T S r& 9 <3 r-NRLF 3DM No* 500 HANDBOOK on Warp Siziii' C\j o GIFT OF HAND BOO'I on Warp Sizing ONE DOLLAR Copyrighted 1919 by C. J. Tagliabue Mfg. Co. LIABUE MFG.CO. TEMPERATURE ENGINEERS \J3-68 Thir^Third Si. Brooklyn.N.Y. CHICAGO BOSTON PITTSBURGH TULSA, OKLA. PORTLAND, ORE. SAN FRANCISCO To the Reader: 'V ^HIS Hand Book is not intended as a compend- ium on warp sizing but is designed to place in the hands of the practical man, some exact facts covering several important points. It is hoped that it will help to make better weaving warps. Slashing of Cotton Warps By Prof. Everett H. Hinckley New Bedford Textile School IMPORTANCE OF SLASHING In the manufacture of cotton cloth, there is no process of which the actual cost bears so remote a relation to its value as in the slashing of warps. The organization of the mill may be such that the cotton passes through the usual stages of preparation as picking, carding, combing and spinning without undue waste, producing a uniform product. Yet, as a result of poor slashing, the weaving department will be oper- ated only with great difficulty. As a result of these conditions, production drops, seconds increase and the operatives grow dissatisfied. Although the overseer of weaving and his assistants do their best, they cannot overcome these adverse conditions. Adjustment of tension, temperature and moisture will help to remedy the situation, but by no means cure it. Important as slashing is, it is frequently regarded by the management as of minor importance and does not receive the attention it should. There are several reasons for this situa- tion. The process involves the use of hot sticky liquids, hence is not always neat. This produces conditions which do not appeal to the imagination of one with a mechanical or systematic turn of mind. Casual observation by the superin- tendent cannot disclose whether the size mixture is right. The word of the slasher-tender must be accepted with almost no chance to verify his word. The process of slashing, compared with that of spinning or weaving, is very rapid. The amount of damage caused by any errors in judgment of the operator, thus extends through considerable of his product before correction can be made. In fact, these faults sometimes are not found until the goods are dyed and finished. As the warps are not all put in the looms at once, the extent of the damage is often not realized for several weeks. By this time it is too late to correct it. Thus, the results obtained in slashing, contain elements largely due to the personality of the overseer and his slasher- tenders. The payment of dividends is directly affected by a small group of men controlling a single operation PROCESS OF SLASHING Control of the several factors in slashing would prevent this undesirable condition. These factors are: (a) The nature of starch used; (b) The nature of sizing compound used; (c) The cooking of the "size" mixture; (d) The method of applying the "size"; (e) Condition of drying; (f) Mechanical condition of slasher. 405129 To obtain the best results in slashing, we must use the most suitable starch and "sizing" compound, see that the time and temperature of cooking are right, have proper pressure on the squeeze rolls and the size in the sow box at the right heat, have the drying cylinders properly heated, and be sure that the adjustment of the driving gears is right. The determination of what is best in each case usually rests with the overseer of slashing and his slasher-tenders. These men often obtain results that reflect good judgment and keen observation. For a particular mill, each one of the above factors may be made standard if full advantage is taken of modern devices. It is our purpose to direct how this may be done. MATERIALS USED Of the starches available, good practice dictates that corn is suitable for coarse yarns and potato for fine yarns. In place of potato, tapioca starch may be used. Thin boiling corn starches are also used for the same purpose. Commer- cial starches are offered on the market in a high state of purity. The amount of moisture they contain is very im- portant and varies greatly with weather conditions. It will vary so much that mixtures made carefully by weight do not give uniform results. On one day 100 Ibs. of starch may contain 12 Ibs. of water, and starch taken from the same barrel the next day may carry 20 Ibs. of water in each 100 Ibs. taken. A simple and practical way of meeting this difficulty is to measure the starch by volume instead of by weight, thus the measuring of the starch is not difficult. The "sizing" compounds on the market offer a wide field for selection. While there are a great number of these com- pounds, their ingredients can be classed under four heads: (a) Fats, as tallow or cotton seed oil; (b) Soaps, made from animal or vegetable fats; (c) Chemicals, as magnesium chloride, acetic acid or caustic soda; (d) Gums, as dextrine, tragasol, or algin. The fats and oils assist in penetration, soften and lubricate the yarn. The soaps also lubricate somewhat. They also give stiffness to the yarn. The chemicals act upon the starch in various ways. Acids cause the starch paste to cook thin; caustic soda changes it to a thick gummy material, and salts like magnesium chloride attract moisture to the yarn, thus making it more pliable. The gums usually give a smooth uniform tough coating to the yarn, which resists better the chafing action of the harness and reed. The "sizing" com- pound as sold, frequently contains two or more of the above materials. Water and starch may also properly be present to make the "sizing" compounds easier to handle in the slasher room. METHOD OF COOKING The proper cooking of the size mixture in the kettle al- ways presents problems difficult to handle. Starch is insoluble in cold water and is unacted upon by it. Fig. 1 shows corn \ Fig. 1. Corn Starch in Cold Water starch in cold water as it appears under the microscope. As the water grows warmer, the starch granules swell. Fig. 2 is a micro-photograph of corn starch after it has been heated at 130 F. for 30 minutes. By comparing the size of these granules with those of Fig. 1, a good idea of this swelling action will be obtained. Further heating in water at higher temperatures, causes the starch granules to burst and form a semi-transparent paste. The starch in Fig. 3 has been heated at 160 F. for thirty minutes. Nearly all of the granules are broken up. A few that have been mechanically enclosed in paste, still exist in lumps. By heating the starch at a boil Fig. 2. Corn Starch Heated to 130F. for 30 min. Fig. 3. Corn Starch Heated to 160F. for 30 min. all the lumps are broken up and a uniform paste results. Fig. 4 shows a starch in this condition. The vine-like effect is characteristic of a well pasted starch. Continued action of hot water on the starch slowly changes it to sugars that are soluble in water. If acids or salts are present, the action is hastened. These sugars have little value as protecting or stiffening agents for the yarn. If boiled with an open steam pipe, the mixture is diluted with condensed steam. Hence the cooking of the size is an operation that calls for good judgment and careful control. Fig. 4. Corn Starch Boiled ADJUSTMENT OF MACHINE Sufficient pressure should be exerted by the squeeze rolls to flatten the yarn out, squeeze out the air and bruise the waxy coating so that when released from pressure, the yarn will suck up the sizing mixture. The sizing mixture in the sow box should be kept hot enough to prevent it skimming over, but not so hot as to cause excessive thinning by chem- ical changes or dilution with condensed steam. // the tem- perature of the size is not uniform, the drying of the yarn will not be uniform. This will also give hard and soft warps. The temperature of the drying cylinders is usually kept constant by pressure regulators. Little difficulty arises at this point. As the cylinders are usually housed, there are large losses of heat due to radiation. Hence much more steam is used than required. The drives, gears and other mechanical connections on the slasher should have frequent attention by a good mechanic. This will prevent undue breakage at the lease rods, prevent over straining of the yarn, and cause the proper "building" of the warp. No device will ever do away with the need of careful men to operate the slasher. However, the operator may be as- sisted to a great extent by the purchase of proper mechanical devices to govern the valuable points to which attention has been called. Of these devices, there is probably none that present opportunities for greater improvements of the slash- ing process than those that control the temperatures of cook- ing and applying the size. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE (Coarse Yarn) The following article is a report of results obtained in a practical test made at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Com- pany, December 3, 1918. Slashers at this mill were equipped with Tagliabue Air-operated Temperature Controllers, so that is was possible to carry on the work under uniform tempera- ture conditions. Uniform level of "size" in the slasher box was maintained by the use of the Nivling system, whereby the overflow of the slasher box was adjusted to a definite depth and the "size" being constantly circulated by a pump from the main reservoir to each slasher. The "size" was mixed and cooked in separate kettles, one or more of which were continually delivered to the above reservoir so that the re- sults obtained ' on the various slashers represented the same ''sizing" mixture. The machines themselves were practically new and in excellent mechanical condition. Thus, it is be- lieved that in this test superior accuracy was obtained. WEAVING TEST The weaving test was carried out on adjacent looms in the same set, all the warps being tied in and started up at the same time. A spare hand acted as observer. The atmos- pheric condition was fairly uniform, and, of course, as the warps were woven simultaneously was the same for each The upper picture shows one-half of the slasher-room, illus- trating five of the slashers at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company Mills. The lower picture illustrates the size box at the far end of the above picture, slightly enlarged, also the "TAG" Automatic Temperature Controller and Recorder warp. An accurate record was kept by the spare hand of the yarn breakage over a period of IVz working days, and finally the fabric was subjected to the usual inspection in the cloth room. Besides the usual qualities such as pick and sley, weight per yard, the tensile strength of the woven cloth was also obtained. By reference to the micro-photographs shown on pages 4 and 5, it will be readily seen that there are certain tempera- ture limits within which a starch paste must be kept in order to keep it uniform in consistency. It is further evident that there must be some point within these limits at which the yarn slashed will weave best. As the final criterion of the value of the slashing process must be how the warps weave, especial stress is laid in this article on the results obtained in that test. TEMPERATURE OF SIZE From the practical point of view of the slasher-tenders, the "size" in the slasher box should be kept hot enough so that it will not "skin over," and thin enough so as not to cause creeping of the covering on the slasher rolls or "pick- ing up" on the drying cylinders. On the other hand, if the "size" is kept too hot, it will be thinned by the condensation of excess of steam, and also by production of invert sugar. Among practical slashers, there is a wide variety of opinion as to the proper temperature at which the "size" should be kept. Some state that actual and constant boiling should take place; others that it should be "very hot"; others "good and hot"; all of which terms to the practical man of long, experience mean something fairly definite, but to others of less experience, something quite vague. There are many rea- sons why there should be this variety of opinion. Chief among these are the facts that the warps vary so much in density, in twist of yarn, and in kind of cotton used. Also, and more difficult to control, is the variation in factor of judgment. DETAILS OF TEST Description of Warps: Yarn No. 22's Ends 6168 Cuts per Beam 13 (approximate length of cuts 40 yds.) Warps drawn in 68 ends per inch, plain weave 2 ends per dent. Description of Slashing Test: The warps were run at the following temperatures: Warps (1) Controlled at 171F. (2) Controlled at 197F. (3) Controlled at 207F. The Tagliabue Automatic Controller kept the temperature within such limits that the greatest variation per warp was 3. The temperatures here given are the average for the period covered by the warp. Fig. 1. Warp Breakage due to Knots in Yarn. EVALUATION OF RESULTS The cloth was woven on four adjacent 90" looms, running at the rate of 104 picks per minute. The breakage of yarn m the weaving test was noted and classified in the follow- ing manner: (a) Knots (b) Coarse threads (c) Bunches (d) Unknown failt -n Un f r 731/2 hours < 71/2 davs )- Of these faults, there will be some variation from warp to warp, but it is believed this is reduced to minimum in this test by the large know ? f/ arn / this number bein S made at this mm. The known faults are due to spinning and spooling. The size acts as a means to prevent yarn breakage due to these faults The 10 v^ FAULTS, Classes of Faults in Warp Yarn. spoolers' knots being made by machine were very uniform in shape and strength. By the nature of the spooling proc- ess, particularly the length of yarns used, these knots are likely to be more nearly equally distributed than any other causes. The coarse threads and bunches, being due to faults such as piecing and uneven conditions in spinning and previ- ous process, are intermittent and by no means regularly distributed. Certain ends broke for which no cause could be fiven and therefore had to be classed as unknown. Ends roken by catching behind lease rods, catching in the har- ness or reed, or due to other weaving conditions would be majority of these. OBJECT OF SIZING The object of "sizing" of warps is to furnish to each end sufficient strength and resistance to chafing to stand the oper- ation of weaving. In arriving at the value of any conditions of s ashing, due attention must be given to the fact that some of these faults already in the yarn may be incurable. Coarse threads may be so weak that no amount of starch paste will stick them together strong enough to weave. Bunches may be small and weave in without breaking or they may be very 11 m / DAYS. Fig. 2. Warp Breakage due to Bunches, Coarse Threads and Unknown Causes. large, causing serious breakage. Conditions in slashing that improve the weaving value of coarse threads, would decrease that of the bunches. Coarse threads would weave best if slashed at high temperature where the strongest yarn is ob- tained. Bunches would weave best if softer, a condition obtained when the "size" is at a lower temperature. Knots would weave best under similar conditions to bunches. In order to arrive at the proper meaning of the results obtained, these facts must be borne in mind. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS The results of the record obtained by the observer in the weaving test were analyzed and charts, Figs. 1 and 2, made, showing the breakage due to each of the four causes. From these charts it will be seen that the breakage of warp ends due to knots is lower, the lower the temperature of applica- 12 /-/OURS. Fig. 3. Temperatures Recorded with Hand Control. tion of the "size." Further, it is approximately proportional to the -temperature. The breakage due to bunches, as would be expected, is very erratic, but the higher temperatures show the most breakage. In the case of the coarse threads, the regularity is more striking, the lowest temperature giving the highest breakage. Unknown causes again give us an irregular chart, but the chart shows in a general way that the breakage is directly proportional to the temperature. As all these faults are met with in everyday work, the conclu- sions to be of value must be based upon the totals. TABLE 1. Loom Breakage. No. of Warp 1 2 3 Total Knots 51 84 89 Bunches 38 46 42 224 126 Coarse Threads 12 14 12 38 Unknown 23 22 30 75 Total 124 166 173 463 These also show a decided advantage for the lower tem- perature control, and also retain the breakage proportional to the temperature. CHECK TESTS For purposes of comparison, warps were also run on an- other slasher, using the same kind of yarn and in every way keeping the conditions as near the same as those used for warps 1, 2 and 3, except that the steam was controlled by hand. By referring to Chart 3, it will be seen that the part of this warp woven was sized at an average temperature of 194 F. The results obtained in weaving, confirm in a general way, the conclusions obtained from the controlled temperature work. As this warp was made from another set of warper beams, too close a comparison cannot be made. It is ex- pected that the number of knots, bunches and coarse threads 13 * Fig. 4. Breakage due to Knots in Warp No. 4 and Regulars. (Regular refers to Automatic Control) will vary according to conditions existing in the course of preparation of these beams. Such was the case. The tempera- ture was recorded by a self-recording thermometer, the face of which could not be seen by the operator, he relying solely on his own judgment. Fig. 3 shows the temperature re- corded. * (Author's note). Referring to charts, figures 4 and 5, the reason hand control shows a trifle better than the results obtained by automatic control is probably due to the fact that "hand control" covered a single warp, which had been better prepared and was more free from knots and bunches. The warps slashed under "regular or automatic control" were the run of the mill. This assumption is strengthened by the fact that breakage from unknown causes were larger on the "hand control." . Of course, if complete reliance was placed on the experimental basis of this test only, there would be an advantage for "hand control" at the temperature noted. However, these tests will undoubtedly appeal more strongly to the practical man in their present form because he is aware of the variations which exists in knots and bunches and knows that these facts must be considered in deciding upon the value of test like these. 