fc^***^ ^ - BY GEORGE B. KILBON KNIFE WORK IN THE SCHOOLROOM FULLY ILLUSTRATED $1.00 NET SUPPLIED BY LEE AND SHEPARD BOSTON MANUAL TRAINING ELEMENTARY WOODWORK A SERIES OF SIXTEEN LESSONS TAUGHT IN THE SENIOR GRAMMAR GRADE AT SPRINGFIELD MASS. AND BY GEORGE B. KILBON PRINCIPAL OF MANUAL TRAINING, SPRINGFIELD, MASS., AND AUTHOR OF " KNIFE WORK IN THE SCHOOLROOM " Jliustrateti IO MILK STREET 1893 COPYRIGHT, 1893, BY LEE AND SHEPARD All Rights Reserved MANUAL TRAINING ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 EQUIPMENT .3 LESSON I. USE OF THE HAMMER. NAIL-DRIVING 7 II. USE OF THE GAUGE 16 III. MEASUREMENT 21 IV. USE OF THE TRY-SQUARE AND THE BEVEL 26 V. EXPLANATION OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SLITTING AND CUTTING-OFF SAWS 32 VI. USE OF SAWS 36 VII. SURFACE PLANING 41 VIII. EDGE AND END PLANING 47 IX. USE OF THE BIT AND THE BRAD-AWL 55 X. SHOVE-PLANING 60 XI. To MAKE A SQUARE PRISM AND A CYLINDER .... 67 XII. USE OF THE CHISEL AND THE GOUGE 70 XIII. USE OF THE HAND-SCREW AND THE SCREW-DRIVER . 75 XIV. To MAKE A PAIR OF SCALES 80 XV. To MAKE A BEVELLED Box OR CARD-RECEIVER ... 85 XVI. GRINDING-TOOLS , 91 in 2O6G113 INTRODUCTION. THE title given to this book was chosen because of the purpose to present fundamental exercises in a simple form for the use of beginners. Effort has been made to detail operations minutely, hoping to be of service to novices, though well aware that no book can be a substitute for an efficient instructor. The arrangement is from the easy to the difficult by successive steps, and is designed to give boys of twelve years and upward primary command of the use of a set comprising the principal wood-working tools. The smaller planes and saws are chiefly used. Other tools are of standard size. Small pieces of wood are used, since elementary instruc- tion can be better given thereby. The different kinds of nail- driving, and the use of gauge and try-square, are first taught on boards prepared by machinery. The ' ability to use each tool should be mastered before undertaking the study of another. The lessons described have been given to the ninth, or senior, grammar grade of the public schools at Springfield, Mass., since the organization of the manual training-school at that place in 1886, classes of twelve to nineteen receiving one lesson per week of one and one-half hours' duration, and com- mencing with September, 1892, the first half of them are now given to the eighth grade, classes receiving one lesson each fortnight. A selection under the title "Ten Lessons in l 2 INTRODUCTION. Manual Training " was published in The New York School Journal between Sept. 26, 1891, and Aug. 26, 1892. The sixth and seventh grades at Springfield receive manual instruction through the medium of knife-work outlined in a book published by The Milton Bradley Co., entitled " Knife "Work in the School Eoom ; " the eighth and ninth grades, through the medium of the within described elementary course ; and high school pupils who so elect receive daily lessons for three years in joinery, wood-turning, carving, pattern-making, moulding, forging, iron-filing, turning and planing, and machine construction. The question is under advisement of writing out a descrip- tion of high-school work following the method pursued in " Knife Work "' and in this book. Whether it will be done will depend somewhat on the acceptance of these two volumes. Mechanical drawing is given to pupils in the eighth and ninth grades in the ordinary schoolroom, using the 9 in. X 12 in. industrial drawing kit made by the Milton Bradley Co. ; and among other things drawn are the manual problems. High-school pupils have an extended course of daily work in drawing, their manual problems being included. EQUIPMENT. Fig. 1 is a front elevation ; Fig. 2, a plan ; Figs. 3 and 4, left and right elevations, of an individual work bench, 4 ft. long X 2 ft. wide X 34 in. high. The two end views show Fig. 1. tools hanging in position. Other tools are kept, some on the bench top, some in the rack on the back side of the bench, and others in the drawer. To accommodate boys of small stature, movable platforms 4^ ft. long X 2 ft. wide are used, varying in height from 2 in. to 5 in. When not needed, these platforms are buttoned to the back side of the bench. When the arm of a pupil hangs 3 ELEMENT AE T WOOD WORK. naturally by the side, and the wrist is bent so as to cause the hand to stand at right angles to the body, the hand so held O O O O o o a it- should pass just underneath the 2 in. plank forming the top of the bench. This rule will decide the height of platform needed for any pupil. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. A school may be furnished with twelve to twenty-five such benches, according to room or demand. If twenty-five are furnished, and if room allows, a convenient arrangement of them is shown in Fig. 5, each bench being supplied with a stool which the pupil occupies when necessary, and which EQUIPMENT. 