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Unknown Mexico
A RECORD OF
FIVE YEARS' EXPLORATION AMONG THE
TRIBES OF THE WESTERN SIERRA
MADRE; IN THE TIERRA CALIENTE
OF TEPIC AND JALISCO; AND
AMONG THE TARASCOS
OF MICHOACAN
BY
CARL LUMHOLTZ, M.A.
MEMBER OF THE SOCIETY OF SCIENCES OF NORWAY; ASSOCI6
ETRANGER DE LA SOCIETE DE L'ANTHROPOLOGIE DE
PARIS; AUTHOR OF "AMONG CANNIBALS," ETC.
ILLUSTRATED
VOLUME I
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1902
COPVRKJHT, 1902, BY
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
Published, November, 1902
TROW DIRECTORY
PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPAN/
NEW YORK
MORRIS K. J KSUP, M.A., LL.D.
PRESIDENT OF THE
AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
OF NEW YORK
THE PATRON AND FRIEND OF SCIENCE
THIS WORK
IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
AS A
TOKEN OF GRATITUDE
AND REGARD
1838456
PREFACE
IN the course of my travels in Australia, and espe-
cially after my arrival at Upper Herbert River in
Northern Queensland, I soon perceived that it would
be impracticable for me to hunt for zoological specimens
without first securing the assistance of the natives of the
country. Thus it came about that for over a year I
spent most of my time in the company of the cannibal-
istic blacks of that region, camping and hunting with
them ; and during this adventurous period I became so
interested in these primitive people that the study of sav-
age and barbaric races has since become my life's work.
I first conceived the idea of an expedition to Mexico
while on a visit to London in 1887. I had, of course,
as we all have, heard of the wonderful cliff-dwellings in
the Southwest of the United States, of entire villages
built in caverns on steep mountain-sides, accessible in
many cases only with the aid of ladders. Within the
territory of the United States there were, to be sure, no
survivors of the race that had once inhabited those
dwellings. But the Spaniards, when first discovering
and conquering that district, are said to have come upon
dwellings then still occupied. Might there not, pos-
sibly, be descendants of the people yet in existence in
the northwestern part of Mexico hitherto so little
explored ?
viii PREFACE
1 made up my mind, then and there, that I would
answer this question and that I would undertake an ex-
pedition into that part of the American continent. But
my ideas were not realised until in 1890 I visited the
United States on a lecturing tour. On broaching the
subject of such an expedition to some representative
men and women, I met with a surprisingly ready re-
sponse ; and interest in an undertaking of that kind
being once aroused, the difficulties and obstacles in its
way were soon overcome.
Most of the money required was raised by private
subscription. The principal part of the fund was, liow-
ever, furnished l)y a now deceased friend of mine, an
American gentleman whose name, in deference to his
wishes, I am bound to withhold. The American Mu-
seum of Natural History of New York and the Ameri-
can Geographical Society of New York contributed,
each, $1,000, and it was arranged that I should travel
under the auspices of these two learned institutions.
Many scientific societies received me most cordially.
The Government in Washington readily furnished
me with the official papers I required. The late Mr.
James G. Blaine, then Secretary of State, did everything
in his })ower to pave my way in Mexico, even evincing
a very strong personal interest in my plans.
In the summer of 1890, preparatory to my work, I
visited the Zufii, Navajo, and Moqui Indians, and then
proceeded to the Citv of Mexico in order to get the
necessary credentials from that Government. I was re-
ceived with the utmost courtesv by the President, Gen-
eral Porfirio Diaz, who gave me an hour's audience at
the Palacio Nacional, and also by several members of
his cabinet, whose appreciation of the importance and
PREFACE ix
the scientific value of my i)roposition was truly gratify-
ing. With everything granted that I wanted for the
success of my e.\j)edition — free passage for mv baggage
through the Custom House, the privilege of a military
escort whenever I deemed one desirable, and numerous
letters of introduction to prominent persons in North-
ern Mexico who were in a ])osition to further my plans
— I hurried back to the United States to organise the
undertaking. My plan was to enter, at some conven-
ient point in the State of Sonora, Mexico, that great
and mysterious mountain range called the Sierra Madre,
cross it to the famous ruins of Casas Grandes in the
State of Chihuahua, and then to explore the range
southward as extensively as my means would permit.
The western Sierra Madre may be considered a con-
tinuation of the Rocky Mountains and stretches through
the greater part of Mexico into Central and South
America as a link of the Cordilleras, which form a prac-
tically uninterrupted chain from Bering Strait to Cape
Horn. The section occupying Northwestern Mexico
is called Sierra Madre del Norte, and offers a wide field
for scientific exploration. To this day it has never been
surveyed.
The northernmost portion of the Sierra Madre del
Norte has from time immemorial been under the do-
minion of the wild Apache tribes whose hand was
against every man, and every man against them. Not
until General Crook, in 1883, reduced these dangerous
nomads to submission did it become possible to make
scientific investigations there ; indeed, small bands of
the " Men of the Woods " were still left, and my party
had to be strong enough to cope with any difficulty from
them.
X PREFACE
Inasmuch as my expedition was the first to take ad-
vantage of the comparative security prevailing in that
district, I thought that I could best further the aims of
Science by associating with me a staff of scientists and
students. Professor W. Libbey, of Princeton, N. J.,
took part as the physical geographer, bringing with him
his laboratory man; Mr. A. M. Stephen was the archaeol-
ogist, assisted by Mr. R. Abbott ; Messrs. C. V. Hart-
man and C. E. Lloyd were the botanists, Mr. F. Robin-
ette the zoological collector, and Mr. H. White the
mineralogist of the expedition.
All the scientific men were provided with riding ani-
mals, while the Mexican muleteers generally rode their
own mounts. Our outfit was as complete as it well
could be, comprising all the instruments and tools that
might be required, besides tents and an adequate allot-
ment of provisions, etc. All this baggage had to be
transported on mule-back. We were, all in all, thirty
men, counting the scientific corps, the guides, the cooks,
and the muleteers, and we had with us nearly a hundred
animals — mules, donkeys, and horses — as we crossed the
sierra.
It was a winter campaign, and from Nacori, in So-
nora, to Casas Grandes, in Chihuahua, we were to make
our own trail, which we did successfully. Ancient re-
mains were almost as rare as in the rest of the Sierra
Madre del Norte ; yet traces of ancient habitations
w^ere found in the shape of stone terraces, which had
evidently served agricultural {purposes, and at some
places rude fortifications were seen. In the eastern
part we came upon a considerable number of caves
containing house groups, the builders of which, gener-
ally, rested in separate burial-caves. In the same local-
PREFACE xi
ity, as well as in the adjacent j)lains of San Dicjro, Chi-
huahua, we found numerous mounds covering house
groups, similar in construction l<; those in the caves.
From underneath their lloors we unearthed ahout live
hundred heautifully decorated pieces of pottery.
Among the further results of the expedition may he
mentioned the gathering of large collections of plants,
among them twenty-seven species new to science ; tifty-
five mammals, among which the sucriis Apac/ic \\2k.s new
to science, and ahout a thousand birds. A complete
record was made of meteorological observations.
Thus far, although the question regarding surviving
cliff-dwellers was answered negatively, the field south-
ward in the sierra was so promising that I was eager
to extend my explorations in that direction. The funds
of the expedition, however, began to run hnv, and in
April, 1 89 1, I had to return to the United States to ob-
tain more money with which to carry on a work that
had opened so auspiciously. I left my camp in San
Diego in charge of one of my assistants, instructing him
to go on with the excavations during my absence. This
work was never interrupted, though the force of men
was now considerably reduced. The law prohibiting ex-
cavations without the special permit of the Government
of Mexico had not yet been promulgated.
I was so absolutely confident of the ultimate success
of my efforts, in spite of discouragements, that I twice
crossed the entire continent of North yVmerica, w^ent
down to the City of Mexico and came north again — a
journey of over 20,000 miles — seeing prominent jxM)i)le
and lecturing to arouse a public interest. ^ Finally, the
American Museum of Natural History of New York
decided to continue the explorations, the fumls being
xii PREFACE
this time supplied mainl\- through the munificence of
the late Mr. Henry Villard, and toward the end of that
year I was able to return to my camp, and in January,
1892, lead the expedition further south. My scientific
assistants were now : Mr. C. V. Hartman, botanist ;
Mr. C. H. Taylor, civil engineer and photograjiher,
and Mr. A. E. Meade, mineralogist and zoological
collector.
This time we came upon Cave-Dwellers. The Tara-
humare Indians of the Sierra Madre, one of the least
known among the Mexican tribes, live in caves to such
an extent that they may properly be termed the Ameri-
can Cave-Dwellers of to-day. 1 determined to study
these interesting people, especially the so-called gentiles ''
(pagans), and as this was not practical, even with the
present reduced size of the expedition, I gradually dis-
banded the entire company and at last remained alone.
By selling most of my animals, and a large part of
my outfit, and through the untiring efforts of two
American ladies, whose friendship I highly esteem, I was
enabled to continue my researches alone until August,
1893, when I took my Tarahumare and Tepehuane col-
lections to Chicago and exhibited them at the World's
Fair. Extensive vocabularies of the Tarahumare and
Tepehuane languages, as well as a vocabulary of the now
almost extinct Tubares, were among the results of this
expedition, besides anthropological measurements, sam-
ples of hair and osseous remains.
The great j)ossibilitics Mexico offers to ethnology
proved an irresistible incentive to new researches, and
seeing the results of my previous expeditions, the Amer-
* I have used once or twice tlie expression i^ciitilc Indians, referring to these
Tarahumares.
PREFACE xiii
ican Museum of Natural History of New York again
sent me out on what was to be my thir'l and most ex-
tensive Mexiean expedition, whieh lasted from March,
1S94, to March, 1897. During these three years I again
travelled alone, that is, without any scientific assistants,
at first with two or three Mexicans. Soon, however, I
found that my best companions were the so-called civil-
ised Indians, or even Indians in their aborip-inal state,
who not only helped me by their mere presence to win
the confidence of their tribesmen but also served me
as subjects of observation. As before, 1 stopped for
months with a tribe, discharging all alien attendants, and
roughing it with the Indians. In this way I spent in all
a year and a half among the Tarahumares, and ten
months among the Coras and Iluichols. At first the
natives persistently opposed me ; they are very dis-
trustful of the white man, and no wonder, since he has
left them little yet to lose. But I managed to make
my entry and gradually to gain their confidence and
friendship, mainly through my ability to sing their na-
tive songs, and bv alwavs treating them justly.
Thus I gained a knowledge of these peoples which
could have been procured in no other way. When after
five or six months of such sojourns and travel my stock
of " civilised " provisions would give out, I subsisted on
what I could procure from the Indians. Game is hard
to get in Mexico, and one's larder cannot depend on
one's gun. As in Australia, my favourite drink was hot
water with honey, which, besides being refreshing, gave
a relish to a monotonous diet.
All along my route I gathered highly valuable ma-
terial from the Tarahumares, the Northern and the
Southern Tepehuanes, the Coras, the Huichols, and the
xiv PREFACE
Tepccanos, all of which tribes except the last named
dwell within the Sierra Madre del Norte ; also from the
Nahuas on the western slopes of ihe sierra, as well as
from those in the States of Jalisco and ^Mexico ; and,
finallv, from the Tarascos in the State of Michoacan.
Of most of these tribes little more thnn their names
were known, and I brought back large collections illus-
trating their ethnical and anthropological status, besides
extensive information in regard to their customs, re-
ligion, traditions, and myths, I also comjileted mv col-
lection of vocabularies and aboriginal melodies. On
my journev through the Tierra Caliente of the Terri-
tory of Tepic, and the States of Jalisco and Michoacan,
I also obtained a number of archaeological objects of
great historical value and importance.
In 1898 I made my last expedition to Mexico un-
der the same auspices, staying there for four months.
On this trip I was accompanied by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka.
I revisited the Tarahumares and Iluichols in order to
supplement the material in hand and to settle doubtful
points that had come up in working out my notes.
Sixty melodies from these tribes were recorded on the
graphophone.
Thus from 1890 to 1898 I spent fully five years in
field researches among the natives of northwestern
Mexico. The material was collected with a view to
shedding light upon the relations between the ancient
culture of the valley of Mexico and the Pueblo Ind-
ians in the southwest of the United States ; to give
an insight into the ethnical status of the Mexican Ind-
ians now and at the time of the conquest, and to
illuminate certain phases in the development of the
human race.
PREFACE XV
So far the results of my expeditions to Mcxieo hav^e
been made public in the following literature :
Carl Lumholtz : " Explorations in Mexico," Bulletin of the
American Geographical Society, 1891.
Carl I.UMHOLTZ : Letters to the American Geographical Society
of New York, " Mr. Carl Lumholtz in Mexico," Bulletin of
the American Geographical Society, Vol. IIL, 1893.
J. A. Allen : " List of Mammals and Birds Collected in North-
eastern Sonora and Northwestern Chihuahua, Mexico, on the
Lumholtz Archaeological Expedition, 1890-1892," Bulletin of
the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. V., Art.
III., 1893.
B. L. Robinson and M. L. Fernald : " New Plants Collected by
Mr. C. V. Hartman and Mr, C. E. Lloyd upon the Archaeologi-
cal Expedition to Northwestern Mexico under the Direction
of Dr. Carl Lumholtz," Proceedings of the American Acad-
emy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. XXX., 1894.
Carl Lumholtz : " American Cave-Dwellers ; the Tarahumares
of the Sierra Madre," Bulletin of the American Geographical
Society, Vol. IIL, 1894.
Carl Lumholtz : " The Cave-Dwellers of the Sierra Madre,"
Proceedings of the International Congress of Anthropology,
Chicago, 1894.
Carl Lumholtz : Four articles in Scribner's Magazine : " Ex-
plorations in the Sierra Madre," November, 1891 ; "Among
the Tarahumares, the American Cave-Dwellers," July, 1894 ;
"Tarahumare Life and Customs," September, 1894; " Tara-
humare Dances and Plant Worship," October, 1894.
C. V. Hartman : "The Indians of Northwestern Mexico," Con-
gres International des Americanistes, Dixieme Session, Stock-
holm, 1894.
Carl Lumholtz: "Blandt Sierra Madres huleboere," Norge,
Norsk Kalender, Kristiania, 1895.
Carl Lumholtz and Ales Hrdlicka : "Trephining in Mex-
ico," American Anthropologist, December, 1897.
Carl Lumholtz : " The Huichol Indians in Mexico," Bulletin
of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. X., 1898.
Tarleton H. Bean: "Notes on Mexican Fishes Obtained by
Carl Lumholtz," Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural
History, Vol. X., 1898.
xvi PREFACE
Carl Llmholiz and Ales Hrdlicka : "Marked Human Bones
from a Prehistoric Tarasco Indian Burial-place in the State
of Michoacan, Mexico," Bulletin of the American Museum
of Natural History, WA. X., 1898.
Ales Hrdlicka : " Description of an Ancient Anomalous Skeleton
from the Valley of Mexico, with Special Reference to Super-
numerary Bicipital Ribs in Man," Bulletin of the American
Museum of Natural History, \o\. XH., 1899.
Carl Lumholtz : " Symbolism of the Huichol Indians," Memoir
of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. III., May,
1900 ; 228 royal quarto pages and 3 coloured plates.
IN PREPARATION :
Carl Lumholtz : " Conventionalism in Designs of the Huichol
Indians," Memoir of the American Museum of Natural His-
tory.
The j)resent volumes give a succinct account of my
travels and work among the remote j^eoples of the
Sierra Madre del Norte and the countries adjacent to
the south and east as far as the City of Mexico. Most
of what 1 tell here refers to a part of the Republic that
is never visited bv tourists and is foreign even to most
Mexicans. Primitive })eople are becoming scarce on the
globe. On the .American continents there are still some
left in their original state. If they are studied before
they, too, have lost their individualitv or been crushed
under the heels of civilisation, much light may be
thrown not onlv u|)on the early j)eopU' of this country
but uj)on the hrst chapters of the history of mankind.
In the present rapid development of Mexico it can-
not be ])revented that these jirimitive people will soon
disappear by fusion with the great nation to whom
they belong. The vast and magnificent virgin forests
and the mineral wealth of the moimtains will not much
longer remain the exclusive })roperty of my dusky
PREFACE xvii
friends ; but I hope that I shiiU have rendered them a
service by settinjj^ them tliis modest monument, and
that civilised man will be the better for knowing of
them.
That I have been able to accomplish what I did I
owe, in the first place, to the generosity of the peo-
ple of the United States, to their impartiality and free-
dom from prejudice, which enables foreigners to work
shoulder to shoulder with their own advance guard. I
wish to extend my thanks in particular to the Ameri-
can Geographical Society of New York, and still more
especially to the American Museum of Natural His-
tory of New York, with whom I have had the hon-
our of being connected more or less closely for ten
years. To its public-spirited and whole-souled Presi-
dent, Mr. Morris K. Jesup, I am under profound obli-
gations. I also take pleasure in acknowledging my
indebtedness to Mr. Andrew Carnegie, who initiated
my Mexican ventures with a subscription of $i,ooo ;
furthermore to the Hon. Cecil Baring, Mr. Frederick
A. Constable, Mr. William E. Dodge, Mr. James
Douglass, Mrs. Joseph W. Drexel, Mr. George J. Gould,
Miss Helen Miller Gould, Mr. Archer M. Huntington,
Mr. Frederick E. Hyde, Mr. D. Willis James, Col.
James K. Jones, the Duke of Loubat, Mr. Peter Marie,
Mr. Henry G. Marquand, Mr. F. O. Matthiessen, Mr.
Victor Morawetz, Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan, Mrs. Edwin
Parsons, Mr. Archibald Rogers, Mr. F. Augustus Scher-
merhorn, Mr. William C. Schermerhorn, Mr. Charles
Stewart Smith, Mr. James Speyer, Mr. George W.
\^anderbilt, Mr. William C. Whitney, of New York ;
to Mr. Frederick L. Ames, Mrs. John L. Gardner,
Mrs. E. Mason, Mr. Nathaniel Thayer, Mr. Samuel
xviii PREFACE
D. Warren, Dr. Charles G. Weld, of Boston ; to Mr.
Allison D. Armour and Mr. Franklin Mae\^eagh, of
Chicago ; to Mrs. Phoebe Hearst, Mr. Frank G. New-
lands, Mrs. Abby M. Parrot, Mr. F. W. Sharon, of San
Francisco ; to Mr. Adolphus Busch, of St. Louis ; to
Mr. Theo. W. Davis, of Newport ; and to the late Mr.
E. L. Godkin.
Much valuable support or assistance I have also re-
ceived from Mrs. Morris K. Jesup ; Mrs. Elizabeth
Hobson, of Washington, D. C; Miss Joanna Rotch, of
Milton, Mass.; Mrs. Henry Draper, of New York ;
Mrs. Robert W. Chapin, of Lenox ; the late Mr. E. L.
Godkin; Professor Alexander Agassiz; Professor F. W.
Putnam, Curator of the American Museum of Natural
History in New York ; Dr. S. Weir Mitchell, of Phila-
delphia ; Professor Franz Boas, Curator of the American
Museum of Natural History in New York ; Dr. B. L.
Robinson and Dr. M. L. Fernald, of Harvard Univer-
sity ; Professor J. A. Allen and Mr. L. P. Gratacap,
Curators of the American Museum of Natural History.
I am under obligation to Mr. Marshall H. Saville,
Curator of the American Museum of Natural History,
especially for the placing of the names of the ruins of
Southern Mexico on one of the maps ; to Miss Alice
Fletcher, of Washington, D. C, and Mr. Edwin S. Tracy
for transcribing from the graphophone three of the
songs rendered in this book, and to Mrs. George S.
Bixhy for aid in transcribing the native music. Finally
I desire to express my appreciation of the untiring ser-
vices of my private secretary, Mrs. H. E. Hepner.
The upper illustration on page 65 is a reproduction
of a photograph kindly furnished me by Mr. Frank H.
Chapman, and the illustration in Vol. ,., pages 145-146,
PREFACE xix
is made from a photoo;raph acquired through the late
Dr. P. Laml)orn. The illustration in \'ol. II., pages
464-465, I owe to the courtesy of Mr. D. Gabriel
Castanos, of Guadalajara.
The coloured illustrations are represented as the ob-
jects appear when the colours have been brought out
by the application of water.
The maps do not lay claim to an accuracy which,
under the circumstances, it was impossible to obtain,
but they will, I hope, be found to be an improvement
on the existing ones.
Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, who has just returned from the
Hyde expedition, informs me that in visiting the west-
ern part of Sonora he found pure Opata spoken west
of Rio de Sonora and north of Ures, e.o-,^ in Tuape.
Wherever dollars and cents are given Mexican cur-
rency is meant.
In the Indian Songs II., 10 and 18, I have made an
attempt at rendering the native words in English in
such a form that the translations could be sung, without,
however, deviating from the original.
In the native words "x " should be given the sound
of the Greek X.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Preparations for the Start — Our Dry Goods Relished by the Cattle — I Be-
come a " Compadre " — Beautiful Northern Sonora — Mexican Muleteers
Preferable in Their Own Country — Apache Stories — Signs of Ancient In-
habitants — Arrival at Upper Yaqui River — Opata Indians now Mexican-
ised — A Flourishing Medical Practice — Mexican Manners — Rock-carvings
— How Certain Cacti Propagate, Pages 1-16
CHAPTER n
A Remarkable Antique Piece— A New Species of Century Plant — Arrival
at Nacori, at the Foot of the Sierra Madre — Trincheras — A Mam-
moth Tusk Secured— Climbing the Sierra Madre — A New Squirrel Dis-
covered — Solitude — Apache Monuments — Arrival at Upper Bavispe
River, Pages 17-40
CHAPTER HI
Camping at Upper Bavispe River — Low Stone Cabins, Fortresses, and Other
Remains Indicating Former Habitation— The Animals Starve on the
Winter Grass of the Sierra and Begin to Give Out — A Deserted Apache
Camp— Comfort at Last — The Giant Woodpecker — We Arrive at the
Mormon Settlements of Pacheco and Cave Valley, . . Pages 41-59
CHAPTER IV
A Splendid Field Prepared for Us by the Ancient Agriculturists of Cave
Valley — House Groups in Caves Along a Pretty Stream — Well-preserved
Mummies Found in Caves — More Trincheras — Our Excavations in Caves
and Mounds Contirm to the Mormons their Sacred Stories — We Move to
the Plains of San Diego — Visit to Casas Grandes and the Watch-tower —
Successful Excavations of the Mounds near San Diego, . Pages 60-98
CHAPTER V
Second Expedition — Return to the Sierra — Parrots in the Snow — Cave-
dwellings at Garabato, the most Beautiful in Northern Mexico — A Su-
perb View of the Sierra Madre — The Devil's Spine Ridge — Guaynopa,
the Famous Old Silver Mine — Aros River — On Old Trails — Adventures
of " El Chino" — Cure for Poison Ivy Pages 99-117
xxii CONTENTS
CHAPTER VI
Fossils, and One Way of Utilising Them — Temosachic — The First Tarahu-
niares — Ploughs with Wooden Shares — Visit to the Southern Pimas —
Aboriginal Hat Factories — Pinos Altos — The Waterfall near Jesus Maria
— An Adventure with Ladrones, Pages 1 18-135
CHAPTER Vn
The Uncontaminated Tarahumares — A Tarahumare Court in Session — The
Power of the Stafi — Justice has its Course — Barrancas — Excursion to the
Gentiles — Tarahumare Costumes Simple and Inexpensive — Trincheras in
Use Among the Tarahumares, Pages 136-155
CHAPTER VIII
The Houses of the Tarahumares — American Cave-dwellings of To-day —
Frequent Changes of Abode by the Tarahumare — The Patio or Dan-
cing Place — The Original Cross of America — Tarahumare Store-
houses,. ......... Pages 156-178
CHAPTER IX
Arrival at Batopilas — Ascent from Batopilas to the Highlands of the Sierra —
A Tarahumare who had been in Chicago — An Old-timer — Plight of Our
Native Guide and its Disastrous Consequences— Indians Burn the Grass
All Over the Country — Travelling Becomes too Difficult for the Animals
— Mr. Taylor and I Go to Zapuri — Its Surroundings — The Pithaya in
Season, Pages 179-189
CHAPTER X
Nice-looking Natives — Albinos — Ancient Remains in Ohuivo — Local Tradi-
tions, the Cocoyomes, etc. — Guachochic — Don Aliguel and " The Post-
master " — A Variety of Curious Cures — Gauchochic Becomes My Head-
quarters—The Difficulty of Getting an Honest Interpreter — False Truffles
— The Country Suffering from a Prolonged Drought — A Start in a North-
westerly Direction — Arrival at the Pueblo of Norogachic, Pages 1 90-202
CHAPTER XI
A Priest and His Family Make the Wilderness Comfortable for Us — Ancient
Remains Similar to those Seen in Sonora — The Climate of the Sierra — •
Flora and Fauna — Tarahumare Agriculture — Ceremonies Connected
with the Planting of Corn — Deterioration of Domestic Animals — Native
Dogs of Mexico, Pages 203-217
CHAPTER XII
The Tarahumares Still Afraid of Me— Don Andres Madrid to the Rescue-
Mexican Robbers Among the Tarahumares— Mode of Burial in Ancient
Caves— Visit to Nonoava— The Indians Change their Minds ibout Me,
and Regard Me as a Rain-god— What the Tarahumares Eat -A Pretty
Church in the Wilderness — I Kind at Last a Reliable Interpreter and
Proceed to Live k I'lndienne, Pages 218-234
CONTENTS xxiii
CHAPTER XIII
The Tarahumare Physique — Bodily Movements — Not as Sensitive to Pain
as White Men — Their Phenomenal Endurance — Health — Honesty —
Dexterity and Ingenuity — Good Observers of the Celestial Bodies
and Weather-forecasters — Hunting and Shooting — Home Industries —
Tesvino, the (ireat National Drink of the Tribe — Other Alcoholic
Drinks, Pages 235-257
CHAPTER XIV
Politeness, and the Demands of Etiquette — The Daily Life of the Tarahu-
mare — The Woman's Position is High — Standard of Beauty — Women
Do the Courting — Love's Young Dream — Marriage Ceremonies, Primi-
tive and Civilised — Childbirth — Childhood, . . , Pages 258-275
CHAPTER XV
Many Kinds of Games Among the Tarahumares^Betting and Gambling —
Foot-races the National Sport— The Tarahumares are the Greatest Run-
ners in the World — Divinations for the Race — Mountains of Betting
Stakes — W^omen's Races, ...... Pages 276-294
CHAPTER XVI
Religion — Mother Moon Becomes the Virgin Mary — Myths — The Creation
— The Deluge— Folk-lore — The Crow's Story to the Parrot — Brother
Coyote — Beliefs about Animals, ..... Pages 295-310
CHAPTER XVII
The Shamans or Wise Men of the Tribe — Healers and Priests in One— Dis-
ease Caused by Looks and Thoughts — Everybody and Everything has to
be Cured — Nobody F"eels Well without His "Doctor" — Sorcery — The
Powers of Evil are as Great as those of Good — Remarkable Cure for
Snake-bite — Trepanning Among the Ancient Tarahumares, Pages 31 1-329
CHAPTER XVIII
Relation of Man to Nature — Dancing as a Form of Worship Learned from
the Animals — Tarahumare Sacrifices — The Rutuburi Dance Taught by
the Turkey — The Yumari Learned from the Deer — Tarahumare Rain
Songs — Greeting the Sun — Tarahumare Oratory — The Flowing Bowl —
The National Importance of Tesvino — Homeward Bound, Pages 330-355
CHAPTER XIX
Plant-worship— Hikuli— Internal and External Effects — Hikuli both Man
and God — How the Tarahumares Obtain the Plant, and where They
Keep It — The Tarahumare Hikuli Feast — Musical Instruments — Hikuli
Likes Noise — The Dance — Hikuli's Departure in the Morning — Other
Kinds of Cacti Worshipped — " Doctor" Rubio,the Cireat Hikuli Expert^^:_
The Age of Hikuli W^orship, ^ Pages 356-379
xxiv CONTENTS
CHAPTER XX
The Tarahumare's P'irm Belief in a Future Life — Causes of Death — The
Dead are Mischievous and Want Their F'amiHes to Join Them —
Therefore the Dead Have to be Kept Away by Fair Means or Foul
— Three Feasts and a Chase — Burial Customs — A Funeral Ser-
mon, .......... Pages 380-390
CHAPTER XXI
Three Weeks on Foot Through the Barranca — Rio Fuerte — I Get My
Camera Wet — Ancient Cave-dwellings Ascribed to the Tubar Indians —
The Effect of a Compliment — Various Devices for Catching Fish — Poi-
■ soning the Water — A Blanket Seine, .... Pages 391-407
CHAPTER XXII
Resumption of the Journey Southward — Piitus LiiDihoItzii — Cooking with
Snow — Terror-stricken Indians — A Gentlemanly Highwayman and His
" Shooting-box " — The Pernicious Effect of Civilisation Upon the Tara-
humares — A Fine Specimen of the Tribe — The Last of the Tarahu-
• mares, ....... ... Pages 408-421
CHAPTER XXIII
Cerro de Muinora, the Highest Mountain in Chihuahua — The Northern
' Tepehuanes — Troubles Cropping Out of the Camera — Sinister Designs
on Mexico Attributed to the Author — Maizillo — Foot-races Among the
Tepehuanes, and Vice Versa — Profitable Liquor Traffic — Medicine
Lodges — Cucuduri, the Master of the Woods — Myth of the Plei-
ades Pages 422-436
CHAPTER XXIV
On to Morelos — Wild and Broken Country — The Enormous Flower-spike
of the Amole — Subtropical Vegetation of Northwestern Mexico — De-
structive Ants — The Last of the Tubars— A Spectral Ride — Back to the
United States — An Awful Thunder-storm — Close Quarters — Zape — An-
tiquities — When an " Angel " Dies— Mementos of a Reign of Terror —
The Great Tepehuane Revolution of 1616— The Fertile Plains of Du-
rango Pages 437-450
CHAPTER XXV
Winter in the High Sierra — Mines — Pueblo Nuevo and Its Amiable Padre —
A Ball in My Honour — Sancta Siniplicitas—h. Fatiguing Journey to the
Pueblo of Lajas and the Southern Tepehuanes — Don't Travel After
Nightfall ! — Five Days Spent in Persuading People to Pose Before the
Camera — The Regime of Old Missionary Times — Strangers Carefully
Excluded — Everybody Contemplating Marriage is Arrested — Shocking
Punishments for Making Love — Bad Effects of the Severity of the
Laws, . Pages 451-470
CONTENTS XXV
CHAPTER XXVI
Pueblo Viejo — Three Lans;ua,tje.s Spoken I lere — The Aztecs — The Musical
IJovv — Theories of Its Origin — Dancint^ Mitote — Fasting and Abstinence
— Helping President Diaz — The Importance of Tribal Restrictions —
Principles of Monogamy — Disposition of the Dead, . Pages 471-483
CHAPTER XXVII
Inexperienced Help — How to Acquire Riches from the Mountains —
Sierra del Nayarit — The Coras — Their Aversion to " Papers " — Their
Part in Mexican Politics — A Dejeuner k la Fourchette — La
Danza, Pages 484-495
CHAPTER XXVIII
A Glimpse of the Pacific from the High Sierra — A Visionary Idyl — The
Coras Do Not Know Fear — An Un-Indian Indian — Pueblo of Jesus
Maria — A Nice Old Cora Shaman — A Padre Denounces Me as a
Protestant Missionary — Trouble Ensuing from His Mistake — Scor-
pions, .......... Pages 496-507
CHAPTER XXIX
A Cordial Reception at San Francisco — Mexicans in the Employ of Indians
— The Morning Star, the Great God of the Coras — The Beginning of the
World — How the Rain-clouds were First Secured— The Rabbit and the
Deer — Aphorisms of a Cora Shaman — An Eventful Night — Hunting
for Skulls — My Progress Impeded by Padre's Ban — Final Start for the
Huichol Country — A Threatened Desertion, . . . Pages 508-530
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Portrait of the Author Froiiispiece
PAGE
A Dasylirion, i
Cottonwood, ............ 4
Cereus Greggii, a small cactus with enormous root, .... 5
Fronteras 7
Remarkable Ant-hill, 8
Church Bells at Opoto, ......... 10
Also a Visitor, 11
A Mexican from Opoto, 12
Rock-carvings near Granados, . . . . . . . • 1 5
The Church in Bacadehuachi, 17
Aztec Vase, Found in the Church of Bacadehuachi 18
Agave Hart7nani, a new species of century plant, . . . • 19
Ancient Pecking on a Trachyte Boulder one foot square, . . .20
In the Hills of Northeastern Sonora, ....... 24
Adios, Senor! ........... 27
View toward the Northwest from Sierra de Huehuerachi, . . .29
Our Principal Guide Leaving Us, ........ 32
A Mule with its Pack of Crates, 33
The Photographic Mule, ......... 34
On the Crest of the Sierra, ......... 37
Apache Monument, 39
Camp in the High Sierra, ......... 47
Bringing in Deer, . . . . . . . , . • 51
The Largest Woodpecker in the World, ...... 54
Distant View of Cupola-shaped Granary in Cave '58
Single Wall in Cliff 61
Ground Plan of House Groups in Granary Cave, ..... 62
Cupola-shaped Granary in Cave, ........ 64
Granary in Tlaxcala, .......... 65
Bases of Granaries in Cave, . . . . . . , -65
Ground Plan of House Groups in Cave on East Side of the River, . 66
xxvii
XXV 111
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Burial
Cave in Cave \"allev
Sandal Plaited from Yucca Leaves,
Heel of a Sandal, Showing Plaiting,
Piece of Wood Showing Drill Mark,
Pendant of Wood, ....
Implement for Throwing, .
Burial Caves in Cave \'alley,
A Mummified Body, ....
Rock Paintings in White on the Inside of a
A Trinchera in Cave Valley,
Ancient Cave-dwellings in Strawberry Valley,
Interior View of Cave-dwellings Shown on Page 75,
Exterior View of Cave-dwellings in Strawberry Valley,
Objects Found in Mounds at Upper Piedras Verdes River, .
Painting on Rock on Piedras Verdes River
Figures on Walls of a Cave-house on Piedras Verdes River,
Figure on Rock on Piedras \'erdes River, ....
Hunting Antelope in Disguise, ......
Casas Grandes, .........
Ceremonial Hatchet with Mountain Sheep's Head. I-'rom Casas Grandes
Broken, ..........
Earthenware Vessel in Shape of a Woman. From Casas Grandes,
Cerro de Montezuma and the Watch Tower Seen from the South,
Double Earthenware Vessel, from San Diego, with Hollow Connection
at Base, .....
Extension of Designs on Plate I., a,
The Horned Toad Jar, Seen from Above and Below.
Extension of Designs on Plate I., c/.
Extension of Designs on Plate III., <',. .
Extension of Designs on Plate V., <•,
Black Ware, Highly Polished,
Extension of Design on Plate IV., u, .
Extension of Design on Plate I\\, />,
Extension of Designs on Plate IV., c, .
Extension of Designs on Plate IV.,/, .
Extension of Designs on Plate \'., c, ,
Ancient Cave-dwelling at Garabato,
Part of Cave-dwellings at Garabato,
Design in Red on Second-story Wall, .
Plate
I.,^,
PAGE
67
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
XXIX
ma House
Piece of Matting from Garabato Cave, .
Ancient Cave-houses and Granaries near Aros River,
Tarahumare, .......
Tarahumare Plough with Wooden Share,
Tarahumare Ploughshare Made of Oak,
Tarahumare Ploughshare of Stone,
Young Southern Pima, .....
Middle-aged Southern Pima, ....
Southern Pimas Living in a Brushwood Inclosure,
Pine Cone Serving as a Comb, ....
Southern Pima Arrow Release, ....
Small Crosses Placed in a Log in Front of Southern Pi
The Waterfall of Basasiachic
Tarahumare Ploughman. .....
Ancient Stone Hammer Seen in the Presidente's Yard,
Tarahumare Indians from Pino Gordo,
Tarahumare Court in Session at Cusarare, .
Barranca de L^rique, ......
Our Tarahumare Carriers and the Gobernador,
Tarahumare Men, ......
Tarahumare Woman, ......
Necklace of Seeds of Coix Lac/ityiiia-Jodi, .
Tarahumare Ear-ornament; one seed Co/.v LacJiry)>ia-JolH at top
. Natural size, .......
Tarahumare Ranch near Barranca de Cobre, showing
supported by stone walls, ....
Tarahumare House near Barranca de Cobre,
Tarahumare House in the Hot Country,
Cappe of Sandstone Pillar, showing effect of erosion
Tarahumare P^amily Camping under a Tree, .
Inhabited Cave, the Home of a Tarahumare Belle,
The Belle of the Cave, ......
Side View of Cave on Page 165, Showing Store-houses and Inclosure,
Inhabited Cave, Showing .Store-houses, Inclosure, and Extended Floor
Cave with Wooden Ladder Leading to a Store-room,
Crosses Made from the Natural Growth of Pine-trees in Front of Tara
humare House, ......
Crosses in Front of Tarahumare House,
ploughed
fields
PAGE
07
I I
19
21
124
^5
28
28
29
133
134
137
140
'45
[48
[49
150
'51
51
:52
:57
.58
59
161
[62
'63
164
.65
.69
172
173
XXX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
IC.
Cross, ........
Tarahumare Store-house of Stones and Mud,
Caves Used as Store-houses,
Tarahumare Store-houses Made of Logs,
Cactus Flowers, .....
Making Larvas Ready for the Pot,
Gathering Pithaya, ....
In the Highlands of the Sierra,
Tarahumare Interpreters,
Indian Trail Cut in a Ridge of Tuff,
Pecking on Rock in the Neighbourhood of Norogachic
Tarahumare Girl from the Neighbourhood of Norogach
Pecking on Rock in the Neighbourhood of Norogachic
Winter Morning in the Sierra, ....
Dogs of Chihuahua
Tarahumare Girdles, ......
Aspect of the Tarahumare Country in Humarisa, .
Taking My Baggage Down an Indian Trail in the Barranca de San
Carlos, ..... ...
Tarahumare Woman, ......
Tarahumare Man, ......
Usual Crouching Position of the Tarahumare,
Tarahumare Man, ......
Tarahumares Sunning Themselves,
Tarahumare Girl. The Hair Worn in Mexican Fashio
Weaving a Girdle, ......
Patterns of Tarahumare Belts, ....
Woman Pottery Maker and Some Results of Her Labo
Tarahumare Pottery from Panalachic,
Basket for Straining Tesvino,
Tarahumare IJianket, .
A Tarahumare Call,
Tarahumare Arrow Release,
Tarahumare Baskets, .
Tarahumare Girl Carrying Water
Tarahumare, Showing Mode of \\
Tarahumare Blankets, .
Stone Disk for Playing,
earing Blanket,
PAGE
176
178
179
182
188
20I
202
203
205
207
209
216
219
227
236
237
238
240
242
249
249
250
252
254
259
260
262
263
265
268
274
277
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xxxi
PAGF.
Sticks Used by Tepehuanes for Playing, ...... 278
Value of the Different Sides of a Knuckle-bone, ..... 278
Tarahumares Playing Quinze, .... .... 279
Cross Marking the Track of the Foot-runners, ..... 283
Tarahumares Racing by Torch-light, ....... 285
Making Wagers at a Foot-race 288
Part of Tarahuniare Rattling Belt, ....... 290
Tarahumare Foot-runners, Photographed after the Race, . . . 291
Tarahuniare Women Crossing a Stream in Their Race, . . . 293
Fork and Wooden Ball Used in Women's Game, .... 294
Stick and Ring Used in W^omen's Game, ...... 294
The Coyote, Cam's Latrans, ........ 303
Tarahumare Shaman's Rattles, . . . . . . . •313
Rubio, the Shaman, .......... 316
Rubio, the Shaman, and His Wife at Home in Their Cave, . . . 319
Shaman Rubio's Cave, Seen from the Outside, ..... 320
Rubio, the Shaman, Examining a Man Accused of Sorcery, . . . 324
Trepanned Tarahumare Skull, Female, ...... 328
The Beginning of the Rutuburi and the Yumari Dance, . . . 335
Dancing Yumari, 341
Sacrificing Tesvino after a Yumari Dance, ...... 345
Ready to Begin Eating and Drinking after a Night's Dancing of
Rutuburi, ........... 349
Echinocactus, . . . . . . . . . . -357
Hikuli or Peyote, the principal sacred cacti . 358
Dry Hikuli 359
Shaman's Notched Stick 366
Ancient Notched Sticks, ......... 366
Tarahumare Women Dancing Hikuli at Guajochic Station, . . . 369
MaDiinilaria fissurata, ......... 373
Shaman Rubio and His Company at a Hikuli Feast. Photographed
after a Night's Singing and Dancing, ...... 376
Tarahumare Medicine Figure, Mexico, ....... 378
Ancient Ritualistic Petrograph, Arizona, ...... 378
Mourning, ............ 380
View from the North across Barranca de San Carlos, near Guachochic, . 392
Barranca de San Carlos, in its Upper Part, ...... 395
One of My Companions in Barranca de San Carlos, . . , . 397
XXXll
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
The Widow Grinding Corn in Her Camp,
Bow and Throwing-stick for the Fish-spear,
The Amole, a Species of Agave, .....
Tarahumares on the Rio Fuerte Fishing with Their Blankets
Pintis Luniholtzii, .......
CiviHsed Tarahumare Boy, ......
Juan Ignacio and His Son, Pagan Tarahumares, .
A Tepehuane Family, .......
Old Log-houses near Nabogame, .....
Tepehuanes from Nabogame, .....
Tepehuane Medicine Lodge near Mesa de Milpillas,
A Well-known Tepehuane Shaman, ....
Salvia elcgatis, var. soiiorensis, .....
The Flower-spike of the Amole, .....
Cerens caspitosus, .......
Tubar Man, .........
Tubar Women, ........
Beads of Burnt Clay, from Tubar Tombs,
Tepehuane Sling made from Maguey Fibre, ,
Tepehuane l^ouch made from Maguey Fibre,
Tepehuane Store-house, near Lajas, ....
The Musical Bow of the Tepehuanes of the South, and of
Rattle for Ankle, made from Empty Pods of a Palm,
Cora Men and W^omen from Santa Teresa, .
Cora Pouch, of LInusual Shape, made of Wool. Patterns represent
Flying Birds and a row of Deer, ....
Cora Indians from Mesa del Nayarit, ....
The Sacred Dancing-place of the Coras, called Towta, the supposed
residence of the great Taquat of the East of the same name. Pho-
tographed after the Dancing was over, ......
God's Eye, made by the Cora Tribe as a Prayer for My Health and Life,
the Azte';s
399
401
402
405
409
417
419
423
424
427
432
434
43«
439
440
442
443
444
458
459'
461
475
477
489
492
521
COLOURED PLATES
Plates L, II., IIL. IV. Pottery from San Diego . at end of volume
Plate V. Pottery from San Diego and Casas Grandes at end of voliiine
Plate VL A Tarahumare Beauty .... facing page 266
UNKNOWN MEXICO
CHAPTER I
PREPARATIONS FOR THE START — OUR DRY GOODS RELISHED liV THE
CATTLE 1 BECOME A " COMPADRE " BEAUTIFUL NORTHERN
SONORA MEXICAN MULETEERS PREFERABLE IN THEIR OWN
COUNTRY APACHE STORIES — SIGNS OF ANCIENT INHABITANTS
ARRIVAL AT UPPER YAQUI RIVER — OPATA INDIANS NOW
MEXICANISED A FLOURISHING MEDICAL PRACTICE MEXICAN
MANNERS — ROCK-CARVINGS HOW CERTAIN CACTI PROPAGATE.
HEAVY floods in the southern part of Arizona and
New Mexico, with consequent wash-outs along
the raihoads, interfered with my plans and somewhat
delayed my arriv^al at Bis-
bee, Arizona, a small but
important mining place
from which I had decided
to start my expedition. It
is only some twenty odd
miles from the Mexican
border, and the Copper
Queen Company main-
tains there well-supplied
stores, where the neces-
sary outfit, provisions, etc.,
could be procured. The
preparations for the start consumed more than two
weeks. Animals had to be bought, men selected and
hired, provisions purchased and jiacked. In the mean-
VOL. I. — I I
A Dasvlirion.
2 UNKNOWN MEXICO
time I was joined by the various scientific assistants
appointed to take part in the expedition.
The horses and mules were bought in the neighbour-
hood. In purchasing animals much caution is required
in that part of the country, as even men who pose as
gentlemen will try to take advantage of the situation.
One such individual not only raised his prices, but deliv-
ered unbroken animals. Much loss of time and endless
annoyance were caused, first in the camp and later on the
road, by unruly mules, that persistently threw off their
packs and had to be subdued and reloaded.
Gradually, I had succeeded in finding the neces-
sary men. This was another hard task to accomplish.
There are always plenty of fellows, ready for adven-
tures, greedy to earn money, and eager to join such
an expedition. But to select the right ones among
the cow-boys and miners of the border lands is most
difficult.
By what appears, furthermore, to be the compen-
sating justice of Nature, the treasures of the earth are
always hidden in the most unattractive, dismal, and
dreary spots. At least all the mining places I ever vis-
ited are so located, and Bisbee is no exception. To get
away from the cramped little village and its unsavoury
restaurant, I established my first camp four miles south
of it on a commodious and pleasant opening, where we
could do our own cooking. But here a new annoyance,
and rather a curious one, was met with. The cattle of
the region evinced a peculiar predilection for our wear-
ing' apparel. Especially at night, the cows would come
wandering in among our tents, like the party who goes
about seeking what he may devour, and on getting hold
of some such choice morsel as a sock, shirt, or blanket,
Mrs. Bossie would chew and chew, " gradually," to quote
Mark Twain, " taking it in, all the while opening and
THE START 3
closing her eyes in a kind of religious ecstasy, as if she
had never tasted anything quite as good as an overcoat
before in her life." It is no use arguing about tastes,
not even with a cow. In spite of this drawback, it was
pleasant to be out in the country, which was growing
delightfully green after the rains, and gave us a foretaste
of what we might expect.
