I 'OT Our Foreign Service The "A B C" of AMERICAN DIPLOMACY By FREDERICK VAN DYNE, LL.M., American Consul; Formerly Assistant Solicitor of the Department OF State of the United States; Author of " Citizenship of the United States," "Van Dyne on Naturalization," Etc. 1909 the lawyers co-operative publishing company rochester. n. y. ' > ' > J ^.' > J ' Copyright 190 8. By FREDERICK VAN UYNE. E. R. ANDRF. VVS PRINTING CO. PRINTERS, KOCH EST liR. N.Y. « • • .•; • • • « • • • • . • . • • • • « • • « • • • •• • • • • • • " ' • * k. • • • *• • • • • «• • • •.. • • • • • • • • • • • « • • • • • • • V • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • * « • • • 1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • »••* • • • • • • • • • • • • • « _ • • • • • • • • • • • . • •• • • • • • • • » • • • .. . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • * • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • ••..• • « • • • • • • • •- • • • • • • • • • • • •• .•• • • • • I .• •• ♦ • •• • • • » • • • • • • • • • • • • CO . ^^ Contents Pa^f. Vll PREFACE CHAPTER I — The Department of State 1 CHAPTER n — Our Diplomatic Service ...... 45 CHAPTER in — Our Consular Service 117 CHAPTER IV — Citizenship, Expatriation and Passports 181 ^ CHAPTER V — The Literature OF THE Subject: Bibliog- 197 O RAPHY ^ APPENDIX 207 INDEX 287 Illustrations The Department of State Frontispiece Commercial Reading Room at Kingston, Jamaica . Page 166 Preface THE Act of Congress of April 5, 1906, re-organ- izing our Consular Service, and the Executive Order of June 27th following, placing appoint- ments and promotions on a civil-service basis, make possible an attractive and honorable career for young men of ambition and ability, in that branch of our for- eign service. The same principle was applied to the Diplomatic Service by the Presidential Order of November 10, 1905, which provides that vacancies in the ofifice of Sec- retary of Embassy or Legation shall be filled by pro- motion or transfer from some branch of the foreign service or by the appointment of persons found to pos- sess the requisite qualifications who shall have been des- ignated by the President for examination. While this does not apply to the appointment of Ambassadors and Ministers, the principle of promotion for meritorious service governs in the Diplomatic Service to an extent that is not generally appreciated. The United States is represented in foreign countries by ten Ambassadors and thirty-two Ministers. Nine of the ten Ambassa- dors previously served as Ministers and the other had before served as an Ambassador. Three began their diplomatic career as Secretaries of Legation. One had been Assistant Secretary of State, and one had served as a Consul. Of the Ministers, seventeen had previous- vii ly served as Ministers. Thirteen began their diplo- matic career as Secretaries of Legation. Two had served as Assistant Secretaries of State, and four had served as Consuls. With the remarkable development of our foreign commerce and the greatly enlarged part taken by our Government in international matters during recent years, greater interest is being taken in foreign affairs by the general public. Universities, colleges and law schools are devoting more attention to international subjects, and some are providing special facilities for the preparation of students for the foreign service. To meet the needs of the general reader, the college student, and the ambitious young man who, though denied the advantages of a course in the higher insti- tutions of learning, aspires to a position in our foreign service, this elementary work has been prepared. It will be of especial value to newly appointed diplomatic and consular officers. The writer ventures to hope that it will be found useful and interesting also to the legal profession and diplomatic and consular officers gener- ally. The subject is considered under five different heads, the first chapter dealing with the Department of State, the official organ of communication between this gov- ernment and foreign nations. The second treats of the Diplomatic Service, representing the political branch of this government in foreign countries. The third concerns the Consular Service, which represents the commercial or business interests of the nation. The viii fourth chapter treats briefly of Citizenship and the fifth is devoted to the Hterature of the subject. There is an Appendix, containing the Regulations governing Examinations for Consular positions, and for the office of Secretary of Embassy or Legation; Regulations governing Appointments and Promotions in the Con- sular Service ; Sample Examination Papers ; and a List of the present Diplomatic and Consular Officers. F. V. IX The Department of State Our Foreign Service CHAPTER I The Department of State The Declaration of Independence asserted that the united colonies as independent states possessed "full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, and establish commerce." As there was no distinct ex- ecutive head of the government, the foreign affairs of the colonies were conducted by the Continental Con- gress, at first through a committee known as the "Com- mittee of Secret Correspondence," of which Benjamin Franklin, the first and greatest American diplomat, was chairman ; and later through a "Committee for Foreign Affairs." Congress initiated and directed the negotiations, discussed in detail the terms of treaties to be made, and in all cases before a draft or plan of a treaty was sent to our agents abroad, it was adopted by Congress. Under the Confederation, a "Department of Foreign Affairs" was established, with a "Secretary for Foreign Affairs" at its head. The authority of the head of this Department was limited, as he was required to submit to Congress all dispatches and communications from For. Serv. — i I OUR FOREIGN SERVICE abroad as well as drafts of his replies, and Congress continued to pass resolutions directing the policy our foreign ministers were to pursue. Notwithstanding the lack of an Executive clothed with power to act independently in the management of foreign affairs, and the difficulties with which Con- gress had to contend in determining a fixed line of pub- lic policy, the results of our diplomacy during this period are remarkable. Between 1776, when independ- ence was declared, and 1789, when the new govern- ment under the Constitution went into operation, no less than fourteen treaties were concluded between the United States and foreign governments. These trea- ties covered a great variety of matters and constitute in a large measure the basis of our international law. They were entered into with France, Great Britain, Morocco, the Netherlands, Prussia and Sweden, and embodied stipulations in relation to commerce, navi- gation, consular privileges, war, political alliance, loans, neutrality, and religious freedom. The Constitution of the United States, adopted in 1787, makes the President Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, and empowers him, with the concur- rence of the Senate, "to make treaties," and "to ap- point ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls." It also authorizes him "to receive ambassadors and other public ministers." The President is thus made the channel of communication between the United States and foreign nations. He initiates negotiations 2 DEPARTMENT O 1^^ STATE and concludes treaties; and under the constitutional provision enjoining the President "to take care that the laws be faithfully executed," he is required to see that the treaties of the United States are carried out. One of the first acts of Congress after the establish- ment of the new government under the Constitution, was to provide the President with the necessary ma- chinery to conduct the foreign affairs of the nation. The Act of July 27, 1789, established an Executive Department, denominated the Department of Foreign Affairs; and provided that the principal officer therein should be called the Secretary for the Department of Foreign Affairs; that he should "perform such duties as shall from time to time be enjoined on or entrusted to him by the President, relative to correspondences, commissions, or instructions to or with public minis- ters or consuls from the United States, or to nego- tiations with public ministers from foreign states or princes, or to memorials or other applications from foreign public ministers or other foreigners, or to such other matters respecting foreign affairs as the Presi- dent shall assign to the Department;" also that "he shall conduct the business of the Department in such manner as the President shall direct." The Act of September 15, 1789, made the Secretary the custodian of the seal of the United States, required him to receive and publish the laws of the United States, imposed various other domestic functions upon the Department, and changed its name to the "Depart- ment of State" and the title of the principal officer to 3 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE "Secretary of State." In the earlier years of the nation numerous otiier duties were added to the De- partment which have since been transferred to other Departments. Only those functions having some re- lation to foreign a^airs and which still appertain to the Department of State will be considered here. The Department of State is the legal organ of communication between this government and foreign nations. All communications from foreign govern- ments are transmitted to the Secretary of State, either through our diplomatic representatives abroad or through the representatives of the foreign govern- ments at Washington. The Secretary of State has the general superintendence, under the direction of the President, of our foreign relations. The office of Sec- retary of State is regarded as the most important place in the Cabinet. The Secretary succeeds to the Presi- dency upon the death or disability of the President and Vice President. He sits at the right hand of the President at the Cabinet table, and is given precedence over his colleagues on occasions of ceremony. He holds very important and confidential relations with the President, and, because the latter seldom has leisure to give continuous attention to foreign affairs, the initiative in matters of foreign policy is frequently left to the Secretary. Important dispatches, such as those declaring a national policy or relating to grave international dif- ferences, are prepared by the Secretary of State, or by a subordinate official under his direction, and are 4 DEPARTMENT OF STATE made the subject of a conference with the President, and sometimes of a Cabinet discussion. On rare oc- casions the President himself may prepare a draft of a proposed communication, but the communication is always signed by the Secretary. Dispatches or notes embodying less important questions are generally pre- pared by a subordinate and submitted to the Secretary for his signature or modification. Thanksgiving proclamations, responses to be made by the President on the presentation of foreign diplo- matic representatives, and congratulatory letters signed by the President upon the official announcement of the birth of a prince or princess of a Royal family and similar occasions, are almost invariably prepared at the Department of State. All treaties, proclamations, and other documents concerning foreign affairs, are published by the Sec- retary of State. Full powers, credentials, and instruc- tions to our diplomatic agents are given by him or under his direction. Communications from the Department to our diplo- matic representatives are called "instructions." Those addressed to the Department by our representatives are termed "dispatches." Communications between the Department and representatives of foreign coun- tries at Washington, or between our representatives and Foreign Offices abroad, are termed "notes." The following is an example of an "Instruction," showing the formal beginning and ending : 5 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE "No. 239. Department of State, Washing-ton, June 30, 1906. Sir : The memorandum enclosed in the note from Sir Edward Grey to you of February 2, 1906, and transmitted by you on the 6th of February, has re- ceived careful consideration. You will inform His Majestj's Government of these views and ask for such action as shall prevent any interference upon any ground by the officers of the Newfoundland Government with American fishermen when they go to exercise their treaty rights upon the Newfoundland coast during the approaching fishing season. I am, Sir, Your obedient servant, Elihu Root" The Honorable Whitelaw Reid, &c., &c., &c. Dispatches are of the following form : "No. 136. Legation of the United States, Madrid, April, 12, 1908. To the Honorable Elihu Root, Secretary of State, Washington, D. C. Sir: I have the honor to enclose herewith a copy of the 6 DEPARTMENT OF STATE reply of the Spanish Minister for Foreign Affairs to my presentation of the claim of the American citizen against the Spanish Government. I desire further instructions concerning the claim before making formal answer to Minister . I have the honor to be, Sir, Your obedient servant, William Collier." The following shows the form of a "Note:" "American Embassy, London. September 4, 1907. Sir: I am authorized by my Government to ratify a Modus Vivendi in regard to the Newfoundland fishery question, as follows : I am glad to be assured by you that this note will be considered as sufficient ratification of the Modus Vivendi on the part of my Government. I have the honor to be, with the highest considera- tion, Sir, Your most obedient humble servant, Whitelaw Reid." The Right Honorable Sir Edward Grey, &c., &c., &c. OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Negotiation of Treaties One of the most important functions of the Secre- tary of State is the negotiation of treaties and other international agreements. During the last session of Congress twenty treaties and conventions were ratified. Negotiations may be initiated in either of two ways. The Secretary of State may take the negotiations up with the diplomatic representatives of the foreign coun- try at Washington, who, if his government is agree- able, treats directly with the Secretary, acting, of course, under the instructions of his government; or the Secretary may direct the representative of the United States in the foreign country to take up the negotiations with the Foreign Office of the other country, in which case our representative acts under instructions from the Department of State. When our representative is entrusted with the negotiation of a treaty a "full power" is given him. This is his power of attorney. The government proposing the negotiations gener- ally prefers to conduct them at its own capital, unless this course is objectionable to the other party. If the negotiations are to be conducted in Washington, the usual course is for the Secretary to transmit to the foreign ambassador or minister here a draft of the proposed treaty, prepared at the Department of State, ac- companying it with a note or memorandum explaining its provisions. Frequently the foreign representative, after consideration of the draft, comes to the Depart- 8 DEPARTMENT OF STATE ment and confers with the Secretary, asking for fur- ther explanations concerning certain provisions or point- ing out the inabihty of his own government, to agree to special stipulations proposed. Before replying form- ally to the communication of the Secretary of State, it is the usual practice for the foreign representative to transmit a copy of the draft and accompanying memorandum to his government, in order that specific instructions may be given him. His government, after consideration of the matter, if it desires to make changes, prepares a "counter-draft" embodying the provisions it is willing to agree to, and transmits it, together with a memorandum explaining its views, to its minister in Washington, to be forwarded by him to the Department of State. The minister may again call on the Secretary for the purpose of submitting orally any argument or explanation that may occur to him in support of the views of his government. The negotiations continue until an agreement is reached or until it becomes evident that it is impossible to reach an accord. When the terms of a treaty are agreed upon, two exact copies are engrossed at the Department of State, and signed by the Secretary and the foreign minister. Where the two countries have not a common langfuaee the texts in the two languages are engrossed in parallel columns. In drawing up treaties this government ad- heres to the "alternat," by which in the copy of the treaty to be retained by this government, the United States is named first, and our plenipotentiary signs first. 9 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE In the copy to be retained by the foreign government that government is named first and its plenipotentiary signs first. The seal of each plenipotentiary is placed af- ter his signature. Two narrow pieces of red, white and blue striped silk ribbon are laid across the page, some hot wax is dropped on the document at the place where the impression of the seal is to be made, and the seals are placed on this, the ribbon thus fastened to the seals being used to bind the pages of the instrument. When the treaty is ratified, a day is fixed and the plenipotentiaries meet and exchange ratifications. The ratification is attached to the instrument. When the ratification is completed, proclamation of the fact and publication of the text are made simultaneously at the capitals of each nation, upon a day agreed upon. In early times the formal parts of treaties were somewhat complicated. Orientals especially employing very florid teiTns in describing the contracting parties. For instance, the opening language of the Treaty of Friendship and Commerce between the United States and Persia, signed in 1856, is as follows: "In the name of God, the clement and the merciful. The President of the United States of North Ameri- ca, and His Majesty as exalted as the planet Saturn ; the Sovereign to whom the sun serves as a standard; whose splendor and magnificence are equal to that of the skies; the Sublime Sovereign, the Monarch whose armies are as numerous as the stars; whose greatness calls to mind that of Jeinshid ; whose magnificence equals that of Darius ; the heir of the crown and throne 10 DEPARTMENT OF STATE of the Kayanians ; the Sublime Emperor of all Persia ; being both equally and sincerely desirous of establish- ing relations of friendship between the two Govern- ments, which they wish to strengthen by a treaty of friendship and commerce reciprocally advantageous and useful to the citizens and subjects of the two high contracting parties ;" etc. But in modern treaties the brief and simple form, most fitting for such solemn instruments, is used. The recent supplementary convention between the United States and Japan for the extradition of criminals is given as an example. It reads : "The President of the United States of America and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, being desir- ous to add the crimes of embezzlement of private moneys or property and larceny to the list of crimes or offenses on account of which extradition may be gfranted under the Treatv concluded between the two countries on the 29th day of April, 1886, with a view to the better administration of justice and the preven- tion of crime in their respective territories and juris- dictions, have resolved to conclude a Supplementary Convention, and for this purpose have appointed as their Plenipotentiaries to wit : The President of the United States of America, Huntington Wilson, Charge d' Affairs ad interim of the United States of America at Tokio, and His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, Marquis Kinmoti Saionzi, Shonii, First Class of the Imperial Order of the Rising Sun, His Imperial Ma- jesty's Minister of State for Foreign Affairs; Who, II OUR FOREIGN SERVICE after having communicated to each other their respect- ive full powers, which were found to be in due and proper form, have agreed to and concluded the fol- lowing: Article The following crimes are added to the list of crimes or offenses numbered i to 13 in the Article of the said Treaty of the 29th day of April, 1886, on account of which extradition may be granted, that is to say : "Embezzlement by persons hired or salaried, to the detriment of their employers, where the amount of money or the value of the property embezzled is not less than $200 or 400 Yen. "Larceny where the offense is punishable by impris- onment for one year or more, or for which sentence of imprisonment for one year or more has been pro- nounced. "The present convention shall be ratified and the ratifications shall be exchanged at Tokio as soon as possible. "It shall come into force ten days after the exchange of the ratifications and it shall continue and terminate in the same manner as the said Treaty of the 29th day of April, 1886. "In testimony whereof the respective plenipotentia- ries have signed the present Convention and affixed thereto their seals. "Done in duplicate at Tokio in the English and 12 DEPARTMENT OF STATE Japanese languages, this 17th day of May one thousand nine hundred and six. (Seal) Huntington Wilson. (Seal) Marquis Saionzi." The proclamation promulgated by the President after the exchange of ratifications is in the following form: "Whereas a supplementary Convention between the United States of America and His Majesty the Emper- or of Japan providing for the addition of the crime of embezzlement of private moneys or property and lar- ceny to the list of crimes and offenses on account of which extradition may be granted between the two countries, was concluded and signed by their respective plenipotentiaries at Tokio, on the seventeenth day of May, one thousand nine hundred and six, the original of which Supplementary Convention, being in the En- glish and Japanese languages, is word for word as follows : (Here follows the entire text of the Convention as quoted above.) "And whereas the said Supplementary Convention has been duly ratified on both parts, and the ratifica- tions of the two governments were exchanged in the city of Tokio on the twenty-fifth day of September, 1906. "Now therefore be it known that I, Theodore Roose- velt, President of the United States of America, have caused the said Supplementary Convention to be made 13 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE public, to the end that the same may be observed and fulfilled with good faith by the United States and the citizens thereof. "In testimony whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. "Done at the city of Washington, this twenty-sixth day of September in the year of our Lord one thousand nine hundred and six, and of the Independence of the United States of America the one hundred and thirty- first. By the President Theodore Roosevelt. Alvey A. Adee, Acting Secretary of State." The preparation of instructions for the guidance of commissioners or delegates of the United States to international congresses, commissions and conferences is another responsible duty of the Department of State. Extradition Under our system, a fugitive criminal cannot be surrendered by the United States in the absence of treaty stipulation, and for many years it was the prac- tice of this government to decline to request a foreign government to extradite in the absence of a treaty pro- viding for surrender. The present practice, however, is to request extradition in such circumstances as an act of comity, stating at the same time that it is im- possible for this government to reciprocate. 14 DEPARTMENT OF STATE The United States now has extradition treaties with Argentine Republic, Austria, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bremen, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Den- mark, Ecuador, France, Great Britain, Guatemala, Italy, Japan, Luxemburg, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Mexico, Netherlands, Nicara- gua, North German Confederation, Norway, Olden- burg, Ottoman Empire, Panama, Peru, Prussia, Rus- sia, San Marino, Schaumburg-Lippe, Servia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Uruguay, and Wiirttemburg. When extradition is sought for an offense within the jurisdiction of a state court, and the fugitive is believed to be in a country with which the United States has a treaty providing for surrender, the procedure is as follows : The governor makes formal application to the Secretary of State for a requisition and transmits, in duplicate, copies of the indictment or information, warrant of arrest and return, and of the evidence upon which the indictment was found, or original depositions setting forth the circumstances of the crime. The governor is also required to name a person for desig- nation by the President to receive and convey the prisoner to the United States. Where the offense charged is against the United States, the application for requisition comes from the Attorney General. The application and accompanying papers are care- fully scrutinized at the Department of State to deter- mine whether the offense charged is included in the particular treaty, whether the evidence is sufficient to make out a prima facie case^under the treaty, and is 15 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE properly authenticated. If these conditions are met, the papers are authenticated under the seal of the Department, so as to make them receivable as evidence in the foreign country, an instruction is sent to our diplomatic representative there, directing him to make formal request for the extradition of the accused, and a document called the "President's Warrant," designat- ing as the agent of the President the person proposed by the governor to receive and bring back the fugitive, is issued. This warrant and the authenticated docu- ments are delivered to the agent, who proceeds to the foreign country. Applications by telegraph are frequently made for the provisional arrest and detention of fugitives in advance of the presentation of formal proofs. These are generally complied with where it appears that an indictment has been found or a warrant issued for the apprehension of the accused at the place where the offense was committed. When a foreign government seeks the extradition of a fugitive criminal who has fled to the United States, the procedure is for the consul or some one acting for the demanding government, to make complaint, under oath, before a court or magistrate authorized to act in extradition cases, within the district in which the fugitive criminal is suspected to be, charging him with the commission in such foreign country of an offense provided for by treaty between the two countries; whereupon the magistrate issues a warrant and the fugitive, if apprehended, is brought before him and i6 DEPARTMENT OF STATE the evidence of his guilt is presented and considered. If deemed sufficient, the evidence, together with a copy of any testimony taken, is certified to the Secretary of State, and the accused is committed to jail to await the action of the Secretary. Upon receipt of the transcript of the judicial pro- ceedings, and of a formal request for surrender from the diplomatic representative of the demanding coun- try, an examination is made at the Department to see whether a case has been established warranting sur- render under the law and trea'"/ applicable. If an affirmative conclusion is reached, the Secretary of State issues and transmits to the foreign diplomatic repre- sentative a "warrant of surrender," under his hand and seal of office, ordering the delivery of the prisoner to such person as may be authorized by the foreign gov- ernment to receive him. While the examination of extradition papers is made by the Law Officers of the Department, difficult and delicate questions frequently arise requiring careful consideration and decision by the Secretary. Perplex- ing questions of criminal law are often presented. It it not always easy to determine whether the evidence presented makes out a case of probable cause. Nice questions of executive discretion arise under the pro- vision contained in some treaties empowering the con- tracting parties to surrender their own citizens in their discretion if it be deemed proper to do so. It is the practice not to surrender fugitives for political offenses, For. Serv. — 2 1 7 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE but it is often a matter of great difficulty to determine whether an offense is of a poHtical character. Legal counsel frequently ask to be heard by the Department on the question of surrender. While it is not the practice to hear oral representations, an opportunity is always given counsel to present written arguments. Citizenship Of questions recurring most frequently and calling for serious attention by the Department of State are those relating to citizenship. The first question to be determined when a claim against a foreign government is presented to the Department, or an application is made for a passport or for protection in a foreign country, is "Is the petitioner a citizen of the United States ?" Upon the answer to this question his petition almost invariably stands or falls. The law of citizen- ship of the United States is so extensive and the ques- tions which arise concerning it are so various and per- plexing that the subject requires special treatment and study.* A synopsis of our citizenship laws is given in Chapter IV. Passports The granting of passports in the United States is a function vested by law solely in the Secretary of State. *See "Van D)me, Citizenship of the United States," and "Van Dyne on Naturalization." i8 DEPARTMENT OF STATE In foreign countries passports are issued by such diplomatic and consular officers, and by such executive officers of our insular possessions, as the President prescribes. Until 1902, when our statutes were amended so as to permit the granting of passports to loyal residents of the insular possessions (Act of June 14, 1902), passports could be issued only to citizens of the United States. The later Act of March 2, 1907, in addition, confers upon the Secretary discretion to issue passports to persons who have declared intention to become citi- zens of the United States and have resided in the United States three years. Such passports are valid only for a period of six months, and do not entitle the holders to the protection of this government in the country of their origin. (See page 188 for the rules which govern the granting of passports.) International Claims The Secretary of State is the head of a great bureau or clearing house of international claims. Through this channel alone can American citizens prosecute diplo- matic claims for wrongs done them by foreign govern- ments. In presenting claims, the claimants must conform to certain prescribed requirements. Each claimant is re- quired to file a sworn petition or memorial, setting forth the facts and circumstances from which his right to pre- fer the claim is derived. This should be accompanied by 19 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE the evidence relied upon in support of the claim, and it must be shown whether the claimant is and was when the claim had its origin, a citizen of the United States. A thorough examination is made at the Department to determine whether the claim affords ground for intervention. Unless a prima facie case is made out, the Department will decline to present the claim. It will not, of course, lend its aid in favor of a fraudulent claim, and even with respect to meritorious claims, it exercises a broad discretion in determining what claims it will diplomatically present against other nations. When the Department takes up a claim it has the power to decide for itself when and by what means it will press it. The claims presented to the Department cover a great variety of causes, arising on land and sea, during peace and war, and involving almost every principle of the law of nations. Perhaps the most common grounds of claim are wrongful arrest and imprison- ment, and denial of justice. Claims based on denial of justice are seldom made out, however, as it generally transpires that the laws of the foreign country provide a means of redress through an appeal to its courts, and the claimant has failed to exhaust that remedy. The rule that the judicial remedy must be exhausted does not, of course, apply in countries where justice is wanting, or where the remedy afforded is insufficient. Contractual claims, viz., claims founded on contracts between citizens of the United States and foreign gov- ernments, are frequently presented to the Department. 20 DEPARTMENT OF STATE But it is not usual for this government to interfere for the prosecution of such claims except by its good offices. When the claim is susceptible of strong and clear proof, this government asks the attention of the foreign gov- ernment to the claim. If the sovereign appealed to denies the validity of the claim or refuses to pay it, the matter drops. If the foreign government declares that his courts are open to the claimant, this is of itself a sufficient ground for a refusal to interpose. But an exception is made where diplomacy is the only method of redress, as where the foreign govern- ment, party to such a contract, by arbitrary action seeks to annul it or to deprive an American citizen of his rights thereunder. Intervention by this government in this class of cases often results in an agreement between the two governments to refer the matter to arbitration. The second Hague Conference, at which forty-four states were represented, adopted a convention which provides that the contracting parties agree not to have recourse to armed force for the recovery of contract debts claimed from the government of one country by the government of another country as being due to its citizens, unless the debtor state refuses or neglects to reply to an offer of arbitration, or, after accepting the offer, prevents any "compromis" from being agreed on, or, after the arbitration, fails to submit to the award. Besides claims of American citizens against foreign governments, the Secretary of State is required to pass 21 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE upon similar claims of aliens against this government presented through the diplomatic channel. The position of the Department of State in relation to international claims is often one of considerable difficulty. It must, on the one hand, serve as a buffer to keep out improper and unfounded claims, while, on the other hand, it should use its efforts to press merito- rious claims of our citizens. International claims in- volve large amounts — frequently millions of dollars — and the ablest legal counsel are employed and every possible means resorted to to prosecute them to a suc- cessful issue. Arbitration When it is impossible to settle a claim through diplo- matic correspondence or when a number of claims have accumulated and are pending between the United States and a foreign country, a convention providing for ad- justment by means of a commission is frequently resorted to. The practice of nations to submit to arbi- tration questions of difference arising between them has become so common that the negotiation of treaties of arbitration is one of the important duties of the Secretary of State. The United States has from the beginning been one of the strongest advocates of the peaceful settlement of international difficulties by arbitration. This gov- ernment has been a party to upwards of sixty arbitra- tions. The influential part which the United States took in the establishment of the Permanent Court of 22 DEPARTMENT OF STATE Arbitration at the Hague, in 1899, is well known, and this government was a party to the first case submitted to that Tribunal for determination. The Hague Arbitration Convention was a great step along the line of international arbitration, as it provides a way always ready and easily accessible by which nations can settle most of their difficulties. It furnishes a court definitely constituted; a place of meeting; a council for summoning it always in session; and a suitable procedure. The United States has within the past year con- cluded general treaties of arbitration with Great Brit- ain, France, Italy, Mexico, Japan, Netherlands, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Switzer- land, by which the contracting parties agree to refer to the Permanent Court of Arbitration at the Hague differences which may arise of a legal nature, or re- lating to the interpretation of treaties existing between the contracting parties, which cannot be adjusted through the diplomatic channel, provided that they do not affect the vital interests, independence, or honor of the two contracting states. The term of these treaties is five years and they specify that a special agreement shall be concluded clearly defining the matter in dispute, the scope of the powers of the arbitrators, the periods to be fixed for the formation of the arbitration tribunal and the several stages of procedure. Such special agreements must be submitted to our Senate for its advice and consent. The law which has grown up from the decisions of 23 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE arbitration tribunals with which this government has been connected is so extensive that a digest thereof up to 1898, comprises six large volumes, covering more than 5,000 pages. (See Moore's Digest of Interna- tional Arbitrations ; See also Ralston's Report of Ven- ezuelan Arbitrations.) The decisions of the Perma- nent Court at the Hague, which is composed of the world's most eminent jurists, will constitute a notable contribution to the law of nations. Indemnities and Trust Funds Another duty of the Secretary of State of serious moment and responsibility, is the distribution to the legal claimants of moneys received from foreign gov- ernments and other sources, in trust for citizens of the United States. An Act of Congress of Feb. 26, 1896, requires that "all moneys received by the Secretary of State from foreign governments and other sources in trust for citizens of the United States or others, shall be deposited and covered into the Treasury." The law also provides that the Secretary of State shall deter- mine the amounts due to claimants from each of said trust funds and certify the same to the Secretary of the Treasury for payment. Under this law millions of dollars have been disbursed in pursuance of the deci- sions of Secretaries of State. An example of this class of funds is the "Chinese Indemnity," the return of $11,000,000 of which was recently provided for by Congress at the request of the President. 24 DEPARTMENT OF STATE Emergency Fund It is frequently necessary for the Secretary of State in the conduct of our foreign affairs to expend money for objects of a secret and confidential character, and a fund is placed at his disposal each year, known as the "appropriation to meet unforeseen emergencies arising in the diplomatic and consular service." The amount of this appropriation for the current year is $90,000. As the original accounts and vouchers could not in some cases be made public without injury to the public interests. Congress has by statute (R. S. Sec. 291) au- thorized the Secretary in his settlements with the Treas- ury Department, instead of submitting the original ac- counts and vouchers ordinarily required by law, to make a "certificate" of any such expenditure, which shall be deemed a sufficient voucher for the amount stated to have been expended. Judicial Duty Judicial duties may devolve upon the Secretary of State under certain circumstances. In certain countries in which the United States exercises extraterritorial jurisdiction, appeals are allowed from our consular courts to the minister of the United States in cases when the consul sits with associates and any of them differ from him, or when the consul sits alone in a criminal case and the fine imposed exceeds one hundred dollars or the term of imprisonment exceeds sixty days. 25 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE The Minister has original jurisdiction in capital cases for murder or insurrection by citizens of the United States or offenses against the pubHc peace amounting to felony, or in cases where the consular officer is inter- ested either as party or witness. And our law provides that if at any time there be no Minister in the countries referred to, the judicial duties imposed upon the Minis- ter shall devolve upon the Secretary of State, and he is authorized and required to discharge them. Guano Islands A function is imposed upon the Department of State in connection with Guano Islands. The "Guano Islands Act" of August i8, 1856, which authorizes the American discoverer of Guano Islands, upon compli- ance with certain specified formalities, to occupy and take guano therefrom, requires him to give notice of his discovery, verified by affidavit, to the Department of State, and furnish satisfactory evidence to that Depart- ment that the Island was not, at the time of such discovery or occupation, in the possession or occupation of any other government or citizen of any other gov- ernment. The Department is made the repository of these papers. The law empowers the President, in his discretion, upon compliance with the specified conditions, to de- clare such island as appertaining to the United States, and it has been the practice of the Department of State when the prescribed conditions have been fulfilled, to 26 DEPARTMENT OF STATE issue a proclamation or certificate, which is delivered to the discoverer, and which confers upon him and his assigns the rights given by the law. Consular Service The Secretary of State has control, also, of the Con- sular Service, with its personnel of one thousand officers, located at more than six hundred different posts throughout the world. Office Force of Department The office force of the Department of State now consists of the following : The Secretary of State, Three Assistant Secretaries, The Solicitor. Two Assistant Solicitors. Chief Clerk. Law Clerk. Assistant Law Clerk. Eight Chiefs of Bureaus, Two Translators. Private Secretary to the Secretary. Clerk to the Secretary. Fifteen clerks of class four. Fourteen clerks of class three. Twenty-three clerks of class two. Thirty-six clerks of class one. 27 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Fourteen clerks at $i,ooo. Fifteen clerks at $900. One chief messenger. Five messengers. Twenty-two assistant messengers. One messenger boy. One packer. One carpenter. One telephone-switchboard operator. One assistant telephone-switchboard operator. Four laborers. In all, one hundred and seventy-six persons. The aggregate of their annual salaries and compensation is only $245,540. The Secretary of State is aided in dispatching the work of the Department by three Assistant Secretaries, the Solicitor, the Chief Clerk, and the Chiefs of the several Bureaus into which the office force is divided. Assistant Secretary The office of Assistant Secretary of State is by far the most important assistant-secretary-ship in any of the Departments. He is required to be a man able to advise with the Secretary, to independently deal with important questions, and to act in the Secretary's stead during his absence. Until the appointment of consular officers was placed upon a Civil-Service basis, the Assistant Secretary had charge of the matter of appointments and changes in the Consular Service. 