14 DAYS. *Fig. 5. Breakage due to Bunches, Coarse Threads and Unknown Causes in Warp No. 4 and Regulars. (Regular refers to Automatic Control) The results obtained, Table 2, indicate a better condition of yarn before slashing, i. e., fewer knots and other defects. The breakage is lower than any of the other warps except those for unknown causes. The breaks occurring due to the latter, are almost exactly the average of the four warps considered. .This further confirms the idea of a better prepared warp before slashing. These results thus confirm the previous deductions. TABLE 2. Loom Breakage. (Average Temp. 199F.). Coarse No. of Warp Knots Bunches Threads Unknown Total 4 53 29 5 25 112 As a further check on these tests, note was taken of the breakage of three other warps running in the same set of looms. These warps were slashed several weeks earlier at a 15 controlled temperature of 195 F. The average results ob- tained in these cases, Table 3 and Figs. 4 and 5, are in fur- ther confirmation that the breakage is proportional to the temperature. TABLE 3. Loom Breakage. (Temperature 195 C F.). Coarse No. of Warp Knots Bunches Threads Unknown Total Automatic Control 64 33 10 20 127 CONCLUSIONS. From the foregoing tests, the conclusion is drawn that the temperature of application of sizing has a marked effect on the results obtained in weaving. That for warps, of the type represented by these tests, the lower temperature of appli- cation, providing the "size" does not "skin" over, or the rollers slip, the better weaving results. This advantage amounts to approximately one end for each two degrees drop from 210 F. for the warps woven. In applying the above results in practice, care must be taken not to reduce the temperature of "size" to a point where it will not be properly dried, or where the thinner yarn will not be sufficiently stiffened to stand the weaving. There is also saying in steam but no attempt has been made to ascer- tain this, nor of the indirect results obtained by relieving the slasher-tender, the boss, and the superintendent of looking after the detail of steam in the size box. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE (Medium Yarn). Although the results obtained at the Naumkeag Steam Cot- ton Mill indicated with considerable directness, that tempera- tures much below that of boiling water are desirable in the size box, it is thought best to test the accuracy of this con- clusion by carrying out another series of tests on different yarns at a different mill, and under entirely different operat- ing conditions. For this purpose, the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corpora- tion offered the use of their plant. In general, the plan of work was the same as at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Com- pany. Several warps were slashed under varied, but con- trolled temperature conditions, and the degree of success attained, judged by the results obtained in weaving. Finer yarns and a much denser warp were used and the looms were run faster. The slashing was done on Saco-Lowell slashers. All the warps were run on one machine. None of the usual condition of operation at this mill were altered but that of temperature. DETAILS OF SLASHING Average speed of machine 25.7 yards per minute; 12 slasher beams of 35s single yarn, 482 ends each, were made up into 10 loom beams; average number cuts per loom beam, 9.7. The sizing mixture was carefully made to insure uniform quantities of material from vegetable starch, a gum and a 16 Chart 5. Ends Broken due to Knots. Warps Slashed at the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. softener. Each mixing was properly boiled, then run into a supply tank from which all the slashers drew their supply. The slasher has two inlet valves for size, one at each end of the size box. These valves were linked together by a steel rod so that both valves opened at the same time. The top squeeze rolls were carefully lapped with a high grade of slasher cloth. The steam pressure in the drying cylinder was kept nearly constant, averaging 12.8 Ibs. Each warp was completely dried. DETAILS OF WEAVING TEST 50" Crompton & Knowles loom 3 x 3 ; 156 sley 6 harness plain; 4 ends in a dent; 26 picks of No. 10 filling yarn; 36 inches wide in the cloth; looms run 150 picks per minute. A special reciprocating-rod was used to open the yarn back of the regular lease rods. Owing to the density of the warp and consequent high breakage of yarn, only one warp could be put in a weaver's set at a time, so the two warps, 6 and 1, used for comparison, were run successively on the same loom. Humidity conditions were fairly constant so that no appre- ciable variation entered the results by weaving the warps suc- cessively. Further confirmation of the results was made by running another warp, 8, in another set of looms but near the first set. An observer took accurate note of all ends broken out either at the back of the loom or in the shed and classified under causes as "knots," "bunches," "coarse threads" and "un- known." The first three are shown in Fig. 1. This last class comprised ends broken in the shed for which the cause was not readily apparent. Some of the probable causes for these ends breaking are thin threads, slack ends, rough harness eyes and tight ends. 17 Chart 6. Ends Broken due to Bunches, Coarse Threads and Unknown Causes. Warps Slashed at the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. LOOM BREAKAGE Two warps, one slashed at 212 F., warp 6, the other at 174F., warp 7, were woven on the same loom by the same weaver. The results obtained over equal yardage of woven cloth are as follows: Warp Temperature Knots Bunches Coarse Unknown Total of sizing Threads 6 174 F. 45 48 3 28 124 7 212 F. 122 54 10 39 225 Table 4. Loom Breakage Warps Slashed at Different Temperature . These results are shown in detail by charts 5 and 6. Com- parison of the figures show at once the marked superiority of the warp sized at 174 F. The breakage due to knots of the warp sized at 174 F. is less than half that of the warp at 212 F. The breakage due to bunches is slightly less, but as this fault is accidental no great stress can be laid on this point. The breakage due to unknown causes is nearly one- third less, and that due to coarse threads over two-thirds less than that of the warp sized at 212 F. Faults due to coarse threads should be made to weave better by the sizing, as should also those due to unknown causes. The results ob- tained must be considered for their face value. The totals show an advantage of 44.9 per cent, for the warp sized at the lower temperature. A comparison of the charts shows that this advantage was held throughout the test. That is, these results show no evidence of being accidental, but do indicate the true conditions. Hence, better weaving is to be expected from a warp sized at lower temperatures. Chart 7. Ends Broken due to Knots, Bunches, Coarse Threads and Unknown Causes. Warps Slashed at the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. CHECK TEST In order to check the above conclusion, another warp sized according to the usual method of the mill on the same ma- chine at a controlled temperature of 209 F., was woven in another set of looms. The weaver selected was one of the best in the room and the test run over a much longer period of time. The results are given in table 5. Using the same units as for charts 5 and 6, chart 7 was laid out showing the details of this test. Warp Knots Bunches Coarse Unknown Total Threads 309 205 63 13 590 Table 5. Loom Breakage Warp Slashed in the Usual Manner These results show that the effect on temperature is very regular and the defective ends are inversely proportional to it. Table 6 was prepared to show the ends broken per linear yard woven. Chart 8 gives the graphical comparison of these values : Warp Unknown Total Temperature Knots Bunches Coarse Threads 174 F. .600 .640 .40 212 F. 1.627 .720 .133 209 F. 1.141 .759 .223 Table 6. Ends Broken per Linear Yard of Cloth Woven (New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation.) .374 .520 .048 1.654 3.000 2.181 COMPARISON OF TESTS So evident did this proportional relation appear, that the results obtained at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Mills were calculated in the same manner for comparison, and are given in table 7. In this case, three different controlled tempera- tures give a better opportunity to develop the curve. The in- teresting conclusion is reached that lowering the temperature increases the weaving qualities of the yarns. 19 Chart 8. Total Ends Broken per Yard of Cloth. Warps Slashed at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company and the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. Warp Temperature Total 1 171 F. .767 2 197 F. 1.070 3 207 F. 1.130 Table 7. Ends Broken per Linear Yard of Cloth Woven (Naumkeag Steam Cotton Co.) There is a considerable higher breakage per yard in results obtained at the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. This is due to a variety of causes. The most important of these are the greater speed of the loom, the higher numbers of the yarn, the width of the cloth, and the density of warp in the goods woven at that mill. Without trying to deduce any hard and fast rule, if we assume that the breakage of yarn is directly proportional to the density of the warp, the numbers of the yarn, the speed of the loom, and to the width of the cloth, we obtain a factor by use of which the instructive comparative figures shown in table 6 were calculated. (156 H- 68) X (150 -=-104) X (35-^-22) X (36 -^ 90)= 2.11 Warp As Determined As Calculated 1 .767 . 