The last thing to do, after all other preparations had
been completed, was to get into the camp three small
bags containing seven hundred and fifty Mexican dol-
lars, since among the Mexican country population paper
money is hardly of any use. There was some talk about
a raid on the camp by some toughs in the neighbour-
hood, but we made our start unmolested, on Septem-
ber 9, 1890.
Thanks to my letters from the Mexican Government,
I had no trouble at the custom-house in San Pedro. I
stopped a few days there, nevertheless, to buy some
Mexican pack-saddles, called aparejos, which, roughly
speaking, are leather bags stuffed with straw, to be fast-
ened over the mules' backs. Through the courtesy of
the Mexican custom officials I also secured two excel-
lent and reliable Mexican packers, to take the place of
some Americans who had been fighting in the camp
and proved themselves unfit for my }jurpose.
As a mark of regard, one of the custom officers in-
vited me to act as godfather to his child. I had to sup-
port the baby's head during the ceremony, while an
elderly woman held the little body. According to cus-
tom, I gave twenty-five cents to every member of the
party, and to the child a more ade(iuate present. From
now on I was called compadre by most of the people
in the village, and that sacred relationship was estab-
lished between myself and the baby's family, which is
deemed of so much imj)ortance in the life of the Mexi-
UNKNOWN MEXICO
"--^^MMJn^
■^;#
cans. During ten years of travel and ethnological activ-
ity I have never met the child again, but I hope that he
is getting on well.
How beautifully fresh the country looked as we trav-
elled southward in Northern Sonora ! The dreary plains
of Arizona gave way to a more varied landscape, with
picturesque hills studded with oaks and mountain cedars.
Along the rivers cotton wood
was especially noticeable.
There was also an abundance
of wild-grape vines. Every-
where near the shady creeks
I saw the evening primrose,
brilliantly yellow, while the
intense, carmine-red flowers
of the lobelia peeped out
from under the shrubs. But
of all the flowers on the
banks of the streams, the
most remarkable was the
exquisitely beautiful Datura
fneteloides, with its gorgeous white crown, six inches
long and four inches wide. We saw one cluster of this
creeper fully fifty feet in circumference. It is well
known among the Navajo Indians that the root of this
plant, when eaten, acts as a powerful stimulant ; but the
better class among the tribe look upon it with disfavour,
as its use often leads to madness and death. The eff"ect
of the poison is cumulative, and the Indians under its
influence, like the Malays, run amuck and trv to kill
everybody they meet.
There is also found a species of cactus, with a
root which looks like an enormous carrot. One small
plant had a root four feet long. It is used as soap.
Amono^ the birds, doves and flycatchers were most
Cottonwood.
THE FRONTIER POPULATION
commonly seen, one species of the latter frequently
dazzling our eyes with its brilliant vermilion plumage.
The men 1 had hired before
crossing the border did not work
at all well with the Mexicans. They
generally considered themselves
vastly superior to the latter, whom
they did not recognise as "white
men." Personally, I preferred tiic
Mexicans, who were obedient, oblig-
ing, and less lawless than the rough,
mixed-white citizens of the Ameri-
can Southwest. As an illustration
of the moral status of the frontier
population, I may relate that when
about sixty miles south of the bor-
der, a custom-house official stationed
in the neighbourhood insisted upon
examining all my baggage, which,
of course, would have involved a lot
of trouble. He was neither worse
nor better than other custom offi-
cers, who seem to exist only to an-
noy people, and by the exertion of a little patience I
succeeded in settling the matter satisfactorily. But one
of my foremen, who had noticed my annoyance, came
up to me and asked if I desired " to get rid " of him ;
if I did, said he, he knew how he could serve me so that
nothing more would be heard from the Mexican !
I gradually weeded out this unscrupulous element
among the men, and replaced most of the American
with Mexican muleteers, who are far superior in that
particular line of business. In hiring them, only one
precaution had always to be observed : never to accept
one unless he had a good recommendation from his
/
Ccreus Greggii. A small
cactus with enormous root.
6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
village authorities or some prominent man in the neigh-
bourhood.
The first village of any importance we passed was
Fronteras. It is built on the summit and slopes of an
elevated plateau and looks extremely picturesque at a
distance. Seen close, however, it turns out to be a
wretched little cluster of adobe, or sun-dried brick,
houses. Not only the town itself, but also all the
ranches in the neighbourhood are erected on elevations,
a precaution from former days against the bloodthirsty
Apaches.
Not so very long ago Fronteras was quite an im-
portant place, numbering, it is said, some 2,000 inhabi-
tants. But the Apaches, by their incessant attacks,
made tiie life of the villagers so miserable that the place
became depopulated. Once it was even entirely aban-
doned. Many stories of the constant fights wnth these
savages are related by the survivors of those struggles.
Never was it safe in those days to venture outside of the
town limits. Vet the conflicts did not always end in
one way, and the Mexicans sometimes got the better of
the raiders, although it may be doubted whether the
methods by which these results were brought about
would come under the rules of modern warfare.
One bright moonlight night an old man, who had
himself taken jxirt in many an Apache fight, led me to
a deep gorge where seven Apaches once met their
doom. The story he told was as follows :
A large band of warriors came threateningly into the
town. They had killed two hawks and, decorated with
their feathers, were on the warpath. As they were in
such numbers the Mexicans realised that it would be
useless to attempt resistance, and therefore sued for
peace, which was granted. A peace-banquet followed,
during which mescal, the Mexican brandy, flowed freely,
APACHE STORIES 7
distributed without stint to the warriors by their wily
hosts, who were abiding their time. When the Apaches
were intoxicated the villagers fell upon them and cap-
tured seven men ; most of the band, however, managed
to escape. Next da\- the j)risoners were taken to the
Fronteras.
ravine and speared, charges of powder being deemed too
good for them. Only el capitan, pointing to his head,
requested, as a special favour, to be shot, which was
done. Their bodies were buried in the ravine where
they fell, but too long a time had already elapsed since
the event to enable me to secure for my collections the
specimens for which 1 had been on the lookout. Yet I
was told by the inhabitants that the ground about the
town was so full of Apache remains that I should have
8
UNKNOWN MEXICO
no difficulty in gaining mv object in places close by. A
number of Apaches, men and women, I was informed,
had once been dumped into a well. I set to work at
the place indicated, and our efforts were rewarded by the
exhumation of eight skulls in perfect condition, besides
many typical bones. The last raid of the Apaches on
Fronteras was in 1875.
Passing Cochuta about a hundred miles south of
Bisbee, we came upon a deposit of fossils. It was
scarcely more than
a mile in extent,
but many bones
were said to have
been taken away
from it as curiosi-
ties. I had already
observed isolated
fossil bones along
the creeks on sev-
eral occasions dur-
ing our travels,
but we could find
nothing here of
value.
Signs that the
country was in former times occupied by another race
than its present inhabitants are seen everywhere through-
out the region we traversed following the road to the
south. Here they appear fre(}uenllv as remarkable
groupings of stones firmly embedded in the ground.
Only the tops of the stones (the total length of which
is about one foot) are seen al)o\^c the surface, much as
stones are used in parks and gardens for ornamental
purposes. They are arranged in circles or in rectangles.
I saw two circles close to each other, each six feet in
Remarkable Ant-hill.
THE YAOUI RIVER 9
diameter. One rectangle measured fifty feet in length
by half that in width. Low walls divided it into three
indistinct partitions. There was never any wall built
underneath these surface stones, nor were there any
traces of charring. Among the ruins found on top of
the hills we collected a lot of broken pottery and some
flint arrowheads. In several places in this district we
found gold and coal, but not in paying quantities.
Some forty miles south of Cochuta we turned in a
southerly direction, ascending a hilly plateau 3,200 feet
above sea-level. Here we observed the first orchids,
yellow in colour and deliciously fragrant, and in the
canon below we met the first palms. The rocks con-
tinued to show volcanic and metamorphic formation.
About 130 miles south of Bisbee we caught the first
glimpse of the Sierra Madre rising above the foot-hills
some forty miles off to the east. Its lofty mountain
peaks basking in the clear blue ether, beckoned to us in-
spiringly and raised our expectations of success. This,
then, was the region we were to explore ! Little did I
think then that it would shelter me for several years. It
looked so near and was yet so far, and as we travelled
on southward the sio-ht of it was soon lost ao-ain.
We gradually descended to the Bavispe River, a
name here given to the Yaqui River, in accordance with
the custom which the Mexicans have in common with
people in other parts of the world of giving different
names to one river in its course through different dis-
tricts. It was a treat to catch the first sight of the mag-
nificent sheet of water the river forms near the town of
Opoto, as it slowly wends its way through green shrubs.
It is the largest river of the west coast of Mexico and
is here about 1,400 feet above the level of the sea.
Following the river to the south, we soon passed
the towns of Guasavas and Granados. The veeetation
10
UNKNOWN MEXICO
along the river banks is in strong contrast to the land
in general. Here are fields of sugar-cane, and in the
orchards, orange, fig, and lime trees grow in abundance.
The country, though fertile, is dry, and the heat is great.
Even at the end of October the thermometer sometimes
registered ioo° F. in the shade. The grass had become
Church Bells at Opoto.
dry and scarce, and it was difficult to keep the animals
in satisfactory condition.
This territory was once in the possession of the
large tribe of Opata Indians, who are now civilised.
They have lost their language, religion, and traditions,
dress like the Mexicans, and in appearance are in no
way distinguishable from the labouring class of Mexico
with which they are thoroughly merged through fre-
quent intermarriages.
A FLOURISHING MEDICAL PRACTICE ii
As we j)assc(i the hamlets, our larjrc party and
outfit created quite a sensation and aroused the people
from the uneventful routine of their daily existence.
They used to surround my tent, espcciall}' mornings and
evenings, as if an auction had been going on inside.
Some of them wanted to sell things that would come in
handv, such as fowls or panoche (brown sugar). One
woman offered me three chickens for one dollar. I told
her she charged too high a price, as chickens were not
Also a Visitor.
worth more than twentv-five cents apiece ; but she
insisted that she w^anted a dollar, because she had prom-
ised that amount to the padre for reading a mass for a
man who had died in the time of Hidalgo at the begin-
ning of the century.
But most of the crowd flocked to my tent to con-
sult me about their ailments. It was useless to tell
them that I was not a medical man, or that I had not
much medicine to spare, carrving only wdiat I expected
to use for my own party. If I had given them all they
wanted, our little stock would have been exhausted on
12
UNKNOWN MEXICO
the first day ; Init in order to soften my heart they
would send me molasses, suo:ar-cane, and similar del-
icacies. One poor old woman who was suffering from
cancer even offered me
her donkey if I would
cure her — an offer in
a way equivalent to a
Wall Street magnate's
millions, for the don-
key was her sole pos-
session on earth.
They all were anx-
ious to have me feel
their pulse, whether
there was anything the
matter with them or
not. They firmly be-
lie\'ed that this mys-
terious touch enabled
me to tell whether they
were afflicted with any
kind of disease and
how long thev were
going to live, A wom-
an in delicate condi-
tion wanted me to feel
her pulse and to tell
her from that when
her child was going to be born. I only hope that my
practical advice and the little medicine I could give them
relieved some of their backaches and sideaches, their
felons, crouj)s, and fevers and agues, and above all, their
indigestion, wiiich is the j)revailing trouble in that sec-
tion of the country. But I confess that I was nearly
tired out with these consultations. In consequence of
A Mexican from Opoto.
THE PEOPLE HELPFUL
13
frequent intermarriages there are many deaf and dumb
persons among them, and epilepsy and insanity are by no
means rare.
On tlie other hand, I was assured that such a char-
acter as a thief was here unknown. However this
might be, it was certain that the Mexicans of Eastern
Sonora were a nice class of peojjle. They were pleas-
ant to deal with, very active and obedient, and I never
wish for better men than those I then had in my camp,
nearly all of whom were from these parts. The people
were poor, but genuinely hospitable. Of course they
were ignorant, and might not, for instance, recognise a
check unless it was green. In each town, however, I
found one or two men comparatively rich, who knew
more of the world than the others, and who helped me
out in my difficulties by going from house to house,
collecting all the available cash in town, or what coffee
and sugar could be spared to make up the deficiency.
One thing is certain, I should never have gotten on so
well had it not been for the friendlv and oblie^inor
attitude of the Mexicans everywhere. As an instance,
when the great scarcity of grass began to tell seriously
on the animals, I was efficiently helped out by the
courtesy of some influential men. Without any person-
al letters of introduction I received many services when-
ever I showed my letters of recommendation from the
Governor of the State, and had a hearty welcome.
I was so much impressed with the readiness of the
people to accommodate and serve me that my note-
book contains the remark : " I find the Mexicans more
obliging than any nation I have ever come in contact
with." It has been my lot to travel for years in Mex-
ico, and my experience with her people only tended to
deepen the pleasant impression I received at the outset.
Anyone who travels through Mexico well recommended
14 UNKNOWN MEXICO
and conducts himself in accordance wiih the standard
of a gentleman is sure to be agreeably surprised by the
hospitality and helpfulness of the people, high and low,
and it is not a meaningless phrase of politeness only by
which a Mexican " places his house at your disposal."
It is of the utmost importance to have as your chief
packer a man who thoroughly understands how to take
care of the animals. It is not the custom in Mexico,
as it is everywhere in Australia, to wash the backs
of the animals as soon as the packs or saddles are
taken ofT — a precaution which is very beneficial, as it
strengthens the skin and prevents inflammation and
sores. In the Southwest they do not wash their
beasts of burden until the mischief is done and they
have to allay the swelling and heal up the cuts. If not
properlv cared for from the beginning, the animals
will soon be ailing ; some grow unfit for service, and
much time is lost mornino-s and evenino-s curino^ their
sores. Through the carelessness of some packers I lost
several valuable mules from such wounds. In summer
the blue-bottle fly aggravates the annoyance, as it lays
its eggs in the open spaces of the skin, and maggots
develop in a very short time. Of course there are many
ways of ridding an animal of this pest, but here, as
everyvv^here, the proverbial ounce of prevention is
better than the pound of cure.
A curious case of a man whose life was threatened
by a blue-bottle fly and its maggots came to my notice.
He was a soldier, and once in a fight he had his nose
cut off so that the nostrils became entirely exposed.
One night when he was asleep, drunk, a fly laid its eggs
in his nose, and when these were hatched it seemed
as if the man was to be eaten up alive. I gave him
some relief by syringing the parts with a solution of
corrosive sublimate. Then an intelligent Mexican, who
ROCK-CARVINGS
15
had an extensive knowledi^e of ilie numberless native
medicinal j)lants (many of which, no doubt, are very
valuable), treated the patient, and in two days the poor
wretch seemed to be in a fair \va\' to be saved.
Rock-carvings near Granados.
Near Granados I heard of some petroglyphs, or rock-
carvings, and sent Mr. Stephen to examine them. The
Mexicans called them " Painted Face." They were
to be fountl only two miles and a half to the north-
i6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
west of the town, and were interestino-. The designs
were rudely peeked on the moderately smooth felsite
cliffs on a nearly perpendicular wall in the foot-hills,
about forty feet above the bed of the arroyo, or gulch.
All the human fio-ures were drawn in the characteristic
style that we find farther north, the hands and feet being
defined with three radiating lines, like a bird's track.
The size of the figure, carved in something like a frame,
is about twenty l)y twenty-four inches, and each of the
three figures in the group close below is about eighteen
inches high. Some of the drawings evidently represent
the deified dragon-fly found almost everywhere among
the ruins of Arizona and Northern Mexico. There are
also the concentric circles, the conventionalised spiral,
and the meander design, so common among the North
American Indians, and still in use among the Moquis.
Our botanist, Mr. Hartman, drew my attention to
an interesting cactus, which is beautifully shaped like a
candelabra, and attains a height of three to five feet.
As it grows old, the top joints of the branches become
thick and heavy and are easily broken off by the wind.
The joints, like all other parts of the plant, are beset
with numerous inch-long spines, and many of them
fasten in the loose, moist soil and strike root. In this
way many new plants are formed, standing in a circle
around the mother j)]ant. On sloping ground the young
plants form rows, some forty feet long. There was a
fruit to be observed, but very scarce in comparison with
that of other species of Cercus growing in the vicinity.
CHAPTER II
A REMARKABLE ANTIQUE PIECE — A NEW SPECIES OF CENTURY
PLANT ARRIVAL AT NACORI, AT THE FOOT OF THE SIERRA
MADRE TRIXCHERAS — A ^LAM.MOTH TUSR SECURED CLIMBING
THE SIERRA iMAURE A NEW SQUIRREL DISCOVERED SOLITUDE
APACHE MONUMENTS — ARRIVAL AT UPPER P.AVISPE RIVER.
FROjM Granados \vc took an easterly course, being
at last able to cross the Bavispe River, which,
owing to heavv rains in the sierra, had for some time
been overflowing. Starting from this point, the ground
The Church in Bacadehuachi.
gradually rising, we arrived at Bacadehuachi, a small
village remarkable for its church, a massive adobe struct-
ure, the grand style of which looked somewhat out of
proportion in these mountains. It had been built by
Vol. I.— 2 17
i8
UNKNOWN MEXICO
the Franciscans more than loo years ago, on the site
of an older Jesuit church, remains of which are still in
existence, and which in turn had been erected on the
ruins of an ancient temple.
While inspecting the church Professor Libbey dis-
covered that one of the holy water fonts or stoups was a
piece of great antiquity,
and we were informed
that it had been dug up
from the debris of the
ancient temple when
the foundations for the
present building were
aid. Its aesthetic value
appealed even to the
unscientific builders of
the church, who deemed
the vessel worthy of
a place in the new
cathedral, where it
served as a beni-
tier. Unfortunate-
Iv, it had been found
necessary to engrave on
the ancient carv^ing
some Roman letters
dedicating the vessel to its new purpose. Though this
somewhat mars its general character, the vase is a most
valuable relic of prehistoric Mexico, not only as a mas-
terpiece of ancient art, but still more as a way-mark or
sign-post showing the trend of Aztec migrations.
It was not possible to obtain it right away, but a
few days later I sent a messenger to a gentleman in
Granados, whose wife had been relieved from illness by
some remedy of mine, requesting him to use his in-
Aztec Vase, found in the Church oi^
Bacadehuachi. Height, 37 ctm.
NACORI
19
fluence with the priest, and in due course I had the sat-
isfaction of possessing this valuable relic of history. The
vase is made of a soft, unctuous stone resembling steatite
(soapstone); it is true agalmatolite, a mineral popularly
called pagoda stone. Through the mouth of the human
head carved out in front passes a copper tube, which
once no doubt pierced the thick wall of the vessel and
penetrated into its interior. This tube had been stopped
up to make the piece available for its new purpose.
Marching for several days through oaks and mes-
quites, over hills and rising country, we reached Nacori,
a poor village in the foot-hills of the Sierra Madre. It
is scarcely forty miles from Granados, and lies at an ele-
Agave Hartmani, a new species ot century plant.
vation of 3,700 feet. Our camp, about two miles out-
side of the village, was permeated with a delicious odour
of acacia blossoms, and water in the neighbouring moun-
tains, though strongly impregnated with iron, was quite
palatable.
In this region Mr. Hartman found a new form of
20 UNKNOWN MEXICO
aga\e with delicate stripes of white on the lanceolate
leaves that constitute the basal rosette of the plant.
The flower stalk is only twelve or thirteen inches high,
and I should not wonder if this diminutive and beautiful
century plant some day became fashionable in green-
houses. It grows in large numbers in the crevices of
the rocks, the perpendicular walls of canons often being
studded with the bright little rosettes when the drought
has withered all herbaceous vegetation.
From here I made an excursion to an ancient pueblo
site. As usual, there were traces of small dwellings,
huts of undressed stone, and fragments of pottery. We
found three mortars and one pestle, a remarkable num-
ber of metates (the stone on which corn is ground), and
the corresponding grinding stones, showing that a large
population must have once lived here, huddled together
in a small space.
But the most striking feature of antiquity met thus
far on our journey were curious stone terraces built
across the small gullies. They are called trincheras
(trenches). Some of them do not appear to be very old,
and many present the ap-
pearance of tumble-down
walls, but the stones of
which they are construct-
ed were j^lainly used in
their natural state. Al-
. . ,. . I . k n thouoh many of the
Ancient pecking on a trachvte boulder ^ -'
one foot square.' bouldcrs are huge and
irregular in shape, they
were used just as thev were found. The building material
always conformed to the surroundings : in places where
conglomerate containing water-worn boulders abounded,
this was used ; where porphyry was prevalent, blocks
of that material were employed. There is no trace of
TRINCHEKAS 21
dressing or cutting", hul in the mason work c()nsidcrai)lc
skill is evident, llie walls are not vertical, hut incline
somewhat toward the slope on which they are erected.
The terrace thus formed is often filled with soil to the
height of the wall-top for a space of from fifteen to twen-
ty feet. Earth taken from tlicm does not show any
colours. Some of these trincheras measure thirty feet
in length by four feet in height, while the smallest ones
I saw were only five feet long and three feet high.
Naturally enough, the largest ones are in the lower part
of the gullies ; then, some twenty-five feet back and
above, others almost as large may be found. As the
arroyo rises and narrows, the walls, each placed a little
higher up the slope than the })receding one, are neces-
sarily smaller.
In the mountains near Nacori, especially on their
eastern and southeastern sides, trincheras were en-
countered in every gulch as high up as six thousand
feet, though steep crests and the mountain tops bear no
traces of them. In one arroyo, which was about a thou-
sand feet in length and of comparatively gentle slope,
twenty-nine trincheras were counted from the bed of
the main drainage to the summit of the mountain.
Some of them were quite close together, three being
within eighteen feet of one another.
These trincheras somewhat resemble the small ter-
race gardens of the Moqui Indians, and have undoubt-
edly been used for agricultural purposes, just as they
are used by the Tarahumares to this day (page 152). It
is true that thev are built in great numbers, sometimes
in localities that would appear unsuitable for farming ;
but, on the other hand, they are seldom, if ever, found
far from the remains of habitations, a fact from which
it may also reasonably be inferred that the ruined
houses, as well as the trincheras, were originally built by
22 I NKNOWN MEXICO
the same race. Some of the terraces were, no doubt,
erected as a protection of tlie crop against enemies and
wild animals ; but it is impossible to think that thev
were intended for irrigation dams, though we did see
water running through some, coming out of a marsli.
Still less likelv is it that thev had been used as mining
dams.
As soon as the plains of Northern Sonora were left
behind, and the country became hillv and broken, these
peculiar structures were conspicuous. At first thev ap-
peared more like walls built simply along the slopes
of the hills, and not crossing gulches. They seem to be
more numerous in the western and central part of the
sierra, its spurs and foot-hills, than in the eastern part
of the great range. As regards their southern extent,
they are not found further south than the middle part
of the state of Chihuahua. Captain Bourke, in his
book, "An Apache Campaign," mentions that "in
every sheltered spot could be discerned ruins, buildings,
walls, and dams, erected bv an extinct race once possess-
ing these regions." Mr. A. F. Bandelier, on his jour-
ney to the Upper Yaqui River, in 1885, which took
him as far as Nacori, also refers to them, and Professor
W. J. McGee, on his expedition in 1895, found in North-
eastern Sonora ruins locally known as Las Tri7icJieras,
which he considered the most elaborate prehistoric work
known to exist in Northwestern Mexico. They com-
prise, he says, terraces, stone-walls, and inclosed fortifi-
cations, built of loose stones and nearly surrounding
two buttes.
I must not omit to mention that in a week's explo-
ration in the mountains near Nacori, Mr. Stephen and
his party did not find any pottery fragments, nor flint
flakes, nor grinding stones. They reported that there
was in that region no other trace of an early people
A MAMMOTH TUSK 23
than the hundreds of trincheras in the lower portions of
the arroyos.
Noteworthy, however, was the frequent occurrence
of old trails across the hills, some quite plainly trace-
able for three and four hundred yards. Old oaks
stretched their limbs across many of them quite close to
the ground.
While at Nacori I learned from the inhabitants that
at no orieat distance from their town there were several
deposits containing httcsos giganteos (giants' bones),
a name given to fossils in this part of the world, where
the people imagine that the large bones were originally
those of giants. I had then neither time nor men to
make excavations of any importance ; but Mr. White,
the mineralogist of the expedition, whom I sent to look
into the matter, and who devoted a week to the exam-
ination of the deposits, reported that one of them, in a
valley sixteen miles south of Nacori, was a bed of clay
thirty feet thick and about a mile and a half long. On
the edge of this field he discovered a tusk six feet eight
inches long and twenty-six inches at its widest circum-
ference, and having almost the curve of a circle. It was
not petrified and had no bone core, but the hole filled in
with clay, and its colour was a rich mahogany. It was
undoubtedly the tusk of a mammoth.
From the beginning it had surprised me how very
ignorant the people of Sonora were regarding the Sierra
Madre. The most prominent man in Opoto, a town
hardly forty miles from the sierra, told me that he did
not know how far it was to the sierra, nor was he able to
say exactly where it was. Not even at Nacori, so close
to this tremendous mountain range, was there much in-
formation to be gotten about it. What the Mexicans
know about that region may be brieflv summed up thus :
That it is a vast wilderness of mountains most difficult
24
UNKNOWN MEXICO
of approach ; that it would take eight days to climb
some of the high ridges ; that it contains immense pine
forests alive with deer, bear, and wonderfully large wood-
peckers, able to cut down whole trees ; and that in its
midst there are still existing numerous remains of a
people who vanished long ago, but who once tilled the
111 ihc Hills oi Northeastern Suiiora.
soil, lived in towns and built monuments, and even
bridges over some of its caiions.
This general ignorance is mainly due to the fact
that until very recently this entire part of the sierra,
from the border of the United States south about
250 miles, was under the undisputed control of the
THE APACHE SCOLKGE 25
wild Apache Indians. From ihcir mountain strong-
holds these marauders made raiding' expeditions into the
adjacent states, west and east, sweeping down upon the
farms, plundering the villages, (hixing off horses and
herds of cattle, killing men and carrying off women and
children into slavery. Mines became unworkable; farms
had to be deserted ; the churches, built by the Spaniards,
mouldered into decay. The raiders had made them-
selves absolute masters, and so bold were they that at
one time a certain month in the year was set apart for
their plundering excursions and called "the moon of the
Mexicans," a fact which did not prevent them from rob-
bing at other seasons. Often troops would follow them
far into the mountains, but the " braves " fought so skil-
fully, and hid so well in the natural fortresses of their
native domain, that the pursuit never came to anything,
and the Mexicans were completely paralysed with fear.
The dread of the terrible pillagers was so great that even
at the time when I first went into the district, the Mex-
icans did not consider it a crime to shoot an Apache at
sight.
Such a scourg-e did this tribe become that the
Governor of Chihuahua had a law passed through the
Legislature, which put a certain price upon the head
of every Apache. But this law had soon to be re-
pealed, as the Mexicans, eager to get the reward, took
to killing the peaceful Tarahumares, w^hose scalps, of
course, could not be distinguished from those of the
Apaches.
It was not even now safe for a small party to cross
the Sierra Madre, as dissatisfied Apaches were con-
stantly breaking away from the San Carlos Reservation
in Arizona, and no Mexican could have been induced to
venture singly into that vast unknown domain of rock
and forest, about which lingered such painful memories
26 UNKNOWN MEXICO
of bloodshed and icrror,* In the early part of our jour-
ney a Mexican officer had called on me to offer, in the
name of the Governor of the State of Sonora, his services
as escort and protection against the Apaches ; but I de-
clined the courtesy, ])ref erring to depend rather upon my
own men. I am happy to say that I had no personal en-
counter with the dreaded " Shis Inday," or Men of the
Woods, as they call themselves, though on one occasion
we came upon fresh tracks near one of our camps, and
also upon small bunches of yucca leaves tied together in
a peculiar way known to the Mexicans as signs intelligi-
ble only to the Apaches.
The only precaution I had taken against possible at-
tacks was to augment my force of trustworthy Mexican
muleteers. Among the new recruits was an honest-
looking Opata Indian, who joined the camp one evening,
clad in the national costume of white cotton cloth, and
carrying in his hand a small l)undle containing his wife's
petticoat (probably intended to do duty as a blanket)
and a pair of scissors. This was his whole outfit for a
winter campaign in the Sierra Madre. They are hardy
people, these Indians! This man told me that he was
thirty years old ; his "seiiora," he said, was twenty-five;
when he married her she was fifteen, and now they had
eleven children.
Finally I succeeded in securing two guides. One of
them was a very intelligent man, who had been several
times in the sierra ; the other one had been only as far
as Chuhuichupa, and, although he did not remember the
way very well, still he thought that with the help of the
other man he would be able to make out the route. As
we could do no better, we had to take him as the best
guide available.
* Several years after my expedition passed through those regions the Apaches on
more than one occasion attacked outlying Mormon ranches and killed several persons.
CLIMBING THE SIEKKA MADRE
27
After having received some supplementary provis-
ions from Granados, I at last, on December 2, 1890, be-
gan the ascent. It was a beautiful day ; the air was
clear and warm and the sun shone bright, as it always
does at this time of the year in this favoured region.
The genius of spring seemed to hover about, and snow,
frost and scarcity of grass seemed far removed contin-
gencies. Everything looked promising.
As I left the town, following the pack-train after
having made the last settlements with the natives, I
Adios, Senor!
passed a little hut, the last homestead on this side of
the sierra. In front of it stood a voungf {jirl, her hand
raised to shade her eyes against the rays of the sinking
sun. She had watched the expedition go by, and was
much excited by the strange sight of so many men, the
wonderful array of animals and great quantity of bag-
gage never before seen in those parts of the world.
With her fine dark eyes, her loose wavy hair and grace-
ful figure, she made a strikingly beautiful picture, and
as she called out in a sweet, melodious voice, ''Adios,
Sefior ! '' I took this kindly greeting from a pretty girl
28 UNKNOWN xMEXICO
as a orood omen for my journey. On the spur of the
moment I dismounted and perpetuated the auspicious
scene bv means of a kodak wiiicli I carried fastened to
the pommel of my saddle. I wish it had been possible
for me to send her that picture as a token of my grat-
itude for her cheery greeting. She surely would have
appreciated it, as all Mexicans delight in seeing their
photographs. Then I turned my face to the east and
soon overtook my men.
To reach the Sierra Madre from the Bavispe River
by way of Nacori, two — or, as the Mexicans consider it,
three — sierras have to be crossed, all running, generally
speaking, in a northwesterly to southeasterly direction.
The first two ranges are quite easy to climb. The third
is the Sierra Madre proper, which the Mexicans here
call Sierra de Nacori, as the upper Bavispe River from
its source makes a great detour toward the north around
it, thereby partly separating it from the main chain.
Even this range does not really present any unsur-
mountable difficulties if the weather is fine ; in bad
weather, I admit, some parts of the trail w^e made would
be all but impracticable.
Having reached the second range called the Sierra
de Huehuerachi, near its northern terminus, and look-
ing backward, we see the Sierra de Bacadehuachi lying
farthest to the west. On its eastern flank tower steep-
tilted broken masses of conglomerate, and the frowning-
row of hog-backs just north and east of Nacori are
only a continuation of that range. But looking east
from where we were we obtained the first close view
of the main range of the Sierra Madre (Sierra de Na-
cori). It rises bold and majestic on the opposite side
of the valley, at the bottom of which runs the little river
of Iluehuerachi.
In this valley we camped for two days, being de-
fl;ifffl':i:i3!a«S'"P«llillllW'(i^|«^
^S&"^
A DIFFICl'LT IKAIL
31
laycd by rains. It was early in December, but we found
Heliaiithus ten to twelve feet high in bloom every-
where in the canons. A Salvia with a blue corolla, dot-
ted with red glands, was very striking, a new variety, as
it proved. We also observed elders with flowers and
leaves at the same time, and the Baiiilmsa formed a
thick light-green undergrowth in beautiful contrast to
the darker shades of the oaks, elders, and fan palms.
The latter were the last of their kind we saw on this
side of the sierra.
We then went six miles further to the northeast.
At first the trail followed the little river, whose clear
and rapid water is about a foot deep and on an average
six feet wide. Frequently its bed had to be cleared of
palm trees to make it passable for the pack train, and
big boulders and heavy undergrowth made travel rough.
Then, ascending a cordon \vhich led directly up to the
main range, we followed for a while a dim trail on
which the Apaches used to drive the herds of cattle
they had stolen, and which is said to lead to a place so
inaccessible that two Indians could keep a whole com-
pany at bay. The surface soil we had lately been trav-
elling over was covered with boulders and fragments of
conglomerate.
The Sierra Madre was now so close that the tilted
masses of its rocks seemed to overhang our tents threat-
eningly where we had pitched them at its foot. From
this camp we had about the same splendid view as from
the ridge of Huehuerachi we had just left behind ; and
between us and the foot-hills of the Sierra de Bacade-
huachi stretched out a vast mass of barren -looking
rocks and hills. The Mexicans call them agiia blanca,
a designation also applied to the small water course that
runs through them in a northerly and southerly direc-
tion, but which from our point of view could not be
32
UNKNOWN MEXICO
made out in the chaotic confusion. Away off toward
the north, at a distance of fiom fifteen to twenty miles,
could be seen a high chain of sharp peaks.
I may mention here that 1 found the water of many
streamlets and brooks throughout the western moun-
tains of Mexico to have a slightly whitish colour and a
dull, opalescent look, like a strong solution of quinine.
The Mexicans call it agua blauca, or agiia zarca, and
consider it the best water they have. Many places, es-
pecially ranches, are named after it. In the locality
where we now found ourselves the water had a slight-
ly bitter taste, owing to a strong admixture of iron and
other minerals, but generally it was very palatable.
Here, only twenty-three miles from Nacori, and at
an elevation of 4,000 feet, we were obliged to make
camp for three days. Dense fogs and occasional hard
showers made travel impossible. Besides, our principal
guide, Agustin Rios, became dangerously ill. He was
sixty-live years old, and I decided to send him back.
"^ When I hired him I
had not been aware
that he was afflicted
with an incurable dis-
ease, and that on this
account his wife had
tried to keep him at
home. Now he had
to be carried on a sort
of palanquin construct-
ed for the occasion,
and I regret to state
that he died before he reached his home in Nacori. He
had been a reliable man, and his loss was very dei)l()rable.
Before he left he gave me directions for finding a
rather large ancient pueblo, which he had come across
,1^*
Our Principal Guide Leaving Us.
DANGEROUS TRAVELLING
33
once In the sierra, and of which he frequently spoke to
us. However, our search for it proved fruitless, and I
am inclined to think that it would probably not have
differed much from those we found later on Bavispe
River.
From now on I made it a rule to send three or four
men about two days ahead of the main body of the ex-
A Mule with its Pack of Crates.
pedition, to make a path. Occasionally they were
guided by Apache tracks, but for the most part we cut
our own w^ay through the wilderness. Instead of adopt-
ing the Mexican method of going uphill as straight as
practicable, I had the trail cut zigzag, and to this I at-
tribute the fact that I was able to pull through at all, as
it saved the animals an immense amount of strain. The
steepest inclination we ascended was 40°, while for the
most part we climbed at an angle of about 30°. On
some of the ridges, in order to help an animal up, one
man had to drag it by a line, while two others pushed it
from behind. In many places the mules had to be led
one by one along the narrow edge of chasms.
To look at these mountains is a soul-inspiring sensa-
tion ; but to travel over them is exhaustive to muscle
and patience. And the possibility of losing at any mo-
Vol. I.— 3
34
UNKNOWN MEXICO
ment perhaps the most Vciliuil)le part of your outfit is a
constant and severe strain on your mind. Nobody ex-
cept those who have travelled in the Mexican mountains
can understand and appreciate the difficulties and anxi-
eties attending such a journey. Not only the animals
themselves, but everything they carry is vital to the suc-
cess of the expedition, and there is always a danger that,
for instance, your camera and photographic outfit, and
the priceless collection of negatives already taken, may
roll down a precipice.
A mule with its bulky pack is, to a certain extent,
helpless on these narrow
mountain trails. Old and
experienced animals often
manoeuvre their packs
with a cleverness that is
almost human : yet, wdien-
ever a mule runs acciden-
tally aofainst some proiec-
f'tw "tion, or its foot slips, the
poor beast invariably loses
•^j.t;:^^,-''-*-^^- ;5|:^,,:^^'?^ its balance, and over it
The Photographic Mule. goes, down the hill with
ever-increasing velocity.
On one occasion I heard a noise coming from above
without being at first able to discern what caused it. A
few stones came tumbling down, and were presently fol-
lowed by a donkey, pack and all, turning over and over
with astounding speed. It cleared a perpendicular rock
some twenty feet high and landed at its base, rolling
over twice. Then, to my amazement, it rose to its feet
in the midst of its scattered cargo. And do you know
what that cargo consisted of ? — a case of dynamite and
our tool chest ! As fast as their legs could carry them,
two Mexicans were by its side, promptly reloading the
SURE-FOOTED MULETEERS 35
donkey and leading it uj) to the trail as eoolly as if
nothing had happened. A very fine mule, raised on the
plains of Arizona, was naturally giddy, and met with
such a mishap three times in one day, tumbling down
150 to 200 feet without, lunvever, being seriously hurt.
At first I was greatly shocked to see the animals thus
rolling over and over with their packs, down the moun-
tain sides, never stopping until checked by some large tree
or rock, sometimes 200 feet below. But the Mexicans
were evidently quite accustomed to such happenings,
which seemed to be in the regular line of their travel.
I could not help admiring the agility as well as the
valour of my Mexican packers and muleteers on such oc-
casions. They moved about as sure-footed and quick as
sailors on their ship, and always on the alert. When-
ever one of the poor beasts lost its foothold, the men
would instantly run after it, and as soon as some obsta-
cle stopped its downward career they would be by its
side and relieve it of its burden. Of course, some-
times the animal was badly bruised about the head,
and unable to carry a pack for a few days ; but, niira-
bile dictu ! in the majority of cases it rose to its feet.
Then, after giving it a few moments' respite, the packers
would strap the cargo again on its back, unless they
deemed it proper to take a part of it upon themselves,
so that the beast might more safely climb the declivity.
The men really seemed indefatigable. One of them
once took upon his head a large case of honey and car-
ried it up the ridge on a run. Strange as it may sound,
on my first journey across the Sierra Madre I did not
lose one animal by such accidents.
Climbine, climbino:, climbinu:, one massive cordon
after another, at the start through dense oak thickets,
and over hills flattened and eroded with countless deep,
precipitous gashes seaming the rock in every direction.
36 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Numerous springs oozed and iriekled from the stratified
conglomerate along the edges, sides, and bottoms of the
ravines. The tops of some of these truncated knolls
were quite swampy in the depressions, and covered with
a thin-stemmed feathery grass. Here and there was a
clump of scrub oaks ; sparsely scattered about were
small pines. We found great numbers of Opuntia
Missottriensis, called by the Mexicans nopal ; small
mesquite shrubs, too, are seen everywhere, while the
resurrection plant covers great areas, like the heather on
the Scotch hills. Here are also found century plants,
or agaves, and many species of small ferns, such as the
graceful maidenhair. In the larger watercourses are
poplars and maples, now presenting their most brilliant
hues, and carrying the thoughts of the Americans back
to their Northern homes.
Thus we advanced for about six miles and made
camp, at an elevation of 6,300 feet, on some old
trincheras, with a fine view over the vast country
we had left below. Large flocks of gray pigeons
of remarkable size squatted on the pine trees near-
by, and two specimens of the gigantic woodpecker we
here observed for the first time. Here, too, Mr. Rob-
inette shot a new species of squirrel, Sciiirus Apache.
It was large, of a j)ale grayish-yellow color varied with
black, and having a long, full and bushy tail.
We had now arrived in the pine region of the si-
erra. The Mexican scouts reported that the country
ahead of us was still more difficult of access ; but the
track having been laid out well bv Professor Libbey
along the pine-covered slopes, we safely arrived at the
crest of the sierra, which here has an elevation of
8,200 feet. The steep slopes of the valleys and crev-
ices were covered with slippery pine needles eight to
twelve inches long, while the pines rose up to a
SOLITUDE
37
height of a hun-
dred feet or more.
The forest, never
touched by a wood-
man's axe, had a
remarkably young
and fresh look
about it. Now and
then, however, at
exposed places we
came upon trees
broken off like
matches, telling of
what terrific storms
may rag^e over
these solitary re-
gions that received
us calmly enough.
Not until we had
reached the top did
we feel the wind
blowing pretty hard
from the east and
On the Crest of the Sierra.
encouragmg us m
our hopes that the fine weather would continue, although
the moon appeared hazy.
Having ascended the sierra, we made a picturesque
camp on the top of the cordon, in the midst of forests
so dense that we did not get any view of the landscape.
While here, Mr. Stephen discovered, on the summit of
a peak, about four hundred and twenty feet above the
brow of the ridge, a small circular structure about four
feet in diameter. Four or five large fragments of
scoria, each about fifteen inches high, were set around
in a circle, and the space between them was filled in
38 UNKNOWN MEXICO
with small fragments. No nicety was shown in the
work, but the arrangement of the stones was not acci-
dental. It was, however, quite old, for in several places
the fragments were cemented together with a thick coat
of lichen. The ])urpose of the circle is a matter of con-
jecture.
We were now obliged, as the guide did not seem to
know any more of the country, to explore ahead of us
before the main body of the expedition could proceed
further. Several of us went out in different directions,
and I happened to strike the right course, which here
unexpectedly goes first northward. Accompanied by
my dog " Apache," I walked in the fresh morning air
through the sombre pine woods, the tops of which
basked in glorious sunshine, and along the high cordon,
which ran up to a height of 8,900 feet (the highest
point reached on my first expedition over the Sierra
Madre), until I came to a point where it suddenly ter-
minated. But I soon ascertained that a spur branching
off to the east would lead us in the right direction,
I sat down to gaze upon the magnificent panorama
of the central part of the Sierra Madre spread out be-
fore me. To the north and northeast were pine-covered
plateaus and hills in seemingly infinite successions ; on
the eastern horizon my eyes met the dark, massive
heights of Chuhuichupa, followed towards the south by
ridge upon ridge of true sierras with sharp, serrated
crests, running mainly from northwest to southeast.
And between them and me was an expanse of gloomy,
pine-hidden cordons, one succeeding close upon an-
other, and running generally in the same direction as
the sierras. Primeval stillness and solitude reigned all
over the woodland landscape. I like the society of man,
but how welcome and refreshing are occasional moments
of undisturbed communion with Nature !
A PLEASANT SURPRISE
39
On the followincr day the pack train moved along
the path I had walked over. We were pleasantly sur-
prised to lind at this season, the middle of December,
and at this elevation, a species of violet in bloom, while
Lupinus and / 7-
cia were already
in seed. We made
our c a m p at a
place 7,400 feet
above sea level,
and here we no-
ticed trincheras
close by, with
water running
through them
from a marsh.
We also hap-
pened to come
upon some stone
piles made of
rough stones laid
on top of each
other to a height
of about three
feet. The Mexi-
cans called them
"Apache Monuments," and I saw here eight or ten,
three at a distance of only twenty yards from each other
and lying in a line from east to west. On the next day
we found an Apache track with similar monuments.
Some of these piles did not seem to be in places difficult
to travel, and therefore could hardly have been intended
for guide-posts, though others might have served that
purpose ; nor is it easy to see how they could have been
meant for boundary marks, unless they were erected by
Apache Monument.
40 UNKNOWN iMEXICO
some half-castes who kept company with the Apaches,
to divide off the hunting grounds of various families.
It seems to me more likely that they are connected
with some religious rite.
We had some little difficulty in making our descent
to the Bavispe River, but at last we discovered, and
travelled down, an old but still practicable trail, drop-
ping nearly i,ooo feet. A little further northward we
came down another i,ooo feet, and thus we gradually
reached Bavispe, which is here a rapid, roaring stream,
girth-deep, and in many places deeper. It here flows
northward, describing the easterly portion of the curve
it forms around the Sierra de Nacori.
I selected as a camping ground a small mesa on the
left bank of the river, among pines and oaks and high
grass, about forty feet above the water edge. A mead-
ow set park-like with pines extended from here nearly
three-quarters of a mile along the river, and was almost
half a mile wide. Near our camp we found several old
and rusty empty tin cans, such as are used for putting
up preserved food. One of them was marked " Fort
Bowie." Doubtless this spot had been used before as
a camping ground, probably by some of General
Crook's scouts.
CHAPTER III
CAMPING AT UPPER BAVISPE RIVER — LOW STONE CABINS, FORTRESSES,
AND OTHER REMAINS INDICATING FORMER HABITATION THE
ANIMALS STARVE ON THE WINTER GRASS OF THE SIERRA AND
BEGIN TO GIVE OUT A DESERTED APACHE CAMP COMFORT
AT LAST THE GIANT WOODPECKER WE ARRIVE AT THE MOR-
MON SETTLEMENTS OF PACHECO AND CAVE VALLEV.
AT Bavispe River we had to remain for some little
time to allow the animals to recuperate, and to
get them, as far as possible, in condition for the hard
work still ahead. I also had to send back to Nacori
for fresh provisions. Of course, not much was to be
gotten there, but we got what there was in the line of
food stuffs, panoche (brown sugar) and corn. My mes-
sengers had orders to bring the latter in the form of
pinole, that is, toasted corn ground by hand into a fine
meal. This is the most common, as well as the most
handy, ration throughout Mexico. A little bag of it is
all the provisions a Mexican or Indian takes with him
on a journey of days or weeks. It is simply mixed
with water and forms a tasty gruel, rather indigestible
for persons not accustomed to it. When boiled into a
porridge, however, pinole is very nourishing, and forms
a convenient diet for persons camping out. Aside from
this we still had a supply of wheat flour sufficient to
allow the party fifteen pounds a day, and our stock of
canned peas and preserved fruit, though reduced, was
not yet exhausted. The jerked beef had given out even
before we reached the main sierra, and we had to de-
41
42 UNKNOWN MEXICO
pend on our guns for meat. Luckily, the forest was
alive with deer, and there were also wild turkeys.