28 DEPARTMENT OF STATE The Assistant Secretary has general charge of the diplomatic correspondence relating to Latin-America. Second Assistant Secretary The Second Assistant Secretary has come to be re- garded as a permanent official. The present incumbent* has held the office for twenty-two years, and prior to his appointment he served as Chief of the Diplomatic Bureau and as Third Assistant Secretary. He has been connected with our Diplomatic Service and the De- partment since 1870. His knowledge of precedents and familiarity with all of the details of the work of the Department make him almost indispensable. He has general charge, under the direction of the Secretary, of the diplomatic business of the Department, other than that relating to Latin-America and the Far East. His predecessor held the office for twenty years. Third Assistant Secretary The Third Assistant Secretary has generally been charged with the direction of the Consular Service, in addition to such other work as might be assigned to him, but Secretary Root created a special departmental division for the administration of "Far Eastern" af- fairs, of which the present Third Assistant Secretary, j- *Alvey A. Adee. tHuntington Wilson. 29 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE who has had nine years experience in our diplomatic service in the Orient, was made Superintendent. The Solicitor Perhaps the most important office under the Secre- tary of State is that of the Sohcitor. No law officer of the government, with the exception of the Attorney General, has presented for his decision more serious or important questions than those which arise in the work of this office. The Solicitor, an official nominally detailed from the Department of Justice, is the Chief Law Officer of the Department of State. He advises the Secretary and Assistant Secretaries upon questions of law referred to him. The legal questions arising in the administration of the Department and in the diplomatic and consular service, upon which the Solicitor is required to pass, relate to municipal and international law, to alleged denials of justice by courts, and the construction and interpretation of treaties, constitutions and statutes, both domestic and foreign. The Solicitor examines claims of citizens of the United States against foreign governments, and claims of foreign subjects or citizens against the United States. Where it is determined to refer claims to arbitration, the Solicitor ordinarily drafts the convention or proto- col under which the reference is made. The Solicitor's Office also has to deal with the ex- tradition of criminals. Requisitions made by governors 30 DEPARTMENT OF STATE of the states or by the Attorney General of the United States for the extradition of fugitives from justice who have fled to foreign countries, together with the neces- sary evidence in support of the appHcations, are exam- ined in the SoHcitor's Office in order to determine whether the forms of law and the provisions of the particular treaty under which extradition is sought have been complied with. Applications from foreign governments for the surrender of criminals who have sought refuge in the United States are also passed upon in the Solicitor's Office, and the transcript of the judicial examination in this country, transmitted to the Department by the extradition magistrate before whom the proceedings are instituted, is examined to see whether a case has been made out warranting extra- dition under the law and treaty applicable. The con- duct of the negotiation of extradition treaties ordinarily comes under the supervision of the Solicitor's Office. Besides passing upon the legal questions referred to him, the Solicitor acts as an under-Secretary and pre- pares drafts of instructions to diplomatic and consular officers and other important communications, for the signature of the Secretary. The Solicitor is assisted in his work by two Assistant Solicitors, an appropriate division of the work being made. One of the Assistant Solicitors acts as chief law officer during the absence of the Solicitor. The name "Solicitor" is a misnomer. The officer is really an "Assistant Attorney General for the Depart- ment of State." 31 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Chief Clerk The duties previously performed by the Third As- sistant Secretary relating to the Consular Service, have been assigned to the present Chief Clerk* whose expe- rience as Qiief of the Consular Bureau, and intimate knowledge of the Consular Service, particularly qualify him for such work. The Chief Clerk exercises general supervision of the clerks and employees and of the business of the De- partment. He receives callers seeking information, and attends to a great variety of business. Diplomatic Bureau The Diplomatic Bureau is charged with the prepara- tion of the diplomatic correspondence with our missions in foreign countries and with the representatives of foreign nations in Washington, and of miscellaneous correspondence relating thereto. This Bureau has charge of the engrossing of treaties and other formal instruments and the preparation of the credentials of our diplomatic ofiicers, of ceremonious letters, and in large part of replies to resolutions of Congress. Consular Bureau The Consular Bureau has charge of the correspond- ence with the consular officers in our service, and mis- cellaneous correspondence on matters relating to the *Wi!bur J. Carr. 32 DEPARTMENT OF STATE consular service. An important duty of the Chief of the Bureau is that of personally conferring with con- sular officers when in Washington. The Bureau keeps an efficiency record of consular officers of all grades, upon which to base promotions, transfers, etc. The Consular Bureau also has charge of the matter of recommendations for the presentation of testimonials to masters and seamen of foreign vessels for rescuing American seamen. Bureau of Indexes and Archives The Bureau of Indexes and Archives is the record bureau of the Department. Every communication to or from the Department is sent to this Bureau, where it is carefully indexed. The incoming communications then go to the appropriate officers or Bureaus for at- tention. After a paper has been disposed of, it is re- turned to the Index Bureau for filing, and the outgoing instruction or answer is also sent to that Bureau for indexing before it is mailed. The Card Index system by subjects is used. This Bureau, upon the call of any officer or Bureau of the Department, collects the correspondence relating to any particular subject. A question asked in Con- gress may require weeks of hard labor and necessitate the getting out of hundreds and even thousands of papers and documents by this Bureau. The Bureau of Indexes and Archives has charge, also, of the preparation, under the supervision of an For. Serv. — 3 23 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Assistant Secretary, of the annual volumes of Foreign Relations, which contain such portions of the diplo- matic correspondence as it is deemed desirable to pub- lish. Bureau of Citizenship The Bureau of Citizenship is charged with the ex- amination of applications for passports and the issu- ance of passports and authentications, and with the keeping of records thereof, as well as the conduct of correspondence relating thereto. It also receives and files duplicates of evidence, registration, etc., in refer- ence to the expatriation of citizens and their protection abroad. Bureau of Accounts The Chief of the Bureau of Accounts is charged with the care of the property of the Department and the custody and supervision of moneys and appropriations to be disbursed by the Secretary of State. The Bureau examines and adjusts accounts of diplomatic and con- sular officers and pays the officers and employees of the Department. It has charge of moneys received as passport fees, and of indemnity funds received by the United States from foreign governments. The seal of the Department is in the custody of this Bureau, and the telegraphic work of the Department is performed by the clerks of the Bureau. 34 DEPARTMENT OF STATE Bureau of Rolls and Library The Bureau of Rolls and Library is charged with the promulgation and custody of the laws and treaties of the United States, proclamations, executive orders, etc., and with the care of the records of international claims commissions, Revolutionary archives, manu- script papers, etc. Among the latter are the following : The records and papers of the Continental Congress, the Washington Papers, the Jefferson Papers, the Hamilton Papers, the Monroe Papers, and the Frank- lin Papers. This Bureau has custody of the Declara- tion of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution. The library, which was founded by Thomas Jefferson in 1789, consists of about 86,000 volumes. The li- brary receives one copy of each bound volume of Con- gressional documents, nineteen copies of every Senate and House of Representatives document and report, and ten copies of every bill and resolution introduced in Congress. Bureau of Appointments The Bureau of Appointments has charge of applica- tions and recommendations for office, and of the prep- aration of commissions, warrants of extradition, con- sular bonds and exequaturs. This Bureau has charge also of the Great Seal, im- pressions of which are affixed to treaties, Presidential 35 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE proclamations, ceremonious letters, commissions and exequaturs, and is charged with the duty of encipher- ing and deciphering telegrams. It was formerly the duty of the Secretary of State as custodian of the seal of the United States to affix it to all civil commissions to officers appointed by the President. But at present the seal of the United States is only affixed to the commissions of Cabinet, diplo- matic and consular officers, to ceremonious communi- cations from the President to foreign governments, to treaties and formal agreements of the President with foreign powers, to exequaturs, to warrants of extra- dition of criminals surrendered to foreign governments, and to the commissions of civil officers appointed by the President not by law authorized to bear some other seal. Bureau of Trade Relations The duties of the Bureau of Trade Relations are the preparation of instructions to consular officers in re- lation to reports to be printed by the Department of Commerce and Labor, the revision and transmission of such reports to that Department and to other branches of the government service, and the compilation of com- mercial information for the use of the Department of State. Division of Far Eastern Affairs This newly created office has charge of diplomatic and consular correspondence concerning matters other 36 DEPARTMENT OF STATE than those of an administrative character, in relation to China, Japan, Korea, Siam, Straits Settlement, Borneo, East Indies, India, and, in general, the Far East. The Department has also a Law Clerk and an As- sistant, whose duties are to compile, index and prepare for publication in the form of the Statutes at Large, the laws and resolutions of Congress, the public treaties and Presidential proclamations. There are also two official translators. The Chiefs of these Bureaus are for the greater part men who have been promoted from the lowest grades of clerkship in the Department, and experts in their particular lines of work. Much of the responsible work of the Department is performed by them,. Bureau of the American Republics There is another office, which while not a Bureau of the Department of State, is closely connected with that Department and the Secretary of State is the Chairman of its governing board. This is the International Bureau of the American Republics, which was an out- growth of the Pan-American Conference of 1889. This Bureau is controlled by a governing board repre- senting the twenty-one countries composing the Inter- national Union of American Republics by which it is supported. Its purpose is to collect and disseminate information as to the production, commerce, laws, regulations, and 37 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE customs of the several republics, and to stimulate in- tercourse, trade and good understanding. The Bureau has a Director, who is always a citizen of the United States, a secretary, and a force of assistants, translators and clerks. The Bureau has steadily grown in use- fulness from its establishment, and the scope of its activities has been greatly broadened under Secretary Root's management. The Bureau conducts an exten- sive correspondence with all parts of North and South America, furnishing information concerning the differ- ent countries, and facilitating the trade between them. The Bureau has far outgrown the facilities of its pres- ent quarters, but through the generosity of Andrew Carnegie, a magnificent building to cost three quarters of a million dollars is now being erected on a site pro- vided by the contributions of the Government of the United States and the other governments belonging to the Union. This will not only furnish the Bureau with the increased facilities which its work demands but will provide accommodations for its large and rapidly grow- ing collection of books and other publications on the American Republics, known as the Columbus Memorial Library, as well as for international conventions and commissions. For the latter purpose, an assembly chamber 70 x 100 feet has been provided. The Bureau has an organ, the "Monthly Bulletin," which circulates throughout the two continents and greatly facilitates the work of the Bureau. 38 D E P A R T M E N 1^ OF STATE Diplomatic Day Thursday of each week is "Diplomatic Day" at the Department of State, which is a day specially set apart by the Secretary for the reception of the foreign diplo- matic representatives. Advantage is taken of the op- portunity thus offorded to facilitate the disposition of pending questions. Much more can often be accom- plished in a few moments of personal conference than by a lengthy formal correspondence. In spite of the endeavors made by the Assistant Sec- retaries, Solicitor, Chief Clerk, and Chiefs of Bureaus to save the Secretary from unnecessary interruptions, the demands upon the time of the Secretary of State by callers are so great at times that it is difficult for him to give continuous attention during office hours to important matters awaiting his action. Andrew D. White in his "Autobiography," relates the following in- cident. Before starting for his post when appointed Minister to Germany, he called at the State Department for a conference with Mr. Evarts who was then Secre- tary. When he was shown into the Secretary's office he found the latter busily engaged. Mr. White apolo- gized for interrupting him, and said he could just as well call again after four o'clock. Secretary Evarts said : "By no means ! Come in at once ! We have just two rules here at the Department. One is that no busi- ness is to be transacted during office hours, and the 39 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE other is that no business is to be transacted after office hours." One of the ordinary incidents of the day at the De- partment is the call of the representatives of the press associations and of the leading metropolitan dailies on the Secretary. They are frequently ushered into his office in a group and the Secretary gives them such in- formation concerning foreign affairs as he deems prop- er. The late Secretary Hay w^as accustomed to talk very freely with the press representatives, it being un- derstood that he was not to be quoted. One day at the close of his general talk with the newspaper men, one who had formerly represented the "World" but was then in the employ of the "Journal," asked the Secre- tary about a matter of great importance at that time. The Secretary answered his question fully, saying at the same time that under no circumstances was he to be quoted. The newspaper representative replied "Oh ! Mr. Secretary, you know I wouldn't quote you for the world." "No!" was the Secretary's quick rejoinder, "You wouldn't for the 'World,' but you might for the 'Journal' " Among our Secretaries of State who were particu- larly qualified by experience for the work of conducting our foreign affairs, were the following: Thomas Jef- ferson, James Monroe, John Marshall, Lewis Cass and Elihu B. Washburne, each of whom represented the United States in Paris ; John Quincy Adams, who had previously served as Minister to Portugal, Prussia, 40 DEPARTMENT OF STATE Russia and Great Britain ; Martin Van Buren and Ed- ward Everett, who represented this government at the Court of St. James; James Buchanan, who was our diplomatic representative at St. Petersburg; John Hay, who had acted as Private Secretary to President Lin- coln, Secretary of Legation at Madrid, Assistant Sec- retary of State, and Ambassador to London. His pol- icy of the "open door" in China was only one of his many accomplishments in the field of diplomacy. John W. Foster had served as Minister to Mexico, Spain and Russia. Richard Olney will be remembered for his vigorous assertion of the "Monroe Doctrine," and the amicable adjustment of the Venezuelan-Guiana boundary dis- pute. Elihu Root, after performing work of constructive statesmanship of the highest order at the head of the War Department, in relation to the Philippines, Cuba, Porto Rico, and Panama, has rendered service of great value in promoting better relations between the United States and the Latin-American Republics. Several of our Presidents have distinguished them- selves by their conduct of foreign affairs. President Lincoln, though he had never seen a day's service in our diplomatic establishment, was, as his distinguished pupil, John Hay, characterized him, "One of the might- iest masters of statecraft that history has known." His treatment, at the beginning of his administration, of Secretary Seward's proposed measures inviting war with three nations at once, and his correction by the 41 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE alteration of the fewest possible words, of Mr. Seward's bellicose instruction to our representative at the Court of St. James, stamped him as one possessing diplomatic skill of the highest order. The place in history of our versatile President, William McKinley, would be secure with nothing further to his credit than his conduct of the questions which arose out of our war with Spain. President Roosevelt astonished the world by bring- ing about a prompt termination of the Russian-Japan- ese war in 1905. William H. Taft, although not at any time connected with our Diplomatic Service, has had entrusted to him and has conducted to a successful conclusion negotia- tions of the greatest delicacy and importance in relation to Cuba, the Philippines and Panama. 42 Our Diplomatic Service 43 CHAPTER II. Our Diplomatic Service A state has no voice by which it can speak for it- self. It must speak and act through agents. The in- tercourse of states is conducted through authorized agents called diplomatic officers. Diplomacy is the art of negotiation or of conducting such intercourse. In ancient times the intercourse between nations con- sisted largely of wars, stratagem and spoils. Terms of peace or conditions of battle were agreed upon through the medium of heralds sent forward while hos- tilities were suspended for the purpose. These her- alds were the precursors of modern diplomatists. With the development of civilization commerce sprang up between states and new and complex questions arose which could not be adjusted in such a primitive or summary way. The practice grew up of sending persons as representatives of the state abroad to nego- tiate treaties or to do some special business, upon the completion of which they would return to their own country. While the custom of sending and receiving diplo- matic representatives has existed from the earliest re- corded history, the establishment of resident diplo- 45 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE matic missions at foreign courts was not generally adopted until the sixteenth century. Louis XL of France is said to have been the first sovereign to adopt permanent embassies, and his object was to have char- tered spies at the courts of his powerful neighbors. He said to his ambassadors, when sending them abroad : "If they lie to you, lie still more to them." Stubbs, in his "Mediaeval History," defines an am- bassador as "a person sent to lie abroad for the good of his country." An ambassador might cheat or deceive. In fact, as Lord Palmerston remarked, he might break all the commandments in the Decalogue except the eleventh, which was, "Thou shalt not be found out." To show the unscrupulous conduct of some of the early European diplomatists, John Bassett Moore, in his "American Diplomacy," relates how Hugh Elliot, the British Minister at Berlin, in 1777, obtained in- formation of the negotiations of the United States with the Prussian Government looking to the obtain- ing of the support of the latter government against England. Arthur Lee was sent by our government to Berlin, and the British Government feeling great con- cern as to the possible course of Prussia, directed its diplomatic representative at Berlin to give proper at- tention to Lee's conduct there and to the impression which it might make. Elliot, a young man of twenty- four, desirous of making a reputation, set about his task with diligence and enthusiasn^ Through a Ger- man servant in his employ, Elliot gained the co-opera- '46 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE tion of the servants at the inn where Lee stopped, and of the landlord's wife, and learned that Lee kept his papers, including a journal of each day's transactions, in a portfolio which was usually laid away in a bureau. Elliot had false keys made to the door of the chamber and the bureau, and while Lee was absent from the inn sent his servant to get the papers. The servant was not able to enter the door without being seen, but got into Lee's room through a window, secured the port- folio and brought it to Elliot, who had four copyists prepared to begin at once transcribing the papers. While thus engaged Elliot learned that Lee had re- turned to the inn. Knowing that the papers had not been returned, he, in company with a friend, called on Lee and endeavored to amuse him with conversation, which he did for nearly two hours without any in- troduction or disclosure of names, but merely as one who happened to meet persons speaking the same lan- guage. Finally Lee retired, saying he must go to his rooms and write. Shortly afterwards Elliot heard a "violent clamor" in the house of a "robbery" and "loss of papers." He then drove home, and as most of the papers had then been copied, he disguised and took them to the mistress of the house, who, being in the plot, told the story that they were left at the door by some one who announced their return through the key- hole and then ran off. Lee appealed to the police, and inquiry was set on foot, which led to the German serv- ant. Elliot immediately sent him out of the country, making an official explanation to the German Govern- 47 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE ment as well as his own, by which he made it appear that the affair was altogether an accident, due to his own imprudence in saying in the presence of an over- officious servant that he would give a large sum of money to see Lee's papers, but that as soon as the "un- warrantable action" of the servant was discovered, the papers were returned. The knowledge of the fact that the British Government had obtained copies of Lee's papers put an end to the attempt privately to negotiate with the Prussian Government and frustrated the plans for obtaining supplies from Prussian ports. (Ameri- can Diplomacy, p. 19.) In spite of the unprincipled character of the early diplomatists the system of permanent diplomatic mis- sions became a necessity with the increasing import- ance and complexity of international affairs, and it is now considered practically impossible to maintain re- lations with foreign States without permanent diplo- matic representation. Wheaton says : "Diplomatic representation is a defi- nite factor in the political economy of the world ; and no better scheme has yet been devised for the dispatch of international affairs or for the preservation of the friendly relations between governments." With the evolution of the law of nations, which regu- lates the intercourse of nations, the methods of diplo- macy became more respectable. At the present day, such disreputable means of negotiation as obtained in the middle ages are seldom resorted to, and the ablest diplomatists are generally distinguished for their per- 48 OUR D I P L O M A T I C SERVICE sonal character and integrity as well as for their talents and learning. From the modern point of view, instead of its being the duty of an ambassador to lie for the good of his country, it is rather his duty to tell the truth for the good of his country, and to remove appre- hensions which may have arisen as to its opinions or intentions. Washington, in an instruction issued by his Secre- tary of State to John Jay, special minister to Great Britain, in 1794, established the high standard of con- duct by which American diplomatists have ever since almost invariably been governed : It read as follows : "It is the President's wish that the characteristics of an American minister should be marked on the one hand by a firmness against improper compliances, and on the other hand by sincerity, candor, truth and prudence, and by a horror of finesse and chicane." The late distinguished Secretary of State, John Hay, in a public address in 1902, in which he declared the Monroe Doctrine and the Golden Rule to be the rule of our conduct in diplomacy, said : "There was a time when diplomacy was a science of intrigue and false- hood, of traps and mines and countermines. In the last generation it was thought a remarkable advance in straightforward diplomacy when Prince Bismarck rec- ognized the advantage of telling the truth even at the risk of misleading his adversary. ... I really be- lieve the world has moved onward in diplomacy as in all other matters. In my experience of diplomatic life, which now covers more years than I like to look back For. Serv. — 4 40 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE upon, and in the far greater record of American diplo- macy wdiich I have read and studied, I can say without hesitation that we have generally told squarely what we wanted, announced early in the negotiation what we were willing to give, and allowed the other side to ac- cept or reject our terms. During the time in which I have been prominently concerned in our foreign rela- tions I can also say that we have been met by the repre- sentatives of other powers in the same spirit of frank- ness and sincerity." Rank and Precedence While the President, under that clause of our Con- stitution authorizing him by and with the advice and consent of the Senate to appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, is empowered to appoint ambassadors, no ambassador was ever accredited by this government to a foreign country until 1893, when an act of Congress was passed expressly authorizing the President whenever any foreign government is rep- resented or is about to be represented in the United States by an ambassador, to direct that the representa- tive of the United States to such government shall bear the same designation. The United States now has am- bassadors in ten countries, Great Britain, France, Ger- many, Russia, Austria, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Brazil and Turkey. This government is represented by envoys-ex- traordinary and ministers plenipotentiary in thirty-four foreign countries, and by ministers resident in two. 50 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE The Congress of Vienna, at which eight European powers were represented, in 1815, agreed upon certain rules concerning the relative rank and precedence of diplomatic representatives, which have been accepted by all civilized nations. By these rules diplomatic agents are divided into three classes : ( i ) ambassa- dors, legates or nuncios; (2) envoys, ministers or other persons accredited to sovereigns; (3) charges d' affaires accredited to ministers for foreign affairs. At the Congress of Aix la Chapelle, held three years later, it was agreed that ministers resident should hold a rank between ministers of the second class, usually sent by the great powers, and charges d' affaires — usually sent by small countries. The United States has diplomatic representatives accredited to forty-six different countries, including every indei>endent country of Europe, Central Ameri- ca, South America, and all those parts of Asia and Africa with which we have relations. Thirty-seven foreign states maintain diplomatic representatives at Washington. Each government sends the kind of diplomatic repre- sentative it pleases, generally accrediting to a foreign state a representative of the same class as the repre- sentative which it receives from such state. But usual- ly only the great powers send ambassadors. It is not unusual to commission the same individual as minister to more than one power, but in 1825, the British gov- ernment objected to receiving an envo)'' extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary from Buenos Ayres be- 51 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE cause he was also appointed to France. Mr. Canning said that he did think that England was not stickhng too much upon ceremony in saying she must have an entire minister to herself. Murray, in his interest- ing book "Embassies and Foreign Courts," states that the King of Sardinia in 1774 quarreled with the Re- , public of Venice for refusing to send him two ambassa- dors on the occasion of his accession to the throne, with the result that Venice sent no ambassador at all and diplomatic relations were broken off on both sides. The United States accredits one diplomatic repre- sentative to Greece and Montenegro, one to Roumania and Servia, and one to Uruguay and Paraguay. The diplomatic representatives of the United States are: (a) ambassadors extraordinary and plenipoten- tiaiy; (b) envoys extraordinary and ministers pleni- potentiary, and special commissioners when having the rank of envoy extraordinary; (c) ministers resident; (d) charges d' affaires. The first three grades are accredited by the Presi- dent. Charges d' affaires are commissioned by the President and accredited by the Secretary of State to the minister for foreign affairs of the government to which they are sent. Legates or nuncios are sent by the Pope alone. The United States, of course, has no diplomatic relations with the Pope. We send no diplo- matic representative to the Vatican and receive no le- gate or nuncio. On occasions of great national ceremonies, such as the accession of a sovereign, the United States sends 52 ^OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE special ambassadors, invested with the highest diplo- matic rank. Sometimes the function of an ambassador of honor is superadded to those of the resident am- bassador. Ambassadors are supposed to represent, in a pecul- iar degree the person of their sovereign, and to have the right to address themselves personally to the sov- ereign of the country to which they are sent, instead of going through the usual routine of negotiating with the minister of Foreign Affairs; but formal and bind- ing international negotiations can be conducted only through the minister of Foreign Affairs; and by mod- ern practice, personal interviews are generally granted by the head of the state on suitable occasions, to all representatives of foreign powers whatever their rank. Envoys plenipotentiary and ministers resident are therefore able usually to accomplish fully as much for their government as ambassadors. The only advan- tage that an ambassador has is that of precedence. At some foreign offices the rule "first come, first served," is not observed, and an envoy or minister may be ob- liged to wait hours or even until the next day for an affair of consequence, while ambassadors from much less important countries are given an audience at once. At Constantinople it is expected that if a minister is in conversation with the Minister of Foreign Affairs or Grand Vizier, he shall withdraw and wait whenever an ambassador is announced. This, together with the fact that only ambassadors are allowed access to the Sultan to discuss official matters, led to so much embarrass- 53 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE ment in the relations of the United States with the Ot- toman Porte that President McKinley proposed to the Turkish Government the appointment of an ambassa- dor by each government. The Turkish Government did not accede to this proposition and treated a renewal of the suggestion by President Roosevelt in the same way. At the request of the President, Congress in 1906, provided for an ambassador to Turkey, however, and Minister Leishman was named as ambassador ; and the following year it was reported that the Sultan had raised the post at Washington to an embassy. No am- bassador has yet been named by the Sultan to this post. Our interests demand that in every country we should be represented by agents of the highest title known there. In 1907 a bill was introduced in Congress, which provided that all our diplomatic representatives abroad should have the same rank — that of ambassador. It did not become a law, however. Ex-Secretary Fos- ter is of the opinion that there will be no satisfactory settlement of diplomatic rank until all distinctions and special privileges are abolished and a single grade is established in all the capitals of the world. This question of precedence is frequently a burning one among diplomats. The date of reception of the credentials of an envoy at the capital to which he is accredited determines the order of his precedence, the envoy last received going to the foot of the list of his class. A large part of the deliberations of the great Congresses of European nations in earlier times re- lated to the matter of precedence among delegates. At 54 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE the Congress of Ryswick a warm debate was occasioned by the demand of the German ambassadors that a par- ticular space should be set apart for their carriages, and that that be the post of honor. A quarrel occurred over the allotment of rooms. In the conference room a single table had been placed, but as no agreement could be reached as to the order of seating, in that room they all stood ; and another room was provided in which there was no table, and the envoys sat in a circle. At Utrecht a round table was used, until it was discovered that the place of honor was opposite the door of entrance and that every place of honor has a right and left. Addison, in the "Spectator," gives an amusing ac- count of a discussion of the question of precedence which he heard in one of the coffee houses of London, the result of which he sums up as follows : ''All I could learn at last from these honest gentlemen was that the matter in the debate was of too high a nature for such heads as theirs, or mine, to comprehend." It is related that the Spanish ambassador to Eng- land in 1 66 1, to secure a place in the royal procession next to the King and before his French colleague, at- tacked the latter's coach in the streets of London, ham- strung his horses and killed his men, thus indicating his country's greatness. A story is told of two envoys from Italy and Ger- many, who, being unable to agree as to which should first present his credentials to the King of France, stipu- lated that whoever reached Versailles soonest on the day of their reception should take precedence of the 55 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE other. The German went the night before the audience and sat on a bench before the palace until dawn. The Italian arriving early in the morning, saw the Prussian there before him, and slipped surreptitiously through the door of the King's bedroom and commenced his speech of audience. The German rushed after him, pulling him back by the skirts, and began his harangue. A case once occurred in which swords were drawn between the French and English ministers over a ques- tion of precedence, in the ante-room of the President's office, in Washington. At a comparatively recent date embarrassment arose over the question of the relative rank of our Vice Presi- dent and foreign ambassadors, and later the same ques- tion arose in relation to the Justices of the Supreme Court. In other countries, such questions are settled by the court master of ceremonies. We have no such ofificial. The functionary who comes nearest to filling such a position here is Mr. Alvey A. Adee, Second Assistant Secretary of State, who has been connected with our diplomatic service and the Department of State since 1870, and is regarded as an authority in all such matters. His ruling, in the case referred to, which was followed, was that the Vice President took pre- cedence over a foreign ambassador. The British am- bassador had contended that in the courts of Europe an ambassador took rank next to royal blood, but Mr. Adee's view was that the Vice President has the same social status as the Crown Prince, for he is the heir- apparent to the Presidential office. The Supreme 56 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE Court Justices are ranked below ambassadors at the Department of State and the White House, although at inaugurations and other ceremonies at the Capitol where our Congress has charge of the arrangements the Supreme Court has been given place above am- bassadors. Salaries Our diplomatic officers are paid much smaller sala- ries than are the representatives of other large coun- tries. Our ambassadors receive $17,500 a year, and our envoys and ministers plenipotentiary $10,000 and $12,000, according to the relative importance of the post. The smallest salary paid to a principal diplomatic officer of the United States is $5,000 — to our minister resident in Liberia. On the other hand, the British, French, and Russian Ambassadors in Washington re- ceive salaries nearly as large as our President, and are also given large allowances for rent and for expenses of entertaining, which are not allowed our representa- tives. No allowance is made to our diplomatic officers for outfits, but they are allowed five cents per mile for transportation to their posts, and to their homes in the United States upon termination of their service. Salary is allowed for a period of thirty days after taking the oath of office, called an "instruction" period, and during transit to posts. Early in our history our ministers were allowed one- half a year's salary as an outfit on going to their posts 57 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE and one-fourth of a year's salary as a return allowance on coming home, but the practice led to abuses and was discontinued. Says Henry Adams in his "Life of John Randolph :" "In September, 1829, John Randolph of Virginia, was offered and accepted the mission to Rus- sia; he sailed in June, 1830, remained ten days at his post, then passed near a year in England; and return- ing home, in October, 1831, drew $21,807 from the government, with which he paid off his old British debt. This act of Roman virtue, worthy of the satire of Juve- nal, still stands as the most flagrant bit of diplomatic robbery in the annals of the United States Govern- ment." The salaries paid our diplomatic representatives at the more important posts are entirely inadequate. To decently meet the social obligations which the position of the representative of the greatest nation of the world carries with it, and to serve his government most suc- cessfully, requires the expenditure of considerable money. It is often said that under the conditions ex- isting in our service only men of wealth can afford to accept these positions. John C. Calhoun, who was of- fered the diplomatic missions to Paris and London, felt compelled to decline on account of lack of private means. The late Senator Hoar of Massachusetts, and numerous other public men of ability have declined the highest diplomatic posts for the same reason. At the present time it is understood that our am- bassadors in London, Paris, and Rome pay as much for house rent alone as their salaries amount to, and it was 58 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE currently reported that the annual expenditure of our late representative* in Berlin to maintain his position there amounted to $200,000, and that he lived on the same magnificent scale when serving at St. Petersburg, his former post. Some of our representatives when searching for suit- able residences may find themselves in somewhat the position of the late Justice Lamar of our Supreme Court when he tried to rent a house in a fashionable quarter of Washington. He found a house on High- land Terrace that just suited him. He was shown throug'h it by the owner, expressed his satisfaction with all its appointments, and finally inquired the amount of the rent. "$9,500 a year," replied the owner. Justice Lamar was silent so long that the owner asked him what he was thinking of. "I was thinking," he an- swered, "what I should do with the other $500 of my salary." During the last Congress a bill was introduced pro- viding for the purchase of an embassy building in Paris, and it was announced that this was part of a programme contemplating the purchase of residences for all our ambassadors. The bill failed to become a law, how- ever. The carrying out of such a plan would enable men who are not wealthy to accept places in the higher ranks of our diplomatic service. Most governments provide official residences for their diplomatic representatives. In Washington, legation *Mr. Charlemagne Tower. 