1.612 2 1.070 2.258 3 1.130 2.384 Table 8. Calculated Breakage per yard (New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation.) These values, along with the corresponding ones for the warps 6 and 7, are shown in graphic form in Chart 9. The curve for the fine warp is just reverse in form of that for the coarse warp. This is due partly to the kind of starch and the nature of sizing compound used. Since each sizing mixture represents the usual practice for mills running on these goods, the results are of direct importance and can be applied with- out change to concrete problems of sizing. These curves show in a striking manner the value of lower temperatures in size box. They also show that the finer and denser the warp the greater the necessity for this regulation. 20 gooct asoo Chart 9. Total Yards of Yarn Woven per End Broken. Warps Slashed at the Naumkeag Steam Cotton Company and the New Bedford Cotton Mills Corporation. As a check on the calculated per yard basis of comparison the results obtained in the weaving tests were calculated on a basis of the actual number of yards of yarn woven in each warp. This is a better and more direct basis for comparison than that of yards of cloth woven. The results of this calcu- lation were similar to the previous ones, indicating clearly the advantage of lower temperature. (Naumkeag Steam Cotton Co.) (New Bedford Cotton Mills Corp.) Temperature F. Yards Temperature F. Yards 171 197 207 8041 5764 5458 174 207 212 3505 2652 1928 Table 9. Yards of Yarn Woven per End Broken CONCLUSIONS Throughout these tests, the results point steadily to the fact that the lower the temperature that the size is applied within the limits tested (171 to 212 F.), the better the results ob- tamed in weaving. The application of this knowledge is not difficult. But when applying, account should be taken of the fact that each size-maker has his own formula. These fre- quently vary greatly. If the formula gives a very thick 'mixing, the temperature of the size will have to be kept up to prevent the squeeze rolls from slipping and consequent stop- ping of the cloth covers of the top roll. Such a thick mixing may be necessary, although it adds to the difficulty in drying to meet particular conditions. Such conditions obtain in practice and they must be recognized and reckoned with. With these things in mind, it is recommended that a temperature as near 170 F. be maintained in the size box as is possible and not run into these difficulties. In the case of slashing warps similar to 1, 2 and 3, I would advise running them at 170 F. For the finer grosgrain warp, I would advise on ac- count of the difficulties above mentioned, 185 F as the Drooer temperature. 21 BREAKING STRENGTH OF SIZED YARNS The increase in the strength of yarn is, of course, partly determined by the sizing formula, but for any particular for- mula, the strength of the yarn is increased by increasing the temperature of application within the limits herein set forth. Stronger yarn does not mean increased weaving value but just the reverse. Pliability, not strength, is the factor determining good weaving. This is shown in the following table based on results obtained in a mill making 22's cotton yarn exclusively. Temperature Ends broken Breaking % Gain in size box. per yard cloth. Strength Ozs. in Sizing: Unsized Yarn 10.03 Sized at 171 F. .77 12.76 27.21 " " 197 F. 1.07 13.19 31.50 207 F. 1.13 13.46 34.19 Roughly speaking, there was an increase of 1% in breaking strength for each 6 the temperature was raised. The diffi- culty in weaving increased 6.8% for each 6 rise in the tem- perature. BREAKING STRENGTH OF CLOTH 6" section, 68 ends per inch, No. 22's yarn. Warp yarn Cloth Woven before Weaving Sized at 171 F. 285 Ibs. 326 Ibs. " " 197 F. 280 Ibs. 336 Ibs. " " 207 F. 317 Ibs. 344 Ibs. Again, the breaking strength of the cloth after weaving cannot be taken as a criterion to judge the value of sizing, as in this case, the cloth made from the best weaving warp breaks at the lowest weight. On the opposite page are shown micro-photographic reproductions of the three cloths used in the above test. The one made on the warp sized at 171 is noticeable for its evenness of interweaving and plia- bility of yarns. The photographs reproduced on the following pages show the penetration of the starch in sizing. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to decide from these photographs which yarn will weave best. The dark threads are the warp threads. They have been stained with iodine to show the starch still upon them. It will be seen that the warp is still well coated with starch. In these photographs, the wide variations found in the di- ameter of the yarns is easily noted. In the photograph of the cloth made from yarn sized at 197, near the bottom, will be noted a "thin cud," one of the sources of breakage due to "unknown causes." 22 YARNS BEFORE WEAVING (Best Weaving Yarn) Sized at 171 F. Sized at 197 F. Sized at 207 F. 23 MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHS OF CLOTH WOVEN FROM PRECEDING WARPS Sized at 171 F. Sized at 197 F. 24 SIZING MATERIALS Acetic Acid is a colorless or slightly brownish liquid, readily soluble in water. It is usually sold as 8 acid (8 Twaddle) which contains 28% of acid. It is useful in brightening ^blueings," "cuttings," and soaps, and acts to make starch paste thinner. It is the only common acid that can be dried on cotton without severe rotting. Caustic Soda is a hard white solid that rapidly takes water from the air, turning to a liquid if exposed too long. It easily dissolves in water, giving off considerable heat and forming a slippery solution. Its solutions quickly dissolve wool, shrink cotton and mercerize it. It swells starch to a very strong, sticky mass known as "apparatine." Fats boiled in Caustic Soda solutions are made into soaps. Soda Ash is a white powder, easily dissolved in water and of mild alkaline reaction. It is very useful to neutralize various acids and does not act on cotton except to free it of waxes and impurities. It can be -used to make soaps from fats in a manner similar to that of Caustic Soda. Paraffin Wax is a white solid obtained in the refining of petroleum and does not dissolve in water. It melts at 120 to 130 F. and can be mixed into hot starch pastes at temperatures above these points. From thin pastes it sepa- rates on cooling; the thick ones do not. Melted and run into rolls, it is used to make warps weave better. It should not be used in this way on goods that are to be dyed, as it may cause serious stains. The commercial product is very pure. Tallow is a grayish-white fat usually obtained from the ox or sheep. It is the standard softener used for sizing of yarns. It melts at 110 to 118 F., does not dissolve in water, but melts and forms a partial emulsion. When used with starch, it does not separate. The commercial product varies greatly in purity, always containing water, and frequently starch, salt, and soap. Inferior qualities are made from horses, home fats, and other refuse sources. Bone Grease is a gray to a brown, soft fat, extracted from the marrow of bones. It has a peculiar, disagreeable odor and melts at 100 to 105 F. It acts much like tallow, giving softer yarns when used for sizing. Gum Tragasol is a thick, viscous gum obtained from the locust bean. When dry, it is very insoluble in water so it is always sold in paste form. It gives a tough, elastic cover to the yarn, causing it to weave better than if starched. The commercial product is thinned or diluted for use by agi- tation in water and gentle heating. Gum Algin is a gum made from sea-weed and comes on the market in the form of the alginate of soda. Its prop- erties are somewhat like gum tragasol. It is used to give adhesiveness to the size mixture. 25 COOKING OF SIZE The best way to make a mixing of size is as follows : 1. Measure into your mixing tub or make-up kettle the quantity of water you are to use. (This is best determined by the number of inches in depth in tub). 2. Measure out your starch so as to get exactly the proper weight and add it to the water while constantly stirring. 3. Turn on the steam and raise to 208 to 210 F. in 30 minutes, stirring constantly. 4. Continue heating the starch: If Corn-Pearl, for 60 minutes; If Corn, thin boiling for 30 minutes; If Potato, for 30 minutes; If Tapioca, for 30 minutes. 5. Shut off steam. The size is now ready for use. If the size starts to thicken, add a little heat to keep from setting. If the "size" is delivered to a storage tank from the make- up or mixing kettle, the temperature should also be con- stantly maintained at 170 F. by means of an efficient Automatic Temperature Controller. The size should flow constantly to the size box of the slasher. In the size box, a constant temperature of from 170 F. to 185 F. should be kept. The proper cooked size would be clear, limp, and show no lumps. Inattention to the time of cooking and the temperatures at which it is cooked are usually the sources of trouble in slashing. Continued cooking of the starch will cause it to grow thin and lose its best sizing qualities. This is particularly noticeable in the cooking of potato starch. Fortunately, difficulties of this nature are no longer neces- sary because specially designed devices manufactured by the C. J. Tagliabue Mfg. Co., will automatically take care of the cooking. For instance, the "TAG" Automatic Com- bination Time and Temperature Controller will regulate the time that is required to raise the temperature to a boil, also the exact time that the "size" mixture is to be boiled, without any attention from the slasher-tender. Likewise, in the size box, the temperature of the size is easily maintained by means of the "TAG" Self-Operating Size Box Controller. Slasher rooms equipped with these simple but efficient devices need have little fear of uneven sizing or soft warps. 