Frowy Stuff. — The same as free stufi". 
 
 FuRRiNGS. — Slips of timber nailed to joists or rafters, in 
 order to bring them to a level, and to range them into a 
 straight surface, when the timbers are sagged, either by 
 casting, or by a set which they have obtained by their weight, 
 in length of time. 
 
 Girder. — The principal beam in a floor for supporting the 
 binding-joists. 
 
 Glue. — A tenacious viscid matter, which is used as a 
 cement, by carpenters, joiners, etc. 
 
 Glues are found to differ very much from each other, in 
 their consistence, color, taste, smell, and solubility. Some 
 will dissolve in cold water, by agitation ; while others are 
 soluble only at the point of ebullition. The best glue is 
 generally admitted to be transparent, and of a brown yellow 
 color, without either taste or smell. It is perfectly soluble in 
 water, forming a viscous fluid, which, when dry, preserves its 
 tenacity and transparency in everj^ part ; and has solidity 
 color, and viscidity, in proportion to the age and strength of 
 the animal from which it is produced. To distinguish good 
 glue from bad, it is necessary to hold it between the eye and 
 light ; and if it appears of a strong dark brown color, and 
 free from cloudy or black spots, it may be pronounced to be 
 
TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 61 
 
 good. The best glue may likewise be known by immersing 
 it in cold water for three or four days, and if it swells 
 considerably without melting, and afterwards regains its 
 former dimensions and properties by being dried, the article 
 is of the best quality. 
 
 In preparing glue for use, it should be softened and swelled 
 by steeping it in cold water for a number of hours. It should 
 then be dissolved, by gently boiling it till it is of a proper 
 consistence to be easily brushed over any surface. A portion 
 of water is added to glue, to make it of a proper consistency, 
 which portion may be taken at about a quart of water to 
 half a pound of glue. In order to hinder the glue from being 
 burned, during the process of boiling, the vessel containing 
 the glue is generally suspended in another vessel, which is 
 made of copper, and resembles in form a tea-kettle without a 
 spout. This latter vessel contains only water, and alone 
 receives the direct influence of the fire. 
 
 A little attention to the following circumstances w^ill tend, 
 in no small degree, to give glue its full effect in uniting 
 perfectly two pieces of wood : first, that the glue be thorough- 
 ly melted, and used while boiling hot ; secondly, that the 
 wood be perfectly dry and warm ; and, lastly, that the surfaces 
 to be united should be covered only with a thin coat of glue, 
 and after having been strongly pressed together, left in a 
 moderately warm situation, till the glue is completely dry. 
 When it so happens that the face of surfaces to be glued 
 cannot be conveniently compressed together in any great 
 degree, they should, as soon as besmeared with the glue, be 
 rubbed lengthwise, one on the other, several times, in order 
 thereby to settle them close. When all fhe above circum- 
 stances cannot be combined in the same operation, the hotness 
 of the glue and the dryness of the wood should at all events, 
 be attended to. 
 
 The qualities of glue are often impaired by frequent melt- 
 ings. This may be known to be the case when it becomes of 
 a dark and almost black color ; its proper color being a light 
 
62 TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 
 
 ruddy brown : yet, even then, it may be restored, by boiling 
 it over again, refining it, and adding a sufficient quantity of 
 fresh ; but tlie fresh is seldom put into the kettle till what is 
 in it has been purged by a second boiling. 
 
 If common glue be melted with the smallest possible 
 quantity of water, and well mixed by degrees with linseed 
 oil, rendered .dry by boiling it with litharge, a glue may be 
 obtained that will not dissolve in water. By boiling common 
 glue in skimmed milk the same effect may be produced. 
 
 A small portion of finely levigated chalk is sometimes 
 added to the common solution of glue in water, to strengthen 
 it and fit it for standing the weather. 
 
 A glue that will resist both fire and water may be prepared 
 by mixing a handful of quick lime with four ounces of linseed 
 oil, thoroughly levigated, and then boiled to a good thickness, 
 and kept in the shade, on tin-plates, to dry. It may be 
 rendered fit for use by boiling it over a fire like common 
 glue. 
 
 Grind Stone. — A cylindrical stone, by which, on its being 
 turned round its axis, edgetools are sharpened, by applying 
 the basil to the convex surface. 
 
 Ground-Plate or Sill. — The lt)west plate of a wooden 
 building for supporting the principal and other posts. 
 
