HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR MANAGEMENT AND INSTRUCTION THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO \ HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR MANAGEMENT AND INSTRUCTION BY CHARLES A. McMURRY n DIRECTOR OF TRAINING DEPARTMENT, NORTHERN ILLINOIS STATE NORMAL SCHOOL AND SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, DEKALB, ILLINOIS * Nefo gflrft THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1914 All rights reserved Copyright, 19x4, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 19x4. Reprinted December, 1914. ***. «•«*• • - * « * • » • . Norxsoot) l9rrB« J. S. Cashing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. The hearty thanks and appreciation of the author are due to the Principals and Teachers of the City and to the Critic Teachers of the Normal Training Schools at DeKalb, whose close cooperation and criticism have helped to bring this material into its present shape. The statements on music were pre- pared by Miss Maude Nicholson. PREFACE This Handbook has a definite practical purpose, as follows : i. On the basis of experience in training and su- pervising teachers to point out a few of the positive requirements and limitations of schoolroom work. 2. In order to get economy of time and effort, to state plainly the chief principles and conditions for securing efficiency. 3. To set up concisely the standards and essentials of schoolroom practice. 4. To point out common faults and bad habits. 5. To show briefly the peculiar requirements of each common school study. 6. To give help and guidance to young teachers and to remind older teachers of wrong tendencies. 7. To suggest points of value to superintendents and supervisors. American teachers as a body are progressive and are in a developing process. They must grow while they teach. This book is particularly designed for use in Nor- mal and Training schools. Vll CONTENTS CHAPTER I SUGGESTIONS ON MANAGEMENT SECTION PAGE i. Management i 2. Class Control and Room Control ... 4 3. Orderliness in School Housekeeping ... 6 CHAPTER II TEACHERS 1. Superintendents, Supervisors, and Critics . . 10 2. General Character and Qualifications of Teachers 13 3. Difficulties and Faults of Inexperienced Teachers 17 4. Growth of Teachers . . . • • .21 CHAPTER III CHILDREN 1. Child Study ........ 25 2. Common Faults of Children 28 3. Social Combinations among Children ... 30 ix X CONTENTS CHAPTER IV CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION SECTION PAGE i. The Planning of Lessons for Classroom Work 35 2. Exercises not Included in the Larger Units of Study 39 3. Oral Instruction and the Development Method 41 4. Questioning 47 5. Attention 51 CHAPTER V THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION 1. How to Judge and Criticize Class Recitations 53 2. Where to Center Attention 56 3. Formal Routine and Humdrum .... 59 4. How Time is Wasted 62 5. The Study Period 65 CHAPTER VI GENERAL PROBLEMS 1. Unsolved Problems 68 2. General Principles . 71 3. The Course of Study 73 4. Textbooks and Apparatus 75 CONTENTS xi CHAPTER VII SUGGESTIONS BEARING ON SCHOOL STUDIES SECTION PAGE i. Language 77 2. Geography .88 3. Reading 93 4. Arithmetic 102 5. Nature Study 113 6. History 118 7. Music 129 8. Spelling 133 9. Drawing 135 10. Writing 136 11. Manual Arts 137 12. Interrelation between Studies . . . .138 110 5) > , HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS CHAPTER I SUGGESTIONS ON MANAGEMENT i. Management i. Few and quiet signals are indicative of strength in discipline. Be not noisy and demonstrative in securing order. 2. Be deliberate and self -controlled in all matters of discipline. Keep down excitement and anger. 3. Make but few requirements and only after full deliberation. Every order issued by the teacher amounts to a rule upon which his reputation is staked. 4. In the main use suggestion rather than command. 5. Cultivate firmness and decision with gentleness. 6. Good discipline is consistent and steady, not variable and inconstant. 7. Deal promptly with individuals for any plain disorder so that the infection of disorder may not spread. « r 4 , •**?•* 2 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 8. Do not forget and neglect your own require- ments. g. One important rule or requirement steadily and persistently executed will sometimes settle the question of control and good order. io. Make a point of controlling the school or the class through your own influence and authority. Take advice from the principal but use self-reliance in room control. ii. Be fair-minded and just. Secure the respect of children by honest dealing. Justice is the funda- mental school virtue. 12. Good discipline leads the children gradually to self-control and self -direction. 13. The best discipline is that which is so quiet and natural that it becomes invisible. The teacher's authority is swallowed up and disappears in the proper school activities. 14. Keeping children steadily and profitably occu- pied with school work is the chief means of main- taining good order. Push the work vigorously, and many disorders will disappear. 15. Be slow in attributing fault to a child. Be slow to take offense because of a child's peculiar actions or disposition. 16. Children should be treated with courtesy, with real courtesy; that is, one should have a genuine respect for a child's feelings and person. SUGGESTIONS ON MANAGEMENT 3 17. Do not censure trifling errors severely. If so, you cannot emphasize serious faults. 18. Scolding the school is a bad habit to fall into. Avoid censuring a child in the class and before the school. In general reprove privately and make the reproof effective. 19. Do not worry over little noises and disturbances, if the children are working heartily. 20. Use your eyes, see what is going on in the room, but overlook many trivial things. 21. Have pupils pass through the halls quietly, promptly, and in line. Execute room movements promptly and economically. 22. Competing with children in smartness is not worthy of a teacher. 23. Do not punish the whole class for the fault of one or two. 24. Children should not be boisterous in the school house. Outdoors is the place for rougher sports. 25. Corporal punishment is only for extreme cases, a last resort. 26. In dealing with parents use patience and cour- tesy ; show them fully and fairly both sides of the question in dispute. Be fair and reasonable. 27. Management requires thoughtful deliberation, prompt executive energy, and judicial fairness. These three superior qualities are not easily combined in one person. Each teacher must school himself 4 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS into a complex habit which unites these contrasted qualities into a working unity. 28. The skillful management of children is a social art based (1) upon insight into one's own feelings and volitional attitudes, and (2) upon the individual and social impulses that reveal themselves in the life and actions of children. In other words, one must understand himself and appreciate children. 29. Government necessarily means control, and more or less conflict of wills. How to adjust the will of the teacher to the will of the child and to the com- bined social will of the school is the ticklish problem. It demands a well-balanced combination of the three virtues above mentioned. 30. Give the children full credit for having wills that deserve to be wisely guided, and turned into proper channels of habit until freedom of self-control, based upon knowledge of what is right and fitting in conduct, is developed. 31. The spirit of good will and cooperation, and the deliberate purpose to practice even-handed justice, furnish the moral basis for school government. 2. Class Control combined with Room Control 1. Before beginning the recitation provide the study class with plenty of work to do and make the conditions orderly and favorable to its execution. SUGGESTIONS ON MANAGEMENT 5 2. Let the study class work according to a program posted on the blackboard, and showing the plan for each day in the week. The study class should not be noisy and intrusive but quiet and self-directive. 3. Let the teacher take a good position before the class reciting and not too near the pupils. 4. Keep the class together and closely attentive to the teacher's presentation of a topic, to black- board demonstrations, and to discussions and repro- ductions by the pupils. Unity of class spirit m a com- bined effort is the ideal class status. 5. In concert work by the whole class, in oral drills and tests, make the class effort quick and energetic. Alternate individual and concert drills. 6. Shift the work back and forth between the slow pupils and the quick ones. Do not wait too long for the slower pupils and give the brighter pupils a good share of attention. Poorer pupils may need a second and a third chance. 7. With a class at the blackboard, watch all the pupils and keep them busy, correcting errors with speed, preventing copying, and holding to a standard of neatness and good form. 8. Keep up the class spirit, but do not lose sight of individuals. This requires alertness and quick transi- tions from the whole class to individuals and vice versa. 9. Get a proper distribution of work among the mem- bers of the class so that none are neglected or left idle. 6 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 10. Have extra work in readiness for brighter pupils while the slower ones are receiving special help. Extra reference work, special problems, etc., should be pro- vided beforehand. n. Children should be held to a firm standing posi- tion while reciting. In questions and class discus- sions avoid hand shaking and other excessive demon- strations. Self-control and moderation in pupils' behavior are the standard. 12. Let pupils speak out in full tones so as to be clearly heard. Use such devices and such ingenuity as may be necessary to encourage timid pupils to speak clearly and confidently. 13. Encourage children to watch each other sharply for errors or omissions, but without unkind and trifling criticism. A helpful, rather than critical spirit should be encouraged. 14. The more forward children are to be held in check, and the modest, retiring ones encouraged and called into action. 15. Save time by quick class movements and well- planned, orderly arrangement of children at the blackboard. 3. Orderliness in School Housekeeping 1. Care and thought fulness should be given to the heating and ventilating of the room. Proper SUGGESTIONS ON MANAGEMENT 7 use of windows, doors, and transoms, without exposing children to drafts. Attention to the thermometer and to janitor service require cooperation. 2. During physical exercises and at recess especial additional fresh-air ventilation may be provided for. 3. The lighting from the windows should be regu- lated and modified by shades, according to the condi- tions of the weather, sunshine, morning and after- noon sun, and effects upon blackboards. 4. A carefully devised program for the day and week should be placed where it can be easily seen by all and should be followed, in the main, so as to estab- lish habits of study and diligent attention to school duties. A reliable clock will aid materially in such a plan. 5. The desks and tables throughout the room should be kept in neat and orderly condition. Waste papers and rubbish should be collected by passing the waste basket. 