THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL Important Legislation in the United States Affecting Women and Children WHITE SPACES INDICATE GOOD LEGISLATION, BLACK SPACES POOR OR NO LEGISLATION, COLOR SPACES FULL SUFFRAGE STATES Circle 1 Industrial Welfare Commis- sion to regulate hours, wages and working conditions of women and children 2 Child Labor 14 year limit. Guarded exemptions during vacations are allowed and poverty exemptions when these are neutralized by Mothers' Pensions laws Note : Neither Illinois nor any < are Included as full suffrage CircIeS Compulsory education State wide 4 Eight or nine hour day for women 5 Minimum wage 6 Mothers' pensions 7 Equal guardianship 8 Age of consent. 18 year* chaste or unchaste 9 Red light abatement 10 Prohibition f the Victory States of 1917 states la cbart analysis THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL BY S. E. FORMAN AND MARJOBIE SHULER WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT NEW YORK THE CENTURY CO. 1918 Copyright, 1918, by THE CENTUEY Co, This book is sent forth to meet the evident desire of the American woman to know more about her gov- ernment. Its purpose is not to satisfy that desire but to stimulate it. The facts which it contains about the government have been selected mainly from one of Dr. Forman's books, "The American Republic." The introduction for the woman voter has been written by one whose supreme gifts are helping to bring about world recognition of the relationship between woman and government, Mrs. Carrie Chapman Catt, presi- dent of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance and of the National American Woman Suffrage As- sociation. MARJORIE SHULER. 392470 (\ INTRODUCTION THE VOTE AND THE VOTER By CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT President of the National American Woman Suffrage Association and of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance OF the 27,011,330 women of voting age in the United States, more than one-third are now enfran- chised, either as voters for presidential electors, or as fully as our present national laws permit women to be enfranchised. No woman in the United States is yet enfranchised as is her husband or her father or her son or her brother, and will not be until woman suffrage is incorporated in the national con- stitution. Not even then, unless she can come to hold her naturalization in her own person instead of as a cloak to be put on and off as she marries, unmarries or is widowed. Whatever the voting strength of these more than 9,000,000 women of voting age may be, the fact of vii viii INTRODUCTION practical value for such a book as the present one is that a large and ever increasing number of women citizens are avid for information on the new ques- tions of local; State and national government which women and men must now decide together. They are coming up to these questions with a vivid new personal interest that bids fair to lift "civil govern- ment" out of the cold aloofness of academic discus- sion on the one side, and the "mire of politics" on the other. To be bromidic, women are going to hu- manize questions of government. That will not be, I think, because only to woman is given the human outlook on life, but because the human is composite of men and women and the human in the outlook of both is stirred and developed through cooperative rather than segregated work. As emergent voters the women of America are to- day facing the same fundamental questions as to the new responsibility as are the young American man of twenty-one and the immigrant. The enfranchise- ment of woman, the coming of age of the young man, and the naturalization of the immigrant there you have the three agencies through which the electorate of America is to be kept in a state of inquiry and action instead of in a condition of acquiescence and being. A prime difference in the three cases is that the INTRODUCTION ix woman is asking all the questions that the other two ought to ask but do not. Of course it would be the woman who would ask the questions. For one thing, it does not go so hard with women to admit their ignorance as it does with men. For another, woman has had to fight for suffrage while the young man was acquiring it as he acquired his moustache, by the simple expedient of getting older, and the immigrant man was acquiring it by the simple expedient of liv- ing in America long enough to take on some of those American ideals and commitments into which the woman, if native, was born; and having fought for the suffrage, the fight has informed woman with a special sense of the value in the thing fought for, and a special desire fully to understand it. Suffragists alone would start the questions, but it is not suffra- gists alone among women who want the answers. The antis mean to vote, the indifferent mean to vote. In the result, texts on civil government become at one leap of intimate value. Instead of remote sum- maries of the function of the " judiciary, the legisla- tive, the administrative," that of which they treat is identified as breakfast table talk the mayor's ap- pointments, home rule for cities, what the legisla- ture is doing with the child labor bill, what Wash- ington will do with bills defining the authority of the government in its war control of this, that, or the x INTRODUCTION other. There is an acute recognition of "the govern- ment " as a matter of close contact and an immediate intention to understand it better. And conversely, from now on, thanks to woman's enfranchisement, achieved or impending, it will be necessary for the government to understand woman better, so that the give-and-take, the reflex from woman suffrage into the body politic, and out again upon the community, may be the better assimilated. WOMAN SUFFRAGE A WAR MEASURE When the world war began shaking the existing ideas of government about, it had the effect upon them that is produced by shaking a barrel of apples, the little ones went to the bottom and the big ones came to the top. Consider some of the first little ap- ples to go out of sight. In Italy and in France women had distinct civil disabilities such as the necessity of getting their husbands' authorization before they could act in legal matters. These ideas have not only sunk to the bottom of the barrel, but have apparently shrunk to a size which has permitted them to fall through cracks and disappear. In a cataclysm which has destroyed class distinctions by demanding leader- ship from all classes, sex discrimination could no longer endure in the light of the complete sacrifice for service shown by both sexes. In Italy and France INTRODUCTION xi municipal suffrage is in process of establishment. It is urged by statesmen as much as by woman suffra- gists. In France it is indeed a necessity, since in many communities the only people left to protect the standards of life are loyal women who have served their country no less ably than the front line soldiers who have given their lives for France. The fiercest opponents of woman suffrage in Eng- land have demonstrated no little ingenuity in their lightning changes from adamantine hostility to suf- frage to fervid acceptance of it. Democracy has become a password. Every state paper and suggested basis of peace drives home, as with bayonet thrusts, the basic fact that for the word democracy, one may now substitute the phrase " gov- ernment derives its just powers from the consent of the governed. " Outside of Germany it would be hard to find a statesman with the temerity to gainsay this. Up to date Germany is the only great country which has failed to grasp the fact that this is the real issue of the war. Outside of Germany there are few political leaders and those few mainly men advanced in years who do not now know that women are among the "governed." By its recent Franchise Reform Bill, Hungary has demonstrated that the two vital issues, "government by the people" and "women are peo- xii INTRODUCTION pie/' are recognized as fundamental to the life of that nation. WHAT SHE DOES WITH THE VOTE WHEN SHE GETS IT In the United States the great suffrage victories of the year 1917 have urged the question on beyond interest in its merits or the abstract justice involved in it, to the practical application of it. Whether women vote when they can ; what they do with their votes when they get them; and the effects of their enfranchisement upon home and community are, for- tunately, demonstrable propositions. In every full voting State in which the records are sufficiently complete to form a basis of judgment, three things have been established: women register and vote in about the same proportion as men; they show an in- telligent interest in elections, and they double the voting strength of their states with a comparatively small increase in voting paraphernalia. Knowledge of the kinds of legislation attempted or achieved by voting women likewise rests upon facts. The legislation accomplished follows the psy- chology of women; it follows the matters in which they are most vitally interested. If there is truth in the theory that men and women are different, it clinches the absolute need for women in political life. In New Zealand, where women have voted for twenty- INTRODUCTION xiii five years, the infant death rate is lower than in any other part of the world. And the New Zealand meth- ods of caring for the health of women and children are cited as models by authorities. A burning grievance of mothers for countless years was the fact that in the eyes of the law the children they had borne did not belong to them; they belonged to the fathers. When a controversy arose over the disposition of the child, or its religious education, or the right to in- herit from it, the advantage has always lain with the father. As soon as woman began to emerge as a so- cial entity, even before she had the vote, this deep suffering of mothers found voice. For seventy years mothers have struggled for an equal share with fa- thers in the control of their own children. In almost every full suffrage State in the Union this matter has received a first consideration and equal guardianship obtains in every State where women vote on the same terms as men. It does not obtain to any such extent where fathers only vote, as only twenty-five per cent, of the thirty-six male suffrage States have this law. The District of Columbia's equal guardianship law is the result of the hard work of a woman lawyer. Six of the woman voting States have secured an eight-hour day for women. Not one male suffrage State has done so. Sixty-three per cent, of the full suffrage States (New York not included) have a min- xiv INTRODUCTION imum wage law, less than fourteen per cent, of the man-suffrage States have one. Every full suffrage State has a mothers' pension law. Ninety per cent, of the full suffrage States (New York not included) have the injunction and abatement law. Recently the Chicago Chief of Police sent out a call for a woman protective police force as a war meas- ure. Behind this recognition of the fact that women can be relied upon as a rear guard, lies an interest- ing history of a movement to use women as police even in normal times of peace. This movement, both in England and the United States, was initiated by women, urged by women, and steadfastly defeated in America until women got the vote. The mere possession of the franchise by the women of Chicago, before they had a chance to put it in practice, acted as a lever to set the Chicago women police idea on its feet. What the women police have meant in time of war is a momentous chapter not yet writ- ten. Women voters in Illinois, California, Colorado, Washington, and Montana are on record as having achieved such domestic legislation as state-wide laws concerning food inspection. Earl Barnes reports that he has seen " nowhere else such statutes as fear- lessly and vigorously enforced as in Idaho. ' ' Montana is, next to New York, one of the youngest INTRODUCTION xv children in the suffrage group. It gained enfran- chisement in 1914, yet by 1916, the first political campaign in which the women voters participated, old political wheel horses were astonished at the con- centration of effort and energy exhibited by the whole woman electorate of Montana. A woman State Superintendent of Public Instruction, who ran en- tirely upon her special qualifications, and was sup- ported by the women because of her fitness, was elected by an overwhelming majority. Other legis- lation worked for by women in their first campaign in Montana included an eight-hour day for women, im- provements in the mothers' pension law, establish- ment of a child welfare division of the Department of Public Health and an expert survey of the feeble- minded of the State. Colorado 's Juvenile Court Law has been called by the head of the National Child Labor Committee ''one of the best, if not the best." As she has become possessed of the vote, the female of the species has proved herself rather fundamentally averse to office- seeking. The practice of women in full suffrage States has been to occupy such public positions as logically develop out of their special training. Women, who make up eighty per cent, of the teaching profession and who as parents are vi- tally in touch with the needs of childhood, have in all xvi INTRODUCTION full suffrage States acceptably filled local and state positions as superintendents of public instruction or as members of school boards or as commissioners of Public Welfare in connection with the labor of women and children. In some instances marked ability or experience in these lines has led them into legislative positions. In full suffrage States the woman lawyer is naturally less impeded in her advance from post to post in her own profession than her professional sister in non-suffrage States. The woman doctor mounts the rungs of her ladder less weighed down with artificial burdens. The point in all this is the reassuring fact that the state undergoes no volcanic wrench when women participate in its political career. What women are bound to do anyway, whether because of natural abilities or personal in- clinations or because of economic and industrial pres- sure, they do with fewer handicaps when they have the franchise than when they haven't it. Experi- ence also shows that the large social movements by which all mankind is affected predetermine these matters for women as well as for men. When vast numbers of women are needed in industry they go into it. If such a situation arises, justice and expe- diency both demand that women should be protected by their own ballots, not by so-called representative ballots, as on the face of it no one ballot can be INTRODUCTION xvii counted upon to express two persons' "consent" m government. An obsession exists among some men lest women begin at once to untie all the neat packages into which political parties have tied their inherited traditions. A few men are still shuddering lest women will want to revolutionize banking legislation, throw the tariff overboard and run amuck amongst stocks and bonds. In the first place, they never have done anything of the sort in any State where women vote, and in the second place, women are conservative spenders. A re- proach against them has been their timidity in think- ing in the gross. They have so long thought in lit- tles. NO SEX SEGREGATION IN POLITICS Woman, the voter, disproves too, all along the line, the contention that there will ever be a distinct wom- an's party in the history of the United States. Hu- man interests find few such vertical lines of cleavage between the sexes. It is inconceivable that the thou- sands of homes in the country could ever be split apart longitudinally. If the extraordinary injustices against women permitted by men in past generations have never yet bred up a group of women combined for attack, is it likely that, as those grievances are more and more removed and men's and women's in- xviii INTRODUCTION t crests become more and more identical, there will ever be a collective strife of women against men ? Hu- man needs are normally group needs, family needs, or needs of industrial units. Society may split apart in horizontal sections with whole groups of men and women on each side of the line. And when it does, women will be found valiant in supporting the meas- ures they espouse. But because of the very struc- ture of human society it will never happen that masses of women will have a desire to cohere in oppo- sition to masses of men. Nature and personal affec- tions would soon prove too strong for such political differentiations. It is together, as human beings, not as men and not as women that the voters of the United States are moving forward into the new democracy with its larger questions and its finer and surer an- swers. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION PAGE EQUAL SUFFRAGE IN THE UNITED STATES . . vii EQUAL SUFFRAGE A WAR MEASURE x EQUAL SUFFRAGE IN OTHER COUNTRIES x EQUAL SUFFRAGE LEGISLATION xii No SEX SEGREGATION IN POLITICS xvii I POPULAR GOVERNMENT THE UNITED STATES A DEMOCRACY 3 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES .... 5 II THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP CIVIL RIGHTS AND POLITICAL RIGHTS 8 THE CIVIL RIGHTS OF STATE CITIZENSHIP .... 10 THE CIVIL RIGHTS OF FEDERAL CITIZENSHIP ... 12 THE DUTIES OF CITIZENSHIP 15 III CONGRESS REPRESENTATION IN CONGRESS 17 THE ASSEMBLING OF CONGRESS AND ITS ADJOURNMENT 17 THE HOUSE AT WORK 19 I The Speakership 19 CONTENTS PAGE II The Committees 20 III The Rules 21 THE SENATE AT WORK 23 THE POWERS OF CONGRESS 24 IV THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET THE POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE PRESIDENT . . 26 THE PRESIDENT'S SHARE IN LAW-MAKING .... 27 SUCCESSION TO THE PRESIDENCY 28 THE CABINET 29 V FEDERAL EXECUTIVE WORK THE DEPARTMENTS 31 EXECUTIVE WORK OUTSIDE THE DEPARTMENTS ... 35 THE NATIONAL CIVIL SERVICE 35 SALARIES OF PRINCIPAL FEDERAL OFFICIALS .... 36 VI COURTS, STATE AND FEDERAL THE SEVERAL GRADES OF STATE COURTS 37 THE SEVERAL GRADES OF FEDERAL COURTS .... 42 VII THE STATE LEGISLATURE GENERAL FEATURES OF A STATE LEGISLATURE ... 45 THE PASSAGE OF BILLS 46 DIRECT LEGISLATION (THE INITIATIVE AND REFER- ENDUM) 47 THE RECALL . 50 CONTENTS VIII THE STATE EXECUTIVE PAGE THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS 52 IX COUNTIES, TOWNS AND TOWNSHIPS OFFICIALS OF A COUNTY 57 THE NEW ENGLAND TOWN MEETING 60 THE TOWNSHIP 61 ^ X MUNICIPALITIES VILLAGES 63 THE ORGANIZATION OF CITIES 64 I The Council System 64 II The Commission System 67 XI THE TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES How TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES ARE GOVERNED . 70 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES ON THE AMERICAN CONTINENT 71 I The District of Columbia 71 II Alaska 72 III Indian Reservations and National Parks 73 IV The Panama Canal Strip 74 INSULAR TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES .... 74 I Hawaii 74 II Porto Rico 75 III The Philippine Islands 77 IV Guam and Samoa 78 V The Virgin Islands 78 CONTENTS XII PARTY ORGANIZATION PAGE PERMANENT PARTY ORGANIZATION v9 THE NOMINATION OP CANDIDATES 79 PARTY CONVENTIONS 81 I The Primary or Caucus 81 II The County (or City) Convention . . 82 III The State Convention 82 IV The National Convention 83 THE PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN 84 THE ELECTION OP THE PRESIDENT 84 XIII POLITICAL PARTY PLATFORMS POLITICAL PARTIES Now IN EXISTENCE 86 PARTY PRINCIPLES 87 I Democratic Platform 87 II Republican Platform 89 III Socialist Platform 90 IV Prohibition Platform 93 XIV INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS REGULATED BY THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 94 AMBASSADORS, MINISTERS AND CONSULS 95 TREATIES 96 ARBITRATION 98 XV TAXATION THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF TAXES 101 NATIONAL EXPENDITURES . 105 CONTENTS XVI PUBLIC FINANCE PAGE FEDERAL TAXATION 106 STATE TAXATION 108 THE COLLECTION OP STATE TAXES Ill XVII MONEY GOLD AND SILVER COINAGE 115 PAPER CURRENCY 117 NATIONAL BANKS 118 FEDERAL RESERVE BANKS 119 XVIII COMMERCE FOREIGN COMMERCE 123 I The Tariff, Free Trade and Protection . 123 II The Regulation of Immigration . . . 124 INTERSTATE COMMERCE 126 I Interstate Commerce Defined .... 126 II The Regulation of Interstate Commerce 127 III The Interstate Commerce Commission . 127 XIX CORPORATIONS THE EVOLUTION OF CORPORATE INDUSTRY . . . .130 I Individual Enterprise 130 II The Partnership 131 III The Corporation 131 CORPORATIONS CREATED BY STATE AUTHORITY . . . 133 CORPORATE COMBINATIONS (TRUSTS) . . . . . . 133 CONTENTS PAGE APPENDIX A. THE CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES 137 APPENDIX B. NEW YORK STATE ELECTION LAWS . 171 I General Election 1.71 II Qualifications of Voters 172 III Registration of Voters 172 IV Official Primary Elections 173 V Party Enrollment 173 VI Casting a Vote 174 VII Time Allowed an Employee to Vote . .175 VIII Party Committees 175 IX Designation of Candidates .... 175 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL CHAPTER I POPULAR GOVERNMENT A GOVERNMENT which receives its powers from the people is a democratic or popular government, and a state in which popular government prevails is a de- mocracy. The United States is a democracy, for here political power everywhere flows from the people. The President of the United States, the Congress, and the national Supreme Court, all receive their powers from the Constitution of the United States, and this Constitution is a creation of the people (I) 1 of the United States ; the government of a State 2 receives its powers from the people of the State ; a city or a town or a county is governed by the people who reside within its borders. Thus in the United States the will of the people prevails not only in the country taken as a whole but in all its parts as well. This is 1 The numbers in heavy-faced type refer to passages in the Constitution of the United States (Appendix A) which are distinguished by corresponding numbers on the margin. 2 In this book when the word "state" begins with a capital letter one of the members of the American Union is meant. 3 4. : '. THE .WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL the fundairorital principle of the American govern- ment. A popular government may have the form either of a pure democracy or of a representative government. In a pure democracy the voters transact the business of government in person; they not only choose the officers of government but they enact laws as well. A representative government is a popular government in which power is exercised by chosen agents (repre- sentatives) of the people, instead of being exercised directly by the people. A country which is governed by representatives elected by the people is a repre- sentative democracy or republic. In a representative democracy the people rule no less than in a pure de- mocracy, but they rule indirectly. The United States is a representative democracy. Our President and our governors and mayors and, in most instances, our judges, are chosen agents of the people. The officers of government who are not di- rectly elected by the people are appointed by direct representatives, and are thus not far removed from the voters. The people of a free state will not confer all the power of government upon one person, or upon one body of persons. Experience has taught that it is better to divide governmental power into three por- tions, and to establish three departments of govern- ment, allotting to each department its own peculiar portion. The three departments of a popular govern- ment are: (1) The legislative department, upon which is conferred the power of making laws; (2) POPULAR GOVERNMENT 5 the judicial department, which is entrusted with the power of deciding how the law shall apply in par- ticular cases when disputes arise; (3) the executive department, which is vested with the power of en- forcing laws. A government may be democratic in form and spirit, it may be thoroughly representative, it may have the three branches clearly separated, and still there may be no guarantee that civil liberty will be permanently enjoyed. For officers of government are liable to abuse power, or to choose a wrong or unjust course of action. Americans have been taught by ex- perience that rights may be safeguarded and civil liberty preserved by imposing upon themselves a fundamental law in the form of a written constitu- tion. The fundamental law of our country, taken as a whole, is the Constitution of the United States. Each State also has a constitution which it has framed for itself. Government in America, therefore, is every- where conducted according to the written word; it is everywhere constitutional. The first American constitutions were promulgated in the name of the people, yet they were not as a rule the direct creations of the people. The statesmen who framed them did not have a very strong faith in the wisdom of the people, and were not quite will- ing to submit a fundamental law to a popular vote. As democracy grew more fashionable, and as the peo- ple came to be more fully recognized as the real mas- ters of government, the custom of submitting consti- 6 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL tutions to voters for their approval became general. At the present time a constitution is usually ratified by the people at the polls before it is put into opera- tion. This popular ratification clothes the constitu- tion with all the authority that a law can possibly have, for it is a law passed by the people themselves acting as legislators. A constitution, therefore, is a solemn and deliberate expression of the popular will, and as such it is a fixed, permanent law which all citizens and all officers of government must obey. Although a constitution is a fixed law, it may not remain unchanged forever. A provision in a consti- tution which was wise and just fifty years ago may be harmful now. Every constitution recognizes this fact, and provides for making changes, when these may seem necessary. These changes or amendments are effected in various ways, the usual procedure be- ing as follows: the amendment that is thought to be desirable first passes the legislature of the State and is then submitted to the people for their approval. If it receives the required number of votes fre- quently a majority of all the votes cast it becomes a part of the constitution and cannot be repealed by the legislature. Constitutions provide not only for their own amend- ment, but also for their own complete revision. They provide for the calling of a constitutional convention, which shall have power to revise the old constitution and frame a new one. A general revision of a State constitution is usually accomplished in the following way : The legislature submits to the people the ques- POPULAR GOVERNMENT 7 tion whether or not a convention shall be called to frame a new constitution. In several States this ques- tion must be submitted to the voters every twenty years ; in Michigan it must be submitted every sixteen years ; in Iowa every ten years. If the vote is in fa- vor of a convention, delegates are elected, and the work of revision begins. It is the custom to submit the revised constitution to the people for their ap- proval, although this is not always done. There are four processes by which the Constitution of the United States may be amended. These are: (1) and (2) Congress, by a two-thirds vote of both houses, may submit an amendment to the States for ratification (122) and if the amendment thus sub- mitted is ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the States, or by Conventions in three-fourths of the States, it becomes a part of the Constitution; (3) and (4) a national Constitutional Convention, called by Congress upon the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the States, may submit an amend- ment to the States for ratification and if the amend- ment thus submitted is ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the States, or by Conventions in three-fourths of the States, it becomes a part of the Constitution (123). CHAPTER II THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP THE rights flowing from American civil liberty may be divided into two classes, civil rights and political rights. Civil rights are those which a person enjoys as a private citizen, as an individual. They are enjoyed under the authority and sanction of gov- ernment, but they are not related to the subject of government. Political rights are those which belong to a citizen regarded as a participator in the affairs of government: they may be called the public rights of citizenship. The fourteenth amendment to the Constitution de- clares that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." Under this definition the fol- lowing have been adjudged to be citizens of the United States : (1) All persons born in the United States except- ing the children of diplomatic agents and of hostile aliens. (2) Children born in foreign countries whose par- ents at the time of their birth were citizens of the United States. 