59 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE houses are owned by the British, German, Mexican, Austrian, Itahan, Japanese, and Chinese Governments. This government owns no legation houses except in the Orient. As it was impossible to rent suitable buildings in China and Japan, the United States has built and owns legation buildings in those countries, and Con- gress in 1906 appropriated $150,000 to purchase a suitable house for the American embassy in Constanti- nople. It is desirable that this government should own of- ficial residences at all capitals where it is represented and our representatives should receive sufficient pay to enable them to live in a style befitting their rank. The adoption of such a policy would actually be a measure of economy. In the Bering Sea controversy in 1893 it is said that the social prestige of the British Embassy of itself carried the day as against the insignificant po- sition of our unhoused and poorly paid minister. This government in this one matter lost a sum which would have been sufficient to purchase suitable legation houses for our representatives in several capitals. Moreover, the cost of our diplomatic service for an entire year does not equal the expenditure necessary to maintain our army and navy for a day in the prosecution of a war. Mr. Monroe, when Secretary of State, in urging an appropriation increasing the salaries of our diplomatic officers, said : "A minister can be useful only by filling his place with credit in the diplomatic corps and in the corresponding circle of society in the country in which he resides, which is the best in every country. By tak- 60 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE mg the proper ground, if he possesses the necessary quahfications and is furnished with adequate means, he will become acquainted with all that passes, and from the highest and most authentic sources." (Annals of Congress, 14th Cong, ist Sess. p. 1735.) Lord Palmerston, when being examined by a com- mittee of the House of Commons on the matter of salaries of diplomatic officers, said : "In order to pre- serve good relations with a country, it is not sufficient simply to have a person living in town as cheaply as he can afford to exist, because the social position of your representative is a very important element in his power to be useful. In regard to his intercourse with the ministers of the country, great facilities and great means of good understanding are afforded by easy social intercourse, which can only be possible by his being able to receive them, as well as also being received by them. Again, it is of great importance that your ambassador should be in habits of social intercourse with the public men not in office; that he should have the means of receiving them, becoming acquainted with their views and explaining to them the views and policy of his own country. Therefore, I think it is of great importance to this country that your representative should be in such an easy position with regard to money affairs as may enable him to receive hospitably persons of all kinds, and I may say also of different nations." (S. Ex. Doc. 93, — 32d Cong. ist. Sess.) 61 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Appointments Ambassadors and envoys to the more important posts are generally personally selected by the Presi- dent, upon his own knowledge of the qualifications of the individuals. It is essential that they should be in sympathy with his policy. For the less important posts, it is customary for the candidates to secure the en- dorsement of the Senators and Representatives from their states, and of other influential persons, and to pre- sent applications, which are filed in the Appointment Bureau of the Department of State. These papers are laid before the President when he calls up the matter of appointments, and frequently the friends of the applicants urge the appointments in personal inter- views with the Secretary of State and the President. In these appointments some regard is usually had to geographical distribution. The Senate shares with the President the power of appointing diplomatic of- ficers and may reject his nominations for political or personal reasons, but the rejection of a person who has been named by the President occurs only rarely. Upon confirmation by the Senate, the commission is made out and the envoy takes the oath of office. While our representatives at the more important diplomatic posts have always been carefully selected, diplomatic offices have sometimes been bestowed with- out special regard for the fitness of the individual for the place. A story is told of a man in Buffalo more not- 62 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE ed for his political zeal than for his knowledge of geog- raphy, who, during the administration of President Grant, was appointed Minister to Ecuador. He read the despatch announcing his appointment in the morn- ing paper, and when his friends called to congratulate him, said : "I appreciate your kindness very much, but what I would like to know more than anything else is where the is Ecuador?" A Congressional delegation once importuned Presi- dent Lincoln to appoint a certain man as Minister to Hawaii, urging among other reasons for his appoint- ment his ill health and the probability that his health would be benefited by the Hawaiian climate. Mr. Lincoln replied : "Gentlemen, you're too late. There are nine candidates for the place ahead of you, and every one of them is sicker than yours." There is a well-authenticated story that Secretary Seward, when remonstrated with for permitting to re- main in the diplomatic service a minister who was dis- crediting his country, said : "Sir, some persons are sent abroad because they are needed abroad, and some are sent because they are not wanted at home." Referring to the custom of appointing to foreign missions members of Congress who had been defeated for re-election, the late Secretary Hay remarked : "A quiet legation is the stuffed mattress which the political acrobat wants always to see ready under him in case of a slip." 63 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Secretaries In addition to an ambassador, or minister, there are three secretaries each at London, Paris, Berhn, St. Petersburg, and Mexico, and two each at Vienna, Pe- kin, Rio, Rome, Habana, Tokyo and Constantinople. Each of our other Legations has one secretary, except at Port au Prince. These secretaries receive salaries varying from $1,200 to $3,000 a year, and during the absence of the principal diplomatic officer the first secretary acts as charge d' affaires ad interim, and while so doing receives an allowance equal to one-half the salary of the principal officer. These places are much sought after because of their social position, and the opportunities afforded for advancement. They make excellent training schools for diplomats. Under an Executive Order issued by President Roosevelt on November 10, 1905, vacancies in the office of Secretary of Embassy or Legation can only be filled by transfer or promotion from some branch of the foreign service, or by the appointment of a person who, having furnished satisfactory evidence of char- acter, responsibility and capacity, and being thereupon selected by the President for examination, is found upon such examination to be qualified for the position. Efficient secretaries are useful officials. Moser says : "An ambassador is often like the hands of a clock while his secretaries resemble the works." And Andrew D. White calls efficient secretaries and attaches "antennae 64 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE of the ambassador or minister, — additional eyes and ears to ascertain what is going on among the most influential in public affairs." In addition to performing the usual duties attaching to the office of secretary, our Secretaries of Embassy and Legation are authorized by law to administer oaths, take depositions, and generally, to perform notarial acts. Three of our ambassadors, — Henry White, now representing the United States at Paris, John W. Rid- dle, our ambassador at St. Petersburg, and Lloyd C. Griscom, ambassador at Rome, — began their diplomatic service as secretaries of legation. Mr. White has been for more than twenty years in our diplomatic service and Mr. Riddle has served upwards of fifteen years. There are two Chinese Secretaries attached to the Legation at Peking, and two Japanese Secretaries at our Embassy at Tokyo. Interpreters There are Interpreters at the Legations in Oriental countries ; and at our Embassy in Japan there are four Student Interpreters, and at the Legation in China there are seven Student Interpreters. Military and Naval Attaches At the most important foreign capitals this govern- ment has military and naval attaches, experts in their professions, charged with the duty of keeping in touch For. Serv.— 5 61; OUR FOREIGN SERVICE with the progress made by the other countries of the world in miHtary and naval matters. These attaches are commissioned by the Secretary of State, but are named by the Secretaries of War and Navy and act under the instructions of the latter. Clerks Provision is made by law for the employment of clerks at the various embassies and legations. All appointed since the Act of April 5, 1906, went into effect, must be citizens of the United States. The personnel of our entire Diplomatic establish- ment, exclusive of clerks, at present numbers one hundred and fifty-seven. The last annual appropria- tion for salaries was $780,075. Qualifications The profession of diplomacy is one of the most im- portant an individual can engage in and demands men of the highest ability and attainments and the broadest experience. The peace and prosperity of a state de- pend in large degree on the men selected to represent it in foreign countries. As has been well said by a recent writer on the subject : "There is no position among mankind which requires a clearer and sounder mind than that of a diplomatist. The most unexpected events are constantly arising, even at the smallest courts, which require delicate handling; while occa- sions which a keen observer might turn to precious ac- 66 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE count for restoring the peace or assuring the interests of the world pass unnoticed or unemployed by a per- son of lower and more ordinary capacity." A diplomatic officer may, through his own efforts, avert or postpone a great war. If he is successful in shortening a war by a single day, he may save his gov- ernment more than its entire outlay for its diplomatic service for a year, besides the loss of life and destruc- tion of property. A diplomatic officer is pre-eminently a peacemaker, and when war comes, diplomacy does not end, as the diplomat frequently performs the work of a military offi.cer, — with the difference that his means are pacific. In Europe, the diplomatic service offers a career to those who enter it, promotions are made from the lower to the higher grades in recognition of ability and efficiency, and aged members of the corps are retired on liberal pay. Our diplomatic service does not offer all these inducements. Our diplomatic officers are gen- erally expected to tender their resignations with each change of President. It is worthy of note, however, that there were practically no changes in the personnel of our diplomatic service when Air. Roosevelt suc- ceeded Mr. McKinley in 1901, and in the changes that have since been made, the principle of promotion for merit appears to have largely governed. An examina- tion of the Department of State Register shows that of the ten ambassadors now representing the United States abroad, nine have been promoted from the rank of minister, and the other previously served as am- 67 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE bassador. And three began their career as Secretaries of Legation. Thirteen of the thirty-four ministers have served as secretaries of legation; four have seen service as consuls; and two have served as officers of the Department of State. Moreover, as already indicated (supra p. 64) by Ex- ecutive Order of November 10, 1905, vacancies in the office of Secretary of Embassy or Legation are required to be filled either by transfer or by promotion from some branch of our foreign service, or by the appoint- ment of a person selected by the President, if upon examination, he is found qualified for the position. The subjects upon which candidates are examined under this Executive Order are international law, diplomatic usage, and either French or the language spoken in the country in which the embassy or legation is located. It is to be hoped that this step in the right direction will be followed by a measure providing for promotions to the grade of envoy from secretaries who are found to be qualified, and to the grade of ambassador from ministers. It has been well said that the only satisfactory pre- paration for the diplomatic service is experience. There is great advantage in possessing experience in affairs. While it goes without saying that no course of study, however broad, of itself, can prepare a man for the diplomatic service, a certain amount of elementary preparation is absolutely necessary; and there are cer- tain qualifications without which no man can hope to attain success in the diplomatic service. 68 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE Only those who have won recognition at home as men fit to uphold the dignity and represent the inter- ests of their country abroad should be appointed to the office of envoy or ambassador. They should be of approved honor and integrity. The diplomatic officer should have a general know- ledge of history, of treaties, of law, of the French lan- guage and the language of the country to which he is sent. "The diplomatist should know the history of the great powers and of their relations with each other, as a competent physician would wish to know the life record of a delicate or dangerous patient, for the pres- ent is but the epitome and expression of the past. The future knows no other guide and it is from history that we are to gather the formulas of present action." (Dr. David J. Hill in the "Contemporary Development of Diplomacy.") The man sent to represent us abroad should be famil- iar with the history of our country and with its politi- cal doctrines. He should acquaint himself with the history and traditional usage and customs of the country to which he is accredited. He should have a knowledge of international law, as by its rules the intercourse of states is regulated, and of treaties, — the most conspicuous source of that law. A special study should be made of the treaties to which the United States is a party. He should be conversant with the usages of trade 69 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE and commerce, and know the elementary principles of the common law. If he is able to give a clear exposi- tion of the law of his country he may often prevent serious misunderstandings. He should also have a knowledge of the general laws in force in the country in which he is residing, to en- able him to give useful advice and warning to his fel- low country-men. He should be familiar with the French language. A knowledge of this language is indispensable in Euro- pean countries, as it is the generally received language of diplomacy there. Henry Wheaton, the experienced diplomatist and international law writer, said : "A diplo- matic officer at a European court might as well be deaf and dumb as to be ignorant of French, — the language which is the universal tongue of diplomacy." It is worthy of notice that in the instructions to the first diplomatic agent sent abroad by the United States, was the injunction to acquire "Parisian French." Just after the German war, an effort was made by the German Government to introduce German as a diplomatic language, and the German Ambassador at St. Petersburg stated to Prince Gortchakoff his inten- tion to write to him in the future in that tongue. "Cer- tainly" replied the Prince, "We all understand German. Of course you must expect our replies to be in Rus- sian." Nothing further was heard of the proposition. At one time, the French diplomatic representative at Berlin insisted that the German Government should use French in its correspondence with him. This called 70 OUR D I P L O M A TIC SERVICE out from Bismarck the famous remark that he would find means which would make a dispatch written in the German language intelligible in Paris. A familiarity with Spanish is also a sine qua non in Latin American countries. It is the practice of our diplomatic officers, however, to write in English all communications to the government to which they are accredited, in urgent cases accompanying them with translations into the language of that country. A diplomatic officer should be a person of good man- ners and acquainted with the usages of the best society. In a word, he should be a gentleman. Ex-Secretary Foster, in "Practice of Diplomacy," says: "A boor in manners, or one disagreeable instead of affable in his demeanor, can hardly expect to make himself popular in social circles, or even to be successful in the dispatch of the business of his country." It is said of Prince Gortchakoff, the Russian Minis- ter of Foreign Affairs, that all other things being equal, he judged a good deal of the fitness of a candidate for a diplomatic office by the manner in which he entered the room and addressed him. Among other qualifications which go to make a successful diplomatist are a good temper, tact, shrewd- ness and discretion. Without the first, the diplomatic officer can scarcely expect to cultivate friendly relations with the representatives of the country to which he is sent or to favorably impress them with the attitude of his own government towards them. He should never 71 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE allow personal feelings to interfere with the perform- ance of a public duty. He will find ample scope for the exercise of tact and discretion in the conduct of his official business and frequent occasions will arise requiring the display of good judgment and shrewdness. As men are more readily influenced by interest and prejudice than by reason, a knowledge of human nature is essential to the success of the diplomat. The study of men is a large part of his science, and his success depends greatly on his skill in what Bacon terms the art of "working" men. An illustration of the wisdom of exercising tact and conciliation is found in the negotiations of the Treaty of 1815 with England, and with France concerning Napoleon's spoliations. Moore, in his International Law Digest, quotes the following from Wharton's Di- gest : "Mr. Adams' negotiations with Great Britain and France failed on points as to which the administra- tion of General Jackson subsequently succeeded. That this may be attributed to want of tact and of suitable recognition of the characteristics of those with whom Mr. Adams had to deal, is illustrated by the success of the subsequent negotiations. Participation in the West Indian commerce w^as refused by Great Britain when demanded by Mr. Adams as a right ; it was granted to General Jackson when asked as an equivalent. Pay- ment of Napoleon's spoliations was refused to Mr. Adams by Louis XVIII. when it was made the subject of continuous diplomatic irritation ; it was granted to 72 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE General Jackson by Louis Philippe when it was the subject of peremptory though courteous demand." Franklin's shrewdness was illustrated in the nego- tiation of the commercial treaty of 1778 with France. Molasses was the chief article exported from the French West Indies to New England, where it was turned into rum. Deane, Franklin's associate, who came from Connecticut, thought it would be a good thing to get France to promise not to lay any impedi- ment in the way of the exportation of molasses from the West Indies to the United States. Franklin ac- quiesced, and proposed the inclusion of such a provision in the treaty. The French negotiators asked "What equivalent do you give us?" Franklin, knowing it was the policy of the United States to refrain from taxing ex- ports going from its shores, said : "You bind yourselves not to impose au)^ tax on molasses going from your col- onies to the United States, the United States will agree not to tax anything whatever going from the United States to your colonies." Now in this, the French gave up something, for they held to the traditional policy of taxing exports, but the United States gave up nothing, for to them, the idea of taxing exports was absurd, and therefore they got molasses free. Owing to the oppo- sition of Franklin's associates, Lee and Izard, however, this provision after being agreed to by the French negotiators, was rescinded. (Wharton, i Dip. Cor. Amer. Rev. Sec. 46.) A clever New Englander who represented our gov- ernment abroad showed the writer his draft of an ex- 73 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE tradition treaty which he had been instructed to nego- tiate. The writer noticed and called his attention to the fact that the usual provision exempting citizens from surrender had been omitted. "Yes" said our Minister, "I know we desire to include that provision, and the other g"overnment will insist upon its inclusion, but I purposely omitted it from my draft that I might have that to trade with." And he succeeded in securing a treaty in which he obtained certain concessions by agreeing to include a clause exempting citizens from surrender. Female Diplomatists This is an age in which women are claiming the right to enter nearly every profession or business in which men engage. There have been instances in history where women have acted as diplomatic agents. In 1645, Madame de Gubriant was sent as an am- bassadress from France to Bologna. She was charged with the duty of conducting Princess Marie Louise of Mantua, who had been espoused by the King of Bo- logna. Upon arriving at the capital, Varsovia, the King, because of false reports which had reached him concerning Marie Louise, refused to carry out the en- gagement, but Madame de Gubriant managed the affair with such sagacity and skill that he soon decided to consummate the marriage. And in 1701, Augustus II. of Poland, sent his mis- tress, the Countess of Konigsmark, one of the most 74 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE beautiful and accomplished women of the period, as a secret ambassador, to endeavor to conclude a treaty of peace with King Charles XII. of Sweden, with which country Poland was at w^ar. But Charles, fearing the wiles of the fair ambassadress, declined to treat with her. During President Cleveland's last administration, the well-known female lawyer, Marilla Ricker, of New Hampshire, announced herself as a candidate for the post of United States Minister to Columbia. In a newspaper interview she said, "If Luther McKinney (the incumbent of the office at that time) can fill the place, I can overflow in it." She did not receive the ap- pointment. The English diplomat, Grenville Murray, says that "women are good as counsellors but bad as actors." He adds : "Perhaps no negotiation has ever been perfected since the creation of the world without the interference and advice of women, but they are best kept out of sight." Perhaps the greatest obstacle to the employment of women as diplomatic officers is their well-known inability to keep a secret. Murray, in his book "Embassies and Foreign Courts," states that Pope Sextus V. in an unguarded moment bestowed the title of Ambassadress on the wife of the Spanish Ambassador at the Vatican, and ad- mitted her to all the honors of that distinguished rank, including the proud privilege of kissing his toe. The wives of the other ambassadors at Rome immediately clamored for the same privileges and the Pope con- ceded the same rank to them as an alternative to leav- 75 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE ing the Vatican to escape from an irritated ladydom. Mr. Murray says : "To any person who has enjoyed favorable oppor- tunities of becoming acquainted with the vigorous pro- ceedings adopted by a band of ladies, all of one mind on some particular subject, it need not be a matter of sur- prise that the Pope submitted without venturing upon a parley. He was, however, little aware of the aspiring nature of the feminine soul, or it is a cjuestion if he would not have endured an honorable martyrdom to assure the peace of the world rather than have taken this fatal step. The ambassadresses no sooner got their title than they resolved to display it in as public a manner as possible. Quiet, sober old diplomatists, all tucks and wig, were promptly married by blooming and strong- minded young females. Widows of large fortune and a taste for society lay in wait for tottering elderly gentlemen, who might have been their grandfathers, and bore them off in spite of senile struggles to the nearest clergyman. There was quite a mania for am- bassadors among marriageable ladies Energetic ladies (wives of ambassadors) who had hitherto submitted to be stowed away in holes or cor- ners, started off with great decision to the most distant foreign courts ; and ambassadors who were whispering sweet nothings (in the interest of their country, of course) to the most distinguished beauties of Paris and Madrid, were horror-stricken at receiving a well known box on the ear, and an order to take larger lodgings from an awful person with an antediluvian bonnet, 76 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE whom they had not seen these twenty years. Diplo- macy, from being a rather jolly profession than other- wise, became as gloomy as the private life of a comic actor, and most of the small-legged, knock-kneed, dried up little beaux, in peach blossom coats, who were among the diplomatic celebrities of those times, thought of the Pope with a bitterness and impotence of anger which was the laughter of all the pages and equerries in Europe. The new ambassadresses appeared with such dignity and magnificence at the Congress of West- phalia that no business could go on because of them. The pretentions of the ambassadresses in the end be- came so troublesome, that some courts refused to treat them with any ceremony whatever, and at other courts they were not recognized at all." s Some governments prohibit their diplomatic repre- sentatives abroad from m^arrying foreign wives, without the consent of their sovereign. J\Ir. Denby in his book "China and Her People," states that "The German Minister to China some years ago who had had a long and highly creditable diplomatic career, became en- amored with the attractive daughter of the American Minister to Korea, and his telegraphic request for the permission of the Emperor being refused, married the young lady in spite of it. His act was followed by his recall, and he was permanently retired from the serv- ice." In our own capital, it seems to be quite the fashion for foreign diplomats to marry American ladies. 77 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Privileges and Immunities Partly because the intercourse of states could not conveniently be carried on otherwise, and partly as a matter of respect to persons representing a sovereign, diplomatic officers enjoy certain extraordinary privi- leges. One is inviolability of person. From an early period the persons of ambassadors have been held sacred. They are under the special protection of the law of nations. Crimes against the person of a diplo- matic officer are punished with severe penalties by the municipal laws of all states. They are exempt from the jurisdiction of the country in which they are resident. They cannot be arrested or tried. If the British Ambassador in Washington should commit murder or robbery, the police would be powerless to arrest him. No warrant or other process of our courts could be served on him. The utmost that could be done would be for this government to demand that his government recall him and punish him. In 1892, an attache of the Swiss Legation at this capital, was arrested at Bay Ridge, Md., suspected of theft, and was taken, notwithstanding his claim of ex- emption, by the police to Annapolis, where upOn ex- amination by the Chief of Police, he was discharged. The Swiss Government asked for the punishment of the officer making the arrest and disavowal of the act. The State Department requested of the Governor of Maryland an investigation and appropriate action; the 78 41774 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE case was investigated, the police officer was dismissed from office, and an apology tendered by the Governor for the act, which was satisfactory to the Swiss Gov- ernment. The case will be recalled of the secretary of the British Embassy who was arrested in 1904 at Lenox, Mass., charged with running his automobile at an un- lawful speed. When taken before the local magistrate, the secretary raised the question of diplomatic exemp- tion, but the magistrate declined to recognize the plea and imposed a fine. The matter was made the subject of diplomatic correspondence, and the Governor called upon the magistrate for an explanation ; the magistrate stated that he was ignorant of the law on the subject; the fine was remitted and an apology was made, which closed the incident. (For. Rel. 1892, p. 521.) For such an offense as plotting against the security of the state to which he is accredited, however, a pub- lic minister may be arrested and forcibly expelled from the country. Thus, the Swedish Minister in London, who was detected in a conspiracy against the British Government in 171 7, was arrested and expelled from England. While a diplomatic officer cannot be prosecuted for violations of the law, it is his duty to respect the law of the country in which he is residing and he may be prevented from doing unlawful acts, particularly acts endangering the lives of others, such as reckless driv- ing or motoring, in disregard of police regulations 79 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE concerning the use of the streets. (See 4 Moore Int. Law Digest, 678.) Diplomatic officers also enjoy exemption from civil actions. They cannot be sued for debts contracted by them. No civil process can be served on them, and their furniture and other personal property are exempt from seizure on execution. A diplomatic officer here could run up a large bill for furnishing his legation and then refuse to pay it. His creditor would be powerless to enforce payment of the indebtedness by proceedings in the courts, or to recover his furniture by judicial procedure. His only remedy would be by complaint to the Department of State, which, if the case were a clear one, would probably use its good offices to secure payment of the indebtedness. A few years ago, the owner of "Stewart Castle," in Washington, being un- able to secure satisfaction from a Chinese Minister for damages done to the premises during its occupancy by the Chinese Legation, presented a claim to the State Department, and the latter, after investigation, in- structed our minister at Peking to bring the matter to the attention of the Chinese Government and use his good offices to obtain settlement. A satisfactory ad- justment of the claim was effected in this way. Diplomatic officers are also largely exempt from tax- ation. Where the legation property is owned by the foreign government it is not subject to taxation. The person and personal effects of foreign ministers are not liable to taxation, and in the District of Columbia they are even exempt from the dog tax. They are also 80 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE granted free entry of articles imported into the coun- try for their own use or that of their famihes. The immunities possessed by a diplomatic officer are also enjoyed to a considerable degree by the members of his family and his servants, who are necessary for his comfort and convenience. A diplomatic representative cannot be compelled to appear in court as a witness. When the testimony which he is called upon to give does not concern the business of his mission and the circumstances are of a nature to counsel him to respond in the interests of justice, it is the practice of this Government to permit its representative to testify. The custom, however, where practicable, is for a diplomatic officer to give his deposition at his office, before a magistrate of the ap- propriate tribunal who comes for that purpose. On the trial of Guiteau, the Venezuelan Minister who was present at President's Garfield's assassination and who was called as a witness for the prosecution, under the instructions of his government, waived his exemp- tion and appeared as a witness. In 1856, in a case where a homicide was committed in Washington in the presence of the Dutch Minister, however, that official upon being requested to appear and give his testimony, refused. He offered to make a deposition in writing but it was not taken, our Consti- tution guaranteeing the accused in all criminal prosecu- tions the right to be confronted with the witnesses against him. This government requested the Dutch Government to permit the minister to appear and tes- FoR. Serv. — 6 81 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE tify but that government supported its minister in the position which he had taken and his evidence was not given. In 1902. the son of the United States Minister to Guatemala shot and killed another American citizen in the city of Guatemala. Secretary Hay, upon the re- quest of the Guatemalan Government, instructed our Secretary of Legation who had witnessed the shooting, to waive his diplomatic immunity and give his testi- mony before the Guatemalan courts. This case raised some interesting questions. The accused, up to a short time before the occurrence, had been a clerk in our Legation at Guatemala. As an attache of the Legation or as a member of the Minister's household, he would have been exempt from the local jurisdiction. But our Minister cabled to the Secretary of State that his son was 24 years of age, in business for himself, and not connected with the Legation in any way to entitle him to immunity from the local jurisdiction, and that the Guatemalan courts had taken cognizance of the case. He was tried in the Guatemalan courts and acquitted. Most of the states of Continental Europe have the power under their judicial systems, to try their subjects for offenses committed in other countries. But in the United States the general theory exists that offenses should be prosecuted and punished in the place where committed, and except in a very limited class of cases covered by special statutes, no provision is made for the trial and punishment in this country of persons charged with crimes committed in foreign countries. 82 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE The legation or residence of a diplomatic officer is presumed to be a part of the territory of the State which he represents, and the children born to him in the country where he is serving are held to be subjects of his own country notwithstanding the laws of the country where they are born declare that all persons born there are citizens of that country. Credentials When a diplomatic officer starts for his post he is furnished with a letter of credence, which is a letter from the President addressed to the head of the govern- ment to which he is going, stating that the President, reposing confidence in his zeal, ability and discretion, has appointed him as ambassador or minister of the United States at such a place; and that he hopes all faith and credit will be given him when he speaks for the United States. This letter is always addressed to "Great and Good Friend" and is signed "Your Good Friend," followed by the President's name, and coun- tersigned by the Secretary of State. The general rule of European governments is, before the actual appointment of a diplomatic representative to privately ask the government to which it is pro- posed to send him whether he is acceptable to it. There are often personal or political reasons why an envoy may not be acceptable in a particular country, and a government has a perfect right to refuse to re- ceive him. The United States has not always observed 83 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE this rule. In the case of Ex-Senator Blair who was ap- pointed minister to China, that government as soon as it learned of his appointment, notified the United States that it would not receive him, its objection being that while in the Senate he had opposed the admission of Chinese to the United States. Senator Blair was at the time on his way to China but was recalled. It is the practice of the United States in sending an ambassador, to inquire in advance whether the person proposed is acceptable to the foreign government. In 1885, Mr. Keiley of Virginia, who was appointed by President Cleveland as Minister to Austria and sub- sequently as Minister to Italy, was rejected by both governments, the Austrian Government objecting to him because his wife was a Jewess, and the Italian Government having taken exception to utterances of his fourteen years previous to his appointment in criti- cism of certain acts of the King of Italy. During Queen Victoria's reign, it was a rule of the British court that a divorced person would not be re- ceived, and the ambassador of a great power was re- jected because he had married a lady divorced from her former husband. Before starting for his post it is expected that a diplomatic officer will visit the Department of State, confer with the Secretary or Assistant Secretaries, and receive instructions. He should examine the previous correspondence between the Department and his pred- ecessor and familiarize himself with the questions 84 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE pending between the United States and the government to which he is accredited and the condition of the busi- ness of the mission. For this purpose he is allowed a period of thirty days with pay, called an "instruction period." If there are claims pending between the two governments, he should discuss them with the Solicitor of the Department. The standing instructions which regulate for the most part the conduct of diplomatic officers, are contained in a printed book entitled "Instructions to the Diplo- matic Officers of the United States." This contains detailed instructions in relation to correspondence with the Department of State and the Treasury Department, the keeping of records and archives, the relations of the envoy with the foreign government and diplomatic representatives of other foreign governments, and other information useful in the work of the mission. Special instructions are given the envoy when the circum- stances require. When the envoy reaches his post he notifies the Min- ister of Foreign Affairs of his arrival and requests an audience with the head of the government for the pur- pose of delivering his letter of credence. If his pred- ecessor is still there, the latter calls upon the Minister of Foreign Affairs with him; if not, the Secretary of the Embassy or Legation goes with him and intro- duces him. On the occasion of presentation of letters of cre- dence, formal speeches of welcome and good-will are usually made. It is customary for the diplomatic 85 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE representative to furnish the Minister for Foreign Af- fairs a copy of his proposed remarks in advance in order that a suitable reply thereto may be prepared. The ceremony attending the reception of an envoy de- pends upon the local custom. Generally, when the time for his reception is fixed, he is waited upon by a master of ceremonies who explains the formalities to be ob- served, and one or more state carriages are sent to conduct him and his suite to the palace. If an ambassa- dor, the carriages are drawn by six horses, accom- panied by a detachment of cavalry. After the audience with the sovereign, the delivery of the letter of cre- dence, the address of the envoy and that of the sov- ereign in reply, the envoy and his suite retire. In the United States, when an ambassador is to be received, the President sends his carriage for the am- bassador, to convey him to the White House. Envoys go to the Department of State at the appointed hour, and the Secretary of State accompanies them to the White House, where they are met by the President. The envoy reads his address; the President reads his reply; a few moments are spent in conversation, and the parties retire. After presenting his letters of credence, if accredited to a sovereign, the envoy should ask for presentation to the Queen or Empress and to the Prince and Prin- cess. Uniform In contradistinction to the practice of other govem- 86 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE ments, the United States by law prohibits its diplo- matic officers from wearing any uniform or official dress not previously authorized by Congress. The law, however, authorizes officers who served during the rebellion as volunteers in the Army of the United States to wear upon occasions of ceremony the uniform of their rank when discharged. The printed Instruc- tions of the Department of vState interpret the law as permitting the wearing by our diplomatic officers of the dress prescribed by local usage as appropriate upon occasions of ceremony. In general, our diplomatic representatives, upon ceremonial occasions appear in plain evening dress, although members of our Embassy at London, in order to comply with the court require- ments, on certain occasions, have dressed in knee breeches with gilt buckles on their shoes, in other re- spects being in ordinary evening dress ; and at the coro- nation of the Czar of Russia, as no one was admitted without a uniform or court dress, the members of the American Legation complied with the requirement. While the almost universal practice of our represent- atives in wearing, in keeping with the spirit of our in- stitutions, plain evening dress at functions at the capi- tals to which they are accredited, does not detract in the least from their efficiency as diplomatic officers, it has often led to amusing incidents. Lord Lvtton's Letters furnish this anecdote: "Loftus (British Ambassador at Berlin), thinking that the historian Bancroft (then United States Minister at Berlin) would be an easy butt for the shafts of his peculiarly refined wit, at- 87 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE tacked him before a hundred listeners on some pubhc occasion with : "In God's name, Mr. Bancroft, why don't you Yankees send your representatives to court hke Christians, in a proper uniform, instead of turning them out all dressed in black, like so many under- takers?" Whereto Mr, Bancroft replied "Really, Lord Augustus, I am surprised that you, as Ambassador to the Queen of England, and with the keen powers of penetration for which you are generally distinguished, should have failed to perceive that we could not be more appropriately dressed than we are — at European courts, where what we represent is the burial of monarchy." An amusing incident is told of James Russell Lowell when minister at Madrid. On the occasion of a royal fete day Mr. Lowell went to the palace in plain even- ing dress, as was the custom with American ministers on such ceremonies. He was preceded by the minister of one of the small American Republics, who was ap- pareled in a brilliantly gold-embroidered uniform, with jeweled sword. The royal stairway was lined at every step with the royal guard in gold uniform, and at each of several landings there were stationed a giant halberdier holding a huge mediaeval battle-axe. The Central American minister was saluted at each landins: by the magnificent halberdier with a heavy whack of the battle-axe on the marble pavement. As Mr. Low- ell passed the landings he received no attention, as he wore no insignia indicating his office. As Mr. Lowell passed from one landing to another and heard the echoes of the salutes to his colleagues preceding him, 88 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE his patriotic American blood began to boil, and at the last landing he addressed the halberdier in good Span- ish: "Do you know who I am?" Of course the soldier had to respond, "I do not." "Well," said Mr. Lowell, "I am the minister plenipotentiary of the United States of America, the greatest nation on the earth, and if you don't whack the next time I pass you, I will forget you at Christmas." Recall As a state may without offense decline to receive any particular person as the diplomatic representative of another state, it may demand the recall of a diplomatic agent who has made himself obnoxious. There have been numerous instances in which the United States has demanded the recall of foreign representatives at this capital, notably the cases of Genet, Yrugo, Jack- son, Catacazy, and, more recently, those of Lord Sack- ville-West, the British Minister, and the Spanish Min- ister, Dupuy de Lome. In the course of the presidential campaign of 1888, Lord Sackville-West, the British Minister at Washinsf- ton, received a letter purporting to come from a Mr. Murchison, a naturalized American citizen of British birth, resident in California. The letter asked informa- tion as to the friendliness of the existing administra- tion towards Great Britain, and intimated that the vote of the writer depended upon the reply, which would be treated as entirely secret. Lord Sackville answered 89 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE that it was impossible to predict the course which Mr. Cleveland would take towards Great Britain if he were re-elected, but that it was his belief that the party in power desired to maintain friendly relations with Eng- land. The Murchison letter turned out to be a trick concocted for election purposes. It was published along with Lord Sackville's reply, and distributed as a campaign document. In the midst of the excitement occasioned by it, the British minister was reported to have said in an interview with a New York newspaper reporter, "Of course, I understand both the action of the Senate and the President's letter of retaliation are for political effect." Lord Sackville repudiated this reported interview. Upon this state of facts his recall was demanded ; and when his Government failed to reply before it had time to investigate the matter, he was given his passport and dismissed. Just before the beginning of the late war between the United States and Spain, a personal letter addressed by the Spanish minister at Washington, Senor de Lome, to a personal friend, M. Canalejas, came into the pos- session of the Department of State, in the course of which President McKinley was characterized as "weak, and a bidder for the admiration of the crowd, besides being a would-be politician who tries to leave a door open behind himself while keeping on good terms with the jingoes of his party." As Minister de Lome ad- mitted the authorship of the letter the Secretary of State at once cabled to the United States minister at Madrid to infonn the Spanish Government tliat the 90 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE usefulness of its minister here was at an end and that the President expected his immediate recall. The Spanish Government at once cabled to de Lome asking him to resign. It was in this case that Secretary Day, brushing conventionalities aside, made a personal visit to the Spanish legation and asked de Lome if the letter was authentic. The minister admitted having written the letter and frankly stated that he recognized the impossibility of his continuing to hold official re- lations with this government. He claimed, however, that the language used by him was permissible under the seal of private correspondence. Two recent cases in which our own diplomatic rep- resentatives have been recalled were those of our Min- ister to Cuba and our Ambassador to Vienna. In the former case, the Cuban Government complained that our Minister had informed a newspaper correspondent of the substance of a note which had just been sent by him to that Government. While the Cuban Govern- ment did not ask that the Minister be recalled, our government thought best to replace him. The Minister was subsequently appointed to another post in our dip- lomatic service. In the other case, our Ambassador to Austria was dismissed because of the activity of him- self and his wife at the Vatican in endeavoring to in- fluence the promotion of Archbishop Ireland to the of- fice of Cardinal. 