Thus there was no difficulty about {)rovisions, although
the Americans sighed for their beloved bacon and hot
biscuits.
Fish seemed scarce in this part of the Bavispe
River ; at least we did not succeed in bringing out any
bv the use of dynamite. We got only five little fish —
one catfish, and four suckers, the largest six inches
long.
On Christmas Day the black bulb thermometer rose
in the sun to 150° F., although that very night the
temperature fell to 22.9° F., a difference of nearly 130°.
The warmth was such that even a rattlesnake was de-
ceived and coaxed out by it.
We made every effort to celebrate Christmas in a
manner worthy of our surroundings. We could not
procure fish for our banquet, but one of the Mexicans
had the good luck to shoot four turkeys ; and Kee,
our Chinese cook, surprised us with a plum pudding the
merits of which baffle description. It consisted mainly
of deer fat and the remnants of dried peaches, raisins,
and orange peel, and it was served with a sauce of
white sugar and mescal. The appreciation of this deli-
cacy by the Mexicans knew no bounds, and from now
on they wanted plum pudding every day.
On the upper Bavispe we again found numerous
traces of a by-gone race who had occupied these regions
long before the Apaches had made their unwelcome ap-
pearance. In fact, all along on our journey across the
sierra we were struck by the constant occurrence of
rude monuments of people now long vanished. They
became less numerous in the eastern part, where at last
they were replaced by cave dwellings, of which I will
speak later.
ANCIENT CABINS 43
More than ever since we entered the Sierra de Na-
cori, \vc noticed everywhere low stone walls, similar to
those we had seen in the foot-hills, and evidently the
remains of small cabins. The deeper we penetrated
into the monntains, the more common became these
hut-walls, which stood about three feet high, and were
possibly once surmounted by woodwork, or, j)erhaps,
thatched roofs. All the houses were small, generally
only ten or twelve feet square, and they were found in
clusters scattered over the summit or down the slopes
of a hill. On one summit we found only two ground
plans in close proximity to each other.
The stones composing the walls were laid with some
dexterity. They were angular, but never showed any
trace of dressing, except, perhaps, by fracture. The
interstices between the main stones were filled in with
fragments to make the walls solid. Neither here nor
in any other stone walls that we saw were there any in-
dications of any mud or other plaster coating on the
stones.
On top of a knoll in the mountains south of Nacori,
at an elevation of 4,800 feet, well preserved remains of
this kind of dwelling were seen. The house, consist-
ing of but one room about ten feet square, was built
of large blocks of lava. The largest of these were eigh-
teen inches long, and about half as thick, and as wide.
The walls measured about three feet in height and
one foot and a half in thickness, and there was a suffi-
cient amount of fallen stone debris near-by to admit of
the walls having been once four or five feet high.
There were the traces of a doorway in the northwest
corner of the building. Numerous fragments of coarse
pottery were scattered around, some gray and some red,
but without any decoration, except a fine slip coating
on the red fragments.
44 UNKNOWN MEXICO
In the Sierra de Nacori, on the summit of a steep
knoll, antl at an elevation of about 6,500 feet, we found
two huts of such hid-up walls. The rough felsite
blocks of which they were composed were surprisingly
larsfe, considering the diminutive size of the cabins.
We measured the largest block and found it to be two
feet long, ten inches wide, and eight inches thick.
There were many others almost as large as this one.
But there was only one tier of stones left complete
in place. .Although there were well-built trincheras in
all the surrounding arroyos, there were no traces of either
tools or pottery on that hill.
On the western slope of the Sierra de Nacori, on
top of another knoll, and at an elevation of 6,400 feet,
we found numerous rude ground plans, some of which
showed rubble walls fifteen inches thick. They formed
groups of four or five apartments, each ten by twelve
feet. But on the north side of that summit there was a
larger plan, nearly eighteen feet square ; however, the
outlines of the entire settlement were not distinct enough
to enable us to trace its correct outlines.
Many fragments of pottery lay about, but neither in
number nor in interest could they be compared with
those found near the ruins in the southwest of the United
States, for instance, near the Gila River. Some of the
potsherds were one-third of an inch thick, and large
enough to show that they had been parts of a large jar.
They were made of coarse paste, either gray or brown
in colour. Some had a kind of rude finish, the marks of
a coarse fibre cloth being clearly discernible on the out-
side. Others were primitively decorated with incisions.
One sherd of really fine thin red ware was picked up,
but there was no trace of ornamentation on it. We
found, besides, a few cores oi felsite and some shapeless-
flakes and several fragments of large metates.
RUINS 45
In the vallev formed between the mountains on the
upper Bavnspe Ri\'er we met with very many such
houses. The clusters which we came across seemed to
have been composed of a larger number of houses. Par-
apets, also built of undressed stones and surrounding these
villag^es, now became a constant feature. Even within
sight of our camp was such a parapet, six feet high, and
house ruins were near by. We also discovered an an-
cient pueblo consisting of thirty houses, all of the usual
small dimensions, but not all alike in shape. Some were
round, others triangular, but most of them were rectangu-
lar, measuring eight by ten feet. Along two sides of this
village ran a double wall, while the other two sides were
bound by a single wall constructed on the same prin-
ciple. Evidently these walls were built for the protec-
tion of the people in time of war.
About five miles south of our camping place the
river turns eastward, and again two miles below this
point it receives a tributary from the west. One day I
followed the broken cordon on its eastern bank, then
turned north and ascended an isolated mountain, which
rises about fifteen hundred feet high above the river.
There is a small level space on top, and on this there
has been built, at some time, a fortress with walls of un-
dressed stones from two to six feet high and three feet
thick. It was about fifty paces long in one direction,
and about half that length in the other. Remains of
houses could be traced, and inside of the walls themselves
the ground plan of three little chambers could be made
out.
On the Bavispe River we photographed a trinchera
which was about eight feet high and thirty feet long ;
and one of the foremen observed one which was at least
fifteen feet high.
I decided to move the camp one and a half miles
46 UNKNOWN MEXICO
down the river, and to its right bank, on a cordon, where
Mason, one of my Mexican foremen, had discovered
some ruins. It was very pleasant here after the rather
cool bottom of the valley, which in the morning was
generally covered with a heavy fog. On this ridge were
many traces of former occujjancy, parapet walls and
rude houses divided into small compartments. The
parapets were lying along the north and south faces of
the houses, and just on the brink of the narrow ridge.
On the south side the ridge was precipitous, but toward
the north it ran out in a gentle shallow slope toward
the next higher hill. The building material here is a
close-grained felsite, and huge fragments of it have been
used in the construction of the parapets. These bould-
ers were, on an average, thirty-five inches long, twenty-
five inches thick and fifteen inches wide ; while the
stones used in the house walls measured, on the aver-
age, fourteen by nine by seven inches.
On the western end of the ridge is a small house
group, which, for convenience sake, I will designate as
" Mason's Ruins." They showed a decidedly higher
method of construction, and the walls were better pre-
served, than in any we had seen so far. The ground
plans could be readily made out, except in a small part
of the southwest corner. These walls stood three to five
feet high, and the stones here too were dressed only by
fracture. They were laid in gypsiferous clay, a mass of
which lay close to the southwest corner. This clay is
very similar to the material used by the Moquis in whit-
ening their houses. The stones themselves were felsite,
which abounds in the locality. The blocks have an aver-
age size of twelve inches square by six inches thick. It
should be noted that no regard was paid to the tying of
the corners and the partition walls ; but considerable
care had been taken in makinir the walls vertical, and
X
6
u
DIFFICULTIES ON THE MARCH 49
the angles were faiii\- true. The walls were almost
twelve iiiehes thiek, and on the inner side they had evi-
dently never l)een plastered.
Being coated with some white plaster, these ruins
look white at a distance, and the Mexicans therefore
called them casas d/aucas. I heard of an extensive group
of such buildings near Sahuaripa, and there are also
some ruins of this categorv near Granados, and in the
hills east of Opoto. Undoubtedlv they belong to a
more recent period than the rude stone structures de-
scribed l)efore. Most of the ancient remains of the
Sierra are remnants of tribes that expanded here from
the lowdands, and only in comparatively recent times
have disappeared. I also perceived that they were built
b}' a tribe of Indians different from those which erected
the houses in the caves of the eastern and northern
Sierra Madre, and in the country east of it, and may
safely be ascribed to Opatas.
In spite of the rest here, the animals did not seem to
imj)rove on the grama and buffalo grass. It was rather
perplexing to note that they grew weaker and weaker.
The grass of the sierra, which was now gray, did not
seem to contain much nourishment, and it became evi-
dent that the sooner we proceeded on our journev, the
better. To save them as much as possible, w^e loaded
only half the regular weight on the mules and donkeys,
and sent them back the next day to fetch the balance of
the baggage. In this way, and by strengthening the
poor beasts with a judicious use of corn, I managed to
pull through and overcome this most serious of all
difficulties, which, at one time, threatened to paralyse
the entire expedition.
On December 31st we moved up a steep zigzag trail
cut out bv us, and then went north and east through
broken foot-hills. We got into a series of cordon mesas,
Vol.. I.— 4
so UNKNOWN MEXICO
but the breaks between them weie nul at all difficult to
pass. On the mountain sides grew oaks and, higher
up, pines.
The country was wild and rugged. Everywhere we
encountered fallen rocks, and there was a scarcity of
water. It was a kind of comfort to see now and then
some trincheras in these desolate regions. At four
o'clock we camped on a steep place amidst poor grass,
and only a trickling of water in the bed of a little rill.
Here, at last, the men w^hom I had sent to Nacori for
provisions overtook us, bringing eighteen dollars' worth
of panoche, and two and a quarter fanegas of pinole.
Measuring by fanegas was then still in vogue in Mexico ;
a fanega equals about sixty-four kilograms.
This, the messengers stated, was all that the women
would grind for us. Twenty of them had been set to
work to fill our order, and when they had laboured until
their hands were tired, they declared they would grind
no more ; and if the caballeros in the mountains wanted
further quantities, they should come and make mills of
themselves. From this we judged that their tempers
had risen in proportion to the heaps of pinole they were
producing, and that they did not bless the day when we
had come into their peaceful valley, since it meant so
much hard work for them.
Though we were now provisioned for some time to
come, I was anxiously looking forward to the day when
we should reach the eastern side of the sierra. The
animals were rapidly giving out, and it was the opinion
of the packers that they could not last longer than a
week ; but what little corn we could spare for them each
day worked wonders, and in this way we enabled them
to carry us through.
The most noticeable among the plants in the valleys
was the madrona or strawberry tree (^Arbutus Texand)
A DESERTED CAMP
51
growing singly here and there. Its beautiful stem and
branches, ash-grey and blood-red, are oddly twisted
from the root to the top. Now and then, in this world
of pine trees, we came upon patches of grama grass.
We also observed pinon trees, a variety of pine with
edible seeds.
Apache monuments were plentiful in this part of the
sierra, and after four days of travel, on January 5, 1891,
1.-. t \(fp. f jr ; IJ^
Bringing in Deer.
we arrived at an old Apache camping place, called by the
Mexicans " Rancheria de los Apaches." It was a shel-
tered place, and we decided to stop again and rest, as
now we could not be very far from the Mormon colonies
in the eastern part of the sierra. We had, on the day
before, heard a shot, which had not been fired by any-
one of our party, and we had met some short-horn cat-
tle that must have belonged to some settlers.
We halted on a bare conglomerate scalp near a little
52 UNKNOWN MEXICO
creek, which \vc called " Bonito," and which shurtlv
below our camp joins the Gabilan, an affluent of the
l^a\isj)c I'iiver which probably has its origin near Chu-
huichupa. The elevation of our camp was 6,620 feet.
The summit of the sierra toward the east appeared to
be 2,000 feet high, and the tirst ridge, at the foot of
which we camj)ed. rises here almost })erpendicularlv
about a thousand feet. The little stream alread\' men-
tioned originates in a deep caiion and adjoining it are
four large cordons descending from the ridge east of us
and spreading themselves out like a gigantic fan, which
we had noticed from some distance on the previous day.
From our camp led a track eastward, up along one of
these cordons, and a reconnoitring party found a Mor-
mon settlement ten or twelve miles off.
The day after our arrival I went out to take a look
at the country. South of us, at no great distance from
the camp, I found patches of fertile black soil partly
cultivated with corn and turnips that did not appear to
be flourishing, and with potatoes which were doing well.
An old horse stood there, and I also noticed a small tent.
Going up closer I found a plough standing outside.
This made quite a queer impression in these solitary
mountains, but the implement was apparently not out of
place, judging from the beautiful black soil near-by. In
the tent I saw a heap of bed-clothes piled up on some
tin pails, and there were also some pots with potatoes
and corn. The owner of all this was not at home ; but
the atmosphere was American, not Mexican. I had evi-
dently come u{)on an outpost of one of the Mormon
colonies.
Throughout January the days continued to be fine,
though at times a southerly cold wind was blowing ; but
at night it was cold and the water in our buckets was
often frozen. Then we felt what a real comfort a large
FISHING WITH DYNAMITE
53
camp-fire is. Before sundown we would gather the
fallen trees and such sorts of wood, and roarinsf fires
were built in front of each tent. The smoke, to be
sure, blackened our faces, but the lire made the tents
wonderfully comfortable, filling them with light and
warmth. For beds we used fragrant pine boughs.
We also had several falls of snow, the heaviest two
and a half inches, and on the coldest night, on January
loth, the thermometer went down to 6° F. As the rays
of the sun partly melted the snow in the course of the
day, the animals could at least get a meagre meal. On
January 15th a cup of water froze inside of my tent, but
during the day we had 57° F.
We soon found out that in the river Gabilan, some
four miles south of our camp, there were immense quan-
tities of fish, which had come up to spawn. No one
ever interfered with them, and their number was simply
overwhelming. As the task of feeding thirty men in
these wild regions was by no means a trifling one, I re-
solved to procure as many fish as possible, and to this
end resorted to the cruel but effective device of killing
them by dynamite. I trust that the scarcity of provi-
sions in the camp will serve as my excuse to sportsmen
for the method I employed. We used a stick of dyna-
mite six inches long, and it raised a column of water
twenty feet in the air, while the detonation sounded like
a salute, rolling from peak to peak for miles around. In
two hours three of us gathered 195 fish from a single
pool. Most of them were big suckers ; but we had also
thirty-five large Gila trout. All were fat and of delicate
flavour, and lasted us quite a long time.
Never have I been at anv j)lace where deer were so
plentiful. Almost at every turn one of them might be
seen, sometimes standing as if studying your method of
approach. I sent out five men to go shooting in the
54
UNKNOWN MEXICO
northwesterly direction from the cam|>, and after a day
and a half they returned with ten deer. At one time we
had fifteen hanging in the kitchen.
One morning our best marksman, a Mexican named
Figueroa, brought in three specimens of that superb
bird, caiupcpJulns impcrialis, the largest woodpecker in
the world. This
i^ splendid member
of the feathered
tribe is two feet
long ; its j)lumage
is white and black,
and the male is or-
namented with a
gorgeous scarlet
crest, which seemed
especially brilliant
against the winter
snow. The birds
go in pairs and are
not very shy, but
are difficult to kill
and have to be shot
with rifle. One of
their peculiarities is
that they feed on
The Largest Woodpecker in the World. '. ,
one tree for as long
as a fortnight at a time, at last causing the decayed
tree to fall. The birds are exceedingly rare in the
museums. They are only found in the Sierra Madre.
On my journeys I saw them as far south as the
southernmost point which the Sierra Madre del Norte
reaches in the State of Jalisco, above the Rio de San-
tiago. 1 frequently observed them also in the eastern
part of the range.
MORMON SETTLERS 55
Here, too, a great many s|)ecimens of the rare Mexi-
can titmouse and some beautiful varieties of the duek
tribe were procured.
A few days after our arrival at the Raneheria de
los Apaches, Professor Libbey left our camp, return-
inii; to the United States bv wav of Casas Grandes.
After bidding him good-bye, I made an excursion of
a week's duration to the north of our camp, to look
for possible antiquities, especially a casa blanca, of
which I had heard considerable from the people in
Nacori.
The woods, considering that it was midwinter, were
quite lively with birds. Everywhere I saw bluejays ;
crested titmice, too, were plentiful, as well as cross-
beaks. A large yellowish squirrel also attracted my atten-
tion. It was of the same kind as that recently found by
our expedition. The country was hilly and full of small
canons, and well watered by springs. Outcroppings of
solidified volcanic ash looked in the distance like white
patches in the landscape. We searched diligently for
some twenty-five miles to the north of the main camp,
and also toward the east and west, but no trace of
former habitation was found- except trincheras and
house ruins such as we had seen before. Near one of
the group of houses I saw three metates in an excellent
state of preservation.
While out on this trip I was one day surprised by the
appearance of a Mormon in my camp. It was really a
pleasure to see someone from the outside world again ;
and this was a frank and intelligent man, very pleasant
to talk to. He told me that he had never been farther
north than where he was now ; nor had he ever been
farther west than the little creek about two miles west
of the place where he met me, which he called the
" Golden Gulch." This creek probably originates in
56 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the mountains near bv ; there was still another creek
west of us which joined the Golden Gulch near the
Mormon's tent, and this he called " North Creek." The
ranch near our main camp he had taken up only about
three years ago, and he considered agriculture in this
region successful, especially with potatoes. Maize, too,
may also ripen. Furthermore, he told me of some in-
teresting cave dwellings near the Mormon settlement on
the eastern edge of the sierra, which I decided to inves-
tigate.
When the Mormons had come to colonise parts of
northern Mexico, an American called " Apache Bill,"
who had lived for a number of years with the Apaches,
told them of a large, fertile valley showing many evi-
dences of former cultivation. Probably he referred to a
locality that had once been inhabited by a remnant of
the Opata Indians, who had become christianised and
had received fruit trees from the missionaries. The trees,
when found, were said to be still bearing fruit, while the
people had vanished — having probably been killed off
by the Apaches.
I returned to the main camp, leaving, however, two
men behind to search still further for the casa blanca.
When they returned after a few days, they reported that
nothing could be found, and that the country was diffi-
cult of access. On my return I found the men who
had gone to Casas Grandes back already, bringing with
them some provisions and the first mail for three
months.
Two miles east of our camp obsidian was found in
situ. It was not in the natural flow, but in round,
water-worn pebbles deposited in the conglomerate.
Many of these had been washed out and had rolled
down the hill, where a bushel of them might be col-
lected in a few hours. The outcrop does not extend
CAVE VALLEY ^■]
over a lar^c area, only about two lumdrcd yards on one
side of the bank.
On January 2 2d 1 started eastward toward the
Mormon settlement, passing the watershed at a
height of 8,025 feet. After fifteen miles of travel
we arrived at the Mormon eolony ealled Pacheeo,
and situated on the Piedras Verdes River. It con-
sists of small wooden houses lying peacefully on the
slope, surrounded by pine forests, at an elevation of
seven thousand feet. A saw-mill bore evidence of in-
dustry. There were sixteen families living here, and as
we arrived some eighty children were just streaming out
of school. Near by stood a kindly looking old man,
possibly their teacher. The children, who ranged in
age from seven to eighteen years, were all studying in
one class. They showed remarkably varied physiogno-
mies, yet all looked healthy and sturdy, and were de-
mure and well-behaved.
We made camp one and a half miles from the village,
and in the evening we were visited by my friend from
the sierra and another Mormon. Both expressed their
readiness to serve us in every way they could ; we
bought some potatoes and half a hog.
As is the custom with the Mormons, they have
several colonies outlying from a central one. Among
these is Cave Valley, about five miles east to north from
Pacheeo, immediately upon the river already mentioned.
On the following day I went there with the scientific
corps to examine the cave dwellings of which the Mor-
mons had been speaking. The settlement (having an
elevation 6,850 feet) consisted of eight houses. Knock-
ing on the door of one of these I w^alked in, introduced
myself, and stated the purpose of my visit. " How do
you do ? " said my host ; " my name is Nelson" — as if
he had been accustomed to receive strangers every day.
58
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Mr. Nelson was quite a charming old man, more
tlian seventy years old, but liardy. In spite of the cold,
he walked out in his sliirt sleeves in the full moonlicrht
to select a camping phice for me. The animals, he sug-
e^ested, miofht be left in the field for the niijht ; he
would see about them in the morning, and he did not
think there would be
any difificulty about
keeping them there.
We got a fine camp
on top of a hill with
a view of the valley
in which the caves
are.
Mr. Nelson told
us of two interesting
caves on this side of
the river ; also, that
there were numerous
"inscriptions" (pet-
roglyphs), that the
country was full of
mounds, and that
skeletons and mum-
mies had been found
but had been buried
again. From his
statement it was evi-
dent that we had a
rich field before us,
and the results of the following day more than came up
to our ex])ectations.
The old man, acting as our guide, showed us on the
way to the valley a primitive kind of corn-mill driven by
water power, and with some pride he pointed out to us
v^^^*
Distant View of Cupola-shaped Granary
in Cave.
FIRST DISCOVERIES 59
an "infant industrv," the product of which so far was a
dozen wooden chairs with seats of interwoven strips of
green hide, instead of cane.
A number of cavx^s were found to contain houses.
One of them especiallv^ made a great impression on us
on account of an extraordinary cupohi-shaped structure,
which from a considerable distance sprang into view
from the mouth of the cave. Most of the caves were
found on the western side of the river ; but there were
also some on the eastern bank, among them a number
of burial caves. In one of the latter a well-preserved
mummy was shown to us. It had already been taken up
two or three times to be looked at ; but our guide in-
timated that the influential Mormons in Utah did not
want to have the skeletons and caves disturbed. I there-
fore left it for the present, but thought that in time we
might get this, with whatever others might be found
there.
I was introduced to a Mormon in the neighbourhood,
who invited me to excavate a large mound close to his
house. He would even help to dig, he said, and I was free
to take whatever I might find inside of it. He was sure
that there would be no difficulty about the mummies I
might want to remove from the burial caves.
CHAPTER IV
A SPLENDID FIELD PREPARED FOR US BY THE ANCIENT AGRICU:.-
TURISTS OF CAVE VALLEY HOUSE GROUPS IN CAVES ALONG
A PRETTY STREAM WELL-PRESERVED MUMMIES FOUND IN
CAVES MORE TRINCHERAS OUR EXCAVATIONS IN CAVES AND
MOUNDS CONFIRM TO THE MORMONS THEIR SACRED STORIES
WE MOVE TO THE PLAINS OF SAN DIEGO VISIT TO CASAS
GRANDES AND THE WATCH-TOWER — SUCCESSFUL EXCAVATIONS
OF THE MOUNDS NEAR SAN DIEGO.
FINDING the locality so inviting for research, I de-
cided to remain here, returnino; to Pacheco only
to despatch the rest of my party to make excavations at
the ranch of San Diego, thirty miles to the east, down
on the plains of Chihuahua, The ranch was temporarily
leased by an American, Mr. Galvin, who received my
expedition hospitably, and invited the members to re-
main as long as they pleased and to make excavations
wherever they wanted.
Cave Valley is the widening of a long, low-walled
canon through which the Piedras Verdes River flows.
As its name implies, it contains many caves in the felsitic
conglomerate overlying the region. It is from one-
quarter to half a mile wide, and iias a tine, rich, loamy
soil. The stream is ten to twenty feet wide and from
one to three feet deep. Fine forests of pine, oak, cedar,
and maple surround it, and make it an ideal dwelling-
place for a peaceful, ])rimiti\c jocoplc.
The little knoll on which we were encamped rises on
the north side of a brook which empties itself in the
river. It was in equally close proximity to the dwellings
of the living and the dweUings of the dead.
CA\ E HOUSES (u
Up tlic main stream, on the western wall of the
canon, and about a mile from our camp, is a large cave
containing- the curious cuj)ola-shaped structure already
mentioned. The cave is easy of approach up a sloping-
Single Wall in ClifF.
bank from its south side, and arriving at it we found it
quite commodious and snug. It is about eighty feet
wide at its mouth, and about a hundred feet deep. In
the central part it is almost eighteen feet high, but the
roof graduallv slopes down in the rear to half that
height.
A little village, or cluster of houses, lies at its back
and sides. The interior of most of the rooms must have
been quite dark, though the light reaches the outside of
all the houses. The walls are still standing about six
feet high. The compartments, though small, are seldom
kennel-like. Some of the houses have shallow cellars.
62
UNKNOWN MEXICO
The roof of the cave was thickly smoked over its entire
surface. From traces of walls still remaining on it, we
may infer that a second story had been built toward the
centre of the cave, though this could only have been five
feet high. These traces of walls on the roof further
prove the important fact that this second story had been
Ground Plan of House Groups in Granary Cave.
built in terrace-fashion, receding about four feet back
from the front of the ground story.
The cave had evidently been occupied for a very long
time, the houses showing many alterations and additions,
and on the walls I counted as many as twelve coatings of
plaster and whitewash. The conventional design of the
ear of corn is well preserved in every doorway. Rude
scrawlings of soot and water cover nearly all the front
A SINGULAR STRUCTURE 63
walls, mixed here and there with a few traces of red
ochre. There are meander designs, lightning;, and
drawings of cows and horses ; but the latter were doubt-
less put on after the walls were demolished, and their
general appearance denotes recentness.
Several of the cyelopean riffles lead from the cave
cliff to the stream.
The houses here, as well as in all other caves we ex-
amined, were built entirely of a powdery substance, the
decomposed material of the cave itself. Great quantities
of it were found on the tloors of caves which had not
been occupied by marr. It is not of a sandy nature, and
its colour is light brown, sometimes almost grey, or even
white. The ancient builders simply had to mix it with
water and mould it into bricks, which, though fairly uni-
form in thickness, were very irregular in size. There
were no marks of implements on the walls ; all the work
seems to have been done by hand and smoothed over
with some wetted fabric. In one cave of this valley
the walls show finger-marks on the plaster. Occasion-
ally we found a small boulder of hard stone embedded in
the wall.
The most unique feature of this cave, however, is the
cupola-shaped structure which stands in an open space
in front of the house group, near the mouth of the cave,
but still under its roof. Its height, measured inside, is
twelve feet, and its widest inside diameter is eleven
feet. Its walls average eight inches in thickness. It
has one aperture three feet wide at the top., another one
of the same dimension near the base, and there are
several others nearly opposite each other. In the two
upper ones are seen distinct impressions of timber in
the plaster.
The building was made by twisting long grass into
a compact cable and laying it up, one round upon an-
6^
UNKNOWxX MEXICO
other. As the coil proceeded, thick coats of plaster
were laid on inside and outside. This plaster, which is
the same material as that of which the houses are con-
structed, got thorouijhlv mixed with the straw during
the process of building, and the entire structure was
finished without any opening except the one at the top.
The other apertures were undoubtedly cut out after-
Cupola-shaped Granary in Cave.
ward. There is no trace of withes or other binding
material to hold the straw cables in place. They are
kept in position only by the plaster, which here, as in
the houses, is almost as hard as the conglomerate of the
surrounding rocks.
My Mexicans from Sonora called it olla, a jar, and
insisted that it was a vessel used for keeping water ; but
this is entirely improbable, for several reasons, mainly
because the river is in close proximity and easy of ac-
GRANARIES
'"'5
cess. It was without the sli,2:htest doubt a granary.
Similar structures, used for that purpose to the present
day, may be seen in the States of Vera Cruz and Tlax-
Granary in Tlaxcala.
cala. In a cave only a short distance away, the rear
portion of which also contained a group of houses, we
found between the mouth of the cave and the house
^it^'^^Ji^iiS
Ba,-'^.-' i/i Cjiawaii^:- .ii La.^.
walls the remains of five of these peculiar buildings
which I call granaries. They, too, were made of straw
and plaster, similar to the one described, but the walls
Vol. I.— 5
66
UNKNOWN MEXICO
here were only two inches thick. The remains showed
that they had not been set up in any special arrange-
ment, nor were all five alike. Two of them were deeply
sunken into the floor of the cave, and inside of them we
Boof of Oave 11' above floor
in rear of Wall.
Door -2' 6"
ENTRANCE TO CAVE
Ground Plan of House Groups in Cave on East Side of the River.
found, between the rubbish and debris that filled them,
several grains of corn and some beans.
The other caves which we examined in this valley
were of the same general character as these two, al-
though we found no granaries in them. On this page
ANCIKNT IMPLEMENTS
(V
is shown the ^iDuncl plan of a cave on the cast side of
the river, and attention is drawn to the sin_i>;ular concrete
seats or blocks against the wall in the house on the west
side of the cave. A tloor of concrete had been made
in this cave extendins^ inward and fairly level.
Evidence of two-storeyed groups of houses was clearly
noticeable in many caves; but our investi^^ations were
somewhat impeded by the destruction wrought by some
Mormon relic-hunter, who had carried off ahnost every-
thing removable. He had even taken aw^ay many of
Sandal Plaited from Yucca Leaves. Heel is Shown on Left. Length, 2 i ctm.
the door lintels and hand-grips, in fact, most of the
woodwork, from the houses.
In the rear of some of the caves it was so dark that
we had to light a candle to find our way, crawling from
house to house. In one instance we found a stone
stairway of three steps.
In spite of the tremendous dust which is raised by
digging into the ground, and which makes the w^ork
very arduous, we searched diligently and succeeded in
bringing to light a number of objects which fairly well
illustrate the culture of the ancient people. Among
68
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Heel of a Sandal, Showing Plaiting.
them were needles and awls of bone ; a complete fire
drill with a stick showing drilling, basketry work covered
with pinon pith, mats and
girdles, threads of fibre or
hair, and sandals plaited of
yucca leaves. Wads of cotton
and pieces of pottery were
found in many places ; and
an interesting find was a
"boomerang" similar to that
used to this day by the Moqui
Indians for killing rabbits.
The handle is plainly seen,
but the top is broken. The implement, which
is made of very hard, reddish wood, has but a
slight curve. We discovered many smooth
pieces of iron ore that had probably been used
for ceremonial purposes, and a bow that had
been hidden away on a ledge.
That the ancient cave-dwellers were agri-
culturists is evident from the numerous corn-
cobs, as well as grains of corn and beans, that
we came upon. Datems, a green, sweet fruit
still eaten by the Mexicans, were identified
everywhere in the cave-dwellings.
Having effectually started the work of in-
vestigation here, I went to look after the sec-
ond section of my expedition, which had been
sent to San Diego. I covered the thirty-five
Piece of
Wood
Showing
miles with four jxack mules in one day. There
is a charming view from the brow of the sierra Drill Mark.
over the ))lains of San Die2:o, which are fullv ^^"g^'^'
•1-1 r i' 1- 1 ' 22. 5 ctm.
ten miles wide ; but after descendmg to them
I found a hard, cold wind blowing. The weather here
is not at all as pleasant as in the sheltered Cave Valley
up in the mountains.
EXCAVATIONS
69
.lit:
'V
I went to Casas Granclcs, a village of 1,200 souls,
six miles north of San Die<>o, and sueceeded in orettinsf
a draft cashed. On learning" that Mr. Moses Thatcher,
a prominent Mormon apostle from Utah, was
on a tour of ins})ection of the colonies, I pro-
ceeded to Colon ia Juarez, a prosperous Mor-
mon settlement on the Piedras Verdes River,
ten miles from Casas Grandes and six miles
from San Diego. It was onlv four years old,
but had already a number of well laid-out
broad streets, set on both sides with cotton-
wood trees, and all the houses were surrounded
by gardens. I explained to Mr. Thatcher that
I desired to make excava-
tions in Cave Valley, and
he courteously acceded to
my wishes, adding that I
might take away anything
of interest to science.
To reduce expenses, I
paid off many of my Mexi-
can men, who then returned
to their homes in Sonora,
going over the sierra by the
trail we had made in coming
east. A few months later
several of them returned,
bringing others with them,
and asked to work again in implement
the camp, which remained for Throw
in San Dieijo for about nine months lonofer —
long enough for us to see quite a little trade in
oranges, sugar, tobacco, etc., developing between Sonora
and Chihuahua by way of the road cut out by us, and
called, after me, e/ camino del doctor.
w
Pendant ot Wood.
Length, 14 ctm.
ing. Length,
67 ctm.
70 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Excavations in Cave X'^alley were continued, and the
burial caves gave even better results than the cave-dwell-
inijs. Thev were located in the eastern side of the
canon, which is rarely touched In- the sun's ravs. With
Burial Caves in Cave Vallev.
one exce])tion the ceilings and sides of these caves were
much blackened by smoke. There was not the slightest
trace of house walls, and no other sign that the place had
ever been inhabited ; therefore, a hre here could have
had no other purpose than a religious one, just as the
Tarahumares to this dav make a fire in the cave in which
they bury their dead. Indeed, at first sight there was
nothing in the cave to indicate that thev had ever been
utilised by man ; but below the dust we came upon a
hard, concrete floor, and after digging through this to a
MUMMIES
71
deptli of three feet, we fortunately struck a skull, and
then came upon the l)ody of a man. After this we disin-
terred that of a mother holding' a ehild in her arms, and
two other hodies, all hing" on their left sides, their knees
half diawn up, and their faces turned toward the setting"
sun. All were in a marvellous state of preservation,
owing to the presence of saltpetre in the dust. This
imparted to the dead a mummy-like appearance, but
there was nothing to suggest that embalming or other
artificial means of preservation of the bodies had been
used. The entire system was simply desiccated intact,
A Mummified Body.
merely shrunken, with the skin on most of the bodies
almost unbroken. The features, and even the expres-
sion of the countenance, were in many cases quite dis-
tinct. Some had retained their eyebrows and part of
their hair, and even their intestines had not all disap-
peared.
The hair of these people was very slightly wav}-, ami
softer than that of the modern Indian ; in fact, almost
silky. The statures were quite low, and in general ap-
pearance these ancients bear a curious resemblance to
the Moqui Indians, who have a tradition that their an-
cestors came from the south, and who, to this day,
speak of their "southern brethren"; but it would be
72
UNKNOWN MEXICO
very rash to conclude from this that the cave-dwellers of
northwestern Chihuahua are identical with the Moqui
ancestors. I afterwards brought to light several other
bodies which had been interred under similar conditions.
Rock Paintings in White
on the Inside of a Burial
Cave in Cave Valley.
The bottom of the burial caves
seems to have always been overlaid
with a roughly level, concrete floor. There was no
trace here of cysts, or other formal sepulture.
None of the remains wore ornaments of metal, but
various shell ornaments, anklets and bracelets of beauti-
fully plaited straw, which, however, crumbled into dust
when touched. Their clothing consisted of three layers
of wrappings around the loins. Next to the body was
placed a coarse cotton cloth ; then a piece of matting,
and over that another cotton cloth. Between the legs
was a large wad of cotton mixed with the feathers of the
turkey, the large woodpecker, and the bluejay. In a
few instances, the cotton cloth was dyed red or indigo.
Near the head of each body stood a small earthenware
jar of simple design ; in some cases we also found drink-
ing gourds placed at the head, though in one instance
the latter had been put on the breast of the dead.
Buried with the person w^e found a bundle of " devil's
MORE TKIXCHEKAS
73
claws " i^Martynia). These arc used l)y the Mexicans of
to-day for mending pottery. They drill holes through
the fragments to be joined and pass into them one of
these claws, just as we would a rivet. The claw is
A Trinchera in Cave Valley.
elastic and strong, and answers the purpose very well.
My Mexicans understood at once to what use they had
been put.
As already alluded to, trincheras were also found in
Cave Valley, where they were quite numerous. There
was one or more in every ravine and gully, and what
was a new feature, some were built across shallow
drainages on the very summit of a hill. This summit
was a bald conglomerate, about 150 feet above the val-
ley. In one place we observed eight trincheras within
150 feet of each other, all built of large stones in the
74 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Cyclopean style of masonry. The l)locks were lava and
hard felsite, measuring one and a half to three feet. As
a rule, these trincheras had a lateral extent of thirty
feet, and in the central part they were fifteen feet high.
After all the great labour expended in then" construction,
the builders of these terraces had secured in each only
a space thirty feet long and fifteen feet wide ; in other
words, these eight terraces yielded together barely 3,000
square feet, which means space enough for planting five
or six hundred hills of corn. People who do not know
the Indians would consider this too small a result to
favour the theory that these terraces w^ere erected for ag-
ricultural purposes. But the Indian's farming is, in pro-
portion to his wants, conducted on a small scale, and he
never thinks of raising more corn than he actually needs ;
in fact, many tribes, as for instance the Tarahumares, sel-
dom raise enough to last the family all the year through.
Further groups of cave-dwellings were found some ten
miles higher up the river, in wdiat is called the " Straw-
berry Valley," probably through the prevalence of the
strawberry tree, of which several beautiful specimens
were seen. The largest cave there contained fourteen
houses. Unlike the dwellings in the Cave Valley, here
a gallery ran in front of the houses. The woodw^ork
here w^as fresher than that of the Cave Valley houses,
and as the walls had only three coats of plaster and
whitewash, and the corners did not show much wear,
these dwellinijs were undoubtedlv of more recent oricrin.
But the general character of the structures was similar
to those we first investigated. No implements were
found in these caves. In the same locality were quite a
number of smaller caves containing houses in demoli-
tion. In one of them the walls wxre composed of stones
and mud, and here we also saw the first circular-shaped
house in a cave.
ANCIENT CAVK-DWELLINGS
75
H\ diiijriny below
tlic concictc llooi oi
one of the looms, w c
caiiu upon the skeU -
tons of h\e adult^ ' \
This was a smirulai -^^
fact, show in<>: that
these ancient cave- ">
(i\\ cllcis ohset ved tiie
custom of huixmo;
then dead undei the
floors of their houses
when conditions per-
mitted it. Cave-
dwellings comprising
twenty rooms were
also seen by the Mor-
mons at the head of
Bavispe River.
Mv relatit)ns with
Ancient Cave-Dwellings in Strawl-icrrx-
Vallev.
76
UNKNOWN MEXICO
the Mormons continued to be friendly, and in my deal-
ings with them I found them honest and business-Hke.
While thriftily providing for the material requirements
of this life, they leave all their enjoyment of existence
for the future state. Their life is hard, but they live up
Interior View ot Cave-Dwellings Shown on Page 75.
to their convictions, though these, in some points, date
from a by-gone stage in the development of the human
race.
They were much interested in our work, never
doubting but that it could only be to their advantage to
have light thrown upon the mysteries buried in their
caves, as, in their opinion, our researches would only
confirm the statements made in the " Book of Mormon,"
which mentions the prehistoric races of America. They
a
SACKED S'lOKIES 79
told mc that the book speaks of the arrival of three
races in America. The first landinj": was made at Guay-
mas in Sonora, the people hcinii^ fugitives from the
divine wrath that destroyed the Tower of Babel. They
were killed. The second race landed in New England,
coming from Jerusalem ; and the third, also coming
from Jerusalem, landed in Chile.
We spent altogether about six weeks in Cave Val-
ley, and the weather, as far as our experience went, was
pleasant enough, although in February, for several days,
a strong, cold wind was blowing, so as to interfere with
our work in the mounds at daytime and with our sleep
at night. In addition to the discomforting feeling that
at any moment my tent might be blown dow^n, I w^as
worried by the possibility of its falling on the results of
our excavations, the pottery and skeletons, which, for
safety's sake, I kept in my tent. The situation was
not improved by some indiscreet burro (donkey), who
would stray into the camp and get himself entangled in
the tent ropes.
On January 30th nearly seven inches of snow fell.
One day a flock of twenty-five turkeys was observed
near our camp ; but our efforts to get within shooting dis-
tance proved futile, as these cunning birds, who appar-
ently move about so unconcernedly, always disappeared
as if they had vanished into the ground, whenever one
of us, no matter how cautiously, tried to approach them.
News of Apaches was again afloat, and one day a
Mexican officer called at the camp obviously in pursuit
of Apaches from whom he had recently taken twelve
horses ; but unfortunately the men had escaped. The
presidente of Casas Grandes had been advised of the
killing of two Americans near San Bernardino by some
Apaches, and had also ordered some men to look for the
miscreants in the sierra.
8o UNKNOWN MEXICO
Having thoroughly investigated the caves, we turned
our attention to the mounds, which are very numer-
ous in this part of the country. They are always cov-
ered with srrass, and sometimes even trees ijrow on them.
When excavated they disclosed the remains of houses
of a type similar to that of the cave-dwellings. Some
of the mounds were high enough to justify the supposi-
tion that the houses had two stories, each six or seven
feet high, and containing a number of rooms. From
the locality in which the mounds were found it becomes
at once evident that the houses which once stood there
were not destroyed by inundations and covered by dilu-
vial deposits. The mounds are composed of gravelly
cement and fine debris of house walls, and the rooms
left are completely filled with this material. It is easy to
imag^ine how the mounds were formed bv the gradual
demolition of the ceilings, plastering, and roofs, forming
a heap which to-day appears as shapely as if it had been
made by man for some definite purpose.
The houses were communal dwellings, each consist-
ing of one room, which generally was not quite ten feet
square. The walls, eight to nine inches thick, built of
a mixture of clay and earth, were fairly well preserved
in places. In one house, which had unusually solid com-
partments, the walls were twenty, and in some places
e\'en thirty-three, inches thick. Here nothing could be
found, either in the rooms or l)v excavating below the
floor. The same conventional doorwavs were met with
in all the mound houses, but there was hardly any trace
of woodwork.
Excavations in one of the mounds near our camp
disclosed very interesting composite structures. One
part of the walls consisted of large posts set in the
ground and })lastered over, forming a stuccoed pali-
sade. At right angles with this was a wall of cobble-
MOUNDS ON PIEDRAS VERDES
81
stones, and among the buried debris were fragments of
adobe bricks. In one room of this group, at a depth of
less than live feet, we struck a floor of trodden con-
crete. Breaking through we found a huddle of six or
seven skeletons, which, however, were not entire.
Objects Found in Mounds at Upper Piedras Verdes River. An Earthenware
Vessel in Shape of a Gourd is Seen in the Middle. Length of the Double
Grooved Axe, 16 ctm.
Rarely if ever was any object found in these rooms,
except, perhaps, some stray axe, or some metates and
grinding stones, and in one case a square stone paint
pot. But by digging below the concrete floors we
came upon skeletons which seemed to have been laid
down without regard to any rule, and with them were
invariably buried some household utensils, such as
earthenware jars and bowls, beautifully decorated ; axes
and mauls, fairly carved and polished. One very rare
object was secured : a doubled-grooved axe. The skele-
tons were badly preserved, but we were able to gather
several skulls and some of the larger bones.
The floor material was so hard that only by means
of heavy iron bars could we break through it. As it was
Vol.. T.— 6
82
UNKNOWN xMEXICO
impracticable for us to make eomplete excavations, the
number of rooms each mound contained cannot be
stated. There were in the immediate neio^hbourhood of
Cave \^alley at least ten or twelve separate groups, each
of which had from four to eight rooms on the ground
floor. The entire district is richly studded with mounds.
On an excursion three or four miles down Piedras
Verdes River I saw several groups of mounds, some of
which, no doubt, contained many objects of antiquitv.
On top of one low hill was a large group, and half a
Painting on Rock on Piedras Verdes River. The Colour is White Except
One Line in Red. Height of Lowest Figure, about 60 ctm.
mile north of this another, 160 paces long and contain-
inof two oblons: mounds. Some of the mounds were ten
or twelve feet high.
A verv trustworthy Mormon informed me that there
were no ruins, in caves or otherwise, along the river be-
tween this settlement and Colon ia Juarez ; nor were
there an}', he said, for a hundred miles south of Pacheco,
though mounds could be seen in several places. There-
fore when I at last departed from Cave Valley, I took
his advice and did not follow the course of the Piedras
Verdes River down to San Diego, but led the pack
train the safer, though longer, way over the regular
SAN i)ii;go
83
road. The country along tlic river was afterward ex-
plored by members of my expedition. They came ujjon
several small caves high up on the side of the canon,
Figures on Walls of a Cave House, on Piedras \'erdes River. They are
painted red except those indicated hv white lines, that signify pecking.
Figure to right is about 60 ctm. high.
some of which had once been inhabited, to judge from
the many potsherds and the smoky roofs ; but no cave-
houses were found until higher up the river, where some
were seen in the sandstone cliffs.
I broke camp in Cave Valley on March nth, and
arrived on the same day at Old Juarez, a few miles
from mv camp at San Diego. Now
the weather was warm ; the grass
was sprouting, and I noticed a flock
of wild geese going northward.
The plains of wSan Diego used
to swarm with antelojjcs, and even
at the time of my visit herds of
them could be seen now and then.
One old hunter near C^asas Grandes
resorted to an ingenious device for
decoying them. He disguised himself as an antelope,
by means of a cloak of cotton cloth (manta) painted to
Figure on Rock on Piedras
Verdes River. White
lines indicate peck-
ing, the rest is coloured
red.
84
UNKNOWN MEXICO
resemble the colouring of the animal. This covered his
body, arms, and legs. On his head he placed the antlers
of a stag, and by creeping on all fours he could approach
the antelopes quite closely and thus successfully shoot
them. The Apaches, according to the Mexicans, were
experts at hunting antelopes in this manner.
We excavated a mound near Old Juarez and found
Sw 1 'tJKfft
lirMiifti ' >-»-«*-^ "•««»*■■- /: »,<■*!> viii»iimn)r
-«*
' ' . \^
MM?"' '"
Hunting Antelope in Disguise.
in it a small basin of black ware. There were twelve or
fifteen other mounds, all containing house groups. The
largest among them was loo feet long, fifty feet wide,
and ten feet high ; others, while covering about the
same space, were only three or four to six feet high.