8 THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP 9 (3) Women of foreign birth married to citizens of the United States. (4) Indians who pay taxes and no longer live in tribal relations. (5) Naturalized persons. The process of natural- ization is as follows : At least two years before he can be admitted as a citizen the alien must appear before a State or a federal court and take an oath that it is his intention to become a citizen of the United States and "to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince or state and particularly to the one of which he may at the time be a citizen or subject." He must also swear to support the Con- stitution of the United States. Not less than two years nor more than seven years after this declaration of his intentions the alien may apply to a federal or State court for full admission as a citizen. If the judge of the court is satisfied that the alien is able to speak the English language and write his own name, that he has resided in the United States for five years, and that he is a person of good moral character, full citizenship will be conferred. A person thus natural- ized has the same rights as native born citizens of the United States except that he cannot become the Presi- dent or Vice-President of the United States (86). The children of naturalized persons are considered as citizens if they were under twenty-one years of age and were dwelling in the United States at the time of the naturalization of their parents. Alien Chinese and Japanese are not entitled to be naturalized. Per- sons professing the doctrines of anarchy and openly 10 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL opposing all form of organized government are also refused the gift of naturalization. The rights of American citizenship flow from two sources, from the State and from the nation. Since each State in a large measure determines for itself the character of the civil liberty that is to be enjoyed within its borders, the rights of an American citizen are not everywhere the same. As we travel through the States our rights change every time we pass from one State into another. When the citizen of one State enters another State he has the rights of the citizens of that State (116), and those rights only. There are, however, certain civil rights which are en- joyed in every State in the Union and which may be called the civil rights of State citizenship. These are the rights guaranteed in the State constitutions. In the constitution of almost every State it is declared : (1) That all men have the right of enjoying and defending life and liberty, of acquiring, possessing and protecting property and reputation, and of pur- suing their own happiness; (2) That men have a right to worship God accord- ing to the dictates of their own conscience, and that no preference by law should be given to any religion, and that no person should be disqualified for office on account of his religious belief ; (3) That trial by jury is a right inviolate; (4) That the printing-press shall be free, and that every citizen may freely print, write and speak on any subject, being responsible for the abuse of this privilege : THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP 11 (5) That people shall be secure in their persons, houses, papers and possessions against unreasonable searches and seizures, and that no warrant to search any place or seize any person shall issue without prob- able cause: (6) That in all criminal prosecutions the accused has a right to be heard by himself and his counsel, to meet witnesses face to face, to compel witnesses who are in favor to come to court and testify, and to a speedy trial by an impartial jury: (7) That no person can be compelled to give evi- dence against himself, nor be deprived of his life, liberty or property unless by the law of the land : (8) That no person for the same offense shall be twice put in jeopardy of life and limb: (9) That all courts shall be open and that every man shall have justice without sale, denial or delay: (10) That excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines be imposed, nor cruel punishment in- flicted : (11) That all prisoners shall be bailable by suffi- cient sureties, unless for capital offenses: (12) That the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended unless in time of rebellion or invasion. Whenever a man is placed in confinement against his will and the fact is made known to a judge of a court, the judge, unless he knows the confinement is legal, is bound, upon application, to issue immediately a writ, called habeas corpus, commanding the prisoner to be brought before him for examination. If there seems to be cause for the detention of the prisoner 12 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL he is sent back to prison to await a full trial ; if there seems to be no cause he is set free : (13) That there shall be no imprisonment for debt, unless in cases of fraud: (14) That citizens have a right to assemble in a peaceable manner and to apply to the rulers for a redress of grievances : (15) That the military shall at all times be kept in strict subordination to the civil power : (16) That no soldier in time of peace shall be quar- tered in any house without the consent of the owner. The first section of the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution (150) creates a distinct federal citizen- ship, and provides that no State shall abridge the privileges of that citizenship. What are the priv- ileges which a citizen of the United States enjoys and which no State can abridge? At present it is possible to enumerate the following as the rights of federal citizenship, rights which flow from the Constitution, which belong to every citizen of the United States, and which cannot be denied by State authority : I. Due Process of Law. No person in the United States shall be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law. Here is a right which no State can abridge (151) and which the federal government itself cannot deny (152). A person seeking justice, whether in civil or criminal cases, un- der his right of due process may demand (1) that there be a court of law for the trial of his case; (2) that the proceedings of the trial be regular; (3) that THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP 13 the trial be fair. What the regular course of pro- cedure in a State court shall be is a matter for the State itself to determine ; but after the State has once decided upon the course that justice shall take, after it has once established the processes of law, it cannot deprive any person of the benefits that arise from those processes. II. Equal Protection of the Laws. " Every per- son within the jurisdiction of any State, whether he be rich or poor, humble or haughty, citizen or alien, is assured of the protection of equal laws (152) ap- plicable to all alike and impartially administered with- out favor or discrimination." (Guthrie.) III. Protection on the High Seas and in Foreign Countries. A citizen of the United States, in what- ever part of the world he may be, is entitled to pro- tection against injustice or injury, and this protection is a right of federal citizenship, and is extended by the federal government. IV. State Citizenship. Every citizen of the United States has a right to become a citizen of a State by a bona fide residence therein, and as a citi- zen of the State he has all that large body of rights which always belongs to State citizenship. We now come to the subject of political rights as distinguished from civil rights. Political rights invest the citizen with the privilege of participating in government, and consist of the right of voting at elections and of holding public of- fice. These rights are an outgrowth of the struggle for civil rights. 4-' 14 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL Authority for granting the suffrage and defining the qualifications of voters resides chiefly in the State. The only restriction upon the power of the State to regulate the elective franchise is found in the fifteenth amendment to the Constitution, where it is declared that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be abridged by any State on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude (159). As long as the State does not violate this amendment it is free to regulate the suffrage in its own way. When we observe how widely the political condi- tions in one State differ from those in another, and consider how great is the opportunity for a variety of regulations in reference to voting, the laws gov- erning the suffrage throughout the Union seem to be remarkably uniform. This uniformity is due in part to democratic spirit of equality, and in part to the pro- visions of the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments. In all the States the age qualification for voting is twenty-one years; in all the States a previous resi- dence within the State varying from six months to two years is required; in thirty-eight States a voter must be a citizen of the United States; in ten States aliens may vote ; in all the States but nine there is an absence of anything like an educational qualification. In all the States certain classes of persons are ex- cluded from the privilege of voting. Chief among these are lunatics, idiots, paupers and convict crim- inals. The right of holding office is more indefinite than THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENSHIP 15 the right of suffrage. It may be stated as a general rule that any one who may vote is qualified to hold office. Qualifications for the occupants of most of- fices are prescribed by law, and these of course must be met. When there are no special legal qualifica- tions attached to an office it may usually be held by any one who can get himself elected or appointed to it. A person who, as a State official, has taken an oath to support the Constitution of the United States and who has afterwards joined in rebellion against the United States is debarred from holding office (155). The American voter should regard himself as an officer of government. He is one of the members of the electorate, that vast governing body which con- sists of all the voters, and which possesses supreme political power, controlling all the governments, fed- eral and State and local. This electorate has in its .keeping the welfare and the happiness of the Amer- ican people. When, therefore, the voter takes his place in this governing body, that is, when he enters the polling-booth and presumes to participate in the business of government, he assumes serious responsi- bilities. In the polling-booth he is a public officer charged with certain duties, and if he fails to dis- charge these duties properly he may work great in- jury. What are the duties of a voter in a self-govern- ing country? If an intelligent man will ask himself this question and refer it to his conscience, as well as deliberate upon it in his mind, he will conclude that he ought at least to do the following things : 16 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL (1) To vote whenever it is his privilege. (2) To try to understand the questions upon which he votes. (3) To learn something about the character and fitness of the men for whom he votes. (4) To vote only for honest men for office. (5) To support only honest measures. (6) To give no bribe direct or indirect, and to re- ceive no bribe direct or indirect. (7) To place country above party. (8) To recognize the result of the election as the will of the people and therefore as the law. (9) To continue to vote for a righteous although defeated cause as long as there is a reasonable hope of victory. CHAPTER III CONGRESS THE most important department of the United States government when considered as a representa- tive democracy is Congress, with its two houses the Senate and the House of Representatives chosen di- rectly by the people and answerable to them alone for its acts. Each State is represented in the Senate by two senators, making 96 in all. A candidate for sen- ator must be at least 30 years old, have been nine years a resident of the United States and must be a resi- dent of the State he represents. The senators for each State are elected by all the voters of the State. The members of the House of Representatives are elected one from each of the congressional districts into which a State is divided for purposes of repre- sentation. The basis for representation is one mem- ber for each 211,877 of the population, making 435 members of the House of Representatives. A candi- date for representative must be at least 25 years old, must have been for seven years a resident of the United States, and must be a resident of the State in which he is elected. Every year on the first Monday in December (25) Congress assembles in the Capitol at Washington, the Senate occupying the north wing of the building and 17 18 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL the House the south wing. It convenes and adjourns by virtue of constitutional authority, and not by vir- ture of a summons or an order from the executive (25). The President, however, may on extraordinary oc- casions convene Congress in an extra session (100), and he may also adjourn Congress if the two Houses cannot themselves agree upon a day for adjournment (101). A majority of the members of each house consti- tutes the quorum necessary for the transaction of business. When making laws the two Houses must carry on work during the same period of time, al- though either House may sit alone for a period not exceeding three days (31). The first Congress began its legal existence March 4, 1789, and expired at the hour of noon March 4, 1791, when the term of the first elected representa- tives ended; the second Congress came into power March 4, 1791, and ended its career March 4, 1793; the third Congress began March 4, 1793, and ended March 4, 1795; and thus on to the present time. From this we learn (1) that Congresses are numbered according to the biennial periods for which repre- sentatives are elected, and (2) that the legal exist- ence of Congress begins on March 4 following the election of representatives and ends March 4, two years later. Representatives are elected in November except that in Maine and Vermont, they are elected in September but, unless an extra session is called, they do not actually enter upon their duties until the CONGRESS 19 December of the first year of their legal term more than a year after their election. If a Congress should choose to do so, it could sit in continuous session from the time it first meets to the expiration of its term. In practice the work of a Congress is done in two regular sessions. The first session begins when a Congress assembles in December for the first time and ends late in the spring or early in the summer of the following year. This is the long session. The second or short session begins when the Congress as- sembles in December for the second time and ends at twelve o'clock meridian the following March 4. Extra sessions begin on a date fixed by the Presi- dent and end at the pleasure of Congress. In the first few days after the assembling of the House several thousand bills are introduced. The introduction of a bill in the House is a very easy mat- ter; the bill is not presented in the open House but is quietly placed in a receptacle in the "hopper" from which it is taken by a clerk and filed. But every bill before it can become a law must be taken up in the open House and be duly discussed and disposed of in an orderly decent way. How is this done? How amid the stormy conflicts of interest which are bound to arise in the House, and in the confusion and strife which are attendant upon the proceedings of such a large body, can business be conducted in due form and order? The answer to this question in- volves the consideration of (1) the speakership, (2) the committee system, and (3) the rules of the House. I. The Speakership. When the members of a new 20 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL House assemble for the first time the clerk of the previous House calls them to order, causes a roll to be called, and, if a quorum (27) is present, invites the House to proceed with the election of a Speaker (13) who is. always chosen from among the repre- sentatives. After the election of the Speaker the other officers of the House (14), the sergeant-at-arms, the clerk and the doorkeeper are elected, and the work of the session begins. The character of the proceedings of the House de- pends largely upon the firmness and fairness of the Speaker. The duties of the Speaker are defined by the rules of the House. He preserves order, he puts questions to the House to be voted upon, he decides questions of parliamentary law, and above all, he de- cides which member is entitled to be heard upon the floor. No member may speak or make a motion un- less he has first been recognized by the Speaker. IT. The Committees. A large legislative body in full and open session cannot look into the merits and discuss all the items of every proposed bill. There must be a method of sifting proposed measures and rejecting worthless and absurd propositions so that the attention of the legislature may be given to seri- ous and important matters. From time immemorial this preparation of measures has been accomplished through the agency of committees, small groups of members, to each of which is assigned the duty of attending to a particular branch of legislation. The more important committees of the House consist of from fifteen to twenty-one members. The principal CONGRESS 23 standing committees committees which are provided for by the rules, and which continue in existence through the entire session are those on ways and means, rules, appropriations, the judiciary, foreign relations, currency, commerce, pensions, military af- fairs, naval affairs, elections, manufactures, agricul- ture, public lands, and rivers and harbors. The com- mittees are elected by the House but the membership of each committee is determined by party action be- fore the vote in the House is taken. The work of the House is effected through the com- mittees. When a bill is introduced it finds its way to the appropriate committee. Friends of the bill may appear before the committee and speak in its behalf. The committee may amend the bill, or reject it outright, or pay no attention to it whatever. If a bill is rejected in committee, it has little chance of becoming a law. If it is reported favorably to the House, it has a chance at least of receiving serious consideration. A committee, besides reporting upon measures that have been referred to it, may report bills originating with itself. In practice, before a bill can become a law it must first receive the favorable judgment of a committee. III. The Rules. When a bill is reported favor- ably by a committee it is usually placed upon the cal- endar along with hundreds, perhaps thousands, of other bills. By a majority vote of the entire mem- bership of the House a bill may be taken from a com- mittee, and placed upon the calendar without waiting for the action of the committee. This can be done, 22 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL however, only after the committee has for fifteen days failed to take action upon the bill. The calendar is a kind of catalogue or register of bills, and has been called "the cemetery of legislative hopes/' because so many bills are never heard of again after they reach it. When a bill has found its way to the calendar its fate henceforth rests with the rules of the House. The rules of procedure are determined by the House itself (28), and are framed with a view of conduct- ing business in a fair and orderly manner. The gen- eral rule in reference to a bill on the calendar is that it must wait its turn for consideration, a rule which if strongly enforced might postpone action indef- initely. The real agency which can determine what bill shall be taken from the calendar and which in fact largely guides the entire proceedings of the House is the committee on rules. This committee, like the other committees, is elected by the House and consists of eleven members. The Speaker is not per- mitted to be a member of the committee. The com- mittee on rules has the high privilege of bringing in a "special rule" or order, by which a certain time may be appointed for the consideration of a bill. It can thus at any time, without discussion or delay, order any bill to be taken from the calendar for im- mediate consideration. This committee on rules can also determine the conditions of debate, how long members may speak, whether amendments to the bill may be offered or not, when a vote shall be taken. The first of the committees, therefore, is the commit- CONGRESS 23 tee on rales, and the first of the rules is the "special rule." When a Congress expires two-thirds of the mem- bers of the Senate retain their seats in the next Con- gress (16). The Senate is thus in part a continuous body; "always changing it is forever the same." It is not reorganized at the opening of every Congress. The vice-President is the permanent presiding offi- cer. A temporary President (21), chosen by the Senate from among its members, holds office for an undefinite period and takes the place of the permanent presiding officer during his absence. The committees of the Senate are elected by the Senate itself, although before the vote is taken the membership of each com- mittee is previously determined by party action. In both Senate and House each of the leading political parties elects a floor leader, whose special duty is to direct and manage for his party the debates on important measures. The floor leader when ad- vocating the passage of a measure sees that the bill is written in the most acceptable form, safeguards it from the dangers of parliamentary procedure, ar- ranges the list of members who are to speak in its be- half, and allots to each speaker the time to be con- sumed. Frequently before a bill is brought upon the floor to be voted upon a caucus, or private conference, of the members of each party is held, and it is deter- mined what the action of the party in respect to the proposed measure shall be. As a rule, all the mem- bers who attend a caucus vote on the bill in accord- 24 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL ance with the decision of the caucus but sometimes its decision is disregarded. If a high public official should be charged with gross misconduct in office, if, for example, the President should be charged with not enforcing a law, or a federal judge accused of habitual drunkenness, he could be reached by the process of impeachment. Im- peachment begins in the House of Representatives, where the charges against the unfaithful officer must be laid (14). If in the judgment of the House the ac- cused person is guilty, the impeachment, or accusation, is carried to the Senate to be tried (22). The Senate, while trying the impeachment, sits as a court of jus- tice. Witnesses are summoned and examined and evi- dence pro and con is presented. If by a two-thirds vote the Senate sustains the impeachment the accused person is deprived of his office (23). He may after- wards be tried and punished in a court of law for his offense, but such a trial is not a part of the process of impeachment. The main object of impeachment is to protect the government from the acts of faithless offi- cers, not to punish crime. Its purpose, therefore, is fulfilled when the offending officer is removed. Im- peachment is plainly a judicial rather than a legisla- tive function. A treaty is a law of the land (126). It is only right, therefore, that the legislature should partici- pate in the treaty-making power. The Constitution recognizes this principle to the extent that treaties shall be confirmed by a two-thirds vote of the Sen- ate (95). The Constitution also provides that certain CONGRESS 25 presidential appointments must be confirmed by the Senate (96). In the exercise of this power the Senate has established a custom of confirming only those ap- pointments which are agreeable to the senator from the State in which the appointment is made. The sen- ator to be consulted belongs to the President's party. If the State in which the appointment is made has no senator of the President 's party, the party leaders of the State must be consulted. This deference to the wishes of individual senators in the matter of con- firming appointments is called senatorial courtesy. The application of senatorial courtesy increases the power of the Senate, for in many instances it has the effect of taking federal patronage from the president and bestowing it upon senators. When confirming appointments and treaties the Senate regards itself as acting in an executive capacity. It generally holds its executive sessions behind closed doors. All purely legislative sessions, both of the House and of the Senate, are as a rule open to the public. CHAPTER IV THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET THE framers of the Constitution made the President of the United States Commander-in-chief of the mili- tary forces (92) ; they gave him the power of par- doning offenses against the government of the United States (94) ; they conferred upon him jointly with the Senate the treaty-making power (95) and the power of appointing foreign ministers, consuls, judges of the Supreme Court and many other federal offi- cers (96) ; they imposed upon him the function of receiving foreign ambassadors and representatives of foreign governments (101) ; they gave him authority to deliver to Congress in person or to lay before that body in writing, messages setting forth the condition of public affairs and recommending measures for leg- islation (100) ; they gave him power to convene Con- gress in extraordinary session and to adjourn Con- gress when the two Houses cannot agree as to the matter of adjournment (101) ; they gave him the veto power (38). The highest and the chief duty of the President is "to take care that the laws be faithfully executed" (102). This is a purely executive duty and one that the President cannot escape A law may be distaste- 26 THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET 27 ful to the President, he may regard it as hurtful or unconstitutional, yet as long as it is a law he must enforce it. "As the citizen may not elect what laws he will obey neither may the executive elect which he will enforce. ' ' Should the President wantonly refuse to execute a law he would be removable by the process of impeachment. While the President is bound to carry out laws that have been made whether he is in sympathy with them or not, he at the same time may do much to prevent the enactment of laws obnoxious to himself and much to secure the enactment of favorite measures. His power of prevention lies in the veto. How great this power is may be seen by a simple calculation. A bill may pass in the present House of 435 members by a vote of 218 to 217, and in the Senate by a vote of 49 to 47. Now if the President should veto the bill it would require 72 more votes in the House and 15 more in the Senate (40) to pass the measure over his veto. The legislative weight of the President, there- fore, is nearly one-sixth as great as that of Congress itself. The President's share in law-making does not end with the negative power of the veto ; he possesses sev- eral legislative powers of a positive nature. In mak- ing the laws known as treaties he takes the initiative and is coordinate with the Senate. By convening Congress in extra session he can present to that body subjects for its special consideration. In annual and special messages he can give his views in respect to needed legislation, and through his influence as a 28 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL party leader and as a distributor of patronage he can often cause Congress to follow the suggestions con- tained in his messages. A vacancy in the office of President may occur by the death, impeachment or resignation of the in- cumbent, or by his inability to discharge the duties of his office. The Constitution provides a Vice-Presi- dent (88) to succeed in the case of a vacancy. If for any reason neither President nor Vice-President can serve, an officer designated by Congress (89) suc- ceeds to the Presidency. Under the presidential suc- cession act of 1886 it is provided that members of the President's cabinet shall succeed to the Presidency in the following order: (1) The Secretary of State, (2) the Secretary of the Treasury, (3) the Secretary of War, (4) the Attorney -general, (5) the Postmaster- general, (6) the Secretary of the Navy, (7) the Secre- tary of the Interior. The one succeeding to the Pres- idency serves for the remainder of the four years, but any one thus succeeding must have the constitu- tional qualifications. Responsibility for the smooth and efficient work- ing of the great federal machine rests wholly on the President, but in the supervision of the executive busi- ness there must, of course, be division of labor. To assist him in governing, the President summons to his aid assistants known as secretaries. Washington be- gan his administration with three secretaries, a Secre- tary of State, a Secretary of the Treasury and a Sec- retary of War. As the business of government in- creased the work of the administration was further THE PRESIDENT AND HIS CABINET 29 divided and new secretaries were brought in. The chief assistants of the President now number ten and are as follows : 1. The Secretary of State. 2. The Secretary of the Treasury. 3. The Secretary of War. 4. The Attorney-general. 5. The Postmaster-general. 6. The Secretary of the Navy. 7. The Secretary of the Interior. 8. The Secretary of Agriculture. 9. The Secretary of Commerce. 