6. Reference and library books may be conven- iently placed for use by the children and left in their proper place and position after use. The children may well be trained to this sort of order and neatness. 7. A plan for the definite uses, care, and cleaning of the blackboards needs to be worked out. One part maybe required for the daily and weekly program. Other parts should be used regularly for the assign- ment of seat or home lessons. Still another may be 8 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS used for class demonstrations, especially by the teacher in Arithmetic, Geography, History, etc. Other parts of the blackboard may be reserved for the uses of children who are sent to the board for prob- lems, map drawing, composition, etc. Unused work should be erased and the boards kept clear. 8. The maps, globes, charts, pictures, and object material used for demonstration purposes should be kept in orderly fashion in suitable receptacles and used according to well-devised plans. Paper, pencils, ink, and drawing utensils require a like carefulness and orderliness. Materials and tools for construction, book binding and sewing, or weaving and shop work require systematic, businesslike disposal and regu- lation. Orderliness and system in all these details are indispensable. There should be adequate places of storage and time-saving devices for distributing and collecting tools and materials. 9. The movements of children by classes and as individuals about the schoolroom should be quick, orderly, and time-saving. It is a pleasure to see the speed and quiet with which these movements are made in a well-ordered school. 10. The element of decoration is now entering as a dominant note in the schoolroom environment. Plants and flowers, pictures and statuary, are prevail- ing influences, and teachers are giving their attention to the proper placing and harmony of these decorative SUGGESTIONS ON MANAGEMENT 9 elements. The tinting of walls, the superior wood finishes, the use of the childrens' drawings and paper work add much to these pleasing schoolroom effects. When we add to this good music, folk songs and dances, and dramatization we have a very important group of aesthetic and culture elements that is making its influence strongly felt. 11. School property, books, furniture, equipment, and buildings, also grounds, trees, and shrubbery, deserve to be scrupulously respected and cherished. The old-fashioned carving of desks and marring of buildings, the defacing of walls, and other vandalisms are rapidly becoming obsolete. The social and aes- thetic spirit are becoming dominant and such lawless acts are felt to be inappropriate. 12. Cleanliness in rooms, toilets, halls, and base- ment, the avoidance of dust on floors, blackboards, and furniture, neatness and cleanness in the person and dress of children are very essential elements in the right sanitation of schoolrooms. 13. First-class sanitary conditions as provided for by the thoughtful attention of teachers, and reen- forced by the trained nurse and medical inspection, provision in all ways against contagious and infectious diseases, — these are not luxuries but absolute essen- tials for the care and protection of children and for the happiness and welfare of the homes represented. CHAPTER II TEACHERS i. Superintendents, Supervisors, and Critics i. Superintendents and supervisors represent the larger experience, the matured judgment, the com- bination of comprehensive theory with daily practice, which are needed to guide and encourage the less ex- perienced in their difficult work. 2. The function of critics and of superintendents who closely supervise young teachers is that of giving them advice and direction so that they will make as few mistakes as possible and waste the least amount of time in finding their way into skilled habits of teaching. Working under the direction of a wise and skillful critic, the beginning teacher should gain rap- idly in ability to manage and teach a school and should be saved from years of more or less wasted and mis- directed effort. Young teachers should not be al- lowed to form habits which, at a later time, will have to be laboriously corrected. 3. The superintendent is the connecting link be- tween the different teachers and grades. He repre- 10 TEACHERS II sents the larger, continuous aims of the school, and the principle of continuity in growth and organiza- tion. The underlying principles of the course of study and the broader aims of education are in his mind, and he seeks to bring all of his teachers into cooperation for these common ends. 4. To keep himself in touch with the actual diffi- culties of teachers, it were well for the superintendent to do some real teaching, not in the form of occasional interruptions of teachers in their class work, but in the handling of classes in complete recitations, in which the preparation and assignment of lessons are included and the topics are fully worked out. If the clerical and administrative duties of superintendents and prin- cipals can be diminished so as to leave time for some teaching, it will be of practical service to all con- cerned. 5. The critic should first of all encourage and stim- ulate the young teachers, exercising at the same time a frank criticism of faults and errors. In combin- ing encouragement with criticism the critic is a reconciler of contradictions. Criticism should not usually leave the sting of discouragement. 6. The critic or supervisor has the difficult task of exercising a dominating influence over the school and over the younger teachers, while keeping herself in the background. The critic and the beginner must get into such close relationship that the younger 12 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS teacher embodies the spirit and energy of the critic without feeling cramped or overruled in her actions. In other words, young teachers should maintain their freedom and independence while under the helpful guidance of the critic. 7. To perform this task the critic should be acces- sible and companionable, and clearly wise and practi- cal in her advice and suggestions. She must know how to encourage and to throw responsibility upon others. 8. The supervisor or critic is the exponent of the two opposite poles of education, strong ideals and practical skill in execution. 9. The critic should be fertile in ways and means of illustrating to young teachers the better modes of procedure, and likewise in showing up the weaknesses of faulty methods. 10. Critic teachers should follow a systematic plan of doing some daily regular teaching as a means of guidance and illustration to younger teachers. 11. Illustrative lessons, taught in the presence of a number of older and younger teachers and then freely discussed, are a source of strength, because they greatly emphasize main features of instruction and give a broader interpretation to principles. 12. In the variety and complexity of teaching processes, young teachers are slow to discriminate between important and unimportant ideas and TEACHERS 13 methods. The observation, discussion, and criticism of lessons should steadily open their eyes to these essentials. 13. Every supervisor and critic should make a business each term of working out elaborately, one or more of the larger topics or units of study which hold an important place in some school subject. This is a piece of original work that calls for a recombination of the principles of organization as applied to a rich body of knowledge. 14. The majority of teachers in the United States have had little if any professional preparation. They are in the process of growth from crude into rational methods. The responsibility of superintendents and supervisors for the steady growth and improvement of teachers in their work is correspondingly great. 2. General Character and Qualifications of a Teacher 1. Teachers should cultivate a liberal, magnani- mous mental attitude in contrast to littleness, narrow- ness, and pedantry. 2. They should be well-balanced, steady and judi- cious in temper, not given to excess or partisanship, not moody and freakish or violent in temper. Self- control, resulting in moderation and reasonableness, expresses the spirit of a teacher and leader. 3. Manifest cheerfulness and heartiness of manner 14 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS in dealing with young people predispose them in one's favor. 4. A many-sided, intelligent sympathy with all sorts of young people, the ability to put yourself in another's place and appreciate his situation and feelings is an important asset. This implies breadth and catholicity of mind, a friendly and helpful attitude toward others, and an appreciation of varieties of talent, disposition, and personal character. 5. Truth, sincerity, and frankness in one's conduct and dealings with young people are at a high premium. 6. A teacher who is prepared for his work is earnest and energetic. He feels a serious responsibility and has aims and standards in view that require strenuous and continuous effort. 7. On the basis of experience and matured convic- tion, he is prompt, decisive, and steadily progressive in his efforts. 8. He is clear-headed in his plans and scholarly in thought and speech. 9. His standards of thoroughness and mastery in school studies have been thought out in proper adjustment to the age and capacity of children. 10. A pronounced flexibility of temper, and a quick versatility in shifting one's point of view to meet new conditions and different personalities are a necessity for teachers. 11. Ingenuity in planning new methods of study TEACHERS 15 and resourcefulness in the details of discipline and instruction should be constantly cultivated. 12. Teachers can afford to lay their plans to be physically fresh and vigorous so as to meet school duties in good temper and with a strong healthy tone. 13. In dress and manner care should be exercised to be neat, tasteful, and attractive. Good manners and suitable dress and care as to one's person are an important expression of respect for one's calling and for the children. 14. A teacher will hold his own better in all respects if he is well posted in matters of general information. Such knowledge commands respect and shows a broader adjustment to life experience as a whole. In general lessons before the school a teacher may do much for young people to open their eyes to many important problems in the larger life out of school, which they will soon have to meet. These are things, too, which children are anxious to know about. 15. In his whole character and attitude, in school and out, a teacher should be exemplary without affec- tation. That is, he is a plain and definite example of right things, one who illustrates in conduct what he attempts to realize in the children. 16. On account of the increasingly social character of the school, social temper and adroitness on the teacher's part have become one of his essential qualifications. The interpretation and guidance of 16 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS social spirit in school groupings and combinations among the young become one of the teacher's chief functions. 