5 are gathered around the teacher's desk during class instruc- tion as in Fig. 5. cn o o o o ~o~~ ~o~ ~o~ 6 o cm o o o o o cu O -O O O O CD CD CD CD O O n OO O O o Voo o Fig. 5. LIST OF TOOLS WITH WHICH EACH BENCH IS SUPPLIED, WITH THEIR LOCATION ABOUT THE BENCH. On the Bench Top. * 8 in. Bailey Iron smooth-plane. Q in. Bailey Iron block- plane. Straight edge 16 in. X 2 in. X 3-16 in. Box 6 in. X 3 in. X 1 in- with four spaces for holding nails. Oil-stone. Oil-can. Anvil 3 in. diam. X 1 in. high. 8 in. wooden smooth- plane. Shove-plane board. In the Rack. Brad-awl. 6 in. dividers adjustable for pencil. 5 in. pliers. Gauge. 3 in. screw-driver. Four firmer chisels 1 in., % in., i in., and in. Knife with two blades. o ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. On the Right End. 18 in. cutting-off saw. 18 in. slitting-saw. 10 in. back-saw. Saw-block, for use on bench top. Dust brush for use on bench top. Whisk broom for clothing. Rule 12 in. long in one un- broken piece. Saw shelf, hinged to let down when not in use. Fig. 6. On the Left End. Claw-hammer for driving and drawing nails. Small peen hammer for brads. Try-square, 4 in. blade. Bevel, 6 in. blade. Bit-brace. In the Drawer. In a till with partitions to separate them, one % in. gouge, inside ground, one in. gouge, outside ground. Three auger bits, J in., | in., and in. Two drill-bits, 7-32 in., and 5-32 in. Countersink. Lead-pencil. Eraser. Nail set. Brad set. USE OF HAMMER. NAIL-DRIVING. 7 Under the till a mallet, and space where all of the tools can be packed when necessary. Under the Bench. 10 in. hand-clamp. Dust pan and broom for floor-sweeping. Half-bushel basket to hold shavings. An addition to the foregoing equipment of a half-dozen framing-squares and 22 in. Bailey Iron jointers, and two 26 in. hand-saws will be very serviceable. Make as many drawers 21 in. X 10 in. X 7 in. inside measurement as there are to be pupils. Fig. 6 is a per- spective view of a cupboard containing 32 such drawers. LESSON I. . USE OF HAMMER. NAIL-DRIVING. The hammer consists of two parts, the head and the handle. CLAW BALL- Fig. 7. The head has three divisions. First, the ball, which is the end that strikes a blow. Second, the eye, or the hole which receives the handle ; and third, the claw of the nail- hammer, or peen of the brad-hammer. 8 ELEMENT A RT WOOD WORK. Problem J. Driving Steel- Wire Nails. Take for each pupil a block of pine or other soft wood, 8 in. X 1& in. X 1| in. On one side draw three pencil lines, as in Fig. 8, and place points 1 in. apart on each line. Supply each pupil with 1 dozen 6d. steel-wire nails. Hold the hand as in Fig. 9, with the thumb on the upper Fig. 9. side of the handle, or as in Fig. 10, with the hand turned so as to bring the thumb partially to one side. Fig. 9 is the Fig. 10.' scientific position, as the thumb is the stronger digit, while Fig. 10 is more convenient in practice. The forefinger should not rest on the top of the handle, as many amateurs are USE OF HAMMER. NAIL-DRIVING. 9 tempted to do. The end of the handle should project about an inch beyond the hand. At each of the extreme points on one of the lines in Fig. 8 hold a nail vertical and strike it once. If the blow has caused it to incline, push it back a little past a vertical position, and, holding it there, strike it again. If it continues to incline, it must be loosened in order to press it to a vertical position. Drive each nail until only in. of it projects above the block, as in Fig. 11. At each of the intervening points on the same line drive nails, sighting with the eye to see that the heads are all in line, as in Fig. 12. M 1 l 1 I Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Kapid workmen may drive a second row. If it is deemed desirable to mark the work, mark 10 off from 100, for every nail which inclines | in. from perpendicular, or whose head is ^g- in. above or below the line of f in. in height. Problem II. Drawing Steel- Wire Nails. Place the work in the vise, with its top level with the bench top, as in Fig. 13. Supply each pupil with a fulcrum block 8 in. X 1| in. X & in. Hold the hammer as in Fig. 13, supporting its eye on the thickness of the fulcrum block, and draw the nail about f of an inch, moving the hand through about of a circle ; that is, to a vertical position, as in Fig. 14. Support the eye on the width of the block, as in Fig. 15, and draw the nail entirely from the wood. The eye of a hammer should always be supported thus when drawing nails. The support should be a little higher than the nail head when any 10 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. USE OF HAMMER. NAIL-DRIVING. 