10. The Secretary of Labor. Each of these secretaries is appointed by the Presi- dent and is responsible to him for the management of his own department. At stated times the secretaries meet the President for consultation. This executive council is known as the cabinet. The cabinet as a body has no legal functions and is unknown to the Constitution, although its existence is foreshadowed in the words, "the President may require the opinion in writing of the principal officers in each of the execu- tive departments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices." (93). Washington, following the letter of the Constitution, sometimes communicated with his secretaries individually and re- quired the opinion of each in writing. On many occasions, however, where important matters of admin- istration were to be settled he called his secretaries 30 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL together around a council board. It is said of Jeffer- son: "When a question occurred of sufficient mag- nitude to require the opinion of all the heads of departments he called them together, had the sub- ject discussed and a vote taken in which he counted himself as but one." From out of these early meet- ings of the President and his secretaries has grown the cabinet meeting of to-day. The cabinet meets at the White House at the call of the President. Records of its meetings are rarely kept, and the pub- lic does not know what takes place at them. The President is not bound to act according to the wishes of the cabinet, nor does he always do so. The func- tion of the cabinet is to discuss and advise; it is for the President to decide and act. CHAPTER V FEDERAL EXECUTIVE WORK IT is chiefly through his cabinet officers as heads of departments that the President governs. These de- partments are: I. The Department of State under the manage- ment of the Secretary of State attends to foreign af- fairs. It conducts the negotiations which lead up to the making of treaties, instructs our foreign ministers and consuls in their duties, extends official courtesies to the ministers from other countries, gives passports to those intending to travel abroad, protects American citizens in other lands, and transacts all other busi- ness arising between our government and other gov- ernments. The Secretary of State is regarded as first in rank among the heads of the departments. II. The Department of the Treasury under the Secretary of the Treasury manages the financial busi- ness of the country. It collects the internal revenue, and the customs duties ; it attends to the expenditure of money appropriated by Congress; it manages the public debt ; it organizes and inspects national banks ; it controls the mints and supervises the making of paper money. In addition to its purely financial duties this department controls the life-saving serv- 31 32 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL ice maintained for the rescue of persons from ship- wreck, supervises the construction of public build- ings, and manages the marine hospitals maintained for disabled soldiers. III. The Department of War under the Secretary of War has charge of the land forces. It purchases supplies for the soldiers, controls the transportation of troops, directs the improvements of rivers and har- bors, superintends the signal service and controls the Military Academy at West Point. IV. The Department of Justice under the Attor- ney-general is the law department of the national government. When the President or a member of the cabinet desires legal advice it is furnished by this department. When the government of the United States is interested in a case in court, an officer of this department defends or prosecutes the suit. Next in rank to the Attorney-general in the Department of Justice is the Solicitor-general who, under the direc- tion of the Attorney-general, has charge of the busi- ness of the government in the Supreme Court of the United States. V. The Post-office Department under the Postmas- ter-general, in addition to collecting, carrying and distributing the mail, establishes and discontinues post-offices, provides the public with stamps and postal cards, conducts a money postal-order system by which money may be safely transmitted to all parts of the world, hastens the delivery of mail by means of a special delivery system, sends by " parcels post" packages to all parts of our own country and to about FEDERAL EXECUTIVE WORK 33 thirty designated foreign countries, and manages the business of the postal savings bank. VI. The Department of the Navy under the Secre- tary of the Navy purchases naval supplies, provides for the construction and equipment of vessels, super- vises the navy yards and docks, and controls the Naval Academy at Annapolis. VII. The Department of the Interior under the Secretary of the Interior has charge of national af- fairs that are of a purely domestic nature. It exam- ines pension claims and grants pensions, controls In- dian affairs, directs the sale of public lands, issues patents, superintends such educational interests as are of a national concern, directs the work of the geological survey, superintends the construction and operation of irrigation works authorized by Con- gress, and investigates methods by which the safety of miners may be provided for. VIII. The Department of Agriculture under the Secretary of Agriculture diffuses among the people of the United States useful information on subjects con- nected with agriculture in the most general and com- prehensive sense of that term, and procures, propa- gates and distributes among the people new and val- uable seeds and plants. This department has charge of the Weather Bureau which forecasts the weather; it conducts the inspection of animals and meat and food products when these are subjects of interstate commerce: it studies plant life in all its relations to agriculture and gives to farmers the benefit of its investigations; it has charge of the forests belonging 34 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL to the United States; it collects informations as to crops; it investigates soils and obtains information regarding insects which injure crops and plants. IX. The Department of Commerce under the Sec- retary of Commerce "fosters, promotes and develops the foreign and domestic commerce, the mining, man- ufacturing, shipping and fishing industries and the transportation facilities of the United States." X. The Department of Labor under the Secretary of Labor fosters, promotes and develops the welfare of the wage earners of the United States, improves their working conditions and advances their oppor- tunities for profitable employment. One of its chief duties is "to collect, collate and report full and com- plete statistics of the conditions of labor and the products and distribution of the same." It also en- forces the immigration laws and the laws relating to the naturalization of aliens and through the agency of the Children's Bureau reports upon the welfare of children. Each of the ten departments has the control of a vast amount of executive business, and it is necessary to subdivide the work of a department and place an officer at the head of each subdivision. A subdivision of a department is sometimes known as a division of the department but more often it is known as a bureau, and the head of the bureau is called a director or commissioner, or superintendent. For example, in the department of Commerce there is a Bureau of For- eign and Domestic Commerce, a Bureau of Light- houses, a Bureau of Census, a Bureau of Fisheries, a FEDERAL EXECUTIVE WORK 35 Bureau of Navigation, a Bureau of Standards, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and a Steamboat-Inspec- tion Service. A few items of executive business have not been assigned to any one of the ten great departments. The work of the Interstate Commerce Commission is performed by nine commissioners who act independ- ently of any department. The Civil Service Com- mission, whose duty is to regulate and improve the civil service of the United States, consists of three commissioners who are responsible directly to the President. The Federal Trade Commission, the Fed- eral Reserve Board, the Shipping Board, the Farm Loan Board, the Government Printing Office, the Li- brary of Congress and the Smithsonian Institution are also outside of departmental control. The chief offi- cers in all these cases of extra-departmental activity are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, just as other principal officers are. There are more than 500,000 persons employed in the executive civil service. Of these nearly 10,000 are appointed directly by the President. These are known as the presidential appointments. The presi- dential appointments are the leading officials, the heads of departments and their chief assistants, the heads of bureaus and divisions, the postmasters of large cities and towns, the chief custom house officers, the ministers to foreign countries and the like. All officers and employees who are not appointed directly by the President are appointed by the heads of the department (98). 36 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL In 1883 Congress provided for the competitive ex- amination of a large class of employees in the civil service, and for appointment according to merit rather than according to party affiliation. The rule of ap- pointment according to ascertained merit has been extended until it now reaches almost every depart- ment of the national civil service and embraces about two-thirds of all the employees. Appointees under the competitive system hold their positions during good behavior and efficient service. No employee, however, is placed beyond the President's power to remove. The salaries of the principal officers of the federal government are as follows: President $75,000 Vice-President 12,000 Members of the cabinet 12,000 Chief Justice of the Supreme Court . . . 15,000 Associate Justices of Supreme Court . . . 14,500 Judges of Circuit Courts 7,000 Judges of District Courts 6,000 Representatives 7,500 Senators 7,500 Ambassadors 17,500 Ministers 10,000 Members of Interstate Commerce Commission 10,000 Members of Federal Trade Commission . . 10,000 Members of Federal Reserve Board . . . 12,000 Members of the Shipping Board .... 7,500 Heads of Bureaus and Divisions . . 3,000 to 6,000 CHAPTER VI COURTS, STATE AND FEDERAL UNDER our political system it has been necessary to establish two separate and distinct systems of judicial tribunals, State courts and federal courts. The judges of the State courts in more than three- fourths of the States are chosen by the voters. In the other States they are either appointed by the governor or chosen by the legislature. Their terms vary in length, the average term being about eight years. In a very few States they hold office for life. Federal judges are appointed by the President (196). Once appointed they cannot be removed except for cause (106) and then only by the solemn process of impeachment. Their salaries may not be decreased, although they may be increased. The State courts are entirely independent of the federal courts. They have their own judges and court officers sheriffs, clerks and prosecuting officers and their own court-houses. They attend to the judicial business of the State and cannot be compelled to per- form judicial duties of a federal nature. Their de- cisions, however, may be reviewed and reversed by the federal courts. When one of the parties to a case in a State court claims that the decision of the court is 37 38 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL contrary to the federal Constitution or to federal law the ease may be carried over to the federal courts for trial, but when a case is wholly outside of federal authority it must receive its final settlement in a State court. In the administration of justice in the State it has been found convenient in all the States to have at least three grades of courts : I. The Justice's Court. This court, the lowest in the series, is held by a justice of the peace and may be called the court of the neighborhood, for in every com- munity it is near at hand to administer justice in small affairs. In it are tried petty misdemeanors and civil cases involving small sums of money. In the trial of trivial offenses and of civil cases involving but a small sum of money the decision of the court is usually final, but when its judgment inflicts a severe penalty or involves a considerable sum of money an appeal may be taken to a higher court. In cities, police courts, sometimes called municipal, sometimes magistrates' courts, are often established for the trial of petty criminal cases. II. The Circuit or District Court. This is the tribunal next above the justice's court, and it may be called the court of the county, for it is held in every county at the county-seat. It must not be understood, however, that the jurisdiction of the judges of this court is limited to a single county. A circuit (or district) usually includes several counties, and the judges of a circuit go from county to county to hold court. In rural districts this court tries both civil COURTS, STATE AND FEDERAL 39 and criminal cases, but in the larger cities there is generally a criminal court of corresponding grade for the trial of the criminal cases. A very large city often has an elaborate system of courts of its own. These courts of the second grade are the centers of most of the judicial activity of the State. In them are tried the weightier cases of the law. They review the cases appealed from the justice's court and they have original jurisdiction in serious criminal cases and in important civil cases. It is in these courts, too, that the jury figures most prominently as an agency of justice. Juries are of two kinds, grand and petit. The grand jury is a body of men varying from 12 to 23 in number, chosen by court officials to inquire whether there have been any violations of the law in the community and to deter- mine whether or not these persons under suspicion should come up for trial. When making an inquiry into a criminal charge the grand jury sits in secret and hears only the evidence against the accused. Its function is not to try the accused, but to decide whether on the face of things there is sufficient evi- dence of guilt to warrant a trial. When a majority of the grand jury are satisfied that the case ought to be tried the indictment is endorsed with the words "a true bill/' and the case goes to the petit jury to be tried. This body (in all the States but one) must consist of twelve men. It sits in open session, hears evidence on both sides of the case. During the prog- ress of the trial questions of law are determined by the court; the jury determines only questions of fact. 40 THE "WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL After the evidence has all been given and counsel on both sides of the case have been heard, the jury retires from the court-room and is locked into a small room where it remains until it finds a verdict, or until the judge decides that no verdict will be reached. In nearly all the States it is required that all the twelve members shall agree upon the verdict. When no agreement is reached a new trial may be ordered. As a general rule it may be said that the verdict of a jury is decisive. Juries are chosen from the ordinary citizens in the neighborhood in which the trial is conducted from farmers, mechanics, merchants and this is the fea- ture doubtless that makes trial by jury so popular. When a man is tried by men who are neither too far above him nor too far below him to have sympathy with him, he has a good chance for a fair trial. The jury system, like every other human institution, has its defects, but notwithstanding its shortcomings it is one of the greatest safeguards of civil liberty ever invented. III. The Supreme Court. In this court resides the supreme judicial authority of the State. It gen- erally sits at the State capital, where it holds sessions the greater part of the year. Its jurisdiction is for the most part appellate, although there are a few in- stances in which it has original jurisdiction. For ex- ample, a case involving the official action of a State officer is usually begun in the supreme court. Most of the cases, however, tried in the supreme court come up to it from the courts below. When a decision of COURTS, STATE AND FEDERAL 41 this court conflicts in no way with the federal author- ity it is final, and is binding upon the people of the State as long as the State constitution remains un- changed, but when the decision conflicts with federal law or with the federal Constitution it may be re- versed by the Supreme Court of the United States. In several States where the work of the courts is unusually heavy there has been inserted between the court of the second grade and the supreme court an intermediate appellate court. This additional tri- bunal has been established to relieve the State supreme court of some of its burden. The jurisdiction of this intermediate court is purely appellate, and its deci- sions are final, except in a few specified cases which may be carried from it up to the higher court. In many of the States we find in every county a probate or surrogate's court sometimes called the orphans' court. In States where there is no separate court, the probate business is given to the county court, an institution found in many States. This county court in a few States has functions which are purely judicial and may try misdemeanors and small civil cases. In six States we find chancery courts separate from the law courts. In these chan- cery courts the equity 1 cases are tried. As a rule, however, equity cases are tried in the regular law courts of the system. Judges in courts of equity and in most States the 1 When a civil case is tried before a judge and jury it is a case at law; when tried before a judge only, it is a case at equity. 42 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL regular law courts are also courts of equity have the power to issue the writ of injunction forbidding a person to do, or commanding him to do, a certain thing. If the injunction is disobeyed the person dis- obeying it is liable to punishment. The injunction is generally used to prevent the commission of wrongs which could not be prevented by the ordinary work- ings of a lawsuit. Thus, if a railroad company begins to lay its tracks across a man ? s property without first securing a right of way, a judge in a court of equity, at any time of the day or night, will issue an injunc- tion forbidding the railroad to continue the laying of the tracks. In recent cases courts have forbidden labor leaders and others to induce or coerce working- men to strike where the strike would cause irreparable injury and damage to the employers. This use of the injunction has met with fierce opposition and is re- garded by many as unwarranted and unjust. The power of injunction is exercised by federal as well as by State judges. In certain cases State judges may issue the writ of mandamus. This writ is issued to an officer, or cor- poration, requiring the performance of a public duty which the officer or corporation has refused to per- form. The purpose of this important writ is to com- pel the officer to go forward and do that which his position plainly requires him to do. Federal judges also may in certain cases issue the writ of mandamus. The organization of the federal courts is as follows : I. The District Courts. The lowest of the federal courts is the District Court presided over by a district COURTS, STATE AND FEDERAL 43 judge. In every State there is at least one District Court and in the larger States there are several. Al- together there are in the United States about one hun- dred District Courts. The District Court has original jurisdiction in nearly all those classes of cases both civil and criminal which arise under the laws of the United States. In this court are tried admiralty and maritime cases, copyright and patent cases, counter- feit cases, cases arising under the postal laws, cases arising under the laws regulating immigration, and naturalization, cases arising under the laws regulating commerce, and other classes of cases cognizable by the authority of the United States. II. The Circuit Courts of Appeal. For the trial of certain classes of cases upon appeal Congress has established nine judicial circuits and has provided for each circuit a court known as the Circuit Court of Appeals. This court is composed of regular circuit judges and of judges of the other courts, three judges being necessary for the trial of a case. To the Circuit Court of Appeals are brought all appeals from the District Court except in the five following instances: (1) When the case involves a question of jurisdiction; (2) when it involves the construction of the Consti- tution of the United States; (3) when it involves a question of the constitutionality of a law; (4) when it involves the construction of a treaty; (5) when it involves conviction for higher crimes. These excepted cases must be taken direct from the District Court to the Supreme Court. In all other cases than these the appeal from the District Court lies to the Circuit 44 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL Court of Appeals. The decisions of the Circuit Court of Appeals are made final in certain enumerated classes of cases, including copyright, patent and ad- miralty cases, .thus relieving the Supreme Court en- tirely of those classes of cases. The cases not enumer- ated as final are still appealable to the Supreme Court. III. The Supreme Court, consisting of the Chief Justice and eight associate justices. This court holds its regular sessions in the Capitol at Washington, sitting from October to July. The presence of at least six judges is required in the trial of a case, and the judgment of a majority is necessary in rendering a decision. The Chief Justice presides at the sessions of the court, but when the court is forming its deci- sion he is on an equality with the other judges. He has but one vote, and that is often cast with the minority. The Supreme Court has original jurisdic- tion in all cases affecting ambassadors, ministers and consuls, and in those cases in which a State is one of the parties to the controversy (110). Its appellate jurisdiction includes certain cases which are brought up to it from the Circuit Court of Appeals, and all those cases which must be brought to it direct from the District Courts. As there is no higher tribunal a decision of the Supreme Court of the United States is accepted as being the law of the land. CHAPTER VII THE STATE LEGISLATURE IN outward form, at least, the legisture of one State, although it may be widely separated by distance, and although it is created independently, is very much like that of another State. All legislatures meet at the State capital ; the upper house is always called the Senate and is always much smaller than the lower house, which is usually called the House of Repre- sentatives; in all the States members must reside in the district which they represent; in all but eight States the legislature meets every two years, and in all but eight the length of its session is limited to a term that varies from forty to ninety days ; in all the States the compensation of members is the same for both houses ; in all the States but one a law passed by the legislature can be vetoed by the governor, and the veto can be overcome by a majority vote or by three- fifths or a two-thirds vote of both houses; in every State each house is the judge of the qualifications and election of its own members. Upon assembling, each house of a newly elected legislature elects its presiding officer. In the lower house this officer is called the speaker; in the Senate he is called chairman or president. In most of the 45 46 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL States there is a lieutenant-governor, who presides in the Senate but does not vote except where there is a tie. As soon as a clerk, a sergeant-at-arms, doorkeepers, messengers and other minor officers have been elected the presiding officer of each house announces the com- mittees, which are as numerous as the interests and subjects that engage the attention of the legislature, the most important being those on finance, corpor- ations, municipalities, the judiciary, appropriations, elections, education, labor, manufactures, agriculture, railroads. The committees are agencies of the utmost importance, for they are the channels through which all legislation must pass. Any proposed law, called a bill, immediately after it is introduced and read, is referred to its proper com- mittee. The committee considers the bill in a private room where citizens may appear to defend or oppose it, and if it thinks the bill ought not to become a law it reports it unfavorably, and thus usually kills it. It is possible to pass a bill after it has been thus unfavor- ably reported, but this is rarely done. The judgment of the committee is practically final. If the bill is reported favorably its title is read and it is allowed to pass upon its second reading. In its regular order it comes up for its third and last reading. Now it is read in full, amended, perhaps, and voted upon. If it fails to get a majority of the votes that is probably the last of it. If it receives a majority of the votes it is sent to the other branch to be acted upon. Here it is referred by the presiding officer to its proper com- mittee, is read three times upon three different days, THE STATE LEGISLATURE 47 is fully discussed upon its last reading, and is then voted upon. If it passes without amendments made in this second branch it goes to the governor to be signed by him. If it passes with amendment it must be returned to the house in which it originated to be voted upon in its amended form. If it passes in the house in that form it becomes, as far as the legislature is concerned a law. If there is trouble over the amendment a joint committee, or conference commit- tee, consisting of several members from each house, is appointed to see what can be done to settle the matter. The action of this committee, if it reaches an agree- ment, is usually accepted by both houses. A bill may originate in either house, but, as a rule bills for raising revenue must originate in the lower house, because this branch is supposed to be closer to the taxpayers. After a bill has passed both houses it is sent to the governor for his approval. In order to guard against hasty and unwise legislation, and especially against encroachments of the legislature upon the other two departments, the governor, like the President of the United States, can (in all but one State) forbid the passage of a bill by his veto. When he does this he sends the bill back, with his objections stated in writ- ing, to that branch of the legislature that sent it to him. The bill may be voted upon again, and if it can secure the number of votes required by the constitu- tion in such cases it becomes a law in spite of the governor's veto. To make laws effective there must be strong public 48 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL opinion back of them. It is therefore a good demo- cratic policy to have the people vote upon ordinary laws. The number of States is constantly increasing in which this direct legislation by the people is in practice. The political device by which the people vote upon the laws is known as the Initiative and Referendum. The nature of the power which may thus be exerted may best be learned from a clause in the constitution of one of the States in which a system of direct legislation is in full force: "The legislative authority of this State shall be vested in a legislature consisting of a senate and a house of repre- sentatives, but the people reserve to themselves the power to propose laws and amendments to the consti- tution and to adopt or reject the same at the polls independent of the legislature, and also reserve power at their own option to approve or reject at the polls any act of the legislature. . . . The first power re- served to the people is the Initiative and 8 per cent, of the legal voters shall have the right to propose any measure, and 15 per cent, of the legal voters shall have the right to propose amendments to the constitution, by petition, and every such petition shall include the full text of the measure proposed. The second power is the Referendum, and it may be ordered (except as to laws necessary for the immediate preservation of the public peace, health, or safety) either by petition signed by 5 per cent, of the legal voters, or by the legislature as other bills are enacted. . . . The veto power of the governor shall not extend to measures voted upon by the people. . . . Any measure referred THE STATE LEGISLATURE 49 to the people by the initiative [or the referendum] shall take effect and be in force when it shall have been approved by a majority of votes cast in such election. . . . The referendum may be demanded by the people against one or more items, sections, or parts of any act of the legislature, in the same manner in which such power may be exercised against a com- plete act/' The constitutional clause just quoted shows that the device of the initiative and referendum gives life and power to the old right of petition. If a consid- erable number of voters (usually from 5 to 8 per cent.) in any State desire a certain law, the initiative enables them by petition to bring the measure before the electorate to be voted upon. If a considerable number of voters are opposed to a law passed by the legislature, the referendum enables them to have the law referred to decision of the electorate. Thus the initiative is a positive or constructive force: it en- ables the voters to secure what they want. The refer- endum is a negative or preventive force: it enables voters to veto laws which they do not want. The general use of the Initiative and Referendum throughout the country would introduce a new force into American politics and would profoundly change the character of American government. What the results of a general system of direct legislation would be is of course largely a matter of conjecture. In Switzerland, where the people have had centuries of training in public affairs, direct legislation has been a success. In the United States it is probable that 50 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL the initiative and referendum will succeed only in those States where the people by instinct and tradi- tion are intensely democratic, where the popular in- terest in public affairs is keen, universal and sus- tained, and where the average of popular intelligence is very high. While the use of the initiative and referendum in the making of State laws is important its use in con- nection with municipal legislation is even more im- portant. Everywhere throughout the country it is becoming the custom to give the voters of cities the right to manage municipal affairs quite directly through the means of the initiative and referendum. This is especially true of those cities that have adopted the commission form of government. Closely associated with the initiative and refer- endum is the device known as the "recall." The aim of this device is to give the people complete control over the officers whom they have elected. Where the recall is in use the voters, upon the complaint or petition of a certain number of citizens vote upon the question whether a certain officer shall be deprived of (recalled from) his office before his term expires, and if the vote is in favor of the officer's removal he must give up his office before the end of his term. When an oiiicer is removed by the operation of the recall, the vacancy is filled by holding a special election, at which the officer removed may be a candidate if he so desires. The recall is in operation in many of the cities governed by the commission system, and in some cities not thus governed. In several instances mayors THE STATE LEGISLATURE 51 of large cities have been removed through the pro- cedure of the recall. In Oregon, Colorado, Washing- ton, Kansas, Arizona and California, every State official is subject to recall. The recall is a mild form of impeachment. In case of impeachment the ac- cused officer is tried by the legislature; under the procedure of the recall the accused is tried by the whole body of voters. CHAPTER VIII THE STATE EXECUTIVE EVERY State has a governor, (almost every State has a lieutenant governor), a secretary of state and a treasurer; almost every State has a comptroller, or auditor, an attorney-general and a superintendent of education. The length of the terms of service of these officers, the manner of their election or appointment, and their qualifications and salaries are regulated by the constitution or by statute. Their duties which do not vary widely from State to State, are as follows : The Governor. (1) The first duty of the governor is to take care that the laws are faithfully executed. The governor is commander-in-chief of the military forces of the State, and he can call upon the soldiers to assist him in enforcing the judgment of a court or in suppressing riots and disorderly proceedings. (2) Another duty of the governor is to transmit to the legisature a message, informing it of the condition of affairs within the State and suggesting such legis- lation as he may deem wise. The legislature, how- ever, is not bound to follow the suggestions made in the message or even to consider them. If the legis- lature is not in session and the governor thinks cer- tain legislation urgent, he may summon it to meet in 52 THE STATE EXECUTIVE 53 extra session and lay before it the measures that de- mand immediate consideration. (3) In many States the governor has the pardoning power which it is his duty to exercise when he thinks a person has been unjustly convicted of crime. His pardon may be absolute or he may commute the pun- ishment. For good reason he may grant reprieves. In a few States the power of pardon, commutation and reprieve is not left to the governor, but is vested in a special body of officers known as the board of pardons. (4) In every State it is the duty of the governor to appoint many officials whose selection is not otherwise provided for. When an elective official dies or re- signs before his term ends the governor fills the vacancy by appointing some one to serve until another election is held. He also issues writs of election to fill vacancies when any occur in the representation of a State in the lower branch of Congress (12). In the case of a vacancy in the United States Senate the gov- ernor may issue a writ for a new election or if so au- thorized by the legislature may make a temporary ap- pointment to last until the people fill the vacancy by election (162). (5) It is the duty of the governor to check hasty or corrupt or unwise legislation by interposing his veto. Experience seems to prove that the possession of the veto power enables the governor to exercise a wholesome restraint upon the legislature, and ac- cordingly the veto power is given to him in all the States but one. 54 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL (6) The governor performs numerous social duties. He opens fairs, dedicates public buildings, presents diplomas to the graduates of normal schools and col- leges, and honors important celebrations and meetings with his presence. The Lieutenant-governor. This officer serves when the governor is out of the State or is incapacitated for duty. He is ex officio president of the Senate, and when a vacancy occurs in the governorship he suc- ceeds to the office. In those States where there is no lieutenant-governor the president of the Senate usually succeeds to the governorship in case of a vacancy. The Secretary of State records the official acts of the governor and files the laws passed by the legis- lature. He has charge of all State papers, of the journals of the legislature, and of the historical docu- ments, statuary, paintings, relics, etc., owned by the State. This officer may properly be called the chief clerk of the executive department. The State comptroller or auditor manages the finan- cial business of the State. He prepares plans for the improvement and management of revenue, reports estimates of the revenue and expenditure of the State, and enforces the prompt collection of taxes. He keeps an account of all the money paid into the treas- ury and all drawn from it. Not a dollar can be taken from the treasury without his order. As a rule it is his duty to see that those charged with the collection of revenue of the State are responsible persons and THE STATE EXECUTIVE 55 are properly bonded. In a few States the comptroller serves on one or more State boards. The Stale treasurer has in his keeping the money paid into the State treasury. His principal duties are to receive the State funds, place them where they will be safe, and pay them out as he is ordered by the comptroller. Like the comptroller, the treasurer sometimes serves upon State boards. The Attorney-general is the law officer of the State. He appears in court for the State and when any execu- tive officer needs legal advice he may be called upon for an opinion. The superintendent of public instruction stands at the head of the public-school system of the State. He reports to the governor or to the legislature the con- dition of educational affairs throughout the State, visits teachers' institutes and other educational meet- ings, and delivers lectures upon educational topics, in- spects schools, suggests methods of teaching and courses of instruction and promotes the cause of edu- cation in many ways. In some States he prescribes the qualifications of teachers and issues their certifi- cates, and supervises the distribution of the school funds. The above officers are found in almost every State. The governor and lieutenant-governor are always elected by the people, but the method of choosing the others varies; sometimes the people elect, sometimes the governor appoints and sometimes the legislature elects. 