26 TABLES SHOWING CAPACITIES OF THE STANDARD SIZES OF KETTLES AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS 1" 32" Diam. 32" Deep. 3.5 gals. 1" . 33" Diam. 42" Deep. 3.7 gals. 2" 7.0 2" 7.4 3" 10.5 3" 11.1 4" 14 4" 14.8 5" 17 5 " 5" . 18.5 6" 21 " 6" . 22.2 1" 24 5 " 7" 25.9 8" 28 " 8" 29.6 9" . 31.5 9" . . 33.3 10" 35 " 10" 37.0 20" 70.0 " 20".. 74.0 30" 105 " 30" 111.0 32" 112 40" . .148.0 1" 36" Diam. 36" Deep. 4 4 gals 1" . 42" Diam. 42" Deep. 6.0 gals. 2" 8 8 2" . 12.0 3" 13 2 " 3" . . 18.0 i 4" 17 6 4" 24.0 < 5" 22 " 5" . . 30.0 < fi" 26 4 6" . . 36.0 i on o 7" . . 42.0 i 8" . 48.0 tt 8" . 35.2 9". . 54.0 * 9". . 39.6 1 0" fiO tt 10".. 44.0 20"" 120 tt 20" . . 88.0 30" 180 n 30" 132 " 40" 240 tt 36" 158 " 42" . . 252 tt 1" 48" Diam. 48" Deep. 7.8 gals. 2" 15.6 3" 23.4 i 4" 31.2 < 5" 39.0 < 6" 46.8 < 7" . 54.6 8" . 62.4 9" . 70.2 10" 780 20" 156 30" . .234.0 40" 312.0 48" . . ..374.4 27 FORMULA Starch Ibs. lbs ' | $ lbs. 0.3 - lbs. Water inches gals. Method of cooking Yarn sized FORMULA Starch lbs. S lbs. I ................................... lbs. Water .................................................................. inches .................................................................. gals. Method of cooking ..................................................................................................................... Yarn sized FORMULA Starch lbs. 8 lbs. h c I 5 . . lbs. 0.2 lbs. Water inches gals. Method of cooking Yarn sized 28 FORMULA Starch Ibs. Ibs. I- y || .....Ibs. l Water inches gals. Method of cooking Yarn sized FORMULA Starch Ibs. 8 Ibs. I I Ibs. o .g * _. ...Ibs. Water inches gals. Method of cooking Yarn sized FORMULA Starch Ibs. S Ibs. 1 - Ibs. Water inches gals. Method of cooking Yarn sized 29 To Calculate Counts of Cotton Yarn. Measure off 120 yards of the yarn and weigh in grains. Multiply the grains by 7, divide the answer into (7000) and then your answer will be the counts of the yarn. Example: 120 yards weighs 50 grains, find the counts of yarn: 7000 = 20's yarn. 50X7 To Calculate Counts of Worsted Yarn. Measure off 80 yards of the yarn and find its weight in grains. Multiply the grains by 7, divide into (7000) and then your answer will be the counts of worsted yarn. Example : 80 yards weigh 100 grains, find the counts of yarn: 7000 = 10's worsted yarn. 100X7 To Calculate Counts of Spun Silk. (Use the same method as you would use for Cotton.) Measure 120 in grains, multiply the grains by 7 and divide the answer into (7000). The answer will be the counts of spun silk. To Calculate Counts of (Tram or Gum) Silk. (English). Measure off 100 yards of the yarn in grains, multiply the grains by 70 and divide result into (7000). The answer will be the counts of the silk. Example : 100 yards of (Tram or Gum) silk weighs 2 grains, what is the count of the yarn? 7000 = 50's silk yarn. 2 X 70 To Calculate Counts of Artificial Silk. Use the same method as for Cotton and Spun Silk. 120 yards weighed into grains, the result multiplied by 7 and this divided into (7000). The answer will give you the counts of artificial silk. BASIS OF THE COUNT SYSTEMS OF YARNS. Standard Length System Length Unit Weight Unit Yds. per Lb. of No. 1 Cotton, English Cotton, French Linen 840 yds. 1,000 metres 300 yds. lib. 500 grms. lib. 840 992 . 12 300 Worsted 560 yds. 1 Ib. 560 Wool French 100 metres 1,000 grms. 496 30 Length of yarn in yards Length Unit = Number of yarn (or counts). Weight of yarn in Ibs. Weight Unit For example, if 120 yards of cotton yarn weigh 1 oz. = 1/16 lb., its number (or count) is: 120 1 8407 7 16 = = = 22/7 counts. JL 1 7 Te 16 For other determinations, for example, worsted, select from the table the proper units for length and weight as used in exactly the same formula. The great advantage of the above table is that counts can be determined from any weight or length of yarn. 1. To find the length of Cotton Yarn on a Slasher Beam when the weight of the yarn, counts, and number of ends are known: Multiply the weight of yarn on the beam by the counts, and by 840, divide the result by the number of ends and then the result will be the length of the cotton yarn on the beam. Example : A beam contains 500 ends of number 22's cotton yarn weighing 250 pounds. Find the length of the yarn? 250 X 22 X 840 = 9240 yards. 500 2. To find the length of yarn to run onto a loom beam in order to make a. certain number of cuts of a certain length of cloth to the cut: Multiply the number of cuts by the number of yards of cloth to be woven to the cut, and then by 1.00 -f- the percen- 'tage allowed for contraction in weaving (which is around 8% in plain cloth) and the answer is the length of the yarn you are required to run onto the beam in order to make the number of cuts of required yardage. Example : A loom beam is to be made containing 10 cuts of 40 yards each, allowing 8% to be used in weaving, how much yarn must be run on? 1.00 + .08 = 1.08 1.08 X 40 X 10 = 432 yards of yarn to be run on. 31 3. To find the number of loom beams you can make from a certain length of yarn on a slasher beam: Divide the length of yarn on the slasher beam by the length required on the loom beam. The result will be the number of loom beams you can make from the slasher beam. Example: Find out how many loom beams you can make from a slasher beam containing yarn 9240 yards in length, the loom beams to be made requiring 432 yards of yarn in length : 9240 - = 21 loom beams of required length of yarn, leav- ing 168 yards of yarn on the slasher beam. In this case, they would usually run 18 beams containing 10 cuts each and 3 containing 11 cuts, and run the rest of the yarn which would not quite be a cut, on the last beam. TABLE OF MULTIPLES. Centimeters X 0.3937 = inches. Centimeters X 0.0328 = feet. Centimeters, cubic X 0.0338 = apothecaries' fluid ounces. Diameter of a circle X 3.1416 = circumference. Gallons X 3.785 = liters. Gallons X 0.833565 = imperial gallons. Gallons, imperial X 1.199666 = U. S. gallons. Gallons X 8.33505 = pounds of water. Gallons, imperial X 10 = pounds of water. Gallons, imperial X 4.54102 = liters. Grains X 0.0648 = grams. Inches X 0.0254 = meters. Inches X 25.4 = millimeters. Miles X 1-609 = kilometers. Ounces, Troy X 1.097 = ounces of avoirdupois. Ounces, Avoirdupois X 0.9115 = ounces Troy. Pounds, Avoirdupois X 0.4536 = kilograms. Pounds, Avoirdupois X 0.8228572 = pounds Troy. Pounds, Troy X 0.37286 = kilograms. Pounds, Troy X 1.21527 = pounds Avoirdupois. Radius of a circle X 6.283185 = circumference. Square of the radius X 3.1416 = area. Square of the circumference of a circle X 0.07958 = area. 32 MISCELLANEOUS MEASURES. Barrel of flour = 196 pounds. Barrel of salt = 280 pounds. Bale of cotton = (in America) 400 pounds. Bale of cotton = (in Egypt) 90 pounds. Bag of Sea Island cotton = 300 pounds. Cable = 120 fathoms. Can = 35 pounds. Cask of lime = 240 pounds. Fathom = 6 feet. Hand = 4 inches. Hogshead = 63 gallons. Keg (nails) = 100 pounds. Noggin or Nog. = 5/16 of a pint. Pace = 3.3 feet. Palm = 3 inches. Pipe = 2 hogsheads. Stone = 14 pounds. Tun = 2 pipes. Cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. Cubic foot of water is 7.48 gallons. Gallon of water weighs 8 1/3 pounds. Gallon of water is 231 cubic inches. In England, wool is sold by the sack, or boll, of 22 stones, which, at 14 pounds to the stone, is 308 pounds. A pack of wool is 17 stones and 2 pounds, which is rated as a pack load for a horse. It is 240 pounds. Sack of flour = 280 pounds. A tod of wool is 2 stones of 14 pounds, or 28 pounds. A wey of wool is 6^4 tods, or 175 pounds. Two weys, a sack, or 350 pounds. A clove of wool is half a stone, or 7 pounds. Mile = 5,280 feet or 1,609.3 meters. Millier or tonneau = 2,204.6 pounds. Milligram = 0.0154 grain. Millimeter (1/1000 meter) =0.0394 inch. Myriagram = 22.046 pounds. Myriameter (10,000 meters) =6.2137 miles. Ounce (Avoirdupois) = 28.350 grains. Ounce (Troy or Apothecaries) =31.104 grams. Ounce (fluid) = 28.3966 cubic centimeters. Peck = 9.08 liters. Pint (liquid) = 0.47318 liter. Pound (Avoirdupois) = 453.603 grams. Pound (English) = 0.453 kilogram. Pound (Troy) = 373.25 grams. Quart (liquid) = 0.94636 liter. Quintal = 220.46 pounds. Scruple (Troy) = 1.296008 grams. Ton = 20 hundredweight = 2,240 pounds (Avoirdupois) 1,016.070 kilograms. Yard = 0.9144 meter. 33 COMPARISON OF METRIC SYSTEM WITH THE UNITED STATES METHOD OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. (Arranged in Alphabetical Order). Are (100 square meters) = 119.6 square yards. Bushel = 2150.42 cubic inches, 35.24 liters. Centare (1 square meter) = 1550 square inches. Centigram (1/100 gram) =0.1543 grain. Centiliter (1/100 liter) =2.71 fluid drams, 0.338 fluid ounces. Centimeter (1/100 meter) = 0.3937 inch. 1 Cubic Centimeter =16.23 minims (Apothecaries). 10 Cubic Centimeters = 2.71 fluid drams (Apothecaries). 30 Cubic Centimeters = 1,01 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 100 Cubic Centimeters = 3.38 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 473 Cubic Centimeters = 16.00 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 500 Cubic Centimeters = 16.90 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). 