11 partial drawing commences, and each partial drawing should be about % in. to in. in amount, in order not to bend the nail, or strain the hammer handle.. I have seen workmen break hammer handles and nails resist drawing when neither would have occurred had the above simple direction been followed. Mark 10 off from 100 for every bent nail. Problem III. Driving Cut Nails. Upon another side of the block used in the two last problems, draw lines as before and drive 6d. cut nails. These are wedge-shaped viewed from one side, while of uniform thickness viewed from the adjacent side. Insert them as in Pig. 16, in order that they may not split the wood, which will be the case if they are turned the way around. Follow the order given in Problem I. and drive one row. Follow the order given in Problem II. and draw them without bending. If any nails do become inadvertently or carelessly bent, straighten them on the anvil. Mark as in previous problems. Fig. 16. Fig. 17. Problem IV. Curve-Nailing. Take the block used in the previous problems, draw a line on one side \ in. from the edge, and place points at every inch upon it. On an adjacent side draw a line \ in. from the edge, as in Fig. 17 Provide 1 in. No. 18 steel-wire nails. Using the pliers, bend Fig. 18. a nail about | in. from the point, as in Fig. 18. Insert the nail in one of the prepared points on the first side of the 12 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. block, with its body standing perpendicular, as in Fig. 19, where an end view of the block is shown. Fig. 20. Drive the nail carefully, causing the point to appear on the % in. line on the adjacent side of the block, as in Fig. 20. In a similar manner drive nails at the other prepared points, which are on the first side of the block. Mark 10 off from 100 for every nail whose point appears in. from the line on the adjacent side. Fig. 21. Problem V. Toe-Nailing. Call attention to the different timbers of a common house-frame, as shown in Fig. 21. USE OF HAMMER. NAIL-DRIVING. 13 These timbers are largely fastened together by a process called toe-nailing. Take a piece of soft wood 2 in. X 2 in. X i in- to represent a sill, and a piece 2 in. X & in. X g in. to represent a post or stud. Lay the post on the bench, and with the peen hammer Fig. 22. Fig. 23. start a f in. finishing-nail, or patent brad, in. from one end, as in Fig. 22, remembering the relation its wedge -shape needs to bear to the grain of the wood. Press it to an angle of 30 with the side of the post, and drive it well in, but not so as to have the points show on the end. The front view will appear as in Fig. 23. Turn the post so as to bring the bottom side uppermost and supporting it on two blocks, 4 in. X ii in. X in., which are to be used in the next problem ; start another nail in similar manner, as in Fig. 24. ' Fig. 24. Hold the post erect on the sill, and joining the outer faces of the two perfectly, drive both brads as far .as possible with- out marring the wood with the hammer. Hold the left hand firmly on the top of the post while doing this, and do not let perfect joining of faces be disturbed. With the brad set and hammer drive the brads till the heads are flush with the side of the post ; that is, till the heads have fully entered the wood. The work will appear as in Fig. 25. One nail-head only is shown in this figure, the other being on the invisible side. Fig. 25. In a similar manner start, drive, and set a brad in each of the other sides of the post, when it Avill be secured to the sill by four brads. 14 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. Rapid workmen may perform two or even three problems while the slowest workmen are performing one. Mark 10 off from 100 on each problem for every imperfect joining of faces and for every side of the post that is marred by the hammer. Problem V. Blind Nailing. Supply each pupil with two pieces of soft wood 4 in. X | ^ n - X T% i n - to represent joists, one piece 4 in. X 2 in. X fV in. to hold them together con- veniently, and five matched boards, 4 in. X I X i in. Fig. 20. Use | patent brads, and nail the joists to the board, as in Fig. 26. Place one matched board on the joists with its grooved edge agreeing with the end of the joists, and drive two brads near the grooved edge of the board, securing it thus Fig. 28. to ach joist. Tig. 27 is an end view of the nailed board, while at A Fig. 31 is seen a perspective view. USE OF UA3IMEB. NAIL-DRIVING 15 Drive two nails obliquely at the base of the tongue of the board, as in Fig. 28, setting them flush by means of the 'brad set, thus further securing the matched board to each joist. These last two nails are said to be blinded, since the next board which is put on blinds or hides them, as in Fig. 29. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. Blind nail the second board, and adding each of the remain- ing boards blind nail them in a similar manner, as in Fig. 3.0. The completed work is shown in perspective in Fig. 31. Fig. 31. No brad heads appear in sight except the two which were perpendicularly driven near the grooved edge of the first laid matched board and the two with which the last board was secured. Rapid workmen may make two or three problems while the slowest ones are making one. Mark 5 off from 100 for every open joint between any two boards, and for every nail whose driving has caused the work to be marred. 16 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. LESSON II. USE OF THE GAUGE. EVERY board has two sides, two edges, and two ends, as in Fig. 32. / EDGE / SIDE Q Z u Fio- 30 r ig. o_. Fig. 33. The gauge consists of two principal parts the stick and the block, as in Fig. 33, which figure also shows the method USE OF TEE GAUGE. 