 Grounds. — Pieces of wood concealed in a wall, to which 
 the facings or finishings are attached, and having their surfa- 
 ces flush with the plaster. 
 
 Handspike. — A lever for carrying a beam, or other body, 
 the weights being placed in the middle, and supported at 
 each end by a man. 
 
 Hanging Stile. — The stile of a door or shutter to which 
 the hinge is fastened : also, a narrow stile fixed to the jamb 
 on which a door or shutter is frequently hung. 
 
 Hip-RooF. — A roof the ends of which rise immediately 
 from the wall-plate, with the same inclination to the horizon, 
 and its other two sides. The Backing of a Hip is the angle 
 
TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 
 
 63 
 
 made on its upper edge to the range with the two sides or 
 planes of the roof between which it is placed. 
 
 Hoarding. — An enclosure of wood about a building, while 
 erecting or repairing. 
 
 Jack Rafters. — All those short rafters which meet the 
 hips. 
 
 Jack Ribs. — Those short ribs vi, hich meet the angle ribs, as 
 in groins, domes, etc. 
 
 Jack Timber. — A timber shorter than the whole length of 
 other pieces in the same range. 
 
 Inter-tie or Enter-tie. — A horizontal piece of timber, 
 framed between two posts, in order to tie them together. 
 
 Joggle-Piece — A truss post, with shoulders and sockets for 
 abutting and fixing the lower ends of the struts. 
 
 Joists. — Those beams in a floor which support, or are 
 necessary in the supporting, of the boarding or ceiling ; as the 
 binding, hridging and ceiling joists j girders are, however, to 
 be excepted, as not being joists. 
 
 JuFFERS. — Stuff of about four or five inches square, and of 
 several lengths. This term is out of use, though frequently 
 found in old books. 
 
 Kerf. — The way whicti -ft saw makes in dividing a piece of 
 wood into two parts. 
 
 King-Post. — The middle post of a trussed roof, for sup- 
 porting the tie-beam at the middle and the lower ends of the 
 struts. 
 
 Knee. — A piece of timber cut at an angle, or having 
 grooves to an angle. In handrailing a knee is part of the 
 back, with a convex curvature, and therefore the reverse of a 
 rmnp, which is hollow on the back, now called over or under 
 
 Knot. — That part of a piece of timber where a branch had 
 issued out of the trunk. 
 
 Lining of a Wall.^ — A timber boarding, of which the 
 edges are either rebated or grooved ai^d tongued. 
 
64 TEEMS USED IN CARPENTKY. 
 
 Lintels. — Short beams over the heads of doors and 
 windows, for supporting the inside of an exterior wall ; and 
 the super-incumbent part over doors, in brick or stone parti- 
 tions. 
 
 Lower Eail. — The rail at the foot of a door next to the 
 floor. 
 
 Lying Panel. — A panel with the fibres of the wood 
 disposed horizontally. 
 
 Margins or Margents. — The flat part of the stiles and 
 rails of framed work. 
 
 Middle Rail. — The rail of a door which is upon a level 
 with the hand when hanging freely and bending the joint of 
 the wrist. The lock of the door is generally fixed in this rail. 
 
 Mitre. — If two pieces of wood be formed to equal angles, 
 or if the two sides of each piece form an equal inclination 
 and two sides, one of each piece, be joined together at their 
 common vertex, so as to make an angle, or an inclination, 
 double to that of either piece, they are said to be mitred 
 together, and the joint is called the miti'e. 
 
 Mortise and Tenon. — The tenon, in general, may be taken 
 at about one-third of the thickness of the stuff". 
 
 When the mortise and tenon are to lie horizontally, as the 
 juncture will thus be unsupported, the tenon should not be 
 more than one-fifth of the thickness of the stuff*; in order 
 that the strain on the upper surface of the tenoned piece may 
 not split off* the under clieek of the mortise. 
 
 When the piece that is tenoned is not to pass the end of 
 the mortised piece,. the tenon should be reduced one-third or 
 one-fourth of its breadth, to prevent the necessity of opening 
 one side of the tenon. As there is always some danger of 
 splitting the end of the piece in which the mortise is made, 
 the end beyond the morti^ie should, as often as possible, be 
 made considerably longer than it is intended to remain ; so 
 that the tenon may be driven tightly in, and the superfluous 
 wood cut off afterwards. 
 