56 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL In addition to these principal officers we find in the different States such minor officers and boards as special conditions may require. The titles of these suggest the nature of their duties and may be men- tioned without comment : State insurance commissioner; State librarian; State com- missioner of agriculture; State inspector of mines; State com- missioner of immigration; State surveyor; State tax commis- sioner ; State fire marshall ; State factory inspector ; State commissioner of fisheries; State dairy inspector; State in- spector of steam boilers; adjutant-general; State vaccine physician; State board of health; State board of education; State board of medical examiners ; State board of public works ; State board of dentistry; State board of railroad commission- ers; State highway commission; State board of charities; State board of pardons; State board of public utilities. No State has all of the above officers, but every State has a few of them. Besides the major and minor officials that have been mentioned there are in the service of the State such assistants, secretaries, clerks and employees of various kinds as may be necessary for the efficient working of the several de- partments. CHAPTER IX COUNTIES, TOWNS, AND TOWNSHIPS ALTHOUGH county government differs as we go from State to State there is nevertheless a certain uni- formity in the organization of counties throughout the Union. The official outfit of a typical county is as follows : I. The Board of County Commissioners or Super- visors. This is the governing body of the county. It consists usually of three or more members who serve for a term varying from one to six years. It holds its sessions at the county -seat, where all the county officials have offices. Like most of the other county officers the commissioners are elected by the people. In New York, and in several of the western States the govern ig body of the county the county board of superv sors consists not of representatives of the people, as in most States, but of representatives of the townships. The county commissioners (or super- visors) usually do the following things: (1) They fix the rate of taxation for the county. (2) They appoint tax assessors, tax collectors, road supervisors, and other subordinate officials. (3) They make contracts for repairing old roads and opening new ones, and also for building and re- pairing bridges. 57 58 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL (4) They make contracts for building and repair- ing public buildings, such as court-houses, jails and almshouses. (5) They appropriate money for the payment of the salaries of county officers, and for all necessary expenses of county government. (6) They represent the county when it is sued for damages. (All local governments are corporations in some respect and can be brought into court to defend a suit as if they were persons.) II. The Sheriff. This officer has been called the "arm of the judge. " If the judge orders a man to be taken to prison, or orders property to be sold, or sentences a man to be hanged, the sheriff executes the command. It is his duty also to preserve peace and order, and when necessary he may call to his aid deputies. In times of great danger or disturbance he may call to his aid the posse comitatus, which includes every able-bodied man in the county. The sheriff usually lives at the county -seat and has charge of the county jail and its prisoners. III. The Clerk of the Circuit, or District Court. Any court above a police court, or above that of a justice of the peace, is a "court of record"; that is, its proceedings are enrolled in permanent form. In every county there is a court of record, and the keeper of its records is the clerk of the court, or prothono- tary. This officer often keeps a record of deeds and mortgages given in the county, issues marriage certifi- cates, and records all births and deaths. IV. The Prolate Court the Orphans' Court. It COUNTIES, TOWNS, AND TOWNSHIPS 59 is the business of this court to examine the wills of deceased persons and decide whether they have been made as wills by law, ought to be made. When a per- son dies without having made a will, and leaves no one to take charge of his estate, the probate court will appoint an administrator to take charge of it. When a child is left without father or mother, the probate court will appoint a guardian, who will manage the estate until the child comes of age. In general, the business of the probate court is to see that the prop- erty of the dead falls into rightful hands. In some States the probate court is called the orphans' court. In New York and New Jersey it is called the surro- gate's court. V. The Recorder, or Register keeps a record of mortgages, deeds and leases. VI. Tax Collectors and Assessors. VII. The County Treasurer pays out as well as re- ceives all money raised by taxation. VIII. The Auditor. Sometimes the county elects an auditor, whose duty it is to examine the books of the treasurer and other officers and report whether the public accounts are properly and honestly kept. IX. The Coroner. When a person is murdered, or is found dead, or dies mysteriously, this officer takes charge of the corpse and inquires at once into the cause of the death. If he thinks there has been foul play, he summons six or twelve men to act as a jury and holds a "coroner's inquest." Witnesses are sum- moned, and the jury after hearing evidence, states the probable cause of the death. 60 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL X. The State's Attorney is a lawyer whose duty is to give legal advice to county officers, and to appear in court at the trial of one who is charged with crime and present the side of the State. This officer is sometimes called a district attorney or prosecuting attorney ; sometimes he is called the solicitor. XL. The Superintendent of Schools is the execu- tive officer of the school system of the county. He sets the examinations for teachers, visits the different schools of the county, and inspects their work. He grades the work of the schools and devotes his time to improving them in every way he can. XII. The Surveyor makes surveys of land when the county has need of such. In New England, in the Middle States, and in most of the States of the West, the county shares the busi- ness of local government with a minor civil division known as the town or township. In New England a most important unit of local government is the town and the central fact of town government is the town meeting. Once a year all the qualified voters of the town meet together to discuss measures relating to town affairs and take action thereon. At the town meeting the rate of taxation is fixed; money is appropriated for the necessary ex- pense of town government; by-laws are passed for the regulation of local matters ; and town officers are elected. The most important town officers are: the selectmen, the town clerk, the town treasurer, asses- sors and collectors of taxes and overseers of the poor. The selectmen are the governing body in the town. COUNTIES, TOWNS, AND TOWNSHIPS 61 In the Middle States and in most of the States in the West the county shares the business of local gov- ernment with a minor civil division known as the township. The presence of townships in the county results in a compromise system of local government often called the county -township system. Under this system the county government attends to those affairs which interest the whole body of the people of the county, while the township administers the affairs of a small area. The township has been found to be an institution of great convenience. For a sparsely settled society the county is, perhaps, the only practicable form of government ; but as population increases the needs of the neighborhood multiply, and many of these needs are such as can be attended to by the people directly interested if they only have the power granted to them. It is not necessary to travel twenty miles to the county-seat to see an officer about the repair of a washout in a road, or about the purchase of a stove for a school-house, when we can have a government near at hand to attend to such things. The township has been introduced as an agency by which the needs of the immediate locality may be attended to. Especially has the public school been a factor in the development of the township system. Local govern- ment in the South developed around a court-house, and in New England around a church ; in the Middle States and in the West it developed around a school- house. Then, too, the care of the roads, and the sup- port of the poor are services that may most conven- 62 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL iently be rendered by the neighborhood government. The powers of the township vary slightly in the different States,, but as a rule where the county-town- ship system prevails the township (1) supports the public schools, (2) cares for the roads and (3) helps the poor, leaving other matters of local government to the county. The taxes necessary for doing these things are levied by township authority. The organization of township government differs greatly as we pass from State to State. In some States, as in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa, Minnesota, and the Dakotas, there is at the head of the township government a committee or a board of supervisors or trustees consisting of several persons, the number varying from three to eleven. In New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Mis- souri, Kansas and Oklahoma there is at the head of the township a single officer known as the supervisor, or trustee. In Wisconsin this officer is known as the town chairman. These supervisors or trustees have general charge of township affairs, although their powers and duties vary considerably as we pass from State to State. Besides the head executive officers (or officer) there is usually a township clerk who keeps the records of the township ; a township assessor ; a township auditor who examines the accounts of the township ; a justice of the peace ; one or more constables ; overseers of the poor; and election officers. In most instances town- ship officers are elected by the people. CHAPTER X MUNICIPALITIES MUNICIPAL corporations may be divided into two classes. In the first class may be included all those chartered communities, that have a simple form of organization, limited local powers, and a small popu- lation, although population of itself is an untrust- worthy guide for their classification. Such communi- ties bear different names in different parts of the country. In Connecticut, New Jersey, and Pennsyl- vania they are called boroughs. In the Southern States they are generally called towns, while in the West they are usually known as villages. In Indiana,, Iowa and Colorado they are called towns. The organization and powers of a village (or town, or borough) do not differ widely in the different States. Most of the officers are elected by the voters of the village. The governing body consists of a president, or mayor, or chief burgess, and a body of three or more trustees or burgesses or commissioners. In addition to these there is always a clerk, and fre- quently a treasurer, tax collector, a constable, a justice of the peace and a board of street commissioners. The village government usually renders the following: services : 63 64 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL (1) It keeps the peace. (2) It holds a court for the trial of minor civil and criminal cases. (3) It keeps the streets in order and provides good sidewalks. (4) It lights the streets. (5) It furnishes a supply of water. (6) It supports the public schools. (7) It cares for the public health. (8) It purchases apparatus for the extinguishing of fires. The second class of municipalities is the cities. A city is almost always an enlarged town or village, and in outward appearance it is sometimes difficult to dis- tinguish a small city from a large town, although be- tween the governments of the two there is a sharp difference. The government of the city is more com- plex than that of town, its powers are greater, its officers are more numerous, and its local independence is more clearly defined. At what point in its growth a town or village shall cast off its simple organization and assume the dignity of cityhood depends upon State law. In many States a place must have ten thousand or more inhabitants before it is entitled to the privileges of a city, while in other States we find cities with less than three thousand inhabitants. There are two well defined types of city government in the United States, the council system and the commission system. The Council System. In most American cities the municipal power is divided and given to a city council MUNICIPALITIES 65 or board of aldermen and a mayor, the council exercising the legislative power, and the mayor ex- ercising the executive power. This organization is usually known as the council system. The organization of the city council varies with the temper of State legislatures and with the theories of municipal reformers. It is always a representative body and its members are usually elected from municipal divisions known as wards. In a very few cities the council consists of two branches; in others it consists of a single body. The term of office of a councilman or alderman is some- times as short as one year but it is never longer than four years. The council as the legislature of the city regulates the almost innumerable activities of the city government. A perusal of its proceedings as reported in the daily newspapers will show how closely its actions are connected with the daily life of the urban resident. Its laws, called ordinances, af- fect profoundly the health, safety, peace, comfort, prosperity, intelligence and morality of the city. In cities where the council system prevails the executive power is vested in a mayor who is elected by the voters for a term varying from one to four years. The powers and duties of the mayor within the city are comparable to those of the governor within the State. The chief duty of the mayor is to cany into effect the laws affecting the municipality. Asso- ciated with the mayor in the executive branch of a large city, there are numerous heads of departments and boards. Some of these are elected by the people, 66 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL others are appointed by the mayor; in a few States some of them (for example, the police and health commissioners) are appointed by the governor, or by the State legislature. Serving under these chiefs and boards are assistants and employees, the number of whom increases with the size of the city, and some- times consists of many thousands. A well organized city will usually have such departments and officers and boards as are indicated by the following outline : (1) Department of Finance: comptroller, board of estimates, collector of taxes. (2) Department of Law: city solicitor, or attorney. (3) Department of Public Safety: board of fire commissioners, commissioner of health, inspector of buildings, commissioner of streets. (4) Department of Public Improvement: city en- gineer, water board, inspector of boilers. (5) Department of Parks and Squares: board of park commissioners. (6) Department of Education: board of school commissioners, superintendent of schools. (7) Department of Charities and Correction: trus- tees of the poor, supervisors of city charities. (8) Department of Taxes and Assessment: court of taxes and assessment. (9) Board of Police Commissioners. (10) Miscellaneous: city librarian, superintendent of lamps and lighting, surveyor, constables, superin- tendent of public buildings, public printer. In every large city there is a system of courts ex- tending from the police or magistrate court up to the MUNICIPALITIES 67 higher courts, but the judges of these courts, although they may be elected by the people of the city, are not strictly officers of the municipal government. Justice is administered in the name of the State, and the judi- cial department of a city is merely a portion of the State judiciary acting within the borders of the city. Appeals from courts of the city are taken to the supreme court of the State. The Commission System. In many of our cities the municipal power both legislative and executive is vested in a single body, usually known as a commis- sion, although this body is sometimes called the city council. This system of municipal organization originated in Galveston after the great inundation of 1900. The success of Galveston with the commission system led to its adoption in other cities. At the pres- ent time more than 400 cities are governed by the commission plan. Under the commission system the governing body usually consists of five commission- ers (or councilmen) elected by the voters of the city at large, there being no ward lines recognized in the selection or in the election of this commission. Party lines as well as ward lines are disregarded in the elec- tion of the commission, for candidates are nominated without the aid of party machinery and the election is conducted without regard to partisan results. One member of the commission is the mayor who presides at the meetings of the commission (council) but who has no power to veto any measure. The commission passes the ordinances for the government and ad- ministration of the city and also carries the ordinances 68 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL into effect. The executive and administrative author- ity and duties are distributed among several depart- ments. These departments are usually five in num- ber and are known as (1) the department of public affairs, (2) the department of accounts and finances, (3) the department of public safety, (4) the depart- ment of streets and public improvements, and (5) the department of parks and public property. At the head of each of these departments is placed one of the members of the commission, who is the super- intendent of his department and who is responsible for its workings. The mayor, by virtue of his office, is the superintendent of the department of public affairs. The superintendents of the other four departments are designated by a majority vote of the commission itself. All city offices such as the city clerk, the solicitor, the assessor, the treasurer, the auditor, the chief of the fire department and the like, are appointed by the commission. Thus it is seen that under the commission plan very- great power is lodged in a small body of men. But the commission (council) is not likely often to abuse its power for wherever the commission system has been installed the people have usually reserved for themselves the powers residing in the initiative and referendum, and in the recall. Where these devices are in operation the commission is held directly re- sponsible and accountable to the electorate. A considerable number of cities have adopted a form of government known as the city manager plan. This has for its aim a greater concentration of the MUNICIPALITIES 69 executive authority than that provided by the com- mission form. Where the city manager plan has been adopted the entire administration of the affairs of the city is entrusted to a single officer the city manager appointed by an elective- commission or council. The power of the city manager sometimes [or] in some cases extends even to the appointment of all the city officers and employees; the activities of the council being confined strictly to the passage of ordinances. CHAPTER XI THE TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES OF THE UNITED STATES ALL territory not included within the boundaries of a State, yet subject to the dominion of the United States, is wholly dependent upon Congress for its governmental powers (119). This is a fundamental principle underlying all questions relating to the government of territory subject to the sovereignty of the United States and not included within a State. When planning for the government of federal terri- tory from time to time, Congress has dealt with each case according to its merits. Now it has permitted a newly acquired possession to enter into an immediate enjoyment of statehood ; now it has provided liberally for local self-government; now it has held the reins of government tightly in its own hands. This policy of giving to each community a government suitable to its needs has led to the establishment of so many dif- ferent kinds of governments in the Territories and Dependencies that a satisfactory classification of them cannot be made. Nevertheless, the inferior govern- ments may be conveniently studied under two head- ings, namely: (1) Territories and Dependencies on the American Continent, and (2) Insular Territories and Dependencies. 70 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 71 The Territories and Dependencies on the American Continent are: The District of Columbia, ceded to the United States by Maryland in 1790 as the perma- nent seat of the Federal Government; Alaska, pur- chased from Russia in 1866 ; Indian Reservations and National Parks; the Panama Canal Strip. I. The District of Columbia. The government of the District of Columbia is, by the Constitution, vested exclusively in Congress (61). Several methods of governing the District had been tried when in 1878 Congress established the present form of government. The District is governed by a board of three com- missioners appointed by the President. Two of the commissioners must be appointed from civil life, and one must be an officer of the army. This board exer- cises not only the executive power, but acts in many respects as a legislature, Its reasonable regulations in respect to matters affecting the life, health and com- fort of the people have the force of laws. Although Washington the District of Columbia is but another name for the city of Washington has no distinct legislature of its own, it nevertheless enjoys the serv- ices of the greatest legislative body of the country, for Congress keeps its eye upon the affairs of the District and devotes certain days to the consideration of District business. When legislating for the Dis- trict, Congress acts as a city council, and visitors to the Capitol may hear senators and representatives discussing topics of local government as the repair- ing the streets or the regulation of trolley lines or the adjustment of teachers' salaries. 