They were surrounded, in an irregular way, by numer-
ous stone heaps, some quite small, others large and
rectangular, inclosing a space thirty by ten feet.
o
CASAS GllANDKS 87
From an aiclucolooical point of view, the district \vc
now found ourselves in is exceedingly rich, and I de-
termined to explore it as thoroughly as circumstances
permitted. One can easily count, in the vicinity of San
Diego, over fifty mounds, and there are also rock carv-
ings and paintings in varit)us places. Some twenty miles
further south there are communal cave-dwellings, resem-
bling those in Cave \"allev, which were examined by mem-
bers of the expedition at the San Miguel River, about
eight miles above the point at which the river enters the
plains. Inside of one large cave numerous houses were
found. They had all been destroyed, yet it was plainly
evident that some of them had originally been three
stories high.
But the centre of interest is Casas Grandes, the fa-
mous ruin situated about a mile south of the town which
took its name, and we soon went over to investigate it.
The venerable pile of fairly well preserved ruins has
already been described by John Russell Bartlett, in 1854,
and more recently by A. F. Bandelier ; a detailed de-
scription is therefore here superfluous. Suffice it to say
that the Casas Grandes, or Great Houses, are a mass of
ruined houses, huddled together 'on the western bank of
the river. Most of the buildings have fallen in and form
six or eight large mounds, the highest of which is about
twenty feet above the ground. Low mesquite bushes
have taken root along the mounds and between the
ruins. The remaining walls are sufficiently well pre-
served to give us an idea of the mode of building em-
ployed by the ancients. At the outskirts of the ruined
village the houses are lower and have only one story,
while in its central part they must have been at one
time at least four stories high. They were not palaces,
but simply dwellings, and the whole village, which prob-
ably once housed 3,000 or 4,000 people, resembles, in its
UNKNOWN MEXICO
general characteristics, the pueblos in the Southwest,
and, for that matter, the houses we excavated from the
mounds. The onlv features that distinguish tliesc from
either of the other structures are
the immense thickness of the
walls, which reaches as much as
five feet, and the great height
of the buildings. The material,
too, is different, consisting of enor-
mous bricks made of mud mixed
with coarse gravel, and formed in
baskets or boxes.
A striking fact is that the
houses apparently are not arranged
in accordance with any laid-out
plan or regularity. Nevertheless
they looked extremely picturesque,
viewed from the east as the sun
was setting. I camped for a few
days on top of the highest mound,
between the ruined walls.
No circular building, nor any
trace of a place of worship, could
be found. The Mexicans, some of
whom have nestled on the eastern part of the ruins, have
from time to time come upon beautiful jars and bowls,
which they sold to relic hunters or used themselves.
Such pottery is far superior in quality and decoration to
anything now made in Mexico. The ancient metates of
Casas Grandes, which are much appreciated by the pres-
ent inhabitants of the valley, are decidedly the finest I
have ev^er seen. They are square in shape, resting on
four legs, and well finished. There have also been taken
out some stone axes and arrowheads, which are much
like those found in the Southwest of the United States.
Ceremonial Hatchet with
Mountain Sheep's Head.
From Casas Grandes. Broic-
en. Length, 12,16 ctm.
AN ANCIENT WATCH TOWER
89
Some years ago a large meteorite was unearthed in
a small room on the first floor of one of the hicrhest of
the buildings. When discovered it was found carefully
put away and covered with cotton wrappings. No
doubt it once had served some religious purpose. On
account of its glittering appearance, the Mexicans
thought it was silver, and everybody wanted to get a
piece of it. But it was taken to Chihuahua, and the
Earthenware V'essel in Shape ot a Woman. From Casas Grandes.
Height, 15.8 ctm.
gentleman who sent it to Germany told me that it
weighed 2,000 pounds.
There are still traces of well-constructed irrigation
ditches to be seen approaching the ruins from the north-
west. There are also several artificial accumulations of
stones three to fifteen feet high and of various shapes.
One of them has the form of a Latin cross measuring
nineteen feet along its greatest extent. Others are
rectangular, and still others circular. About three miles
off, toward the west, are found pictures pecked on large
stones, one representing a bird, another one the sun.
An interesting relic of the population that once
prospered in Casas Grandes Valley is a watch tower,
90
UNKNOWN MEXICO
plainlv visible on a mountain to the southwest, and
about live miles, in a straiiiht line, from the ruins.
Well-defined traeks lead up to it from all directions,
especially from the east and west. On the western side
three such trails were noticed, and several join at the
lower part of the ridge, which runs southward and cul-
minates in the promontory on which the watch tower
stands 1,500 feet above the plains.
The western side of the ridge is in some places quite
precipitous, but there is a fairly good track running
along its entire extent to the top. Sometimes the road
is protected with stones, and in other places even with
walls, on the outer side. Although the ascent is, at
times, steep, the top can be reached on horseback.
The path strikes a natural terrace, and on this is
seen a ruined house group built of undressed stones on
the bare rock. Some of the walls are twenty-four
inches thick. And a little to the south of it is a large
mound, from which a Mormon has excavated two
rooms. A very well-built stone wall runs for more
than 100 paces from north to south on the western, or
most easily accessible, side of the pueblo.
After leaving this ancient little village, we made a
pleasant ascent to the top, where a strikingly beautiful
panorama opened up before us on all sides. The sum-
mit commands a view of the fertile valleys for miles
around in every direction. To the west is the valley of
the Piedras Verdes River, and to the east the valley of
Casas Grandes ; and in the plains to the south the
snakelike windings of the San Miguel River glitter in
the sun. Towartl the north the view is immense, and
fine mountains form a fitting frame for the landscape
all around the horizon.
What a pre-eminently fine position for a look-out !
As I contemj)late(l the vast stretches of land com-
A FINE PROSPECT
91
mandcd from this point, I pondered for how many cen-
turies sentinels from this spot may have scanned the ho-
Cerro de Montezuma and the Watch Tower Seen from the South.
rizon with their eagle eyes to warn their people of any
enemy approaching to disturb their peaceful occupations.
The fort is circular and about forty feet in diameter.
The surrounding wall is on one side about eleven feet
high and very broad, while in other places it is much
lower and narrower. There are four clearly outlined
chambers in the centre ; but by excavations nothing
could be found in them, except that the flooring was
one inch thick.
92
UNKNOWN MEXICO
It was quite warm here. Some birds were about,
and there were a few flowers out. Wild white currant
bushes were growing inside of the fortress, breathing
dehcious fragrance. But aside from the top, the moun-
tain was all but barren of vegetation.
A few days afterward I went on an excursion up
the Casas Grandes Valley, as far as the Mormon colony
Dublan. This valley, which is about fifteen miles
long and equally as broad, is very fertile where prop-
erly irrigated, and maize and wheat fields delight the
eye. Naturally, the country is well populated, and the
mounds which are met with everywhere prove that this
was already the case in ancient times. In fact, mounds,
in groups or isolated, are numerous as far north as As-
cension.
How richly the apparently poor soil repays the labour
which man expends on it may be seen in the flourishing
colony the Mormons have here. Wherever they go,
Double Earthenware \ esscl, from San Diego, with Hollow Connection at
Base. Length, 24.8 ctm.
the Mormons transform waste land into scenes of pros-
perity, so much so that the Mexicans attribute the suc-
cess of these indefatigable developers to a gold mine,
which they are supposed to work secretly at night.
As I found it imperative to return to the United
States in the interest of the expedition, I considered it
BURIED TREASURE 93
expedient to reduce my scientitic corps to three. My
camp at San Diego I left in charge of Mr. H. White,
who later on was relieved by Mr. C. W Hartman.
During my absence they conducted excavations of the
mounds alonsf the southern bank of the Piedras Verdes
River, near its junction with wSan Miguel River, and in
convenient neighbourhood to the camp. Neither the
mounds themselves nor the houses inside of them differ
much from those already described on the upper part of
the river, except that some of the mounds here were
somewhat larger. Judging from the beams left, they
probably contained a few three-story houses. How-
ever, in either locality most of the mound houses were
onlv one story high, and where second or third stories
were indicated, they were never found intact. In neither
place were circular houses observed. The mounds here
were located on a rich, alluvial clay soil.
Here, as on the upper part of the river, the treasures
we secured were taken from underneath the floors of
the houses, where they had been buried with the dead.
Here, as there, they consisted of beautifully decorated
earthenware jars and bowls, some of them in bizarre
representations of animal and human forms, besides
stone implements, shell beads, pieces of pyrites and
turquoise, all being generally unearthed intact.
The things w^ere found alongside of skeletons, which
were huddled together in groups of from two to five in
one of the corners. The jars, bowls, etc., had generally
been deposited close to the body, as a rule near the head.
The skulls of the skeletons were mostly crushed, and
crumbled to dust when exposed to the air. There was
no trace of charring on the bones, although in some
cases charcoal was found close to the skeletons.
To excavate such mounds is slow and tedious work,
requiring much patience. Sometimes nothing was
94 UNKNOWN M?:XICO
found for weeks. Small mounds gave results as good
as, if not better than, some large ones. In shape they
are more or less conical, flattened at the top ; some are
oblong, a few even rectangular. The highest among
them rose to twenty or twenty-five feet, but the majority
varied from live to twelve feet. The house walls inside
of them were from eight to sixteen inches thick.
The pottery which was excavated here may be
judged by the accompanying plates. It is superior in
quality, as well as in decoration, to that produced by the
Pueblos of the Southwest of the United States. The
clay is fine in texture and has often a slight surface
gloss, the result of mechanical polishing. Though the
designs in general remind one of those of the Southwest-
ern Pueblos, as, for instance, the cloud terraces, scrolls,
etc., still most of the decorations in question show
more delicacy, taste, and feeling, and are richer in col-
ouring.
This kind of pottery is known onlv from excava-
tions in the valleys of San Diego and of Piedras Verdes
River, as well as from Casas Grandes Valley. It forms
a transition from the culture of the Pueblos of Arizona
and New Mexico to that of the Valley of Mexico, a
thousand miles farther south. In a general way the
several hundred specimens of the collection can be
divided into four groups :
(i) The clay is quite fine, of white colour, with a
slightly grayish-yellow tinge. The decorations are black
and red, or black only. This is the }^rcdominant type,
and may be seen in Plates I. and II. ; also Plate III., a.
(2) Of a very similar character, but somewhat
coarser in texture, and heavier. See Plate III., h to^,
and Plate W ., f. Both these groups include variations
in the decorative designs, as may be seen in the rest of
Plate IV.
Extension of Designs on Plate I., a.
The Horned Toad Jar, Seen from Above and Below. Plate I., c.
Extension of Designs on Plate I., d.
Extension of Designs on Plate III., e.
96 UNKNOWN MEXICO
(3) Brown pottery with black decorations. See
Plate v., a, b, c, and e.
(4) Black ware.
Here follows a condensed description of the more
important specimens shown in the plates :
Plate I
Heights: a, 18.5 ctm. ; /;, 15.2 ctm.; c, 16.2 ctm.; d,
18.8 ctm.; e, 11.3 ctm. ; /, 8.5 ctm.
a, particularly graceful in outline and decoration, is a
representative type that is often found.
c, from Colonia Dublan, is made in the shape of a
horned toad, the lizard so familiar to anyone who has
visited the Southwest of the United States. The head
with its spikes, and the tail as well, are well rendered ;
the thorny prominences of the body are represented by
the indentations around the edge.
d, the principal decoration here is the plumed ser-
pent with a bird's head.
e, a vase in the shape of a duck.
f, a bowl decorated only around the edge and in the
interior.
Plate H
Height, 16.5 ctm.
Here is shown what, in regard both to manufacture
and to decoration, is the best specimen in the collection.
Its principal ornaments are the plumed serpent and two
birds, all clearly seen in the extension of the design
above and below the vase. The lower section is a con-
tinuation of the upper one.
The birds are represented as in flight. Mr. M. H.
Saville is probably right in considering them as quetzals,
though the habitat of this famous trogon is Central
America and the southernmost part of Mexico. The
bird and the serpent form the decoration of other jars
of this collection and would indicate that the makers of
this pottery were affiliated with the Aztecs in their adora-
tion of the great deity Quetzalcoatl.
HANDSOME POTTEKY-WARE
97
PlATK III
Heights: a, 18.5 ctni.; d, 18 ctm.; f, i7ctm.; d, 11
ctm.; c, 14.5 ctm.; / 15.3 ctm.; g, 24.2 ctm.
r, a jar in the shape of a eonv^entionaHsed owl.
d, a jar in the shaj)e of a fish.
/" is a niueii conventionahscd representation of four
horned toads. Around its upper part it has two ser-
pents, apparently coral snakes, attached in high relief.
Plate IV
Heights: a, 14 ctm.; b, 16.8 ctm.; c, 18.6 ctm.; d,
12.2 ctm.; c\ 22 ctm.; y^ 18.5 ctm.
a, a very realistic representation of the rain-grub.
c has a black slip.
d is very strong and highly polished, and differs also
in colourino: from the rest.
Plate V
Heights : (i, ^.J ctm.; b, 9,8 ctm.; c, 25.6 ctm.; d, ly
ctm.; e, 20.7 ctm.; f, 19.3 ctm.; g, 19.3 ctm.
Extension of Designs on Plate V., e.
This brown ware is very handsome, and its ornamen-
tation is strikingly artistic in its simplicity. See, for in-
stance, Plate v., e. D, f, and ^'' represent pottery from
Casas Grandes, distinguished by a certain solidity and a
higher polish.
Black Ware, Highly Polished. Heights, 12.5 ctm.; 14 ctm.; 7.8 ctm.
Vol. L— 7
Extension of Design on Plate IV., a.
Extension ot Design on Plate 1V^, b.
Extension of Designs on Plate IV., c.
Extension of Designs on I'hite IV.,y.
Extension of Designs on Plate \'., c.
CHAPTER V
SECOND EXPEDITION — RETURN TO THE SIERRA — PARROTS IN THE
SNOW — CAVE-DWELLINGS AT GARABATO, THE MOST BEAUTI-
FUL IN NORTHERN MEXICO — A SUPERB VIEW OF THE SIERRA
MADRE — THE DEVIL'S SPINE RIDGE — GUAYNOPA, THE FA-
MOUS OLD SILVER MINE — ARROS RIVER ON OLD TRAILS — AD-
VENTURES OF " EL CHINO " — CURE FOR POISON IVY.
WHEN in the middle of January, 1892, I resumed
mv explorations, my party was only about one-
third as large as it had been the year before. In pur-
suance of my plan, I again entered the Sierra Madre,
returning to it, as far as Pacheco, by the road on which
we had come down to San Diego. We travelled over
freshly-fallen snow a few inches deep, and encountered
a party of eight revolutionists from Ascension, among
whom I perceived the hardest looking faces T had ever
laid eyes on. All questions regarding their affairs
they answered evasively, and I could not help feeling
some anxiety for three of the men, who with a Mexican
guide, had for some weeks been exploring the country
around Chuhuichupa, a discarded cattle range some
forty miles south of Pacheco. Next day I sent a man
ahead to warn them .against the political fugitives.
The Mormons told me that for more than a fcjrtnight
thev had been keeping track of these suspicious-looking
characters who had been camping in the neighbourhood.
There were repeated falls of snow, and the sierra
assumed a thoroughly northern aspect. Only the mul-
titude of green parrots with pretty red and yellow heads,
chattering in the tree-tops and feasting on pine cones,
99
100 UNKNOWN MEXICO
reminded us that we were in southern latitudes. As all
tracks had been obliterated by the snow, I secured a
Mormon to guide us southward.
About ten miles south of Pacheco we passed Mound
Vallev, or " Los Montezumas," so named after the ex-
traordinary number of montezumas, or mounds, found in
the locality, probably not far from a thousand. Looking-
at them from a distance, there seemed to be some plan
in their arrangement, inasmuch as they formed rows
running from north to south. They are small, and nearly
all of them are on the south side of a sloping plain
which spread itself over about 500 acres in the midst of
densely pine-covered highlands.
On making camp a few miles south of this plateau
we found that one of the mules had strayed off. My
dismay over the loss of the animal was not alleviated by
the news that the mule was the one that carried my
blankets and tent, and that I had a good prospect of
passing at least one uncomfortable night on the snow.
The American who had been intrusted with keeping-
count of the animals on the road immediately went
back to look for the lost one ; but not until next day
did a Mexican, who had been sent along with him, bring
back the pack, which the mule had managed to get rid
of. The animal itself and its aparejo were never re-
covered by us.
On my arrival at Chuhuichupa I found everything
satisfactory. There are extensive grass -lands here,
and a few years after our visit the Mormons established
a colony. The name Chuhuichupa is interesting, as it
is the first one we came ui)on that was of undoubted
Tarahumare origin, " chuhui " being the Spanish cor-
ruption of " Chu-i," which means " dead." The name
signifies " the place of the dead," possibly alluding to
burial caves.
o
u
GARABATO
103
Here Mr. 'Favlof iiad discovered verv interestinof
cavc-dwellinos, liftccn miles soulhcast to east in a
straio;ht liiu- fiom the eanip, hut full\- t weiUy-live miles
by the track he had followed. 'Idle Mexicans called
the cave (iarahato. a Spanish word, which in Mexico
is used in the sense of " decorative designs," and refers
here to ancient j)aintino;s or scrawlings on the house
walls. The cave is situated in a gorge on the noith-
t'dii. ot La\c- Dwellings at Garahato.
ern slope of the Arroyo Garahato, which drains into
the Rio Chico, It is in conglomerate formation, faces
east, and lies about 215 feet above the bottom of the
gorge. The ascent is steep and somewhat difficult. At
a little distance the high, regular walls of the houses,
with their many door and window oi)enings, presented
a most striking contrast to their surroundings of snow-
covered jagged cliffs, in the lonely wilderness of pine
woods. Some of the walls had succumbed to the
104 UNKNOWN .\JEXICO
weight of ages, but, on the whole, ihc ruins are in a
good state of preservation, and although 1 found cave-
dwellings as far south as Zapuri, Chihuahua, none
of them were nearly as well preserved nor on such
an extensive seale. Time would not allow me to
visit the cave myself, and the following description
is based on notes taken by Mr. Taylor on the spot,
as well as on his photographs and his verbal explana-
tions.
The space covered by the houses and fallen walls
was 125 feet from side to side, and at the central part
the dwellings were thirty-five feet deep. The roof of the
cave, or rather, the overhanging cliff, was at the highest
point eighty feet above the floor. The houses were
arranged in an arc of a circle so large as hardly to deviate
from a straight line. The front row seems to have been
of but one story, while the adjoining row back of it had
two stories. The roof of the houses at no place reached
the roof of the cave. Each room was about twelve feet
square, and the walls, which showed no evidence of
blocks or bricks, varied in thickness from fifteen inches
at the base to seven inches at the toj) of the highest.
At some places large stones were built into the walls;
in another wall wooden posts and horizontal sticks or
laths were found. The surface of the walls, which
were protected against the weather, was smooth and
even, and the interior walls showed seven or eight coat-
ings of plaster. The floors, where they could be ex-
amined, were smoothlv cemented and so hard as to ef-
fectively resist the spade. Hie pine poles which formed
the roof were smooth, but not squared ; they were three
to four inches in diameter, and some of them were
twenty-four feet long. According to all appearances,
they had been hewn with a blunt instrument, as they
were more hacked than cut. Many of them were
CAVE HOUSES
lo;
nicely rounded off at the ends, and several inches from
the ends a groove was cut all around the pole.
In the centre of the back rooms of the ground floor
there was usually a pine pole, about ten inches in diam-
eter, set up like a rude })illar. I^^esting on this and the
side walls (jf the rooms in a slight curve was a similar
pole, also rounded, and running parallel to the front
Design in Red on Second Story Wall.
of the houses ; and crossing
it from the front to the rear
walls were laid similar poles
or rafters about four inches in diameter. The ends of
these were set directly into the walls, and covering them
was a roofing of mud, some three inches thick, hard, and
on the upper surface smooth. The second story, where
it had not caved in, was covered in the same manner.
None of the lower story rooms had an outlet to the
apartments above, and the evidence tended to prove that
io6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the second story houses were reached from the bottom
of the cave over the roofs of the front row of houses
by means of ladders.
Most of tiie rooms were well supplied with apertures
of the usual conventional form ; sometimes there were
as many as three in one room, each one large enough
to serve as a door. But there were also several small
circular openings, which to civilised man might appear
to have served as exits for the smoke ; but to the In-
dian the house, as everything else, is alive, and must have
openings through which it can draw breath, as other-
wise it would be choked. These holes were three or
four inches in diameter, and many of them were blocked
up and plastered over. A large number of what
seemed to have been doorways were also found to
be blocked up, no doubt from some ulterior religious
reason.
A peculiar feature of the architecture was a hall not
less than forty feet long, and from floor to rafters seven
feet high. Six beams were used in the roof, laid be-
tween the north and south walls. There were rafters of
two different lengths, being set in an angle of about ten
degrees to each other. The west wall contained twelve
pockets, doubtless the cavities in which the rafters had
rested. They were, on an average, three inches in diam-
eter, and ran in some six inches, slanting downward in
the interior. The east wall was found to contain up-
right poles and horizontal slats, forming a framework for
the building material. The interior was bare, with the
exception of a ledge running along the southern side
and made from the same material as the house walls.
It was squared up in front and formed a convenient
settee.
At the end of this iiall, but in the upper story, was
found a house that was distinguished from the others by
DON IKODOKO
107
a peculiar decoration in red, while the space around the
door was painted in a delicate shade of lavender.
There seems to have been still another hall of nearly
the same leniith as the one described, but which must
have been at least one foot and a half higher. It is now
almost entirelv caved in.
No objects of interest were found that could throw
Piece of Matting from Garabato Cave.
any light on the culture of the builders of these dwell-
ings, except the fragment of a stone axe and a piece of
matting.
The day after my arrival at Chuhuichupa I continued
my journey, now accompanied by Mr. Taylor and Mr.
Meeds. We had as a guide an old Mexican soldier, who
had been recommended to us as a man who knew the
Sierra Madre better than anyone else. He had, no
doubt, lived a wild life ; had taken part in many a
"scrap" with the Apaches, as his body showed marks of
bullets in several places, and he had prospected for gold
and silver, traversing a good deal of ground in the
mountains at one time or another. But topographical
io8 UNKNOWN MEXICO
knowledge per sc does not necessarily make a good
guide. Although *' Don Teodoro," by something like
instinct, always knew where he was, it did not take us
long to discover that he had not jiuigment enough to
guide a pack-train, and his fatuous recklessness caused us
a good deal of annoyance, and even loss.
After leaving the grass-lands of Chuhuichupa, we
passed through extensive pine regions, full of arroyos
and cordons, and it struck nic how silent the forest was
here. No animal life could be seen or heard. About
ten miles south we caught sight of the Sierra de Cande-
laria, which suddenlv loomed up in the southeast, while
the Arroyo de Guaynojia vawned on our left. We
slowlv ascended a beautiful cordon runninaf toward the
southwest. The track we followed, our guide assured
us, was el caniino de los antigiios, but it probably was
only an Apache trail. The cordon was rather narrow,
and from time to time gave us sweeping views of the
stupendous landscape in one direction or another, as the
animals slowly made their way up and finally reached the
summit. i\ grandly beautiful sight awaited us; we went
a little out of our way to gain a promontory, which, our
guide said, was designated " Punto Magnifico." It was at
an elevation of 8,200 feet, and gave us certainly the most
strikingly magnificent view of the Sierra Madre we yet
had enjoyed.
An ocean of mountains spread out before and be-
low us. In the midst of it, right in front of us, were
imposing pine-clad mesas and two weathered pinnacles
of reddish conglomerate, while further on there followed
range after range, peak after peak ; the most distant
ones, toward the south, seeming at least as far as eighty
miles awav. The course of the rivers, as ihev flow deep
down between the mountains, was pointed out to us.
The j)rincii)al one is the Arros l^iver, which from the
PUNTO MAGNIFICO 109
west embraces most of the mesas, and then, turning^
south, receives its tributaries, the Tutuhuaca and the Mu-
latos, the latter just bcliind a i)innaele. West of the
Arros Riv^er stretches out the immense Mesa de los
Aj)aches, once a stronghold of these marauders, reaching
as far as the Rio Bonito. The plateau is also called " The
Devil's Spine Mesa," after a high and very narrow ridge,
which rises conspicuously from the mesa's western edge
and runs in a northerly and southerly direction, like the
edge of a gigantic saw. To our amazement, the guide
here indicated to us where the camino real from Na-
cori passes east over a gap in the " Devil's Spine " ridge,
and then over several sharp buttes that descend toward
the mesa. An odd-looking mesa lay between Rio Bonito
and Rio Satachi. Farthest to the west were the big hog-
backs near Nacori, standing out ominously, like a per-
petuated flash of lightning. The sun was nearing the
horizon ; the air was translucent, and the entire panorama
steeped in a dusky blue.
Immediately below us, to our left, lay Guaynopa.
The mountainside looked so steep that it seemed im-
possible for us to descend from where we were. But
we already heard the voices of our muleteers singing out
to the animals 1,000 feet below, and that reminded us
that we also had better reach camp before darkness
should overtake us. We descended 2,500 feet, and,
leaving the pines behind, found ourselves in a warmer
climate. It never snows here, according to our guide.
That the precipitation took the shape of rain we learned
when we were impeded by it for two days.
There were yet eighteen miles between us and the
deserted mines of Guaynopa. It was a laborious journey
over the hills, mostly ascent. Finally we came to a steep
slope covered with oaks, along which there was a contin-
uous descent toward Guaynopa. While zigzagging our
no INKXOWN MEXICO
way down, we caught sight of a huge cave with houses
and some white cone-shaped structures staring at us
across an arroyo midway up liir ()pj)osite side, which
was at least two thousand feet deej). Through my field
o'lasses I could make out vcr\- dislinctlv a 2;roup of
houses of the usual pattern ; and the large, white struct-
ures could without difficulty be recognised as granaries,
similar to those observed in Cave \\dle}-. It was my
intention to g-o back and examine this cave more closelv,
as soon as I had found a camping place ; but circum-
stances interfered. Several years later the cave was
visited bv Mr. G. P. Ramsev, to whom I owe the fob
lowing brief description.
The cave is situated about twenty-five miles in a
straight line south of the Mormon colon v of Chuhui-
chupa. There are indications of a spring in the cave,
and there is another one in the arroyo itself. The
buildings are in a very bad condition, owing to the
action of the elements and animals ; but tifty-three
rooms could be counted. They were located on a rocky
terrace extending from the extreme right to the rear
centre of the cave. This extreme right extended slightly
l)eyond the overhanging cliff, and contained groups of
two-storied houses. In the central })art of the cave were
a number of small structures, built of the same material
and in a similar manner as th(jse I described as grana-
ries in Cave X'alley. They were still in excellent con-
dition, and, as will be seen at a glance, they are almost
identical with the granaries used to the present day in
some southern States of Mexico.
We continued our descent, and, having dropped alto-
gether some 2,000 feet, at last found ourselves along-
side some lonely and unattractive old adobe houses.
They were built l)y tiie Spaniards and are reputed to
have once been the smelter of the now al)an(loned silver
ON OLD TRAILS 113
mine of Guayiiopa. Only the naked walls remain
standinor on a decline, which was too steep to o;ive us
sufficient camping- ground. So we went still a little
further, to the top of a hill near by, where we made a
tolerably good camp.
This then was the famous locality of Guaynopa,
credited with hiding such fabulous wealth. There was
still another mine here of the same repute, called
Tayopa, and both of them are said to hav^e been worked
once by the Jesuits, who before their expulsion from
Mexico were in possession of nearly all the mines in the
country. According to tradition, the Apaches killed
everybody here, and the mines were forgotten until re-
cent times, when ancient church records and other
Spanish documents revealed their existence. Several
expeditions have been sent out, one, I believe, by the
Government for the purpose of locating them ; but be-
ing situated in the roughest and most inaccessible part
of the Sierra Madre, they are still awaiting their redis-
covery, unless, contrary to my knowledge, they have been
found in recent years. There is no doubt that the
country carries very rich silver ore, and we ourselves
found specimens of that kind ; but the region is so diffi-
cult of access that it probably would require too great a
capital to work the mines.
There was now a plain track leading along the hill-
side down toward the Rio Aros, which is scarcely two
miles off; but the country was so wild and rugged that
the greatest care had to be exercised with the animals
to prevent them from coming to grief. The path runs
along the upper part of a steep slope, which from a per-
pendicular weathered cliff drops some 400 feet down
into a gorge. As the declivity of the slope is about
forty-five degrees, and the track in some places only
about a foot wide, there is no saving it if an animal loses
Vol. I.— 8
114
UNKNOWN MEXICO
its foothold, or if its pack slips. j\ll went well, how-
ever, until we reached a point where the track com-
menced to descend, when our villain of a i2:uide tried to
drive some burros back on the track, instead of leading
each one carefullv. The result was that one of the poor
beasts tumbled down, making immense bounds, a hun-
dred feet at a time, and, of course, was killed.
We had no difficulty in fording the Guaynopa
Creek near its junction with the Aros River, and se-
lected a camping place on a terrace 200 feet above it.
The stream, which is the one that passes the cave-dwell-
ings, carries a good deal of limpid water, and there are
abundant signs that at times it runs very high. The
elevation of the ford, which is here about the same as
that of Aros River, 3,400 feet, was the lowest point we
reached in our crossing of the Sierra Madre between
Chuhuichupa and Temosachic, It took us almost the
entire day to move the animals the one mile and a half
to this camp. On the way we had found some good
quartz crystals in the baryte, about four inches high and
one inch in width.
The country before us looked more forbidding than
ever, as if it did not want us to penetrate any further
into its mysteries, but our guide seemed to be quite at
home here.
Our march toward Rio Chico was about thirty miles
of ups and downs, ascending to a height of 7.600 feet
and descending again some 3,000 feet. In the begin-
ning it was almost impossible to make out the track ;
where it did not lead over bare rocks, it was nearly ob-
literated by overgrown grass. The first ascent was over
a mile long in a straight line ; then, after a little while,
came the most arduous climbing 1 had until then ever
attempted. Following the slope of the mountain, the
track rose higher and higher in long zigzags, without any
TOWARD RIO CHICO 115
chance for the animals to rest, for at least three-quarters
of a mile. It was necessary to push them on, as other-
wise the train would unavoidably have u])set, and one or
the other have rolled down the declivity. One large
white mule, El Chino, after it had almost climbed to
the top, turned giddy at the " glory-crowned height " it
had reached, and, sinking on its hind legs, fell backward
and rolled heels over head down, with its two large can-
vas-covered boxes, like a big wheel. As luck would
have it, it bumped against a low-stemmed old oak that
cropped out of the hillside in an obtuse angle to it, some
ninety feet below. Making one more turn up the stem,
the mulew^as nicely caught between the forked branches,
which broke the momentum, loosened the cargo, and
caused the animal to fall back into the high grass. One
box landed close by, the other, containing our library,
pursued its course downward 200 feet further, bursting
open on the way and scattering the wisdom of the ages
to the winds, while the mule escaped without a scratch.
The burros came into camp three hours after us,
and the drivers explained how they had succeeded in
bringing them up the long slope only by constantly
punching them to prevent them from "falling asleep."
As we continued our journey toward Rio Chico the
panorama of the sierra changed continuously. We got
a side view of the big Mesa de los Apaches, and many
weathered pinnacles of eroded conglomerate were seen
standing out like church spires in this desert of rock,
varying in colour from red to lead gray. Once we
caught sight of a stretch of the Rio Aros deep down in
a narrow, desolate valley, some 3,000 feet below us.
The geological formation of the region is mostly vol-
canic ; then follows conglomerate, and on the high
points porphyry appears.
We camped on the crest of the eastern side of the
ii6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Rio Chico Canon, in an ideal place with bracing air.
A fine, sloping meadow afforded quite an arcadian view
with the animals peacefully grazing and resting; but
looking westward, the eye revelled in the grand pano-
rama of the sierra. The two sides of the Rio Chico
X^alley rise here evenly from the bottom of the gorge so
as to suggest the letter V. In many places its brow is
overhung by precipitous cliffs, and further down still
more steeply walled chasms yawn up from the river bed.
My chief packer now became ill from the effects of
poison ivy. He was one of those unfortunate individ-
uals who are specially susceptible to it. According to
his own statement it sufficed for him to pass anywhere
near the plant, even without touching it, to become af-
flicted with the disease. In this case he did not even
know where he had contracted it, until the cook showed
him some specimens of the plant near an oak tree close
by the kitchen tent. The poor fellow's lips were badly
swollen ; he had acute pains in his eyes, and felt unable
to move. Sometimes, he said, the disease would last
ten days, and his skin become so tender that he could
not endure the weight or contact of his clothes. But by
applying to the afflicted parts of his body a solution of
baking soda in water, I was able not onlv to relieve his
suffering, but to enable him, after two days, to continue
with us on our journey.
In the meantime we had investigated some caves in
the conglomerate of the steep canon side, about 250
feet above the bottom of the gorge, and rather diffi-
cult of access. The house group occupied the entire
width of a cave, which was eight v feet across, and there
was a foundation wall made of stone and timber under-
neath the front j)art. The walls were made of stone,
with mortar of disiniegrated rock that lined parts of
the cave and were plasteied inside and out with the
NAVERACHIC 117
same material. Lintels of wood were seen in the win-
dows, and rows of sticks standing in a perpendicular po-
sition were found in two of the walls inside of the plas-
tering. On one side of the cave, some two feet off, was
a small tower, also in ruins, measuring inside four feet
in diameter, while the walls were about six inches thick.
Pinnacles of eroded conglomerate are a prominent
characteristic of the landscape west of the Rio Chico ;
further on, the usual volcanic formation appears again.
After fully twenty miles of travel w^e found ourselves
again in pine forests and at an altitude of 7,400 feet.
Here we were overtaken, in the middle of February, by
a rain and sleet storm, which was quite severe, although
we were sheltered by tall pine trees in a little valley. It
turned to snow and grew very cold, and then the
storm was over. Here a titmouse and a woodpecker
were shot, and the bluebirds were singing in the snow.
Travelling again eleven miles further brought us to
the plains of Naverachic, where we camped. It was
quite a treat to travel again on comparatively level land,
but, strange to say, I felt the cold so much that I had to
walk on foot a good deal in order to keep warm. The
word Nav^erachic is of Tarahumare origin ; nave means
" move," and rachi refers to the disintegrated trachyte
formation in the caves.
We had just emerged from a district which at that
time was traversed by few people ; perhaps only by
some illiterate Mexican adventurers, though it had once
been settled by a thrifty people whose stage of culture
was that of the Pueblo Indians of to-day, and who had
vanished, nobody knows how many centuries ago. Over
it all hovered a distinct atmosphere of antiquity and the
solemnity of a graveyard.
CIIAPTKR VI
FOSSILS, AND ONE WAV OF UTILISING THEM — TEMOSACHIC — THE
FIRST TARAHUMARES PLOUGHS WITH WOODEN SHARES VISIT
TO THE SOUTHERN PIMAS — ABORIGINAL HAT FACTORIES — PINOS
ALTOS — THE WATERFALL NEAR JESUS MARIA AN ADVENTURE
WITH LADRONES.
ABOUT thirtv miles from I he village of Temo-
sachic (in the Tarahumare tongue Remosachic
means Stone Heap) we entered the plain of Yepo-
mera, and came upon an entirely different formation,
limestone appearing in an almost horizontal layer some
thirty feet deep. In this bed the Mexicans frequently
find fossils, and at one place four large fossil bones have
been utilised as the corner posts of a corral or inclos-
ure. We were told that teeth and bones were acciden-
tally found at a depth of from twenty to thirty feet and
some bones were crystallised inside. This formation,
which stretches itself out toward the east of Temo-
sachic, but lies mainly to the north of this place, has an
extent of about fifteen miles from north to south, and
from three to four miles from east to west.
Fossils picked up by Mr. Meeds in the cutting of a
creek near Yepomera consisted of some fragmentary
teeth and pieces of bones from some small animal.
They were found in the hard clay that underlies the
lime-stone. Large fossil bones also are said to have
been gathered near the town of Guerrero, Chihuahua,
quite recently. It seems to be a custom with the com-
mon people to make a concoction of these " giants'
bones" as a strengtheninir medicine; we heard of a
THE FIRST TARAHUMARES
119
woman who, being weak after childbirth, used it as an
invigorating tonic.
Here in Temosachic we were joined by Mr. 1 1 art-
man, who had brouglit part of our baggage from San
Diego bv wagon in order to enable us to travel as un-
encumbered as possible.
From now on, until as far as the southern border of
the State of Chihuahua, the country is occupied by the
large Indian tribe of the Tarahumares. They are now
confined to the Sierra Madre,
but in former times they also
occupied the entire plain of
Chihuahua, as far west as the
present capital of that State,
and in a narrow strip they
may have reached as far as
100 miles north of Temo-
sachic. They were the main ^^
tribe found in possession of
the vast countrv which is
now the State of Chihuahua,
and although there are still
some 25,000 left, the greater
part of them have become Mexicanised, adopting the
language and the customs of the whites, together with
their dress and religion. Father Ribas, in the seventeenth
century, speaks of them as very docile and easily con-
verted to Christianity.
The high plateau of the Sierra Madre for a couple
of hundred miles southward is not difficult to follow.
Most of it is hilly and clad in oaks and pines ; but there
are also extensive tracts of fine arable land, partly under
cultivation, and fairly good tracks connect the solitary
villages and ranches scattered over the district. The
■country of the aborigines has been invaded and most
Tarahumare.
120 rXKXOWN MEXICO
of the descendants of the furmer sovereigns of the
reiUm have been reduced to earning a precarious living
bv working for the white and mixed-breed usurpers on
their ranches or in their mines. The native language,
religious customs, and dress are being modified gradually
in accordance with the new regime. Only in the less
desirable localities have the Tarahumares been able to
hold their own against the conquerors.
There is not much interest attached to the study of
half-civilised natives, but the first pure-blooded Tara-
humares I met on their little ranch about ten miles
south of Temosachic were distinctly Indian and very
different from the ordinary Mexican family. There
was a kind of noble bearing and reserve about them
which even the long contact w^ith condescending whites
and half-breeds had not been able to destroy. The
father of the family, who, by the way, was very deaf,
was a man of some importance among the native ranch-
ers here. When I approached the house, mother and
daughter were combing each other's hair, and did not
allow themselves to be disturbed by my arrival. The
younger woman wore her long glossy tresses plaited in
Mexican fashion. She evidently was in robust health
and had well-moulded, shapely arms and an attractive
face, with an eagle nose. She was beautiful, but I could
not help thinking how much better she would have
looked in her native costume.
On the road we had several times overtaken donkey
trains carrying corn to the mines of Pinos Altos. In
the small Rio \"erde we caught three kinds of fish :
suckers, catfish, and Gila trout, which grow froni one to
three feet long, and, according to Tarahumare belief,
change into otters when they are old.
The name of the village of Tosanachic is a Spanish
corruption of the Tarahumare Rosanachic, which means
WOODEN PLOUGHSHARES
121
"Where there is White," and alludes to a number of
white roeks or eliffs of solidified volcanic ash, which rise
to a height of some fifty feet and give to the little val-
ley quite a striking appearance. There are caves in
these rocks, and three poor families of Pima Indians
lived in some of them.
In the village we noticed the first Tarahumare
plough, the share of which was made of a section of oak.
In its general appearance it is an imita-
tion of the ordinary Mexican plough,
in other words, is simply a tree stem
Tarahumare Plough with Wooden Share. Length, i Metre.
with a branch as a handle. But, however primitive
in design and construction, the civilised man's imple-
ment always has an iron share. Of course, such among
the Tarahumares as can afford iron shares, never fail to
get them ; but in several parts of their country ploughs
made entirely of wood, that is to say, ploughs with
wooden shares, are seen. The foremost part of such a
plough is cut to a point, and into a groove made for
the purpose a section of tough oak is inserted, to serve
as a share. It is held in place by the tapering of the
groove, and some wedges or plugs. The share has
122
UNKNOWN MEXICO
iili
''V '/!'
ii',1
Tarahumare
Ploughshare
Made of Oak.
Length, 20.5ctm.
naturally to be renewed quite frequently,
but it serves its purpose where the ground
is not stony. Later on, in Cusarare, Na-
raraehie and other places, 1 found j)louo:h-
shares of stone applied in the same man-
ner as were the wooden ones.
Here at an elevation of 7,600 feet, and
at the end of February, I saw the first
[lowers of the year, some very fresh-look-
ing yellow Raiiuncuhis. On crossing the
ridge to Piedras .Azules, sixty-odd miles
south of Temosachic, a decided change of
climate and vegetation was noticeable. I
found another kind of Ramincitlus, as well
as various other tlowers, and as we passed
through a small but gorgeous canon, with
the sun shining against us through the
fresh leaves of the trees, everything in
Nature made the impression of spring.
All was green except the
ground, which was gray.
The road was stony, and
bad for the feet of the
animals ;
altogeth-
er the country present-
ed a new aspect with
its small volcanic hills,
many of them forming
cones.
A few Indian ham-
lets surrounded bv
peach trees in full
bloom were found here.
The Indians here are
Tarahumare Ploughshares of Stone.
Length, 9 and 10.5 ctm.
SOUTHERN PIMA INDIANS
123
Pimas, who, in their irencral characteristics, resemble
the Tarahumare, altliough they impress you as being
less timid and suspicious, and more energetic, perhaps
also more intelligent, than the latter. We had no diffi-
A
^.l
\
Young Southern Pima.
culty in taking some photographs. Among those who
agreed to have their pictures taken was a dignified,
courteous old man, who thought he was a hundred
years old, but w^as probably only eighty. He showed
me some scars on his body, which were a souvenir from
a fight he once had with a bear.
In order to see more of the Southern Pimas I went
1^4
UNKN(3WN MEXICO
to the ncar-hv villa<jc of Vepacliic, which I think
is also a Tarahumare name, yepa, meaning snow.
There are, liowever, more Mexicans than Pimas in the
village, and the presidente was a half-caste Tarahumare ;
Middle-aged Southern Pima.
he was once a shepherd, hut had made money by trad-
ing mescal to the natives — six bottles for a cow.
Although the Pimas whom I visited in the neigh-
bourhood, were very reserved, and even more Indian-like
than the Tarahumares I had seen so far, still in their
dress they showed more traces of advancing civilisation
MINING INFLUENCES 127
tlian Ihc latter tribe. lu('r\ thing here betrays the
nearness of the mines, witli the eharacteristic accom-
l)animent of cheap clothes, cheap, tawdry jewelry, and
a slight influx of iron cooking utensils. The Pimas,
like the Tarahu mares, use pine
cones for combs ; and we
picked up several discarded
ones near their houses.
I went still fifteen miles
further northward, but found
^,, ^ /•,, T !• j^t Pine Cone Serving as a Comb.
that most 01 the Indians there '^
had gfone to the Pinos Altos mines to look for work.
That " March comes in like a lion " I realised even here
in the sierra, when, on this excursion, on which I had not
taken my tent along, I was overtaken by a snow-storm.
We had gone to bed with the stars for a canopy, clear
and beautiful ; we woke up under blankets of snow,
which turned to rain, drenching us to the skin and
making us shiver with cold.
I saw several small, shallow caves, and learned that
many of them were utilised by the Pimas during the
wet season. I also passed a rock-shelter, which served
as a permanent home. The housewife was busy mak-
insf straw hats. She was verv shv, as her husband was
away ; but I elicited the information that she gets two
reales (25 cents) for each hat. The making of straw
hats and mats is quite an industry among the Pimas.
In the houses thev have a cellar-like dug-out outside
of the dwelling and covered with a conical roof of dry
grass. These cellars, in manv cases, serve not only as
the work-rooms, but also as store-rooms for their stock
in trade.
In one or two instances I found Pima families
living in open inclosures, a kind of corral, made from
cut-down brushwood. 1 noticed two small caves that
12^
UNKNOWN MEXICO
had been transformed into storehouses, by planting
poles along the edge and plastering these over with mud,
to make a solid wail, beliind
which corn was stored.
In Vcjiachic I estimated
there were about twenty
Pima families. 1 had some
diflicultv in inducing them
to ])ose before the camera ;
the presidente himself was
afraid of the instrument,
thinking it was a diabolo
(devil).
There are probably not
more than sixty Pima fam-
ilies within the State of Chihuahua, unless there arc more
than I think near Dolores. Some twenty-odd families
of these live in caves during the wet season, and a few
of them are permanent cave-dwellers. I understand
that the Pimas in Sonora utilise caves in the same way.
I made an excursion from the mine of Pinos Altos
(elevation 7,100 feet) to Rio Moris, about ten miles
west, where there are some l)urial caves ; but they had
already been much disturbed by treasure seekers, and I
Southern Pima Arrow Release.
L__SS
Small Crosses Placed in a Log in Front ot Southern Pima House.
could secure onlv a c<)U])le of skulls. An interesting
feature of the landscaj)c near l\io Moris is a row of
SIGHT-SEEING
129
lai'o^c reddish pinnacles,
wliich rise perpendicu-
larly from the river-bed
up along the hillside,
and form a truly im-
posing spectacle. An
excited imagination
may see in them so
many giants suddenly
petrified while walk-
ing up the mountain.
Around Pinos Altos
and Jesus Maria the
rock is of blue porphy-
ry, quite hard in places,
and speckled with little
white patches. It is
in this rock that the
gold- and silver-bear-
ing quartz occurs.
Through the cour-
tesy of the bullion-
convoy I was enabled
to dispatch some of my
collections via Chihua-
hua to the museum at
New" York, among
other things eight fine
specimens of the giant
woodpecker.
Then, sending my
train ahead, I made
with a guide a little
detour to visit the
Vol. I. — 9
The Waterfall of Basasiachic.