TERMS USED IN CARFENTRY. 65 
 
 But the above regulations may be varied, according as the 
 tenoned or mortised piece is weaker or stronger. 
 
 The labor of making deep mortises, in hard wood, maybe 
 lessened, by first boring a number of holes with the auger, 
 in the part to be mortised, as the compartments between may 
 then more easily be cut away ])y the chisp]. 
 
 Before employing the saw to cut the shoulder of a tenon, 
 in neat work, if the line of its entrance be correctly deter- 
 mined by nicking the place with a paring chisel, there will 
 be no danger of the wood being torn at the edges by the saw. 
 
 As the neatness and durability of a juncture depend 
 entirely on the sides of the mortise coming exactly in contact 
 with the sides of the tenon ; and, as this is not easily per- 
 formed when a mortise is to pass entirely through a piece of 
 stuff, the space allotted for it should be first of all correctly 
 gauged on both sides. One-half is then to be cut from one 
 side, and the other half from the opposite side ; and as any 
 irregularities which may arise from an error in the direction 
 of the chisel, will thus be confined to the middle of the mor- 
 tise, they will be of very little hindrance to the exact fitting 
 of the sides of the mortise and tenon. Moreover as the 
 tenon is expanded by wedges after it is driven in, the sides of 
 the mortise may, in a small degree, be inclined towards each 
 other, near the shoulders of the tenon. 
 
 MuLLioN OR MuNNiON. — A large vertical bar of a window- 
 frame, separating two casements, or glass-frames, from each 
 other. 
 
 Yerticle Tmdiions ^ire called munwi^ons ; and those which ex- 
 tend horizontally are trani^oins. 
 
 MuNTiNS OR MoNTANTS — The vcrticlc pieces of the frame 
 of a door between the stiles. 
 
 I^AKED Flooring. — The timber-work of a floor for su'pport- 
 ing the boarding, or ceiling, or both. 
 
 Kewel. — The post, in dog-legged stairs, where the winders 
 terminate, and to which the adjacent string-boards are fixed. 
 
 9 
 
6G TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 
 
 Ogee. — A moulding, the transverse section of which con- 
 sists of two curves of contrary flexure. 
 
 Panel. — A thin board, having all its edges inserted in the 
 groove of a surrounding frame. 
 
 Pitch of a Eoof. — The inclination which the sloping sides 
 make with the plane, or level of the wall-plate ; or it is the 
 proportion which arises by dividing the span by the height. 
 Thus, if it be asked, What is the pitch of such a roof? the 
 answer is, one-quarter, one-third, or half. AVhen the pitch is 
 lialf, the roof is a square, which is the highest that is now in 
 use, or that is necessary in practice. 
 
 Plank. — All boards above one inch thick are called planhn. 
 
 Plate. — A horizontal piece of timber iii a wall, generally 
 flush with the inside, for resting the ends of beams, joists or 
 rafters, upon ; and, therefore, denominated floor or roof 
 plates. 
 
 Posts. — All upright or vertical pieces of timber whatever ; 
 as trus8-jposts^ door-posts^ quarters in partitions, etc. 
 
 Brick Posts.— Intermediate posts in a wooden building, 
 framed between principal posts. 
 
 Principal Posts. — The corner posts of a wooden building. 
 
 PuDLAiES. — Pieces of timber to serve the purpose of hand- 
 spikes. 
 
 PuNCHioNS.^Any short post of timber. The small quar- 
 terings in a stud partition above the head of a door, are also 
 called Punchions. 
 
 Purlins. — The horizontal timbers in the sides of a roof, 
 for supporting the spars or small rafters. 
 
 QuARTERiNtf. — The stud w^ork of a partition. 
 
 Quarters. — The timbers to be used in stud partitions, bond 
 
 in walls, etc. 
 
 Rafters. — All the inclined timbers in the sides of a roof; 
 
 Si^prineipal rafters^ hip rafters, and common rafters; the latter 
 
 are called in most countries, spars. 
 
 Pails. — The horizontal pieces which contain the tenons in 
 
TEEMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 67 
 
 a piece of framing, in whicli the upper and lower edges of 
 the panels are inserted. 
 
 Raising Plates or Top Plates. — The plates on which the 
 roof is raised. 
 
 Rank-set. — The edge of the iron of a plane is said to be 
 rank-set when it projects considerably below the sole. 
 