17. A ready social adjustment and freedom of con- tact with the homes, with business and church and social activities, representing broader life and inter- ests of the community, are essential qualities in the teacher's make-up. 18. Teachers are entitled to a feeling of pride in the exercise of their professional skill and efficiency. One who is a distinct expert in the management and in- struction of the young, deserves a professional stand- ing based upon the highest merit. Teachers them- selves should prize such skill as a high distinction and work to attain it as their most distinctive and worthy achievement. 19. Besides the broad liberal qualifications that belong to the teacher by virtue of his leadership in guiding children into those general forms of knowledge and culture common and essential to all, he requires special and peculiar mental qualities in the particular subjects of study, as imagination and humor in litera- ture, logical precision in arithmetic, motor skill in manual arts, etc. 20. The teacher is a liberal-conservative who com- bines widely variant aims and superiorities in one person. He is a practical utilitarian and a hopeful idealist. TEACHERS 1 7 21. A wise teacher is liberal-minded and helpful toward his co-workers, and not given to criticism and complaints against his associates. Criticising the work done by a previous teacher is not in good taste. Complaining to others that a class is dull or stupid shows lack of sympathy. 22. The teacher represents a very wide range of interests in knowledge, whether in nature or in hu- man and social affairs. These elementary subjects broaden out more and more into the limitless fields of knowledge. The teacher also looks ahead and fore- casts the child's future work, his possible vocational fitness. It is the business of the teacher in all his activities to be scholarly, progressive, versatile, with many-sided interests for the present and the future. 3. Difficulties and Faults of Inexperienced Teachers 1. There is not a sufficient breadth of attention to cover the wide range of things requiring simulta- neous notice. The teacher learns gradually to manage several things at the same time. Teaching requires the formation of a complex habit of attention with alertness and quick adjustment to many things. The young teacher is called upon to meet this exigency by wise planning and forethought and by much after- thought and reflection upon his previous actions. 2. In matters of discipline there is a lack of that l8 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS quiet decision and promptness in action that command the respect and confidence of children. On the one side there may be overanxiety and indecision, on the other side, haste and severity of treatment. Young teachers are likely to make the mistake of being too stiff and arbitrary or too easy and indulgent. 3. In meeting emergencies in discipline young teachers often issue their orders hastily or without reflection and make threats against violations. Hasty orders and threats are dangerous. The teacher may easily forget to execute them or he may not wish to execute them when the time comes. Oftentimes a threat is a failure to do what ought to be done now. It is better to meet emergencies as they arise. 4. The keenest need felt by young teachers, who are not at first strong in discipline, is some means of establishing their authority, some immediate devices of control for quelling incipient disorder. Prompt, decisive action is required to check the beginnings of disorder. By reflection and ingenuity young teachers must think out those modes of action by which they may reenforce their personality at the moment of trial. Curiously, many little noises and disturbances can be overlooked. The teacher must have a blind eye to many such trivialities and a quick perception for those cases where the question of order is really at stake. 5. Young teachers are naturally deficient in the power to organize new subject matter, especially in TEACHERS 19 complex topics which are treated orally, without a textbook. This weakness appears first in project- ing the main outline of leading points and second in the effort to adhere to such an outline in presenting and discussing the subject matter. This is due to a failure to observe a logical or causal sequence in the topics, and again in the inability to discriminate between important and unimportant ideas and facts. 6. Young teachers are especially defective in seeing clearly the fundamental lines of thought that run through a whole study. In arithmetic or language certain principles run through the course in the grades. Somehow the textbooks fail to bring out this connectedness and continuity of thought and the responsibility lies mainly upon the teacher. Mature and careful teachers discover this underlying unity and make it the basis of their best thought work for children. 7. Young teachers are accustomed to run too rapidly over the main topics in a textbook. In arithmetic, for example, they fail to realize how much drill, what variety of oral problems in applications of all sorts, is necessary to master percentage and other topics. 8. In the classroom young teachers often fail to keep up steady class attention. They become inter- ested in individuals and lose sight of and control of the class. They have not yet learned to strike first 20 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS for strong class attention and incidentally keep an eye on individuals who require occasional attention. Teachers should cultivate a double form of attention. 9. In oral work and in the discussion of topics, beginning teachers drift too much into a develop- ment method. They are afraid of telling the children a few necessary things. They overdo the principle of allowing children to think things out for themselves. 10. On the other hand, teachers help children too much by asking them too many easy questions. Thus arises loose and inconsequent discussion and much loss of time. This brings out the fact that teachers are not skillful in withholding help when it is not needed and in giving it in cases of real need. One should, as it were, see into a child's mind and deter- mine wisely whether he needs to be thrown back upon his own resources or is in deep water and requires help. 11. Young teachers often fail to make important ideas in the lesson definite and clear to pupils' under- standing. At the end of the recitation not much real progress has been made in the clarification of ideas. The class may be seemingly attentive and the work progressive, but there is a sort of haze in the intellectual atmosphere. Things are not sharply defined. 12. Often there is more or less of interesting talk and discussion, but the children fail to sum up the TEACHERS 21 matter and give a clear and adequate statement of results. In most lessons teachers should see to it that the important ideas and facts are well clinched. 13. Young teachers often lack in clearness and simplicity of speech. As quickly as possible they should adjust themselves to the needs of children. Some young teachers, taking their cue from their elders, talk too much. 14. In assigning lessons, it is easy to give too much, and careful judgment is required. Often the assign- ment is indefinite and ambiguous. A class will soon go to pieces on poor assignments. Reference work should be precise, noting chapter and pages. 15. At first teachers are naturally deficient in re- sourcefulness with respect to illustrative materials and devices. Steady improvement in the ability to illustrate and concrete ideas is a professional obli- gation upon every teacher. 4. Growth of Teachers Teachers, while engaged in their professional duties, have unusual opportunity for growth. In fact, one can hardly be a good teacher without constantly improving and expanding one's mental resources. Some of the ways in which a progressive and spirited teacher may grow in culture and professional resources are pointed out as follows : 22 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS i. A few important professional books should find their way, not simply into the teacher's library, but also into his more serious thought, having been care- fully read and digested. A few of the interesting and vital books may be mentioned as follows: Herbert Spencer's "Education," James' " Talks to Teachers," Rousseau's "Ernile," De Guimp's "Life of Pestalozzi," Quick's "Educational Reformers," Locke's "Thoughts on Education," Monroe's "History of Education," Pestalozzi's "Leonard and Gertrude," Kirkpatrick's "Fundamentals of Child Study." 2. Summer sessions at the Normal Schools and Universities offer not only stimulating and practical courses in pedagogical subjects, but also full courses in literature, history, natural science, language, mathe- matics, and all the academic subjects. 3. If a teacher wishes to specialize in some chosen field of study, as in history or science, the summer schools, libraries, and laboratories are at his disposal, and, without giving up the regular work of instruction, many teachers are pursuing advance courses and fit- ting themselves for higher specialized forms of teach- ing. 4. The long summer vacations are also used for travel in this country and Europe. The experiences and broader outlook upon the world supplied by travel are among the important agencies for the better equip- ment of teachers, especially in common school work. TEACHERS 23 5. A knowledge of local affairs, of the details of town and municipal problems, of current events in the larger world of business, politics, and social reform is a desirable outfit for teachers. A familiarity with history, economics, and sociology of the practical sort, which enables one to discuss current events with children, is a very important equipment for the teacher. The general exercises in which such matters are dis- cussed are a valuable means of opening the minds of children to many worldly and useful matters not dealt with in school studies. 6. In addition to the general carefulness and effi- ciency of his work, each teacher should be engaged in some special field of instruction, in which he is elaborating from time to time, complete and more fully organized topics, as demonstrations of matured and even artistic teaching. One cannot do this in all subjects at the same time, nor in several topics at once. But picking out some important unit of study, in a favorite subject, the teacher should collect and organize a superior body of knowledge, commit it to writing, and execute the plan in full in the class- room. This is a kind of specialization in which every teacher can engage with the highest profit. The ability to do this kind of work in one study is likely to spread its influence to others. 7. Some teachers prefer departmental teaching in 24 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS one or two subjects. This requires special richness and mastery of knowledge in those subjects, and has the advantage of creating greater interest in both teachers and classes. Preparation for this quality of work can be made at the advanced schools, or by the special elaboration of topics as suggested above. 8. For the general body of teachers the most sig- nificant line of advance is found in extending one's acquaintance with school studies beyond the text- books into the more lively and interesting material found in good literature, in history, science, and geography. The textbooks offer but a meager diet either for teachers or children. Just beyond these textbook outlines and condensations is a remarkably fruitful range of studies in special books and periodicals, geographical magazines, biography and travel, which furnish all that is desirable as a reenforcement for genuine instruction. Such books are abundant and are being rapidly supplied in the main studies. 