72 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL The judicial system of the District consists of a court of appeals, a regular trial court called the supreme court, and a police court for the trial of petty offenses and municipal regulations. Justices of the peace are provided for the trial of certain kinds of civil cases. All these judicial officers are appointed by the President. The District of Columbia has no delegate in Con- gress, and no provision whatever has been made for the expression of the popular will in a law-making body. The inhabitants of the District are citizens of the United States. II. Alaska. After neglecting this region for a long time Congress at last, in 1900, provided for it a code of laws and a suitable form of government. In 1912 Congress vested the legislative power of the Territory of Alaska in an elective Legislature consist- ing of a senate and a house of representatives. The governor of the Territory is appointed by the Presi- dent. The governor has the veto power but his veto may be over-ruled by a two-thirds vote of all the members of each house. All laws passed by the Terri- torial legislature must be transmitted by the governor to the President of the United States and by him sub- mitted to Congress. If a law of the Territorial Legis- lature is disapproved by Congress it becomes null and void. In addition to the governor, Alaska has as its other executive officers a secretary of territory, a treasurer, and a superintendent of education. The Territory is divided into four judicial divisions with a judge for en eh division. TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 73 Alaska has a territorial delegate in the House of Representatives at Washington. The delegate is the political tie which binds the Territory to the federal government. The territorial delegate is elected every two years by popular vote. He has a right to a seat in the House of Representatives and receives the same salary as other members of Congress. He serves on committees and may speak on all questions pertaining to his Territory, but he has no vote. III. Indian Reservations and National Parks. In the management of the territory that has been under its control the National government has from time to time marked off and reserved certain lands for the use of the Indians. Scattered over the country there are in all about 150 of these Indian reservations. Some of them have a very large area. The Navajo reservation in Arizona has an area considerably larger than the State of Maryland. An Indian reservation is a kind of Dependency of the United States. The tribes living on a reservation are under the control of Congress. The National government protects the Indians on the reservation against injustice at the hands of the white man, gives them food supplies, and supports schools among them. The interests of the Indians on the reservations are looked after by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, one of the bureaus in the Department of the Interior. In the management of its public domain the National government has also set off several large tracts of land to be used as parks. These national parks are in some instances of vast extent. The Yel- 74 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL lowstone National Park has an area nearly half as great as that of Massachusetts. IV. The Panama Canal Strip. This consists of a zone of land of the width of ten miles, extending to the distance of five miles on each side of the central line of the route of the Panama Canal. The region has been placed under the control of a governor who is appointed by the President. The canal itself is absolutely neutral, being free and open to the vessels of commerce and war of all nations. The toll rates on the canal are the same for the vessels of all nations and the vessels of no nation, not even those of the United States, are exempted from the payment of tolls. It is provided by treaties that the canal shall never be blockaded and that no act of hostility shall ever be committed in it. Warships must pass through the canal with the least possible delay and no bellig- erent vessel while in the canal may embark or dis- embark troops or munitions of war. The Insular Territories and Dependencies are: Hawaii, annexed by a joint resolution of Congress in 1898 (July 7) ; Porto Rico, occupied July 25, 1898, by military forces of the United States under General Miles; the Philippine Islands, occupied August 13, 1898, by military forces under Admiral Dewey; Guam, seized by the United States navy during the war with Spain in 1898 ; the Virgin Islands acquired from Denmark in 1917. I. Hawaii. The Hawaiian Islands are governed under the name of "The Territory of Hawaii" by an act of Congress passed in 1900. This act provides TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 75 that the Territory shall have a properly elected legis- lature of two houses. The powers of the territorial legislature are similar to those of a State legislature. A law of the territorial legislature can be annulled by Congress. The executive power of the Territory is vested in a governor appointed by the President of the United States for a term of four years. The powers and duties of the Governor correspond very closely to those of a governor of a State. Other executive officers provided for are a secretary of the Territory, an attorney-general, a treasurer, a commissioner of public works, a superintendent of public instruction, a surveyor and an auditor. These are appointed by the governor of the Territory and confirmed by the territorial senate. The judicial power of the territory is vested in a supreme court and in circuit courts. The judges of both the supreme court and of the circuit courts are appointed by the President of the United States. The legislature is empowered to pro- vide for Hawaii a system of local government con- sisting of counties, towns and municipalities. Hawaii, like Alaska, has a Delegate in the House of Repre- sentatives. The inhabitants of Hawaii are citizens of the United States. II. Porto Rico. The organic act establishing the present government of the island was passed by Con- gress in 1917. The act contains a bill of rights which accords to the citizens of Porto Rico civil rights similar to those enjoyed by citizens of the United States. Legislative power in the island is vested in a legisla- ture consisting of a senate and a house of representa- 76 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL lives. Both senators and representatives are elected by the voters. A law passed by the legislature may be vetoed by the governor but the veto may be over- ruled, and if it is overruled the law is sent to the President for approval or disapproval. The executive power in the island is vested in a governor appointed by the President. The President also appoints an at- torney general and a commissioner of education. A treasurer, a commissioner of the interior, a commis- sioner of agriculture and labor and a commissioner of health are appointed by the governor. The judicial system of the island consists of a Supreme Court composed of judges appointed for life or good behavior by the President ; of district courts presided over by judges appointed by the governor; and of municipal courts whose judges are elected by the people. The organic act for Porto Rico provides that the voters of the island every two years shall elect a commissioner, who shall be entitled to official recog- nition as such by all the departments at Washington. This commissioner in the intention of the law is plainly not a delegate, yet by the grace of the House of Representatives he has been accorded the right to speak in that body and to serve on its committees. For all practical purposes, therefore, he is in reality a t territorial Delegate, although Porto Rico can hardly be said to be a Territory, for it is not a part of the United States. Under the act of 1917 inhabitants of Porto Rico not citizens of a foreign country were de- clared to be citizens of the United States. TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES 77 III. The Philippine Islands. Congress has given to the Filipinos the form of government which has seemed best suited to their needs, changing the form from time to time as conditions on the islands have changed. At present (1918) the legislative power in the Philippines is vested in the Philippine Legislature, which consists of two houses, a senate and a house of representatives. Both senators and representatives are elected by the qualified voters. The members of both houses of the Legislature must be residents of the islands. Any law enacted by the Legislature must be affirmed by the Governor General, who may veto a law, but whose veto may be overruled by the Legis- lature. A law passed over the head of the Governor General is sent to the President for approval or dis- approval. If the President approves it becomes a law; if not, it does not become a law. The executive power in the island is vested in the Governor General of the Philippine Islands, an officer appointed by the President. The Philippine Islands have no delegate in Con- gress, yet they are permitted to send to Washington two commissioners who appear before the committees of Congress and represent the interests of the Islands. The judicial system of the Islands includes a su- preme court, consisting of a chief justice and six associate justices, courts of general trial for the prov- inces, and justices' courts for the municipalities. The judges of the supreme court are appointed by the President of the United States, but the judges of the provincial courts and the justices of the peace are 78 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL appointed by the governor of the island. Cases may be carried by appeal from the supreme court of the island to the Supreme Court of the United States. IV. Guam and Samoa (Tutuila). Governmental power in these islands is vested in the naval officers who happen to be in command of the naval station. As a matter of fact the inhabitants of the islands in a large degree govern themselves. At times, how- ever, it is necessary for the naval officer to interpose his authority, and upon such occasions his orders have the force of laws. V. The Virgin Islands. These islands, purchased (in 1917) from Denmark and acquired as a base for naval operations, are under the direct control of the Navy Department. CHAPTER XII PARTY ORGANIZATION IN almost every township, village, election district, and city ward, each of the great parties has its perma- nent local committee of management. Likewise it has its permanent county, city and State committees. Above all these it has a permanent National Commit- tee, consisting of one member from each of the States. and Territories. These permanent committees do the heavy work of politics. Indeed, they do all the work of politics ex- cept the voting. They issue calls for the nominating conventions to be described below; they organize po- litical clubs ; they arrange for political mass meetings and processions; they solicit funds for conducting campaigns; they urge voters to register, and then urge them to come to the polls; in many other ways they promote and defend the interests of the party, through good and ill report, after defeat as well as after success. The chief task of the permanent committees is to keep the nominating machinery of the party in mo- tion. The nomination of candidates is accomplished in two ways, by the direct vote of the members of the party, and by the action of party conventions. Under 79 80 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL the plan of direct nominations the voters go to a pri- mary meeting, which is managed in practically the same way as a regular election, and vote directly for the candidates whom they wish to represent their party at the next election. In other words, under the direct system the voters select their own party candidates ; they do not entrust the selection to party representatives, or to the action of party conventions. When county officers, for example, are to be nomi- nated, the voters of a party, instead of electing dele- gates to a county convention authorized to nominate these officers, express their choice for candidates at primary elections held throughout the county, and the candidates who win at the primaries are put on the ticket as the regular party nominees. If a candidate for governor is to be chosen the voters of the party throughout the State express their choice at the primaries and the person most in favor at the pri- maries becomes the regular party candidate for gov- ernor. The direct method of nominating candidates has been adopted by a majority of the States and in many States it extends to the nomination of all candidates, from the lowest to the highest. In some of the States candidates for the higher offices are nominated by the conventions composed of party representatives or delegates. Under this system a candidate for sheriff for example is nominated at a county convention composed of delegates chosen at primary meetings which have been held throughout the county. When a candidate for a State office is PARTY ORGANIZATION 81 to be nominated as, for example, a candidate for governor, the county (or city) conventions through- out the State send delegates to a State convention which nominates the candidates for governor. Party organization in the United States was built up while men were finding a way to nominate a candi- date for the Presidency and the Presidential nomina- tion is still the central object of party activity. Since this is so, party organization may be best understood by following the workings of a party in a presidential year. In the States which have adopted the plan of direct nomination each of the great parties by a direct vote of its members elect delegates to the National Conven- tion which nominates the party candidates for Presi- dent and Vice-President. In a few States at the pri- maries at which these delegates are chosen the voters are given an opportunity to express their preference in respect to presidential candidates. The meetings and conventions in states where the convention system is in operation will now be de- scribed. I. The Primary or Caucus. In the spring of a presidential year the permanent local committees of the lowest grade, in response to an order which has come down to them through the State committee from the National Committee, call upon the voters of the party within the town or election precinct or ward, to take action in a primary meeting sometimes called a caucus upon matters relating to the nomination of a candidate for President. At this Primary meeting 82 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL delegates to a county (or city) convention are elected. For many years the primary, like the entire party or- ganization, was an extralegal, voluntary institution. It was controlled by rules made by party managers and whether it was conducted honestly or otherwise was not an affair of governmental concern. If at the primary election there was cheating or irregularities no one could be punished. But in recent years, in most of the States, primaries have been placed under the control of the law and have been conducted as regularly and as honestly as other elections are con- ducted. II. The County (or City) Convention. The dele- gates chosen at the local primary are sometimes in- structed to act in the interest of a certain man as the party candidate for President, and sometimes they are left free to act as their judgments direct. In a short time after the primary election they assemble (usually at the county-seat) as the county convention of the party which they represent. This body, con- sisting perhaps of forty or fifty men, elects three or four or five delegates to represent the party in a State convention. If the county convention is in fa- vor of a certain man for President it may instruct these delegates for this man in the State convention. III. The State Convention. A few weeks after the county convention, delegates from all the counties (and cities 1 ) assemble at some convenient place as i In a city each ward in primary meeting sends delegates to a city convention and this body elects delegates to the State convention to meet with the delegates from the counties. PARTY ORGANIZATION 83 the State convention of the party. This body, con- sisting sometimes of several hundred men, passes reso- lutions expressing the political views of the party in the State, names its choice for presidential candidate if it happens to have a choice and elects delegates to a National Convention, the number of delegates allotted to each State being twice the number of its representatives in both Houses of Congress. 2 Some- times it also selects candidates for presidential elec- tors. Although the men in this convention are sev- eral degrees removed from the voting mass, yet if the sentiment at the primaries is pronounced and def- inite it will find expression in the State convention. If, on the other hand, the voters at the primaries give no direct indication of their will the delegates in the higher conventions must act according to their judgment. IV. The National Convention. In June or July, all the State conventions having been held, the dele- gates from the States (and Territories) assemble as the great National Convention. This body, consist- ing of more than a thousand men, meets in some con- venient city, and after several days of discussion, expresses the views of the party upon public ques- In some States the delegates elected at the city primaries go straight to the State convention or to a congressional district convention. 2 In most of the States the State convention elects only four delegates (called delegates at large) to the National Con- vention, the other delegates being elected at congressional dis- trict conventions, two delegates being chosen from each dis- trict. Where this is the practice the district convention se- lects a candidate for presidential elector. 84 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL tions in the shape of a platform and chooses candi- dates for President and Vice-President. After all the political parties have named their candidates the struggle for election begins. Political meetings are held, the claims of the candidates are urged, the platforms are explained and defended, and everything that can be done to influence voters is done. The campaign, with all its faults, is a most whole- some element in our public life. It is the school-time of democracy. By it, men's attention is strongly at- tracted to public affairs, civic spirit is awakened, and voters are educated. The greatest objection to length- ening the presidential term is that to do so would be to deprive the people of the great educational advan- tage of frequent presidential campaigns. The campaign continues until the election day, the first Tuesday after the first Monday in No- vember, when the voters render their decision. They do not vote for a President directly, but for electors as the Constitution provides (146). Since these electors are nominated and elected by a party they are morally bound to vote for the candidate of the party which elected them, and no elector has ever proved unfaithful to the party that elected him. The President is, therefore, really elected at the polls. The electors chosen in November meet in their re- spective States on the second Wednesday in Jan- uary and vote for President and Vice-President. The results of this vote are despatched from the several States to the President of the Senate PARTY ORGANIZATION 85 at Washington and on the second Wednesday in February Congress meets to count the votes. The person receiving the majority of the votes cast for President is declared to be elected, and the person receiving the majority of the votes cast for Vice-Presi- dent is declared to be elected. When no person re- ceives a majority of all the electoral votes, the Con- stitution provides that the House of Representatives shall choose a President and the Senate a Vice-Presi- dent, and states precisely how the election shall be conducted (148). CHAPTER POLITICAL PARTY PLATFORMS DIFFERENCES of opinion on national issues have caused the organization of a number of political par- ties in the United States. Of the parties now in existence the Democratic is the oldest, dating back to the time of Jefferson. It was first known as the Democratic-Republican party. In 1824 there came a split and the Democratic party as organized in 1828- 1831 is stated by some authorities as the real begin- ning of the present Democratic party. As a direct result of the passage of the Kansas- Nebraska bill, making slavery possible in the north, the Republican party came into being in 1854. Actuated by a desire for national and State legis- lation to stop the liquor traffic, the Prohibition party was organized in 1869 and nominated its first na- tional ticket in 1872. The Socialist-Labor party, organized as a propa- ganda society in 1877, decided in 1890 on permanent independent political action. It differs from the So- cialist party in advocating a complete reconstruction of government, replacing Congress by a parliament elected by industries or occupations instead of by localities, and direct democratic control of industry by the workers employed therein. 86 POLITICAL PARTY PLATFORMS 87 In 1888 a faction which believed in political action as a working class party left the Social Democracy and in 1890 with a group of the Socialist Labor party organized the present Socialist party. The organization of the Progressive party in 1912 was caused by discontent in the Republican party. A statement of reform principles has been an- nounced by the National party, formed in 1917. Party Principles. Each political party, at its na- tional and state conventions, adopts a platform de- claring its principles. Before affiliating with a party, the citizen should not only study carefully the princi- ples outlined in the platforms, but should note whether the parties through their elected candidates put these policies into effect. At their 1916 conventions, both Republican and Democratic parties declared for the protection of the American citizen and for the enforcement of the Mon- roe doctrine, although they differed as to the methods by which these ends may be attained. Both platforms approved friendly and helpful inter-rela- tions of Pan-American countries, the conservation of natural resources, provision for national defense, econ- omy in government and the budget system, upholding the civil service regulations and the extension of suffrage to women. Democratic Platform. The Democratic party re- affirmed its belief in tariff for revenue and en- dorsed the Underwood tariff bill as exemplifying that doctrine. It endorsed the pending shipping bill. It commended the current administration (Demo- 88 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL cratie) for its legislation on behalf of the farmer. It stated that the Federal Government should put into effect these "principles of just employment" and should urge them in State legislation : "A living wage for all employees ; a working day not to exceed eight hours, with one day of rest in seven ; the adoption of safety appliances and the establishment of thoroughly sanitary conditions of labor; adequate compensation for industrial accidents; the standards of the 'Uni- form Child Labor Law' wherever minors are em- ployed; such provisions for decency, comfort and health in the employment of women as should be ac- corded the mothers of the race; an equitable retire- ment law providing for the retirement of superannu- ated and disabled employees of the civil service to the end that a higher standard of efficiency may be maintained." It favored ' ' the speedy enactment of a Federal Child Labor Law," "the regulation of the shipment of prison-made goods in interstate commerce," "the creation of a Federal Bureau of Safety in the De- partment of Labor," "the extension of the powers and functions of the Federal Bureau of Mines," "the development upon a systematic scale of the means already begun under the present administration to assist laborers throughout the Union to seek and ob- tain employment," public health work, the establish- ment by the Federal Government of sanatoriums for needy tubercular patients, the alteration of the Sen- ate rules to secure prompt transaction of business. Self-government for the Philippine Islands was en- POLITICAL PARTY PLATFORMS 89 dorsed. These principles of prison reform were urged: Training in remunerative occupations, the setting apart of the net wages of the prisoner for his dependent family or to be paid to him upon his re- lease, the liberal extension of the principles of the Federal Parole Law and the adoption of the proba- tion system. Generous pensions for soldiers and their widows were recommended. The development of har- bors and waterways was favored and the control of the Mississippi River was stated as a national problem to be handled by the National Government. Legisla- tion for the development of Alaskan resources was pledged and the granting of the United States tradi- tional territorial government to Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico was favored. Republican Platform. The Republican platform condemned the Democratic policy of granting self- government to the Philippine Islands immediately and reaffirmed its policy of government by the United States with constantly increasing participation by the Philippine people. It reiterated its approval of treaties recognizing the absolute right of expatriation and pledged itself to maintaining the right of asylum. It repeated its belief in a protective tariff and con- demned the Underwood tariff bill. It expressed be- lief in ' ' rigid supervision and strict regulation of the transportation and great corporations of the country" and "that all who violate the laws in regulation of business should be individually punished." The Democratic policy in this regard was condemned as involving "the Government in business which should 90 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL be left within the sphere of private enterprise and in direct competition with its own citizens." It declared that the Democratic administration had not made good its claims of beneficial legislation for rural credits and extension of rural free delivery and pledged itself to accomplish these things. It disap- proved the Government ownership of vessels proposed by the Democratic party and instead favored liberal payments to ships in the foreign trade for services in carrying the mails, and the passage of other legisla- tion to aid the merchant marine. It recommended the placing of the entire transportation system of the country under Federal control. It pledged the party to faithful enforcement of all Federal laws passed for the protection of labor, de- clared for vocational education, the enactment and rigid enforcement of a Federal child labor law, the enactment of a generous and comprehensive work- man's compensation law, within the commerce power of Congress; an accident compensation law covering all Government employees, and legislation for public safety. Socialist Platform. The Socialist platform stated: * l The Socialist party as the political expression of the economic interests of the working class calls upon them to take a determined stand on the question of militarism and war, and to recognize the opportunity which the Great War has given them of forcing dis- armament and furthering the cause of industrial free- dom." It further declared, "Socialism admits the private ownership and individual direction of all POLITICAL PARTY PLATFORMS 91 things, tools, economic processes and functions which are individualistic in character, and requires the col- lective ownership and democratic control and direc- tion of those which are social or collectivistic in char- acter." The platform recommended as peace measures "that all laws and appropriations for the increase of the military and naval forces of the United States shall be immediately repealed," that the power to fix for- eign policies and conduct diplomatic negotiations be lodged in Congress, exercised publicly and that the people be free by referendum at any time to order Congress to change its policy: that no war be de- clared or waged by the United States at any time without a referendum vote of the entire people, except for the purpose of repelling invasion; the abandon- ment of the Monroe doctrine, immediate self-govern- ment for the Philippine Islands, the calling by the Government of a congress of all neutral nations to mediate for lasting peace and to arrange for an In- ternational Congress with power to adjust disputes between nations and to guarantee equal rights to all oppressed nations and races. The political demands in the platform were out- lined as: Equal suffrage for men and women, the adoption of the Susan B. Anthony suffrage amend- ment, the initiative, referendum and recall and pro- portional representation, national and local; aboli- tion of the Senate and veto power of the President, election of President and Vice-President by direct vote of the people, provision for the amendment of the 92 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL National Constitution by a majority of the voters, a convention to revise the National Constitution, aboli- tion of the power of the Supreme Court to pass upon the constitutionality of legislation enacted by Con- gress, the only repeal for such legislation to be by Congress or referendum vote of the whole people; abrogation of the power of the courts to issue injunc- tions, election of all judges to United States courts for short terms, free administration of the law, suf- frage for the District of Columbia with representation in Congress and a democratic form of municipal gov- ernment for purely local affairs, extension of demo- cratic government to all United States territory, free- dom of the press, speech and assemblage, increase of income and corporation taxes and extension of inher- itance tax, general educational measures, vocational education, health measures, abolition of monopoly ownership of patents in favor of collective ownership with direct royalty rewards to inventors. The industrial demands were: A shortened work day, freedom of political and economic organization and activities, a rest period of not less than a day and a half in each week, more effective inspection of workshops, factories and mines, employment forbid- den for those under eighteen years old, interstate transportation of child labor products and products of uninspected factories and mines forbidden, min- imum wage scales, old age pensions, state insurance against unemployment and sickness, compulsory in- surance by employers of their workers, without cost POLITICAL PARTY PLATFORMS 93 to the latter, against industrial diseases, accidents and death; mothers' pensions. Prohibition Platform. The Prohibition platform declared primarily for national and state legislation to stop the liquor traffic. It endorsed suffrage for women, a world court for peace, abolition of militar- ism, employment of the army in normal times in reclamation work. It claimed protection for the American citizen, reaffirmed its faith in the Monroe doctrine, recommended that the Philippines be gov- erned by the United States with increasing local privileges, and urged reciprocal trade treaties and a tariff investigation commission. It recommended legislation for the merchant marine, upholding civil service regulations, labor legislation, public grain elevators operated by the Federal Government, Fed- eral grain inspection under a system of civil service and the abolition of any institution in which " gam- bling in grain" "or any other so-called speculation is indulged in." It endorsed Government warehouses for cotton, public ownership of utilities and the de- velopment of free institutions. It declared that de- partmental decision ought not to be final and that the people should be protected by provision for court review. Conservation of natural resources, economy in government and the budget system, the right of the President to veto any single item in an appropriation bill, uniform marriage and divorce laws, a single presidential term of six years, the initiative, referen- dum and recall were endorsed. CHAPTER XIV INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THE management of international affairs is a serv- ice of the highest importance, and the power to direct foreign relations is a sovereign power. In the United States all power in respect to matters of an interna- tional character is lodged in the federal government, the organ of our national sovereignty. International affairs have never been regulated by the State. Un- der the Articles of Confederation negotiations with foreign countries were conducted by the Congress; under the Constitution States are expressly forbidden to enter into political relations with foreign countries (72), and the management of international affairs is given to the President and Senate (95). The international political affairs of a state are con- ducted by its diplomatic representatives, of whom the ambassador is the highest in rank. The ambassador represents the person of the executive of the country from which he comes, and he receives for this reason the highest personal respect and consideration. A minister, who is next to the ambassador in rank, rep- resents the government from which he comes, but not the personality of the executive. In foreign courts an ambassador, being a personal representative of a ruler, is admitted to an audience with officials ahead 94 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 95 of a minister. For a long time a minister was the highest diplomatic representative of the United States, but when it was found that under the rules of prece- dence in favor of ambassadors a minister of the United States was sometimes kept waiting for an offi- cial audience while the ambassador of some petty kingdom was being received, Congress (in 1893) cre- ated the rank of ambassador. We have ambassadors for Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Austria, Mexico, Russia, Brazil, Japan, Spain, Chile, Argen- tina, and Turkey. In other countries we are repre- sented by ministers. Ambassadors and ministers, their property and their households, are exempt from the laws of the country to which they are accredited. The residence of a foreign minister is, according to international law, a little patch of territory under the dominion of the country which the minister represents. If the Chinese minister at Washington should commit a crime, Chinese and not American authorities must try the case and administer the punishment. If a case should arise where a judicial decision affecting diplo- matic agents is necessary, it must be taken direct to the Supreme Court, no matter how trivial it may be (110). The duties of a diplomatic representative depend upon the powers which his government has conferred upon him and upon the relations which exist between his government and the one to which he is sent. In general, he represents and defends the interests of his. country. He keeps the home government informed 96 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL upon topics of public interest, especially upon political topics, but he must not interfere in any way with the politics of the country where he resides. "When a citizen of his own country has been injured by a vio- lation of a rule of international law he seeks a remedy from a foreign government, and when a treaty is made he usually