1000 Cubic Centimeters = 33.81 fluid ounces (Apothecaries). Decigram (1/10 gram) = 1 5432 grains. Decimeter (1/10 meter) =3937 inches. Deciliter (1/10 liter) =0.845 gill. Dekagram (10 grams) = 0.3527 ounce. Dekaliter (10 liters) =9.08 quarts (dry), 2.6418 gallons. Dekameter (10 meters) =393.7 inches. Dram (Apothecaries cr Troy) =39 grams. Foot = 0.3048 meter, or 30.48 centimeters. Gallon = 3.785 liters. Gill = 0.118295 liter, or 142 cubic centimeters. Grain (Troy) = 0.064804 gram. Grain = 0.0648. Gram = 15.432 grains. Hectare (10,000 square meters) =2.471 Hectogram = 3 5274 ounces. Hectoliter (100 liters) = 2.838 bushels, or 26.418 gallons. Hectometer (100 meters) = 328 feet 1 inch. Hundredweight (112 pounds Avoirdupois) =50.8 kilograms. Inch = 0.0254 meter. Inch = 2.54 centimeters. Inch = 25.40 millimeters. Kilogram = 2 2046 pounds, or 35.274 ounces. Kiloliter (1,000 liters) = 1.308 cubic yards, or 264.18 gallons. Kilometer (1,000 meters) = 0.62137 miles (3.280 feet 10 inches). Liter =1.0567 quarts, 0264 gallon (liquid), or 0.908 quart (dry). Meter = 39.3700 inches, or 3.28083 feet. Mile = 1.609 kilometers. 34 PRODUCTION TABLE FOR SLASHER HAVING 7 FT. AND 5 FT. GYLINDERS-Pounds per 10 Hours No. of Yarn Number of Ends in Warp No. of Yarn 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000 2100 2200 8 2214 2318 2409 2489 2555 2610 2659 2703 2743 2778 2808 8 10 2022 2098 2166 2217 2388 2456 2514 2562 2601 2631 2657 10 12 1796 1896 1987 2071 2147 2216 2277 2330 2375 2412 2442 12 14 1631 1725 1813 1894 1969 2036 2098 2156 2205 2248 2285 14 16 1502 1592 1676 1756 1830 1898 1962 2018 2071 2118 2159 16 18 1398 1485 1567 1644 1716 1786 1847 1906 1960 2009 2054 18 20 1312 1395 1475 1550 1653 1688 1752 1811 1866 1917 1964 20 22 1238 1319 1396 1469 1539 1606 1669 1728 1784 1836 1885 22 24 1174 1252 1327 1399 1467 1533 1595 1655 1711 1764 1814 24 26 1117 1193 1265 1335 1403 1467 1529 1588 1645 1698 1749 26 28 1066 1139 1210 1279 1344 1408 1469 1528 1584 1638 1690 28 30 1020 1091 1159 1226 1291 1353 1413 1471 1528 1582 1634 30 32 977 1046 1113 1178 1241 1303 1362 1420 1475 1529 1581 32 34 937 1004 1069 1133 1195 1242 1314 1370 1425 1479 1536 34 36 965 1029 1091 1151 1210 1268 1324 1378 1431 1482 36 38 990 1051 1110 1168 1224 1279 1333 1385 1436 38 40 1012 1070 1127 1182 1236 1289 1341 1392 40 42 1032 1088 1142 1195 1247 1298 1348 42 44 1050 1103 1155 1207 1257 1306 44 46 1065 1117 1167 1216 1265 46 48 1070 1128 1177 1225 48 50 1090 1138 1181 50 60 956 998 60 No. of Yarn Number of Ends in Warp No. of Yarn 2300 2400 2500 2600 2700 2800 2900 3000 3100 3200 3300 8 2832 2847 2860 8 10 2680 2701 2717 2731 10 12 2466 2484 2498 2507 2517 12 14 2315 2338 2362 2382 2395 2405 14 16 2195 2225 2250 2270 2285 2293 2297 16 18 2094 2130 2161 2187 2209 2226 2238 2245 18 20 2008 2047 2082 2113 2140 2164 2183 2198 2209 20 22 1931 1980 2006 2049 2076 2106 2130 2151 2168 2182 22 24 1861 1905 1946 1984 2019 2051 2079 2105 2127 2147 2163 24 26 1798 1843 1886 1926 1964 1998 2030 2052 2086 2110 2131 26 28 1739 1785 1830 1871 1911 1948 1983 2015 2045 2072 2097 28 30 1683 1731 1776 1819 1860 1899 1936 1970 2003 2032 2058 30 32 1631 1678 1725 1769 1811 1851 1890 1926 1961 1994 2045 32 34 1580 1632 1675 1720 1757 1805 1845 1883 1919 1954 1992 34 36 1532 1581 1628 1673 1717 1759 1800 1839 1877 1913 1948 36 38 1485 1534 1576 1627 1671 1714 1755 1796 1834 1872 1908 38 40 1441 1489 1536 1582 1626 1669 1711 1752 1792 1830 1868 40 42 1397 1445 1491 1537 1582 1625 1668 1709 1750 1789 1827 42 44 1354 1402 1448 1494 1538 1582 1625 1662 1707 1748 1786 44 46 1313 1360 1406 1451 1495 1539 1582 1628 1664 1705 1744 46 48 1272 1318 1364 1409 1453 1496 1539 1580 1622 1662 1702 48 50 1231 1277 1314 1367 1410 1454 1496 1537 1579 1620 1659 50 60 1041 1083 1124 1166 1207 1247 1288 1328 1368 1408 1447 60 35 COMPARATIVE TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE TABLE (Fahrenheit and Centigrade) F. C. F. C. F. C. F. C. 32. 0. 64.40 18. 97.25 36.25 129.20 54. 33. 0.56 65. 18.34 98. 36.67 130. 54.45 33.80 1. 65.75 18.75 98.60 37. 131. 55. 34. 1.11 66. 18.89 99. 37.23 132. 55.56 34.25 1.25 66.20 19. 99.50 37.50 132.80 56. 35. 1.67 67. 19.45 100. 37.78 133. 56.11 35.60 2. 68. 20. 100.40 38. 133.25 56.25 36. 2.23 69. 20.56 101. 38.34 134. 56.67 36.50 2.50 69.80 21. 101.75 38.75 134.60 57. 37. 2.78 70. 21.11 102. 38.89 135. 57.23 37.40 3. 70.25 21.25 102.20 39. 135.50 57.50 38. 3.34 71. 21.67 103. 39.45 136. 57.78 38.75 3.75 71.60 22. 104. 40. 136.40 58. 39. 3.89 72. 22.23 105. 40.56 137. 58.34 39.20 4. 72.50 22.50 105.80 41. 137.75 58.75 40. 4.45 73. 22.78 106. 41.11 138. 58.89 41. 5. 73.40 23. 106.25 41.25 138.20 59. 42. 5.56 74. 23.34 107. 41.67 139. 59.45 42.80 6. 74.75 23.75 107.60 42. 140. 60. 43. 6.11 75. 23.89 108. 42.23 141. 60.56 43.25 6.25 75.20 24. 108.50 42.50 141.80 61. 44. 6.67 76. 24.45 109. 42.78 142. 61.11 44.60 7. 77. 25. 109.40 43. 142.25 61.25 45. 7.23 78. 25.56 110. 43.34 143. 61.67 45 . 50 7.50 78.80 26. 110.75 43.75 143.60 62. 46. 7.78 79. 26.11 111. 43.89 144. 62.23 46.40 8. 79.25 26.25 111.20 44. 144.50 62.50 47. 8.34 80. 26.67 112. 44.45 145. 62.78 47.75 8.75 80.60 27. 113. 45. 145.40 63. 48. 8.89 81. 27.23 114. 45.56 146. 63.34 48.20 9. 81.50 27.50 114.80 46. 146.75 63.75 49. 9.45 82. 27.78 115. 46.11 147. 63.89 50. 10. 82.40 28. 115.25 46.25 147.20 64. 51. 10.56 83. 28.34 116. 46.67 148, 64.45 51.80 11. 83.75 28.75 116.60 47. 149. 65. 52. 11.11 84. 28.89 117. 47.23 150. 65.56 52.25 11.25 84.20 29.00 117.50 47.50 150.80 66. 53. 11.67 85. 29.45 118. 47.78 151. 66.11 53.60 12. 86. 30. 118.40 48. 151.25 66.25 54. 12.23 87. 30.56 119. 48.34 152. 66.67 54.50 12.50 87.80 31. 119.75 48.75 152.60 67. 55. 12.78 88. 31.11 120. 48.89 153. 67.23 55.40 13. 88.25 31.25 120.20 49. 153.50 67.50 56. 13.34 89. 31.67 121. 49.45 154. 67.78 56.75 13.75 89.60 32. 122. 50. 154.40 68. 57. 13.89 90. 32.23 123. 50.56 155. 68.34 57.20 14. 90.50 32.50 123.80 51. 155.75 68.75 58. 14.45 91. 32.78 124. 51.11 156. 68.89 59. 15. 91.40 33. 124.25 51.25 156.20 69. 60. 15.56 92. 33.34 125. 51.67 157. 69.45 60.80 16. 92.75 33.75 125.60 52. 158. 70. 61. 16.11 93. 33.89 126. 52.23 159. 70.56 61.25 16.25 93.20 34. 126.50 52.50 159.80 71. 62. 16.67 94. 34.45 127. 52.78 160. 71.11 62.60 17. 95. 35. 127.40 53. 160.25 71.25 63. 17.23 96. 35.56 128. 53.34 161. 71.67 63.50 17.50 96.80 36. 128.75 53.75 161.60 72. 64. 17.78 97. 36.11 129. 53.89 162. 72.23 36 Fahren- heit Centi- grade Gauge 'ressure Ibs. Fahren- heit Centi- grade Gauge Pressure Ibs. 162.50 72.50 197. 91.67 163. 72.78 197.60 92. 163.40 73. 198. 92.23 164. 73.34 198.50 92.50 164.75 73.75 199. 92.78 165. 73.89 199.40 93.00 165.20 74. 200. 93.34 166. 74.45 200.75 93.75 167. 75. 201. 93.89 168. 75.56 201.20 94. 168.80 76. 202. 94.45 169. 76.11 203. 95. 169.25 76.27 204. 95.56 170. 76.67 204.80 96. 170.60 77. 205. 96.11 171. 77.23 205.25 96.25 171.50 77.50 206. 96.67 172. 77.78 206.60 97. 172.40 78. 207. 97.23 173. 78.34 207.50 97.50 173.75 78.75 208. 97.78 174. 78.89 208.40 98. 174.20 79. 209. 98.34 175. 79.45 209.75 98.75 176. 80. 210. 98.89 177. 80.56 210.20 99. 177.80 81. 211. 99.45 178. 81.11 212. 100. 178.25 81.25 213. 100.56 179. 81.67 213.80 101. 179.60 82. 214. 101.11 180. 82.23 214.25 101.25 180.50 82.50 215. 101.67 1 181. 82.78 215.60 102. 181.40 83. 216. 102.23 182. 83.34 216.50 102.50 182.75 83.75 217. 102.78 183. 83.89 217.40 103. 183.20 84. 218. 103.34 184. 84.45 218.75 103.75 185. 85. 219. 103.89 2 186. 85.56 219.20 104. 186.80 86. 220. 104.45 187. 86.11 221. 105. 187.25 86.25 222. 105 . 56 3 188. 86.67 222 . 80 106. 188.60 87. 223. 106.11 189. 87.23 223.25 106.25 - 189.50 87.50 224. 106.67 4 190. 87.78 224.60 107. 190.40 88. 225. 107 . 23 191. 88.34 225 . 50 107 . 50 191.75 88.75 226. 107.78 192. 88.89 226 . 40 108. 192.20 89. 227. 108.34 5 193. 89.45 227 . 75 108.75 194. 90. 228. 108.89 195. 90.56 228.20 109. 195.80 91. 229. 109.45 196. 91.11 230. 110. 6 196.25 91.25 231. 110.56 37 Fahren- heit Centi- grade Gauge Pressure Ibs. Fahren- heit Centi- grade Gauge Pressure Ibs. 231.80 111. 266. 130. 232. 111.11 7 267. 130.56 25 232.25 111.25 267.80 131. 233. 111.67 268. 131.11 26 233.60 112. 268 . 25 131.25 234. 112.23 269. 131.67 234.50 112.50 269.60 132. 235. 112.78 8 270. 132.23 27 235.40 113. 270.50 132.50 236. 113.34 271. 132.78 28 236.75 113.75 271.40 133. 237. 113.89 9 272. 133.34 237.20 114. 272.75 133.75 238. 114.45 273. 133.89 29 239. 115. 10 273.20 134. 240. 115.56 274. 134.45 30 240.80 116. 275. 135. 31 241. 116.11 276. 135.56 241.25 116.25 276.80 136. 242. 116.67 11 277. 136.11 32 242.60 117. 277.25 136.25 243. 117.23 278. 136.67 33 243.50 117.50 278.60 137. 244. 117.78 12 279. 137 . 23 34 244.40 118. 279.50 137.50 245. 118.34 280. 137.78 245.75 118.75 280.40 138. 246. 118.89 13 281. 138.34 35 246.20 119. 281.75 138.75 247. 119.45 282. 138.89 36 248. 120. 14 282.20 139. 249. 120.56 283. 139.45 37 249.80 121. 284. 140. 38 250. 121.11 15 285. 140.56 250.25 121.25 285.80 141. 251. 121.67 286. 141.11 39 251.60 122. 286.25 141.25 252. 122.23 16 287. 141 .-67 40 252.50 122.50 287.60 142. 253. 122.78 288. 142.23 41 253.40 123. 288.50 142.50 254. 123.34 17 289. 142.78 42 254.75 123.75 289.40 143. 255. 123.89 18 290. 143.34 43 255.20 124. 290.75 143.75 256. 124.45 291. 143.89 44 257. 125. 19 291.20 144. 258. 125.56 292. 144.45 45 258.80 126. 293. 145. 259. 126.11 20 294. 145.56 46 259.25 126.25 294.80 146. 260. 126.67 295. 146.11 47 260.60 127. 295 . 25 146.25 261. 127.23 21 296. 146.67 48 261.50 127.50 296.60 147. 262. 127.78 22 297. 146.23 49 262.40 128. 297.50 147.50 263. 128.34 298. 147.78 50 263.75 128 . 75 298.40 148. 264. 128.89 23 299. 148.34 51 264.20 129. 299.75 148.75 265. 129.45 24 300. 