 Return. — In any body with two surfaces, joining each 
 other at an angle, one of the surfaces is said to return in 
 respect of the other; or, if standing before one surface, so 
 that the e^^e may be in a straight line with the other, or 
 nearly so ; this last is said to return. 
 
 Ridge. — The meeting of the rafters on the vertical angle, 
 or highest part of a roof. 
 
 Risers. — The verticle sides of the steps of stairs. 
 
 Roof. — The covering of a house ; but the word is used in 
 carpentry for the wood-work which supports the slating or 
 other covering. 
 
 Scantling. — The transverse dimensions of a piece of tim- 
 ber ; sometimes, also the small timbers in roofing and 
 flooring are called scantling Ss 
 
 Scarfing. — A mode of joining two pieces of timber, by 
 bolting or nailing them transversely together, so that the two 
 appear but as one. The joint is called a scarfs and timbers 
 are said to be scarfed. 
 
 Shaken Stuff. — Such timber as is rent or split by the 
 heat of tlie sun, or by the fall of the tree, is said to be 
 slujiken. 
 
 Shingles. — Thin pieces of wood used for covering, instead 
 of tiles, etc. 
 
 Shreadings. — A term not much used at present. 
 
 Skirtings or Skirting Boards. — The narrow boards 
 around the margin of a floor, forming a plinth for the base 
 of the dado., or simply a plinth for the room itself, when 
 there is no dado. 
 
 Skirts of a Roof. — The projecture of the eaves. 
 
 Sleepers. — Pieces of timber for resting the ground-joists 
 
6S TEEMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 
 
 of a floor upon, or for fixing the planking to, in a bad founda- 
 tion. The term formerly applied to the valley rafters of a 
 roof. 
 
 Spars. — A term by which the common rafters of a roof 
 are best known in almost every provincial town in Great 
 Britain; though, generally, called in London common rafters^ 
 in order to distinguish them from the principal rafters. 
 
 Staff. — A piece of wood fixed to the external angle of 
 the two upright sides of a wall, for floating the plaster to, 
 and for defending the angle against accidents. 
 
 Stiles of Door, are the verticled arts of the framing at 
 the edges of the door. 
 
 Struts. — Pieces of timber which support the rafters, and 
 which are supported by the truss-posts. 
 
 Summer. — A large beam in a building, either disposed in 
 an outside wall, or in the middle of an apartment, parallel 
 to such wall. When a summer is placed under a superin- 
 cumbent part of an outside wall, it is called a hressummer^ as 
 it comes in abrest with the front of the building. 
 
 SuRBASE. — The upper base of a room, or rather the cornice 
 of the pedestal of the room, which serves to finish the dado, 
 and to secure the plaster against accidents from the back of 
 chairs and other furniture on the same level. 
 
 Taper. — The form of a piece of wood which arises from 
 one end of a piece being narrower than the other. 
 
 Tenon. — See Mortise. 
 
 Tie. — A piece of timber, placed in any position, and 
 acting as a string or tie, to keep two things together which 
 have a tendency to a more remote distance form each other. 
 
 Transom Windows. — Those windows which have horizon- 
 tal mullions. 
 
 Trimmers. — Joists into which other joists are framed. 
 
 Trimming Joists. — The two joists into which a trimmer 
 is framed. 
 
 Truncated Roof. — A roof with a flat on the top. 
 
 "Truss. — A frame constructed of several pieces of timber. 
 
TERMS USED IN CARPENTRY. 69 
 
 and divided into two or more triangles bj oblique pieces, in 
 order to prevent the possibility of its revolving round any of 
 the angles of the frame. 
 
 Trussed Roof. — A roof so constructed within the exterior 
 triangular frame, as to support the principal rafters and the 
 tie-beam at certain given points. 
 
 Truss-Post. — Any of the posts of a trussed roof, as a king- 
 post, qiieen-post, or side-post, or posts into which the braces 
 are formed in a trussed partition. 
 
 Trussells. — Four-legged stools for ripping and cross-cut- 
 ting timber upon. 
 
 Tusk. — The bevelled upper shoulder of a tenon, made in 
 order to give streno^th to the tenon. 
 
 Uphers. — Fir-poles, from twenty to forty feet long, and 
 from four to seven inuhes in diameter, commonly hewn on 
 the sides, so as not to reduce the wane entirely. When slit 
 they are frequently employed in slight roofs : but mostly used 
 whole for scaffolding and ladders. 
 