9. In this country, where many teachers undertake their work without adequate preparation, it is es- pecially desirable that they should utilize these various means for professional improvement and advance. CHAPTER III CHILDREN i. Child Study i . Reasons why teachers should make some special effort to understand children : a. Children are distinctly and radically different from grown people. b. Most of us as adults are a little out of sympathy with children and are disposed to set up the same stand- ards for them as for adults. c. The formality of school discipline and instruc- tion keeps us at a distance from children and prevents us often from understanding them. d. Because of misjudging children we make mis- takes in managing and instructing them. e. Children show their individual traits in a great variety of ways, and we must cultivate the power of insight and of interpretation of their actions. /. More than anything else we need to understand children, not only in their normal intellectual activities, but in their bodily states and defects, their feelings, impulses, and interests at different stages of growth. 25 26 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 2. "To study the outer and inner factors of human development, and to determine how the inner factors are modified by the outer, is the work of child study." (Kirkpatrick.) 3. Some children in a school are deserving of in- dividual study, i.e. of closer observation and of de- liberate effort to understand, and rightly interpret them. There are indeed special and peculiar cases, even incorrigibles. Some of these ought to be iso- lated from the school and receive special attention from those who have time for it. 4. The natural groupings of children according to social instinct also deserve study : the ways in which they influence one another, their modes of cooperation, and their antagonisms. 5. The natural leaders in a school are to be noted and their influence gained and guided by the teacher. 6. The physical defects and diseases of children have become an important object of study, with the purpose of improving health and sanitary conditions in the school. Teachers and parents alike have over- looked ailments of throat and nose, and defects of seeing and hearing ; but now a closer and more effi- cient inspection of these troubles is demanded in which teachers and nurses or medical experts coop- erate. 7. Children express themselves far more freely out of doors and at play than under the constraints CHILDREN 27 of the school. The playground offers a favorable opportunity for discovering children's dispositions and peculiarities. Even the games and rhythmic actions of the schoolroom open children's minds and feelings so that we can look in. Outdoor excursions are also a means of closer companionship and acquaintance. 8. When children become really interested in their school studies, and when they are allowed initiative and responsibility for doing things, their real charac- ter comes out for inspection. 9. Teachers should observe the instinctive inter- ests of children as they spring up, grow strong, and in turn give way to those later arising. These interests may be drawn into close relation to some of the school studies. 10. What are called children's books, especially those that really appeal to them, are deserving of study as a means of child interpretation. A good story is a revelation of the child's self, and its effect can be seen. The reading and reproduction of suit- able stories and poems with children give an excellent phase of child study. 1 1 . Respect for the rights and privileges of children is a first duty of teachers. Many children are very sensitive to any discourtesy or injustice on the part of their elders. 12. A few of the helpful books on child study may be noted as follows : "Fundamentals of Child Study," 28 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS Kirkpatrick; "Children's Rights," Wiggin; "The Development of the Child," Oppenheim; "Diary of a Western Schoolmaster," Stableton; "Being a Boy," Warner; "Story of a Bad Boy," Aldrich. 2. Common Faults of Children The faults mentioned below may be partly due to the school, partly to the home, and partly to other influences. i. There is a lack of strong power of attention or concentration of effort in study and in classroom work. The influence of the school should be to cul- tivate and strengthen this power. Our common school standards in this respect should be put at a higher mark. A flitting attention and vagrancy of thought are too much permitted in classrooms. 2. A deficiency of independent thinking and self- reliant effort is seen on the part of older children. The school should be constantly setting up problems which call out self-activity and self-reliance. 3. In the schoolroom children often talk in low and indistinct tones. A habit of timidity and lack of confidence is developed which interferes with good classroom work. 4. Very commonly children fail to express thought in complete sentences, and in connected discourse. They answer and recite too much in fragments and CHILDREN 29 broken sentences. The ability to express thought in a series of connected statements in a whole para- graph or topic requires steady cultivation. The habit of using faulty English and slang is so common that the school is obliged to set up a good standard of speech. 5. Children easily form the habit of raising the hand and shaking it violently in class work. It is a disturbing habit, discourteous to the one reciting and tending to undue nervous excitement of the class as a whole. Quiet manners and self-control are more conducive to good thinking and reciting. 6. Children stand in a lounging position at their seats and desks while reciting. Such an attitude is disorderly, careless, and lowers the tone of the class recitation. 7. During study periods children sit in careless and lounging positions, and show by their bodily attitude a relaxed mental state. 8. In the regular written work of the schools, children hand in papers that are torn, careless, and poorly written . Boys especially are negligent and pro- duce unsightly papers. Teachers should hold to standards of neatness and correctness. 9. In some classes children talk out too freely when not called upon, showing a boldness bordering on insubordination. Let them express themselves when called upon, and with self-control and courtesy. 30 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 10. Some children are careless and slovenly in per- sonal habits. For their own sake and for the sake of the other children, they should be required to be clean and neat. n. Carelessness in scattering waste papers and scraps, and a disorderly condition in the desks, easily develop in schools. Desks should be kept in orderly form and the waste basket passed regularly. 12. Children, even from good families, sometimes become sly and tricky in little disorders, disturbing the discipline and social welfare of the school. Prompt and decisive measures are required to establish respect and authority. 13. Children studying together from the same book usually do more visiting than studying, and create disturbance. It is a concession that lowers the stand- ard of efficient work. 14. Some children practice rude and unsocial ac- tions on the playground. The plays and recesses of the children require watchful supervision. 3. Social Combinations among Children , Beneficial and Hurtful The natural social spirit among young folks prompts them to combine their forces and to cooperate in larger and smaller groups for common ends. These social combinations are sometimes helpful in reenforcing CHILDREN 31 the proper work of the school. In other cases they are antagonistic and damaging to its welfare. A wise teacher will learn to be shrewd in interpreting and directing the social tendencies and aims of young people. The social intelligence of teachers should be liberal and sympathetic as a means of understand- ing their affinities and motives. The social spirit of young people manifests itself in some of its beneficial ways as follows : 1. In music and singing. In fact, music is one of the best modes of inducting children into the higher phases of congenial thought and sentiment. 2. The class discussion of interesting topics, espe- cially those having a social importance touching the welfare of many persons. Topics for general exercises should also reveal this elevating social value. 3. Cooperation in working up and presenting plays and dramatic performances. Such exercises, well conducted, have a wide-reaching social and prac- tical value for all concerned. 4. The folk dances and rhythm work of primary classes introduce children, in the happiest way, to social proprieties and right social spirit. 5. The games of children, both within doors and out, may be directed so as to express the joy and love of action in children in cooperative ways. 6. Gymnastic drills and group exercises. 7. The marching to music in passing to and fro. 32 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 8. Some of the economies of schoolroom organiza- tion are best provided for by social helpfulness, as in the distribution or collection by the children of books, papers, pencils, paint boxes, scissors, and other mate- rials and tools. 9. Spelling matches and other contests may be conducted so as to develop a lively and cordial spirit. 10. The working out of group constructions and projects in the manual arts, and in school- room decoration, in making furniture for school uses, etc. 11. In societies and debating clubs properly con- ducted, this cooperative spirit can be encouraged, and the social leaders brought out. 12. Outdoor excursions and nature study trips are socially important. Some of the hurtful tendencies along social lines may be designated as follows : 1. Connivance in various forms of mischief, as in note writing, whispering, disturbing noises with hands or feet, common obstinacy in not learning or reciting lessons, etc. 2. Noisy and boisterous actions in class marching and movements. 3. A disposition to conceal or cover up wrong actions and practices on the ground of not exposing one another. No tattling, etc. CHILDREN 33 4. Disturbing and more or less noisy demonstra- tions in the class ; pertness in talking out and interrupt- ing teacher and class. 5. A spirit of sullenness or resentment exhibited by a whole class because of some mistake or fault of the teacher. 6. The formation of cliques and of small social groups of a narrow or exclusive sort, clannish among themselves and unfriendly toward others. 7. The formation of groups in which a covert or secret antagonism toward the teacher is developed. 8. Excessive rivalry for prizes, high standing in classes, or distinctions, produces unsocial and hostile feelings. 