148.89 52 38 HOW TO USE A HYDROMETER The hydrometer must be absolutely clean, to begin with, and should therefore be wiped thoroughly with a clean, soft rag before using. The jar or other receptacle should also be deep enough to allow the hydrometer to float freely without touching the bottom. Insert the hydrometer by grasping same at the extreme end and above the scale portion (so that the indications will not be affected by moisture or grease on the stem from the hand) and be careful to let it sink of its own weight only. After the hydrometer has come to rest, carefully push it into the liquid to the extent of 1/16 inch further and allow it to again come to rest; this procedure being for the purpose of facilitating the forming of the proper meniscus around the stem of the hydrometer by the solution. Then note the point on the scale which corresponds exactly with the level of the surface of the solution and do not use the top of the meniscus as the proper point. In the case of a transparent solution, it is easy to get the exact point by the following method: First observe the liquid within the jar or other receptacle from below the level of the solution so that the "mirror," caused by the light reflection of the top surface, is distinctly visible; then raise the eye slowly and observe how this mirror gradually dis- appears as the eye travels upward; just when the mirror is finally lost will then leave the eye exactly in the plane with the top of the surface and in position to take the exact reading. When the solution is opaque, however, the extent of the meniscus must be carefully measured with the eye and sub- tracted from the reading given by the top of the meniscus, so that the true reading given by the level of the main body of the solution is obtained. When the hydrometer is of combination form, the tempera- ture indicated by the thermometer portion is next noted so that the necessary correction can be applied if the solution varies in temperature from that at which the hydrometer was standardized. The correction, however, being so small, is entirely negli- gible and can be disregarded. A hydrometer for testing size would be standardized at 150 F. Therefore the temperature reading of the solution is not taken until the thermometer has had ample time to register approximately 150 F. In the case of a plain hydrometer (without thermometer combined with the instrument) the temperature of the solu- tion must be ascertained with a separate thermometer. Of course, the hydrometer reading should not be taken until the thermometer registers 150 F. 39 DENSITY TABLE Specific Gravity Degrees Baume Degrees Twaddell Lbs. per Gallon Lbs. per Gu. Ft. .00 8.35 62.43 .01 1.4 2 8.43 63.02 .02 2.7 4 8.51 63.68 .03 4.1 6 8.60 64.27 .04 5.4 8 8.68 64.92 1.05 6.7 10 8.77 65 . 52 1.06 8.0 12 8.85 66.17 1.07 9.4 14 8.93 66.77 .08 10.6 16 9.01 67.42 .09 11.9 18 9.10 68.02 .10 13.0 20 9.18 68.67 .11 14.2 22 9.27 69.26 .12 15.4 24 9.35 69.92 .13 16.5 26 9.44 70.51 .14 17.7 28 9.51 71.17 .15 18.8 30 9.60 71.76 .16 19.8 32 9.68 72.41 .17 20.9 34 9.77 73.01 .18 22.0 36 9.85 73.66 .19 23.0 38 9.94 74.26 .20 24.0 40 10.01 74.91 .21 25.0 42 10.10 75.50 .22 26.0 44 10.18 76.16 .23 26.9 46 10.27 76.75 .24 27.9 48 10.35 77.41 WHAT IS TEMPERATURE? WHAT IS HEAT? Temperature. If we touch a body and it feels hot, we are accustomed to say that it has a high temperature, likewise, if the body feels cold, we are accustomed to say that its temperature is low. Thus, the sensations experienced upon touching a sub- stance, gives a general idea of the state of temperature of the substance, and the terms hot, warm, temperate, chilly, and cold are used to indicate the amount of temperature. These terms, however, give only a general idea of the temperature. If the hand is held in cold water for a while and is then placed quickly in warm water, the warm water will feel much warmer than it actually is. If a small quan- tity of gasoline which has been in a room until it has attained room temperature, is poured on the hand, it seems much cooler than it actually is. It can readily be seen from these facts that the sensations of hot and cold cannot be depended upon in judging tempera- ture, and it is therefore necessary to adopt some other means of measuring this quantity where it is desired to obtain more accurate results. 40 It should be noted that the temperature does not indicate the amount of heat which a substance contains but only shows the condition of the heat in the substance. If one vessel contains a pint of water at a certain temperature and another contains a quart of water at the same temperature, the quart of water has absorbed more heat than the pint has and, consequently it contains more heat although its tempera- ture is the same as the pint of water. Thermometers. A thermometer is an instrument for measuring tempera- ture. Therometers indicate the intensity of the temperature by the expansion of mercury or colored spirit. The ordinary mercury thermometer is so familiar that it scarcely needs a description. In the Fahrenheit thermometer, which is generally used in the United States, the point at which the mercury stands in the tube when the instrument is placed in melting ice, is marked thirty-two degrees. The point indicated by the mer- cury when the thermometer is placed in the steam arising from boiling water, under atmospheric pressure and at sea level, is marked 212 F. The tube between these two points is divided into 180 equal parts called degrees. On the Centigrade thermometer, the distance between these two points is divided into 100 equal parts called degrees, the freezing point being zero and the boiling point 100. The following rules have been obtained for converting one into the other: Rule No. 1. To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Centigrade, subtract 32, multiply the remainder by 5 and divide by 9. Rule No. 2. To convert degrees Centigrade to degrees Fahrenheit, multiply by 9, divide by 5 and add 32. Heat. Modern science teaches that heat is a form of energy and that all matter is composed of molecules which are more or less in a state of rapid vibration. The rapidity or inten- sity of these vibrations produces the sensations of warmth or cold. From this it will be seen that cold is a relative expres- sion and signifies a greater or less absence of heat or motion of the molecules of a body. If the motion of the molecules is rapid, the body is warm; if their motion is slow, the body is less warm or cold. Measurement of Heat. Since heat is not a substance and has no weight, it cannot be determined by a measure of volume or by weight, but can only be measured by the effect it produces on other substances. The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree, at or near its temperature at maximum density, (391/10 F.), has been selected as the standard unit of measure and is called the British Thermal Unit, commonly abbreviated B. T. U. 41 A SIMPLE SIZED YARN TEST! Take a warp thread after it has left the drying cylinder and hold it between your thumb and first finger as shown in the above illustration. Have four inches of the yarn above the fingers and if the thread has sufficient strength to main- tain an upright position, you will know that the yarn has been properly sized. However, if your sized yarn will not stand this simple test, it is very likely that the trouble is due to fluctuating temperatures within the size mixing or cooking kettles and in the size boxes. "TAG" Size Box Automatic Temper- ature Controllers offer a simple and self-paying solution. 42 NOTE THE DIFFERENCE IN AND "COVER" 'FEEL" This illustration is a photographic reproduction of two pieces of cloth (woven at the same mill) before they were boiled out, scoured or bleached. The "size" mixture, yarn, etc., were identical except that each piece of cloth was sized at the temperature indicated. Note the difference in texture how much softer and more uniform in appearance the texture is where the warp had been sized at a lower temperature and uniformly maintained at 185 F. by having the size boxes equipped with "TAG" Size Box Automatic Temperature Controllers. 43 r ov Fig. 1. These two charts are records of the temperature of the size maintained in a size box under identical operating con- ditions, the temperature desired being 200 F. Fig. 1, shows the irregularity and fluctuations produced by the most careful HAND CONTROL and Fig. 2, the uniformity produced by a "TAG" AUTOMATIC TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER. (These results were obtained at the mills of the York Mfg. Co.) I/ Fig. 2. "TAG" Self-Operating SIZE BOX Temperature Controllers are so simple to operate and so positive in action that even an un- skilled attendant can obtain uniform results with practically no labor or attention. "Set it and forget it" describes the situation because all the attendant need do is to "set" the controller for the required temperature and virtually ' 'forget it. ' ' There is no time and labor wasted "juggling" the hand valves no fluctuating tem- peratures no splashing or chilling of the size no imperfectedly sized or variable warps. The "TAG" Controller requires no compressed air or other auxiliary motive power and can be adjusted to accurately regulate any temperature requirement between 160 and 235 F. "Set it and forget it" 45 Illustration showing the "TAG" Self-Operating Temperature Controller Applied to a Size Box. the only size box controller which offers this wide and desir- able range. A special "TAG" size box fitting is supplied with each controller for the convenient reception and removal of the thermostatic bulb at the