 Yalley Kafter. — That rafter which is disposed in the 
 internal angle of a roof. 
 
 Wall Plates. — The joint-plates and raising plates. 
 
 Web of an Iron. — The board part of it which comes to 
 the sole of the plane. 
 
70 
 
 PLASTERER'S WORK. 
 
 The measuring and valuation of plasterer's work is con- 
 ducted by surveyors. All common plastering is measured 
 by the yard square, of nine feet ; this includes the partitions 
 and ceilings of rooms, stuccoing, internally and externally, 
 etc., etc. Cornices are measured by the foot superficial, 
 girting their members to ascertain their widths, which multi- 
 plied by their lengths, will produce the superficial contents. 
 Eunning measures consist of beads, quirks, arrises, and small 
 mouldings. Ornamental cornices are frequently valued in 
 this way ; that is, by the running foot. 
 
 The labor in plasterer's work is frequently of more consider- 
 ation than the materials ; hence it becomes requisite to note 
 down the exact time which is consumed in effecting particular 
 portions, so that an adequate and proper value may be put 
 upon the work. 
 
"S6l|eriof"--It^ >ieki^in^. 
 
 Of old, the wise man said : "There is nothing new under the sun." Each 
 succeeding age has echoed it — even this nineteenth century, perforce, joining 
 the strain. 
 
 Do we chant our triumph in art, in science ; do we exult in the advance in 
 the science of government — hailing the " rings " that govern us, and plunder 
 us, as the very last and greatest achievement in hiunan progress ; turn back the 
 pages of history and we find a record which compels us to say, " The thing 
 that is, it is that that has been." 
 
 "What wonder, then, if even this boast of our age, the self- feeding principle as 
 applied to Furnaces, &c., should have been known and used by them of old ! 
 
 And we so read of a "Furnace, 1800 years ago, having a tower or magazine 
 suspended over the fire-chamber, for the purpose of furnii-'hinga constant sup- 
 ply of fuel, tlms obtaining a per petual fire." 
 
 Hence it was called, in the Greek, " Athanor." "Acanor," or "Achenor," 
 signifying "deathless," "undying." 
 
 But herein is a difi'erence between us and those of the bygone days, and one 
 which well illustrates the difference in our civilization. 
 
 The old Achenor Furnaces were used by the alchemists, in their vain eflTorts 
 to transmute the baser metals into gold — in their fruitless search after the 
 "philosopher's stone." 
 
 The new Achenor Furnaces seek the promotion of health of mind, and well- 
 being of body, a treasure richer far than the" Midas " power sought of old. 
 
 It is, then, an " old friend with a new face " we present in 
 
 HE ^CHENOR JuRNACES, 
 
 and we are confident that they will inherit the name because 
 
 1. An undying fire can be kept; 
 
 2. They are entirely free from deadly gases ; 
 
 3. Their career, we believe, will be undying. 
 
 This matter of heating our homes is of such vital importance that we feel 
 warranted in presenting in detail the more important features of the Achenor 
 Furnaces, premising that they are not an untested experiment, but a tried and 
 successful fact . 
 
 FOR SALE BY 
 
 W. H. DRUMMOND& CO., 
 
 85 and 87 MARKET ST., NEWARK, N. J. 
 
G^ould'^ f^kte-qt J^ii^e-f^i^oof Sot ^it J^]ne><, 
 
 FOR BUILDING-S, <fec., &c. 
 NO IRON LATHES NOR COMPLICATED CONTRIVANCES REQUIRED. 
 
 Absolutely Fire-Proof— No Loss of Heat. 
 
 The invention consists in a combination of sheet tin tubes with Plaster of Paris, the 
 tubes forming the lining of the manufactured article when completed. It will be seen 
 that the combination of the plate-tin and Plaster of Paris is based upon sound scientific 
 principles, when it is understood that the object of the invention is to prevent escape of 
 the heat through the walls of the flues during the passage of the heated air from the 
 furnace to the delivery register. Bright plate-tin, though a good reflector, is a very poor 
 radiator of heat while Plaster of Paris is one of the best non-conductors. 
 
