LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Gl FT OF Class PRACTICAL WORK IN THE SCHOOL ROOM. A TEANSGEIPT OF THE OBJECT LESSONS ON THE HUMAN BODY GIVEN IN PRIMARY DEPARTMENT, GRAMMAR SCHOOL No. 49, NEW YORK CITY. UNIVERSITY ] cr THIRD EDITION. NEW YORK: A. LOVELL & COMPANY. 1885. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by SARAH F. BUCKEI.EW AND MARGARET W. LEWIS. in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. T. S. CUSHING & Co., PRINTERS, 115 HIGH STREET, BOSTON, NOTES TO THE TEACHEK, I. Children should learn these lessons on the Human Body, that the}' may better value and take care of "the house they live in." Each lesson should be very carefully developed when taught. No intelligent teacher will permit the recitation of the formulas to degenerate into rote-work. Children are not parrots. II. The following plan has been observed in the preparation of this work : First, A model lesson, as given in our own class-rooms, to show how each subject should be developed and taught. Second, A formula, embodying the principal facts, etc., given during the development and teaching. Third, Questions for the formula, intended to aid in concert or individual recitation of the summaries it contains. Fourth, Directions for touching. These are given very minutely, because we think appropriate touching, or pointing to the part under description, when convenient, adds much interest to the recitation ; it makes the facts seem more real to the children. Fifth, Questions on the lesson, designed to recall instructions, given during its development, which may or may not be found in the formula. These questions are important; therefore, do not omit them. Use them frequently. The pupils may reply in their own icords, \f this method is deemed preferable. 1 65028 iv NOTES TO THE TEACHER. Lastly, A blackboard outline, which may be used with ad- vantage in review lessons. III. In the recitation of the formulas : Be careful about the wording of the Questions for the Formulas. Do not permit sing-song. Be careful about the touching of the parts. Use the required apparatus, charts, etc., in developing and reviewing. Do not review by rote. Take time for explanations, for criticism of tone, pronunciation, etc., when necessary. Remember, " What is worth doing at all is worth doing well," especially in teaching. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. NOTES TO TEACHERS . . . . * iii PLAN OF LESSONS . . - viii PART I. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS 1 II. THE LIMBS 18 " III. THE BONES OF THE BODY 31 " IV. THE ORGANS OF SENSE 39 " V. THE DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES . . . *" . 55 " VI. THE MUSCLES . .... 65 VII. THE SKIN 73 " VIII. THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION ... 81 " IX. THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION . . . .89- " X. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 97 " XL THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 109 APPENDIX I. THE STORY ABOUT ALCOHOL 121 USES OF ALCOHOL 122 USES OF ALCOHOL concluded . . . . . . . 123 ABOUT FERMENTATION 125 DISTILLATION 127 HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL ....... 129 STORIES ABOUT HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL 140 STORIES ABOUT THE RIGHT WAY TO TREAT ALE, ETC. . . 144 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. APPENDIX II. INTRODUCTORY LESSON ...... . 149 THE STORY ABOUT TOBACCO 150 THE POISON IN TOBACCO AND THE HARM IT DOES . . . 152 OPIUM AND OTHER NARCOTICS .... 157 THE HTJMAK BODY. PLAN OF LESSONS ON Sixth or Alphabet Grade. Fifth Grade. Fourtli Grade. 1st Week ( Touch and name parts -] of the head and Review Gth Grade formula and ques- Rev. formula and questions of Gth ( face. tions. and 5th Grades. a 2d " i Touch and name parts < of the head and face, ( with formula. Touch and name the limbs, with formula. Rev. formula and questions of Gth and 5th Grades. o . H ( Touch and name parts Touch the parts and Teach about the Pi 3d " i of the trunk and joints of the arm, aye. OB ( limbs. with formula. 4th " ( Touch and name parts < of the trunk and Touch the parts and joints of the head, Rev., with formula. ( limbs, with formula. with formula. 1st Week ( Develop Section 2. Touch the parts and joints of the leg, Rev., with formula and questions. 1 with formula. , ( Review Section 2, with Touch the parts and Rev., with formula 4i 2d " < formula. joints of the foot, and questions. g / with formula. . r~ 3d " I Review Section 2, with < formula. Ten ques- Rev. Eleven ques- tions. Teach about the ear. M ( tions. ( Review Section 2, with Review. Rev., with formula. 4th " < formula. Three ques- ( tions. {Review Section 2, with Teach the bones of Rev., with formula 1st Week formula. Eight ques- the head and limbs. and questions. tions. ( Develop Section 3. Teach the bones of Teach about the d 2d " i the arm and hand. nose. e ( Review Section 3, with Teach the bones of Rev., with formulas 1 3d " < formula. the leg and foot. and questions. ( Review Section 3, with Rev. Eleven ques- Teach about the 4th " < formula. Two ques- tions. mouth. ( tions. {Review Section 3, with Rev. Eleven ques- Rev., with formulas 1st Week formula. Five ques- tions. and questions. tions. ( Develop Section 4. Rev. Eleven ques- Teach about the | 2d " i tions. teeth, etc. {Review Section 4, with Teach advanced les- Rev., with formulas g 3d " formula. son on the joints. and questions. | Review Section 4, with Rev. Seven ques- Review. [4th " < formula. Six ques- tions. ( tions. fist Week A a 2d " I 3d " Review. Review. Review. s 4th " THE HUMAN BODY. IX Third Grade. Second Grade. First Grade. !Rev. formulas and Rev. formulas and Rev. formulas and fist Week questions of previ- ous Grades. questions of previ- ous Grades. questions of previ- ous Grades. {Rev. formulas and Rev. formulas and Rev. formulas and 5 2d " questions of previ- ous Grades. questions of previ- ous Grades. questions of previ- ous Grades. | " {Rev. formulas and Rev. formulas and Rev. formulas and d 3d " questions of previ- ous Grades. questions of previ- ous Grades. questions of previ- ous Grades. iRev. formulas and Rev. formulas and Rev. formulas and 4th " questions of previ- ous Grades. questions of previ- ous Grades. questions of previ- ous Grades. ( Teach Part V. Teach Part VIII. Teach Part X. r 1st Week 1 ( Teach Part V. Teach Part VIII., Teach Part X., with id 2d " I with formula. formula. 1 \ M] Rev. Part V., with Teach Part VIII., Teach Part X., with 3d formula and ques- with formula. formula. w ( tions. !Rev. Part V., with Review Part VIII., Rev. Part X., with 4th " formula and ques- tions. with formula and questions. formula and ques- tions. Teach Part VI. Review Part VIII., Rev. Part X., with f 1st Week s with formula and formula and ques- ( questions. tions. t ( Teach Part VI. Review Part VIII., Teach Part XI. 2d " ) with formula and |j questions. o s [Rev. Part VI., with Teach Part IX. Teach Part XL, pj 3d " formula and ques- with formula. S ( tions. [Rev. Part VI., with Teach Part IX., Teach Part XI., [4th " formula and ques- with formula. with formula. ( tions. Teach Part VII. Teach Part IX., Rev. Part XI., with 1st Week with formula. formula and ques- tions. J Teach Part VII. Review Part IX., Rev. Part XL, with 1 2d " with formula and formula and ques- o questions. tions. g Rev. Part VII., with Review Part IX., Review. 3d " formula and ques- with formula and $ tions. questions. Rev. Part VII., with Review Part IX., Review. 4th " formula and ques- with formula and tions. questions. fist Week ] 2d " 3 3d " Review. Review. Review. i 4th " PART I. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 1. The Parts of the Body. We touch the various parts of the head, the children naming what is touched ; then the class touches and names the same parts according to the for- mula. The remaining parts of the body are touched and named in the same way, until all are familiar with the name and posi- tion of each part. In Review Lessons, the children use the formula. 2. The Head, Trunk, and Limbs. We show two jointed wooden dolls ; take off the head, arms, and legs of one, and then ask the name of its remaining part, u the body." What do you call the large part of a tree which rises out of the ground above the root? "The stem, the trunk." We give the name trunk to that part which you have just called ' l the body," that is, to all the body except the head, arms, and legs. When we speak about the body, we mean the whole body, from the top of the head to the sole of the foot. You may tell what we mean by the trunk of the body. ''All the body except the head, arms, and legs." Of what other trunk do 3-011 know, beside the trunk of the body? " A trunk to put clothes in." Of what are such trunks made? "Of wood, covered with paper ; of wood, covered with leather." Of what is the trunk of the body made? "Of bones, flesh, and skin." For what do you use the wooden trunks? " To put clothes in." What is in the trunk of the body? The children do not know, so we explain that the heart, the lungs, and stomach are inside the body. 2 THE HUMAN BODY. We talk about the trunk of a tree ; make ou the blackboard a sketch of one, with its branches, and ask what the latter are called. "Sticks of the tree, branches, limbs of the tree." We bid a child take the unbroken doll and point to its trunk, then stretch out its arms and legs. The children perceive that the arms and legs extend from the trunk of the body as the limbs from a tree, and give the term limbs to these parts ; they also discover, by counting, that the body has four limbs fastened to its trunk. What has the doll's body beside the trunk and limbs? " A head." Name the parts of the doll's body. "Head, trunk, limbs." Touch and name the parts of your own body. "The head, the trunk, the limbs." Lastly, we teach the children to say, "The parts of the body are the head, the trunk, the lirnbs." 3. The Bones, Flesh, and Skin. Those who have seen men building houses ma}' raise the hand. Of what do they build houses? " Of wood, of stone, of bricks." For what do they build houses? "For people to live in." How many of you would like a house of your own ? Hands are raised in reply, and the children are told that they do possess a house of their own, not made of wood or stone, but very wonderful, because it can move from place to place ; that they live in it all the time, wherever they are. Soon some bright little thinker discovers that we mean the body, and when we ask, Who lives in your body? answers with an air of conscious ownership, "My- self." If a picture of a frame house in process of building can be obtained, it is shown and talked about ; then we ask, Of what is 3'our body-house built? " Of bones, flesh, and skin." We next call upon some child to tell about the body, and re- ceive in reply the sentence, " My body is built of bones ; " this statement is repeated by the class. We tell the pupils that we intend to print what they have said on the blackboard. We ask for the first word, "My"; INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 3 when printed, they read it. Thus each successive word is given and read by the children until the sentence is completed. Other questions lead them to give the additional clause, " covered with flesh and skin," which is also printed and read. The entire sentence is read and memorized by the class. " My body is built of bones covered with flesh and skin." Do we expect our abecedarians will learn to spell each of the words and recognize them readily at sight? No ; some may do so, but our object, in this blackboard work, is not to teach spelling or reading. We only desire to awaken more intense interest, and assist the memory of the children to receive the formulas we wish them to remember ; for, while opposed to parrot-like repetition, we are equally averse to pursuing the other extreme, which allows the memory to weaken by inaction lest it be overburdened. We firmly believe this faculty is strengthened by use, and should be trained to work daily. So we give our scholars definitions and formulas to memorize, as occasion requires. 4. The Use of Food. Those who ate breakfast this morning may raise the hand. Well, what did you have for breakfast? "Meat, coffee, bread, etc." How did you eat your food? Did you put your head down to the plate and take your meat dog-fashion? Amused at the allusion, they promptly answer, " We took it up with a fork." Did you put all the large piece of meat into your mouth at once? " No, we cut it into little pieces with a knife." How did you carry it to your mouth? " With a fork." When it was in the mouth, what did you do with it? "We chewed it." What then? "We swallowed it." What then? " We did not do anything else with it." True, when you have swallowed your food you can do noth- ing else with it, but that is not the last of what you have eaten ; without your help it passes through some wonderful changes, after going down your food-pipe, which leads from your mouth to a strangely-shaped bag of flesh called the stomach. Here we exhibit a chart representing the Digestive Organs, or draw 4 THE HUMAN BODY. an outline showing the parts named. Then we call upon one of the children to describe the journey of the food from the plate to the stomach. We next tell them that the little food-ball rolled from the mouth into the stomach does not rest in that fleshy bag, but is changed by a juice which the stomach pours upon it, a wonder- ful kind of juice which can melt meat, bread, apples, or any- thing good to eat ; that the stomach presses upon the food and pushes it along, changing it so much that if there were a little door through which they could look into the stomach, and they were to peep through it, soon after the food had been swallowed, they would find it impossible to decide which was meat, or apples, or bread, etc. Lastly, we explain that the melted and mixed food passes out from the stomach, and, Iry and b} r , is changed into blood; that the blood goes through the body and makes bones, flesh, skin, hair, and nails. But why this talk about the process of digestion and the use of the blood ? Because we wish to teach the little folks as early as possible why the}' eat, why they should masticate their food thoroughly, and why they should avoid improper food and drink. 5. Against Alcoholic Liquors. We also explain that what we drink goes into the stomach, and, if not poisonous, helps to make good blood. We let the class mention different kinds of drinks, and place the names given upon the blackboard, thus : 1. Water. Milk. 2. 3. 4. Tea. Root-beer. Wine. Coffee. Soda-water. Cider. Chocolate. Lemonade. Beer. Cocoa. Ice-water. Brandy, etc. When these lists have been prepared, we let the children several times repeat the names the}' contain, as we point to each column respectively ; then we talk about pure cold water. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 5 Water, the drink which God has made for people and animals ; which is so delicious and refreshing to us when we are thirsty ; the only drink which the birds, fishes, and beasts use ; which helps to keep them alive, and strong, and healthy. Next, we refer to milk, which most children like to drink, and which is so healthful and pleasant as a kind of food. Thirdly, we talk about the tea, coffee, etc., named in the second column, and caution against drinking too much, if any, of these beverages. We lead the children to notice thitt water forms the greater part of all these favorite drinks, as it does also of those mentioned in the third column of our list. The pupils know that lemonade and soda-water "taste good," but will not do to drink every day ; they like ice-water, but we warn them that it must be used sparingly, and never when they are very warm. Lastly, we talk about rum, brandy, whiskey, etc., and teach about the terrible foe to health, goodness, and happiness which is hidden in these liquors, viz., ALCOHOL. The healthy stomach is glad to get bread, meat, potatoes, water, etc., which help to make good blood ; but when anything enters it which contains alcohol, it tries to get rid of it right away, and hurries it into the liver, which lies under the lungs, on the right of the stomach. Some of the alcohol passes from the liver through the heart into the lungs, and the lungs send it out through the nose and mouth so quickly, that very soon after any one has taken even a small quantity of the poison, the breath tells the stoiy, and we know they have been drinking something stronger than water. But all the alcohol does not come out thus easily. Some stays in the blood, and goes with it through the arteries and veins, doing much mischief and no real good as it passes through the body. It makes believe keep the body warm, but really makes it colder than it should be ; it makes the stomach sore ; it takes some of the goodness out of the blood ; it makes the heart work hard in beating too fast ; it reddens the face, and 6 THE HUMAN BODY. makes the nose a bad color ; it takes the bright, good look out of the eyes, and makes them too red. But it does the most mischief to the head. It makes it ache ; makes it unfit to think ; and when people drink much of any vile stuff which has alcohol in it, they lose their good sense and goodness, and often do very terrible and wicked deeds. The children have seen drunkards, and all know how strangely these act ; but perhaps they think that only those who drink rum, whiskey, brandy, or gin get drunk. We teach them that the same serpent of evil is found in all kinds of wines, beer, lager beer, ale, and cider ; so that the only way to be safe from it, is not to drink anything which has fire-water or alcohol in it. We explain that alcohol is made from the juice of decayed fruits, grains, or vegetables, and is found in gooseberry, blackberry, or any other home-made wine as well as in the liquors sold in the grog-shop. Even root beer and cider, if left long enough, will get full of alcohol. So let all alcoholic drinks alone, for the only good part of them is the water they contain, which is best to quench the thirst and keep us healthy. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. continued. 6. The Blood and the Heart. If you cut your foot, what will flow from it? "Blood." If you prick your finger, what will flow out? "Blood." Where does the blood come from? Some think from the head, none can tell correctly ; so we direct them to imitate our movements, as we place our hand upon the chest, near the breastbone, toward the left side. What do 3 7 ou feel? " Something moving, something shaking." What is it that is moving? Usually some one replies, " The heart" ; if not, we tell them, and give them the word beating for moving; to describe its action ; then we explain that the heart acts like a pump, sending the blood to different parts of the body. When we again ask, Where does the blood flow from? the children promptly reply, "From the heart." INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 7 Again we let them notice the beating of the heart, and bid them show with the hand how it beats, which they do by moving the right hand back and forth, keeping time with the motion of the heart ; we also inform them that the heart pumps out blood at every boat. When do yon think the heart beats? "All the time." Does your heart beat when yon are asleep? They think it does not ; so we ask, How many of you have seen a baby asleep? Did its heart beat while it slept? If they do not know, we advise them, when the}* see a bab}- or a person asleep, to walk on tiptoe, place the hand very gently over the heart of the sleeper, and notice whether it beats or not. Although they cannot tell decidedly whether the heart beats during sleep, yet they answer promptly "We die," if asked, What happens when the heart stops beating? Do }'ou die when you go to sleep ? They know they do not ; so readily infer that the heart beats all the time, whether we are awake or asleep. We show or talk to them about a watch, let them see its hands move, and listen to its ticking. What happens when the watch stops ticking? "The hands stop moving; the hands will not move." If the heart stops beating, can people move their hands or any part of the body? " They cannot." What is done to keep the watch ticking? " Somebody winds it." What do they wind the watch with? "With a watch- key." How often should a watch be wound to keep it going? " Every day." Does any one wind your heart every day to keep it going? They laughingly reply, "No." We quiet their mirth, and ask, But who does keep our heart beating? With reverent tone, they tell us li God"; and we speak of the good- ness of God, who made our wonderful bodies, made our hearts beat, and keeps them beating every day without our help ; of His great wisdom in giving us hearts which go on beating, sometimes for a hundred years, without stopping to rest. These thoughts of God, as our Creator and Preserver, are naturally suggested, and not soon forgotten b}' the interested listeners. Next, we pour water from a glass, and explain that when we 8 ' THE HUMAN BODY. wish to speak of water moving, we say, Water flows. The children readily understand that blood moves like water, and tell us "Blood flows." We print these words as in the first lesson. Where does the blood flow? "Through the body." This answer is placed upon the board, and the children repeat the five words, "Blood flows through the body." We show tljat we can say this in four words, by using a little word of two letters, lY, if we do not want to say, the body ; we then change the sentence to " Blood flows through it." You say the heart beats all the time, and we have told you that blood flows from it every time it beats ; then when does the blood flow through the heart? " All the time." Where does the blood flow from? "From my heart." This clause com- pletes the second part of the formula which is memorized b}* the class. The children are taught to place the right hand over the heart when the} T repeat the word heart. What do you see on the back of the hand beneath the skin ? "Blue marks, lines, veins," are the usual replies. What have you seen in the garden that looks something like the veins in shape? "The sticks of a tree; the branches of a tree." Where are the veins? " On the back of my hand." We ex- plain that the veins are in ever} T part of the body. How many of you have seen water pipes ? When water is thrown into the sink, where does it go? "Down the water pipes." What kind of pipes carry away the dirty water? "Waste pipes." Look at the veins on your hands and wrists. In your body you have good blood and bad blood ; the bad blood flows through the veins ; some of these you can see because they are so near the surface of the skin. What kind of blood is in the veins? "Bad blood." What are the veins? " Pipes." Pipes for what? "Pipes for the bad blood to pass through." What kind of blood is in the body beside good blood? "Bad blood." Do }'ou think that it would be well for the good blood to pass through the same pipes as the bad blood? Why not? "It would be made bad." There are other pipes which earn- the good blood through the bod}' ; these are called arteries. These INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. A, the heart ; B, the lungs ; light cross lines, arteries ; heavy lines, veins. 10 THE HUMAN BODY. pipes are stronger than the veins, because the good blood in them conies directly from the heart, and moves as fast as the heart beats ; if the arteries were not very strong, the}' would burst, and then the heart-pump would soon be emptied of blood ; they are placed deep below the surface of the body, to keep them from getting hurt ; for, when an artery is cut, the good blood flows out so fast we should soon bleed to death, if no one were near to tie up the artery, so that the blood could not come out, or spurt out, as we say when we talk about the way the blood flows from the arteries. Lay the finger of your left hand on your right wrist. What do you feel? "Something moving." Who sometimes puts his finger on your wrist when you are ill? "The doctor." Why does he place his hand on your wrist? "To find how sick I am ; to find m}- pulse." The last answer is usually given by some child ; if not, we tell about the pulse, giving its name, as we explain that it is a large artery in the wrist, so near the surface that we can easily feel its beatings ; that it beats as fast as the heart, and helps the doctor to find out how fast the heart beats, when he places his finger on the wrist, although he does not touch the heart. Put your hand on your temples ; what do }"ou feel? "Something beating." That something is an artery, and you will feel another if you place your finger on the side of }~our head, in front of the upper part of your ear. Touch the artery in your wrist ; the arteries of your temples ; the arteries near the ears. What kind of blood is in the arteries? "Good blood." Grown people use the word pure for good, so what may you call the good blood ? " Pure blood." What carries the good or pure blood through the body? "The arteries." What are the arteries? "Pipes for the good blood to pass through." What carries the bad blood through the body ? " The veins." What kind of blood is in the veins? "Bad blood." Grown people call the bad blood impure blood. What do you call bad blood? "Impure blood." What do you mean by impure? "Bad." Then what do you mean by impure blood? " Bad blood." INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 11 We explain that the good blood passes through the arteries t<> every part of the body, giving to each part something to make it grow. For instance, some of the blood goes to the arm and hand ; as it passes along it gives something to the bones to make them grow ; something to the flesh to make it grow ; something to the skin to make it grow. In the fingers it gives something to the nails to make them grow. Then what does the blood make in the body? " Bones, flesh, skin, hair, and nails." In making bones, flesh, skin, hair, and nails the blood becomes very poor, because it has given away its goodness, so it is not fit to make the body grow and keep it alive ; it also becomes bad or impure. Raise your hands, move them ; you have worn out some parts of your hands and arms in moving them. When you move any part of your body you wear out some of its particles, or little parts finer than the chalk dust which you can take up with your fingers. These fine little parts of bones, flesh, and skin, which are worn out, are dead, and of no use to the body, so the blood helps to carry them away ; this makes the blood dark and thick ; the blood has also given away its goodness to make bones, flesh, hair, skin, and nails ; it is no longer bright and good blood, so it goes into the veins, where it moves more slowly than it did in the arteries ; it goes through the veins to the right side of the heart, but the heart does not want bad blood, so it sends it to the lungs to be made good. In the next lesson we will tell you what makes the bad blood good in the lungs. A chart representing the Circulatory Organs is generally shown to the class during these explanations -of the heart, arte- ries, and veins, but the lessons can be given without this aid. 12 TH10 II I'M AN BODY. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS concluded. 7. The Air and its Use. Put your hand before your mouth; what do you feel? "Wind, breath." How does it feel? " Hot." Where does it come from? " From the nose ; from the mouth." We here explain more fully about the lungs, letting the children cross their hands on their chest, to feel the motion produced in this part of the body, as they draw a deep breath and suddenly let it out of the mouth and nose. To give them the idea of air, we ask, Why do we open the windows in our class-room? "For the wind to come in." We tell them that what they call wind is air moving. How does the air come into the room? " It blows in." By refer- ring to the word used to tell how water moves, they soon learn to say, " Air flows." Where is the air? "Out doors." Where else? Finding them ignorant of the presence of air in the room, we direct them to move their hands rapidly, or to fan with their aprons ; thus they quickly perceive that wind, or air, is in the room. We show them two boxes, one filled, the other empty. What is in this empty box? "Nothing." Nothing which you can see, but there is air in it. We fill a glass with water ; then ex- plain that the air must go out as the water is poured into the tumbler. We empty the glass and ask, What has taken the place of the water? "The air." Thus they obtain the idea that air fills all vacant places, and give the correct answer, " Everywhere," when we ask, Where is the air? To teach them that air is easily moved, we let them stir water in a glass or pail, which shows that this fluid is easily moved ; then we let them move through the air, rising, sitting, or walk- ing, according as we signal. They are pleased to learn that they move the air when they walk or run, and that birds move it when they fly, as really as the fishes move the water when they swim. How many of you have seen a river? What is in a river? What can you tell about the water of a river? " It moves." INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 13 When does it move? "All the time." Just so the air is always moving, although you cannot see it as you can the water in a brook or river. Fishes swim about in the water which is always moving, so people walk and move about in the great ocean of air which is always moving around them. When do you feel the air move? "When the wind blows hard ; when I fan myself ; when I move veiy fast ; when any one moves fast where I am." What have you learned about where the air is? "Air is everywhere." What have you learned about the way air moves? " It moves easily ; it moves all the time." The presence of the air, its easy and constant motion, and the word employed to express the motion having been taught, they readily understand that the ever-moving air which they cannot see flows through the open doors of the nose, and enters the back of the mouth. We next tell them of the windpipe, with its little trap-door to keep food or drink from entering the lungs ; that the lungs are the parts into which the heart sends the bad blood, and into which the air goes to make the bad blood bright, red, good blood ; that the air is made bad or impure while it is doing this work for the blood, and that the lungs send it out through the wind-pipe, the nose, and the mouth ; that the bad air mixes with the air around us and makes it impure, so we must open the windows and doors for ventilation, and take recesses, that the air in the room may be well purified. What do you breathe through? "My nose and mouth." ' ' I breathe through my nose and mouth ' ' is printed on the board. Into what do you take the air? "Into my lungs." "And take the air into nry lungs" completes this portion of the formula, which is repeated by the children, who touch the nose and mouth with the right hand, and cross the hand upon the chest over the lungs, as nose, mouth, and lungs are men- tioned. In the last lesson, you learned that the heart sends the bad blood to the lungs. What makes the bad blood good in the lungs ? " The air." Yes, the air gives the blood something to 14 THE HUMAN BODY. make it pure ; the lungs send it back to the heart ; then the heart sends the good blood to the different parts of the body. 8. Against Tobacco. The children have been taught the injurious effects resulting from drinking alcoholic liquors ; they are now ready to understand what we teach about tobacco poison. They recognize the tobacco, snuff, cigars, and cigarettes which we show, for many of them are but too familiar with the use made of these vile articles. If they do not already know, the}' are taught from what tobacco is obtained, and how it came to be used by civilized people ; of the poison it contains, and what harm it does to all who chew, snuff, or smoke, especially if the}* are children. See teachings about Tobacco in the Appendix. At the conclusion of these lessons, the children are ready to give intelligent answers to the questions of this grade. After- ward, we teach them the words we have chosen them to use in their replies, and, by frequent repetitions of the questions, help them not only to remember, but to be prompt and accurate, when examined concerning the facts they have learned. FORMULA FOR INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 1. My body is built of bones covered with flesh and skin ; the blood flows through it, all the time, from the heart. I breathe through my nose and mouth, and take the air into the lungs. 2. The parts of my body are the head, the trunk, the limbs. 3. My head. My nose. My two hands. The crown of my head. My two cheeks. My trunk. The back of my head. My mouth. My back. The sides of my head. My chin. My two sides. My face. My two ears. My chest. My forehead. My neck. My two legs. My two temples. My two shoulders. My two knees. My two eyes. My two arms. My two feet. I am sitting erect. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 15 QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 1. Tell about your body. 2. Name and touch the parts of the body. 3. Name aud touch the parts of the head, trunk, and limbs. DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. The teacher always touches with the hand opposite to that which the children are required to use. The right hand of each child is placed over the heart, as the latter is mentioned ; also upon the nose and mouth, as these are named. The hands are crossed over the lungs. Both hands are used to touch the head, trunk, and limbs; also to touch each part of these members, as it is mentioned. N.B. In developing Section 1 begin with " My head, the crown of my head, etc." Section 2 with " The parts of my body, etc." Section 3, "My body is built of bones." Section 4, " I breathe through, etc." In review recitations, these sections are recited in the order given in the Formula for Introductory Lessons. QUESTIONS ON THE INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. Of what is the body built ? " Of bones." What covers the bones ? " Flesh." What covers the flesh ? ' ' Skin.' ' What flows through the body ? " Blood." Where does the blood flow from ? " The heart." When does the blood flow from the heart ? " Every time the heart beats." Show with your hand how the heart beats. When does the heart beat ? " All the time." What happens when the heart stops beating ? " We die." What do you see on the back of your hand, beneath the skin ? " Veins." What is in the veins ? " Bad blood." What are the veins ? " Pipes for the bad blood to pass through." Where do the veins carry the bad blood ? " To the heart." Where does the heart send the bad blood ? " To the lungs." What happens to the bad blood when in the lungs? " It is made pure." What makes the bad blood pure ? " The air." How does the air get into the lungs? "Through my nose, mouth, and windpipe." What is breathing ? " Letting the air into and out of my lungs, through my nose, mouth, and windpipe." When do you breathe ? " All the time." OFTHE UNIVERSITY OF 16 THE HUMAN BODY. What do you breathe ? " Air." What do you breathe through ? " My nose, mouth, and windpipe." Where do you get the air ? " Everywhere." Where do the lungs send the pure blood ? " To the heart." Where does the heart send the pure blood ? " All through the body." How does the heart send the pure blood through the body? "Through pipes called arteries." What kind of blood passes through the arteries ? " Pure blood." What kind of blood passes through veins ?" Impure blood." What carries the pure blood through the body ? " The arteries.' ' What carries the impure blood through the body ? " The veins." What makes blood ? " Food and drink." What is food ? " Anything good to eat." What is drink ? " Anything good to drink." Name some kinds of wholesome food. " Meat, potatoes, oranges, apples, etc." Name some kinds of wholesome drink. " Water, milk, lemonade, etc." What do you mean by wholesome food? "Food that will make good blood." What do you mean by wholesome drink ? ' ' Drink that will make good blood." What does the blood make ? "Bones, flesh, skin, hair, nails, and carti- lage."* What use is the blood to the body ? "It makes the body grow, and keeps it alive." Name some kinds of poisonous drinks. " Rum, brandy, ale, cider, etc." "^ What do you mean by poisonous drinks ? " Drinks which hurt or poison the body." Why do you say that rum and the other drinks you haye named are poison- ous ? " Because they do harm to every part of the body." Which part do they hurt most ? " The head or brain." What harm do they do to the brain ? " They make it unfit to do its work." What work does the brain do ? " Thinking." Then what harm do rum, brandy, wine, and these other drinks do to the brain ? " They make it unfit to think." What other poison do some people use ? " Tobacco." When do children use tobacco ? " When they chew tobacco ; when they smoke cigars or cigarettes." How much does tobacco poison hurt children ? " More than it hurts any- body else." In what way does it hurt children? "It keeps children from growing fast; from being strong and healthy; and from learning as well as they ought." How does it do all this mischief to children ? " It poisons their lungs, their heart and blood, and their brain." * Cartilage is not mentioned in the Introductory Grade. INTRODUCTORY LESSONS. 17 H H H H H H H t=- sr tr tr tr cr f CD CD CD CD CD CD CD s: * * S s: g * Sri ? S 2. * 8 w 1 a ^ ^^ ^ o &o ^ co HJ td ^ S 5* P^j ? - -? i 1 * f 1 1 f S- 6 C6 t'* B Sj" W g ,' b r/Tr-r-2 -^ >r ^ ~ ^-r . .s .a a -^ a 2 r S'oS < ^ *^ o||||| ^^__> ^_^ r" M ^4 ^ c ^ a ? i MS s & 05 bJo ^ra.S ^ a 'S ^ d ^J~ ^ O " l ~ s o o a; a? CO . "S gj g |H g g w - a | |3 1 i o ^ 1 1 o W M I 1 ^ ^ w fl " o 1 8 J-s >< ' 33 M CO +- r < a * a 2 1 O ^ PQ i 5l 05 2 ^ Q CO o ^; O M ^ CO H^^csS ^a-a^; ,a ^ .a-a-a-a oj M "o -i 7 i a bJD ,_!, 1 1 g g . all S .S'c'5 o C3 g ., " Ir ^ a |l ^ ,a A Ijijl CO tH ""'.-, IS 05 4J f- ! 30 THE HUMAN BODY. 1. The skull. 2. The spine. 3. The ribs. 4. The breastbone. o. The shoulder blades. 6. The collar bones. 7. The bone of the upper arm. THE SKELETON. 8. The bones of the forearm, 9. The bones of the wrist. 10. The bones of the fingers. 11. The bone of the thigh. 12. The bones of the lower leg. 13. The bones of the ankle. 14. The bones of the toes. 15. The kneepan. PART III. THE BONES OF THE BODY. 1. Introductory. Of what is your body built? " Of bones." How do your bones feel to the touch? "Hard." You may make a sentence telling about your bones. "My bones are hard." These words are printed on the board. Are your bones all of the same size ? A correct answer to this question is obtained after the children have felt the bones of their fingers and arms. Are all your bones of the same shape ? After feeling those of the head and arms, they usually reply, " Some are curved, some are like a cylinder." Of what use do you think your bones are to your bod}'? "They make my body strong." The answer is printed as given, and the children read the entire sentence, " My bones are hard ; they make my body strong." 2. Bones of the Head. We show the class a dog's or a sheep's skull, and ask, What is this? " A skull." Of what is it made? " Of bone." To what part of the dog or sheep did it belong? " To the head." Touch your skull. What is your skull? " The head ; the bony part of my head." What other bone belongs to your head ? By placing the hand upon the chin, while opening and closing the mouth several times, some of the children discover what they usually call " the chin- bone." If we find the}' know no other name for the bone, we say, This chinbone is called the jawbone. What is in your jaw? " My teeth." How many jaws have you? "Two." What do you call this one? we ask, as we point to the upper jaw. " The top jaw." Give another name for top. "Upper." Then what may you call the top jaw? 32 THE HUMAN BODY. " The upper jaw." If the top jaw is called the upper jaw, what may you call the other? "The under jaw, the lower jaw." We accept the latter name, and bid them name and touch the bones of the head. " The bones of the head are my skull and my lower jaw." We tell them that there are about two hundred bones in the body, not including the teeth ; fourteen of these are in the face, four small bones are in the ears, and one at the .root of the tongue. Then we show the pupils how to touch as they give an account of the bones of the head and face. 3. The Bones of the Trunk. What do you feel along the middle of the back? "The backbone." Yes, the backbone, or the spine. In what part of the body do you find the spine ? "In the trunk." What other bones do }^ou find in the trunk? " The side bones ; the ribs." We bid them feel the short, upright bone in front, and give them its name, breastbone; then direct them to place the right hand at the upper part of the left shoulder, and move the left arm in different directions ; this leads them to notice the pro- jecting bones which they usually name " shoulder bone." We give them the name shoulder blade, and after a similar experi- ment with the right arm, ask, How many shoulder blades have you? " We have two shoulder blades." The children find the two bones crossing the top of their chest from the tip of the shoulder to the breastbone, and learn the name collar bones; the number of these, two ; the shape, some- what like the Italian / placed in a lying position, is shown by making this letter on the board. Lastly, we assist them to construct and memorize the Formula for the Bones of the Trunk. 4. The Bones of the Arm and Hand. We tell the children there is only one bone in the upper arm, and two in the fore- arm ; that the bones of the forearm are so arranged that we are able to turn the hand at the wrist from side to side ; also, that there are two rows of bones in the wrist, four in each row, eight in all, forming the wrist joint. THE BONES OF THE BODY. 33 We let a child spread bis hand upon the blackboard, and trace its outline with chalk ; then bid the class draw the fore- finger of the left hand down over the bone leading from the thumb knuckle to the wrist. A line corresponding to this bone is drawn within the traced hand. In the same way the children discover and represent all the bones of the middle of the hand, and thus learn the position and number of these bones, so that they can readily give the statement, "From my wrist to my knuckles are five bones." By looking carefully at the thumb, the children are able to tell us the number of its bones, for which two marks are made within the thumb part of the picture. In like manner, the number and position of all the bones of each finger is noted and represented. All the lines made within the picture are counted and num- bered, to prepare the class to touch and count the bones of the hand, as well as to give a correct answer to the question, How many bones in your hand? Lastly, they are taught to repeat the Formula for the Bones of the Arm and Hand. 5. The Bones of the Leg and Foot. We teach the number of the bones of the leg by reference to those of the arm ; then bid the children place the left leg over the right knee, and touch the thigh with the right hand as they say, " My thigh has one bone." They touch the lower leg as they say, " My lower leg has two bones." We ask, How many bones are in the wrist? "Eight." There is one less bone in the foot near the heel. How many bones are there in the foot in that place? " Seven." We tell them that the missing bone seems to have taken its place over the knee joint, which it covers and protects ; then let them count as many balls on the numeral frame as there are bones near the heel. How many bones from the wrist to each finger? " One." Yes, and there is one from the heel to each of the toes. How many bones in the middle of the foot? "Five." Five more balls are counted on the numeral frame. There are the same number of bones in the great toe as in the thumb. How many balls shall we count for them? " Two." 34 THE HUMAN BODY. Each of the other toes has as many bones as each of the fin- gers. How many balls shall we count for the bones of the second toe? "Three." How many for the third toe? "Three." For the fourth? -" Three." For the fifth ?- "Three." For the sixth? "None; we have not six toes." We let the children count the whole number of balls which have been moved, to find the number of bones in the foot; then require them to look at the balls as they say : In my foot, near my heel, are seven bones ; In the middle of my foot are five bones ; My great toe has two bones ; Each of my other toes has three bones ; Making twenty-six bones in my foot. This lesson is taught more rapidly if we use for illustration a chart representing the Osseous System. FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE BONES OF THE BODY. 1. My bones are hard; they make my body strong. There are about two hundred bones in my body. 2. The bones of my head are my skull and my lower jaw ; my face has fourteen bones ; my ear has four small bones ; at the root of my tongue is one bone. 3. The bones of my trunk are my spine, my breastbone, my ribs, my two shoulder blades, and my two collar bones. 4. My upper arm has one bone ; iny forearm has two bones ; my wrist has eight bones ; from my wrist to my knuckles are five bones ; my thumb has two bones ; each finger has three bones, making nine- teen bones in my hand. 5. My thigh has one bone ; my lower leg has two bones ; my knee- pan is the cap which covers and protects my knee ; in my foot, near my heel, are seven bones ; in the middle of my foot are five bones ; my great toe has two bones ; each of my other toes has three bones ; making twenty-six bones in my foot. THE BONES OF THE BODY. 35 QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 1. Tell about your bones. 2. Tell about the bones of the head. 3. Tell about the bones of the trunk. 4. Tell about the bones of the arm and hand, beginning with the upper arm. 5. Count the bones of the hand. (5. Tell about the bones of the leg and foot, beginning with the thigh. DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. The Head. The hands are placed above and around the skull, and down each side of the loiver jaw. The right hand is passed down the face w r hen the number of its bones are given ; the index finger points to the left ear as the number of the bones in the ear are men- tioned. The Trunk. Both hands are passed to the back to touch the spine ; around the ribs, and on the breastbone, as these are named. The shoulder blades are touched from above the shoulders, and both hands are brought forward to indicate the position of the collar bone. The Arm and Hand. The left arm is extended and the right hand used to touch its parts, as the bones of the arm are enumerated. The same hand is used to touch the wrist, also from the wrist to the knuckles. The thumb and fingers are touched by the right index fin- ger as the number of their bones is given. The method of counting the bones of the hand is described here- after. The Leg and Foot. The directions for touching the bones of the leg are the same as those given for touching its parts. The right hand is used to touch the left heel, and the middle of the foot, when the number of the bones in these parts are named. As the bones of the toes cannot be easily felt through the shoe, the children sit erect when they tell about them, and quietly replace the left foot upon the floor at the conclusion of the clause, " making twenty-six bones in my foot." QUESTIONS ON THE BONES. How many bones in the body ? " About two hundred." Of what use are the bones to the body? "They make the body strong; they form the framework of the body." How many bones in the face ? " Fourteen bones." How many bones in the ear ? " Four small bones." 36 THE HUMAN BODY. How many bones at the root of the tongue ? - " One." How many bones in the upper arm ? " One." How many bones in the forearm ? " Two." How many bones between the wrist and the knuckles ? " Five." How many bones in the thumb ? " Two." How many bones in each of the fingers ? " Three." How many bones in the whole hand ? "Nineteen." How many bones in the hand and arm ? " Thirty." How many bones in the thigh ? " One long bone." How many bones in the lower leg ? " Two." How many bones in the heel? " Seven." How many bones in the middle of the foot ? " Five." How many bones in the great toe ? " Two." How many bones in each of the other toes ? " Three." How many bones in the whole foot ? "Twenty-six." How many bones in the foot and leg ? " Thirty." How many bones in two arms and two hands ? " Sixty." How many bones in two legs and two feet? " Sixty." How many bones in the limbs ? " One hundred and twenty." Where is the kneepan ? " Over the knee joint." Where is the longest bone in the body ? "In the thigh." Where are the smallest bones of the body ? "In the ear." Touch the collar bones. Touch the shoulder blades. How many collar bones have you ? "Two." How many shoulder blades have you ? " Two." Touch the spine. Touch the breastbone. Touch the skull. DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING THE BONES OF THE HAND. I. 1. Close both hands. 2. Raise the forefinger of the right hand, as the index or pointing finger. 3. Place the index finger upon the lower thumb joint of the left hand. 4. Draw the index finger down to the wrist, over the bone between the thumb knuckle and the wrist, and count "One." 5. Place the index finger on the knuckle of the first finger. 6. Draw the index finger down to the wrist, over the bone leading from the first finger to the wrist, and count " Two." 7. So on, for each of the three other bones of the hand. Repeat until no mistake is made in touching or counting. THE BONES OF THE BODY. 37 II. 1. Raise the thumb, and place the index finger of the right hand on the middle of the upper part of the thumb for bone " Six " ; then 2. On the lower part of the thumb for bone " Seven." Repeat from the beginning, until the children can touch and count each bone properly. III. 1. Keep the thumb erect ; raise the first finger of the left hand. 2. Place the index finger on the bone between the tip and the first joint of the first finger for bone " Eight." 3. Between the first and middle joint for bone "Nine." 4. Between the middle and third joint for bone "Ten." Review, from the beginning, until the class can touch and count every bone as directed. IV. 1. Keep the thumb and forefinger erect ; raise the second finger and touch, as in the lesson on the first finger bones, " Eleven," " Twelve," and " Thirteen." Review. 2. Proceed in the same manner for the third and fourth fingers, always beginning with the bone nearest the tip of the finger, and touching that at the lowest part last. If the exercise has been properly performed, every child will say " Nineteen " as its index finger touches the lowest bone of the little finger, and all the fingers of every left- hand will be outspread. Sometimes the children have an amusing and profitable pantomime exercise on the bones of the body, as follows : We say to them, I will touch the different parts of the body, and you may show with your fingers how many bones in each. Two or three attempts will enable them to go through these motions with accuracy, and prepare them to answer the questions on bones with rapidity. Unless using a Chart of the Osseous System, we "ask about the bones of the leg and foot, instead of pointing to these parts on the chart. The children answer by signs, as before. 38 THE HUMAN BODY. NOTE. To obtain from the children the number of the bones in the body, we ask for those of the head, the trunk, the upper limbs, the lower limbs, and the number of each. The several replies appear on the blackboard as follows : THE BONES OF THE HEAD: Skull 8 Face, including the > lower jaw ) Tongue 1 Ears 8 31 OF THE TRUNK: Spine 24 Ribs 24 Breastbone 8 Shoulder blades 2 Collar bones ... .2 OF THE UPPER LIMBS : Upper arms 1X2=2 Forearms .' 2X2=4 Wrists 8X2 = 10 Hands 19X2 = 38 60 OF THE LOWER LIMBS : Thighs 1X2=2 Kneepans 1X2=2 Lower legs 2X2=4 Feet 26X2 = 52 60 Total, 211, not including the teeth.