17 of holding the gauge while adjusting it. (The steel point should be filed to a goose-bill shape so as to cut, not scratch, a line. See two views of it at A.) Problem I. Gauge-Drill. Hold the gauge-stick as in Fig. 33, the fingers of the left hand grasping it securely, while the left thumb is free to move up and down the stick, and be kept in constant contact with the block. With the right hand turn the set-screw about one-half a revolution to loosen it, then raise or lower the block, keeping hold of the set-screw mean- while with the right hand, and keeping the left thumb mean- while in constant contact with the block. Requiring the observance of the above instructions, give the class a drill in unison in setting the block at inch and at half- inch graduations, then at quarter-inches, then at eighths, and finally at sixteenths. Problem II. Gauge Practice. For convenience in holding Fig. 34. work, have a rabbit cut in the right-hand end of the bench-top, 9 in. long, 1 in. wide X i in- deep, as in Fig. 34. 18 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. Provide a quantity of boards prepared by machinery, 8 in. X 2 in. X tV i n - r -^ ne thickness of -^ in. is chosen because in- boards resawed and planed will finish to that thickness. The dimensions, 8 in. long X 2 in. wide, are chosen for con- venience. The chief requisite is that the boards have straight edges. For a class of 25 pupils provide at least 100 boards. Supply each pupil with one of the above pieces. Hold it in the rabbit on the bench by means of the left hand and hold the gauge on it with the right hand, as in Fig. 35. Fig. 35. Of that portion of the gauge-stick marked ef, the corner which is lowest and which is farthest from you must rest on the work as in the end view, A. Fig. 36, where the steel point does not touch the wood. (Important feature No. 1.) Then roll the gauge toward you .till the point touches the wood, as at B. Do not roll it till the point stands vertical, as USE OF TIIE GAUGE. 19 at C, for then the point will enter the wood too deeply and make too heavy a line. Skill must be obtained to make any depth of line called for by holding the gauge rolled at the Fig. 36. desired amount between the positions A and C. (Important feature No. 2.) That face of the gauge-block which rests against the edge ab of the work must also be placed in per- fect contact throughout its entire length and kept so while a line is being gauged. (Important feature No. 3.) There are, therefore, three important features to be noted simultaneously in every act of gauging, and the pupil should drill till he can note them intuitively. With the gauge set at \ in. and observing diligently all of the above instructions gauge a line from each edge on one side of the board, as in Fig. 37. In doing this drive the gauge forward ; that is, from a toward b in Fig. 35. Fig. 37. Repeat the process on the other side of the board, making four lines in all with the \ in. setting. Set the gauge ^ in. 20 ELEMEN TA BY WO OD WORE. and make four more lines as above, then set it in., or ,-j^- in., and repeat. So continue till ^ in. setting is reached and a side of the board will appear as in Fig. 38. Bequest each pupil to write his name neatly in the unlined space on one side of the board, and then, setting the gauge at f / PUPIL'S NAME successive sixteenths above in., fill the back side with lines, as in. Fig. 39. These should show improvement over the previous lines. Fig. 39. Rapid workmen may repeat the problem on another board. Every workman needs to master the problem 'as a necessary condition to his success with future lessons. Mark 2 off from 100 for every line that is left broken or crooked. Problem III. Gauging on Edges and Ends of Boards. Set the gauge -fa in. and gauge on the edges and ends of the boards used in the previous problem. Set the gauge \ in. and MEASUREMENT. 21 repeat. This will be found more difficult than Problem II. The work will appear as in Fig. 40. Fiar. 40. Further practice in edge and end gauging can be had on boards which will be used in the next two lessons. Require each pupil to .write his name on every piece of finished work. LESSON III. MEASUREMENT. IN practical work measurement precedes gauging, which was the subject of Lesson II. In this course of lessons it is placed after gauging in order that lines may be gauged on the board' used in the measurement problems. Problem I. Measurement with Pencil. Take a board 8 in. X 2 in. X tV i* 1 - Set the gauge successively at \ in., in., and | in., and at every setting gauge two lines on each side Fig. 41. of the board. Set the gauge 1 in. and gauge one line, side will appear as in Fig. 41. Each 22 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. See that the pencil has a sharp point. This can be done by first whittling it with the knife, making a cone in. long, as Fig. 42. in Fig. 42, and then perfecting it with a piece of No. sand- paper as follows : Hold the sand-paper on the bench with the left hand, as in Fig. 43. Hold the pencil-point on the sand-paper near to the end a, the fingers of the right hand being in the position shown at A, and draw the- pencil toward b, rolling it under- neath while doing so, bringing the fingers of the right hand to the position ' shown at B, thus preserving the cone shape while sanding. Release the grasp which the thumb and the two fore-fingers have on the pencil, and, holding it by the remaining fingers, as at C, carry it back to a and repeat the sanding process until the pencil-point is sharp. Hold the rule on the board, one end of it exactly agreeing ME AS UliEMENT. 