serves as the channel of negotiation. A consul is a business agent of a government sent to a seaport or inland city to look after the welfare of citizens of his own country. He does not repre- sent a government, he is not a diplomatic agent, and he does not enjoy the honors and immunities of a min- ister. Sometimes a consul-general is appointed to su- pervise all the consuls in the country to which he is sent. The first duty of the consul is to aid his country- men in securing their commercial rights. Among his other duties are the following: He places the con- sular seal upon official acts of the foreign government ; he certifies to marriages, births and deaths among his countrymen in his consular district; he certifies in- voices; he administers on the personal property of deceased persons when there is no representative at hand. The consul receives applications for passports, and, when specifically authorized to do so, grants them. He also grants passports in the absence of the regular diplomatic representatives. When two or more states are at war and desire peace, or if in times of peace their commercial or monetary systems require adjustment, or if their boundaries need to be defined, or if in any way their INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 97 international affairs are to be regulated, they may accomplish any of these objects by entering into a solemn compact or agreement called a treaty. A treaty, when made by sovereign states and signed by the proper diplomatic agents, and ratified by the gov- ernments of the signatory powers, becomes the law for all the states entering into the compact. In the United States a treaty concluded by the federal gov- ernment is the supreme law of the land (126), and any State law in conflict with a treaty which is con- stitutional is null and void. Since a treaty is simply a law, Congress may repeal a treaty by passing a law contrary to its provisions, or an existing law may be repealed by the terms of a new treaty. A treaty con- trary to the Constitution is void. If a citizen violates a treaty his government will punish him as the violator of a law ; but suppose the state itself should violate one of its treaties, is there a power to punish the state ? There is no power but the sword of the aggrieved country. The violation of treaty obligation is universally regarded as a just cause of war. But suppose a powerful state violates a compact which it has made with a puny state ? In such a case punishment through war is out of the question and the weak state must rely upon the nat- ural operation of the law of nations. "In the eye of international law treaties are made to be kept," and if. a powerful nation persistently and perversely breaks its treaties it will incur the hostility of its neighbors and sooner or later these will combine and force it to abide by the rules of international law. 98 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL The President, acting through the Secretary of State and diplomatic agents, negotiates treaties with foreign powers. After a treaty has been framed, if it meets with the approval of the President, it is sent to the Senate, where it must be ratified by a two-thirds vote (95). If it is successful in the Senate it is sent to the foreign government for ratification. When it has been ratified by the foreign power the treaty is law for all the states whose governments have signed it. A treaty provides for the peaceful intercourse of two or more nations in the future. How shall ques- tions and disputes arising out of past transactions be settled? One nation has wounded the pride of an- other, or has trespassed upon its boundaries, or dam- aged its commerce, or maltreated its citizens; how shall the injured nations find redress without declar- ing war? Nations which are capable of a humane and enlightened policy may find a peaceful exit from the most exasperating situations: they may submit their differences to a court of arbitration, just as pri- vate citizens often submit their differences to arbitra- tion in order to avoid a battle in the courts of law. Nations wishing to settle a dispute by arbitration enter into a preliminary treaty, and agree upon a method of selecting the members of the arbitration board, appoint a time and place for the meeting of the board, and define precisely the question to be set- tled. The arbitrators, like impartial judges, listen to the claims of the several states, investigate and weigh the facts pertaining to the case, and render a INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 99 decision in accordance with the facts and the princi- ples of justice. When the decision of a board of arbi- tration has been fairly obtained, all the nations af- fected by it are under the most solemn obligations to acquiesce in it. During the nineteenth century international dis- putes were settled by arbitration more frequently than ever before, and in the number of cases sub- mitted to arbitration the United States led the nations of the world. The increasing success of arbitration, and the expressed desire of many of the great powers to adopt it as a substitute for war, have encouraged lovers of peace to look forward to a time when the countries of the earth shall agree to submit all differ- ences to a permanent board of international arbitra- tion. If such a tribunal shall be constituted and its decisions obeyed, peace may be permanent and the money and talents and energy that are devoted to the support of war will be devoted to commerce and in- dustry. For preventing the sudden outbreak of war the fol- lowing plan has been proposed: All the great na- tions of the world are to join in a Peace League and are to agree that, when a dispute arises between two countries, the question in dispute, if it cannot be settled in the ordinary manner, shall be submitted to a court, or to a "Council of Conciliation," and that neither nation shall begin war upon the other until the court, or council, renders its decision. After the decision is rendered the nation against which the case is decided may go to war if it wills to do so, for 100 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL it will not be compelled to abide by the judgment of the court. If the war between two nations of the Peace League is begun 'before the question in dispute is submitted to a tribunal, then all the other nations are to join together and use their military and finan- cial forces against the nation that strikes the first blow. CHAPTER XV TAXATION GOVERNMENT in America must receive its revenue through the consent of the legislature. When the legislature makes a general call upon the citizens for contributions for the support of government, it is said to tax them. When the levy or call is properly made the contribution is compulsory and cannot be escaped. A tax, therefore, may be denned as an enforced con- tribution of money levied by the legislature on per- sons, property or income, for the support of govern- ment. Property is the thing universally taxed. If any property escapes taxation, it is not as a rule the fault of the law, for legislators attempt to tax almost everything upon which a tax can possibly be laid. For the sake of system they divide property and other subjects of taxation into classes and name the tax according to the class upon which it is levied. The kinds of taxes which are usually collected are the fol- lowing : 1. The general property tax, levied (a) on real property, which includes lands and buildings and other things erected on land, and (&) on personal property, which includes such things as household furniture, money, goods, bonds, notes of promise, 101 102 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL stocks, mortgages, jewelry, horses, carriages, auto- mobiles, and farming implements. 2. The income tax, levied upon income whether from wages or salary or profits upon business. 3. The inheritance tax, levied upon property ac- quired by inheritance or will. Sometimes this tax is regarded as an income tax, an inheritance or legacy being considered as nothing more than a part of the yearly income. 4. The corporation tax, levied upon private corpo- rations. This tax sometimes takes the form of an in- come tax levied upon the corporation regarded as a person; sometimes it is levied upon the bonds and stock of the corporation. In a few States it is levied upon the earnings of the corporation. 5. The franchise tax, levied upon a privilege granted by government. When a city council confers upon a corporation the right to operate a trolley line upon a certain street, the right conferred is a franchise, and upon the value of this right the franchise tax is laid. Though franchises are not material, visible property they have nevertheless been declared by the Supreme Court of the United States to be property. Some- times franchises have an enormous value. For exam- ple, while the tangible property, the rolling stock, rails, wires and power-houses of a trolley company may be worth only a million dollars, the right to use the street (the franchise) would not be sold for a sum several times as great. Sometimes a corporation is compelled to pay both a franchise tax and a prop- erty tax on its material possessions. TAXATION 103 6. The poll or capitation tax is a sum ranging from one to four dollars levied as a personal tax. It is a tax on the person, as a person, and not as a possessor of property. 7. Customs duties, levied upon articles imported from a foreign country. In some countries customs duties are levied upon exported articles, but this can- not be done in the United States (67). 8. Excises or internal revenue taxes, levied upon goods manufactured within the country. The articles which yield most of the internal revenue are: dis- tilled spirits, beer, ale, tobacco and oleomargarin and playing cards. The corporation tax is also regarded as aji excise. 9. License taxes, collected from merchants, peddlers, hack-drivers, showmen, saloon-keepers, and others, for the privilege of transacting business. The license tax resembles the franchise tax. 10. Fees and special assessments, collected as a par- tial payment for services rendered by the government. The charge for issuing a marriage certificate is an example of a fee, while a charge made for connecting a private drain with a public sewer is an example of a special assessment. Fees and special assessments are not always taxes properly so called. It is sometimes contended that one ? s duty in respect to the payment of taxes should be measured, not by ability, but by sacrifice. According to this view a tax is burdensome, not in proportion to what is paid, but to what is left. To equalize the sacrifice of tax- payers a graduated or progressive tax has been pro- 104 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL posed. Under the workings of this tax the rate in- creases with the amount of property. For example, if A, B, C and D are worth respectively $10,000, $20,000, $30,000 and $40,000, a scheme of progressive taxation might impose upon A a rate of one per cent., upon B a rate of two per cent., upon C a rate of three per cent., and upon D a rate of four per cent. D's property is only four times as great as A's, yet it pays sixteen times as much in taxes. The principle of progressive taxation is recognized in the federal income tax imposed upon the incomes of individuals and corporations. In addition to the underlying or normal tax Congress levies a surtax the rate of which increases as the income grows larger. A few States have progressive income taxes while many have progressive inheritance taxes. One of the most radical of tax reforms is the plan by which all revenues, federal, State and local, are to be raised from a single tax imposed on land. Ac- cording to this plan, men should contribute to the support of government, not in proportion to what they produce or accumulate, but in proportion to the value of the natural opportunities they hold; and it is contended that the landholder is the great monop- olist of natural opportunities. The single tax would be laid upon land as such, and not upon the improve- ments upon land. The tax upon a vacant lot, pro- vided it were as favorably located, would be as heavy as the tax upon a lot improved by a magnificent structure. The fundamental principle of the single tax is this : The individual should get the advantage TAXATION 105 of all improvements upon land, while the government (society) should get the advantage of favorable loca- tion, and of the increased values that accrue to land in a community which is progressive and which is in- creasing in population. In 1916 Congress imposed an inheritance tax, known as the Estate Tax, upon the estates of all decedents leaving property valued at $50,000. This tax is grad- uated, the ratio being from one per cent, on estates of $50,000 to ten per cent, on estates of $5,000,000. ' It is plain that expenditures for government in the United States must be very heavy, for there are three highly organized governments to be supported: the federal government with its army and navy and courts of law and high officials and thousands upon thou- sands of employees ; the State governments with their numerous departments; the local governments with their school system and charitable institutions and highway improvements and police and sanitary serv- ice. In normal times the federal government spends about $1,250,000,000 a year, State and Territorial gov- ernment about $250,000,000, local government about $1,500,000.000, making a total public, expenditure of $3,000,000,000 a year. These numbers in themselves mean nothing they are too large for the mind to grasp but comparison enables us to comprehend their sig- nificance. $3,000,000,000 is about one-twelfth of the combined annual earnings of every man, woman and child in the United States. The people, therefore, contribute to government in a year about as much as they earn in a month. CHAPTER XVI PUBLIC FINANCE SINCE under our dual system of government taxa- tion is a concurrent function exercised with sovereign power by the State as well as by the federal govern- ment, and since each government determines its own expenditures, public finance in the United States is resolved into two sharply defined systems national finance and State finance. The system of national finance will first receive attention. At the opening of every regular session Congress receives the report and recommendations of the Sec- retary of the Treasury, containing detailed estimates prepared by the heads of departments of the sums necessary for the maintenance of the national gov- ernment. Not a dollar of the estimates can be raised constitutionally without the consent of Congress. As a matter of practice, the consideration of the esti- mated expenditures begins in the House of Repre- sentatives, where the recommendations found in the Book of Estimates are referred by the Speaker to the proper committees. The committees virtually control federal expendi- tures. There is no limitation upon their power of appropriation, except that any appropriation for the 106 PUBLIC FINANCE 107 support of the army shall not be made for more than two years (56). They take the estimates submitted by the Secretary of the Treasury and do with them as they please. Sometimes they accept them, some- times they modify them, but often they ignore them altogether. It is their function to prepare bills pro- viding for the expenses of the government ; and in this exercise of their duty they are entirely independent of executive authority. Quite often they invite treas- ury officials to assist them and advise them, but they are under no constitutional obligation to do so. The committees express their judgments in reference to the proper expenditures in the form of appropriation bills. These, like all other bills, must run the gaunt- let of legislation. They must pass both houses and receive the signature of the President. When they have received the signature of the President and have become laws, the first step in national finance has been taken : it has been determined how much money shall be spent for the support of the federal government. The second step in national finance is taken when Congress passes the laws for raising the money which it has decided to spend. While private individuals ordinarily estimate their income first and then decide upon their expenditures, governments are accustomed to estimate their expenditures first and to attend to the matter of income afterward. Bills for raising national revenue must originate in the House of Rep- resentatives (36), because the House directly repre- sents the people. Post-office bills and bills relating to the mints and to the sale of public lands may orig- 108 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL inate in the Senate, and any revenue bill whatever may be modified to almost any extent in the Senate. The House Committee of Ways and Means has exclu- sive control of bills for raising- revenue. Since this committee prepares the tax bill for the nation, it is justly regarded as the most important committee in Congress. When levying taxes for the support of the national government Congress has many sources of revenue upon which it may rely. One of these is the tariff, that is, the customs duties on imports. In normal times the customs tax ordinarily yields nearly half of the national revenue. The customs tax is levied upon several hundred articles, but most of the tariff revenues are collected from manufacturers of wool, cotton, silk, iron, copper and tin, and from sugar, fruit, liquor, wines, cigars, drugs and chemicals. Among the articles admitted free of duty are : coffee, tea, anthracite coal, books over twenty years old, dye- woods and fertilizers. Federal revenues not raised by duties on foreign goods are for the most part derived from excises taxes on articles produced in the United States from an inheritance tax, and from an income tax imposed on individuals and corporations. We now come to the subject of State finance. Although they may differ somewhat in detail, the financial systems of the States are quite uniform in their workings. Authority for all public expenditures within each State flows directly or indirectly from its constitution and its legislature. Expenses of the PUBLIC FINANCE 109 State government are estimated and levied directly by the legislature, and are usually comparatively light. In some States the constitution limits the amount which can be levied in one year. The heavy expenses of local government are met by taxation imposed by the minor legislative bodies, by the municipal council, or board of county commis- sioners a legislative body as far as taxation is con- cerned or town-meeting, or the township supervisors or trustees. Cities, counties, and other minor civil divisions are strictly under the control of the State government, and the limits of their power to tax are usually defined by the higher authority. In some States the limitations are fixed by the legislature, in others by the constitution. In about one-third of the States counties are not allowed to tax beyond a cer- tain per cent, of the assessed valuation of property. Municipalities, in the matter of taxation, are often restricted by the terms of their charters. Taking the country over, however, the localities are quite free to tax themselves as they see fit. The most that the leg- islature or the constitution undertakes to do is to throw around the local taxing power such safeguards as will prevent bankruptcy. Since the greater part of the sum paid for taxes is levied by local authority with the almost direct sanction of the voters them- selves, it can almost be said that the people are not taxed for they really tax themselves. Very often a legislature makes appropriations in a hap-hazard, extravagant manner, with the result that the finances of the State are in an unsatisfactory con- 110 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL dition. In order to remedy the evils of indiscrimi- nate and unsystematic action by the legislature, a " budget system" has been proposed. Under this system the Governor submits to the legislature an itemized statement of the needs of all the State de- partments. This statement, called the " budget" is used as a basis for legislative action when making appropriations. Advocates of the system are in favor of allowing the legislature to reduce an item of the budget, but would withhold from it the power to increase an item. Of course the power of the legis- lature could not be thus restricted except under the authority of the State Constitution. The budget sys- tem is in operation in Great Britain and other foreign countries and a movement for its adoption in the United States is gaining strength. In fact, in several States, the system has already been adopted. In the State the general property tax is the great source of revenue. This tax reaches all property, real and personal, located within the boundaries of the State. When the owner of property resides outside the State, he does not escape taxation for that reason. In the payment of the general property tax the tax- payer should bear a burden proportioned to his wealth; all the property of every person should con- tribute according to its true value. This is a funda- mental principle of taxation. In order to realize this principle of equality and justice when levying the general property tax the government must set in mo- tion an elaborate taxing machinery, and must care- fully control all the processes of taxation. PUBLIC FINANCE 111 Its officers, called assessors, must discover all the property of every person and place on it a fair valua- tion. The sum of all the valuations of property thus made in a community is the assessment of the com- munity. The tax rate of the community is found by dividing the expenditures determined upon the assess- ment. But the community, even if it be a large city, most probably is located in a county in which there are additional expenses of county government. The local division must bear its share of these expenses, and this will increase the rate of the taxpayer. The county rate is found by dividing the county expendi- tures by the county assessment, which is the sum of the assessments of all the local divisions of the county. Again, the county as a part of the State must con- tribute its share to the support of the general State government. The State rate is found by dividing the State expenditures by the State assessment (the sum of the county assessments). This rate added to the local and county rates gives the full tax rate of the local taxpayer. The government must provide agencies for correct- ing unjust and unfair valuations. Very often there is a local board of equalization, to which taxpayers may appeal when they think they have not been treated fairly by the assessors. Sometimes such com- plaints are taken to an appeal tax court, or to the board of county commissioners. When the board of equalization or other body to which appeal is made finds that there has been an unjust assessment, it will order a new one made. State boards of equalization 112 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL have been established in some instances to correct evils growing out of uneven assessment among local- ities. Where assessors of one locality place the valua- tion of property too low and those of other localities name the true valuation the citizens of the latter are obliged to contribute more than their just share to the state expenses. When the taxpayer fails to pay his tax-bill promptly the property upon which the tax is levied is said to be delinquent, and is liable to be sold to satisfy the claim. If the property sold for taxes should bring more than the amount of the tax the excess is given to the owner. Moreover, the owner usually has the right to buy back his property at the price for which it is sold. This right of redemption, however, continues for only a limited period, usually two years. State constitutions almost always specify the kinds of property that may be exempt from taxation, and the legislature is usually forbidden to exempt any other kind. A clause from the constitution of Min- nesota will illustrate the practice in reference to ex- emption: " Public burying grounds, public school- houses, public hospitals, academies, colleges, univer- sities and all seminaries of learning, all, churches, church property used for religious purposes, and houses of worship, institutions of purely public char- ity, public property used for public purposes, and personal property to an amount not exceeding in value two hundred dollars for each individual, shall by general laws be exempt from taxation." Many PUBLIC FINANCE 113 States are careful to exempt household furniture to a certain value. Thus the constitution of Texas pro- vides that two hundred and fifty dollars' worth of household and kitchen furniture shall be exempt from taxation. A most important topic of public finance is public debt. The necessity of incurring debt in the conduct of public affairs is perhaps stronger than it is in the management of private business. Governments can- not accumulate money; they must confine taxation to such amounts as are necessary to meet expenses for the current year. At the end of the fiscal year the treasury is supposed to be virtually empty. This is unquestionably the correct policy. A government is sorely tempted to be extravagant when it has more money on hand than it needs. It has been said with some truth that the way to keep governments pure is to keep them poor. Since it cannot save for a rainy day, when the rainy day comes, and large sums of money must be had at once, government must borrow. Increased taxation cannot be relied upon to supply the necessary revenue. In 1863 the federal government used its taxing power to the utmost to raise the money for the support of its war operations, yet it could not collect by taxation one-sixth of what it spent during the year. More than five-sixths of its expenses had to be met by bor- rowing. When a government wishes to raise money by bor- rowing, it usually sells its bonds to voluntary buyers. 114 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL A government bond resembles a promissory note given by an individual who borrows money. In the bond are stated the amount owed by the government, the date of payment, and the rate of interest. CHAPTER XVII MONEY THE currency of the United States consists of gold coin, certificates representing gold, silver dollars, cer- tificates representing silver, subsidiary coins of silver, bronze and nickel, United States notes (greenbacks), national bank notes and federal reserve notes. The precious metals gold and silver are coined under the authority of Congress. In 1792 Congress provided that all gold or silver brought to the gov- ernment mint should be coined free of expense to the person bringing the metal. The relation that was to exist between the value of gold and that of silver was stated in these words : * ( Every fifteen pounds weight of pure silver shall be equal value in all payments with one pound of pure gold." The law of 1792 thus provided for the free coinage of gold and silver at the ratio of 15 to 1. In 1834 Congress changed the ratio placing it at 16 to 1. The free coinage of the two metals at this ratio continued until 1873 when Congress demonetized silver, that is, discontinued its coinage entirely. The demonetization of silver proved to be a very unpopular measure. Accordingly Congress in 1878 passed the "Bland- Allison Act." This provided 115 116 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL "that the government should buy not less than two mil- lion dollars' worth, and not more than four million dol- lars' worth of silver bullion each month, and coin it into silver dollars, these to be full legal tender." This law remained in force for twelve years, during which $378,166,793 in silver was coined, $57,000,000 entering circulation and the remainder being de- posited in the vaults of the Treasury and silver certifi- cates being issued against it. In 1890 the Bland- Allison act was repealed and the Sherman Act was passed, requiring the Secretary of the Treasury to purchase at its market value 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month and pay for it with treasury notes. A further decrease in the value of silver led to a demand from the holders of treasury notes for redemption in gold. The Treasury faith- fully redeemed in gold, but the fear that the reserve would be exhausted and that silver, a dollar of which was worth only sixty-seven cents, would be the only money available for redemption purposes, caused a panic in the financial world. This led to the repeal (in 1893) of the purchasing clause of the Sherman Act and thus the issue of treasury notes ceased. Since 1893 coinage has been on a gold basis. No silver bullion has been purchased at the mints for purposes of regular coinage since that date, although a considerable portion of that which was bought under the Sherman Act has been coined as Congress has from time to time directed. Under a law of 1900 gold was made the standard unit of value and no provision was made for the coinage MONEY 117 of silver other than that which was already in stock. Silver dollars and silver certificates, however, are still legal tender, and it is the declared policy of the gov- ernment to keep them on a parity with gold ; that is to say, when silver certificates are presented to the treasury for redemption it is the policy of the gov- ernment to redeem them in gold at their face value, and if silver dollars are presented for exchange they will be exchanged for gold, dollar for dollar. The coinage of gold is free. In addition to the metallic currency we have in cir- culation a large volume of paper currency. This consists of bank notes and United States notes. A bank note is a promissory note, payable on demand, made and issued by a bank and intended to circulate as money. Whether a bank note will circulate as money or not ordinarily depends upon the reputation of the bank and upon its ability to pay the note when presented for payment. If those persons to whom the note is offered have no faith in the bank's promise they will not receive the note, and its circulation is thereby made impossible. A United States note (greenback) is a form of paper money issued by the federal government and based upon the credit and good faith of the country. It is a legal tender for all debts public and private. Paper money, called United States notes or green- backs, was issued by the government during the Civil "War. When the war was over the government began to destroy the notes when they came into the treas- ury, just as one destroys a promissory note when it 118 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL is paid. This policy continued until 1868, when the people demanded that the notes continue in circula- tion. Now that the greenbacks were to remain in circulation it was necessary to make them as good as gold. So Congress, in 1875, passed the Redemption Act, which provided that after January 1st, 1879, gold, dollar for dollar, should be paid when the notes were presented to the Treasury for redemption. The result was that the notes began to circulate at par. Under the currency law of 1900 the gold reserve in the Treasury was increased to $150,000,000 to safe- guard the redemption of the notes. The greenbacks in circulation at the present time amount to about $346,000,000. In 1863 Congress created a system of national banks, which became the basis of our banking system as it exists at present. The national banking law of 1863 has been modified from time to time, but its es- sential features have remained unchanged. Our na- tional banking system as it is to-day may be described as follows : (1) National banks with a capital of $25,000 may be organized in towns of less than 3000 inhabitants; in towns of more than 3000 and less than 6000 inhab- itants the capital must be $50,000 ; in places of more than 6000 and less than 50,000 inhabitants it must be $100,000; in places of more than 50,000 it must be $200,000. (2) The organizers of a bank (not less than five in number) must purchase United States bonds equal in amount to at least one-fourth of the capital of the MONEY 119 bank and deposit these bonds with the comptroller of the currency at Washington. The bank remains the owner of these bonds and receives interest from them. (3) The bank receives from the comptroller na- tional bank notes equal in amount to the par value of the bonds deposited. These bank notes are not legal tender; they are promises to pay like the old notes of the State banks ; like any bank note, in fact. (4) The bank notes are secured by the bonds in the possession of the Treasurer of the United States. If a bank should fail in business and be unable to re- deem its notes in legal tender money, the comptroller will sell the bonds and get the money with which to redeem the notes. A bank note is thus as good as a government bond, as good as the government itself. Banks frequently fail, but the holders of their notes have never lost a dollar by reason of the failure. In 1913, Congress established a system of federal reserve banks. The purpose of these banks is two- fold: to bring about a more even diffusion through- out the country of the money that is already in circu- lation; and second, to make such additions to the present volume of currency as the conditions of trade may require. Under the federal reserve act the United States has been marked off geographically into twelve districts and in one of the cities of each district there has been established a federal reserve bank. The cities which have federal reserve banks are: Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City (Missouri), Dallas, and San Francisco. 