* We teach the children to say " about two hundred," because there are not always the same number of bones in the body. In some parts two or three bones unite and form one bone. For example : the breastbone of a child is made up of eight pieces ; some of these unite as it becomes older, so that when fully grown it has but three pieces in this bone. * The teeth are not bone, but a kind of soft, bone-like substance, called dentine. Common ivory is dentine. PART IV. THE ORGANS OF SENSE. The Eye. What do you see with? "My eyes." Hold your heads perfectly still ; look at the ceiling ; look at the floor ; towards the right side of the room ; towards the left ; in front of you. This exercise is repeated until every child of the class can look in these various directions without moving the head. Then we take our box of forms, and, holding a cube before the children, ask : What shape is this? " A cube." How many of you would like eyes shaped like cubes ? No hands are raised, showing the}' do iTot think the shape desirable. Why do you not wish cube-shaped eyes? "They would not look nice; they would not be pretty ; they would not look well." What other reason have you against this shape for an eye? If the children do not reply correctly to this question, we repeat the exercise of rolling the eyes without moving the head, and soon obtain the desired answer, " They could not be rolled about." What reasons have you given for not wishing eyes shaped like cubes? "They would not look well; they could not be rolled about." The children, for the same reasons, object to having eyes shaped like prisms or pyramids. We show them a cylinder. They are better pleased with this shape, and seldom say of it, " It does not look well." Some think it will do, but others discover that it cannot be rolled up or down, which con- vinces them that cylinder-like eyes would not be very conven- ient. For similar reasons they decide against the hemisphere, cone, and spheroid. When called upon to choose the proper shape for an eye, they unhesitatingly select a ball, or sphere, "Because it looks well ; because it can be moved in every direction," and reply 40 THE HUMAN BODY. correctly to the question, What shape is your eye? " My eye is shaped like a ball." We place before them the skull of a dog, and let them find where the eyes of the animal were placed. In what were the eyes placed? "In holes; in hollow places." What word have you learned which means a hollow place? "Socket." Of what was the socket made in which the dog's eye was placed? "Of bones." We next tell the children to feel around their own eyes ; this act leads them to perceive that their eyes are also placed within a deep, bony socket, and the class is ready to answer, " My eye is like a ball in a deep, bony socket," when we ask about the shape and position of the eye. We direct the attention of the pupil to the position of the eye, in the upper part of the face, instead of in the hand, or in the back or sides of the head, and quiet the mirthfnlness excited by the thought of eyes in these inconvenient and ludi- crous situations, b} f alluding to the goodness and wisdom of our kind Heavenly Father, as displayed in the position and shape of our e} r es. Why do the eyes not stand out from the face as the nose does? "They would get hurt." Then why are they placed in the deep, boil}' socket? "To keep them from getting hurt; to protect them." Look into the e} r es of the child next to you. What do you see in them? " A black spot ; something blue ; a white part." Of what shape is the black spot? "Round." Round like what? "Round like a circle." Where is it? "In the middle of the eye." Pointing to the window, we ask, Of what shape is the window ? "Oblong." Of what use is it? " To let the light in ; to see through." We then explain that the little black spot in the eye is an opening in the e^'eball through which the light enters, and out of which the mind sees the world. What, then, is the eye to the body? "The window." We tell the children that this window is called the pupil of the eye. THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 41 We talk to them about the camera which the photographer uses when he makes pictures ; telling them that the inside of the camera-box is like the glass} 7 part of the e} T e, for the light to pass through; a portion of the inside of the eye is ready to receive the picture the light paints on it, as the glass the artist places in the camera receives the picture, when they sit or stand, during a few seconds, where he has placed them in front of the camera-tube. We bid them look at different things, informing them that as they turn from an object its picture passes as quickly from the picture-plates of their eyes, and that of the next thing at which they look takes its place. Light, the great picture-maker, is always at work, giving views of things near and far away, according as the eyes are read}' to receive its pictures. If they hurt their eyes they cannot see through them ; if their eyes are injured by accident or disease, they must be deprived of the pleasant sights so freely given to all who can see. We counsel them to use their eyes, illustrating our meaning by the familiar story of "Eyes and no eyes," which tells of two travellers passing through the same scenes, the one seeing nothing to interest him, the other adding to his store of knowledge through his habit of careful observation ; we also lead them to under- stand how necessary it is to take care of these seeing-balls, remind them to be thankful to the Giver of light and eye-sight, and teach them of His omniscience by the familiar words, " He that formed the eye, shall He not see?" Lastly, the class construct and memorize the sentence, "The black circle in the centre is the pupil or window of my eye." What do you see around the pupil of the eye? "A ring." Of what color? "Gray; light brown; dark brown; blue." We ask the color of the same part of the eye in the cat, rabbit, or other animals ; give the name iris, then proceed to show its use to the eye as follows : Close the shutter of the window. What do we do when we close the shutters? " Shut out the light." When we open it a little? "Let in a little light." When we open it wide? " Let in all the light that will come 42 THE HUMAN BODY. in through the window." What do we sometimes use instead of shutters? "Shades, curtains." What shaped shutters, shades, or curtains would you use for an oblong window? "Oblong." We bid a child stand where the class can look into its eyes as the bright light shines into them ; the other children see the small pupil and enlarged colored ring; we then let the same child stand in a dark corner where the rest can see the pupil enlarge, the iris becoming smaller. The children soon learn that the iris has something to do with letting in and keeping out the light, and thus acts as a curtain to the eye ; that be- cause the eye-window, or pupil, is round, its curtain must be round, but ring-shaped, that it ma}^ not completely cover the pupil. * This portion of the lesson is concluded with the formula, " The colored ring is the iris or curtain." What else do 3*011 notice in the eye beside the pupil and the iris? "A white part." What shape is it? ' ; Curved." What is the curved part? After thinking awhile, some of the children reply, "The front part of the eyeball," and give the statement, " The white part is the C3^eball." We say to the children, Bend your head down ; bend it back- ward. Wiry did your e3'es not fall out? " The3 r are in tight." What holds them in so tightly ? None can tell us ; so we in- form them of the six little elastic cords of flesh, which have power to make themselves long or short, and not only hold the 63^6 in the socket, but turn it in aii3 T direction we wish to look. What cover your eyes? "The eyelids." Of what use are they? "They cover the eye; they keep the dust out; they keep the eyeball from getting hurt ; they protect the 03*0," are the various answers given, as the class is led to imagine what would be the consequence if we had no eyelids. How many eyelids have you? " Two." What do you name them? " Top e3'elid, upper eyelid, under e3'elid, lower e3 r elid." We accept the terms, upper eyelid and lower eyelid, then assist the class to construct the formula, " My upper and lower eye- lids cover and protect my eyes." THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 43 What have you above the eyelids? " Eyebrows." Of what are the eyebrows composed? "Of little hairs; of short hairs." Of what use are the eyebrows? The children do Dot know. We help them to infer the use of these parts by asking, How would you look without eyebrows? "Strange, queer." Then of what use are the eyebrows ? " To make us look nice ; to make us look pretty ; to make us look beautiful." We teach them to express the same idea by the words, "My eyebrows are for beauty." What comes out upon the forehead when you are very warm? "Sweat." Perspiration is substituted as a preferable word, and we explain that the eyebrows keep the perspiration of the forehead from rolling into the eyes. The children touch the eyebrows as they repeat the formula, "The eyebrows are for beauty, and keep the perspiration from rolling into my eyes." What are on the edges of the eyelids? "The eyelashes." Of what are the eyelashes made? "Of short hairs." How would people look without eyelashes? "Queer, strange." Then of what use are the eyelashes? " They make us look nice ; they make us look pretty." What did you say about the eyebrows because the}' make you look better than you would without them? " My eyebrows are for beauty." Then what may you say about your eyelashes because the}' add to your good looks? " My eyelashes are for beauty." What do you see in the street when it is very windy? " Dust." The air is always moving, and the dust is always flying about, though you may not see it ; the little eyelashes sweep away the dust when it comes near the eyes, and prevent it from entering the eyes. In repeating the formula which follows the conversation about the eyelashes, the children touch these parts as they are named : " My eyelashes are for beauty, and brush away the dust from my eyes." We bid all raise the right hand who have seen a sewing- machine, and ask, Why do people put oil on different parts of the machine? " To make it go fast; to make it go easily." We say to the children, You may look up ; look to the right ; 44 THE HUMAN BODY. to the left ; look in front of you. What do you do with your eyes as }*ou look in these different directions ? ' ' I move my eyes." Does it hurt the eyeballs to move them? They reply in the negative, and we explain that the eyeballs are washed by the tears, which are made back of the eyebrows, and rubbed over the eyeball by the motion of the eyelids ; that these tears make the eyeballs move easily in the sockets, without hurting or wearing out ; that they pass from the eyes through little openings which lead from the eyes to the nose. When we feel very unhappy or sad, the tears are made so rapidly in the eye- factory that they cannot pass into the nose fast enough, so they roll down the cheeks when we cry. The lessons on the 63* e end with the talk about the tears, and the formula, " My eyes are washed by teardrops every time I wink my eyelids," which is repeated without touching. THE ORGANS OF SENSE, continued. The Ears. Of what use are your ears? " To hear with." Where are they placed? "One on each side of the head." We bid the children feel and bend the ears, then tell of what these are made, which leads to the discovery that the outer ear is made of something different from flesh and bone. We ask the name of the hard, tough, smooth substance they find in some meat, and from the replies given obtain the word gristle; then tell them that the outer ear is made of gristle, or, as some people call it, cartilage ; lastly, teach them to define cartilage as, "A smooth, elastic substance, harder than flesh and softer than bone." Allusion is made to the difference in the position of the ears of various animals, and the children are led to notice that those of animals which pursue their prey point forward to catch sounds in front of them, while those of others which are liable to be pursued turn backward to hear sounds from behind them. The ears of the cat and the rabbit are good and familiar illus- trations of these facts. THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 45 Next, the parts of the outer ear are touched and named by the class, the outer edge is designated as the rim, and the lower part through which an earring may be placed, as the flap or lobe of the ear. We speak of the trumpet-like shape of the ear as best adapted for catching and holding sounds ; then explain that sounds pass through the opening of the ear, along a short tube, and strike against a thin skin stretched tightly across a hollow place inside of the ear, called the drum-head; that the four bones of the ear, the smallest bones in the bod}', are placed across the drum cavity, and help to carry sounds to the brain. We talk about the ear-wax, and the fence of short, stiff hairs stretched across the tube of the ear in front of the thin skin, to keep insects from entering the drum of the ear. We counsel the children to endeavor to preserve their hear- ing, by taking care to. avoid colds, and caution them against putting an}' hard, sharp-pointed instrument, such as a pin, into the ear, by which the delicate parts of the ear may be injured. Lastly, the Formula for the Ear is prepared and memorized. The Nose. Of what use is the nose? " To smell with ; to breathe through." Where is the nose? " Between the two eyes ; between the forehead and the mouth ; in the middle of the face." By measuring the face from the top of the forehead to the chin, and across the face from ear to ear, the children are led to perceive that the nose is in the middle of the face. Wiry is the nose placed above the mouth ? " To enable us to smell quickly what we put into the mouth." Why is it placed in the middle of the face? "Because it looks best here." How queer the nose would look at the back of the head or the forehead ! What name do you give to the upper part of the nose between the eyes? " The bridge of the nose." What is the lower end of the nose called? "The tip of the nose." What else do you notice about the nose? "Two holes; two openings." What are they called? "The nostrils." Of what use are 46 THE HUMAN BODY, they? " For the air to pass through." We explain thai these nostrils lead to two openings through which the air enters the back of the mouth on its way to the lungs. What is between the nostrils ? From what they have learned about the substance of the outer ears, the children readily dis- cover that the division between the nostrils is formed of carti- lage, and tell us this cartilage divides the nostrils into two parts. We give them the word separates as used in the formula for this section of the lesson. We conclude with the repetition of the formula, teaching the children to touch the bridge and the tip of the nose with all the fingers of the right hand, to point to the cartilage with the fore- finger, and to the nostrils with the thumb and forefinger of the same. The Mouth. Of what use is the mouth? " To speak with ; to eat with ; to breathe through. Its position is alluded to, and its parts, the lips, are mentioned. What is inside of the mouth? " The tongue ; the upper teeth ; the lower teeth." In what are the teeth placed? " In the jaw." How many jaws have you? "Two." What are they called? "Top jaw, under jaw," are the names the children usually give, which we correct to upper jaw and lower jaw. What covers the jaws? "Flesh." Of what color is this flesh? "Red." What is it called? If no child can reply correct!}', we give the name "gum," and then teach the form- ula, instructing the children to touch only when they name the lips. The Teeth. Of what use are the teeth? " To eat with." Of what other use are the}' ? None of the class know, so we bid the children make the sounds of two or more of the vowels ; then those of 6, p, d, , v. After several repetitions of their sounds, they readily perceive that the vowel sounds are made by different positions of the mouth as the voice passes through it; that b and p are made with the lips, while to make/, v, , c?, they must use the teeth. Our second question is repeated, THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 47 and we receive the correct reply : c ' To speak with ; to help speak with." Of what are the teeth made? "Bone." The children are told that the teeth are not made of the same kind of bone as the other bones of the body, but of a softer substance, called dentine. "The teeth are white, smooth, and shiny." We explain that this is because they are covered with a smooth, hard substance, called enamel, which keeps them from wearing out, as paint and varnish help to preserve the wood they cover. We teach the class to spell the word enamel, and to define it as " a smooth, glossy, white substance, harder than bone." When you take a bite of apple, between which teeth do you place the apple? " Between the front teeth." Why? "To bite the apple." In what other way could you take a piece from the apple? " I could cut it with a knife." Then what do you use your front teeth for when you eat? " For biting ; for cutting." What ma}' you call them because the}' are used for cutting? " Cutting teeth ; cutters." . What kind of teeth have you noticed on the sides of a cat's jaws? " Sharp, pointed teeth." What does the cat use these teeth for? "To tear meat with." What may you call the teeth with which the cat tears its meat? "Tearing teeth; tearers." You may feel or look at your own teeth and notice whether you have any teeth which resemble the tearing teeth of the cat. " We have ; on each side of the front teeth." Then what kind of teeth have you besides cutting teeth? " Tearing teeth ; tearers." If you wish to crack a nut with your teeth, where do you place it? "Between the back teeth." Why? "Because they are the thickest; because they are the strongest." Yes, and best fitted for breaking and grinding hard substances ; but wise people do not crack nuts with their teeth. What may you call the double back teeth because they are used in grinding the food? " Grinding teeth ; grinders." Name the kinds of teeth we have been talking about. - " Cutting teeth, tearing teeth, grinding teeth." Where are the 48 THE HUMAN BODY. cutting teeth, or cutters? "In the front part of each jaw." Where are the tearing teeth, or tearers? " On each side of the cutting teeth." Where are the grinding teeth, or grinders? "At the back part of each jaw ; on each side of the tearing teeth." We tell the class that children do not have as man}' teeth in a full set as adults, or grown people, and give them the number of the milk teeth, also of the permanent teeth. The little ones know by experience that they lose their first teeth, and are sup- plied with a second set. We explain that the second teeth are formed in the jaw, below the first set, and will push the lat- ter out if these are not extracted soon enough to give the new teeth room. The formula for the teeth is taught and repeated without any touching. The Preservation of the Teeth. We begin the lesson on this subject by asking the children how they use anything which they do not wish to wear out. ' ' We tiy to keep it ; we take care of it." Usually some one replies, "We tr} T to preserve it"; if not, we give the class the word preserve, and develop its meaning by referring to preserved flowers and fruits. What do you think you must do to preserve your teeth? " We must keep them clean." We explain that airything which injures the enamel destroys the teeth, because the soft inner portion of the teeth soon decays when not protected by the hard enamel ; then lead the class to understand wiry tartar should not be allowed to collect about the teeth ; why very hot or very cold food and drink should be avoided ; why thread should not be cut or nuts cracked with the teeth ; and why tobacco and cigars should be kept out of the mouth, because all these may injure the enamel more or less. After these explanations, the children are assisted to construct the rules for the preservation of the teeth, which are soon memorized. The Process of Eating. By holding the lower jaw, and simulating the process of eating, the children learn that the lower jaw only is moved in the act of chewing. They tell us THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 49 that the cutters cut the food, the tearers tear it, and the grind- ers grind it. We ask what change takes place in a dry piece of bread or cracker when it is in the mouth. "It is made wet." We give the word moistened for " made wet." What moistens the bread? "The spit." Saliva is substituted for tl spit," and they tell us, "The saliva moistens the bread." A little reflection helps them to understand that all food put into the mouth is moistened by the saliva. We instruct them about the work of the tongue, as it moves in the mouth during eating, bringing the food between the teeth, and helping to throw the food-ball down the food-pipe when we are ready to swallow. The formula for this portion of the lesson is constructed in the usual manner, and memorized ; it is repeated without any touching. FORMULAS FOR THE LESSONS ON THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 1. The Eyes. My eyes are to see with. My eye is like a ball in a deep, bony socket. The black circle in the centre is the pupil or window of my eye ; the colored ring is the iris or curtain ; the white part is the eyeball. My upper and lower eyelids cover and protect my eyes. My eyebrows are for beauty, and keep the perspiration from rolling into my eyes. My eyes are washed by teardrops every time I wink my eyelids. 2. The Ears. My ears are to hear with : the rim of my ear, the flap of my ear, the drum of my ear. The drum of my ear is protected by a fence of short, stiff hairs, and by a bitter wax about the roots of these hairs. 3. The Nose. My nose is to smell and breathe with; it is in the middle of my face : my two nostrils, the cartilage, the bridge of my nose, the tip of my nose. My nostrils lead to a passage back of my mouth through which 1 breathe. The cartilage separates my nose into two parts. 50 THE HUMAN BODY. 4. The Mouth. My mouth is to speak, eat, and breathe through : my upper lip, my lower lip. In my mouth are : my tongue, my upper teeth, my lower teeth, and my upper and lower jaws, covered with flesh called gum. 5. The Teeth. My teeth are used in eating and talking. My teeth are made of a soft kind of bone, covered with enamel. I have three kinds of teeth : cutting teeth, tearing teeth, grinding teeth. A young child has twenty teeth, ten in each jaw. A grown person has thirty-two teeth, sixteen in each jaw. 6. To preserve my teeth : I must keep them clean. I must not scratch the enamel. I must not eat or drink anything very hot or very cold. I must not use them for scissors or nut-crackers. I must not burn them with tobacco or cigars. 7. About Eating. When I eat I move my lower jaw only. My tongue brings the food between my teeth, the cutters cut it, the tearers tear it, the grinders grind it, the saliva moistens it, and my tongue helps me to swallow it. QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULAS. 1. Tell about your eyes. 2. Tell about your ears. 3. Tell about your nose. 4. Tell about your mouth. 5. Tell about your teeth. 6. What is necessary if you would preserve your teeth ? 7. Tell about eating. DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. The Eyes. The hands are placed upon the eyes as these are named. The right forefinger is passed around the socket of the left eye as the word bony is repeated. The upper and lower eyelids and eyebrows and the eyelashes are touched with the fingers as each of these parts is mentioned. THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 51 The Ears. The ears are touched when named in the first sentence of the formula. The rim and the flap of the ear are each touched with the right forefinger, which is also used in pointing to the drum of the ear. The Nose. The fingers of the right hand are used to touch the nose and its parts, excepting the nostrils, which are touched by the thumb and index finger of the same hand. The Mouth. The mouth is touched with the fingers of the right hand, and each lip with the right forefinger. The Teeth, Manner of Eating, Preservation of the Teeth. No touch- ing is necessary in these sections. QUESTIONS ON THE DESCRIPTION OF THE EYES. Of what shape is the eye ? " It is round like a ball." In what is it placed ? " In a deep, bony socket." What is a socket ? " A hollow place." Why is the eye placed in a deep, bony socket ? " To keep it from getting hurt." Why would not an eye shaped like a cube do for us ? "It would not look well; it could not be rolled about." Why would not an eye shaped like a cone or cylinder do for us? "It could not be rolled in every direction." AVhy is the ball-shape best for the eye ? "It looks best, and may be rolled in every direction." What part of the eye do we see through ? " The black spot in the centre.' ' What is it called ? " The pupil." What shape is the pupil ? " Round like a circle." What color is the pupil ?" Black." Of what use is the pupil ? " To let light into the eye; to see through." What is around the pupil ? "A colored ring." What is the colored ring called ? " The iris." Of what use is the iris ? " It acts like a curtain to the eye; it lets in and keeps out light from the pupil." Of what shape is the iris ? " Round like a ring." Of what color is the iris ? " Sometimes blue, sometimes brown, some- times gray." Does the iris always appear the same in size ? "It does not: sometimes it looks large, sometimes small." When is it the largest ? " When it rolls over the pupil to keep out the strong light." When is it the smallest ? " When it rolls backward, to let light into the pupil." When is the pupil the largest ? " When we are in the dark." 52 THE HUMAN BODY. AVhen is the pupil the smallest ? " When we are in a bright light." What color is the eyeball ? " White." What shape is the eyeball ? " Round like a ball." How is the eyeball held in its socket ? " By cords made of flesh." Where are the eyebrows ? " Above the eyelids." Of what use are the eyebrows ? "To keep the perspiration from rolling into the eyes." Where are the eyelids ? " Over the eyes." Of what use are they ? " They cover my eyes and keep them from getting hurt." Where are the eyelashes ? " On the edges of the eyelids." Of what use are the tears? "They keep the eyes clean; they make the eyes move easily in their sockets." Where are the tears made ? " Back of the eyebrows." When do the tears wash the eyes ? " Every time we wink our eyelids." QUESTIONS ON THE EARS. Touch the parts of the ear. Where are your ears ? " On the sides of my head." Which is the rim of the ear ? " The edge of the ear." Which is the flap of the ear ? " The lower part of the ear." Where is the drum of the ear ? ' Inside of the ear." How is the drum protected ? "By stiff hairs and a bitter wax at its entrance." QUESTIONS ON THE NOSE. Where is the nose ? " In the middle of the face." Touch the parts of the nose. Where is the tip of the nose ? "At the end of the nose." Where is the bridge of the nose? "At the top of the nose between the eyes." Where is the cartilage ? " In the middle of the inside of the nose." Of what use is the nose ? "To smell and breathe through." What are the nostrils ? " The openings inside of the nose." Of what use are the nostrils ? "To let the air into and out of the opening back of the mouth." QUESTIONS ON THE MOUTH, ETC. Where is the mouth ? "In the lower part of the face, between the nose and the chin." Touch the mouth. Of what use is the mouth ? " To breathe, speak, and eat with." What is in the mouth ? "My tongue, my upper teeth, .my lower teeth, and my upper and lower jaws." What covers the jaws ? " Red flesh, called yum." Of what are the jaws composed ? "Of bones." THE ORGANS OF SENSE. 