9. In certain groups, in and out of the school, complaining gossips bring on antagonism against the teacher. The strong leadership of individuals in these various forms of grouping, and the social response of the mem- bers under such leadership, deserve the teacher's thoughtful and unprejudiced study. The combining or cooperating spirit is strong in children. The teacher's business is not to suppress it, but to give it direction, to bring it into such forms as reenforce the true life and activity of the school as a social organization. The proper socializing of children through the various cooperative agencies of the school, by setting up social ideals and by encour- V 34 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS aging appropriate conduct, is one of the highest func- tions of the school. The social groupings and tendencies of children and youth have become more recently an important object of study for educators. For the best uses in teaching the study of sociology is rapidly developing into an importance quite equal to that of psychology. CHAPTER IV CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION i. The Planning of Lessons for Classroom Work i. The planning of lessons should be based first of all upon the larger topic or whole which is being treated in a series of lessons. The lesson for a single day is usually but a fragment of this large topic. For example, the process of adding fractions is such a topic. A poem like "The Barefoot Boy," or a story like "The Great Stone Face," is such a complete topic involving a series of lessons. In history or geography one of the larger topics, like "Burgoyne's Invasion," or "The Rhine River," or the "Sahara Desert," may require a dozen lessons for a proper treatment. 2. In planning lessons the basal idea in one of these large topics should be grasped as the organizing prin- ciple which determines the sequence of main headings. To explain and clear up this idea, to show its im- portance and value in the world, is the purpose of the series of lessons. In the growth of this idea is found the logical continuity of the whole topical treat- ment. 35 $6 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 3. This topic should be thought of and worked out as a complete whole, without regard at first to the individual lessons and with complete mastery of the whole before the first lesson is taught. In fact, we cannot estimate accurately, at first, how many lessons will be required to complete the topic. As in the building of a house, the architect's plan is com- plete before the first day's work is begun. 4. In addition to this, young teachers should work out elaborately the individual lesson a day ahead, going into fuller details as to plan, method, and mate- rial. With growing experience and skill, this de- tailed planning can be much reduced. It is tedious and unnecessary to work out exact lesson plans several days ahead. 5. A strong logical or causal sequence, expressed in the form of a series of main headings, must be thought out as the framework for the whole topic. In doing this, one should learn to discriminate sharply between big central points and the subordinate facts or details which are grouped around them. One cannot make such plans without full and rich knowledge, nor with- out carefully weighing out and estimating relative values. The teacher is under the necessity of being a scholar and an organizing thinker. 6. A difficult question to settle is, how much of concrete data (illustrative or descriptive, facts or objects, pictures, maps and diagrams) is required to CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 37 bring out clearly the main organizing idea in the topic ? In important topics a very rich background of illus- trative and concrete material is necessary, much greater, indeed, than our textbooks usually supply. The teacher may become an expert in selecting and grouping this concrete data around the central points. 7. In getting the materials of such a large topic before children for their proper mastery and assimila- tion, the teacher must hold strongly to his well-planned outline. He will use skill in presentation, free discus- sion, question and answer, as important means for realizing the matured plan of organization. 8. On the basis of this plan the children will be held to a reasonably complete oral or written repro- duction of the main substance of thought. Such reproductions and the free use of blackboard sketch- ing or drawing, together with maps, pictures, and other modes of concrete illustration, are chiefly valuable as means for clarifying and emphasizing the simple basal outline of topics. 9. To work out a well-organized plan for the treat- ment of a topic requires studious, thoughtful, scholarly mental effort ; to hold firmly to this outline through the shifting vicissitudes of lively class instruction and discussion is a far more difficult task. 10. In the full planning and treatment of such large topics, one danger is that of spreading out too much into interesting, multitudinous details. Excellent 38 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS teachers are tempted by the richness of the thought materials to overelaborate the topics and to run off on side issues. The main difficulty is that of keeping up a proper balance between the illustrative facts and details and the important central ideas. n. In the oral presentation and discussion of these large topics each important heading often requires the solution of a problem, the thoughtful weighing of facts to reach some important result, i.e. independ- ent thinking and reasoning. In many of these large topics we have simply a series of interesting and thought-provoking problems to solve, e.g. in his- tory, geography, and science. 12. The fundamental idea involved in the develop- ment of one of these large topics needs to be released from the narrow local surroundings in which it is first clearly discovered and its applicability to a far wider field of experience shown. By comparisons on a wider scale, this larger, more nearly universal, meaning and value of the idea is gradually brought to light. 13. To institute and carry forward a series of com- parisons by which a local concept expands into a na- tional or even world idea, points out the second stage in the handling of a large topic. This step of com- parison, with the inferences and enlargement of thought involved, opens up great possibilities to in- struction. Teachers have been slow to seize this ad- vantage and to develop this phase of progressive, self-reliant thinking. CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 39 14. The final step in this extended thought move- ment is a present-day application of this idea to so- ciety, a problem in which this idea is trying to realize itself under present conditions. 15. In working out the plan for individual daily lessons, on the basis of the larger plan of a whole topic, the special form of questions, the sort of illus- trative examples, the use of pictures, maps and dia- grams, board work, drills and reviews, the comparisons and applications can be worked out in detail. 16. In closing the treatment of one of these large topics a decisive test, oral or written, of the children's knowledge and mastery of the subject should be made. The principal or supervisor may do this to the best advantage. Success depends upon the thoroughness with which the class as a whole has accomplished its tasks. 17. These large topics constitute milestones in the children's progress in knowledge and thinking power. The careful planning or laying out of such topical cam- paigns of study and their classroom treatment involve the use of all the principles of classroom instruction. 2. Exercises not Involved in the Larger Organized Topics of Study Much of the subject matter of school studies does not fall within the scope of the regular treatment of 40 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS these large well-organized topics of study. Besides important exercises, reviews and drills, there are formal elements to be mastered and a few odds and ends of useful knowledge which He apart and must not be overlooked. Among them are the following: i. The spelling of miscellaneous lists of words. Where rules of spelling can be worked out and applied, rules should be developed, but much of our spelling is arbitrary and exceptional. 2. The mastery of phonetic elements in primary reading as a means of more quickly acquiring the art of reading. This requires separate drills in the rec- ognition and use of forms. 3. Special phonetic drill in intermediate and grammar grades is a side issue to reading. 4. Learning the use of dictionaries, encyclopedias, and reference books is a special art. 5. Important drills on miscellaneous names and places in geography, on facts and periods in history, should be provided. 6. Varied and repeated problems for speed and mastery in mental arithmetic; especially practical miscellaneous problems. 7. The quick sketching of maps in geography and history. Drills in latitude and longitude, etc. 8. Exercises in writing and the mastery of the formal elements in composition. 9. Dictation exercises in language work. CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 41 10. Grammatical analysis of sentences, and dia- gramming. 11. Physical exercises, games and gymnasial prac- tice. 12. General exercises and current news. 13. The study of idioms and the correction of com- mon errors in speech. 14. Review tests and examinations in various studies. Even in the treatment of large well-organized topics of study, there is much danger of neglecting the re- views, drills, and tests on the facts and outlines. Teachers are prone to overlook the importance and even necessity of such exercises, and the children fail to fix the important facts and relations. We have made the frequent mistake of supposing that children will pick up these elements of knowledge incidentally without specific effort. Many things they do get indirectly, but thoroughness and mastery of knowledge are not gained by haphazard or careless methods. 3. Oral Instruction and the Development Method 1. The oral treatment of topics in contrast to the textbook method of study has come into general use, in the story-telling of primary grades, in handling geography, history, and nature study topics in inter- mediate grades, and even in treating important sub- 42 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS jects in upper grades. In some cases the subject matter is presented in the story-telling or lecture form by the teacher, in other cases a method of question and discussion, or development, is used. 2. The first essential for good oral instruction is the complete and thorough organization of the subject matter in the teacher's mind. The basis for such organization is a close logical series of main points for the whole topic, around which the necessary facts and ideas are grouped. 3. This organization of knowledge materials in an important topic, which includes not only the basal outline, but all the facts necessary to its proper elabo- ration, requires a high grade of constructive thinking. It presupposes not only a full knowledge of the sub- ject, but original power in selecting the central ideas in the argument, their arrangement into an orderly series, and the artistic grouping of the interesting details about these centers. 4. It will not seem strange if many even experienced and capable teachers have not acquired much power in this difficult art of organization. Most of our teachers have been trained in textbook methods where the organization is given outright, and our schools have not been strong in working out plans for the original organization of new materials. 5. In oral instruction, young teachers should cul- tivate, next, the power of clear and logical presenta- CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 43 tion, on the basis of previous careful organization. Closely combined with this there should be marked skill in graphic illustration by the use of descriptive language or board sketches, maps, pictures, and other modes of objectification. 