23 with the end of the board, and the graduated edge of the rule near to one of the gauged lines, as in Fig. 44. Kg. 44. Place the pencil-point on the gauged line and successively against each \ in. graduation of the rule, holding it as in Fig. 44, and giving it a slight revolution to imprint a dot. Eepeat on a second line at every in., and the work will appear as in Fig. 45. Fig. 45. Problem II. Measurement with the Knife. To sharpen the knife-point, first grind it till the edge is thin. This is a diffi- cult operation, requiring skill, and a workman of experience 24 ELEMENT A R Y WOOD WORK. '/ Fig. 46. Fig. 47. must do it. Next put a few drops of kerosene oil on the oil stone, and hold the knife-blade on the stone, as in Fig. 46. Keep the ground face of the blade in perfect contact with the stone, and make a few ellip- tical motions, as indicated by the dotted line, so adjusting the strain of the muscles in grasp- ing the knife that the rubbing will be done at and near the edge and not at or near the back of the blade, also constantly raising and lower- ing the hand about in. to cause the stoning to be effective from the extreme point of the blade along the curve of the edge to the place where the blade is of full width, that is, from c to d, Fig. 47. It is manifest that both sides of the blade need this treat- ment. After a few motions inspect it to see if the stoning is being done as above directed. If not, strain the muscles dif- ferently next time according as the error suggests. Test the edge by touching it to the ball of the left thumb, or by cut- ting a piece of soft pine. Sometimes an edge will be inad- vertently ground or stoned too thin, that is, so as to leave a feather which is shown exaggerated at a b, Fig. 48. This must be worn off at a by light stoning or by rubbing on the palm of I -- / the hand, or on a piece of leather into which has been- rubbed a little lard and emery flour, or on the clean upper of one's shoe. Take the board used in Problem I. Hold the rule on it near the third line ; hold the knife as in Fig. 49, and press it vertically, making points at every in. graduation of the rule. See that the points made are large enough to be easily seen at arm's length, that they are of uniform size, and all at exact right angles to the gauged line. Repeat the effort on the fourth line, placing points at every -jJg- in. of alternate inches. The object of utilizing only alter- ME A S UREMENT. 25 Fig. 49. . nate inches is to give opportunity to rest the hand. The work will appear as the third and fourth lines in Fig. 50. Fig. 60. Eapid workmen may place points on additional lines. Slower workmen need not complete the sixteenths, but should do accurate work as far as they proceed. Problem III. Varying Measurements. Let the class work in unison, placing- the rule on a fifth line and making meas- urements at the teacher's call. If the measurements com- mence at the right, and the calls are successively 1 in., \ in., \ in., \ in., \ in., in., their sum will be 2f in. as in the fifth line Fig. 50. 26 ELEMEN TABY WOOD WOEK. Place points on the remaining lines in a similar manner, calling a different succession of measurements for each line, until the entire class during a given effort reach the correct sum. LESSON IV. USE OF TRY-SQUARE AND BEVEL. THE gauge is used,, as was described in Lesson II., to make lines on the side or edge of a board parallel to the grain. The try-square is used to guide a pencil or knife in making lines at right angles to the grain. It consists of two parts, the beam and the blade, as in Fig. 51. Fig. 51. Problem I. Use of Try-Square with Pencil. Take a board Fig. 52. 8 in. X 1 in. X I in. Hold the rule on it, as in Fig. 52, and with a fine pencil-point, operating as in the measurement lesson, place points on the wood at every inch graduation of the rule. USE OF TRY-SQUARE AND BEVEL. 27 Hold the try-square as in Fig. 53, using the left fore-finger to press the blade firmly to the face of the board while the thumb and remaining fingers hold the beam firmly against its edge. Place the point of the pencil in one of the points which it has made on the board, carefully move the try- square against it, raise the pencil, and with it draw a fine line across the board close to the blade of the try-square. Fig. 53. Fig. 54. In doing this the right hand should grasp the pencil as though writing with it, and the pencil should incline to the right just enough to bring the left side of its cone of sharpen- ing vertical, as in Fig. 54, which is a front view of the pencil, try-square blade, and board. Draw the pencil only once. Turn the board so as to bring its front edge uppermost, and in a similar manner draw a line across that edge, as in Fig. 55. Fig. 55. 