53 Of what are the teeth made ? " Of dentine, covered with enamel." p. 38. What is enamel ? "A smooth, white substance, harder than hone." Of what use are the teeth ? "To eat and talk with." What kinds of teeth have you ? " Cutting teeth, tearing teeth, grinding teeth." Describe the cutting teeth. " The cutting teeth have broad and flat edges." Describe the tearing teeth. " The tearing teeth are sharp and pointed." Describe the grinding teeth. "The grinding teeth are the thick, back teeth." Which jaw is moved in eating? " The lower jaw." What work do the teeth perform ? " They cut, tear, and grind the food." How many teeth has a child in a full set? " Twenty teeth: ten in each jaw." How many teeth has a grown person in a full set ? " Thirty-two : sixteen in each jaw." What does the tongue do in eating? " It rolls the food between the teeth, and helps in swallowing." What is the saliva ? "A kind of liquid, sometimes called spit." Of what use is it in eating ? " It wets and softens the food." What do you mean by preserve ? "To keep from injury." What do you mean by injury? " Hurt." How do you preserve your teeth ? See Formula. How do very hot or very cold drinks hurt the teeth? "They crack the enamel." What happens if the enamel is cracked ? " The teeth decay." Then what must you do to preserve your teeth ? "I must try to keep the * enamel from being cracked or injured iu any way." 54 THE HUMAN BODY. 2 3 ) 4 5 N 1 g* 02 H &H O W p +i '^A d V T3 ^ catch sound. The ears must kept clean, hear with. breathe through and mell with, separate the nostrils. breathe and speak with, speak and taste with, hold the teeth. chew with. (See Formula hold the tooth in the jaw. preserve the teeth. see through ; to let light Th i. n let in and keep out ight from the pupil. 1 move in the socket; to Th old the seeing parts. I : beauty, etc. (See For- \ aula.) : beauty, etc. (See For- nula.) cover and protect the eyes. 2 0-a - 1 o H ~ w 000 o o o 5 I) q 5 i H r H ^ , THE EYES. COLOR OF SHAPE OF PARTS. PARTS. Black. Circle. 1 bb ^J .5 -a W M L u,v 2 v.-a S Or? s ^ Black, brown, Crescent. I 1. 1 1 I llll s s w d 1 1 O o o o NOSE. ^ ^-' ^ ^ 0,0 0^ THE MOUTH. Red. Crescent. r . Red. Oblong. Red. Curved. THE TEETH. White. Pointed. 1 White. W-hite. o o o O O W M o o o o o ^3^^!^ 00 < GO t OJ OJ 0^ Q} O HHHH 4~ 33.S 5 1 ^ : . i ^^3 c -o| 58 .$ H g 1 Is ^ i s l 5 e la P 1 1 If itf i o o O * o O *^ "^ H H H H H a} 03 I O) o Hr _^ ^ 00 ^^ o c5 ~ O Oi r2 -M -M +3 W PART Y. DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 1 . The Skull. We show a sheep's or dog's skull to the children, and let them examine it carefully, to discover how its parts are put together; then, two pieces of paper, each shaped more or less like a carpenter's saw, or two pieces of wood pre- pared for dovetailing, are placed together, to help the class illustrate and describe the mode of joining. Attention is called to the parts of the human skull, and how they are united ; also, to the use of the skull, its shape and strength ; after which the formula which describes it is prepared and memorized. 2. The Spine. Where is your spine ? "In the middle of the back." Where does it begin? " At the lower part of the skull." What word do you sometimes use which means lower part? "Base." This word, familiar to those who have studied about a cone, in the lesson on form, is substituted for lower part; the meaning of extends illustrated and taught, then the position of the spine is described by the children, in the words of the formula they have assisted to make. They are accustomed to think of the spine as one long bone. This error is corrected by bidding them notice what they feel as they pass the fingers over the upper part of the spine. "Little round lumps," they tell us, and we explain that the lumps or knot-like parts are little, round, perforated bones, twentj'-four of which make the spine ; that these are placed one above the other, like cups turned upside down. We ask, How are the lumps or bones of the spine placed ? " One on top of the other." Allusion to a pile of slates or books obtains the desired word, piled, which expresses the position de- scribed. We tell them about the cartilage between these bones, 56 THE HUMAN BODY. explaining its use in preventing injury to the brain when we walk or move about. Their knowledge of the terms, elastic and flexible, help them to understand that these layers of cartilage enable us to bend the back, and then assume an upright posi- tion, at will. You have learned that " the spine is made up of little bones piled one upon the other, with cartilage between every one of them." What do you think is the reason why these bones and pieces of cartilage do not fall apart, as slates do, when you strike against a pile of them ? " They are fastened together." Show, with your right forefinger, in what position the spine of a horse is placed ; show that of your own spine as you sit or stand ; what do you call this position? "Vertical." Yes, but you do not talk about standing or sitting in a vertical position ; what other word do you use? " Erect ; up straight." " Up straight" is corrected to upright, and the word column taught by reference to a column of words or figures ; also, to pillars they may have seen in school or elsewhere. The backbone of a fish helps the children to understand something of the con- struction of the spine. 3. The Ribs. What name do you give to the bones on your side? "Ribs." If possible, we show a picture of the ribs ; let the children count those on one side, and notice the form and position of each : otherwise, we let them find these bones in their own body, and describe the form, and tell where fastened at the back and in front. We talk about the use of the ribs, to be as a wall around the lungs, heart, and stomach ; therefore, they must be strong ; each must also be light, because, if heavy, twenty-four of them would weigh too much for our comfort. 4. The Shoulder Blades. A picture of a shoulder blade is shown to the class, and the children feel for their own shoulder blades ; they are instructed as to the shape and use of these bones, and assist, as usual, in constructing the descriptive formula. DKSCIMI'TIOX OF THE UoNKS. 57 5. The Collar Bones. The position and shape of the collar bones are best taught from a chart representing the Osseous System. If we have no chart, we let the children feel for them, on the upper part of the chest, and try to discover their shape ; also, where they are joined. We also show, on the blackboard, that a collar bone resembles an Italian / placed in a horizontal position. The use of these bones in keeping the arms in place is easily explained. 6. Hygiene of the Bones. Why should we not let young babies stand too often ? " Because it will make them bow- legged ; their legs will grow crooked." Why will their legs become crooked? " Because their bones bend easily." What word may you use when you wish to tell that the bones bend eas ily? " Flexible." Then what may you say about a baby's bones, when you wish us to understand that they may be easily bent? " They are flexible." How do the bones of a baby feel to the touch? " Soft." How do those of an old person feel? "Hard." Which bones break the more easily, those of a child, or those of a grown person ? After thinking awhile, some of the children reply, " Those of an old person." What word would you use to describe the bones of an old person, so as to tell that they are easily broken? " Brittle." When the difference in the quality of the bones of childhood and age is understood by the pupils, they are prepared to tell us why it is necessary for old people to be very cautious against falling, and why children and young persons must be careful to sit and stand erect ; also, why they must not wear tight cloth- ing. The formula for this portion of the lesson is repeated without touching. From what are bones made? "From the blood." From what is blood made? "From the food I eat." What kind of bones would you like to have? " Strong bones ; healthy bones." What kind of blood is needed to make strong, healthy bones? "Good or pure blood." What kind of food makes pure blood? "Wholesome food." Then what kind of food 58 THE HUMAN BODY. must you cat if you would have strong, healthy bones? "Wholesome food." As soon as the children understand that wholesome food is necessaiy to make good bones, they help in the preparation of the formula we desire them to memorize. Of what use is the air to the blood? " It makes the blood pure." What kind of bones will pure blood make? "Good bones ; strong bones." What kind of bones will bad blood make ? "Bad bones ; weak bones ; poor bones." What should you not breathe if you wish strong, healthy bones? " Impure air." Why should you not breathe impure air? "Because impure air makes bad blood, and bad blood makes poor bones." How many of you have a canary at home ? What happens to its feathers in the spring? "The old ones fallout, and new ones come in their place." What may you say about a canary, when you think of this change of its feathers? "A canary is not always covered with the same feathers." Are you always covered with the same skin? Amused at this question, the children quickh' reply in the affirmative. We tell them their answer proves how easily people may make mistakes when they only guess at things ; then proceed to prepare them to answer our question correctly and intelligently. If you put on a new pair of shoes, and walk in them through the streets, why should not the shoemaker take them back if you wish him to do so ? " Because they are dirt}' ; because they are worn a little." If you keep on wearing the shoes every day for several weeks, what happens to them? "They are worn out." If a child walks barefoot do his feet wear out? " They do not." Again we show that guessing does not always give correct answers, and explain that bones, flesh, and skin wear out, little Iry little, as we use the different parts of the body ; that the little, worn-out particles, finer than chalk-dust, are removed, and their places constantly supplied by new particles of bone, flesh, and skin made from the wonderful blood ; that this wear- ing out and repairing is going on continually, so that the body is constantly changing; some portions veiy often, and others more slowly and less frequently. DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 59 Conclusion. We conclude the lesson with the formula con- cerning this change in the substance of the body ; then review the Description of the Bones, by the repetition of the several formulas which have been prepared during the lesson on this subject. FORMULA FOR DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 1. My skull is formed of several bones united, like two saws with their toothed edges hooked into each other. 2. My spine extends from the base of the skull behind, down the middle of my back. It js composed of twenty-four short bones, piled one upon the other, with cartilage between them. These bones are fastened together, forming an upright and flexible column, which makes me erect and graceful. 3. My ribs are curved, strong, and light ; there are twenty-four of them, twelve on each side ; they are fastened at the back to my spine, in front to my breastbone, forming a hollow place for my heart, lungs, and stomach. 4. My shoulder blades are flat, thin, and like a triangle in shape ; they are for my arms to rest upon. 5. My collar bones are fastened to my shoulder blades and my breastbone ; they keep my arms from sliding too far forward. 6. The bones of old people are hard and brittle ; those of children soft and flexible ; so I must sit and stand erect, that mine may not be bent out of shape. I must not wear tight clothing, or do anything that will crowd them out of their places. 7. My bones are made from my food, after it has been changed into blood ; so I must be careful to eat good, wholesome food, that they may be strong and healthy. 8. I must not breathe impure air, because impure air makes bad blood, and bad blood makes poor bones. 9. The body of every person is changing all the time, because the skin, flesh, and bones are always wearing out, and the blood is always repairing and building them again. 60 THE HUMAN BODY. QUESTIONS FOB THE FORMULA. 1. Tell about the skull. 2. Tell about the spine. 3. Tell about the ribs. 4. Tell about the shoulder blades. 5. Tell about the collar bones. G. Tell about the difference between the bones of old people and those of children. 7. Of what are your bones made ? 8. If you wish your bones to be strong, why should you not breathe impure air? 9. What have you learned about the change which is always taking place in the body ? DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. The Skull. The hands are placed above and around the skull as the name is mentioned. As the word hooked is repeated, the fingers of the right hand are interlaced in those of the left to show how tire skull bones are united. The Spine. Both hands are placed at the back to touch the spine ; the right hand is placed at the base of tlte brain, and passed down the middle of the Lack, to indicate these parts. The average length of the bones of the spine is measured on the left forefinger with the right forefinger as the word short is repeated ; piled is shown by placing the right forefinger upon the left ; upright, by holding the right forefinger in a vertical position ; and flexible, by bending it up and down several times. Each child should sit as erect as possible when the word erect is mentioned. The Ribs. As the clause, " twelve on each side," is repeated, the hands are placed on the sides ; both hands are used in touching the spine and the breastbone; to show a hollow place, the hands are put together at the wrist and the tips of the fingers, and held so that the opening shall be in a vertical position ; care is taken to keep the thumbs close to^ the fingers. The right hand is used to touch the heart; the hands are crossed upon the lungs; finally, the right hand is again used to indicate the position of the stomach. The Shoulder Blades. These are touched from above the shoulders when named. Their shape is illustrated by closing all but the first finger of the left, and the first and second fingers of the right hand ; DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 61 the left forefinger is held vertically to form one side of a triangle, which is completed by using the right forefinger as the base, and the middle finger as the third side of the figure. Collar Bones. A hand is placed on each side of the collar bones as they are mentioned ; then upon the shoulder blade, to show where the collar bones are fastened : both hands touch the breastbone when it is named. Hygiene. As the children repeat the words, "So I must sit and stand erect," they assume a very erect posture, to give emphasis to what they are repeating. QUESTIONS ON THE DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. Touch the skull. Of what is it made ? " Several bones united together." How are the skull bones united ? "Like two saws with their toothed edges hooked into each other." What do you mean by toothed? "Having points, like teeth." What covers the skull ? " Flesh, skin, and hair." Of what use is the skull ? " It protects the brain." What is the brain ? " That part of my body in which the thinking is done." Where is the spine ? "It extends from the base of my skull behind, down the middle of my back." What do you mean by extends ? "Goes from." What do you mean by base ? " The lower part of anything." Of what is the spine made ? "Of about twenty-four short bones, with cartilage between them." What is cartilage ? " An elastic substance, harder than flesh, but softer than bone." How are the bones of the spine placed ? " They are piled one upon the other." What do you mean lay forming ? " Making." What do you mean by upright ? " In a vertical position." What do you mean by flexible ? " Easily bent." What do you mean by column? " A pillar." What do you mean by erect ? " In a vertical position." Why is cartilage placed between the bones of the spine? "To make the spine flexible ; to keep the brain from injury when we walk or run." What do you mean by elastic ? " Springing back after having been stretched, squeezed, twisted, or bent." Tell about your ribs. " My ribs are curved, strong, and light." Where are your ribs ? " On each side of my trunk." How many ribs have you ? " Twenty-four ; twelve on each side." 62 THE HUMAN *BODY. , How are your ribs fastened? "At the back to my spine ; in front to my breastbone." What do your ribs form? "A hollow place for my heart, lungs, and stomach." Where are your shoulder blades ? "In the upper part of my back." What shape are they ? " Flat, thin, and like a triangle." Of what use are your shoulder blades ? " For my arms to rest upon." Touch your collar bones. Where are they fastened ? "To my shoulder blades and my breastbone." Of what use are your collar bones ? " They keep my arms from sliding too far forward." Of what are your bones made ? " Of food after it has been changed into blood." Why should you eat wholesome food ? " That my bones may be strong and healthy." How does impure air hurt the bones ? " Impure air makes bad blood, and bad blood makes poor bones." Why should you sit and stand erect ? "Because my bones are easily bent out of shape ; if I do not sit and stand erect, they will grow crooked." Why is it wrong to wear tight clothing ? " Because tight clothing crowds the bones out of shape." Whose bones are the more brittle, those of a child, or those of an old per- son ? " Those of an old person." What do you mean by brittle? "Easily broken." Whose are the more flexible ? " Those of a child." What do you mean by flexible ? " Easily bent." What repairs the worn out bones, flesh, and skin of the body? "The blood." What do you mean by repairs ? " Mends." What causes the bones, flesh, and skin of your body to change often ? " The bones, flesh, and skin are always wearing out, and the blood is always building and repairing them again." What are alcoholic liquors ? " Liquors which have alcohol in them." Name some alcoholic liquors. "Beer, wine, rum," etc. Whose bones mend the more easily when broken, the bones of those who drink alcoholic liquors, or those of the people who do not use these poisons? "The bones of those who do not use alcoholic liquors." What other poison hurts the bones ? " Tobacco." How do alcohol and tobacco hurt the bones ? " They make bad blood, and bad blood makes poor bones." DESCRIPTION OF THE BONES. 63 54 3 i~~g3 5.. SJkSs ^; pi i -' %n P 1 ^ M p* J <* M, ^.cr 1 jSifae s 5 |SI*| la-.S* |||| ! : f| ^;| Pt^l P J3 CD 520 II &3 CD W O -JJ ^ a^ B; 3 ^^ o^2 n i rf p H H &g o gg:o CD p^2 & -o| g^| ^Ij p^ ^ p* co p* P CD CD ^ cc" 5* p P S C- in mi .. ^ & - *- %s.S 2.2 u H s ^ g I O d H 8,8,?.? il 3 CD<) 64 THE HUMAN BODY. m- FRONT VIEW OF THE MUSCLES OF THE BODY. PART VI. THE MUSCLES. 1. Introduction. You may stretch your arm to its full length ; place your left hand on the front part of your upper arm, half way between the shoulder and the elbow ; what do you feel? "Thick flesh." Move your right forearm up and down ; as your left hand rests on your upper arm, what do you feel? " Something moving." Move your right thumb several times in front of the other fingers of the right hand ; move each thumb in front of its own hand ; what do you feel? " Some- thing moving under the skin ; the flesh moving." What do you say your bones are covered with? "Flesh." What you call flesh, grown people name muscles; then with what may }'ou say your bones are covered? " With muscles." Of what use do you suppose these muscles are to the body? " They hide the bones ; they make the body look better." What did you find some of them do when you moved }~our arm and thumbs ? "They moved." What do you think they move? The chil- dren cannot tell, so we explain that the muscles move the bones, and may be called "the bone-movers" of the body; also, the}' hold, or support the bones. Open and shut the eyelids. What moved the eyelids? " Muscles." How many bones are there in the eyelids ? " Not any." Hold your chin so as not to move the lower jaw, while you open your lips and give the first sound of the letter u. What moved the lips? "Muscles." How many bones are there in the lips? "Not any." What move the different parts of your face when }'ou laugh? " Muscles." What move your face when you cry? " Muscles." Through these ques- 66 THE HUMAN IJODV. tions, the children are led to notice that the muscles move all parts of the bod}', whether bony or not bony. 2. Description of Muscles. How main* of you have seen muscles? "Nobody." Why! have you never seen meat? Never eaten boiled beef or chicken? Did not what you eat cover bones? Now how many think they have seen muscles? What part of the body is muscle? "The part we eat; the lean part; the lean meat." Yes; the word muscle means " lean meat." What color are the muscles ? " Red." We explain that the muscles are made up of a number of fine threads, or fibres of flesh, just as a piece of cord is made up of many threads of cotton or linen ; that these are put together in bundles of various shapes ; some spindle-shaped, some fan- shaped, some feather-shaped ; that the spaces between the bundles are filled with fat, when the body is healthy and strong ; and that the muscles are joined to the bones by a stronger kind of fleshy cord, called tendon, a whitish substance, softer than bone, but harder than muscle ; also that there are about four hundred and fifty muscles in the body. A piece of india-rubber cord, connecting the parts of a jointed doll, may be used, to help the children understand the elasticity of the muscles. Where are the muscles? "All over the body." What are the parts of the body? "The head, the trunk, 'the limbs." What may you call these different muscles, because of their place, or position in the body? "The muscles of the head, the muscles of the trunk, and the muscles of the limbs." 3. How the Muscles are Moved. Some move when we will to move them, as those of the hands and feet. Others do their work without our help. We often wink the eyelids, not know- ing they have moved ; and the heart, which is only a hollow muscle, is continually beating, beating, without our having any- thing to do with it. 4. Hygiene of the Muscles. The effect of exercise upon the muscles is easily comprehended when we allude to the arms of a blacksmith, and ask the children why their own are not as THE MUSCLES. 67 strong. The effect of habit is also understood, when' we lead them to compare the shoulders of those who sit and stand in a stooping posture, with those of well-trained soldiers who walk and stand erect. How do you feel when you have walked a long distance ? " Tired." What should you do when you are tired from walk- ing? ."Sit and rest." We explain that different sets of muscles are employed in the different motions of the bod}' ; for instance, some are used when we walk, others when we stand, or sit; that muscles become tired when used too long a time without rest, which accounts for our fatigue, when we have walked too far, or sat too long in one position ; and that nothing helps tired muscles but rest, either by change of employment or in sleep. Muscles need good blood, and enough of it, to make them strong ; so if we would have strong muscles, we must eat enough good, wholesome food to make good blood ; we must also breathe pure air, and live in the sunlight, that they may be supplied with pure, healthy blood. If through illness, want of food, or over-fatigue, our muscles do not receive enough nour- ishment from the blood, they shrink in size, and lose strength, and we become thin, or, as we sometimes say, " lose flesh" which means that we lose muscle. Some people think alcoholic drinks make the museles strong, but this is a mistake. Beer, wine, brandy, etc., weaken the muscles, and sometimes make those who use them unfit to work or walk, as you know is the case when a person is drunk. FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE MUSCLES. 1. Muscles are the red, elastic bands and bundles of thread-like substance, called flesh, which cover the bones and make the eyeballs, the eyelids, the tongue, the heart, the lungs, and various other parts of the body. 2. There are about four hundred and fifty muscles in my body. 3. The work of the muscles is to support and move my bones, and different parts of the body. 68 THE HITMAN BODY. 4. The muscles may be named the muscles of my head, the mus- cles of my trunk, the muscles of my limbs. 5. The muscles of my head cover and move the parts of my head and face. The muscles of my trunk cover and move the parts of my neck and trunk. The muscles of my limbs cover and move the parts of my arms and legs. 6. Those muscles are the weakest which I use least ; those muscles are the strongest which I exercise most in work or play. 7. If I would be strong and healthy, my muscles must be used, my muscles must be rested, my muscles must be supplied with good blood. I must exercise in work and play to make them strong,; I must sleep, or change my kind of work or play, to give them rast, when they are tired ; I must breathe pure air, take wholesome food and drink, and live in the sunlight, to supply them with good blood ; I must not weaken them by using alcohol or tobacco. QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 1. Tell about the muscles. 2. How many muscles have you in your body ? 3. Of what use are the muscles ? 4. How may the muscles be named ? 5. Tell about the muscles of the head, trunk, and limbs. 6. Which muscles are the weakest, and which are the strongest ? 