120 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL The members and owners of a federal reserve bank are the national banks within the district and sneh State banks and trust companies as may choose to join under the conditions laid down by the law. The federal reserve bank is a bank of banks : its depositors are the member banks and the deposits in its vaults consist of a certain specified portion of the reserve fund which the member banks within the district are required by law to keep in their possession for the safety of their customers. The borrowers from a re- serve bank are the member banks within the district. Before 1914, a very large portion of the reserves of banks flowed into two or three financial centers and there was a harmful congestion of money in those centers, but under the act of 1913 the reserves of the banks of a given district will be kept within the boundaries of that district and congestion will be pre- vented. Yet under certain conditions reserves may flow from one district to another, for in an emergency funds may be transferred from one reserve bank to another, if in the judgment of the Federal Reserve Board, the transfer is desirable. Additions to the existing volume of currency are made under the act of 1913 by the issuance of federal reserve notes by any federal reserve bank that desires to issue such notes, but no federal reserve notes can be issued without the authority of the Federal Reserve Board. Federal reserve notes are secured not by bonds, as in the case of national bank notes, but by a gold reserve equal to 40% of the face value of the note plus an amount of commercial paper (promis- MONEY 121 sory notes) equal to 100% of the face value. Fur- thermore, the United States Treasury is pledged to redeem in gold all federal reserve notes actually pre- sented to it for redemption. The federal reserve banks are wholly under the control of the Federal Reserve Board. This Board consists of the Secretary of the Treasury, the Comp- troller of the Currency, and of five members appointed by the President. In 1916 Congress provided for the establishment of twelve Farm Loan Banks, whose primary purpose is to enable farmers to borrow money on farm-mort- gage security at a reasonable rate of interest for long periods of time, and repay the debt in small an- nual or semi-annual payments. These banks are un- der the control of the Farm Loan Board. The following is a summary of our monetary sys- tem: (1) The federal government has complete control of all currency issues whether metallic or paper and may issue legal tender paper money as well as gold and silver currency. (2) The gold dollar of 23.22 grains is the unit of monetary value, and the coinage of gold is free. The amount of gold coined from year to year is wholly a matter of private initiative. Government does not regulate it. The amount is regulated by supply and demand the supply of gold bullion and the demand for gold coin. (3) Silver dollars and silver certificates, the treas- ury notes of 1890, federal reserve notes and United 122 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL States notes (greenbacks) are exchangeable for gold at their face value upon presentation at the treasury of the United States. (4) This redemption is made possible by the re- serve fund of $150,000,000 in gold and other reserves in gold which are at the command of the government. (5) The paper money, when redeemed with gold, is again used by the government in the payment of its debts, and thus again finds its way into circulation. (6) The volume of money in circulation is in- creased by the coinage of gold at the mints and by the notes issued by the national banks and the federal reserve banks. (7) Bank notes are as good as gold because the gov- ernment bonds, and other securities which are back of them, are as good as gold. CHAPTER XVIII COMMERCE IN the United States power in respect to commerce is divided between the State and the federal govern- ment. Foreign commerce, interstate commerce and commerce with Indian tribes (47) are regulated by Congress, while the regulation of commerce carried on wholly within the boundaries of a State is the func- tion of the State government. From the beginning of our national history to the present time two distinct policies have been advanced in reference to foreign goods: (1) the free-trade pol- icy and (2) the policy of protection. The adherents of the free-trade policy, regarding free commercial intercourse between nations as a good thing in itself, contend that taxes on foreign goods should be levied, not with the view of keeping the goods out of the country, but with the view of raising the necessary revenue, and with that view only. The adherents of the protective policy, desiring to protect home pro- ducers from competition with foreign goods, would levy the customs, not so much with the view of raising revenue, as with the view of at least discouraging im- portations. The essence of the free-trade argument is that, un- 123 124 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL der normal conditions of production and competition, a country will satisfy its needs with the least possible effort. Those things that can be produced with the greatest economy at home will be so produced, and any surplus will be exchanged abroad for what other nations can produce with less effort. Commerce be- tween two countries, each of which produces accord- ing to its natural resources, is always profitable to both countries, the free-traders contend, for each country exchanges that which it wants less for that which it wants more. The argument of the protectionist is that by im- posing high import duties upon certain classes of goods and thereby partly or wholly keeping them out of the country you encourage the production of those goods at home, and this encouragement results in new occupations and in a diversified industry at home. The additional producers thus called into being by the protective tariff are also consumers, and they buy at least a part of the country's surplus. Another argument for protection is based upon the difference in the standards of comfort and rates of wages in different countries. If there were no tariff hindrances the lower standard and the lower wage would be given the advantage in competition and workmen would suffer as a result. Since passengers as well as goods are included in the term commerce, immigration is regulated by Con- gress. During the greater part of our history we encouraged immigration, for in the development of our country we needed all the brain and muscle we COMMERCE 125 could get. Had it not been for the millions of immi- grants who have come to us from England, Ireland, Scotland, Germany, Russia, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, a large part of our country would still be a wilderness. About 1880 Americans began to feel that immigra- tion on a large scale was no longer desirable, and demanded that restraints be placed upon the admis- sion of foreigners. First the Chinese were excluded. In 1882 Congress, in defiance of a treaty with China, prohibited Chinese laborers from coming into the United States, and but few of these people have en- tered since the exclusion law was passed. In the same year Congress ordered that the character of all immigrants be looked into and commanded that con- victs, lunatics, idiots and other persons not able to take care of themselves should not be admitted into the United States, but should be sent back at the expense of the owners of the vessels upon which they came. By a law of 1885 it is made unlawful for certain classes of laborers to enter the United States, if they have previously entered into a contract to perform labor here, and any person brought here un- der a contract to perform labor can be sent back at the expense of the vessel which brings him here. As a further restriction upon immigration Congress has imposed a tax upon immigrants of eight dollars per person and has prohibited the admission of any illit- erate alien who is over sixteen years of age. These restrictive laws have had the effect of checking im- migration to some extent, but they have by no means 126 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL solved the immigration problem: they have by no means been successful in keeping out all undesirable foreigners and letting in only those whose presence is beneficial. I. Interstate Commerce Defined. Domestic com- merce is that which is carried on within the United States, and consists of interstate commerce and intra- state commerce. It is not easy to draw clearly the line which separates interstate from intrastate com- merce. Broadly speaking, when a commercial trans- action begins in one State and ends in another, that transaction is a subject of interstate commerce, but when a commercial transaction begins and ends in the same State it is a subject of intrastate commerce. When a merchant ships his goods to a point within a State he engages in intrastate commerce; when he ships them to a point outside of the State he is en- gaged in interstate commerce. A railroad which has its termini and the whole length of its tracks within the State cannot be regarded as being engaged in in- terstate commerce, but a railroad which has its termini in different States must be so regarded. A river lying wholly within a State and having no connec- tion with bodies of water extending beyond the boundaries of the State a thing which rarely ever occurs is an instrument of intrastate commerce, but a river wholly within a State connecting with navi- gable waters that extend beyond the boundaries of the State is regarded as an instrument of interstate com- merce. Does a certain commercial act or a certain instrument of commerce, a river, a canal, a railroad, COMMERCE 127 concern one State or more than one? If it concerns one State only it is an affair of intrastate commerce; if it concerns more than one State it is an affair of interstate commerce. II. The Regulation of Interstate Commerce. The men of the convention treated the whole subject of commerce with a firm hand. They gave to Congress complete power to regulate commerce between the States (47). They forbade a State to lay tonnage (76) or any export or import duty without the con- sent of Congress (74). Within its borders a State can regulate its commerce in its own way, but goods and passengers that are on their way from one State to another are placed under the regulation of the federal government. The power of Congress over interstate commerce is comprehensive and far-reaching. It extends to the instruments of commerce, to canals and vessels and railways and telegraph lines, and to the persons en- gaged in it, as well as to the articles of commerce themselves. Under the provisions of the interstate commerce clause a State is not permitted to discrim- inate by taxation or otherwise against residents of other States, or against business carried on by them in the State. III. The Interstate Commerce Commission. The most important agency for regulating interstate com- merce is the Interstate Commerce Commission (p. 35), which was established by Congress in 1887. The law which created this commission requires that freight and passenger rates shall be just and rea- 128 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL sonable, that there shall be no discrimination between persons and localities; it provides that there shall be proper facilities for the interchange of traffic between connecting lines ; it forbids the issuance of free inter- state passes ; it requires that railroads print and make public their freight and passenger rates. A supple- mental law (the Elkins law, passed in 1903) forbids rebates and provides that rates lower than those pub- lished shall not be charged. It is the duty of the In- terstate Commerce Commission to carry these provi- sions into effect. In 1906 Congress gave the Commission, upon the complaint of an interstate shipper (or passenger), the power to do away with a rate which it regards as un- just or unreasonable, and to fix a new rate which it regards as just and reasonable. In 1910 Congress went a step further and empowered the Commission to make investigations of its own motion, and when it finds certain rates unreasonable and unjust, to change them, even though there has been no complaint whatever. Moreover, by the law of 1910 new rates may be suspended in their operation by the order of the Commission, and if upon investigation they are found by that body to be unjust and unreasonable they cannot go into operation at all. The railroads, how- ever, have the right to appeal to the federal courts where the decisions of the Commission may be over- ruled. The control which the Interstate Commerce Commission exercises over railroad rates makes it an agency of vast importance and power. In 1916 Congress created a Shipping Board for the COMMERCE 129 purpose of encouraging, developing and creating a naval auxiliary and reserve and a merchant marine to meet the requirements of the commerce of the United States. The Board is composed of five com- missioners appointed by the President. The Board is authorized to purchase, lease, or charter vessels suitable for marine trade and it may operate such vessels itself or lease them to be operated by others. It has large powers in respect to the regulation of the rates and fares charged by vessels engaged in foreign or interstate commerce. CHAPTER XIX CORPORATIONS I. Individual Enterprise. The great private cor- poration of to-day is the outcome of changes which have been occurring in commerce and industry dur- ing the last two centuries. Before the eighteenth century commerce and industry were organized on the basis of individual effort. Cloth was woven in a shop in which there was but one loom, and the oper- ator of the loom was its owner. The man who ground the grain was the owner of the mill. Shoes were made by the owner of the shop. Passengers were con- veyed from town to town in a coach owned by its driver. And so it was in all the trades and occupa- tions : they were all organized and conducted on the basis of individual enterprise. About the middle of the eighteenth century a great change began to come over the face of industry. In 1733 John Kay invented the flying shuttle and thereby doubled the efficiency of the loom. A few years later water power was applied to the loom. One man could now operate two looms, and could weave four times as much cloth as could be woven before. In 1769 Ark- wright brought out his wonderful spinning-machine, and in the same year Watt patented his condensing 130 CORPORATIONS 131 steam-engine. These inventions reorganized the tex- tile industry. Instead of the little shop with its single loom and weaver, there appeared the great fac- tory with its hundreds of looms and scores of oper- ators. As it was with weaving, so it was with other industries : inventions and improved machinery caused nearly all of them to be conducted on a new plan. II. The Partnership. How was this reorganiza- tion accomplished? How were the humble shops of the seventeenth century transformed into the huge factories of the eighteenth century? By a combina- tion of the wealth and services of individuals. The single craftsman did not have enough money to build a factory and equip it with machinery, so several persons combined their capital and formed a partner- ship. The partnership as a legal form of business association is almost as old as recorded history, yet it had never before been brought into such frequent use as during the industrial revolution of the eight- eenth century. The two important legal character- istics of a partnership are: (1) the partners are in- dividually liable for the debts of the partnership; (2) the death of one of the partners brings the part- nership to an end. A partner is liable, therefore, to lose his entire fortune in paying the debts of the partnership, and the partnership is liable to be brought to an end at any moment. III. The Corporation. The colossal enterprises which were inspired by the appearance of the steam- boat and the locomotive and the telegraph in the first half of the nineteenth century could not be satisfac- 132 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL torily conducted under the partnership form of as- sociation. Here was a railroad to be built at a cost of five million dollars. The people of the region through which the road was to pass favored the en- terprise and were ready to invest their funds in it, but men with money were loath to enter into a part- nership for building the road because they feared that the enterprise might fail and that they might be ruined by the debts of the partnership. Besides they could not tell when the enterprise would be brought to an end by the death of a partner. To meet these objections of investors the corporation was brought into use. The corporation does not die with the death of a member but lives on for the period given to it by law, if that is for a thousand years. This immortality of the corporation gives time for the accomplishment of great things. Another advantage of the corporation over the partnership is that the shareholders in a corporation are not individually liable for the entire debt of the company. Further- more, the shares in a corporation can be easily and quickly transferred and sold when the holder wishes to dispose of them. Through the agency of the cor- poration the building of the coveted railroad was made possible. To raise the money fifty thousand shares of one hundred dollars each were offered to the farmers and merchants and mechanics and capital- ists of the communities to be benefited by the road, and shares were taken according to each one's ability and willingness to invest, some taking a single share, others ten shares, others a hundred shares. In this way CORPORATIONS 133 thousands of people assisted in the building of the road and in the development of the country, and thou- sands shared in the profits. As it was with the rail- road, so it was with many other undertakings : about the middle of the nineteenth century the corporation began to be brought into general. use in the organiza- tion of industry and commerce. The charters under which corporations conduct business are nearly always granted by State author- ity. The Constitution of the United States has no specific provisions in reference to corporations, yet Congress can and does grant charters to corporations organized for carrying on enterprises which come within the range of federal authority. For example, Congress under its power to regulate the currency has granted charters to national banks; under its power to regulate interstate commerce it has granted charters to transcontinental railway companies. As a rule, however, the creation and regulation of corporations are State functions. How important these functions are may be seen in the State constitutions, where the article on corporations sometimes requires as much space as is given to one of the three great departments. " Formerly, " says Justice Brewer, " there were two factors, the individual and the State; now there are three, the individual, the State and the corporation." About 1880 the great corporations began to devise methods of protecting themselves against the ravages of competition. While competition gives life to trade it at the same time plays havoc with profits. Espe- cially is this true in these times, when a salesman with 134 THE WOMAN VOTER'S MANUAL the aid of the telephone and telegraph can do as much higgling and bargaining in an hour as could be done a hundred years ago in a month, and when new inventions and processes are constantly reducing the cost of production. So in order to stifle competition, the corporations began to pool their interests and enter into agreements as to prices and as to the amount of goods to be produced. In a few years corporate combination had been carried so far that it seemed that the principle of competition in business would have to die and that the principle of monopoly would be established. Now monopoly is not only contrary to the constitutions of most of the States, but it is also contrary to the commercial instincts of the American people. So in order to check the growth of monopoly, Congress, in 1890, passed the Sherman Anti-Trust Act. This famous statute declares that every con- tract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or conspiracy in restraint of trade, or commerce among the several States, is illegal, and it provides that persons entering into such contracts or engaged in such combinations shall be liable to a heavy fine or to imprisonment, or to both fine and imprisonment. The Anti-Trust law did not prevent the growth of corporate combinations. The corporations continued to merge and blend their interests and by the opening of the twentieth century, one-third of the total prod- ucts of all industries, excluding that of agriculture, had been brought under the control of corporate com- binations, or trusts so-called. Congress in 1913 undertook to strengthen the CORPORATIONS 135 Sherman Law by passing a supplementary act known as the Clayton Trust Bill. The Clayton law makes it unlawful for any concern to discriminate in price between different purchasers where the ef- fect of such discrimination is substantially to lessen competition or create a monopoly in any line of trade; it forbids any corporation from acquiring the whole or any part of the stock of another corpo- ration where the effect of such acquisition may sub- stantially lessen competition between the corporation whose stock is so acquired and the corporation making the acquisition; it forbids directors in certain classes of corporations to serve as directors in corporations conducting the same line of business. In 1914 Con- gress took another step forward in the warfare against monopoly. It declared unfair methods of competition to be unlawful and it established the Federal Trade Commission and gave it power to prevent persons, partnerships, and corporations (excepting banks and railroads) from using unfair methods in trade. This commission is composed of five members appointed by the President at a salary of $10,000 a year. When the commission finds that a person or corporation is using unfair methods of competition it may order the offender to desist and if the order is not obeyed the offender is liable to be brought before the Circuit Court of Appeals where the order of the Commission may be affirmed or set aside as the court shall deter- mine. If the order is affirmed the offender is liable to be punished if he does not desist from his unfair practices. APPENDIX A [THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA] THE PEOPLE of the United States, in Or- 1 der to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity, pro- vide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION for the United States of America. ARTICLE I SECTION 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the 2 United States, which shall consist of a Sen- ate and House of Representatives. SECTION 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every 3 137 138 APPENDIX A second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall 4 have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. No Person shall be a Representative who 5 shall not have attained to the age of twenty- five Years, and been seven Years a Citi- zen of the United States, and who shall 6 not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, accord- ing to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Num- ber of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other Persons.* The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first 9 Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law 10 direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Repre- sentative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall 11 be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode- Island and Providence Planta- APPENDIX A 139 tions one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Dela- ware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the Repre- 12 sentation from any State, the Executive Au- thority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. The House of Representatives shall chuse 13 their Speaker and other Officers; and shall 14 have the sole Power of Impeachment. SECTION 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from 15 each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years; and each Senator shall have one Vote. Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expi- ration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen 16 every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Re- cess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Ap- 140 APPENDIX A 17 pointments until the next Meeting of the Leg- islature, . which shall then fill such Vacan- cies. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not 18 have attained to the age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an 19 Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice President of the United States 20 shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, 21 and also a President pro tempore, in the Ab- sence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirma- tion. When the President of the United 22 States is tried, the Chief Justice shall pre- side : And no Person shall be convicted with- out the Concurrence of two-thirds of the Members present. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the 23 United States: but the Part}' convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indict- APPENDIX A 141 ment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, ac- cording to Law. SECTION 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elections for Senators and "Rep- resentatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but the Congress 24 may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chus- ing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on 25 the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. SECTION 5. Each House shall be the Judge 26 of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do business; 27 but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Man- ner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. Each House may determine the Rules of 28 its Proceedings, punish its Members for dis- orderly Behaviour, and, with the Concur- rence of two-thirds, expel a Member. 29 Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in 142 APPENDIX A their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the desire 30 of one-fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. Neither House, during the Session of Con- 31 gress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. SECTION 6. The Senators and Representa- 32 tives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Fel- 33 ony and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. No Senator or Representative shall, during 34 the Time for which he was elected, be ap- pointed to any civil Office under the Au- thority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been en creased during 35 such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member APPENDIX A 143 of either House during his Continuance in Office. SECTION 7. All Bills for raising Revenue 36 shall originate in the House of Representa- tives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. Every Bill which shall have passed the 37 House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States ; If he ap- prove he shall sign it, but if not he shall re- 38 turn it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall en- ter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two-thirds of that House 39 shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be recon- sidered, and if approved by two-thirds of 40 that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten 41 Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, 144 APPENDIX A unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. 