6. Experience has demonstrated that for young teachers it is quite difficult, in free oral instruction, to hold to this aforesaid outline of leading points. Severe discipline and considerable experience are necessary before this logical habit is acquired by teachers. 7. The second essential of good oral work is the satisfactory reproduction by the children of this pre- sented material. Without this proof of attentiveness and mastery of the subject by the pupils, oral in- struction falls to pieces and goes to waste. 8. A far more difficult problem, and one not to be undertaken too rashly, is that of developing a complex topic by means of questions, answers, and free dis- cussion. This is the so-called "development process." 9. In our oral lessons in schools, there has been a strong tendency toward development instruction. It is a process of evolving the new subject matter, by means of questions based upon previous knowledge and experience and by means of discussions, in which the children are led to infer many facts and conclu- sions. In such oral work, however, many of the new facts must necessarily be presented by the teacher. 10. Development work, as commonly understood, 44 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS is based largely upon the proposition that we should not tell a child anything which* he is able to discover or think out for himself. Young teachers seem to be naturally disposed to adopt this development form of instruction and to hold back from giving direct information in development lessons. ii. Even a small amount of reflection will convince us that development instruction is an extremely com- plicated and difficult mode of teaching. It presup- poses an unusual mastery of the subject such as only experienced experts possess, a rare ability in asking questions, and an equally rare ability to guide free discussion along a predetermined logical line of thought. 12. Often our young and inexperienced teachers are not skillful in using a development method of instruction. Even if their material is well organized, they are easily drawn away upon side issues. They have not developed the judgment to discriminate between important and unimportant. They waste much valuable time in quizzing children about minor points, wrong statements, and suggestions in dis- cussion that lead them astray. Development lessons easily degenerate into loose discussions, without reach- ing definite and tangible results. 13. In development work the manner of question- ing should be subjected to close limitations. First, it should hold definitely and strongly to the main line CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 45 of thought. Second, a few central questions, striking in upon the main argument, are better than a large number of detailed questions. Third, questions that aim to bring out a child's previous knowledge, for apperceptive uses, must be very clear and well-judged. 14. In history, geography, and other studies treated orally, it is important to make sure that the essential facts are presented to children before calling upon them to reflect or draw conclusions. Teachers often make the mistake of trying to develop by questions facts which ought to be furnished by the teacher or from a book. See to it first that the conditions of thought, the necessary facts, are present in children's minds, as a basis for reasoning. They may be drawn out of a child's experience in part. But they should not seldom be directly furnished by the instructor. 15. Many teachers seem to have an antipathy against giving children any information by direct statement, but they show a strong preference for questions as a mode of prying secrets out of children. 16. The questioning habit in teachers runs into serious faults that are easily noticed by an observer, as follows: (a) a multiplicity of questions, where a few well-chosen, significant questions would be better ; (b) chasing down a child's mistakes with questions so that he will correct himself (often a great waste of time) ; (c) questioning children on side issues that arise in discussion (such questions carry one far 46 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS afield and accomplish little) ; (d) questioning a child when he is muddled to see if he cannot extricate him- self (usually a vain hope and a great waste of time) ; (e) vague and unpremeditated questions which leave the children in doubt as to the teacher's meaning. 17. As soon as the important facts bearing on a subtopic have been gained from the child or presented by the teacher or obtained from the book, apt ques- tions, to bring out the significance and grouping of these facts, their wider import, or their application in the further development of the topic, are in place. 18. In presenting problems in history or geography for children to solve by their own thinking, first state in full the introductory facts, the difficulties of the situation. Then raise a question as to the mode of solution. 19. Teachers often enter upon a series of questions with too little preliminary reflection. To state good clear questions is a difficult art. To ask a series of pertinent questions leading to a logical development of a topic is an extremely difficult process of thinking, one acquired only by severe discipline and training. 20. Teachers should use a development method with considerable caution, and not depend upon it at first as the main feature of oral instruction. With en- larged experience and training, skill in asking develop- ment questions is gradually acquired. 21. Skillful development instruction is one of the CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 47 highest and most difficult arts in the teaching pro- fession. Those who would aspire to such worthy achievement should be willing to put themselves under discipline, first in the serious thought work of organization, and second in the various forms of skill required in lively oral work. ■v 4. Questioning Questioning is the most important instrument used by the teacher in classroom exercises. It has a great variety of uses, some of them very delicate and dis- criminating. Teachers usually drop into the ques- tioning habit freely and unreservedly without much concern as to its difficulties or pitfalls, and without seeming to realize that good questioning is an uncom- monly difficult art. The style of questioning adopted by a teacher betrays at once the weak points or the strong points in his mental character. We will note first some of the more commonly rec- ognized characteristics of good questioning. 1. Questions should spring from a deliberate and thoughtful attitude of mind, and they should produce in pupils a similar thoughtful and reflective mood. This applies to questions used to test knowledge, power to see relations and to solve problems. 2. Good questions by the teacher spring out of a well-organized body of knowledge. Without per- 48 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS ceiving clearly the organizing centers of thought in his subject, the teacher is at a loss how to frame or where to apply his questions. Prudent and thought- ful questions strike in toward the main line of thought and touch the pivotal points in the series of topics. They are centripetal rather than centrifugal. It takes thought and practice to hit the mark with a question. 3. A good question that strikes the center of a topic calls up a whole series or group of things, and before this question is answered, may require a re- combination of facts and data. Make one question go as far as possible. 4. These pivotal questions will have to be thought out reflectively beforehand. It is not safe to depend upon the inspiration of the moment. 5. In questioning one must learn to discriminate between the important and the trivial, between those things which contain the gist of the matter and those of small import. 6. Questions must be clear, explicit, and unam- biguous. This requires care, simplicity, and definite- ness in language. 7. Successive questions should follow a logical line of argument and not scatter far into bypaths. Faulty questioning assumes a variety of forms : 1. Asking too many questions. In the opinion of some thoughtful people, the usual free and promiscuous CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 49 questions of teachers run far in excess of a proper standard. Teachers are said to ask many times as many questions as are needed. 2. It is not an uncommon fault of teachers to help children too much by numerous detailed questions. The pupil, instead of reciting independently and con- nectedly upon some important topic, waits for the teacher's questions and is propped up and sup- ported at every step by the teacher's suggestive and overhelpful inquiries. 3. Some of these careless questions suggest the an- swer, or by the tone of voice imply that the child's previous answer is wrong. 4. Questions which set children to guessing are sometimes allowed to run from one to another in the class, without definite outcome. Various opinions are called for, and in the end the matter is left unsettled. 5. Vague, indefinite, and general questions are all too common. They are so bungling and obscure that no rational answer could be given. Such questions are, in fact, enigmas or riddles upon which to waste time. 6. In development instruction, questions are some- times asked to bring out facts that cannot be found in the child's experience. It is a great waste of time to fish after facts which somehow will not come to the surface. 50 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 7. After failing to get an answer to one question, teachers do not like to give up in defeat and so ask another and another question, until perhaps a loop- hole of escape appears, or the teacher himself is com- pelled in the end to explain and give the answer. 8. A common fault is that of repeating one's ques- tions, as well as the answers of the children. 9. A frequent error in stating questions is that of giving one question, then changing or modifying it in various ways until the children can understand it. This procedure suggests that the instructor has not reflected upon his questions and boiled them down to what is definite and essential. 10. A serious problem in dealing with questions and answers is that of handling skillfully the replies made by the children. To incorporate the answers and con- tributions of the children into the forward thought- movement without wasting time on trivial side issues, requires broadmindedness and quick and accurate judgment. 1 1 . In lively and thoughtful instruction many ques- tions spring from the children themselves that are worthy of careful consideration. 12. It is an encouraging sign to see children coming into a class recitation prepared to ask important questions. It proves that they have been set to think- ing either in the previous lesson or during the study period. CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION 51 5. Attention )( 1. The success of all mental activity depends upon the degree of attentiveness to the thing in hand. 2. The teacher can help children in their work by providing the conditions favorable to strong attention, as follows : (a) a subject of study that naturally com- mands the interest and attention of children ; (b) set- ting up aims and problems that concentrate thought upon important and difficult topics ; (c) physical and mental freshness in the children ; (d) the removal of disturbing influences. 