7. What is necessary if you would have strong and healthy muscles ? DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. The hands are crossed and passed very rapidly down the arms, trunk, and legs, while the clause cover the bones is being repeated. A hand is placed on each eye to point to the eyeball and touch the eye- lids ; the tongue is touched by the tip of the right forefinger, the right hand is passed over the heart, and the hands crossed over the lungs, as each is mentioned. Both hands are used in touching the head, trunk, and limbs. QUESTIONS ON THE MUSCLES. What are the muscles? "The lean flesh of the body; bands and bundles of fleshy threads which cover the body." Of what use are the muscles to the body? " They cover the bones ; they support and move the bones and different parts of the body." TMH MUSCLES. 69 Name some parts of the body which are made of muscles. "The eyeballs, the eyelids, the tongue, the heart, the lungs." What color are the muscles ? "Red." Plow do the muscles move the bones ? " By shortening themselves accord- ing to the way the bones are to be moved." Tell how the muscles move your arm at the elbow. " The muscles in the front part of the arm shorten themselves, to draw my forearm toward the shoulder; when I wish to stretch out the forearm these muscles lengthen, while another set of muscles shorten, to draw the forearm away from the upper arm." What do you say about the muscles because they have the power to shorten and lengthen themselves ? " They are elastic." About how many muscles are there in your whole body? "About four hundred and fifty." How may these be divided as you study about them? "They may be divided into the muscles of my head, the muscles of my trunk, and the muscles of my limbs." Of what use are the muscles of your head ? " They cover and move the parts of my head and face." Of what use are the muscles of your trunk ? " They move the parts of my neck and trunk." Of what use are the muscles of your limbs ? " They move the parts of my arms and legs." How can you make your muscles strong ? "By using them." How can you make your muscles weak ? " By not using them.' ' What is necessary to make your muscles strong and healthy? "They must be used ; they must be rested when tired ; they must be supplied with pure blood." How should the muscles be used ? " They should be exercised in work or play." How may they be rested ? " I may rest my muscles by changing position; by changing my kind of work or play; or by going to sleep." Explain what you mean by changing your position. "If I am standing, I must sit or lie down to rest them; if they are tired, because I have been sit- ting too long, I must rest them by standing, walking, or running." What do you mean by changing the kind of work or play? "If, in my work or play, my arms become tired, I must do something in which my arms may rest, though other parts of my body may be in exercise." How may you help supply your muscles with good blood ? "By breathing pure air; by taking wholesome food and drink, and by living in the sunlight." How does drinking alcoholic liquors hurt the muscles? "It makes them weak, and unfit to move the parts of the body." What wonderful muscle moves without your will ? " The heart." How does alcohol hurt the heart ? "It makes it beat too fast." How does "beating too fast" hurt the heart? "It makes it tired, and sometimes wears it out." See Appendices on Alcohol and Tobacco. 70 THE HUMAN BODY. Eli .0 o 1 * ^"* r d Hi Iga CO w s 1 W EH o> 2 o> ^ ^2 2-S ^~ s s^-^ - o * ^03 BjilM p a^l-i " a fe . C^^2^ n THE HUMAN BODY. P.T E. I (From Walker's Physiology, 1884.) THE SKIN (very highly magnified). A, arteries; V, veins; N, nerves; F, fat cells; E, the outer skin; CL, the color layer; D, the true skin; PT, a perspiratory tube; HF, a hair and hair sac, EP, muscles; SG, oil glands; TC, tactile corpuscles; CT, connective tissue. PART VII. THE SKIN. 1. Introduction. Qualities of the Skin. What name do we give the outside covering of a tree? " The bark.*' What covers the muscles, or flesh of your body, as the bark covers the tree? "The skin." We lead the children to notice that their skin is thin, by comparing it with that of the pig or the elephant; that it will spring back after it has been stretched, squeezed, twisted, or bent, as they readily perceive by experi- menting, and, therefore, it must be elastic ; that it must be porous, because the perspiration oozes through it ; that it will absorb ointment, and other substances applied to its surface in a more or less liquid form, and, therefore, must be absorbent. 2. The True Skin. We bid them take a pin and put it through the surface of the skin on the palm of the hand, as they sometimes do in play. They notice that the blood does not flow, nor do they suffer pain from this experiment ; but they would experience both effects if they pierced through what we teach them is the inner or true skin. We explain that the blood flows from the exceedingly fine blood-vessels of this skin ; and pain is caused by touching the little nerves which send the message concerning their injury to the brain ; still further, we tell the class that their blood-vessels are very close to each other, and when seen through a microscope, make the true skhrlook very much like a piece of delicate net-work. 3. The Color of the Skin. Of what color is the skin of an Indian? of a Chinese? of a Negro? The children are sur- prised to learn that the true skin is of the same color in them- selves as in the Indian, Chinese, Negro, or any other race of 74 THE HUMAN BODY. men. They listen with interest as we explain that the differ- ence in color is supposed to be caused by a jelly-like substance, which is found between the inner and the outer skin. 4. The Thickness of the Skin, etc. They readily discover the difference in the thickness of the skin, as very thin and delicate on the lips, thick on the palms of the hands, and very thick and tough on the soles of the feet. If you cut or scratch }"our finger, how long before it will heal? "A few days." When thoroughly healed, how will the skin appear where it was scratched? "The same as it was before it was scratched." What do you learn from this about the outside skin? "That the outside skin will grow again after it has been cut or scratched." Of what color is the skin where it was cut or scratched? " The same color as the rest of the skin." What does this show? " That the jelly- like substance has come back." If you have a severe burn, what do you notice after it is healed? "A scar where the burn was." We explain that the true skin has been destroyed, and in its place a sort of patch has been made by the blood ; this patch is called a scar. 5. The Pores of the Skin. What do you see on the sur- face of the skin when you are very warm? " Sweat." We give the preferable word, perspiration, and ask how the per- spiration comes out on the skin. From what they have already learned, the children tell us, "Through its pores." Yes, we reply ; and you will wonder when you hear about the number of these pores. We mark off an inch square on the blackboard, or place a piece of paper of this size on the palm of the hand, and tell the class that the number of pores in such a space on the body of an adult has been estimated and found to be 500 on the lower limbs; 1,000 on the forehead, head, neck, forearm, back of the hand and foot, and on the trunk ; and 2,700 on the palm of the hand, and sole of the foot; that each pore is the mouth or opening of a little pipe one-fifteenth of an inch long ; that THE SKIN. 75 the length of these tubes, all together, amounts to more than 153,000 inches, or 4,250 yards, equal to between 2 and 3 miles of tubing to be emptied of perspiration. What an uncomfortable thought for boys and girls who do not wash very often ! 6. Perspiration and Hygiene of the Skin.- What is per- spiration, and why must it pass through the pores of the skin? We will see. When your mother is preparing for dinner, what does she do with the potato-parings, the corn-husks, and other things she does not wish to keep? " She puts them into the garbage-barrel." Why? "Because they are of no use for food." What do we sometimes call that which is of no use? "Waste." Usually some child gives the word ; otherwise we write it on the board for the class to read. Does your mother let the waste remain in the room, or cel- lar, or does she have it removed from the house? " She has it removed from the house." "Why would it not do for the garbage to be kept in the house all the time? "It would decay ; it would smell bad ; it would make the air impure ; it would make us sick." You know the food you eat makes blood, but some of that which you give to the stomach is of no use for blood-making; what would you call it? "Waste." What do you think should be done with it? " It should be thrown away from the body." You have learned that little particles of the bone, flesh, and skin, wear out; what should be done with them ? " The}' should be thrown away from the bod}' also." There are several ways by which the body becomes rid of these useless particles and the waste portion of the food ; one of these is through the perspiration, which is always passing out of the pores of the skin, when we are in health, although we cannot always see it ; and thus carries away more than half of the waste substance of the bod}*, through the three millions of little openings intended for its escape. We convince the children that the perspiration comes through the surface of the skin, though they may not perceive it, by letting them place their apparently dry hands upon the surface 76 THE HUMAN BODY. of a mirror, or a. piece of highly-polished wood or steel ; they notice the surface is dimmed with moisture ; this, we tell them, is caused by the unseen perspiration, which is really passing through the pores of the skin in very fine portions, and mixing with the air around us, making it impure, and not fit to be breathed. If these pores are closed, what do you think will be the result? " The perspiration will be kept in the bod}' ; the perspiration will not come out." True ; and if it is allowed to remain in the body, it will create disease in your body-house, as surely as the filthy garbage will cause disease in your mother's house, if she does not have it removed. What do 3*ou think of people who keep the pores of their skin closed with dirt? "They are very foolish; they will get sick." What must you do if you would have a health}' skin ? c^33323333 if|3|p|a 80 THE HUMAN BODY. THE HEART. A, the right ventricle ; B, the left ventricle ; C, the right auricle D, the left auricle ; E, the aorta ; F, the pulmonary artery. PART Till. THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. The lessons on the Heart and Circulation of the Blood are prefaced by reviewing the Questions on the Introductory Les- sons. 1. The Heart. Of what shape is your heart? "Like a cone." This question is answered correctly, when we refer the children to the shape of the heart of an ox or calf, which many have seen, or when we show them a picture of this organ on a chart of the Circulatory System. When the chart is before them they readily see the position of the heart ; otherwise, we explain where it is. In either case, they place their hands on the chest, over the heart, when they have learned its position. They try to count how many times the heart beats in a minute, though not often successful in obtaining the correct number of pulsations. We ask, How does your heart beat when 3*011 run fast? "Very fast." How when you are frightened? " Very fast." Then does the heart always beat the same number of times a minute? " It does not." We explain that the heart beats very fast when a person is in a high fever, and very slowl}' in some cases of disease, or extreme weakness ; that the heart of a child beats faster than that of an adult, but the usual number of beats is about seventy or seventy-five a minute. You have already learned that the heart sends or pumps the blood into the arteries. When does the heart pump blood into the arteries? " Every time it beats." We tell the class that the heart sends out about two ounces of blood at each beat ; then let the children proceed to construct the formula in the usual manner. 82 THE HUMAN BODY. 2. The Blood. If }*ou cut 3-0111- finger what will come out? "Blood." How does the blood come out? "It flows out." How does it flow out? "In drops." What may you sa}' about the blood because it flows in drops? "It is a liquid." Of what color is the blood? " Red." From what is it made ? " From the food I eat." Where does it flow from ? " From the heart." Through what does it flow? "Through pipes called arteries." How are these arteries arranged? "Like the branches of a tree," the children will tell us, if a chart is used in giving the lesson ; without a chart we are obliged to explain about the appearance and arrangement of the arteries, by allusion to the veins on the back of the hand. What does the blood make? " Bones, flesh, skin, hair, nails, and cartilage." When does 'it make these substances? "As it flows through the body." We explain that in making bone and the other materials of the body, the blood gives away its goodness, and thus becomes poor ; that the body is constantly wearing out, as they learned in a previous lesson, and the blood does its share in carrying away the waste, bad or impure sub- stances it meets, and thus becomes dark and impure itself, so that it is no longer fit to strengthen and build up the body. What becomes of the bad blood? "It goes into the veins." Where do the veins carry it? " Back to the heart." Where does the heart seirl it? " To the lungs." What happens to the bad blood in the lungs ? "It is made pure." What makes it pure ? " Pure air." We call upon a child to show us, from the chart, the course of the blood from the heart to the fingers of the right hand ; from the fingers back to the heart. Another shows it for the left hand ; others show it for the left foot and the right foot. This exercise is repeated until all the class understand the way the blood journeys through the body, " from the heart through the body, back to the heart ; from the heart to the lungs and back again to the heart." We teach them that this way of moving is called circulation, and lead them to notice that it requires a double circulation to make one complete circulation of the blood. THE HEART AND CIRCITLATIOH OF THE BLOOD. 83 If you bind a cord tightly around one of your fingers, how does the finger appear after a short time ? " Dark red. ' ' Why does the finger appear dark red ? " Because the blood does not move fast enough through it." Why does not the blood move fast enough through it? "Because the finger is tied up." What do you tie up in the finger beside bone? " Flesh and skin." What pipes are in flesh and in skin? "Veins and arteries." Then what are tied up, or pressed upon beside bone, when you tie up your finger? "Veins and arteries." What do you think happens when the blood comes to the arteries and veins which have been tied up? "It is stopped; it cannot flow fast." Suppose you fasten a belt very tightly around your waist, what do you do to the blood-vessels of the w r aist, beneath the belt? -"Tie them up; press against them." Can the blood move as fast as it should when the arteries and veins are pressed against? " It cannot." Wo explain some of the effects produced by the stoppage of the free circulation of the blood ; then ask, How must the blood circulate if you would have a healthy body? " It must circu- late without stopping." We give the term freely. How must your clothing fit, if you do not wish it to stop the circulation of the blood? " It must fit loosely." How does the blood move when you run fast? " It moves fast." When you are still? "It moves slower than when I am running." Whose blood circulates the most freely, that of a child almost too lazy to move, or that of one who is industri- ous and quick at work or play? "That of one who is quick at work or play." We call upon a child to " exercise " its class- mates in moving the hands and arms in various directions, first very slowly, then very rapidly. This leads them to notice the increased heat produced when the bod}' is in action, w r hich, we explain, is caused by the rapid movement of the blood through- out its parts. What do you sometimes see coachmen and car- drivers do in winter when their hands are cold, and they cannot get near a fire to warm themselves? " The}' rub their hands ; they throw their arms backward and forward across the chest very fast." Why do they do this? "To get warm." How 84 THE HUMAN BODY. does this make them warm ? "It makes the blood move faster." Then why is exercise in work or play of use to the body? "-It makes the blood move fast; it makes the blood circulate freely." The efficac}* of ' ' rubbing " to warm the body or to soothe pain is explained, and our lesson is concluded with the reading of the formulas which have been constructed and written upon the board during the progress of our conversations about the heart and circulation of the blood. FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE HEART AND THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 1. My heart is shaped like a cone, and placed in my chest near my breastbone, with its apex pointing downward to my left side. It beats about seventy times a minute, sending out about two ounces of blood at every beat. 2. The blood when pure is of a bright red color ; it is a liquid made from food and drink. 3. It passes from my heart to all parts of my body, through pipes called arteries; these arteries spread out through the body like branches from a tree. 4. As the blood flows from the heart, through the arteries, it gives nourishment to every part of the body, and carries away the impuri- ties it meets, which makes it black and thick ; when it comes through the veins, back to the heart, it is not fit to be used, so it goes to the lungs to be purified by the fresh air ; then it returns to the heart to be sent again throughout the body ; this happens once, in from three to eight minutes, and is called the circulation of the blood. 7. If I would be healthy, my blood must be pure and circulate freely all the time. 5. It will not circulate freely, if I wear tight clothing, if I do not exercise in work or play, if I do not keep my body warm. 0. It will be impure, if I breathe bad air, if I eat unwholesome food, if I drink alcoholic liquors, if I snuff, smoke, or chew tobacco. THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 85 QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 1. Tell about the heart and where it is placed. 2. Tell about the blood and of what it is made. 3. Where does the good blood pass after it is sent out from the heart ? 4. Tell what the blood does as it flows through the body. 5. What is this flowing of the blood to and from the heart called ? 6. How often does it happen ? 7. What is necessary if you would have pure blood ? 8. When will the blood not circulate freely ? 9. When will the blood be impure ? DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. The Heart. In describing the position of the heart, both hands are placed upon the chest, and the right hand is used to touch the left side and the breastbone, as each is named. The same hand is moved back and forth to illustrate the beating of the heart. . The Blood. As the clause, it passes from my heart, is repeated, the children place the right hand upon the heart, and move it quickly away as they say, to all parts of my body. The same hand is placed upon the heart, each time the latter is named; the hands are crossed upon the chest to show the position of the lungs. QUESTIONS ON THE HEART ANI> THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. Of what shape is your heart ? " My heart is shaped like a cone." Where is it placed ? " In the chest, pointing toward my left side." What bone is it near ? "It is near my breastbone.'' Of what use is the heart? "It contains the blood and sends it to the dif- ferent parts of the body." How much blood is sent from the heart at each beat? "About two ounces." What is the blood ? " A liquid made from food and drink." Of what color is the blood? "Bright red, when pure ; dark red, when impure." How does the heart send the blood through the body? " Through pipes called arteries." What do the arteries resemble in the way they are arranged? "The branches of a tree." What makes the blood impure? "As the blood flows, it gives nourish- ment to every part of the body ; this makes it poor. It also takes up the old worn-out particles ; this makes it impure." 86 THE HUMAN BODY. Where do the arteries carry the impure blood ? " To the veins." Where do the veins carry the impure blood ? "To the heart." Where does the heart carry the impure blood ? " To the lungs." What happens to the impure blood in the lungs ? " It is made pure." What makes it pure ? ' ' Pure air." Where do the lungs send the blood after it is made pure? "Back to the heart." Where does the heart send the pure blood ? " Throughout the body." What is the journey of the blood to and from the heart to the different parts of the body called ? " The circulation of the blood." What is the circulation of the blood? "The circulation of the blood is its journey from the heart to the different parts of the body, and from the dif- ferent parts of the body back to the heart." How often does this circulation take place ? " Once in from three to eight minutes, according as the heart beats fast or slowly.'' What kind of blood is necessary to health ? "Pure blood." How should the blood circulate ? " Freely, all the time." What do you mean by freely ? "Without anything to hinder." What is necessary for the free circulation of the blood? "I must wear clean clothing; I must exercise in work or play; I must keep my body warm." How does tight clothing hinder the free circulation of the blood? "By pressing upon the arteries and veins ; and when about the waist, causing the ribs and other parts of the body to press upon the heart." How does exercise help the free circulation of the blood? "Exercise makes the heart beat faster, which causes the blood to move faster through the arteries and veins." Why does keeping the body warm help the circulation of the blood ? " Because the blood moves faster when it is warmest; cold chills the blood, and makes it move slowly." What harm do alcoholic liquors do to the heart? " They make it tired, and sometimes wear it out." In what way do they make it tired ? " They make it beat too fast." Why does it beat too fast ? " Because it is hurrying to drive the alcohol out of the body." In what other way do alcoholic liquors hurt the heart? " They produce disease in it." Tell one way by which the heart becomes diseased through alcoholic liquors ? " Alcohol softens the fibres of the muscles of the heart, and fills them with fat." What harm does this do to the heart ? "It makes it too weak to do its work, which is to pump the blood through the body." What sometimes happens when the heart is thus weakened? "It stops beating, which causes sudden death." What harm does alcohol do to the blood? "It uses up the water of the blood; it destroys the goodness of the red part; it makes the blood thin, im- pure, and unfit to do its work. See Appendices on Alcohol and Tobacco. THE HEART AND CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 87 in M 3 ' J3g> g c/T.^ P er 8 5 g^r: s ff* 5%n 3 s "*? e 1 ^ * K S- * w (R S W ' y w ^ r F O O d 3 2 S w F w y {> SJ &d 2 Hi H o e si ^ w 88 THE HUM AX BODY. THE LUNGS. 1. The windpipe. 3. The trachea. 5. The right bronchial tube. 7. Outline of the right lung. 0. The left bronchial tube. 8. Outline of the left lung. PART IX. THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. 1. Introduction. Where does the heart send the impure blood? "Into the lungs." Why does the heart send the impure blood into the lungs? "To be made pure." What makes the bloor? pure? "Pure air." How does the air get into the lungs? " Through the nose, mouth, and windpipe." How many lungs have you? "Two." What are they called? "The right and the left lung." Where are the lungs placed? " In the chest." In which part of the chest? "In the upper part." When convenient, we show the position of the lungs from a chart representing the respiratory system ; otherwise, we point to their location in the body. We explain wh} T the chest and armpits, also the back, between and about the shoulder blades, should be well protected by clothing. The substance and appearance of the lungs are next de- scribed, soft flesh filled with tubes and air-cells, which make them resemble sponge or honey-comb ; the children are told that these air-cells and tubes are sometimes closed by disease and become solid, in which case the air cannot pass through them. 2. The Use of the Lungs. We draw upon the blackboard the outline of a common bellows, and call upon the pupils to point out and name its parts, as the handle, the box, and the nose or nozzle ; also to explain the use of each. We let them take several long, deep, and full inspirations, and lead them to notice the alternate expansion and contraction of the chest during respiration. To help them understand the process of 90 THE HUMAN BODY. breathing, we compare the lungs with the bellows, and show that, as the box of the bellows swells out when the air rushes into it through its nozzle, so the lungs become larger when the air rushes into them, through the nose, mouth, and windpipe, down into the tubes and air-cells ; and, as the box of the bel- lows becomes smaller when its handles are drawn together, and the air rushes out through its nozzle, so the lungs contract and become smaller when the air flows out of the air-cells and tubes, through the windpipe, mouth, and nose, into the atmos- phere. Can you live without breathing ? Why not ? " The air will not get into the lungs." What happens when pure air does not enter the lungs? "We die." This is illustrated by referring to the appearance of persons who have been drowned, and asking why we cannot live long under water. " % Because we cannot get air ; because the water fills the mouth and throat." What happens to the blood when we cannot get pure air? " It is poisoned." What happens to the body when the blood is poisoned? " It dies." Then why must we breathe? " That the lungs may have pure air to make the blood pure, so that we may not die." 3. Hygiene of the Lungs. By familiar conversation we obtain from the class nearly all the rules found in the formula for keeping the lungs in a healthy condition. FORMULA FOR THE LESSON ON THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. 1. My lungs are the bellows or breathing machines of my body. 2. They are composed of a soft, fleshy substance, full of small air- cells and tubes. They are porous and spongy when healthy, but in some diseases become an almost solid mass, through which the air cannot pass. 3. I breathe by drawing the air through my windpipe, along the tubes into the cells of my lungs, swelling them out, and causing my chest to expand ; then the chest contracts, and the impure vapor in THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. 91 my lungs is pressed out through the same tubes, windpipe, nose, and mouth, into the atmosphere. 4. I cannot live without breathing, because if the air does not go down into my lungs, the dark blood in them is not changed into pure red blood, and goes back through my body dark blood, which cannot keep me alive. 5. If I would have healthy lungs, I must breathe pure air, I must live in the sunlight, I must keep my body clean, I must wear loose clothing, 1 must wear clean clothing, I must sit and stand erect, I must keep all parts of my body warm, I must not change my winter clothing too early in the spring, I must avoid draughts of cool air, I must not rush into the cold when I am in a perspiration, I must not poison my lungs with alcohol or tobacco. QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 1. What are the lungs ? 2. Describe the lungs. 3. How do you breathe ? 4. Why can you not live without breathing ? 5. What is necessary if you would have healthy lungs ? DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. The children place the right hand over the left lung, and the heart ; the left hand over the right lung, and both hands over the chest, as each is mentioned. In describing the process of breathing, they touch the nose and mouth with the right hand, which they also use in pointing to the location of the windpipe; the hands are crossed upon the chest to indi- cate the position of the lungs ; both hands are moved outward to illus- trate the w T ord " expand," and downward toward the lungs for " con- tract " ; the windpipe is pointed toward, and the mouth and nose touched, with the right hand, which is also moved backward and forward, to show where the atmosphere may be found. 92 THE HUMAN BODY. QUESTIONS ON THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. Of what are the lungs composed ? " Of a soft, fleshy substance, full of small air-cells and tubes." Of what use are the lungs ? " They are the breathing machines of the body." How do the lungs appear when healthy ? " Porous and spongy." How does the air get into the lungs? "The air flows through the nose and mouth, into the windpipe and along the air-tubes, into the air cells of the lungs.' ' What does the air do in the lungs ? " It swells the lungs and causes the chest to expand." What do you mean by expand? " To increase in size." How is the air expelled from the lungs ? " The chest contracts and sends the impure air through the tubes and windpipe, the nose and mouth, into the atmosphere." What do you mean by contracts ? " Becomes smaller. ' ' What do you mean by atmosphere ? " The air." Of what use is the air when it is in the lungs ? ' It makes the blood pure." Why can you not live without breathing? " Because, if I do not breathe, pure air cannot get into the lungs to make the bad blood pure, and I cannot live if the dark, impure blood is sent back again through my body." Why must you live in the sunlight? "Because the sunlight helps to purify the blood and strengthen the body." Why must you wear loose clothing? "Because tight clothing stops the circulation of the blood." Why must you avoid tight-lacing? " Because tight-lacing crowds the ribs against the lungs, so that the lungs cannot move freely." Why should you wear clean clothing? "That nothing impure may pass into the body through the pores of the skin." Why should you keep the body clean ? " That the pores of the skin may not be closed, but remain open to let the perspiration pass through." What has the cleanliness of the body to do with the health of the lungs ? " If the body is not kept clean, the perspiratory pores become clogged." What happens when the perspiratory pores are clogged? "The impure particles which should pass through them stay in the body, and cause disease in the lungs or other parts." Why should you sit and stand erect ? "Because, if I am in the habit of stooping, my lungs will be crowded, and will not have enough room to move freely." Why should you keep all parts of the body warm? "Because chilling any part of the body causes the blood to chill in that part, and thus hinders its circulation." Why should you not change your winter clothing too early in the spring of the year ? " I may take cold if not warmly clothed during the cool days of early spring." THE LUNGS AND RESPIRATION. 93 Why should you avoid draughts of cool air ? " Because the cool air blows upon some parts of the body and closes the pores of the skin, checking the perspiration, and hindering the circulation of the blood." Why should you not rush suddenly from a warm to a cool place? "Be- cause when warm the pores of the skiu are open ; if I rush suddenly into the cool air, these pores are closed too quickly." Why does stopping the perspiration hurt the lungs more or less ? " The impurities it ought to carry away remain in the body, make the blood impure, and produce disease in some part; very often that part is the lungs." What harm does alcohol do in the lungs ? "It fills the lungs with impure blood." What harm does it do to the air-cells ? "It hardens the walls of the air- cells of the lungs." What harm is done by the hardening of these air-cells? "1. The lungs cannot take in enough of the gas called oxygen to purify the blood perfectly. 2. The gases or vapors in the lungs cannot pass freely through the hardened air-cells." What happens from this ? " The lungs become diseased." From what disease do some hard drinkers suffer? "Alcoholic consump- tion, for which there is no cure." See Appendices on Alcohol and Tobacco. 94 THE HUM AX BODY. 3 2 5 *> s| a 2 3 H ftS $H rlf j 3 ^ . M S pq . o 2 . g H O" M 3 MO , s s " (2 o s Q Q H! BLACKBOAR . 96 THE HUMAN BODY. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS. 1. The upper jaw. 2. The lower jaw. 3. The tongue. 4. The roof of the mouth. 5. The food-pipe. (5. The windpipe. 7, 8. Where the saliva is made. !). The stomach. 10. The liver. 11. Where the bile is made. 12. The duct through which the bile passes to the small intestine. 13. The upper part of the small intestine. 14. Where the pancreatic juice is made. 15. The small intestine. 16. The opening of the small into the large intestine. 17-20. The large intestine. 21. The spleen. 22. The spinal column. PART X. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 1. Introduction. We refer to the Lesson on the Teeth, and ask, What can 3^011 tell about the way 3*011 eat? " When I eat I move ni3' lower jaw only ; my tongue brings the food between my teeth ; the cutters cut it ; the tearers tear it ; the grinders grind it; and 1113- tongue helps me to swallow it." What be- comes of the food after it is chewed ? l ' It goes down the food-pipe; it is rolled by the tongue down the food-pipe." 2. The (Esophagus. We show the position of the food-pipe, from a diagram on the blackboard, or from a chart of the Diges- tive Organs; we also tell about the little valve, or fleshy door, which covers the windpipe, to prevent the food-ball from rolling into the latter ; and caution the children against speaking or laughing when food or drink is in the mouth. We also explain about the worm-like movement of the oesophagus during the act of swallowing. 3. The Stomach. To explain the substance of the stomach, we show a piece of tripe, a preparation of the largest stomach of a cow or sheep ; to teach about its shape, we point to a representation of this organ on the chart or in a diagram. The words extending, composed, membrane, and resembles are fully explained to the class before the\ r are used in the formula. 4. The Coats of the Stomach and their Use. The outer and inner coats of the stomach are described by reference to the tripe ; the outer coat as smooth, thick, and tough ; the inner coat as smooth, thick, spongy, and wrinkled. We have no difficulty in explaining about the middle coat. The children 98 THE HUMAN BODY. listen eagerty as we talk about its fibres, some placed length- wise, others circularly, each set having its work to perform in churning the food, pressing upon it, pushing it along as it becomes changed, until, finally, it is sent out of the stomach through the little fleshy door, which is ready to open, when the food is in a proper condition to go through it, into another part of the body sometimes called the second stomach. The words fibres and contracting are defined by the class from knowledge gained in other lessons. The use of the first or outer coat of the stomach is illustrated by reference to the outer skin of an orange or other kind of fruit. Strengthens and supports are defined by the pupils, as they give these words in the construction of the formula. The use of the delicate, inner coat, in which the liquids which melt the food are made, is next explained. The children know that saliva moistens the food, and when asked how the saliva gets into the mouth, reply, "It comes there." We talk about the glands, where the saliva is made, which always do their work well when healthy and properly used ; of the use of the saliva, not only to soften and change the food, but to keep it from hurting the inside of the mouth during the process of chewing. 5. Mastication and Chyme-making. To show that the saliva changes some of the food, we tell the children to take a spoon- ful of boiled starch, a thick, sticky, and tasteless substance, and hold it in the mouth a short time, then notice how sweet it becomes. Why? Because the saliva has changed the starch into sugar. As soon as the use of the saliva is understood, we proceed to explain that the food, when it reaches the stomach, finds a slimy substance, which keeps it from irritating the thin, delicate, inner skin ; and a kind of fluid, called gastric juice, by which it is changed and dissolved. Our talk of the use of the gastric juice is somewhat as fol- lows : If it were possible to have a window made in }'our chest, so that you could look into 3-0111* stomach, how surprised you would be to find the meat, potatoes, bread, or whatever you may have put into it, so mixed together and changed 3*011 THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 99 could Dot distinguish them from each other. What lias doDe this? The gastric juice has been at work, doing for the food what water does to salt or sugar, i.e., has melted it; or, as grown people would sa}', "The gastric juice has dissolved the food." What shall we say the gastric juice does to the food ? " It melts the food ; it dissolves the food." The inner coat of the stomach prepares the slim}' substance and the gastric juice to act upon the food in the stomach, as the salivary glands in the mouth prepare the saliva to moisten and change the food put into the mouth. By what is the food changed after it enters the mouth ? "By the teeth ; by the saliva." How does it appear? "Soft and wet." What do you call the soft part of an orange? "Pulp." The same name is given to the food after it has been chewed, and the work of chewing is called mastication, a long word, but one you can easily remember. What changes the food in the stomach? "The gastric juice." What presses upon it and pushes it along? "The fibres of the middle coat." Yes, these fibres work somewhat as the teeth and tongue do in the mouth, moving the food in the stomach and changing it into another pulp, to which we give a queer name, chyme, pronounced as though it were spelled kime; the work which the stomach does to the food is called chymifica- tion or chyme-making. 6. Chyle-making. In explaining about the intestines, we use a chart, or picture, and tell the children that the queer- looking, coiled, cj'linder-like organ is divided into two parts, the small intestine, sometimes called the second stomach, and the large intestine ; the former twenty-five, and the latter five feet in length. No wonder you ache after you have eaten unripe fruit or any unwholesome food, when it must travel thirty feet, or ten yards, to get out of the body, after it leaves the stomach. In this strange part of the body the chyme is changed by two kinds of liquid, one of which is called pancreatic juice, the other, bile, a yellowish fluid, with a bitter, unpleasant taste, which sometimes makes you suffer by getting into your stomach, giv- 100 THE HUMAN BODY. ing you no ease till it is removed. In the small intestine ; that portion of the chyme which will make good blood is separated from the good-for-nothing part, or waste. What do yon do with waste things? "Throw them away." So your body throws awa3~ the waste portion of the chyme, or changed food, through the opening at the lower end of the large intestine ; and 3'ou must be careful to have this done regularly, every da} 7 , if you do not wish to suffer from ill-health. The good part of the chyme will help to make* the body grow, so we call it the nourishing part, and give it a name so nearly like chyme that you will surely make a mistake, if yon are not careful to remember it is chyle. Can 3*011 tell, from what 3'ou have learned, which is made first, the chy^e or the clryme? " The chyme" Which letters are alike in the name? " The first three, c-h-y, and the last, e" Which is different? "The next to the last ; one name has an m, the other has an I in it." Which has the J, the name of that made in the small intestine, or that which is made in the stomach? " That which is made in the intestines." What letter begins the word last? " /." What letter in the word chyle is different from the letters in the word chyme? " Z." Then what will help 3*011 to remember which is made in the small intestine, chyme or clryle? " I can remember that the word which has an I in it is the name of that which is made last." What is made in the stomach? "Chyme." What is made in the small intestine? " Chyle." 7. Blood-making. But the chyle cannot make bones, flesh, skin, nails, hair, or cartilage; into what, then, must it be changed? "Into blood." How this change of chyle into blood is made nobody knows but the great and wise God, who made us and keeps us alive. We only know that the chyle finds its wa3 r into a large vein back of the collar bone, and flows into the lungs, where it meets with the air, and by and by reaches the heart, good, red blood, fit to be used in building and strengthening the body. In familiar conversation about food and the manner of eating, we draw from the children the simple but important hygienic THE D1GEST1VK ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 101 rules with which we conclude our lessons on the Digestive Organs and the Process of Digestion. These rules are re- peated at the close of the formulas which have been prepared during the progress of the lessons. FORMULA FOR THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 1. When my food is chewed, it is rolled by my tongue into the oesophagus, or food-pipe, which is back of my windpipe, and leads from my mouth down along the side of my spine, to the left and upper end of my stomach. 2. My stomach is an oblong, soft, and fleshy bag, extending from my left to my right side, below my lungs and heart. 3. It is composed of three coats or membranes, and resembles tripe. 4. The outer coat is smooth, thick, and tough. It supports and strengthens the stomach. 5. The middle coat is fibrous. Its fibres have the power of con- tracting, sometimes pressing upon the food, and sometimes pushing it along toward the opening which leads out of the stomach. 6. The inner coat is soft, thick, spongy, and wrinkled. It prepares a slimy substance and a fluid. The slimy substance prevents the stomach from being irritated by the food. The fluid dissolves the food. 7. Food passes through several changes after it enters the mouth. 8. It is changed into pulp in the mouth, by the action of the teeth and the saliva. This is called mastication. It is changed in the stomach, by the action of the stomach and the gastric juice, into another kind of pulp called chyme . The chyme is changed by the bile and another kind of juice, called pancreatic juice; these separate the nourishing from the waste substance. The nourishing, -milk-like substance is called chyle. The waste substance passes from the body. The chyle is poured into a vein behind the collar bone, and passes through the heart to the lungs, where it is changed into blood. 9. If J would have a healthy stomach, I must be careful what kind of food I eat, I must be careful how much I eat, I must be careful how I eat, I must be careful when I eat. 102 THE HUMAN BODY. 10. I must eat wholesome food, good bread, ripe fruits, rather than rich pies or jellies. 11. I must eat enough food, but not too much. 12. I must eat slowly, I must masticate my food thoroughly, I must masticate and swallow my food without drinking. 13. I must take my food regularly but not too often, I must rest before and after eating, if possible, I must not eat just before bedtime. 14. I must breathe pure air, I must sit, stand, andwwalk erect, I must not drink alcoholic liquors, I must not snuff, smoke, or chew tobacco. QUESTIONS FOR THE FORMULA. 1. Describe the process of eating.* See page 50. 2. Where does the food go after it is chewed ? 3. Describe the stomach. 4. Of what is the stomach composed ? 5. Describe the outer coat of the stomach, and tell its use. 6. Describe the middle coat of the stomach, and tell its use. 7. Describe the inner coat of the stomach, and tell its use. 8. What happens to the food after it enters the mouth ? 9. Tell about these changes. 10. What is necessary if you would have a healthy stomach ? 11. What kind of food must you eat ? 12. How much food must you eat ? 13. How must you eat ? 14. When must you eat ? 15. What other rules must you obey ? DIRECTIONS FOR TOUCHING. The position of the oesophagus is indicated by passing the right hand from the mnulli do vn the side of the spine, then to the left and upper end of the stomach. The position of the stomach by passing the same hand from the left to the right side, and laying it upon the heart, then crossing the hands over the lunys. * See Fornnila 7 on the Origin of Sense. THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 108 QUESTIONS ON THE DIGESTIVE OKGANS AND DIGESTION. What happens to the food after it is chewed ? " It is rolled by my tongue into the oesophagus or food-pipe." Where is the ossophagus or food-pipe ? "It passes from the mouth down the left side of the spine." What is the stomach ? "A fleshy bag which receives and changes the food we eat." Where is the stomach ? "In the front part of the chest, below the heart and lungs." Of what is the stomach composed? "Of three coats or membranes." What do you mean by composed ? " Made of." What do you mean by membrane ? " A thin skin." What are the coats of the stomach called ? ' ; The outer coat, the middle coat, the inner coat." Describe the outer coat of the stomach. " The outer coat is smooth, thick, and tough." Of what use is the outer coat of the stomach ? "It strengthens and sup- ports the stomach." What do you mean by supports ? " Holds." Describe the middle coat of the stomach. " The middle coat is composed of fleshy fibres, which have the power of making themselves long or short." What do you mean by fibrous ? " Composed of threads." What do you mean by fibres ? " Threads." Of what are the fibres of the stomach composed ? "Of flesh." Of what use are the fibres of the stomach ? " They press upon the food, and push it toward the opening which leads out of the stomach." Describe the inner coat of the stomach. " The inner coat is soft, thick, spongy, and wrinkled." Of what use is the inner coat of the stomach ? " It prepares a slimy sub- stance and a fluid." Of what use is the slimy substance ? "It prevents the stomach from being irritated by the food." Of what use is the fluid ? " It dissolves the food." What do you mean by slimy ? " Soft, moist, and sticky." What do you mean by irritate ? " To produce unhealthy action." What do you mean by dissolves ? " Melts." Where is the food changed after it is taken into the mouth? "First, it is changed in the mouth; second, it is changed in the stomach; third, it is changed after leaving the stomach; fourth, it is changed in the lungs." By what is it changed in the mouth ? "By the action of the teeth and the saliva." By what is it changed in the stomach ? "By the action of the stomach and a kind of fluid called gastric juice." By what is it changed after leaving the stomach? " By the action of the bile and the pancreatic juice." By what is it changed in the lungs ? " Nobody knows." 104 THE HUMAN BODY. Into what is it changed in the mouth ? " Into pulp." Into what is it changed after leaving the stomach ? " Into chyle and waste substance." Into what is it changed in the lungs ? " Into hlood." What is the change in the mouth called ? " Mastication, or chewing." What is the change in the stomach called ? " Chymification, or chyme- making." What is the change after leaving the stomach called ? " Chylification, or chyle-making." What is necessary if you would have a healthy stomach? "I must be careful what kind of food I eat ; how much I eat ; and when I eat." What kind of food must you eat ? " Wholesome food," etc. See Formula. How much must you eat ? " Enough, hut not too much." How must you eat ? " Slowly." How should your food he masticated ? " Thoroughly." When must you eat ? " Regularly, hut not too often." When should you avoid eating ? " Just hefore heel time." What kind of air should you breathe ? " Pure air." How should you sit, stand, and walk ? " Erect." Why should you not eat too much food? "Because, if I eat too much food, my stomach will have too much work to do in changing it into chyme." Why should you eat slowly ? " That I may have time to masticate the food thoroughly." Why should you masticate your food thoroughly ? " That it may be well prepared to enter the stomach." Why should the food be well prepared to enter the stomach ?" Because, if it is not well prepared in the mouth, the stomach will have too much work to change it into chyme." Why should you eat regularly, but not too often ? " Because the stomach needs rest, which it cannot have, if I eat too often." Why should you avoid eating just before bedtime? "Because, while I am asleep the stomach cannot do the work of changing the food as it ought to be changed ; because the stomach should rest with the other parts of the body." Why should you breathe pure air ? " Because pure air helps to make pure blood, which the stomach needs to make it strong and healthy." Why should you sit, stand, and walk erect ? " That the stomach may riot be crowded out of its place, or pressed upon by other parts of the body." In what way does tobacco hurt the stomach ? "It poisons the saliva and prevents it from preparing the food to cuter the stomach." What harm does tobacco do inside the stomach ? "It weakens the stomach and makes it unfit to change the food into chyme." How will wise children treat tobacco? "Let it alone. They will not chew, snuff, or smoke the vile weed." Is alcohol food or poison ? ' ' It is poison." How do we know it is not food ? ' ' Because it cannot be changed into blood." THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS AND DIGESTION. 105 How has this been proved ? " Alcohol has been found in the brain, and other parts of drunkards, with the same smell and the same power to burn easily which it had when it was taken into the mouth." How do you know it is a poison ? " Because it does harm to every part of the body, beginning in the stomach." What harm does alcohol do in the stomach? "It hinders the stomach from doing its work; it burns the coats of the stomach; it destroys the gastric juice; it hardens the food, so that it cannot be dissolved by the gastric juice." What does the stomach do with alcohol ? " Drives it out as soon as possible." Where does the stomach send it ? "Into the liver." Where does the liver send it ? " To the heart ; and the heart sends it to the lungs." What do the lungs do with the alcohol ? "They drive it out as soon as they can." Where do the lungs send some of it ? "Through the nose and mouth, into the air." What harm does the alcohol do in the breath ? " It poisons the air; it tells that some kind of alcoholic liquor has been taken into the stomach." From what you have learned about alcohol, what do you think is the only safe rule to obey concerning cider, beer, wine, and all alcoholic liquors? "I must not drink them if I wish to have a strong and healthy stomach." 106 THE HUMAN BODY. H W HH ^ H ,fl s ! b) MOO S f 5 ^ o $ - -- i^ 1 2 o _ SJ c/3 X O'Q s 50 s M 5 I 1 H | 73^ = 5 W o'o 73 "0 ? X & - O 1-1 " M - S 2 '~ 1 cS u . II 1 il e S 0^ ? S a ^S b//i ^ ^ i 73 S M "S 2 ^ 73 r- BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. . THE NERVOUS SYSTEI III. COMPOSED OF Three coats or membranes. ! body. Fleshy, grayish-white cords. FHE COATS OF THE BRJ II. DESCRIPTION. Thick and firm. To i Thin and web like. A net-work of blood-vessels. To < C. THE NERVES. I. NAME. II. NUM liear Nerves of the brain. Twelve \ Nerves of the spine. Thirty-oi | D. THE SPINAL CORD. II. CONSISTS OF rty-one pairs of nerves, called To 1 spinal nerves. ; RULES FOR HEALTH. The brain must be supplied w The brain must not be poisont < U L. 1 B d ^ H 'Si H M "cl -2 1' - ^ rH 1 s 8 | 1 o oc -fci -t-i jj] g % K S H g >- ^ 2 ^ H J^ "t ci . o '3 S 1^=1 ( t/.r^ S l ss z z 3 .a " oo ^ S - c ,s 8 "^ o 11 M CO g E^SEH nos*' ^ w ^ g 2 73 U ^3-S 1 ^ 01 o 1 5 o iff HH . 1 1 PH 73 3 p 'of M .2 I ! il 1 s M M r 3 H 4-( H APPENDIX I. ALCOHOL AND ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS, ALCOHOL. THE STORY ABOUT ALCOHOL. SEVERAL hundred years ago many people were trying to dis- cover something that would keep them young and strong, and prevent them from dying. It is said by some that a man named Paracelsus, in making experiments, discovered alcohol. He called it " the water of life," and boasted that he would never be weak and never die ; so he went on drinking alcoholic liquors until at last he died in a drunken fit. What is this alcohol which has done and is doing so much mischief in the world? I will show you some. What does it look like? " Water." Yes ; and if you were to smell it you would say it has a somewhat pleasant odor ; if yon were to taste it, that it has a hot, biting taste, i.e., is pungent. If you put a lighted match to it you would notice that it burns easily, and with a flame, and may therefore be said to be combustible and inflammable. What does it come from ? Is it one of the drinks God has given us ? Some of the class think it is ; we will try to learn whether this answer is correct or not. If we study about it very carefully we shall discover that it is not a natural drink, that it is not found except where it has been made from decayed or rotten fruits, grains, or vegetables. If you take some apples, and squeeze the juice out of them, you will find it sweet and pleasant; let that juice stand for several da^ys and what will happen to it? "It will get bad." Yes ; or, as grown people say, it will work or ferment; that is, the sugary part of the juice will be separated into a kind of gas and a liquid. The gas is called carbonic acid gas; the liquid is alcohol. Both the gas and the liquid are poisonous. Alcohol may also be obtained from other fruits, as grapes, and from some grains and vegetables. But all these must first become rotten before alcohol will come out of them. This is 122 THE HUMAN BODY. one reason why we think that God, who gives us good, whole- some food, did not intend alcohol to be a drink for man, else He would have put it into the delicious ripe fruit, and not made it impossible to get until they decay. Now let us put upon the blackboard something which will help us remember what we have learned about ALCOHOL. DISCOVERED BY DESCRIPTION. MADE FROM Paracelsus. Water-like; with a pleas- r Fruits, ant odor ; a hot, biting Rotten < Grains, or CALLED taste; and will burn I Vegetables. " The water of life." with a flame. USES OF ALCOHOL. WE put some sugar into water ; the children see that it melts ; then some glue or shellac is placed in the same liquid ; they see that this is not melted, but that, when alcohol is used instead of water, the glue or shellac is dissolved. From this experi- ment they learn that alcohol is used in making varnishes. Some water is poured into one saucer, and alcohol into another ; a lighted match is applied to each ; the class notices that the alcohol takes fire and burns, while the water does not. Next, we fill a lamp with alcohol, and put a wick into it ; when the wick becomes wet with the fluid it burns steadily and without smoke, as may be seen b} T holding a clean white saucer over the flame. This shows why jewellers and others, who wish to us^ a lamp to make things very hot, prefer alcohol to kerosene, which, as the children know, smokes lamp-chimneys, or anything else, so easily. We show a thermometer ; the children are told its use if they are not already familiar with the instrument ; we talk about the quicksilver in the tube, about its rising or falling according to the degree of heat or cold ; then we inform the class that in ALCOHOL. 123 some countries where it is very cold quicksilver freezes ; for this reason alcohol, which does not freeze, is colored red and put into the thermometer tube to be used in these Arctic regions. Another use for alcohol is to keep or preserve substances. This we illustrate by placing a piece of meat into some alcohol. We explain that the water in the meat is that which causes it to decay. Alcohol has the power to take up or absorb water ; so when meat is put into this liquid the water from the meat is absorbed by it, and the meat does not become bad. Those who wish to preserve insects a long time, and doctors who desire to keep any portion of a human body after death, put these into alcohol, in which they may be kept for a long time. Lastly, we let the children smell cologne or other perfumery, and tell them this is made from different oils mixed with alcohol. At the close of this lesson the class is ready to help us make the following BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. FACTS ABOUT ALCOHOL. GOOD USES OF ALCOHOL. It melts gums. To melt gums. Burns with a flame. To make varnishes. Burns without smoke. To burn in lamps. Will not freeze. To make camphene, etc. Likes water. To put into thermometer tubes. Mixes with oils. To preserve meats, etc. To make perfumery. In making jewelry. USES OF ALCOHOL concluded. You see alcohol is very useful for some purposes ; but do people ever drink it? Some of the children think not, and we grant that no one is foolish enough to drink raiv alcohol, because it is too strong. It would take only a little to make them drunk, and only a few ounces to kill them instantly. We ask the pupils if they have ever seen a drunken person, and what made that person drunk? We soon obtain an answer, 124 THE HUMAN BODY. and place upon the board "Rum, gin, whiske}', brandy," as the names of drinks which will take away the good sense of those who drink them. To these are added "Wine, beer, ale, lager, and cider." We explain that all these have alcohol in them, as may be known by smelling them, or by smelling the breath of those who have drunk even a little of them ; and that because they contain alcohol they are called alcoholic liquors. If a person drinks any one of them he will be poisoned, more or less, according to how much he takes. The children are astonished at the word poisoned, but we explain that the very word, intoxi- cated, means poisoned. So a drunken man is a poisoned man. If enough alcohol, or alcoholic liquor, is drunk by any one, he will drop down dead as quickly as if he were shot by a cannon ball. When told that alcohol is not a food, but a poison, the class readily understands what we mean, and we have no difficulty in having the following statements prepared and memorized : FOOD. That which makes the body grow, and helps to keep it alive. POISON. That which hurts the body, and makes it die. ALCOHOL. QUALITIES. Water-like, looks like water. Transparent, may be seen through clearly. Odorous, has a smell. Pungent, has a liot, biting taste. Liquid, will flow in drops. Poisonous, hurts the body. Intoxicating, takes away the senses; makes drunk. Absorbent, takes up or absorbs water. Inflammable, burns with aflame. Uncongealable, will not freeze. Innutritious, not good for food. GOOD USES. To melt gums. To make varnishes. To burn in lamps. To make camphene, etc. To put in thermometer tubes. To preserve meats, insects, etc. To make perfumery. In making jewelry. BAD USE. To drink. ALCOHOL. 125 ABOUT FERMENTATION AND FERMENTED LIQUOR Alcohol. Alcohol may be obtained from an}- substance which contains sugar or starch, or both sugar and starch, as apples, pears, grapes, potatoes, beets, rice, barley, maple, honey, etc. Alcohol can be obtained only by fermentation. By fermenta- tion we mean the change which takes place when a juice con- taining sugar decaj's, or goes to pieces. You know decay always makes things fall to pieces. You ask, what pieces is sugar made of? Very, very little pieces, called atoms. There are different kinds of sugar. In that made from grapes, called grape sugar, there are six atoms of carbon, twelve of hydrogen, and six of oxygen. What are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen? Oxygen is the kind of gas which keeps animals alive, and makes things burn. Hydrogen is another kind, which yon have smelled perhaps when water has been spilled on a hot stove ; the gas burned in street-lamps is Irydrogen that has been driven out of coal. Carbon you see in charcoal and soot ; the black lead of your lead-pencils is mostly composed of carbon and iron ; lamp-black is pure carbon, without form or shape. We will let these circles of colored paper stand for the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in grape sugar, the largest, which arc red, for the oxygen ; the second size, which you notice are black, will represent atoms of carbon ; while the little blue ones will make you think of hydrogen. If you remember that it takes one atom of carbon and two of ox} r gen to make carbonic acid gas ; also, that two atoms of carbon, one of oxygen, and six of hydrogen to form alcohol, you can easily find that two atoms of carbonic acid gas and two atoms of alcohol may be formed from an atom of sugar. So the more sugar a juice contains the more alcohol may be formed from it. 126 THE HUMAN BODY. Cider. Cider is made by pressing the juice out of apples. This sweet cider ferments, and the sugar part of it changes into carbonic acid gas and alcohol. People who do not understand this go on drinking cider, not knowing that it makes drunkards of those who drink much of a beverage which seems so pleasant and harmless. Wines. Wines are made from the juices of fruits which have sugar in them, especially grapes. Sometimes people have what the}' call home-made wines, which they make from black- berries, currants, elderberries, gooseberries, cherries, or other fruits. They may ask you to take some, saying, " This will do you no harm ; we did not put any alcohol into it." They do not know what you have learned, that alcohol is always formed in decayed juices which contain sugar. It does not wait to be put into the home-made wines ; it quietly comes in as they are getting made, at home or any other place, and will make people drunk as surely as when it is found in brandy or any other liquor. Some of the wines in the stores are made from grape juice, but many more are made by mixing hurtful and poisonous things together to make the liquor strong, and give it what is called a fine color and good taste. Beer and Ales. These are made from grains and hops, which contain no sugar, it is true, but are composed of starch, which may be changed into sugar. When a seed of grain is put into the ground and begins to grow, the starch in it becomes sugar, which feeds the young plant. When a brewer wishes to make beer, he takes some grain, puts it in a dark place, wets it, and leaves it to sprout, or begin to grow. Then he puts it into an oven to dry it, and make it stop growing. This makes what is called mult. The malt is mashed and soaked in warm water to get the sugar out of it ; this forms a liquid called sweet wort. The wort is separated from the mashed grain and boiled ; }-east is mixed with it to help it to ferment more quickly ; it soon becomes changed ; a dirty yellow scum filled with bubbles comes to the top, which we know is the poisonous carbonic acid gas : ALCOHOL. 127 the other poison, alcohol, sta^ys in the liquid and makes the beer taste good to those who like it. Liquors made from grain are called malt liquors. Lager beer, and all kinds of ales and porters, are malt liquors. They make people dull, sluggish, and stupid who drink much of them. They clo much mischief in the body, though it takes a larger quantity of any one of them to make a person drunk than it does of whiskey or brandy. AN ATOM OF GRAPE SUGAR. CARBONIC ACID GAS. ALCOHOL. Carbon, 6 atoms. Carbon, 1 atom. Carbon, 2 atoms. Oxygen, 6 atoms. Oxygen, 2 atoms. Oxygen, 1 atom. Hydrogen, 12 atoms. Hydrogen, 6 atoms. DECAYED GRAPE SUGAR MAKES 2 atoms of carbonic acid gas and 2 atoms of alcohol. ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS MADE FROM FRUITS. GRAINS. Cider. Wines. Beer, Ales, etc. Apples. Grapes, Gooseberries, Barley, Oats, Perry. Currants, Elderberries, Wheat, Peas, etc. Pears. Blackberries, Cherries, etc. Corn, (with hops). DISTILLATION. How does the sugar in grapes and other fruits become alco- hol? " By fermenting." Yes, and liquors made by ferment- ing are called fermented liquors. What other alcoholic drinks have yon heard about beside cider, wines, beer, and ales? ' Gin, whiskey, brandy, rum." These are stronger than the fermented liquors, that is, they contain more alcohol ; they are made by what is called distillation. If you boil water, and let the steam from it fall upon a cold plate, the steam will change back into liquid and become 128 THE HUMAN BODY. distilled water. Making a liquid boil, catching the vapor or steam and cooling it, is what we mean by distillation. If two or more liquids are mixed together, the one that boils with the least heat will be drawn off first. The alcohol of beer, cider, and wines is mixed with water ; it boils at a lower heat than water, so can be drawn off from it very easily. This does not make more alcohol, it only makes the alcohol stronger by separating it from the water. When beer or an}' other alcoholic liquor is to be distilled, it is poured into a large copper boiler, called a still, and boiled. A tube carries the vapor from the boiler into a cask filled with cold water. This tube is coiled like a spiral line or worm through the cask ; it is called the worm of the still, and the cask is the worm-tub. As the vapor passes through the tube, it cools and drops out at the end into the worm -tub, changed into a liquid stronger in alcohol than that from which it was drawn or distilled. In this wa}' gin is made from beer, brandy from wine, and rum from fermented molasses. These are very strong drinks, and only hard drinkers like them. But very few people begin by taking these ; they first learn to like alcohol by drinking cider, beer, or wine, and end with gin, whiskey, or rum when they have become drunkards. DEFINITIONS. Distillation. Drawing the vapor from a boiling liquid and cooling it. Still. Machinery for distilling ; the boiler which holds the liquid. The Worm of the Still. The tube which passes from the still to a cask, in which it coils like a worm. Worm-tub. The cask which holds the tube or worm, and receives the distilled liquid. Distilled Liquid. A liquid formed by cooled steam. Distilled Liquors. Liquors made by distilling alcoholic liquors. Fermented. Changed by decay. Fermented Liquors. Liquors which have been fermented or changed by decay, and contain alcohol. Unfermented. Not decayed. Unfermented L auors. Liquors which contain no alcohol. ALCOHOL. 129 KINDS OF LIQUORS UNFERMENTED. FERMENTED. DISTILLED. Grape juice, Hard cider, Gin, Sweet cider, | f Beer, Brandy, Root beer, g, Lager beer, Whiskey, Ginger beer, 1 1 Ale ' Rum. Perry. 8 [ Porter, Wine. HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE BODY. RAW alcohol does not do much harm to people because it is too strong for them to drink much of it ; but the alcohol hidden in cider, ale, wine, whiskey, and other alcoholic drinks kills not less than sixty thousand persons in this country every year, besides those who die from its use in other parts of the world. There is great excitement when there is a mad dog around ; and, if any one is bitten and dies from the dreadful hydrophobia, people are ready to destroy all the dogs of the neighborhood ; but when a drunkard dies from delirium tremens or alcohol craziness, how few take any notice of the cause of his death, or do all they can to wage war against the use of alcoholic liquors. But why do we say such hard things against these liquors which some people love so well and think so harmless? In what wa} r do they hurt and kill people? Let us see. Where does what we drink go after it has been put into the mouth? " Into the stomach." If it were the right thing to go into the stomach, into what would it be changed? "Into something which helps to make good blood." Learned men, who have examined and carefully studied about these things, tell us that the stomach is hurt by alcohol, 1 These soon become fermented ; they then contain alcohol. 130 THE HUMAN BODY. because the fiery fluid is not food, but poison which makes the stomach very sore, and gives it hard work to do. The veins of the stomach take it up and send it into the liver. The liver, which is a large organ weighing about four pounds, lies on the right side below the lungs ; its work is, to help make the blood pure. It can do nothing with alcohol, so it drives it along to the heart ; the heart sends it to the lungs ; the lungs throw some of it out through the breath, which smells of the vile stuff that has been poisoning every part it has passed through since it entered the mouth. Some of the alcohol does not get out of the lungs through the breath, but goes with the blood back to the heart, and from the heart is sent through the arteries to every part of the body. No part of the body wants it. The Skin drives some of it out, through its little pores, with the perspiration. The Kidneys, which lie in the back below the waist, on each side of the spine, send off some of the poison. Yet some of it gets into the brain, and there does veiy much mischief, of which you will learn more by and by. You know, if the brain is hurt, the mind cannot do its work of thinking properly ; thus, alcohol does great harm to the mind through the brain. The muscles and the bones are hurt by not being supplied with pure blood ; the heart gets tired out with overwork, and the lungs become diseased through this same terrible alcohol. Therefore, if you would be strong and healthy, have nothing to do with alcoholic liquors ; for ALCOHOL POISONS The stomach, The liver, The blood, The heart, The lungs, The brain, The bones, The muscles, The skin, And every part of the body. ALCOHOL. 131 IN THE STOMACH. Children who have learned the Lesson on Digestion, and know about the coats of the stomach, about mastication and chyme-making, are easily made to understand why anything which has alcohol in it is unfit to go into the stomach. If we touch a drop of alcohol to the eye, it will make it sore ; so alcohol in the stomach irritates its coats and makes them sore. Alcohol poisons the gastric juice. If we get some of this juice from the stomach of a calf which has just been killed, and mix alcohol with it, the alcohol will separate the watery part from the pepsin or white part. This is what alcohol does in the stomach. It takes up water from the gastric juice, which prevents the pepsin from mixing well with the food, and hinders the change of the food into chyme, which cannot take place without pepsin. The children have already learned that alcohol keeps meat from decaying, or going to pieces. We explain that food in the stomach must go to pieces to prepare it to make blood ; when mixed with alcohol, it is preserved, and the gastric juice cannot melt or dissolve it. Thus the stomach is hindered from doing its work until it gets rid of the alcohol. A true story we have read will help you to remember how troublesome alcohol is to the stomach. Some men in Edin- burgh were paid their wages, one Saturday, soon after they had eaten their dinner. They got drunk and remained so till the next day at noon. When they became sober they had a headache and were so ill that they sent for a doctor ; he gave them some medicine which brought up their Saturday's dinner just as it had gone down into the stomach. The poor stomach could do nothing with dinner mixed with whiskey or rum, be- cause these liquors are half alcohol. You have already learned that the stomach hurries to drive out the alcohol into the liver ; the liver sends it with the blood into the heart ; the heart pours it into the lungs ; the lungs breathe it out through the nose and mouth, and tell that some kind of alcoholic liquor has been taken into the stomach. 132 THE HUMAN BODY. Remember, that the alcohol which comes out in the breath is a part of that which went into the mouth. It could not be changed. It did nothing but mischief in its journey, which shows that it is not food, but poison. God, who created the body, has not given any part of it power to change alcohol into blood. People sometimes take ale or wine because they think it gives them an appetite. This is a great mistake. When any alco- holic liquor goes into the stomach, there is such hard work to get it out that the pain of hunger is not felt ; when it is out, the stomach is tired and does not tell the brain that it is hungry. When alcohol is poured into it, day after day, it loses its desire for good, wholesome food, arid wants more and more alcoholic liquor. It has an appetite for alcohol. Alcohol makes the stomach sore and full of disease ; people who take much of it in liquors always suffer much from dys- pepsia. So, if the stomach could speak, it would say: "Don't pour any alcohol into me. though you mix it and call it ale, cider, wine, or any other name that makes folks think it will do me no harm. You cannot deceive me. I know alcohol as soon as it comes down, and it always makes me suffer." BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. ALCOHOL Burns or inflames the coats of the stomach. Spoils the gastric juice. Makes the food hard to be dissolved. Makes the stomach tired and weak. Takes away the appetite for wholesome food. Makes an appetite for alcoholic liquors. Causes disease in the stomach and other digestive organs. QUESTION ON BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. What harm does alcohol do in the stomach? ALCOHOL. 133 To THE BONES, MUSCLES, AND SKIN. To the Bones. You have already learned that the bones require to be supplied with good blood to make them strong aud healthy, and that alcohol does not make good blood, so we need spend no time in deciding that alcoholic liquors do injury to the bones, and that the bones of those who drink these liquors are less likely to heal, when broken, than those of persons whose blood has not been poisoned by alcohol. To the Muscles. The muscles, as you know, cover and move the bones ; good blood makes them grow, and keeps them healthy and strong. People like to have plenty of good muscle, for this not only gives them strength, but makes them look plump and well. Alcohol poisons the blood by killing many of the very little, round, red parts in it, called l)y a long name, which 3*011 can learn if you try. This hard name is corpuscles [kor'pussls] ; corpuscle means a little body. These little bodies float in the fluid portion of the blood, and go to every part of the body to help keep it alive and health} 7 . When alcohol hurts them, they turn into a poor kind of fat, like suet, and cannot do any good. They stay in different parts and do much harm. Sometimes they lodge between the muscles, and make a person look strong because plump ; but he is not strong, for his muscles are filled with fat. Sometimes the liver or the heart, which are only large muscles, become so heavy and soft with fat that they cannot do their work properly ; they become weak and diseased, wear out, and cause the death of their owner, who has poisoned them with ale, wine, or other alcoholic drink. To the Skin. Alcohol hurts the skin also, by feeding it with poisoned blood, by giving the pores extra work in carrying off some of the alcohol in the perspiration, and by making the little blood-vessels larger than the}' should be in a way you will learn more about by and by. These little blood-vessels become very full of blood, and cause the red face and blue nose which 134 THP] HUMAN BODY. mark the drinker of alcoholic liquors. This redness of the skin tells of the mischief which alcohol is doing inside of the body. It is the danger-signal which warns against the use of the fiery poison. ALCOPIOL HURTS THE BONES, By supplying them with bad blood. THE MUSCLES, By supplying them with bad blood ; By loading them with fat which makes them weak. THE SKIN, By supplying it with bad blood ; By over-working the perspiratory pores. To THE BLOOD, THE LUNGS, AND THE HEART. To the Blood. The wonderful fluid which is the life of the body consists of a water-like liquid in which floats millions of the very little, circle-shaped, red particles which you have been taught to call corpuscles. You have also been told that alcohol kills these little bodies, and thus takes some of the life out of the blood, and fills it with useless, suet-like fat. The blood, you know, flows everywhere through the body, giving its goodness to make every part grow and live, and carrying away the worn-out particles it meets. Blood, when poisoned with alcohol, goes through the body, giving disease and death instead of health and life. So, if you want good, red blood, do not let alcohol get into it. To the Heart. When alcohol comes with the blood from the liver, the heart begins to beat fast to get rid of the fire- water ; this makes it very tired, for it always has enough to do in carrying bad blood to the lungs, and pumping good blood into the arteries, without having the extra trouble of driving out alcohol. Wise people will not give it this extra work to do. Besides, we told you, in the talk about the harm done by alcohol to the muscles, that the heart, which is only a large ALCOHOL. 135 muscle, or rather many muscles fastened together so as to make a pear-shaped organ about the size of your fist, is hurt in another way by alcohol. It gets too much of the poor kind of fat from the blood, which fills between the muscles, and after awhile makes the walls of the heart so soft and weak, that we could almost push through them with a finger, if we could get at them. Very often the tired, overworked, weakened heart suddenly stops beating, and the person who would keep on drinking beer, wine, brandy, or rum falls down dead. "Died from heart disease," people say, when the truth is, died from drinking alcoholic liquors. To the Lungs. What are the lungs? "The breathing- machines of the body." What do they throw out? "Bad air." What do they take in? "Fresh air." In pure air there is a good kind of gas which is necessary to keep us alive ; this gas is called oxygen. When air is taken into the lungs, the oxygen mixes with the blood in them and makes it pure. If alcohol is in the lungs, it hardens the walls of their air-cells, and keeps out the oxygen or good gas ; at the same time it keeps in the impure gas, called nitrogen, which ought to come out through the nose and mouth into the air. Thus the blood in the lungs cannot be properly purified, and goes back to the heart impure blood which is unfit to be used. The lungs are also obliged to work faster when alcohol is in them, because with the heart the} T are striving to drive out the enemy. This makes the lungs tired, sore, and inflamed. They are not as strong to do their work, and are more likely to breathe in any contagious disease than are the lungs of people who do not drink alcoholic liquors. Some people go on drinking these poisons for many years, and seem not to be hurt by them ; but at last the}' suffer from what is called Alcoholic Phthisis, a kind of consumption which doctors cannot cure. 136 THE HUMAN BODY. HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL TO THE HEART. BLOOD-VESSELS. LUNGS. Overworks it. Makes it tired. Hurries the blood through them. Makes them work too fast. Loads it with fat. Stretches the small arteries Heats and inflames Softens and de- and makes them unfit to them. stroys it. work. Poisons the blood in the Hardens the walls of their air-cells. hair - like blood - vessels (capillaries). Keeps in the poison- ous gas. Keeps out the good gas (oxygen). Weakens them and makes them diseased. THE BLOOD ("The life ... is in the blood") Consists of \ A colorless li( l ui(l (Plasma), and (. Little, red, circle-shaped bodies (corpuscles). ALCOHOL (a blood-poison) Mixes with the colorless liquid, and takes away some of its goodness. ( Smaller. Change shape. Makes some of the corpuscles -{ Lose color. I Lose oxygen. I Die, and change into useless fat. To THE BRAIN AND NERVES. WHERE is your brain? " In my skull." What color is it? " Gray and white." What does it resemble? " Marrow." What work is done in the brain? "The work of thinking." You may repeat what you have learned about the membranes of the brain. (See Formula for the Lesson on the Nervous System.) ALCOHOL. 137 You say ' ' the inner membrane is a net- work of blood- vessels." If these are blood-vessels in the membranes, what fills them? " Blood." Do 3*011 think alcohol can get into the brain? "Yes.'' How can it get there? "It goes there with the blood." How can we know that alcohol does mischief in the brain? You cannot answer? Did }'ou never see a drunken man? Now tell me how you might know his brain has been hurt by alcohol. " He talks funny ; he acts strange- ly ; he is very cross; he does not know what he is doing; he walks crookedly ; he falls down ; sometimes he falls asleep, and is almost like a dead man ; he is dead drunk." Let us stud\- to learn why the drunken man does such strange things. The alcohol in this bottle, and this egg which you see, will help us find the cause of the mischief. You may tell what is in the egg. "A white liquid and a yellow liquid." How could they be made hard ? "By making the egg hot ; by boil- ing." We will try what alcohol will do to the white part. You see when it is poured upon the white of the egg it hardens this part as boiling would harden it. This white portion is composed of water and something called albumen. The alcohol dries up the water and thickens the albumen. Albumen is found not only in eggs but in some seeds, as beans, peas, corn, etc., also in the gray part of the brain and in the nerves. We will talk first of the harm alcohol does to the nerves. You know they are the grayish-white cords which pass from the brain and the spine to every part of the body. What do they act like in the kind of work they do? "Like telegraph wires." What is their work? "To carry messages to and from the brain." What kinds of nerves have you learned about? " Nerves of feeling and nerves of motion." When alcohol touches a nerve, it draws away the moisture or water from it, and hardens the white part or albumen ; this makes the nerve shrivel as if it had been burned ; it loses its power to feel and move, or, to use a long word, is paralyzed. Alcohol paralyzes all the nerves it touches. It makes them 138 THE HUMAN BODY. so stupid that the}' cannot understand what the brain says to them, and they do not carry the right messages back to it. For instance : when the nerves of the stomach are poisoned by the alcohol in beer, wine, etc., they do not feel the pain of hunger as much as they otherwise would, and they let the brain think the stomach is satisfied and does not need any more food, when it is only stupefied by these liquors. Again, it is the work of some nerves to tell the muscles of the small arteries to tighten, or contract, when too much blood is coming into them. Alcohol so paralyzes these nerves that they do not carry their message ; the arteries let in the blood, and become swollen and enlarged. They tell the mischief done to them, by causing the skin to be red or flushed. If people drink much of any intoxicating liquor, and often, their skin is alwa}'s a bad color, or, as grown folks say, becomes permanently discolored. All this because the nerves have been made unfit to do their duty by alcohol poison. The nerves also lose power over the muscles of the limbs. This is plainly seen in the trembling of the hands and the un- steady walking of the drunkard ; but is equally true of those who drink only a little now and then. Their nerves are not as strong and wide-awake to control the machinery of the body as they would be if no alcohol were troubling them. Sometimes the nerves of hearing and sight tell the brain queer stories, and the poor brain believes them all, for it, too, is stupefied by the same fire-water which has hurt the nerves. Indeed, the harm done by alcohol to the brain is greater than that done to any other part of the body. It takes the water from the albumen, and makes the white part of the brain hard, as if it had been cooked. It kills the little, circle-shaped, red parts of the blood the corpuscles ; these collect in the blood- vessels of the brain, and keep the blood from flowing as fast as it ought, which causes disease and very often death. Some- times the brain is so much injured by the poison that the drinker becomes crazy, and is a great deal of trouble to himself and everybody else. ALCOHOL. 139 Since all this is true, wise children will let cider, lager, ale, wine, and every other kind of alcoholic drink alone, and never, NEVER, " Put an enemy into their mouths, To steal away their brains." HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL TO THE . A v NERVES. BRAIN. Takes away their moisture, and Fills or congests its blood-vessels paralyzes them. with impure blood. Takes away their power to control Collects in it, and paralyzes it. the muscles. Hardens its albumen. Makes them unfit to carry messages So hurts it as to cause craziness to and from the brain. (insanity) and death. MORE ABOUT THE HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL. IN the lessons you have learned yon have been taught about the harm done by alcohol to the body and the mind ; can you tell, from what you have seen of drunken people, in what other way alcoholic liquors hurt them? u The} 7 make people waste their money ; they make them waste their time ; they make them cross ; they make them fight ; they make them say silly and wicked words ; they sometimes make fathers and mothers hurt their children ; they make people lose their good name ; they often make them do things for which they are sent to prison." Yes, this is only some of the mischief done by alcohol. If you could fly around the world and see everybody who has been hurt in any way by this terrible poison, what a sad, sad sight you would behold ! At least half the trouble in tlu world comes from strong drink. Are you, little girl, little boy, going to join the army of drunkards? No, indeed ! yon think ; but probably no one who has become a drunkard ever intended to do so. They all began 140 THE HUMAN BODY. with one glass, a few drops of some alcoholic liquor, cider, wine, or beer perhaps, and thus learned to love the taste of alcohol, and soon became its slaves. For this poison has the strange power of making those who drink it want more and more of itself , though they know it is doing them harm. The only safety is in letting alcoholic liquors alone, forever. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS HURT The body, The mind, and The soul ; AND MAKE PEOPLE WASTE LOSE UNFIT TO UNFIT TO SERVE Money, Strength, Think, or Themselves, Talents, and Health, and Work. Their neighbor, or Time. Good name. GOD. STORIES ABOUT THE HARM DONE BY ALCOHOL. 1 A YOUNG BEGINNER. The hardest drinker I ever knew com- menced on cider when he was only five years old. He would go to the . barrel of cider in the cellar, which had been put there to make vinegar, and, getting a straw, would suck all the cider he wanted ; and then, after he had played awhile, he would go back and get more. He kept on drinking alcoholic liquors of some kind, until he died a drunkard. CIDER DELIRIUM. Dr. J. H. Travis, of Masouville, N.Y., was once called to a child six years old, who was raving in the wildest delirium. His symptoms were so peculiar that he questioned the family closely, and found that the day previous, at a raising, the child had drank freely of cider. After the men left he had procured a straw and gone to the barrel and drank till he was senseless, and after this the delirium 1 From Juvenile Temperance Manual, by Julia Colman. . ALCOHOL. 141 came on. He exhibited undoubted symptoms of delirium trcincns. Cider was the common beverage of the family. Dr. Travis has been called to several other cases of delirium tremens from the use of cider. Mrs. E. J. Richmond. A CAUTION TO MOTHERS. One of the first literary men in the United States said to a temperance lecturer : " There is one thing which I wish you to do everywhere ; entreat every mother never to give a drop of strong drink to a child. I have had to fight as for my life all my days to keep from dying a drunkard, because I was fed with spirits when a child. I thus acquired an appetite for it. My brother, poor fellow, died a drunkard." A GIRL DRUNKARD. A young girl of eighteen, beautiful, intelli- gent, and temperate, the pride of her home, was recommended to take a little gin for some chronic ailment. She took it; it soothed the pain; she kept on taking it; it created an artificial appetite, and in four years she died a drunkard. Medical Temperance Journal. "A LITTLE WON'T HURT HIM." I w r as the pet of the family. Before I could well \valk I was treated to the sweet from the bottom of my father's glass. My dear mother would gently chide with him, " Don't, John, it will do him harm.*' To this he would smilingly reply, " This little sup won't hurt him." When I became a school-boy I was ill at times, and my mother would pour for me a glass of wine from the decanter. At first I did not like it ; but, as I was told that it would make me strong, I got to like it. When I became an apprentice, I reasoned thus : " My parents told me that these drinks are good, and I cannot get them except at the public-house." Step by step I fell. . . . I have grown to manhood, but my course of intemperance has added sin to sin. My days are now nearly ended. Hope for the future I have none. Dying Drunkard. DANGER. In one of Mr. Moody's temperance prayer meetings at Chicago, a reformed man attributed a former relapse of drunkenness wholly to a physician's prescription to take whiskey three times a day ! KILLED BY THE POISON. Many years ago, when stage coaches \vere in use in England, during a very cold night, a young woman mounted the coach. A respectable tradesman sitting there asked her what induced her to travel on such a night, when she replied that she was going to the bedside of her mother, of whose illness she had just heard. She was soon \vrapped in such coats, etc., as the passengers could spare, and when they stopped the tradesman procured her some 142 THE HUMAN BODY. brandy. She declined it at first, saying she had never drank spirits in her life. But he said, "Drink it down; it won't hurt you on such a bitter night.*'' This was done repeatedly, until the poor girl fell fast asleep, and when they arrived in London she could not be roused. She was stiff and cold in death, and the doctor, on the coroner's in- quest, said that she had been killed by the brandy. Mrs. Balfour. IN CASE OF SHIPWRECK. In the winter of 1796 a vessel was wrecked on an island of the Massachusetts coast, and five persons on board determined to swim ashore. Four of them drank freely of spirits to keep up their strength, but the fifth would drink none. One was drowned, and all that drank spirits failed and stopped, and froze one after another, the man that drank none being the only one that reached the house at some distance from the shore, and he lived many years after that. IT EXHAUSTS STRENGTH. Concerning one cold winter when there were very severe snow-storms in the Highlands of Scotland, James Hogg, the poet, says : " It was a received opinion all over the country that sundry lives were lost, and a great many more endangered, by the administration of ardent spirits to the sufferers while in a state of ex- haustion. A little bread and sweet milk, or even bread and cold water, proved a much safer restorative in the fields. Some who took a glass of spirits that night never spoke another word, even though they were continuing to walk and converse when their friends joined them. One woman found her husband lying in a state of insensibility ; she had only sweet milk and oatmeal cake to give him, but with these she succeeded in getting him home and saving him " Bacchus. SHIPMASTER OF THE KEDROX. " I was brought up in a temperance school, and when I shipped before the mast I stuck to my principles, though everyone else on board drank excepting two boys whom I persuaded to abstain. In a very severe storm off a lee-shore, when it was so cold they had to break the icicles off the ropes to tack the ship, all drank but myself and these two boys. The men would work very well for a few minutes, and then slack off and take another drink, until they were all keeled up, and we three boys had all we could do to keep the ship from going ashore. If we had drank with the rest, all would have been lost, for the men were too drunk to save them- selves. Providentially, the storm abated before morning, and we were saved. Now, for many years I have been captain of my own ship, and I never give out one drop of liquor." Captain Brown. ALCOHOL. 143 ON THE PLAINS. Twenty-six men, travelling on one of the great Western plains in the United States, were overtaken by cold and night. They had food, clothing, and whiskey, but no fire. They were warned not to drink whiskey or they would freeze. Three did not drink a drop, and though they felt cold they did not suffer nor freeze. Three more drank a little, and though they suffered much they did not freeze. Seven others that drank a good deal had their toes and fingers frozen. Six that drank pretty strong were badly frozen and never got over it. Four that got very 'boozy were frozen so badly that they died three or four weeks afterward. Three that got dead drunk were stiff dead by daylight. They all suffered just in proportion to the amount of whiskey they took. They were all strong men, and had about the same amount of clothing and blankets ; the whiskey was all that made the difference. THE RED RIVER EXPEDITION in Canada, in 1870,' is often quoted as one of the most laborious on record, 1200 troops travelling 1200 miles through a very dense wilderness, and having all their supplies to carry. They were ninety-four days out, and none of them had liquor. They were constantly wet through, sometimes for clays together, and all the while at the severe labor of rowing, poling, tracking, and por- taging, yet they were always well and cheery, and there was a total absence of crime. IN AFRICA it is far safer to do without intoxicating drink. Living- stone says that he lived without it for twenty years. Stanley performed his wonderful journey without it. Bruce said more than one hundred years ago : " I laid down as a positive rule of health that spirits and all fermented liquors should be regarded as poisonous. Spring, or running water, if you can find it, is to be your only drink." WATERTON, the great naturalist, who travelled so much in South America, says: "I eat moderately, and never drink w r ine, spirits, or any fermented liquors in any climate. This abstemiousness has proved a faithful friend." He died by accident at the age of eighty-three. MR. HUBER, who saw 2160 perish of cholera in twenty-five days in one town in Russia, says that " Persons given to drinking are swept away like flies. In Tiflis, containing 20,000 inhabitants, every drunkard has fallen." Of 204 cases of cholera in the Park Hospital, Xew York, there were but six temperate persons, and these recovered. In Albany, where cholera prevailed with severe mortality for several weeks, only two of the 5000 members of temperance societies became its victims. 144 THE HUMAN BODY. In Montreal, where the victims of the disease were intemperate, it usually cut them off. In Great Britain, those who have been addicted to spirituous liquors and irregular habits have been the greatest suf- ferers from cholera. In some towns the drunkards are all dead. Bacchus. THE RUMSELLER NOT A GOOD CITIZEN. A liquor dealer was tried for some crime, convicted, and sentenced by the judge. Some friends, in a subsequent plea, said that he was a worthy man and a good citizen. "A worthy man,'' said the judge, "and make drunkards! A good citizen, and fill up our jails and almshouses, and cause men to commit murder and every iniquity! No, sir. Your request must be denied." PRESIDENT LINCOLN'S MURDERER. When Wilkes Booth had made up his mind to kill President Lincoln, he could not muster the courage to execute his plan without the aid of brandy. He went to the bar and called for " Brandy ! brandy ! " and then sought his victim, and did his bloody deed. \YIFE MURDER. A mechanic in New York city told me that when he had partaken freely, and was at home, he felt an almost superhuman desire to kill his wife. He loved her dearly as any man could, but several times while intoxicated he had caught himself with weapons in his hands preparing to take her life. He feared that he might some day commit the crime before he was aware of it. Story. STORIES ABOUT THE RIGHT WAY TO TREAT ALE, BEER, Etc. THE RIGHT SIDE. " Boys, which is the right side of the public house ? Can you tell me ? " " Yes, sir, the outside." THE GOAT AND THE ALE. Many years ago, when everybody drank freely, a Welsh minister named Rees Pritchard was at the ale-house drinking, when he took it into his head to offer some ale to a large tame goat. The animal drank till he fell down drunk, and the minister drank on till he was carried home drunk. The next day he was sick all day, but on the third day he went again to the ale-house, and began to drink. The goat was there, and he offered him more ale, but the ALCOHOL. 145 animal would not touch it. The minister, seeing the animal wiser than himself, was ashamed, and gave up drinking, and became a worthy minister. How THE MONKEY WAS CURED. A monkey named Kees had been taught to drink brandy. At dinner every day he had his share like his more manly (?) neighbors, only that his was given to him in a plate. One day, as he was about to drink it, his master set it on fire, and he ran off frightened and chattering. No inducement could after- ward make him drink brandy. We have many stories of animals who would never driiik again after they had once experienced its effects. THE KEEN MARKSMAN does not poison his nerves and brain with alcohol. Angus Cameron, a Highlander, at the age of twenty, took the Queen's prize for the best marksmanship, and when he was twenty- two (in 1869), he won in the same way a cup worth $1000. He made the best shot each time that ever had been made in the contest, and neither of them has been beaten by anyone else. Angus is a slight, modest, unassuming young man, who had been a Band of Hope boy. When he was announced as the winner, and all the friends made an ado over him, and offered him a generous glass of champagne, he quietly refused their mistaken kindness, and kept his pledge. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, when a printer boy in London, would drink no beer, and his companions called him the water American, and wondered that he was stronger than they who drank beer. His com- panion at the press drank six pints of beer every day, and had it to pay for. He was not only saved the expense, but he was stronger than they, and better off in every way. If he had gone to drinking beer at that time, like the other printer boys, it is likely we should never have heard of him. OATMEAL DRINK. " In Boulton and Watts' factory we saw an immense workman at the hottest and heaviest work, wielding a pon- derous hammer, and asked him what liquor he drank. He replied by pointing to an immense vessel filled with water and oatmeal, to which the men went and drank as much as they liked." This is made by adding one pound fine oatmeal to each gallon of water, and is much used in factories and at heavy work of all kinds in Government works, instead of the old rations of alcoholic liquors. Iron puddlers, glass blowers, and athletic trainers, all do their work now better without alcoholic liquors. 146 THE HUMAN BODY. A CHANGE IN AFFAIRS. A poor boy was once put as an apprentice to a mechanic; and, as he was the youngest, he was obliged to go for beer for the older apprentices, though he never drank it. In vain they teased and taunted him to induce him to drink ; he never touched it. Now there is a great change. Every one of those older apprentices became a drunkard, while this temperance boy has become a master, and has more than a hundred men in his employ. So much for total abstinence. BOOKS BETTER THAN BEER. An intelligent young mechanic stood up in a temperance meeting and said : " I have a rich treat every night among my books. I saved my beer money and spent it in books. They cost me, with my book-case, nearly $100. They furnish enjoy- ment for my winter evenings, and have enabled me, by God's blessing, to gain much useful knowledge, such as pots and pipes could never have given me." A LITTLE DRUMMER-BOY was a favorite among the officers, who one day offered him a glass of strong drink. He refused it, saying that he was a Cadet of Temperance. They accused him of being afraid ; but that did not move him. Then the major commanded him to drink, saying : " You know it is death to disobey orders." The little fellow stood up at his full height, and fixing his clear blue eyes on the face of the officer, he said : " When I entered the army I promised my mother on bended knees that, by the help of God, I would not taste a drop of rum, and I mean to keep my promise. I am sorry to disobey orders, sir, but I would rather suffer than disgrace my mother, and break my temperance pledge." He was excused from drinking. APPENDIX II. TOBACCO. TOBACCO. INTRODUCTORY LESSON. You have been learning about the poison alcohol, and what mischief is done by it ; we will now study about another poison which thousands of persons are using every day. It is rolled in cigars and cigarettes, and hidden in snuff and pieces of tobacco, and does more harm to children and young people who use these things than to grown persons. Perhaps }'ou know how a person feels who takes tobacco or smokes a cigar for the first time; if not, we will tell you. He begins to be dizzy, to tremble, to become faint, and to vomit ; his head aches, and he is so sick for hours, often for several days, that he scarcely knows what to do. Why is he so sick? Because tobacco poison has been taken into his kings ; also, some has mixed with the saliva and gone down into his stomach ; and each part it has reached is striving to drive it out, and is saying, by the pain it causes, u You have given me poison ; do not give me any more." If he had taken enough it would have killed him. He recovers from this sickness and tries chewing or smoking again and again, until he becomes accustomed to the poison and can chew or smoke and it does not hurt him ; so he thinks, but he is very much mistaken. Tobacco is a poison, and hurts everybody who uses it every time they do so, although it does its evil work very slowly, unless taken in large quantities. To understand more about this we will try to learn how tobacco is obtained, what poison is in it, and in what way it harms people. 150 THE HUMAN BODY. THE STORY ABOUT TOBACCO. How it Came to be Used. Tobacco is the leaves of the tobacco plant, a native of America. It was used by the Indians of this country before Columbus came here in 1492. Some of the Spaniards who were with him on his second visit took some of it back with them to Portugal, and told the people the}' had discovered a wonderful medicine. From Spain tobacco seed was sent to France b}' Jean Nicot, in 1560. It is said that Sir Walter Raleigh carried it to England in 1586, when Elizabeth was queen. In a few }"ears many civilized people were snuffing, chewing, and smoking tobacco, like the wild Indians, although it cost them a great deal of money to do so. King James does not seem to have liked it very much, for he said, "It is a custome loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, and dangerous to the lungs." He called the smoke " stinking fumes." The Tobacco Plant. This plant belongs to the same family as the deadly nightshade, henbane, belladonna, thorn-apple, Jerusalem cherry, potato, tomato, egg-plant, cayenne pepper, bitter-sweet, and petunia. Most of the plants of this Night- shade family have more or less poison in their leaves or fruit. Tobacco is supposed to have been named from the pipe used by the Indians in smoking its leaves. The common tobacco plant grows from three to six feet high, and has rarge, almost lance-shaped, leaves growing down the stems ; its flowers are funnel-shaped and of a purplish color. When fresh the leaves have very little odor or taste. How Tobacco is Used. When the plants are ripe, they are cut off above the roots and placed where they will become dry, sometimes in a building made for this purpose, called ' ' a tobacco house." After a short time they begin to smell strong and taste bitter. The} T are then stripped from the stems very carefully and sorted. The leaves nearest the root are con- sidered the poorest, those at the top generally the best. TOBACCO. 151 The different sorts are packed in separate hogsheads, and sent away to be sold to manufacturers of cigars, snuff, etc. The manufacturer has some leaves rolled into cigars, some pressed into cakes for chewing, or into little pieces to be smoked in a pipe ; while some are ground for snuff. While the dried leaves are being rolled, pressed, or ground, various substances are mixed with them to give them an agreeable odor and pleasant taste. Yet, however pleasant the manufacturer ma}' make them as he rolls, presses, or grinds, he cannot take the poison out of them. It remains in its brown covering to do much harm to those who may smoke the cigars, use the snuff, or chew the tobacco. BLACKBOARD OUTLINE. THE TOHACCO PLANT. NATIVE OF FOUND BY America. Columbus, 1492. (About 50 species.) TAKEN TO Portugal, 1496. France, 1560. England, 1586. GROWS IN THE Torrid and tem- perate zones. DESCRIPTION. Height, 3 to 6 feet. Leaves, lance-ovate, and run- ning down the stem. Stem, hairy and sticky. Flowers, funnel-shaped and purplish. FAMILY. The same as t5028