28 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. Repeat this process on the second side, and lastly on the second edge, when a line is squared entirely around the board and should meet its starting-point, as in Fig. 56. Fig. 56. In Fig. 55 the right hand holds a knife instead of a pencil, and in that respect illustrates Problem II., instead of Problem I. Square lines around the board through the other points. The effort of the pupil must not be to fill the board with lines, however, but to make perfect lines. Problem II. Use of Try-Square with Knife. Lay the rule on the board again, as in Fig. 52, and with a sharp knife point, operating as in the measurement lesson, make impressions in the wood at half-inches. Use the knife as the pencil was used in Problem I., and square lines around the board passing through these half-inch points. The knife, like the pencil, must be inclined to the right, just enough only to allow its point to cut the wood close to the try-square blade. The knife blade must furthermore be turned as in the plan view A, Fig. 57. If it is turned too much to the right, as at B, it will move away from the try-square blade in the direction of the dotted lines. If turned too much to Fig. 57. the left, as at C, it is liable to be dulled as it slides along the try-square blade, and there is danger of its pushing the try- USE OF TRY-SQUARE AND BEVEL. 29 square blade out of place, unless the grasp of the left hand is very firm. This same danger of the try-square slipping is im- minent, if at any time the right hand presses the knife too hard against square. In Problem I. instructions were given to draw the pencil but once in making any given line. This is to avoid wearing away the pencil and blurring the line. The knife, on the con- trary, needs to be drawn twice, first lightly to locate the line, and second heavier to deepen it, as each line should be deep enough to be seen when held at arm's length, or should easily arrest the finger nail when drawn across it. After squaring any given line around the board, rest a- few seconds before commencing another. Otherwise the muscles will tire and success be impossible. A board filled with pencil lines at every inch and knife lines at every half-inch will appear, as in Fig. 58. Fig. 58. If success is not yet attained, practise the making of lines at every in., and, if necessary, at every in. .Problem III. Use of Gauge and Try-Square Combined. Take a board 4 in. X 2 in. X 1% in. Hold the rule on it, as in Fig. 60. Fig. 52, and place six knife-points each end, as in Fig. 59. in. apart, measuriiTg from 30 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. Square knife-lines through the two extreme points ; set the gauge in. and gauge from each edge of the board, starting and stopping on the squared lines, as in Fig. 60. Square knife- lines through the second points from each end, starting and stopping on the gauged lines ; set the gauge ^ in. and gauge between the knife-lines as before. Proceed in this manner till all of the twelve points are utilized, when the work will appear as in Fig. 61. Eapid workmen may draw diagonals on Fig. 61. the opposite side of the board, and between them gauge lines in. apart and square lines J in. apart, as in Fig. 62. Fig. 62. Problem IV. Use of Bevel. In making lines other than at right angles to the edge of a board an adjustable square or bevel is needed, as in Fig. 63. It is held and used the same as the try-square. Prepare a board, as directed in connection with Fig. 52, and USE OF TEY-SQUARE AND BEVEL. 31 through each point, with the bevel set at any chosen angle, draw pencil-lines on one side of the board. Continue these Fig. 63. lines around the board in a manner similar to Problem I., squaring across the edges and bevelling across the opposite side. The work will appear as in Fig. 64. Fig. 64. Problem V. Use of Bevel with Knife. Place knife-points on the board at half-inches and cut .bevelled lines through them, continuing them around the board like the pencil-lines. Repeat at \ in. if necessary. Problem VI. Let rapid workmen take a new board and draw lines around it, using the bevel on both sides and both edges. The work will appear as in Fig. 65. 32 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. It will be a sufficient register of a pupil's attainment to inspect the work represented by Fig. 61, and mark 1 off from 100 for every crooked line and for every line that crosses another. LESSON V. JEXPLANATION OF THE -DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SLITTING AND CUTTING-OFF SAWS. PROVIDE for the teacher two models in wood, one of a slit- ting and one of a cutting-off saw. These may be each 30 in. X 3 in. X in., the slitting teeth 2 X !