most effective location an essential factor in automatic temperature control. The flange of the "TAG" fitting on the inside of the box provides a tight closure between the copper sheathing: and cast iron box thus preventing the escape of "size" be- tween the copper lining and iron body, which condition would sour the size and also disintegrate the iron. All parts of the "TAG" Self-Operating Size Box Tem- perature Controller are strong and practically unbreakable and the mechanism is so sensitive and responsive that there is never more than a 2-degree variation in the tempera- ture of the size. 46 "TAG" COMBINATION AUTOMATIC TIME AND TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER For Size Mixing or Cooking Kettles Both in the boiling of potato starch and corn starch, it is absolutely essential to have the "size" mixture attain a uniform consistency but this condition can only be produced by gradually raising; the temperature in the mixing tubs or cooking kettles in a definite period of time and then hold- ing it at the boiling point for a certain interval. If the temperature is raised too fast, some of the starch granules become encased in the paste already formed and lumps result. On the other hand, if the temperature is brought up too slowly, the size becomes diluted and conse- quently is of a weak consistency, known as a "run-down" or "thin." Insufficient heat fails to develop the characteristics of the particular starch and convert it into a uniform paste while excessive heat gradually changes the starch into invert sugar, which has practically no value as a protecting or stiffening agent for the yarn. 47 "TAG" Combination Automatic Time and Temperature Controller Applied to a Mixing Kettle. The exact degree of temperature and time intervals must be determined by experimental work on the particular formula used but after these important factors have been ascertained, the "TAG" Combination Automatic Time and Temperature Controller will follow these cycles automatically. A fixed or adjustable cam, furnished with each controller, which is made to conform with the individual requirements of each mill, relieves the slasher-tender and over-seer of all work and worry because all the attendant need do is to open the hand steam valve wide and the "TAG" Combination Controller will do the rest. There are two distinct processes under which all applica- tions are made in applying these controllers to size mixing tubs or cooking kettles: 1 Combination time and tempera- ture control of Potato Starch; 2 Combination time and temperature control of Corn Starch. Consequently, a differ- ent cam, operating as follows, is required for each starch: 1. Potato Starch. A cam which will raise the tempera- ture to a boil in 30 minutes, a hold at that point for 30 minutes, then drop to 170 F., and an indefinite hold at that temperature until another cooking is started. 2. Corn Starch. A cam which will raise the temperature to a boil or 212 F. in 30 minutes, a hold at that point for 60 minutes, a drop to 170 F. and held at that temperature indefinitely. In specifying the design of the cam for a Combination Automatic Time and Temperature Controller, it would call for a minimum temperature of 70 F. and a maximum of 210 or 211 F. The adjustable cam can be arranged for a 2-hour rise and a maximum hold of two hours. 48 "TAG" INDICATING THERMOMETERS for Cooking Kettles, Size Boxes, Dye Kettles, etc. These thermometers have been especially designed to meet the exacting require- ments of textile processes and represent the ultimate perfec- tion of 150 years of ther- mometer development and progress. Permanent accuracy is guar- anteed because each tube is "seasoned" to prevent future false readings due to shrink- age of the glass. REGULAR FORM, RIGHT ANGLE STEM,. Fixed Thread Connection. Actual temperature con- ditions are reproduced similar to those which the instrument will encounter in later use due to the "TAG" method of "pointing" and making a special scale for each ther- mometer. "TAG" Indicating or Indus- trial Thermometers can be sup- plied in every desired scale range and with every con- venient form of connection, socket, etc. LEFT SIDE FORM SEPARABLE Connection With Regular Socket at- tached. 49 "TAG" RECORDING THERMOMETERS for Cooking Kettles, Size Boxes, Dryers, etc. These recorders are extremely accurate and reliable be- cause they have been designed along sound and correct principles, also due to their simplicity of construction. In fact, the accuracy, material and workmanship of "TAG" Recording Thermometers are guaranteed Uniformity of results is assured because these instruments faithfully record every temperature operation, day or night, thereby promoting efficiency and helpful competition among the workmen in their efforts to produce praise-worthy charts. Ease of reading is another valuable feature. It often happens that the temperature must be taken at a point which is difficult of access. In such case, the dial of the "TAG" Recorder can be mounted at a convenient location for easy observation. "TAG" Recording Thermometers are made in both full- nickled bronze and japanned iron cases with nickel ring, in 8, 10 and 12-inch sizes and with 12-hour, 24-hour or 7-day charts. 50 itf^ TEXTILE TEMPERATURE ENGINEERS These three words aptly describe a large and constantly increasing portion of our extensive business, the success and growth of which are the cumulative result of our pioneer experience and careful study of the various temperature prob- lems encountered in the textile field. The design and construction of our temperature indicating, recording and controlling instruments for slashing, dyeing, bleaching, etc., are therefore correct in every detail and the fact that more than 150 mills have already installed "TAG" Size Box Automatic Temperature Controllers, is proof posi- tive that textile executives have confidence in our recom- mendations and products. Competent advice and valuable co-operation can there- fore be had from our special corps of Textile Temperature Engineers concerning any problem which involves heat, or with reference to any of our products, which include : THERMOMETERS, indicating, registering and re- cording, of numberless types and forms, for any and every application; AUTOMATIC CONTROLLERS for temperature, pressure, time, vacuum, condensation, liquid levels, etc.; PYROMETERS, expansion-stem type; VACUUM GAGES, mercurial indicating; OIL TESTING INSTRUMENTS for determining temperature, viscosity, specific gravity, flash, fire, freezing and melting points of oil and grease; HYDROMETERS, plain and combined with ther- mometer; HYGROMETERS for indicating, registering and recording humidity ; BAROMETERS, mercurial indicating. CJ ^ AG UABUE TEMPERATURE ENGINEERS \18-88 Thirty-Third St. Brooklyn.N.Y. TEMPERATURE ENGINEERING PIONEERS Boston Chicago Portland, Ore. Pittsburgh Tulsa, Okla. San Francisco Similar Hand Books on wool scouring, dyeing, bleaching, etc., will be issued periodically from "Temperature Headquarters". 51 MEMORANDA 52 MEMORANDA 53 MEMORANDA 54 CONTENTS PAGE Adjustment of Machine 7 Automatic Size-Box Temperature Controller 45 Automatic Temperature Device for Cooking Kettle 47 Basis of Count Systems of Yarn (Standard Length).. 30 Boiling for Potato Starch 47-48 Boiling of Corn Starch 47-48 Breaking Strength of Sized Yarn 22 Breaking Strength of Cloth 22 Capacities of the Standard Sizes of Kettles at Dif- ferent Depths 27 Check Tests 13-19 Combination Automatic Time and Temperature Con- troller 47 Comparative Temperature and Pressure Tables .... 36-37-38 Comparison of Tests 19 Comparison of Metric System with the U. S. Method of Weights and Measures 34 Comparison of Cloths Woven with Yarn Sized at Dif- ferent Temperatures 43 Conclusions 16-21 Cooking of Size 26 Cooking Kettle Temperature Device . 47 Cotton Yarn (How to Calculate Counts) 30 Density Tables 40 Details of Test 9 Details of Weaving Test 17 Discussion of Results 12 Evaluation of Results 10 Formula Blanks 28-29 Free Advice and Co-operation 51 Hand vs. Automatic Temperature Control 44 Heat 41 How to Use a Hydrometer 39 How to Obtain Perfectly-Sized and Uniform Warps. . .45-46 How to Prevent Souring of the Size 46 Ideal Mixing or Cooking Kettle Arrangement 48 Ideal Size-Box Arrangement 46 Importance of Slashing 3 55 CONTENTS ( Continued ) PAGE Indicating Thermometers 49 Influence of Temperature (Coarse Yarn) 7 Influence of Temperature (Medium Yarn) 16 Loom Breakage 18 Materials Used 4 Measurement of Heat 41 Method of Cooking 4 Micro-Photographs of Yarns Before Weaving 23 Micro-Photographs of Woven Cloth 24 Miscellaneous Measures 33 Object of Sizing 11 Production Table for Slasher Having 7 ft. and 5 ft. Cylinders 35 Process of Slashing 3 Recording Thermometers 50 Silk, Artificial (How to Calculate Counts) 30 Silk, English (How to Calculate Counts) 30 Silk, Spun (How to Calculate Counts) 30 Size Box Temperature Device 45 Size Mixing Temperature Device 47 Sized Yarn Test 42 Sizing Materials 25 Slasher Details f 16 Special Size-Box Fitting : 46 Table of Multiples 32 Tagliabue Products 51 Temperature Device for Cooking Kettle 47 Temperature Device for Size-Box 45 Temperature of Size 9 Textile Temperature Engineering 51 Thermometers 41 Thermometers, Indicating and Recording 49-50 Time and Temperature Device 47 Weaving Test 7 Weaving Test Details 17 What Is Heat? 40 What Is Temperature? 40 Worsted Yarn (How to Calculate Counts) 30 56 MAY 50m-7,'27 405129 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY