ions of fyt J 
 
 "A very interesting and elaborate monograph, valuable both from a scientific 
 and an industrial point of view. ... A most valuable contribution to tinctorial 
 literature." Chemical News. 
 
 "It is rather singular that Yorkshire, the county most thoroughly identified 
 with wool, should send forth a good scientific essay dealing with the structure of 
 the cotton fibre, the speciality of Lancashire. We are afraid the County Palatine 
 will not be able to return the compliment. Be that as it may, every one will be 
 quite satisfied to accept a gift from any good source. It is probably owing to 
 the accident that Dr. Bowman, whose many scientific acquirements peculiarly fit 
 him for the task, though a resident of Yorkshire is a cotton spinner of high 
 repute. . . . We cordially advise that all our readers interested in the subject 
 dealt with should procure the work at once, as its perusal will be found highly 
 gratifying. " Textile Manufacturer. 
 
 "Dr. Bowman is a practical cotton spinner as well as a scientific man. We 
 have probably said enough to show those of our readers who are interested in 
 cotton spinning that the volume is worth their attention. Apart from the learn- 
 ing and labour involved in the production of the work, few readers will fail to be 
 struck with the enthusiasm of thoroughness that possesses the author, whose 
 inculcation of conscientiousness in technical industry is enforced even more by 
 example than by precept." Manchester Examiner and Times. 
 
 "In this elaborate monograph Dr. Bowman gives, with additions, the substance 
 of three lectures delivered by him before the Conncil of the Bradford Technical 
 School. His work is a guarantee that in the matter of technical education nothing 
 is likely to be wanting. ... A highly meritorious attempt to bring wide 
 scientific and general knowledge to bear upon a trade question of the highest 
 importance. " Manchester Courier. 
 
 "Dr. Bowman may be congratulated on having produced a work which is 
 likely to be useful, not merely for the technical information which it conveys, 
 but because of its suggestiveness and the intelligent interest in the materials and 
 process of the cotton manufacture which it may awaken." Manchester Guardian. 
 
 "Those who are connected with the cotton manufacture, however wide may be 
 their knowledge of the material in which they are working, will no doubt learn 
 something from the teachings of Dr. Bowman, who goes over a wide field, and 
 who works with the idea of stimulating those who are young and energetic, and who 
 have life before them, to give their attention to the first principles of the processes 
 in which they are engaged, so as to find out the best means of giving perfection 
 to the most minute parts of the raw material." Glasgow Herald. 
 
 "Undoubtedly the very best yarns which can be produced are a long way from 
 anything like perfection, and our cotton manufacturers have been too much 
 inclined to neglect the scientific side of their business. Dr. Bowman's work, 
 which by the way is illustrated with some really excellent diagrams, will serve a 
 useful purpose if it has the effect of drawing their attention to this fact." British 
 Trade Journal. 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 "The author possesses the unusual advantage of having both a scientific and a 
 practical acquaintance with his subject. We must pronounce the book valuable 
 not merely to the student, but also to the experienced practical man." Chemical 
 Review. 
 
 "The book is a valuable contribution to the literature of cotton, and no spinner 
 can read it without profit and pleasure." Manchester City News. 
 
 "Few persons hare more actively contributed, either in the laboratory or in 
 the workshop, to the advancement of science, as applied to cotton spinning and 
 its cognate industries, than the author of the work referred to. It is well worth 
 study, and as a work of reference it should find a place in every establishment 
 where the manufacture of cotton is carried on." Yorkshire Inventor and Manu- 
 facturer. 
 
 "All who take an interest in the progress of our two leading manufactures 
 will join us in the hope that the present volume is but number one, and that in 
 due course a similar work on the wool fibre will follow, as volume two, from the 
 same talented pen. The work will form a valuable addition to the library, and a 
 most useful adjunct to the cause of technical education. . . . The work is most 
 beautifully got up, and it is at once a credit to the author, and an evidence of 
 his zeal in the cause of technical education." Halifax Guardian. 
 
 "Not slothful in business we knew was Mr. Bowman's characteristic, but this 
 work on the cotton fibre indicates a rare devotion ; he has endeavoured to master 
 his calling in all its details, and has striven to solve difficulties which, once 
 mastered, will give fresh impetus to this gigantic and ever increasing industry. 
 . . . The book is admirably printed, and the illustrations are excellent. It 
 deserves a large sale amongst cotton manufacturers, dyers, and other tech- 
 nologists." Halifax Courier. 
 
 "La recherche toujours croissante de connaissances techniques dans les 
 differentes branches des arts et manufactures a provoque dans ces derniers temps 
 1'apparition d'ouvrages speciaux sur les multiples genres de 1'industrie textile. 
 Le plus recent est le volume que nous annon9ons du docteur Bowman, qui est 
 une monographic complete de 1'etat de nos connaissances actuelles touchant la 
 fibre du coton, considered comme matiere premiere des produits manufactures. 
 La haute situation scientifique de 1'auteur, sa collaboration a une des plus grandes 
 manufactures de coton d'Angleterre, dont il est le chef, 1'ont tout particuliere- 
 ment mis a meme de traiter ce sujet au double point de vue scientifique et 
 pratique. ... En Angleterre, on apporte une attention croissante aux sciences, 
 qui sont la base de tous les precedes manufacturiers. Seule, cette connaissance 
 peut permettre de lutter avantageusement sur tous les marches du globe. Kien 
 ne pouvait paraitre plus a propos que cet ouvrage d'un homme qui est une 
 autorite comme le docteur Bowman : tous devraient 1'avoir, tous devraient le lire^ 
 y compris les ecoles techniques, qui do ivent 1' adopter partout ou elles existent." 
 Moniteur Scientifique. Quesneville. 
 
Siroctore 0f % oitan Jfihrt. 
 
O 
 
 EH 
 EH 
 O 
 
 HI 
 
THE STRUCTURE 
 
 OF THE 
 
 COTTON FIBEE 
 
 IN ITS RELATION TO 
 
 TECHNICAL APPLICATIONS; 
 
 <f llustratetr iwijr nuntmrus 
 aittr 
 
 BY 
 
 F. H. BOWMAN, D.Sc., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., 
 
 Fellow of the Chemical Society; Fellow of the Geological Sodety ; Fellow of the 
 
 Royal Microscopical Society ; Member of the Society of Arts and 
 
 Manufactures; Straton Prizeman and Gold Medallist 
 
 in Technology, University of Edinburgh. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 MANCHESTER: 
 
 PALMER AND HOWE, 73, 75, & 77, PRINCESS STREET. 
 
 LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO. 
 
 NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS. 
 
 1882. 
 
 All Hights Reserved. 
 
MANCHESTER : 
 PALMER AND HOWE, PRINTERS, PRINCESS STREET. 
 
TS IB-V-2. 
 
 THIS WORK 
 IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 
 
 TO 
 
 THE PRESIDENT, 
 VICE-PRESIDENTS, COUNCIL, 
 
 AND 
 
 STUDENTS 
 OF THE BRADFORD TECHNICAL SCHOOL, 
 
 BEFORE WHOM 
 
 THESE LECTURES WERE DELIVERED, 
 AND AT WHOSE REQUEST 
 
 THEY ARE NOW PUBLISHED, BY 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 TO THE 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 rilHE fact that a second edition of this work has 
 become necessary within four months of its 
 publication, is an ample justification for the re-issue 
 of these lectures. It is also a proof of the wide- 
 spread demand for accurate scientific knowledge in 
 regard to our industrial operations. I need only add 
 that I have been much gratified by the unanimous 
 approval which has been accorded to the work by 
 men who are competent judges, as well as both 
 the scientific, technical, and daily press, and my best 
 thanks are due to the reviewers who have so kindly 
 acknowledged the value of my labours. In con- 
 clusion, I am glad to be able to announce that 
 I hope shortly to complete my researches on the 
 structure of wool, and issue them in a companion 
 volume. 
 
 F. H. BOWMAN. 
 
 WEST MOUNT, 
 
 HALIFAX, YORKSHIRE, 
 
 JANUARY, 1882. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 rilHE following pages are the full text, with 
 additions, of a series of three Lectures on the 
 " Structure of the Cotton Fibre in its relation to 
 Technical Applications," delivered at the request of the 
 Council of the Bradford Technical School, before the 
 members of the Institution in the Large Lecture 
 Theatre of the Mechanics' Institute in that town 
 during the Spring of 1880. I was requested to allow 
 them to be published at the time of their delivery, but 
 deferred doing so in the hope that I might be enabled 
 to extend my investigations to the structure of wool as 
 well as cotton, and thus render the work a resume of 
 our knowledge of the mixed fibres, which have played 
 so large a part in the production of what are known 
 throughout the world as Bradford goods. The limited 
 time at my disposal, however, in consequence of my 
 business and other engagements has prevented the 
 carrying out of this intention, at any rate for the 
 
vni. PBEFACE. 
 
 present, and I have therefore issued these lectures in 
 the hope that they may form a stepping stone for 
 further and more exhaustive research on the part of 
 those who have more leisure at their disposal. I have 
 not attempted to throw the subject into a more 
 systematic form than that in which it was originally 
 given, since this would have involved a complete 
 re-casting of the whole subject matter, and the 
 introduction of accessories which would have enlarged 
 the volume beyond my intentions; and while the 
 style is naturally much more free and easy than is 
 usually reproduced in the shape of a book, I have 
 deemed it best to let the lectures appear as they were 
 delivered, with the addition of some further explana- 
 tion of the plates, which are a reproduction of the 
 large drawings made for exhibition in the lecture 
 room, and drawn by myself from actual observation 
 under the microscope. In these drawings the lines 
 and colours have been made more distinct than they 
 appear under the microscope, except with special 
 illumination, and in this sense they must be looked 
 upon as diagrams rather than portraits. The frontis- 
 piece was copied from a coloured plate, which was 
 printed in America, from a drawing taken from nature 
 by T. B. Thorpe, Esq., of Louisiana, and was kindly 
 
PREFACE, ix. 
 
 lent to me by my friend, Samuel Weston, Esq., of 
 Manchester, to whom I hereby tender my best 
 thanks. 
 
 I am quite aware that there are many interesting 
 questions connected with the subject which I have 
 left untouched, and many points which require further 
 investigation, and upon which there will no doubt be 
 differences of opinion by different observers; but I 
 have endeavoured honestly to do the work to the best 
 of my ability, and to draw only those conclusions 
 which I believed could be founded upon observation 
 and fact. My position, as largely connected with the 
 manufacture of cotton yarn, has given me many 
 opportunities of knowing the practical difficulties 
 connected with the use of the cotton wool in its 
 various stages, both undyed and dyed, and when used 
 by itself and mixed with other fibres; and my early 
 training in the chemical laboratory and in physical 
 observation, has given me unusual advantages in my 
 work, as it frequently happens that practical men 
 have not had the opportunity of scientific training, 
 and men who have been scientifically trained often 
 lack the knowledge which can only be obtained by 
 practical acquaintance on the large scale with the 
 commercial production of yarns and fabrics. No one 
 
X. PEEFACE. 
 
 will welcome more than I shall any further extension 
 of our knowledge on this important subject, and any 
 correction in the opinions which I have advanced 
 which is derived from additional observation. In the 
 hope that this little work may stimulate enquiries on 
 the part of others, and lead to such further progress 
 as will increase our technical skill in every branch of 
 textile manufacture, and lead to an increase of com- 
 mercial prosperity in this country, 
 
 I subscribe myself, 
 
 F. H. BOWMAN. 
 
 WEST MOUNT, 
 HALIFAX, YOEKSHIRE, 
 
 AUGUST, 1881. 
 
SYLLABUS OF CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Importance of technical knowledge Range of the subject 
 Science of manufacturing Difficulties of manufacture 
 Limitations of subject Division of lectures Description of 
 microscope used in the researches Range of microscopic 
 power employed Description of micrometer Method of 
 adjustment. 
 
 Botanical relations of cotton plant Species of cotton 
 Cultivation of cotton Localities where grown Measurement 
 of fibres Variation in length of fibres Variation in diameter 
 of fibres Comparison of variation in different species 
 Relative dimensions of cotton fibre Weight of cotton fibre. 
 
 1. WHAT is THE TYPICAL STRUCTURE OF A COTTON FIBRE? 
 
 (a) In regard to the mechanical arrangement of its ultimate 
 parts. 
 
 Description of cotton pod Structure of cotton pod 
 Development of cotton pod Structure of cotton seed Early 
 appearance of fibre Development of fibre Early growth of 
 fibre Immature fibre Formation and opening of cotton boll 
 'Influence of light and air upon cotton Early chemical 
 changes Final development of fibre. 
 
 Appearance of cotton fibre Early microscopical researches 
 Mechanical structure of fibre Comparison of cotton, wool, 
 
xn. CONTENTS. 
 
 and silk Diversity of structure Serrations on surface of 
 wool Comparative diameter of various kinds of fibre 
 Structure of silk Appearance of fibre under reflected light 
 Appearance with transmitted light. 
 
 Classification of fibres Structureless fibres Danger of 
 imperfection in goods Immature fibres Half -ripe fibres 
 Fully developed fibres Microscopical examination Method 
 of growth in fibres Section of fibres Microscopical exami- 
 nation of sections Transparent and laminated structure 
 Probable mechanical structure of cell walls. 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 Introduction Typical cotton fibre Method of growth 
 General structure of vegetable cells Chemical examination 
 Reagents employed Structure of wild cotton Formation of 
 spiral deposits Microscopical examination of African and 
 Peruvian cotton. 
 
 Structure of cultivated cotton Researches of Mr. Charles 
 O'Neill and Mr. Dancer Repetition of experiments Exami- 
 nation of external membrane Nature of cells in cotton sedge 
 Mr. Mercer's discovery of the action of alkalies on cotton 
 Mr. Crum's examination of Mercerised cotton Action of cells 
 as dialysers. 
 
 Existence of oily matter in cells Reason why high tem- 
 perature is required in spinning Setting or conditioning 
 process. 
 
 WHAT is THE TYPICAL STRUCTURE OF A COTTON FIBRE? 
 (b) Chemically. 
 
 Dr. Schunck's researches Cotton wax Nature and analysis 
 of wax Fatty acids present in cotton Nature of cellulose 
 Structure of molecule "Water of hydration Experiments to 
 determine quantity Effects of variation in moisture upon 
 
CONTENTS. xiii. 
 
 spinning Action of nitrosulphuric acid on cotton Gun 
 cotton Structure of molecule Cause of explosive nature of 
 gun cotton Artificial parchment. 
 
 Mineral constituents of cotton Analysis of cotton ash 
 Sand in cotton Nitrogen in cotton Action of alkalies on 
 cellulose Organic acids Experiments by M. Dollfus 
 Chemico-mechanical action of mineral acids Separation of 
 wool and cotton in mixed fabrics Action of gases on cotton 
 Experiments by M. Bolley Defects in dyeing Colouring 
 matter in cotton Analysis of colouring matter. 
 
 2. WHAT VARIATIONS FROM THIS TYPE STRUCTURE ARE PRE- 
 SENTED TO us? 
 
 (a) In fibres from the same plant and grown at the same time. 
 
 Variation in ripeness of fibre on cotton boll Influence of 
 this variation on power to receive dyes. 
 
 Mr. O'Neill's experiments on strength of fibre Relation 
 of fibre diameter to strength Mechanical cause of fracture in 
 fibres Effects of dyeing upon strength. 
 
 (b) In fibres from the same plants grown in different years. 
 
 Effects of different seasons on cotton Influence of unripe 
 cotton on dyeing process Importance of uniformity in length 
 of fibre Effect of seasons upon length. 
 
 (c) In fibres from different countries. 
 
 Classification of fibres Sea Island cotton Highest counts 
 spun Egyptian cotton Short fibres in it Special uses of 
 Egyptian cotton Microscopic appearance of American and 
 Egyptian yarns Action of light and heat upon colour 
 Brazilian cotton Importance of attention in picking and gin- 
 ning Pernam and Ceara cotton American cotton Its 
 general characteristics Indian or Surat cotton Table of 
 specific varieties of cotton in commercial use Counts into 
 which they can be spun. 
 
xiv. CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTUKE III. 
 
 Introduction Advantages of knowledge Ability to detect 
 cause of imperfections. 
 
 3. HOW FAR ANY VARIATION IN THE ULTIMATE FlBRE MAY AFFECT 
 
 ITS USE IN THE MANUFACTURING PROCESS? 
 (a) Mechanically. 
 
 Nature of processes through which cotton is passed in 
 manufacture General principles of spinning Method for 
 obtaining best results Influence of unripe and new crop 
 cotton Variation in different seasons Advantages of spin- 
 ning downward Limit of spinning power Imperfections in 
 y arn Degree of uniformity attainable Future improvements 
 in machinery. 
 
 Experiments with yarn "Weight and counts of yarn 
 Method of calculation Table of weights and counts Wrap 
 reel Yarn tester Method of use Adjustment to gravitation 
 standard Balance for weighing Series of examples of single 
 and twofold yarns to test regularity in strength and counts 
 General results of these tests Theoretical strength of yarns 
 Percentage of loss in actual samples Table of examples in 
 American and Egyptian cotton. 
 
 Machine for testing twist in yarn Samples of yarn tested 
 for twist General results of the tests Causes of the irregu- 
 larity in twist Defects arising from variation in diameter of 
 n k res Relation of twist to strength Spiral form of fibre 
 Mr. Higgin's observations. 
 
 (I) Chemically. 
 
 Structure of fibre in relation to dyeingLimits of vision 
 Cause of colour and lustre in fibre Permanence of colour 
 Theory of dyeing Probable nature of union between fibre 
 and colouring matter Depth of penetration of colour M, 
 
CONTENTS. xv. 
 
 Bolley's researches M. Kuhlmann's experiments Relation 
 of animal fibres to colouring matter Mineral colours and 
 cotton M. Chevreul's theory of dyeing Crum's mechanical 
 theory His researches on capillary absorption Nature of 
 dialysis Dyeing of cotton not purely mechanical Reasons 
 for this conclusion. 
 
 Analysis of dyeing processes Turmeric yellow Catalyctic 
 action of fibres Indigo blue Improvements in dyeing 
 Action of fibre with mineral dyes Crystals formed in fibre 
 walls Aniline blue Effect of alkalies on absorbent power of 
 fibres Relation of alumina to colouring matter Crum's 
 experiments with madder and garancine Turkey red dyeing 
 Production of artificial surfaces on yam Natural colour in 
 cotton. 
 
 Defects in dyeing arising from mechanical and other causes 
 Use of wax rollers Cotton seed oil Effects of size upon 
 yarn Hot pressing Effect of gases Variation in colour of 
 cotton Cross dyeing Improvements in preparation of cotton 
 for dyeing Artificial alizarine and indigo Strengthening of 
 yarn by dyeing process Spinning of dyed cotton General 
 results of technical education Conclusion. 
 
XVI. CONTENTS. 
 
 f bt jof )Iate8. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Cotton Plant in Bud, Bloom, and Boll (coloured) Frontispiece. 
 
 I. Large Compound Microscope ... ... ... ... 8 
 
 II. Sections of Cotton Pod 24 
 
 III. Magnified Fibres of Wool, Cotton, Silk, and Mohair... 30 
 
 IY. Typical Cotton Fibres 40 
 
 V. Sections of Cotton Fibre 42 
 
 VI. Fibres of Wild African and Coarse Peruvian Cotton 48 
 
 VII. Cotton Fibres Dyed Turmeric Yellow (coloured) ... 170 
 
 VIII. Cotton Fibres Dyed Indigo Blue (coloured) ... 174 
 
 IX. Cotton Fibres Dyed Aniline Blue (coloured) ... ... 1 80 
 
 X. Cotton Fibres Dyed with Lake of Alumina and 
 
 Madder (coloured) ... ... ... ... ... 184 
 
 XL Section of Cotton Fibres Dyed with Lake of Alumina 
 
 and Madder (coloured) ... ... ... ... 186 
 
 of fynns m 
 
 FIG. PAGE. 
 
 1. Troughton and Simm's Parallel Wire Micrometer ... 12 
 
 2. Wrap Reel 116 
 
 3. Yarn Testing Machine 118 
 
 4. Laboratory Balance ... ... ... ... ... 120 
 
 5. Twist Tester . 145 
 
THE STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE 
 
 AND ITS RELATION TO THE 
 
 LECTUEE I 
 
 WHEN I was asked by the Honorary Secretary of 
 the Bradford Technical School to deliver a 
 lecture, or lectures, on some subject connected with 
 the application of cotton to textile manufactures I 
 readily consented, because I felt the importance of the 
 examination of the cotton fibre in a scientific manner, 
 both in regard to the natural structure of the fibre 
 itself, and to the degree of perfection, which from the 
 nature of that structure, we might expect to be able 
 to attain in the after process of mechanical and 
 chemical manipulation, to which it is necessarily sub- 
 jected by the process of manufacture into either yarn 
 or cloth. I was not aware, however, when I under- 
 B 
 
2 STEUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 took the task of writing or lecturing upon "The 
 Structure of the Cotton Fibre and its relation to the 
 Use of Cotton for Technical Purposes" of the large 
 amount of labour and original research which it would 
 involve, and I have only persevered in the matter 
 because I take a deep interest in the progress of 
 technical education, and because I feel that much of 
 the future of this country, so far as its manufacturing 
 supremacy is concerned, depends upon the thorough 
 knowledge which we must possess in regard to the 
 principles upon which our manufacturing processes 
 rest, and the possibility of excelling our rivals in our 
 ability to turn this knowledge to the best practical 
 application; and while I am fully conscious that I 
 have not by any means exhausted the subject, or can 
 lay before the members of this school more than a 
 mere outline of the question in its many-sided aspects; 
 T nevertheless feel that I have been able to draw 
 together into one focus the information which I have 
 had to gather bit by bit over a wide range of reading, 
 and that I have been able to supplement and verify 
 this knowledge by a careful examination of the fibre 
 in its various states under the microscope, and thus 
 make some addition to the general stock of available 
 facts in regard to the structure of the cotton fibre, 
 from which we may draw valuable conclusions in 
 regard to its use as a raw material for manufacturing 
 purposes. 
 
 The importance of this subject will be appreciated 
 by us all when we remember the very wide and 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 extending use of cotton as an article of manufacture, 
 and that the nature of the manufactured article after 
 all depends upon the character of the individual fibres 
 out of which the yarn composing the manufactured 
 goods is formed. When we bear in mind that one of 
 the first considerations in the manufacture of yarn is 
 perfect uniformity in yarn of the same counts, both 
 in regard to diameter, strength, and weight, we shall 
 at once appreciate the nature of an enquiry which 
 unfolds to us the degree of uniformity or variation in 
 these respects which is presented to us by the ultimate 
 fibres of cotton, whether taken from the same or 
 various plants, or as they are presented to us in the 
 different varieties of cotton, grown in different 
 countries, and during the same or different years. 
 
 What we may term the science of manufacturing 
 has been too much neglected in this country, and we 
 have been contented with unquestioningly following 
 the rules of thumb which practical experience has 
 shown will lead to certain desired results, without 
 enquiring or considering whether these might not be 
 better obtained in some other way, or whether by the 
 proper application of the principles which are involved 
 in the operation they might not be as successfully 
 produced by a shorter or more scientific method. I 
 am perfectly aware that there are many who will 
 think that in a process which appears so purely 
 mechanical as the spinning of cotton there can hardly 
 be any scope for the application of scientific principles, 
 but a connection with the trade during the last sixteen 
 
4 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 years, as one of the principals in a large cotton spin- 
 ning concern, has convinced me that the more we 
 endeavour to view the most minute details of the 
 operations from a scientific point of view, the more 
 successful shall we be in the production of an article, 
 which will in proportion to its quality, give satisfaction 
 to the manufacturer, and render the goods made from 
 it less liable to imperfections which may be developed 
 in the after processes through which it may have to 
 be put ; and I trust before I have finished these 
 lectures to have placed before you sufficient evidence 
 to convince you of this. Indeed, I am satisfied that 
 we often go astray in assuming that a process is far 
 more simple than it really is, and in so doing, we 
 often overlook something which would, if observed, 
 lead us to alter our method of procedure entirely, or 
 else to modify it in some way so as to prevent the 
 occurrence of something which afterwards appears to 
 have been unavoidable, but which really was the 
 result of causes which might have been altered in the 
 earlier stages of manipulation. All those who are 
 engaged in the manufacture of goods which require to 
 undergo chemical and mechanical processes in the 
 finishing of the goods, such as cross dyeing and hot 
 finishing, know how frequently imperfections make 
 their appearance for which apparently no adequate 
 explanation can be given, and which are not unfre- 
 quently not only the cause of much annoyance, but 
 also of serious pecuniary loss. These difficulties are 
 always increased when mixed fibres are introduced 
 
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 into the fabric. This union trade is as you are all 
 aware one of the staple productions of Bradford, and I 
 have frequently been able to trace the cause of imper- 
 fections in the goods by a microscopical examination 
 of the defects, where the widest differences of opinion 
 have been expressed when viewed only with the 
 naked eye. So long as we are in ignorance respecting 
 the degree of regularity which is exhibited in the raw 
 material, and the variations which are inseparable 
 from this want of absolute uniformity, which we shall 
 afterwards see are very much dependent upon 
 meteorological considerations, so long shall we find 
 on the one hand an unreasonable expectation of a 
 higher standard of perfection than can possibly be 
 reached; and, on the other, a desire to shield careless- 
 ness in the spinning, manufacturing, or dyeing 
 processes under the general term of unavoidable 
 imperfections. 
 
 It is not possible of course to deal with all the 
 questions which may arise in regard to the influences 
 of the process of manufacture upon the fibres, and the 
 variations which may be produced by the various 
 actions, either mechanically or chemically, induced by 
 the process of manufacture itself, within the compass 
 of these lectures, partly because of the great length to 
 which it would lead us, but principally because I have 
 not yet had time to deal with many of the considera- 
 tions which such an extension of our subject would 
 necessarily involve, and these must therefore be left 
 to some future time. 
 
6 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 We shall confine our attention principally to the 
 fibre before the process of manufacture, and in order 
 to give as great definiteness to this enquiry as possible 
 we shall look at three principal questions. 
 
 I. What is the typical structure of a cotton fibre ? 
 
 (a) In regard to the mechanical arrangement of 
 
 its ultimate parts. 
 
 (b) In regard to its chemical constitution. 
 
 II. What variations from this type structure are 
 presented to us ? 
 
 ( a) In fibres from the same plant and grown at 
 
 the same time. 
 
 (b) In fibres from the same plants grown in 
 
 different years. 
 
 (c) In fibres from different countries. 
 
 III. How far any variation in the ultimate fibre 
 may affect its use in manufacturing process ? 
 
 (a) Mechanically. 
 
 (b) Chemically. 
 
 In looking at these various aspects of the question, 
 I shall as far as possible endeavour to avoid all 
 technical terms, and shall address you so as to make 
 preliminary botanical and other knowledge as little 
 necessary as possible, but you must bear with me if I 
 occasionally suppose that some of you possess this 
 preliminary knowledge, and if there are any parts of 
 my subject in which I fail to make myself clear, I 
 shall gladly answer any questions which I can at the 
 conclusion of the paper, as my only object in preparing 
 it is for the diffusion of knowledge which can be 
 
DESCRIPTION OF MICROSCOPE. 
 
 turned by you to account in the manufacturing pro- 
 cesses in which you are engaged. 
 
 In making the examination of the cotton fibre, of 
 course much depends upon the use of the microscope, 
 for, as we shall afterwards see, each individual fibre is 
 so small that it is quite impossible to examine it with 
 the naked eye even as regards its general appearance, 
 much less so when we wish to make out its delicate 
 structure or the minute markings and irregularities 
 which exist on its surface. In these researches I have 
 employed the very best microscope which I could 
 obtain, and every accessory to its use which modern 
 mechanical and optical skill could suggest, my object 
 being not to obtain the best effect compatible with 
 limited means, but the attainment of everything which 
 the microscope could accomplish irrespective of either 
 cost or complexity. Plate I. gives a very good illus- 
 tration of the large compound microscope made by 
 Eoss, of London, which I used in these researches, and 
 which is one of the most perfect instruments which 
 can be possibly obtained. In its construction the very 
 greatest attention has been paid, so as to secure solidity 
 and freedom from vibration or tremor, and every portion 
 of the stand was tested by the inverted pendulum, 
 and strengthened or reduced as was found necessary, 
 so as to attain equality of vibration between the stage 
 and optical part of the instrument, and thus prevent 
 any tremor in the image. The general features of the 
 instrument consist of a solid brass stand which carries 
 the body of the microscope, and which can be inclined 
 
8 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 at any required angle by moving it on the central 
 pivots, and a suitable clamping arc fixes it in position 
 when the required angle is reached. The tube which 
 contains the optical part is carried at the extremity of 
 a strong bar which rises above the stage upon which 
 the object to be examined is placed, and the object 
 glasses screw into the under surface of this bar so as 
 to be readily changeable at pleasure without disturbing 
 the position of the tube. 
 
 The coarse adjustment is made by the large milled- 
 head situated just behind the summit of the uprights, 
 which turns a pinion working into a rack cut on the 
 back of a very strong flattened stem that carries 
 the transverse arm at its summit. A second milled- 
 head is attached to the other end of the axis of the 
 pinion, so that it can be worked by either the left or 
 right hand as may be desired. The fine adjustment 
 is effected by the milled-head on the transverse arm 
 just behind the base of the tube, and this acts through 
 a very fine screw and lever upon the nose or tube 
 projecting below the horizontal arm into which the 
 object glasses are screwed. The other milled-head 
 seen at the summit of the stem serves to secure the 
 transverse arm to this, and may be tightened or 
 slackened at pleasure so as to regulate the transverse 
 movement of the arm, This movement can, however, 
 only take place in one direction, being checked in the 
 opposite by a stop which always secures when in 
 this position, that the axis of the tube shall be con- 
 centric with the centre of the rotating stage beneath 
 
Plate I. 
 
 Large Binocular Compound Microscope. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF MICROSCOPE. 
 
 and the axis of the illuminating apparatus placed 
 on the secondary stage beneath it. With regard to 
 the principal stage, there are three movements : a 
 traversing motion from side to side, a similar motion 
 at right angles to this backwards and forwards, and 
 a rotation of both these round a centre coincident 
 with the optical axis. The transverse movements, 
 which allow the platform carrying the object to be 
 shifted about an inch in every direction, are effected 
 by two milled-heads situated at the right of the 
 stage; and these are placed side by side, in such a 
 position that one may be conveniently acted upon 
 by the forefinger and the other by the middle finger, 
 the thumb being readily passed from one to the other. 
 The traversing portion of the stage carries the portion 
 upon which the objects are laid, which has a ledge 
 at the back for it to rest against, and a bar with a 
 spring which can be brought up to the object so as to 
 secure it firmly in position and prevent it slipping 
 either one way or the other. This platform has a 
 sliding movement of its own backwards and forwards, 
 by which the object is first brought near to the axis 
 of the microscope, its perfect adjustment being then 
 secured by the milled-heads. To this platform and 
 to the traversing slide beneath it a rotary motion is 
 imparted by a milled-head placed underneath the 
 stage on the left-hand side, for this milled-head works 
 a pinion which works in the circular rack whereby 
 the whole apparatus can be carried round about for an 
 angle of at least 120 without in the least disturbing 
 
10 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 the place of the object or removing it from the field 
 of view, and thus enabling it to be seen at a number 
 of different angles. This rotary motion is often very 
 useful in the examination of delicate objects by 
 oblique light, since without in any way disturbing 
 the illuminating apparatus, the effect of the light 
 and shadow may be seen in every direction, and also 
 in the examination of objects by polarized light, a 
 class of appearances being produced by the rotation of 
 the object between the prisms which are not developed 
 by the rotation of either of the prisms themselves. 
 This circular rack is also graduated into degrees so 
 that the exact angle may be ascertained, and this 
 enables it to be used as a goniometer when necessary. 
 Beneath the stage, and in front of the stem which carries 
 the mirror used to throw upward the light when trans- 
 parent objects are being examined, is a dove-tail sliding 
 bar, which is moved up and down by the milled-head 
 at its side. This sliding bar carries the secondary or 
 sub-stage, which consists of a cylindrical tube for the 
 reception of an achromatic condenser or other illumina- 
 ting apparatus, the polarizing prism, and other fittings. 
 To this secondary stage a rotary motion is also 
 communicated by a milled-head, and also a small 
 traversing motion in a side to side and backward and 
 forward direction by means of two screws, one in the 
 front and the other on the left-hand side of the frame 
 which carries it, in order that the axis of this stage 
 may be brought into absolute coincidence with the 
 axis of the tube and the stage above it. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF MICROMETER 11 
 
 To avoid the fatigue resulting from the use of only 
 one eye, as well as to obtain the peculiar stereoscopic 
 effect which is produced by the act of looking at the 
 objects with both eyes, the instrument is fitted with 
 a binocular as well as a monocular tube, and a battery 
 of eye pieces and object glasses enables the power of 
 the instrument to range from 20 diameters up to 
 8000 diameters, a power which if we could see a 
 linear inch under the glass at once would make it 
 look as large as 666 feet, and a single average cotton 
 fibre would appear about 6 inches in diameter and 
 680 feet long. 
 
 The measurements under the microscope were made 
 by means of a very fine spider's-web micrometer. 
 This consists of an eye piece, within the field of 
 view of which two very delicate cobwebs are placed 
 parallel to each other. These two fine cobwebs can 
 be separated from each other by the action of a very 
 fine screw, the head of which is divided into 100 
 parts, the several divisions being sufficiently large to 
 enable half of these divisions to be read with the 
 greatest ease. A fixed index registers these divisions 
 as the screw is turned round. A portion of the field 
 of view within the eye piece is cut off on one side, 
 at right angles to the cobweb thread, by a scale 
 formed of a thin piece of brass, having notches at 
 its edge like the teeth of a saw or a comb with very 
 shallow teeth. The distance between these teeth from 
 point to point corresponds to the pitch of the screw, 
 which is T ^ of an inch, and every fifth notch is 
 
12 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 made deeper than the other four, so as to assist the 
 enumeration by the eye. A very good representation 
 of the general form of this instrument is seen in 
 Fig. I., where the milled-heads at A and B which 
 separate the wires, the position of the eye piece, and 
 the circular graduated plate with the reading lens 
 attached, are distinctly shown, a second reading lens 
 being removed so as to show the slow motion clamp 
 which fixes the graduated plate in any desired 
 position. 
 
 Fig. I. Troughton and Simm's Parallel "Wire Micrometer. 
 
 When the micrometer is being used, the ordinary 
 eye piece at the top of the microscope tube is removed 
 and the micrometer slipped into the draw tube in its 
 place. The object to be measured is then brought 
 into such a position that one of its edges seems to 
 touch one of the cobweb lines, and the other cobweb 
 
ADJUSTMENT OF MICROMETER. 13 
 
 is moved by the micrometer screw until it appears to 
 lie in contact with the other edge of the object. The 
 number of entire divisions on the toothed scale shows 
 how many complete turns of the screw must have been 
 made in passing over the object, while the fractional 
 portions of a revolution are read off the divided head 
 by the fixed index at A or B. 
 
 In order to obtain the value of each of these 
 divisions in parts of an inch, it is necessary to use 
 along with the eye piece micrometer also a stage 
 micrometer, or object which consists of a graduated 
 scale of fine lines drawn on glass, the larger divisions 
 of which are T J<y of an inch and the smallest r ^nnr f 
 an inch. When the two lines which represent the 
 two sides of one of these ruled divisions, say -J^OTF of 
 an inch, are distinctly visible in the field of the 
 microscope, the micrometer is placed in the position 
 of the ordinary eye piece, and the draw tube adjusted 
 until this r^jcr f an i ncn division exactly corresponds 
 to the distance from point to point of one of the 
 divisions of the brass scale in the micrometer ; and 
 when the draw tube is fixed in position the stage 
 scale may be removed and any object placed beneath 
 the microscope may be readily measured, as each 
 division of the brass scale will now represent the 
 10 1 QO of an inch, and each division read off on the 
 divided screw head the -^fa part of this quantity, or 
 the TTRMnR) of a linear inch. The value of these 
 divisions in parts of an inch may of course be in- 
 creased or diminished by making each division of the 
 
14 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 brass tooth scale correspond to a larger or smaller 
 division of the graduated stage micrometer so as to 
 correspond with the magnifying power which is in 
 use and the size of the objects to be measured. The 
 graduated plate enables angular measurement to be 
 recorded as well as the parallel cobwebs to be turned 
 round in any direction, so as to measure in any part 
 of the field. I found that in working at the structure 
 of the cotton fibre a magnifying power of from 300 
 to 500 diameters was the most useful, although I 
 used much higher powers in working at the more 
 minute parts of the structure, such as the exami- 
 nation of cross sections ; but I mention this because 
 these powers can readily be used with much less 
 expensive apparatus than my own, and the use of 
 the microscope in detecting mixed fibres or abnormal 
 conditions of fibre will in the future play a much 
 more important part than it has done in the past, 
 and enable the cause of defects in dyed and finished 
 goods to be much more easily arrived at than by 
 mere supposition and guess-work. 
 
 I. In dealing with the first question, viz., What is 
 the typical structure of a cotton fibre, it is not neces- 
 sary for us to enter at any length into the botanical 
 relations of the cotton plant. The substance cotton 
 may be defined as the woolly denticulated fibrous 
 material enveloping the seeds of various species and 
 varieties of the genus "Gossypium," belonging to 
 the natural order "Malvaceae." Under the influence 
 of variation in climate and culture all the cotton tribe 
 
SPECIES OF COTTON. 15 
 
 are prone to run into varieties, and hence while 
 Linnaeus only recognised five species, some botanists 
 have extended them to eight and even to ten. 
 Professor Parlatore, one of the more recent investi- 
 gators into the botanical relations of the cotton plant 
 came to the conclusion that there are really seven 
 primary species of cotton, and that all the rest are 
 only varieties. He classes them as follows : 
 
 1. Gossypium Arboreum, Linn., found in Ceylon, 
 the Moluccas, Arabia, Senegal, &c. 
 
 2. Gossypium Herbaceum, Linn., growing in Siam, 
 China, India, Italy, &c. 
 
 3. Gossypium Sandwichense, growing in the Sand- 
 wich and adjacent islands. 
 
 4. Gossypium Hirsutum, Linn., including Siamese, 
 Bourbon, Upland Georgia, and Louisiana cottons. 
 
 5. Gossypium Barbadense, Linn., comprising Sea 
 Island and Barbadoes cotton. 
 
 6. Gossypium Tahitense, growing in the Society 
 Islands, Tahiti, &c. 
 
 7. Gossypium Eeligiosum, Linn., including Peruvian 
 and other cottons with seeds in adherent files. 
 
 Many competent botanists, however, are of opinion 
 that four of these primary species seem to include all 
 those which are usually cultivated for commercial 
 purposes. Their names are 
 
 1. Gossypium Barbadense. 3. Gossypium Herbaceum, or Indicuui. 
 
 2. Peruvianum. 4. Arboreum. 
 
 The first of these species, Gossypium Barbadense, is 
 the most valuable, being that which produces the 
 
16 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 long, silky-haired Sea Island cotton. It has a yellow 
 flower, and the seeds are small, black, and quite 
 smooth, and remarkably free from an undergrowth of 
 fine short hairs, which in some species detract from 
 its commercial value. Some botanists suppose Gossy- 
 pium Hirsutum to be a variety of this species, while 
 others consider it distinct. It has a white or faintly 
 primrose flower, and a hairy or green woolly seed. 
 From it the largest portion of the crop in the cotton 
 districts of the United States is raised. 
 
 Gossypium Peruvianum is indigenous to South 
 America, and flourishes in Peru (as its name indicates), 
 Brazil, and the neighbouring countries. The flowers 
 are yellow, like Gossypium Barbadense, and the pods 
 contain eight or ten black seeds each, while the hairy 
 covering is usually strong and coarse, especially in the 
 samples known as rough Peruvian. This plant grows 
 to the height of 10 or 15 feet. 
 
 Gossypium Herbaceum is a native of Asia, and is a 
 small shrubby plant, bearing a yellow flower, and 
 producing the cotton known as Surat or Indian 
 cotton. It is a hardier plant than any of the others, 
 and can be cultivated in a wider range of latitude. 
 
 Gossypium Arboreum is also found in India and 
 China, and is a fine, tree-like plant, bearing a reddish 
 flower, and yielding, when the climate and conditions 
 are suitable, a long silky cotton. 
 
 Practically considered, however, the best division 
 is that of herbaceous, shrub, and tree cotton, and in 
 one or other of these forms the cotton plant is 
 
CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 17 
 
 indigenous to many of the warm climates, especially 
 to India, Egypt, and America; but experience has 
 shown that it may be cultivated in any country when 
 the atmosphere is sufficiently humid and warm, and 
 the soil of the proper character. It appears to thrive 
 best in sandy soils, and along the borders of the sea, 
 or large rivers or lakes. The herbaceous cotton is 
 the most valuable, and is that from which the large 
 American crop is obtained. The shrub is about the 
 size of an ordinary currant bush, and in the hottest 
 climates becomes perennial. The flower of the cotton 
 plant is not unlike the common mallow, which belongs 
 indeed to the same natural order, and the general 
 structure of the blossom is the same, while the colour 
 varies in different varieties from a purplish tinge up 
 to a pale yellow. The seed vessel, however, differs 
 from the mallow, inasmuch as from the surface of the 
 seed coat there springs up a thick growth of filamen- 
 tous hairs which entirely fill the seed pod, and when 
 ripe burst it open and exhibit a ball of snowy white, 
 or slightly yellowish fibre, consisting of three or more 
 locks, one for each cell. A fair idea of the general 
 appearance of a cotton plant when in full bloom may 
 be obtained by reference to the frontispiece, where 
 the bud, flower, and boll, both before and after 
 opening, are depicted. 
 
 The hairs are firmly attached to the seeds, for 
 
 which indeed in the economy of nature they were 
 
 doubtless intended to serve the purpose of parachutes, 
 
 so as to enable the seeds to be disseminated by the 
 
 c 
 
18 STKUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBKE. 
 
 action of the wind. The operation of ginning, of 
 which everyone has heard, is intended to free the seed 
 from the cotton, and thus leave the fibre in a con- 
 dition ready for manufacture. The seed is sown in 
 March, April, and May, in rows about 5 feet apart, 
 and the seeds about 18 inches asunder, and several 
 seeds in each hole. When the young plants come up 
 the weak ones are weeded out, and the strong ones 
 topped, so as to cause the plants to branch freely. 
 The plants bloom in June and July, and the cotton is 
 ready for picking in August, or the months of 
 September and October, varying with the situation of 
 the fields, or the earliness or lateness of the season. 
 As a rule, cotton flourishes best with moderately dry 
 weather. During the early stages of its growth 
 warm, steamy weather is very advantageous, with a 
 few showers until the blooming time has arrived, after 
 which dry, fine weather is what is required. Too 
 much rain usually results in too much wood and too 
 little fruit; while very dry seasons produce a stunted 
 plant growth, where the bolls are forced into too early 
 maturity, and the crop is generally short in staple 
 and quantity. This, of course, specially applies to 
 cotton grown in upland districts, while those cotton 
 lands which lie in the valleys and along the course 
 of rivers, and have artificial means of irrigation, 
 frequently yield large results in dry seasons. 
 
 The cottons which are grown in different parts of 
 the world differ from each other in the length and 
 fineness of the hairs or staple as it is usually called, the 
 
MEASUREMENT OF FIBKES. 19 
 
 long-stapled Sea Island cotton grown on the shores 
 of Georgia and Florida attaining a length of nearly 
 two inches, while the short native cotton of India 
 scarcely exceeds three-quarters of an inch in length. 
 
 The district, however, does not seem to affect the 
 length of the staple so much as the character of 
 the seed from which it is grown, as Sea Island cotton 
 seed has in India produced fibre little shorter in staple 
 than when grown in its native habitat. 
 
 The following table will illustrate the various 
 lengths and relative fineness of staple in cotton 
 grown in various localities, and is the result of a 
 large number of measurements taken from fully 
 grown and ripe fibres. They can only however be 
 taken as approximate, for any given season, as I have 
 found that the average length and diameter varies in 
 different years for the same class of cotton grown in 
 the same district and country. It is also a well 
 known fact that from year to year, in any class of 
 cotton such as Egyptian, the degree of abundance of 
 long or short stapled cotton varies considerably, as 
 well as the fineness and general silkiness of the fibres 
 composing it. 
 
 I have measured the length and diameter of a 
 large number of fibres of different classes of' cotton, 
 but have not found their average over a number of 
 years to differ much from the results given in this 
 table. 
 
20 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 PQ 
 
 r I 
 r^ 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 to 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 <O CXD OO 
 OOO 
 O O O 
 
 p p o 
 
 O 
 00 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 !> O3 CO C^l ""3* 
 
 OO OS l> O 
 
 O O O i-H 
 
 o o o o o 
 
 9 <? 9 9 <? 
 
 CO ^H 
 
 9 ? 
 
 rH O rH rH 
 
 CO O rH <N (N r-t 
 rH 00 OO O O G<l 
 
 rH rH rH rH 
 
 I 
 
 
 to 
 
 d 
 
 I 
 
 I I 
 
 o g 
 
 * -S 
 
 S ^5 
 
 S g^ 
 
 2 O 
 
 s 
 
 S 2 
 " 
 
 r^ & 'a 
 05 "S >> 
 
 S I I 
 
 From this table it will be seen that there is con- 
 siderable variation both in the length and diameter 
 
VARIATION IN FIBRES. 21 
 
 of the fibres of cotton grown in the same district a 
 difference which we shall afterwards see arises from 
 a variety of causes, and is influenced also to a larger 
 or smaller extent by the character of the seasons from 
 year to year. As a rule, also, we see from this table 
 that the longest fibres have also the smallest diameter, 
 and are therefore finer and silkier in the staple. 
 The extreme variation in the length of staple is as 
 follows : 
 
 American( Orleans) '28 of an inch. 
 
 Sea Islands 0*39 
 
 Brazilian 0'28 
 
 Egyptian 0'22 
 
 Indian (Surat) 0'25 
 
 The extreme variation in the diameter of the indi- 
 vidual fibres is 
 
 Inch. Fraction. 
 
 American (Orleans) 0-000390 
 
 Sea Islands 0-000360 
 
 Brazilian 0-000340 
 
 Egyptian 0-000130 
 
 Indian (Surat) 0-000391 
 
 From these tables it appears that Egyptian cotton 
 is the most regular both in length and diameter of 
 the fibre, the greatest difference being -$$ of an inch 
 and -^V^ of an inch respectively ; while Sea Island 
 cotton, although possessing the greatest length and 
 fineness of fibre, exhibits also the greatest variation, 
 viz., -^j of an inch in length, while it varies YTTT f 
 an inch in the diameter of the individual fibres. 
 
 It will also be seen that the variation in the 
 diameter is proportionately very much larger than 
 
22 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 the variation in the length ; and indeed this pecu- 
 liarity strikes the eye at once when looking down 
 into the tangled plexus of a lock of cotton placed 
 within the field of the microscope, and the feeling 
 seems almost irresistible, that considering the varia- 
 tion in the fibres, it is a matter of astonishment that 
 cotton yarns can by any mechanical process be made 
 with the regularity in the diameter of the threads 
 which is usually obtained. 
 
 These figures are not very easy to carry in the 
 mind, or indeed to picture to the mind as a distinct 
 idea, especially to those unaccustomed to microscopical 
 investigations and measurements ; and we can perhaps 
 best conceive of the relative dimensions of a cotton 
 fibre if we remember that supposing we were to 
 magnify a single fibre of American cotton until it 
 was one inch in diameter, it would be a little over 
 100 feet long, while a Sea Island fibre of the same 
 diameter would be a little over 130 feet. Each 
 individual fibre, also varies in diameter in different 
 parts of its length, being, however, when fresh from 
 the boll, as a rule pretty uniform until about three- 
 fourths of its length is reached, when it gradually 
 tapers off towards the end farthest from the seed to 
 about one-fifth of its maximum diameter, and ends 
 somewhat abruptly not unlike the extremity of a 
 worm, the end usually exhibiting a somewhat more 
 cylindrical form than the general length of the fibre. 
 If we examine a sample of ordinary cotton, however, 
 we find that very few of the fibres are perfect, as they 
 
THE COTTON POD. 23 
 
 get broken in the process of ginning, which separates 
 the cotton from the seed, and they usually therefore 
 terminate in a ragged edge which is sometimes very 
 useful to show the structure of the tube when treated 
 with various reagents. We may have some idea of 
 the tenuity of the cotton fibres when we remember 
 that from 14,000 to 20,000 individual filaments of 
 American cotton only weigh one grain, so that there 
 are about 140,000,000 in every pound, and each hair 
 only weighs on the average about the xri*r^ P ar ^ f 
 a grain, and if the separate fibres were placed end to 
 end in a straight line one pound weight would reach 
 2,200 miles. 
 
 If we examine a cotton pod in the earlier stages 
 of its growth, we find that it is attached to the stem 
 of the parent tree by a small stalk. Immediately 
 below the pod itself we have a ring of leaves, four 
 or five in number, forming what botanists call a 
 polysepalous calyx, and between which and the seed 
 vessel itself there are the withered petals of the 
 corolla which formed the coloured part of the flower 
 of the tree. The pod or capsule itself is the developed 
 ovary, and consists of a hard outward sheath, which 
 is divided longitudinally into a series of valves differ- 
 ing in number in the different varieties of cotton 
 (usually three in Egyptian and four or more in 
 American). These valves have each a rib or septum 
 projecting inward from the inner surface and dividing 
 the capsule into separate compartments in which the 
 seeds are confined. 
 
24 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 In the earlier stages of growth the seeds appear to 
 be attached to the inner margin of the carpilliary 
 septa at the point of junction of these septa, that is 
 to say, at the inner side of the carpel where the two 
 edges of the carpilliary septa unite, and they are con- 
 nected to it by vascular bundles which proceed from 
 below upwards, traverse the carpels, and send a branch 
 to each seed. At the same time, there is also a 
 considerable development of cellular tissue forming a 
 ridge or placenta on the margins of the septa to which 
 the seeds are attached. The seeds continue this 
 attachment until they have attained their full size 
 and the growth of hair on the outward surface of the 
 seed has commenced. It then becomes gradually 
 absorbed, and the seeds themselves are forced into the 
 centres of the cavities by the gradual development of 
 the hairy covering. The structure of the cotton pod 
 will be readily understood by a reference to Plate II., 
 where we have a longitudinal and transverse section 
 of an Egyptian cotton pod. Here the seed vessel or 
 carpel is divided into three separate compartments 
 which each contain a lock of cotton surrounding the 
 seeds which are contained in them. The method of 
 growth of the seed appears to be like that of a nut, 
 viz., by the successive deposit of concentric layers on 
 the inner surface of the outer envelope. In a growing 
 seed these successive layers are distinctly visible even 
 to the naked eye when the seeds are cut in two, the 
 layers growing less dense as we proceed inwards 
 until we come to the oleaginous, milky fluid which 
 
Plate II 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 Fi c. 2 
 
 Longitudinal and Transverse Section of 
 Egyptian Cotton Pod. 
 
 A. Stem. B. Section of Calyx. C. Section of Carpel 
 D.Midweb with, seeds attached. E. Section of Seeds. 
 G Plexus of young Cotton fibres. 
 
DEVELOPMENT OF FIBKE. 25 
 
 fills the centre cavity, and which gets smaller and 
 smaller as the stage of maturity is reached. The 
 development of hair commences at the further end 
 of the seed from its point of attachment, and gradually 
 spreads over the surface as the process of growth 
 continues. 
 
 The first appearance of the cotton fibre itself occurs 
 a considerable time before the seed has attained its final 
 growth, and commences by the successive develop- 
 ment of cells from the surface of the seed. These 
 cells appear to have their origin in the second layer 
 of cellular tissue, and force themselves up through 
 the epidermal layer itself, making good their attach- 
 ment to the outer layer by the gradual absorption of 
 the cell walls of the outer layer which they displace, 
 and form a larger cell from the outer surface of 
 which the linear propagation of cells commences. 
 This point, however, needs further investigation, as, 
 unfortunately, I have had few opportunities of watch- 
 ing the method of growth in the earliest stages. 
 
 These germinal cells are distinguished in their earlier 
 stages by the thickness of the cell wall in proportion 
 to the diameter of the cell, and the method of growth 
 is by the successive linear development of cells, the 
 cell wall at the point of junction being gradually 
 absorbed until an exceedingly elongated cell is pro- 
 duced which constitutes the cotton fibre. During 
 this period of growth the cell walls are continually 
 becoming more and more attenuated, and gradually 
 fill up the whole interior of the seed pod with an 
 
26 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 apparently tangled plexus of young cotton fibres, whose 
 growth and the increase in the number of the fibres, 
 as the seed continues to throw them off, tend to assist 
 in bursting open the seed pod when the time of 
 maturity arrives. 
 
 The length of the hairs vary considerably on differ- 
 ent parts of the seed, and indeed it appears doubtful 
 whether they ever attain their full length until after 
 the pod has fully opened and the fibres themselves 
 have been exposed to the drying and ripening effect of 
 the air and sun. As a rule, the longest fibres are those 
 which grow on the crown of the seed where the cell 
 development makes its earliest appearance, and the 
 shortest are always found at the base of the seed. 
 
 These very short fibres usually remain attached to 
 the seed after the process of ginning is complete, and 
 when examined under the microscope appear to exhibit 
 signs of having been arrested in their growth by the 
 gradual drying-up of the seed, arising from the lessened 
 activity of the vital action, when the inward growth of 
 the seed itself was completed. Unfortunately, how- 
 ever, some of these short immature hairs also are 
 removed by the gin along with the longer fibre, and 
 when they exist in large quantity in any sample of 
 cotton are difficult to remove, and form a source of 
 great trouble and annoyance in the carding process, 
 when they aggregate into small clusters and lumps 
 called technically by the trade "neps." It ought, 
 however, to be mentioned that these "neps" can also 
 be produced in cotton which is perfectly free from 
 
EAELY GEOWTH OF FIBRE. 27 
 
 them by imperfect mechanical manipulation in the 
 earlier stages of manufacture, but there is no difficulty 
 in detecting in any sample of cotton from which of 
 these causes the "neps" arise, as in the case of 
 artificially produced "neps" the cluster consists of 
 fragments of broken fibre, while in the natural "neps" 
 the short fibres are comparatively whole and unbroken. 
 In their earliest stages the young cotton fibres appear 
 to have a circular section arising from the comparative 
 thickness of the tube walls ; but as these walls 
 gradually become thinner by the longitudinal growth 
 of the hair and the pressure to which they are sub- 
 jected by the contact of surrounding fibres enclosed 
 within the pod, they gradually become flattened, and 
 just before the pod bursts the outer wall of the cells 
 have become so attenuated in the longest fibres as to 
 be almost invisible even under high microscopic 
 powers, and present the appearance of a thin, pellucid, 
 transparent ribbon. With the bursting of the pod, 
 however, a change occurs. The admission of air and 
 sunlight causes a gradual unfolding of the hairy plexus, 
 and the rapid consolidation of the liquid cell contents 
 on the inner surface of the cell wall give them a greater 
 thickness and density, which is further increased by 
 the gradual shrinking in of the walls themselves upon 
 the cell contents. There is also a gradual rounding 
 and thickening of the fibre, which increases by the 
 deposition of matter on the inner wall of the cell. 
 
 As this action is not perfectly uniform, arising from 
 the unequal exposure of different parts of the fibres 
 
28 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 to light and air, it causes a twisting of the hairs, 
 which is always a characteristic of cotton when viewed 
 under the microscope, and the flat collapsed portions 
 of the tube form so many reflecting surfaces, to which 
 the brightness of the fibre when stretched tight in the 
 fingers is no doubt due. Another change also occurs 
 at this stage, a change which corresponds to the 
 ripening of fruit. In the earliest period of their 
 formation the growing cells are filled with juices 
 which are more or less astringent in character, and 
 which can be readily tested by applying the tongue 
 to the juices which flow out of the cells when a young 
 pod in its immature form is cut in section. 
 
 Under the influence of the light and air these cell 
 contents undergo a chemical change, in which the 
 astringent principles are replaced by more or less 
 saccharine or neutral juices, until in the perfectly ripe 
 cotton fibre the cell walls are composed of almost 
 pure cellulose, which is one of the most neutral of all 
 chemical substances, and of which we shall have to 
 speak more hereafter. The ripening of the fibre and 
 the opening of the boll permitting the natural expan- 
 sion of the hairy contents, draw out the seeds from 
 their original position, and when the boll is fully 
 expanded it is exceedingly difficult, if not altogether 
 impossible, to separate the hairs which have their 
 attachment to each particular seed from each other, the 
 whole forming a feathery fibrous mass within which 
 the seeds are enshrined in the most irregular manner. 
 
 The appearance of the fibre when examined under 
 
DESSICATION OF FIBKE. 29 
 
 the conditions in which it is usually received for 
 commercial purposes, viz., after separation from the 
 seed by the process of ginning, and after it has been 
 subjected for some time to the pressure which has 
 been put upon it by the hydraulic press used in pack- 
 ing the bales, undoubtedly differs very widely from 
 the appearance of the fibre when it is in the process 
 of growth and attached to the seed pod. It differs 
 indeed in the same way that hay does from grass, 
 since after the separation of the fibres from the seed 
 upon which they grew a gradual process of dessication 
 sets in, accompanied by the gradual shrinking of the 
 fibre, arising from the drying up of the various cell 
 contents and consequent shrinking of the cell walls. 
 Microscopical investigation was first applied to the 
 cotton fibre by Mr. Bauer, in the year 1834, in order to 
 illustrate a paper by Mr. Thompson, of Clitheroe, on 
 the "Mummy Cloth of Egypt," but the drawings were 
 not accurate, and it was not until some time later 
 that Mr. Yarley, of London, and afterwards Mr. "Walter 
 Crum, F.E.S. of Glasgow, in 1863 made a much more 
 thorough and scientific examination, and published 
 drawings which are remarkably accurate and exact in 
 their delineation of the appearance of the fibre. 
 When examined under the microscope the general 
 appearance is that of an irregular, flattened, and 
 somewhat twisted tube, the tubular form in some cases 
 being entirely lost, and the appearance resembling, 
 more than anything else I can think of, that of 
 a wrinkled, twisted, irregular ribbon. A twisted 
 
30 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 collapsed tube is, however, the most general form, and 
 from the fact that the shrinking and collapsing is in 
 the greatest number of instances due to the dessicating 
 process which we have already named, the edges of the 
 tube still preserve a somewhat rounded appearance, so 
 that the form is not unlike that which would be pre- 
 sented by twisting and creasing a double-headed T 
 railway rail, the same as is in common use on all the 
 railways in this neighbourhood, supposing that the 
 two heads had a circular opening in the centre of their 
 section, with a thin slit down the centre of the junction 
 between the two. This peculiar form of the cotton 
 fibre renders it very easy to detect cotton when mixed 
 along with other hairs or fibres, such as wool or silk, 
 as they each present very marked individual charac- 
 teristics when compared with each other. 
 
 This will be readily seen in Plate III., where I have 
 exhibited side by side the appearances presented by 
 fibres of wool, cotton, and silk. The Chinese wool 
 presents us with the appearance of a number of cups 
 with thin irregular edges placed one within the other, 
 and forming by their successive extensions the length 
 of the hair. These cup-like rings are really a series 
 of plates or scales developed on the outer surface of 
 the epidermal layer which forms the sheath or cover- 
 ing of all animal hairs. The peculiar property which 
 wool possesses of matting or felting arises from the 
 catching of these serrated edges one within the other, 
 or rather a kind of interlocking action; and this 
 also renders wool peculiarly fitted for spinning into 
 
Plate 
 
 325 DIAMETERS. 
 
 A. Fibre of Chinese Wool. 
 
 B 
 C 
 D 
 
 E. 
 
 Leicestershire Wool 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Silk. 
 
 Mohair. 
 
SEKKATIONS ON WOOL. 31 
 
 threads, as these interlocking plates or scales prevent 
 the fibres from slipping or drawing out when once the 
 twist has been put into them. We shall afterwards 
 see that this action is accomplished in the cotton fibre 
 in a different manner. The other two fibres of wool 
 Leicestershire hog and mohair also exhibit a similar 
 scaled or serrated structure, but in each case the 
 markings are finer and less regular. In the Leicester- 
 shire wool there are about 1,450 of these serrations 
 in a single inch, while in the finest class of mohair and 
 Saxony wool they reach between 2,000 and 3,000 to 
 the inch. It may not be uninteresting to notice the 
 difference in the number of these serrations per inch 
 in other classes of wool, and also the difference in the 
 diameters of individual fibres of these different wools 
 and hairs, so that we may be able to compare them 
 with cotton. These measures are taken from average 
 hairs from the middle of the fleece, since I have found 
 them to differ considerably in different parts of the 
 animal, especially on the neck and hind quarters. 
 They may be roughly tabulated thus: 
 
 Number of scales Diameter 
 per linear inch. of fibres. 
 
 East Indian wool 1,000 -^ of an inch. 
 
 Chinese 1,200 
 
 Lincoln 1,400 
 
 Leicester 1,450 , 
 
 South Down 1,500 
 
 Merino 2,000 
 
 Saxony 2,200 
 
 Calf hair 
 
 China grass , 
 
 English flax 
 
32 STKUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 Silk presents an entirely different appearance. 
 It looks like a transparent glass rod with few 
 surface markings, and is really a rod of consolidated 
 flexible gum, composed of a material called "sericin" 
 by chemists, which is secreted from two large glands, 
 one on each side of the body of the silkworm, and the 
 grooved form which the silk fibre often presents under 
 the microscope arises from the joint or partition where 
 the product of the two large glands are made to 
 adhere together so as to form one long fibre, which is 
 sometimes continuous for more than 1,500 feet. The 
 cotton fibre is quite different from any of these even 
 in other respects than the peculiar twisted character 
 of the filaments. 
 
 When examining the fibres under the microscope 
 with reflected light, the whole surface of the tubes 
 seems to be covered over with transverse and longi- 
 tudinal ridges or creases. So much so is this the 
 case, that not unfrequently the tubes appear to be 
 corrugated in the direction of their length, but the 
 corrugations are very seldom continuous, and very 
 frequently broken by ridges in the transverse direction 
 as though there had been originally strengthening 
 rings within the tubes which had resisted the collapse, 
 and those portions of the tube are therefore prevented 
 from collapsing to the same extent just there as in 
 the intervals between them. 
 
 These apparent rings are, however, so very fre- 
 quently absent that it does not seem to me that we 
 can take them as a necessary part of the structure of 
 
APPEAKANCE OF FIBKES. 33 
 
 the tube. In others the surface seems to be more or 
 less cracked all over in very irregular patches, as 
 though the shrinking and collapsing of the fibre had 
 been accompanied by an actual rending of the external 
 sheath of the tube. 
 
 This appearance is most frequently observed when 
 the fibre presents the least appearance of tubular 
 structure, that is to say, when the edges appear to be 
 almost as flat as the centre, as though, if it ever 
 possessed a tubular structure at all, it was so thin in 
 the thickness of the tube walls that it was capable 
 of. a complete collapse at the edge as well as the 
 centre. 
 
 In samples of cotton fibre taken from the growing 
 boll, the appearance when viewed with reflected light, 
 or as an opaque object, is like a tangled series of 
 silver rods or twigs, with more or less corrugated 
 marking along them in the direction of their length, 
 formed by the folds of the outer cell wall, with its 
 waxy sheath, and exhibiting much less of the twistings 
 which are such a peculiar characteristic of the fibre 
 when in a dryer and more inspissated condition. 
 
 If transmitted light be used an entirely different 
 appearance is immediately presented. The surface 
 markings become almost invisible when compared 
 with the complicated structure which is revealed 
 within the tubular walls, and which is quite visible 
 through the transparent pellicle which forms the outer 
 coating of the fibre. Indeed, the transparency of the 
 whole fibre is so great that, except in certain cases in 
 
 D 
 
34 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 which there appears a slight endochrome or colouring 
 matter in the cell contents, the plexus of lines 
 occasioned by the dark shades of the creases on the 
 two surfaces renders it extremely difficult to make 
 out the nature of the internal structure, without sub- 
 jecting the fibre to some process which will colour the 
 interior cell walls, and thus enable their structural 
 peculiarities to be discerned. 
 
 So great is the diversity in nature that we may say 
 with truth that each fibre has a structure of its own, 
 and differs in many particulars from all its fellows. 
 Generally speaking, however, I have found that they 
 may be divided into three classes : 
 
 1. Those where no internal structure is apparent. 
 
 2. Where the structure seems to be simply tubular, 
 with a well defined transparent cell wall. 
 
 3. Where the structure is tubular, and the interior 
 of the cell filled with secondary deposits which almost 
 entirely fill up the internal cavity, giving the fibre a 
 dense, almost opaque appearance. 
 
 Of course there are various degrees in the distinct- 
 ness with which these characteristics are manifested 
 in different filaments, and some observers have made 
 many more divisions dependant upon the length, 
 thickness, and number of convolutions or twistings 
 present in the various fibres in a given length ; but it 
 seems to me that for practical purposes these divisions 
 are sufficient to cover all the various appearances 
 presented, at any rate in the cultivated cotton. 
 
 The first of these classes occur most frequently in 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES. 35 
 
 early and unripe cotton, and, singular to say, also 
 apparently in cotton which is over ripe, or has been 
 left on the tree for some length of time after the full 
 maturity of the opening of the boll has been attained. 
 In both these cases the outer sheath of the fibre 
 appears to be of extreme thinness. In the one case 
 arising no doubt, as we have already seen, from the 
 fact that the fibre has been detached from the seed 
 before the period when the filling up of the interior 
 of the elongated cellular sac which forms the fibre 
 has commenced, and the other by the process of 
 re-absorption, which always sets in when any organic 
 structure has reached maturity, and which gradually 
 while it may give an increased density to the outer 
 wall materially decreases its thickness. 
 
 There is yet another form in which this want of 
 internal structure is observed, and which is of peculiar 
 interest to us as technologists, by the tendency which 
 some of the fibres appear to have to form certain 
 portions of their length with a solid structure which 
 seems quite homogeneous and transparent, but quite 
 incapable of permeation by any of the ordinary pro- 
 cesses which will inject the other parts of the fibre. 
 
 We have an analogous case in the formation of 
 what are called " kemps " in the wool fibre, where the 
 fibre exhibits no indication of internal tube, but seems 
 to consist of a hard structureless I had almost said 
 an ivory-like consistency, where the cell lengths 
 which form the fibre appear to be smaller and closer 
 together, and where the thickness of the cell walls 
 
36 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 and their smoothness quite prevent any of that mat- 
 ting or felting action which is essential when it is to 
 be used for textile purposes. Sometimes, but not 
 very frequently, I have found this kempy structure 
 to be continuous throughout a whole fibre, and in 
 nearly all these cases I have observed that such a fibre 
 has resisted, as might have been expected from the 
 greater hardness and density of the hair, any twisting 
 or shrinking action, and appears more like a trans- 
 parent glass rod with more or less surface markings 
 almost like silk. Usually this kempy structure is 
 very irregularly distributed through the fibres, and I 
 have reason to believe that it is much more frequent 
 amongst short than long fibres, and in all probability 
 varies with the character of the weather during the 
 year, and to some extent with the nature of the soil 
 and geographical position of the place of growth. 
 We shall afterwards see that this structure is possibly 
 a case of reversion, a tendency to reproduce the form 
 of the wild variety from which the domesticated or 
 cultivated cotton was originally derived, since in the 
 wild varieties of cotton this kempy structure is much 
 more frequent. We can, however, easily see how very 
 important it is that further experiment and observa- 
 tion should be made in reference to this matter, as 
 since these solid fibres are quite incapable of receiving 
 any dye, except mechanically on the surface, they may 
 be the cause of irregularity and variation in the colour 
 of yarn and goods. So inert are these kempy fibres 
 that if a number of them be separated they resist the 
 
SOLID STRUCTURELESS FIBRES. 37 
 
 dyeing action of those colouring matters which seem 
 to have an affinity for the fibre itself, and the action 
 of which form ihe strongest argument in favour of a 
 chemical rather than a mechanical theory of cotton 
 dyeing, and however firmly the colour appears to be 
 fixed upon them it can be almost entirely removed by 
 the action of running water or mechanical friction. 
 
 I once examined a sample of Surat cotton where 
 almost every fibre exhibited irregularities in structure 
 of this character, occurring at intervals throughout 
 their length something like the knots on a corn stalk, 
 where it appeared as if their office in the economy of 
 the plant was to strengthen the tube which was quite 
 visible in the interval between these kempy rings. 
 
 I have very seldom found them in Egyptian cotton. 
 The thin, ribbon-like structureless fibres, however, 
 spoken of before, occur more or less in all cottons, and 
 are capable of receiving a slight tinctorial tinge under 
 the action of dyes, which however never seem to be able 
 to bring them up to the full standard of colour which 
 can be attained in the perfect cellular cotton. The 
 probability is, therefore, that in all bolls of cotton some 
 of the fibres never attain maturity from some cause or 
 other, either their position on the matrix preventing 
 their getting a sufficiency of light or nourishment, 
 or some other reason interfering with the perfect 
 development of the hair, and the proportion of this 
 fibre being more or less dependent on the character 
 of the season and the health of the plant. 
 
 The second class of fibres exhibit a distinct tubular 
 
38 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 structure, in which the walls of the tube are well 
 defined, but where they differ in the thickness of the 
 wall from a thin, apparently structureless transparent 
 pellicle to a solid, well-defined tube thickness, where 
 they shade into the third variety. This third class of 
 fibres appear to me to be the typical cotton fibre, 
 since they seem to possess the power of permitting 
 various dyeing materials to pass through into the in- 
 terior of the tube walls, where in some cases, they appear 
 to be retained in dense crystalline masses. When 
 acted upon in this way by many chemical reagents 
 the rigidity and solidity of the tube walls appear 
 to be increased, and in many instances its thick- 
 ness also. It seems as if in this fully-matured 
 fibre the central cells up which the sap passed 
 during the period of growth had been fully absorbed 
 into the tube wall, when the full length of the hair 
 was reached, and the vital action which kept the cell 
 contents in activity arrested, and while the interior 
 cells are fully matured they are shrunk in towards 
 the denser walls which form the outer sheath, but 
 without losing their structure, so that they are ready 
 to be expanded again inwards when their interior is 
 filled either with fluid or solid contents, as the case 
 may be. In this class of fibres the central tube is 
 always well defined. Of course, as in the case of the 
 second class, the irregularities and twists in the fibres 
 are quite visible, and they shade into the first and 
 second varieties, but they form by far the largest 
 portion of every cotton sample; and hence, as we 
 
TYPICAL COTTON FIBRE. 39 
 
 have stated above, may be taken as the typical 
 fibre. 
 
 In Plate IV. we have a fair representation of these 
 three classes of fibre. The glassy, structureless fila- 
 ments which have resisted almost all twisting action, 
 and only in certain parts indicate the existence of a 
 tubular structure; the thin, pellucid unripe fibres 
 which have such attenuated walls that they look like 
 a flattened ribbon, shading into a well-defined tube 
 wall and twisted into corkscrew form; and the fully 
 matured fibres, where the tubular form is perfect and 
 the twisting regular and symetrical, while the tube 
 walls are solid and present distinct evidences of 
 cellular or laminated structure. 
 
 We may therefore define a typical cotton fibre as a 
 long tubular compound vegetable cell, from 1,200 to 
 1,500 times as long as it is broad. The outer or 
 enswaithing sheath of which appears to be a con- 
 tinuous liber cell of pure cellulose, similar to those 
 which occur at the -outside of the cambium-layer of 
 dicotyledons, or the cells which form the outer part 
 of the fibro-vascular bundles of monocotyledons, and 
 which are also found in the branches of those contain- 
 ing no spiral structures; and the inner or thickening 
 layers of the tube consist of secondary cellular 
 deposits upon this outer epidermic layer, or else are 
 formed by a gradual thickening of that layer itself 
 arising from the consolidation of the protoplasm or 
 juices which supply nutriment, and which by in some 
 measure preventing the collapse of the thin outer 
 
40 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 sheath, strengthen and render it more elastic and 
 expansible. The extreme outer layer appears to be 
 formed of a continuous membrane, since no power 
 which I have been able to apply to the microscope has 
 enabled me to detect even the most minute openings 
 through its substance, and it is on to this elementary 
 pellicle that the cellular layers which appear to form 
 the thickness of the tube walls are deposited in such 
 a manner that they are, while united to it, still capable 
 of being separated from it into distinct laminae. I 
 am aware that there are many botanists who make 
 a distinction between the primary layer of liber cells 
 and the thin pellicle which forms the sheath of such a 
 vegetable hair as cotton, but after all the difference is 
 only one of degree not real kind, since it is extremely 
 probable that the thickening of these hair walls arises 
 from the successive deposits which occur within them 
 during the process of growth, exactly in the same way 
 as within the liber cell of wood fibre, only that these 
 secondary deposits are not concentric like the layers 
 within the liber cell of wood fibre, but consist in the 
 development of a series of cells one over the other, 
 but whose walls are collapsed in upon each other, and 
 which do not, except with the use of reagents, usually 
 exhibit any signs of cellular structure ; and in section, 
 from their extreme tenuity, they can hardly be distin- 
 guished from a thickening of the outer pellicle or 
 sheath itself. Hence, in the process of growth from 
 the first formation of the hair within the boll to the 
 mature fibre as it is fully ripe and ready for picking, we 
 
Plate IV 
 
 325 DIAMETERS. 
 
 A. Glassy, Structureless fibre. 
 
 B. Thin,pelucid, unripe fibre. 
 
 C. Half ripe fibre, with thin Cell wall. 
 D and E . Fully Mature and ripe fibre 
 
 with full twist and thick, 
 well defined cell wall. 
 
SECTIONS OF COTTON FIBRE. 41 
 
 have every possible stage of this formation presented 
 to us, from the immature fibre, where the thickening of 
 the outer sheath has not yet begun, up to the perfectly 
 ripe cotton. 
 
 In that stage of early growth, either within the 
 unopened boll or just after its first opening, where 
 the length of the tube is almost reached, a cross 
 section of the hair presents us with only a single 
 line like the cross section of a steel band, presenting 
 no structure, or at most only a single line to indicate 
 that it has any internal opening, the same as would 
 be exhibited by an exceedingly thin tube squeezed 
 flat under such pressure as to completely collapse 
 the tube and form it into a ribbon. As the develop- 
 ment of the hair proceeds the thickness of the tube 
 wall increases, and the ribbon-like structure gives 
 place to a more and more distinct tubular form, when 
 a central opening appears down the centre of the oval 
 hair section. 
 
 In the perfectly ripe cotton the tubular form is 
 distinctly seen in section, although from the want of 
 strengthening layers or rings, or the deposit of the 
 secondary layers in the spiral form, which always 
 gives increased rigidity, the shape is very seldom 
 cylindrical; indeed, I have never seen it so except at 
 the extreme end of the fibre, where there appears to 
 be a tendency to form a more solid structure on 
 account of the less diameter of the tube in proportion 
 to the thickness of the walls. 
 
 Plate V. exhibits a number of these sections, where 
 
42 STRUCTUEE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 the different stages of growth are clearly seen. The 
 young unripe fibres which show no indications of 
 tubular structure, or only a faint line at the edges 
 of the ribbon, and the half-developed filaments where 
 the attenuated tube walls have a certain thickness, 
 but are quite distinct from the full round tube walls 
 which mark the perfect maturity of the fibre. In all 
 cases, except at the extremity of the hairs, however, 
 even the fully-matured fibres exhibit a more or less 
 collapsed condition of the tube, which evidently arises 
 from the drying-in of the cell contents, and we shall 
 afterwards see that under the action of certain 
 reagents the sections may be made to assume a much 
 more rounded and full appearance. 
 
 It is extremely difficult, on account of the disad- 
 vantage under which I have laboured in not being 
 able to examine the cotton pods as they present their 
 various aspects of growth upon the trees in their 
 native fields, to say exactly the whole of the conditions 
 which the fibres present in their various stages of 
 development; and when the cotton has been picked, 
 ginned, pressed, and transhipped, it is not unlikely 
 that the cells composing the inner layers will have 
 shrunk from the gradual drying up or transfusion of 
 their cell contents, and become closed in upon the 
 wall formed by the outer epidermic layer, when they 
 will form along with it by the gradual drying up of 
 the gummy matter which forms the residuum of their 
 inspicated juices, a more or less homogeneous structure, 
 in which it is only to be expected it would be all but 
 
Plate V 
 
 450 DIAMETERS. 
 
 Sections of Cotton Fibre. 
 
 A. Unripe unmatured fibres. 
 
 B. Half ripe fibres. 
 
 C. Fully matured and ripe cotton. 
 
 D. Section of fibre showing laminated 
 
 cell walls. 
 
LAMINATED STRUCTURE OF FIBRE. 43 
 
 impossible to make out these thin secondary cell walls, 
 especially in cross section. This indeed appears to be 
 the case, and in no single instance have I been able to 
 make out clearly the exact mechanical form which 
 this thickening of the fibre in ripening assumes in cross 
 section, although I have had several instances when a 
 more or less laminated appearance has presented itself. 
 This appearance of lamination of the tube thickness 
 in cross section has to be carefully distinguished from 
 the lines which are produced by the interference of 
 the luminous rays, and which, as all microscopists 
 know, are very apt to be formed at the edges of 
 objects which present a sufficient thickness to cause 
 a sensible retardation of the rays of light passing 
 through the object and those passing close by the 
 edge of it; and especially when the object glass is not 
 quite in focus, or not quite corrected for the thickness 
 of the covering glass. Making all allowance, however, 
 for these optical illusions, I have met with several 
 instances where a distinct lamination has been visible 
 when examined by direct sunlight, especially when 
 the tube walls have been injected with coloured 
 solutions as when in the dyed state; and they have 
 been easy to distinguish from these diffraction lines 
 by the fact that they were not continuous, but irregu- 
 larly distributed through the cell wall, where they 
 made themselves manifest by the more or less shady 
 appearance which the illuminated tissues presented 
 when compared with the enclosed spaces. 
 
 In a series of experiments, which I shall in my 
 
44 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 next lecture more fully detail, I found that certain 
 chemical reagents acted unequally upon all parts of 
 the cell walls, some portions of which were more 
 readily dissolved than others. It seems, therefore, 
 probable that in the tube wall the inspissated juices 
 which formed the cell contents, and which were 
 arrested in their change when the vital action of the 
 cell was stopped, form a cementing gum which closely 
 unites the cell walls together, and, while they confer 
 a certain amount of rigidity to the tube walls, also 
 resist the entrance of any fluids, and render any 
 process of dyeing more difficult and uncertain. They 
 also form a medium through which the light is more 
 perfectly transmitted than if the cell walls were in 
 the form of separate laminae, and thus render the 
 optical examination of the structure of the fibre much 
 more difficult and uncertain. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 45 
 
 LECTUKE II. 
 
 IN our last lecture we considered the general scope 
 of our subject, and went more particularly into 
 the botanical relations of the cotton fibre and the 
 method of its growth. 
 
 We also looked at the general structure of the fibre 
 as it is presented to us in the ordinary cotton of 
 commerce, and saw that such cotton really consists 
 of fibres which differ considerably in their charac- 
 teristics, and which differences arise from the various 
 stages of growth of the fibres, as well as from 
 malformations and other accidental circumstances. 
 We saw that the fibres usually present in any sample 
 of ordinary cotton might be divided generally into 
 three distinct classes, which shade into each other, 
 and the general characteristics of each of these classes 
 may be seen from the examples figured in Plate IV. 
 
 We also arrived at the conclusion that the fully 
 ripe and typical cotton fibre consists of a hollow 
 cylindrical tube, with well-defined walls composed 
 of cellulose, and which walls appear to increase in 
 
46 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 thickness as the ripening process advances towards 
 maturity. 
 
 It is a matter of considerable difficulty to determine 
 the exact method in which the tube walls become 
 thickened in the ripe fibre, because previous to the 
 bursting of the pod within which the seeds with their 
 hairy filamentous covering are enshrined, the cotton 
 fibres themselves present the most attenuated appear- 
 ance without the least indication of any well-defined 
 tube wall, and it is not until they are exposed to the 
 sun and air that the swelling and thickening up of 
 the thin pellicle which forms the outer sheath of the 
 cotton fibre takes place. It was formerly supposed 
 that there was a variation in the method in which 
 this occurred in the cotton fibre from that which is 
 the general rule amongst ordinary vegetable cells, and 
 which consists in the formation of secondary deposits 
 within the liber walls which constitute the exterior 
 envelope. 
 
 This appeared all the more probable, because there 
 was an apparently entire absence in the cultivated 
 cotton fibres of any of those special forms of deposit 
 which confer rigidity and strength upon the cell wall, 
 and which it seemed, judging from analogy, would 
 have been present more or less in such an elongated cell 
 as a cotton fibre. These special characters generally 
 present themselves under two different types, accord- 
 ing to the extent to which they cover the primary 
 membrane. In one case they are applied as a general 
 layer over the cell wall, absent merely at dot-like or 
 
ACTION OF EEAGENTS ON FIBRE. 47 
 
 slit-like points where they do not cover the primary 
 membrane, and thus give rise to a pitted structure 
 sometimes appearing even reticulated. In the other 
 case, the secondary deposits are more sparing in 
 quantity, and are applied over lines which form a 
 definite pattern upon the primary liber wall, and 
 which generally assumes a spiral form in the direction 
 of the major axis of the cell. 
 
 The absence of any indication of this spiral form 
 of deposit within the walls of the ordinary cotton of 
 commerce seemed to indicate that there was a special 
 method in which the thickened cellulose membrane 
 was formed, and I carefully examined a very large 
 number of fibres with a view to determine how this 
 took place. In working at this subject, I may 
 mention, for the information of those who wish to 
 follow up the work, that I found a solution of iodine, 
 chloride of zinc, and iodide of potassium, treated with 
 sulphuric acid (as recommended by Professor Schultz), 
 a very useful reagent, and with it was able to detect 
 a distinct spiral tendency in some samples of Austrian 
 gun cotton, which of course had previously been 
 treated to change it from ordinary cotton into gun 
 cotton with a strong solution of sulphuric and nitric 
 acid. Through the kindness of Mr. Higgin, of 
 Liverpool, I was supplied with a very fine collection 
 of mounted specimens of cotton fibre, which were 
 collected by him some years ago, and which range from 
 the wild cotton of Africa to the finest Sea Islands 
 cotton from Edisto; and the result of this examination 
 
48 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 has modified the opinions which I formerly entertained 
 respecting the possibility of secondary deposits in the 
 spiral form occurring within the cotton fibre, since 
 there is no doubt but that it is distinctly visible both 
 in the wild African cotton and in a specimen of rough 
 Peruvian. In the latter it is especially noticeable. It 
 therefore appears that cotton is no exception to the 
 ordinary growth of vegetable structures, and that 
 the thickening of the tube walls arises from the 
 presence of secondary deposits which, in the wild 
 state, may assume a spiral form, so much so that they 
 prevent the collapse of the tube walls, and resist any 
 bending or twisting of the fibres themselves, which 
 look more like hairs or some other vegetable fibre than 
 cotton. Cultivation seems to produce a lessening of . 
 this tendency to the spiral form in the secondary 
 deposits and a greater liability to the collapsing of 
 the tube walls from the fibrillse being disposed more 
 or less longitudinally. The twisting of the fibre 
 itself, which is so marked a feature in the ordinary 
 commercial cotton, especially when fully ripe, may 
 therefore be the indication of a remote ancestoral 
 tendency, and is a characteristic which we shall after- 
 wards see is of great importance in cotton as a raw 
 material for technical purposes. 
 
 The fibres of wild cotton exhibit the appearance 
 of very large and weak tubes when compared with 
 cultivated specimens, and while they are somewhat 
 curved, and possess traces of joints at irregular 
 intervals, their rigidity and inflexibility render them 
 
Plate VI 
 
 300 DIAMETERS. 
 
 Cotton Fibres showing Spiral Structure 
 
 A and B. Fibres of Wild African Cotton. 
 C and D. Fibres of Coarse Peruvian Cotton. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF CELL WALLS. 49 
 
 quite unfit for manufacturing purposes. Plate VI. 
 gives a general idea of the appearance presented by 
 the wild fibres, in which the spiral structure is 
 distinctly visible, and the fibres of rough Peruvian 
 cotton probably supply us with an example of the 
 tendency which all domesticated plants exhibit to 
 revert to the original stock when more or less 
 neglected in cultivation. 
 
 In the cultivated cotton it is not easy to determine 
 the exact manner in which the cell walls of the fibre 
 are mechanically constructed, for there are strong 
 reasons for believing that the secondary deposits are 
 not concentric, but probably form a series of extremely 
 flattened cells, which can by dessication close in upon 
 the original membrane, so that they cause the wall to 
 appear extremely thin when in the dried state, but 
 form a more or less spongy form of cellulose, which 
 readily increases in volume by the imbibation of any 
 soluble matter with which the fibre may be brought 
 into contact. I have not, however, been able to make 
 out so distinctly as I should have liked the exact 
 structure of these walls, on account of the fact that 
 the great transparency of the cellulose pellicles which 
 form this compound inner sheath, resists, even when 
 treated with reagents, the highest microscopic powers, 
 but it is quite clear that they must be built up in 
 some way which permits of their being increased 
 in thickness by the action of certain reagents upon 
 them, which force asunder the layers or cells of which 
 they must be composed, 
 E 
 
50 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 In 1863 a series of experiments, with a view to 
 determine this point, were made by Mr. Chas. O'Neill, 
 of Manchester, who treated the cotton fibres with a 
 reagent suggested by Schweitzer, viz., an ammoniacal 
 solution of oxide of copper, which possesses the 
 power of dissolving cellulose without decomposing it. 
 Writing on this subject, he says: "I believed that 
 in cotton hairs I could discern four different parts. 
 First, the outside membrane, which did not dissolve 
 in the copper solution. Second, the real cellulose 
 beneath, which dissolved, first swelling out enormously 
 and dilating the outside membrane. Thirdly, spiral 
 fibres, apparently situated in or close to the outside 
 membrane, not readily soluble in the copper liquid. 
 These were not so elastic as the outside membrane, 
 and acted as strictures upon it, producing bead-like 
 swellings of a most interesting appearance ; and, 
 fourthly, an insoluble matter, occupying the core of 
 the cotton hair, and which resembled very much the 
 shrivelled matter in the interior of quills prepared 
 for making pens. It is interesting to note that the 
 outside membrane, which was insoluble in the men- 
 struum, and impermeable to it, could not be found 
 on cotton which had been submitted to the treatment 
 of the usual bleaching process ; it had either been 
 dissolved away, or, what seems most probable, some 
 protecting resinous varnish had been removed, and 
 then it became soluble. The same general results 
 were obtained by acting upon cotton with sulphuric 
 acid and chloride of zinc, and by acting upon certain 
 
EXPERIMENTS WITH SOLVENT. 51 
 
 kinds of gun cotton with ether and alcohol. Mr. 
 Dancer, of Manchester, an experienced microscopist, 
 repeated these experiments- some time after, and he 
 saw all that I described, but considered that the 
 spirals seen did not exist in the cotton hair, but were 
 formed by the twisting or rotating of the hair under 
 the influence of the solvent. "* In repeating these 
 experiments, I found that the appearances varied 
 with the nature of the cotton and the degree of 
 maturity which the fibre had attained. In the 
 thin, pellucid hairs, where the ribbon-like structure 
 pertained, most of them were dissolved without 
 showing any indication of structure whatever, but 
 they curled up under the influence of the solvent, 
 almost looking as if they were alive. The distinctly 
 tubular fibres swelled out something in the same way 
 as when treated by the Mercerising process of which 
 we shall have shortly to speak and then dissolved, 
 without showing any traces of structure or cell con- 
 tents; but in some of the more opaque and sturdy 
 fibres a distinct separation into layers was visible, and 
 a coagulation of the inner cell contents not unlike 
 the pith in a quill pen described by Mr. O'Neill. In 
 treating the fractured end of a rough Peruvian fibre, 
 where the inner layers of cellulose were drawn out 
 from the outer layer, there was a distinct separation 
 into fibrous bands, which resisted the action -of the 
 solvent longer than the enclosing layers, and in some 
 
 * Calico Printing, Bleaching, and Dyeing. By Charles O'Neill, F.C.S. 
 Vol. ii., page 2. 
 
52 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 even an indication of a double spiral structure; but 
 no power at my command with the microscope, and 
 no reagent which I could use, revealed to me a 
 cellular structure either in the cellulose layers amidst 
 which these spirals were embedded or in the outer 
 sheath or membrane which enclosed the whole fibre. 
 
 I was specially anxious, if possible, to resolve this 
 outside membrane into its constituent cells, so as to 
 detect the mechanical cause of the separation of the 
 anular layers when subjected to the action of certain 
 chemicals, and believe that it is really, notwithstand- 
 ing its great length, one continuous cellular layer ; 
 and probably those within are similarly continuous 
 and of great tenuity. In the common cotton sedge 
 (Eriophorum polystachyum), which is not, however, a 
 true cotton, the division of the cells is quite distinct, 
 and it is quite possible that this might also be seen if 
 looked for in the coarsest staples of wild cotton grow- 
 ing in its native habitat. 
 
 In 1850 a discovery was made by Mr. Jno. Mercer. 
 He found that if cotton fibres were soaked in a solution 
 of caustic soda of a specific gravity of 1*3 or 1*4, 
 they became stronger and fuller, converting thin and 
 coarse cloth into strong and fine, and at the same 
 time giving greatly increased and improved powers 
 of receiving colour, and also making the colours more 
 permanent. Thus three important and very remark- 
 able alterations occur at the same time, the fibre 
 becomes stronger, it acquires increased attraction for 
 colouring matter, and it also becomes finer. It 
 
MERCERISING PROCESS. 53 
 
 frequently happens that chemical processes have a 
 weakening action on the fibres subjected to them, 
 but in this case it is the reverse, and for which a 
 probable explanation can be given. 
 
 The cost of this Mercerising process seems, however, 
 to have hindered its adoption in practice, and the 
 results which were anticipated to flow from the 
 discovery have not been realised to the extent which 
 seemed probable when it was first announced, while 
 the improvements in spinning, which enable finer and 
 fuller yarns to be produced, have in some measure 
 rendered it unnecessary in a large class of goods. 
 
 In a valuable paper communicated to the Chemical 
 Society, and published in the " Chemical Journal " 
 for 1863, Mr. Walter Crum, F.R.S., pointed out that 
 if the unripe and perfectly flat cotton fibre is sub- 
 jected to this process, it at once assumes the round, 
 solid form of ripe cotton, differing from the naturally 
 matured and ripened fibre only in being smaller, more 
 generally cylindrical, and in having a larger aperture 
 in the centre; and he adds "It may now appear 
 not improbable, that, by the natural process of ripen- 
 ing, an effect is produced similar in character to that 
 which is given to the unripe fibre by artificial means, 
 and that the natural expansion may be ascribed, 
 not to the importation of a new kind of matter 
 coating the interior of the original cell wall, but to 
 a strengthening and rendering elastic of the mem- 
 brane already existing of the wall itself, so as to 
 produce the separation from each other of the cells or 
 
54 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 laminae, or other structure of which it must consist." 
 If this be the case, the tube walls of a fully-matured 
 and ripe cotton fibre really consist of a series of 
 tissues of pure cellulose, which are separated from 
 each other by series of intervals of more or less dense 
 cellular tissue, forming a series of capillary surfaces, 
 which can act with the utmost energy upon any 
 liquids in which the fibre may be immersed, and 
 which will account in the fullest manner for the 
 extraordinary absorbent power which the cotton fibres 
 possess. 
 
 He believed that the thin, pellucid outer sheath 
 of cellulose acts as a dialyser, and under the laws of 
 osmotic action the surrounding liquid passes into the 
 inner cells, whose thin transparent walls act in like 
 manner, and by a series of these actions the liquid is 
 gradually passed inward, until it finally reaches the 
 inner tube itself. Upon these observations he formed 
 the opinion that the dyeing of cotton was almost a 
 purely mechanical operation; but as we shall have to 
 look at this question more fully in our third lecture, 
 we may dismiss it for the present. This dialysing 
 process will of course take place to the greatest 
 degree when the formation of the cotton fibre has 
 been most perfect, and when, as in the fully ripe and 
 mature fibre, all the cell contents have been changed 
 into pure cellular tissue, leaving the free cellular 
 spaces perfectly unfilled, and therefore like so many 
 capillary tubes, able to exert the utmost force of 
 which they are capable in drawing inward and retain- 
 
COTTON OIL. 55 
 
 ing any liquids which may be presented to the outer 
 surface of the prepared tube walls. We say prepared, 
 because, associated with the seed, and also to some 
 extent with the fibre itself, there is a peculiar waxy oil 
 which resists, so long as it remains on the surface of 
 the outer sheath, the entrance of any liquids through 
 the membrane which has not a solvent or chemical 
 action upon it. The quantity of this oil contained 
 in the seed and fibre varies with the seasons and with 
 the degree of ripeness of the boll. Large quantities 
 of cotton seed oil are expressed from the seeds after 
 the process of ginning is completed, and the presence 
 of this oil, to a more or less extent, in the cells and 
 on the surface of the cotton fibre, as an oily wax, is 
 probably one of the causes why an elevated tempera- 
 ture which is essential, especially to fine spinning 
 is necessary in the manufacture of cotton into yarn. 
 As the temperature falls the oily wax tends to 
 become stiff and gummy, and prevents the proper 
 drawing of the fibre; while its presence amongst the 
 thin laminations of the cell walls gives a greater 
 elasticity to the fibre, and render it less liable to 
 sudden rupture. The gradual drying up of the more 
 volatile portions of this oil in the fibre, leaving the 
 remaining portion thicker and stiffer, may also, and 
 probably does, account for the fact noticed by most 
 spinners, that new crop cotton seems to work better 
 and makes less waste than as the season advances, and 
 which I have often heard expressed in the words 
 "New crop cotton has more nature in it." Upon the 
 
56 STKUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 presence of this oil also depends the "setting" pro- 
 cess, which all cotton fibres require after they are 
 spun into yarn, in order to increase its strength and 
 take away the curl produced by the twist in the 
 thread, a process which in the case of single yarns 
 is usually accomplished by keeping them for some 
 time in a cold and moist place, where the natural oil 
 becomes stiffened and dry after the high temperature 
 to which it has been subjected in spinning, and in the 
 case of yarns for doubling purposes by subjecting 
 them to a high temperature under steam pressure 
 before the process of doubling the threads. There is 
 also a certain time required before the fibres, which 
 have been subjected to torsion in the putting in of 
 the twist, acquire a permanent set in the new position 
 which their substance is forced to assume in the thread. 
 A part of the setting process also depends upon the 
 subsidence of the electrical excitement which is in- 
 duced in the hair by the friction to which it is 
 subjected in the manufacturing process. This is often 
 seen in winter time, in dry frosty weather, especially 
 in combed yarns, where the fibres are mechanically 
 drawn out by the action of combing, and this electrical 
 excitement renders them wild and hairy until they 
 have been left for some time in a moist place or in 
 a vacuum. This action can be prevented to a 
 certain extent by placing the machinery in metallic 
 connection with the steam or gas pipes by a wire 
 the latter is best. The consideration of the nature 
 of this oily wax really brings us to the next part 
 
COTTON WAX. 57 
 
 of our enquiry respecting the structure of the 
 cotton fibre, viz., (b) in regard to its chemical 
 constitution. When the cotton has been gathered 
 and the more volatile portions of the oil evaporated, 
 there remains associated with the cellulose sheath 
 a peculiar wax, which has received the name of 
 cotton wax from Dr. Edward Schunck, F.K.S., 
 who first discovered and investigated its properties. * 
 From the fact that when this wax is perfectly 
 pure it is practically insoluble in alkalies, while 
 it is readily so in alcohol or ether, it has been 
 assumed that the wax is really deposited on the 
 surface of the outer sheath of the fibre ; and when the 
 cotton is subjected to the action of hot liquid in 
 bleaching and other processes, this wax is simply 
 melted and removed mechanically from the surface. 
 When subjected to the action of strong alkalies, the 
 natural oils and fats of the fibre are saponified and, 
 may be collected by afterwards neutralizing the 
 resulting liquid with sulphuric acid. 
 The cotton wax is composed of 
 
 Carbon 8O38 per cent. 
 
 Hydrogen 14*51 ,, 
 
 Oxygen 5-11 
 
 100-00 
 
 The composition of this wax appears to differ slightly 
 when derived from different kinds of cotton, but the 
 
 * Memoirs of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, vol. iv., 
 third series, page 95. 
 
58 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 above is the average derived from the American fibre. 
 The wax fuses at a temperature of 186'8Fah., and 
 solidifies at 179'6Fah. ; while the wax derived from 
 Dhollerah cotton has the same melting point, but 
 does not solidify until it has reached 177'8Fah. 
 Both these waxes bear a similarity to cerosine, a wax 
 prepared from the leaves of the sugar-cane and the 
 Carnauba palm (Corypha cerifera), the composition of 
 which we give to show the difference : 
 
 Sugar-cane Wax Carnauba Wax. 
 
 Carbon 81-00 80-36 
 
 Hydrogen 14-16 13-07 
 
 Oxygen 4-84 6-57 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 Dr. Schunck prepared this cotton wax by boiling 
 500 Ibs. of Middling Orleans cotton spun into 20's 
 yarn, so as to remove all mechanical impurities, in a 
 strong solution of soda ash for seven-and-a-half hours. 
 The result was a dark brown liquor, which, when 
 treated with sulphuric acid, precipitated a light brown 
 flocculent matter, which settled to the bottom of the 
 vessel, and was separated by filtration. When dried 
 and inspissated, a brittle horn-like mass was obtained, 
 American cotton yielding about 0'48 per cent, of this 
 substance and Dhollerah cotton about 0*337 per cent. 
 I mention this because in repeating these experiments 
 I have found that the quantity of the precipitate 
 obtained varies with the district from which the 
 cotton is obtained, and also from year to year from 
 
FATTY ACIDS. 59 
 
 the same district ; and the oily wax, therefore, being 
 variable in quantity, will no doubt affect the spinning 
 properties of the cotton in different seasons, as well 
 as its chemical reactions afterwards. 
 
 Along with this wax there is also a fatty acid, 
 which is white and solid, and which by analysis has 
 been proved to be identical with margaric acid, which 
 is composed of C 34 H 34 4 . There seems reason to 
 believe, however, that this fatty acid is really a 
 mixture of two other fatty acids, probably stearic 
 and palmitic acids, but the quantity obtained from 
 even a large weight of cotton fibre is so small as to 
 prevent their being crystallized out for specific 
 investigation. The largest soluble constituent, 
 however, is pectic acid, a highly complex hydro- 
 carbon; and Dr. Schunck is of opinion that the loss 
 which cotton sustains in weight by bleaching, and 
 which amounts to about five per cent., results from a 
 change in this pectic acid to parapectic acid, or some 
 such other substance, which is derived from the action 
 of the alkalies upon the pectine, and which are soluble 
 in water and not precipitated by the after neutraliza- 
 tion by sulphuric acid. 
 
 It will appear evident to all, that just in proportion 
 as any cell contents remain within the fibre, they will 
 resist the entrance of any extraneous matter; and as 
 all the juices of growing fibres are more or less un- 
 stable chemical compounds, when compared with the 
 fixed stability and neutrality of the cellulose, into 
 which they ultimately change, when the process of 
 
60 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 growth and ripening is complete, they will, if any 
 unchanged juices remain within the liber walls, act 
 with more or less energy upon any mordant or dyeing 
 materials with which it may be necessary to impreg- 
 nate the fibres, and interfere more or less with the 
 perfection of the dyeing process. When perfectly 
 ripe, the cotton fibre consists of almost perfectly 
 pure cellulose, a substance which is composed of 
 C 6 H 10 5 , and which possesses little affinity for 
 almost any other substances or reagents except very 
 strong acids or alkalies. 
 
 The exact composition of cellulose in 100 parts is 
 as follows : 
 
 Carbon ; 44-444 
 
 Hydrogen 6173 
 
 Oxygen 49-383 
 
 100-000 
 
 These numbers are the composition calculated from 
 the formula. The direct results of analysis of different 
 samples yield slightly different numbers, as will be seen 
 below, where analyses by Dr. Gladstone and Professor 
 Pettenkofer yielded the following quantities : 
 
 Gladstone. Pettenkofer. 
 
 Carbon 44-37 44-50 
 
 Hydrogen 7'24 6-10 
 
 Oxygen 48-39 49-40 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 The arrangement of the atoms in the cellulose 
 
CELLULOSE MOLECULE. 61 
 
 molecule may probably be represented by the follow- 
 ing diagram 
 
 H H H 
 
 I I I 
 H-C-C=C=C-C-C-H 
 
 II II 
 00 000 
 
 II III 
 
 H H H H H 
 
 Here we have a central carbon atom uniting the 
 two halves of the carbon chain with double bonds, 
 while the hydrogen and oxygen atoms are united to 
 the other carbon units by single bonds. From this it 
 appears probable that the oxygen and hydrogen atoms 
 are not arranged in the molecule in the form of 
 water, but in the form of hydroxyl, while five of the 
 hydrogen atoms are directly united to the central 
 carbon chain. It seems, indeed, almost impossible, 
 with a due regard to the atomicity of the constituent 
 atoms, to arrange them in any way, within the mole- 
 cule, in which the oxygen and hydrogen shall be 
 associated in the form of water, and it therefore 
 appears that any moisture which is usually found 
 associated with the cellulose, under ordinary con- 
 ditions, is not an integral portion of its molecular 
 structure, but simply mechanically associated, or 
 present as water of crystallization along with mineral 
 impurities, or as a part of the liquid cell contents, or 
 else in some very feeble form of chemical combination 
 along with the cellulose itself as water of hydration. 
 
 This is an important point, because we must remem- 
 ber that along with the cotton fibre there is always 
 
62 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 more or less water constantly present. In the new 
 crop cotton this is more abundant than when the 
 bales have been left for some time in a dry ware- 
 house, so that any water which is only mechanically 
 associated has had time to evaporate ; and there is 
 strong reason to suppose that in some instances, 
 both in America and other countries, the fact that 
 water costs little and weighs much is not altogether 
 forgotten. Apart, however, from any addition of 
 water with fraudulent intent, there is always a certain 
 quantity present, which passes off when the cotton is 
 exposed in a loose condition in a room or warehouse 
 at about 60 Fah. This quantity of water varies with 
 different seasons from one to about four per cent, in 
 the new crop, and rather less as the season advances. 
 Above 2 per cent, of moisture however seems to be an 
 excessive quantity even in new crop cotton, and when 
 more than this is present it is either the result of a 
 wet season and the cotton has been packed before 
 drying, or else it has been artificially added. When 
 this has been removed, however, there is still a 
 further quantity which evaporates off when the fibre 
 is subjected to a higher temperature. This amount 
 of moisture may be looked upon as essential and not 
 artificial. It forms, in fact, what is known as water 
 of hydration, which seems to be associated with the 
 fibre, and united to it in a kind of feeble chemical 
 combination, and depends probably upon the same 
 cause as that which enables fibres to attract and retain 
 colouring matter, or absorb gases in large proportions 
 
WATEE OF HYDKATION. 63 
 
 as compared with their own volume. If this water 
 is removed, by subjecting the fibre to a high tem- 
 perature, it is speedily replaced when the fibre is left 
 in the ordinary condition as regards temperature, and 
 the fibre presents a harsh, wiry feeling, until it is 
 replaced, and looks wild and hairy. 
 
 In order to test the quantity which we may suppose 
 this water of hydration to represent, I exposed a 
 number of cotton samples for some weeks in a room 
 where the temperature was maintained at a heat of 
 about 60 Fah. Upon subjecting these samples to a 
 temperature of 212, which is the heat of boiling 
 water, I found that they lost weight to the extent 
 of from 5 to 7 per cent; and when they were 
 replaced in the same room for some days they 
 gradually regained all the weight they had lost, 
 showing that the fibre possessed the power of attract- 
 ing moisture from the atmosphere when drier than 
 the surrounding air. This degree of attraction varied, 
 as we might expect, with the hygrometric condition 
 of the air. All practical spinners have experienced 
 this on the large scale when the dry east wind has 
 been replaced by a moist south or south-west 
 wind; and the yarn in the mill, even with the same 
 thermometric temperature, has weighed heavier, 
 showing that it had attracted moisture. In the same 
 way, when wet, damp weather has been succeeded by 
 dry or frosty weather, the yarn has come round lighter 
 to an extent varying from an almost imperceptible 
 quantity up to 5 per cent. When the same samples 
 
64 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 were subjected to a higher temperature than 212 
 Fah. a temperature so hot and dry as to only just 
 prevent the fibre from being charred or singed, 
 a further quantity of water was lost, varying in 
 addition to that lost up to 212 Fah. by about 6 
 to 7 per cent. So that we can make the fibre, 
 from its normal condition at about 60 Fah., if we 
 raise it in an oven to the highest temperature it 
 will stand without burning, lose from 12 to 14 
 per cent, of its weight. This we may consider the 
 limit of the water of hydration, and when this is all 
 driven off, and the fibre placed in the usual condition, 
 it never, except artificially watered, quite regains 
 what it has lost. About two to three per cent, seems 
 to be due to the drying up of certain cell contents 
 which have not the power of replacing the moisture. 
 It appears, therefore, to me that we must look upon a 
 certain amount of moisture as an essential constituent 
 of the cotton fibre. Some chemists have supposed 
 that this depends entirely upon the tubular or cellular 
 structure of the fibre, so that it is only an instance of 
 capillary attraction; but the fact that if we precipitate 
 the cellulose from its solution in an ammonio-cupric 
 oxide solvent, the amorphous jelly which has no 
 capillary structure also possesses this same property, 
 militates against this view, and seems to indicate that 
 it is really a question of true chemical affinity. 
 
 When acted upon by strong nitro-sulphuric acid, 
 three of the molecules of hydrogen are replaced by 
 three molecules of nitric peroxide (N0 2 ), forming a 
 
GUN COTTOK 65 
 
 stable compound called gun cotton, or trinitfo- 
 cellulose, which appears to have the formula C 6 H 7 
 (N0 2 ) 3 5 . The nature of this change may be 
 represented graphically by something like the follow- 
 ing diagram, which may be compared with the cellulose 
 molecule already given : 
 
 H = N = H O 
 
 ll I I I H 
 
 N-C-C=C=C-C - C-N 
 
 H I I II I H 
 
 000 00 00 
 
 II III 
 
 H H H H H 
 
 This compound is insoluble in water, alcohol, or 
 ether, and is unaffected by dilute acids or alkalies. 
 Here we have all the bonds of the constituent atoms 
 saturated, just the same as in the cellulose molecule ; 
 only three hydrogen atoms have been replaced by the 
 compound nitrogenous molecules. We must remember, 
 however, that we are quite ignorant of the nature of 
 the force which keeps the atoms in their respective 
 positions, and any other form of arrangement which 
 satisfies the bonds will also fulfil the conditions 
 which we have sought to represent in the diagram. 
 It is, however, extremely probable that the atoms are 
 arranged in some such way within the molecule, and 
 they are not kept in union as was formerly supposed 
 by the general attraction of all the constituent atoms, 
 but by specific attachment to special atoms in the chain. 
 The attraction acts only from atom to atom, and while 
 F 
 
66 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 the whole system is balanced by the saturation of all 
 the bonds or affinities of the constituent atoms, the 
 conditions of equilibrium are such, that if one link in 
 the chain is broken the whole system is instantly 
 disturbed, and the atoms seek a new combination. 
 Hence the explosive character of gun cotton. When 
 acted upon by caustic soda or potash, there is 
 probably a compound molecule formed, in which 
 a molecule of sodic or potasic oxide forms a part. 
 Dr. Gladstone states that there is such a chemical 
 combination, which will resist the action of alcohol, 
 but breaks up into cellulose and soda or potash when 
 in contact with water; so that it must be exceedingly 
 unstable. Under all ordinary reagents the cellulose 
 remains unchanged, and all the reagents with which 
 it may be impregnated being unaffected by the 
 cellulose itself are left free to act in exactly the 
 same way as they would do if the cellulose was 
 not in contact with them. When acted upon by 
 strong sulphuric acid, cellulose appears to undergo 
 a change in properties without a change in chemi- 
 cal composition. It becomes hard and tough like 
 parchment, and is indeed the artificial parchment of 
 commerce. 
 
 From recent researches in dyeing it seems not 
 improbable that stable compounds are in some cases 
 formed by certain substances with cellulose, or at any 
 rate they are able to enter into such union with it, as 
 it exists in the ordinary cotton fibre, as to resist the 
 action of water and other solvents in removing them, 
 
MINERAL CONSTITUENTS. 67 
 
 although until we have much further knowledge it 
 would be presumptuous to state that they are true 
 combinations in the same sense as between acids and 
 alkaline bases. It is quite possible that since under 
 all ordinary circumstances the cotton fibre is never 
 pure cellulose, that much of the power of the fibre 
 to enter into combination with colouring matter 
 arises from the fact that the change from the original 
 juices into cellulose has not been completely effected, 
 and these untransformed and unstable compounds 
 are the acting agents, not the cotton fibre itself. 
 No cotton fibre is indeed ever perfectly pure cellu- 
 lose. There is always found associated along with 
 it, under ordinary conditions, a certain percentage of 
 water, as we have already seen, but this varies with 
 the seasons, and this along with the oil, wax, fatty 
 acids, albuminous matter, and a certain amount 
 of fixed mineral and colouring matter, renders it 
 probable that on the average there is not more 
 than about 87 per cent, of pure cellulose in any 
 American or other cotton. 
 
 The mineral matter usually consists of phosphates 
 and chlorides of potash, soda, and magnesia; and sul- 
 phates of these bodies in combination with the various 
 organic constituents of the fibres. These mineral 
 constituents were quantitatively examined by Dr. Ure, 
 and he found that in a sample of Sea Island cotton 
 they amounted to very nearly about 1 per cent., and 
 when a portion of the cotton was incinerated the 
 ashes yielded the following results when analysed : 
 
68 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Carbonate of potassium 44*80 soluble in water. 
 
 Chloride 9-90 
 
 Sulphate 9-30 
 
 Phosphate of lime 9 '00 insoluble in water. 
 
 Carbonate 10-60 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia 8 '40 
 
 Peroxide of iron 300 
 
 Traces of alumina and loss 5-00 
 
 100-00 
 
 This result was obtained from cotton which had 
 been scutched and carded, and therefore any mechani- 
 cally adhering mineral matter would be removed, but 
 a more recent determination of the composition of the 
 ash has been made where the cotton was. uncleansed, 
 just as it came from the bales. * A portion of twelve 
 different varieties of cotton were taken and burnt to 
 a white ash at as low a temperature as possible. The 
 ash was then collected, mixed, and analysed. After 
 deducting the sand the numbers were 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Carbonate of potassium 33-22 soluble in water. 
 
 Chloride 10-21 
 
 Sulphate 13-02 
 
 Carbonate of sodium 3*35 
 
 Phosphate of magnesium 8 -73 insoluble in water. 
 
 Carbonate 7-81 
 
 of calcium 20-26 
 
 Peroxide of iron , 3-40 
 
 100-00 
 
 * Sizing and Mildew in Cotton Goods, by Messrs. Davis, Dreyfus, and 
 Holland, page 16. 
 
ANALYSIS OF COTTON SAMPLES. 69 
 
 The same analysts also conducted a series of experi- 
 ments to determine the amount of sand and mineral 
 matter contained in different classes of cotton. The 
 samples were taken out of bales upon their arrival in 
 Liverpool. The following are the results: 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Sawginned Dharwar 4*16 
 
 Dhollerah 6'22 
 
 Sea Island 1-25 
 
 Peruvian (soft) 1-68 
 
 (rough) 1-15 
 
 Bengal 3-98 
 
 Sawginned Broach 3*14 
 
 Oomrawuttee 2 '52 
 
 Egyptian (brown) 173 
 
 (white) 1-19 
 
 Pernam 1-60 
 
 American 1-52 
 
 It will be seen from these figures that some varieties 
 are very low in ash, such as Sea Island, Kough 
 Peruvian, and white Egyptian; while others of them, 
 such as Dhollerah, Dharwar, Bengal, and Broach con- 
 tain considerable quantities. Some of the latter, 
 especially the Dhollerah, contained large quantities of 
 sand and was very dirty. As a rule it may be taken 
 for granted that an excess of ash much above 1 per 
 cent, arises from the presence of sand and carbonate 
 of lime, which being only mechanical impurities will 
 be removed by the processes through which the fibre 
 is passed in manufacturing it into yarn. Associated 
 along with the cotton fibre there are also small quan- 
 tities of nitrogen, amounting on the average to about 
 
70 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 0*0345 per cent., but differing in different varieties of 
 cotton as follows : 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 American 0-030 per cent. 
 
 Sea Island 0-034 
 
 Bengal 0-039 
 
 Rough Peruvian 0-033 
 
 Egyptian (white) 0-029 
 
 (brown) 0-042 
 
 This nitrogen appears to form part of the albuminous 
 matter which was found by Dr. Schunck to be con- 
 tained in the fibre, and it probably arises from the 
 presence of small quantities of the protoplasm, a 
 nitrogenous compound which filled the living cells 
 during the process of growth, and which remained 
 unchanged at the time when the growth was arrested 
 by the picking and ginning of the cotton. In some 
 cases it may also arise from, or be increased by, the 
 existence of small quantities of nitrates associated 
 with the other mineral constituents. 
 
 We have already seen that Mr. Mercer discovered 
 that strong alkaline solutions above 50 Tw. do not 
 injure but strengthen the cotton fibre ; but if the 
 solution be weak the result is different and the fibre 
 is tendered, especially if at a boiling temperature. 
 This probably arises from the destruction of the outer 
 membrane, and this may account for the fact that all 
 cottons are not alike in this respect, since the amount 
 of oil, wax, and resinous matter on the surface of the 
 fibre, being different in different cottons, enables some 
 to resist the action much longer than others, and 
 
ACTION OF ORGANIC ACIDS. 71 
 
 remain strong, while other yarn made from different 
 cotton is tendered. 
 
 Dr. Calvert, of Manchester, in a paper communi- 
 cated to the Chemical Society, was of opinion that 
 certain alkaline salts, such as silicate of soda, had a 
 deleterious action upon cotton fibre, because of the 
 tendency to become decomposed and form carbonate 
 of soda and silicic acid, which acid he thought acted 
 upon the cotton and tendered it ; and in the discus- 
 sion which followed on the paper, while there was a 
 general opinion that the long continued action of free 
 or carbonated alkali did tender the fibre, there was 
 also a belief expressed that the presence of any 
 crystalline matter in the meshes of the fibre tended 
 to cut and disrupt the cell walls, and thus in a purely 
 mechanical way destroy the tenacity of the fibre even 
 apart from any chemical action. 
 
 A series of researches were made by M. Dollfus at 
 the request of the Industrial Society of Mulhouse, 
 and conclusively proved that most of the organic 
 acids, such as citric, tartaric, and especially oxalic 
 acid, have a weakening effect upon the cellulose 
 and destroy the fibre, especially when the solutions 
 contain above 2 per cent, of the acid and are 
 accompanied by a boiling temperature, and above. In 
 making these experiments the tissues were steeped 
 in the aqueous solution of acid, dried in air, and then 
 subjected to a temperature of 176 Fah., 212 Fah., 
 and 258*8 Fah., at which temperature the fibre was 
 almost entirely broken up. 
 
72 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBKE. 
 
 Strong acids like strong alkalies do not act upon the 
 cotton fibre in the way of tendering it, but, as we 
 have already seen in the case of gun cotton, which is 
 produced by the action of strong nitro-sulphuric acid, 
 alter its molecular structure without altering its 
 appearance, strength, or mechanical properties, since 
 it can be spun and woven, as in Von Lenk's gun 
 cotton yarn and braid, and no difference observed 
 except when brought into contact with flame. Weak 
 acids, and especially when at a high temperature, 
 however, have a very energetic action upon the cotton 
 fibre, and destroy its tenacity, rendering it brittle 
 and weak. This is specially the case with the mineral 
 acids, although all acids have this effect more or less. 
 Singular as it may appear, this action seems to be 
 quite as much mechanical as chemical, for if a quantity 
 of cotton fibre be subjected to boiling acid for some 
 time and then dried, it can be rubbed into fine powder, 
 which under the microscope exhibits all the features 
 of mechanical, and scarcely any of chemical disin- 
 tegration, and the powder can be dyed the same as 
 perfect cotton fibre. It seems, indeed, as if the action 
 of the acid was exerted not upon the pure cellulose 
 itself, but upon the various foreign matters which are 
 associated in the fibre wall along with it, and thus the 
 various component cells are separated from each 
 other, the mechanical structure of the fibre walls 
 being broken up, while the chemical character of its 
 constituent cells remains unchanged. 
 
 This is really the principle upon which the recovery 
 
ABSOKPTION OF GASES. 73 
 
 of wool from worn-out mixed fabrics is based. The 
 fabric is treated with acid, which is raised to such a 
 temperature that it completely destroys the tenacity 
 of the cotton, while the wool is unchanged in its 
 fibrous nature, and when washed and neutralized can 
 be separated by a mechanical process. The singular 
 combination of chemico-mechanical action which is 
 observed in the behaviour of the cotton fibre with 
 various other substances renders it increasingly im- 
 portant that our knowledge of the subject should be 
 increased, and nowhere is this necessity for further 
 inquiry more clearly seen than in the behaviour of 
 cotton fibre with various gases. 
 
 The bleaching action of chlorine is well known, and 
 in the case of cotton it seems probable that its action 
 is rendered more energetic by the property which the 
 fibre possesses, similar to that manifested by spongy 
 platinum or bone charcoal, of concentrating a large 
 volume within its substance. Absolutely dry cotton 
 fibre can absorb at the ordinary atmospheric pressure 
 one hundred and fifteen times its own volume of 
 ammonia ; and I found that it can also absorb con- 
 siderable quantities of oxygen gas. Whether the 
 cause is the same in the case of the platinum or 
 charcoal and the cotton fibre, is a point as yet un- 
 determined ; but they all seem in certain cases to 
 possess the power of precipitating metallic oxides from 
 their solutions, and I believe this is a mechanical 
 more than a chemical act, if it is not true that all our 
 chemical changes are really mechanical, only the 
 
74 STKUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBKE. 
 
 masses of matter are so small, and the spaces through, 
 which they act so minute, that we can hardly realize 
 the similarity. 
 
 The general action of chemical compounds on the 
 cotton fibre really belongs to our third lecture, and it 
 may be sufficient to note that when cotton fibre is 
 steeped in liquid containing any chemical in solution, 
 it is almost universal that a change takes place in the 
 fibre in some way or other, since, especially if an 
 elevated temperature be employed, the fibre so treated 
 almost always deports itself in a different way, with 
 other substances, to what it would have done if it had 
 not been so treated, notwithstanding that washing and 
 other means are employed to render it chemically 
 clean. A large series of experiments were made some 
 years ago by M. Bolley, in which he treated cotton 
 fibre with a number of different reagents, and in all 
 cases he found that the chemical character of the 
 solutions in which the fibre had been immersed was 
 changed, showing that the action of the fibre was not 
 altogether mechanical, or else all parts of the liquid 
 would have been acted upon alike. Even mechanical 
 contact for a short time with the fibre seems 
 sufficient, for it is a frequent experience that 
 the contact of the finger in making a knot in the 
 grey yarn, even although quite clean except the 
 perspiration and moisture of the skin, will cause that 
 part to resist the dye, which will freely fix itself on 
 other parts of the yarn and cause defects in the goods 
 unless properly cleared previous to the dyeing process. 
 
DEFECTS IN DYEING. 75 
 
 In illustration of this, I may mention that some time 
 ago, I was sent for to look at a number of pieces 
 which were covered all over the surface with small 
 white marks where the thread seemed to have refused 
 the dye. The defects were visible in all shades, but 
 showed more distinctly in slates and blues than in 
 browns and darker shades. They were also almost 
 always associated with a knot in the yarn, or a thicker 
 place, which was the result of the necessary piecing 
 up of a roving either in the card -room or spinning- 
 room. These parts of the yarn, as all who understand 
 spinning well know, will be the places where the 
 fingers of the workpeople will have come into contact 
 with the thread. The dyer was of opinion that some 
 foreign substance, which was not cotton, was mixed 
 with the fibre, and that it resisted the action of the 
 dye which coloured the cotton, and he was all the 
 more assured of this because he had re-dyed some of 
 the pieces and could not cover the faults, although 
 grey cotton thread which had been sewn into the 
 piece as a distinctive mark came up all right. Upon 
 placing some of the undyed fibre under the microscope 
 it was found to be well formed, fully ripe cotton fibre, 
 with well developed tube walls, and I could see no 
 reason why, if the pieces had been properly cleared 
 before dyeing, so as to remove all traces of anything 
 which would prevent the dyeing solution from coming 
 into contact with the fibre, it should not dye as well 
 as any other part of the thread. A number of the 
 grey pieces out of the same lot, and woven at the 
 
76 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 same time, were accordingly sent to two other dyers, 
 and as these were properly scoured before dyeing, so 
 that every part of the thread was cleaned from any 
 grease contracted in the manufacturing process, the 
 pieces were returned perfectly dyed in every part 
 of the thread. Although comparatively insoluble in 
 nearly all ordinary solvents, the cotton fibre is com- 
 pletely dissolved in concentrated or strong sulphuric 
 acid ; and it was pointed out by Schweitzer that a 
 solution of oxide of copper in ammonia had also this 
 property, and that when the resulting compound was 
 decomposed by the addition of an acid the cellulose is 
 thrown down as an amorphous jelly chemically iden- 
 tical with cellulose. In ether and alcohol the fibre 
 is unchanged, except that the outer membrane is 
 rendered more permeable to fluids after the action of 
 these bodies, probably by the removal of the natural 
 wax which coats the surface ; but if the cotton is 
 acted upon by nitrosulphuric acid in certain propor- 
 tions, so as to produce a form of pyroxyline or gun 
 cotton, in which there is a molecule of nitric peroxide 
 less than in the explosive form, it readily dissolves in 
 a mixture of ether and alcohol, and forms the collodion 
 of commerce used for photographic purposes. 
 
 Many cottons also contain associated along with 
 them more or less endochrome, which is irregularly 
 distributed in the interior of the fibres. Along with 
 the Egyptian cotton there is always a large amount 
 of this colouring matter, which is present in sufficient 
 quantity to give a decidedly reddish-brown or golden 
 
COLOURING MATTER IN COTTON 77 
 
 colour to the fibre, and which is soluble in alcohol, 
 but what its exact nature and composition is I have 
 not been able to determine. Dr. Schunck, F.E.S., in 
 the paper before referred to, made a very careful 
 examination of the colouring matter associated with 
 American and East Indian cotton, and found that 
 it was of two kinds, one of which is readily soluble 
 in cold alcohol, and which he called A, and the other, 
 which he named B, soluble in boiling alcohol. These 
 two substances yielded, upon analysis, the following 
 results in 100 parts : 
 
 A. B. 
 
 Carbon 58-30 57-77 
 
 Hydrogen 6-12 6-05 
 
 Nitrogen 6-18 874 
 
 Oxygen 29-40 27*44 
 
 100-00 100-00 
 
 He remarks : "It will be seen that the composition 
 of the substance varied, especially as regards the 
 nitrogen, much more than it ought to have done, 
 supposing it to have been perfectly pure. In con- 
 sequence of the amorphous nature of the product, it 
 is difficult to determine whether the Indian and 
 American cotton contain two distinct colouring 
 matters, both easily soluble in alcohol, and having 
 the same general physical properties, or whether in 
 one or both cases the specimens submitted to analysis, 
 though essentially the same substance, were not 
 chemically pure. It is difficult to obtain, in a state 
 
78 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 of purity, an uncrystallizable resinous body, having 
 few characteristic properties, and the results arrived 
 at by examining such bodies are seldom satisfactory." 
 " From what has just been stated, it may be inferred 
 that, as regards their chemical properties, these colour- 
 ing matters possess very little interest. It is simply 
 the fact of their being the cause of the yellow or 
 brownish tinge natural to raw cotton which gives 
 them any importance, and makes a knowledge of their 
 properties desirable from a practical point of view. 
 The darker shade of colour seen in the so-called 
 'nankin' cotton is probably due to a great excess of 
 these colouring matters existing in the fibre. It is 
 certainly not caused by oxide of iron, since the ash 
 of this kind of cotton contains no more iron than 
 that of ordinary kinds, and the colour is for the most 
 part removed by treatment with caustic alkalies." In 
 some samples of very dark coloured Egyptian cotton 
 I have detected distinct traces of iron, some combi- 
 nation of which may be the cause of its specially dark 
 colour. 
 
 Just, however, in proportion as the action of cotton 
 upon dyes is strictly mechanical will any change in 
 its physical structure render it more or less adapted 
 for dyeing, as the alteration which takes place favours 
 or disfavours its action as an absorber or dialyser, and 
 hence the importance of a knowledge of its physical 
 structure, and the changes which it undergoes in 
 varying seasons, and under different geographical 
 and other conditions. 
 
VAKIATION IN EIPEKESS. 79 
 
 This really brings us to the second part of our 
 paper, viz. : 
 
 II. What variations from this type structure are 
 presented to us? 
 
 (a) In fibres from the same plant and grown at 
 the same time. 
 
 This part of our subject has already been to some 
 extent anticipated in the remarks which we have 
 already made in regard to the various appearances 
 which are presented by the various members of a lock 
 of cotton, and in which we have pointed out those 
 characteristics of the hair which constitute what we 
 may consider a typical cotton fibre. Unfortunately 
 I have not been able to examine as many specimens 
 as I should have liked, both on account of the limited 
 number of cotton bolls which have come into my 
 possession, and the limited time which has been at my 
 command to pursue these investigations, but I have 
 been astonished to find how wide are the differences 
 even in two contiguous bolls, in regard to the number 
 of perfect fibres and the degree of ripeness to which 
 they have attained. In order to study the growth of 
 the fibre under all its conditions I planted a number 
 of seeds in the greenhouse, and had thus the oppor- 
 tunity of observing the boll and fibre from their first 
 appearance on the tree, although they will probably 
 differ slightly when grown in the open fields from the 
 artificial conditions when under glass. There is no 
 doubt but that the ripening process is really con- 
 tinued in many fibres after the process of picking is 
 
80 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 completed, and that the drying up of the various 
 juices which are contained in the unripened fibre when 
 severed from the seed by the gin, even after the cotton 
 has been packed in bales, renders it more fit for use 
 in textile fabrics than it would be if taken immediately 
 after it has been plucked, and the mechanical process 
 of ginning which separates the hair from the seed, 
 makes an intimate mixture of the fibres from the 
 various parts of the boll, and this tends to average 
 the degree of maturity and ripeness in the whole mass 
 which is afterwards baled. 
 
 How great however is the difference in this respect 
 and in the degree of readiness with which the various 
 fibres, and even portions of the same fibre, take up 
 and retain the dyeing matter which is afterwards pre- 
 sented to them, may be readily seen by examining a 
 lock of dyed cotton under a microscope. The wonder 
 will then be, how, out of such a mass of partially dyed 
 fibres, the generally uniform appearance of dyed yarns 
 can possibly be attained. The fact is that very few 
 fibres are perfect in their mechanical structure, and 
 very few are perfectly dyed. 
 
 We shall, indeed, when we come to the third part of 
 our subject, see how the colouring matter in dyed 
 fibres is only scattered through their length in 
 detached and isolated masses, and that our most solid 
 colours are after all only broad effects obtained by the 
 reflection from the brilliant surfaces of innumerable 
 small masses of colour, whose distances of separation 
 are too small to be detected by the naked eye. 
 
STRENGTH OF FIBRES. 81 
 
 As a rule, those fibres always appear to be most 
 perfect which, from their position on the boll, have 
 come most under the influence of the sun and air, and 
 those parts of the boll which lie underneath, and have 
 been shaded and enclosed, present the largest number 
 of undeveloped fibres and abnormal growths. 
 
 It was my intention to have instituted a series of 
 experiments with a view to test the strength of 
 various fibres of different degrees of development and 
 ripeness, but from the impossibility of detaching a 
 sufficient number of fibres of the various kinds to 
 arrive at any numerical results, which could be relied 
 upon, I abandoned the intention, but I have no doubt 
 but that the maximum strength of the fibre, which is 
 after all a very important element in the manufacture 
 of yarn and cloth, depends upon the perfect maturity 
 of the growth. This has been done to a certain 
 extent by Mr. C. O'Neill, F.C.S., who in a valuable 
 paper to the Manchester Philosophical Society detailed 
 a number of experiments in reference to the strength 
 of the fibres from the different classes of cotton. He 
 arranged them as follows : Mean Breaking 
 
 strain in grains. 
 
 Sea Island (Edisto) 83-9 
 
 Queensland 147-6 
 
 Egyptian 127-2 
 
 Maranham 107 '1 
 
 Bengueld 100-6 
 
 Pernambuco 140-2 
 
 New Orleans 147*7 
 
 Upland 104-5 
 
 Surat (Dhollerah) 141-9 
 
 (Comptah) 1637 
 
 G 
 
82 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 It appears, therefore, that certain classes of Surat 
 carry the highest weight, and next in order follow 
 American, Australian, Brazilian, and Egyptian, while 
 Sea Island comes last. To make a fair comparison of 
 the relative strength we must compare these breaking 
 strains with the diameter of the fibres, and we shall 
 then see that they follow roughly the same relations, 
 viz., the fibre which carries the highest strain has the 
 largest diameter, and therefore the largest sectional 
 area to resist the breaking. In proportion to the 
 sectional area, however, the Egyptian cotton is rela- 
 tively the strongest of all ; because, while its diameter 
 is only "000,015 or T,Wtl!(Ftf(j f an i ncn larger than 
 the Sea Island fibre, it carries 4 3 '3 grains more, and 
 while it is '000,189 or T.nM.TJW f an i nc h smaller in 
 diameter than Surat it only carries 3 6 '5 grains less, 
 while in proportion it ought to carry considerably less 
 than it does, for, if the tubes were perfectly round and 
 solid, the Surat has very nearly twice the sectional 
 area of the Egyptian fibre which should therefore only 
 carry about 82 grains, whereas it carries 127 grains. 
 These results however can only be taken as approxi- 
 mate, since it is impossible to make a sufficiently 
 large number of experiments upon which to base a 
 thoroughly reliable generalization. 
 
 It follows, nevertheless, from a very simple mathe- 
 matical law, that the strength of the fibre will vary 
 with the sectional area of the tube walls, and those 
 tubes where the ripening process is complete, and the 
 secondary deposits or thickening of the tube walls, 
 
METHOD OF FRACTURE. 83 
 
 from whatever cause it may arise, carried on until the 
 central cavity becomes diminished to a mere point, 
 will present the greatest resistance to any force which 
 tends to tear the tube asunder, as well as prevent the 
 creasing of the fibre and collapsing of the walls, 
 which are often seen to be accompanied by a breaking 
 of the cell walls and consequent fracture of the tube. 
 It will frequently have been noticed by all, that if a 
 ribband of paper be taken and stretched perfectly 
 parallel, it will, even if only very thin, carry a con- 
 siderable pressure; but if the pressure is thrown 
 unequally on one side it rends immediately, for the 
 slightest tear in the edge causes it instantly to slit 
 across through to the other side. So with the flattened 
 unripe cotton fibres: the attenuated walls of the tube 
 offer no support to the edge, and rupture is the result 
 of the slightest pressure; while in the fully mature 
 and ripened fibres the thicker and denser walls resist 
 the collapse of the tube, and tend to equalize the 
 strain all round. In breaking a fibre under the 
 microscope it is not easy to see which part gives way 
 first, but from a number of experiments the process 
 usually seems to be of this nature. When subjected 
 to tension the walls have a tendency to collapse, and 
 since no fibre is perfectly round, they always, when 
 under strain, tend to depart more and more from the 
 cylindrical shape. When the flattening process has 
 gone so far as to obliterate the whole of the central 
 opening, the extreme outer structureless pellicle seems 
 to suffer rupture first, and the inner parts of the tube 
 
84 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 walls seem to slightly extend, and then the whole 
 completely severs. This severing is usually accom- 
 panied by a drawing out of portions of the secondary 
 deposits which remain, after the rupture is complete, 
 in the form of fibrous masses, giving a very ragged 
 edge to the fractured tube. 
 
 In dyed yarns which have the cellular spaces filled 
 with microscopical crystals, the tendency to rupture 
 seems to be increased by the sharp edges of the 
 crystals penetrating the cell walls, where they are 
 closed in upon the crystals by the extension of the 
 fibre when under strain. When the fibre is fully 
 matured the density of the tube walls seems to be 
 greatest, and the molecules which enter into its com- 
 position are more firmly locked together ; in fact the 
 fibres contain the largest amount of solid matter, and 
 hence they resist the greatest amount of tension. It 
 follows, therefore, that the more fully matured the 
 cotton the more is it fitted for the various uses to 
 which it has afterwards to be put in the manufac- 
 turing process, whether it be mechanical or chemical ; 
 and since this ripeness and maturity depend upon 
 the rain, and sun, and air, and freedom from the ravages 
 of insects or disease which it experiences when upon 
 the plant, it is interesting and important to notice 
 the variation in 
 
 (b) The fibres from the same plants grown in 
 different years. 
 
 Unfortunately, this can only be done by careful 
 watching over a long series of years, and can only be 
 
EFFECT OF SEASONS ON COTTON. 85 
 
 successfully carried out in the places and localities 
 where the cotton is grown ; and hence on this point 
 I can only speak from a general experience and from 
 the analogy which we may naturally suppose to be 
 presented by all vegetable growths. 
 
 It is a well-known fact that if we examine the 
 rings which are presented by the section of any 
 exogenous or dicotyledonous tree we can tell what kind 
 of seasons there have been during the life-time of the 
 tree. The space between the rings being widest in 
 those seasons where abundance of water and heat 
 has stimulated the development of the woody fibre, 
 whereas in dry seasons, where the growth of the plant 
 has been checked, the distance between the rings is 
 smaller. In the same way a good or bad harvest, 
 either of cereals or fruit, is the resultant of the sum 
 of the rain and sunshine, heat and cold, and other 
 meteorological conditions with which the vegetable 
 life of the country has been favoured, or against which 
 it has had to contend. Cotton is no exception. Some 
 years are distinguished by good and some by bad 
 crops, and as we might naturally suppose, the years 
 when the crop is most abundant are also distinguished 
 by the quality of the cotton being also generally the 
 best, because the same conditions which favoured 
 the production of a large quantity of bloom also 
 favoured the ripening and maturing of the fibres. 
 
 All who are practically engaged in the manufacture 
 of cotton know that the fibre of one year frequently 
 differs from that of another in many important par- 
 
86 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 ticufers. During some seasons it is much drier than 
 others, and it also differs to a marked degree in the 
 quantity of natural oil which is associated with the 
 fibre, possibly as a cell content, and this has an un- 
 doubted effect upon the spinning properties which it 
 possesses and the relative strength of the yarn. This 
 natural oil imparts a kindness and suppleness to the 
 fibres in working, and prevents the drying up of 
 the cell walls until they become hard and crack, while 
 its absence imparts a degree of harshness and want 
 of pliability to the fibres, which very naturally inter- 
 feres with the ease with which the fibre can be 
 manufactured into yarn. 
 
 Nor can we wonder that the effects produced by 
 these changes should also affect the character of the 
 reactions when subjected to any dyeing process, 
 especially when we remember how largely the power 
 of the fibre to absorb the dyeing materials depends 
 upon the maturity of the fibre and the freedom from 
 cell contents in the fibre which would act upon the 
 dyeing solutions, especially in the lighter shades of 
 fancy colours. So that, speaking strictly, the cotton 
 of each season requires a special manipulation, and 
 many of the anomalies which are not unfrequently 
 met with in both the spinning, dyeing, and manufac- 
 turing processes, are really the result of changes 
 which occur in the fibre from one season to another, 
 and which have passed unnoticed, being inherent in 
 the structure of the fibre and far too small to be 
 detected by the naked eye. 
 
UNCHANGED JUICES IN FIBRES. 87 
 
 The character of the season undoubtedly influences 
 the quantity of perfectly mature and ripe fibre which 
 is contained in the boll, and also the nature of the 
 chemical changes which occur in the cells of which 
 the fibre is composed. When the changes and growth 
 are complete, as in the case of perfectly ripe cotton, 
 all the astringent and acid juices are perfectly trans- 
 formed either into cellulose, sugar, or oil, and are 
 therefore neutral to the various dyeing and other 
 materials with which they are afterwards impregnated 
 in the after processes to which they are subjected ; 
 whereas, when the changes in the juices are incom- 
 plete, unless special precaution is taken in the clearing 
 process preparatory to dyeing, there is apt to be left 
 in the cells a sufficient quantity of astringent or 
 other matter which will certainly interfere with the 
 perfection of the dyeing. 
 
 One season, some years ago, when very fine Egyptian 
 yarns were being used, and the run was principally 
 upon light and delicate shades, I was called in to more 
 than one arbitration case where individual fibres and 
 masses of fibres had turned black or dark shades in 
 all those colours where salts of iron were used in the 
 dyeing process, and from the appearance of the dark 
 colouring matter in the cell walls of the individual 
 fibres, I was convinced that it arose from the presence 
 of a tannin-like body which was present in the juices 
 of the growing fibre, and which from the want of sun 
 during the growing season had never changed into 
 more neutral compounds, and therefore entered into 
 
88 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 combination with the iron, producing a kind of ink, 
 with the consequent result of producing serious 
 defects in the goods, which could not be removed out 
 of the yarn before the process of dyeing by the ordi- 
 nary methods of washing or clearing the cotton. The 
 next season, with the same shades and goods, the 
 defect hardly ever occurred, and it had seldom done 
 so the year before. 
 
 I have also reason to believe that the peculiar 
 kempy structure, about which I have already spoken, 
 is more abundant in some seasons than others, and 
 this structure from its resistance to all dyeing pro- 
 cesses will certainly interfere with the perfection of 
 the goods whenever it attains more than a certain 
 proportion of the whole of the fibres. 
 
 Another very important matter is uniformity in 
 length of fibre, since upon this, to a very large extent, 
 depends the quantity of waste which will be made 
 in the various stages of manufacture, and the degree 
 of perfection to which the various processes can be 
 carried. All our carding, drawing, and spinning 
 processes depend on an average uniformity in this 
 respect, since the setting of the cards and rollers is 
 necessarily constant for the same cotton. If the 
 length of fibre is very various, and it does not draw 
 out, as the Liverpool brokers say "with a square 
 edge," these processes are all more or less imperfectly 
 performed and irregular, and faulty yarn and cloth is 
 the result. 
 
 Different seasons present a marked difference in this 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF COTTONS. 89 
 
 respect, and when, as in bad seasons, in addition to 
 this, the irregularity is further increased by the tender- 
 ness of the staple, which tends to break up under the 
 mechanical actions to which it is subjected, the evils 
 are intensified, and the difficulties of manufacture 
 rendered greater. These differences, arising in cotton 
 grown at the same place in different years, are not 
 however to be confounded with the specific differences 
 in the nature of 
 
 (c) Fibres grown in different countries. Generally 
 speaking there is a family likeness in all cotton fibres 
 from whatever country they may come, but these 
 general characteristics are modified by the special 
 character of each of the great cotton growing districts. 
 As we have already seen, if we rank them in the order 
 of the length of the staple they may be classified as 
 (1) Sea Islands, including Australian and Australasian 
 cotton ; (2) Egyptian ; (3) Brazilian and South 
 American States; (4) American, from the various 
 parts of the United States, Sea Islands excepted; (5) 
 East Indian, or Surat cotton. 
 
 In Sea Island cotton we have the most perfect form 
 of the cotton fibre, and for its length of staple, small 
 diameter, general excellence, silkiness, and beautiful 
 gloss, it always commands the highest price, and can 
 be spun into the finest numbers. When examined 
 under the microscope it is easily seen that the general 
 structure of the fibre is of a finer texture than the 
 other cottons, and that there is usually a large pro- 
 portion of mature fibres in a boll. This probably 
 
90 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 arises from the fact that it is grown under climatic 
 conditions which are peculiarly favorable to the 
 development of all the qualities which are most 
 desirable in cotton, and it is not improbable that with 
 a careful attention to the selection of seed and irriga- 
 tion a great improvement might be made in the 
 general character of cotton fibres; indeed, I have in 
 my possession a specimen of cotton grown far from 
 the Sea Islands, in one of the American States, which 
 rivals in length and silkiness of staple any cotton I 
 have ever seen. The fineness of Sea Island cotton 
 may be illustrated by the fact that it has been spun 
 into counts as high as 2,150 hanks to the pound, so 
 that 1 Ib. of this yarn would extend upwards of 1,000 
 miles. 
 
 Egyptian cotton stands next to the Sea Island in 
 possessing all the most desirable qualities, and since 
 the introduction of the combing machine, which 
 enables the irregularities in the fibre to be adjusted 
 by the removal of all which fall below a certain 
 standard, it has been used in the production of many 
 of the finer numbers of yarn, up to indeed about 
 150's. Egyptian cotton is usually also distinguished 
 by a certain golden or brownish-yellow colour which 
 arises from the presence of an endochrome associated 
 with the cellulose which forms the fibrous sheath. 
 The introduction of American seed into Egypt has 
 however introduced a white variety, which nevertheless 
 does not fully partake of the best qualities of the nature 
 of the Egyptian fibre, but retains many of the charac- 
 
SHOKT FIBRES IN COTTON. 91 
 
 teristics of the original American cotton. There is 
 always associated, more or less, with Egyptian cotton, 
 a much shorter series of fibres, which are attached to 
 the surface of the seed, forming a sort of undergrowth to 
 the general long fibrous covering, and these short fibres 
 coming off the seed in the process of ginning render the 
 general character of the cotton less clean, and neces- 
 sitate a more careful attention to the cleaning and 
 carding processes in the earlier stages of manufacture 
 than when the American cotton is used. When 
 examined under the microscope these shorter hairs 
 appear to have the characteristics of undeveloped 
 fibre, as though they were stunted in their growth or 
 arrested in the earlier stages of development, and from 
 their possessing little or none of the necessary thick- 
 ness of tube wall to receive or retain dyeing materials 
 they are very apt to produce imperfection in the yarn 
 and goods which are manufactured out of them. 
 This peculiar undergrowth of short hairs and un- 
 developed fibre is not however entirely confined to 
 Egyptian cotton, but occurs more or less in all varieties, 
 and is, as we have already seen, one of the causes 
 which lead to what is technically called "neps" on 
 the surface of the finished yarn. There appears to be 
 a considerable difference in this respect, both in 
 different years, and even in different lots of cotton in 
 the same year, and it may possibly arise from the 
 peculiarity of the Egyptian climate where rain never 
 falls, and the irrigation is entirely dependent on the 
 height of the Nile, and which undoubtedly renders 
 
92 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE 
 
 Egyptian cotton as a rule more uncertain in its 
 character than most other cottons. Notwithstanding 
 these disadvantages, however, the Egyptian cotton 
 occupies a very important position as a raw material, 
 as in proportion to its diameter it is relatively stronger 
 than American cotton, and possesses a silkiness of 
 surface and suppleness of fibre, which enables it to be 
 used for the large mass of single yarns which lie 
 beyond the range of American cotton, but which must 
 be produced at a price much less than could be pos- 
 sible if Sea Island cotton had to be used. Similar 
 counts of yarn made out of American and Egyptian 
 cotton respectively, when examined under the micro- 
 scope, seem to differ considerably in their character- 
 istics arising from the different nature of the fibres. 
 The Egyptian cotton lies closer, the fibres the'mselves 
 seeming capable of turning a sharper angle with less 
 disturbance of the molecular structure of the fibre and 
 less tendency to rupture, and on account of the less 
 diameter of the fibres the threads, of the same counts, 
 are finer with the same twist in, that is to say, they 
 are less in diameter and yet possess an equal weight 
 of material, and a larger number of fibres in the cross 
 section of the thread. 
 
 The regularity in the diameter of the individual 
 fibres of fully ripe Egyptian cotton is also greater than 
 in any other class of cotton, and this alone is a very 
 great element of strength, because the fibres are more 
 evenly distributed in the yarn, and the ability to 
 carry strain therefore more uniform. The existence 
 
ACTION OF LIGHT AND HEAT. 93 
 
 of the endochrome in the fibre walls of the Egyptian 
 cotton, which gives it the brownish-golden colour, 
 renders it less fitted for mixing along with other 
 classes of cotton ; and I have found that this colouring 
 matter is also acted upon by light, and moist heat, 
 especially when the latter is above the boiling point, a 
 sample of Egyptian cotton becoming darker when 
 exposed to sunlight, and also when subjected to the 
 steaming process before doubling. This cause also 
 renders Egyptian yarns more liable to variation in 
 colour with different seasons of the same year, and 
 also from year to year, and oftentimes necessitates a 
 bleaching process before they can be trusted to receive 
 the lighter shades of delicate colours. All these points 
 we shall afterwards see to be matters of considerable 
 importance when we come to our next lecture. 
 
 Brazilian or Peruvian cotton fibre, which stands 
 next to Egyptian, forms a convenient connecting link 
 between it and American. It possesses in some 
 respects many of the qualities of the former, but it 
 does not possess the same regularity, especially in the 
 diameter of the fibre. Some classes of this cotton, 
 such as rough Peruvian, have a harsh wiry feeling, 
 and while possessing a long staple have a strong coarse 
 tube, with well-defined cell walls. Whether it is from 
 the nature of the conditions under which it is grown, 
 or the variability of the climate, it seems to be sub- 
 ject to considerable variations from one year to 
 another, and also to contain from some districts con- 
 siderable quantities of leaf and broken seed. Too great 
 
94 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 stress cannot be laid upon the necessity of care and 
 attention in the picking and ginning processes, which 
 are conducted in the countries where the cotton is 
 grown, as the breaking-up of the fibre, or the seeds to 
 which the fibre is attached, render the cotton far less 
 suitable for the high class of manipulative workman- 
 ship which is now demanded, and when these disad- 
 vantages are added to the necessary variation which 
 arises from bad seasons and other causes, they present 
 difficulties to the application of the fibre to technical 
 purposes which can scarcely be overcome. Some of 
 the Pernam and Ceara cottons, however, take a high 
 position, both in the perfection of the staple and the 
 general regularity of the fibre, and are largely used, 
 either by themselves, or along with American, in the 
 production of yarns, where the American staple is too 
 short for the counts when used by itself, and Egyptian 
 too dear in the whiter varieties, and too highly coloured 
 in the lower qualities to render it available. 
 
 American cotton, such as is grown in the fertile 
 regions forming the south portion of the United 
 States, is however the typical cotton fibre, the "King 
 cotton" about which we hear so much. Its general 
 uniformity, the skill with which it is cultivated, 
 gathered, and ginned, and the excellence of its 
 spinning qualities, within the range of counts where 
 by far the largest quantity of yarn is required, render 
 it pre-eminently "the cotton fibre." It is subject to 
 variations from year to year, both in regularity of 
 staple and other conditions, but in a country which 
 
AMERICAN COTTON. 95 
 
 stretches from the New England States to the Gulf 
 of Mexico, and from the stormy shores of the Atlantic 
 ocean, westward, to the Kocky Mountains and the 
 more peaceful waters of the Pacific Main, such a 
 thing as a general failure in the crop has scarcely 
 ever been known. Year by year, since the disastrous 
 civil war, the quantity of cotton raised in the United 
 States has continually increased, and under the benign 
 influences of peace it is to this great region that the 
 eyes of the world are turned, as the great garden 
 from which must come the raw material to clothe the 
 teeming millions of its population. Only a change in 
 the restrictive tariffs of the United States is required 
 to give its mighty energies free course, and enable 
 the millions which will one day people the valley of 
 the Mississippi and its tributaries, to receive the 
 countless wealth which the nations will pour into 
 their lap, in exchange for this "Snowy wool." 
 
 When examined under the microscope, as compared 
 with Egyptian cotton, its pure white colour and trans- 
 parent character strike the eye at once, as do also 
 the coarser nature of the fibre, and less general uni- 
 formity in diameter. When examined in the yarn 
 these characteristics give the thread a more loose and 
 less solid character, as though the general structure 
 of the fibres was more rigid and less yielding than 
 Egyptian, and in the fracture of the fibres themselves 
 the elasticity seems to be less. In its general charac- 
 ter, however, American cotton may be taken as the 
 representative of the typical cotton fibre. Its usual 
 
96 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 soundness of staple, and freedom of the cellulose, in 
 the fibres, from both mechanical and chemical impuri- 
 ties, render it eminently fitted for the production, 
 within a certain range, of all classes of yarns and 
 goods when colour, and regularity, and good wearing 
 qualities are desirable. It is pre-eminently the cotton 
 out of which the vast class of cotton goods for domes- 
 tic use are made, and it passes through the various 
 processes necessary in its conversion from the raw 
 state into the finished article, whether plain or 
 coloured, with less trouble and difficulty than any other 
 kind. In a word, it is the standard by which other 
 cottons are compared, and as a general thing the price 
 of American cotton rules the markets of the world. 
 
 Indian or Surat cotton stands last in the order of 
 cottons. It possesses the shortest average staple, and 
 is the coarsest in its nature, although there are some 
 classes of Surat which have a comparatively fine 
 staple, and reach their highest development in what 
 are known as Berars and the Hingunghat of the 
 central provinces. The fibres under the microscope 
 usually present the appearance of well-marked twisted 
 tubes, but they seem to be more frequently, so far as 
 my observations go, variable in the thickness of the 
 tube walls, and in the tendency to produce solid 
 instead of hollow fibres. 
 
 The production of this class of cotton received a 
 great stimulus during the scarcity of American 
 occasioned by the civil war, but since that time they 
 have not maintained the same position. The short- 
 
VARIETIES OF COTTON. 97 
 
 ness of the staple, and the large amount of fine sand 
 and other mechanical impurities associated with them, 
 render them relatively more wasteful in working than 
 American, and less fitted for the requirements of 
 manufacturers. The variability of Indian climate in 
 regard to rain-fall and drought, makes them as a rule 
 less reliable in general character than American, but 
 in favourable seasons, this cotton, either by itself for 
 low counts, or mixed along with American, possesses 
 good spinning properties, and if properly attended to 
 during the early stages of its growth and in the 
 ginning and packing processes, there is no difficulty 
 with suitable machinery in making first-class goods 
 from it. 
 
 I cannot sit down, however, without calling your 
 attention to the following table, which contains a list 
 of the specific varieties of the four great classes of 
 cotton which we have just considered. This table 
 gives the special names of the various cottons ordi- 
 narily used for manufacturing purposes, and for which 
 prices are daily quoted in Liverpool; and I have 
 appended to them in other columns the species of 
 cotton seed from which they are usually grown, the 
 district where they are cultivated, and the average 
 length of the longest staples, as well as the counts 
 into which they are ordinarily spun. These can only, 
 however, be taken as generally correct, because within 
 recent years non-indigenous cotton seed has been 
 used in all countries, with a view to improve the 
 staple or general quality of the fibre, and in manu- 
 
 H 
 
98 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 facturing there have many experiments been tried 
 for the purpose of obtaining higher counts of yarn 
 from the lower qualities of cotton, a process which 
 has been rendered easier by the increased improve- 
 ment in the preparing and spinning machinery. In 
 addition to this, many special qualities of yarn are 
 being made at the present time, and these of course 
 cannot be taken into account. It will be noticed in 
 looking at the relative length of the staple in American 
 and Indian cotton, that the possibility of spinning 
 into finer counts depends upon the fineness and 
 suppleness of the fibre as well as upon the length. 
 
 The various qualities are arranged in the order of 
 the prices which they usually realize, the better 
 qualities and higher-priced cottons usually standing 
 first in their respective classes; and this table may 
 be profitably compared with the price list issued daily 
 by the Liverpool Cotton Brokers' Association. The 
 improvements in cultivation, and the careful attention 
 which in certain districts has been paid to a proper 
 crossing of the native with foreign seed, so as to 
 secure a plant which will thrive well in the climate 
 and yet possess more valuable properties than the 
 native cotton, have greatly increased the value of many 
 of these varieties. The number might have been 
 very much increased, but I think this will serve as a 
 general guide in selecting the cotton for any special 
 purpose : 
 
CLASSES OF COTTON. 
 
 99 
 
 TABLE OF THE VARIOUS CLASSES OF COTTON. 
 
 Name. 
 
 District 
 where grown. 
 
 Species of Cotton. 
 
 Average 
 Length of 
 Staple 
 in inches. 
 
 Counts 
 for which 
 it is 
 generally 
 used. 
 
 SEA ISLANDS. 
 Sea Island 
 
 Sea Islands on 
 
 Gossypium Bar- 
 
 2'20 
 
 
 Florida Sea Island... 
 
 Coast of Florida 
 and Georgia 
 Florida, Mainland 
 
 badense 
 Do 
 
 1'95 
 
 3 
 
 | 
 
 ^3 w 
 
 Fiii .. ) 
 
 
 
 
 ^o 
 
 ii 
 
 
 Polynesian Islands 
 
 Do 
 
 1'88 
 
 
 
 Tahiti .. ) 
 
 
 
 
 8^ 
 
 La Guayran 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 Gossypium Hir- 
 
 175 
 
 M & 
 
 a 
 
 Peruvian 
 
 Coast of Peru ... 
 
 sutum 
 Gossypium Peru- 
 
 1'50 
 
 J* 
 
 Australian 
 
 Queensland .... 
 
 vianum 
 Gossypium Bar- 
 
 1'65 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 badense 
 
 
 
 EGYPTIAN. 
 
 Gallini Egyptian ... 
 
 Brown 
 
 Messefich, &c. ... 
 Za^asi 01 Man su- 
 
 Gossypium Bar- 
 badense 
 Gossypium Her- 
 
 1-50 
 1'40 
 
 upto200's 
 
 White 
 
 rah, Behara, &c. 
 Ziftah, &c 
 
 baceum 
 Gossypium Hir- 
 
 1'25 
 
 uptoSO's 
 
 Smyrna 
 
 Levant and Greek 
 
 sutum, & Peru- 
 vianum 
 Gossypium Her- 
 
 1*24 
 
 uptoSO's 
 
 
 Islands 
 
 baceum 
 
 
 
 BRAZILIAN. 
 Maranham 
 
 Coast of Brazil... 
 
 Gossypium Peru- 
 
 1*15 
 
 
 Bahia, Aracaju, &c.. 
 Pernam &c 
 
 San Salvador 
 Pernambuco 
 
 vian um 
 Do 
 
 Do. 
 
 1-25 
 1'35 
 
 1 
 
 Q oj 
 
 Ceara Aracata &c 
 
 North Coast of 
 
 Do 
 
 1'15 
 
 ts 
 
 5> o 
 
 Maceo and Paraiba 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Eastern Coast oJ 
 
 Do 
 
 1'20 
 
 S-2 
 
 2^ 
 
 Rio Grande 
 
 Brazil 
 South part ol 
 
 Do 
 
 1'30 
 
 '^ J 
 
 West Indian 
 
 Brazil 
 West Indian 
 
 Do 
 
 1'30 
 
 ^"o 
 
 
 
 Haytien 
 
 Islands 
 St. Domingo 
 
 Do 
 
 1'30 
 
 ^ "^ 
 
 La Guayran 
 Peruvian Rough... ^ 
 
 Venezuela 
 Peru 
 
 Do 
 Do 
 
 1-30 
 j 1-30 
 
 f 
 
 Smooth ) 
 
 
 
 ( 1-35 
 
 
100 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 TABLE OF THE VARIOUS CLASSES OF COTTON Continued. 
 
 Name. 
 
 District 
 where grown. 
 
 Species of Cotton. 
 
 Average 
 Length of 
 Staple 
 in inches. 
 
 Counts 
 for which 
 it is 
 generally 
 used. 
 
 AMERICAN. 
 Upland 
 
 Georgia and South 
 
 Gossypium Hir- 
 
 I'OO 
 
 ^11* 
 
 Mobile 
 
 Carolina 
 Alabama and 
 
 sutum 
 Do 
 
 1'05 
 
 j* ftl 
 
 o fco"^ 
 10 ro *^ 
 
 Texas 
 
 adjacent States 
 State of Texas 
 
 Do 
 
 0'95 
 
 o 2 
 
 ill 
 
 Orleans 
 
 Mississippi and 
 
 Do. 
 
 I'lO 
 
 5 "s 
 
 C3 2 
 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 
 r-5 0> PQ 
 
 <j.M^ 
 S 1 
 
 INDIAN or 
 SURAT. 
 Hin cr unghat 
 
 Central Provinces 
 
 Gossypium Her- 
 
 1'20 
 
 N 
 
 Dharwar 
 
 Bombay Presi- 
 
 baceum 
 Do 
 
 I'OO 
 
 | 
 
 
 dency 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 0'90 
 
 1 
 
 Dhollerah 
 
 Bombay Feuda- 
 
 Do 
 
 1*10 
 
 < 
 ^ 
 
 Oomrawuttee . . 
 
 tories 
 Central Provinces 
 
 Do 
 
 I'OO 
 
 9 
 
 rrt 
 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 0'95 
 
 i- 
 
 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 1'05 
 
 -fi 
 
 Ms 
 
 Scinde 
 
 Valley of the Indus 
 
 Do 
 
 I'OO 
 
 xff 
 
 <M 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 Bensral 
 
 Presidency of 
 
 Do 
 
 I'lO 
 
 I 
 
 Hangoon 
 
 Bengal 
 British Burmah.. 
 
 Do 
 
 85 
 
 s 
 
 3 
 
 MADRAS. 
 Tinnivelly 
 
 Presidency of 
 
 Do 
 
 0'95 
 
 $ 
 
 i 
 
 Western 
 
 Madras 
 Do 
 
 Do 
 
 I'OO 
 
 1 
 
 AFRICAN 
 
 Port Natal and 
 
 Do 
 
 1'25 
 
 Same 
 
 
 many other parts 
 of the Continent 
 
 
 to 
 0-91 
 
 Counts as 
 Surat. 
 
 Speaking generally, therefore, all the different 
 classes of cotton which we have enumerated occupy 
 
CONCLUSION. 101 
 
 different positions in the industrial world, and each of 
 them, from their special properties, which we have 
 briefly endeavoured to point out, are fitted for special 
 use depending upon their different characteristics. 
 It is for us as technologists to select such as we desire 
 for the varied purposes which we require in the 
 manufacturing processes, and thus turn the many and 
 varied productions of the fruitful earth to the use and 
 service of man as its lord and master. 
 
 There can be no doubt also that the increasing 
 demand for cotton in every country of the world will 
 stimulate its cultivation, and the attention which is 
 now being paid to the conditions under which the 
 plant flourishes best, and to the proper crossing and 
 selection of seed, will improve the quality of the fibre 
 in whatever country it may be grown, and render it 
 year by year better fitted for industrial and technical 
 purposes. 
 
102 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 IN our last two lectures we looked at the mechani- 
 cal structure of the cotton fibre, and at the 
 peculiarities this structure presented when viewed 
 under the microscope. We also entered at some 
 length into the chemical constitution of the fibre, 
 and the various accidental and other matters which 
 are usually associated with the cellulose which forms 
 the large portion of the cotton filaments. We then 
 looked at the peculiarities which are introduced into 
 the fibre by the variation in the seasons, and the 
 different countries from which the cotton is obtained, 
 and we are now in a position to consider the third 
 part of our subject, viz. : 
 
 III. How far any variation in the ultimate fibre 
 may affect its use in manufacturing processes. 
 
 (a) Mechanically. 
 
 (b) Chemically. 
 
 This is perhaps the most important part of our 
 subject to us as members of a technical school, 
 because whatever may be our theoretical knowledge 
 
ADVANTAGE OF KNOWLEDGE. 103 
 
 in regard to the constitution and composition of the 
 cotton fibre, our great object is to see how this know- 
 ledge bears upon the processes and manipulations in 
 which we are daily engaged, and how far it may 
 assist us in arranging these various processes and 
 manipulations, so as to reach a higher standard of 
 excellence in the finished article, or better modes of 
 conducting them. 
 
 We may rest assured also, that the more we know 
 of the real structure of the raw material with which 
 we have to deal, and the method of its action, when 
 brought into connection with chemical and other 
 reagents, the better shall we be enabled to guard 
 against the imperfections in manufacture which arise 
 from variations in the structure, and the better shall 
 we be enabled to detect the causes of our failure, and 
 the remedies which are most likely to avail us in 
 preventing recurrence in the future. Those who 
 know how frequently apparently inexplicable imper- 
 fections are continually turning up in finished goods, 
 and how difficult it is at times to decide the causes 
 from which they arise, will at once appreciate the 
 necessity for a careful investigation of all possible 
 causes, and the symptoms which they variously ex- 
 hibit, when examined under a far closer vision and 
 scrutiny than can usually be obtained with the ordi- 
 nary means at the command of the manufacturing 
 community. 
 
 All the changes through which the raw material is 
 passed in its transferrence from the simple fibre to 
 
104 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 the finished goods are either mechanical or chemical, 
 or a combination of the two. 
 
 The strictly mechanical part of the process consists 
 in the arrangement of the separate filaments into 
 something like regular and systematic order, so that 
 the threads which are produced shall have a regular and 
 an even appearance, a uniform strength, and a certain 
 weight in a given length ; and this, if perfectly carried 
 out, will produce the same characteristics in the woven 
 goods, provided the processes for changing the yarn 
 into cloth are equally perfect with the spinning. 
 
 Our power to do this depends upon 
 
 1. The adaptation of the fibre to the use intended. 
 
 2. The degree of uniformity in the raw material 
 itself. 
 
 3. The perfection in the machinery used. 
 
 4. The completeness in the chemical changes to 
 which it is subjected in dyeing and finishing. 
 
 5. The thoroughness and conscientiousness of the 
 intelligent supervision. 
 
 Our subject to-night only deals with three of these 
 heads, the first and last being beyond our range, 
 but we may say in regard to them, that no manufac- 
 tured article will be successfully produced when the 
 raw material is not suited to the purpose to which it 
 is put, and however suited the raw material may be, 
 and however perfect all the mechanical and chemical 
 processes, none of these advantages, singly or collec- 
 tively, will dispense with the intelligent and conscien- 
 tious oversight of man; and the more we can mix 
 
PKINCIPLES OF SPINNING. 105 
 
 our raw material with brains, the higher will the 
 standard be which we shall reach, and the greater 
 our chance of success in the great competition of the 
 world, with which we shall have more and more to 
 contend as the years roll on. I would lay a special 
 emphasis upon the "conscientiousness" which I will 
 define as the unpurchasable heart-service which the 
 true artist and workman throws into all his labour, 
 and which, when it is present, is sure to make itself 
 manifest in all his works and ways. 
 
 We have seen in our former lectures the degree of 
 uniformity which is presented to us in the cotton 
 fibre, both as regards length of staple, diameter, and 
 ripeness, and we have seen that the variations in all 
 these respects are sufficient to cause considerable diffi- 
 culty in the attainment of perfection in the finished 
 article, whether it be yarn or goods. We may assume 
 that the general principles upon which we proceed in 
 changing cotton into yarn are now practically estab- 
 lished for all time, and that the method of drawing 
 the fibres out through revolving rollers running at 
 different speeds will always form the groundwork of 
 continuous spinning. Improvements in machinery, 
 which will increase production and render the action 
 of the machines more sensitive and uniform, may 
 from time to time be introduced, but when the 
 machinery is perfect there will still remain the diffi- 
 culty connected with the variation in the raw material. 
 
 We cannot to-night enter into a description of the 
 details of these mechanical processes, because not only 
 
106 STRUCTURE OP THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 would it occupy more time than we have at our dis- 
 posal, but it is also outside our present enquiry, and, 
 besides this, there are several good works where the 
 information may be obtained, the best of which is 
 Mr. Evan Leigh's treatise on the " Science of Modern 
 Cotton Spinning." 
 
 Suppose our fibres were all perfectly uniform in 
 length, we should be enabled to set the cleaning, 
 carding, combing, drawing, and spinning machinery 
 to the exact adjustment which would be best fitted 
 for our purpose, but with the variations which any 
 lot of cotton necessarily presents, all our arrangements 
 are only a compromise, and as such cannot produce 
 perfect work. The nearest perfection is attained in 
 combed yarns, where the hairs are mechanically 
 selected by a machine in such a way as to obtain a 
 perfectly marvellous uniformity in length, and thus 
 secure the highest degree of perfection in the after 
 processes. The only way, indeed, in which a moderate 
 perfection can be attained in ordinary yarns is by a 
 careful selection of the raw material, with regard to 
 its general uniformity and adaptation to the counts 
 into which it is to be spun. Care should also be 
 taken to see that the quantity of unripe and imma- 
 ture cotton in any given sample does not exceed a 
 certain percentage, especially when the yarn produced 
 is afterwards to be used for the production of goods 
 to be dyed into light shades, because since the unripe 
 and immature cotton resists the action of dyes it is 
 sure, more or less, to interfere with the perfection of 
 
NEW CEOP COTTOX. 107 
 
 the dyed and finished goods, and to cause irregularity 
 in their appearance. It has sometimes struck me 
 that the rivalry which exists amongst planters to get 
 their crop first into the market may sometimes lead 
 them to pluck the bolls before full maturity is obtained, 
 and the fact that this is not more noticed probably 
 arises from what I have explained before, that the 
 cotton fibre probably undergoes a further ripening by 
 the chemical changes which occur within the tubes 
 even after it has been detached from the seed, in the 
 same way that many fruits mature after plucking. 
 
 In some years I have noticed greater irregularity 
 in the fibres of the earliest arrivals of new crop 
 cotton, than in cotton received later on in the season, 
 and also in some cases a greater proportion of unripe 
 and immature hairs, but in other seasons I have been 
 unable to detect any difference, and this may arise 
 from the fact that in some seasons bad weather at the 
 commencement of the picking time may be succeeded 
 by better weather later on, and the reverse. 
 
 The nearer we approach to the limit of the spinning 
 power of the cotton, that is to say to the highest 
 counts which can be spun out of it, the greater 
 becomes the tendency to variation in the yarn. 
 Hence, yarn which is spun up, or produced from 
 rovings designed for lower counts, is always inferior 
 to yarn which is spun down, or produced from rovings 
 designed for higher counts. It seems probable from 
 a series of observations which I have made, that we 
 reach the limit of regular spinning, with our present 
 
108 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 perfection of machinery, whenever the section of the 
 thread has less than ninety filaments of cotton in it; 
 a limit which seems to indicate about 50's single as 
 the highest to which American cotton can be success- 
 fully spun, although with a longer staple and special 
 precautions to secure uniformity, such as combing, 
 this limit of ninety fibres' section may be exceeded. 
 
 It has been a matter of surprise to me in pursuing 
 these investigations, how far from perfection the very 
 best yarns which can be produced still are, and what 
 a wide field there still lies open for improvement, 
 both in the growing of the cotton and the machinery 
 which is used in its transformation into yarn; but 
 when we have done all we can, we may never hope to 
 go beyond the limit which is fixed by the variation in 
 the raw material. 
 
 Those who have taken the trouble to carefully test 
 the degree of regularity in counts and twist in the 
 best qualities, both of single and two-fold yarns, will 
 have been very much struck with the fact that, taken 
 yard by yard in counts, and inch by inch in twist, 
 the variations are very great indeed, and that it is 
 only when we come to take the average over a con- 
 siderable number of yards or inches that we reach 
 anything like such a degree of perfection as is usually 
 expected, If we take samples of yarn, yard by yard 
 for counts, and inch by inch for twist, we shall find a 
 variation quite equal to 20 per cent, in both cases, 
 while there may be a very wonderful uniformity if we 
 take a hank for counts or a yard for twist. No doubt, 
 
IMPKOVEMENTS IN PKEPAKING. 109 
 
 this arises in a large measure from the necessary 
 imperfection in the process of manufacture; but this 
 imperfection is also largely due to the irregular nature 
 of the component parts of the raw material, which can 
 only be overcome by a careful attention to the culti- 
 vation of the cotton plant. I am quite aware that it 
 is wonderful how the law of averages seems to enable 
 comparatively perfect pieces to be made out of imper- 
 fect yarn, but no one will deny the fact that a higher 
 degree of perfection in both is desirable. The intro- 
 duction into the earlier processes of cotton spinning 
 of automatic methods of weighing the raw material 
 and distributing it evenly through the laps which 
 feed the carding -engines, have marked a distinct 
 stage of progress, and it is to the greater introduction 
 of refinements in our mechanical arrangements that 
 we must look for the advances which are to be made 
 in the future. 
 
 With a view to determine the degree of perfection 
 to which the manufacture of cotton yarns has 
 attained, I have made a large number of experiments 
 upon samples of both single and twofold yarns, such 
 as are usually employed in the Bradford trade, so as 
 to determine the limits of variation in strength, 
 weight or counts, and twist per inch. I have not 
 extended my enquiries beyond twofold yarns, because, 
 as you are aware, except for edgings to the pieces, 
 very few yarns are used in this district, with a greater 
 number of strands, for manufacturing purposes. 
 
 The quantity of yarn operated upon at once to 
 
110 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 determine the first two of these questions was 120 
 yards or one lea, which is the one-seventh part of a 
 hank. The hank in cotton yarns is 840 yards, and 
 the number of hanks per Ib. weight determine the 
 number or counts of the yarn. Thus, if 1 Ib. of 
 cotton contains 840 x 20 = 16,800 yards, we say it is 
 20's, or 840 x 40 = 33,600 yards it is 40's, and so on, 
 for any number either above or below. Twofold yarns 
 in cotton are called by the counts of the single out of 
 which the twofold is made, and thus twofold 40's 
 weighs the same as 20's single, and twofold 80's as 
 40's single. 
 
 It will be noticed by those who are present here 
 to-night that the cotton hank differs considerably 
 from the worsted hank in length. The worsted hank 
 is 560 yards, so that the cotton hank, which is 840 
 yards, is 50 per cent, longer. It is very important 
 in making experiments on the regularity in the counts 
 of yarn to have a ready method of finding the weight 
 in grains of a lea, or any number of leas of cotton 
 yarn; and since one hank of yarn which is 840 yards 
 long weighs 1 Ib., which is 7,000 grains, one lea, 
 which is the one-seventh of a hank, will weigh 
 1,000 grains, so that if W represents the weight in 
 grains per lea, and C the counts of the yarn, we have 
 WxC = 1,000 
 
 1,000 
 
 therefore W = 
 
 C 
 
 1,000 
 
 and C = 
 
 W 
 
WEIGHT AXD COUNTS OF YARX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 from which formulae we can readily calculate the 
 weight if we have the counts, or the counts if we have 
 the weight in grains of 120 yards of the yarn. 
 
 The following table has been calculated in this way, 
 and is given in one, two, three, and four leas, so that 
 a better average may be obtained than where one lea 
 is used : 
 
 TABLE OF WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS COUNTS OF 
 COTTON YARN. 
 
 d 
 
 Weight of 
 one lea 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 two leas 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 three leas 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 four leas 
 in grains. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 
 1,000-000 
 500-000 
 333-333 
 250-000 
 200-000 
 
 2,000-000 
 1,000-000 
 666-666 
 500-000 
 400-000 
 
 3,000-000 
 1,500-000 
 1,000-000 
 750-000 
 600-000 
 
 4,000-000 
 2,000-000 
 1,333-333 
 1,000-000 
 800-000 
 
 6 
 
 166-666 
 
 333-333 
 
 499-999 
 
 666-666 
 
 7 
 
 142-857 
 
 285-714 
 
 428-571 
 
 571-428 
 
 8 
 
 125-000 
 
 250-000 
 
 375-000 
 
 500-000 
 
 9 
 
 Ill-Ill 
 
 222-222 
 
 333-333 
 
 444-444 
 
 10 
 
 100-000 
 
 200-000 
 
 300-000 
 
 400-000 
 
 11 
 
 90-909 
 
 181-818 
 
 272-727 
 
 363-636 
 
 12 
 
 83-333 
 
 166-666 
 
 250-000 
 
 333-333 
 
 13 
 
 76-923 
 
 153-846 
 
 230-769 
 
 307-692 
 
 14 
 
 71-428 
 
 142-857 
 
 214-285 
 
 285-714 
 
 15 
 
 66-666 
 
 133-333 
 
 199-999 
 
 266-666 
 
 16 
 
 62-500 
 
 125-000 
 
 187-500 
 
 250-000 
 
 17 
 
 58-823 
 
 117-647 
 
 176-470 
 
 235-294 
 
 18 
 
 55-555 
 
 Ill-Ill 
 
 166-666 
 
 222-222 
 
 19 
 
 52-631 
 
 105-263 
 
 157-894 
 
 210-526 
 
 20 
 
 50-000 
 
 100-000 
 
 150-000 
 
 200-000 
 
112 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 TABLE OF WEIGHTS. Continued. 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 Weight of 
 one lea 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 two leas 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 three leas 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 four leas 
 in grains. 
 
 21 
 
 47-619 
 
 95-238 
 
 142-857 
 
 190-476 
 
 22 
 
 45-454 
 
 90-909 
 
 136-363 
 
 181-818 
 
 23 
 
 43-478 
 
 86-956 
 
 130-434 
 
 173-913 
 
 24 
 
 41-666 
 
 83-333 
 
 124-999 
 
 166-666 
 
 25 
 
 40-000 
 
 80-000 
 
 120-000 
 
 160-000 
 
 26 
 
 38-461 
 
 76-923 
 
 115-384 
 
 153-846 
 
 27 
 
 37-037 
 
 74-074 
 
 Ill-Ill 
 
 148-148 
 
 28 
 
 35-714 
 
 71-428 
 
 107-142 
 
 142-857 
 
 29 
 
 34-482 
 
 68-965 
 
 103-447 
 
 137-931 
 
 30 
 
 33-333 
 
 66-666 
 
 99-999 
 
 133-333 
 
 31 
 
 32-258 
 
 64-516 
 
 96-774 
 
 129-032 
 
 32 
 
 31-250 
 
 62-500 
 
 93-750 
 
 125-000 
 
 33 
 
 30-303 
 
 60-606 
 
 90-909 
 
 121-212 
 
 34 
 
 29-411 
 
 58-823 
 
 88-234 
 
 117-647 
 
 35 
 
 28-571 
 
 57-142 
 
 85-713 
 
 114-285 
 
 36 
 
 27-777 
 
 55-555 
 
 83-332 
 
 Ill-Ill 
 
 37 
 
 27-027 
 
 54-054 
 
 81-081 
 
 108-108 
 
 38 
 
 26-363 
 
 52-727 
 
 79-090 
 
 105-263 
 
 39 
 
 25-641 
 
 51-282 
 
 76-923 
 
 102-564 
 
 40 
 
 25-000 
 
 50-000 
 
 75-000 
 
 100-000 
 
 41 
 
 24-390 
 
 48-780 
 
 73-170 
 
 97-560 
 
 42 
 
 23-809 
 
 47-619 
 
 71-429 
 
 95-238 
 
 43 
 
 23-255 
 
 46-511 
 
 69-766 
 
 93-023 
 
 44 
 
 22-727 
 
 45-454 
 
 68-181 
 
 90-909 
 
 45 
 
 22-222 
 
 44-444 
 
 66-666 
 
 88-888 
 
 46 
 
 21-739 
 
 43-478 
 
 65-217 
 
 86-956 
 
 47 
 
 21-276 
 
 42-553 
 
 63-829 
 
 85-106 
 
 48 
 
 20-833 
 
 41-666 
 
 62-499 
 
 83-333 
 
 49 
 
 20-408 
 
 40-816 
 
 61-224 
 
 81-632 
 
 50 
 
 20-000 
 
 40-000 
 
 60-000 
 
 80-000 
 
WEIGHT AND COUNTS OF YAKN. 
 
 113 
 
 TABLE OF WEIGHTS. Continued. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 Weight of 
 one lea 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 two leas 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 three leas 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 four leas 
 in grains. 
 
 51 
 
 19-607 
 
 39-215 
 
 58-822 
 
 78-431 
 
 52 
 
 19-230 
 
 38-461 
 
 57-691 
 
 76-923 
 
 53 
 
 18-867 
 
 37-735 
 
 56-602 
 
 75-471 
 
 54 
 
 18-518 
 
 37-037 
 
 55-555 
 
 74-074 
 
 55 
 
 18-181 
 
 36-363 
 
 54-544 
 
 72-727 
 
 56 
 
 17-857 
 
 35-714 
 
 53-571 
 
 71-428 
 
 57 
 
 17-543 
 
 35-087 
 
 52-630 
 
 70-175 
 
 58 
 
 17-241 
 
 34-482 
 
 51-723 
 
 68-965 
 
 59 
 
 16-949 
 
 33-898 
 
 50-847 
 
 67-796 
 
 60 
 
 16-666 
 
 33-333 
 
 49-999 
 
 66-666 
 
 61 
 
 16-393 
 
 32-786 
 
 49-179 
 
 65-573 
 
 62 
 
 16-129 
 
 32-258 
 
 48-387 
 
 64-516 
 
 63 
 
 15-873 
 
 31-746 
 
 47-619 
 
 63-492 
 
 64 
 
 15-625 
 
 31-250 
 
 46-875 
 
 62-500 
 
 65 
 
 15-384 
 
 30-769 
 
 46-153 
 
 61-538 
 
 66 
 
 15-151 
 
 30-303 
 
 45-454 
 
 60-606 
 
 67 
 
 14-975 
 
 29-850 
 
 44-825 
 
 59-701 
 
 68 
 
 14-705 
 
 29-411 
 
 44-116 
 
 58-823 
 
 69 
 
 14-492 
 
 28-985 
 
 43-477 
 
 57-971 
 
 70 
 
 14-285 
 
 28-571 
 
 42-856 
 
 57-142 
 
 71 
 
 14-084 
 
 28-169 
 
 42-253 
 
 56-338 
 
 72 
 
 13-888 
 
 27-777 
 
 41-665 
 
 55-555 
 
 73 
 
 13-698 
 
 27-397 
 
 41-095 
 
 54-794 
 
 74 
 
 13-513 
 
 27-027 
 
 40-540 
 
 54-054 
 
 75 
 
 13-333 
 
 26-666 
 
 39-999 
 
 53-333 
 
 76 
 
 13-181 
 
 26-363 
 
 39-544 
 
 52-727 
 
 77 
 
 12-987 
 
 25-974 
 
 38-961 
 
 51-948 
 
 78 
 
 12-820 
 
 25-641 
 
 38-461 
 
 51-282 
 
 79 
 
 12-658 
 
 25-316 
 
 37-974 
 
 50-632 
 
 80 
 
 12-500 
 
 25-000 
 
 37-500 
 
 50-000 
 
114 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTOX FIBRE. 
 
 TABLE OF WEIGHTS. Continued. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 Weight of 
 one lea 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 two leas 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 three leas 
 in grains. 
 
 Weight of 
 four leas 
 in grains. 
 
 81 
 
 12-345 
 
 24-691 
 
 37-036 
 
 49-382 
 
 82 
 
 12-195 
 
 24-390 
 
 36-585 
 
 48-780 
 
 83 
 
 12-048 
 
 24-096 
 
 36-144 
 
 48-192 
 
 84 
 
 11-904 
 
 23-809 
 
 35-713 
 
 47-619 
 
 85 
 
 11-764 
 
 23-529 
 
 35-293 
 
 47-058 
 
 86 
 
 11-627 
 
 23-255 
 
 34-882 
 
 46-511 
 
 87 
 
 11-494 
 
 22-988 
 
 34-482 
 
 45-977 
 
 88 
 
 11-363 
 
 22-727 
 
 34-090 
 
 45-454 
 
 89 
 
 11-235 
 
 22-471 
 
 33-706 
 
 44-943 
 
 90 
 
 11-111 
 
 22-222 
 
 33-333 
 
 44-444 
 
 91 
 
 10-989 
 
 21-978 
 
 32-967 
 
 43-956 
 
 92 
 
 10-869 
 
 21-739 
 
 32-608 
 
 43-478 
 
 93 
 
 10-752 
 
 21-505 
 
 32-257 
 
 43-010 
 
 94 
 
 10-638 
 
 21-276 
 
 31-914 
 
 42-553 
 
 95 
 
 10-526 
 
 21-052 
 
 31-578 
 
 42-105 
 
 96 
 
 10-416 
 
 20-833 
 
 31-249 
 
 41-666 
 
 97 
 
 10-309 
 
 20-618 
 
 30-927 
 
 41-237 
 
 98 
 
 10-204 
 
 20-408 
 
 30-612 
 
 40-816 
 
 99 
 
 10-101 
 
 20-202 
 
 30-303 
 
 40-404 
 
 100 
 
 10-000 
 
 20-000 
 
 30-000 
 
 40-000 
 
 If this table is required to be used for higher counts 
 than 100's, it is best to double the number of leas, 
 and then double the counts which the weight repre- 
 sents. Thus eight leas of 120's will weigh 66*666 
 grains, which corresponds to 60's on this table, and 
 double this number is 120's, which is the counts 
 required. For twofold yarns, two leas will correspond 
 
WRAP KEEL. 115 
 
 to four on this table, as for example, two leas of 2/4 O's 
 will weigh 100 grains, which is the weight of four 
 leas of single 4 O's. In any case it is better to use 
 eight leas in place of four leas when the yarn is above 
 10 O's, because the difference in weight between one 
 count and the next is so small that they can only be 
 distinguished by very accurate weighing; whereas, by 
 increasing the number of leas we increase the difference 
 so as to make it more readily appreciable, and less 
 liable to be mistaken for any other count. 
 
 In making the experiments, the cotton was wound 
 off the cop or hank on to a 1^ yard reel, so that the 
 lea contained eighty threads. These threads were 
 laid side by side on to the reel over the space of 1 inch 
 by a self-acting motion, so as to prevent unequal 
 tension in the threads, and a uniform strain put on to 
 them in their passage from the cop or hank to the 
 reel. A general idea of the form of this wrap reel, as 
 it is called, will be obtained from looking at Fig. 2, 
 which gives a very good illustration of the form of the 
 machine. The cops or bobbins are placed on pegs or 
 skewers, and the ends conducted by suitable guides 
 on to the reel swift. A slow motion is given to the 
 guides as the swift revolves, which lays the ends side 
 by side. A very ingenious form of the sun and 
 planet-wheel enables each revolution of the handle to 
 revolve the swift twice, so that only forty revolutions 
 of the handle are required to lay on the eighty threads, 
 A dial driven by a worm wheel measures the length, 
 so as to save the trouble of counting the number of 
 
116 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTOX FIBRE. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 revolutions of the swift, and whenever 120 yards have 
 been laid on a bell rings to call attention. 
 
 The machine used for testing the strength of the 
 yarn was of the ordinary form used in Lancashire for 
 that purpose, and consists of two square hooks, one of 
 which can be separated from the other vertically by 
 the motion of a slow screw. This screw, in the case 
 of the machine which I used, was actuated by power 
 obtained from the revolution of a shaft driven from 
 the large engines of the firm with which I am con- 
 nected, Messrs. Bowman Bros., at our Union Mills, 
 Halifax, and which for all practical purposes is per- 
 
YARN TESTER. 117 
 
 fectly uniform and steady. The motion of a small 
 lever enabled the screw to be turned in either direction 
 at pleasure. The upper hook is connected by a chain 
 round a cylinder with a lever having a uniform weight 
 fixed upon it, the angular deviation of which from the 
 vertical line increases the strain put upon the lea of 
 yarn stretched on the two hooks, while a finger or 
 pointer on the axis upon which the cylinder revolves 
 measures the angular deviation of the weight upon a 
 graduated dial, and thus records the strain in Ibs. at 
 which the lea of yarn breaks. A catch working at the 
 end of the weight lever in a semi-circular rack prevents 
 the weight from falling when the lea of yarn breaks, 
 and requires releasing, and the weight and pointer 
 resetting to the zero position after every testing. The 
 recorded weight in Ibs. was in all cases that at which 
 the pointer stood when the fracture was complete. 
 
 Fig. 3 represents the testing machine as driven by 
 the hand, and its general features will be easily 
 understood. I applied the power by turning a grooved 
 nick in the circumference of the handle wheel, which 
 was driven by a band from the wheel of a shaft 
 revolving with uniform speed beneath the floor of the 
 testing room, and I mention this because it is quite 
 impossible to test the strength of yarns accurately 
 when the machine is driven by the hand. No one 
 can turn the handle round with uniform velocity in 
 all parts of the circle, and especially when a weight 
 has to be lifted, and any jerking or irregular motion 
 throws an unequal tension upon the yarn, and causes it 
 
118 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTOK FIBRE. 
 
 to appear weaker than it really is. The speed at which 
 the machine is turned is also important, and I found 
 
ADJUSTMENT OF YARN TESTER. 119 
 
 that in order that the breaking strain of the yarn might 
 correspond on the machine with that of yarn broken 
 under the action of gravitation by a suspended weight 
 being hung upon the hank, that the hand of the dial 
 should traverse the circle of the face in eight seconds. 
 This will enable any machine by the same maker to be 
 set to the standard, because if the speed is higher the 
 yarn will appear to be stronger, and if the speed is 
 slower the yarn will appear weaker. I have known 
 many discordant results arising from the neglect of 
 these precautions. 
 
 The machine was tested every day during the time 
 the experiments were being made by removing the 
 catch which moves in the circular rack, and hanging 
 a standard weight to the upper hook, which caused 
 the hands to traverse the dial, and so point to the 
 graduations which corresponded to the weight hung on 
 the hook. A 56 Ib. weight causing the hand to swing 
 to fifty-six, or two fifty-sixes to one hundred and 
 twelve, which showed the machine to be perfectly 
 accurate with the gravitation standard. The machine 
 which I used was graduated up to 150 Ibs. 
 
 The balance used for weighing the yarn is a very 
 delicate one, made specially for the purpose of chemi- 
 cal analysis, and turning readily with the rcV^li f a 
 grain, when the scales are loaded with 500 grains in 
 each pan. It stands within a glass case, so as to 
 shield it from currents of air and other disturbing 
 influences, the front of which slides up, like a window, 
 so as to enable the operator to use the scales. 
 
120 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 Fig. 4 gives a good illustration of one of these 
 laboratory balances, in which an arrangement is made 
 so as to take the weight off the knife edge, when the 
 substance to be weighed is being placed in the pans, 
 and a small shaft with a milled-head, outside the case, 
 enables the beam to be set free to work when the 
 glass front is drawn down after the pans are loaded. 
 
 The room in which the operations were performed 
 is kept at a uniform temperature by a steam stove, 
 and all the samples of yarn were exposed in the room 
 
SELECTION OF YARN SAMPLES. 121 
 
 for twenty-four hours before testing, so as to permit 
 them to acquire as far as possible, the same conditions 
 in regard to temperature and moisture, both of which 
 have an effect on the strength of the yarn. 
 
 The samples of yarn themselves were selected from 
 various makers, and were fair averages of a large pro- 
 duction, and not picked samples, my intention being 
 to arrive at the degree of perfection attainable in the 
 ordinary yarns of commerce; but all the yarns were 
 made by spinners who have a good name in the 
 market for their respective productions. 
 
 My experiments extended over a much wider range 
 of counts and samples than are here recorded, but the 
 general results were the same as given by these 
 examples, and I have therefore chosen only those 
 which are generally used in the Bradford trade, and 
 they may be taken as types of all other similar counts 
 of yarn. 
 
 In all cases five experiments were made with the 
 same thread, and four threads taken out of each 
 sample promiscuously, and the results in the follow- 
 ing tables may, therefore, from the care which I 
 took in the experiments, be relied upon as a basis 
 for generalization, and they may also be taken as 
 a fair representation of what may be be expected in 
 the degree of perfection to which ordinary good com- 
 mercial yarns usually attain. 
 
122 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE A. 
 
 20's Single, Mule Spun. All American Cotton, 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 
 V TI 
 
 in IDS. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No 1 
 
 80 
 
 50-10 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 48-65 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 50-25 
 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 48-75 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 50-13 
 
 49-576 
 
 20-17 
 
 No. 2 
 
 73 
 
 47-83 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 50-23 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 51-31 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 52-14 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 52-31 
 
 50-764 
 
 19-69 
 
 No 3 
 
 78 
 
 48-13 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 49-75 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 49-36 
 
 
 4} 
 
 
 72 
 
 47-38 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 48-97 
 
 48-718 
 
 20-52 
 
 No 4 . .. 
 
 72 
 
 47 36 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 49-62 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 
 50-13 
 
 
 
 
 74 
 
 48-52 
 
 
 
 
 79 
 
 49-36 
 
 48-998 
 
 20-40 
 
 
 78-8 
 
 
 49-514 
 
 20-19 
 
 This is a good commercial yarn. The counts are on the average 
 correct. The greatest variation both in strength and weight is in 
 No. 2. Here the strength varies from 73 to 86 Ibs. = 13 Ibs. or 
 16-5 per cent, on the average breaking strain, while the weight 
 varies from 47*83 grains to 52-31 grains, or 4 -48 grains, which 
 which is about 9 per cent, on the average weight, 
 
SAMPLES OF YABK 
 
 123 
 
 SAMPLE B. 
 
 20's Single, Mule Spun. Made from Egyptian and 
 American Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No 1 
 
 102 
 
 50-13 
 
 
 
 
 106 
 104 
 100 
 106 
 
 51-93 
 51-37 
 50-37 
 51-30 
 
 51-020 
 
 19-60 
 
 No. 2 
 
 99 
 
 50-24 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 106 
 98 
 99 
 100 
 
 51-93 
 49-12 
 48-55 
 48-32 
 
 49-632 
 
 20-15 
 
 No 3 
 
 100 
 
 50-12 
 
 
 
 
 98 
 97 
 99 
 
 98 
 
 52-13 
 
 48-35 
 48-15 
 49-38 
 
 49-626 
 
 20-15 
 
 No. 4 
 
 104 
 
 50-62 
 
 
 
 
 108 
 112 
 108 
 101 
 
 53-16 
 53-16 
 51-47 
 
 50-83 
 
 51-848 
 
 19-28 
 
 
 102-2 
 
 
 50-531 
 
 19-795 
 
 This is a first-class mule yarn, the counts slightly coarse. The 
 greatest variation is in No. 2 thread, where the strength varies 
 from 98 to 106 Ibs., or 8 Ibs., which is rather less than 8 per 
 cent, on the average breaking strain. The variation in weight is 
 greatest in No. 3, where it amounts to nearly 4 Ibs., or about 8 per 
 cent, on the average weight. 
 
124 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE C. 
 
 20's Single, Water Twist. All American Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 80 
 
 48-13 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 47-58 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 48-25 
 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 48-36 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 48-83 
 
 48-230 
 
 20-73 
 
 No. 2 
 
 84 
 
 48-25 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 48-53 
 
 
 
 
 76 
 
 49-35 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 49-13 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 49-32 
 
 48-916 
 
 20-44 
 
 No. 3 
 
 73 
 
 47-21 
 
 
 
 
 72 
 
 47-30 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 49-31 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 50-13 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 50-35 
 
 48-860 
 
 20-46 
 
 No. 4 
 
 78 
 
 48-30 
 
 
 
 
 82 
 
 49-42 
 
 
 
 
 83 
 
 49-75 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 50-23 
 
 
 
 
 81 
 
 50-35 
 
 49-610 
 
 20-15 
 
 
 79-5 
 
 
 48-904 
 
 20-445 
 
 Tliis is a good using yarn. The counts very nearly correct. 
 The greatest variation in strength is in No. 1 thread, from 75 to 
 84 Ibs., or 9 Ibs., which is about 11 per cent, on the average 
 strength. The greatest range in weight is in No. 3, from 47 -21 
 grains to 50 "35 grains = 3 '14 grains, which is about 6-4 per cent, 
 on the average weight, 
 
SAMPLES OF YAKN. 
 
 125 
 
 SAMPLE D. 
 
 32's Single, Mule Spun. Oldham Limited Co. 
 All American Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Agerage 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No 1 
 
 55 
 
 33-75 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 62 
 52 
 53 
 
 32-64 
 33-41 
 30-75 
 31-04 
 
 32-318 
 
 30-94 
 
 No. 2 
 
 52 
 
 31-22 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 52 
 56 
 56 
 
 31-47 
 30-46 
 32-14 
 32-34 
 
 31-526 
 
 31-72 
 
 No. 3 
 
 56 
 
 31-85 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 54 
 61 
 60 
 
 32-34 
 31-47 
 33-12 
 
 32-88 
 
 32-332 
 
 30-92 
 
 No. 4 
 
 48 
 
 30-73 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 52 
 
 49 
 50 
 
 30-14 
 30-57 
 29-51 
 30-75 
 
 30-340 
 
 32-96 
 
 
 54-7 
 
 
 31-629 
 
 31-63 
 
 This is a favourite yam in Lancashire. The counts are slightly 
 coarse. The greatest variation in strength is in No. 1 thread, 
 from 52 to 62 Ibs., or 10 Ibs., which is about 18-2 per cent, on the 
 average breaking strain. The greatest variation in weight is in 
 the same thread, from 30*75 grains to 3375 grains, or 3 grains, 
 which is rather under 10 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
126 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE E. 
 
 40's Single Twist, Super Bolton Mule Yarn. 
 All Egyptian Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 "Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No 1 
 
 55 
 
 25-53 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 25-02 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 25 14 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 25-31 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 25-41 
 
 25-282 
 
 3955 
 
 No 2 
 
 55 
 
 25-00 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 25-38 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 2528 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 25-37 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 25-12 
 
 25-230 
 
 39-63 
 
 No. 3 
 
 54 
 
 25-31 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 25-43 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 25-38 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 25-13 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 25-37 
 
 25-324 
 
 39-48 
 
 No. 4 
 
 52 
 
 25-00 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 25-16 
 
 
 
 
 54 
 
 25-28 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 
 25-37 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 25-19 
 
 25-200 
 
 39-68 
 
 
 54-4 
 
 
 25-259 
 
 39-585 
 
 This is a first-class mule yarn, spun down from 60's rovings. 
 The counts are slightly coarse. The greatest variation is 41bs. in 
 the breaking strain, which occurs in No. 2, 3, and 4 threads, 
 which is about 7 -3 per cent, on the average strength. The weight 
 is remarkably regular, the greatest variation being about 0'4 of a 
 grain in No. 1 thread, which is less than 2 per cent, on the 
 average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 127 
 
 SAMPLE F. 
 
 50's Single Twist, Bolton Mule Yarn. All Egyptian 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 32 
 
 19-12 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 35 
 38 
 34 
 
 20-14 
 20-12 
 20-24 
 19-92 
 
 19908 
 
 50-J3 
 
 No. 2 
 
 40 
 
 20-13 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 34 
 35 
 32 
 
 19-73 
 20-35 
 20-23 
 19-59 
 
 20-006 
 
 49-98 
 
 No. 3 
 
 39 
 
 20-01 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 36 
 35 
 34 
 
 19-23 
 20-54 
 20-23 
 20-30 
 
 20-062 
 
 49-84 
 
 No. 4 
 
 35 
 
 19-75 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 34 
 34 
 35 
 
 19-43 
 20-13 
 20-35 
 19-94 
 
 19-920 
 
 50-20 
 
 
 35-2 
 
 
 19-974 
 
 50-06 
 
 This yarn is spun from the same roving as Sample E. The 
 average counts are correct. The greatest variation in strength is 
 in No. 2 thread, from 32 to 40 Ibs., or 8 Ibs., which is about 
 22 per cent, of the average breaking weight. The greatest 
 variation in weight is in No. 3 thread, from 19-23 grains to 
 20-54 grains, or 1*31, which is about 6-5 per cent, of the average 
 weight. 
 
128 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE G. 
 
 60's Single Twist. Bolton Mule Yarn. Made from 
 Egyptian Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 33 
 
 16-25 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 16-68 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 17-31 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 17-22 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 16-84 
 
 16-860 
 
 59-31 
 
 No. 2 
 
 35 
 
 17-12 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 17-00 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 17-48 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 16-58 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 16-95 
 
 17-026 
 
 58-73 
 
 No. 3 
 
 32 
 
 16-38 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 16-45 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 16-25 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 16-83 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 17-13 
 
 16-608 
 
 60-21 
 
 No. 4 
 
 35 
 
 17-38 
 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 17-12 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 17-37 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 17-00 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 17-35 
 
 17-244 
 
 58-00 
 
 
 32-3 
 
 
 16-934 
 
 59-06 
 
 This is a first-class carded yam. The counts are coarse, only 
 one thread being full counts. The greatest variation in strength 
 is in No. 2 and No. 4 threads, from 30 to 35 Ibs., which is 
 about 15 per cent, of the average breaking strain. The greatest 
 variation in weight is in No. 1, from 16*25 grains to 17*31 grains, 
 or 1 *06 grains, which is about 6 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 129 
 
 SAMPLE H. 
 
 60's Single Twist. Super Combed Mule Yarn, 
 Egyptian Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 34 
 
 17-75 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 32 
 36 
 34 
 
 17-04 
 17-15 
 17-16 
 16-75 
 
 17-170 
 
 58-24 
 
 No. 2 
 
 35 
 
 17-23 
 
 
 
 
 36 
 34 
 32 
 33 
 
 17-23 
 17-25 
 17-14 
 
 16-84 
 
 17-138 
 
 58-35 
 
 No. 3 
 
 30 
 
 16-64 
 
 
 
 
 31 
 30 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 16-23 
 16-75 
 17-14 
 17-00 
 
 16-752 
 
 59-69 
 
 No. 4 
 
 36 
 
 17-25 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 36 
 34 
 33 
 
 16-84 
 17-14 
 17-25 
 16-94 
 
 17-084 
 
 58-53 
 
 
 33-4 
 
 
 17-036 
 
 58-70 
 
 This is one of the best mule yarns in the market. The counts 
 are heavy. The greatest variation in the breaking strain is in 
 No. 1 and No. 2 threads, from 32 to 36 Ibs., or 41bs., which is 
 about 12 per cent, on the average breaking strain. The greatest 
 variation in counts is in No. 1 thread, from 16 -7 5 to 17*75 grains, 
 or about 6 per cent, of the average weight. 
 K 
 
130 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE I. 
 
 Twofold 40's, Full Twist Twiner Yarn. American 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 100 
 
 51-23 
 
 
 
 
 109 
 96 
 99 
 100 
 
 54-13 
 50-12 
 52-83 
 
 50-14 
 
 51-690 
 
 19-34 
 
 No. 2 
 
 99 
 
 52-10 
 
 
 
 
 112 
 104 
 100 
 98 
 
 54-21 
 52-13 
 51-94 
 52-13 
 
 52-502 
 
 19-04 
 
 No. 3 
 
 95 
 
 50-10 
 
 
 
 
 108 
 112 
 98 
 95 
 
 52-21 
 54-05 
 51-37 
 50-83 
 
 51-712 
 
 19-33 
 
 No. 4 
 
 108 
 
 53-42 
 
 
 
 
 98 
 98 
 104 
 104 
 
 52-16 
 51-47 
 52-85 
 52-13 
 
 52-406 
 
 19-08 
 
 
 101-8 
 
 
 52-077 
 
 19-19 
 
 This is a first-class American yarn. The counts are heavy. The 
 greatest variation in strength is in No. 3 thread, from 95 to 112 Ibs., 
 or 17 Ibs., which is about 17 per cent, on the average breaking 
 strain. No. 2 thread exhibits an almost equally wide variation, 
 from 98 to 112 Ibs. The greatest variation in counts is in No. 1 
 thread, where the weight ranges from 50-12 to 54-13 grains, or 
 4'01 grains, or about 7J per cent, on the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 131 
 
 SAMPLE J. 
 
 Twofold 40's, Full Twist Twiner Yarn. Egyptian 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 109 
 
 53-10 
 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 52-10 
 
 
 
 
 108 
 
 52-13 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 51-32 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 51-52 
 
 52-034 
 
 19-21 
 
 No. 2 
 
 112 
 
 52-71 
 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 51-42 
 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 51-14 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 52-00 
 
 
 
 
 108 
 
 52-41 
 
 51-936 
 
 19-25 
 
 No. 3 
 
 109 
 
 52-00 
 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 53-00 
 
 
 
 
 106 
 
 52-43 
 
 
 
 
 106 
 
 51-34 
 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 51-83 
 
 52-120 
 
 19-18 
 
 No. 4 
 
 110 
 
 52-14 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 52-34 
 
 
 
 
 114 
 
 53-10 
 
 
 
 
 112 
 
 53-41 
 
 
 
 
 111 
 
 53-17 
 
 52-832 
 
 18-92 
 
 
 107-4 
 
 
 52-230 
 
 19-14 
 
 This is a splendid yarn one of the best in the market. The 
 counts are slightly coarse. The greatest variation in strength is in 
 No. 2 thread, from 98 to 112 Ibs., or 14 Ibs., which is about 13 
 per cent, on the average breaking strain. The greatest range in 
 counts is in No. 3 thread, where the weight varies from 51-34 to 
 53 grains, or 1'66, or about 3 per cent, on the average weight. 
 
132 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE K. 
 
 Twofold 40's, Super Frame. Egyptian Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 
 11 
 
 in IDS. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 115 
 
 50-00 
 
 
 
 
 112 
 112 
 110 
 110 
 
 50-41 
 49-38 
 49-56 
 50-37 
 
 49-944 
 
 20-02 
 
 No. 2 
 
 99 
 103 
 110 
 105 
 111 
 
 49-13 
 49-35 
 49-56 
 49-83 
 49-67 
 
 49-508 
 
 20-19 
 
 No. 3 
 
 120 
 105 
 108 
 99 
 100 
 
 50-43 
 49-38 
 48-85 
 48-53 
 48-84 
 
 49-206 
 
 20-32 
 
 No. 4 
 
 112 
 
 51-36 
 
 
 
 
 108 
 114 
 118 
 107 
 
 51-21 
 50-65 
 50-95 
 50-36 
 
 50-906 
 
 19-64 
 
 
 108-9 
 
 
 49-891 
 
 20-04 
 
 This is a special yam made with a view to extra strength, the 
 twist per inch being 21 turns. The counts are full. The greatest 
 variation in strength is in No. 3 thread, from 99 to 1201bs., or 
 2 libs., which is rather over 19 per cent, of the average breaking 
 strain. The greatest variation in weight is in No. 3 thread, from 
 48-53 to 50-43 grains, or 1-9, which is about 4 per cent, on the 
 average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YAKN. 
 
 133 
 
 SAMPLE L. 
 
 Twofold 38's Super Frame. Egyptian Cotton, 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 Weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1-" 
 
 130 
 
 52-103 
 
 
 
 
 124 
 
 52-381 
 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 52-661 
 
 
 
 
 127 
 
 52-820 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 130 
 
 52-750 
 
 52-543 
 
 19-03 
 
 No. 2 
 
 140 
 
 52-583 
 
 
 
 
 135 
 
 53-012 
 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 53-100 
 
 
 
 
 141 
 
 53-112 
 
 
 
 
 138 
 
 52-831 
 
 52-927 
 
 18-89 
 
 No 3 
 
 128 
 
 52-143 
 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 52-321 
 
 
 
 
 132 
 
 52-621 
 
 
 
 
 134 
 
 52-336 
 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 52-128 
 
 52-309 
 
 19-11 
 
 No. 4 
 
 132 
 
 52-136 
 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 52-731 
 
 
 
 
 124 
 
 52-834 
 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 52-114 
 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 52-912 
 
 52-545 
 
 19-03 
 
 
 131 
 
 
 52-581 
 
 19-01 
 
 This is a special yarn made purposely for extra strength and 
 evenness, and is spun down from 90's rovings. The counts are 
 full. The twist is = 21 turns in 40's. The greatest variation in 
 strength is in thread No. 4, from 120 to 132 Ibs., or 12 Ibs., 
 which is a little over 9 per cent, on the breaking weight. The 
 greatest variation in counts is in No. 4 thread, from 52*114 to 
 52-912 grains, or *798 grains, which is rather more than 1J per 
 cent, on the average weight. 
 
134 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE M. 
 
 Twofold 60's Frame Yarn, made from Egyptian 
 Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 "Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 74 
 
 32-83 
 
 
 
 
 74 
 70 
 
 74 
 74 
 
 32-94 
 32-81 
 32-92 
 32-95 
 
 32-890 
 
 30-40 
 
 No. 2 
 
 76 
 
 33-25 
 
 
 
 
 74 
 71 
 73 
 
 72 
 
 33-12 
 32-91 
 33-00 
 33-15 
 
 33-086 
 
 30-22 
 
 No. 3 
 
 78 
 
 33-85 
 
 
 
 
 78 
 79 
 
 77 
 77 
 
 33-76 
 33-92 
 33-52 
 33-40 
 
 33-690 
 
 29-68 
 
 No. 4 
 
 68 
 
 33-25 
 
 
 
 
 70 
 69 
 74 
 74 
 
 32-85 
 32-93 
 33-15 
 33-04 
 
 33-044 
 
 30-26 
 
 
 73-8 
 
 
 33-177 
 
 30-14 
 
 This is a strong regular yarn. The counts are full. The 
 greatest variation in strength is in No. 4 thread, from 68 to 
 74 Ibs. = 6 Ibs., which is about 8 per cent, on the average 
 breaking strain. The greatest variation in counts is in No. 3 
 thread, from 33-40 to 33-92 grains = 0'52 grains, or about 1J per 
 cent, on the average weight. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 135 
 
 SAMPLE N. 
 
 Twofold 60's Twiner Yarn. All Egyptian Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Bi'eaking 
 weight per lea 
 nibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 92 
 
 33-85 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 88 
 86 
 
 82 
 
 3275 
 32-93 
 32-83 
 32-75 
 
 33-022 
 
 30-28 
 
 No. 2 
 
 80 
 
 32-94 
 
 
 
 
 83 
 81 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 32-83 
 32-95 
 32-93 
 
 32-99 
 
 32-928 
 
 30-36 
 
 No. 3 
 
 90 
 
 33-21 
 
 
 
 
 89 
 95 
 92 
 90 
 
 33-25 
 33-36 
 33-28 
 33-24 
 
 33-265 
 
 30-06 
 
 No. 4 
 
 84 
 
 33-00 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 81 
 85 
 84 
 
 33-16 
 33-04 
 33-24 
 33-28 
 
 33-144 
 
 30-17 
 
 
 85-5 
 
 
 33-090 
 
 30-22 
 
 This is a first-class yarn. The counts are full. The greatest 
 variation in strength is in No. 1 thread, from 82 to 921bs. = 101bs. 
 or about llf per cent, on the average breaking strain. The 
 greatest variation in counts is in No. 1 thread, from 32-75 to 33-85 
 grains = 1 -1 grains, or about 3 J per cent, on the average weight. 
 
136 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE O. 
 
 Twofold 80's Twiner Yarn. Egyptian Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 
 "Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 59 
 
 25-43 
 
 
 
 
 61 
 64 
 63 
 60 
 
 26-34 
 26-00 
 25-38 
 26-00 
 
 25-830 
 
 38-71 
 
 No. 2 
 
 64 
 
 26-13 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 65 
 56 
 62 
 
 25-37 
 25-29 
 25-87 
 26-13 
 
 25-758 
 
 38-82 
 
 No. 3 
 
 62 
 
 25-83 
 
 
 
 
 66 
 63 
 65 
 63 
 
 26-32 
 26-10 
 26-53 
 
 26-12 
 
 26-180 
 
 38-19 
 
 No. 4 
 
 60 
 
 25-91 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 54 
 60 
 54 
 
 26-83 
 24-75 
 26-12 
 25-12 
 
 25-746 
 
 38-84 
 
 
 61 
 
 
 25-878 
 
 38-64 
 
 This is a good using yam. The counts are heavy. The greatest 
 variation in strength is in No. 4 thread, from 54 to 641bs.=101bs., 
 which is equal to 16| per cent. A similar variation occurs in 
 No. 2 thread, from 55 to 651bs. The greatest variation in weight 
 is from 24*75 to 26*83 grains=2'08 grains, which is equal to about 
 8 per cent, on the average weight* 
 
SAMPLES OF YAKK 
 
 137 
 
 SAMPLE P. 
 
 Twofold 120's Frame Yarn. All Egyptian Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 
 11 
 
 in IDS. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 50 
 
 16-25 
 
 
 
 
 53 
 51 
 54 
 50 
 
 16-45 
 16-62 
 16-83 
 16-35 
 
 16-500 
 
 60-60 
 
 No. 2 
 
 48 
 
 17-13 
 
 
 
 
 52 
 50 
 54 
 52 
 
 17-00 
 16-43 
 16-59 
 16-83 
 
 16-796 
 
 59-53 
 
 No. 3 
 
 54 
 
 17-35 
 
 
 
 
 56 
 51 
 
 48 
 52 
 
 17-12 
 16-93 
 16-65 
 16-83 
 
 16-976 
 
 58-90 
 
 No. 4 
 
 50 
 
 16-68 
 
 
 
 
 48 
 52 
 52 
 51 
 
 16-23 
 16-94 
 16-75 
 17-04 
 
 16-728 
 
 59-78 
 
 
 51-4 
 
 
 16-750 
 
 59-70 
 
 This is a good yarn. The counts are slightly heavy. The greatest 
 variation in strength is in No. 3 thread, from 48 to 561bs. = 81bs., 
 or about 15 J per cent, on the average breaking weight. The greatest 
 variation in weight is in No. 4 thread, from 16*23 to 17 "04 
 grains =0 - 81 grains, or about 4*8 per cent, of the average weight. 
 
138 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE Q. 
 
 Twofold 120's Super Combed Frame. All Sea Island 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Breaking 
 weight per lea 
 in Ibs. 
 
 Weight 
 in grains. 
 
 Average 
 weight. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 61 
 
 16-12 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 66 
 63 
 
 64 
 
 16-00 
 17-13 
 17-01 
 16-83 
 
 16-618 
 
 60-17 
 
 No. 2 
 
 66 
 
 17-25 
 
 
 
 
 64 
 68 
 65 
 63 
 
 16-43 
 
 16-83 
 16-28 
 1*67 
 
 16-692 
 
 59-91 
 
 No. 3 
 
 68 
 
 17-31 
 
 
 
 
 68 
 62 
 60 
 64 
 
 17-14 
 16-83 
 16-25 
 16-83 
 
 16872 
 
 59-27 
 
 No. 4 
 
 63 
 
 16-67 
 
 
 
 
 60 
 64 
 65 
 59 
 
 16-83 
 16-94 
 16-58 
 16-37 
 
 16-678 
 
 59-96 
 
 
 63-6 
 
 
 16-715 
 
 59-82 
 
 This is one of the best yarns in the market, made for quality 
 entirely regardless of expense. The counts are slightly heavy. 
 The greatest variation in strength is in No. 3 thread, from 60 
 to 6 8 Ibs. = 8 Ibs., or about 12 J per cent, of the average breaking 
 weight. The greatest variation in weight is in No. 3 thread, from 
 16 '2 5 to 17-31 grains = 1-06 grains, or about 6 per cent, of the 
 average weight. 
 
GENERAL RESULT OF TESTS. 139 
 
 In looking at the general results of the testings of 
 these yarns, we are struck with the wide variation 
 which the different samples of single yarn present in 
 the regularity of the breaking strain, the variation, 
 in fact, ranging from 7*3 per cent, in sample E to 
 22 per cent, in sample F. The best results are 
 obtained in those yarns which are spun down from 
 higher numbers, and which, in consequence of the 
 lower drafts in the spinning and also the propor- 
 tionately better quality of the raw material for the 
 counts, are relatively of a better quality. 
 
 The deviation presented by the single yarns in 
 regard to weight or counts is not so wide as in the 
 strength, and only varies from 2 per cent, in sample E 
 to 10 per cent, in sample D, being most regular in 
 the spun down yarns. 
 
 In twofold yarns the variation in the breaking 
 strain is more uniform, the extreme variation being 
 from 8 per cent, in sample M to 19 per cent, in 
 sample K. If, however, we leave out sample M, which 
 gives remarkably good testings, the extreme variation 
 is only from 11 to 19 per cent. It is somewhat 
 remarkable that the greatest variation in this respect 
 occurs in a super frame yarn. In this sample, how- 
 ever, the twist is below the usual standard, and I 
 have noticed that as a rule slack twisted yarns are 
 subject to greater variations in strength than full 
 twisted yarns. This probably arises from the fact 
 that the twist in yarn has always a tendency to creep 
 or run into the thinnest or most uneven parts of the 
 
140 STEUCTUEE OF THE COTTON EIBEE. 
 
 yarn; and where the twist is slack this is specially 
 noticeable, and tends to produce a greater variation. 
 
 With regard to variation in weight or counts, the 
 twofold yarns appear to vary nearly as much as single 
 yarns, the extreme variation being from 1^ per cent. 
 in sample M to 8 per cent, in sample 0. We may 
 also notice that the least variation, both in strength 
 and counts, occurs in sample M, which is a frame 
 yarn. 
 
 Until I conducted these experiments, I was of 
 opinion that there was a much greater difference in 
 regard to the regularity in the breaking strain of 
 single and twofold yarns, since, where two threads are 
 doubled together, there appeared to be a much greater 
 chance of uniformity, as the irregularities in the two 
 threads would tend to neutralize each other. It 
 appears, however, that this advantage is neutralized 
 by the difficulty of keeping the two threads at a 
 uniform tension in the process of doubling and 
 putting in the twist, and which tends to cause one 
 thread to wind spirally round the other, like the 
 thread of a screw round the cylinder which forms its 
 core, and thus when the strain is thrown on to the 
 double thread one has more pressure to carry than 
 the other. This is easily seen by the eye in thick 
 counts, and specially when slackly twisted. There is 
 always, also, the danger of single snarls, which in the 
 case of single yarns draw out, and are frequently 
 the strongest part of the thread ; but in twofolds these 
 snarls, even when scarcely discernible to the naked 
 
THEORETICAL STRENGTH OF YARN. 141 
 
 eye, cause all the strain to be thrown on to the other 
 thread, which, being only single, gives way more 
 readily. 
 
 It seems, therefore, from these and other causes, 
 that twofold yarns are liable to as wide variation as 
 singles, bofti in strength and counts. 
 
 O ' O 
 
 Before we pass away from the consideration of the 
 strength of various counts of yarn it may not be 
 uninteresting to enquire how far we utilize the total 
 strength of the raw material or fibres out of which 
 any yarn is composed. It may seem at first sight as 
 if it was impossible to calculate the theoretical strength 
 of a thread, but if we know the tensile strain which 
 the individual fibres which compose it will carry 
 before they break, and the number of fibres or fila- 
 ments in the cross section of the thread, the calculation 
 is easily made. It must not be supposed that there 
 are always the same number of filaments in the cross 
 section of the threads of the same counts, as they vary 
 very much with the nature of the cotton, and in these 
 calculations I have taken the average when Middling 
 Memphis with staple, and Fully Good Fair Egyptian 
 are used. 
 
 Of course, this calculation supposes that all the 
 fibres are sufficiently twisted into the thread to pre- 
 vent their slipping, or drawing out without breaking, 
 and as this can never be perfectly' accomplished, we 
 must make a considerable allowance for this drawing- 
 out action, especially in slack twisted yarns. 
 
 In the following tables, however, I have made no 
 
142 
 
 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 such allowance, because I found it practically impos- 
 sible to arrive at any satisfactory data as to what 
 percentage this source of weakness amounts to. Much, 
 as I have said, depends on the twist in the yarn, and 
 in these experiments I have used yarns with the 
 theoretical twist per inch, which is the square root of 
 the counts multiplied by 3f, and which may be 
 formulated thus twist = ^ counts x 3 75. 
 
 This twist is what experience shows to be such that 
 the yarn will finally set without curling, and when it 
 is exceeded there is danger of introducing other faults 
 into the yarn which more than take away the 
 advantage derived from the extra strength given by 
 the extra twist, except for special purposes. 
 
 The following tables exhibit the results obtained 
 from calculations and experiments on American and 
 Egyptian cotton. 
 
 AMERICAN COTTON. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 Average 
 number of 
 fibres in 
 
 Calculated 
 strength 
 
 Observed 
 strength 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 
 
 cross section 
 of thread. 
 
 per lea in 
 Ibs. 
 
 per lea in 
 Ibs. 
 
 strength 
 utilized. 
 
 strength 
 lost. 
 
 20's Water twist 
 
 230 
 
 388 
 
 80 
 
 20-6 
 
 79-4 
 
 32's Mule 
 
 144 
 
 240 
 
 50 
 
 20*8 
 
 79-2 
 
 40's 
 
 120 
 
 194 
 
 40 
 
 20-6 
 
 79-4 
 
 50's 
 
 92 
 
 155 
 
 30 
 
 19-3 
 
 80-7 
 
 30's Twofold.. 
 
 300 
 
 500 
 
 130 
 
 26-0 
 
 74-0 
 
 40's .. 
 
 225 
 
 380 
 
 100 
 
 26-3 
 
 73-7 
 
 50's .. 
 
 180 
 
 300 
 
 75 
 
 25-0 
 
 75-0 
 
 In the Egyptian cotton, as we have already seen, 
 the fibres are smaller in diameter, and we have there- 
 
THEORETICAL STRENGTH OF YARK 
 
 143 
 
 fore a larger number in the cross section of any given 
 thread, as will be observed by comparing the two 
 tables. 
 
 EGYPTIAN COTTON. 
 
 Counts. 
 
 Average 
 number of 
 fibres in 
 cross section 
 
 Calculated 
 strength 
 per lea in 
 
 Observed 
 strength 
 per lea in 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 strength 
 
 Percentage 
 of total 
 strength 
 
 
 of thread. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 Ibs. 
 
 utilized. 
 
 lost. 
 
 40's Single mule 
 
 161 
 
 234 
 
 50 
 
 21-3 
 
 78-7 
 
 50's 
 
 129 
 
 188 
 
 38 
 
 20-2 
 
 79-8 
 
 60's 
 
 107 
 
 156 
 
 30 
 
 19-2 
 
 80-8 
 
 40*s Twofold... 
 
 320 
 
 450 
 
 120 
 
 26-6 
 
 73-4 
 
 50's ... 
 
 240 
 
 360 
 
 96 
 
 26-6 
 
 73-4 
 
 60's ... 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 83 
 
 27-6 
 
 72-4 
 
 70's ... 
 
 180 
 
 255 
 
 70 
 
 27-4 
 
 72-6 
 
 80's ... 
 
 160 
 
 220 
 
 60 
 
 27-2 
 
 72-8 
 
 90's ... 
 
 140 
 
 200 
 
 50 
 
 25-0 
 
 75-0 
 
 In looking at these tables, it seems that we utilize 
 very little more than 20 per cent, of the total strength 
 of the raw material, whether it be American or 
 Egyptian cotton, when it is spun into single yarns, 
 and that the percentage of loss increases as the yarn 
 becomes finer. Of course in this large loss of nearly 
 80 per cent, we have all the imperfections which 
 arise from the drawing out of the fibres, from the 
 imperfections in the spinning, and the want of 
 uniformity in the strength of the raw material, which 
 in the calculated strength are supposed to be perfectly 
 uniform. In twofold yarns the results are rather 
 better by about 6 per cent. Here we also notice that 
 the percentage of loss increases as the counts become 
 finer. In making these tests I used in all cases yarns 
 
144 STRUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 spun down from the highest counts, and therefore 
 made from the same cotton that is to say, the 
 American singles were all spun down from 50's 
 rovings, and the Egyptian singles from 60's rovings, 
 and in the twofold yarns the American qualities were 
 all produced from the same roving and cotton as the 
 2/5 O's, and the Egyptian twofolds from the same 
 rovings and cotton as the 2/9 O's. Had the yarns 
 been spun in the reverse way, viz., upwards from the 
 lower qualities to the higher, the percentage of loss as 
 we reached the higher counts would probably have 
 been very much larger. 
 
 The question of the regularity with which twist 
 can be put into yarns is also very important, because 
 upon this depends to a large extent the uniformity in 
 strength. 
 
 To determine this point I made a series of experi- 
 ments, from which I have selected five samples. 
 Four of them are the same yarns and threads, which 
 were experimented upon for the strength and regu- 
 larity in counts, and are marked with the same letters 
 so as to facilitate reference. 
 
 The twist was determined by a small machine made 
 specially for the purpose. It consists of a sliding 
 bar graduated in inches, which carries upon it a 
 horizontal spindle, which holds one end of the thread, 
 and the revolutions of which are registered by an 
 automatic counter. The other end of the thread is 
 held in a fixed slit or vice, which holds it tight and 
 prevents any twist running either in or out of the 
 
TWIST TESTING MACHINE. 145 
 
 portion of the thread between itself and the end of 
 the revolving spindle. The appearance and structure 
 of this machine will be easily understood by reference 
 to Fig. 5, which is a correct representation of it. The 
 
 Fig. 5. 
 
 recording dial is double, and can easily be set back to 
 zero without turning the machine, by simply releasing 
 the milled-head seen above the dial, when the top 
 plate can be turned in either direction and clamped 
 to the position required by screwing up the nut again. 
 When the machine is about to be used the sliding bar 
 is set to the number of inches required to be measured, 
 and the thread slipped into the two jaws and made 
 fast. The small wheel is then turned round in the 
 proper direction until all the twist is out of the yarn, 
 and the number of turns is read off the dial which 
 was set to zero before commencing. 
 
 It is quite clear that since our doubling and 
 spinning machines are so arranged that a certain 
 fixed amount of twist is put into a certain number 
 of inches of yarn if the material of which the thread 
 is composed was equally elastic in every pa?t, and 
 equally even in diameter we should have perfect 
 uniformity in twist; and even as it is, with all the 
 imperfections in this respect, if we take a sufficient 
 L 
 
146 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 number of inches, such as 100, we should probably 
 reach a wonderful uniformity in results depending 
 upon the law of averages. I have, however, taken 
 5 inches and 1 inch as the standard lengths for 
 experiment, and in each thread operated upon I have 
 taken these lengths five times consecutively, so as to 
 obtain an average of results. The second column in 
 the tables, therefore, presents the number of turns 
 which were present in 5 inches of yarn without regard 
 to their distribution through these inches. The fourth 
 column gives the number of turns which were present 
 in each thread taken inch by inch. The third column 
 represents the average number of turns per inch when 
 the turns are measured 5 inches together, and the 
 fifth column the average number of turns per inch 
 when the turns are measured inch by inch. 
 
 As in the case of the samples which I used for 
 testing variations in the strength of yarn, I experi- 
 mented upon a much larger number of samples than 
 are given here; but as the general results derived 
 from the tests were very similar to those which are 
 derived from these examples, it would only have 
 extended the work without affording additional 
 information if I had included them. 
 
SAMPLES OF YAKN. 
 
 147 
 
 SAMPLE R. 
 
 Twofold 20's Twiner Yarn. Made from American 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 per inch. 
 
 Taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 93 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 87 
 92 
 90 
 
 85 
 
 17-88 
 
 19 
 17 
 17 
 16 
 
 18'0 
 
 No. 2 
 
 84 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 98 
 101 
 100 
 95 
 
 19-12 
 
 20 
 18 
 18 
 19 
 
 18-6 
 
 No. 3 
 
 93 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 85 
 98 
 100 
 93 
 
 18-76 
 
 18 
 18 
 15 
 19 
 
 18-2 
 
 No. 4 
 
 95 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 90 
 100 
 89 
 95 
 
 18-76 
 
 20 
 22 
 16 
 17 
 
 18-6 
 
 
 
 18-63 
 
 
 18-35 
 
 The greatest variation in the twist taken 5 inches together 
 occurs in No. 2 thread, from 84 to 101 turns = 17 turns, or 18 per 
 cent, of the average number. The greatest variation when taken 
 inch by inch occurs in No. 3 thread, from 15 to 21 turns = 6 turns, 
 or nearly 33 per cent, of the average turns. The same percentage 
 in variation also occurs in No. 4 thread, from 16 to 22 turns=6 
 turns. The average number of turns taken by the two methods 
 and averaged for the four threads is very nearly equal, being about 
 2J per cent, difference. 
 
148 STKUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBKE. 
 
 SAMPLE I. 
 
 Twofold 40's Twiner Yarn. Made from American 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Number of 
 turns taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 per inch. 
 
 Number of 
 turns taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 119 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 139 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 128 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 135 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 136 
 
 26-28 
 
 32 
 
 26-6 
 
 No. 2 
 
 124 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 133 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 113 
 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 125 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 * 140 
 
 25-40 
 
 31 
 
 26-0 
 
 No. 3 
 
 133 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 135 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 144 
 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 25-92 
 
 32 
 
 26-2 
 
 No. 4 
 
 123 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 134 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 126 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 24-60 
 
 24 
 
 24-4 
 
 
 
 25-55 
 
 
 25-8 
 
 The greatest variation in twist taken 5 inches together is in 
 No. 3 thread, from 110 to 144 turns = 34 turns, or a little over 
 26 per cent, of the average number of turns. The greatest 
 variation when taken inch by inch is in No. 2 thread, from 
 21 to 31 turns =10 turns, or about 38 per cent, of the average 
 number. The general average taken both ways is very similar, 
 the difference being only about 1 per cent. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 149 
 
 SAMPLE M. 
 
 Twofold 60's Frame Yarn. Made from Egyptian 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 per inch. 
 
 Taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 per inch. 
 
 ;NO. i 
 
 128 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 131 
 132 
 138 
 143 
 
 26-88 
 
 29 
 25 
 29 
 23 
 
 25-6 
 
 No. 2 
 
 130 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 132 
 140 
 126 
 132 
 
 26-40 
 
 30 
 
 28 
 22 
 27 
 
 26-0 
 
 No. 3 
 
 140 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 138 
 130 
 126 
 126 
 
 26-40 
 
 27 
 35 
 28 
 24 
 
 27-2 
 
 No. 4 
 
 132 
 127 
 133 
 140 
 130 
 
 26-48 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 29 
 21 
 24 
 
 26-8 
 
 
 
 26-54 
 
 
 26-4 
 
 The greatest variation in twist taken 5 inches together is in 
 No. 1 thread, from 128 to 143 turns = 15 turns, or a little above 
 11 per cent, of the average turns. The greatest variation taken 
 inch by inch is in No. 3 thread, from 22 to 35 turns = 13 turns, 
 which is equal to 50 per cent, of the average number of turns. 
 The average obtained by the two methods is very nearly equal. 
 
150 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 SAMPLE O. 
 
 Twofold 80's Twiner Yarn. All Egyptian Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Taken 
 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 per inch. 
 
 Taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 per inch. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 170 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 156 
 178 
 180 
 190 
 
 34-96 
 
 30 
 38 
 39 
 
 40 
 
 34-60 
 
 No. 2 
 
 188 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 190 
 158 
 168 
 165 
 
 34-76 
 
 40 
 34 
 25 
 37 
 
 35-20 
 
 No. 3 
 
 178 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 159 
 190 
 178 
 166 
 
 34-84 
 
 29 
 41 
 43 
 39 
 
 35-40 
 
 No. 4 
 
 186 
 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 170 
 164 
 159 
 180 
 
 34-36 
 
 40 
 28 
 26 
 32 
 
 33-60 
 
 
 
 34-73 
 
 
 34-70 
 
 The greatest variation taken 5 inches together occurs in No. 1 
 thread, from 156 to 190 turns = 34 turns, or about 20 per cent, 
 of the average number. The greatest variation taken inch by 
 inch is in No. 4 thread, from 26 to 42 turns 16 turns, or about 
 46 per cent, of the average number of turns. The average number 
 obtained by the two methods is about the same. 
 
SAMPLES OF YARN. 
 
 151 
 
 SAMPLE Q. 
 
 Twofold 120's Super Combed Frame Yarn. Made 
 from Sea Island Cotton. 
 
 Number 
 of 
 Experiments. 
 
 Number of 
 turns per inch 
 taken 5 inches 
 together. 
 
 Average 
 number of 
 turns. 
 
 Number 
 taken 
 inch by inch. 
 
 Average 
 number of 
 turns. 
 
 No. 1 
 
 174 
 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 212 
 210 
 212 
 189 
 
 39-88 
 
 44 
 37 
 35 
 43 
 
 39-40 
 
 No. 2 
 
 195 
 
 
 34 
 
 
 
 198 
 194 
 190 
 
 188 
 
 38-60 
 
 40 
 36 
 38 
 39 
 
 37-40 
 
 No. 3 
 
 208 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 212 
 198 
 204 
 206 
 
 41-12 
 
 38 
 43 
 40 
 42 
 
 40-40 
 
 No. 4 
 
 212 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 209 
 190 
 188 
 201 
 
 40-00 
 
 40 
 39 
 36 
 40 
 
 39-80 
 
 
 
 39-90 
 
 
 39-25 
 
 The greatest variation in the number of turns taken 5 inches 
 together is in No. 1 thread, from 174 to 212 turns = 38 turns, 
 which is about 19 per cent, of the average. The greatest variation 
 taken inch by inch is in No. 1 thread, from 35 to 44 turns =9 
 turns, or about 23 per cent, of the average. The average obtained 
 by the two methods differs by about If per cent. 
 
152 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 In looking over these examples we may notice that 
 when the number of turns per inch are taken five 
 Inches together, the greatest average variation is very 
 nearly 18^ per cent, ranging indeed from 11 up to 
 26 per cent. When the counting is done inch by 
 inch this variation becomes much greater, being on the 
 average, indeed nearly twice as great, or 37 per cent. 
 The range is from 23 up to 50 per cent. Notwith- 
 standing this, the average number of turns which is 
 obtained by each of these methods is wonderfully 
 uniform, since its greatest range is only 2 per cent. 
 
 One of the most fruitful causes of irregularity in 
 the twist of yarns arises from the fact that whenever 
 any irregularity occurs in either of the threads which 
 are doubled together, there is a tendency for the twist 
 to run out of these thick places and accumulate in 
 those parts of the thread where the diameter is 
 smaller. This peculiarity, which is detrimental to 
 double yarns, is really an advantage in single 
 yarns, and specially in those which are spun upon 
 mules, because the twist accumulating in the thin 
 parts of the thread tends to strengthen the weak 
 places, and thus to increase the average strength of 
 the thread, which, like a chain, depends upon the 
 weakest link. In mule spinning this action greatly 
 tends both to strength and uniformity, because when 
 the yarn is being delivered by the rollers wherever a 
 thin place comes out the twist runs into it, and by 
 strengthening this part prevents any further drawing- 
 out action, while the thick places are still acted upon 
 
VARIATION IN DIAMETER. 153 
 
 by the gain in the carriage and drawn thinner. In 
 throstle spinning the distance between the rollers and 
 the bobbin is too small to permit this action to take 4 
 place to any extent, and, also, there is no drawing-out 
 action after the thread has left the rollers, except any 
 slight extension, which may be due to the drag of the 
 bobbin. 
 
 The variations in diameter in the raw material are 
 scarcely less important than those in length of staple, 
 because it will be evident to all that no degree of 
 mechanical perfection in spinning can exercise more 
 than an equable power of distribution of the fibres in 
 the thread; and if these vary in their thickness, 
 unless there has previously been a perfectly uniform 
 distribution of the fibres in the roving, it will be 
 perfectly impossible to secure uniformity in the yarn. 
 It may surprise some of you when I say that in order 
 to accomplish this in the spinning of fine yarns, the 
 average is taken several millions of times. We 
 cannot also leave out of account the spiral character 
 of the cotton fibre, because upon this peculiarity to a 
 large extent depends one of the characters which 
 render it possible to be used as a raw material for yarn 
 spinning. 
 
 We have already seen that different cottons vary 
 much in this characteristic ; also, that this peculiarity 
 seems to manifest itself very shortly after the opening 
 of the boll, and to be increased by the gradual 
 accumulation of secondary deposits and the collapsing 
 and dessication of the fibre after the separation from 
 
154 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 the seed. The strength which any yarn possesses 
 depends not only upon the ultimate strength of the 
 'fibres of which it is composed, but also upon the 
 degree of friction which the surfaces of the individual 
 fibres possess, and which enable them to receive the 
 twist of the yarn, and thus resist being drawn out 
 when the thread is subjected to strain. In the case 
 of wool, this friction is due to the serrated edges of 
 the scales which cover the epidermal layer, and which 
 interlock in the process of twisting and felting. In 
 the case of cotton, the friction is no doubt due to the 
 twisted form assumed by the collapsed tube ; and 
 when the tube walls are sufficiently thick to resist 
 this twisting action, or the fibres sufficiently short to 
 enable the twist of the tube to run out at the end, 
 by enabling the fibre to uncoil itself, the yarn made 
 out of such cotton, will require more twist putting in 
 mechanically in order to obtain the same strength. 
 Eemarking on this point, a writer* has observed : 
 " When cotton fibres, as in the process of spinning, 
 range themselves in the grooves of contiguous fibres, 
 the effect of the twist is, that the greater the strain 
 on the yarn the closer is the mutual grip of the fibres, 
 which may break, but will not slip asunder. 
 
 Cotton fibres vary very much in the character of 
 their twist, which is always present in the best fibres, 
 though some inferior staples scarcely exhibit any. 
 
 Cotton wool seems, in fact, to be made up of 
 
 * "Microscopic Characters of the Cotton of Commerce." By Rev. H. H. 
 Higgins, M.A. Page 11. 
 
SPIRAL FORM OF FIBRE. 155 
 
 naturally formed strands, in which nature has in a 
 great measure anticipated the work of the spinner. 
 I am not acquainted with any other vegetable hair 
 showing a similar twist, nor can I discover a trace of 
 any property likely to be beneficial to the cotton 
 plant itself in this remarkable structure." 
 
 It appears to be an undoubted fact that cultivation 
 tends to increase the amount and regularity of this 
 twisting action, from whatever cause it may arise, 
 since in the wild cotton which is indigenous to Africa 
 there is very little of this character exhibited, and it 
 is also noticeable that many of the fibres show a 
 deposition of secondary matter in the form of spiral 
 filaments, or fibrillae lining the interior of the tube. 
 This appears to me to be very important, because it 
 seems to indicate that the method in which the cotton 
 fibre wall is increased in thickness is really the same 
 as is usual amongst vegetable cells, viz., by the 
 accumulation of secondary deposits upon the outer 
 pellicle, and that these deposits in the uncultivated 
 fibre may even assume the spiral form, which forms 
 so conspicuous a feature in many vegetable structures, 
 and which is so markedly absent in the cotton of 
 commerce. Speaking on this point Mr. Higgins 
 remarks, "In some of the fibres of the wild cotton the 
 fibrillae show a tendency to a longitudinal rather than 
 a spiral growth within the tube, which in such 
 instances becomes more or less flattened or compressed, 
 thus assuming one of the distinctive characters of the 
 fibres of cultivated cotton. In most of the wild fibres 
 
156 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 there are numerous fibrillao, having a spiral direction 
 from left to right. In the flattened fibres in which 
 the fibrillse are disposed, more or less longitudinally 
 their spiral tendency seems to be converted into a 
 spiral twist of the fibre itself, having also a direction 
 from left to right. A similar, but more perfect form 
 of spiral twist, is one of the most prominent micro- 
 scopic characters of the cultivated fibre." 
 
 While this variation in diameter of the fibres is 
 undoubtedly the source of great difficulty in the mere 
 mechanical operations through which the cotton has 
 to pass, the difficulty, arising from general variations 
 in the structure of the fibre, both mechanical and 
 chemical, is greatly increased when we have to con- 
 sider that there are also in the various stages of the 
 manufacturing process many chemical changes to be 
 included, as is the case with all dyed yarns. Here 
 the variations in the character of the fibre present a 
 more serious difficulty, because the changes depend 
 upon a series of molecular actions, which are more 
 minute and less under the control of man. 
 
 In looking at the structure of the cotton fibre we 
 have already seen that when in the fully mature and 
 ripe condition it consists of a long twisted cellular 
 tube, the walls of which although they present to the 
 eye, even when viewed under the most powerful 
 microscopes, no indications of openings in the outer 
 layer or peUicle, nevertheless must possess such a 
 structure as to permit the passage of fluids, and even 
 of some solids, when in a sufficiently fine state of 
 
LIMIT OF MICROSCOPIC VISION. 157 
 
 subdivision. There is a dispute at present amongst 
 physiologists and microscopists as to the limits of 
 vision of the human eye theoretically considered, but 
 those who have worked with the microscope know 
 how difficult it is to resolve lines which are ruled the 
 
 the TrnrWe f an ^ nc ^ a P art > or the 19tn band on 
 Nobart's test-plate, where the lines are 112,000 to the 
 linear inch, and that with the best instruments and 
 the best eyes we soon get beyond the practical limit 
 of vision when we exceed these dimensions. 
 
 This probable limit for ordinary vision is not 
 smaller than something like the Tsij.wmj^ 1 - f a linear 
 inch, although with an educated eye and proper 
 illumination two portions of an object separated by a 
 distance of i-sr^Tmi^h of an inch can be seen, and this is 
 enormously larger than the probable diameter of fluid 
 molecules, and even many solids when precipitated 
 from their solutions by chemical action; and it does 
 not therefore follow that there are no openings through 
 this outward cellulose layer because we cannot detect 
 them by the eye. We shall afterwards see that there 
 is strong reason to suppose that in the case of certain 
 colouring matters there is an important part played 
 in their fixation on the fibre by the power which the 
 cellulose walls of the fibre possess of acting the part 
 of a septem or dialyser, and thus permitting the 
 passage of fluids into the inner layers of the cell wall, 
 while we shall also see that there are many cases 
 where the fixation of the colour really depends upon 
 a real chemical affinity, or cohesion between the fibre 
 
158 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 and the colouring matter, quite independent of its 
 mechanical structure. 
 
 We must remember that all our dyeing processes 
 are after all only a method of giving a new reflecting 
 surface to the body to be coloured. We have already 
 seen that the lustre of cotton depends upon the 
 reflection of light from the plane surfaces of the 
 collapsed tubes ; and whenever these plane surfaces 
 are broken up or wrinkled, either by over ginning or 
 scutching, or carding, the light is dispersed in every 
 direction, instead of being reflected in a sheet to the 
 eye like light from the surface of still water, and 
 the fibre looks dull and not silvery. There is also a 
 great difference in the transparency of the fibres of 
 different cottons, which will easily be seen when 
 examined with polarized light, and this difference I 
 have found has a remarkable effect upon the power 
 of the fibre to receive bright colours in dyeing. Part 
 of the lustre is always due to internal reflection. No 
 body is really coloured in itself, and the colour which 
 it presents is only the total result produced on the 
 retina of the eye by the rays which are reflected, as 
 compared with those which are absorbed or trans- 
 mitted. When coloured bodies, or rather bodies which 
 appear coloured, when viewed under ordinary light, 
 are seen by the rays falling from a monochromatic 
 source, all distinctive colour is absent. This may be 
 easily proved by viewing a box of various shades and 
 colours of silk ribbon, or a pattern-book of bright 
 wall-papers, by the rays derived from an alcohol 
 
THEORY OF DYEING. 159 
 
 flame impregnated with sodium, when it will be found 
 impossible to tell any colour from the other, however 
 distinct, under ordinary sunlight all colours only 
 appearing as various shades of a yellowish-grey. 
 
 To dye the surface of a fibre or a yarn is therefore 
 simply the production of such a molecular condition as 
 will return certain luminous wave lengths and suppress 
 or destroy others, and this may be accomplished in a 
 variety of ways; but since permanence of colour is 
 'also necessary, these methods are chiefly directed to 
 the production of the reflecting surface in the sub- 
 stance of the fibre, so as to prevent its removal by 
 mechanical means such as washing or brushing. 
 
 The rationale, or theory why and how, this desired 
 surface is obtained by what we ordinarily call the 
 fixation of colour upon various fibres, is a matter of 
 dispute and doubt even to the greatest chemical 
 authorities at the present time. Some suppose that 
 between the colouring matter and the fibre there is a 
 true chemical combination, and that the change occurs 
 in equivalent proportions, just the same as when any 
 other coloured chemical compound, such as plumbic 
 iodide, is formed; while others believe that the com- 
 bination arises from a special force in which the usual 
 equivalent proportions are not obtained, but modified 
 by the catalictic action of the fibre. Others are of 
 opinion that chemical action has little to do with the 
 matter, and that the colours are fixed upon the surface 
 of the fibre by molecular attraction alone, while some 
 again think that the action is altogether mechanical, 
 
160 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 and that the colouring matter is absorbed into the 
 pores and cells of the fibre, and held there simply as 
 a substance might be enclosed in a glass bottle. No 
 doubt strong reasons can be urged in favour of all 
 these views, and the application of them depends 
 much upon the nature of the fibre and the class of 
 dyeing material used. My own experiments have led 
 me strongly to believe that in wool and silk there is 
 an affinity in the fibre for certain classes of colouring 
 matter which is really a true chemical combination, 
 and the more complicated chemical composition of 
 these fibres, as compared with cotton, renders this 
 extremely probable, as well as the generally acknow- 
 ledged fact that colours are faster or more difficult to 
 remove from wool and silk than cotton, while indigo, 
 whose deposition within the fibre, from its soluble 
 condition by the absorption of oxygen, is faster upon 
 cotton than either wool or silk, seems to point to a 
 more mechanical theory. 
 
 The chemically inert nature of pure cellulose 
 appears to me to strongly favour the purely mechanical 
 theory of Crum in the case of cotton, and we shall 
 speak again of this further on; while the fact that 
 there often remains in many of the fibres of every 
 cotton boll a considerably large quantity of inspissated 
 cell contents, which do produce, as we have already 
 seen, a chemical action in the case of certain reagents, 
 also furnish a strong reason why along with the 
 mechanical there may be also a chemical action. This 
 belief is also further strengthened by the fact which 
 
COLOURING MATTER IN FIBRE. 161 
 
 we have already mentioned, that cellulose may be 
 precipitated in an unchanged state chemically from 
 the cupra-ammonium solvent discovered by Schweitzer, 
 and that this amorphous gelatinous cellulose can be 
 mordanted and dyed almost in the same way as the 
 true cellular cotton. A microscopical examination of 
 this dyed amorphous mass, however, seems to me 
 clearly to indicate that there is a great difference in 
 the method in which the colour is associated with this 
 jelly and with the cotton fibre, as in the one it is 
 diffused through the whole mass in such a manner 
 that it is equally coloured in every part, while in the 
 cotton fibre it is always more or less cloudy or 
 uuuniform, and resolvable into flakes with a sufficiently 
 high microscopical power. I am of opinion that if 
 the union between the cotton fibre and the colouring 
 matter was purely chemical, we should as a rule find 
 the colour more deeply seated in the texture of the 
 fibre, as the power of chemical affinity is far more 
 tremendous than that of mere mechanical action, and 
 I have been specially struck with the fact how very 
 small a depth the colours usually penetrate into the 
 substance of the cell walls, which I attribute to the 
 fact that as a rule the fibres are not thoroughly 
 cleansed of their gum and cell contents, and these 
 hinder the mechanical action of the cell walls by 
 affording resistance to the entrance of any fluid or 
 dyestuff. M. Bolley, who worked at this question, 
 was struck with the same thing, for he remarks, "the 
 substance of the cotton hair, that is the cell wall, was 
 
 M 
 
162 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 not at all coloured in cotton dyed with indigo, Turkey 
 red, madder pink or purple, chrome yellow, catechu 
 brown, iron buff, or iron black, " and he further 
 remarks that, except with fibre dyed with murexide, 
 very little colour was ever present in the interior of 
 the cell itself. Notwithstanding this, it nevertheless 
 seems that the chemical nature of the fibre has a con- 
 siderable influence in determining the power which it 
 possesses of attracting and retaining colouring matter, 
 which in many cases seems to be very slightly 
 influenced by the peculiar physical structure of the 
 fibre. A series of valuable experiments on this 
 important question were made by M. Kuhlmann,* in 
 which he first acted upon the fibre by nitric and nitro- 
 sulphuric acids, so as to induce a combination of the 
 elements of the nitric acid with the fibrous matter. 
 We must, however, remember that the nitro- cellulose 
 compounds produced are more unstable than the 
 original cellulose itself, and that true substitution 
 compounds may be formed with them which were not 
 possible in the unchanged fibre; and that many 
 animal and vegetable colouring matters may have the 
 power to enter into union with substances which are 
 nearly allied to them in nature, and that provided 
 they are simply able to come into mutual contact in 
 any way, may enter into union in a manner quite 
 independent of the mere mechanical structure of the 
 matter which is immersed in the fluid dye. The more 
 complicated chemical nature of animal fibres favors 
 
 * Comptes Kendus de 1'Acad., xlii., page 373 ; xliii., page 900. 
 
GENERAL THEORY OF DYEING. 163 
 
 this action with all the non-mineral colours, while at 
 the same time it renders them less fitted to receive 
 the mineral colours. 
 
 It is also well known that mineral colours are, as a 
 rule, much better adapted for dyeing cotton than 
 wool, where indeed Prussian blue is almost the only 
 mineral dye used, while in the case of cotton the 
 chemical inertness of the fibre itself favors the reac- 
 tions occurring in the production of mineral colours, 
 and. renders them from their crystalline character 
 easily fixed in the meshes of the cell plexus. Perhaps 
 the best general theory of dyeing is that advanced by 
 the French chemist M. Chevreul, who has given a life- 
 long attention to the subject, and who believes that 
 the matter which colours fibre is fixed in the fibre in 
 three different ways. 
 
 (1) By chemical affinity. 
 
 (2) By simple mixture with the fibres. 
 
 (3) By being in both states at once. 
 
 By the latter statement he does not mean that the 
 same matter is in both states at once, but that there 
 are cases when the colour of the fibre is partly due to 
 the union of the colouring matter with the fibre, and 
 partly to the presence of a quantity of the same 
 colouring matter in a state of mechanical mixture 
 with the material forming the cells. 
 
 Probably no general theory which will include all 
 cases and fibres can be framed until we have a much 
 wider knowledge derived from experimental research, 
 which alone can aid us in any extended generalization. 
 
164 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 It is quite clear, however, that before any colouring 
 matter can be introduced into any fibre, so as per- 
 manently to stain it other than by mere surface 
 colouration, we must have a method of introducing 
 it into the interior of the fibre. Almost all dyeing is 
 accomplished by a wet process, in which the colouring 
 matter is in a state of solution. Some have supposed, 
 in the case of cotton fibres, that absorption into the 
 interior is by capilliary action, the liquid entering by 
 the broken ends of the fibre ; but I found that in 
 fully ripe cotton, even when the liquid was presented 
 to the sides of a fibre alone, it passes into the interior 
 of the tube, swelling out the portion which had 
 absorbed the moisture, showing that a real liquid 
 transfusion had taken place; and this was specially 
 seen when the fibre was mordanted with basic muriate 
 of alumina and dyed in madder. Mr. Walter Crum, 
 F.K.S., in a paper which we have already mentioned, 
 adopted the idea that in the dyeing of the cotton fibre 
 the action was purely mechanical, so far as the fibre 
 itself was concerned, and that the reactions which 
 occurred within the fibre were quite unaffected by the 
 chemical composition of the cotton, which simply 
 served as a containing vessel, as inert as a glass tube, 
 but that the peculiar structure of this fibre enabled it 
 to take in liquids which contained colouring matter in 
 a feeble combination with the solvent liquor, and 
 retain that matter when the colouring matter was 
 either removed by dyeing or precipitated by a reagent. 
 He believed that the energy with which this absor- 
 
CKUM'S EXPERIMENTS. 165 
 
 bent action is exercised depends upon the smallness of 
 the capillary cavities; and in the case of the thin 
 laminae which form the thickness of the cotton tube 
 when suitably prepared, this energy is very great so 
 great, indeed, that it almost passes belief. Mr. Crum 
 says: " Whether the mordant be applied to a piece of 
 calico in the fluid state, or made nearly solid with an 
 amylaceous or other thickening substance, it finds no 
 difficulty in traversing the whole fibre." He further 
 adds : " I have examined threads which have been 
 soaked with a solution of acetate of alumina altogether 
 fluid, and compared them with other threads which 
 had been printed with the same solution made into a 
 thick mucilage with gum arabic, and with others again 
 made into a paste with flour of wheat, so thick that 
 when applied to one side of a piece of bleached calico 
 it did not pass through to the other side ; and on 
 examining transverse sections of dyed specimens of 
 these fibres, I found that such of them as had been 
 reached by the mordant were in all cases equally 
 penetrated. The white centre was always due to a 
 want of dyestuff. I am glad to be able to establish 
 this fact, an apparent impossibility, which has been a 
 stumbling-block to several of my friends. It is 
 difficult, no doubt, without direct examination, to 
 conceive of a -capillary power so great, or that a 
 solution, rendered so tenacious as to require consider- 
 able force to drive it through an opening of an inch 
 in diameter, should be able, without any pressure at 
 all, to pass into the interior of the cotton fibre, the 
 
166 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 pores of which cannot be detected by the most 
 powerful microscopes. "* 
 
 The investigation of this peculiar property of fluids 
 to diffuse through a membranous film or septem 
 formed a new era in our knowledge of the probable 
 action of dyeing materials upon cotton fibres. Pro- 
 fessor Graham, to whom we are largely indebted for 
 these important discoveries in dialysis, found that 
 solution of certain bodies pass through membranes 
 with considerable facility, while others pass through 
 very slowly. Most bodies which are of a crystalline 
 character, such as metallic salts and organic sub- 
 stances, such as sugar, morphia, and oxalic acid, pass 
 through readily, and to these he gave the name of 
 crystalloids ; while bodies devoid of crystalline power, 
 such as gums, gelatine, albumen, and many soluble 
 oxides, which are in an uncrystallizable condition, 
 such as hydrated soluble silicic acid, soluble sesqui- 
 oxide of iron, soluble alumina, and other similar 
 compounds, pass through very slowly, and were 
 termed by him "colloids." The most singular part 
 of his discovery was, that of all substances, parchment 
 paper made the most efficient dialysing septem or 
 membrane. 
 
 We have already seen that this substance is really 
 pure cellulose, the same exactly as our cotton fibre, 
 except that its mechanical texture has been modified 
 and strengthened by the action of strong sulphuric 
 acid, which has increased its density without altering 
 
 * "Chemical Journal." Vol. i. New Series, page 409. 
 
RELATION OF DYESTUFF TO FIBRE. 167 
 
 its chemical constitution. This probably arises from 
 the shrinking in of the laminae of the tube walls, 
 which diminishes their distance and renders their 
 capillary action greater. 
 
 Through the kindness of my friend Dr. Miller, of 
 London, I have had the good fortune to have in my 
 possession for some time the identical slides of dyed 
 cotton fibres which were prepared by Mr. Crum, and 
 upon the examination of which he formed his theory; 
 and I can bear testimony to the great faithfulness 
 with which the illustrations to his paper are given, 
 and in many cases I believe his deductions are war- 
 ranted by the facts ; but certainly all the reactions 
 between cotton and colouring matter are not purely 
 mechanical, because if they were it is quite clear that 
 its behaviour to all colouring matter in the same 
 mechanical condition would be the same, and experi- 
 ments prove that this is not the case. The various 
 substances used to impart colouring matter to fibres 
 are almost as numerous as the methods employed to 
 fix them on to or into the fibre, and they are derived 
 from both the animal, vegetable, and mineral king- 
 doms. We have already seen that as a rule any dye 
 is more difficult to fix upon cotton than upon either 
 silk or wool, and that a larger number of substances 
 can be used in dyeing the two latter than the former. 
 They also take the dye much more readily, and some 
 dyes, which are readily soluble in water and of great 
 tinctorial power, such as the aniline colours, can be 
 fixed on to either wool or silk by simply bringing the 
 
168 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 fibres into connection with the liquid containing the 
 colouring matter. So great is the affinity indeed 
 that the fibres will absorb all the dyestuff out of 
 the solvent and leave the liquid quite clear, while the 
 fibres are permanently dyed. The unprepared cotton 
 fibre does not possess this power in the case of the 
 aniline dyes, which only stain the cotton without 
 permanently charging it with colour, since the dye 
 can be removed by the simple mechanical operation 
 of washing. This is not, however, the case with all 
 colours, since there are some with which when we have 
 nothing present except the fibre and the colouring 
 matter a permanent union is obtained. If the action 
 of the cotton fibre was purely mechanical this would 
 not be the case, because we may suppose all bodies 
 which are coloured in themselves to be, even when in 
 a state of solution, more or less as bodies in an exceed- 
 ingly fine state of division, and there is no reason 
 why the mechanical action excited upon each should 
 not be the same, unless we suppose the solvent to 
 differ in its affinity in regard to the various colouring 
 matters, and thus require more or less power on the 
 part of the fibre to separate it from the solvent, or 
 else that the molecular structure of the colouring 
 matter is in some cases such that it cannot pass 
 through the small openings in the outer layer of the 
 fibre. 
 
 In relation to the fibres of cotton, we may look 
 upon all dyeing substances as of three kinds 
 
 (1) Those which are coloured in themselves, and 
 
ANALYSIS OF DYEING PEOCESSES. 169 
 
 which we may term simple dyes, having a direct 
 affinity for the fibre without the intervention of a 
 mordant. 
 
 (2) Those which are true chemical precipitates 
 formed within the fibre walls, in which the action of 
 the fibre seems to be only mechanical, and does not 
 undergo any change in itself. 
 
 (3) Those where a mordant is necessary, and the 
 colour is produced not by the simple union of the 
 colouring matter with the fibre, but by the action of 
 various reagents upon the mordant, which unites 
 with the fibre and thus fixes the colour. 
 
 It is not possible to draw a sharp line of demarca- 
 tion between these three classes of action, because in 
 the relationship of various colouring matters to the 
 fibres they shade into one another, and there are 
 many instances in which the difference is really only 
 one of degree. We may, however, select typical 
 examples in which the widest differences are shown. 
 
 The first of these classes of dyeing material where 
 we have a direct affinity between the colouring matter 
 and the fibre itself, without the intervention of any 
 mordant or other fixing agent, may be well illustrated 
 by the process of dyeing turmeric, or annatto yellow, 
 or indigo blue. 
 
 In the case of the turmeric yellow we have the 
 colouring matter simply dissolved in hot water, and 
 when the cotton fibre is immersed in the decoction it 
 speedily acquires a bright yellow colour, which is 
 rendered as permanent as the colour will permit by 
 
170 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 simply drying the yarn. Here we have evidently the 
 colouring matter held in a very feeble state of com- 
 bination with the solvent water so feeble that we 
 may almost consider it in mechanical suspension in 
 the liquid along with which it passes into the cellular 
 walls of the fibre, and when the solvent water is dried 
 up the colouring matter remains entangled in the cell 
 walls which absorbed it, and which have evidently 
 entered into some sort of chemical union with it, since 
 the colouring matter can no longer be again separated 
 from the fibre by the application of water, showing 
 that a real change has taken place in its nature, since 
 it readily dissolved in water before. In addition to 
 this, there is an aggregation of the colouring matter 
 within the cellulose walls, as though the fibre 
 possessed the power of concentrating the colour, so 
 that the fibre evidently attracts a larger quantity of 
 colouring matter than water within itself, and when 
 taken out of the liquor leaves the fluid considerably 
 less coloured than the fibre which has been immersed 
 in it. In making these experiments I was par- 
 ticularly struck with the fact that when considered 
 in relation to time, the action of the fibre upon the 
 colouring matter was much more rapid during the 
 first intervals than as the operation proceeded as 
 though as the affinities of the fibre were saturated the 
 action of attraction and fixation became slower and 
 slower as the depth of colour increased. When viewed 
 under the microscope with transmitted light, the 
 irregular distribution of the colouring matter will be 
 
Plate VII 
 
 450 DIAMETERS 
 
 Cotton Fibres, dyed Turmeric Yellow 
 
TUKMERIC YELLOW. 171 
 
 distinctly seen, the colour lying in detached patches and 
 masses in the cellulose walls, which seem very unequal 
 in their power to retain it. This will be readily under- 
 stood by reference to Plate VII., which illustrates 
 cotton fibres dyed turmeric yellow and magnified 
 about four hundred and fifty diameters. The whole 
 cell walls are more or less coloured, as is more 
 distinctly seen when the fibres are viewed with 
 reflected light; but after all the colouring matter is 
 very irregularly distributed, and in some places, as 
 where we have an immature or kempy fibre figured on 
 the right, there seems to be none whatever present. 
 
 This may be termed the very simplest of dyeing 
 processes, being merely the absorption of a colouring 
 matter into the tube walls and leaving a deposit 
 within attached to the fibre by some sort of attraction 
 or combination, which has changed its character from 
 a soluble into an insoluble form. 
 
 As might be expected in this case, the unripe 
 cotton and immature or malformed fibres resist any 
 dyeing action, because they are not capable of per- 
 mitting the transfusing action within the epidermic 
 layer; and from the nature of the dyestuff, which is 
 only colouring matter in a very fine state of division, 
 a deposit on the outer surface of the fibre which in 
 most cases assists the colour within the outer sheath 
 is almost entirely removed by the process of washing. 
 
 Bolley, Crum, and other observers think that the 
 power which the cotton fibre possesses to absorb and 
 precipitate from solution colouring matter arises from 
 
172 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 the same cause which enables finely divided charcoal 
 or other mineral and metallic matter, such as spongy 
 platinum, to precipitate oxides from their solutions or 
 concentrate large volumes of gas within the molecular 
 interstices ; but I am inclined to think that, with the 
 exception of indigo dyeing, this law does not come 
 into operation, because when I have examined sections 
 of fibre dyed turmeric yellow, I have found that while 
 the solid substance of the fibre wall is all more or less 
 dyed yellow, with a pretty uniform tint, the larger 
 and deeper masses of colour are much more irregularly 
 distributed in the fibre walls than they would be if 
 their absorption and aggregation depended upon a 
 general law like this, unless it so happens that the 
 foreign matter, such as wax, oil, and cell contents, 
 interfere with the proper action of the cellulose layers. 
 
 I was in the hope that an examination of fibres 
 dyed indigo might throw some light upon this sub- 
 ject, because in the production of this dye one of 
 the reagents is gaseous, and therefore in a much 
 finer state of division than any merely mechanically 
 suspended or feebly united colouring matter can 
 possibly be. 
 
 When the colouring matter is insoluble in water, it 
 is necessary to make such a solution of the coloured 
 substance as will enable it to pass through the cellu- 
 lose wall, and be there precipitated in an insoluble 
 form by the application of some other solution or 
 reagent. In the case of indigo, this reagent is a gas. 
 Indigo blue, which is one of the most permanent of 
 
INDIGO BLUE. 173 
 
 vegetable colouring matters, is quite insoluble in 
 water, but when in a very fine state of division, and 
 in the presence of lime, water, and ferric sulphate, the 
 indigo undergoes a chemical change by the removal 
 of oxygen, which renders it colourless and soluble. 
 In this condition it is readily absorbed through the 
 cellular membrane and conveyed into the interior of 
 the fibre, and when the fibres are exposed to the 
 action of the air the oxygen is restored and the indigo 
 thrown down within the fibre in an insoluble con- 
 dition. The action exerted upon the solution of 
 indigo seems 'to be, however, more than the mere 
 interpenetration of the cellular tissue, as though the 
 dialysing action of the fibre tends to accumulate the 
 indigo within the cell walls in quantity almost pro- 
 portionate to the time which it is in operation, so 
 that if there be a sufficient quantity of the cotton, it 
 will extract all the indigo from the solution. 
 
 In this respect this cumulative action is similar to 
 that of the fibre upon the turmeric solution, except 
 that the "white indigo," as it is called, is not coloured 
 and visible to the eye, although when dried before 
 exposure to oxygen it seems to be attached to the 
 fibre in its yellow insoluble state. 
 
 In our last lecture we saw the power which cotton 
 possessed of concentrating ammonia and oxygen in 
 its pores, and which seems to arise from a similar 
 cause, and this power is enormously increased when, 
 as in the case where cotton fibre has been impregnated 
 with white indigo, there is a chemical affinity between 
 
174 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 the substance with which the fibre is saturated and 
 the surrounding gas. I am quite willing to admit, 
 however, that this phenomena of gaseous absorption 
 is at present not explainable on any rational principle, 
 either in the case of the charcoal or the cotton fibre, 
 and further experiments are necessary to establish the 
 identity of the causes before we can correctly assume 
 that they are the same. 
 
 In the dyed state, when viewed under the micro- 
 scope, the cloudy deposit of indigo is clearly seen 
 irregularly distributed through the meshes of the 
 fibre, in many cases penetrating into the central 
 cavity, and forming dark, almost black masses where 
 it is accumulated in the largest quantities. The fine 
 state of division of the colouring matter, and its 
 non- crystalline character, render it less liable to 
 disturbance from the flexure of the fibres than many 
 other dyes, and its perfect insolubility in water 
 permits a considerable amount of surface colouration, 
 which, when viewed by reflected light, causes the 
 fibre to appear much more evenly dyed than when 
 transmitted light is employed. Indeed, this surface 
 colouration is always more or less visible in all fibres 
 which are dyed in insoluble colouring matter, or 
 which are not subjected to severe after-treatment, so 
 as to remove all dyestuff which is only mechanically 
 attached ; and this usually masks many of the defects 
 which would otherwise arise from imperfect formation 
 in the fibres. The colouring matter accumulating in 
 the creases and on the wrinkled and broken surface 
 
Plate 
 
 450 DIAMETERS. 
 
 Cotton Fibres dj/ed Indigo Blue 
 
IMPROVEMENT IN DYEING. 175 
 
 of the collapsed tubes, or in the ridges and furrows 
 occasioned by the hollows of the twisted fibres, forms 
 a coloured reflecting surface, to which the solid and 
 even appearance of this dye is largely due. 
 
 This will be clearly seen from an examination of 
 Plate VIII., where we have a representation of cotton 
 fibres dyed indigo, which gives us a much better idea 
 of their appearance than any description which could 
 be written. 
 
 A careful examination of the best dyed fibres, 
 however, seems to indicate that we are still far off the 
 standard of perfect dyeing, and it appears to me that 
 we are much more advanced in the mechanical than 
 the chemical treatment of the raw material. This 
 probably arises from the fact that the general princi- 
 ples of mechanical manipulation are better understood 
 than the obscure reactions upon which our dyeing of 
 the fibres depends, and one of the directions in which 
 we are to look for increased perfection in our finished 
 goods must be in the determination of the means 
 which can be employed in the preliminary preparation 
 of the fibre, so as to enable it better to perform its 
 function as a dialyser, and thus absorb a larger 
 amount of colouring matter and distribute it more 
 evenly. It will, however, be easily seen that we can 
 never obtain this action in fibres which are not 
 possessed of the necessary structure, and that a, careful 
 attention to culture is necessary, so as to produce the 
 fibre best fitted for dyeing purposes. 
 
 The second class of dyeing substances, where true 
 
176 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 chemical precipitates are formed within the fibre walls, 
 are best illustrated by the pure mineral dyes such as 
 chrome yellow, Prussian blue, and other dyes, where 
 the reaction within the fibre which produces the 
 colour is exactly the same as that which occurs in the 
 test glass on the laboratory table when testing for 
 lead or iron, and the art of dyeing these seems to me 
 to be in the preparation of the fibre, so that it will 
 receive in the best possible manner and to the fullest 
 extent the solution of the substance which is after- 
 wards to be precipitated. It seems that in the case 
 of these dyes the action of the cellulose is purely 
 passive, so far as its chemical action is concerned, and 
 I think that this is in some measure confirmed by the 
 fact that in some cases the dyeing material seems to 
 assume a crystalline character within the tube walls, 
 which shows that the molecules of colouring matter, 
 or at any rate a large number of them, are not united 
 by any chemical bond to the cellulose, but are 
 free to exercise their crystalline affinities just in 
 the same way as if they were within a neutral vessel. 
 I have noticed this specially in the case of amber dye, 
 when the chromate of lead was easily distinguished 
 by the peculiar form of the crystals, the primary form 
 being an oblique rhombic prism, which generally 
 occurs with truncation of the basal and lateral edges. 
 These form a pretty object when viewed with polarized 
 light, which is very efficacious when employed 
 to detect the occurrence of crystalline structure. 
 These crystals in some cases seem to shoot through 
 
CRYSTALS IN FIBRE. 177 
 
 the walls of the cell membrane possibly in lines of 
 fracture of the tube walls, and they not unfrequently 
 seem to cause a weakness in the fibre by the sharp 
 angles of the crystals cutting through the thin cellular 
 walls when the fibre is subjected to strain. This 
 probably occurs in other colours where the resulting 
 dyes are readily crystallizable salts, and in some cases 
 this may possibly account for some of the weakening 
 action of certain dyes, just as in other cases when the 
 dyeing material feeds the fibre and expands the tube 
 walls the act of dyeing seems to confer additional 
 strength. I have examined samples of amber dye 
 however where this crystalline structure is entirely 
 wanting, and I therefore think that the tendency to 
 produce crystals may depend on the peculiar process 
 which is employed in producing the colour, which may 
 vary slightly at different times, or with the amount 
 of colouring matter which has been introduced into 
 the fibre. It may not be uninteresting to note that 
 amber dye seems also very largely to coat the surface 
 of thfc fibre as well as to pass into the tube walls. It 
 accumulates in the twists and creases of the cotton 
 filaments in a fine crystalline powder, and when 
 viewed with reflected light gives a yellow glistening 
 velvety appearance. The tendency to surface coating 
 is manifest more or less in all colours, the dyeing 
 materials having their attachment to the spaces 
 between the individual hairs which form the thread, 
 and in the spiral lines caused by the twist which has 
 been put into the yarn in the process of spinning and 
 N 
 
178 STRUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 doubling. I found that in many cases with these 
 purely mineral dyes I could often remove the cellulose 
 by a proper solvent, and leave the dyes which were 
 associated with the fibre in an unchanged condition, 
 showing that they had not in their aggregated form 
 at any rate, entered into chemical union with the 
 fibre, but were only mechanically associated. This 
 surface colouring undoubtedly serves the purpose of 
 masking many of the defects which would otherwise 
 be visible arising from the imperfect dyeing of the 
 individual fibres, but its ready removal in any after 
 finishing process to which the yarn or goods may 
 have to be subjected renders it a source of danger, as 
 when removed it will reveal irregularities in colour 
 which were not visible in the original yarn or goods 
 before being subjected to these processes. 
 
 Those who are acquainted with the union trade of 
 this town (Bradford), know how frequently defects 
 arise in cross dyed goods, caused by the stripping of 
 the warps in the clearing process necessary for the 
 dyeing of the weft, and unless the warp <^e is 
 thoroughly fixed upon it streaky places are sure to 
 appear, especially in cases where a large portion of 
 the warp as well as the weft appears on the surface. 
 
 Notwithstanding what has been said, however, I 
 am not quite sure whether there is not an affinity 
 between the impure cellulose, as it always exists in 
 cotton fibre and the first solutions in which the fibre 
 is immersed in order to produce these purely mineral 
 dyes, so that they may act to some extent as mor- 
 
ACTION OF MORDANTS UPON FIBRE. 179 
 
 dants. I made a series of experiments to determine 
 this point, and found that when cotton fibre was 
 steeped in acetate of lead, which is the first process in 
 the dyeing of amber, OT nitrate of iron, which is the 
 first stage in dyeing Prussian blue, that I could never 
 by any process which did not entirely destroy the 
 very nature of the fibre remove all traces of these 
 bases, which seemed to indicate that more than a 
 mere mechanical union had taken place between them 
 and the cellulose walls of the fibre, and although the 
 cellulose itself may play no part in the reaction which 
 occurs when the acetate is changed into the chromate 
 of lead, or the nitrate of iron into the ferocyanide of 
 iron, still it is in some way the reaction of the bases 
 upon the cellulose which tend to give a greater degree 
 of fixity to the colouring matter, which may, never- 
 theless, be also present in much larger quantities than 
 this union alone would warrant, and thus these dyes 
 may be to a certain extent chemico-mechanical. In 
 this way they may be said to shade into the third 
 class of dyeing processes. 
 
 The third class of dyeing substances where a mor- 
 dant is used, vary in their nature and application 
 very much indeed so much so, that in some cases as 
 we shall afterwards see, there seems to be almost the 
 formation of a new surface within the meshes of the 
 fibre walls, or even in some cases on the surface of 
 the thread, but permanently attached to it, upon 
 which the colouring matter is deposited. 
 
 We have already seen that if unprepared cotton 
 
180 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 fibres are placed in an aqueous solution of one of the 
 aniline dyes they will not become permanently 
 tinctured with the colour, and that, unlike wool or 
 silk, any colour which they may have acquired is 
 readily removed by washing. If, however, the yarn 
 is first worked in a solution of tannic acid, which has 
 a remarkable affinity for cotton fibre, the case is quite 
 different, and the yarn will then take up the colour in 
 large quantity and hold it permanently attached 
 to the fibre. This is, indeed, one of the methods 
 employed in dyeing aniline green where nitro-muriate 
 of tin is also used to increase the effect. 
 
 Salts of alumina are also used as the mordant for 
 aniline, as in the case of the beautiful aniline blue 
 where alum is the salt employed. 
 
 Plate IX. gives an illustration of the appearance 
 of the fibres when dyed aniline blue. I have been 
 particularly struck when examining fibres dyed with 
 any of the aniline colours at the much greater uni- 
 formity in the levelness of the dyeing when compared 
 with, say, indigo. Sections of the fibres seem to be 
 uniformly coloured all through the cell walls, and 
 there is a comparative absence of surface colouring 
 and the tendency to form detached masses; some of 
 the fibres, indeed, seem to be perfectly dyed in every 
 part, as though the mordant had penetrated every 
 portion of the cell walls. Any attempt by the use of 
 solvents upon the cellulose to detach the colouring 
 matter from the fibre seemed quite impossible, and 
 I always found that the colouring matter and the 
 
Plate II 
 
 450 DIAMETERS. 
 
 Cotton Fibres, dyed Aniline Blue 
 
ANILINE BLUE. 181 
 
 fibre matter were dissolved together, as though the 
 union were perfect and complete. Of course, as will 
 be seen from the plate, some fibres resisted the colour, 
 and this was especially the case where the fibres were 
 ribbon-like and possessed no distinct cell walls ; and 
 it is quite possible that the union with the mordant, 
 and through it with the cellulose, only takes place 
 in the more spongy form, which constitutes the 
 secondary deposits, and not with the outer and more 
 dense epidermal layer. Mr. Crum notices this in 
 his experiments with fibres mordanted with basic 
 muriate of alumina, and remarks as follows : " It 
 would appear that the primary cellular membrane, as 
 found in the unripe plant, never acquires the power 
 of absorbing colouring matter ; that its only purpose 
 in dyeing is to enclose the soft and granular secondary 
 matter which becomes deposited within it while it 
 progresses towards maturity, and that that secondary 
 matter has alone the faculty of attracting those 
 mineral and vegetable substances which are either 
 dyes themselves or which form dyes by attracting 
 and combining with other bodies. The colourless 
 character of the external membrane, however, is not 
 to be discerned in the well-dyed fibre, just as we 
 cannot by mere inspection detect the colourless 
 character of the cell which contains a coloured juice 
 in a natural flower, or like a thin tube of glass, which 
 in appearance partakes also of the colour of any fluid 
 that it may contain." I made a series of experiments 
 with the view to determine whether any process of 
 
182 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 treatment would enable these unripe fibres to take the 
 dye, and I found, like Mr. Crum, that by Mercerising 
 them with strong alkali, which had the effect of 
 thickening the tube walls, that their absorbent power 
 was much increased ; but I also found that in the 
 case of the aniline dyes, these unripe fibres could be 
 dyed without any apparent thickening of the cell 
 walls when the fibres were first bleached, or else sub- 
 jected for some time to the action of weak boiling 
 alkali. This may arise from the removal of any waxy 
 matter from the outer layer, or else from the opening 
 of its pores by the action of these reagents, although 
 this same treatment seems to diminish its power to 
 act as a dialyser when treated with salts of alumina. 
 
 Alumina has a special interest in connection with 
 the cotton fibre, because it not only possesses the 
 peculiar property when in its hydrated condition of 
 throwing down and heightening the brilliancy of 
 many vegetable and animal colouring matters, but 
 also of being separated from its various compounds 
 by the dialytic action of the fibre alone, and thus 
 retaining these colouring matters within the cell walls 
 in an insoluble condition. Upon this action really 
 depends the process of dyeing Turkey red, one of the 
 most stable of all colours, and for which cotton is 
 peculiarly suited. 
 
 If an aqueous solution of alum, which is a com- 
 pound of alumina, potash, sulphuric acid, and water, 
 be taken and an alkali added, then falls to the bottom 
 of the containing vessel a copious white, gelatinous 
 
HYDRATE OF ALUMINA. 183 
 
 looking precipitate, which is hydrate of alumina. If 
 the alum solution contains colouring matter, such as 
 cochineal or alizarine red, the precipitate of hydrate of 
 alumina carries this colouring matter down with it 
 and leaves the solution almost colourless. It does 
 not seem that there is a chemical combination between 
 the alumina and the colouring matter, but only as if 
 the colloidal precipitate of the gelatinous hydrate 
 entangled the finely divided colouring matter in its 
 mass, in the same way that coagulating albumen in 
 blood, or the white of eggs will clear the brown 
 colouring matter out of concentrated solutions of 
 sugar in the process of manufacture. 
 
 When cotton fibres are steeped in an aqueous solu- 
 tion of alum, and then after drying replaced in pure 
 water, a precipitate of the hydrate of alumina is left 
 within the cell walls and tube without the presence of 
 an alkali. This most probably arises from the fact 
 that the crystalloid portion of the alum diffuses 
 through the outer pellicle into the surrounding water, 
 while the colloidal has no such power, and remains 
 behind. Other metallic oxides participate with 
 alumina in this property to a varying extent, and all 
 the coloured precipitates obtained by this line of 
 treatment are usually known under the generic term 
 of "lakes." Two of them, those produced by mordant- 
 ing with mono-chloride of alumina, dyed with madder, 
 and with oxychloride of iron, dyed with garancine, 
 were exhaustively treated by Mr. Crum in the paper 
 already mentioned, "On the Manner in which Cotton 
 
184 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 unites with. Colouring Matter;" * and in speaking of 
 the former, he says : " Many of these fibres seem as 
 if a thin film of alumina had originally been deposited 
 within them over their whole length and breadth, and 
 in all of them there is evidence of the deposit having 
 shrunk to a great extent in both directions in the 
 process of dyeing. It is remarkable that the alumina 
 should adhere so slightly to the membrane which 
 contains it, as thus to shift without difficulty from 
 one part of it to another in the act of shrinking. 
 The same remark applies to the clots found in the 
 centre of full grown cotton, whether the mordant of 
 iron or alumina be applied from an acetic solution, or, 
 as in the case before us, from a basic solution." 
 
 These appearances will be distinctly seen by looking 
 at Plate X., where the colouring matter as associated 
 with different fibres is delineated. In the kempy 
 fibre many parts are quite uncoloured by the dye, 
 while in the unripe pellucid fibre the colouring 
 matter is confined to a thin layer, which by the act of 
 shrinking has become separated into distinct flakes 
 detached from each other and distributed irregularly 
 through the thin tube. The fully dyed fibre shows the 
 accumulation of colouring matter within the interior 
 of the tube. 
 
 In Plate XL the transverse sections of the fibres 
 show the different distribution of the colouring 
 matter in the lateral direction, some of the fibres 
 being hardly coloured at all, while others have the 
 
 * Chemical Journal. New Series. Vol. i., p. 410. 
 
Plate 
 
 B nc 
 
 450 DIAMETERS. 
 
 Cotton Fibres dyed with 
 Lake of Alumina and Madder. 
 
 i 
 
 A. Kempy .fibre. 
 
 B. Unripe pelucid fibre. 
 
 C. Fully ripe dyed fibre. 
 
 D and E. Partially dyed fibres. 
 
ALUMINOUS LAKES. 185 
 
 dye collected in the form of a mass or clot within 
 the interior of the tube. The distribution of the dye 
 in the cell walls is also distinctly seen, and in some 
 instances reveals the distinct appearance of lamination 
 in the walls. One of the fully ripe fibres exhibits the 
 appearance of an uncoloured outer pellicle, while 
 the interior is well dyed through to the centre. 
 
 " By previous bleaching of this fibre the quantity 
 of alumina which it can receive is much diminished, 
 but enough is admitted to form with it a most in- 
 teresting microscopic object. 
 
 In all cases the cell remains beautifully colourless 
 and crystalline, enclosing its flakes of carmine ; and 
 the variety in the distribution of these flakes is 
 infinite. The effect of bleaching in diminishing 
 the power of cotton to receive mordants is to be attri- 
 buted to the boiling in weak solutions of quicklime 
 and carbonate of soda to which the cotton is sub- 
 jected, and not to hypochlorite of lime, which is very 
 sparingly used in* the process of bleaching, nor to the 
 sulphuric acid, which does not affect the mordanting. 
 Hot alkaline solutions, though weak, mat together 
 the young fibres and close their passages against the 
 admission of mordants. They have a similar tendency 
 when applied to riper cottons, while that of strong 
 caustic alkaline solutions is, as we have seen, to open 
 them. 
 
 Hypochlorites in excess also open the pores of ripe 
 cotton, and by enabling them to admit more mordants 
 greatly increase the intensity of the dye." 
 
186 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 The process of dyeing Turkey red, which is one of 
 the most beautiful and stable of colours, is essentially 
 a madder or alizarine red, dyed upon an aluminous 
 basis, the fibre being previously prepared with oil ; 
 but its successful production demands the most care- 
 ful attention to detail and mechanical manipulation, 
 which is only attained by a comparatively few firms, 
 and the whole of the principles involved in the 
 chemical changes are by no means yet thoroughly 
 understood, although it has received the attention of 
 many eminent chemists. It almost seems, indeed, to 
 be the production of an artificial dyeing surface 
 within the cellulose walls, which is itself united to 
 the fibre, or enclosed within it, but so topically that, 
 notwithstanding the severe process to which the 
 thread is subjected during the dyeing process, the 
 centre of the thread is seldom dyed, except very 
 partially, while the surface possesses the most rich 
 and deep colour. We know that the richness and 
 lustre of silk, both in its dyed and undyed state, 
 arise from the gelatinous and albuminous surface, 
 which forms the outer coating of the fibre, and which 
 is the basis upon which the colour is fixed; and it 
 is quite possible that further discoveries in organic 
 chemistry may enable us to carry out in other colours 
 and in other methods of dyeing the production of 
 artificial surfaces within the meshes of the cotton 
 fibre, which will increase its power of receiving colour 
 and impart greater brilliancy and depth to the shades. 
 At any rate, it is worth the while of students in this 
 
Plate XI 
 
 450 DIAMETERS 
 
 Sections of Cotton Fibres 
 dyed wi th Lake of Alumina and Madder, 
 Exhibiting various degrees of Colour 
 acquired by the fibre. 
 
ENDOCHROME IN FIBRE. 187 
 
 school to turn their attention to the matter as a field 
 for investigation, which may reward their labours. 
 We most of us know that in this neighbourhood 
 a gentleman discovered the means of imparting a 
 metallic lustre to fibres, but that the want of flexibility 
 in the yarn after the process was complete rendered 
 the artificial surface liable to crack, and thus became 
 easily removeable by mechanical friction ; but it 
 appears to me that a flexible lustrous surface is not 
 beyond one of the possibilities of modern science. 
 
 "We have already noticed that along with Egyptian 
 cotton, especially the indigenous variety, there is 
 always associated more or less endochrome or colour- 
 ing matter, which gives a dark reddish brown or 
 golden colour to the fibre. This colour is not evenly 
 distributed through the fibre, but occurs most fre- 
 quently towards the upper end of the fibre, where it 
 has been most exposed to the action of light, and also 
 is unevenly distributed in the boll. 
 
 It appears when examined under the microscope 
 not only in the interior of the tube, but also associated 
 with the layers which form the thickness of the tube 
 walls. In some of the best classes of Egyptian cotton 
 I have seen this sufficiently distinct and uniform to 
 be used in fancy goods without dyeing; and it is often 
 necessary to bleach this colouring matter out of the 
 fibre before it can be made sufficiently colourless to 
 receive the lighter shades of fancy colours. When 
 Egyptian and American cotton yarns are placed side 
 by side this difference in colour is very striking, and 
 
188 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 forms a ready method of distinguishing between the 
 two. To go further into the relations of the cotton 
 fibre to dyeing materials would open up the whole 
 subject of cotton dyeing generally, which is beyond 
 the scope of our lectures; but enough has been said 
 to point out the general principles upon which the 
 whole of the dyeing processes depend, and to show 
 that the variations in the mechanical structure and 
 arrangement of the ultimate parts of which the fibre 
 is composed have a great effect upon the readiness 
 with which it can be made to receive an even and 
 permanent colour. 
 
 It cannot be too strongly impressed upon the minds 
 of those who are engaged in these operations that the 
 cellulose walls of the fibre are to a great extent 
 passive, so far as any chemical action is concerned, 
 in the great majority of instances, and that the best 
 results will always be attained by subjecting the fibre 
 to such processes as will remove any foreign matter 
 which prevents the free action of the cellulose mem- 
 brane as a dialyser. 
 
 While the structure of the fibre itself sometimes 
 interferes with the dyeing of the cotton, there are 
 undoubtedly many other imperfections in goods 
 which are not the result of this, but arise from other 
 causes, some of which it may not be uninteresting to 
 mention. I remember on one occasion being called 
 to look at some pieces which had taken the dye very 
 unevenly in the warp. The pieces were woven in the 
 grey and cross-dyed afterwards. For many inches in 
 
IMPERFECTIONS IN DYEING. 189 
 
 some places in particular threads, and sometimes in 
 more than one thread the colour seemed hardly to 
 have taken in the warp. The dyer and finisher 
 thought it was something mixed in the cotton as it 
 was quite impossible to get it even. When I exam- 
 ined the thread under the microscope, I found small 
 particles or masses of a waxy substance sticking in 
 the hairs, and when I pointed this out and enquiry 
 was made, it was discovered that in consequence of 
 the slack nature of the twist in the warp and its 
 consequent want of strength, a wax roller had been 
 used, over which the warp passed to give it strength. 
 The same warps woven without the roller took the 
 dye perfectly. 
 
 Another great source of imperfection arises from 
 the cotton-seed oil which is present in the small 
 broken pieces of seed, which in imperfectly carded 
 yarn, and indeed in a more or less degree in all 
 uncombed yarns, are attached to the fibre and often 
 spun into its texture. The oil which exudes from 
 these portions of seed penetrates into the adjacent 
 fibres and often possesses such a diffusive power, 
 especially when subjected to heat, such as the hot 
 rollers in finishing, that it will extend a considerable 
 distance all round, and in some cases, will extend 
 even to the thread on each side of the one where the 
 fragment of seed is lodged. In Egyptian cotton the 
 short hairs which are attached to the seed and cannot 
 be removed from it by the ginning process are 
 peculiarly liable to be thus saturated, and when they 
 
190 STRUCTUKE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 accumulate in small masses on the surface of the 
 thread they are apt to cause imperfections because 
 the dye is only deposited on the surface, as the seed 
 oil within prevents the dye penetrating, and in the 
 finishing process, especially when the face of the 
 piece is singed, the surface of these small fuzzy lumps 
 is disturbed, and the undyed fibre beneath presents a 
 marked contrast to the more thoroughly dyed thread 
 on each side. Whenever light shades are to be dyed, 
 it is important with carded Egyptian yarns that great 
 care should be used in the clearing of the yarn, so as 
 to completely remove all the traces of this oil from 
 the fibre, otherwise it is almost sure to cause more or 
 less imperfection. I remember seeing a piece of cloth 
 which was spotted all over the light surface with more 
 or less dark dots, and upon examining each of these 
 with the microscope I found a small bit of seed in the 
 centre of each, out of which a drop of oil had been 
 squeezed by the pressure of the hot finishing rollers, 
 which had no doubt also by the heat made the oil 
 more liquid, and thus caused it to run into the fibre. 
 On this account the importance of the ginning process 
 cannot be over-estimated, because unless the separa- 
 tion of the fibre from the seed is as complete as 
 possible the remaining seeds which are carried along 
 with the fibre are apt to be broken up in the earlier 
 cleaning processes into small bits, which cannot be 
 removed by the process of carding, and then pass 
 forward into the yarn each with their supply of 
 associated oil. In single warps which require sizing 
 
IMPERFECTIONS IN DYEING. 191 
 
 to make them weave, the composition of the size is 
 an important matter when the weft has to be dyed 
 after the piece is woven, for although in this district 
 heavy sizing in the finishing of the goods does not 
 pertain so much as in the heavy cotton trade of Lan- 
 cashire, still it does exist to some extent. In 
 Lancashire I have seen coloured stains produced by 
 the action of foreign substances upon the substance of 
 the size and then fixed into the fibre itself, as well as 
 the production of mildew which arises from micro- 
 scopic fungus growths which feed upon the substance 
 of the size. 
 
 The utmost importance also attaches to the perfect 
 cleansing of the various vessels and machines used in 
 dyeing and finishing before being used for different 
 classes of goods, and undoubtedly many mysterious 
 imperfections may be traced to the neglect of these 
 precautions and to a variation in the quality of the 
 water used in dyeing. Even the volatile substances 
 which may be conveyed in the steam used for dyeing 
 purposes, and which may arise from the use of various 
 boiler anti-incrustation compositions have been known 
 to affect the dyeing and bleaching. I remember 
 seeing some pieces where the surface was strangely 
 marked with uneven shades in the finished goods, 
 which imperfections were not at all visible till the last 
 process was complete. This process consisted in sub- 
 jecting the goods to hydraulic pressure between hot 
 iron plates with mill boards between the folds of the 
 cloth. These mill boards had been used with a cloth 
 
192 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 which was either imperfectly cleared after dyeing, or 
 some portion of the dye was taken into the surface of 
 the mill board and transferred to the face of the new 
 cloth so as to discharge under the action of the heat 
 a portion of the dye, and thus produce the mottled 
 appearance. When new boards were substituted the 
 same goods came up quite perfect, although nothing 
 was present on the surface of the old boards in 
 sufficient quantity to be detected by the eye, or even 
 by the ordinary processes of chemical analysis. I 
 have even known the presence of volatile substances 
 such as creasote, carbolic acid, and chlorine in the 
 atmosphere to affect the dyeing of the fibre of yarns 
 which have been stored in the bundle or warp in the 
 same room in which these materials were present a 
 result which, however, we might almost anticipate 
 from the great power which cotton possesses of 
 absorbing gases. The variation in the colour of the 
 cotton from year to year, or even of different mixings, 
 when sufficient care in selection is not used, often 
 affects the evenness of the dyeing process. This is 
 usually however visible in the warp before dyeing, 
 and can then be removed when light shades are 
 required. I have also found that different classes of 
 cotton vary in their power to receive a full and even 
 dye, but that this distinction which is quite invisible 
 to the eye can be detected readily even in the grey 
 state by the proper use of polarized light, which 
 reveals minute differences in molecular structure with 
 extraordinary distinctness. I may also mention that 
 
CROSS-DYEING. 193 
 
 this light enables us to select the complimentary 
 colour to any given shade, which being the full effect 
 of the rays which are suppressed by the reflecting 
 surface, is that shade or colour which will harmonize 
 best with it and produce the greatest contrast, a 
 knowledge which is of the highest service to all 
 engaged in designing and executing fancy goods. As 
 already mentioned, there is always more difficulty in 
 preventing defects when the pieces are cross-dyed, 
 because the process of dyeing the weft often has a 
 marked effect upon the colour of the warp, and it is 
 not possible always to allow for this in the original 
 dyeing of the warp. I saw recently a large number 
 of samples of the very fastest colours which could be 
 dyed on cotton, and which had been passed along 
 with some pieces through the cross-dyeing process, 
 and I was very much struck with the great change 
 produced when compared with the original samples. 
 This subject needs indeed a thorough investigation 
 as I am quite sure, that since all effects have a cause, 
 many of the defects which are continually turning up 
 are the result of preventible causes, and may either be 
 greatly ameliorated or entirely obviated. 
 
 It would be impossible to mention all the causes 
 which I have known to interfere with the proper 
 reception of dye by the fibre, but I think I have 
 called your attention to a sufficient number of them 
 to show the importance of attention to every detail 
 in the process of manufacture, without which success 
 is impossible, even when the greatest care has been 
 Q 
 
194 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 exercised in the proper selection of the raw material. 
 The cotton in some seasons undoubtedly requires a 
 different treatment from that which yields the best 
 results at other times, just as the practical spinner 
 finds he has to vary the district from which he draws 
 his supplies in different years if he is to obtain a 
 constant standard of yarn. 
 
 Undoubtedly one of the directions to which we 
 must look for increased efficiency in the colouring 
 of our yarn and goods is the discovery of further 
 preparatory processes which, like the Mercerising 
 by strong alkaline fluids, will impart an increased 
 receptive efficiency to those fibres which are always 
 present more or less in all cotton in an immature 
 condition, and also impart to the ripe fibre a greater 
 toughness and strength. I know of no field which 
 offers a wider scope for research to the members of a 
 technical school than the investigation of such a 
 subject as this. The artificial production of alizarine 
 has already produced a complete revolution in the 
 processes of calico printing and Turkey red dyeing, 
 and threatens indeed to remove the latter from the 
 category of a special "technic" to that of an ordinary 
 dyeing process; and the recent synthesis of indigo 
 points to a similar revolution in indigo dyeing, which 
 is to a certain extent already in operation.*" As this 
 is quite a recent discovery, it may not be uninteresting 
 to mention, for the benefit of those who are chemists, 
 
 * Journal of the Chemical Society. No. ccxxii., page 179. 
 
ARTIFICIAL PRODUCTION OF INDIGO. 195 
 
 that the point of departure in the artificial manufac- 
 ture of indigo is cinnamic acid, which was first pro- 
 duced from oil of bitter almonds, but is now derived 
 from toluene, a coal-tar product, and the last link in 
 the chain is orthonitrophenylpropiolic acid, from an 
 alkaline solution of which pure indigo blue separates 
 out on heating with grape sugar. The yield of 
 indigo is about 48 per cent, of the propiolic acid, the 
 theoretical amount being 68 per cent. M. Baeyer, 
 the discoverer, believes that the indigo molecule 
 contains at least twice C 16 H 10 N 2 2 . As the science 
 of chemistry advances we may expect a continuous 
 simplification of our present methods of imparting 
 colour to fibres, but all these methods will still depend 
 on a careful adaptation of them to the structural 
 nature of the raw material itself. 
 
 I feel fully persuaded that we have not yet 
 penetrated beyond the threshold of our knowledge 
 respecting the means which may be ultimately em- 
 ployed in associating along with our dyeing processes, 
 also the conferring of increased strength and smooth- 
 ness on the fibre. The wonderful change which occurs 
 in the manufacture of parchment paper, in which, by 
 the action of concentrated sulphuric acid, a strip 
 which originally would not support more than three 
 or four pounds weight when dry, and scarcely an 
 ounce when wet, can be made to carry over thirty 
 pounds either wet or dry, seems to me to indicate that 
 there must lie within the reach of possible discovery a 
 chemical process of strengthening yarn at the same 
 
196 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 time as dyeing it, since cellulose is the basis of both 
 parchment paper and cotton yarn. 
 
 A careful examination of almost any dyed yarn 
 reveals how superficial after all are our best dyeing 
 processes, the untwisted fibres exhibiting in many 
 places under the microscope a complete want of colour. 
 Even in Turkey red, where the process is most severe, 
 the dyeing material is to a very large extent on the 
 surface only, and a slight curl in the yarn prevents 
 the thread from receiving the dye in many parts even 
 on the surface. 
 
 This is a very important matter, since it shows how 
 very slight is the penetrative power of chemical fluids 
 even when under such favourable conditions as high 
 temperature and pressure. It shows the difficulty of 
 thoroughly dyeing the fibres after they have been 
 spun into yarn, and yet, if dyed in the condition of 
 cotton wool before the process of manufacture is 
 commenced, there are also a series of difficulties intro- 
 duced, not altogether mechanical, which it appears 
 to me must necessarily limit the application of such a 
 process. In the case of some colours this has been 
 attended with marked success, and may possibly have 
 a future before it specially for coloured wefts. How- 
 ever this may be, we may rest assured that the more 
 we give our attention to the real nature of the raw 
 material with which we have to deal, -the better shall 
 we be enabled to turn all its specialities to the best 
 account, and be enabled to remove from the list of 
 uncertainties many of the processes which we at 
 
EFFECTS OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION. 197 
 
 present employ, so as to produce a higher class of 
 work and attain a greater final perfection. 
 
 There is a great danger of resting satisfied with the 
 present condition of things, especially when trade is 
 pursued with the sole object of making money, and 
 without the introduction of a spirit of pride in the 
 attainment of better and higher results; and one of 
 the benefits of a true technical education will un- 
 doubtedly be the implanting in the minds of the 
 rising generation of an intelligent interest in the 
 philosophical and scientific questions which underlie 
 all our industrial applications of natural laws. 
 
 We must remember that we can only successfully 
 work through these laws, and not in opposition to 
 them, and that we can never reach the highest pos- 
 sible in perfection of our results without the careful 
 application of these laws throughout the whole of the 
 successive stages of the manufacture. The perfection 
 of the whole depends upon the perfection of the parts ; 
 and one great object which I have in view in these 
 lectures is to stimulate those who are young and 
 energetic, and who have life before them, to give their 
 attention to the first principles of the processes in 
 which they are likely to be engaged, so as to find out 
 the very best means of giving a perfection to the most 
 minute parts of their raw material. Longfellow 
 assures us 
 
 " In the elder days of art 
 
 Sculptors wrought with nicest care 
 Every close and unseen part, 
 For the gods see everywhere." 
 
198 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 That careful attention to detail which always marks 
 the true workman must be carried by us into the 
 recesses of all our manufacturing processes. Know- 
 ledge and science may enable us to do this, without a 
 material increase in the cost, if we call to our aid the 
 instruments which the latter has placed in our hands 
 to enable us to look at the ultimate structure of the 
 materials upon which we have to work, and use the 
 best machinery to transform it, and in the future, as 
 in the past, material prosperity will crown the labours 
 of those whose successful application of theoretical 
 knowledge strengthens the hands of industry, and 
 opens the stores of the world's riches to the teeming 
 millions who are waiting to possess them. 
 
GLOSSARY; 
 
 OB, 
 
 Explanations of some of the terms used in this work. 
 
 Achromatic condenser. A compound lense used for concen- 
 trating the light on to the object under the microscope. 
 
 Affinity. Chemical attraction or cohesion. 
 
 Albuminous matter. Matter possessing the same properties as 
 the white of an egg. 
 
 Alizarine. The red colouring matter of the madder root; now 
 obtained from coal tar. 
 
 Amorphous. Possessing no regular structure ; like jelly or 
 treacle. 
 
 Analysis. The breaking-up of a substance into its simplest 
 constituents, so as to determine their qualitative or quantita- 
 tive relations. 
 
 Aniline. One of the colouring matters derived from coal tar. 
 
 Atom. The smallest part into which any elementary substance 
 can be divided. 
 
 Atomic. Relating to atoms. 
 
 Atomicity. The power which an atom possesses of holding one 
 or more other atoms in combination. 
 
 Automatic. A machine which acts without the necessity for 
 human supervision. 
 
200 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 Axis. In the microscope the axis is represented by a line drawn 
 through both the eye-piece and object glass. 
 
 Battery. When applied to microscopy, signifies a full range of 
 
 eye-pieces and object glasses, giving a variety of magnifying 
 
 power. 
 Binocular. A microscope with two tubes and eye-pieces, so that 
 
 both eyes can be used for observation at once. 
 Boll. The seed vessel of the cotton plant when expanded by the 
 
 cotton fibre, 
 
 Catalictic. The chemical action which one substance produces 
 upon another without undergoing change itself. 
 
 Calyx. The outer covering or cup of a flower. 
 
 Capsule. The vessel which contains the seed of the plant. 
 
 Carpel. The leaf forming the pistil of a flower. 
 
 Cambium layer. Mucilaginous cells between the bark and 
 young wood in plants. 
 
 Carding. One of the early processes in spinning cotton, drawing 
 the fibres through fine wire teeth fixed on rollers revolving at 
 different speeds. 
 
 Card-room. The room in a mill where the process of prepara- 
 tion by carding is carried on. 
 
 Cellulose. The chemical substance of which the cell wall in 
 plants is composed. 
 
 Cerosine. Wax prepared from the leaves of the sugar cane. 
 
 Coarse adjustment. That part of the microscope by which the 
 first focussing of the object-glass on to the object is accom- 
 plished. 
 
 Clamping arc. A portion of a circle on the microscope with 
 screw to fix it in any position. 
 
 Collodion. A solution of gun cotton in ether and alcohol. 
 
 Colloid. A substance which will not crystallize. 
 
 Combing machine. A machine for selecting the fibres of 
 cotton of uniform length and cleansing them from mechanical 
 impurities. 
 
GLOSS AEY. 201 
 
 Complimentary colour. The remaining colours in a beam of 
 
 light which are necessary to make white light. 
 Cop. The yam accumulated on the spindle of a mule or twiner in 
 
 a conico-cylindrical form, and removed when the spindle is full. 
 Counts. When applied to yarn, means the relative fineness of 
 
 the thread. 
 
 Corypha cerifera. The Carnauba palm. 
 Cross dyeing. The process of dyeing the warp before weaving, 
 
 and the weft afterwards. 
 Crystalloid. A metallic or organic substance which possesses 
 
 the power of crystallizing. 
 
 Denticulated. Having teeth like a saw. 
 
 Dessicate. To dry up. 
 
 Diameters. When applied to microscopy, signifies the number 
 
 of times that a linear inch is magnified by the eye-piece and 
 
 object-glass in use. 
 Dialyser. A membrane which possesses the power of allowing 
 
 certain substances in solution to pass through it, while it 
 
 rejects others in the same solution. 
 
 Dicotyledon. A plant whose seed is divided into two lobes. 
 Dhollerah Cotton. A class of East India cotton. 
 Drawing. In cotton spinning, a process which arranges the 
 
 fibres in parallel lines by passing them through rollers running 
 
 at different speeds. 
 
 Endochrome. The colouring matter within vegetable cells. 
 Epidermal layer. The outer layer or skin of a fibre, or layer 
 
 organism. 
 Eye-piece. The top part of the microscope to which the eye is 
 
 applied, and which can be removed at pleasure to increase or 
 
 diminish the magnifying power. 
 Exogen. A plant which grows by additions made on the outside 
 
 of the trunk. 
 
 Fibrillse. The strands or minute chain of cells forming secondary 
 deposits. 
 
202 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 Fine adjustment. The arrangement by which the final focussing 
 of the object-glass is accomplished in the microscope. 
 
 Finishing. The last process to which textile fabrics are sub- 
 jected, so as to straighten out and improve the surface. 
 
 Germinal cells. Cells in the process of growth, or from which 
 
 other cells are springing. 
 Ginning. The mechanical process by which the cotton fibre 
 
 when ripe is separated from the seed. 
 Goniometer. An instrument for measuring small angles. 
 Gun Cotton. Cotton which by steeping in a strong solution of 
 
 nitro-sulphuric acid has become explosive. 
 
 Homogeneous. Possessing one uniform molecular structure 
 
 throughout. 
 Hot finishing. The process of forming an artificial gloss upon 
 
 the surface of goods by the use of hot rollers. 
 Hydroxyl. The substance produced by the union of a single 
 
 atom of hydrogen and oxygen. 
 Hygrometric. Relating to the degree of moisture in the air. 
 
 Incinerate. To burn to ashes. 
 Indigenous. Native to the country. 
 Inspissated. Dried up. 
 
 Inverted pendulum. An instrument for measuring small 
 vibrations. 
 
 Kemp. A solid structureless fibre without internal tube. 
 
 Laminated. Built up in layers. 
 
 Laps. Rolls of cotton from which the carding engines are fed. 
 
 Leicestershire hog. The first clipping of wool from a Leicester- 
 shire sheep. 
 
 Linear development. Growth in a straight line, not all round. 
 
 Madder. A plant from whose root the red colouring matter called 
 alizarine was formerly extracted. 
 
GLOSSARY. 203 
 
 Malvaceae. A natural order of plants, of which the mallow is a 
 
 type. 
 Mercerising. Subjecting cotton fibres to the action of strong 
 
 caustic soda. 
 
 Meteorological. Relating to weather and climate. 
 Micrometer. An instrument for measuring the diameter of very 
 
 small objects. 
 
 Microscope. An instrument for magnifying small objects. 
 Milled-head. A screw with the edge or circumference of the 
 
 head cut into grooves like the edge of a sovereign. 
 Millboard. Thick cardboard placed between the folds of cloth 
 
 during the process of pressing. 
 Mohair. The hair from a particular species of goat. 
 Molecule. The smallest portion of any compound substance in 
 
 which the peculiar chemical properties of the body can inhere. 
 Monocotyledon. A plant whose seed has only one lobe. 
 Monocular. A microscope, with which only one eye can be used 
 
 at once. 
 
 Monochromatic. Possessing only one colour. 
 Mordant. A reagent which forms the bond of union between 
 
 the fibre and colouring matter. 
 Mule. A machine for spinning yarn, in which the spindles are 
 
 placed upon a carriage which draws out from the rollers when 
 
 the yarn is spinning and returns to them when the yarn is 
 
 being wound on to the cop. 
 Murexide. A rich purple colour obtained by the action of nitric 
 
 acid upon uric acid. 
 
 Neps. Short immature fibres or portions of tangled broken 
 mature fibre. 
 
 Object-glass. The small compound lens which first receives the 
 
 rays of light from the object under examination. 
 Objective. A short name for the object-glass. 
 Oleaginous. Of the nature of oil. 
 Ovary. That part of a plant in which the seeds are contained. 
 
204 STKUCTUKE OE THE COTTON FIBEE. 
 
 Parachute. The hairy portion of a seed which enables it to be 
 distributed by the action of the wind. 
 
 Parapectic acid. A product derived from pectic acid. 
 
 Pectic acid. The gelatinous acid formed by the decomposition 
 of pectin, which is found in nearly all vegetable substances. 
 
 Pellicle. A thin transparent membrane. 
 
 Pitch of screw. The distance at which the threads of a screw 
 are apart from each other. 
 
 Placenta. The cellular part of the carpel, to which the seed is 
 attached. 
 
 Plumbic iodide. A combination of lead and iodine. 
 
 Plexus. A tangled mass of fibre. 
 
 Polarized light. A ray or rays of light, in which all the lumi- 
 nous vibrations are either in one plane or in two planes at 
 right angles to each other. Circular or elliptically polarized 
 light is when the plane or planes of polarization are rotating 
 round the axis of the ray in a circular or elliptical form. 
 
 Polarizing prism. An oblique rhomb of crystal used for 
 polarizing light. 
 
 Polysepalous. A seed-vessel having many divisions. 
 
 Preparing machinery. Scutching and card-room machinery 
 up to the roving frames. 
 
 Protoplasm. The primative matter which forms the structure of 
 cells and is the physical basis of life. 
 
 Reagent. A chemical substance used to act upon another sub- 
 stance as a test of its nature. 
 
 Roving. The soft thick thread out of which yarn is spun in a 
 frame or mule. 
 
 Rules of thumb. Practical, not theoretical, receipts for any 
 process. 
 
 Schweitzer's solvent. An ammoniacal solution of oxide of 
 
 copper, 
 Secondary deposits. The substance deposited upon the primary, 
 
 cell wall. 
 
GLOSSARY. 205 
 
 Septem. A thin, porous layer between two liquids or gases 
 
 through which they transfuse. 
 
 Sericin. The chemical substance of which silk is formed. 
 Setting of yarn. Storing yarn in a damp place till the curl is 
 
 taken out of it, or subjecting it to steam pressure for the same 
 
 purpose. 
 Size. A paste of flour, starch, or other stiffening substances which 
 
 are used to give strength to yam previous to weaving, or to 
 
 give a body to the cloth. 
 Snarls. Small curled places in yarn. 
 Spiral structure. Secondary deposits on the outer cell wall in 
 
 a spiral form. 
 Stage. That portion of the microscope upon which the object is 
 
 placed for examination. 
 Stereoscope. An optical instrument for two eyes so as to obtain 
 
 the effect of seeing an object from two angles as in ordinary 
 
 vision. 
 Swift. That part of a wrap reel or reeling machine upon which 
 
 the yam is wound so as to form the hank. 
 
 Tannin. An astringent substance found in oak and other barks. 
 
 Technical. Relation of art to manufactures. 
 
 Technologist. One who applies science or art to manufactures. 
 
 Tester. A machine for testing the strength of yarn. 
 
 Textile. Woven fabrics. 
 
 Throstle. A spinning frame, with flyer, or ring and traveller, 
 
 which spins on to a bobbin. 
 Trinitrocellulose. Gun cotton. 
 Twist Tester. A machine for testing the number of twists or 
 
 turns in a thread of spun yarn. 
 
 Ultimate fibres. The smallest part of an organic structure 
 which can be separated without destroying the organic struc- 
 ture altogether. 
 
 Union Trade. The trade in mixed fabrics, made usually with a 
 cotton warp and worsted or woollen weft. 
 
206 STRUCTURE OF THE COTTON FIBRE. 
 
 Water of Hydration. The water which forms an integral por- 
 tion of the structure of a body. 
 
 Warp. The yarn which runs in the direction of the length of a 
 piece of goods. 
 
 Weft. The yarn which runs across the warp from side to side. 
 
 Worm wheel. A toothed wheel driven by the revolution of a 
 screw or worm, into the threads of which it works. 
 
 Wrap reel. A machine for winding yarn off cops, or bobbins, or 
 hanks, and measuring the length of the yarn. 
 
 Yarn. Fibre when spun into thread. 
 
 Yarn tester. A machine for testing the strength of yarn. 
 
 Zero. The point on any scale of measurement from which 
 numeration commences. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Absorption of gases, 73 
 
 ,, liquids into fibre, 164 
 
 Acid Action of mineral, 72 
 organic, 71 
 sulphuric, 66 
 mtro-sulphuric, 72 
 citric, 71 
 silicic, 71 
 Action of fibres on aniline colours, 
 
 167 
 
 Action of bleaching on fibre, 185 
 mordants on fibre, 179 
 secondary 
 deposits, 181 
 ,, weak alkalies, 182 
 ,, hypochlorites, 185 
 Adjustment of micrometer, 13 
 ,, yarn tester, 119 
 
 African cotton, 48, 100 
 Alizarine, artificial, 194 
 Alumina, 182 
 Aluminous lakes, 183 
 American cotton, 94 
 Ammonia, absorption of, 73 
 Ammonio-cupric solvent, 50 
 Amber dye, 176 
 Analysis of cellulose, 60 
 
 cotton wax, 57 
 ,, ash, 68 
 ,, samples, 69 
 colouring matter, 77 
 dyeing processes, 168 
 Aniline green, 180 
 
 blue, 180 
 Artificial indigo, 194 
 
 ,, parchment, 66, 195 
 
 B 
 
 Balance, 120 
 
 Bengal cotton, 100 
 
 Bleaching, action on fibre, 185 
 
 Boll cotton, 17 
 
 Bolley's experiments, 74, 161 
 
 Brazilian cotton, 93 
 
 Bud cotton, 17 
 
 Calculation of counts, 110 
 Carnauba wax, 58 
 Cause of irregularity in yarn, 152 
 lustre on fibre, 156, 186 
 ,, colour, 158 
 ,, defects in dyeing, 35, 75, 
 
 85, 87, 188 
 
 Caustic soda, action of, 52 
 Cell contents, 27 
 ,, walls, structure of, 49 
 Cellulose, 60 
 
 ,, molecule, 61 
 Cerosine, 58 
 
 Chevreul's theory of dyeing, 163 
 Chinese wool, 30 
 Chemical combination, 65 
 Chrome yellow, 176 
 Citric acid, action of, 71 
 Cinammic acid, 195 
 Classification of fibres, 34, 45 
 ,, cottons, 89, 99 
 
 ,, dyeing processes, 
 
 168 
 
 Colloids, 166 
 Collodion, 76 
 
 Colouring matter in fibre, 77, 187 
 ,, ,, analysis of, 77 
 
208 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cotton, 
 
 American, 94, 100 
 
 Cotton planting, 18 
 
 99 
 
 ash, 68 
 
 pod, 23 
 
 
 Aracata, 99 
 
 Rangoon, 100 
 
 99 
 
 Australian, 99 
 
 Rio Grande, 99 
 
 99 
 
 Bahia, 99 
 
 Sea Island, 89, 99 
 
 
 Bengal, 100 
 
 seed, 24 
 
 99 
 
 Broach, 100 
 
 sections of pod, 24 
 
 99 
 
 brown Egyptian, 99 
 
 fibres, 41, 185 
 
 99 
 
 Brazilian, 93, 99 
 
 species of, 15 
 
 
 blooming time, 18 
 
 Scinde, 100 
 
 99 
 
 boll, 17 
 
 Sedge, 52 
 
 99 
 
 bud, 17 
 
 Smyrna, 99 
 
 99 
 
 Ceara, 99 
 
 Surat, 96, 100 
 
 99 
 
 cell, 25 
 
 Tahiti, 99 
 
 9 9 
 
 classes of, 89, 99 
 
 Tinnivelly, 100 
 
 99 
 
 cultivation, 17 
 
 Texas, 100 
 
 99 
 
 Comptah, 100 
 
 Upland, 100 
 
 9 9 
 
 diameter of fibres, 20, 99 
 
 Veravul, 100 
 
 
 Dharwar, 100 
 
 wax, 57 
 
 99 
 
 Dhollerah, 100 
 
 Western Madras, 100 
 
 9 9 
 
 Egyptian, 90, 99 
 
 white Egyptian, 99 
 
 9 9 
 
 Egyptian, brown, 99 
 
 Counts of yarn, 110 
 
 99 
 
 Gallini, 99 
 
 Cross dyeing, 4, 178 
 
 
 ,, white, 99 
 
 Crum's experiments, 53, 165, 183 
 
 
 fibre, 39, 45 
 
 ,, theory of dyeing, 164 
 
 99 
 
 ,, structure of, 40, 49 
 
 Crystals in fibre, 84 
 
 99 
 
 flower of, 17 
 
 
 
 Fiji, 99 
 
 D 
 
 
 Florida, 99 
 
 Dancer's experiments, 51 
 
 If 
 
 growth of, 25 
 
 Defects in dyeing, 35, 75, 80, 87, 
 
 99 
 
 gun, 65 
 Haytien, 99 
 
 188 
 Dessication of fibre, 29 
 
 99 
 99 
 
 Hingunghat, 100 
 Indian, 96, 100 
 
 ,, cotton, 63 
 Development of fibre, 25 
 
 
 influence of climate on, 18, 
 
 Dharwar cotton, 100 
 
 
 85 
 
 Dhollerah 100 
 
 
 Kemps in, 35, 88 
 
 Dialysis, 166 
 
 99 
 
 La Guayran, 99 
 
 Dollfus's experiments, 71 
 
 19 
 
 length of fibres, 20, 99 
 
 
 
 lamination of fibres, 43 
 
 E 
 
 9 9 
 
 Maceo, 99 
 
 Early investigations, 29 
 
 
 Madras, 100 
 
 Effect of seasons, 85 
 
 
 magnified fibres, 11 
 
 ,, oil in fibre, 86, 189 
 
 
 Maranham, 99 
 
 Egyptian cotton, 90, 99 
 
 
 mature, 38 
 
 Electrical action, 56 
 
 " 
 
 mineral constituents of, 67 
 
 Endochrome, 76, 187 
 
 
 Mobile, 100 
 
 Eriophorum polystachyum, 52 
 
 || 
 
 nitrogen in, 70 
 
 Experiments on strength of yarn, 
 
 
 oil, 55 
 
 121 
 
 9 9 
 
 oil in fibre, 189 
 
 Experiments on twist in yarn, 142 
 
 9 9 
 
 Oomrawuttee, 100 
 
 
 
 Orleans, 100 
 
 F 
 
 " 
 
 Pariaba, 99 
 
 Fatty acids, 59 
 
 
 Peruvian, 93, 99 
 
 Fibre, Chinese wool, 30 
 
 " 
 
 ,, rough, 48, 99 
 
 ,, diameter of, 20 
 
 
 ,, smooth, 99 
 
 fracture of, 83 
 
 J? 
 
 Pernam, 99 
 
 ,, kempsin, 35, 88 
 
INDEX. 
 
 209 
 
 Fibre, Leicestershire wool, 31 
 
 ,, length of, 20, 99 
 
 ,, mohair, 31 
 
 ,, sections of, 41, 185 
 
 silk, 32 
 
 ,, strength of, 81 
 Fiji cotton, 99 
 Finishing (hot), 4 
 Flower ot cotton plant, 17 
 Florida cotton, 99 
 
 Gas, absorption of, 73 
 
 Gallini cotton, 99 
 
 General results of tests for strength 
 of yarn, 139 
 
 General results of tests for counts 
 of yarn, 140 
 
 General results of tests for twist in 
 yarn, 152 
 
 Gossypium Arboreum, 15, 16 
 Barbadense, 15, 16 
 Herbaceum, 35, 16 
 Hirsutum, 15 
 Keligiosum, 15, 16 
 Sandwichense, 15 
 Tahitense, 15 
 
 Graham's experiments, 166 
 
 Gun cotton, 65 
 
 H 
 
 Hank in cotton, 110 
 Haytien cotton, 99 
 Herbaceous cotton, 16, 17 
 Hingunghat cotton, 100 
 Hypochlorites, action of, 185 
 Hydrate of alumina, 183 
 Hydroxyl, 61 
 Hydration, water of, 63 
 
 Immature fibre, 26 
 Imperfections in dyeing, 188 
 Improvements in dyeing, 175, 194 
 
 ,, preparing, 109, 
 
 188, 194 
 
 Impurities in size, 191 
 Indian cotton, 96 
 Indigo blue, 172 
 Indigo, artificial, 194 
 Influence of fibre on colouring 
 
 matter, 162 
 Interference lines, 43 
 Irregularities in twofold yarn, 140 
 
 ,, single yarn, 140 
 
 Iron in fibre, 68, 78 
 
 K 
 
 Kemps in fibre, 35, 88 
 Kuhlmann's experiments, 162 
 
 La Guayran cotton, 99 
 Lea in cotton, 110 
 Lectures, division of, 6 
 Leicestershire wool, 31 
 Light polarized, 10, 192 
 Limit of spinning, 108 
 
 ,, vision, 157 
 Lustre on fibre, 158, 186 
 
 M 
 
 Maceo cotton, 99 
 Madras cotton, 100 
 Malvaceae, 14 
 Maranham cotton, 99 
 Margaric acid, 59 
 Magnifying power, 11 
 Manufacturing, science of, 3 
 Measurement of fibres, 19 
 Mechanical manipulation, 104 
 Method of fracture of fibres, 83 
 Metallic lustre on fibre, 187 
 Mercer's experiments, 52 
 Mercerising process, 53 
 Microscope, 7 
 Micrometer, 11 
 
 ,, adjustment of, 13 
 Microscopic power, 11 
 Mineral constituents of cotton, 67 
 
 ,, acids, action of, 72 
 
 ,, colours, 163 
 Mobile cotton, 100 
 Moisture in cotton, 62 
 Mohair, 31 
 
 Monochloride of alumina, 183 
 Mordants, action of, 178 
 
 N 
 
 Neps in cotton, 26, 91 
 New crop cotton, 55, 107 
 Nitrogen in cotton, 70 
 Nitro-sulphuric acid, action of, 64 
 
 O 
 
 Oil in fibre, 86, 189 
 O'Neill's experiments, 50, 81 
 Organic acids, action of, 71 
 Oomrawuttee cotton, 100 
 Orleans cotton, 100 
 Orthonitrophenylpropiolic acid, 195 
 Oxalic acid, action of, 71 
 Oxy chloride of iron, 183 
 Oxygen, absorption of, 73 
 
210 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Parchment paper, 66, 194 
 
 Parallel wire micrometer, 12 
 
 Paraiba cotton, 99 
 
 Parapectic acid, 59 
 
 Pectic acid, 59 
 
 Penetration of colouring matter, 161 
 
 Pernam cotton, 94, 99 
 
 Peruvian cotton, 16, 49, 93, 99 
 
 Polarized light, 10, 176, 192 
 
 Precautions in testing yarn, 120 
 
 Principles of spinning, 105 
 
 R 
 
 Rangoon cotton, 100 
 
 Reflected light, use of, 33 
 
 Regularity of twist in yarn, 152 
 ,, strength in yarn, 139 
 
 ,, counts in yarn, 140 
 
 Relation of time to dyeing process, 
 170 
 
 Relation of animal fibres to colour- 
 ing matter, 162 
 
 Relative strength of fibres, 81 
 ,, length of fibres 20, 99 
 
 Representation of fibres, 39 
 
 Reversion of fibres, 49 
 
 Rio Grande cotton, 99 
 
 Ripening of fibres, 27, 53 
 
 Rough Peruvian, 48, 99 
 
 Samples of yarn, 112, 147 
 Sand in cotton, 69 
 Saxony wool, 31 
 Scales on wool, 31 
 Science of manufacturing, 3 
 Scinde cotton, 100 
 Schweitzer's solvent, 50 
 Seasons, effect of different, 85 
 Seat of endochrome, 187 
 Sea Island cotton, 89, 99 
 Section of fibres, 41, 185 
 Secondary deposits, 46 
 
 ,, ,, in their rela- 
 
 tion to dyeing, 181 
 Selection of samples, 121 
 Serrations on wool, 31 
 Setting of yarn, 56 
 Silk, structure of, 32 
 
 ,, length of fibre, 32 
 
 ,, surface of, 186 
 Silicic acid, action of, 71 
 Shrinking of colour, 184 
 Shrub cotton, 16 
 Smyrna cotton, 99 
 Species of cotton, 15 
 
 Spider's web micrometer, 11 
 Spinning of cotton, 105 
 
 ,, coloured cotton, 197 
 Spiral fibres, 47, 50, 51 
 
 ,, form of fibre, 154 
 Strength of fibres, 81 
 Stripping of warps, 178 
 Structure of cotton, 39, 40, 50, 51 
 
 ,, cotton pod, 23 
 
 silk, 32 
 
 ,, wool, 30 
 
 ,, cellulose, 61 
 
 ,, gun cotton, 65 
 
 ,, laminated, 43 
 Sugar cane wax, 58 
 Sulphuric acid, action of, 66 
 Surat cotton, 16, 96, 100 
 Synthesis of indigo, 197 
 
 Table of counts and weight, 111 
 length of fibres, 20, 99 
 , , diameters of fibres, 20 
 ,, strength of fibres, 81 
 ,, ,, yarns, 112 
 
 Tannic acid, action of, 180 
 
 Tannin in fibre, 87 
 
 Tahiti cotton, 15, 99 
 
 Tartaric acid, action of, 71 
 
 Technical education, 2, 197 
 
 Tester for strength, 116 
 ,, ,, twist, 144 
 
 Texas cotton, 100 
 
 Theoretical strength in yarn, 141 
 
 Theory of dyeing, 159, 163 
 
 Tinnivelly cotton, 100 
 
 Toluene, 195 
 
 Transmitted light, use of, 33 
 
 Transverse section of fibres, 41, 184 
 
 Tree cotton, 16 
 
 Trinitro cellulose, 65 
 
 Trough ton's micrometer, 12 
 
 U 
 
 Unchanged juices in fibre, 87 
 Union trade, 5, 178 
 Upland cotton, 100 
 
 V 
 
 Variation in diameter of fibres, 21 
 ,, fibres, 21 
 
 length of fibres, 20, 21, 
 
 GO 
 
 ,, ripeness, 79 
 
 ,, strength of yarn, 122, 
 
 139 
 ,, counts of yarn, 140 
 
INDEX. 
 
 211 
 
 Variation in twist in yarn, 152 
 Varieties of cotton, 97, 99, 100 
 Vacuum for setting yarn, 56 
 Veravul cotton, 100 
 Vision, limit of, 157 
 Volatile substances, influence 
 dyeing, 191 
 
 W 
 
 Water in cotton, 62 
 
 ,, of hydration, 63 
 Wax rollers, use of, 189 
 Weight of fibres, 23 
 
 ,, counts, 100 
 
 Western Madras cotton, 100 
 
 West Indian cotton, 99 
 
 White Egyptian cotton, 99 
 
 White indigo, 173 
 
 Wild cotton, 49 
 
 Wool, structure of 
 
 ,, diameter of fibres, 31 
 ,, serrations on, 31 
 ,, Leicestershire, 31 
 ,, Saxony, 31 
 
 Wrap reel, 115 
 
 Yarn tester, 116 
 ,, ,, adjustment of, 119 
 
 Palmer and Howe, Printers, Princess Street, Manchester. 
 
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