> and the cutting- off teeth 2 in. X lj in. Problem I. Slitting-Saw. Take a board 4 in. X 2 in. X Fig. 66. Fig. 67. j^- in. ; on one side of it gauge two lines \ in. and f in. respec- tively from one edge, as in Fig. 66. SLITTING AND CUTTING-OFF SAWS. 33 Place the clnpping-block on the bench and lay the board on it with an end toward you, guiding the chisel-edge with a finger of the left hand. Hold the | in. chisel in the right hand exactly vertical, as in Fig. 67, with the bevelled edge away from you, and cut between the gauged lines a chip about ^ in. long and entirely through the board from its upper to its lower side, as in Fig. 68. Fig Fig. 09. Fig. 70. Continue in this manner to cut successive chips, each about ^ in. long, and each entirely through the thickness of the board, until the slowest workmen have made a cutting about ^ in. long, as in Fig. 69. This cutting is called a kerf. Rapid workmen will have made a kerf nearly or quite the length of the board. If we should make two lines crosswise of the board and en- deavor to chisel between them, we could not make a kerf, but should splinter the board, as in Fig. 70. Fig. 71. Fig. 71 is a view of the wooden model of a slitting-saw. Its teeth -are a succession of chisels. The front edge of each tooth, as a b, is at right angles to a line touching the points, and all of the slant of the tooth is on the rear edge, as 34 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. a c. From the above experimental problem it is manifest that such a saw is suitable for slit-sawing only. Problem II. Cuttiny-off Saw. Take the board used in the previous problem, or one similar to it, and using try-square and knife, make two lines across the board ^ in. apart, the right hand line being in. from the end, as in Fig. 72. Lay the board on the chipping-block, holding it with the left hand. Hold the knife as a pen is held in writing. Incline it toward you about 30 from a vertical position, as in Fig. 73, but do not incline it at all toward the right or left. Draw the knife across the board along one of the above lines, and then along the other. Continue to do this alter- nately, and what happens ? " The wood splits out between the lines, making a kerf." If we proceed in this manner, the board will soon be cut in two. Fig. TZ. Fig. 73. A kerf cannot be cut lengthwise of the grain by this pro- cess, because the wood will not split out between the lines. If we had a knife with two blades of equal length and ^ in. apart, we could draw it through both lines at the same time. Fig. 74 is a view of the wooden model of a cutting-off saw. Its teeth slant about equally on each edge and are bevelled so SLITTING AND CUTTING-OFF SAWS. 35 that alternate teeth are pointed on one side of the saw, the intervening teeth being pointed on the other side. Its use produces a result quite similar to the above experi- mental problem with the knife ; that is, marking two parallel lines across the board and breaking out the wood between them. The teeth of a cutting-off saw may then be considered as a succession of pairs of knife-points. Another important fact concerning saws is that the teeth are " set ; " that is, alternate teeth bent toward one side, and the intervening teeth bent toward the other side. In the cut- ting-off saw the teeth which are pointed on a given side are bent toward that side, as in Fig. 75. Fig. 75. Fig. 76. The object of this is to have the saw cut a kerf wider than the thickness of its blade, in order that the saw may pass easily through the kerf which it is making. Owing to this setting and to its bevelled filing, a cutting-off saw appears 36 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. grooved along- the line of teeth when viewed endwise, as in Fig. 75. Hold the model inclined, as in Fig. 76, and a straight rod 10 in. long X i in- diameter will slide down this groove. An, ordinary needle will slide down the teeth of a cutting-off saw in a similar manner. Each pupil may take in hand the two 18-in. saws on his bench, examine them carefully, and hold the slitting-saw in his right hand and the cutting-off saw in his left. Very few pupils will fail to make the selection accurately after the above experimental description. LESSON VI. USE OF SAWS. Problem I. To Start the Kerf. Take a waste piece of board of any dimensions, 4 X 2 X I will answer. Place it Fig. 77. end uppermost in the vise. With try-square and pencil draw lines on the upper end J in. apart. Hold the slitting-saw in USE OF SAWS. 37 the right hand, guiding it with the left thumb so that its teeth shall rest on one of the lines. Drive the saw 'first forward and then back several times, taking full length strokes to within about 1 in. of each end, meantime so controlling the muscles of the right hand that, although the saw teeth touch the wood during each entire stroke, they shall not cut into it at all. The commencement of this process is illustrated in Tig. 77. The teacher should be able to drive the saw forward and back on the left hand, as in Fig. 78, touching the palm con- stantly, but not injuring it, to illustrate clearly to pupils that it can be done. Require the class to drive the saw forward and back on the wood as above, acting in concert as the teacher counts 1, 2; 1, 2, etc., in order to get a moderate, regular motion, as boys left to themselves will saw with fury. The power to follow all of