91 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Duties The chief function of a diplomatic officer is to culti- vate and maintain friendly relations between his own government and that of the country to which he is ac- credited and to adjust differences that may arise be- tween them. When any event occurs which may oc- casion irritation between the two countries, it is his duty to seek by every proper means to prevent any misunderstanding. A clear explanation of an incident occurring in his own country or the interpretation of a public act of his government may avert serious con- sequences. At the present day, public opinion influences the conduct of governments. Indeed, it has dictated and even reversed foreign policy, after it has been deter- mined upon. Hence, if our representative can inform the minister of the foreign country what the public opinion of his own country is upon a given question, what are the influences which control or interfere with his government, and what can and what can not be done by it ; he may be able to influence the conduct of the foreign government in a matter of the gravest con- cern to both countries. A diplomatic officer is expected to transmit to his government early and accurate information concerning political events and the policy and views of the gov- ernment to which he is accredited as well as public 92 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE opinion there, especially when likely to have a bearing on the affairs of his own country. In the present day of telegraphic cables and news- paper enterprise, it is more essential that a diplomatic officer should keep his government informed of the views and intentions of the government to which he is accredited than to report what has transpired. A very important duty at times imposed on diplo- matic officers is that of negotiating treaties. When a diplomatic officer is entrusted with the negotiation of a treaty, a "full power" is given him by the Depart- ment. He receives also, generally, full instructions to guide him in the negotiations. In case of urgent need a compact may be made in the absence of specific in- structions, but in such case the agreement should be put in the form of a protocol and it should be expressly stated that it is signed subject to the approval of the envoy's government. In this commercial age, with the strong competition for supremacy in the export trade, and the various efforts being made by foreign governments to secure advantages over the American manufacturer and ex- porter, our diplomatic officers are required to keep a keen eye on all measures relating to commerce which may affect our interests, and to give our government prompt information thereof. 93 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Protection One of the gravest duties of a diplomatic officer is that of extending protection to the persons and prop- erty of his fellow countrymen who call upon him for assistance. Diplomatic officers should be accessible and prompt to interest themselves in the welfare of the humblest of their fellow countrymen. In countries where large standing armies are main- tained, a considerable part of the time of our diplo- matic representatives is taken up in looking after the complaints of naturalized citizens on account of sup- posed interference with their rights. Very frequently natives of Germany and other European countries come to the United States just before they reach the age for military service, secure naturalization and then return to the land of their nativity to pass the balance of their lives, endeavoring to escape the obligations of military service there while evading the duties and responsibili- ties of citizenship in their adopted country. Where it clearly appears that naturalization is obtained merely for this purpose, this government refuses to extend its protection to them and they are subjected to the penalty prescribed by the laws of their native country. Citizens of the United States charged with crime in foreign countries frequently appeal to our diplomatic representative, and it is his duty to observe the proceed- ings against them and see that they are not denied justice. 94 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE Complaints of all kinds are brought to diplomatic officers by American citizens, especially in countries where the laws are not regularly and impartially ad- ministered. The diplomatic officer should try to ar- range such difficulties without making written com- plaints at the Foreign Office except when there are flagrant acts of injustice or where a principle is in- volved that a minister is unable to settle officially him- self. It is best, too, not to report the matter to the De- partment until his unofficial application has been acted on. Passports Formerly a duty of frequent recurrence and one re- quiring the exercise of great care and good judgment by diplomatic officers, was the granting of passports. By Executive Regulation promulgated in April, 1907, it is provided that diplomatic officers can issue pass- ports only in cases where the applicant has not suffi- cient time to apply to the Department of State and await its reply. Where inconvenience or hardship would result to a person entitled to receive a passport unless the pass- port is granted at once, however, a diplomatic officer may issue an emergency passport, good for six months, to be used for a purpose stated in the passport. And applications for passports by persons who are abroad may be made to the Department of State through a diplomatic officer. Diplomatic officers are authorized to extend for a period of two years passports issued by 95 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE the Department of State, which are about to expire, presented to them for extension. Before granting an appHcation for a passport or for protection, the diplomatic officer is required to satisfy himself that the applicant is a citizen of the United States or one entitled to claim American protection, and this is often a matter of great difficulty. All con- suls are required to keep at their offices registers of cit- izens residing in their districts and to make returns to the appropriate diplomatic officer of all registrations made. But American citizens are slow to avail them- selves of the privilege of registration, and there is no way to compel them to do so. It is frequently neces- sary for the diplomatic officer to make some independ- ent investigation in case of applications made to him for passports. (For a synopsis of our laws relating to citizenship, see p. i8i. See also Van Dyne, "Citizen- ship of the United States," and "Van Dyne on Natural- ization.") Extradition Diplomatic officers have important duties in relation to the extradition of criminals, fugitives from justice. The demand, or requisition, for extradition is usually presented by the diplomatic representative, who re- ceives instructions to that end from the Department of State. The agent appointed by the President to receive and bring back the fugitive to the United States, usually reports to the diplomatic representative upon arriving 96 OUR DIPLOiMATIC SERVICE in the foreign country, and looks to him for instructions as to how to proceed to secure the surrender of the fugitive. Ordinarily there is a judicial or adminis- trative proceeding, and the evidence brought by the agent in support of the application must be presented to the appropriate magistrate or officer. Diplomatic officers are frequently called upon to au- thenticate evidence to be used by the foreign govern- ment in support of requisitions for the extradition of criminals from the United States. Our law (Act of August, 1882) provides that such evidence shall be re- ceived and admitted on the hearing in the United States, "if properly and legally authenticated so as to entitle it to be received for similar purposes by the tri- bunals of the foreign country;" and that the certificate of the principal diplomatic or consular officer of the United States resident in such country shall be proof that any deposition, warrant or other paper, or copies thereof, so offered, are authenticated in the manner re- quired by law. A form of certificate which has been tested and found to be legally sufficient, is printed on p. 283 of the Ap- pendix. Claims The interposition of diplomatic officers is frequently sought by American citizens to aid in the collection of claims against foreign governments. As the claimant is required, ordinarily, to prepare and present his claim to the Department, conforming to certain prescribed For. Serv. — 7 07 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE requirements, the diplomatic officer should refer him to the Department, furnishing him a copy of the "claims circular," which is usually supplied to our embassies and legations. Marriages Diplomatic officers are not authorized by the laws of the United States to celebrate marriages or to act as official witnesses of the ceremony. It is not unusual, however, for Americans to ask permission to have a marriage ceremony performed in the legation and in the presence of the diplomatic representative. And there is no reason why such a request should not be complied with, where the diplomatic representative finds upon inquiry that the parties may legally marry according to the laws of the country in which the lega- tion is situated, and that the proper steps have been taken to enable the ceremony to be legally performed. At the earliest opportunity, after arrival at liis post the diplomatic officer should, by a thorough examina- tion of the records and files of the legation and by con- ferring with the subordinates in the office, post himself as to the state of business of the legation and of mat- ters pending between the two governments. Communications from the Department of State to diplomatic officers are termed "Instructions" and com- munications from such officers to the Department are termed "Dispatches." Communications between the Secretary of State and foreign diplomatic representa- 98 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE lives in the United States, and between our representa- tives abroad and Ministers for Foreign Affairs are called ''Notes." See pp. 6 and 7 supra, for examples. All communications received at the legation are reg- istered, indexed and filed. The originals of all instruc- tions and other communications received are kept, and copies are made in books specially furnished for that purpose of all dispatches and other papers sent by the legation ; and a careful record is kept of all official acts. The legations have regular office hours. There are nu- merous routine duties, which occupy considerable of the time of the minister. It is frequently necessary to write out memoranda of important conversations on public matters had with the Minister for Foreign Af- fairs or other persons. In matters of minor importance pending between the two governments, the envoy calls personally upon the Minister for Foreign Affairs and confers with him, if necessary, making a memorandum of the conversa- tion when he returns to the legation. Very frequentl}'-, needless delay and circumlocution can be avoided by a personal call upon the Minister for Foreign Affairs. An acquaintance with the subordinate officers at the Foreign Office is often quite useful in facilitating tlie transaction of business. The late Lord Pauncefote, one of the most useful diplomatic representatives the British Government ever had at Washington, was ac- customed to visit personally the subordinate officers or Bureau Chiefs at the Department of State and confer with them concerning matters pending before them in 99 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE which his Government was interested. In this way he was able to secure the earhest attention to the affairs pertaining to his Legation. For the convenience of diplomatic officers, the Sec- retary of State or Minister for Foreign Affairs usually has a day when those who have business to transact with him can have an opportunity to do so; and the diplomats are received in the order of their rank, or if of the same rank, the one who comes first has preced- ence. But ministers can call at the Department of State or at the Foreign Office at any time if their busi- ness is urgent. At the Department of State there is a "Diplomatic Day," and the Secretary denies himself to ordinary callers if any member of the Diplomatic Corps desires to see him. Dispatches and Reports It is the duty of a diplomatic officer to furnish ac- curate information concerning all matters relating to his mission of which his government should have knowledge. Among other things, he is expected to transmit timely reports and information relating to the government, finances, commerce, arts, science, agricul- ture, mining, tariff, taxation, population, laws and judi- cial statistics of the country where he resides. Care should be taken not to devote undue space to accounts of social affairs in which the minister is the most prominent figure, lest he expose himself to ridi- cule; and he should not make the mistake of writing lOO OUR DIPLOT^iATIC SERVICE voluminous dispatches, as they are likely to be allowed to lie unread in the files of the Department of State. Ex-Secretary Foster, in "Practice and Diplomacy," in enumerating the duties of diplomatic officers says that an envoy can hardly be too diligent in keeping his own government informed of all business entrusted to him by it or that occurs in the country of his resi- dence affecting that government, its policy or spirit, and the commercial, industrial and scientific develop- ment of the country. "But," he adds, "One occasion- ally oversteps the proper limits of desired information. A minister going to his post in South America, hav- ing never been out of his own country, sent back to the Department of State a detailed account of his journey, in which he described in such florid language the beauties of the scenery and the experiences of for- eign travel, to him so novel, that when the dispatch appeared in the annual publication of the Department it exposed him to the ridicule and criticism of the press. One of the ministers to a European court was so fas- cinated by the attentions of royalty that he furnished the Secretary of State with a description of a state ball, of which the most conspicuous and important event was the honor conferred upon him and his coun- try by his dancing with Her Majesty the Queen. Its publication furnished the topic of a spirited discussion in the lower house of Congress, in which the useful- ness of the diplomatic service was treated with irony and contempt." The minister should not send dispatches giving lOI OUR FOREIGN SERVICE lengthy accounts of events that can as well be learned from the daily newspapers. He should rather endeav- or to communicate information that his government cannot obtain from the press, and to indicate the views and intentions of the foreign government and the causes and motives of its acts. A diplomatic officer's dispatches should not be mere reports. He should make practical suggestions to as- sist his government in making a disposition of the mat- ter. In writing his dispatches, the minister should cul- tivate a terse and vigorous style. His sentences should be short and his ideas clearly expressed. Care should be taken to make no mis-statements of facts, and when opinions are expressed, the reasons upon which they are based should also be given. Doubtful news should be distinguished from facts. The minister should be impartial and point out things which are adverse to the views of his own gov- ernment as well as those which are favorable. He should not hesitate to report unwelcome intelligence to his government. No fact or circumstance of im- portance should be omitted. While it is always un- pleasant to communicate unwelcome news it is much better than to keep his government ignorant of facts which it should know. In writing to his government concerning his own standing at the foreign court he should state the facts fully and promptly and indicate the exact sentiment there towards his own country. 1 02 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE If a diplomatic officer commits an error in the con- duct of his mission, he should at once frankly report the fact to his superior in Washington. Diplomatic officers should under no circumstances participate in the political affairs of the country in which they reside. They are expressly prohibited from publicly expressing their opinions upon local questions. They are forbidden to make public ad- dresses "unless upon exceptional festal occasions," and even on such occasions they are required to avoid any reference to pending political issues. Unnecessary reflections upon the character or con- duct of individuals or governments should be carefully avoided. In his intercourse with the officials of the foreign government, the diplomatic officer should take advan- tage of every favorable opportunity which presents it- self, to bring about the adjustment of any outstanding difference that threatens the peaceful relations of the two countries. He should make a careful study of all the existing relations between the two countries, and if there are any claims or other subjects of dispute, he should familiarize himself with them and be pre- pared to discuss them at any time. He should have memoranda on these subjects to which he can refer at any moment, should occasion require. It is impossible to tell when such matters may assume great import- 103 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE ance, and a diplomatic officer should be ready for emer- gencies. The first qualification for success in diplomacy, as in other fields of endeavor, is to have a clear idea of the end to be attained. Having a just cause, and seek- ing the honor and best interests of his country, success can be best attained by the adoption by the diplomatic officer of the simple, truthful and direct methods of negotiation which have in the main distinguished American diplomacy. There is always something at- tractive in a frank, plain statement. Those things which are right are nearly always for the benefit of all parties concerned. The minister should appeal to the reason of his adversaries and point out the ad- vantage to them of the measures advocated. The principles which governed the late Secretary Hay in his conduct of our foreign relations were most felicitously expressed by him in an address delivered at Harvard University in 1902. He said : "Many have been in the habit of considering diplomacy an occult science as mysterious as alchemy and as dangerous to the morals as local politics. There is little of the oc- cult or esoteric about the conduct of our diplomacy in modern times. The principles which have governed me are of limpid simplicity. We have sought in all things the interest and honor of our own country. We have never found that incompatible with a due regard for the interest and honor of other powers. We have treated our neighbors with frankness and courtesy. We have received frankness and courtesy in return. 104 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE We have set no traps; we have wasted no energy in evading the imaginary traps of others. There might be worse reputations for a country to acquire than that of always speaking the truth, always expecting it from others. In bargaining we have tried not to get the worst of the deal. However, the best bargains are those that satisfy both sides." Social Duties Social duties take up a large share of the time of a diplomatic officer. Too much stress cannot be placed upon the necessity of cultivating social intercourse. The social standing of a minister gives him an in- fluence difficult to obtain otherwise. To be most useful to his government, he should have a personal acquaintance with the persons of influence in the country where he resides. He should not only be on term.s of friendly intimacy with the ministers of the government but should be acquainted with the other leading public men in and out of office, in order that he may learn their views and have opportunities to explain to them the views and policy of his own country. It is well recognized that our ablest representatives have been most punctilious in observing their social duties. No diplomatic officer has ever served our country more satisfactorily than John Quincy Adams, and in spite of certain disagreeable peculiarities, it ap- pears from his "Diary" that he went into society night 105 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE after night, played cards, danced, talked and mixed with the people about him, and made himself popular. As in politics at home, so in diplomacy, a good "mixer," if an observant man, may, without asking, learn nearly everything that he should know. In countries where there is freedom of the press, editors and reporters of leading newspapers make use- ful acquaintances. A diplomatic officer should thoroughly acquaint himself with the traditional usages and custom, the etiquette of the court where he resides. After the newly appointed diplomatic officer has pre- sented his letter of credence, he should call upon the different ministers and other high officials of the gov- ernment to which he is accredited. He should also call on the various members of the diplomatic corps at the place of his residence, as it is essential that he should cultivate the most friendly personal and social relations with all these functionaries. Andrew D. White bears testimony to the assistance he obtained more than once under trying circumstances from the advice of a trustworthy colleague in the diplomatic corps who had had a more lengthy acquaintance at court than he, and who knew the right man to ap- proach and the right way to approach him on every con- ceivable subject. It has been suggested that some means should be de- vised by the Department of State to promptly and reg- ularly inform our diplomatic representatives in foreign 1 06 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE countries of the decisions and rulings of the Depart- ment and other matters of news and interest which may be of vahie to them in their work — perhaps some- thing in the nature of a daily or weekly confidential bulletin containing extracts from late instructions, dis- patches, treaties and other state papers. An instruction to one of our envoys may decide a question which is sorely puzzling another, and the lat- ter may never learn of the decision unless he reads it in the annual volume of the Foreign Relations pub- lished a year later. A dispatch from one of our diplo- matic representatives showing how he has successfully dealt with a particular matter may suggest to another envoy in a different part of the world the best solu- tion of a difficulty he has for some time been vainly endeavoring to overcome. The "Daily Consular and Trade Reports" in a great measure performs this office for the Consular Service. A medium for the dissemination of information among our diplomatic representatives would add to the effi- ciency of the service. The British Government has such a medium. A cipher code is provided diplomatic officers for use where secrecy is necessary in communicating with the Department. While not a part of his official duty, a diplomatic officer is expected to show some attention to his fellow- countrymen who visit the country in which he resides. 107 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE They may wish to be presented at court or to obtain admission to places of interest. These calls upon a minister's time and energies are frequently so numer- ous that he is unable to comply with them. At one time it is an American who desires to be mar- ried abroad, and when he finds that he cannot do so as readily as in the United States, he calls upon the dip- lomatic representative of his country, whom he expects to smooth away all the obstacles of foreign regulations and prohibitions. At another time, it is a fellow-countryman who, per- haps while under the influence of liquor, has loudly denounced in a public place the ruler of the country, and has in consequence been arrested, and now desires the American representative to secure his freedom. Then there are Americans who imagine they have in- herited fabulous fortunes in the foreign country and want the minister to collect for them ; also the class of fellow-citizens interested in genealogies, who believe they are descended from foreign nobility and wish our envoy to trace their lineage. Ex-Ambassador Andrew D. White, in his "Auto- biography" relates this amusing incident: "One morning the mail brought me a large packet filled with little squares of cheap cotton cloth. I was greatly puzzled to know their purpose, until, a few days later, there came a letter which, with changes of proper names, ran as follows : "Podunk, 1880. Sir : We are going to have a fancy fair for the bene- 108 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE fit of the church in this town, and we are get- ting ready some autograph bed quilts. I have sent you a package of small squares of cotton cloth, which please take to the Emperor William and his wife, also to Prince Bismarck and the other princes and leading persons of Germany, asking them to write their names on them and send them to me as soon as possible. Yours Truly, P. S. Tell them to be sure to write their names in the middle of the pieces, for fear that their autographs may get sewed in." Judicial Duties In China, Korea, Morocco, Turkey, Persia, and Siam, our Ministers and Consuls, by virtue of treaty stipulations, and the laws of the United States, have jurisdiction over controversies arising between Ameri- can citizens and in cases of crime committed by such citizens in those countries. These cases usually orig- inate in our consular courts. But the Minister has origi- nal jurisdiction in capital cases for murder or insurrec- tion or offenses against the public peace amounting to a felony; and appeals are allowed from the Consular Court to the Minister when the consul sits with associ- ates and any of them differ from him, or when the consul sits alone in a criminal case and the fine exceeds $ioo or the term of imprisonment sixty days. Until a few years ago our Minister to Persia was 109 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE also Consul General. One of the curious things which came under the writer's observation in the Department of State was the record of a case in which the incum- bent of that office many years ago actually entertained an appeal from his judgment as Consul General to him- self as Minister. It is needless to add that the decision of the lower court was affirmed. In 1906 Congress passed a law creating a United States Court for China and providing for appeals thereto from final judgments of the Consular Courts in China and Korea. This law gives the newly created court exclusive jurisdiction in all cases whereof juris- diction might be exercised by United States Consuls and Ministers, except the jurisdiction they possess in civil cases where the value of the property involved does not exceed $500, and in criminal cases where the punishment for the offence charged cannot exceed $100 fine or sixty days imprisonment or both. Appeals from final judgments of the United States Court for China are allowed to the United States Circuit Court of Ap- peals of the Ninth Judicial Circuit, and thence to the Supreme Court of the United States. Protection to Interests of Foreign Government A diplomatic officer is sometimes charged with the duty of acting as the representative of another govern- ment at the court to which he is accredited, and of ex- tending protection to the citizens of such government in the country, when their government has no representa- IIO OUR DIPLOMA1MC SERVICE tive there. He can only act in this capacity, however, with the approval of his own government and the con- sent of the government to which he is accredited, and is not allowed to receive any compensation for the serv- ice. Conspicuous examples of this character were those of Minister Washburne, American representative at Paris, who acted for the German Government and its subjects in Paris during the Franco-Gennan War; and the French Ambassador to the United States, M. Cambon, who acted as the representative of the Span- ish Government during our war with Spain, and in that capacity signed with Secretary Day the protocol ar- ranging for the termination of hostilities and the peace negotiations. And in 1902, Mr. Bowen, our minister to Venezuela, acted as the representative of the Brit- ish, German and Italian Governments during the con- troversy between Venezuela and those governments growing out of the nonpayment of pecuniary claims by Venezuela. While some incompetent and unfit persons have been appointed in our diplomatic service, the service as a whole has reflected great credit upon our country. Our first and greatest diplomat was Benjamin Frank- lin. The late Cushman K. Davis, Chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee of the United States Senate, said of him : "Franklin was a born diplomatist. His genius for negotiation was but one face of his many-sided char- acter. It is impossible to read the accounts of his I II OUR FOREIGN SERVICE transactions in Europe without realizing his patience, his method, his foresight, his knowledge of all kinds of human nature, his finesse, his righteous dissimula- tion, his impregnability to be over-reached by anybody, his capacity to get the better of everybody who at- tempted to outwit him, his firmness, his integrity, his proud humility. "He formed a model upon which American diplo- macy has ever since generally been shaped, plain deal- ing, plain speaking, simple dignity, adequate ceremoni- al, and unswerving fidelity to the interests of his coun- try alone." The name of John Adams is subscribed to seven of the first fourteen treaties to which the United States was a party. Among others who have creditably represented the United States in foreign countries besides those who afterwards served as Secretaries of State (p. 40 supra) were Henry Wheaton, James Russell Lowell, Charles Francis Adams, George Bancroft, and Joseph H, Choate. Because of the American method of dealing directly and openly and also because our diplomatic officers have as a rule been without training, our diplomacy has by some been rather contemptuously termed "shirt sleeve" diplomacy. But in spite of the defects in our system of appointments and promotions, and the lack of a permanent tenure of office, our diplomatic repre- sentatives have seldom failed to acquit themselves with credit in an emergency or to uphold the national honor, 112 OUR DIPLOMATIC SERVICE and American diplomacy has contributed in no small degree to making the United States a world power to be reckoned with in any great international affair in the future. For. Serv.— 8 1 13 Our Consular Service "5 CHAPTER III. Our Consular Service Consuls are business or commercial agents of the government as distinguished from diplomatic repre- sentatives, who are political agents. They are stationed at the commercial centers of the world, to facilitate trade, watch over the national ship- ping and navigation, prevent fraud on the revenue of their country, and furnish information on matters of concern to the commercial interests of the nation. They are also charged with the important duty of pro- tecting their fellow countrymen. The system of consuls is believed to have had its origin in the selection by Italian merchants who had established themselves in the East, of some of their number to act as judges or arbitrators and settle com- mercial differences arising between them in the foreign country in which they were doing business. The insti- tution was later introduced in the commercial towns of Southern Europe, where the officer, taking his title from that of the domestic Roman magistrate, came to be known as judge-consul or consul-judge. These of- ficers were at first selected by mercantile associations, but the right of appointment soon passed to the govern- 117 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE meiit of the country to which the merchants belonged. It is said that the first consul appointed by England was to Pisa, Italy, in 1175, the government acting at the request of a British commercial organization in Pisa, which was unable to agree in the selection of one of its own members. The advantages of this practice be- ing demonstrated, it became the custom first for Eng- land and then for other governments to appoint con- suls to act in foreign countries. With the extension of the jurisdiction of courts of law, these officers lost in a large degree their judicial functions, except in non- Christian countries, but their general powers and duties were greatly enlarged. It was an easy transition from the name of consul judge to that of consul. Consuls were not formally named in treaties, however, until those entered into between Great Britain and Turkey in the latter part of the 17th century. In the United States the first law relating to consuls was the Act of April 14th, 1792 (i Stat. 255). But the Constitution recognized consuls as existing officers, and the right of consular representation had been form- ally recognized eleven years before the government un- der the Constitution went into operation, by the 29th article of the Treaty of amity and commerce with France, which granted to each government the liberty of having consuls in the ports of the other. The first consul of the United States was William Palfrey, who was chosen by Congress in November, 1780, as our consul in France at a salary of $1,500 a year. Palfrey never reached France, however, the vessel on which 118 OUR C O N S U L x\ R SERVICE he sailed being lost at sea. Without any express pro- vision being made for their appointment, sixteen other consular officers were appointed before the law of 1792 was enacted. They received no compensation but were allowed to engage in trade. The Act of 1792, which was passed to carry into effect the consular treaty of 1788 with France, under- took to define to some extent the duties of consular officers. It authorized them to receive the protests or declara- tions of American captains, crews, passengers and mer- chants; to take charge of and act as provisional con- servators of the personal property of American citi- zens dying within their consular districts and leaving there no legal representatives ; to take measures to save stranded American vessels and their cargoes ; and to relieve and provide transportation to distressed Ameri- can seamen. This law required consuls and vice-con- suls to give bonds ; and authorized them to receive fees for certain specified services. The Act of Feb. 28, 1803 (2 Stat. 203), required masters of American vessels on their arrival at foreign ports to deposit their ships* papers with our consular officers, and to discharge and pay seamen before them. The Act of Apr. 20, 1818, made it the duty of con- sular officers to administer oaths to owners of goods exported from their consular districts subject to ad valorem duty in the United States. 119 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Law of 1856 With the exception of consuls in the Barbary States, no salaries were provided for consular officers. They were generally merchants or shipping agents, receiving fees for consular services performed. As merchant consuls, by reason of their office, enjoyed peculiar ad- vantages over the other merchants, friction frequently developed, and the practice did not work well. There was a tendency for the consul to neglect his official duties to attend to his private business affairs, and as few of the fees for consular services were fixed by law or regulation, there was a constant temptation to charge large fees, and this was the occasion for bitter controversies. Repeated efforts were made by the Department of State to secure legislation to remedy these defects in the consular service, but without success until 1856, when a law (Act of Aug. 16, 1856, — 11 Stat. 52), was passed, defining more clearly the rights and duties of consuls, classifying the offices and substituting salaries for fees at the more important posts. This law pro- hibited consular officers receiving a salary of $1,500 or more a year from engaging in business. The law also contemplated the establishment of a regular consular corps in which men should be trained for the consular service, and authorized the President to appoint after examination, twenty-five consular pupils at a salary not to exceed $1,000 a year, and to as- 120 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE sign them to such consulates, with such duties, as he might think proper. But Congress failed to make any appropriation for this purpose, and at its next session repealed the provision. Eight years later a law (Act of June 20, 1864, — 13 Stat. 139), provided, however, for the appointment of thirteen consular clerks with like salary and duties, who were to be subject to re- moval only for cause stated in writing and submitted to Congress; and in 1874 (Act of June 11, 1874, — 18 Stat. 70), it was provided that the annual salary of consular clerks remaining continuously in service for five years should be twelve hundred dollars. The des- ignation of these consular clerks was changed to that of consular assistants and their number was increased to twenty by the Act of May 21, 1908. The original object of securing, by means of the consular corps, trained men for the higher posts failed because the consular clerks preferred a permanent post at a small salaiy to a larger salaried position with uncertain ten- ure. The law of 1856 authorized the President to pre- scribe a tariff of fees to be charged for official services, and provided for a proper accounting by consular offi- cers for the fees collected by them. It required con- sular officers to keep lists of all vessels arriving at or departing from their ports and of all seamen shipped or discharged before them ; and authorized consuls to retain the ships' papers until all demands and wages and consular fees should be paid. While the law of 1856 was a big step in advance 121 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE there still remained many deficiencies in our consular system. Under this law, while the consuls at the more important posts were paid salaries in lieu of fees, the large majority of consular officers continued to be com- pensated by fees, and fees were still allowed all consu- lar officers for unofficial services performed by them. The method of selecting consuls which had pre- vailed from the beginning, by which political influence outweighed considerations of the fitness of the appli- cant for the office, continued to be followed. In the course of time it developed that the salaries at many consulates were entirely inadequate, and consulates were maintained at some places where there existed no sufficient demand for them. With the development of our commerce and the ex- tension of our interests in foreign countries the neces- sity for the improvement of the consular service by a better method of appointment and permanent tenure of office, became more apparent. Attempts were made by the Executive from time to time to establish a sys- tem whereby the qualifications of applicants should be determined by examination at the Department of State. But such efforts were spasmodic and after short trials the examinations were discontinued. Commercial organizations, chambers of commerce and boards of trade, quick to appreciate the weakness of our consular service, for years carried on a campaign for consular reform. To further this object, bills were formulated and presented to Congress and representa- tives of these organizations appeared before the com- 122 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE mittees of Congress and urged their passage. But no definite result was attained and the law of 1856 con- tinued for the most part to regulate our consular serv- ice until 1906. Re-organization Law of igo6 In July, 1905, Elihu Root was appointed Secretary of State. One of the first matters to engage his at- tention was the improvement of the Consular Service. With characteristic energy and determination and an intimate familiarity with legislative methods, he pressed the matter before the committees of Congress, and within less than a year succeeded in having placed upon the statute books a law (Act of April 5, 1906) which embodies reforms the Department of State had for several decades vainly sought to bring about. The law also contains additional features of the greatest importance and usefulness. This law reorganized the service, providing for fifty- seven consuls-general, divided into seven classes, with salaries of three thousand to twelve thousand dollars, and two hundred and fifty-three consuls, in nine classes, with salaries of two thousand to eight thousand dol- lars. The later Act of May 11, 1908, reduced the num- ber of consuls to two hundred and forty-one. The classification made in the Reorganization Act was based upon the importance of the office and the qualifications required of the incumbent; and in fixing the salaries the emoluments of each place, including 123 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE salary and fees, and the requirements as to cost of living, were taken into consideration. The law abolished the unofficial fee system and pro- vided that the sole compensation of all consular officers except consular-agents shall be the salary fixed by law. All fees, including those for notarial services, must be paid into the Treasury, and a proper accounting by consuls for fees collected by them is insured by the use of adhesive stamps which are provided by the De- partment of State, to be attached to documents. The law prohibits consuls from engaging in business, practising as a lawyer, or being interested in the fees or compensation of a lawyer. It also prohibits the em- ployment in consular offices of any person not an American citizen in a clerical position the annual salary of which is one thousand dollars or more. This change is an important one, marking as it does, another step in the Americanization of the con- sular service. It is desirable that every officer or em- ployee in the service, who, by reason of his position, has access to the secrets of trade movements, should be American in spirit and sympathy. If the same prohi- bition could be extended to Vice-Consuls and Consular Agents, it would greatly increase th6 efficiency of the service. Thus far, however, no feasible method of ac- complishing this reform seerhs to have been presented. Formerly, the Department had no adequate means of ascertaining the condition of the various consular offi- ces or seeing that consuls performed their duties prop- erly. The Reorganization Act makes possible the ef- 124 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE fective supervision of the service by providing for the regular and systematic inspection of consulates by a corps of five inspectors or Consuls-General at large. The law requires that every consular office shall be inspected at least once every two years. This measure, in the form in which it was presented to Congress, provided for the determination of the qualifications of applicants by means of examinations, and for the filling of vacancies in the two lowest grades from the list of eligibles, and in the higher grades by promotion from officers in the lower grades. But this provision was not allowed to remain in the bill. Not having succeeded in securing the desired legislation in this important particular, President Roosevelt, upon the advice of Secretary Root, in the exercise of the powers conferred upon him by the Constitution, and by the provisions of Section 1753 of the Revised Stat- utes, which authorizes the President to prescribe regu- lations for the admission of persons into the Civil Service and ascertain the fitness of candidates, issued an Executive order on June 27, 1906, which practically accomplishes the object sought by the provision con- tained in the bill referred to. Under this order a board of examiners is created, consisting of the Third Assistant Secretary and the Chief Clerk of the Department of State, and the chief examiner of the Civil Service Commission. Examina- tions are open only to candidates between the ages of 21 and 50 years, citizens of the United States, of good character and habits, and physically and mentally quali- I2q OUR FOREIGN SERVICE fied for the proper performance of consular work, and who have been specially designated by the President for appointment to the consular service, subject to exam- ination. The subjects upon which candidates are examined include one modern language other than English; the natural, industrial and commercial resources of the United States, especially with reference to the possibil- ities of extending and increasing the foreign trade of the United States ; political economy, elements of in- ternational, commercial and maritime law; American history, government and institutions ; political and com- mercial geography; arithmetic; the history since 1850 of Europe, Latin-America, and the Orient, with par- ticular attention to political, commercial and economic tendencies. Candidates for appointment as consul in a country in which the United States exercises extra- territorial jurisdiction, are required to take a supple- mentary examination in the fundamental principles of the common law, the rules of evidence and the trial of civil and criminal cases. As it is essential that the Department should know something more about a candidate than a written ex- amination shows, there is also an oral examination which counts equally with the written examination. The object of the oral examination is to determine the candidate's business ability, general contemporary information, alertness and natural fitness for the serv- ice, including character, mental, moral and physical 126 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE qualifications, address and general education and com- mand of English. The vacancies in the eighth and ninth grades of consuls (the salaries of which are $2,000 and $2,500 per annum respectively), are to be filled by the appoint- ment of candidates who satisfactorily pass the examina- tion, or by the promotion of consular assistants, vice consuls, deputy consuls, consular agents or student in- terpreters who shall have been appointed upon exami- nation. Vacancies in the oflfice of consul-general and in the office of consul above class eight are to be filled by promotion from the lower grades of the consular serv- ice, based upon ability and efficiency as shown in the service, or by the promotion of persons in the service of the Department of State with salaries of two thous- and dollars and upwards, based upon ability and effi- ciency. The order provides that the political affiliations of the candidate shall not be considered either in the desig- nation for examination or certification or appointment, and that in designations and appointments as between candidates of equal merit, appointments shall be made so as to secure proportional representation of all the States and Territories. An efficiency record has been established, made up from all sources of information available to the Department, and the order provides that no promotions shall be made except for efficiency as shown by the work that the officer has accomplished, the ability, promptness and diligence displayed by him 127 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE in the performance of his oflficial duties, his conduct and his fitness for the consular service. While the examinations are not competitive, their nature and scope are a sufficient guarantee that no per- son lacking necessary qualifications will receive an ap- pointment, and a designation for examination is equiva- lent to an appointment within a reasonable time, sub- ject to passing the examination satisfactorily. (See Appendix, p. 221, for the text of the Executive Order of June 27, 1906, and the Regulations govern- ing examinations, together with sample examination papers. ) Our Consular Service at present consist of the fol- lowing : Five (5) Consuls-General at Large. Fifty-seven (57) Consuls-General. Eighteen (18) Vice Consuls-General. Twenty-five (25) Deputy Consuls-General. Forty-two (42) Vice and Deputy Consuls-General. Two hundred and forty-one (241) Consuls. Seventy (70) Vice Consuls. Twenty (20) Deputy-Consuls. One hundred and fifty-three (153) Vice and Deputy Consuls. Three hundred and seven (307) Consular Agents. Seventeen (17) Consular Assistants. Eight (8) Marshals. Twenty-four (24) Interpreters. Thirteen (13) Student Interpreters. 128 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE Besides this force of one thousand ( looo), provision is made by the annual appropriation acts for the employ- ment of clerks at various consulates. Consular representation is maintained by this gov- ernment at six hundred and five (605) different places, in forty-seven (47) different countries. The total appropriation for salaries and clerk- hire in the Consular Service for the current year is $1,166,490. Consuls-General at Large Consuls-General at Large are appointed by the Presi- dent, with the advice and consent of the Senate, from members of the consular force possessing the requisite qualifications of experience and ability. They are charged, under the direction of the Secretary of State, with the duty of inspecting consulates and reporting thereon. Whenever the President has reason to believe that the business of a consulate is not being properly con- ducted, he may authorize a consul-general at large to suspend the consul or consul-general and administer the office for not to exceed ninety days, and the consul- general at large may suspend any vice or deputy con- sular officer or clerk in said office during the period mentioned. Consuls-General Consuls-General are the highest grade of consular For. Serv. — 9 129 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE officers. They are generally located at the larger com- mercial cities. While they have, theoretically, super- vision of the consulates subordinate to them, so far as this can be exercised by correspondence, they are, in practice, merely consuls with a title. In Oriental coun- tries and in some other countries where there is a court in the city where the consular officer is stationed there is some reason why he should bear the title of consul-general, the highest consular rank. Consuls- General and Consuls are appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Vice Consular Officers Vice-consuls-general and vice-consuls are officers ap- pointed by the Secretary of State, usually upon the nomination of the consul-general or consul, who take the place and exercise the powers of the principal con- sular officer when he is absent or relieved from duty. A vice-consular officer has no functions or powers when the principal officer is present at his post. Vice-con- suls are required to give bond, with sureties, to be ap- proved by the Secretary of State, in a sum not less than $2,000. Vice-Consuls receive no salary except in the absence of the principal officer, when their compensation is usu- ally regulated by agreement with the principal officer. In the absence of any other agreement the vice-consular officer receives one-half of the principal officer's salary. For any absence of the principal officer beyond sixty 130 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE days in any one year and the time necessary to make the journey to and from the United States, the vice-consu- lar officer receives the entire salary of the office. It is customary to employ the vice-consular officer regularly as a clerk in the consular office, in which event he is compensated as clerk from the allowance for clerk-hire. Deputy Consular Officers Deputy Consuls-General and Deputy Consuls are of- ficers, also appointed by the Secretary of State gener- ally upon the nomination of the Consul General or Con- sul, subordinate to the principal officer, who exercise consular functions, usually of a routine character, under the supervision of the principal officer. No provision is made for the compensation of deputy consular of- ficers except from the allowance made by law for the principal officer. They are usually employed as clerks, however, and compensated from the clerk-hire allow- ance. The position of vice and deputy are generally com- bined and held by one person to avoid the multiplication of offices at one post. Consular Agents A consular-agent is an officer subordinate to a con- sul-general or consul, who exercises powers similar to but not as extensive as those of the principal officer, at a port or place different from that at which the princi- pal officer is located. Consular agents act under the 131 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE directions of the principal officer and their compensa- tion is limited to one-half of the fees collected by them, in no case to exceed $i,ooo a year, however. They are appointed, as vice and deputy consular officers are, by the Secretary of State, upon the nomination of the principal consular officer. No bond from consular agents is required by law, but consular officers having agents under their supervision may take from them such bonds as they deem proper for their protection. Student Interpreters Provision is also made by law for ten student inter- preters at the legation in China and six at the embassy in Japan, who shall be citizens of the United States, and whose duty it shall be to study the Chinese and Japanese languages respectively, with a view to supply- ing interpreters to the legation, embassy, and consulates in those countries. The law provides that these student interpreters shall be chosen in such manner as will make the selections non-partisan, and that upon receiving appointment each shall sign an agreement to continue in the service as interpreter as long as his services may be required with- in a period of five years. Clerks Clerks are employed at the various consular offices, to perform routine office work. They are generally appointed by the Department of State, upon the nomi- 132 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE nation of the consul-general or consul, and receive salaries varying from $300 to $1,500 a year. None but American citizens are eligible for appointment to posi- tions the compensation of which is $1,000 a year or more. Provision is made for interpreters at certain con- sulates in Oriental countries. Bond and Oath of Office Before a newly appointed consul enters upon his duties, he is required to take the oath of office pre- scribed by law, and give a bond, with sureties to be approved by the Secretary of State, in a sum fixed by regulation in each case. The practice is almost uni- versal to furnish bonding companies as sureties. Instruction Period The consul is allowed thirty days after appointment with salary, called an "instruction period," in which to acquire some familiarity with his duties by personal conference with officials of the Department of State, and to close up his private affairs. Formerly, the giv- ing of instructions was a mere formality, but under Secretary Root's administration of the Department of State, a system was established by which this period became a period of actual instruction. A room has been fitted up at the Department wherein a complete set of records and other books, forms, etc., used at consulates 133 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE is installed, and an instructor who has had practical consular experience explains to the newly appointed consuls their duties in connection with the verification of invoices, issuance of bills of health, rendering ac- counts, etc. Talks are also given to them by other gov- ernment officials on matters appertaining to consular work, such as the promotion of our export trade, immi- gration, citizenship, etc. The new consul should read the correspondence be- tween the Department and his predecessor in order to inform himself of the state of the business of the con- sulate and get in touch with pending matters. He should also spend some time at the custom house of the port from which he sails for his post, making a study from the standpoint of the customs officers, of invoices, undervaluations, etc. Transit Period The consular officer is allowed a certain number of days fixed by regulation according to distance, called a "transit period," for reaching his post. In addition to his salary during this time, he is allowed the sum of five cents per mile for transportation in going to his post. A similar allowance is made consuls in returning from their posts. Exequatur The exequatur, the formal permission which is grant- ed by the foreign government to the consular officer to 134 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE act, is usually obtained by the American diplomatic representative in the country in which the post is located, the commission of the new appointee being transmitted by the Department to the diplomatic officer for that purpose. If the exequatur has not been re- ceived, the consular officer upon reaching his post, ad- dresses a communication to the local authorities re- questing permission to act pending the arrival of his exequatur. Upon receiving such permission he may at once enter upon the discharge of his duties. While a country has an undoubted right to withhold an exe- quatur in any case, it is seldom exercised. His first duty is to take possession of the consular seals and public property of the office, and sign jointly with his predecessor or other person having charge, an inventory thereof, one copy of which is kept at the consulate and the other sent to the Department. A certificate, also executed jointly by the consul and his predecessor, or person in charge, showing the date of actual entry on his duties, is to be transmitted to the Auditor. The consul should notify the Department of State and the consul-general to whom he may be subordinate, or the diplomatic representative, if there be one, that he has entered upon his duties. He should also inform the principal consular officers of the United States in the country, and send his official card or call upon the consular officers of other countries in the place, in ac- cordance with the custom. It is desirable for the consul 135 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE to make official calls upon the chief authorities of the town and province, especially those with whom he is likely to be brought in contact, such as governor, mayor, captain of the port, postmaster, head of the chamber of commerce, etc. Consuls are made an allowance for office-rent of a sum not exceeding 30% of the salary provided by law. For clerk-hire they may expend such sum as may be allowed in the discretion of the Department, and for contingent expenses such as furniture, postage, tele- grams, messenger service and newspapers, such sum as the President may think necessary. Principal consular officers are allowed leaves of ab- sence from their posts with salary for a period of sixty days each year, in addition to the period of transit to and from the United States when the consular officer visits this country. Where a consular officer is so unfortunate as to die abroad or in transit, while in the discharge of his official duties, the government defrays the expenses of trans- porting his remains to his former home in this country and the ordinary and necessary expenses of interment. Privileges and Immunities In the absence of express provision of treaty or local 136 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE law, or long established usage, consuls in civilized countries at the present day have no diplomatic charac- ter and enjoy no exemptions or immunities except such as are necessarily incident to the consular office. Consuls are under the special protection of the law of nations, however, and when an exequatur is granted without express restrictions it is deemed to confer all rights and privileges necessary to the performance of the duties of the consular office. Among the general privileges and rights appertain- ing to the office of consul are the following : The right to place the arms of his government over his doors ; in- violability and exemption from seizure or examination of archives and of official property; exemption from service on juries and in the militia. Under the rules of international law, consular officers are subject to the payment of taxes or duties on their property in the country of their residence. They are subject, generally, to the civil and criminal jurisdiction; but it is asserted by some authorities that as consular functions require that the consul should be independent of the ordinary criminal justice of the place where he resides, he should not be molested or imprisoned unless he violates the law of nations by some enormous mis- demeanor. , In non-Christian countries consuls still enjoy to a large extent rights of extraterritoriality and the im- munities of diplomatic officers, such as exemption from the civil and criminal jurisdiction, and from taxation of personal property, etc. 137 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE To determine his treaty rights and privileges the consul should consult the particular treaty involved. Qualifications and Duties The duties which consuls are called upon to perform are so numerous, of so varied a character and so im- portant, that they demand a high order of intelligence and ability and a wide range of knowledge. Mr. Glad- stone, who was well qualified to speak on the subject, said : "There is no branch of the civil service that calls for such a mass of practical knowledge and general in- formation." Another writer has said: "Consuls stand in so many relations to our government and people that it is doubtful if any other position in our modern civili- zation calls into service a greater versatility — a wider experience of intellectual capacity." To be successful, a consul should be a mian who has had some practical experience in business. He should have the commercial instinct, a good mind for details and an eagerness for information pertaining to his calling. The duties of consular officers are elaborately set forth in a formidable volume of nearly 900 pages en- titled "United States Consular Regulations," promul- gated by the President. Their more important func- tions are described below. Certification of Invoices One of the duties of consuls of most frequent re- 138 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE currence is that of certifying to the correctness of dec- larations required by law to accompany invoices of merchandise exported to the United States. Our laws require that no imported goods exceeding $ioo in value shall be admitted to entry without the production of a duly certified invoice, containing a de- scription of the merchandise and stating its actual market value in the country of production or exporta- tion. This invoice must be signed by the purchaser, owner or manufacturer, who is required to endorse thereon a declaration as to the truth of the statements contained therein. The United States was the first government of im- portance to utilize its consular service in the enforce- ment of its tariff laws. The Act of April 20, 1818, required the owners of goods exported to the United States subject to ad valorem duty to make oath before consular officers to the correctness of the invoices thereof. By the Act of July 14, 1862, this function was extended so as to cover invoices of all imported goods whether subject to ad valorem or specific duty. While the present law does not require the declaration of the shipper to be under oath the duties of consuls in the premises are of no less importance than formerly. The consul is not only required to receive the declaration of the shipper, but it is his duty to acquire a special knowledge of the trade in his district and of the actual value of the goods shipped, so that he can judge of the truth of the statements made in the declaration and de- tect any attempt at undervaluation. 139 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE The enforcement of our tariff depends to a large ex- tent upon the fidelity and energy of our consular of- ficers. In the performance of this duty, an intelligent, conscientious, and vigilant officer may save the govern- ment many thousands of dollars in duties. The Con- sul General at St. Gall, Switzerland, James T. Dubois, in 1898, discovered a system of undervaluation of laces and embroideries shipped from his district to the United States by which our revenue was being defrauded of an enormous amount every year. He made a careful study of the cost of manufacture of these goods and by co- operation with the Treasury Department at Washing- ton, effected a reform whereby in a single year the saving to our revenue amounted to over $1,000,000, — nearly enough to pay the total annual expense of the consular service. Invoice forms, showing the endorsement of the dec- laration of the shipper and the certification of the consul are included in the appendix at pp. 275-277. Landing Certificates Consuls are frequently called upon to verify landing certificates. Where merchandise is exported from the United States to a foreign country under bond, on which duty or allowance is payable, the bond may be discharged upon production within a specified period of a landing certificate, which is a declaration by the consignee (which is confirmed by oath of the master and mate of the vessel on which the goods are shipped) 140 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE that the merchandise has been landed at the foreign port. Where the affidavits of the master and mate are not obtainable, the declaration by the consignee may be confirmed by a certificate from the custom house at the foreign port, showing landing and entry. In either case, the certificate of the consular officer there, declar- ing that the facts set forth in the consignee's certificate are, to the best of his knowledge, true and correct, is required. (For Form of Landing Certificate, see appendix p. 280.) Returned American Merchandise Another service which consuls are often required to perform is the granting of certificates of goods pro- duced or manufactured in the United States, and re- turned after having been exported without having been advanced in value or improved in condition, such as barrels, boxes, bags, etc., of American manufacture ex- ported filled with American products or exported empty, and returned as barrels and boxes, etc. These are entitled to entry in the United States free of duty upon the production of a declaration, made before the consul, of the fact that the merchandise was imported from the United States and that it has not been ad- vanced in value or improved in condition by any process of manufacture or other means. Automobiles taken by their owners from the United States to a foreign country and there used in traveling, 141 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE are frequently returned to the United States upon cer- tificates of this kind. Bills of Health Consular officers have very important duties in con- nection with the preservation of the public health. They are required to make v^eekly reports to the Sec- retary of the Treasury, of the sanitary condition of the ports at which they are stationed, and in the event of the outbreak of cholera, yellow fever or other contagious disease in epidemic form, it is their duty to immediately advise the Department of State by telegram or cable. Consuls are required to post in their offices a copy of the quarantine law and regulations. Every vessel clearing from a foreign port at which there is a con- sular officer for any place in the United States, is re- quired, under penalty of $5,000, to obtain a bill of health from the consular officer, setting forth the sani- tary condition, and history of the vessel, and that it has complied with the rules and regulations prescribed for securing the best sanitary condition of vessel, cargo, passengers and crew. It is the duty of the consul, before granting such bill of health, to satisfy himself that the matters and facts stated therein are true. Whenever it is deemed neces- sary, the President is authorized to detail a medical of- ficer to serve at a consulate for the purpose of furnish- ing information, making the inspection and giving the bill of health. 142 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE Duties in Relation to Seamen At seaports, a large share of the duties of consuls concerns vessels and seamen. Every master of an American vessel is required, under penalty of $500, up- on arrival at a foreign port to deposit the ship's papers (that is the register, crew list and shipping articles) with the American consular officer. Whenever a seaman is engaged by the master of an American vessel at a foreign port, the law requires that the shipping agreement shall be signed by the master, and by the seaman in presence of the consular officer. It is the duty of the consular officer to see that the sea- man understands the contract, and to endorse his sanc- tion upon the agreement. An American seaman cannot be lawfully discharged in a foreign port, even with his own consent, without the intervention of the consular officer; and upon the discharge of a seaman it is the duty of the consular officer to require the payment to the seaman of the ar- rears of wages and extra wages due. The law author- izes consuls to retain the ship's papers until all demands and wages and all consular fees are paid. Consuls are also empowered to relieve and provide transportation for destitute American seamen. In manv ways, our government treats seamen as wards and as in a peculiar degree entitled to care and protection. It is the duty of consuls to keep lists of all vessels arriv- ing at or departing from their ports, and of all seamen 143 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE shipped and discharged. They are also authorized to receive the protests or declarations of American mas- ters and seamen. It is the duty of consular officers to reclaim desert- ing seamen and to employ the local authority for this purpose whenever that can be done. It is their duty to investigate charges of mutiny or insubordination on American vessels on the high seas, and to send mutineers to the United States for trial. In some cases, jurisdiction is given our consuls by treaty in questions of wages, shipment and discharge of seamen, and over all transactions occurring on board American vessels lying in a foreign port, whether in the nature of contract, tort, or crime, so far as concern only the vessels and their cargoes and the persons belonging aboard. But matters concerning the public peace of the country, or the rights of persons not belonging to the ship, are subject to the local jurisdiction. It is necessary to consult in every case, the particular treaty involved. In the absence of treaty provision, the con- sul has jurisdiction in differences between masters and crews or American citizens, only so far as it may be permitted through the exercise of comity or reciprocity or long established usage. Where American vessels are stranded in their dis- tricts, consular officers are required to report the fact to the Department of State and to take proper measures, so far as the laws of the country permit, to save such vessels and their cargoes and to store and secure the property saved. The consular officer cannot take pos- 144 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE session of such property, however, when the master, owner or consignee is present. Consuls are expected also to look after deserters or stragglers from our naval vessels, having them ar- rested, if necessary, and returned to the vessels to which they belong, or to any other naval vessel in nearby waters ; or arranging for them to work their passage on merchant vessels to the United States, or for steerage or second class passage to a United States port. Ex- penses incurred for this purpose will be re-imbursed by the Navy Department. Duties Concerning Immigration Important duties are imposed upon consuls in regard to immigration. The immigration laws of the United States provide that certain classes of aliens shall be excluded from ad- mission into the United States, and it is the duty of consular officers to aid in the enforcement of these laws by endeavoring to prevent the emigration of such per- sons from their consular districts and by giving timely notice to the Department of State at Washington of the departure of persons belonging to the excluded classes. The excluded classes are Chinese laborers ; idiots and insane and feeble minded persons ; paupers, professional beggars, persons likely to become a public charge, per- sons afflicted with a loathsome or dangerous conta- gious disease; persons who have been convicted of or who admit having committed a felony, polygamists. For. Serv.^io 14 c OUR FOREIGN SERVICE anarchists, prostitutes, contract laborers, persons whose passage is paid for with the money of another, etc. Chinese Exclusion Under the Chinese exclusion laws every Chinese per- son, other than a laborer, who may be entitled to come to the United States, in order to secure admission, must obtain the permission of and be identified as so entitled by the Chinese government or other foreign government of which he is a subject, to be evidenced by a certificate issued by such government, which shall show the permission and that he is entitled to come to the United States. The law requires that the certificate and identity of the person named therein shall, before he goes on board a vessel to proceed to the United States, be vised by the indorsement of the diplomatic representative of the United States in the foreign country, or of the consular representative at the port of departure, and it is the duty of such representative before endorsing the certificate, to examine into the truth of the statements set forth therein, and if he finds that any of the statements are untrue, it is his duty to refuse to indorse the same. Citizenship Questions relating to citizenship are important and arise very frequently in the work of consular officers. A synopsis of the laws of the United States relating to citizenship is given on pp. i8i ef seq. 146 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE Protectian of American Citizens It is the duty of consular officers to endeavor to maintain and promote the rightful interests of Ameri- can citizens and to protect them in all privileges pro- vided for by treaty or to which they are entitled under the law of nations. If representations are made to the local authorities and fail to secure the proper redress, the consul should report the case to the diplomatic representative of the country and to the Department. Registration of American Citizens Principal consular officers are required to keep at their offices a Register of American citizens residing in their districts, and to make it known that such a Register is kept and invite all resident Americans to cause their names to be entered therein. The same principles govern applications for registry which gov- ern applications for passports. Consuls are authorized to issue certificates of regis- tration for use with the authorities of the place where the person registered is residing. Returns of regis- tration made and of certificates issued, must be made to the Embassy or Legation in the country in which the consulate is situated and to the Secretary of State. The Act of March 2, 1907, provides that children born abroad to an American father, in order to receive the protection of the United States, must register in 147 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE an American Consulate when eighteen years of age and at the same time declare their intention to become residents and remain citizens; and upon reaching ma- jority they are further required to take the oath of allegiance to the United States. The same law, which expressly declares that an American woman who marries a foreigner shall take the nationality of her husband, also provides that at the termination of the marital relation she may resume her American citizenship, if abroad, by registering as an American citizen within one year with a consul of the United States. Report of Naturalization of American Citizens Abroad Whenever a diplomatic or consular officer learns that an American citizen has secured naturalization or has taken an oath of allegiance in a foreign state, he should certify to the fact under his seal and transmit the cer- tification to the Department of State. Reports of Fraudulent Naturalization Under the provisions of the Act of June 29, 1906, when an alien who has secured naturalization in the United States proceeds abroad and takes up his per- manent residence in any foreign country within five years after the date of his naturalization, it shall be deemed prima facie evidence that he did not intend in 148 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE good faith to become a citizen of the United States when he applied for naturahzation, and in the absence of countervaihng evidence it is sufficient in the proper proceeding to authorize the cancelation of his certifi- cate as fraudulent. Diplomatic and consular officers are required to fur- nish the Department of State, to be transmitted to the Department of Justice, the names of those within their jurisdictions, respectively, who are subject to the pro- visions of the requirement referred to, and such state- ments under their official seals, are admissible in evi- dence in all courts to cancel certificates of naturaliza- tion. The officer is required to state : First, that the per- son is a permanent resident in a foreign country ; and, second, that the permanent residence was taken up within five years after naturalization was conferred ; and to certify to the facts and to the means of his knowledge. Passports Under the existing regulations, passports must be obtained from the Department of State if the appli- cant has time to apply there. But certain consular of- ficers are authorized to issue emergency passports in cases where inconvenience or hardship would result to a person entitled to receive a passport unless he re- ceived it at once. Such passports are good for a period not to exceed six months and are to be used only for a purpose to be stated in the passport. Consuls at the 149 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE following places are authorized to issue emergency passports : — Adis Ababa, Barbados, Calcutta, Colombo, Curacao, Kingston (Jamaica), Nassau, St. Michael's, Seoul, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Tahiti and Tamatave. A consul in a country where there is a diplomatic representative of the United States may issue passports during the temporary absence of the diplomatic repre- sentative. All consular officers may receive applications for the issuance of passports. Each such application must be forwarded by the consular officer to the Department with the evidence of the right to secure the passport. Principal consular officers are also authorized to ex- tend for a period of two years passports issued by the Department which are about to expire, presented to them for extension. The consul is required to give immediate notice to the Department of such extension. For Rules governing the issuance of Passports, see p. i8i. Extradition It is sometimes the duty of consular officers to make formal requisitions for the extradition of fugitives from the United States. The matter is regulated by treaties which usually provide that requisitions shall be made by the diplomatic representative of the de- manding government, or in the absence of such repre- sentative by the "superior consular officer." Occasionally, consuls are requested by the police au- thorities of cities in the United States to secure the 150 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE apprehension of fugitive criminals, but as extradition is a national matter and, so far as the United States is concerned, governed entirely by treaty, a request for arrest or surrender can properly be made only through the diplomatic channel ; and in the absence of instruc- tions from the Department of State a consular officer is not authorized to intervene in extradition matters, nor ask for the arrest and detention of a fugitive. Our law (Act of Aug. 3, 1882) provides that docu- mentary evidence offered by foreign governments in support of requisitions for the extradition of criminals from the United States, if properly and legally authen- ticated so as to entitle it to be received for similar purposes by the tribunals of the foreign country, shall be received and admitted as evidence on the hearing in the United States for all the purposes of such hear- ing, and that the certificate of the principal diplomatic or consular officer of the United States resident in such country shall be proof that any deposition, warrant or other paper, or copies thereof, so offered are authenti- cated in the manner required by the law. A form of consular certificate which has been tested and found to be legally sufficient, is printed in the ap- pendix, at p. 283. Marriages While consular officers are prohibited from solem- nizing marriages in any case, they may, when requested, act as official witnesses of the ceremony of marriage where one of the contracting parties is a citizen of the 151 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE United States. Where a marriage is celebrated in the presence of a consular officer, he is required to give to each of the parties a certificate of such marriage under the official seal of the consulate, and to send one to the Department of State. Estates of American Citizens Dying Abroad When an American citizen dies in a foreign counti-y leaving personal property and no legal representative there, it is the duty of the consular officer, where the laws of the country permit, to take possession and act as provisional administrator of the property; to inven- tory the property with the assistance of two merchants ; to collect the debts due the deceased there and pay the debts due from the estate ; to sell at auction the perish- able assets, and such further part as may be necessary for the payment of debts, and after one year the resi- due; and to transmit the balance of the estate to the Treasury of the United States, to be held in trust for the legal claimant; provided, that if at any time before such transmission, the legal representative of the de- ceased shall demand the property it shall be delivered up upon payment of the consular fees. When an American citizen dying abroad leaves a will giving special directions for the custody and man- agement by the consular officer of the personal property of which he dies possessed in the foreign country, the consular officer shall, so far as the laws of the country- permit, strictly observe such directions, 152 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE Where the decedent leaves a will intended to operate in the United States it is the duty of the consular of- ficer in the absence of adult heirs in the foreign coun- try, to see to the safe keeping of the will and its trans- mission to the parties in interest. By treaty with several countries it is made the duty of the local authorities to advise the consular officer of the death of a citizen of the United States, in order that the necessary information may immediately be given to the parties interested. In some countries the consular officer may appear in person or by delegate in all pro- ceedings in behalf of the absent or minor heirs or cred- itors, and in others he may intervene in the possession, administration and judicial liquidation of the estate, conformably to the laws of the country. In some countries he may nominate a curator to take charge of the property for the benefit of the lawful heirs and creditors. The particular treaty provision should be consulted in each case. Consular officers are forbidden to accept an appoint- ment from any foreign state as administrator, guardian, or in any other fiduciary capacity, for the settlement or conservation of the estates of deceased persons, etc., without having been previously authorized by the Sec- retary of State so to do. The law also provides that a consular officer, who accepts any appointment to any such office of trust without executing a bond, with sureties to be approved by the Secretary of State, conditioned for the true and 153 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE faithful performance of his duties according to law, and for the true and faithful accounting for and pay- ing over to the persons thereto entitled of all moneys, and other property coming into his hands or the hands of any other person to his use, as such administrator, guardian, or in other fiduciary capacity, or shall will- fully fail to account for, pay over, and deliver any money or property so received to any person lawfully entitled thereto, after having been requested by the latter, his representative or agent so to do, shall be deemed guilty of embezzlement. Notarial Services Consular officers are frequently called upon to ad- minister oaths and to perform other notarial services. These services cover even a wider range than those performed by notaries in the United States, among them being the following : administering oaths and cer- tificates thereto, acknowledgments of deeds, powers of attorney, etc., certifying to official character of for- eign notary or other official, taking depositions, execut- ing commissions or letters rogatory, etc. Until the passage of the Act of April 5. 1906, the performance of such services by consular offxers was optional, and when performed, the officer was entitled to retain the fees prescribed therefor. But that law requires consular officers whenever applications are made to them therefor within the limits of their dis- tricts, to administer to or take from any person, any 154 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE oath, affirmation, affidavit or deposition, and to per- form any other notarial act which any notary public is required or authorized by law to do within the United States. And they are required to charge for every such notarial act performed the appropriate fee pre- scribed by the President, which is made official and must be accounted for and paid into the Treasury of the United States. Consuls are sometimes appointed by courts in the United States as commissioners to take testimony for the use of those courts. The witnesses appear before the consul, who administers the oath to them, pro- pounds the questions and records their answers. The consul in such cases acts both in his official capacity and as an officer of the court issuing the commission. His charges for such services are official, as prescribed in the tariff, and must be accounted for like all other notarial fees. Performance of Legal Services by Consuls It was formerly the practice of some consular officers to draw legal documents, such as deeds, wills, powers of attorney, etc., to examine titles and perform other similar services in foreign countries, and to charge personal fees therefor. The law of April, 1906, re- organizing the consular service, however, prohibits consular officers who receive salaries of more than $1,000 from engaging in business in the foreign coun- 155 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE try, practising as a lawyer for compensation, or being interested in the fees or compensation of any lawyer. Consular officers are, therefore, required to decline to perform legal services except in cases where abso- lutely necessary by reason of the absence of any other lawyer available, or where delay would work hardship upon an American citizen; and in such cases they are instructed to inform the interested persons that the services are performed at their risk and that the gov- ernment assumes no responsibility therefor. And no fee whatsoever is to be charged for such services. Consular Courts In addition to the numerous other duties imposed upon them, consuls in certain Oriental countries in which the United States has extraterritorial privileges, are clothed with judicial powers and preside over Con- sular Courts. By virtue of treaty stipulations and the laws of the United States, our Ministers and Consuls in Borneo, China, Korea, Morocco, Persia, Siam, Tripoli and Turkey, exercise jurisdiction over citizens of the United States in both criminal and civil matters. In criminal matters the authority extends to the trial and punishment of offenses committed by citizens of the United States in the foreign country; in civil matters, to all controversies between citizens of the United States, or others, so far as the treaties provide. And our consular officers in countries not inhabited 156 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE by any civilized people, or recognized by any treaty with the United States, are given power by our law to hear and determine civil cases where the debt or dam- ages do not exceed $i,ooo exclusive of costs, and to try and punish offenders where the fine does not exceed $ I GO or the imprisonment sixty days. Candidates for appointment as consuls in these coun- tries are required to pass a supplementary examination in the principles of the Common law, the rules of evi- dence and the trial of civil and criminal cases. In time of war it is the duty of consuls to report movements of war vessels and armies, and, so far as the laws of the foreign country, the rules of internation- al law and existing treaty stipulations permit, to pro- tect our commercial and naval interests. Extension of Trade But by far the most important function of our con- suls at the present time is the promotion of our foreign trade. This branch of the work has been so greatly developed that our consular service to-day constitutes a vast reporting system covering the entire world, with a central bureau of information at Washington. The consuls are the newsgatherers and reporters, ever on the lookout for information of interest to the American business public. The editors and publishers are the Departments of State and Commerce and Labor. There is an annual, a monthly, and a daily official organ, — 157 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE, the "Commercial Relations," "Monthly Consular Re- ports," and the "Daily Consular and Trade Reports ;" and all who are interested in the extension of American commerce are or may become subscribers. Following the example of France and England, the United States at an early period in our history en- couraged our consuls to report on matters of commer- cial interest. The primary object of these reports was the protection of our customs, however. Our people were, up to a very recent date, so engrossed in the development of our natural resources and in supplying the demands of our own domestic markets, that little thought was given to the possibilities of foreign com- merce. It was only when local conditions made it impossible to dispose of our manufactures at home that manufacturers began to look to foreign markets for an outlet for their surplus products. There was no systematic attempt to make the re- ports of our consuls available to increase our export trade until 1856, when provision was made by law for the annual publication of commercial reports. This has been continued ever since, the present name of the publication being "Commercial Relations of the United States." This embodies the annual reports which con- suls are required to make on the industries and com- merce of their respective districts together with a "Re- view of the World's Commerce," detailing the commer- cial and industrial activities of the world during the year. In 1880, Secretary Evarts inaugurated the publica- 158 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE tion of a monthly periodical, under the title of "Month- ly Consular Reports," which embraces reports of our consuls on subjects calculated to advance the commer- cial and industrial interests of the United States. This is still published. From time to time another publication, known as "Special Consular Reports," has been issued, covering reports from consuls on special conditions in foreign countries. In 1898 Secretary Sherman, at the suggestion of Mr. Frederic Emory, the capable Chief of the Bureau of Foreign Commerce of the Department of State, inaugu- rated the daily publication of reports from consuls on matters of immediate interest, under the title of "Ad- vance Sheets of Consular Reports." Copies of this publication were furnished to the press, boards of trade and other commercial organizations, with a view to the widest dissemination of the information secured, with the least possible delay. This was an innovation in the system of publishing consular reports which placed the United States in advance of all other countries. It has proved of the greatest practical value to our commerce and has received almost universal commendation. When the Department of Commerce and Labor was established, (Act of Feb. 15, 1903), the Bureau of For- eign Commerce of the Department of State, which had charge of the compilation and publication of Consular Reports, was consolidated with the Bureau of Statistics and transferred to the Bureau of Manufactures of the Department of Commerce and Labor. The law makes 159 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE it the duty of the Bureau of Manufactures, under the direction of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, to promote and develop the various manufacturing indus- tries of the United States and markets therefor at home and abroad, by gathering, compiHng, pubhshing and supplying all available information concerning such in- dustries and markets. The law requires consular of- ficers, under the direction of the Secretary of State, to gather and compile from time to time, and transmit through the Secretary of State to the Secretary of Com- merce and Labor, reports of useful and material infor- mation and statistics. A bureau known as the Bureau of Trade Relations was created in the Department of State, the function of which is to formulate for the instruction of consular officers the requests of the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, and to revise and transmit to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor the reports of consuls pertaining to the work of that Department, All of the publications of Consular Reports, daily, monthly and annual, are now issued by the Bureau of Manufactures of the Department of Commerce and Labor. The title of the daily publication is "Daily Consular and Trade Reports." It has a free circulation of about 10,000 copies. The original plan has been developed and various new and useful features have been added. Copies of the Daily Consular and Trade Reports are sent regularly to all consuls. As only matter deemed of substantial value to American manufacturers and ex- 160 I^ ^ I' \' ^ Ui| 1^ t ir ^ i^ fi < < < z o to O < s o o u z 3 oJ ►J < O S o u OUR CONSULAR SliRVICE porters is admitted to its columns, it serves as a model and guide to consuls in preparing reports. It also keeps them fully informed of what transpires in the commer- cial world and gives them the benefit of original methods and improvements in consular work adopted by any of their colleagues to develop our foreign com- merce. General instructions as to the selection of subjects and material for trade reports are formulated by the Department from time to time. Special emphasis is placed upon the following : ( I.) The best means for the enlargement of Ameri- can trade with foreign countries, especially of American products and manufactures. (2.) The application of new processes of an industrial character which may either open up a new channel of supply from this coun- try or suggest to our manufacturers improvements in their own processes or the creation of new industries. (3.) Defects in and proper methods of packing Ameri- can goods and of the conditions of transportation, ex- change, banking, etc., with the United States, and any disadvantage under which we labor from the fact that European houses give longer credits and more liberal terms of payment, and manufacture certain patterns and qualities of goods, or prepare them in attractive shape to meet local peculiarities and customs. Other subjects of importance are — changes in cur- rency values, freight and tariff rates, customs rules, port regulations, wharfage dues, rates of licenses, es- pecially those relating to commercial travelers ; harbor For. Serv. — 11 1 61 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE improvements; extension of telegraph cable service; condition of merchant marine ; quarantine regulations ; laws or regulations of a discriminating character affect- ing American vessels or merchandise; laws requiring goods to be marked so as to show the country of origin or manufacture; changes in patent, copyright and trade-mark laws; postal rates; agricultural and min- eral development ; labor conditions, and emigration. To carry out the instructions of his government, a consul must keep pace with the state and progress of industry and commerce, and report on all important in- ventions and discoveries, especially improvements in manufactures and agriculture, and furnish such infor- mation as may be useful to American trade interests. It is impossible to frame instructions to meet all conditions and emergencies, and the Department relies upon the intelligence, industry and resourcefulness of consuls rather than upon specific instructions, for the desired end, which is the securing of information of practical value in extending American trade. In his efforts to find new markets the consular officer has ample scope for the exercise of ingenuity and en- terprise. It has been said by Europeans that the dis- tinguishing excellence of the American consul is his ability to take the initiative. The wide-awake consul will take advantage of any occasion which may arise presenting peculiar opportunities for increasing our export trade. A shortage of crops in his consular dis- trict may create a special demand for foodstuffs. An earthquake or fire may suddenly open up a market for 162 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE lumber and other building material. A timely report by the consul and its prompt publication and distribu- tion among the interests concerned may result in sub- stantial sales of American goods. "Foreign Trade Opportunities" Whenever opportunities occur in their districts for obtaining contracts for the construction of buildings, railways, wharves, telegraph lines, etc., or for supply- ing materials therefor, consuls are required to report them promptly to the Department, and the information is published for the benefit of American manufacturers. Where it appears that contracts for the construction of public works are likely to be let without opportunity being given American contractors, builders and mate- rial-men to tender bids, consuls should interest them- selves in the matter. By the exercise of tact and judi- cious action with the local authorities it is frequently possible to secure for their countrymen an opportunity to compete for contracts on equal terms with others. There is a department in the Daily Consular and Trade Reports entitled "Foreign Trade Opportunities," to which consuls are requested to contribute, which has proven of great service to American exporters. When- ever a consul learns that a merchant or importer in his district wishes information concerning American goods, the consul is expected to report this fact to the Department, whereupon it will be published, under the foregoing head, in the Daily Consular and Trade Re- 163 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE ports. Neither the name nor address of the foreign inquirer is published, however, as the object is to re- serve the opportunity to American manufacturers or producers, but these are suppHed upon application to the Bureau of Manufactures by American manufac- turers who see the notice and desire to take up the mat- ter. The following examples of this kind of consular work are taken from recent issues of the Daily Con- sular and Trade Reports : No. 2547. Souvenir button machines. — A letter has been re- ceived by the Bureau of Manufactures in which the names of mak- ers of hand machines for making souvenir buttons are asked for. No. 2548. American breeding cattle and horses. — An American consular officer reports that a business man has written to him that it is his intention to import American breeding cattle and horses into one of the Latin American countries, and he desires that breeders communicate with him. No. 2553. Smelter furnace.— Ont of the American consuls in Latin America reports that the smelter plant of a mining company there is to be enlarged by the addition of another furnace for treating silver-lead ores and forwards the name of the officials who should be addressed in regard to additional equipment. No. 2559. Dry dock.— Bids will be received until October 15, 1908, by the Ministero della Marina, Rome, Italy, for the construc- tion of a new dry dock and dockyard extensions at the Venice Arsenal. A feature of great practical importance to American manufacturers and exporters, which is now being de- veloped by the Bureau of Manufactures, is a business directory designed to cover the world. Consuls have 164 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE been directed to prepare and forward systematic lists of merchants and importers in their districts who handle or may be induced to handle American goods. This information will enable the Bureau of Manufac- tures to furnish American manufacturers and exporters the names of firms in foreign countries dealing in the particular classes of goods they are interested in. The importance and possibilities of such a system can be readily appreciated. Commercial Reading Rooms and Information Bureaus Another effective means of exploiting American goods, which has been devised and carried into execu- tion by a few of our consuls, is the "commercial reading room" or "information bureau." A reading room is fitted up in the consulate where American trade journals, newspapers, magazines, trade directories, and catalogues of American manufacturers are kept regularly on file. Local merchants and buyers are invited to visit the consulates and avail themselves of the facilities afforded for learning about American goods. These commercial intelligence departments be- come very popular and the result is to materially increase our export trade. Some of the consuls keep systematically classified card indexes of American manufacturers, price lists, discount sheets, etc., and samples of American goods. 165 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE It is impracticable to keep any but small samples, how- ever. While no funds are appropriated by our government for these purposes, the Department encourages all such efforts of consuls to increase American trade. Manu- facturers gladly send catalogues. A number of trade journals can be obtained regularly without cost; and by the exercise of tact the consul can secure complimentary copies of many other publications. Doubtless the gov- ernment will in time appropriate regularly for this purpose. The writer's personal experience in establishing and maintaining a commercial reading room* in a city of 60,000 inhabitants, was that much practical good was accomplished. The plan was so developed that there were regularly on file in the room 80 different American trade journals, magazines and newspapers, together with trade directories and thousands of catalogues of *The following is a list of the publications kept on file : Amer- ican Druggist, American Economist, American Exporter, Ameri- can Grocer, American Hatter, American Hay, Flour and Feed Journal, American Industries, American Machinist, American Made Goods, American Sugar Industry, American Vehicle, Archi- tectural Record, Arena, Automobile, Bakers' Review, Boston News Bureau, Bradstreet's, Bulletin of American Republics, Buy- ers' Index, Buyers' Register, Boot and Shoe Recorder, Case and * Comment, Cement Era, Collier's, Commercial America, Current Literature, Cumberland Telephone Journal, Consular Reports, (Monthly and Daily), Delineator, Dun's Review, Eastern Drug Market, El Commercio, Electrical Review, Electrical World, En- gineering News, Engineering Record, Exporters and Importers Journal, Exporters Review, Far Eastern Review, Federal Report- er, Fruit Trade Journal, Gas Power, Hardware Dealers' Maga- 166 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE American manufacturers. The place soon became known as an American Information Bureau and it was daily visited by local merchants and buyers in quest of information concerning American goods. When the city desired to construct an opera house, the city archi- tect came to the consul to consult and asked to have estimates and rough plans submitted ; and in this and many other matters, the consul was enabled, through the medium of the Daily Consular and Trade Reports, to put American builders, manufacturers, etc., in the way to get foreign business. The German Government has a feature of commer- cial intelligence work that might be adopted with profit by our own government, viz., the distribution of con- fidential communications from German consular officers relative to trade opportunities, to Chambers of Com- zine, Harness, Harness World, Glass and Pottery World, Imple- ment Age, India Rubber World, International Confectioner, In- ternational Marine Engineering, International Trade Bulletin, Knit Goods Review, Louisiana Planter, McCall's Magazine, Mer- chant and Manufacturer, Mercantile Adjuster, Millinery Trade Review, Mining World, Modern Sanitation, Motor Boat, National Provisioner, New York Produce News, Northwestern Miller, Philippine Agricultural Review, Reporter, Scientific American, Scribner's, Sewing Machine Times, Shipping Illustrated, Shoe and Leather Reporter. Southern Carbonator and Bottler, Specta- tor, Success, Tea and Coffee Trade Journal, Textile Manufac- turers Journal, Town Topics, Trenton Tradesman, United States Tobacco Journal, Worcester Magazine, World's Work, Yachting. New York Daily Newspapers: New York Herald, New York World, New York American. 167 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE merce in Germany, by whom they are utilized for the benefit of manufacturers and exporters. Consuls can materially increase their effectiveness by co-operation with chambers of commerce and boards of trade, from which suggestions of value frequently come. Consular Fees The existing law (Act of April 5, 1906) makes the salary fixed by law the sole compensation of every consular officer except consular agents. All fees and charges at consulates are made official, including fees for notarial services, taking depositions, executing commissions or letters rogatory, settling estates, re- ceiving or paying out moneys, caring for or disposing of property, and must be accounted for and paid into the Treasury of the United States. But Consular Agents are paid by one-half of the fees received in their offices, up to a maximum sum of one thousand dollars a year, the other half being accounted for and paid into the Treasury of the United States. Tariff of Fees Sec. 1745 of the Revised Statutes of the United States authorizes the President to prescribe the rates or tariff of fees to be charged for official services in the business of the several legations and consulates ; and the Act of 1906 includes fees for the consular certifica- tion of invoices with the fees for official services for which the President is authorized by section 1745 to prescribe rates or tariff. 168 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE In pursuance of the foregoing authority, the Presi- dent has prescribed the following tariff of American consular fees. TARIFF OF UNITED STATES CONSULAR FEES [Revised to take effect November i, 1906.] Tariff of fees prescribed by order of the President to be charged by consular officers of the United States. All consular charges must be in strict accordance with this tariff, and be collected in gold or its equivalent. No fee or compensation will be collected for any service not covered by this tariff. (The fees in this tariff are not prescribed for American vessels and seamen, because they are exempted by law from the payment of consular fees. Consular agents will make the fees in this tariff the basis of collection from the Treasury for services to such ves- sels. Foreign-built vessels, unregistered, owned by American citi- zens, are not exempt from the payment of the fees prescribed herein.) Nature of service. Fee. Miscellaneous services. 1. Certificate to invoice, including declaration, in triplicate or quadruplicate, covering either importations or transit shipments, including any additional declaration or certificate not otherwise provided for which is re- quired by law or regulations for use in connection with the entry of the wares or the forwarding of the same in bond $2.50 2. Invoice of returned American goods i .00 3. Extra certificates or declarations as above described, in- cluding immigrant's oath (Form No. 128), when is- sued without an invoice certificate, each i .00 4. Certificate to extra copies of invoices, each i.oo 5. Certificate of disinfection, in triplicate or quadruplicate 2.50 169 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE 6. Landing certificate, including oaths of master and mate, and the complete execution of the certificate 2.50 7. Sealing cars coming from Canada or Mexico, for each manifest in quadruplicate with the consul's certificate, including sealing of each car, vessel, bale, barrel, box, or package i .00 8. Issuing a passport — Form No. 9 — or extending a pass- port 1. 00 9. Visaing a passport— Form No. 10 1 .00 10. Visaing a Chinese passport or certificate 1.00 11. Marriage certificate, in duplicate. Form No. 87 1. 00 12. For taking into possession the personal estate of any citizen who shall die within the limits of a consulate, inventorying, selling, and finally settling and prepar- ing or transmitting, according to law, the balance due thereon, $2 for each $100 of value or fraction there- of. If part of such estate shall be delivered over be- fore final settlement, $1 for each $100 of value or fraction thereof to be charged on the part so deliv- ered over as is not in money, and $2 for each $100 of value or fraction thereof on the gross amount of the residue. If among the effects of the deceased are found certificates of foreign stock, loans, or other property, $1 for each $100 of value or fraction there- of on the amount thereof. No charge will be made for placing the official seal upon the personal proper- ty or effects of such deceased citizen, or for breaking or removing the seals. 13. For each certificate of protection, semsar, or certificate of employment issued at Tangier $2.00 Services to vessels and seamen. 14. Bill of health, in duplicate* 5.CX) 15. Supplemental bill of health, in duplicate* 2.50 * Foreign war vessels are exempt from the payment of fees for bills of health. 170 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE 16. For receiving and delivering ship's register and papers, including consular certificates, as prescribed in Forms Nos. 13 and 14, $1 for each 100 tons or fraction there- of, registered measurement (net), of the vessel for which the service is performed, if under 1,000 tons; but for American vessels running regularly by week- ly or monthly trips, or otherwise, to or even between foreign ports, this tonnage fee will not be charged for more than four trips in a year; and tonnage fees shall not be exacted for any vessel touching at or near ports in Canada on her regular voyage from one port to another within the United States, unless some official service required by law shall be per- formed 17. And for every additional 100 tons net or fraction there- of 5c 18. Shipping or discharging seamen, including the certifi- cates thereof attached to crew list and shipping ar- ticles and given to seamen 2. 00 19. Authentication of copies of protests or other necessary documents for vessels or seamen not otherwise pro- vided for 2 . 00 20. Preparation and acknowledgment for vessels or seamen of any oath or declaration for which a form is given in the Consular Regulations, or a similar necessary service not otherwise provided for 2.00 21. Preparation and execution for vessels or seamen of any certificate for which a form is given in the Consular Regulations, or similar necessary service not other- wise provided for 2 . 00 22. Orders or letters for vessels or seamen for which forms are given in the Consular Regulations, or other sim- ilar necessary service not otherwise provided for. .. . 2.00 23. Recording, when necessary, for vessels or seamen any document covered by the provisions of the Consular Regulations, for every hundred words or fraction thereof 50 171 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE 24. Noting marine protest — Form No. zi 2.00 25. Extending marine protest — Form No. 38 $3 00 If it exceed two hundred words, for every additional one hundred words 50 26. Protest of master against charterers or freighters — Form No. 39 2.00 27. Clearance when issued by the consul, as at free ports. . 2.00 28. Attending an appraisement of vessel's goods or effects, for each day's attendance 5 .00 29. Attending sale of vessel's goods, for each day's attend- ance during which the sale continues 5.00 30. Attendance at a shipwreck, or for the purpose of as- sisting a ship in distress, or of saving wrecked goods or property, over and above traveling expenses, when- ever the consul's interposition is required by the par- | ties interested, for each day 5.00 Notarial and other services 31. Administering an oath and certificate thereof* 2.00 32. Administering oath and preparing passport application i.oo ii. Acknowledgment of a deed or power of attorney, or similar service, including one or more signatures, with certificate thereof 2.00 34. Administering any and all oaths required to be made by pensioners and their witnesses in the execution of their pension vouchers, or certifying to the com- petency of a local official before whom the same were executed. No fee. 35. Acknowledgments connected with the transfer of United States bonds. No fee. 36. Administering oaths to or taking acknowledgments of *E.xecutive order of December 21, 1906, prescribes that no fee shall be c'harged for the affidavit of temporary stay of owner of sealskin garment entering the United States from Canada. 172 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE officials or employees of the United States Govern- ment, in connection with their official business or ac- counts. No fee. 37. For rendering notarial services to officials of foreign governments who render gratuitously reciprocal cour- tesies to American diplomatic and consular officers. No fee. 38. Certifying to official character of a foreign notary or other official $2 . 00 39. For taking depositions, executing commissions or letters rogatory, where the record of testimony, including caption and certificate, does not exceed 500 words. .. 10.00 For each additional 100 words or fraction thereof 50 The foregoing fee shall cover the administration of the oath and all services of the consul as commissioner, but shall not include services of clerk, stenographer or typewriter, which shall be additional at the rate prescribed herein for copying. 40. Copies : For the first hundred words or fraction 50 For every additional hundred words or less 25 41. Translations; for every one hundred words or fraction .50 42. Additional fee for all services contemplated by fees numbered 31, 32, 33, 38, 39 when rendered elsewhere than at the consular office at the request of the inter- ested parties, for each hour or fraction thereof i.oo In connection with any service rendered outside of the consular office at the request of private individuals, the exact amount of the expenses actually and neces- sarily incurred by the person rendering the service shall be collected from the persons for whom the service is performed in addition to the fee or fees prescribed therefor and a note of the amount shall be made on the margin of the fee book and fee return opposite the entry of the service and fee ; but no amount in excess of the fee or fees prescribed and such actual and necessary expenses shall be charged or accepted. 173 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Official Fee-Stamps Consular officers are supplied by the Department of State upon requisition therefor with official fee-stamps on which are printed the equivalent money value. Whenever a consular officer performs any consular or notarial act he is required to deliver the party at whose instance such act is performed an appropriate document and affix thereto and cancel an adhesive stamp or stamps of the denomination equivalent to the fee pre- scribed for such act. No such act shall be legally valid within the jurisdiction of the government of the United States unless such stamps are affixed. Social Relations The consular service was designed for business rather than social purposes. The salaries are not es- tablished on a scale warranting social entertainment. Hence consuls are not required nor expected to enter- tain unless they care to do so. As it is essential that they should cultivate pleasant personal relations with their colleagues, with local officials and other persons of influence, to enable them to perform their official duties most satisfactorily, they will naturally wish to reciprocate social courtesies extended to them, and to dispense such further hospitality as their means may warrant. 174 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE Public Speeches It is advised that consular officers avoid public speeches when it can be done without exciting feeling in the community. They are forbidden to refer in public speeches to any matter pending- in the consulate or in dispute between the United States and any other gov- ernment; and they are instructed to be careful to re- frain from unfavorable comment or criticism upon the institutions or acts of the government to which they are accredited. Local Investments Prohibited Consuls are forbidden to make investments of money within the country from the government of which they receive their exequaturs. This prohibition applies to owning real estate (except for the consul's own use), bonds, shares, stocks, mortgages, etc. Consular officers find that much of their time and energy is expended in attending to matters which do not properly come within the scope of consular duties. The consulate is looked upon as a haven of refuge by all Americans in difficulty or distress, and many believe that our government provides consuls funds with which to relieve this class of persons. Tlie most common form of aid applied for is transportation to the United States. Such requests are made by various classes but 175 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE most frequently by seamen who, while American citi- zens, have lost their quality of American seamen by service in foreign ships. By reason of their acquaint- ance with masters of American vessels, consuls are of- ten able to secure opportunities for such seamen to work their way back to the United States. Many opportunities are afforded consuls to loan money to impecunious Americans, sometimes without security, and occasionally upon the deposit of watches and jewelry as security. The writer was approached by an American who de- sired a loan of $200. He stated that he had large property interests in a certain Western city, and would have no difficulty in repaying a loan. It was suggested that he communicate with some friend in his home town and ask to have money sent to him. He replied that while he had plenty of friends there he didn't know that any of them would feel like advancing him the money. It was observed that if his friends at his home, where he claimed to have large property inter- ests, were not willing to make him a loan, he could hardly expect the consul to do so, who had never seen him before. Pensioners frequently apply to consuls for advances, offering their pension papers as security. Consuls are asked to cash checks and endorse drafts for persons they have never seen before. They are requested to investigate and collect claims to large estates in their consular districts, believed to have been left to claim- 176 OUR CONSULAR SERVICE ants, and are offered a large share in the estates if suc- cessful. Many persons residing in the country in which the consul is stationed have the impression that because he is a representative of the United States it is his duty to look after matters in that country in which they are concerned. For example the writer was asked by a woman, a native of the country in which he was resid- ing, to find her husband who was supposed to be in the United States, and to require him to support her. Another native, who had been swindled by a dis- honest merchant in the United States, called upon the writer to secure redress for him. Then there are the inevitable collectors of stamps and souvenir post-cards. Some are willing to make exchanges. Few furnish postage, and occasionally the letter making the request bears insufficient postage, necessitating the payment by the consul of double pen- alty for short postage. One letter received by the writer asked that the reply be sent through the Department of State, to avoid payment of postage. The following letter from a female collector in Wash- ington is an example of this class of correspondence : "Dear Sir: I am making a collection of souvenir post-cards. Kindly send me a set of souvenir cards representative of the country to which you are accredited. Very truly yours, Jane Smith." For. Serv. — 12 1*^7 Citizenship, Expatriation, and Passports 179 CHAPTER IV. Citizenship, Expatriation, and Passports Citizenship of the United States may be acquired in either of two ways : by birth, or by naturahzation. Citizenship by birth may arise either ( i ) by birth in the United States, or (2) by birth to an American father abroad. Citizenship results from the fact of birth in the United States, irrespective of the citizenship of the parents. This is by virtue of the principle of the com- mon law, by which all persons bom within the domin- ions and allegiance of the Crown, whether of English or foreign parents, were natural-born English subjects, except the children of foreign ambassadors or the chil- dren born to an enemy during hostile occupation of British territory. It also results from the express pro- visions of Sec. 1992 R. S. and the ist section of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which are merely declaratory of the common law. The earlier decisions of our courts concerning this question were somewhat conflicting but it was definitely and authori- tatively settled by the decision of the Supreme Court in the case of Wong Kim Ark, 169 U. S. 649, in 1898. Citizenship by birth to an American father abroad, t8i OUR FOREIGN SERVICE results from the provisions of section 1993 R. S., that all children heretofore born or hereafter born out of the United States, whose fathers were or may be at the time of their birth citizens, are declared to be citizens of the United States. The logical result of the operation of our law of citi- zenship by birth when it comes in conflict with the law of another country on the subject, is to produce what is termed double allegiance. This is inevitable in the ab- sence of a general agreement for the exclusive applica- tion of the one or the other of such laws. For example, in case of the birth in the United States of a child to parents, citizens of a country by the law of which citi- zenship depends on parentage, or in case of the birth of a child to American parents in a foreign country where the jus soli prevails, — the child is a citizen of the United States by virtue of our law, while at the same time by the law of the foreign country he is a citizen of the country to which his parents owe allegiance. Where such dual allegiance arises the conflict is obviated by the general practice of nations, whereby the individual is required, upon reaching majority, to elect which nation- ality he will conserve. If the question becomes a practi- cal one before he arrives at majority, the conflict is decided according to the law of the one of the two coun- tries within whose jurisdiction he actually is. The only legislation relating to this subject in the United States, is the recent Act of Congress of March 2, 1907, requir- ing children who are citizens in accordance with the provisions of section 1993 R. S., and who continue to 182 CITIZENSHIP reside abroad, in order to receive the protection of this government, to record at an American consulate when they reach the age of eighteen years, their intention to become residents and remain citizens of the United States, and upon attaining majority, to take the oath of allegiance to the United States. The second source of citizenship in the United States is by naturalization, v^hich is the act of adopting an alien and clothing him with the privileges of a citizen. Naturalization may be effected (i) by taking out naturalization papers in compliance with the general laws of the United States ; (2) by naturalization of par- ents; (3) by marriage; (4) by special act of Congress ; (5) by treaty; (6) by conquest; (7) by admission of a territory to statehood. The general requirements for formal naturalization are a continuous residence of five years in the United States and one year in the State ; a formal declaration of intention to become a citizen, two years at least be- fore admission to citizenship; the renunciation, at ad- mission, of any title or order of nobility, and of allegi- ance to a foreign state, and taking the oath of alle- giance to the United States. In addition to his own oath, the applicant must pro- duce the testimony of at least two witnesses, citizens of the United States, who have personal knowledge, as to the facts of his residence, moral character and at- tachment to the principles of the Constitution. He must be able to write his name and to speak the English language. Only aliens of the Caucasian and African 183 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE races are eligible for naturalization. Alien enemies, anarchists, polygamists, and persons not of good moral character, are debarred. The naturalization of an alien confers citizenship also upon his minor children dwelling in the United States. Section 2172 R. S. provides that the children of persons who have been duly naturalized under any law of the United States, being under the age of twenty-one years at the time of the naturalization of their parents, shall, if dwelling in the United States, be considered as citizens thereof. The use of the phrase 'dwelling in the United States' made the meaning of this law uncertain, the difficulty being to determine at what period of time the child is required to be dwelling in the United States in order to acquire citizenship. To resolve this doubt, the Act of March 2, 1907, was passed which declares that a child born without the United States of alien parents shall be deemed a citizen by virtue of the naturalization of the parents ; provided that such naturalization takes place during the minority of such child ; and provided, further, that the citizenship of such minor child shall begin at the time the child begins to reside permanently in the United States. A third method of naturalization is by marriage. By the terms of Section 1994 R. S. any woman who is eligible for naturalization under our general laws, be- comes, by marriage to a citizen, a citizen of the United States herself, just as if she had complied with all the formalities prescribed by the general naturalization 184 CITIZENSHIP laws and had been granted a certificate of naturaliza- tion. And this is the case whether the husband is nat- uralized before the marriage or subsequent thereto. As to the effect of the marriage of an American woman to an alien, there were variant decisions of the courts and opinions of the Executive Departments, but the Act of March 2, 1907, expressly declares that any American woman who marries a foreigner shall take the nationality of her husband. It further provides that at the termination of the marital relation she may resume her American citizenship, if abroad, by register- ing as an American citizen within one year with a consul of the United States or by returning to reside in the United States, or if residing in the United States at the termination of the marital relation, by continuing to reside therein. There are numerous instances of collective naturali- zation, or naturalization by special statute. For ex- ample, the annexation of Hawaii was followed by the Act of April 30, 1900, declaring that all persons, who were citizens of Hawaii on April 12, 1898, were citi- zens of the United States. Many classes of Indians have been made citizens in this manner. There have been several instances of collective natu- ralization by treaty. The treaties with France in 1803, ceding Louisiana; with Spain in 1819, ceding Florida; with Mexico in 1848 and 1853, ceding Mexican terri- tory; and with Russia in 1867 for the cession of Alas- ka; all made provision for the incorporation of the inhabitants of the territorv ceded as citizens of the 185 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE United States. Our treaty with Spain (1898) ceding the PhiHppines and Porto Rico, made no provision for the incorporation of the inhabitants as citizens, but expressly provided that the civil rights and political status of the native inhabitants should be determined by Congress. And Congress has legislated and with- held United States citizenship from these people. A sixth method of naturalization is by conquest. It is a general principle of the law of nations that in the absence of express treaty stipulations, or legislation by the conqueror, whenever a government acquires terri- tory by conquest, the allegiance of the conquered is transferred to the new sovereign. Naturalization may also be acquired by the admission of a Territory as a State. The constitution provides that "new^ States may be admitted by the Congress into the Union," and that "the Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make needful rules and regulations re- specting the territory or other property belonging to the United States." In pursuance of these provisions, Congress in several instances in admitting a territory as a State has declared who of the inhabitants shall be citizens. But in any event, on the admission of a new state into the Union, its citizens, — the members who compose it, — become, ipso facto, entitled to all privi- leges and immunities of citizens of the United States. Expatriation Until the enactment of the law of March 2, 1907, 186 CITIZENSHIP **in reference to the expatriation of citizens and their protection abroad," there was no mode of renunciation of citizenship prescribed by our laws, with the ex- ception of Section 1998 R. S., by virtue of which desertion from the Army and Navy works forfeiture of the rights of citizenship. But the Act of 1907 expressly prescribes the follow- ing" modes by which citizenship may be renounced : ( i ) By naturalization in a foreign state; (2) by taking an oath of allegiance to a foreign state; (3) by marriage of an American woman to a foreigner ; (4) by residence in a foreign country. The act declares that when a naturalized citizen of the United States shall have resided for two years in the foreign state from which he came, or five years in any other foreign state, it shall be presumed that he has ceased to be an American citizen ; with the proviso, however, that such presumption may be overcome by his presenting satisfactory evidence to a diplomatic or consular officer, under such rules as the Department of State shall prescribe. Under the rules prescribed by the Secretary of State, proof must be presented estab- lishing the following facts: (a) That his residence abroad is solely as a representative of American trade and that he intends eventually to return to the United States, permanently to reside; or (b) That his resi- dence abroad is in good faith for reasons of health or for education and that he intends eventually to return to the United States, or (c) That some unforeseen or controlling exigency beyond his power to foresee has 187 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE prevented his carrying out a bona iide intention to re- turn to the United States within the time limited by law, and that it is his intention to return and reside in the United States immediately upon the removal of the preventing cause. Passports Rules Governing the Granting and Issuing of Pass- ports in the United States — Executive Order. 1. By whom issued and refusal to issue. — No one but the Secretary of State may grant and issue pass- ports in the United States ( Revised Statutes, Sections 4075, 4078,) and he is empowered to refuse them in his discretion. Passports are not issued by American diplomatic and consular officers abroad, except in cases of emer- gency; and a citizen who is abroad and desires to pro- cure a passport must apply therefor through the nearest diplomatic or consular officer to the Secretary of State. Applications for passports by persons in Porto Rico or the Philippines should be made to the Chief Execu- tive of those Islands. The evidence required of such applicants is the same as that required of applicants in the United States. 2. Fee. — By act of Congress approved March 23, 1888, a fee of one dollar is required to be collected for evei-y citizen's passport. That amount in currency or postal money order should accompany each application made by a citizen of the United States. Orders should 188 CITIZENSHIP be made payable to tlie Disbursing Clerk of the Depart- ment of State. Drafts or checks will not be accepted. 3. Applications. — A person who is entitled to receive a passport, if within the United States, must make a written application, in the form of an aflidavit, to the Secretary of State. The application must be made by the person to whom the passport is to be issued and signed by him, as it is not competent for one person to apply for another. The affidavit must be attested by an officer author- ized to administer oaths, and if he has an official seal it must be affixed. If he has no seal, his official char- acter must be authenticated by certificate of the proper legal officer. If the applicant signs by mark, two attesting wit- nesses to his signature are required. The applicant is required to state the date and place of his birth, his oc- cupation, the place of his permanent residence, to what country or countries he intends to travel and within what length of time he will return to the United States with the purpose of residing and performing the duties of citizenship. The applicant must take the oath of allegiance to the Government of the United States. The application must be accompanied by a description of the person applying, and should state the following particulars, viz. : Age, — ; stature, — ; feet — inches (English measure) ; forehead, — ; eyes, — ; nose, — ; mouth, — ; chin, — ; hair, — ; complexion, — ; face. — . The application must be accompanied by a certificate 189 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE from at least one credible witness that the applicant is the person he represents himself to be, and that the facts stated in the affidavit are true to the best of the witness's knowledge and belief. 4. Native citizens. — An application containing the information indicated by rule 3 will be sufficient evi- dence in the case of native citizens ; but A person of the Chinese race, alleging birth in the United States, must accompany his application with supporting affidavits from at least two credible wit- nesses, preferably not of the Chinese race, having per- sonal knowledge of the applicant's birth in the United States. The application and supporting affidavits should be in duplicate and should be accompanied by three photographs of the applicant and should state at what port he intends to re-enter the United States. 5. A person born abroad wdiose father was a native citizen of the United States. — In addition to the state- ments required by rule 3, his application must show that his father was born in the United States, resided there- in, and was a citizen at the time of the applicant's birth. The Department may require that this affidavit be supH ported by that of one other citizen acquainted with the facts. 6. Naturalized citizens. — In addition to the state- ments required by rule 3, a naturalized citizen must transmit his certificate of naturalization, or a duly cer- tified copy of the court record thereof, with his applica- tion. It will be returned to him after inspection. He must state in his affidavit when and from what port 190 CITIZENSHIP ■ he emigrated to this country, what ship he sailed in, where he has hved since his arrival in the United States, when and before what court he was naturahzed, and that he is the identical person described in the cer- tificate of naturaHzation. The signature to the apphca- tion should conform in orthography to the applicant's name as written in his certificate of naturalization, or an explanation of the difference should be submitted. 7. — Woman's application. — If she is unmarried, in addition to the statements required by rule 3, she should state that she has never been married. If she is the wife or widow of a native citizen of the United States the fact should be made to appear in her application. If she is the wife or widow of a naturalized citizen, in addition to the statements required by rule 3, she must transmit for inspection her husband's certificate of nat- uralization, must state that she is the wife (or widow) of the person described therein, and must set forth the facts of his emigration, naturalization, and residence, as required in the rule governing the application of a naturalized citizen. (A married woman's citizenship follows that of her husband so far as her international status is concerned. It is essential, therefore, that a woman's marital rela- tions be indicated in her application for a passport, and that in the case of a married woman her husband's cit- izenship be established.) 8. The child of a naturalized citizen claiming citizen- ship through the naturalization of the parent. — In addi- tion to the statements required by rule 3, the applicant 191 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE must state that he or she is the son or daughter, as the case may be, of the person described in the certificate of naturahzation, which must be submitted for inspec- tion, and must set forth the facts of emigration, natural- ization, and residence, as required in the rule govern- ing the application of a naturalized citizen. 9. A resident of an insular possession of the United States who owes allegiance to the United States. — In addition to the statements required by rule 3, he must state that he owes allegiance to the United States and that he does not acknowledge allegiance to any other government; and must submit affidavits from at least two credible witnesses having good means of knowl- edge in substantiation of his statements of birth, resi- dence and loyalty. 10. Expiration of passport. — A passport expires two years from the date of its issuance. A new one will be issued upon a new application, and, if the applicant be a naturalized citizen, the old passport will be accepted in lieu of a certificate of naturalization, if the applica- tion upon which it was issued is found to contain suffi- cient information as to the naturalization of the appli- cant. 11. Wife, minor children, and servants.- — When the applicant is accompanied by his wife, minor children, or servant who would be entitled to receive a passport, it will be sufficient to state the fact, giving the respective ages of the children and the allegiance of the servant, when one passport will suffice for all. For any other 192 CITIZENSHIP person in the party a separate passport will be required. A woman's passport may include her minor children and servant under the above-named conditions. (The term servant does not include a governess, tutor, pupil, companion, or person holding like relations to the applicant for a passport.) 12. Titles. — Professional and other titles will not be inserted in passports. 13. Blank forms of application. — They will be fur- nished by the Department to persons who desire to ap- ply for passports, but are not furnished, except as samples, to those who make a business of procuring passports. 14. Address. — Communications should be addressed to the Department of State, Bureau of Citizenship, and each communication should give the post-office address of the person to whom the answer is to be directed. Section 4075 of the Revised Statutes of the United States, as amended by the act of Congress, approved June 14, 1902, providing that "the Secretary of State may grant and issue passports, and cause passports to be granted, issued and verified in foreign countries by such diplomatic or consular officers of the United States, and by such chief or other executive officer of the insular possessions of the United States, and under such rules as the President shall designate and pre- scribe for and on behalf of the United States," the fore- going rules are hereby prescribed for the granting and issuing of passports in the United States. For. Serv. — 13 rgo OUR FOREIGN SERVICE The Secretar)^ of State is authorized to make regula- tions on the subject of issuing and granting passports additional to these rules and not inconsistent with them. Theodore Roosevelt. The White House, June 13, 1907. 194 Literature of the Subject Bibliography ^95 CHAPTER V. Literature of the Subject — Bibliography Our Universities and Colleges are beginning to de- vote attention to the education of students for our for- eign service. Besides the general post-graduate course in international law, political economy, history, govern- ment and languages, given in many of our higher in- stitutions of learning, three of the colleges in Wash- ington have added lectures on the diplomatic and con- sular service ; two have provided special courses on cit- izenship ; and one has established a course giving special preparation and training for the diplomatic and con- sular service. To the student who aspires to a position in our for- eign service but is not able to avail himself of the excel- lent advantages afforded in these institutions, a few suggestions concerning the course of study to be pur- sued to fit him for this work are appropriate. He wishes to know what books he should study and refer to, and the literature devoted to the subject. To meet this want the writer subjoins a list of approved au- thorities — mostly American. 197 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Government Publications A large number of these works are Government pub- lications. Among the most useful are the Annual vol- umes of Foreign Relations, v^^hich contain selected cor- respondence between the Department of State and our diplomatic representatives in foreign countries, and be- tween the Department and the representatives of for- eign governments in the United States. The publica- tion of these volumes in their present form began in 1870. The period from 1861 to 1868 is covered by a similar publication under the title of "Diplomatic Cor- respondence." Prior to that date there was no system- atic publication of our diplomatic correspondence, with the exception of six volumes of "American State Papers," covering only the period from 1789 to 1828. On account of the delay in publishing the volumes of Foreign Rclatio'}is, they are not read by a very great number of persons, but they contain a vast deal of use- ful and interesting information concerning foreign af- fairs, and their careful perusal by the student may be made a matter of great profit. Treaties and Conventions betzveen the United States and other Powers, 1776-1887. This contains some valuable Notes compiled by J. C. B. Davis, Assistant Secretary of State. A "Coutpilofion of Treaties in Force/' was published in 1899, with references to the decisions of the Federal courts in relation to treaties. 198 LITERATURE A further C ompilation of Treaties, prepared under the authority of Congress, was published in 1904. International Lazv Digest by John Bassett Moore, 8 volumes, 1906. This colossal work, nominally a re- vision of Wharton's Digest of International Law, is the result of nearly ten years labor and research by Professor Moore, who is recognized as the leading au- thority in the United States on International Law. Professor Moore was not satisfied to make a mere re- vision of Wharton, but adopted a new and independent plan, comprehending the entire field of international law. The monumental work which resulted is based upon diplomatic correspondence, treaties and other in- ternational agreements, international awards, decisions of municipal courts, the writings of jurists, messages by Presidents and Secretaries of State, and the opinions of the Attorneys-General. Instead of merely quoting extracts from state papers, etc.. Professor Moore, with the thoroughness which characterizes all his work, gives the histor)^ of the cases in which the particular documents were issued and shows what was actually done and the opinion that finally prevailed. The work produced is much more than a digest. It is a treatise and may well be said to be one of the most important contributions to the literature of international law by any American author. It is indispensable alike to those who are officially concerned in international affairs and to the student. History and Digest of the Internatio-nal Arbitrations to which the United States has been a party, by John 199 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Bassett Moore, 6 volumes, 1898. This work is of the same exhaustive and comprehensive character as the International Law Digest. Besides digesting the opin- ions of every arbitration tribunal in which the United States has been a party, Professor Moore gives a his- tory of the origin of the questions submitted to arbi- tration, and of the negotiations preceding their submis- sion. In an Appendix there are included also the arbi- tration treaties, and historical and legal notes on other arbitrations, and on the domestic commissions of the United States for the adjustment of international claims. Ralston' s Report, 1904. This covers the opinions of the Venezuelan Arbitrations of 1903, together with copies of the Protocols and what is known as the "Bow- en Correspondence" relating thereto. Compilation of the Messages OMd Papers of the Pres- idents, 1789-97. 10 volumes. Washington, 1896-9. Compilation of Reports of Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 1 789-1901. Senate Executive Documents 231, 56th Congress. 2d Session, parts 1-8. Wharton's Diplomatic Correspondence of the Ameri- can Revolution, 6 volumes, Washington, 1889. This is a mine of information in relation to our diplomacy during the Revolutionary period. United States Consular Regulations, 1896. A new edition of these Regulations, which is greatly needed because of the numerous changes in our laws and the regulations based thereon since 1896, is being prepared. 200 LITERAl^URE The Consular Reports, in their daily, monthly and annual form. History of the Department of State. 1893 and 1901. The American Passport, History and Digest, by Gaillard Hunt. Washington, 1898. Text Works Butler, Charles Henry, Treaty-Making Power of the United States. New York, 1902. Crandall, Samuel B., Treaties, Their Making and Enforcement. New York, 1904. Davis, George B., Elements of International Law. New York, 1903. Foster, John W., A Century of American Diplomacy, 1 776- 1 886. Boston, 1900. ■ American Diplomacy in the Orient. Bos- ton, 1903. Practice of Diplomacy, as Illustrated in the Foreign Relations of the United States. Boston, 1906. Arbitration and The Hague Court. Boston, 1904. Hall, W. E., International Law. Oxford, 1904. Halleck, Henry W., International Law. London, 1878. Hart, Albert B., Handbook of History, Diplomacy, etc., of the Government of the United States. Cam- bridge, 1 90 1. The Foundations of American Foreign Pol- icy. New York, 1901. 201 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Henderson, John B. Jr., American Diplomatic Ques- tions. New York, 190 1. Hill, Dr. David J., History of European Diplomacy. 6 volumes (two issued). New York and London, 1905, 1907. Hinckley, Frank E., American Consular Jurisdiction in the Orient. Washington, 1906. Jones, Chester Lloyd, The Consular Service of the United States: Its Historv and Activities. No. 18 of publications of the University of Pennsylvania, Series in Political Economy and Public Law. Philadelphia, 1906. Kent's Commentaries. Vol. i. Latane, J. H., The Diplomatic Relations of the Unit- ed States and Spanish America. Baltimore, 1900. Lawrence T. J., Principles of International Law. Boston, 1898. Moore, John Bassett, Extradition and Interstate Rendition. 2 volumes. Boston, 1889. American Diplomacy, its Spirit and Achieve- ments. New York, 1905. Murray, E. C. G., Embassies and Foreign Courts. London, 1885. Oppenheim, L., International Law, 2 volumes. Lon- don and New York, 1905 and 1907. Schuyler, Eugene, American Diplomacy and the Furtherance of Commerce. New York, 1886. Scidmore, George H., Consular Courts in Japan. While the United States no longer exercises extraterri- torial jurisdiction in Japan, this book contains much in- 202 L i 1' E R A T U R E formation of present value concerning consular juris- diction. Scott, James Brown, Cases on International Law. St. Paul, 1906. Snow, Freeman, Treaties and Topics in American Diplomacy. Boston, 1894. Cases and Opinions on International Law. Boston, 1903. Taylor, Hannis, International Law. Chicago, 1901. Van Dyne, Frederick, Citizenship of the United States. Rochester, 1904. Van Dyne on Naturalization. Washington, [907. Wheaton, Henry, Elements of International Law (Dana's Edition.) Woolsey, Theodore D. Introduction to the Study of International Law^ New York, 1901. Woolsey, Theodore S., America's Foreign Policy; Essays and Addresses. New York, 1898. In Memoirs and Diaries, the following contain much valuable and interesting material concerning foreign affairs : Adams, John Quincy, Memoirs, Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848. 12 volumes. Phil- adelphia, 1 874-1 877. Nicolay and Hay, Abraham Lincoln. 10 volumes. New York. 1890. White, Andrew D., Autobiography. 2 volumes. New York, 1905. 203 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Periodical Literature American Journal of International Law, 1907. — • The American Society of International Law, of which Secretary Root is president, was organized only two years ago, but it has already a membership of nearly one thousand. The object of the Society is to develop popular interest in the study of international law and promote the establishment of international relations on the basis of law and justice. Annual meetings are held at which questions of international interest are discussed and the proceedings are published and dis- tributed to the members. The Society has an organ, published quarterly, the "American Journal of International Law," of which Dr. James Brown Scott, the versatile Solicitor of the Department of State, is the Managing Editor. This is by far the most useful and interesting current pub- lication in the field of international law. It is the only such journal pubHshed in the English language. It contains in each issue papers contributed by members on subjects of an international character of current in- terest, editorial comment on pending international ques- tions and occurrences, a chronicle of international events, a Hst of pubHc documents relating to interna- tional law, copies of current decisions of the courts in- volving questions of international law, reviews of books relating to international law, diplomacy, etc., and a list of contributions to current periodicals. 204 LITERATURE A Supplement to the Journal gives the text of cur- rent treaties and other official documents relating to in- ternational matters. The "Journal" and "Supplement" constitute a veri- table treasure house of information concerning inter- national matters, and enable the student to keep in touch with all that transpires in international and dip- lomatic affairs. The American Political Science Revieiu. This is the organ of the American Political Science Association. It is published quarterly and devotes a section to inter- national law. The Bulletin of the International Bureau of the American Republics. This is the organ of the Inter- national Bureau of the American Republics. It is published monthly in two sections, one in English and one in Spanish, Portuguese and French. 205 Appendix Regulations governing Examinations for the office of Secretary of Embassy or Legation. Present Diplomatic Service of the United States. Regulations governing Appointments and Promotions in the Consular Service. Regulations governing Examinations. Sample Examination Papers. Present Consular Service of the United States. Forms. 207 APPENDIX EXAMINATIONS FOR OFFICE OF SECRETARY OF EM- BASSY OR LEGATION EXECUTIVE ORDER It is hereby ordered that vacancies in the office of Secretary of Embassy or Legation shall hereafter be filled (a) By transfer or promotion from some branch of the foreign service, or (b) By the appointment of a person who, having furnished satisfactory evidence of character, responsibility and capacity, and being thereupon selected by the President for examination, is found upon such examination to be qualified for the position. Theodore Roosevelt. The White House, November loth, 1905. ORDER BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE In pursuance of the Executive order of November 10, 1905, the Second Assistant Secretary of State, the Solicitor for the Department of State, and the Chief of the Diplomatic Bureau, or the persons for the time being respectively discharging the duties of said offices, are hereby constituted a Board, whose duty it shall be, by appropriate examination, to determine the qualifica- tions of persons selected by the President therefor, to be ap- pointed as secretaries of embassies or legations. Vacancies oc- curring in said Board, or such changes in the membership thereof as experience may prove to be desirable, will be dealt with by additional regulations as occasion may require. The examination herein provided shall be held from time to time at the Department of State, in Washington, upon such no- tice to candidates as shall give them reasonable opportunity to attend for the purpose in question. For. Serv. — 14 200 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Such examinations shall be both oral and in writing. The sub- jects to which the examination shall relate are to be: 1. International law; 2. Diplomatic usage ; 3. Modern languages. Familiarity with at least one foreign language will be required. This language may be either the language spoken in the country in which the embassy or legation is located, or French. The Examining Board is authorized to issue such notices and to make all such rules as it may deem necessary to accomplish the objects of this regulation, and immediately upon the conclusion of such examination shall make to the Secretary of State a report in writing, stating whether in its judgment the candidate is or is not qualified for the particular position applied for, and, if the decision is adverse to the candidate, also briefly summarizing the grounds of such decision. Elihu Root. Department of State. Washington, November loth, 1905. 210 APPENDIX SQ H < H on fi H H IN S H C » M > < IS C )^ CM as Oh • C8 o'S '^ o u u V « u •a c a a O S Ji O " u O »n O O O ON o o o O vo i/l o o o «/-. o o o o o O i-l o o o o o OVO O O >/I o o N M O N tvPO N oo ooooooooooo O^0\ C»0»0*Ovo^O>0\0>00>0^ NVOVOVOOOOO o f4 « „ „ « Q.ji ^ 2 ■< c« Q ^ i-.(-,0 Q >-. —; " ^ •J IS OmOvoOOOOOOOOOO ©"tOrtOOOOOOOOOO o vo o \o oc^ooooooqo r«NNN""foNi-rM«~«^r^r IrtOO u^l^ tvOO o o o o o o O* O^ 0\ O^ 0\ o^ MM 0) >.!!i !3 u u i^ 2 o B 3 CB rt cQ ace a s c 4> a> CI >>>> vo 1^ ^s ^v ^soo oo oo i^s OOOOOOOOO 00 bv tN. |Ns Tt ^ t »'J^ ri N PI « H. . . . 1> V ^ tfi bfl be cj c C ^^ U 3 3 rJ V 3 5*5 OJ i2 5«r,3.2.2.2 CCCCCCCC c c a CQ « 1^ H-) tf « K Di OD t/3 9h fc 0< Ph Ah Oh Oh CU Ph Pi Cl, &H H Ph >»c -a o ii to ft: -2 « ;'^^< J3X-IT3 . . a O M O 3 ° saw a a^, © to " ».« s ' en ^ a g» b !- » a j; s * o s J .-2^5 <« w • ,^ saw i-Jt; c OmIU . boa • H "^ o . -■S b;**^ l"c iiCi r " t. . Ph°" V i" 2 e -o - C <" ^ o c flj C) o P< E^ K = c = Ph^ if "Si uC O CO 3 'i u *j J- > 3 u £ p o E o M O 1J •3 S a g a CQ 03 ca = a ia S u >• T3 3 (fl V O K XI W M u briu C-o •o 3 w o C o C u a a 1 aeo X C V rt o V W4 E « < ■V •M IL> n c o u. a. O a M< o o 211 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE < en Q H M H 1^ O H Si 05 , rt B CO a o u a -4-* B 3 0' t/i o o o o o o ' O O O ifl o o o O O O M O O O O O OVOOO o o ON -ONNNi-rOor O O O O o o o o o q o o o" of o" N o o o o o o o o lo O O N tC fn cT im" "I ^ o o o o o Oi 0» O* C7» CO 3 bo>. 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OS . it . h ■ o : a a '- e & en tii S '- a fa b SO : bib - ■ ^^ ^ J^ *-• o s • ra^ bD--Q3t< _• MHt/3 iU.4-1 in CO £* ..2 hW So-H'-« JS - 4)~ . ■ O o •^^^.^rto"-^ - J3bOo Q«>2.<|_|>. o . - -5 • ®t: CD • ^ .-; : * ^ ■ Si— ,U O O u > O « u eg bou :2§ en O c " an g" .H 1- E C9 °c £'o ° ft 212 APPENDIX » H P » o H OD ce UH O « c oooooooooo oooooooooo OOOOOOOi^OO ONOflOONtNfON o o o o o o o o o o \n o vo o f< o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 1^ tn f*^ ri 11 iflvo tsoooooo ifloooovooo tN3o>o i^r^ vovooo oooooooooooooooo ooo ooooooooooo I) o-;3'n ™ i: o 3 QOh 3 3 s.^^^;^.^sq c s w Si c a 3 a^ii S 3 o C C _; in • ._: 2 H > o'^ ^^5 rt s!— 'S S; E £ G E E g.2 J3 OU ' CU>< "i .l-^ . . . . . . u • >< -U.o .o _ .o g_o I . '. .-fi'n-co^ — _• .— •^; -QOuOScuOSi^O a V E ;2; o m rt ■a ji: >. fi Ui -n o H C u 3 O u u C C 2 a, o o a s C Cflj3 O O -^ -u. e 3 3 So ■■Srtft, S3 ft a ? 3 a E S E E;«j.« 9 o o o o o o ooo ooooooooooo ooo ooooooooooo a. ^ .a o o o .CAIW 051 <. oH "^-S o s - -e rt i .* -. S . r r- o S o c >H U (U "•en — E a« >a o W"? r" t» oc - . c MN CQ 5^c .0 . o. ^_, W ^j o i-JBc/),.p3u^ S.y5"^ « a— bo? S^--^E .^»r 3 *-S o sa<"-2 -Q (U N t3 <- -0 4> .s'S U. 3 <^ t: 13 Z «.c 213 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE 214 APPENDIX H •A 'A CO 0< • CO E g c e •M o -E Q E o o • o c o o o o o o o o ,000 ON • O N o" vo 1 1^ fooo rs 000 o o o o Ooo O 0^ o Ot 00000 00000 O 1^ O O N «^vO (-« O.CO 00000 0» O^ o* ^ 0^ ^ a O ts O 04 n n n 11 -— - ra ^« ^ •— I 3»H nj 3 3 000 OOOOOWOO "OO 000 OOOOOMOO 'OO 000 ooo>no>oo_o |oo ocio t^ocl flciofi'ON tNOO . t^ o o • o o> Ov • o • ■ «> coir; . CO . CO u ™ s H H CO •»* t-4 13 C CO ii, ^ B CO 15 "TJ o 5 H CJ • CO CO SaSQ CO CO O CO CO O eft CO iSS ■ O 1^ c*500 *-" ultNintNfvtrtlO OOOOOOOOOOO ^0^0^0^C^0^C>0>O'^^ ■* tN o r^oo c^oo -a tNCC >- M r< M c^ •-. 11 « " a§ 3J3 §J3 3 £•" u -• ^:3^g>^'^c - coS Q U'*2:w;z;S§W I'd o a u ;m u - S 3 3 3 •3; eST)** I- > CO X u u q g u ~ •, jj *: 4J„ ** J-. r E^. •o- ■e<< ii tj o o . 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"2 i^ hcuz:2;2;pS<; H •< ^,- >.::;■:■■■ H r" o >h' 1^ :.£>^' "^ i2 ^ Cl ^•° HOuO^Soli^ Q> M * ^ oj . ; & O G C C . a • ■ s a o o c o_^ 2 o • S V -a I.S.Si 5 X «5 C/ a c c c O O c 2-S- s H ^ n £ J^ p» 'S S <« « oS3a55eJn!M o OUUC UttwSSSotJO H ti > » H H O I-) & H 02 S3 1- c O L 1 •■ :& :^ :(i; ■ ■".be W^_lS 4-* < c B IS a . "^ < C c.55cfl 4?s«^^ : . gg «« >>~ r,*^ • < I. C (: 6 !:= o" (j : '■ \ 15 «^ « J5 >>£ Ho" •2 •2 ■& 1 u 9 S Uh .« H so & 3b > 1 u si ^ o 5" u. O o a. J" s ■|S V u W.i2 s ^3 ^^ c. 3 t5 C .2 >.« (Q ce tA .E.S " < - 4JH q 4-1 U» <« 0-* w 2l6 APPENDIX REGULATIONS GOVERNING APPOINTMENTS AND PROMOTIONS IN THE CONSULAR SERVICE. EXECUTIVE ORDER Whereas, The Congress, by Section 1753 of the Revised Statutes of the United States has provided as follows : "The President is authorized to prescribe such regulations for the admission of persons into the civil service of the United States as may best promote the efficiency thereof, and ascertain the fitness of each candidate in respect to age, health, character, knowledge, and ability for the branch of service into which he seeks to enter; and for this purpose he may employ suitable per- sons to conduct such inquiries, and may prescribe their duties, and establish regulations for the conduct of persons who may re- ceive appointments in the civil service." And, whereas, the Congress has classified and graded the con- suls-general and consuls of the United States by the act entitled "An act to provide for the reorganization of the consular service of the United States," approved April 5, 1906, and has thereby made it practicable to extend to that branch of the civil service the aforesaid provisions of the Revised Statutes and the prin- ciples embodied in the Civil Service Act of January 16, 1883. Now, therefore, in the exercise of the powers conferred upon him by the Constitution and laws of the United States, the Presi- dent makes the following regulations to govern the selection of consuls-general and consuls in the civil service of the United States, subject always to the advice and consent of the Senate: — 1. Vacancies in the office of consul-general and in the office of consul above class 8 shall be filled by promotion from the lower grades of the consular service, based upon ability and efficiency as shown in the service. 2. Vacancies in the office of consul of class 8 and of consul of class 9 shall be filled : (a)* By promotion on the basis of ability and efficiency as shown in the service, of consular assistants! and of vice consuls, •As amended by Executive orders of December 12, 1906, and April 20, 1907. tAs amended by the Act approved May 21, 1908. 217 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE deputy consuls, consular agents, student interpreters and inter- preters in the consular or diplomatic service, who shall have been appointed to such offices upon examination. (b) By new appointments of candidates who have passed a satisfactory examination for appointment as consul as hereafter provided. 3. Persons in the service of the Department of State with sal- aries of two thousand dollars or upwards shall be eligible for promotion, on the basis of ability and efficiency as shown in the service, to any grade of the consular service above class 8 of consuls. 4. The Secretary of State, or such officer of the Department of State as the President shall designate, the Chief Clerk of the De- partment of State,* and the Chief Examiner of the Civil Service Commission, or some person whom said Commission shall desig- nate, shall constitute a Board of Examiners for admission to the consular service. 5. It shall be the duty of the Board of Examiners to formulate rules for and hold examinations of applicants for admission to the consular service. 6. The scope and method of the examinations shall be deter- mined by the Board of Examiners, but among the subjects shall be included at least one modern language other than English ; the natural, industrial and commercial resources and the commerce of the United States, especially with reference to the possibilities of increasing and extending the trade of the United States with for- eign countries; political economy; elements of international, com- mercial and maritime law. 7. Examination papers shall be rated on a scale of 100, and no person rated at less than 80 shall be eligible for certification. 8. No one shall be examined who is under twenty-one or over fifty years of age, or who is not a citizen of the United States, or who is not of good character and habits and physically and mental- ly qualified for the proper performance of consular work, or who has not been specially designated by the President for appointment to the consular service subject to examination. 9. Whenever a vacancy shall occur in the eighth or ninth class of consuls which the President may deem it expedient to fill, the *As amended by Executive order of June 20, 1907. 218 APPENDIX Secretary of State shall inform the Board of Examiners, who shall certify to him the list of those persons eligible for appointment, accompanying the certificate with a detailed report showing the qualifications, as revealed by examination, of the persons so cer- tified. If it be desired to fill a vacancy in a consulate in a country in which the United States exercises extra-territorial jurisdiction, the Secretary of State shall so inform the Board of Examiners, who shall include in the list of names certified by it only such persons as have passed the examination provided for in this order, and who also have passed an examination in the fundamental principles of the common law, the rules of evi- dence and the trial of civil and criminal cases. The list of names which the Board of Examiners shall certify shall be sent to the President for his information. ID. No promotion shall be made except for efficiency, as shown by the work that the officer has accomplished, the ability, prompt- ness and diligence displayed by him in the performance of all his official duties, his conduct and his fitness for the consular service. II.* It shall be the duty of the Board of Examiners to formulate rules for and hold examinations of persons designated for appoint- ment as consular assistant! or as student interpreter, and of such persons designated for appointment as vice consul, deputy consul and consular agent, as shall desire to become eligible for promotion. The scope and method of such examination shall be determined by the Board of Examiners, but it shall include the same subjects hereinbefore prescribed for the examination of con- suls. Any vice consul, deputy consul or consular agent now in the service, upon passing such an examination shall become elig- ible for promotion, as if appointed upon such examination. 12. In designations for appointment subject to examination and in appointments after examination, due regard will be had to the rule, that as between candidates of equal merit, appointments should be so made as to secure proportional representation of all the States and Territories in the consular service ; and neither in the designation for examination or certification or appointment will the political affiliations of the candidate be considered. Theodore Roosevelt The White House, June 27th, 1906. *As amended by Executive order of December 12. 1906. tAs amended by the .Act approved May 21, 1908. 219 APPENDIX REGULATIONS GOVERNING EXAMINATIONS In pursuance of the Executive order of June 27, 1906, whereby the President promulgated regulations governing appointments and promotions in the consular service, the following rules have been adopted by the undersigned Board of Examiners, who, under that order, have been designated to formulate rules for and hold examinations of applicants for admission to the consular service whom the President shall have designated for examination to de- termine their eligibility for appointment therein : 1. The examinations will be the same for all grades and will be to determine a candidate's eligibility for appointment in the con- sular service, irrespective of the grade for which he may have been designated for examination and without regard to any par- ticular oflEce for which he may be selected. 2. The examinations will consist of an oral and a written one, the two counting equally. The object of the oral examination will be to determine the candidate's business ability, alertness, general contemporary information, and natural fitness for the serv- ice, including moral, mental, and physical qualifications, char- acter, address, and general education and good command of Eng- lish. In this part of the examination the applications previously filed will be given due weight by the Board of Examiners, es- pecially as evidence of the applicant's business experience and ability. The written examination will include those subjects men- tioned in the Executive order, to wit, French, German, or Span- ish, or at least one modern language other than English; the nat- ural, industrial, and commercial resources and the commerce of the United States, especially with reference to possibilities of in- creasing and extending the foreign trade of the United States ; political economy, and the elements of international, commercial, and maritime law. It will likewise include American history, gov- ernment, and institutions; political and commercial geography; arithmetic (as used in commercial statistics, tariff calculations, exchange, accounts, etc.) ; the modern history, since 1850, of Europe, Latin America, and the Far East, with particular atten- tion to political, commercial, and economic tendencies. In the 221 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE written examination, composition, grammar, punctuation, spelling, and writing will be given attention. 3. To become eligible for appointment, except as student inter- preter, in a country where the United States exercises extraterri- torial jurisdiction, the applicant must pass the examination out- lined above, but supplemented by questions to determine his knowledge of the fundamental principles of common law, the rules of evidence, and the trial of civil and criminal cases. 4. The examination to be given candidates for appointment as student interpreters will follow the same course as in the case of other consular officers, provided, however, that no one will be examined for admission to the consular service as a student inter- preter who is not between the ages of nineteen and twenty-six, inclusive, and unmarried ; and, provided further, that upon ap- pointment each student interpreter shall sign an agreement to con- tinue in the service so long as his services may be required, with- in a period of five years. 5. Upon the conclusion of the examinations the names of the candidates who shall have attained upon the whole examination an average mark of at least eighty, as required by the Executive or- der, will be certified by the Board to the Secretary of State as eligible for appointment in the consular service, and the success- ful candidates will be informed that this has been done. 6. The names of candidates will remain on the eligible list for two years, except in the case of such candidates as shall within that period be appointed or shall withdraw their names. Names which have been on the eligible list for two years will be dropped therefrom and the candidates concerned will not again be eligible for appointment unless upon fresh application, designation anew for examination, and the successful passing of such second ex- amination- Huntington Wilson, Third Assistant Secretary of State. Wilbur J. Carr, Chief, Consular Bureau. F. M. Kiggins, Chief Examiner, Civil Service Commission. Department of State, Washington, December 13, 1906. 222 APPENDIX SAMPLE EXAMINATION PAPERS (Consular service examinations of March 14 and 15, 1907.] ORAL EXAMINATION The oral examination is addressed to discover the character, disposition, address, manners, health, personal appearance, readi- ness, judgment, discretion, resourcefulness, accuracy of informa- tion, experience, and business capacity of the candidates. WRITTEN EXAMINATION. Examination No., DECLARATION SHEET. Directions: Write the examination number, which is given above, on the accompanying envelope, and also on your prelim- inary sheet and on each sheet of the examination. Make no error in transcribing this number, because it is the Department's only means of identifying the examination sheets. Fill all blanks on this sheet. Write all answers and exercises with ink. Write your name on no other sheet than this. Carefully fold this sheet in three folds, then place it in the en- velope and seal the envelope. DECLARATION. / declare upon my honor that the answers to the following questions are true, to the best of my knowledge and belief. Question i. What is your name ? (Write your first name in full, your mid- dle initial or initials, if you have any, and your surname in full.) 223 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Question 2. What examination have you been authorized to take? (Give exact title of examination.) Question j. When and where were you born? (Month.) (Day.) (Year.) (City or town.) (County.) (State.) Question 4. Where is your legal residence and how long have you been a legal resident there? (City or town.) (County.) (State.) (Years.) (Months.) Question 5. Are you now in physical condition to justify you in taking this examination at this time. (Signature) Street, (No.) (Street.) City or Town, County, State, 224 APPENDIX PRELIMINARY SHEET INSTRUCTIONS TO COMPETITORS Two days of six consecutive hours each, exclusive of the inter- missions noted below, are allowed for this examination, which comprises this preliminary sheet and eight numbered sheets. The first four subjects will be given on the first day and the re- maining subjects on the second day. REPORT OF RATINGS (N. B. — The competitor should not write in the form below.) Subjects. First day -French, German or 1. Modern languages Spanish 2. International, maritime, and commercial law Aver- ages. (Intermission, one hour.) 3. Political and commercial geography. 