 The engravings will almost explain themselves. They represent one of the forms in 
 which the flues may be made, these forms being practically unlimited, and capable of 
 adaption to any of the requirements of such flues. Fig. 1 is a perspective view of a com- 
 posite register box, and Fig. 2 is a geometrical section of the same, in which the shape of 
 the tin lining in transverse section is that of a flattened cylinder. The sections of tin are 
 much larger at one end than at the other : they can, therefore, be joined without crack- 
 ing the plaster which is upon the outside. These tubes can be made so cheaply, and they 
 are evidently such perfect security against fire originating in flues, that they ought to 
 attract the attention of builders at once. It is also in harmony with the Building Laws 
 of the State New York, as will be seen by the following extract : 
 
 Extract from Laws of the State of New York, in relation to Building. 
 
 HoT-AiB Pipes— No tin or other metal pipes or flues of metal, to convey heated air, 
 shall be allowed, unless the same shall have a thickness of not less than one inch of 
 Plaster of Paris between the said metal pipes or flues, and any of the timber of wood-work 
 adjoining the same If the Plaster of Paris is not put on as above set forth, the pipes in 
 all cases, must be doubled, that is to pipes, one inside the other, at least one inch apart 
 and filled with Plaster of Paris. 
 
 REFERENCES : 
 
 R. P. VAN RIPER, Montclair, 
 
 J. R. THOMPSON, Office Warren st. 
 
 Jersey City, Residence, Montclair, 
 JEROME SIGLER, Montclair, 
 A. A. SIGLER, Montclair, 
 FRED. BRAUTIGAN. Montclair, 
 
 H. HUDSON HOLLY, Architect, Trinity 
 
 Buildings, N. Y. 
 JOSEPH DODD, Architect, Orange, 
 THOMAS STENT, Architect, Newark. 
 C. GRAHAM, Architect, Elizabeth. 
 BRIGGS & COIMAN, Architects, Newark. 
 
 HUGH LAMB, Architect, Newark. 
 
 :e=:fi.ioes. 
 
 3x8 Inches, per Foot 80 Cts. 
 3x9 " " 85 " 
 
 3xlO Inches, per Foot 90 
 3x13 " " Sl.OO 
 
 Register Boxes ready to receive Register according to size, either for Side Wall or Floor. 
 No Soapstone Border required when these boxes are used. Address all orders to 
 
 E. T. GOULD, Montclair, N. J. 
 
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OBIVAME^TAL IVEWEL POSTS AI¥D BALUSTERS MADE TO ORDER. 
 
 JOHN MIDDLETON, 
 
 Stair Builder, 
 
 10. im BEieil ST., lEWIlI, 1, J. 
 
 Stairs and Rails Executed with Neatness and Dispatch. 
 
 ORDERS BY MAIL PROMPTLY ATTENDED TO. 
 
 COMBINED, ELECTRIC, BURGLAR AND FIRE 
 
 IS SIMPLE, PlSRFEGT AND GUARANTEED, 
 UllJSr BE SEEN TO BE AI»I»RECIATEI>. 
 
 No charge made until after a trial. Is put In quickly, no carpets taken up. It costs less 
 than any other Alarm in the market— Is very popular. 
 
 Call and see it, or address for purlieu farsj 
 
 3FL- J". :B:E=^iTT^^iJxr, 
 
 IVo. 120 Bergen St., Newark, ]\. J. 
 
 Our Batteries are not offensive, and last one year without attention. 
 COST 30 CTS. PER ANNUM. 
 
 p00iIlB0rliiig« 
 
 SMITH'S 
 
 For Planing, Sash, and Moulding Mills, 
 
 LOW PRICES, 
 
 SUPERIOR QUALITY, 
 
 EASY TERMS. 
 
 —ALSO— 
 
 .ewa^fej^n., MACHINISTS' TOOLS. 
 
 Scroll Saw. 
 
 STEAM ENGINES, BOILERS, SHAFTING, 
 
 AND COMPLETE OUTFITS FOR FACTORIES. 
 
 WRIGHT & SMITH, 
 
 Warerooms, 119 Liberty Street, New York. 
 FACTORY, NEWARK, N. J. SEND FOR CIRCULARS. 
 