42 Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be pre- 43 sented to the President of the United States ; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations pre- scribed in the Case of a Bill. 44 SECTION 8. The Congress shall have Power to lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the 45 common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 46 To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 47 To regulate Commerce with foreign Na- tions, and among, the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; 48 To establish an uniform Rule of Natural- ization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; 49 To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, APPENDIX A 145 and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; To provide for the Punishment of coun- 50 terfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States; To establish Post Offices and post Roads; 51 To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times 52 to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries ; To constitute Tribunals inferior to the 53 supreme Court; To define and punish Piracies and Felonies 54 committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ; To declare War, grant Letters of Marque 55 and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; To raise and support Armies, but no Ap- 56 propriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; To provide and maintain a Navy ; 57 To make Rules for the Government and 58 Regulation of the land and naval Forces; To provide for calling forth the Militia to 59 execute the Laws of the Union, suppress In- surrections and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to 146 APPENDIX A the States respectively the Appointment of 60 the officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline pre- scribed by Congress; 61 To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Ces- sion of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Govern- 62 ment and of the United States, and to exer- cise like Authority over all Places pur- chased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings; And 63 To make all Laws which shall be neces- sary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Govern- ment of the United States, or in any Depart- ment or Officer thereof. [SECTION 9. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person.] APPENDIX A 147 The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Cor- 64 pus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law 65 shall be passed. No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall 66 be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles 67 exported from any State. No Preference shall be given by any Regu- lation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports 68 of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in an- other. No Money shall be drawn from the Treas- 69 ury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and 70 Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by 71 the United States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. 148 APPENDIX A 72 SECTION 10. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Pay- 73 ment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Contracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. No State shall, without the Consent of the 74 Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Im- ports or Exports, except what may be abso- lutely necessary for executing its inspection 75 Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Ex- ports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Control of Con- gress. No State shall, without the Consent of Con- 76 gress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another 77 State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War unless actually invaded, or in such im- minent Danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II 78 SECTION 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of APPENDIX A 149 America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the 79 Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows Each State shall appoint, in such Manner 80 as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Num- ber of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representatives to which 81 the State may be entitled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. [The- Electors shall meet in their respec- tive States, and vote by ballot for two Per- sons, of whom one at least shall not be an 82 Inhabitant of the same State with them- selves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Pres- ence of the Senate and House of Representa- tives, open all the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of 83 the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such a Majority, and have an equal Number of 150 APPENDIX A Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in ch using the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having 84 one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two- thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of 85 Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice Pres- ident. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice Presi- dent.] The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes ; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. No Person except a natural born Citizen, 86 or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that 87 Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty-five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. APPENDIX A 151 In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties 88 of the said Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, 89 Resignation or Inability, both of the Presi- dent and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Dis- ability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated Times, re- ceive for his Services, a Compensation which 90 shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation: "I do solemnly swear (or af- 91 firm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States/' SECTION 2. The President shall be Com- 92 mander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the 152 APPENDIX A several States, when called into the actual 93 Service of the United States; he may re- quire the Opinion, in writing, of the prin- cipal Officer in each of the Executive Depart- ments, upon any Subject relating to the 94 Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, ex- cept in Cases of Impeachment. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make 95 Treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the 96 Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the 97 supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Con- 98 gress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. The President shall have Power to fill up 99 all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commis- sions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. SECTION 3. He shall from time to time give APPENDIX A 153 to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consid- eration such Measures as he shall judge nec- essary and expedient ; he may, on extraor- 100 dinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such 101 Time as he shall think proper; he shall re- ceive Ambassadors and other public Minis- ters; he shall take Care that the Laws be 102 faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. SECTION 4. The President, Vice President 103 and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeach- ment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bri- 104 bery, or other high Crimes and Misdemean- ors. ARTICLE III SECTION 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme 105 Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices 106 during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compen- 154 APPENDIX A sation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in Office. SECTION 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising un- der this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; to all Cases 107 affecting Ambassadors, other public Minis- ters and Consuls; to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; to Controversies 108 to which the United States shall be a Party; to Controversies between two or more 109 States ; between a State and Citizens of an- other State; between Citizens of different States; between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Sub- jects. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be a Party, the supreme 110 Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Juris- diction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of 111 Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such APPENDIX A 155 Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. SECTION 3. Treason against the United 112 States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Ene- mies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless 113 on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare 114 the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. ARTICLE IV SECTION 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be 115 given in each State to the public Acts, Rec- ords, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. SECTION 2. The Citizens of each State shall 116 156 APPENDIX A be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. A Person charged in any State with Trea- 117 son, Felony, or other Crime, shall on De- mand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to re- move to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. [No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be done.] 118 SECTION 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Con- sent of the Legislatures of the States con- cerned as well as of the Congress. 119 The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regula- tions respecting the Territory or other Prop- erty belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con- strued as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. APPENDIX A 157 SECTION 4. The United States shall guaran- 120 tee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasions; and on Applica- tion of the Legislature, or of the Executive 121 (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. ARTICLE V The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both 122 Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Pur- poses, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths 123 of the several States, or by Conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Con- 124 sent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. 158 APPENDIX A ARTICLE VI All Debts contracted and Engagements en- 125 tered into, before the Adoption of this Con- stitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. This Constitution, and the Laws of the 126 United States which shall be made in Pur- suance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State 127 shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and ju- dicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath 128 or Affirmation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII 129 The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Estab- APPENDIX A 159 lishment of this Constitution between States so ratifying the same. the Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seven- teenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth. In 130 Witness whereof We have hereunto sub- scribed our Names, G: WASHINGTON Presidt. and deputy from Virginia Attest WILLAM JACKSON Secretary [JOHN LANGDON New Hampshire Massachusetts Connecticut New York New Jersey [NICHOLAS GILMAN [NATHANIEL GORHAM [BuFus KING J WM. SAML. JOHNSON [ROGER SHERMAN ALEXANDER HAMILTON 'WiL: LIVINGSTON DAVID BREARLEY WM. PATERSON JONA : DAYTON 160 APPENDIX A Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland Virginia North Carolina Georgia B. FRANKLIN THOMAS MIFFLIN ROBT. MORRIS GEO. CLYMER THOS. FITZ SIMONS JARED INGERSOLL JAMES WILSON Gouv MORRIS GEO: READ GUNNING BEDFORD jun JOHN DICKINSON RICHARD BASSETT JACO : BROOM JAMES MCHENRY DAN OF ST THOS. JENIFER DANL CARROLL, [JOHN BLAIR 1 JAMES MADISON JR. (WM : BLOUNT RICHD. DOBBS SPAIGHT Hu WILLIAMSON f J. RUTLEDGE CHARLES COTESWORTH PINCKNEY CHARLES PINCKNEY [PIERCE BUTLER [WILLIAM FEW 1 ABR BALDWIN APPENDIX A 161 ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA PROPOSED BY CONGRESS AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLA- TURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES, PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I Congress shall make no law respecting an 131 establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the free- 132 dom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 133 petition the Government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II A well regulated militia, being necessary 134 to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. 162 APPENDIX A ARTICLE III 135 No soldier shall, in time of peace be quar- tered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a man- ner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV 136 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V No person should be held to answer for a 137 capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in the time of War or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be APPENDIX A 163 deprived of life, liberty, or property, with- 138 out due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. ARTICLE VI In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public 139 trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be in- formed of the nature and cause of the accusa- tion; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for 140 obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. ARTICLE VII In suits at common law, where the value 141 in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be other- wise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 164 APPENDIX A ARTICLE VIII 142 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and un- usual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX 143 The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X 144 The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by- it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. ARTICLE XI 145 The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. ARTICLE XII 146 The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for President and APPENDIX A 165 Vice President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in 147 distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted; The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose im- mediately, by ballot, the President. But in 14& choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or mem- bers from two-thirds of the States, and a ma- jority of all the States shall be necessary 166 APPENDIX A to a choice. And if the House of Repre- sentatives shall not choose a President when- ever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the Presi- dent. The person having the greatest num- ber of votes as Vice President, shall be the Vice President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be nec- essary to a choice. But no person consti- tutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice President of the United States. ARTICLE XIII 149 SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involun- tary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris- diction. SECTION 2. Congress shall have power to APPENDIX A 167 enforce this article by appropriate legisla- tion. ARTICLE XIV SECTION 1. All persons born or natural- ized in the United States, and subject to 150 the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any 151 law which shall abridge the privileges or im- munities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of 152 law ; nor deny to any person within its juris- diction the equal protection of the laws. SECTION 2. Representatives shall be ap- portioned among the several States accord- 153 ing to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, ex- cluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Con- gress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhab- itants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participa- tion in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of 154 168 APPENDIX A representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. SECTION 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having pre- viously taken an oath, as a member of Con- gress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the 155 United States shall have engaged in insur- rection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. SECTION 4. The validity of the public 156 debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in sup- pressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not 157 be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any APPENDIX A 169 slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. SECTION 5. The Congress shall have 158 power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. ARTICLE XV SECTION 1. The right of citizens of the 159 United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. SECTION 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XVI The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes from whatever 160 source derived, without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. ARTICLE XVII The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The 161 170 APPENDIX A electors in each State shall have the qualifica- tions requisite for electors of the most numer- ous branch of the State legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representa- tion of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may em- power the executive thereof to make tem- porary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Sen- ator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. APPENDIX B NEW YORK STATE ELECTION LAWS General Election. The General Election takes place each year on the Tuesday after the first Mon- day in November, the polls being open continuously from 6 A. M. until 5 p. M. A vote on national, state, county, city, town and village officers and on con- stitutional amendments and public questions is taken on this date in varying years. Every fourth year the General Election is on the same day as the Na- tional Presidential Election, when 45 electors for President and Vice President of the United States are elected by state-wide vote. The Governor, Lieu- tenant Governor, Secretary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, Attorney-General and State Engineer are chosen at the General Election each even-numbered year. The state is represented in the national Sen- ate by two senators, each holding office for six years. A new senator is elected at the General Election pre- ceding the expiration of the term of the holder of the office. A Congressman from each of the 43 con- gressional districts is elected each even-numbered year, as well as a state senator from each of the 51 senatorial districts. An assemblyman from each of the 150 assembly districts is elected each year. The 171 172 APPENDIX B fourteen-year terms of office of the seven judges of the court of appeals and of the supreme court judges expire in varying years, and their successors are chosen at the General Elections preceding the expi- ration of the terms. County officers are elected at the General Election in odd-numbered years, as are officers in first and second and some third class cities. Smaller communities have their elections on varying dates. Qualifications of Voters. A qualified voter is a citizen who is or will be on the day of election 21 years old, who has been an inhabitant of the state for one year preceding the election, who has been a resident of the county for the last four months, who has been a resident of the election district in which he votes for the last 30 days. If a naturalized citi- zen he must in addition to the foregoing provisions have been naturalized at least 90 days prior to the election. Property-owning qualifications are neces- sary for voting on some town and village questions. The ownership of property taxable for school pur- poses or the guardianship of a child of school age is also necessary for voting in school district meet- ings. Registration of Voters. Days are appointed an- nually in each district for the registration of voters. At this time are registered, the name, address, occu- pation and other statistics concerning the applicant. In cities and villages of 5,000 or more inhabitants only those may be registered who appear personally at the appointed time. In an election district sit- APPENDIX B 173 uated wholly outside a city or village of 5,000 or more inhabitants the election inspectors register with- out personal application the names of those voting at the last General Election still living in the district and the names of such others as are shown to be quali- fied to be registered. On registration days registra- tion may be made for any election in the district during the following year, provided the citizen will be qualified to vote on the day of election. A person who has been registered and who changes his resi- dence within the same election district may state the change to the election inspectors on registration day or election day. Official Primary Elections. An official primary election is held each year on the seventh Tuesday be- fore the General Election. In the year of a National Presidential Election an additional official primary is held on the first Tuesday in April. On these days the political parties choose their candidates, the offi- cial polling places and regular election officers being used. Each primary is open for voting from 7 A. M. until 9 P. M., except in a city of more than 1,000,000 inhabitants, where the primaries are open from 3 p. M until 9 P. M. To be entitled to vote at an official primary election a citizen must have enrolled in the preceding year as a member of the party holding the election and must be qualified to vote on the day of election. Party Enrollment. Party enrollment is made on registration day where personal registration is re- quired. A person enrolled as a member of one po- 174 APPENDIX B litical party may not enroll as a member of any other political party before the first day of the next regis- tration except in the instance of one who has been an enrolled member of the same political party for five years. If by mistake such a person enrolls with a different political party, the enrollment may be cancelled upon application to the custodian of the primary records and the voter may again be en- rolled with his party. One who becomes of age after the General Election may enroll as a member of a political party on or before the fourth Tuesday pre- ceding an official primary election of the party. No voter may take part in any primary election of any party other than the party in which he is at that time enrolled. A voter already enrolled who moves into, another election district in the same assembly district may at any time between February 1st and the thirtieth day before the annual primary election become enrolled therein as a member of the same party by making application to the proper official and filing an affidavit with the custodian of primary records. Casting a Vote. A voter on entering the appointed polling place to vote at an election, gives his name and address to the election inspectors. If his right to vote is not challenged, the voter proceeds to the machine, or where ballots are used, a ballot or set of ballots is presented by the ballot clerks. At the head of each ballot are instructions for marking it. The marked ballot is returned to the inspector in charge of the ballot box. If the ballot or set of bal- APPENDIX B 175 lots is spoiled others may be obtained, not exceeding three sets. Time Allowed Employees to Vote. Any person en- titled to vote at a General Election may absent him- self from his service or employment for a period of two hours during the time that the polls are open. If the voter notifies his employer of such intended absence, time is designated by the employer and the voter is absent during the designated hours ; or if the employer upon the day of such notice makes no desig- nation and the voter is absent from business during any two consecutive hours while the polls are open, no deduction shall be made from his usual salary and no other penalty shall be imposed by the employer for such absence. Party Committees. One member is elected from each assembly district in even-numbered years to the party state committee. One member is elected from each election district annually to the party county committee. Delegates and alternates to the national party convention are elected from congressional dis- tricts and from the state at large, the number from the state at large being limited to four delegates and alternates. Designation of Candidates. Designation of candi- dates for party nomination or for election to party positions is by petition only, the number of signa- tures required varying according to the office and population of the community. No enrolled voter shall join in designating a greater number of candi- dates for any position than the number to be elected 176 APPENDIX B thereto. All such petitions must be filed not earlier than the fifth Tuesday and not later than the fourth Tuesday preceding the primary at which the candi- dates are to be voted for. FINIS INDEX (References are to pages) Agriculture, Department of, 33 Alaska, government of, 72 Aldermen, Board of, 65 Aliens, 8, 9 Ambassadors, 94 Amendment, of State consti- tutions, 6; of the federal constitution, 7 Amendments of the Constitu- tion, the fourteenth, 8, 12; fifteenth, 14 Anarchy, 9 Anti-Trust Law, 134 Apportionment of Represen- tatives, 17 Arbitration, 98 Assessment, 103 Assessors, 59, 111 Attorney General, of United States, 32 : of a State, 55 Auditor, of State, 54 ; of coun- ty, 59 B Bail, 11 Banks, postal savings, 33; na- tional, 118; federal reserve, 119: Farm Loan, 121 Bank notes, 117 Bills, passage of in Congress, 21; in State legislatures, 46 Bland-Allison Act, 115 Bonds, 113 Boroughs, 63 Cabinet of the President, 29 Campaign, the presidential, 84 Candidates, nomination of, 79 Capitation tax, 103 Casting a Vote, 174 Caucus, 81 Chancery courts, 41 Child Labor Law, federal, 88 Circuit Court of Appeals (federal), 43 Circuit Courts (State), 38 Cities, 64-69 Citizenship, 8-16 City Manager Plan, 67 Civil Service, the national, 35 Coinage, 115-117 Commerce, 123-129 Commerce, Department of, 34 Commission System of mu- nicipal government, 67 Committees, of Congress, 19; of State legislatures, 146 Comptroller of State, 60 Congress (of the United States), 17-25 177 178 INDEX Constitutional conventions, 6 Constitutional government, 5 Constitutions (State), 5-7 Consuls, 96 Conventions of political par- ties, 82-84 Coroner, 59 Corporations ( municipal ) , 63 Corporations (private), 130- 135 Council system of municipal government, 64 County, the, 57-60 County convention, 82 Courts (federal), 42-44; (State), 37-42 Custom Duties, 103 Democracy, 3-4 Democratic Platform, 87 Demonetization of silver, 115 Dependencies, 71-78 Designation of Candidates, 175 Direct Nominations, 80-81 District courts (federal), 42 District courts (State), 38 Duties of citizenship, 15 Elections, 84, 171 Electors, Presidential, 84, 85 Equal Guardianship Law, xiii Equalization of taxes, 111 Executive departments, na- tional, 31-35; State, 52-56 Expenditures, national, 105 Federal courts, 42-44 Federal Reserve Board, 121 Finance, 106-114 Floor leader, 23 Free trade and protection, 123-125 G Gold, coinage of, 115-117 Government Printing Office, 35 Governor of a State, 52-54; of Territories and Depend- encies, 72-78 Graduated taxation, 103 Grand Jury, 39 Greenbacks, 117-118 Guam, government of, 78 Habeas Corpus, 1 1 Hawaii, government of, 74 House of Representatives, 17 23 Immigration, regulation of, 124 Impeachment, 24 Income tax, 102 Indian reservations, 73 Inheritance tax, 102, 105 Initiative and Referendum, 47-50 Injunction, writ of, 42 Insular possessions, 74-78 Interior, Department of, 33 Internal revenue taxes, 31, 103, 108 INDEX 179 International relations, 94- 100 Interstate commerce, 126-128 Interstate Commerce Com- mission, 35, 127 Judiciary (federal), 42-44; (State), 37-42 Jury, trial by, 39-40 Justice, Department of, 32 Justices of the peace, 38 Juvenile Court Law in Colo- rado, xv Labor, Department of, 34 Library of Congress, 35 Lieutenant Governor, 52, 54 M Mandamus, 42 Mayor, 65 Ministers, 94-96 Money, 115-122 Monopoly, 134 Montana, Equal Suffrage in, xiv-xv Mothers' Pension Law, xiv N National Convention, 83 National parks, 73 Naturalization, 9 Navy, Department of, 33 New York State Election Laws, 171 New Zealand, Equal Suffrage in, xii Nomination of candidates, 79 O Office, right of holding, 13 Official Primary Elections, 173 Panama Canal strip, 74 Parcels post, 32 Parks, national, 73 Parties, political, committees, 175; enrollment, 173; or- ganization, 79-85 ; plat- forms, 86-93 Partnerships, 131-133 Philippine Islands, 77 Political rights, 13-15 Popular government, 3-7 Porto Rico, 75 Postal Savings Bank, 33 Post Office, Department of, 32 President of the United States, 26-30 Primary elections ( official ) , 173 Primary meetings, 81 Probate Courts, 41, 58 Progressive taxation, 103 Prohibition platform, 93 Property tax, 101, 110 Protection and free trade, 123-125 Public debt, 113 Public finance, 106-114 Q Qualifications of Voters, 172 180 INDEX R Railroads, 126 Recall, 50 Recorder, county, 59 Redemption Act, 118 Referendum, 48-50 Register of deeds, 59 Registration of Voters, 172 Representative government, 4 Representatives, House of, 17- 23 Republican Platform, 89 Rights of Citizenship, 8-16 Rules of the House of Repre- sentatives, 21 S Salaries of federal officers, 36 Samoa, government of, 78 Secretary of State, of the United States, 31; of a State, 54 Senate (of the United States), 23-25 Sheriff, 58 Sherman Silver Act, 116 Sherman Anti -trust Act, 134 Shipping Board, 128 Single tax, 104 Smithsonian Institution, 35 Socialist-Labor platform, 90 Solicitor general, 32 Speakership of the House of Representatives, 19 State conventions, 82 State, Department of, 31 States Attorney, 60 Subsidiary coinage, 115 Superintendent of public in- struction, State, 55 Supervisors, 57 Supreme Court (State), 40 Supreme Court of the United States, 44 Surrogate's court, 41 Surveyor, 60 Tariff, 123 Taxation, 101-105 Territories, 71-78 Time Allowed Employees to Vote, 175 Town (New England), 60; (incorporated), 63 Township, 61 Trade Commission, 35, 135 Treasurer (State), 55; ( county ) , 59 Treasury, Department of, 31 Treasury notes, 116 Treaties, 26, 98 Trusts, 134 Veto, power of President, 27; governor, 53 Vice-President, 23, 28 Villages, 63 Virgin Islands, 78 Voters, qualifications of, 78, 172; duties, 13-15 W War, Department of, 32 Woman's Party in Politics, xvii-xviii Writs, habeas corpus, 11; in- junction, 42 ; mandamus, 42 Women Police, xir 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. 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