4. Arithmetic Second day. Natural, industrial, and commercial re- sources and commerce of the United States Political economy 7- (Intermission, one hour.) American history, government, and insti tutions 8. Modern history (since 1850) of Europe, South America and the Far East. . . . Total Average percentage on educational test. . . Oral test Total Average percentage Rela- tive wgts. Products of averages multiplied by weights. For. Serv. — 15. 225 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE SERIES No. 1— SHEET i FIRST SUBJECT — MODERN LANGUAGES. Make a close translation of one (and only one) of the following into idiomatic English. Bruxelles, le i Janvier, 1906. Messieurs A. et Co., a Londrcs: J'ai I'honneur de vous envoyer ci-inclus une circulaire de mon etablissement dans cette ville comme libraire-editeur et je profite de cette occasion pour vous exprimer le plaisir que j'aurais de pouvoir entrer en relations avec votre honorable maison. Je ferai mon possible pour obtenir votre faveur tant par mes efforts pour placer et mettre en circulation toutes les publications que vous \oudrez bien m'envoyer, que par I'execution ponctuelle de mes obligations. Pour justifier mes titres a votre confiance, je prends la liberte de me refere a MM. H. et Cie qui peuvent vous donner tons les renseignements desirables a mon egard. Je vous envoie en meme temps une liste de mes publications nouvelles actuelle- ment sous presse, avec les specimens du papier et de I'impression. Dans I'esperance d'etre honore de vos ordres, je vous prie, Mon- sieur, d'agreer I'assurance de ma parfaite consideration. P. D. Manchester, Sep. 12, 1906. Herrn J. M., London: Dieser Brief wird Ihnen hofifentlich durch Herrn J. T., welcher zuletzt in Brunswick, New Jersey, lebte, personlich iiberreicht werden. Vor zwei Jahren war Herr J. T. im Geschaft des Herrn A. B., wo ich das Vergniigen hatte, seine Bekanntschaft zu mach- en. Ihre Aufmerksamkeit gegen ihn als einen Fremden wiirde mir besonders angenehni sein, und ich erlaube mir, ihn Ihrer freundlichen Beriicksichtigung zu empfehlen. Er wird Ihnen per- sonlich seine Absichten und Wiische mitteilen, und Sie wiirden mich zu Dank verpflichten, wenn Sie ihn in denselben unterstiitz- ten. Mit vorziiglicher Hochachtung zeichne ich Ihr ergebener Diener. E. B. 226 APPENDIX Amberes, 30 de Agosto, igo6. Sr. D. C. M., Pernambuco. MuY Senor nuestro: Tenemos el gusto de poner a la dispo- sicion de V. nuestra Casa Agencia General de Comision que, con sucursales en Espafia, Francia, Italia, Inglaterra y Alemania, acabamos de establecer bajo la razon social: V., H. y Cia. Nues- tras muchas relaciones con los mejores fabricantes y manufac- tureros de los paises arriba mencionados y principales casas de Banco, nos permiten encargarnos de toda clase de negocios con la asiduidad y esmero que pueda apetecerse. Las ordenes con que V. se sirva honrarnos recibiran nuestra mejor atencion, y las bases bajo cuales se realicen nnestras operaciones seran todo lo venta- josas que permita el interes de ambos. Con este motivo nos of- recemos de V. S. S. Q. B. S. M., v., H. Y Cia. Make an idiomatic translation of the following into the lan- guage chosen by you above : Paris, September j, 1906. Messrs. V. & Son, Brussels. Sirs: The high reputation enjoyed by your firm makes me very desirous of entering into business relations with you, if pos- sible, and I consequently offer you my services in the purchases that you may think advisable to make in our market. Finding myself for a number of years in almost daily communication with the principal manufacturers of our town and suburbs, and always in touch with anything new that may be brought out, I think that I may safely say that my services would be of some value to you, and that you would have reason to be satisfied with the terms up- on which I could obtain goods for you. Awaiting a favorable reply, I am, Very truly yours, F. C. 227 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE SERIES NO. I.— SHEET 2 SECOND SUBJECT — NATURAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND COMMERCIAL RE- SOURCES AND COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Question i. What causes have contributed to the growth of the iron and steel industries in the United States? Question 2. In 1855 the price per barrel of flour in New York was $12 ; at the close of the century it was less than $5. How was the decrease in price brought about? Question J. (a) What is the rank of the United States in agri- culture, mining, manufacturing, and merchant marine? (b) What is our rank in export trade ? Question 4. State some of the requirements for the develop- ment of a large foreign commerce, and what countries are our chief competitors for foreign trade? Question 5. Name the States or cities as called for below which lead in the production or manufacture of the following: Wheat (two States) Rice (two States) Tobacco (two States) Meat products (two cities) Leather (one city) Glass (one city) Gold (two States) Silver (two States) Sheep (two States) Agricultural implements (one city) Boots and shoes (city Cotton goods ( State and city) 228 APPENDIX SERIES No. I.— SHEET 3 THIRD SUBJECT — POLITICAL ECONOMY Question I. (a) Define political economy. (b) Name thret great works on this subject. Question 2. Of what advantage to a consul is a knowledge oi the principles of political economy? Question j. State some of the principal reasons for taking at stated times a census of population and industries, especially with reference to manufactures and agriculture. Question 4. (a) State some of the advantages of foreign ex- change in canceling indebtedness between merchants of different countries. (&) Why is exchange on London or New York preferable to exchange on smaller cities? Question 5. What are principal reasons for the development of trade between different countries? SERIES No. I.— SHEET 4 FOURTH SUBJECT — INTERNATIONAL, MARITIME AND COMMERCIAL LAW Question i. Define international law, and distinguish between public and private international law. Question 2. The United States having declared its neutrality in a given case, may an American citizen build, equip, and sell a war vessel to either belligerent? If so, under what conditions? Question 3. What were the rules adopted at the Declaration of Paris? Question 4. (a) Define citizenship and domicile. (b) What are the effects of naturalization upon the status of the individual (i) in the country of his birth ; (2) in the country of his adoption ; (3) in other countries? (c) Discuss the nationality of married women. 229 , OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Question 5. (a) Give three conditions essential to the validity of a treaty. (6) Distinguish between a de facto and a de jure government. Question 6. In general, what papers are necessary to deter- mine the nationality of a vessel? Question 7. Define the statute of (0) public vessels and their crews while in foreign waters; (fc) private vessels and their crews while in foreign waters. Question 8. What is meant by (a) salvage, (6) demurrage, (c) general average, (d) bottomry? Question 9. What is (a) a bill of lading, (&) an invoice, (c) a power of attorney, (d) a draft? Question 10. (a) What is a foreign bill of exchange? (&) Name the three original parties to a bill of exchange, (c) Dis- cuss briefly the liabilities of an agent and his principal. SERIES No. I.— SHEET 5 FIFTH SUBJECT — AMERICAN HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND INSTITUTIONS Question i. How, when, and from whom was (a) the con- tiguous territory of the United States acquired; (b) the non-con- tiguous territory ? Question 2. (a) By what treaty was the War of 1812 with Great Britain terminated? (b) When was that treaty signed and when was it ratified? (c) What important battle was fought after the treaty was signed, and by whom were the op- posing forces in that battle commanded? Question 3. How is the President of the United States chosen, and what are the constitutional requirements for eligibility to the Dffice? 230 APPENDIX Question 4. Name the executive departments of the federal government, and state the principal functions of each. Question 5. Where in the American government is the treaty- making power vested? SERIES No. I.— SHEET 6 SIXTH SUBJECT — POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY Question i. What countries, independent or otherwise, border on the Mediterranean Sea? Question 2. Under what sovereignty are the following places : Jerusalem, Hongkong, Vladivostok, Montevideo, Havre, Calcutta, the Azores, Yokohama, Veracruz, Mukden, Johannesburg, Chris- tiania, Antwerp, Edinburgh, Halifax, Tangier? Question 3. What country produces the largest supply (o) of cane sugar, (&) of beet sugar? (c) Name the country which re- fines the most petroleum, {d) the one which is the largest export- er of raw silk, and {e) the one which makes the most wine. Question 4. What is the principal export of (a) Argentine Re- public, (fe) Brazil, (c) Chile? Question 5. (a) Name the bodies of water through which a ship would pass on the shortest all-water route going from Bombay, India, to Dover, England, (b) Name the two chief exports the ship would carry to England. SERIES No. I.— SHEET 7. SEVENTH SUBJECT — ARITHMETIC Question i. The following is the number of tons of exports of the articles named from the Straits Settlements to the countries 231 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE named for the year 1905, as furnished by the Consul-General at Singapore. Find the total number of tons of each article and the grand total number of tons for all the articles. Articles. Gambier Gutta-percha . . . Gutta-jeletong . . Hides Rattans Tin Grand total. "O in u (U iju) 13,281 419 10,425 208 4,750 16,879 a w 9,490 1,154 835 2,016 2,399 31.512 oj O o 8,737 821 798 510 9,756 8,492 o . Question 2. During the month of May, 1906, Asa Asher had the following transactions with Ashton & Co. : On May i, he owed them a balance on account of $79.70. May 3, they sold him 46 bu. com at 47^/2 ct. per bushel. May 8, he gave them a note for $175.- 80. May 12, he sold them 8^ doz. chickens at 38 ct. each. May 17, they sold him a plow for $36.75. May 22, he paid them $16.75 in cash. I\Iay 24, he completed 18 days' hauling for them at $4.50 a day and was credited on account by them. May 27, he bought of them 4 kegs of syrup, each containing 10 gals., at 37^2 ct. per gallon. May 28, he sold them 2,416 lb. hay at $14.50 per ton of 2,- 000 lb. May 31, they gave him a note of $750, which he accepted at a discount of $11.25. Make in the form below an itemized statement of the above account as it should appear taken from the books of Asher ; make a proper heading; close the account; and bring down the balance as it should have appeared June i, 1906. 232 APPENDIX in account with. Question j. From the Straits Settlements year before last 504 tons of coffee were exported to the United States and 834 tons to Continental Europe; this was 14 2-7% less to the United States and 165^ % less to Continental Europe than last year. What was the difference in the number of tons exported from the Straits Settlements to these two countries last year? Question 4. What is the cost, in U. S. money, including duty, of 360 kilos woolen yarn invoiced at £49, the rates of duty being as follows : If valued at not over 30 ct. per lb., 271/^ ct. per lb. and 40% of the invoice value. If valued at over 30 ct. per lb., 38H ct. per lb. and 40% of the invoice value. (i kilo=2.2046 lb.; £i=$4.8665.) (Absolute exactness is required, and all of the work of deter- mining the rate of duty should be given.) SERIES No. I.— SHEET 8 EIGHTH SUBJECT — MODERN HISTORY ( SINCE 1850) OF EUROPE, SOUTH AMERICA, AND THE FAR EAST \jucsuon I. orieny aescnoe the features which have been no- ticeable in the government and development of South American ^33 Question i. Briefly describe in th( republics OUR FOREIGN SERVICE Question 2. With what countries and events do you associate the following: Alexander II; Bismarck; Marquis Ito; Dom Pedro; Cecil Rhodes; Thiers; Garibaldi; Maximilian? Question 3. Briefly describe the form of government of the German Empire. Question 4. What causes led up to the Russo-Japanese War, and what were its results ? 234 APPENDIX PRESENT CONSULAR SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. CONSULS-GENERAL AT LARGE. Name. Whence appoint- ed. George H. Murphy For North America, including Mexico, and the Bermudas. Flemingr D. Cheshire . . For eastern Asia, including the Straits Settlements, .\ustralia, Oceanica, and the islands of the Pacific. Albert B. Morawetz . . . For South America, Central America, the West Indies, and Curacao. Alfred L. M. Gottschalk For European Russia, the Balkan States, Greece, Asia Minor, Persia, India (as far as the western frontier of the Straits Settlements), and Silas C. McFarland For Europe, excepting European Rus- sia, the Balkan States, and Greece. iN. C. N. Ariz. N. Y. Iowa Date of commission. Salary. May 23, 1906 May 24, 1906 Aug. 14, 1907 Mar. 16, 1908 June 10, 1908 $S.ooo S.ooo S.ooo S.ooo S.ooo 235 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE w H < H aa Q H M w H |:^ o i* es OD PS <«5 1^ P ;?; o H Iz; H as H t/5 o o J3'o t3 (« E n !2; 00 t^ o o 1— >t/3 as :> 1! M \0 IX in^ o o o o o\ o^ ^ o\ «J . V - C C C fc 3 a 3 S- H-il-ll— ><< o o o o o o o ■ o • o o o o o o o • o • »n o o lO V. o o • o • ro » n <*: n rt n . ^ . OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO a; 4j a> O !><. N M M P) t9 . «i J3 re . . .£ .^^r^r . 3frj= «cJ :q :q :=« :=a :> :> C O X C ■ O as S s« uou© • oa «s pa Ph PS M H ;« a Pi as X OS • _^ - c TO I- bo « D ^ 02 •u a Si 1^ 3 4)tH cJoucJOd <« a v- * a bo . §oSQ 55 PS H OS P < S c 2 . o ^-.c 60 CS 1:: ,hH S" (/) o rri ■*-' w> m o> w ,» w u u V ^ 6 E u > Ui «*-! u-t u u ti •0 •a u u «o > <».s T3-" 3 ■■; 3 y 7) U t3 w 3 C 1^ c c ^■-3 r! C •2fi E cl C8 C 1- C nj ■S « O^*-" oc; a T3 tr.TJ IS f Ci 2.S 3 m o. ■M 0. H . ■«■ . ■* . •* 00 n Vi- rt W2 vo t^ t^ >nvO O t-N «v 00 vo N vo in foo fs t^co 'tvoco o i-x •-" 00 r^oo oooooooc c OOOOOOOCT>00000\0000\0 O\0\0^0\0t0\0i0i G o c^ a o o> o^ c\oo o> c> o <:^oo o\ a» ooo o tH^MMMlMMM ■^ 9 fioxn^r^^orri o o;d\inN4fi -^tC- -t n^ au-. - ooo oj a s g C4 M CI N r4 '•^ <^ "^ t-|« „(SN,-,P) ««n>h"NNm a 9 T 'A June May Apr. June June Feb. Mar. Sept. Mar. ■ ■ n! ^" ' '. : : : pH ■ 'TJ- ce — i H J= o 15 . o'Cn^*n»^*n n'n^ d'N . J2*n'n . O ^ cq !? P3 ^ 03 c cq IS ;:; caj M w ;z; u; CO ca Q H oooowuou «u wuu tis,«'^ tititio^ M«^^ Sibil H M «u«cj -d :q • d ;qc i<< \d< < < 6^^ \>^ < d d :q ••=« :=« c8 ■ . .c» :« Ei; aid ■ ■>" ■. . •> •> :<« S JU :=3 : > > : : •> H .ti a !>< TS fl ::-il . • S. 4) © Is-: FN o m u a i J3 S s h S •Iri a u 6 ® E « p u o r : « M ■9 c J- r;- • U h I- • «H m '0 4)*-..: •*''n«?[ i George H. Pick Tulius F. Tiedeni William R. Cox. John H. Hamit Joaquim B. do George A. Chai Enrique Bachille Antonio E. da I George Simpson Harry J. Green George E.^ Aude Joseph J. Slechta cs s : PS OS r/1 ^ Henry W. Die Harry Tuck Sh Ethel bert Wat Gregory Phelai William 1*. A Julius A. Van '. Henry Abert Alpvnndpr P ( fl h 4. John W. O'H William H. La Frank N. West Jorge Vereker William E. Lee 2; • O o M . .t/, . 04 : N • -«! : tf ■ O ■ ■ o . » ■ la • • « . i> • •■« o n - fee si c 5 C 3 C 5 d • d ••02 • lo S o 2 a fi c i? o ••S ■ > o 5 .2 X < a: « (- » ) Ol ft ( P 1 OQ 1 c« o u n bo a a u w Q, 3 C 8 « 237 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE •8 o s a c H < H oc Q H M » O » & OQ 55 O V EH CD 04 4). 5 X. o c 2: o o o o O m o o o o o o o o O O u". u^ o o o o o o O O »/l t>* O JnVO 00 \o VO CO 00 m OOOOOOOOOM3V o> o* o\ O O 0\ O^ OOD 00 »ooo M- o o CI -" tx\o r^ kV . V V V V *j ^4- *J ^i— .1— .1— .en I— .[/j V2 00 o 00 00 vo oo ■^OO OO 00 OvOOoOOCO 00 0*0\0^0^0*OvOi 0»N>Oi-.0wOi-' N N PI M CJ N *-< O-SteH U U U 3 S U .« ^ *^ ^ 5 K) U ^ to H C3 s 5 s C^T3 13 O O .a Q o3 b« £ « - >^*=- - CJJh « S "* 3; O »UJ«c< ^<^ c a a a o 3 » S h> :d <^ M-;: 5-;: o o o o ^N00 o o ■ la uu^ii,^ CO ■a > .^" ^-'SM^-u^- » *= ra.-r: HS-i^U Oi-l o «^ bo Ci! ooo~flo6oeoooo2'S ^QOO = eOQQ oQQQO-= h §.2 rt n tN— <>) B c 3 rt t-i u lU M-i n V •a 4-* 9t U 0. a> u > u 3 n U ) . X c ij u •0 u V •vtn G rt G 4) y rt h C u rt X V 3 <« u C v i; u rt u -a X c 73 it c. u 1) c c < Jj •3 ■Si 238 APPENDIX o • o o o • o o c > ■ o o o o c > • c o o c o o c o ■ o o o • o o o • o o c > • o o o o c > • o o o o o o o o • o o tA *n . o O >r • iri q u - • O m o °. " 2 ' ^ XT'. O O O u- 1/^ m . q>C " - » » * u •<*■ ; «" " ■* ; i-T Tt T r ;►>«•* •^ T ■ '. ►■ -00 M « w f, in • w *^ JO <«- "n en t^cooooo moocovovc .« . t^oo>oa ) ^ r » . tNOO t^-ocooo 00 txOO OOOONOOOOC . c > • o o o c > . c > . o o o o o o ■ o o o c 00 o c-oo o\ o* o^ a» c ^ . C ^ . ON o o> c N • c h . 0\ 0» On 0< O 0> ■ o\ c o "8 >»- o O'tn • •• . „ « - H • ■" — *-< ^ .^.»..«. 3 ai'^ ir)00^0<*3'-'«-tN(N ■ ^ s : o' c> "^ <: I -^ ■ * irjui ts o 00 00 ■ o 00 o a |e P* N -« N N N (N ; ^ ; rT- ts - ', - '. »^ fj r^ " rj m a oi . s. »>^ 3 - . '■> . rt ly 4> ^ . a. . Cl. 5 ^ ^ o C g <^ I * ' ' ' " o H Fc ■t-t H J3 O u2 ^S '■c M c . . • ; • • • ■ H ocJl^^dd^t C '-^S; ^■^ u-£t ^^ ^ocdsj^^wocj;^ U t—t hH ^ t— t , ."^l— 't— 1 b-ll— t V4 :qS'-' " «U ^ u^ Q Q'^ wu^^^. a & C- X ca ■Ji o-o p. H ■•^ ^ c s jj 'Si Oi ^ f^ c<3 ; vi 4* t^ B '*-» ^^ '^ w> [ 5a 'a Ph ■o . e a c 3 M o 'g s 1 C • > 2 •S bo i§ - o Srtc«p—i,u— a ■1 '■% :«|«^>tS H c4d to ;3 :c e b c: b o -3 a -1 ^1 u as :S ■ 5^ ">= ■fr ;5^cps,cs Jk c re N <« u ;?; • - C I, © (U O O g u C^ i, 5 ; < «i:S-o 1^ o m r; 350 (B u ^ 4S a 4^ c n c c. e 8 tato Pk S t '. 6: 2 = c c it . e o c c£ d c o5 d d S 6 c d-gc c c c c 5t o d d fOQQ^CCj-w OC QC O B l.;i B g i a 1 S 4 239 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE -s s a •*^ a e H < CO Q H H ;zi » S H O H OS »i <«! ;?; o !? 41.5 J3 o T3 C Ph o o o • o ■ o • 00 rs,oo O vO r^. u^ n t>s r^ r^oo OOOOOOOnOOsOOO ON a> o\ o* o\ o\oo o^cc ov o ov *o *n ts. 0\ '^ O O 0^ O^ O o» c^oooo Ov « . nj rt 03 . :0 ;c8 d -0 fa— H- - S=i^ bj i|^:|^^ f=S| o l-i o oci-i; 9S a MO a p » . Si ^ (ft «< u H O o o o o o o^ o^ o^ Ot o« VO f< Ov "1 o\ n CQ g B a. P^ CO .« d-2 r-»rj ^ 4^ 4-J ^ bobc bfl >■ o ^^l^-i o 0\ > Mr. ^ K^ ^ ••^ «i n v. M V f- -o c-o 3 tJ a u o -4-> 4-* « C c u U .-^ . a C X a s o S a o S <^ s ■a" J CD C O 3o c 240 APPENDIX •3 a 'J2 » x P H 8 O > Si m o OS rfi c J3 O (9 -3 u u n! o o q 00 oooooooooo |^ai:=£§s|^ t^vO ^N fO N <*: •X »H O O o o O O^ o o> 0^0*0^ o> O\00 o\ 00 •-• f ►^ '-' ►^ ■^ ^i '-' ^ . » . « » _ , •*o •* 1-4 O »H P* •* N « i-i rote •^ a V K ^ *j C CJ= nl Q. n c a QJ "-V 1— . feiacr. < to IS «^ I" S .S .V . . ■<■--' ■ kQ : h U •3 u =« ^^ <3 ^5-J ■?5 o-^ tn ?.S cq « '^ V "^ a B ^ * Si ^ o O c ■3 e u^ s a o o o o 00 » m ^ o o> oi o otoooo a 1 o f- o."^ =:-Q ac For. Serv. — 16. 241 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE •8 « o o m H H cc H H P S H O M OQ OQ t. O H W2 V- O '^ o 5.S s: o s CO t^ r^ u^ tJ- o ooo o 0> O^00 00 o o q o o q o • o • o* o- 3 4J o 1> oc^oooooooc^oooo 0\C0 O 0\ Ov Qi l> O^ ooo O* O* C> 0> - 00 "^ t^\0 f^ ir, .-. »-i »_ ►-. o ; . c o -o .-a • «>! rt u u u l-i "1, : ■ (U dj 1) i) ■;: i_) -a u re c'^ ^<<<:2;wSteu2; ^ ti bi M •> b t> b tie Si n ^^ . « -^ . c ■S ^ „ « r* 3 o:« WUUtiti^O^bi! "Z *^ • • ':: ft ^^ 2^ . o -^ <" 5-S SB >■ uti« 2? 1 aj C " "^^ g U Ml ■Si-J'; - - © tf) _ ^ >^ S 3j3 C^ OS o o>r* a : o . f . X . i> . re •a c 3 C _o 4^ M C E re - C oi t. g u OJ re N c "•- - - S-o"' 3 as S ;«; o H u T3 C E •- N 00 >-• m Oi tsVO O O t^ In **:\0 CO */l f^^O ^ 0\ (Xi r^. -^ \r, -^ yf f^CO OOOOOO>OO00 OO O^OC OOOWOOOO OOOOOO oo 0\ C> O* O O^OO 0*000 o»oooooc*o«o OOO »00 Ov o* ooo o^oo o* o « nl OJ 01 u , > ^ hi '-* '^ <-" rt rt ©uuyu«uSibcM wu^o^otitit;, ■3 -c -Q :=« :.» :'« :>■ :.• :>■ <<« . . . — ^ o ^ 2-^k^ ♦^' CD -^ O » «i .^ * f/i ^ ^ 1-" »^ 5: =a 41 — GJ O ■EM »U(J .<« •>n =•5^ • ca j; s s s - 1- 5 bfl ? br. "O " :a CS_ 1 sSi— , M s ^ >* Q -^ u « o sc b e S; ** e fa 00 o a a o . S cS O S > 33 o y X X wa u u a; c» ■O-O C C 3 3 C s O o v*o •sO^^'^OO^^-C CO ^O^ti n c C ^. X s « « N "££ 2 c c 3 O o ^ =^S ^<< ao 5 243 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE in c 0-7. ■Si "^ o u "7, j: o n CO E a 2; (^ o o o o o o o o 00 O O U1 i/^\0 Tt t^ C» r^ tNOO 0000 OvO-'-' r^^\ \ri ^ -^t^ t^v£) ^ 1^00 CO ^O tx ^ "~. ooooc^oooooo\(:^ ooo ooo^oooooooo oo ooco o o Oi o>oo o\ c?i ji o> o>oo CO 00 00 o^ ooo c^c^^:^o\c7l0^o^o^ o o o^o c 00 r^oocooo o i/l o o o <\0 IT in 00 -^CO c^ii^O'-'VONO CSOv bo b£ S >> I- SP (U D U -i C C C < 3 3 S^^ - ■ ^^ . C! O OC r- r* ±r ;o<^:;.2;P»:i.fe <0 ^l^::; oOQ;a>> - . - .^ • . . o o o o o o^i o K^ C C C .u. OO^wOS^J2;<^M:i,tQ b£bfi&£ ,» .UK -a Co > ;q ;q \d :<« :<« :<« :> :> '>^ JH r^U Sis m'-a 3 3 « Is 3t3 O o litis i^ Zi •^■'■i "eri ^^ ?; S i- C^ ^^ Sr - VC £ P5 S o s,P5 a; c c " 3 . O Q^ t£CU 1^ s o S o -1; o o o o a ^> oBQQQQQOfiCaQQ g S=: Sa S-S g,C EC O 4J O 05 2:0 si be si > H o 3 O Sis •a -a >> 3 3 U CJ OJ 01 X X WW S 3 C C •2.2 cl 3 3 • 5 S C N , 3.t; u S 'S ""tS'^ O rt 3 c 4J 3 O'o rt rt So" =. a -s o 244 APPENDIX •3 o a a \* a e o X Q H O an O c« c *^ o (A " o o 4J.5 J3 O 73 0) 4) E eg o o . ^ O O m O o 00 o o o o o o \o o o • o • o • o o . o . o o • o • o ir, . wl . m o o O • O • ooooooooooooo^ooooooooo^ooooooo Ov O CTi 0> 0\ O^ O* 0\C0 O C- 0» Cn^O OS 0*00 CO c* ooo cc c^c^ooc^o^o» N Cv •-• O O* ""t f^OO u^OO O ^ tC ^ <■* M^ f^^O O tN **» 00 inoo -^ W ^ fN o* s = 3 o 5 ;: rt P S"5 = =" o JJ a :.:;<^- u •>< "^3 U o • a; •n3~^r; ■!:;; 'in—* ••^— oy .d'^W" o H-;:rt-^--2 B (3 ., — O »u C!C;<<;■ c o c« a .2 '^ ?.^ ^.'OOoN.^^ cC^.sE o _> 3 o -i^\ - 1- I c .a ii ^ a u at: ^ es a — - L. h r-. *^ fri *r r ^ ' ^ 00 o f .?^ to a ' "S. i; " 2t/) c ii o .So o > •J'X K K X ^ ^ a o I .a I .C/5 2 o a es c < I. e. CC 6 d d d d 2 5 < oog ^ s 1 c >--•—. C5 =* c = a o •" On — 245 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE •a o a a ■■« •*^ a o u OS < H OS &4 o M > as m a$ 0O00000C0i0000O0» O\00 0\ O^ o\20 0^ a\O0 0\ O O OOO CC 0\C^O-00\COOOO 0>0^0^0' C»00 •<3-lC*^OOi-rfO'-r irivO O CO 00 r^rC'^<>^ONC>P^I^O 1.^x0 O O O N - « ^ M N en rn lr.r:a^>a^!:^ g-5 rt sgj^rt = c rt c^ lai I- > 3 " o >,(j u bo Ts.ooAA'z-s.ol?,<~:z:2.A^p^^p,p.A<.-s.'z.ciAo';?.<^ Q»UU oa QQ hv © 1^^-" 3^ rat: o >> > > ^- ^•-- a; V eii; C ■«3? s o '-'5 ,. goo '<' ca • • . :>■ f^ '-* ^' ^^.^ C/3 o c3 p ^.^ aSut^tj §^ o"3~£ ^ — T B e X CO s . . « o o "Sao ■A'^O °cSfe«^^''^ CJ a t. s-^^t- ^ u s =» 5 Si yi 2 o o s.--=B A C. t; « ^ • P S I' cT ■t; OS u a ^^ - *" u .- o o e 4) OJJ OSS V Ui h9 - vj W OpM o 01 Ooo .0 n u 4) J2 E Z «^ 4> OO) V n > "O ■5 > « CJ 3 C X U Hi a hr n T3 -0 -1 ■T3 c/^ -1 u C C xn rS U r n r « Zi y m c X u ■*-» u u 4> Ame d af d aft I*- u M u c c t_ 1 r c 0. n to. Zca<< e U A 5 I 246 APPENDIX CS a •^ o u X o o o ON Oi J2 o s E n 2; o • o o • o o • o o o iri o o o o • o • t^ p^ iroo 00 CO CO N d rs. tx ^s.^o t-% tN ooooooa>oo>oooooo o\ o» o c? o» OOO 0\X) o o o» O Oi o^ O O* ro (*300 O -^ **5 *^^ 0\CO N «« ■<* u >.ti« j;gj:jt; 15 j;.^: u^ >^ o .U ^ «• »-• i^ -fl"^ to nl . CO" o a Q > M S o c^u^zSuu a ■ h ■ O ■ S'm m B S « d c = 2 aso • c o X ^ ^ >^ spq ,^ raO ca 1! J « = 2 ^ ^ a If) s b III l> OE E ■a 4j jj |5WM o o •* o o n oooooooooo^>^o^ Tfvovo m fo O N O <^ toCKO >>^ii^^^l n re NNN-? E^> h e ••" •« >, o o s o H _ ?-. S ft. fa _ s C » 9 03 O-i- o o O A tu :; b< lo ~ fa 3 OQ M M' fes; fa^ a i?2 fa 1- "^ rS gA S J- u ^ )^ c^ •s■t>^•2^ « ^' ** -C ^ •a n o u C O M fa B « ,.^ a r;-H bio? 4) .;2-« s © g a-- ^ V *= ^ w ^ to O "a o! O."^ '"— - ^ aa 247 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE « a a o < H W O PS b ;?; o H P^ •4-1 O to ^ o o « 11.5 A O C3 •a c ID 4) S o c o o o o o o o q o o q o o q o o q OOOOOOQOlOOOC^tNOO OO 0^ O Oi C>CO 00 C^ 0» O\O0 OOOiO^ C^C>00CO0O CO» OOn OiOO <:^c^o^ O^ O O "^00 C^ CT» t^ fC ►-• "~. o h — o — rtrt'-^CL— o"™r3 PI ♦-03 d o 3 \D moo 00 r< ■* 1-1 M N iN ■"! - S O jj n, c as c s c • c L . r3 a: rt • ni '&''&£ "bi ."Si- a a c s a c „• O O ^ rt rt ^ « c s^i c M lie o be be -^'"''3 .2'"* % : <« ' :>Q (4 a C S SI OS oj OjCL, . -y .<« ■ • o :>o -a :> S K t. U ojji , -4^ U 4_. 'O-v-^ .^n*™' *-■-■« a o a cti a '" Q a-? >-« ^ a" -d dcj" =a ft ■ w a oj= r o 2 Sz 2 2 o *^ o .a «, a G u ■*« N > HI 00 o> o 0\0 N « O >-> V. » OJ ID C C >> > Ooo O O CD •" u u fi> tl) .^ .2 ■*-' 'o'S'o ex 0,0. <-?-^ 248 APPENDIX •a s a s o u m H H H is « H O SQ P >!; o IB u <4-i o c/) J3 O 3 4/ o • o o O O o • o c O o o ■ tA. c o XTi VO . !^ N f*; 0) OOCO OOOOO OOOOCOOO OOD O O O O O OOO O Ox a- o Ox OCO OtOxOOxOx O^OxO^O^OxOxOx OvOO M Ox Ox Ox Oi OxOO 00 Ox 00 00 O^ ^ Cx O "~.00 O U".00 o t^ ^< PQ rt fo N (X) t-i I- >x U M u U>H (TJ t- k^ M S"^ .-,5o;:: = h so o^'^iwrs-':; 3 rt^ n 3 3 3^ X^ 3.-J 3 3 -; .-o-o 3 C O « rt . c c :> H O CB Sr.- o ■3 4> ■ -^ .« : . G : : -.^ O) » Cl- ou «u o c — O ta O ■«i. V -^ u :^ K is -^'^ fci ;« 512 '^ S'>x? O 5 re Q -53 c« , CO u^-^-^^s^ "xn ■^ .2! o e s '_ o *^ og IB j.-^ - ;s a ecu « Tr :o) it- ~ a ■«=w< ^^_ tf PS:^'^!*]^ it re ^< : >- - ^ ■^ ^ a Si fl o ' o ^^^ a :0 ' ^ > c o c s . o o OS a Ox o. re 0) C ^ N Wh'o re ITS "J C re 1^ C. t9 o a 6 5 I * ol 249 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE o 3 a n e H «0 t> 0^ CTiCO COCO 0(0»0»0>0»^0\ i^« u 3 rt^ 3^;; S r^ 3 w 3^, ■•013 . C S rt rt C C OZ; tn>-i>iU_rt_rt ><:d ■> Q '-a n Q en CI- — u©uo .•'=8 oooooc^'Oioorxoooo c> o o o o»co CO CTiOooco o\a) 0\ ■3J5 2 &&""'"' " <-> C n «J -1 S C. tJ ■ c c c c . . « rt B rJ-iH n .^ o o o o •« "^ •- i-_-> ,a 2 . ^ « 3 » T3r-isJS S^ o ^ — O (3 < =t Q » < a 03 "d a s h pa a o 2 d = Q 00 a 13 « O u a M C ™ o. u c c rt c •a D< c'rt o c rt o ■a s «s 250 APPENDIX a a 9 H 0\ a» o 00 1^ M fr: t^ « n u". 1-00 OOOOsOOOOt^OO* c^ o^ o^oo o> o o\ c^oo ooo tC\0 ^ ro tr, f^ o t^ O 0\0 ^00 ^* O N NiT ^ ZJ o ^ - ,t,^<,>;.<>-.i-i2;.— , 3 « OOO N t^t^r* N ir. c^ -^ ft ►_,<; z; t. h- 1<5 O t/; c/2 ,<>— , . . . .•o .•o . . . J3 cS rt E C •>" C OT. V. 0>< • rt rt ■ cfl rt OS o .'CO I . ;c3 fa « a-' 3 -"^ ti a s tu uutitfo^wuo •?> 4J 08 I* fa , v>- o. CB 4J -^ .^ !3 ••-".^ . -* ._ZL -ti ••» •■ ij frt u O a o :i 6 es 2 ^ fa c .E ia a hi X r 1 • i> fa ^fa :2- 9; >7 fa rt.-" fK asi « « u^ T f^ iz e oj S - c~ C cs w Q R o a aa. >*• 6 y>-^- ;=8 ate i:^'~^°3^W ^^• ^<'*>r C J.* &CQ ^S "* u t:^ "Z! ?L V— . 1) o o fa . & o "a ■a S art -. «£ ^^■i°a a (v ? o a o VO ° u > o ■5^ C^ 1> 4^ CX-M o S "0 s s a 05 its QK fa-T3 •goo "^ (O •- > z t> •J D « 3 O cJ X C XW 3 w '-' u V o 0JT3 t:3 c fa 3 -O c c o " S X 1- i- u rt rt 3 JT3-OT3 ; u V V - *J 42 4-» •S.S.S o'S'o 0.0.0. o.aa <« 251 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE -3 e 9 a a e » < H ac Q H M iz; » H F^ O » < cc ;«; o H » LO 1,13 S.S J= o ^1 -a n B a o • O o • o o o o • o o o • o o • O O ' o o o o o o o • o to • o o • CO O m o ■ o o o • o N . M N . ^H r^ ^ '£> . <*! n >o" '. «9- . ^-< tx\o vo ^. w 'to 00 in r^ rox o 00 t^^o t>. r^ t^x ^ -* t^ ^cc \o -^ o» iv\o oc oo u^. »r' OsOOOcOOiONOOOONCOOOOOOOOOOOOoOOC^OoCOOOOOvlnr 00 O^ 0^ O\00 0000 O\O»XC0CC C^ao^C O C^C^O^Cr^a>OO^c^o OCO O^OO O OOO 00 ■ q l-[„W)-l«MMMW«W«»l-l-.l-.lHMl-.t-l-»l-.«>-4„„„„«„„^_„^^ 00 w « oo"oo 00 •* ^00 ^00 «" lo o i-Tm" in n n o ooo 6 So o S^ >noo c?i -^ ■^ in CI o o «-r &-= c^^JiZ as "u 3 3 II o l^d'fi;^ > o a £66 c o ■3 R a;te 252 APPENDIX •3 i) P B ■** a s H _2 o o V)- o o o o o o o q o o 4 ■ O • o o o q o • o • \n • c (A fOOO CO VO vC vO 00 I'vOO "^ t^\0 00*^'ONroO NOOOf^ ►-COO tN.\0 N CCOO inCO 00 I OOC'00^0\00 000'0>OnOiO\OOOOOOCO*00000<00'000 0> O\00 O\00 00 0\ 0^ C 0\GC 00000000 O^OnOvO^ 0»00 00 0\ 0^ O-. 0>CO O-OO 0» C7s O'] 0> "^ fCOO u~, (^ U-, I-. u^\0 vo - VO en " O In. Tj- I f^co c^ ro O (X O >— lO .-5 ^, r— .1— .^.►-.in I— .1— .C C- r-, O .^ 1— ,>— .O C 1— .»— .1— ,0 O Z I— CA) C/5 !—.>—, A o • SCCC ^ ccc . ni rj « rt. -"O • rO n! ca .1515 rtffll5;3 •-■ 3^ c c s s . rt i. c c s « : .<<« : •« ■> Q ■.d<<< :p uu- n C ^ C . C-r; . C UUSu>UO0hU !/J 253 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE a o m < m a H M "A o PS a> 00 OO OCO O O Oi 0» O>00 Ch o doo OC O O^ 0\ o o- o oco o o^oo OOO OOO 00 i/^ tN.CO O" c< O 00 I-" N <^ M fO H. r^co N tN.wtrtN.*': -^oo c^ li^ o o •-> Tj- rx\o (^ o^ rr. oi « Ci 4> oj 3 3 ^i;oc^;v:;^ti. 12; « CO fee bo . , c '^ - « TDTJ s s . . o U ■r a ; th ►^ ,"! .-3 s « c c o M ffl QOos3zu>ZuuSuu22;>o^2:2;^^u << : .< e OS a *l ■ e c ^ OD S '^ :> :q fa o • '3 C c/> S fa « .=*) :=8 :> :<^ n : £.5 "-^ *- » . s W^: Q • •> ca 5(§ia .^< « bo' 00 NO - o o Ot« ^•§ u u u t,T3 O U O V > u w C s "t3 MO 3 1- « q S H " " ^ ti fa tu~ :5 >> -2^'r; V " '^ s — c >- >- s .'"Srs ..¥ 5 5 OS o a ^- ^ fa p- S s C8 5 04 h m o 3 - - !0 5« c i:a^f It fa ►j:\5 a otu . u, •3 a s •3 a a « • ? '' ^5 o c - .2§ £ X c u .K a c ca r— fa £ O 3 5-C.C9 <<'Z o <> cc 254 APPENDIX C3 t/3 S t^ o 0-5; £■5 a 5 ^ o u JS o ^1 2 u nl IX l/l !>. o o>ao 000000 00 1^00 0000 vc^rv p^r^'N »*: r^ c-co 00 oo « vo ^o i^^ i>% ooo ooo> 000 0000 000*0^00 00 000 O O^ 0\ 00 OSX OtC^O^ O»O»0\0^0000C000OO OvO> O- O 0\ r^vo tx ON'* 000 N r^ « Irt ^ i-i N m t>0 00 "• rx 00 o ON « ci f^ ^i N N r: >,>.i: >< 3^3 «J2 3 3 3« « 3 3_J ►Hp^' IJ3 bc»j ;- u 3 oJ5 a 3,'y c c 3 3 >'^'^ o C c OS n) .T3-0 o C S c3 cd C C C '^ ^"^ ^ nj rt « ^"2, ;'2 ■ • - •>. C M M M *^ C S C-2 ^ ^pam Suu guu uwuw ZuQu>> ho rr.'z^n J3 u -^ 9 : a o .^ O O S V o a *>^ < la « a ^ <3 C •: us, .< o > ©u Q ti» .08 e.t;.'» =3.1 a-z^ o S & is B 3 P 4- ■ Si a s V i' u p. •ca a c o ■*- V *) "^ 3 Q_^^ 5: ^ Q >> (U 93^ >< byS E s gj DS So 11 0^ Ss (L> O o o u u U V o o ■*-» ♦J 3 3 o u V o o 00000 00 0\ 0^ moo I >3 > u 6 o.^ . rt j^ re rt 5. >— > be M bo bo 00 t^. txCO tN moo IxVO CO t^ t^ ""' '^VO 0000 O»00 C> OM30 O O 00 o o o o» ooo ovoooocooooo 0\ o\QC <:^ c^ o» ; o o\ o o m f^ t^^ o ^sCO o vo ■* 03 nj 3°°45«e3 S O ^r,< ^:;^ hT^o ►i;^; 12; 55 Q •^ - . .-OT3 3 u."^ =2 . . 5 S ^■i V !^ "3 ~ _^ o Q =8 Si o o> :=3 s H r; J" *: a .m D^ Tt M m \r.\Q CO 00 00 00 f^ o ov o o\ CO) 0000 OiOO 0^00 CC 00 On O Ov a\ oo^oa'-'^ONNO "'■ra .... ™ •- " ,^ ■■" " "'r i— ra~ 3 C Ot— yj -'=^ "3 W O O rt ,; .See ~ a ^ ft -r^ ^ w 9. 'S-^-i:~ hsi c»~> * SIS ~.2 ■" °5 00 -o a; "o 3 s 5 ^'^D.si J, X CQ O J- a! "^ 2s6 APPENDIX « 9 a e u m H H Q H »i s H fa O s o » » 04 *^ o u J3 o c E ©•••■o-o o.... 0----0-0 o---- jj . . . ■ «n • m !«.... -f :!:! N :■* ^'l INOO M (S r*i ciOOOiooooooooooo^oot^dr^ 00 o\ c^oo o o> o> o« ooo oo o» O\00 o 0»00 CO CO s^ b b > b I-' V 1) V . •- ^^ ^Ti ^^ "^ ^^ -^ -^ -^ *^ -^ ^-^ r, ^ 1^ '*'rt ^fCc3rtnJrt,_ . . • * . .tS • •OTJ'd'UTJ .... . . C . u C ^' C C C C C (5 . ~ = S "^'Uh rt • c "■ ™ " ™.™'-i^w^'i-J :■<« 5H':•|^, ea -C r^r \ ^-i 4-» 4-> [W^*-/ bo ^ b£ .=<3 h ,D ^^ -* X4, -^ ~ *^ <;» fa ^ o~ ^ S » a 9 O V h n « O ni 2 Oi-sCJQ ca a -So - « "-W ^ o = o ■2 o (so ^-.Q . K^^- •« •< K a SJ-S o « o .S o to a ^ '^ m £ 2^ » be _ o O bg oo-l 0\0 tvO N COO o o o Ov o^ o* o\ c^ o* f 1 rj O M « c; M • DO) • ■ O O • EUC P-O u u r ■: «u n-« to ■S — "5 ^^-^ fees © I. V. a> oj to ««03 85 -a to ■» O to «> S M-- - •ax !ijta,(o'^S: g T- - - - K-a to^SQs^.2? . s « o ^ J3 4D Os 2Q < o\ 00 •^ ^ o \£> M O o\ u 11 u .Q In E N V g> Q. n u 3 t/i u W -a c .5 S u o en c o a o For. Serv. — 17. 257 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE o • > • o e c • • o o >. m * ■ • • o • • • o o u «*s . . . . ti . . . m ^ ..'.'. . j2 ««•.... W} NO ^ f*; ^ CO <" OO^C^O't'^NC^'^OO* t-»*/-,xO00t/-. o« • o O O O Oi c OsOOdOOOOOOO^ oooooo> B OO' o oco 0> 00 OOO CO o> Ov c o> Ov o>cc o^ o c^ o> o>co 9 o-iJ ■•■>•.» g t,.:2 \o 00 " \o •* t ■* ".00 Mino«vo>AN« oi>.ot^«in fi ^B N « 11 M »-• t-i («^ «_ (S «OM M M M N o o> . <-• 1/1 o. *00 a o 1 >. JJ o w >■ o J2J< HUSO'S o™ CD U 1) , , S8 \o o Oi "rt'c 11 It > . • c ® ^ be bo bo b Q ^ tifl tO^^ be to be b£ tkO ^ r J +J *J *i 4^ >«-' ho bo bo bo 3 H S«5 cul < << • .< :> : < :-«^ <: < < < > < « u. o •a u O & :Q "H o-o 1|0 » :=« O H *•* • -> \r^ r- > •*-• K "3 3T3 o rt N 13 s ~ X ^ S o O C ; © O » CI o bn ^-^ ' 4> •>* ■o.,. •S • «J ll h bs M PS r/1 E a e |l ii a O K ^2 a,>. o •2 S £rSc ■ 2 Si'^t; ^ "2(22=^:1 r u, S R oj; c-o 3 |g Is 1) 1) •S.S «c C 11 •— u S « . 5 a C X _ u u C ;?; • -i'u o M-.'+H u£ d,; V ea n^ « c -o-o i>-a< H u • < H ■ • i \ ! ^ ; ; i M OS < • PS ■ P o'g s'g = Sees a G »^ s :2, : ii^ 3 5 u B H 3 '^ e * ^ '. \ * % > P : Q > o U « .•g o •- a iS • '^ "^ • ?^ . S'C » Be 5 S S <, . . a 1 ft ^t^S ^►^►^^a 1 S'^ o o ■;. w C 3 ^ > &4 d > 258 APPENDIX e a e o » H » H P H a O M OD ««! O V »Q H OD &4 o o m o o in fi c i«^ o ♦J c n 5 "^ o u *0 *0 I- Tt ""■ T t^ O O Ov o o o\ o I/IX' " CO o ooo o f1 « = rt « °&o-& is ■*-* ja o CD s<^> N c m • CI- 0*0'0«OsO»0^0* Ov IX ^ it O i« o I t-.o bo >. 3 O 1 ^- M o V- e M « 3 It o. i:: 3 1— > . . uS)«^uti-o ' be' ^d^ 5 OJ'S; t»9 s 2? o 0>Q f 1 "" ^•^ o oj o o tog s a, M _ o e o .S o be-'" R fcOi I- " e^ _o be, .< Q o o o o o o> c* o o* o* mf* N >-• N . •-■ Co Q W UOUOUS:tibi« "->-' ^ . I :> •> ■'3 -a : a ^s ■S"'0 «- u « t* ^ »• '^ OD ^^ art an r-i ^ 5 -"" *j V, w o *~ OS O. 0., S?S 5"? oS o 00 O N o o go. u w. O O >,> *•> *^ 3 3 ml t^ u. rt s c - 3 3^ 0.0 »-• fj rt ♦J c = a .-•- 1, E S >- « So. C t) « - •- OJ 4).ii ■« _5 N 4J W ■^ ■«-» "ti*** « c c o 3 o-e-t rt 0.5- o ^do^gdgad 'da d.,';; ^ g i-Q 259 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE « e •M a o as H H ac A » H H >!i £9 X &t P4 o » H t* QQ o CO P4 "^ o o J3 O >■ o. CO •a u E nl Ph o o o o VO o 00 W \0 r^\0 ir. IN r( oooooc^oo 0» Ov 0^ 0» OsOO 0» O o CO 3 ^- bitii-S o o o o OO >r o o o o o o O "lO 00 1^ w^ tx tN IX rx\o tN . 00 t^ »r\o 00 >o -^ OOOOOOOoO .ooooooo S>> >> >, I t_,2;2;SSSS> C bK S W iK *" CO a o ca ica ■ :> : : :=*^ :Or^ fa PS o o o _ o © o p; &< > S S « fe fe -, r'?^^ S ■^ <*".co jnm vo n ,!> ,IU _ -. — >-l — ^ l-< (5 G C^ _j C --- oj :Q joa :> fa o s -■ 1) OS 03 fa Q j« qj -M Sj< ft, c o 5 CrJ u g I- u CSM O N OHCO o o • ca bo -Ph S o »: o § fa fa ::? 3 > a , o o o p o o o UU UU oa 00 o u v^ U gtehc 1'ee « E E S'S'S U 3 3 d d b o Q M it M . rxoo 1^ M N o 000\0000000w O O^OO 0^0*0^0^0^0^^0> O •-> H- o O OiOO N . w .■ l> 1^ ^ >s u _ g-ag ao-g •> ■►^• J IS u H C4 c n « >>hOe ■f" H^S<^i^C Q at: * .2 c« cqUH na^cJoH a o •30^0 «3 3 3 ■ a ■ « . a :5 eS 3 6 g-s d-a ', Q'S^'3 Q, 3 3 'C 'C ■i -ScS .!* fa ^ . fa 53 Of-'OjT-da^r; ;QgQt:Hn«5 In a a". c3 III aS 3 3 ? 3 a o ai §G O •M fa K « a o .00 0\ 00 fa o :§§ s« 0.2 *-; CO « C .2E (« C ro 1) N J! u it; Si! re o C 3 ° fa t^ * o K fa r 3 "^ a fa 3 e 2 S 261 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE o 9 a e H Q s H 1^ O > D «i »5 O as » 04 C **-* o ■4-' p ■^ o J3 o (4 c R) £ o ' 2 • o O • o o • o • O O o o • • o o • o o ■ o • o O o o • • tn 1/^ • o to • in . \r. o o o • . N « . ^0 r: . N . « m N pT . vo tN.oo \o t^ **:co o inco ts. rsoc oo o m (s. tx^o •- r^ ix i-s rs.\o CO co «n rs OOOOOOOiOOOOOOOC^OOOOOO o^ooo oo oo 0\ 0» O- Oi O^OO C0C0O^O^O^O^O^000O^O^O»O^O^O^C0O^O»O^O^O■ 0^0^ 00»00\r*5'-"ir. »r;0 tN>o O ^ u", fo g2bo3gauo"jrol34;ot;3u3i7(u e^^u ^^ am I ;!;;! i: o ;■■;;■;■■ '^ ! " ' 8 * • " 5 • oowuw :> :q •a e "S o fl d o © O 1-1 *- •^ 3 2^£" .< <<;< . • ■ a^«f!« S.i:.2 « ca «3 K* ,-Q ^ V a Sat* :rJ3 .5. .a a . — ^ =3 u i: u c c X p -^ :q .0^ ^c^CQ MK SKI o a ^S N w p u « E 2cQ TO r; -J *^ fe E « ^ "3 M O O ^> ^'(Tj •a C C8K is ^2. s ® B o o Hi * •■£ § :| ^ -.0 _ .50 1 3.3* '.£ 00 2» « ¥ u B C 3 4> o o V c> TIT) Ih u V 4) > > 3 3 u (U X X WW 1.1 u u •d-o B B 3 3 C C en rt C C £ £ n) . q q *0 ' u oT n ff ■* m '. »n PO « •2 M- , W) j 00 t^ t> - Jv ro .-t ri^~~ -t - r^oo o f<^ vc O f^ o>vo o > o o o C7. O O o o o. ooooooo>a>c>oo c 0\00 00 O Ol o O>00 O^O^O^C^O»O000000 O Ov M-i o •a O'S . . - . . . V cj-2 O in fO «Coo oi o> ■* t^ ^00 otCov^ rO^C*N ^ a a o u >■ o c o. 3 4) M n N N ■« « - 1 ""S I ! ! ; 1 • • • ■ • . « H • ; ; o ■ , a o «2 H J3 O ^1 rt o •«>* * o o > _J2 " ^ ^h-'l-H « rj flj c rt rtMH r- Q P4 21H n OOtH •a oj . HH • o o j^s-J^SIIa^'^m ©wut; J« w^ti ei CJ? be txi d '-'OU bi ti Mtl .W^bi H M : : < : :> :Q : < << Q.>< < -f < : .< •> : :/f, Q c3 : • • p :=« : , , <>» >■ : ji ': ': :> : > H *■*-» ' ' * ' I • -6 (14 O •a c u B 3SE-2 -* ta c a « 5 1 ■3 I rt ca o u bO |5 OS 3 fat<-( Mm (U OShK "^ SO Ik 1- — u o §5 a bo S o *3i u u a a> u rt a c rt o i» B . • • - • 1 , > • > • • • • • • >5 "3 ■ ; 1^ . • • O • . • o ■ : : ft E u < Is; fi : * : : : 1m • OQ • d ■'■■ <^ o s u V O ® ■ 2 ■at ■ '■ ija 2 : ^ • u : o s O • '• • ^<^ : : : go Qm ! a ! 3 a M o M go 00 . •32 * •■2 s N • id . V 2 a .a 2 u s a ■ d > a ttDC B es fed— dp52?a6a « EH t ■<> b < ;z; < e » » U 263 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE a B O H •«! H oc Q H M » M OQ •< & O m Pi a M^ O ■♦-• C J3 O CO c s 2; o o o o in O to N o o o o o o 0\ 0\ ChOO o\ o> c^ C C C cd ^ vth rt PJ rt ^H !i J2J=>I . . «< o o ►:;< OO vO t-, ir.vo O O o OOO O ^ 0\ C>00 N P) M ■-• :>> I' *: • ■ 3 s o7n3 ^< «0 O cu 4) > G ©Xl 1) :^ «^ *^ (ij (;» "i* S >^ a a-2 3 a a Lt O Sqq s 5-5 O ^ « OS vo 00 O m txoo in fx OOOOOO^oO oi o\ a OMX 00 o, o\ >- « « PI "• r; 3*^^!^ !i 3 3 c to CO CO •^-S C w. I, > u .^-•_^ O O o ° o«uo s SCO •EC/2 H « P ■C O t5 "31 C j,Q HQ osQ o a : . . << ■ :=a M . ^ fa . S3 (i; X ^ ^ 2 ^ ^ • ts usau Pi o p-i: a B :o8 o */ a V QQ o tss o E u > o V s u (U O 4> OA-OP-iP-OhUh C •>Q Q .0OJ3 :>■ e OS >• bo o Q r* *» > o >•-. >5U SSbibi M^'-^ qQ ..... .^ •»3 C8 O =:.§ aw 5j a w .OS ■S""Srs >^ Q u C ** nl C a rt , X J^ 1> 11 N '■♦J 4) rt T3 (U T1 «> rt H T a « 0. a< ■B < •s! < e e ,a < < Pi 0^ »4 So 9 •Ok! est-* jQfeS-^ :^«gS° O K S 265 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE •a t> s K a o en < Q H & O OS U 05 o »^ &4 s en ™ S Q S O V •a c g CO 2; VOOOOO 1^00 O O O 0\ o ■"t O M fOvO " ■« 5 5 £ be o o o « I ! I ! ! 00 o> c^ N c>oo o c o^ t^ r^ o ocooooooo o> o tr; o t^ tN ^ C as- u 3 " I— .1/11— ,Oi— >i— , o o 0^ 0\ If to cA cA m c/i U OJ D 4J C "!'-'!- i- i- C « O O O O 0J2 N N N N S _; 3 rt o UK OU '■^^ -.2 ® OJ s J?'S o Q Q . >?» O H o :>■ fa o «« a Si '^ a SJ '■da a o m -*-* CO S p ?«, „ <3 M P o ■ o • O ■ o ■ O ■ in • tfi . wl . m GO IXCOOCCOCCO f*5 oooooooo ov o\ o. a> o oi o> ov )M M i-» Ct WW V V U ^ 4) . U c c c Is C C C-i 3 3 3^; 3 rt n; OKZO ouOuti© : -o .< :> ■> fa 1-^ ^< i-s a-r falos ©go QQ p B n a o tc V ►J . I" 5 m m u o '' — a • rt ^ ^ a V V a rt(J o 3 .. S sq So s *q " C3 n e 266 APPENDIX S a a e H so Q H M P a H Ph O » > & O H m » to o • o o • o O ■ "1 a tn •^ o 00 t~.00 00 m '^■^ o o o o ooo o o» Ov o c^ o\oo Oi o ■* o M M « ■ ■-. o K ■ «' t>, t^ iJ '^ 3 M 3 3 3J2 3 j; o CO ^ (/) tn ui C (« t^ fi •3 3 rt;q 3 3 3 T3 B (d 01 s 2; o o o o N O N n 00 ^o . 00 fr O Ci o o • o o (/I '/"J ^ ^ 3 3 rt (« C50SUU ououtiS) :> :>■ Oj 60 60 be bfl 6C bc^ e o •4-* e 08 ■a . tDO s 5 52-^ c « -. - IT •-' •* -"^ a "^ ^ 3 3 2« S ? *« ti CSC •^ "-1 a >. ■;;?=' * ° -S . «•- »^ o g o o 00 00 o o 00 o u >> Z :> SB o fci o ® t; b O "is aw •a B •Ah- , 00 a u (•A o u " > ao u . u ■u > O o. « .fi o cS o B o T3 . o o ^ a> 3J o v^ X o W >. 3g B^ .2 o S'3 ij .S rt S-2 E o OQ O a a M e* ^ rt • — u B 6 3 O o <« oua &0 J4 a oi n 267 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE t> a a ■*^ a o o 90 H < H OS fi H ;«! o M >• U2 PS h; & © S3 W3 •^ o u 13 C Q V s CL, o o to IN o o o o 00 o o o o o o o o N 00 n VO W Ci O O-OO 1^ t^ lO IX C>^0 O tx 0\ c^ 0*\0 lOOO ^ "^ o« o o o OOOOC^OO^OOOOOO^OOOO^oO^OOOOOCOOO Oi O O O>00 O^00 O Ol C^ 0\ CvOO C\ O OCO OOO O O c> Oi O-OO CN c> Oi o f*^ P4 ►^ Ohoo 0\ o i-i u".\o o i^ ^N00 0\tritn* i; >>> b*J U*! g as u 2£o aa-3 5J2 X>c^S bo >■ 1 S S ^ ;§ o < o h::>« fe S '?;s < -< ►:;^:::.s h;< s « A : a • CM a rt • C: c n .S.S.S.S|> nj M M nj C C C cc M cd (u . « a Cur a a/" s o. o. o- o.^" « « f «. : . < : .<<< L-<< •>Q >> : o ■a .s Q ^ ,» S> P - i^-Jkjo; n, (A 5 ° . © ^-» ^ t^ f^ 4-» fej '•2 <«£ J- s S,S^ "a K o 0\ tx PI 1) c 3 ^4 V 73 O V > o o Q .2 t" « S rt O o o — i* 13 73 ^° ■5 « C ^ cJ O OJ •- O u^ O ^ »»5 — t>» « n -j3 M> _ 3 U 3 O o o o o o o o 0\ ^ On 0\ 0» O* O* MM N Mho>- 3 3 J2 "t 1^=0 00 00 o\ o o 00 00 o> o> Ul On ^00 00 00 00 O Oi o O o o o OnOO Ov Oi On O 0» m ooo o M o M O M —.►-, o Ot u U N 4,-0 S.E C4 jj.S.S.E.S u'n"3'c3 '« ;n a cic. c. c c • c • c ■■o-otx"0 c-a . V w^ u c "J S u u oO ■*-■ -^ +-* •oa a "* Ji = S-2 •=3 a e ^ >= • 5 32.-0 SS 8 u <^ 1> S «*-f ^S^w 4, o ot;-- fa s ■2 © Q -a =3 >M J* ^"^ fa ^i C o E o o C cU o u B o' S J o o "o 1-1 N H X UmUUOC ■<:■.. » u g B . tu ^^ 08 3 S-S fa O^ « AUK. 33 e o fa ■*^ ■"» s •^ 2 " '" M c ©-5 D * ^ N o o s o o m L. (j a 1< a '« » aQ fa s ©3 cm <^ •O 8 269 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE n a o H •!! H 50 H I?; n H O V H < hi P OQ O V H ft4 C M-i o Of u o o o <^ . o o . o o o o o o q o o o o q q S o o O O q o o q 00 00 00 ^O I-N ^^OCO O \0 O »r;oO OO fn O 1/^VO OCOO r< o M-\0 '^OO fN tx tv, ►- cooooooor^oo.ooccooooooooot^ooocct^ O^ O^ C O^ On On ON OOO OvCO O0\0^0^0^0y00^0^0^0\cy\ OCO O^ O^ 0\CO OO OvOO<^ONin(^vO(H On O ^ O O O" O ro « ~ " " fC 3 3 3 3 3 3 3,« 9''--<*HfcS_S-3 3^ 3 3 rt "r?'-H<^ ?> -a: ^ V o ^ N ■- • ;. 3 ■ u :> •> '-■rl .f«l^ ta ^ r o h ti tja:tt. e! j_ rt « t5 rt ^_^ bfi < o o o 6.5 ^. Sw-c 00 cs'^ « >- e I? i, h K tt; r c u*^ a « >v £'-"-1 <^ o ^ ^ ca n u u mOSOOOOOO •w 3 ° >~ BrQ n a O O 3 2 = ►9 270 APPENDIX n c/) • o ■ o . o o o o o o ' OOO ul o ■ • . • o • • • • o • • • • •^ ! ! ! i «n IX « tN -^t fr o ooo o o ^ o^ coo c c^QO c 0-3; '^ o o 00 CO CO c» 0000 0» 0^ 0» 0» 000m « N « Ct V V V u c c c c 3 3 3 3 txCO CO CO u^^ vo \o CO 000000000 N M >. >.; nj 3 3 3_ ^ 3 1) a> 3 o o bo (< = "5 *j ^ . o. ?^ a . ii n u QJ . , V . V O iJ u w U "• I. u w . 3— 'JS 3J3 3 3 3 >^ .13 ■-S2 N S3 c c » -a c E ttuuu'^^'odco o3 •= £^ ^ & be bo M fa > , S 2-~ O u ^ ^ ^ .^ r^ tioo o,^ o w a be c u cd e ft o o 2S O Ml a o :2 o ■ o' a d o' s <2' o '2 S ^QaQ»Q.QQ|QPj| SB cc IB H H * « o e 3-0 ■^ >- s a o u 3 a ■*-> u rt o 2; pa 271 OUR FOREIGN SERVICE c o o o o o >. in o^ V) • u fi" fi ti '. « v> "rt Xfi ; tOtN t^ IX >o 00 »s • 00 o o o o o o B 00 o\ o* o> 0\ a o> M- O w t-i 9 O'w ... s U.2 M MOO m d rTod a 152 " N N 9 1 Of u a U CD O Ol . . . • D-d w aj O lU • • » Sc . f.^ < H x: o • N N C u (U «H CO c c c U C 3 • . , , ^ , I—* » . . '. • M-i H ^^^tibiS)©^ c; u O H H : • .< ■ >Q < <^ '-.c > » * ,'di; O H ■ :> • o > S ai 3 u H ^ 1 ■»-» V O c s u '^ ; X H U a; g 4a OS a- E a e 09 "S, 2 >-• T3 H (3 •21" fl m o 3 > ^ tS A «£ IP o c o c s Si CD S 9 (u <^ % o 01 V ■:3 &4 •S.N f^ |s H pi as oo a t« » lU <;? (4 •a c Oh E e N V ^ < 03 N • £ • ■ -W h * i= .fehoc id S0Q§§-3tC ^Q § OE^^S a % Oi 272 APPENDIX H < H oo < < O o C CI ooooooooooooooooooi oooooooooooooooooo, OOCOOOOO>OvO oooooooooooo 00 o> o N « no «-N In r^ 1^ t^oo oo oo oo oo oo , oo><>oooooocoooooooo 000000 0^0»O^O^O^O^OlO^OO\Q^O^O^O^O^ 00 2 1— ,(->!< ^ f« I— ,<5 rt <• C .U C g' -u C (A en • • • • rt SO . tn bo ■ ■ ■ 1) c o «J c d Cu.l-(CuuOQnJ o <««!-» «J o 0) ca o rt 4; DtiiKj^ 3»J; o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0\ 0> ^ O* CT» ^- >- « o — rri _r^ ^ ^" "^ 2 •T3 rt 3 4) O 00 O "5 a o U ii -s o a •£ c o U m a'fi 3s.2 C o\ o ■a M 11 M l-< •H 11 »-» o o ^ ^ ^OO 00 ^ *^ fl U) a r^ ^ diplomatic officers, 107. consular officers, 175. UNOFFICIAL FEES. abolished by act of 1906, 124. UNOFFICIAL MATTERS, consuls, 175. diplomatic officers, 107. V VAN BUREN, MARTIN, 41. VENEZUELAN-GUIANA BOUNDARY DISPUTE, 41. VESSELS. bills of health, 142. deposit of papers, 119, 121. VICE CONSULS. 130. VICE CONSULS-GENERAL, 130. VICE-PRESIDENT, relative rank, 56. OUR FOREIGN SERVICE W WAGES, SEAMEN'S. duties of consular officers, 143. WAR. duties of consuls, 157. WASHBURNE, ELIHU B., 111. WASHINGTON. standard of conduct for diplomatists, 49. WASHINGTON PAPERS, custody of, 35. WHEATON, HENRY, 48, 70, 112. WHITE, ANDREW D. ambassador to Germany, 39, 106. WHITE, HENRY, 65. WILL. American citizen dying abroad, 152. WRECKS. duties of consuls, 119, 144. li6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES THE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY This book is DUE on the last date stamped helow OCT 3 1S4S ^^^ 9 me APR 3 194? MAY17>949 OCT 251 M « a!m. '^6 3 1954 ifSST""""" I *""* 1 2 1955 DEC 4 r9" FEB 3 t9iS DEC 2 1 1953 Form L-0 Form L-0 20 JH-12, '39(3386) »<«»■ MAR 8 ,^ J 1978 4> [fEPD fcD-URl- IIIAY2G197^ te mom MAR 1 198a e t 3 1158 00299 1486 SUl STATION 0. BO o..» "Sir- ^ ^,.,r-KiM\rew^;^\Vj^ ^^,^&m "JVIV 000 531026 3 I