3. The energetic will of the teacher may reenforce the vacillating will of the children in securing atten- tion to the lesson. 4. In the act of attention the mind is focalized for an instant upon one thing, and then moves on to the next and the next, etc. A progressive movement of thought is required in order to hold the attention. Otherwise it jumps the track and wanders off. 5. Mental effort in classrooms goes properly by spurts, or strong impulses, with short periods of re- laxation. As in boxing, a three minutes' vigorous effort, followed by a minute of rest, etc. Primary children cannot work with full vigor more than five or ten minutes at a time. Then should follow a short rest and transition to something else. 6. German schools lay great stress upon attentive- 52 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS ness in the classroom, and they provide long rest periods between the recitation periods. 7. In oral recitations, where no textbooks are used, success depends upon close attention. The habit of inattention, cultivated in the classroom, repeats and fixes itself in the study periods at home and school. The classroom is the place to train children to right habits. 8. Laxity of attention in classrooms is a somewhat marked feature of many of our schools. 9. One of the chief difficulties for young teachers (and often for older ones) is that of securing and hold- ing class attention. 10. Fresh air, gymnastic exercises and recesses or rests properly distributed, are a direct support to at- tention. CHAPTER V THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION i. How to Judge and Criticize Class Recitations i. Note first the position and grouping of the class with regard to teacher, blackboard, maps and illus- trative materials, and with regard to light from win- dows. The compact grouping of the pupils so as to be easily surveyed and controlled by the teacher is of importance. 2. Manner, dress, and attitude of the teacher be- fore the class. Is he confident or diffident, energetic or impassive, stiff or flexible, agreeable or offish, well equipped or unprepared, overcritical or overindulgent, neat and tasteful in dress or careless. 3. Discover the plan of the day's lesson and its relation to the series of lessons in the larger topic. Does this lesson fit in closely to the thought-movement of the entire subject? In the review of previous points and in the assignment for the next lesson, do we observe a well-organized plan ? 4. Is the teacher a full master (1) of the subject of study in its facts and thought relations ; (2) of the S3 54 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS attention and interest of children ; (3) of the thought processes by which children appropriate knowledge? 5. Is the teacher skillful in the clear presentation of difficult points and in calling forth adequate re- productions from the class? Is the response of the class to the teacher's questions and leadership strong and self-reliant ? 6. Is he an adept in questioning and in managing discussion? Can he direct the children into strong and independent thinking while holding firmly to essential points in the close line of argument? All discussion tends to run wild. Does the teacher hold it to the point without damage to freedom ? 7. Is the teacher incisive and definite in bringing the main ideas into prominence so that they are clearly grasped by the pupils and expressed in fitting lan- guage ? Have the children's ideas been cleared up on important points so that these stand out sharply in their minds ? 8. Is too much attention bestowed upon a few pupils, either upon the quicker or the slower ones, in the class? Is the class spirit kept up without losing track of individuals ? 9. Does the master dominate the class too much with his own opinion and authority, or does he throw the children more and more upon their own resources in thinking and in expressing their thought ? 10. Does the teacher keep a just balance between THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION 55 accuracy in little things and the emphasis of important ideas or principles? Can these two things be com- bined in one recitation ? 11. Is he versatile in simple, concrete modes of illus- trations, whether by anecdote, personal experience and humorous example, or by blackboard sketching, dia- gram, dramatic action, figures of speech, and sim- plicity and clearness in language. 12. In its results test the recitation upon the value of the knowledge acquired and organized during the class period, the kind of thinking done, and the spirit developed in the class toward the subject of study. 13. As a consequence of the lesson, will children know better how to study? how to apply their ef- forts more independently to the succeeding problems of study? Is there inclination to push on further in the study of the subject ? 14. Did the lesson have insufficient variety to keep up a lively mental activity, or did it tend toward mo- notony and consequent dullness and inattention ? 15. What was the special aim of this lesson, and to what extent was it realized in the work accomplished ? 16. Was the teacher alert to make use of the chil- dren's previous life experiences and knowledge gained in school studies? Was there much connection be- tween this lesson and other lessons ? 17. Did the instructor take sufficient time and pains in the assignment of the succeeding lesson ? 56 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 1 8. Was the teacher properly attentive to correct language expression and full sentence construction? 19. Did the teacher talk too much or too little ? 20. Was good use made of the contributions brought by the pupils to the discussion of topics ? 21. Were the teacher's questions well digested, clear, and properly centered on the main points ? 22. Was there waste of time in discussion, in repe- titions, in class management, or in other ways ? 23. In observing a lesson, take a few notes of such definite character as to illustrate the points of criti- cism. Give full credit for the excellences shown in a recitation. Avoid all unkindly and harsh criticism. 2. Where to Center Attention The concentration of attention and effort upon important points and upon difficulties that must be met is the secret of success in much of our study. The failure to strike these important points hard and to drill upon them is accountable for much ill- success. 1. In spelling a list of words it is advisable to put the list on the board and examine them one by one to discover what the special difficulty is in each case, to focus attention upon the point where a mistake is likely to occur, as in the word separate; the middle syllable sep-a-rate is the danger point. In their THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION 57 following study the children will fall upon these special points with vigor. 2. In a reading lesson, proper names, as in the poems of " Horatius " or " Hiawatha," need to be ex- amined and clearly pronounced and the specially troublesome names given in concert and singly in the assignment of the lesson. 3. Likewise in geographical studies, hard names deserve special preliminary attention and a correct pronunciation secured before study and drill are re- quired. They will then know upon what to center attention. 4. In the correction of common faults in the use of English, a small number of the more common errors in the use of the verb to be, of pronouns, of con- tractions, of homonyms, and of irregular verbs, should be clearly shown by examples, the proper forms placed conspicuously on the blackboard and kept before the children until habits of correct use are established. 5. In sketching maps of states, or continents or countries, show children, in the introduction to a map- making lesson, how to see the large prominent features of a map, its main bulk and dimensions, its shape as a whole in proper proportions, and neglect the little points, the small crooks and details. Fix the atten- tion upon these essential features as a clear sugges- tion how to study. 6. In arithmetic teach children to find the pivot of 58 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS the problem, and the grouping of facts around this point. In working out a process like long division or the division of fractions, there is one spot in the process where the main difficulty lies. Fix attention upon this, illustrate it and clear it up, before assigning a lesson in problems to apply this process. In the writing of decimals, before giving problems, see to it that the children image the number before writing it. Let them get the habit of determining the number of places to the right of the decimal point, the number of zeros required, and then be prepared to write the number correctly from left to right promptly. 7. In assigning a lesson in spelling from a passage in the reading lesson, teach the children how to pick out the difficult words, especially those used commonly in letter writing or composition. Notice which words are phonetically spelled, which are peculiar and ex- ceptional. Make a list of those deserving particular attention. 8. In an oral lesson in history or science or geog- raphy, teach children how to discriminate between minor facts and leading points, how to make an out- line of essential subtopics, each of which is an important center of thought. This forms then the basis of reproductions and of later reviews and drills. The making of good outlines is a fine art, requiring a careful judgment of values and an accent upon essentials. THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION 59 9. In the study of literary selections, lead children to hunt out the main theme, the controlling motive in each important act or section of the story and of the whole poem or story. The entire treatment will hinge upon the wise selection of the chief idea or mo- tive in a masterpiece. These few illustrations will serve to show how great an economy may be secured and how much more efficiency in studies is possible if children are taught where, that is, upon what points, to concentrate their attention as a basis for thorough mastery and drill. The less important facts and topics can be passed upon more quickly or dropped to one side. 3. Formal Routine and Humdrum Humdrum is denned in the dictionary as dull, com- monplace, tedious, etc. There are many school exercises which seem to possess a natural tendency to run into formal routine and humdrum. Even the most interesting studies, in the hands of a sleepy teacher, drop down to a drowsy monotony. A few of the more marked examples of humdrum may be stated as follows : 1. In reading lessons, where children read con- tinuously without suggestion or criticism, and without apparent aim. The teacher's one remark is, "Read on, Mary," "Read on, Peter." 60 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 2. In primary reading, word drills are apt to be- come dull and tiresome. Indeed, it is difficult to hold the attention of the little folks upon them. The teacher is put to it to find original devices and variety of work for such emergencies. 3. The learning of dictionary definitions of words, without insight to apply them to the sentences in hand. 4. Memorizing and reciting passages and poems that are not well understood. 