MEEKER & HEDDEN, 
 
 SASH, BLIND AND DOOR MANUFACTURERS, 
 
 Hardwood Doors, Mantels, Church, Bank and Office Furniture, 
 
 WOOD MOULDINGS, 
 
 ^dfoll ai)d Cii^dulaf ^awii^g, Wood ^I^ui'iiiii^, &C., M., 
 
 OGDEN STREET, FOOT OF ORANGE, 
 
 J.J.MEEKER, I NEWARK N J 
 
 V. J. HEDDEN. r INQVVMnrX, IN. J. 
 
 ROMER & CO., 
 
 xMAXUFACTURERS OF 
 
 Builders and Bronze Hardware, 
 
 OF EVERY DESCRIPTION. ALSO, 
 
 Piano, Melodeon and Sewing Machine Locks, Brass and Composition Castings 
 
 Made to Order, 
 
 141 AND 145 RAILROAD AVENUE, 
 
 f.I:4\li^r'\ X^WSI^i^, X. J. 
 
 SCRIMSHAW PAVEMENT 
 
 S^oi' gti^eet^, dki^rik^e Sou^^e^ ki|d f)i4ve^, 
 
 STABLE FLOORS, SIDE AND GARDEN WALKS, 
 
 It is now admitted to be the best Pavement in use. See the Pavement in front of the 
 Industrial Exhibition Buildings. Call for testimonials, and leave orders at the 
 
 Offide, ^66 81'oad ^^tfeet, JVfewafk, }!, J. 
 ALSO, BUELL'S IMPROVED ARTIFICIAL STONE- 
 
 J^. F. CORY. 
 
 E. B. HIOTOHIKIISS, 
 
 MANUFACTURER OF 
 
 PAPER BOXES. 
 
 OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, ALSO DEALER IN 
 
 Papei^, fhi\6y 8oxe^, Pa^^te BokM^, ai)d '^h^6y Sftidle^, 
 878 AND 880 BROAD STREET, 
 
 NEWARK, N. J. 
 
UNION'S TILES, 
 
 PLAIN AND ENCAUSTIC, 
 
 AS LAID BY US IN 
 
 THE CAPITOL AT WASHINGTON, 
 
 In numerous Churches, Banks, and Dwellings 
 in every part of the country. 
 
 Glazed and Enameled Tiles 
 
 For Mantels, Hearths, "Wainscoting, &c. 
 and for Exterior Decoration. 
 
 PLUMBERS' MATERIALS, &c. 
 
 MILLER &COATES, 
 
 379 Pearl Street, 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 A. S. CARLE, 
 
 And Scroll Sawing Mills, 
 NEWARK, N.J. 
 
 Circular Mouldings a Specialty, any 
 size up to 12 feet. 
 
 ^taif kiid ^too|) S^ti^tef^, 
 
 Newels, Shelf Columns, Line and Hitch- 
 ing Posts, Constantly on Hand. 
 
 All kinds of Work done at Short Notice. 
 
 Orders may be left at Builders' Ex- 
 change, 847 Broad St. 
 
 ESTABLISHED IN 1848. 
 
 MACKNET, WILSON & CO., 
 
 IMPORTERS AND DEALERS IN 
 
 ariwaret |[r0tt ai|J Sif e 
 
 IICIIIE BELTIIG, STMl PlCIIiC, &C. 
 
 ^UILDEF(^' J-fy^RDW^RJE A ^PECIALTY, 
 
 JSTo. 796 SrocLd Street, 
 
 NEWARK, N. J 
 
 THEO. MACKNET, 
 THOS. B. SMITH, 
 
 ORSON "WILSON, 
 ELI AS B. CRANE. 
 
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
 STAMPED BELOW 
 
 RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIAH 
 RECALL 
 
 RECF'V^-^ 
 FEB 1 6 1981 
 
 EHYS .SCI L-» t^»*.-*% i 
 
 FEB 15^989 
 
 DEC 1 5 \m 
 
 WIAR ll 
 
 PHYS 
 
 era 
 
 r>. r» A » V 
 
 LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS 
 
 Book Slip-50m-5,'70(N6725s8) 458 — A-31/5 
 
3 1175 00461 2381 
 
 ize^^lh 
 
 Gould, L.D, 
 
 The carpenter's and 
 builder's assistant. 
 
 Call Number: 
 
 TH5605 
 G67 
 
 N9 736874 
 
 Gould, L.D. 
 
 The carpenter's and 
 builder's assistant. 
 
 TH5605 
 G67 
 
 k 
 
 PHYSICAL 
 SCIENCES 
 LIBRARY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 DAVIS