the above directions we will term get- 38 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. ting command of the saw ; and every pupil needs to get this command before being allowed to saw. Next let the weight of the saw bear on the board while the forward stroke is being made, but not during the backward stroke, and the saw will descend into the wood, making a cut which is technically called a kerf. At the commencement and close of each forward stroke the saw should be held at command. Midway of each forward stroke it should do its heaviest cutting. The full stroke should be a crescendo followed by a diminuendo as in music. The saw should be held at command during the entire back- ward stroke. Problem II. Slit-Sawing Near to Line. Take a board 8 in. X 2 in. X J i n - and make an X on one edge. Set the gauge \ in. and gauge two lines on each side and each end, as in Fig. 79. Set the gauge \ in. and repeat ; then f in. and Fig. 79. Fig. 80. repeat ; then 1 in. and gauge around once, that is, from the X edge. Square around with fine pencil-point at every inch. The work will appear as in Fig. 80. USE OF SAWS. 39 Hold the work in the vise, end uppermost, as in Fig. 77, one-half of it buried, and saw a kerf ^ in. to the right of the right-hand line. When this kerf has proceeded downward 1 in., that is, to the first squared line, stop and examine it care- fully, and if it has not kept parallel with the gauged line, scrape it with that portion of the saw nearest the handle, commonly called the heel of the saw, until it is restored to parallel. A, Fig. 81, represents a kerf at first running to the Fig. 81. Fig. 82. right, but afterwards restored to its proper position and con- tinued a little below the squared line. B represents a kerf running at first to the left and afterward restored. On no account should the kerf be allowed to proceed belo\v the squared line till its wrong direction, if it have any, is rectified, and the aim of the pupil must be to keep the saw from run- ning at all to either side. Furthermore, the location of the kerf should be as accurate on the back side of the work as on the front. Proceed to saw down to the second squared line, stop and 40 ELEMENTARY WOOD WORK. inspect, and correct if necessary. Proceed to saw down to the third squared line, and stop on it. In the same manner saw near to the remaining gauged lines. The work will appear as the upper portion of Fig. 82, where for clearness, as also in Fig. 81, only one-half of the number of lines gauged on Fig. 80 are shown. Mark 10 off from 100 for every line which at its finish deviates -^ in. from its proper position. Problem III. Slit-Sawing Close to Line. Place the op- posite end of the work uppermost, and saw so that the left side of the saw-blade shall cut to the centre of the line, ob- serving in all other respects the directions given above, and the work will appear as the lower portion of Fig. 82. Problem IV. Cut-off Sawing Near to Line. Take a board 8 in. X 3 in. X I in-> gauge-lines at every in. on the sides and square pencil-lines round at every \ in. Put it in the vise with an edge uppermost, and, observing directions given in Problem II., saw near to every line, as in the upper portion of Fig. 83. Mark 5 off from 100 for every line that deviates, at its finish, -^ in. from its proper position. Problem V. Cut-off Sawing Close to Line. Place the board in the vise with the opposite edge uppermost, and, observing directions given in Problem III., saw close to the line. The work will appear as in the lower portion of Fig. 83. Fig. 83. Kapid workmen may take a second board and repeat, which repetition will increase their proficiency, or they may saw diagonally. SUE FACE PLANING. 41 LESSOX VII. SURFACE PLANING. THE two sides of a board, or the four sides of a square stick, being larger surfaces than edges or ends, are often technically called surfaces, and planing them is known as surface planing. The principal planes used by wood workmen are jack-plane 14 in. long, fore-plane 14 in., jointer 22 in., smooth-plane 8 in., and block-plane 6 in., and these may be of wood or of iron. The blade of the jack-plane is ground so that its edge is a continuous curve, as in Fig. 84. All other plane blades are ground as in Fig. 85 ; that is, with the edge straight for some- Fig. 84. Fig. 85. what more than one-half of its length, then rounded slightly at each end. The jack-plane and block-plane each have single blades, as in Fig. 86. All others have double blades ; that is, the blade is provided with a cap, as in Fig. 87. Fig. 87. This cap is necessary when cross-grained or complex-grained boards are to be planed. It is then brought down as near to. the cutting-edge of the blade as possible, but for straight- 42 ELEMENTARY WOODWORK. grained wood it is of no special service, and had better be set back about ^ in. It is so set in these lessons. Only three planes are needed in this series of lessons, to the first two of which we will for convenience give special names of our own. An 8 in. wooden smooth-plane (Fig. 88) is used for all rough planing, and we will call it the roufjlilnfefci