5. Drill in the spelling of meaningless words. 6. Grammatical analysis and diagramming of sen- tences may take on the character of formal routine. In such cases, for example, simple words like 0, the, and and are repeated and explained a hundred times. The teacher should drop these familiar, simple things, and turn attention only to those constructions that involve some difficulty of thought. 7. The memorizing and repetition of definitions and rules that are not clearly understood, in grammar and arithmetic. Such rules should be derived directly from abundant illustrations which make them intel- ligible and then applied to new cases. 8. The exact verbal analysis of problems and pro- cesses in arithmetic may become exceedingly formal, tedious, and discouraging. 9. The verbal memorizing of textbook lessons in history and geography without imaging the scenes, THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION 61 or thinking out the meanings. Such thoughtless memorizing betrays its emptiness by its monotony and lack of expression. 10. Reviews and drills upon fixed series of facts in history and geography without new interpretation. Such chronological tables in history and formal series of names in geography often have no underlying thought connection. n. The rote singing of songs without emphasis of thought or sentiment, or even without appreciation of the musical quality of the selection. 12. Dictations in constructive work and blue print directions in the shop exercises prove that formal and thoughtless routine is as dangerous and depressing in the manual arts as in grammar and reading. 13. Catechisms in religious instruction easily drop into this formal routine. 14. The history of science teaching and of nature study reveals a similar drift toward formalism, as in the old method of plant analysis, in the memorizing of classifications and orders in animals or insects, and in the description of plants or animals according to a tabulated scheme. 15. In studying literature from textbooks, even the facts, names of books, and other data of an author's life, as of Irving or Bryant, can be brought into a dull routine as humdrum as anything. 16. Even physical exercises and marching may take 62 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS on the lockstep and the dull movement. The out- door games of children, when too carefully supervised and controlled, lose their freedom and spontaneity, becoming dull and uninteresting. 17. These and other illustrations that might be enumerated make it plain that almost any kind of school exercise may easily drop down into routine and humdrum. The question may be fairly asked whether any kind of school work, if kept up to a nor- mal, healthy tone, should ever become humdrum. Humdrum implies sleepiness, and is the vanishing point of thought and spirit. 4. How Time is Wasted Economy in the use of time is one of the first essen- tials of good school work. In contrast to this primary need of economy and efficiency, our school exercises show, in several ways, a serious loss of time. What is still more serious, the habits of wasting time formed in the schools are perpetuated in the various callings of later life. The channels through which time runs to waste in the schools may be noted as follows : 1. In not devising and executing, in each subject of study, a well-defined plan of work. Definite goals must be clearly fixed in mind, and the work pressed forward steadily toward their accomplishment. This THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION 63 requires systematic planning and skill in execution, also the selection of definite units of study in proper order. 2. By not planning and executing promptly room and class movements. For lack of forethought in giving directions, children become confused in taking their places at the board, in passing and collecting materials, etc. 3. By not providing the necessary physical condi- tions for vigorous mental effort. Time is wasted in trying to teach children in a hot, poorly ventilated room, or when they are tired, sleepy, or nervously unstrung. 4. In lecturing children too much about good order, behavior, and delinquencies, while forgetting to execute promptly and steadily requirements al- ready made. 5. In scolding and reproving children publicly till they become hardened and willful in opposition. 6. In not securing and holding a strong and general class attention. This may be done by planning the work so as to make it interesting and valuable in con- tent. 7. In trying to teach the principles of a new lesson before recalling and bringing into service earlier knowl- edge and experience upon which these principles are based. 8. In not watching the whole class, but confining 64 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS the attention to one or two reciting, so that the class as a whole loses interest and drifts away. The work must then be done again for the sake of de- linquents. 9. In half-learning things; that is, running over a mass of knowledge somewhat hastily, so that the facts and ideas are not clearly fixed, the meanings and relations are vaguely understood, and thorough reviews and drills are omitted. 10. In following a loose method of development work, with much free discussion, and a failure to clear up the main line of thought. Many small matters and side issues are allowed to absorb the time. There is lack of discrimination between important and un- important. Inferences are drawn upon a too slender basis of facts. 11. In indefinite and poorly framed questions which prompt the children to loose guessing. 12. In the teacher's talking and explaining too much. The burden of effort should be thrown heavily upon the pupils, and teachers should not monopolize the time even with interesting lectures, to say nothing of mere talk. 13. In lifeless and humdrum exercises that deaden the spirit and ambition of the class. 14. In waiting too long for the poorer members of the class, or in trying to follow out some abortive line of questioning. THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION 65 15. In trying to force an answer from a child when he is manifestly unable or unwilling to give it. 16. In allowing children to criticize each other's work. They waste too much time on trivial errors. 17. In disputing with children. 18. In the hasty, loose, and unpremeditated assign- ment of lessons. Thus questions, disputes, and un- reasonable requirements arise. Such faulty assign- ments are prolific in bad results. 19. Time is wasted during the study period, (1) be- cause of a lack of a definite program of work, (2) be- cause difficulties are met for which the pupils are not prepared, (3) because of dawdling and inattentive habits cultivated, (4) because children disturb one another, sometimes trying to study together. 5. The Study Period 1. During the study period, unless the children are strongly supervised, they drop easily into careless habits and poor work. 2. It is not enough to keep children orderly and busy during the study period. A standard of neat and careful work should be kept up and errors foreseen and avoided. 3. Children left to themselves often dawdle in their work. They make many careless blunders, and get established in bad habits. 66 HANDBOOK OF PRACTICE FOR TEACHERS 4. Great pains should be taken to make careful and definite assignments for the study period. If the teacher can give attention to those working during the study period and hinder mistakes or prevent careless, slipshod work, he will save much time. 5. The old theory that children should be left to their own resources during the study period and should master their lessons independently, receiving little or no help, is good only in part. The careless habits of study and of doing things, formed by children when left to themselves, interfere seriously with efficiency. 6. It is doubtful if children under any circum- stances should be allowed the freedom to be careless and heedless in their work. 7. As far as possible, forewarn children and prevent them from making mistakes. Every mistake and careless performance is the beginning of a bad habit or the strengthening of an old fault. 8. Dictation exercises in language lead to many mistakes which should be foreseen and avoided. Call attention beforehand to probable mistakes in use of capitals, abbreviations, spelling, and sentence form. 9. The teacher must be persistent in maintaining good standards during the study period as well as in the recitation. 10. A little time spent in examining and correcting THE CRITICISM OF INSTRUCTION 67 papers executed during the study period will help to keep up these standards. 11. There is much danger of helping some children too much during the study period, and of neglecting others. Some children lean very heavily upon the teacher for help. Others are too independent. 12. Even with two classes in the room, and with one reciting at a time, much can be done by thought- ful foresight and by inspecting results to keep up good standards of careful work. CHAPTER VI GENERAL PROBLEMS AND PRINCIPLES i. Problems not Easily Solved The following statements suggest problems of un- usual practical importance which are not easily solved, but require the constant attentive considera- tion of teachers. i. Spencer's idea of natural punishments, i.e. how to adjust penalties to the misdemeanors of chil- dren, so as to give full play to the natural results which follow the deed; illustrated by the old story of the boy who cried "wolf." 2. To encourage initiative in children, that is, leadership in projecting plans, in devising problems, and in inventing ways of meeting difficulties. Robin- son Crusoe illustrates initiative. The schoolroom, because of its formal requirements, is slow to prompt to initiative. 3. How to deal with children who are weak in power of attention, who lack steadiness and concen- tration of thought, whose minds flit about incessantly from topic to topic. 68 GENERAL PROBLEMS AND PRINCIPLES 69 4. Can we plan the work in such a way as to get good English in all studies, or at least a constant at- tention to correct and appropriate language in every lesson so that children will steadily improve in lan- guage power ? 5. Are we able to deal with children during the study period so that they will learn how to study, how to use books, how to master lessons and think for themselves ? Some recitations are best employed in teaching children how to use their books. Three effective ways of influencing a child's study : (a) by careful and suggestive assignments, (b) by more or less supervision of the study period, (c) by tests, criticisms, and discussions during the recitation. 6. How shall we keep up a strong connection and continuity of thought in studies from grade to grade ? This would lay emphasis upon underlying unities and sequences in studies and courses. In history, for example, a deeper study of causes and effects, and more continuous treatment by big topics. 7. Is there a way of making the study of grammar of practical use, with real motives for the children and with direct influence in correcting and improving children's common use of English? E.g. the study of irregular verbs, their parts and conjugations, should aid in avoiding common mistakes. A more constant and rigorous application of grammatical principles to all studies should help in this. 7