130 UNKNOWN MEXICO
beautiful walerfall near Jesus Maria. It is formed by
the River Basasiachic, which, except during the wet
season, is small and insignificant. Before the fall the
stream for more than a hundred yards runs in a narrow
but deep channel, which in the course of ages it has worn
into the hard conglomerate rock. The channel itself is
full of erosions and hollowed-out places formed by the
constant grinding and milling action of the rapidly rush-
ing water, and the many large pebbles it carries. Just
at the very brink of the rock, a low natural arch has been
eroded, and over this the stream leaps almost perpendic-
ularly into the deep straight-walled canon below. The
height of the cascade has been measured by a mining
expert at Pinos Altos, and found to be 980 feet. Set in
the most picturesque, noble environments, the fall is
certainly worth a visit.
I arrived at its head just as the last rays of the setting
sun were gilding the tops of the mountains all around.
The scenery was beautiful beyond description. Above
and around towered silent, solemn old pine-trees, while
the chasm deep down was suffused with a purple glow.
About midway down the water turns into spray and
reaches the bottom as silently as an evening shower, but
as it recovers itself forms numerous whirlpools and
rapids, rushing through the narrow gorge with an inces-
sant roar. When the river is full, during the wet season,
the cascade must present a splendid sight.
I wanted to sec the fall from below. The guide, an
elderly man, reminded me that the sun was setting, and
warned me that the distance was greater than it seemed.
We should stumble and fall, he said, in the dark. But
as I insisted on going, he put me on the track, and I
started on a rapid run, jumping from stone to stone,
zigzagging my way down the mountainside. Tiie entire
scenery, the wild, precipitous rocks, the stony, crooked
NIGHT GUARD 131
path, the roaring stream below — everythinor reminded
me of mountains in Norway, where I had run along
many a sdter path through the twilight, alone, just as
I was running now.
As luck would have it, I met an Indian boy coming
up from the river, where he had been trout fishing, and I
asked him to accompany me, which he did. About
half-way down we arrived at a little promontory from
which the fall could be seen very well. The rock seemed
to be here the same as on top, showing no sign of strati-
fication. A few yards from the point we had reached
was a spring, and here we made a fire and waited for
the moon to rise. To make him more talkative, I gave
the boy a cigarette. He spoke only Spanish, and he
told me that he had neither father nor mother, and
when his uncle died he was quite alone in the world ;
but a Mexican family brought him up, and he seemed
to have been treated well. At present he was paying
two dollars a month for his board, earning the money
by selling grass in Pinos Altos.
At nine o'clock we began to ascend through the
moonlit landscape. I had left my mule some hundred
yards from the fall, and here I also found the guide.
At two o'clock in the morning I arrived at my camp.
The road continued through rather monotonous
country, the altitude varying from 6,300 to 7,700 feet.
Grass began to be scarce, and the animals suffered ac-
cordingly. It is the custom with Mexican muleteers to
select from among themselves a few, whose business
throughout the journey it is to guard the animals at night.
These men, immediately after having had their supper,
drive the animals to a place where suitable pasture is
found, never very far from the camp, and bring them
back in the morning. They constitute what is called
la sabana. Comparatively few men suffice for this duty,
132 UNKNOWN MEXICO
even with a large herd, as, long as they have with them
a leader of tlie mules, a mare, preferably a white one.
She mav be taken along solely for this ])urj)ose, as she
is often too old for any other work. The mules not in-
frequently show something like a fanatie attachment for
their yegua, and follow blindly where they hear the tink-
ling of the bell, which is invariably attached to her neck.
She leads the pack-train, and where she stops the mules
gather around her while waiting for the men to come
and relieve them of their burdens. Sometimes a horse
may serve as a leader, but a mare is surer of gaining the
affection of all the mules in the train. This is an im-
portant fact for travellers to bear in mind if they use
mules at all. In daytime the train will move smoothly,
all the mules, of their own accord, following their
leader, and at night keeping close to her. In this way
she prevents them from scattering and becomes indis-
pensable to the train.
But in spite of the vigilance of the sabana and the
advantage of a good yegua, it may happen, under favour-
able topographical and weather conditions, that robbers
succeed in driving animals away. While giving the
pack-train a much-needed rest of a day in a grassy spot,
we woke next morning to find five of our animals miss-
ing. As three of the lot were the property of my men,
they were most eagerly looked for. The track led up a
steep ridge, over very rough country, which the Mexi-
cans followed, however, until it suddenly ran up against
a mountain wall ; and there the mules were found in
something like a natural corral.
Not until then did our guide inform me that there
lived at Calaveras (skulls), only three miles from where
we were stopping, a band of seven robbers and their
chief, Pedro Chaparro, who was at that time well-known
throughout tiiis part of tlie Tarahumare country. I had
A FAMOUS HIGHWAYMAN
133
no further experience witli him, hut hiter heard much of
this man, who was one of a ty{)e now rapidly disappear-
ing in Mexico. He did not confine his exploits to the
Mexicans, i)ut victimised also the Indians whenev^er he
got an opportunity, and there are many stories in circu-
lation about him.
On one occasion he masqueraded as a })adre, a black
mackintosh serving as his priestly garb. Thus attired
he went to the unsophisticated Tarahu-
mares in the more remote valleys and
made them send out messengers to ad-
vise^ the people that he had come to
baptise them, and that they were all to
gather at a certain place to receive his
blessings. For each baptism he charged
one goat, and by the time he thought
it wise to retire he had quite a respect-
able herd to drive home. When the
Indians found out that they had been
swindled, they caught him and put him
into jail, intending to kill him ; but un-
fortunately some of his Mexican con-
freres heard of his plight and came to
his rescue. However, a few years later,
this notorious highwayman, who had
several murders to answ^er for,
was caught by the government
authorities and shot.
On the road, as we travelled
on, we met many Tarahumares
carrying on their backs trays
{hiiaca/cs) with apples, which they were taking to mar-
ket. The price per tray was $2, and the apples were
delicious.
At night it was very cold, the thermometer falling to
Tarahumare Ploughman.
'34
UNKNOWN MEXICO
1 3° below the freezing' point. I was sorry to learn from m v
men that the prospeets of grass further south were small.
At the village of Boeoyna (elevation 7,100 feet)
we were 400 miles from San Diego by the track we had
made. Boeoyna is a corruption of the Tarahumare
Ocoina (oc6=pine ; ina-drips ; meaning Dripping Pine,
or Turpentine). Here I had to stop for two days, be-
Ancient Stone Hammer Seen in the Presiciente's Yard. Length, 44.5 ctm.
cause no less than six of us, including myself, were suf-
fering from the grippe, which a piercing, dry, cold wind
did not tend to alleviate. However, as the worst cases
did not last more than five days, we soon were all well
again, though the Mexicans were almost overcome by
the effects of the disease.
The presidente here was a powerful-looking half-
caste and very original. After I had read to him twice
my letter from the governor of the state, in which the
people were told, among other things, to promote the
success of the expedition in everv wav. especially by
selling us what provisions we needed and not to over-
charge us, he, by way of obeying the orders of his
superior, immediately ordered that not more than $6
should be charired for a faneg^a of corn. He also had at
INDIAN RANCHP:S 13^
once four nice, fat hens killed and sold them to us at
the market price.
7\fter we passed Bocoyna, the country for ten miles
was flat, but fertile. It was gratifying to observe that
here the Indians had some ranches with considerable
land still left to them. We passed several such home-
steads lying close together, and as many as four yokes
of oxen were ploughing, each attended by a Tarahu-
mare, whose entire clothing consisted of a breech-cloth.
The Indians here are very numerous and they are still
struggling to resist the encroachments of the whites
upon their land, though the ultimate result is in all cases
the same.
CHAPTER Vn
THE UNCONTAMINATED TAR A HUM ARES — A TARAHUMARE COURT
IN SESSION THE POWER OF THE STAFF JUSTICE HAS ITS
COURSE BARRANCAS EXCURSION TO THE GENTILES TARA-
HUMARE COSTUMES SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE — TRINCHERAS IN
USE AMONG THE TARAHUMARES
WE were lucky enough to secure a guide who
spoke the Tarahumare language very well, and
our next stop was at the pueblo of Cusarare (a Spanish
corrui)tion of Usarare, usaka = eagle), an Indian village
situated in a rather rough country full of weathered por-
phyry rocks. We made camp a few miles outside of
the village and sent the guide to prepare the peoj^le for
our coming. There had recently been considerable talk
among the Mexicans of the wild i)eople in the deep
gorges, called barrancas, and it was with no little antici-
pation that I approached the countrv now immediately
before us. There were no Mexicans living in Cusarare,
nor in the country ahead of us ; in fact, with the excep-
tion of tlie small mining camj) in Barranca de Cobre,
there were none within fifty miles to the south, and
almost an equal distance from east to west.
Indian pueblos throughout Mexico are almost aban-
doned for the greater part of the year. I refer, of
course, only to those which have not yet become Mexi-
can settlements. The first thing the missionaries in the
early times had to do was to force tin- Indians to leave
their scattered ranches and form a ]uicblo. To make a
place a pueblo they had to build a church. The Indians
136
MISSIONARY EFFORTS
J 37
were pressed into serviee to erect the building, and kept
at work, if necessary, by a troop of soldiers who often
Tarahumare Indians truiu I'liio GoiUu.
accompanied the missionaries and in this way assisted
them in spreading the gospel.
From the missionaries' point of view this was a very
practical arrangement ; but the ])urpose of having the
Indians remain in the villages has not been accomplished
138 UNKNOWN MEXICO
to this dav. Only the native-chosen authorities, who are
obHged to reside there durin<j^ I heir icrm of office, form
something" hke a j)ernianent po})uhui()n in the pueblos.
The natives come together only on the occasion of
feasts, and on Sundavs, to worship in tiie way they un-
derstand it. Someone who knows the short prayer,
generally the gobernador, mumbles it, while the congre-
tration cross themselves from time to time. If no one
present knows the prayer, the Indians stand for a while
silently, then cross themselves, and the service is over.
After church they meet outside for the second pur-
pose that brings them to the village, namely, the trans-
action of whatever judicial business may be on hand,
generally the adjustment of a theft, a marriage, etc.
I arrived in the pueblo on a Sunday, and a great
many Indians had come in. Easter was approaching,
and every Sunday during Lent, according to early mis-
sionaries' custom, the so-called "Pharisees" make their
appearance. These are men who play an important
part in the Easter festival, which always lasts several
days. They paint their faces hideously, tog themselves
up with feathers on their sombreros, and carry wooden
swords painted with red figures. Such ceremonies were
a clever device of the Jesuits and Franciscan missiona-
ries to wean the Indians from their native feasts by offer-
ing them something equally attractive in the new religion
they were teaching. The feasts are still observed, while
the teachings are forgotten.
I found the people assembled before the old adobe
church, where they had just finished their service. The
gobernador at once attracted my attention as he stood
with his large white blanket wrapj:>ed around him, In-
dian fashion, up to his chin — a fine, almost noble per-
sonality, with a benign expression on his eagle face.
The Indian never allows anything to interfere with
A TARAHUMARP: court 139
whatever business he may liave on liand, l)e it public or
private. Presently all rose, and eiij^ht men, the author-
ities of the pueblo, marched in two rows to the court
house, followed by the rest of the people. There is
always found near the church a commodious building",
called La Comunidad, originally intended as city hall,
court house, and hotel. In this case it was so dilapi-
dated that the judges and officers of the court about to
be held took seats outside on the lawn in front of one
of the walls. They were preparing to administer justice
to a couple of offenders, and as this is the only occasion
on which I have seen the details of Indian judicial proce-
dure carried out so minutely as to suggest early mission-
ary times, I am happy to record the affair here in full.
The gobernador and four of the judges seated them-
selves, white man's fashion, on a bench erected for the
purpose, where they looked more grand than comfort-
able. Two of them held in their right hands canes of
red Brazil wood, the symbol of then- dignity. The idea
of the staff of command, sceptre, or wand, is wide spread
among the Indians of Mexico ; therefore, when the
Spaniards conquered the various tribes, they had little
difficulty in introducing their batons (la vara), as em-
blems of authority, which to this day are used bv the
gobernadors and other officials. They are made much
in the same way as the ancient staffs, and of the same
material, the heavy, red Brazil wood. Below the head
of these canes there is always a hole bored, and through
this a leather thong is passed, by which the staff is hung
up on the wall when not in use. Those of the highest
authorities are ornamented with silver caps ; the lesser
officers have smaller canes, in proportion to the degrees
of their dignity, while the lowest officials have only a
thin stick, about a foot and a half long, through the
hole of which a red ribbon is jiassed. 11ie small canes
140
UNKNOWN MEXICO
are not carried in the luuul, hut stuck in the girdle on
the left side. Nobody summoned before the judges by
a messenjrer carrvin^: a staff of red Biazil wood dares to
disobey the command. The most desperate criminal
meekly goes to his doom, following often a mere boy,
if the latter has only a toy vara stuck in his belt with
the red ribbons hanging down. It is the vara the
Indians respect, not the man who carries it.
No supreme court in any civilised community is so
Tarahumare Court in Session at Cusarare.
highly respected and so implicitly obeyed as were the
simple, grave men sitting in front of the crumbling
adobe wall and holding on to their canes with a solem-
nity that would have been ridiculous, if it had not been
sublime.
Four " soldiers " formed a line on each side. There
was nothing to distinguish them from ordinary civilians,
except their "lances," or bamboo sticks to which bayo-
net points had been fastened. These lances they
THE POWER OF THE STAFF 141
planted in the ground and seated tliemselv^es. Pres-
ently the two culprits, a man and a woman, came for-
ward, with never a suggestion in their placid faces that
they were the chief actors in the drama about to be
enacted. They seated themselves in front of the judges,
while the witnesses took their places behind them.
The mother of the woman sat close by her guilty
daupfhter, but there w^as no other exhibition of senti-
ment. The judges did most of the talking, addressing
questions to the defendants, who made a few short an-
swers ; the rest of the assemblage observed a decorous
silence. There were neither clerks nor lawyers.
I was, of course, not able to follow the testimony,
but it was very short, and it was explained to me that
the woman had run away with a married man. They
had provided themselves with plenty of corn from the
man's former home, and furthermore had stolen some
beans, and lived very happy in a cave for a year. The
man could not be captured, even though on several
occasions he visited his family. But they frequently
made native beer, and got drunk, and while in this
condition they were caught and brought before this
tribunal.
While the trial was going on, one of the "soldiers"
got up and went some twenty yards off, dug a hole in
the ground and planted a thick pole or post in it. No
sooner had he completed his task, when the accused
man rose with a queer smile on his face, half chagrined,
half sarcastic. Dropping his blanket, he walked delib-
erately up to the pole, flanked by two soldiers, each of
whom took hold of his hands, and by putting them
•crosswise on the further side of the pole, made the cul-
prit hug the pole very tightly. Now another man,
wrapped closely in his blanket, stepped briskly up,
drew as quick as a flash a leather whip from under his
142 UNKNOWN MEXICO
garment, and dealt lour lashes over the shoulders of the
prisoner, who was then released, and stolidly walked
baek to his seat, as if nothing had happened.
Now came the woman's turn to be punished for her
part in the thefts. They took off her blanket, but left
on a little white undergarment. She was marched to
the pole and held in the same manner as the man ; but
another man acted as executioner. She, too, received
four lashes, and wept a little when they struck her ; but
neither she nor her fellow-sufferer made any attempt at,
or sign of, revolt against the sentence of the court.
While the chastising went on, the audience rose and
stood reverently. After returning to her seat, the woman
knelt down, and both delinquents shook hands with the
chief judge.
There still remained the second part of the accusa-
tion to be dealt with, the one relating to the marital
complications. The man asked permission to leave
his tirst wife, as he wanted to marry the woman with
whom he ran away. But no divorce was granted to
him. He was ordered to return to his legitimate
spouse, who was present at the proceedings with her
child in her arms. Evidently disappointed, he slowly
stepped over to where she was standing and greeting
him with a happy smile.
But the woman with whom he had been living had
now to be provided with another husband. Who
would take her ? The judge addressed the question to
a young man, a mere boy, standing near by, and he re-
plied that he would marry her, if she were willing. She
said yes, so he sat down beside her. Their hands were
placed together, the gobernador said a few admonishing
words to them, and they rose, man and wife, duly mar-
ried. How was this for rapid transit to matrimonial
bliss?
BARRANCAS
H3
The next day the guide took us uj) along some high-
er ridges, and after ten or twelve miles of slow ascent,
we arrived at the summit of Barranca de Cobre, where
we made a comfortahle camp about half a mile back of
the point at which the track descends into the canon.
Here we had an inspiring view; deep gorges and ra-
vines, the result of {)rolonged weathering and erosion,
gashing the country and forming high ridges, especially
toward the south and west. In other words, here we
observed for the first time barrancas, which from now
on form an exceedingly characteristic feature of the
topography of the Sierra Madre. These precipitous
abysses, which traverse the mighty mass of the sierra
like huge cracks, run, as far as Sierra Madre del Norte
is concerned, mainly from east to west. In the coun-
try of the Tarahumare, that is to say, the State of Chi-
huahua, there are three very large barrancas. They are
designated as Barranca de Cobre, Barranca de Batopi-
las, and Barranca de San Carlos. The Sierra Madre
del Norte runs at an altitude of from 7,000 to 8,000
feet, at some points reaching even as high as 9,000 feet.
It rises so gradually in the east, for instance, when en-
tered from the direction of the city of Chihuahua, that
one is surprised to be suddenly almost on top of it.
The western side, however, falls off more or less abrupt-
ly, and presents the appearance of a towering, ragged
wall. In accordance with this general trait of the
mountain system, the beginnings of the barrancas in
the east are generally slight, but they quickly grow
deeper, and before they disappear in the lowlands of
Sinaloa they sometimes reach a depth of from 4,000 to
5,000 feet. Of course, they do not continue equally
narrow throughout their entire length, but open up
gradually and become wider and less steep.
Besides these large barrancas, which impede the
144
UNKNOWN MEXICO
traveller in the higiilands and necessitate a course tow-
ard the east, there are innumerable smaller ones, espe-
cialh' in the western part of the range, where large
portions of the country are broken up into a mass of
stupendous, rock-walled ridges and all but bottomless
chasms. A river generally fiows in the barrancas be-
tween narrow banks, which occasionally disappear al-
altogether, leaving the water to rush between abruptly
ascending mountain sides.
As far as the first of the large barrancas was con-
cerned, near the top of which we were standing, we
could for some little distance follow its windings tow-
ard the west, and its several tributaries could be made
out in the landscape by the contours of the ridges.
Barranca de Cobre is known in its course by different
names. Near the mine of Urique (the Tarahumare word
for barranca), it is called Barranca de Urique, and here
its yawning chasm is over 4,000 feet deep. Even the
intrepid Jesuit missionaries at first gave up the idea of
descending into it, and the Indians told them that only
the birds knew how deep it was. The traveller as he
stands at the edge of such gaps wonders whether it is
possible to get across them. They can in a few places
be crossed, even with animals if these are lightly load-
ed, but it is a task hard upon flesh and blood.
It was in these barrancas, that I was to find the gen-
tile (pagan) Indians I was so anxious to meet. From
where I stood looking at it the country seemed forgot-
ten, lonely, untouched by human hand. Shrubs and
trees were clinging to the rocky brows of the barrancas,
and vegetation could be seen wherever there was suf-
ficient earth on the mountain and the sides of the ra-
vines ; but, on the whole, the country looked rather
barren and lifeless.
Still, it (lid not take us lono- to find traces of human
03
INDIAN HOSPITAMTIES 147
bein^i^s. Our tents were pitehed on an old trlnchera.
Cut deep into a rough ledge not far off was the rough
carving of a serpent, sixty feet long, that must have been
left here by a race antecedent to the Tarahumares. And
a little further off we came u})on the ruins of a modern
Tarahumare house. It seems as if the Indians must ex-
tract a living out of the rocks and stones ; though when
we got down into the barranca and into the ravines we
came upon patches of land that could be cultivated ;
and there were some small areas of pasture, although
extremely precipitous.
The tirst thing to do was to despatch the guide into
the valleys and gorges below, which from our camping
place could not be seen, only surmised, that he might
persuade some Tarahumares to act as carriers on an ex-
cursion I contemplated making through the region. In
a couple of days a party was made up, consisting, be-
sides myself, of Mr. Taylor, the guide, two Mexicans,
and five Tarahumares with their gobernador. Bundles
weighing from forty to seventy-five pounds w^ere
placed on the backs of the Indians and the Mexicans;
even the guide took a small pack, though it would
have been beneath the dignity of the gobernador to
take a load upon himself. But his company was
valuable on account of his great influence with his
people.
It was an exceedingly interesting excursion of sev-
eral days' duration. Owing to the presence of the go-
bernador the Indians received us well. Nobody ran
away, though all were extremely shy and bashful, and
the women turned their backs towards us. But after a
while they would offer us beans from a j)ot cooking
over the fire. They served them in earthenware bowls
with a couple of tortillas (corn cakes). In another
vessel, which they passed around among us, they of-
148
UNKNOWN MEXICO
fered the flavouring, coarse salt and some small chile
(Spanish peppers), which vegetable is cultixated and
much relished by the Tarahumares.
But the most interesting dish was iskiate, which I
now tasted for the first time. It is made from toasted
Our Tarahumare Carriers and the Gobernador.
corn, which is mixed with water while being ground on
the metate until it assumes the consistency of a thick
soup. Owing to certain fresh herbs that are often added
to the corn, it mav be of a greenish color, but it is alwavs
cool and tempting. After having tramped for several
days over many miles of exceedingly rough country, I
arrived late one afternoon at a cave where a woman
was just making this drink. T was very tired and at a
loss how to climb the mountain-side to my camp, some
2,000 feet above ; but after having satisfied my hunger
and thirst with some iskiate, offered by the hospitable
Indians, I at once felt new strength, and, to my own
astonishment, climbed the Q-reat heiMit without much
TARAHIMARE COSTUME
149
effort. /\ftcr this 1 always fuuiul iskiatc a friend in
need, so streno;tlieninj(T and refreshing- that I may al-
most elaini it as a diseovery, interesting" to mountain
climbers and others exposed to great physical exertions.
The preparation does not, howev^er, agree with a seden-
tary life, as it is rather indigestible.
The dress of the Tarahumare is always very scanty,
even where he comes in contact with the whites. One
Tarahumare Men.
may see the Indians in the mining camps, and even in
the streets of the city of Chiiiuahua, walking about
naked, except for a breech-cloth of coarse, home-spun
woollen material, held up around the waist with a girdle
1 ;o
UNKNOWN MEXICO
woven in characteristic desifjns. Some may supplement
this national costume with a tunic, or short poncho ;
and it is only right to add that most of the men are pro-
vided with well-made blankets, which their women
weave for them, and in which they wrap themselves
when they go to feasts and dances. The hair, when not
worn loose, is held together
with a home-woven ribbon, or
a piece of cotton cloth rolled
into a band ; or with a strip of
palm leaf. Often men and
women gather the hair in the
back of the head, and men may
also make a braid of it.
The women's toilet is just
as simple. A scrimpy woollen
skirt is tied around the waist
with a girdle, and over the
shoulders is worn a short
tunic, with which, however,
many dispense when at home
in the barranca. The women,
too, have blankets, though
with them they are not so
much the rule as with the
men. Still, mothers with
babies always wear blankets,
to support the little ones in an
uj)right position on their backs,
the blanket being tightly wrapped around mother and
child. The women nowadays generally wear sandals
of the usual Mexican cowhide pattern, like the men ;
but there is ample evidence to prove that such was not
the case in former times.
The people are, for Indians, not especially fond of
Tarahumare Woman.
USES OF ORNAMENTS
151
ornaments, and it is a j)cculiar fact that mirrors have no
special attraction for them. They do not like to look
at themselves. The women often wear ear-
ornaments made of triangular pieces of shell
attached to bead strings, or deck themselves
with strings of glass beads, of which the
large red and blue ones are favourites ; and
necklaces made from the seed of the Coix
Lachryma-Jobi are used by both sexes,
chiefly for medicinal
purposes. The men
wear only single
strings of these seeds,
wdiile the necklaces
of the women are
wound several times
around the neck. The
shaman, or medicine-
man — a priest and
doctor combined — is
never without such a
necklace when offici-
ating at a feast. The
seed is believed to Tarahumare
possess many medici- Ear-Ornament:
, ... , ^ one seed Coix
nal qualities, and for Uchryma-Jobi
this reason children, at top. Natural
too, often wear it.
Peasant women in Italy and
Spain use the same seed as a pro-
tection against evil, and even Amer-
ican women have been known to
put strings of them on teething children as a soothing
remedy.
An important fact I established is that the Indians
Necklace of Seeds of
Coix Lachryma-jfobi.
152 UNKNOWN MEXICO
in the barrancas, in tliis part of the country, use some-
thing like trincheras for tlie cultivation of their little
crops. To obtain arable land on the mountain slopes
the stones are cleared from a convenient spot and uti-
lised in the construction of a wall below the field thus
made. The soil is apt to be washed away by heavy
rains, and the wall not only prevents what little earth
there is on the place from being carried off, but also
Tarahumare Ranch near Barranca de Cohre, showing ploughed fields
supported by stone walls.
catches what may come from above, and in this way
secures sufficient ground to yield a small croj). Fields
thus made can even be ploughed. On the slopes of one
arroyo I counted six such terraces, and in the moun-
tainous country on the Rio Fuerte, toward the State of
Sinaloa, chile, beans, s(]uashes, Coix Lachryina-Jobi, and
bananas are raised on trincheras placed across the arroyos
that run down the hills. There they have the form of
small terraces, and remind one of similar ones found
u
CQ
IKRKACES 155
farther north as ancient ruins, to such an extent that
one might suj)pose tliat the Tarahumares have made use
of the rehcs of antiquity. Mr. llartman in one long
arroyo thereabouts observed four at some distance from
one another. Thev were from four to ten feet high,
and as broad as the little arroyo itself, some eight to
sixteen feet.
CHAPTER VIII
THE HOUSES OF THE TARAHUMARES — AMERICAN CAVE-DWELLINGS
OF TO-DAY FREQUENT CHANGES OF ABODE BY THE TARA-
HUMARE — THE PATIO OR DANCING PLACE — THE ORIGINAL
CROSS OF AMERICA TARAHUMARE STORE-HOUSES.
THE houses we saw on this excursion were of re-
markable uniformity, and as the people have had
very little, if any, contact with the whites, it is reason-
able to infer that these structures are original with them.
On a sloping mesa six families were living in such build-
insfs not far from one another.
These houses have a frame of four forked poles,
planted firmly into the ground, to form a square or rect-
angle. Two joists are laid over them parallel to each
other. Under one of them, in the front of the house, is
the doorway. The joists support the flat roof of loose
pine boards, laid sometimes in a double layer. The rear
joist is often a foot or so lower than the front one,
which causes the roof to slant towards the back. The
l)oards may simply be logs split in two and with the bark
taken off. The walls are made by leaning boards, ends
up, against the roof, while the door consists of a number
of boards, which are removed or replaced according to
convenience. In most instances the doorway is pro-
tected from the outside against wind and weather by a
lean-to. Access to the house is gained sideways, even
where a small vestibule is built, extra poles being driven
in the ground to support the porch-roof boards.
While this style of architecture may be said to be
typical throughout the Tarahumarc country, there are
•5^>
TAKAHLMARE DWELLINGS
»57
many variations. Generally attempts are made to eon-
struct a more solid wall, bt)ards or poles being" laid
lengthwise, one on top of the other, and kept in plaee
t)\' sliding the ends between double uprights at the
eorners. Or they may be placed ends up along the
side of the house ; or regular stone walls may be built,
with or without mud for mortar. Even in one and the
same house all these kinds of walls may be observed.
A type of house seen throughout the Tarahumare coun-
Tarahumare House near Barranca de Cobre.
try, as well as among the pagan Tarahumares in the
Barranca de Cobre, is shown in the illustration.
It is also quite common to see a frame work of onlv
two upright poles connected with a horizontal beam,
against which boards are leaning from both sides, mak-
ing the house look like a gable roof set on the ground.
There are, however, always one or more logs laid hori-
zontally and overhung by the low eaves of the roof,
158
UNKNOWN MEXICO
while the front and vcav avc carelessly filled in with
boards or 1op:s, either horizontally or standino; on ends.
In the hot country this style of house may be seen
thatched with palm-leaves, or with grass.
The dwelling ma\- also consist only of a roof resting
on four uprights {jaia/) ; or it may be a mere shed.
Tarahumare House in the Hot Countrv.
There are also regular log-cabins encountered with
locked corners, especially among the southern Taraliu-
mares. Finally, when a Tarahumare becomes civilised,
he builds himself a house of stone and mud, with a roof
of boards, or thatch, or earth.
It is hardly possible to find within the Tarahumare
country two houses exactlv alike, although the main
idea is always easily recognised. The dwellings, though
very airy, afford sufficient protection to i)eople who are
CAVE DWELLINGS OE TO-DAY
159
by no means sensitiv^c
to drafts and climatic
changes. The Tarahu-
mares do not expect
their houses to be dry
during the wet season,
but are content when
there is some dry sj^ot
inside. If the cold
troubles them too
much, they move into
a cave. Many of the
people do not build
houses at all, but are
permanent or transient
cave-dwellers. This
fact I thoroughly in-
vestigated in subse-
quent researches, ex-
tending over a year
and a half, and cover-
ing the entire width
and breadth of the
Tarahumare country.
In this land of
weather-worn porphv-
ry and inter-stratified
sandstone, natural
caves are met with
everywhere, in which
the people find a con-
venient and safe shel-
ter. Although it may
be said that houses are
their main habitations,
Cappe ot Sandstone Pillar, showing effect
of erosion.
i6o UNKNOWN MEXICO
still the Taraliumarcs live in caves to such an extent that
they may be fitly called the American cave-dwellers of
the present age.
Caves were man's first abode, and the\' are found in
certain geological formations in all parts of the globe.
Human imagination always peopled the deep, dark cav-
erns with terrible monsters guarding treasures, and
legends and fairy tales still cling about many of them.
Shallow caves, however, have from the earliest time
attracted man to seek shelter in them, just as the ani-
mals took refuge in them against the inclemency of
the weather. Prehistoric man in Europe was a cave-
dweller, and modern investigations have given us a clear
and vivid picture of the life of the ancient race, who ex-
isted in France while the mammoth and the reindeer
were roaming over the plains of western Europe.
As civilisation advanced, under changing climatic
conditions, and as man began to improve his tools and
im])lements, he deserted the caves and preferred to live
in houses of his own buildins^. But a lono- time after
the caves had been abandoned as abodes of the living,
they were still used for interring the dead. Do we not
remember the story told in Genesis, how Abraham
bought for 400 shekels a cave from Ephron that he
might bury Sarah there and have a family tomb ?
The cave-dwellers of France vanished many thou-
sand years ago; but there are yet in several parts of the
globe, for instance, in Tunis and in Central Africa,
races who still adhere to the custom of living in caves,
although their condition of life is different from that of
the antediluvian cave-dwellers.
In Mexico the cave-dwellers are in a transitory
state, most of them having adopted houses and sheds ;
but many of them are still unable to perceive why they
should give up their safe and comfortable natural shel-
CHANGES OF ABODE
161
teis for rickety abodes of their own making. Padre
Juan Fonte, the pioneer missionary t(j tlie Tarahumares,
who penetrated into their country eighteen leagues from
San Pal)lo, toward Guachochic, speaks of the numerous
caves in that country and relates that many of them
were divided into small houses. Other records, too,
Tarahumare Family Camping under a Tree.
allude to the existence of cave-dwellers in that part of
the Sierra Madre. Still, the fact of there being cave-
dwellers to-day in Mexico was until recently known
only to the Mexicans living in their neighbourhood,
who regard this condition of things as a matter of
course.
Vol. I.— II
l62
UNKNOWN MEXICO
While most of the Tarahumares live permanently on
the highlands, a great many of them move for the win-
ter down into the barranca, on account of its warmer
temperature, and, if they have no house, they live
wherever they find a convenient shelter, preferably a
cave ; but for want of better accommodations they con-
tent themselves with a rock shelter, or even a spreading
tree. This would suit them well enouoh were it not
Inhabited Cave, the Home of a Tarahumare Belle.
that, at least in recent years, there has not been rain
enough in the barrancas to enable the people to raise
there the corn they need. They therefore go back to
the highlands in March, because in the higher altitudes
rainfall can be depended upon with more certainty.
The general custom among the Indians living near to a
barranca is to plant two crops of corn ; one in early
March on the crest, and the other one in June, at the
beginning of the rainy season, down in the barranca,.
NOMADIC HABITS
163
and aflcr having" hai vested at l)otli places they retire to
their winter quarters to enjoy themselves. Sometimes
the cave of a family is not more than half a mile from
their house, and they live alternately in one or the other
abode, because the
Tarahumares still re-
tain their nomadic
instincts, and even
those living perma-
nently on the high-
lands change their
domicile very fie-
quently. One reason
is that they follow
their cattle; another
that they impr(jve
the land by living on
it for a while ; but
there are still other
reasons for moving
s o m u c h about,
which are known
only to themselves.
In summer many
people leave their
caves on account ot
the scorpions, tar-
antulas, and other
pests that infest
them.
In front of the entrance to the cave there is gener-
ally a wall of stone, or of stone and mud, raised to the
height of a man's chest, as a protection against wind
and weather, wild beasts, etc. The cave is fitted up just
like the houses, with grinding stone, earthen jars and
The Belle of the Cave.
164
UNKNOWN MEXICO
bowls, baskets, gourds, etc. The fire is always in the
middle, without hearth or chimney, and the jars in which
the food is cooked rest on three stones. A portion of
the ofround is levelled and made smooth for the familv
I i^""
Side View of Cave on Page 165, Showing Store-Houses and Inclosure.
to sleep on. As often as not there are skins spread out
on the floor. Sometimes the floor space is extended by
an artificial terrace in front of the cave. In a few cases
the floor is plastered with adobe, and I have seen one cave
in which the sides, too, were dressed in the same way.
Inhabited Cave, Sho\ving Store-Houses, Inclosure, and Extended Floor.
CAVE COMFORTS 167
Generally there arc one or two store-houses in tlie caves,
and these constitute the chief improvement. Of course,
there are a good many caves where there are no store-
houses ; still they are the striking feature of the cave.
A few times 1 found walls of stone and mud erected in-
side of the cave, breast high, to partition off one or two
rooms for the use of the family, as well as for the goats
and sheep. Often, inclosures are built of wooden fences
for the domesticated animals and occupy the greater part
of the cave.
The largest inhabited cave I have seen was nearly a
hundred feet in width and from twenty to forty feet in
depth. If caves are at all deep, the Indians live near
the mouth. They never excavate caves, nor do they
live in dug-outs. I heard of one arroyo, where six in-
habited caves, only thirty or fifty yards apart, can be seen
at one time ; but this is a rare case. Generally they are
farther apart, maybe a hundred yards to a mile, or more ;
and that suits the Tarahumares very well, each family
preferrmg to. live by itself.
In one place I saw a cave, or rather a shelter under
a big boulder, utilised as a dwelling ; and here a kind of
parapet had been built of stone gravel, terrace fashion,
to enlarge the area of the cave floor.
Inhabited caves are never found in inaccessible
places, as is the case with cliff-dwellings in the south-
western part of the United States, Where caves are
difficult of access, the Indians may place a wooden
ladder, or rather, a notched tree trunk, which is the
national style of staircase. Once I saw steps cut into
the soft " rock " (solidified volcanic ash), leading up to
a dwellinor. There was also a kind of settee cut out of
the cave-wall.
Many of the caves are remarkably symmetrical in
shape, and naturally quite comfortable. Caves may be
i68 UNKNOWN MEXICO
found in the arrovos in tiic iiiuiilands, as well as in the
barrancas. If I were to desic^nate a region where they
are more plentifid than cl sew Ik- re, 1 should mention the
countrv from Carichic towards Urique, and also to the
north and west of Norogachic. Many caves have with-
in the memory of man been permanently abandoned,
owing to the occupancy of the land by the Mexicans, as
the Indians dislike to be near the wdiites.
The Tarahumares are not the only tribe still clinging
to caves. As we have seen, the Pimas, too, are, to a
limited extent, cave-dwellers, and the same is the case
with the northern Tepehuanes, as well as with the allied
Huarogios in their small area.
Are these cave-dwellers related to the ancient cliff-
dwellers in the southwestern part of the United States
and northern Mexico ? Decidedly not. Their very
aversion to living more than one family in a cave and
their lack of sociability mark a strong contrast with the
ancient cliff-dwellers, who were by nature gregarious.
The fact that the people live in caves is in itself ex-
tremely interesting, but this alone does not prove any
connection between them and the ancient cliiT-dwellers.
'"Although the Tarahumare is very intelligent, he is
backward in the arts and industries. It is true that the
women weave admirable designs in girdles and blankets,
but this seems to be the utmost limit of their capabili-
ties. In the caves they sometimes draw with ochre
clumsy figures of animals and women, and on some
rocks may be seen outlines of feet scratched with stone
"in order to leave their imprinl in this world when they
die." Tarahumare pottery is exceedingly crude as com-
pared with the work found in the old cliff-dwellings, and
its decoration is infantile as contrasted with the clifT-
dwellers' work. The cliff-dwellers brought the art of
decoration to a com])aratively high state, as shown in
CAVE-DWELLEKS' CUSTOMS 171
the relics found in their dweUings. But the cave-
dweller of to-day shows no suggestion of such skill.
Moreover, he is utterly devoid of the architectural gift
which resulted in the remarkable rock structures of the
early cliff-dwellers. These people as far as concerns
their cave-dwelling habits cannot be ranked above trog-
lodytes.
The Tarahumare never lives all his life in one house
or cave ; nor will he, on the other hand, leave it forever.
He rarely stays away from it for more than two or three
years. A family, after inhabiting a house for a time
may suddenly decide to move it, even if it is built of
stone. The reason is not always easy to tell. One
man moved his house because he found that the sun
did not strike it enough. After a death has occurred in
a dwelling, even though it was that of a distant relative
incidentally staying with the family, the house is de-
stroyed, or the cave permanently abandoned ; and many
other superstitious apprehensions of one kind or an-
other may thus influence the people. Very often a
man moves for the sake of benefiting the land, and
after tearing down his house he immediately plants corn
on the spot on which the house stood. A family may
thus change its abode several times a year, or once a
year, or every other year. The richest man in the
Tarahumare country, now dead, had five caves, and
moved as often as ten times in one year.
A never absent feature of the Tarahumare habita-
tion, be it house or cave, is a level, smooth place in
front of it. This is the dancing place, or patio, on which
he performs his religious exercises, and he may have
more than one. The formation of the land may even
oblige him to build terraces to obtain space enough for
his religious dances.
On this patio, which measures generally about ten
172
UNKNOWN MEXICO
together in the form of the Latin cross
yards in every direction, one, two, or three crosses are
planted, as the central object of all ceremonies (except
those in the cidt of the sacred cactus hikuli*). The
cross is generally about a foot high ; sometimes it stands
two feet above ground. It is made of two sticks of
unequal length, preferably sticks of pine wood, tied
I saw two
crosses raised outside of a
man's house, which were
formed by the natural
growth of small pine trees,
and these were four feet
high. The shamans, for
their curing, use small
crosses — three or four
inches long.
It is a well-known fact
that on their arrival in
America the Spaniards to
their amazement found
Indians in possession of
the ci"OSS. Omitting here
the cross of Palenque, the
svmbol of a tree, the tree
of life, it is safe to sav that the original cross of most
Mexican tribes is the Greek cross, though the Latin was
also used. To them the former is of fundamental re-
ligious moment, as indicating the four corners of the
world ; but a word for cross, or anything corresponding
tf) it, docs not occur in the language of anv of the tribes
known to me. Nevertheless the cross (the Greek),
to the Indian the symbol of a cosmic idea, is pecked
on the rocks, or drawn on the sand, or made in corre-
sponding strokes with medicine over the patient's body.
*See page 356.
Crosses Made from the Natural
Growth of Pine-trees in Front of
Tarahumare House.
TARAHUMARE CROSSES
173
With the Tarahuniarc the eross is the pivot around
Avhich all his ceremonies and festivals move. He al-
ways dances to the eross, and on certain occasions he
attaches strings of beads, ears of corn, and other offer-
ings to it. It is used by the heathen as well as by the
Christian Tarahumares. The question is whether this
tribe has changed its form
since its contact with the
whites or whether the cross
was originally like the one
in use to-day. From many
of the Tarahumares' utter-
ances I incline to think
that their cross represents
a human figure with arms
outstretched, and is an em-
bodiment of Father Sun,
the Perfect Man. When
two crosses are placed on
the patio, the smaller
stands for the moon. This
conception also explains
the custom of setting up
three crosses at the princi-
pal dance, the rutuburi,
the third cross representing probably the Morning Star.
Among Christianised natives the three crosses may come
gradually to mean the Trinity.
On one occasion I saw a cross at least ten feet high
with a cross beam onlv one foot lona^, raised next to
two crosses of ordinary size, all standing on the patio
of a well-to-do Indian, and the inference was easily
drawn that the high cross was meant for Father Sun.
The Northern Tepehuanes sav that the cross /s Tata
Dies, the Christianised Indian's usual designation of God.
S#^..
Crosses in Front ot Tarahumare House.
174
UNKNOWN MEXICO
The impression that the cross represents a luinian
figure gains further probability by the fact that a cross
is erected on the special patio of the dead, and I have
noticed that this cross is moved in the course of the
ceremonies to the principal dancino- place "to seethe
Front View. Rear View.
Cross. Height, 65 ctm.; width, 27.^ ctm.
dancing and drink tesvino," as the Indians explained it.
Surely, this cross represented the dead.
On this page are seen the front and rear view of a
cross which is of great interest, although its shape is
evidentlv an exaggerated imitation of a Catholic cross
INDIAN SYMBOLISM
/3
or crucifix. I came upon it in the mountainous country
east of Morelos, and the Tarahumares near the Ranch of
Colorados present- .
ed it to me. It \
had apparentlv^ not
been made long
ago, and was paint-
ed with red ochre.
The arms have
been tied on in the
usual fashion with
a twine of fibre, the
mode of fastening
it appearing most
distinctly on the
back of the cross.
Seen from the
front the designs
on the head, or the
uppermost part,
represent the Morn,
ing Star, the dots
being his compan-
ions, the other stars.
But it is significant
that this constella-
tion is also called
the " eyes " of the
cross. The dots on
the other side of
the cross are also
meant for stars, in
order that, as the
Indian explained to me, Tata Dios may see the stars
where they are dancing ; he lives in the stars — a belief
Tarahumare Store-house ot Stones and Mud.
,76
UNKNOWN MEXICO
evidently arising" from Catholic intlucnce. The human
figures painted on the cross are intended to emphasise
its meaninii;. The
most important of
these human-like
contours are those
directh' below the
junction of the
arms with the ver-
tical stem. They
arc evidently repe-
titions of the main
cross, the arms be-
ing" expressed in
the crude carvings.
What the various
pairs of curved
side lines mean, I
am unable to say.
What is of more
importance to the
Tarahumare than
his dwelling is his
store-house, which
he always builds
before his domi-
cile. In fact, his
personal comfort is
made secondary
even to that of his
domestic animals.
As a survival of
the time when he
had no house at all ma\ be noted the fact that husband
and wife, aftei having been awa)- on a joiuney for several
Caves Uicd as Siorc-houscs.
STORE-HOUSES
//
(lavs or lonjrcr, do not on the fust ni<jlit after their return
sleep in the house or cave, but at some convenient place
near the store-house.
These store-houses are always well put together,
thou<»;h many of them are not large enough to accom-
modate a medium-sized dog, the Tarahumares preferring
number to size. In them he stores what little property
he has beyond that in actual use, chiefly corn and beans,
some spare clothing and cotton cloth, hikuli, herbs, etc.
The door of the house is made from one or more short
boards of pine wood, and is either provided with an in-
geniously constructed wooden lock, or the boards are
simply plastered up with mud along the four edges.
The Tarahumare rarely locks his house on leaving it,
but he is ever careful to fasten the door of his store-
house securelv, and to break open a store-house sealed
up in the manner described is considered the most hei-
nous crime known to the tribe. Mexicans have com-
mitted it and have had to pay for it with their lives.
The most common kind of store-house is from four
to six feet high, round, and built of stones and mud,
with a roof of pine boards, weighed down with earth
and stones. Other store-houses of similar size are
square and built of boards with corners interlocked.
Thev, too, are covered with boards. These diminutive
buildings are often seen inside of caves ; or else they
are erected in places difficult of access, on tops of
boulders, for instance. Sometimes they are seen in
lonely places, more often, however, near the dwellings ;
and the little round structures make a curious effect
when erected on boulders in the vicinity of some hut,
looking, as they do, like so many diminutive factory
chimnevs. They proclaim more clearly than anything
else the fact that when the people reach that stage
in their development in which they begin to till the
178
UNKNOWN MEXICO
soil, they soon become careful of the little property
thev have, in marked distinction to the savagrc and no-
madic tribes, who are always lavish and improvident.
I have seen as manv as ten store-houses of the kind de-
Tarahumare Store-houses Made of Logs.
scribed, and once even fourteen near one dwelling, but
generally one or two only are found near by.
vSmall caves, especially when diflicult to reach and
hidden from view, may be utilised as store-houses,
and are then sealed up in the same way as the other
varieties are. Sometimes rei^^ular loo^-houses are used.
CHAPTER IX
ARRIVAL AT BATOPILAS ASCENT FROM ISATOPILAS TO THE HIGH-
LANDS OF THE SIERRA A TARAHUMARE WHO HAD BEEN IN
CHICAGO AN OLD-TIMER FLIGHT OF OUR NATIVE GUIDE AND
ITS DISASTROUS CONSEQUENCES INDIANS BURN THE GRASS
ALL OVER THE COUNTRY TRAVELLING BECOMES TOO DIFFI-
CULT FOR THE ANIMALS — MR. TAYLOR AND I GO TO ZAPURI
ITS SURROUNDINGS THE PITHAYA IN SEASON.
WE continued our way toward the south, crossing
Barranca de Cobre where it is 3,300 feet deep.
The track we followed was fairly good, but led along
several dangerous precipices, over which two burros
rolled and were killed. The
highest point we reached on
the track over the highlands
south of the barranca was
8,300 feet. There seemed to
be a divide here, the climate
being cool and moist, and the
farthest ranges toward the
south and west enveloped in
mist and fog. Although Bar-
ranca de Batopilas is not as
narrow and impressive as the
barranca we had just left, still
the mighty gap, as we looked
into its hazy bottom from the
highlands, presented an imposing, awe-inspiring sight.
Following the windings of the well-laid-out road we
descended into the canon and made camp a few miles
179
Cactus Flowers.
i8o UNKNOWN MEXICO
this side of the town of Bat<)i)ilas. The silver mines
here, which are ohl and famous, were tliseovered in the
seventeenth century. 1 was cordially received 1)\- Mr. A.
R. Shei)herd. the well-known mining expert, whose
courtesv antl kindness were much apj)reciated by the
members of the expedition.
Mv recent experience had convinced me that the
onlv way to study the natives properlx' was to live
among them for a length of time, and as such a thing
was out of the question with so large a party as I still
had with me, I made uj) m\- mind to discharge as soon
as possible everybody and to remain alone.
The country was now suffering from a relentlessly
scorching sun. The heat increased as the wet season
approached, and, as the animals were getting weaker and
weaker, I disposed here of about half of them, and the
number of attendants and the amount of baggage were
correspondingly reduced. On continuing the journey
with the weak and hungry mules, we found the ascent
of the southern side of Barranca de Batopilas quite
laborious ; but on the crest we enjoyed the fresh breeze,
the more gratefuUv after the enervating heat in the bot-
tom of the canon.
Thus we arrived at the village of Voquibo (yoki =
bluebird ; lvo = mesa : bluebird on the mesa). Here I
had to stoj) for a few days to reconnoitre the road. I
was told that the grass had been burned by the Indians
almost as far as the ranches of Guachochic, our main
objective point. The Indians at that time (May)
alwavs burn the grass, and the entire country is wrapped
in smoke. This, thev think, is necessary to produce
rain ; smoke-clouds and rain-clouds, in their opinion,
briniriner about the same ultimate result. But it is ex-
ceedingly trying for travellers, man and beast. (3nly
by accident is some little spot of grass spared here
A TRAVELLED INDIAN 181
and there, and procuress becomes almost an impossi-
l)ility.
Immediately upon our arrival 1 went to sec the
gobernador, and, strange to say, I found him engaged
in teaching his young wife how to weave. Three
months ago his first wife had died of smallpox. Old
bachelors and widowers have a hard time in orcttinor
wives, because the Tarahumare belles have a decided
preference for young men. 15ut the wifeless Indian
feels very unhappy, as it means that he has to do all the
woman's housework, which is very laborious, and there-
fore thoroughly distasteful to him. Bv way of fascinating
this young girl, the gobernador had to exert himself to
the extent of teachinor her how to make oriidles and
wearing apparel.
The next day this gentleman returned my call, carry-
ing his bow and arrows, I had already learned in
Batopilas that the party of Indians who, about two
years ago, had been exhibited by a now deceased trav-
eller as representative cave-dwellers, had been gathered
mainly in the neighbourhood of Yoquibo. My visitor
had been one of the troupe, and I was eager to find out
what impression the civilised world had made on this
child of nature, who had never known anything but his
woods and his mountains. Therefore, almost my first
question was, "How did you like Chicago?" "It
looks very much like here," was the unexpected reply.
What most impressed him, it seemed, was neither the
size of the city nor its sky-scrapers, though he remem-
bered these, l)ut the big water near which those people
dwelt. lie had liked riding in the railroad cars, but
complained that he had not had enough to eat on the
journey.
His experience on the trip had familiarised him with
the white man and his queer, incomprehensible ways, and
l82
UNKNOWN MEXICO
made him something of a philosopher. I wanted him
to accompany me on my visits to the few houses here,
as the people were very shy and timid. Although he
was verv much engaged, as I could see, having to look
after his animals as well as his wife, he obligingly went
with me to two houses. \Ve saw a woman with twins ;
Making Larva? Readv tor the Pot.
one of them a miserable-looking s{)ccimen, suffering
from lack of food.
There were also some cave-dwellings near Voquibo,
one or two of which were occupied. In the afternoon,
when I went out alone, the people all disappeared the
moment they saw me approaching, except one group of
strangers who had come to beg and did not pay any
ADVENirKERS 183
attention to me. They were too busily engaged in
making ready for the pot a certain kind of larva.', by
extracting them from the cocoon, a small white sac of
silky texture found on the strawberry tree.
The guide told me that Indians like these, who beg
for food, always return, to those who give them alms,
the amount of the gift, as soon as their circumstances
allow.
Here in Voquibo I met one of those Mexican ad-
venturers who under one pretext or another manage to
get into the Indian villages and cannot be routed out
again. Certain of them ply some little trade, generally
that of a blacksmith, others act as " secretaries," writing
what few communications the Indians may have to send
to the government authorities ; some conduct a little
barter trade, exchanging cheap cotton cloth, beads, etc.,
for sheep and cattle ; but most of them supply the Ind-
ians with Mexican brandy, mescal. The one in Yoquibo
had established himself in the only room left intact in
the old dilapidated vicarage, and eked out a living by
sellino^ mescal to the Indians.
This fellow's appearance, especially his unsteady'',
lurking eyes, suggested the bandit. No doubt, like
most of his class, he was in hiding from the govern-
ment authorities. He was something of a hypochon-
driac, and among other ailments he thought he had an
animal in his stomach, wiiich he got in there by way of a
knife-stab he had received some time ago. When he
came to me to get some remedy, he carried a rather
fine rifle, and in spite of all his suffering, real or imagi-
nary, the bandit nature asserted itself, when I made some
complimentary remark regarding his weapon. His half-
closed eyes slurred in a crafty, guileful manner from side
to side as he drawled : " Dcspiies dc Dios, mi rifle ! "
.(" Next to God, my rifle ! ")
184 UNKNOWN MEXICO
After considerable lookino- about, I at last found an
Indian willins: to act as o-uidc for the next sta2:e of our
journev. lie was an elderly man, and at dusk he was
(luictlv sitting near the cam}) fire, eating his supi)er,
when the tall figure of jNIr. Hartman appeared on the
scene, wrapped in a military overcoat. He probably
looked to the Indian very martial and threatening as he
approached through the twilight. At any rate, his ap-
pearance had a most unexpected effect on our guide.
I suddenly heard a noise behind me, and on looking
around, I saw him running as fast as his legs would
carry him, leaving his supper, dropping his blanket,
splashing through the creek and disappearing in the
night, never to be seen again by us. He imagined
that a soldier was coming to seize and kill him ; that
the meat-pot in which he was to be cooked was al-
ready on the lire, while the skulls of other unfortunates
that had been eaten were lying in a heap near one
of the tents. He alluded apparently to four skulls
which I had taken out of an ancient burial cave. In
explanation I will sav that some time ago he had been
arrested for some crime and had broken away from jail;
soldiers, or rather, the police, were after him, and he
mistook Mr. Hartman for one of his pursuers and ran
for safetv.
The incident proved somewhat unfortunate for us.
In consequence of the wild stories he told about us, the
Indians, of a suspicious nature anyway, sent messengers
all over the sierra, warning the people against the man-
eaters that were coming. Our strange proceedings in
Cusarare, namely, the ])hot()grai)iiing, had already been
reported and made the Indians uneasy. The terrible
experience of our runaway guide seemed to confirm
their wildest a]:)prehensions, and the alarm spread like
wildlirc, growing in terror, like an avalanche, the farther
TROUBLESOME STORIES 185
it went. Wc fouiul the ranches deserted on every hand,
women and ehilchen hiding and screaming whenever
they caught a gHmpse of us. At every turn our progress
was impeded. Wherever I came I was abhorred as the
man who subsisted on babies and green corn, and the
prospect of my ever gaining the confidence of tlie Ind-
ians was exceedingly discouraging for the next four or
five months.
Though it was impossible to secure a new guide, I
still made a start next day, following a fairly good track
which leads south toward Guachochic. Yet further
obstacles presented themselves. The animals began to
give out. It was the season of the year when they
change their coats, and are in poor condition even under
the best circumstances, and mine were exhausted from
lack of food. They would not eat the dry grass, and
the green pasture was still too scanty to suffice for their
maintenance. The information that the natives had
burned all the grass proved correct to its fullest extent,
so there was nothing for me to do but to establish a
camp, scarcely a day's journey off, at Tasajisa, where
there was some pasture along the ridges that had as yet
escaped the fire of the Indians. Leaving the larger part
of my outfit and about half of my mules in charge of
my chief packer, Mr. Taylor and I continued the jour-
ney with the best and strongest of the animals, making
a circuitous tour to the little mining town of Zapuri, in
the neighbourhood of which were some caves I wanted
to investigate.
After a day's journey we turned westward and got
beyond the range of the fires. Turkeys were seen close
to our camp and appeared plentiful ; I also saw a giant
woodpecker, but just as I got ready to shoot, it flew
away with a great whirr of its wings. We soon began
to descend, and after a long and fatiguing day's travel
i86 UNKNOWN MEXICO
over cordons and sierras, and through a wide barranca
surrounded by magnificent towering mountains, we
arri\ed, late in tlie afternoon, at Zapuri. The superin-
tendent of the mine, to whom I brought a letter of in-
troduction from the owner of the property, received us
with cordial hospitality. Here the climate was splen-
did ; tlie nights were jusL i)leasanlly cool, the mornings
delieiouslv calm ; thev were all the more enjoyed after
the windy weather of tlie sierra.
Immediately upon my arrival here I had a chance,
through the courtesy of the superintendent, to secure a
Mexican and some strong mules, which took Mr, Tay-
lor over to Parral on his way back to the United States.
Mr. Hartman remained with the expedition two months
longer, to join me again the following year for a few
months. I also got a guide for m\self and made an ex-
cursion to the caves in the neighbouring barrancas.
After we had gone some ten miles over very bad roads,
we came to the home of an old Tarahumare woman,
who was reputed to be verv rich. Knowing Mexican
exaggeration in this regard, I computed that the
twelve bushels of pesos she was supposed to have hid-
den might amount, perhaps, to $50 or $100 Mexican
money. Whatever her wealth was, she showed it onlv
in a lavish displa\' of glass beads around her scrawny
neck ; they must have weiglied at least six or eight
pounds. But then, her homestead was composed
mainlv of four or five substantial circular store-houses.
'f he wealth of the Tarahumare consists in his cattle.
He is well off when he lias three or four head of cattle
and a dozen sheej) and goats. There is one instance
w'here a man had as many as forty head of cattle, but
this was a rare exception. They rarely keep horses, and
never pigs, which destroy their cornfields ; and are
believed, besides, to be Sj)aniards {^GacJiupincs). Pork,
TAKAHLMAKE RICHES 187
though sometimes eaten, is never sacrificed. No tame
turkeys are kept, but occasionally the people have some
hens, antl in rare cases a family may keep a turtle dove
or a tame quail. When a man has oxen, he is able to
plough a large piece of land and raise enough corn to
sell some. But corn is seldom converted into money.
Here we packed the most necessary things on our
best mule, and with the guide and two Indians, who
carried bundles, we descended to the river. The road
was fairly good, but as we approached the river we
came to several bad places. In one of these the mule's
aparejo struck a rock, which caused the animal to lose
its foothold. Unresistingly it slid down the steep slope
for about seven yards and came against a tree, forefeet
on one side, hindfeet on the other. The boy who led
it, eager to do something, managed to get the halter off,
so that there was nothing by which to hold the animal
except its ears. I held fast to one of these, steadying
myself on the loose soil by grabbing a root sticking out
of the ground. The intelligent animal lay perfectly still
over the trunk. Finally I managed to get out mv
bowie-knife and cut the ropes off the pack, which rolled
down the hill, while the mule, relieved of its bulky
burden, scrambled to its feet and climbed up. It was
born and bred in the barranca, otherwise it would never
have been able to accomplish this feat.
Toward evening we arrived at the section of a bar-
ranca called Ohuivo (Ovi = return, or "the place to-
which they returned ") on the Rio Fuerte. The Indians
here, although many of them have been affected by the
nearness of the mines, are reticent and distrustful, and
our guide evidently had not much influence with them.
They refused to be photographed, and even the goberna-
dor ran away from the terrible ordeal.
During the several days I remained in this valley the
i88
UNKNOWN MEXICO
heat never varied from loo", day and night, which was
rather trying and made doing anything an exertion.
The countr\' looked scorched, except for the evergreen
cacti, the most prominent of which was the towering
pithava. Its dark-green branches stand immovable to
Gathering l^ithava.
wind and storm. It has the best wild fruit growing in
the north-western part of Mexico, and as this was just
the season when it ripens, the Indians from all around
had come to gather it. It is as large as an egg and its
flesh soft, sweet, and nourishing. As the plant grows to
PITHAYA FRUIT 189
a height of twenty to thirty-five feet, the Indians get the
fruit down with a long reed, one end of which has four
prongs, and gather it in little crates of split bamboo,
which they carry by straps on their backs. It is a sight
to see men, women, and children start out gaily at day-
break, armed with slender sticks, climbing rugged
heights with grace and agility, to get the pithaya, which
tastes better when plucked at dawn, fresh and cool, than
when gathered during the heat of the day. The fruit,
which lasts about a month, comes when it is most
needed, at the height of the dry season (June), when
the people have a regular feasting-time of it. Mexicans
also appreciate the pithaya, and servants frequently ab-
scond at that time, in order to get the fruit. The beau-
tiful white flowers of the plant are never found growing
on the north side of the stem.
With the Indians, the pithaya enters, of course, into
religion, and the beautiful macaw (guacamaya), which
revels in the fruit, is associated with it in their beliefs.
The bird arrives from its migration to southern lati-
tudes when the pithaya is in bloom, and the Indians
think that it comes to see whether there will be much
fruit ; then it flies off again to the coast, to return in
June, when the fruit is ripe. The following gives the
trend of one of the guacamaya songs : "The pithaya is
ripe, let us go and get it. Cut off" the reeds ! * The
guacamaya comes from the Tierra Caliente to eat the
first fruits. From far away, from the hot country, I
come when the men are cutting the reeds, and I eat the
first fruits. Why do you wish to take the first fruits
from me ? They are my fruits. I eat the fruit, and I
throw away the skin. I get filled with the fruit, and I
go home singing. Remain behind, little tree, waving as
I alight from you ! I am going to fly in the wind, and
some day I will return and eat your pithayas, little tree ! "
* With which the fruit is brought down.
CHAPTER X
NICE-LOOKING NATIVES — ALBINOS — ANCIENT REMAINS IN OHUIVO
— LOCAL TRADITIONS, THK COCOYOMES, ETC. — GUACHOCHIC
DON MIGUEL AND " THE POSTMASTER " A VARIETY OF
CURIOUS CURES — GAUCHOCHIC BECOMES MY HEAD-QUARTERS —
THE DIFFICULTY OF GETTING AN HONEST INTERPRETER
FALSE TRUFFLES — THE COUNTRY SUFFERING FROM A PRO-
LONGED DROUGHT A START IN A NORTH-WESTERLY DIREC-
TION ARRIVAL AT THE PTF-liLO OF NOROGACHIC.
1 FOLLOWED the riv^er a day's journey up and
noticed some small tobacco plantations on the
banks. I met some good-looking people, who had
come from Tierras Verdes, the locality adjoining on
the south. Their mov^ements were full of action and
energy. Their skins showed a tinge of delicate yel-
low, and as the men wore their hair in a braid, they
had a curious, oriental appearance. The women looked
well in black woollen skirts and white tunics. The
people from that part of the country are known for
their pretty, white, home-made blankets, and it was evi-
dent that in those inaccessible parts the Indians had still
something for the white man to take away.
The natives of this valle\- had a curious habit, when
they were made to dive for fish, of afterward throwing
themselves in a row on the sun-heated sand to warm
their stomachs for a minute or two.
Near Ohuivo, in the mountains toward Morelos,
there used to live a family of ten albinos. When I
was there onl\- two survived, smallpox having made
havoc among tlicm. Tiieir skin was so delicate that
I.JO
ALBINOS 191
even the contact with tlicir clothinu^ irritated it. Mr.
Ilartman visited one of them, an old woman who Hved
in a cave with her husband, a small, dark-skinned fel-
low, and the two certainly were " mated, but not
matched." Her features were entirely Indian, but her
complexion was unique in Mexico, even among the
white population. She reminded one of a very blond
type of Scandinavian or Irish peasantry. Her hair was
yellowish - white, but her eye - brows and -lashes were
snow-white. The face and body were white, but dis-
figured with large red spots and small freckles. She
kept her eyes more than half shut, and as she was very
shy it was not possible to ascertain the color of the iris ;
but Mr. Hartman was assured by the husband that it
was bluish.
Most of the Indians in Ohuivo live in houses. The
few caves that are occupied are not improved in any
way. One cave contained ancient habitations, and tra-
dition says that there the Tubares had once established
themselves. The cave is nothing but a nearly horizontal
crack in the rock, situated on tiie southern side of the
river, some 300 feet above the bottom of the valley. It
runs from south-east to north-west to a length of about
200 feet, interrupted perpendicularly by a crevice. En-
tering the cave at the southernmost end I found twelve
low-walled rooms, standing singly, but closely side by
side. They w^ere square with rounded corners. The
walls were built of stone and mud and one foot thick,
and the floors were hard and smooth, A store-room, in
a good state of preservation, resembled in every detail
the store-houses used by the Tarahumares of the present
day, being square and built of stone and mud. In
none of these rooms was it possible for me to stand
upright. Apart from this grouj), a few yards higher up
in the cave, were two small houses. The floor of the
\L)2
UNKNOWN MEXICO
cave was getting: higher and higher. 1 had to crawl on
my stomach for about ten yards and came suddenly to
the edge of a preci})ice ; but a track led around it to
the other side, where I found the main portion of the
houses, eighteen in all, the largest having a side thirteen
feet long, though the others were considerably smaller.
The}^ were arranged just like those of the first section,
in one row, and were made of the same material, except
a few, which were built of adobe. In these the w^alls
were only eight inches thick. One of the rooms was
still complete, had square openings, and may have been
a store-room. The others seem to have had the con-
ventional Indian apertures. In two chambers I noticed
circular spaces sunk into the floor six inches deep and
about fourteen inches in diameter. What I took to be
an estufa, nineteen feet in diameter, was found in the
lowest section. Behind it was only a small cluster of
five houses higher up in the cave.
Though this is the only ancient cave-dwelling I vis-
ited in Ohuivo, I was assured that there were several
others in the neighbourhood. The broken country
around Zapuri is interesting on account of the various
traditions which, still living on the lips of the natives,
refer to a mysterious people called the Cocoyomes,
regarded by some Tarahumares as their ancient ene-
mies, bv others as their ancestors. They were the first
people in the world, were short of stature and did
not eat corn. They subsisted mainly on herbs, espe-
cially a small agave called tshawi. They were also can-
nibals, devouring each other as well as the Tarahumares.
The Cocoyomes lived in caves on the high cliffs of the
sierra, and in the afternoon came down, like deer, to
drink in the rivers. As they had no axes of iron they
could not cut any large trees, and were unable to clear
much land for the planting of corn. They could only
THE MYSTERIOUS COCOYOMES 193
burn the grass in the arruyus in order to get the fields
ready. Long ago, when the Cocoyomes were very bad,
the sun came down to the earth and burned nearly all
of them ; only a few escaped into the big caves.
Here in Zapuri the Cocoyomes had four large caves
inside of which they had built square houses of very
hard adobe ; in one of the caves they had a spring.
The Tarahumares often fought with them, and once,
when the Cocoyomes were together in the largest cave,
which had no spring, the Tarahumares besieged them
for eight days, until all of the Cocoyomes had perished
from hunger. From such an event the name of Zapuri
may have been derived. Intelligent Mexicans, whom
I consulted, as^ree that it means " fio^ht " or "contest"
(Spanish, dcsafid).
From a place called Tuaripa, some thirty miles
farther south, near the border of the Tepehuane
country, and in the same mountainous region, I have
the following legend, about the Cocoyomes and the
serpents :
Two large serpents used to ascend from the river and
go up on the highlands to a little plain between Huera-
chic and Tuaripa, and they killed and ate the Cocoyomes,
returning each time to the river. Whenever they were
hungry they used to come up again. At last an old man
brought together all the people at the place where the
serpents used to ascend. Here they dug a big hole and
filled it with wood and with large stones, and made a fire
and heated the stones until they became red hot. When
the serpents were seen to make their ascent on the
mountain-side, the men took hold of the stones with
sticks, and threw them into the big, wide-open mouths
of the serpents, until the monsters were so full with
stones that they burst and fell dead into the river. Even
to this day may be seen the marks on the rocks where
the serpents used to ascend the mountain-side.
Vol. I. — 13
194
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Once havino- again ascended to the highlands, I
found ratlier level country as far as Guachochic, some
forty-five miles off hv the track I followed. The name
of the i)lace signifies "blue herons," and the Wnv water-
Jii ilic lli^hlandb c;t the Sierra.
course, which originates in the manv springs here, was
formerly the abode of many water-birds. The locality
thus designated is to-day a cluster of Mexican ranches,
most of them belonging to one fainil\-. There is an oUl
church, but at present no indej)endent Indians live in
Guachochic ; the aborigines found about the place are
servants of the Mexicans.
Guachochic lies at an ele\alion of 7,775 feet and at
the southern end of a mesa, the largest one in the
DON MIGUEL, OF GUACHOCHIC 195
Sierra Madrc del NorLc, being' twelve miles lon<^ and
three miles wide. ILxeejJt on the southern end this
plateau is bordered with statelv pine forests. Many Ind-
ians live on the mesa and in the numerous valleys ad-
joininij it, but they are all "eivilised"; that is, contam-
inated with many Me.xieo-Christian notions, and have
lost their j)ristine simj)lieity.
I had a letter of introduction to the principal person-
age in Guachochic, Don Miguel, who enjoys the rare
reputation of being just and helpful toward the Indians ;
and, being a large land-owner, he is a man of considera-
ble influence also with his fellow-countrymen. To those
in need he lends money on liberal terms out of the pile of
silver dollars buried under the floor of his house. Rob-
bers know from sad experience that he is not to be
trifled with. Once, when a band of marauders had taken
possession of the old adobe church and were helping
themselves to the buried cash of the inhabitants of the
ranches, he rallied the terrorised people, gave the robbers
battle and routed them effectually. He upholds author-
ity against lawlessness, and wants justice to have its
course, except when one of his own relatives has done
the shooting — I was sorry to learn that in this regard he
was probably not beyond rebuke ; but his many good
deeds to the needy and oppressed, whether Mexican or
Indian, should make us lenient toward this failing.
The Indians appeal to him of their own accord. Three
ruffians once w^ent to the house of a well-to-do Indian,
recently deceased, and told his mourning relatives that
they had come to see to the division of the property
among the heirs, and that they must have good things
to eat and plenty to drink while thus occupied ; calling
upon the relatives to brew plenty of beer and kill an ox.
Their orders were promptly obeyed ; but in addition
they charged the heirs a fee of three oxen, one fanega
!(/) UNKNOWN MEXICO
of corn, and some silver money. This struck the simple
and patient Indians as rather excessive, for what woidd
then be left to divide between themselves ? So they
took their grievance to Don Miguel to be settled. I tlo
not know of anv white man in those parts who would
have taken the tiuuble, as he did, to protect the poor
Indians' rio^hts against the wily schemers.
The old gentleman was not at home when I arrived
at his ranch, but I met one of his sons, who lives at
Guachochic.
'* I am the postmaster," he said proudly, stepping
forward and showing me, at the same time, his creden-
tials, which he evidently always carried in his jiocket.
The mail from the lowlands to the mining towns passes
over this place, and the mail-carrier sleeps in this house.
In the course of the year he may also bring a few letters
to the inhabitants of this part of the country. \Ve soon
entered into a conversation about postal matters, which
naturally interested me greatly, as I was anxious to com-
municate as often as possible with the outside world. In
s})ite of the great pride this man took in his office, his
notions regarding his duties were rather vague. Being
desirous of knowing what was going on among his neigh-
bours, he had no compunction about opening the few
letters they got ; not that he destroyed them after read-
ing them — he very coolly handed them over opened.
The people did not like this, and considered it rather
high-handed on his i)art ; but then, what was there for
them to do about it ?
He' said he had heard that I could cure people.
When a man is called Doctor, the Mexican peasantry
expect him to possess comprehensivelv all useful knowl-
edge in the world. Looking at me for a moment, this
healthy, ruddv-cheeked man suddenly, without saying a
word, took hold of mv hand and pressed it against his
CURIOUS CURES
197
forehead for a little while ; then, all the time in silence,
he carried it backward until my fingers touched a small
excrescence on his back. Now was the chance to find
out whatever was the matter with him !
On my next visit to his office he received me with a
queer, hesitating expression on his face, and suddenly
blurted out, " Can you cut out trousers ? " For some
time he had had a piece of cloth in his house, and he
said he would pay me well if I could help him to have
it made into trousers. To cure people, mend watches,
repair sewing-machines, make applejack, do tailoring,
prognosticate the weather — everything is expected from
a man who comes from far away. And the good
people here are astonished at a confession of ignorance
of such matters, and take it rather personally as a lack
of good-will toward them. It is the old belief in the
medicine man that still survives in the minds of the
people, and they therefore look upon doctors with much
greater respect than on other persons.
People who live outside of civilisation are thrown
upon their own resources in cases of sickness. The
daughter of my Mexican guide was confined and the
coming of the afterbirth was delayed. I give here, for
curiosity's sake, a list of the various remedies applied in
the case :
1. The carapace of the armadillo, ground and taken
in a little water. This is a Tarahumare remedy, said to
be very effective for the trouble mentioned.
2. The skunkwort (the herb of the skunk).
3. The patient to hold her own hair in her mouth
for half an hour.
4. The wood of Palo hcdiondo, boiled.
5. Urina viri, half a cup. This remedy is also
externally used for cuts and bruises.
6. Fresh excrement from a black horse. A small
198 rXKXOWX MEXICO
(juantity of water is mixed with it, then pressed out
throug-h a piece of cloth and taken internally.
7. Perspiration from a black horse. A saddlecloth,
after having" been used on the iiorse, is juit over the
abdomen of the woman.
8. A decoction of the bark of the elm.
9. Pork fat.
After a number of days the patient recovered.
Whether it was propter hoc or merelv post hoc is a mat-
ter of conjecture.
Guachochic served admirably as a central point from
which excursions in various directions could be made, as
it lies in the very mitlst of the Tarahumarc country. It
is true that the Mexicans have appropriated all the best
land round about, and their extensive and fertile ranches
lie all around Guachochic. Toward the east, in the
direction of the pueblos of Tonachic and Lagunitas, the
broad strip of oood arable and pasture land as far as
Parral is owned exclusively by Mexicans.
But in the immediate neighbourhood of Guachochic
toward the west and south lie the ridges and barrancas
that run toward Sinaloa, and these are inhabited by
pagan Tarahumares. Toward the north the Indians hold
undisputed sway over that extensive region of moun-
tains, pine-covered plateaus and well-watered arr()\'os
around the pueblos of Norogachic, Pamachic and Xara-
rachic, and here are found the most independent Taia-
humares that are left, who still defv the whites to take
their land away from them. Thev are more valiant
than the rest and not easil\- intimidated.
The first thing- for me to do. after establishing camp
near Guachochic, was to secure strong mules and the
necessary men to l)ring up the outfit that had been left
behind in Tasajisa, and after a week's absence they re-
turned with all the animals and <>;oods intact.
IGNORANCE OF THE NATIVES 199
Guachocliic is an uninteresting^ place at its best, and
at this season it seemed especially dreary, on account of
the crop failure from wiiich the sierra had heen suffer-
ing for the last two years. There is never much to get
here, but now even corn and beans could hardly be
bought. It was therefore quite a treat to have a square
meal with Don Miguel, whose wife was a clever cook,
and who, considering all circumstances, kept a fair
Mexican table. He could also give me some general
information about the Indians ; but not only here, but
in many other parts of Mexico, I was often astonished
at the ignorance of the Mexican settlers concerning the
Indians living at their very doors. Aside from certain
conspicuous practices, even intelligent Mexicans know
little of the customs, much less of the beliefs, of the
aborigines. Regarding the pagans in the barrancas, I
could get absolutely no information beyond a general
depreciation of them as savages, bravos (fierce men) and
broncos (wild ones). One Mexican whom I inter-
viewed about certain caves thought that the only thing
I could be looking for was the silver possibly hidden in
them, and therefore told me that there were 12,000,000
pesos buried in a cave near the minmg town Guadalupe
y Calvo, waiting to be recovered. Thus it was exceed-
ingly difficult in the beginning to determine just which
would be the best way to start my investigations, and
all that was left for me to do was to find out for myself
where my best field was by making extensive excursions
into the domains of the Tarahumare in company with
an intelligent interpreter. And there was the rub !
There are in this part of the sierra a certain number of
men who make a living by dealing with the Indians, and
who, having been born and bred in the country, speak
the difficult language of the Tarahumares as well as the
Indians themselves. But as each man operates in a cer-
200 UNKNOWN MEXICO
tain district and has a monopoly of the trade with the
Indians within its confines, the temjHation to cheat the
unsophisticated natives out of their Utile property is
naturallv very great, and by far the greater number of
the dealers succumb to it. As soon, however, as one of
them is found out, he loses his inlluence with the Ind-
ians, and to go with a man of that stamp would have
been disastrous to my purpose. The duty of the Icn-
giiaraz, as the interpreter is called, is to smooth the
traveller's way among the distrustful Indians with skil-
ful words, to get provisions, make bargains, and exj^lain
to the Indians the purpose of his visit. Last but not
least, he must obtain all possible information from
them. This may mean one day's hard work, and the
trying of his patience with many apparently futile ques-
tions which are made to get at the Indian's real mean-
ing. Thus it may be understood how one is com])letely
at the mercy of one's lenguaraz, and how important it
is for the success of an expedition to tind the right man.
There is nothing else to do but to try and try again, one
after another.
The Indians near Guachochic seemed all to l)e de-
pressed, poor, and hungry. Most of their animals had
died from lack of food, and the few tliat had not suc-
cumbed to starvation liad to be sold in exchange for
corn. A couj)le of Indians wiio were on their wa\- to
Parral to buy wheat died of starvation before they
reached their destination. The Indians ascribcMl the
hard times to the presence of the whites, who had de-
prived tiiem of their lands as well as of their liberty.
The gods, as they put it, were angry with the whites
and refused to send rain.
In the summer, es])eciallv in ]w\\\ a false truffle is
found on the highlands of (iuachochic, which seiwes as
a food to the Indians. It grows abundantly a couple
FALSE TRUFFLES
201
of inches below the ground, ntisini;- the earth a little ;;
and is found also under the limb cjf a fallen tree. The
dogs help in linding this fungus, and they are so fond of
it that they go of their own accord to look for it.
Pigs grow fat on this food, and coyotes, bears, and grey
foxes also eat it. It is considered by Professor W. G.
Farlow as a variety of Melaiiogaster varicgatits, which he
calls Mexica7ius. It tastes
like an over-ripe pear, with a
flavour of onion when one
first bites into it. The ordi-
nary Mclaiiogaster variega-
tus is eaten in Europe, and
esteemed for its pleasant
taste.
It was disagreeable to
travel during the dry season,
on account of the difficulty
in getting provisions and
finding pastures for the ani-
mals. But I made up my
mind to start under any cir-
cumstances on an excursion
toward the north-east, know-
ing that the fresh grass would
come up quickly after a few of the thunder-storms
not infrequent at that season. Toward the end of June
I selected a few of my strongest animals, and, leaving
one of my Mexicans to take care of the remainder,
started out with two. As luck would have it, a heavy
storm drenched our first camp, and afterward the rain
seemed almost to pursue me, much to the delight of the
Indians I visited, who had been praying and dancing
for rain for a long time. One dav I had the imposing
spectacle of three thunder-storms coming up from dif-
Tarahumare Interpreters
202
UNKNOWN MEXICO
fercnt directions. The one in the soiitii sent flashes of
hghtning out of its mass of dark clouds over the clear
sky ; but after all, not much rain resulted.
There was no difficulty in fmdino- one's way from
Guachochic to Norogachic. At one j^lace I noticed an
Indian trail leading
up a ridge appar-
ent Iv consisting of
\olcanic tuff. To fa-
cilitate the ascent,
steps, now worn
and old, had been
cut for a distance of
a couple of hun-
dred feet. I made
my way among the
Indian ranches to
Norogachic, the
residence of the
onl\- jiriest living
at present in I lie
Tarahumare coun-
trv. The name of
the place contains
an allusion to a cer-
tain rock in the
vicinity. There is
another priest who
pavs some atten-
tion to the Tara-
hu mares, but he
lives in Nonoava, and makes only annual visits to
baptise infants or marry their elders who wish for the
blessings of the Church.
Indian Trail Cut in a Ridge of Tuff.
CHAPTER XI
A PRIEST A\n HIS FAMILY MAKE THE WILDERNESS COMFORTAHLE
FOR US — ANCIENT REMAINS SIMILAR TO THOSE SEEN IN SO-
NORA — THE CLIMATE OF THE SIERRA FLORA AND FAUNA
TARAHUMARE AGRICULTURE CEREMONIES CONNECTED WITH
THE PLANTING OF CORN — DETERIORATION OF DOMESTIC ANI-
MALS — NATIVE DOGS OF MEXICO.
I CALLED on tlie padre and found him to be a very
social, nice, energetic-looking person with a tinge
of the " red man " in his veins.
He complained to me that the Indians were lazy
about coming to mass. None of them paid taxes, and
there was no w^ay
of forcing them.
Nearly all of them
he considered hea-
thens, and only
about a thousand
came to the feasts.
Thev arrive in the
village on the even-
ing before, and hear
vespers. Then they
give themselves up
to drinking, and on
the feast dav prop-
er are not in a con-
dition to go to
church.
He thinks there are some great men among the
Tarahumares, but that, their mental faculties being en-
203
Pecking on Rock in the Neighbourhood of
Norogachic.
204 UNKNOWN MEXICO
tirely uncultivated, they are, as it were, rough diamonds.
In the padre's opinion not only all the Indians, but alsa
the Mexicans living among them, will soon relapse into
paganism altogether.
Living under rough conditions as he does, it is a
lucky thing for the padre that his physique is equal to
emergencies. Once at the neighbouring village of
Tonachic (= where there are pillars) he admonished the
people, in a powerful sermon, to mend their ways. As
they were coming out of the church, a scoundrel who
resented the charges attacked him with a stick, but the
padre managed to disarm him and gave him such a
sound thrashing with his assailant's own weapon that
the latter had to keep his bed for a fortnight.
He showed me his stately old adobe church, built in
missionarv times. The ceilino- however, was infested
with myriads of bats, the smell of which was quite sick-
ening, and I was glad to get out again. With him in
this uttermost outpost of Christendom lived his aged
mother and six sisters, and they treated us with all the
hospitality their very limited means permitted. We
especially enjoyed their home-made macaroni.
In the family of the good priest lived a little Indian
orphan girl, about five years old, as nice and sweet a
child as one might wish to see. He was teaching her
how to read and write, and she had learned her letters
in two months.
The padre, good-natured to officiousness, helped me
to get Indians to be photograi)hcd. He also would
insist upon arranging them before the camera. His
efforts, however, were directed more toward achieving
artistic triumph than scientific truth, and he wanted, for
instance, to decorate the Indians with peacock feathers.
He yielded, however, to my suggestion that turkey
feathers would be more ai)i)ropriate, and straightway
A PKIESr AND HIS FAMILY
20 i
ordered one of liis turkeys to he eau<i^ht and deprived of
some of its tail feathers. The only way in which I
could show my appreciation of the disinterested kind-
ness of the family was hy photographing them, too.
It was a new sensation to
them, and the ladies asked to
have it done next day, as they
wanted to arrange their hair
and prepare themselves prop-
erly.
After them it was the turn
of the presidente of the village
"to look pleasant," but at this
juncture the camera met with
an accident. The ring holding
the lens broke and fell out.
This happening miles away
from civilisation was decided-
ly annoying. But the sisters
proved themselves equal to
the occasion. Their father
having been a tinsmith, they
had picked up the trade and
had tools ; and the ring was
soldered on so well that it lasted until I returned to the
United States the following year.
Norogachic is situated in the most populous part of
the Tarahumare country, and its presidente exercises
authority over the large surrounding district. He told
me that his municipality counted 4,168 souls, among
them about 300 Mexicans. With the help of a very in-
telligent Mexican I made a rough calculation of the
number of Indians belonging to Tonachic and Guacho-
chic, next neighbours of Norogachic, and estimated in
the former 350, and in the latter 250 families. Counting
Tarahumare Girl from the Neigh-
bourhood of Norogachic.
2o6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
each family as consistintj^ of eight iiieiiilx'is, tiiis would
give us a population of 4,800. Thus the most populous
part of the Tarahumare countr\-. inckulino- the three
municipalities of Noroo^achic, Tonachic, and Guachochic,
would contain a population of about 8,500 Indians.
As the presidente of Norogachic is an honourable
man and speaks the native language, he exercised great
influence over them, and on one occasion, when they
had gathered in large numbers and threatened to avenge
some abuse, he was able to avert disaster. Nature had
endowed him with the doubtful blessing of bloodshot
eyes, a feature generallv attributed to powerful sorcerers,
and this was perhaps more a point in his favour than
otherwise wdth the Indians.
One day he took us to the top of a hill where there
were some stones set in circles, about one foot above
and half a foot under the ground. They reminded us of
similar stone arrangements we had come ujion in So-
nora, but these were larger and more primitive. Alto-
gether there were nine circles, varying in size from nine
to thirteen feet in diameter. One, however, measured
only five feet across, and the stones forming it were fully
two feet above the ground. Close by was another simi-
lar small circle, and some little distance off still another.
On a small mesa I found a Hint arrow-jioint. There
were also some potsherds there, but of the same kind as
those used by the people of to-day.
;. The natives rightly count only three seasons — the
dry, tlie rainy, and the winter. The fnst lasts from
March till June, and is very warm and windy. Through-
out July and August one can generally count on thun-
der-storms and heavy rains, while the mornings are bright.
The rains then rarely extend over a large territory, but
are confined to local showers, a circumstance very an-
noying to the agricultural inhabitants, who often see
CLIMATE OF THE SIEKKA 207
dark clouds rolling up, apparcntlv full of moisture, yet
resulting- in nothing hut gusts of wind. A ridge may
change the course of the clouds. Sometimes one valley
may he flooded with rain, while not far away the heat is
drying up everything. During September and October
more constant rains occur, and may last more or less for
a week at a time.
In the beginning of the wet season (July and
August) the rains come from the south-west, but later
>T^>%
Pecking on Rock in the Neighbourhood oi Norogachic.
on north-eastern winds l)ring rain. In winter there are
constant winds from the south-east to the north, some-
what trying until one gets used to them. Snow is by
no means unknown, and Indians have been known to
freeze to death when caught out intoxicated.
The climate in the sierra, although not so pleasant
on account of the constant winds, is extremely salubri-
ous, the heat never exceeding 97° F., while the nights
are deliciously cool. Lung diseases are here unknown.
When I asked an old American doctor in Guadalupe y
Calvo about his experience in regard to the health of
the people, he said, " Well, here in the mountains
2o8 UNKNOWN MEXICO
thcv are distressing!}' healthy. Despite a complete de-
fiance of every sanitary arrangement, with the grave-
yards, the sewers, and a tannery at the river's edge, no
diseases originate here. When cholera reached the
mountains some years ago, nobody died from it. The
people simply took a hath in Mexican fashion, and re-
covered." Down in the barrancas, however, where the
heat often becomes excessive, the climate is far from
healthy, and I have seen even Indians ill with fever and
ague, contracted generally during the rainy season.
Between these two extremes, on the slopes of the
sierra, toward the warm country, at an elevation of 5,000
feet, I found the most delightful climate I ever knew. It
was like eternal spring, the air pure and the temperature
remarkably even. There is a story of a Mexican wom-
an, who, settling in this part of the country, broke her
thermometer because the mercury never moved and she
therefore concluded that it was out of order. The
pleasantness of the climate struck me particularly on
one occasion, after a prolonged stay in the invigorating
though windy climate of the sierra. I had caught a
cold the night before, and was not feeling very well as I
dozed on the back of my mule while it worked its way
down the mountain-side, but the sleep and the delight-
ful balmy air made me soon feel well again. At times
a mild zej^hyr played around us, but invariably died out
about sunset. The night was delightfully calm, toward
morning turning slightly cooler, and there was nothing
to disturb my sleep under a big fig-tree but the bits of
figs that were thrown down by the multitudes of bats in
its branches. They were gorging themselves on the
fruit, just as we had done the afternoon before.
Journeying on the pine-clad highlands, the traveller
finds nothing to remind iiim that he is in the southern
latitudes, except an occasional glimpse of an agave
FLORA AND FAUNA 211
hetwcen rocks and the fantastic cacti, which, although
so characteristic of Mexican vegetation, are compara-
tively scarce in the iiigii sierra. The nopal cactus,
whose juicy fruit, called tuna, and Hat leaf-like joints
are an important article of food among the Indians, is
found here and there, and is often planted near the
dwellings of the natives. There are also a few species
of EcJiiiiocactus and Mammilaria, but on the whole the
cacti form no conspicuous feature in the higher altitudes
of the sierra.
Along the streamlets which may be found in the
numerous small valleys we met with the slender ash
trees, beside alders, shrubs, Euonyuius with brilliant red
capsules, willows, etc. Conspicuous in the landscape
was still the madrona, with its pretty, strawberry-like,
edible berries.
Flowers on the whole are not abundant in the sierra.
The modest yellow Miuiithis along the water-courses is
the first to come and the last to go. Various forms of
columbine {Aqiiilegia) and meadow rue {Thalictrinji)
should also be remembered. In August and Septem-
ber I have seen the sloping hills of the sierra n-orth-west
of the pueblo of Panalachic (Banalachic ; banala = face,
i. e., the outline of a prominent rock near by), covered
with large crimson flowers, and also certain yellow ones,
called bagiiis, making the country appear like a garden.
I noticed in the same locality two kinds of lovely lilies,
one yellow and one containing a single large red flower.
The Tarahumare have nanies for all these plants.
Before all, however, should be mentioned the car-
mine-red Amaryllis. Like the crocus and the snow-
drops of northern climates it aj)pears before the grass is
green. It is a perfect treat to the eye to meet now and
then in this dry and sandy country, and at such a chilly
elevation, this exquisitely beautiful flower, which is here
212 UNKNOWN MEXICO
appreciated only by the humming-birds. Edible plants,
species of Mentha, Chcnopodiiiui, Cirsimn, for instance,
and the common water-cress, are, at a certain lime of
the year, numerous ; but fruits and berries are rare,
blackberries being the most common ones.
Animal life is not j^articularly plentiful in the sierra.
Still, deer, bears, and mountain lions are fairlv common,
and there are many kinds of squirrels and rats. The
jaguar {fclis onza) is found now and then on the sum-
mits of the barrancas. Eagles, hawks, turkeys, black-
birds, and crows are the most noticeable birds. The
turkey is called by the Tarahumares, tshlvi ; by the
Mexicans of the sierra of QX-xxX^wd^^w-A, guajolotc ; while
farther south he is designated cocoiio. Now and then
the luilliant green trogon is met with.
There are many species of woodpeckers, all familiar
to and named by the Tarahumares. The giant wood-
pecker is seen in the more remote parts, but it is on the
point of being exterminated, because the Tarahumares
consider his one or two young such a delicacy that they
do not hesitate to cut down even large trees to get at
the nests. The Mexicans shoot them because their
plumage is thought to be beneficial to health. It is
held close to the ears and the head in order to impart
its supposed magnetism and keep out tiie maleficent
effects of the wind. In the pairing- season these birds
keep up a chattering noise, which to my ears was far
from disagreeable, but very irritating to a Mexican
whom I employed. He used to shoot the birds be-
cause they annovetl him.
Corn is the most important agricultural product of
the Tarahumares. The average cro]) of a familv mav be
estimated at six or twelve fanegas. One exceptionally
rich 'i\\rahumare, now dead, is said to have raised as
mucii as foui" hundred fanegas a year, but this was a fact
TARAHUMAKE AGKICl LTURE 213
uniciut' in the liistoiy of the tribe. The peo[)le also raise
beans, s(juashes, chile, and tobacco, all on an exceed-
ingly small scale. On the highlands, the primitive
plough already described (page 121) is still used some-
times, though it is rapidly being superseded by ploughs
of Mexican pattern. In the arroyos and barrancas,
where the condition of the land makes ploughing im-
possible, the Indians use the ancient mode of agricul-
ture, still in vogue among remote natives of Mexico
and called coaniillar. They cut down the trees, clear a
piece of land from brushwood, and leave it in this con-
dition until just before the wet season sets in. Then
they burn the wood, which by that time is well dried up,
and plant the corn in the ashes. They simply make a
hole in the earth with a stick, drop a few grains of corn
into it, and close it up with the foot. Of the usual num-
ber of grains I am not aware. The Tepehuanes use
four. Their hoes are generally bought from the Mexicans
or else home-made, the natural knotted growths of tree
limbs being utilised. Women never assist in ploughing,
though they may be seen helping in the fields with the
weeding and hoeins:, and even with the harvesting.
In the sierra a piece of land may yield good crops for
three years in succession without manure, but in the
broad mountain valleys and on the mesas a family can
use the same field year after year for twenty or thirty sea-
sons. On the other hand, down in the barrancas, a field
cannot be used more than two years in succession, be-
cause the corn-plants in that time are already suffocated
with weeds. The planting is done from the middle of
April to the first week in July, and the harvest begins
about the first week in October and lasts until the be-
ginning of December.
Communal principles prevail in clearing the fields, in
ploughing — each furrow in a field is ploughed by a dif-
214 UNKNOWN MEXICO
ferent man — in corn planting, in hoeing, weeding, harvest-
ing, gathering wood for feasts, in fishing and in hunting.
If a man wants to have his field attended to, the first
thing he has to do is to prepare a good quantity of the
national stimulant, a kind of beer called tcsvino. The
more of this he has, the larger the piece of land he can
cultivate, for the only payment his helpers expect and
receive is tesvino.
The master of the house and his sons always do first
one day's work alone, before their friends and neighbours
come to help them. Then they begin in earnest to clear
the field of stones, carrying them in their arms or blan-
kets, and cut down the brushwood. Tesvino is brought
out into the field, and iskiate, and the men, all very
much under the influence of the liquor, work with the
animation of a heap of disturbed ants.
When the work of hoeing and weeding is finished,
the workers seize the master of the field, and, tying his
arms crosswise behind him, load all the implements, that
is to say, the hoes, upon his back, fastening them with
ropes. Then they form two single columns, the land-
lord in the middle between them, and all facing the
house. Thus they start homeward. Simultaneously the
two men at the heads of the columns begin to run rapidly
forward some thirty yards, cross each other, then turn
back, run along the two columns, cross each other again
at the rear and take tlicir j)laces each at the end of
his row. As they pass each other ahead and in the rear
of the columns they beat their mouths with the hollovv^
of their hands and veil. As soon as thev reacli their
places at the foot, the next pair in front of the columns
starts off, running in the same wa\', and thus pair after
pair performs the tour, the procession all the time ad-
vancing toward the house.
A short distance in fionl of it they come to a halt,
TESVINO RITES 215
and are met bv two young men who carry red handker-
chiefs tied to sticks like (lags. The father of the family,
still tied up and loaded with the hoes, steps forward alone
and kneels down in front of his house-door. The flag-
bearers wave their banners over him, and the women of
the household come out and kneel on their left knees,
first toward the east, and after a little while toward each
of the other cardinal points, west, south, and north.
In conclusion the flags are waved in front of the
house. The father then rises and the people untie him,
whereupon he first salutes the women with the usual
greeting, "Kwira!" or " Kwireva ! " Now they all go
into the house, and the man makes a short speech thank-
ing them all for the assistance they have given him, for
how could he have gotten through his work without
them? They have provided him with a year's life (that
is, with the wherewithal to sustain it), and now he is go-
ing to give them tesvino. He gives a drinking-gourd
full to each one in the assembly, and appoints one man
among them to distribute more to all.
The same ceremony is performed after the ploughing
and after the harvesting. On the first occasion the tied
man may be made to carry the yoke of the oxen, on the
second he does not carrv anything.
The southern Tarahumares, as well as the northern
Tepehuanes, at harvest time, tie together some ears of
corn by the husks, two and two. The ears are se-
lected from plants which have at least three or four
■ears, and after a while tesvino is made from them. At
the harvesting feast, the stalks of these plants are strewn
on the ground, as well as stalks of squash plants, and
over them the people dance kuvala. y(_
The Tarahumare takes good care of his domestic
animals and never kills one of them, unless it be for a
sacrifice. Sheep and goats are kept at night in en-
2l6
UNKNOWN MEXICO
closures or caves. The shepherd follows his flock
wherever the animals choose to find their food, and
there are no better herdsmen than the Tarahumarcs,
who wisely trust to the natural instinct of the beasts.
They do not pride themselves on breeds. It is as-
tonishing to notice the number of rams with two pairs
of horns among the tribe. In every flock two or three
specimens may be observed, one pair bending forward
the other to the side. I have seen some with three
pairs of horns. Near Nonoava, where the Indians are
much Mexicanised, they make butter and cheese, using
the rennets from the cow, sheep, and deer, but they do
not drink the milk, saying tiiat it makes them stupid,
and they are watchful to prevent their children from
drinking it. Dogs are not much liked except for hunt-
ing. A great number of them hang around the houses,
but thev have to make their own living as best they
can. They are of the same mongrel class found every-
where among the Indians of to-day. They are gen-
erally of a brownish color and not large, but some of
them are yellow and with
ears erect.
The so-called dogs of
Chihuahua, which com-
mand quite a price among
dog-fanciers, are found
onlv in the capital of the
state. They are small pet
dogs and vcrv timid, with
large ears and prominent
eyes. 1 undeistantl that
the yellowish-brown are considered I lie puiest bieed, but
they are found in many different coUms, from snow-white
and black-and-white t(j dark-brown. They are said to
have a small cavity on the top of the head, though ac-
Dogs of Chihuahua.
DOGS OF CHIHUAHUA 217
cording to some authorities this is not an unfaiHng mark
of the breed, whieh seems to be indigenous. The ilHter-
ate Mexican, in his tendency to connect everything good
with Montezuma, thinks that the pure dogs of Chihua-
hua are descendants of those which were left behind by
that regent near Casas Grandes at the time wiien he
started south, which afterward became wild and degen-
erated into the prairie-dogs of to-day.
Another dog indigenous to Mexico is the hairless
dog, also a pet, found throughout the republic among
the Mexicans. It is credited with possessing curative
properties, for which reason people keep them in their
beds with them at night.
CHAPTER XII
THE TARAHUMARES STILL AFRAID OF ME — DON ANDRES MADRID
TO THE RESCUE— MEXICAN ROBBERS AMONG THE TARAHU-
MARES — MODE OF BURIAL IN ANCIENT CAVES VISIT TO NO-
NOAVA THE INDIANS CHANGE THEIR MINDS ABOUT ME, AND
REGARD ME AS A RAIN-GOD WHAT THE TARAHUMARES EAT
A PRETTY CHURCH IN THE WILDERNESS 1 FIND AT LAST
A RELIABLE INTERPRETER AND PROCEED TO LIVE A l'iN-
DIENNE.
A
S I travelled along I found the natives unobliging
and afraid of me. One man who had hid hini-
self, but was after a while forced to reappear, bluntly
asked, " Are you not the man who kills the fat girls
and the children ? " At another time I was taken for
Pedro Chaparro, the famous robber, who had notori-
ouslv deceived the Indians. The guide took only a
half-hearted interest in me, as he feared that by being
seen with me he was ruining his trade with the na-
tives, who were especially suspicious about my writing in
mv note-book, taking it as a j)roof of my design to take
their land away from them. Still, I accomplished a
good deal and made interesting observations, though
the difhculties under which I had to labour were quite
exiisjjerating.
It was a positive relief, whtMi in the beginning of
August, six weeks after my start from Guachochic, I
arrived at Guajochic (guajo = sancudo, a small mos-
(]uito), one of the stations where the bullion trains stop
on their travels between Batopilas and Carichic. The
man then in ciiarge of this rather lonelv looking j)lace.
DON ANDRES TO THE RESCUE
219
Andres Madrid, turned out to be very interesting. Born
of Tarahumare parents, in the town of Carichic, he had
received quite a lil)cral Mexican education and was virt-
ually a Mexican, though in hearty sympathy with his
native tribe. His grandfather had been a noted shaman,
or medicine man,
whom Don Andres,
as a boy, had accom-
panied on his travels.
He was intelligent,
lively and imagina-
tive, of a strong hu-
mourous vein, and
very entertaining.
Generous in giving
information about
the Indians, and
speaking the native
language, he would
have made an ideal
interpreter, except
for the fact that he
grew tired too easily.
Only by piecemeal
and when having an
abundance of time
could an ethnologist
expect to take ad-
vantage of his ac-
complishments. As
he was honest, and
helpful to the In-
dians, and besides was a representative of the Mexican
authorities, the Indians had unlimited respect, nay, ado-
ration, for him.
Tarahumare Girdles.
220 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Knowing all that happens in the sierra, he had
alreadv heard of me some lime ago, and laughed at the
cannil)alistie propensities attributed to me. He imme-
diately sent a messenger to el eapitan at Nararachic,
to advise him of my arrival, and to request him to
tell the Indians to present themselves to be photo-
graphed by a man who eame from Porhrio Diaz, a name
to conjure with in Mexico, who wanted to know all
ai)out the Tarahumares. Nararachic is an insignificant
pueblo, to which the Indians of this locality belong.
The name means "where one was weeping."
Being taken under the wing of Don Andres benefitted
me in many ways. When the Indians from the hills
all around could see my white tent close by his little
home, they understood that I could not be so bad, or
else the good Don Andres would not have anything
to do with me.
The Indians in the vicinity had recently gone
through the sensation of fiijhtino- with four real rob-
bers, wdio had several times succeeded in plundering
store-houses while the owners were off at some feast. At
last the Indians had caught them. The thieves travelled
on foot, but had a pack-horse which carried all the blan-
kets and handkerchiefs stolen, the total value of which
ran up to $112. Sixty-five Tarahumares had banded
together in the course of four or five hours, and obliged
the robbers to take refuge in a cave, from which they
defended themselves with rifles for several hours. The
Tarahumares first threw stones at them, as they did not
want to waste their arrows. I^nally Don Andres, who
had been sent for, arri\'ed at the place, and induced
the robbers to surrender; but only with difficulty could
he prevent the Tarahumares from attacking them.
" What does it matter," they said, "if one or two of us
are killed?" Cowards as the ^rarahumares are when
MODE OF CAVE-BURIAL 221
few in number, thc}' do not know fear when many of
them are toiiether. They are harmless when not inter-
fered with, but neither fori^et nor forgive an injury.
On several oeeasions they have killed white men who
abused their hospitality, and they even threatened once,
when exasperated by abuses, to exterminate all the
whites in some sections of their domain.
The robbers were taken by an escort of Indians to
the little town of Carichic, and from there sent to Cu-
sihuiriachic (" where upriglit pole is ") to be tried. This
place is about a hundred miles from Nararachic, and as the
Indians during the next weeks were called to be present
at the trial as witnesses, it annoyed them not a little.
They were sorry they had not killed the evil-doers ; and
it would even have been better, they said, to have let
them go on stealing.
In the fight the gobernador had got a bullet through
his lung. I saw him a fortnight afterward, smoking a
cigarette and on the way to recovery, and after some
days he, too, walked to Cusihuiriachic. A few months
later the robbers managed to dig themselves out of the
prison.
On an excursion of about ten miles through the
picturesque Arroyo de las Iglesias, I passed seventeen
caves, of which only one was at present inhabited. All
of them, however, had been utilised as dwellings before
the construction of the road to Batopilas had driven the
Indians off.
I saw also a few ancient cave-dwellings. Of consid-
erable interest were some burial-caves near Nararachic,
especially one called Narajerachic {= where the dead are
dancing). A Mexican had been for six years engaged
there in digging out saltpetre, with which he made
powder, and the cave was much spoiled for research
when I visited it. But I was able to take awav some
222 UNKNOWN MEXICO
thirty well-preserved skulls and a few eomplete skeletons^
the bodies having dried up in the saltpetre. Some elothing
with feathers woven in, and some hits of obsidian and
of blue thread were found, but no weapons or utensils,
Aeeording to the miner, who appeared to be trust-
worthy, he had excavated more than a hundred corpses.
They were generally found two and a half feet below
the surface, and sometimes there were others under-
neath these. With many of them he found ear orna-
ments made of shells, such as the Tarahumares of to-day
use, besides some textile made of plant fibre, and a jar
with beans.
A few months later at Aboreachic (Tarahumare :
Aoreachic =■ where there is mountain cedar) I exam-
ined a burial-cave in which the dead were interred in a
different manner from that described before. The cave
is somewhat difficult of access. The ascent of 300 feet
has to be made over a track at some places so steep that
holes have been cut for the feet, to enable a person to
climb up. On reaching the top 1 found a spacious
cave, which had been used as a kind of cemetery, but
unfortunately the peculiarity of the cave had attracted
treasure-seekers, whose destructive work was every-
where to be seen. Still I could see that the corj)ses
had been placed each by itself in a grave in the floor of
the cave. The graves were oblong or circular basins
lined with a coating of grass and mud and about three
feet deep. Apparently no earth had been placed im-
mediately over the bodv, only boards all around it laid
lengthwise in a kind of box. The bodies were bent
up and laid on their sides. Over the top boards was
sj)read a layer of pine bark about an inch thick, which
in turn was covered with earth and rul)bish three inches
deep, and this was overlaid with the coating of grass
and mud so as to form a solid disk four or five inches
VISIT lO N()XOA\ A 223
thick. The edge of the basin was slightly raised, thus
making the disk a little higher than the level of the
fioor. I secured four skulls from here, besides a piece
of excellently woven cloth of plant fibre, another piece
interwoven with turkey feathers, and a fragment of a
wooden needle.
Don Andres told me that he had observed similar
modes of burial in the neighbourhood of Nararachic.
It may be worth mentioning that the miner who exca-
vated in the burial-cave near Nararachic mentioned
above, told me of having met with somewhat similar
structures in his cave ; the material was the same, but
they were of different sizes, not larger than two feet,
and he found them empty.
The ancient modes of burial that I have come upon
in the Tarahumare country are either like those in
Nararachic or in Aboreachic. There scarcely seems
any doubt that the bodies buried here were Tarahu-
mares. The Indians of to-day consider the dead in the
ancient burial-caves their brethren, and call them Ana-
yauli, the ancients.
From Guajochic I went to Nonoava (in Tarahumare :
Nonoa, nono = father), although this town is outside
of the Tarahumare country proper. The natives here,
as may be expected, are pretty well Mexicanised, and
losing their customs, religion, and language. The Apache
raids were well remembered here, as they were in Cari-
chic, Cusarare, and Bocovna.
I came upon a Mexican here who had married a
Tarahumare woman. His predilection for her tribe
was also attested by his dress, which was exactly like
that worn by the natives. He had a dark, almost swarthy
complexion, but otherwise he did not resemble an Ind-
ian. His big stomach and short arms and legs be-
trayed his real race, and contrasted strangely with the
224 UNKNOWN MEXICO
slender limbs and graceful movements of the Taiahu-
mares.
Near Nonoava I photograj)hed a magnificent fig-iree
of the kind called bcyoia, the fruit of which is appreciated
even by the Mexicans. It was ii6 feet across, and the
leaves, as in other trees of the species, were ver)^ small.
There are larger trees of this kind to be found, but they
are rare. In the wet season, when the figs are ripe, the
Tarahumares have a habit of singing under the trees while
gathering the fruit.
I noticed some beautiful mezquites in the bed of
a creek, the bottom of which was clayish. Although
the season for it was late, Indians were gathering the
fruit. The proper season is before the rain sets in.
The Indians throw the seeds awav, but boil the fruit,
grinding it between stones and mixing it with water.
This drink is also used through Sonora and Chihuahua
by the Mexicans.
On my return I again spent some time in Guajochic.
The Indians came to visit me every day, and following
my rule of giving to every visitor something to eat,
I was making satisfactory progress in cultivating their
friendship. Some of them after eating from my plates
and cups, went to the river to rinse their mouths and
wash their hands carefully, to get rid of any evil that
might lurk in the white man's implements. To be gen-
erous is the first step toward gaining the confidence of
both the Indians and the Mexicans, and a gift of food
is more eloquent than a long speech. Tiie Indian, how-
ever, before he knows you, always wants to see vou eat
first.
I interviewed many of the shamans, and began to
gain some little knowledge of their songs, which helped
to l)ring me nearer to them. Shortly after my first ar-
rival here it haj)pened that rain fell, and precij)ilati()ns
Vol.. I.— 15
I PASS AS A RAIN GOD 225
continued quite frcMjUcntly during my stay. The Ind-
ians, who are intensely interested in rain, to obtain
whieh they make so many exertions and sacrifices, evi-
dently began to connect my presence with it. Before
my departure they confided to Don .Vndres that " It
was no good that that man went away ; it might iiappen
that he carried the rain with him." They even seemed
to delight now in posing before my mysterious camera,
which they imagined to be a powerful rain-maker. I
heard no more excuses for not wanting to be photo-
graphed. They no longer told me that it would cause
their death, and that their god would be angry with
them ; nor was there any more of that unwillingness
expressed by one Indian who told me that, inasmuch
as he did not owe me anything, he did not want to be
photographed. Thus, almost wnthout knowing it, I es-
tablished friendly relations wnth the people.
However, it must not be thought that all my
troubles were ended yet. The Indians are very clannish,
and, although my damaged prestige was now almost re-
stored, and, no doubt, favourable rumours heralded me
wherever I went, still the good-will of each district had
in a way to be won. Many months later, when I found
myself among the pagans farther south, I was interpel-
lated quite persistently on the subject of the skulls in
Yoquibo. They wanted to know why I had dug them
up. My Mexican interpreter, whom they took to task
on the subject, advanced an explanation, which was no
doubt strictly in accordance with his best knowledge and
belief. He declared that my object had been to find out
whether those people had been properly baptised — a rea-
son which apparently perfectly satisfied the Indians.
I travelled in a southeasterly direction, making my
Avay back to Guachochic, over the highlands of Huma-
risa (humashi = to run). This locality is of consider-
226 UNKNOWN MEXICO
able elevation, with the Indian ranches lying" about here
and there on strips of level land, which run in among
the rocky hills like fjords. Bears are (juite common
here, and the Indians have difficulty in guarding their
^elds against them. They are not even to be frightened
by stones, and at night they will eat corn until they have
enough, and then walk away.
The time of the year in wdiich it is most difficult for
the Indians to subsist had passed, and the copious rains
of the past months had developed ears of corn. Rarely
or never do the Indians plant corn enough to last them
all the year round, and they have, therefore, during the
summer to depend for support mainly on herbs, roots,
fruits, etc. The leaves and flow^ers of the ash-tree are
cooked and eaten, and the flowers of the pine-tree. They
never sufl"er from hunger wdien living near a river, udiere
they can fish, but in the highlands they have been known
to die of starvation.
These natives are fonder of corn than of anv other
food, and wdien working for the wdiites would leave with-
out a w^ord if no more corn or flour were forthcoming.
They like, too, to have meat every day, though they can-
not always get it. They rarely, if ever, kill any of their
domestic animals for food, as, according to their views,
man is only the manager for the gods to whom these
creatures really belong, and cows, sheep, and the like
can be killed only as sacrifices and eaten at the feasts.
But any kind of animal in the forest and field, in the air
and the water, is acceptable. I once asked a strong and
healthy-looking Indian how he managed to keep in sueii
good condition, when food was so scarce, and he said
that he ate meat. " What kind of meat ?" I asked, and
he replied, " Mice, gophers, and small birds." Their
favourite meal, however, is deer, mice, and skunks.
Ciiunks of meal are simplv laid ui)on the coals to
E
D
X
.s
o
h
WHAT THE TAKAHIMAKES EAT 229
roast, or turned before tlie lire on a wooden spit, the
ends of which rest on stones. This, by the way, is the
universal method of cooking meat in Mexico. These Ind-
ians often eat their meat ahnost raw, nor have they any
reputjnance to blood, but boil and eat it. Fish and frogs
are broiled by being placed between two thin sticks tied
together at the ends to do duty as a gridiron.
The flowers of the maize are dried in the sun, ground
and mixed with water ; if not required for immediate
consumption they are put in jars and kept for the win-
ter. Many herbs are very palatable, as, for instance, the
makvasari (of the Criicifcrcc). which is also kept for
winter use after having been properly dried. In the
autumn the Indians sometimes eat potatoes, which,
when cultivated at all, are planted between the corn,
but grow no larger than pigeon eggs. The people eat
three kinds of fungi, and they have an extensive knowl-
edge of the poisonous ones. Salt and chile are used as
relishes.
A peculiar delicacy is ari, the secretion of a scale
insect, carteria nicxicana. In the months of July and
August it is gathered from the branches of certain trees
in the barrancas, rolled by hand into thick brown sticks,
and thus preserved for the winter. K small portion is
boiled in water and eaten as a sauce with the corn por-
ridge. Its taste is sweetish acid, not particularly pleas-
ant to the palate, but very refreshing in effect, and it is
said to be efficacious in allaying fever. The Indians
prize it highly, and the Mexicans also buv it.
Just a few miles before reaching Guachochic, one
passes the pueblo of Tonachic, from whence the Indians
have been more or less driven off by the whites. In mis-
sionary times the village appears to have been of some
importance, to judge from the church, which is quite
pretty, considering its location in the middle of the sierra.
230 UNKNOWN MEXICO
In the sacristy I saw lying about tiircc empty cases, but
tiie silver crucifixes and chalices they once contained
had been carried off by Mexican thieves. The man in
charijc of the building showed me three immense draw-
ers full of gold- and silver-embroidered silken robes of
exquisite fineness and great variety. There were at least
several dozens of tiiem.
The altar-piece was arranged and painted verv taste-
fully in red and gold. Several oil paintings were hang-
ing in the church, but so darkened by the hand of time
that it was impossible to make out whether they were
of anv artistic merit. Wonderful men those early mis-
sionaries, who brought such valuables into this wilder-
ness, over hundreds and thousands of miles, on the backs
of mules or Indians. It was rather anomalous to see the
poor, naked Indians outside the door, for whose benefit
all this had been done. A woman was sweeping away
the dirt from the swarms of bats that nested in the ceil-
ing.
The richest and most prominent man in the village
enjoyed the reputation of being a great ladron. When
I called on him I found him in bed suffering from a
tooth-ache. He had his head wraj)ped up and was com-
pletelv unnerved, and many peo])le came to svmpathise
with him in his affliction. AVhen I told him that I
liked the 1 "aiahuinares, he answered, " Well, take
them with vou, e\ei\' one of them." All he cared for
was their land, and he had alread\- accpiired a consider-
able portion of it. Ilis wife was the onlv person in the
village who knew how to recite the ])ra\'ers in the
church. This made the husband feel pioud of her, and
he evidentlv considered her piet\' great enough to suffice
for the famil\-.
On m\- return to Giiaehochic I discharged the Mexi-
cans who had been with me since mv travels throuirh
Taking m)- baggage down an Indian Trail m the Barranca de San Carlos.
CAKKYIXG PROVISIONS 233
Sonora ; they were here of little use to mc, as lliey did
not know the country. I also disposed of the !2;reater
number of mv mules, keeping- onh' ahout half a dozen.
With the kind permission of Don Miguel I installed
most of my bago^age in one of his houses, and consid-
ered his ranch a kind of headquarters from which I
made several lono; excursions in various directions.
Thanks to mv {)ack and riding' mules I could take
along-, as barter, corn, glass beads, tobacco, and cotton
cloth, and bring back collections made on the road. I
was accompanied by a couple of Mexicans from this
part of the country and some Indians who acted as car-
riers. Of course, whenever I went down into the bar-
rancas, I had to leave my mules and cargo in some safe
place on the highlands and take along only the most
necessary stores as we proceeded on foot. On such
trips I had to depend entirely on the natives ; they
secured the food, and selected the cave or rock shelter,
or the tree under which we slept.
Our bill of fare was made up mainly of corn and
beans, with an occasional sheep or goat, and some herbs
and roots as relishes. Corn was prepared in the styles
known to the Indians, either as corn-cakes (tortillas)
or, more often, by simply toasting the grains on a piece
of crockery over the fire. The dish is easy enough to
prepare and does not taste at all bad, but it is hard
work for one's teeth to make a meal of it, as the ker-
nels assume the consistency of little pebbles, and many
months of such a diet lengthens your dentist's bill at
about the same ratio as that in which it shortens your mo-
lars. Vou will ask why I did not carrv provisions along
with me. Simply because preserved food is, as a rule,
heavy to carry, to say nothing of its being" next to im-
possible to secure more when the supply is exhausted.
Some chocolate and condensed milk which I ordered
234 UNKNOWN MP:XR()
from Chihuahua did not reach mc until seven months
after the date of the order. Besides, the Indians are
not complaisant carriers, least of all in this exceedingly
rough country.
For over a vear I thus continued to travel around
among the Tarahumares, visiting them on their ranches
and in their caves, on the highlands and in the barran-
cas. There are few valleys into which I did not go in
this central part of the Tarahumare countrv, liiat is,
from the Barranca de Batopilas and Carichic in the
north toward the regions of the mining place Guada-
lupe y Calvo in the south. By and hv I also found a
suitable lenguaraz, Don Nabor, who lived a day's jour-
ney from Guachochic. He was a tall, lank, healthy-
looking fellow, some fifty years old, very poor and
blessed with a large familv of sons and daughters, some
of them full grown. All his life he had been intimate
with the Indians ; he spoke their language as well as he
did Spanish, and really liked the Tarahumares better
than his fellow Mexicans. Being a great hunter but a
poor shot he brought home but little game, and made
his living chiefly by trading with the Indians. He was
the picture of good-nature, laughing with the Indians at
their jokes, and weeping with them at their sorrows.
Among them he passed as a wit, and being very honest
was a general favourite. He never took anxthing with-
out asking, but was not backward about that. Of his
teeth he had hardly any but two of his upper incisors
left, which was rather hard for a man of his ravenous
appetite ; but he utilised them with such squirrel-like
dexterity as almost to keep pace with others.
CHAPTER XIII
THE TAKAHUMARE PHYSIQUE BODILY MOVEMENTS NOT AS SENSI-
TIVE TO PAIN AS WHITE MEN THEIR PHENOMENAL ENDUR-
ANCE HEALTH HONESTY — DEXTERITY AND INGENUITY
GOOD OBSERVERS OF THE CELESTIAL BODIES AND WEATHER-
FORECASTERS HUNTING AND SHOOTING HOME INDUSTRIES
TESVINO, THE GREAT NATIONAL DRINK OF THE TRIBE OTHER
ALCOHOLIC DRINKS.
THE Tarahumare of to-day is of medium size and
more muscular than his North x'\merican cousin,
but his cheek-bones are equally prominent. His colour
is light chocolate-brown. I was rather surprised often
to find the faces of the people living in the warm bar-
rancas of a lighter colour than the rest of their bodies.
The darkest complexions, strange to say, I encountered
on the highlands near Guachochic. In the higher al-
titudes the people also develop higher statures and
are more muscular than in the lower portions of the
country.
Both men and women wear long, flowing, straight
black hair, which in rare cases is a little wavy. When
a woman marries, I am told, she cuts her hair once.
When the hair is cut because it has grown too long and
troublesome, they place it under a stone or hang it in
a tree. A shaman once cut his hair short to get new
thoughts with the new hair, and while it was orrowine he
kej)t his head tied up in a piece of cotton cloth to keep
his thoughts from escaping. When the people are very
old, the hair turns gray ; but they never grow bald.
Beards are rare, and if they appear the Indians pull them
235
236
UNKNOWN MEXICO
yv^
out. Their devil is alwavs represented with a beard,
and thev eall the Alexieans derisively sliahotshi, "the
bearded ones." Much as they enjoy tobacco, an Indian
would not accept
some from me,
because he feared
that coming from
a white man it
would cause a
beard to grow on
his face.
There are more
women in the tribe
than men. They
are smaller, but
generally just as
strong as the other
sex, and when an-
gered, for instance
by jealousy, the
wife may be able to
beat her husband.
Hands and feet are
small. Manv of
the women have
surprisingly small and well-shaped bones, while the men
are more powerfully built. The coiner teeth differ from
the front teeth in that they are thicker, and, in sj)ite of
exceptionally fine teeth, tooth-ache is not unknown in
the tribe. Men, even those who are well nourished, are
never stout. The women are more inclined to corpu-
lency.
Eight people with hair-lip, seven hunchbacks, six
men and four women with six toes to their feet, and one
or two cases of s(juint-eyes came under my notice. One
l^arahumare Woman.
TARAHUMARE PHYSIQUE
237
boy had a club-foot with toes turned inside, and I saw
one man who had only stumps of arms with two or three
finger-marks on each. I have observed one case of in-
sanity among these Indians.
Pediculi (lice) from the heads and clothino; of the
Tarahumare Man.
Side View.
Tarahumare are blackish in colour, but the claw is not
different from that of the w^hite men's parasites.
When at ease, the Tarahumare stands on both legs,
without stiffness. In micturition he stands, while the
Tepehuane sits down. The body is well balanced. The
238 UNKNOWN MEXICO
gait is energetic. He swings his arm and plants his
foot firmlv, with the toes generallv in, ^Hding along
smoothly with cjuick steps and without swaying to and
fro, the body bent slightly forward. The palm of the
hand is turned to the rear. Tarahumares climb trees by
embracing the tree
as we do ; but the
ascent is made in
jumps, the legs ac-
cordingly not em-
bracing the tree as
much as is the case
with us. In swim-
ming they throw
their arms ahead
from one side to
another. They
point with the open
hand or by protruding the lips and raising the head at
the same time in the desired direction. Like the Mex-
icans they beckon with their hands by making down-
ward mov^ements with their lingers.
To the casual observer the native appears dull and
heavy, so much so that at first it would seem hopeless to
get any intelligent information out of him ; but on better
acquaintance it will be found that their faces, like those
of Mexican Indians in general, have more variety of
feature and exj)ression than those of the whites. At the
same time it is true that the individual does not show
his emotion very perceptibly in his face. One has to
look into his eyes for an ex])ression of what passes in his
mind, as his face is not mobile ; nor does he betray his
feelings by involuntary actions. If he blushes, as he
sometimes does, the colour exti-nds down the neck and is
visible in spite (jf his dusk\' skin. Laughter is never im-
Usual Crouching Position ot the Tarahumare.
INDIAN ENDURANCE
239
moderate cnoiioh to brini!, tears to the eyes. The head
is nodded vertieally in aflirniation and shaken laterally
in negation only by the eivilised Tarahumares.
There is a slight though undefinable odour about
the Tarahumare. He is not aware of it ; yet he will tell
Front View.
Side View.
Tarah
aranumare Man.
Mi
you that the Mexican smells like a pig, and the Ameri-
can like cofifee, both offensive odours to Tarahumares.
They all love to feel warm, and may often be seen lying
in the sun on their backs or stomachs. Heat never
seems to trouble them. Young babies sleep on their
mothers' backs without any covering on their heads to
protect them from the fierce rays of the summer sun.
On the other hand, the Tarahumare endures cold un-
flinchingly. On an icy winter morning, when there are
six inches of snow on the ground, many a man may be
seen with nothing on but his blanket fastened around
his waist, pursuing rabbits.
While their senses are keen, I do not consider them
superior to those of anv well-endowed white man. To
test eyesight, Sir Francis Galton directs us to cut out a
240
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Tarahumares Sunning Themselves.
In the foreground is seen an implement
for carrving burdens on the back.
square piece of whiti' pajx'i- one and a half inches a
side, paste it on a large piece of hlack paper, and mark
how far a person can dis-
tinguish whether tlie
square is held straight or
diagonally. None of the
Indians could distinguish
the different positions un-
til they were within seven
hundred and ten feet. On
another occasion, however,
when I tested six individ-
uals, four men could tell
the {position of the square
at a distance of nine hun-
dred and live feet. One of these had syphilis. They
certainly do not feel pain in the same degree as we
do. On this point any collector of hair could have
reason to satisfy himself. Scientists consider the hair
a particularlv distinguishing feature among the races of
men, not onl\' in regard to its colour, but also as to its
texture. In fact, the human race is b}' some classified
accordinor to the character of the hair of the head.
Compared under the microsco|)e a section of the hair of
a Chinaman or an American Indian is found to be cir-
cular, that of a Kur()})ean oval in shape. As a rule, the
flatter the hair the more readily it curls, the perfectly
cylindrical hair hanging down stiff and straight. A sec-
tion of the straight hair of a Japanese, for instance, forms
a perfect circle. So much importance being attached
to the structure of the hair, I made a collection from
different individuals. Hiev were willing enough to let
me have all the sam|)lcs 1 wanted for a material consid-
eration, of course, but tin- indifferent manner in which
they pulled the haii from their heads, just as we should
TARAHIMARE STRENGTH 241
tear out hairs from the tail of a horse, convinced nie
that inferior races feel pain to a less extent than civil-
ised man. I once j)ulled six hairs at a time from the
head of a sleeping child without disturbing it at all ; I
asked for more, and when twenty-three hairs were pulled
out in one stroke, the child only scratched its head a
little and slept on.
They are not so powerful at lifting as they are in
carrying burdens. Out of twelve natives, ten of whom
were eighteen and twenty years old, while two owned
to fifty years, five lifted a burden weighing 2 26f pounds
(102 kilograms). I was able to lift this myself. The
same five lifted 2 88f pounds (130 kilograms), as also did
two strong Mexicans present, aged respectively eighteen
and thirty years. In order to test their carrying capac-
ity, I had them walk for a distance of 500 feet on a
pretty even track. One very poor and starved-looking
Tarahumare carried 2 26|- pounds (102 kilograms) on
his back, though tottering along with some difficulty ;
two others carried it with ease, and might have taken
it farther. All three were young men.
Their endurance is truly phenomenal, A strong
young man carried a burden of over 100 pounds from
Carichic to Batopilas, a distance of about no miles, in
seventy hours. While travelling with such burdens they
eat nothing but pinole, a little at frequent intervals.
The wonderful health these people enjoy is really
their most attractive trait. They are healthy and look it.
It could hardly be otherwise in this delightful mountain
air, laden with the invigorating odour of the pines com-
bined with the electrifying effect of being close to nat-
ure's heart. In the highlands, where the people live
longer than in the barrancas, it is not infrequent to
meet persons who are at least a hundred years old.
Long life is what they all pray for.
Vol. I. — 16
24^
UNKNOWN MEXICO
They suffer sometimes from liuuinatism, but the
most common disease is pleuiis\- ((/o/or dc costado),
which oenerallv proves fatal. SyphiHs rages in some
parts of the country. There was at the time of my
visit to Pino Gordo hardly a native there who had not,
at one time or another, been afflicted with it ; but the
victims get quickly over it witiiout special treatment,
sometimes within a vear. Children of svj)hilitic parents
Half Side View, I'runt View. Side View.
Tarahumare Girl. The Hair Worn in Mexican Fashion.
show tlie symptoms soon aftiT birth. Small-j)ox, too,
plays havoc among the poi)ulation. I have seen some
people suffering with cataract in the eyes, and some
foot-runners complained that their sight sometimes be-
came impaired during or after a race. The Taralui-
mares have not any cases of tai)c-\vorm, although their
sheep have it ; probably the large quantities of tesvino
drunk during the winter may have something to do with
this.
Medicine takes remarkablv strong hold of the Ind-
ians. One man suffered foi two weeks from fever and
ague, lost his appetite, and seemed a general wreck ;
but after a two-grain (|uinine pill became at once him-
self again, and a few (la\s later was able to take a mes-
SUICIDE 243
sage for me to a place forty miles off and return the
same day.
The natives do not bathe except in the wet season.
When they go to feasts, they wash their hands and faces,
and the women comb their hair. Sometimes they may
wash their feet, but more frequently they clean their
heads. In fact, the regular way of taking a bath is to
wash the head. For this purpose they use an agave
called soke. Occasionally they use a white earth from
Cusarare, called javoncillo ; it is very soft and it is also
used as white colour in decorating pottery. When the
men go into deep water to bathe they smear fat all over
their bodies to guard against all kinds of bad animals in
the water ; w^omen do not usually take this precaution.
A Tarahumare does not commit homicide unless he
is drunk. There are only isolated exceptions. ^ jefe
politico (prefect) told me that in forty years he had heard
of only two murders. In both of these cases a drunken
husband had killed his wife at a feast, and knew nothing
of the crime after he became sober. I have been told
that in some rare instances a Tarahumare woman will sit
on her child right after its birth to crush it, in order to
save herself the trouble of bringing it up. The Tepe-
huanes are reputed to do the same thing, and for the
same purpose. Still with both tribes crimes of this kind
are exceedingly rare.
Suicide is never committed unless a person is drunk
and angered by some slight or by jealousy. At one
time there was a veritable epidemic of suicides among the
Indians near Guachochic, the men hanging themselves
with their girdles ; one of them even suspended himself
by the feet. But it is doubtful whether a pagan Tara-
humare ever killed himself.
As a rule, the Tarahumare is not a thief. Only
when he thinks himself entirely unobserved, he may ap-
244 UNKNOWN MEXICO
propriate some trilic that particularly strikes his fancy,
but the indications are that lie learned the art from the
Mexicans. Once on our travels we passed a man who
was weeding; his field. \Ve tried to induce him to ^ive
us some information, but he was too busy to talk, and
we went on. Soon he noticed that we had accidentally
dropped our laro:e axe, and immediately he interrupted
his j)ressing work and came running after us with it. I
wanted to compensate him for the trouble he had put
himself to, but he would not accept the money I offered,
saying that he had not had to go far, and, anyway, he
did not bring the axe to get payment for it.
As lonor as he is in his native state, a Tarahumare
never cheats at bargains. He does not like to sell any-
thing that is in any way defective. He always draws at-
tention to the flaw, and if a jar has any imperfection, it
requires much persuasion to make him part with it. He
shows honestv also in other ways. Often I trusted Ind-
ians with a silver dollar or two for corn to be delivered
a few days later, and never was I disappointed by them.
On the other hand, they are chary of selling anything
to a stranger. When a Mexican wants to buy a sheep,
or some corn, or a girdle, the Tarahumare will first
deny that he has anything to sell. What little he has
he likes to keep for himself, and he considers it a fa-
vour to part with any of his l)eK)ngings for money. A
purchase, however, establishes a kind of brotherhood
between the two negotiants, who afterward call each
other " naragua," and a confidence is established between
them almost of the same character as that which exists
between compadres among the Mexicans.
From outsiders they accept silver coins, but not paper
monev, because they have been cheated with wrappers
from cigarette boxes, and besides, they have no means
of keeping such monev safe and sound from mice, moist-
MENTAL Ol ALITIES 245
lire, etc. Amon<r tliemselves a little trading- goes on,
the highlands obtaining from the barrancas in the west
copal, chile, ari, ear ornaments made from shells, and
goats, in exchange for corn and beans. The Indians
from Nararachic go to Rio Concho for the shells from
which they make their ear pendants. The powder pro-
duced in working the shells is saved and mixed with salt
to be used as a remedy for eye troubles.
The tribe has undeniably a certain gift for mechan-
ics. The people are deft with their fingers and do
everything neatly. This shows itself in their ingeniously
constructed wooden locks and in the niceness with which
they stuff animals. They are also ver\' clever in follow-
ing tracks, and even recognise the hoof-prints of partic-
ular horses among others in the same trail. They will
also tell you that a tired deer keeps its toes more closely
together than an animal just aroused from its lair. And
never do they lose their way in the forest, not even
when drunk. They love to sit among their corn plants,
and will hide among them wiien strangers approach.
The Tarahumares are inquisitive, and will stand for
a long time looking at you from a distance, if anything
unusual attracts their attention. Thev are very critical
and there is much gossip going on among them. They
also laugh at the Mexicans, and say that the hair on
their faces is like the fur on a bear. Squint-eves also
afford them much amusement. They are smart, atten-
tive and patient. Thev have no qualms of conscience
about telling an untruth, but my experience with them
shows appreciation and gratitude for benefits received.
An Indian whom I had occasion to treat to a good
meal, many months afterward at a feast came up and
said to me, *' You were good to me when I was very
hungry," and he proved his thankfulness by assisting
me in various wavs in establishinir friendlv relations with
i
246 UNKNOWN MEXICO
his people, whicli otherwise would liave been very diffi-
cult to bring about.
Children are l)riLiht, and wlien sent to sehool learn
Si)anish quiekly. They also master reading- and writing
without difficulty. They are diligent, eager to learn,
and very religious, docile, and easily converted to Chris-
tianity.
There is a story about a j)adre who asked a Tarahu-
mare boy, "What is God doing in Heaven?" The
boy said, "The same as the macaw does in the tree."
The padre asked, " What does the macaw do in the
tree ? " and the bov replied, " He eats the good seeds
and lets the bad ones drop." A Mexican asked me if
God was going to walk on earth again, and mv Tarahu-
mare attendant remarked, " No, he is now afraid to
come, because people have too many ritles."
When they learn something their ambition runs high,
and the boys always want to become generals and presi-
dents of the republic.
The Tarahumares are careful observers of the celes-
tial l)odies, and know the Pleiades, the Belt of Orion,
and the Morning and the Evening Star. The Great Dip-
per is of no special interest to them. Near Guachochic
the Tarahumares plant corn in accordance with the posi-
tions of the stars with reference to the sun. They say
if the sun and the stars are not equal the year will be
bad; but wdien the stars last long the \ear will be good.
In 1891, the sun "travelled slowly," and the stars "trav-
elled quickly," and in June they had already "disap-
peared," Therefore the Tarahumares })redicted that
their crops would be below the average, which came
true. On June ;'^(.\ 1 asked an Indian how much longer
the sun would travel on, and he told me that it ought
not to be more than fifteen days. The Tarahumares
are reputed to be good weather prophets among the
HUNTING AND SHOOTING 247
Mexicans, who fiecjuently consult them upon the pros-
pects of rain. The Indians judge from the colour of the
sun when he rises as to whether there will be rain that
day. If the crescent of the moon is lying horizontally^
it is carrying much water ; but when it stands up straight,
it brings nothing. This belief is shared by the Mexicans.
When the moon is full and has "a ring around," she is
dancing on her patio. At the period of the dark moon
she is dead, but will return after three days. Eclipses
are explained as collisions between the sun and the moon
on the road, when they fight.
The Tarahumare men make bows and arrows, and in
the central part of the country are great hunters and
clever at shooting. The fore-shaft of their arrows is
made of palo hediondo, a wood used also in the
making of needles. But the people living near the
pueblo of Panalachic and the Barranca de Cobre are
poor shots, and their favourite weapon is the axe. The
boys still play with slings, which not so long ago were
used for killing squirrels. A club with a stone (Span-
ish, inacand) is said to have been formerly in common
use. The grandfathers of the present generation of
Nararachic had flint-tipped arrows. The Indians also
know how to prepare excellent buckskin. They peg
the hide on the ground and leave it for three days, and
when it is sufficiently dry the hair is scraped off with a
knife. It is then smeared over with the brain of the
animal and hung up in the sun for four days. The next
step is to wash it well in warm water in a wooden
trough. Then it is well kneaded, and two people tak-
ing hold of it draw it out of the water and stretch it
well between them. It is dried again and is then
tanned with the crushed bark of the biij-leaved oak-tree.
A natural cavity in a rock is chosen for a vat, in which
the skin is left for two days. After this it is well rinsed
248 UNKNOWN MEXICO
and s(jueczcd until no water remains in it. Two per-
sons are required for the operation, which is always per-
formed in a place on which the sun beats strongly, while
at the same time it is sheltered from the wind hy sur-
rounding rocks.
Deer are cau":ht in snares fastened to a bent tree, so
that the animal's foot is held, while the tree when re-
leased hoists the quarry up. The Indians also chase
deer with dogs toward some narrow passage in the
track where they have placed sharp-pointed pine sticks,
two feet long, against which the deer runs and hurts
itself. Blackbirds are decoyed by kernels of corn
threaded on a snare of pita fibre hidden under the
ground. The bird swallows the kernel, which becomes
entangled in its oesophagus and is caught. Small
birds are also shot with bow and arrows, or killed with
stones.
The Tarahumare is ingenious in devising many
kinds of traps for birds and animals. Into the burrow
of the gopher he places a small upright frame cut from
a piece of bark. Tiiere is a groove inside of the frame,
and in this the snare runs ; and a string is attached to a
bough above ground. Another string, on which some
grains of corn are threaded, keeps the snare set and
obstructs the gopher's passage through the frame.
When trying to get at the kernels the gopher cuts the
strinof, the snare is released, and he is cau<2,"ht in his own
burrow.
Squirrels are hunted in the most primitive way — by
cutting down the tree on which an animal is discovered.
Sometimes it will escape when the tree falls, and then
the man has to cut down another tree, and thus he may
go on felling as many as ten trees before lie can bag his
game, not a very substantial reward for a whole day's
work.
HOME INDl STRIES
249
The women make girdles ami i)lankets on primitive
looms, insertino- characteristie designs in llie wcavinof.
' r^ i~> C)
Weaving a Girdle.
It takes four days of constant work to make a girdle,
but no woman weaves more than one blanket in a year,
Patterns ot Tarahumare Belts.
and it is almost an event when it is finished. The
weaving frame consists simply of four sticks — placed on
2s-0
UNKNOWN MEXICO
the oriound tied too-ethcr in a rectanuie ur trianjjle, and
pieces of reed on which the thread is wound, one for
each colour, are used as shuttles. Textiles from Pama-
chic are especially highly valued. The blankets from
that locality are sold all over the Tarahumare countrv and
are the finest made hv the tribe.
The Tarahumares are not far advanced in the art of
making potterv. 'I heir work is crude and not very sub-
Woman Pottery Maker and Some Results of Her Labour.
stantial. The industry is practised onl\- 1)\' the women,
and the degree of ability varies considerable The art
is often hereditary. The nicest potterv T found in the
neighbourhood of l^analachic, where it is decorated with
certain designs in red and white. Our woman in a
western barranca cultixatcd a spteialtx of makine larsfe
jars for holding tesvino. The laigesl jar shown in the
illustration was nearh' eight feet in circumference.
Women when making jiottery taste a little of the
clay before commeneiiig work, ascertaining whether it
TAR AHL MARE POITERY 251
is the rio;ht kind or not. Some of the clay is acid and
not good. The clay which is serviceable is a little
sweet and of a pale yellow colour. The clay is dried
and ground, and then mixed with ground pieces of old
pottery instead of sand. To make a piece of pottery, a
lump of clay is hollowed out in the shape of a cup, and
on this foundation the jar is built up, thin layers of clay
being placed on successively, and smoothed carefully
over with wet hands, making the walls thinner and
thinner. The vessel is built up standing on a bowl
filled with ashes and covered with a piece of cotton
cloth.
I saw a clever woman make a medium-sized jar in
twenty-seven minutes. She was seated in the sun, and
finished four vessels in one afternoon. Then, assisted by
her husband, she began to even them on the outside
with a small, smooth, oblong piece of a gourd. The
vessels were then put into the house in order that they
might not dry too quickly. After an interval of fifteen
minutes, during which she nursed her infant, which had
been bothering her all the while, she began work again.
First, with the edge of a sharpened stick she removed
all irregularities on the outside and on the brim, and
then with a stone she polished the vessel. To polish
the jars seemed to take the longest time, for each of the
workers was engaged on a vessel for over an hour,
and even then had not completed the task. They pol-
ished outside and a little way inside below the brim.
Finally they painted decorations with ochre, and pol-
ished again for a long time, but only the outside. Now
the jars were again ])ut into the house to dry a little more
before the polishing was finished.
To burn the jars, they must first be thoroughly
dried, as otherwise the fire would crack them. When
the weather is nice the fire mav be made outside the
Tarahumare Pottery from Panalachic. Decorations in red ochre and white
jaz'oiiiillo.
THE MAKING OF TESVINO 253
house ; but usually it is built inside on the ordinary fire-
plaee. Eaeh vessel, one at a time, is turned upside down
over ehareoal, and pieees of pine bark are built uj) all
around and over it like a S(|uare little hut, then ignited.
Care is taken that no pieee of bark comes so near to
the jar as to toueh and injure it. Where bark cannot
be readily procured, wood is used. The heat first turns
the clay dark, and afterward a pretty yellow colour.
There is one industry which has a peculiar bearing
on the whole bfe of the Tarahumare, namely, the mak-
ing of native beer.
Nothing is so close to the heart of the Tarahumare
as this licjuor, called in Mexican Spanish tesvino. It
looks like milky water, and has quite an agreeable taste,
reminding one of kumyss. To make it, the moist corn
is allowed to sprout ; then it is boiled and ground, and
the seed of a grass resembling wheat is added as a fer-
ment. The liquor is poured into large earthen jars made
solely for the purpose, and it should now stand for at
least twenty-four hours ; but inasmuch as the jars are
only poorly made, they are not able to hold it very long,
and the people take this responsibility on themselves. A
row of beer jars turned upside down in front of a house
is a characteristic sight in the Tarahumare region.
The tesvino forms an integral part of the Tarahu- x
mare religion. It is used at all its celebrations, dances,
and ceremonies. It is given with the mother's milk
to the infant to keep it from sickness. In "curing"
the new-born babe the shaman sprinkles some over it
to make it strong. Beer is applied internally and exter-
nally as a remedy for all diseases Tarahumare flesh is
heir to. No man could get his field attended to if he
did not at first make ready a good supply of tesvino, be-
cause beer is the only remuneration his assistants re-
ceive. Drinkinc: tesvino at the feast marks the turning-
254
UNKNOWN MEXICO
point in a person's life. A \)()y begins to drink tesvino
because now he feels binisclf a man ; and when a girl is
seen at feasts, it is a sign tiiat she is looking for a hus-
band. No marriage is legitimate without a liberal con-
sumption of tesvino by all })arties present at the wedding.
Hunting and fishing ex})editions are accompanied by
beer-drinking to insure luck.
No matter how manv times
the Tarahumare changes his
abode in the course of his life,
he always makes tesvino when
moving into a new house or
cave. Even the
dead would not get
any rest, but come
back and harm the
surxivors, if a (|uan-
tity of tesvino were
not set aside for
them. In fact,
there is absolutely
no act of import-
ance that is not, in
one way or anotii-
er, connected witii
the drinking of this
beer. Never is a jar commenced unless some of the
lifjuor is sacrificed before the cross, for the gods are be-
lieved to be as fond of the beer as are mortals. Rain
cannot be obtained without tesvino ; tesvino cannot be
made without corn; and corn cannot grow without rain.
/ This, in a nutshell, is the Tarahumare's view of life.
There are many occasions during the year, espe-
cially during tiie winter time, when regular symposiums
are held, generaliv inside of the iiouse ; but the people
Basket for Straining Tesvino. Height, exclu-
sive of handle, 14 ctm.
A SYMPOSIUM 255
never drink tesvino unless lliere is some purpose to be
attained, he il luek in some undertaking, or good crops,
or the health of the family,- or some similar benefit.
They may dance yiimari for a little while at any of these
functions.
It is the custom to appoint one man to distribute
the licjuor among the guests. In doing this the host
offers to the chosen one three drinking-gourds full of
tesvino, which the latter empties, and he enters upon his
duty by giving to every man present three gourds in
succession and to every woman four. The guests, al-
though from politeness hesitating between each gourd-
ful, are only too delighted to comply with this inviola-
ble rule, which speaks eloquently for their constitutions.
The seat beside the distributer is the most coveted.
I, too, was always glad to get it, because it gave me the
best chance to observe the behaviour of the Indians at
the feasts. The dispenser estal)lislfes himself close to
the big jar, and being immensely popular with every-
body he is never left alone. The geniality of the Tara-
humares, their courteousness and politeness toward
each other in the beginning of a feast, is, to say the
least, equal to that of many a civilised gentleman.
When the cup is offered to anyone, he most urgently
protests and insists that the distributer shall drink ;
often this remonstrance is heeded, but the gourd is
never emptied ; something is always left in it, and this
the guest has to take, and a second gourdful is imme-
diately held out to him. Though he again refuses, he
generally allows himself to be persuaded to drink it,
and this mock refusing and urcrino; s^oes on as lono- as
they have their wits together.
To my knowledge, this beer is not known outside
of the Tarahumare tribe and their immediate neigh-
bours, the northern Tepehuanes, the Tubars, and some
256 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Mexicans in Ciiihuahiia who have also adopted it. It
must not be confounded with tiie well-known Mexican
drink, jnilque, to which it is superior in tlaxour. It is
verv nourishino-, and the Indians as well as the Mexi-
cans are in the habit of abstaining from food before par-
taking; of the beer, which they assert would otherwise
not agree with them. But, food or no food, at all feasts
and dances they drink such incredibly large quantities
that thev are invariably completely overpowered by it,
though when taken in moderation tesvino is only mildly
stimulating.
Another national beverage, maguey wine, is made
from a favourite sweet food of many Indian tribes,
which a white man's stomach can hardly digest, namely,
the baked stalk of the maguey plant, or that of other
agaves. To prepare the liquor, the leaves are cut from
the bulb-shaped stalk or heart, which looks like a hard
white head of cabbage. These liearts contain a great
deal of saccharine matter, and are baked between hot
stones in earth mounds, being protected against contact
with earth by layers of grass.
When the Tarahumares want to make maguey wine
they leave the baked stalks in water in natural hol-
lows or pockets in rocks, without any covering. The
root of a certain plant called frijolillo is added as a fer-
ment, and after two days the juice is wrung out with
a blanket.
An intoxicating drink is also made from another
agave, called tshawi. which, though common on the
higher sloj)es of the barrancas, has only recently be-
come known to science. According to tradition it is
the tirst plant (rod created, and the li(jUor made from it
is considered by the pagan Tarahumares as indispensa-
ble to certain ceremonies. The Tepehuanes, too, put
much importance on this brew, and say that the })lant is
INDIAN BEVERAGES 257
so sensitive that if one passes a jar in which it is being
boiled the liquitl will not ferment.
Finally it should be mentioned that an intoxicating,
though extremely distasteful drink is made from the
stalk of the maize plant {canci), by pounding this material
into a pulp, then allowing it to soak in water for three
days, when it is fermented, whereupon the liquor is pre-
pared in the same way as the maguey wine.
Vol. I.— 17
CHAPTER XIV
POLITENESS, AND THE DEMANDS OF ETIQUETTE — THE DAILY LIFE
OF THE TARAHUMARE — THE WOMAN'S POSITION IS HIGH —
STANDARD OF BEAUTY — WOMEN DO THE COURTING — LOVE'S
YOUNG DREAM MARRIAGE CEREMONIES, PRIMITIVE AND CIV-
ILISED CHILDBIRTH CHILDHOOD.
FOR a barbarian, the Tarahumare is a very polite
personage. In his languaije he even has a word
" reko " which is the equivalent of the English " please,"
and which he uses constantly. When passing a stran-
ger, or leaving a person, he draws attention to his action
by saying, " I am going." As he grows civilised, how-
ever, he loses his good manners.
In spite of this he is not hospitable ; the guest gets
food, but there is no room for him in the house of a
Tarahumare. A visitor never thinks of entering a
house without first giving the family ample time to get
ready to receive him. When he approaches a friend's
home, good manners require him to stoj) sometimes as
far as twenty or thirty yards off. If he is on more inti-
mate terms with the family, he may come nearer, and
make his presence known by coughing; then he sits
down, selecting generally some little knoll from which
he can be readily seen. In order not to embarrass his
friends he does not even look at the house, but remains
sitting there gazing into vacancy, his back or side
turned toward the homestead. Should the host be ab-
sent the visitor may thus sit for a couj)lc of hours ;
then he will rise and go slowly away again. Ikit under
no circumstances will he enter the home, unless for-
25S
DOMESTIC MANNERS
259
mally invited, " because," lie says, "only the dogs enter
houses uninvited." Never will the lady of the house
commit such a gross breach of etiquette as to go out
and inform him of her husband's al)sencc, to save the
caller the trouble of waiting, nor will she if alone at
home, make any
statements as to
that gentleman's
whereabouts.
The Tarahumare
never does any-
thing without due
deliberation ; there-
fore he may, for a
quarter of an hour,
discuss with his
wife the possible
purport of the visit,
before he goes out
to see the man.
They peep through M
the cracks in the ^
wall at him, and if J|
they happen to be S.
eating or doing
anything, they may
keep the visitor waiting for half an hour. Finally the
host shakes out the blanket on which he has been sitting,
throws it around himself, and, casting a rapid glance to
the right and left as he passes through the door, goes to
take a seat a few yards distant from the caller. xA.fter
some meditation on either side, the conversation, as in
more civilised society, opens with remarks about the
weather and the prospects for rain. When this subject
is exhausted, and the host's curiositv as to where the
Tarahumare Blanket.
26o
UNKNOWN MEXICO
man came from, what he is doiiio- and where lie is iroinof
to, is satisfied, the former ma\ go back to the house and
fetch some })inole and meat for the traveller. The object
of the visit not infrequently is an invitation to lake part
A Taraluimarc Cal
TARAHUMARE HOSPITALITY 261
in some game or foot-race ; and as the men are sure to
remain undisturbed, they generally reach some under-
standing. A friend of the family is, of course, finally
invited to enter the house, and the customary salutation
is " Assaga ! " ("Sit down!") In this connection it
may be noted that the Tarahumares in conversation look
sidevvise, or even turn their backs toward the person they
speak to.
After having eaten, the guest will carefully return
every vessel in which food was given to him, and when
he rises he hands l)ack the skin on which he was seated.
Should occasion require, the host will say : " It is get-
ting late, and you cannot return to your home to-night.
Where are you going to sleep ? There is a good cave
over vonder." With this he may indicate where the
visitor may remain over night. He will also tell him
where he may find wood for the fire, and he will bring
him food ; but not unless the weather is very tempestu-
ous will he invite an outsider to sleep in the house.
When at home the Tarahumare keeps regular hours,
rising and retiring wnth the sun. Having slept on a
skin on the fioor, rolled up in his blanket, without any-
thing for a pillow except perhaps a stone or a chunk of
wood, he sits for a while near the fire, which is kept up
most of the year at night in the house or cave. His
wife brings him his breakfast of pinole. While comb-
ing out his long black hair with a pine cone, he may ask
the boys and girls whether they have attended to the
traps he told them to set on the night before. They
run out and soon they come in with some mice.
"Here they are," they say, "but they are very poor!"
The father, however, may consider them fat and nice,
and the mother affably adds : " Of course, they are fat,
since they have eaten so much corn." They go about
to roast them, while the husl)and looks on. Generally
262
UNKNOWN MEXICO
the Tarahumares have a number of traps set to eateh
mice. They are so fond of this "game " that, when civ-
ilised, they have been known to ask permission from
Mexican acquaintances to go through their houses to
Tarahumare Arrow Release.
hunt for them. The mice are skinned and threaded on
a thin stick, which is stuck tbrougli their necks and
serves as a spit.
Having enjoyed tiie daintv morsel thus set before
him, the husband now tells his wife what he is groino- to
do to-day. He will run deer or hunt squirrels, and
accordingly takes his bow and arrows or his axe with
him. In spring-lime he may go to the field. The wife
also tells of iier plans for the dav. The work that en-
gages most of the lime of the housewives in Mexico is
TARAHUMAKES AT HOME
263
the grinding of tiic corn, on the metate, for corn-cakes ;
and if she has any lime to spare she boils beans, looks
for herbs, or works on her weaving-frame ; but she never
sits about idle. She looks as conscientiously after her
duties as any white woman ; she has always something
to do, and many things to take care of in her small way.
About sunset the husband returns, bringing a squir-
rel or rabbit, which he carries concealed in his blanket,
that no neighbour may see it and expect an invitation to
help to eat it. As he goes and comes he never salutes
his wife or children. He enters in silence and takes his
seat near the fire. The animal he caught he throws
toward her where she is kneeling before the metate, so
that it falls on her skirt. She ejaculates " Sssssssssss ! "
in approval and admiration, and, picking it up, praises
its good points extravagantly: "What a big mouth!
What larpfe claws ! " etc. He tells her how hard he
worked to get that squirrel, how it had run up the tree,
.and he had to cut down that tree, till finally the dog
Height, 18.5 ctm.
Tarahumare Baskets.
caught it. " The dog is beginning to be very good at
hunting," he says. " And now I am very tired." She
spreads before him a generous supper of beans, herbs,
and maize porridge, which she has ready for him. And
while he eats she goes industriously to work removing
the fur from the game, but leaving on the skin, not only
264 UNKNOWN MEXICO
because it keeps the meat together while it is boiling,
but mainly because she thinks there is a good deal of
nourishment in it, which it would be a shame to waste.
When the man is at home, and neither sleeping nor
eating, he may sit down and make a bow or some
arrows ; or, stretched out on his back, he may resort to
his favourite amusement, playing his home-made violin.
Like all Indians of Mexico, the Tarahumares are fond
of music and have a good ear for it. When the Span-
iards first came, they found no musical instruments
among the Tarahumares except the short reed flute, so
common to many Mexican tribes, the shaman's rattle,
and the rasping stick. But they soon introduced the
violin and even the guitar, and throughout Mexico the
Indians now make these instruments themselves, using
pine wood and other indigenous material in their con-
struction, sometimes with remarkable skill and ingenuity,
and for glue the juice of a certain lily root. Having no
idea of the value of money, they frequently sell a toler-
ably good instrument for fifty or even twenty-five cents.
Toward evening the Tarahumare father of a family
gets more talkative and chats with his wife, and then
"The day is done, and the darkness
Drops from the wings of night
As a feather is wafted downward
From an eagle in his flight."
And as the shadows deepen, he wraps himself closer in
his blanket, and before he knows it childlike slumber
enfolds him. Frequently he grows hungry in the mid-
dle of the night, and reaches out for food, as well as
for his violin, devoting himself to music for half an hour,
before he drops off to sleep again.
There are more women in the tribe than men, and
they are looked upon as of less importance. There is a
MAKING A BARGAIN
265
saying among the people that one man is as good as
five women. Her prayers are not of as much v^alue as
his, because she prays only to the moon, and her deity
is not as big as his, the sun. For this reason her place >
is behind the man in all dances. Yet
she occupies a comparatively high
position in the family, and no bar-
gain is ever concluded until the hus-
band has consulted his wife in the
matter. I am bound to say, however,
that on such occasions every member
of the household, even the youngest
and smallest child, is asked to give an
opinion, and, if one of the little tots
objects, the sale will not be closed. In
such cases there is nothinor for the
customer to do but to try to influence
the young business man who raised
the objection, not directly, but through
his parents. This accounts for a good
deal of the frightful loss of time in-
curred in dealing with these Indians.
The purchase of a sheep may require
two days, and the negotiations concerning an ox may
extend over an entire week.
That a woman of intelligence and character is ap-
preciated even among barbarians is proven by the fact
that once a woman was made grobernador, or chief, be-
cause " she knew more than men." She did not assume
the title, but she is said to have ruled with more wisdom
and justice than many of her predecessors and successors.
Husband and wife never show their affection in
public except when drunk. Parents kiss their little ones
on the mouth and on the stomach, and the youngsters
express their love for each other in the same way. On
Tarahumare Girl
Carrying Water.
266 UNKNOWN MEXICO
some occasions I have seen lovers sitting closely to-
gether, she holding on to his forefinger. The women
are of a jealous disposition.
The Tarahumare standard of beauty is not in ac-
cordance with the classic ideal as we perceive it, nor
is it altogether in conformity with modern views on the
subject. Large, fat thighs are the first requisite, and
a good-looking person is called " a beautiful thigh."
Erect carriage is another essential to beauty. In the
face, the eyes attract more notice than any other feature,
and the most admired ones are " the eyes like those of
a mouse." This is the highest praise that can be be-
stowed upon anyone's personal appearance. Thcv all
like straight hair, and consider hair very ugly when it
has a curl at the end. I once asked a bright young
Tarahumare how the man must look who is most ad-
mired by women, whether his mouth and nose should be
large or small, etc., and he replied, " They must be
similar to mine ! " Aside from good looks, the women
like best men who work well, just as in civilised coun-
tries a woman mav look out for a good />a7'//.
But wealth does not make the possessor more at-
tractive to the girls. In Nararachic was an elderly man
who owned forty head of cattle and eighteen horses.
When he became a widower, he had to live with an
elderly woman of bad reputation, as he could not get
another woman to marry him.
The young women enjoy absolute liberty, except
as regards Mexicans, a^^ainst whom they are always
warned. They are told that they become sick from
contact with such men. Never are they forced to con-
tract what would turn out to be a loxt-less marriage. A
beautiful Indian girl was much sought for by a Mexican.
He spoke the Tarahumare language very well, and
offered to give her a good house and fine clothes and a
PLATE V[
TARAHUMARE MARRIAGES 267
Avhole handful of silver dollars. Her brother, who was
half civilised, and therefore more corrupt than the ordi-
nary Indian, also tried to j)ersuade her to accept the
rich suitor. But she tossed ujj her head and exclaimed,
" Tshine awlama gatsha negale " which, freely trans-
lated, means: " I do not like that fellow; love goes where
it chooses."
'ilie custom of the country requires the girl to do all
the courting. She is just as bashful as the young swain
whom she wishes to fascinate, but she has to take the
initiative in love affairs. The young people meet only
at the feasts, and after she has gotten mildly under the
influence of the native beer that is liberally consumed
by all, she tries to attract his attention by dancing
before him in a clumsy way up and down on the same
spot. But so bashful is she that she persistently keeps
her back turned toward him. She may also sit down
near him and pull his blanket and sing to him in a
gentle low voice a simple love-song :
Se-(se)-ma - te re - hoy i - ru Se-(se)-ma- te re - hoy i - v4
Beau-ti-fiil man to be sure, Beau-li-ful man to be sure.
If occasion requires, the parents of the girl may say
to the parents of the boy, " Our daughter wants to
marry your son." Then they send the girl to the boy's
home, that the young people may become acquainted.
For two or three davs, perhaps, thev do not speak to
each other, but finally she playfully begins to throw
pebbles at him. If he does not return them, she under-
stands that he does not care for her. If he throws them
back at her, she knows that she has won him. She lets
her blanket drop and runs off into the woods, and he is
not long in following her.
268 UNKNOWN iMEXICO
Sometimes the boy, when he Hkes a girl very much,
mav make the first advances, but even then he has to
wait until she throws the first pebbles and drops the
blanket, for. amonsj;' the Indians, it is the woman who
seeks the man, and the fair who deserve the brave.
IVont View Side View.
Tarahumarc, Shouii.g Mode of Wearing Blanket.
Next dav thev comv honn' together, ;uid after this
they do not hide themselves anv more. The parents of
the (rn\ are advised to make tesvino. as tiie young couple
should not i)e separated any more, and word is sent out
to a few friends and relatives to come to the wedding.
A BRIDAL PAIR 269
The ii;uests arrive in the afternoon and most of tlie
peoj)le remain outside o( the house (hniuii tlie cere-
mony, but the brideoroom and his i)arents go inside,
where they seat themselves on skms sj:)read out on the
Hoor. 1 lie mothei of the girl has j:)laced a large skin
next to a big jar of tesvino, and on this the father of
the boy sits down. As soon as he has taken his |)lace,
the host offers him three gourds full of the drink and re-
quests him to accept the office of honour, the distribution
of tesvino to all present, and he immediately enters
upon his duties. He first gives four gourds full to the
mother of the bride, as the mistress of the tesvino, and
three gourds full to the host, the master ; then four
gourds full to his own wife. The bridal couple have
been called in and told to sit down side by side, and all
the rest of the people come in and stand around the
pair. There is no special place assigned to anyone ;
but the father of the boy stands uji and his mother sits
down, while the girl's father sits down and her mother
stands uj). The boy's father now makes a speech, tell-
ing the bridal couple that thev must remain together,
and never separate nor light. He specially tells the
young man that he has to kill deer and take care always
to bring some animal home to his wife, even if it be
only a chipmunk or a mouse. He also has to plough
and to sow corn and to raise crops, that he and she may
always have enough to eat and not go hungry.
The father of the girl next takes the word, addressing
himself mostly to the bride. Now that she is united to
the man of her choice, she should always comply with
her wifely duties. She must make blankets for her
husband, and be industrious, make tesvino and iskiate,
pinole, tortillas, gather herbs, etc., that her husband
may always have something to eat and not go hungry.
He names all the herbs singly. She must also help him,
270 UNKNOWN MEXICO
in her way, with the j)louo-hin,ii- and sowing, so that he
may raise plenty of eorn to make tesvino that others
may help liini. She never must be lazy.
The father of the girl now gives tesvino to his future
son-in-law, whose father in turn gives some to the bride.
The bridal couple are covered with blankets, and in
some cases his and her right hands are tied together.
There is no other marriage ceremony. But all the
guests partake of the liberally flowing bowl, and the
festivities end in general and complete intoxication.
About two weeks later, the parents of the bridegroom
make a feast exactly the same in character, but now the
father of the girl occupies the seat of honour next to the
big tesvino jar and acts as distributer. He also makes
the first speech. The bridegroom gives to his brother-
in-law a flint for striking fire, and six arrows. No mat-
ter how many brothers the bride has, they all get this
present. It is considered an exchange for the girl. The
shamans avail themselves oi jtis primcE noctis.
After the marriage the bridal couple separate, each
staying in the old home for several weeks, after which
the young man comes to live with his father-in-law for
half a year or a year, until he has had time to make a
house for himself. In the meantime the young couple
are fed, but they receive nothing else. The young man
has his own animals, which he got wdien he was small,
and now his father gives him a piece of land.
Among the Christian Tarahumares the fiscal is ad-
vised of any contemplated maniage. This functionary
has charge of the church edifice and the teaching of
the children. It is his duty to take the young couples
to the padre to be married. But the padre is far away
and comes around only once a year, and sometimes
even less frequently, and then the fiscal, so to say,
rounds uj) all the matrimoniallv inclined. On account
PADRE'S SERVICES 271
of their innate ardour to comj)ly with all religious re-
quirements the Tarahumares are willing to go through
the ceremony, though to them it has no significance
beyond the payment of one dollar. On this account
they do not mind waiting for the padre's blessing for a
couple of years, until they get ready to part with the
dollar, thereby generally saving an extra trip for bap-
tising.
As the padre's visits are so few and far between, the
fiscal even considers it incumbent upon himself to
make up matches on his own account, telling the people
that when the padre comes they should be ready to get
married. But so independent are the Tarahumare girls
that it has happened that when the padre asks the por-
tentous question, they cry, " Kake, ka,'ke " (" No, no"),
and run away.
In my time there was a padre (now removed) who
emulated the example of the shamans and was fre-
quently in his cups. On one occasion he was unable
to perform the marriage ceremonies, and the sacristan
accompanying him had to take his place. All this man
knew about the rite was to ask the man and the woman
whether they would have each other. On hearing their
"Yes" he would say, "Where is the dollar?" and pock-
eting it send the couple off with, " Now you are all
right."
When an addition is expected in the family the chief
preparation of the woman is to get ready a quantity of
beer, calling on her friends to help her, wdiile the hus-
band goes to look for the shaman. When she feels her
time is approaching, she retires to some lonely spot, as
she is too bashful to bear her child while others are
about. She tightens her girdle around her waist, and
bears her child sitting up, holding on to something
above her, like the branch of a tree. After the little
272 UNKNOWN MEXICO
strani^er has arrived the husband may l)ring her a jar with
warm water from whieh she occasionally drinks. He also
digs a hole, in which, after he has gone, she buries the pla-
centa, placing stones on top of the place on account of the
dogs. The umbilical cord is cut with a sharp reed or a
sharp-edged jMece of obsidian, but never with a knife, for
in that case the child would become a murderer and could
never be a shaman. I once asked a Tarahumare where
he was born, expecting him to give me the name of
some ranch ; I was rather amused when he pointed to a
big stone a little farther on along the slope. That was
his birthplace.
The mother may lie down for that day, but the fol-
lowing morning she works as usual, as if nothing had
been the matter with her. The husband does not work
for three days, because he thinks his axe would break,
or the horns of his ox would fall off, or he would break
a leg. The third day he takes a bath.
When the baby is three days old the shaman comes
to cure it. A big fire is made of corn-cobs, the little
one is placed on a blanket, and with the father's assist-
ance the shaman carries it, if it is a boy, three times
through the smoke to the four cardinal points, making
the ceremonial circuit and finally raising it upward.
This is done that the child may grow well and be suc-
cessful in life, that is, in raising corn. Then the sha-
man takes a burning corn-cob from the fire and with
the charred end makes three parallel lines lengthwise
over the child's head and three across them. He also
sprinkles tesvino on the head and other vital parts of
the body to make them strong, and cures the um-
bilical cord. He may, too, anoint the child with the fat
of the rattlesnake mixed with herbs, and leave it in the
sun, that the light may enter its heart. For his services
the shaman gets a little maize, beans, salt, etc.
"CURING" A CHILD 273
On the fourth day the mother goes down to the
river to bathe, and while bathing leaves the little one
naked, exposed to the sun for at least an hour, in spite
of all its wailings, that l'\ither Sun may see and know
his new child. The baby is not washed until it is a year
old. Then it is cured again, by the shaman, who on
various occasions throughout its life repeats his curing,
that the child may grow well and that no sickness or bad
accidents may befall it. To protect it still further, pieces
of palo hediondo or the chuchupate root, the strong smell
of which is supposed to avail against disease, are wrapped
in a piece of cloth and tied around the child's neck.
The mother nurses the child until it is three years
old. In some instances she begins to give it once in a
while a little pinole when it is only six months old.
When two years of age a child begins to walk and to
talk. Sometimes when the mother is busy, for instance
at the metate, and will not stop to nurse him, the little
rascal may take a stick and in his way try to beat her.
The Tarahumare woman is a faithful mother, and
takes good care of her children. She generally has from
six to eight, often more. While small the children play
with primitive dolls. They dress up corn-cobs with
scraps of textiles and put them upright in the sand,
saying that they are matachines and drunken women.
They also play, like other children, with beans and acorns,
or with young chickens with their legs tied together. Of
course the youngsters maltreat these. Sometimes they
play, too, with stuffed squirrels, but there are no special
children's games. The father makes bows and arrows
for the boys, and instructs them in hunting and agricult-
ural work. As the girls grow up, the mother teaches
them how to spin yarn and weave blankets, " for," she
tells them, "otherwise they will become men." She also
warns them not to have children too rapidly in succes-
VOL. I. — iS
274
UNKNOWN MEXICO
sion. for there is no one to carry them for her. Women
cannot eat the tenderloin until they are verv old, because
if they did thev could have no children. For the same
reason they must not eat the pancreas. The women
Tarahumarc Blankets
who fear lest they may have difficulty in giving birth
to a child make soup of an opossum and eat it. Girls
must not touch deer antlers, or their breasts would fall
off.
A characteristic custom is that the children, no mat-
ter how old they get, and even after they are married
and have families of their own, never help themselves to
anything in the })arents' house. The mother lias to giv^e
all the food, etc., and she gives as long as she has any-
thing.
Parents never inflict corporal punishment upon the
young people. If a boy does not behave himself, he gets
scolded, and his father's friends may also remonstrate
CHILD DISCIPLINE 275
with him at a feast. Otherwise, the children grow up
entirely independent, and if angry a boy may even strike
his father. A girl will never go so far, but when scolded
will pout and weep and complain that she is unjustly
treated. How different is this from the way in which,
for instance, Chinese children treat their parents ! It
does not favour much the theory that the American Ind-
ians originally came from Asia.
CHAPTER XV
MANY KINDS OF GAMES AMONG THE TARAHUMARES BETTING
AND GAMBLING FOOT-RACES THE NATIONAL SPORT THE
TARAHUMARES ARE THE GREATEST RUNNERS IN THE WORLD
— DIVINATIONS FOR THE RACE — MOUNTAINS OF BETTING
STAKES women's RACES.
TO my knowledge there is no tribe so fond of
games as the Tarahumares. There are few days
in the year when a man has not a game of some kind
to play. Even when they become civilised and demor-
alised, in spite of their depression and poverty this pas-
sion of theirs still clings to them. While it is true that
there is always something of value, however insignifi-
cant, put at stake, their gambling spirit is not vicious.
They have some curious practices in their play : when
going to run a race, or when intending to play ciiatro
or (jiiiiizc, they do not eat chile. Where holes in the
ground are required for a game, as in cuatro and
quinze, they are generally made in the level space on
a rock.
Very common is it lo see two young men amusing
themselves with shooting-matches, shooting arrows at
an arrow which has been shot out into the ground some
fifty yards off as a mark. This arrow, as well as the
game itself, is called in Mexican Spanish IccJnigitiUa.
In Tarahumare the game is called chogirali. and the
target-arrow chogiia. The arrow coming nearest the
chogira counts one j)oint ; and if it comes within four
fingers' width of the aim, it counts four. The game
276
MANY KINDS OF GAMES 277
is for twelve points. The distance is not measured from
the points of tiie arrows, but from the winged parts,
one man measuring for all. If a shot arrow strikes so
as to form a cross with the chogira, it counts four. If
it only touches the point of the latter in the ground it
counts two. If two arrows happen to form crosses,
neither counts.
Instead of arrows, three sticks may be employed.
One is thrown out at a distance and is the chogfira, and
the other two sticks are thrown toward it, and count
in a similar w^ay as the arrows. Often while travelling,
the Tarahumares play this game, in either form, as they
go along the road, perhaps for the entire distance.
Two and three pairs may play together.
There is also a game very similar to quoits, played
with stone disks. Hat on one side and convex on the
other. It is called rixiwatali __— -r-r-
(rixiwala=disk), and two and / ^^4^-
tw^o play against each other. / "^ " ^r5\
First one stone is moistened
with spittle on one side to
make it "heads or tails" and
tossed up. The player who
wins the toss plays first. Each ^^°"' ^''^ ^"°'' ^'^^'"8"
* -^ . Diameter, 9.5 ctm.
has three stones, which are
thrown toward a hole in the ground, perhaps twenty yards
off. One of each party throws first, then goes to the hole
and looks at it, while the other players make their
throws. The stone falling nearest to the hole counts
one point ; if it falls into the hole, it counts four ; if the
stone of the second player falls on top of the first stone
in the hole, it "kills" the first stone. The game is out
at twelve. To measure distances, thev break off small
sticks. Lookers-on may stand around and bet which of
the players will win.
278
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Another game is called takwari, " to beat the ball " ;
in Spanish, /c?/?'//^. It is played only by women. Two
play at a time. One knocks a small
wooden ball toward one 2:oal, while
her opponent tries to get it to another.
This game is also played by the north-
ern Tepehuane women, who some-
times use two short sticks tied tofjether ^'^, ^^ , , ^
. . , r 1 ' 1 11 Sticks Used by Tepe-
m the middle, instead 01 the ball, huanes for Plaving.
The sticks are thrown ahead from their Length of Sticks about
places on the ground with a kind of
quick, prying movement, with the aid of a longer stick.
Civilised Tarahumares, as well as the Mexicans, play
with knuckle-bones as dice. The game is called la taba,
and the bones are taken from
either the deer, the sheep, or
the goat. Only one bone is
used by the two players.
Twelve points make a game,
and each player has twelve
grains of corn with which
he kee})s count. He makes
two rings in the sand, and
jnits his twelve grains in one
ring, and as the game pro-
gresses he transfers them
into the second ring until
the game is out.
Their greatest gambling
game, at which they may
plav even when tipsy, is
(juinze ; in Tarahiimare, ro-
mavda. It is played with
four sticks of ccpial length, called romalaka and inscribed
with certain marks to indicate their value. Practically
Value of the Different Sides
of a Knuckle-bone.
60
BETTING AND GAMBLING 281
they serve the same puiposc as diee, but they are thrown
in a different way. The phiyer 2;rasps them in his left
iiand, levels their ends carefully, lifts his bundle, and
strikes the ends against a flat or square little stone in
front of him, from which they rebound toward his o})}K)-
nent. The sticks count in accordance with the way they
fall. The point of the game is to pass through a figure
outlined by small holes in the ground between the two
players. The movements, of course, depend upon the
points gained in throwing the sticks, and the count is
kept by means of a little stone, which is placed in the
respective hole after each throw. Many accidents may
impede its progress ; for instance, it may happen to be
in the hole into which the adversary comes from the
opposite direction. In this case he is "killed," and he
has to begin again from the starting-point. The advance
is regulated by a number of ingenious by-laws, which
make the game highly intellectual and entertaining. If
he has the wherewithal to pay his losses, a Tarahumare
may go on playing for a fortnight or a month, until he
has lost everything he has in this world, except his wife
and children ; he draws the line at that. He scrupu-
lously pays all his gambling debts.
The northern Tepehuanes also know" this game, and
play with sticks eighteen to twenty inches long. As
these larger sticks fly quite a distance off when rebound-
ing, the players sit rather far apart.
Wrestling also may be observed, but what may be
termed the national sport, of which the Tarahumares are
inordinately fond, is foot-racing, which goes on all the
year round, even when the people are weakened from
scarcity of food. The interest centres almost entirely in
the betting that goes with it ; in fact, it is only another
way of gambling. It is called rala hipa (" with the
foot throw "), the word alluding to a ball used at the race.
282 UNKNOWN MEXICO
No doubt tlic Tamhumarcs are the greatest runners
in the world, not in regard to speed, but endurance. A
Taraliumare will easily run 170 miles without stopping.
When an Indian is sent out as a messenger, he goes
along at a slow trol. running steadily and constantly.
A man has been known to carry a letter in five days
from Guazapares to Chihuahua and back, a distance of
nearly 600 miles by the road. Even considering short-
cuts, which he, no doubt, knew, it was quite a feat of
endurance ; for he must have lived, as the Indians al-
ways do while travelling, on pinole and water only.
Where the Indians serve the Mexicans they are
often employed to run wild horses into the corral. It
may take them two or three days, but they will bring
them in, the horses thoroughly exhausted, while the
men, who, of course, economise their strength, and
sleep, and eat ]:)inole, are comparatively fresh. In the
same way they will run down a deer, following it for
days through snow and rain, until the animal is cor-
nered and easily shot with arrows, or until it is over-
taken utterly jaded and its hoofs dropping off.
1 his propensity for iiuining is so great that the name
of the tribe alludes to it. Tarahumare is a Spanish
corruption of ralamari, the meaning of which, though
somewhat obscure, may doubtless best be given as
"foot-runners," because raid certainlv means "foot."
The race is alwavs between two localities, each side
being represented by from four to twent\' runners. The
two i)arties show in their apparel some distinctive mark;
for instance, all of one troop have red head-bands, while
the others may wear white ones.
A |)eculiar feature is that the men toss along a small
ball as they run, each j)artv having one of their own.
These balls are about two and a half inches in diameter
and carved fiom the loot of the oak. The foremost
I'OOT-RACES
283
runner kicks it with the toes of his right foot, so as
to make it bound along as far as 100 yards, and he and
all the men l)ehin(l him follow in the same trot as be-
fore. The first man reachino- it as^ain kicks it onward.
It must nev^er be touched by the hand, unless it hap-
dens to fall in some awkward place, as between stones or
in a water-pool, when it is picked up and kicked on.
There is never any laid-out track, but the circuit is
determined in a general way by crosses cut in trees.
There are certain favourite places al-
ways used as race-courses. The run-
ners seem to have a preference for
the level tops of low ridges lying in
a circle, wherever this is possible. If
this is not feasible, they may
run forward and back on a
ridge, starting always near the
middle, from some little plane
or other convenient place,
where the people gather for
the occasion.
There is a manager for each party, and the two ar-
range the time and place for the race to be held, also
the number and length of the circuits to be made. A
circuit may measure from three to twelve miles in ex-
tent, and when the circuits are short as many as twenty
may be agreed upon. At one race-course near Cari-
cliic, the circuit is about fourteen miles long, and twelve
circuits may be run here without stopping. Runners of
equal ability are matched against each other, each side
being, of course, anxious to secure the best. The man-
agers take care of their men until the race comes off.
The training consists mainly in abstinence from tesvino
for two or five days before the event. When preparing
for a big race the runners may practise ; not that they
Cross Marking the Track of
the Foot-runners.
284 UNKNOWN MEXICO
need trainino; in running-, for that comes to them as nat-'
urally as swimming to the eluck ; hut only that they
practise kicking the hall and tr\' the ground.
Much more important are the magical devices by
means of which thev endeavt)ur to secure their own suc-
cess and to defeat their opponents. A daring manager
may go to a burial cave, taking two balls with him. He
digs out a hone, preferably the tibia from the right leg,
and sets it on the floor of the cave m which it has been
found. In front of it he places a jar with tesvino and
some vessels containing food. On either side of these
he lays one of his balls, and in front of all he plants the
cross. The food and the beer are the pavment to the
dead that he may help to win the race by weakening
the adversaries.
■As human bones are supposed to induce fatigue, some
mav be brought to the race-track and secreted there in
such a way that the competing runners have to pass
over the spot, while the manager's own crew are advised
of the danger, to avoid it. The man uses the utmost
care not to touch the bones with his Angers, lest he
should dry up ; instead, he uses sticks in handling and
carrying them.
Scores of remedies are brought to the scene, either
to strengthen friends or to weaken opponents. Cer-
tain herbs are thrown into the air or shaken before
the runners to enervate them. Some enterprising
Mexican may bring a white powder or similar sub-
stance, declaring that it is very efficacious, and get a
Tarahumare to pay a high price for it. But whatever
means arc employed, one way or the other, there is al-
ways a counter-remed\' to offset its effect. Specially
potent is the blood of the turtle and the bat, stirred to-
gether, dried, and mixed with a little tobacco, which is
then rolled into a ciirar and smoked. Ilikuli and the
SHAMANS AS 1 KAINKRS 287
dried head of an eagle or a crow may be worn under
the girdle as a protection.
The services of the shaman are indispensable for the
foot-runners. He helps the manager, himself often a
shaman, to rub the men with herbs and smooth stones
to make them strong. He also makes passes over them
to guard them against sorcery. On the day before the
races he "cures" them. Food and remedies are placed
on a blanket beneath the cross, together with many
magical things. The herbs are very powerful and have
to be tied up in bags of buckskin or cotton cloth, as
otherwise they might break away. The water for the
runners to drink is also placed underneath the cross, and
candles are set on either side of the pile. The run-
ners bring their balls and stand in a row around the
cross. Then the shaman, taking his position in front of
the latter, smokes incense of copal over them, and sings
of the tail of the grey fox, and other songs. He also
makes a speech, warning them not to accept pinole or
water in other people's houses. All their food and
drink must come from their relatives as a guard against
witchcraft and illness. The runners drink three times
from the water and the strengthening remedies ; then
the principal runner leads the others in a ceremonial
circuit around the cross, walking as many times around
it as there are circuits to be run in the race. The men
sleep near the cross, to watch the remedies on the
blanket. With them thev have some old man, for
old men see even when they sleep, and watch against
sorcery.
After the ceremonv the shaman takes each runner
aside and subjects him to a rigid examination in regard
to his recent food and his relations with women. Fat, po-
tatoes, eggs, and anything sweet are prohibited, because
all these things make the men heavy ; but rabbits, deer,
288
UNKNOWN MEXICO
rats, turkeys, and chaparral-cocks are wholesome, and
such nourishment enables them to win.
An augury as to which side will win is also taken.
Water is poured into a large wooden tray, and the two
balls are started simultaneously and rolled throuirh the
water over the tray. The party whose ball first reaches
Making W'agers at a Foot-race.
the otiier end will sureh' win. This test is orone throuafh
as many times as there are to be circuits in the race.
A race is nev^er won by natural means. The losers
always say that they hav^e been bewitched by the others.
Once I was taking the temperature of some foot-runners
before they started, and their opponents, seeing this, lost
heart, thmking that I had made their contestants strong
BUSY STAKEHOLDERS 289
to win the race. Often one of the principal runners be-
comes disheartened, and may simulate illness and declare
that their rivals have bewitched him. Then the whole
affair may come to nothin^: and the race be declared off.
There are stories about injurious herbs that have been
given in pinole or water, and actually made some racers
sick. It may even happen that some dishonest fellow
will pay to the best runner of one party a cow if he lets
the other party win. But, as a rule, everything goes on
straightforwardly. No one will, however, wonder that
there are six watchmen appointed by each side to guard
the runners from any possible peradventure, and to see
tliat everything goes on in a proper, formal way. Tipsy
persons are not admitted, and women in a delicate con-
dition are carefully kept away, as the runners become
heavy even by touching such a woman's blanket.
On the day of the race the forenoon is spent in mak-
ing bets, the managers acting as stakeholders. These
people, poor as they are, wager their bows and arrows,
girdles, head-bands, clothes, blankets, beads, ari, balls of
yarn, corn, and even sheep, goats, and cattle. The stakes
of whatever nature are tied together — a blanket against
so many balls of yarn, a stick of ari against so many ar-
rows, etc. At big races the wagers may amount to con-
siderable heaps of such articles, and the position of
manager requires a man of decision and memory, for he
has to carry all the bets in his head and makes no writ-
ten record of them. The total value of the wagers may
reach a thousand dollars, and what to the Indians are fort-
unes may change hands in accordance with the result of
the race. One man on one occasion had $50 worth of
property at stake.
The scene is one of great animation. As many
as two hundred people may assemble, among them
women and children. At the gathering-point, which is
Vol. I. — 19
290
UNKNOWN MEXICO
called in Tarahumarc " the betting-place," all the bets
are made, and here the race is started and concluded.
Here the managers also place a row of stones, one stone
for each circuit to be run, and whenever a circuit is com-
pleted one stone is taken away. In this way the count
is kept. The runners walk about wra[)pcd in their
blankets like the rest of the people. They have had
nothing to eat all day but pinole and tepid water, and
their legs have been rubbed with warm water in the
morning bv the managers.
When finally all the people have arranged their
stakes the gobernador steps forward and makes a
speech, in which he specially exhorts the runners not to
throw the ball with their hands ; if they do, they cer-
tainly will go to hell ! He also warns them against
cheating of any kind.
At a given signal, quick as lightning, the runners
throw off their blankets, and one man in each party,
p r e V i o u s 1 V selected,
throws his ball as far
as he can, and all the
runners start after it.
A second ball is always
kept in reserve, in case
the first should be lost.
The racers wear rat-
tles of deer-hoofs and
.^bits of reeds tietl to-
gether on a strij) of
leather, which they
stick in the backs of
their girdle or hang over their backs. The magic
rattling keeps them from falling asleep while run-
ning, so they say ; besides, the deer-hoofs lend them the
swiftness of the stag. Some runners adorn themselves
Part of 'I'arahumarc Rattling Belt.
LONG-DISTANCE RUNNING
291
with feathers from various birds, preferably the macaw
and the peacock, tying^ them to short sticks. The few
Tarahumares wlio have ever seen a j)eacock think a
o["Ood (leal of this bird, because it is considered lioht-
Tarahumare foot-runners, Photographed After the Race.
footed and mystic, being foreign to their country. Some
runners may be seen who paint their faces and legs
with white chalk, near Batopilas, for instance.
They do not run at an extraordinary speed, but very
steadily, hour after hour, mile after mile. Good runners
make forty miles in six or eiu:ht hours. At one race,
292 UNKNOWN MEXICO
when they covered according to calculation twenty-one
miles in two hours, I timed the leading runner and
found that he made 290 feet in nineteen seconds on
the first circuit, and on the next in twenty-four seconds.
At a race rehearsal I saw them cover four miles in
half an hour.
The public follows the race with great enthusiasm
from beginning to end, the interest growing with each
circuit. Many begin to follow the runners, shouting to
them and urging them on. They also help them by
pointing out the ball so that they can kick it without
stopping to look for it. The wives of the contestants
heat water and prepare pinole, which they hold out in
drinking-gourds to the men as they pass. The latter stop
for a few seconds to partake of this their favourite dish ;
and if this cannot be done, the tepid water is thrown
over the shoulders of the runners, by way of refreshing
them. As darkness comes on, torches of resinous pine
wood are lighted and carried along to illuminate the
path for the runners, that they may not stumble, making
the scene one of extreme picturesqueness, as these torch-
bearers, demon-like, hurry through the forest.
One contestant after another drops out. The
excitement becomes wilder ; more and more people
join in accompanying the few runners left, their princi-
pal motive being to shout encouraging words to the
runners and urge them to exert themselves to the ut-
most. And at last the best man comes in, generally
alone, the others having either given up the contest or
being far behind.
The race usually commences at midday ; but often
the bets are not finished until late in the afternoon. It
may last four hours and even longer. A famous run-
ner, now dead, could run from mid-day until sunrise.
There is no prize for the winner himself, except the
WOMEN'S SPOKIS
293
golden opinions he earns amono- the women ; and his
father may aceept presents from luek\- bettors. A man
who wins a cow is expected to give two pesos to the
J
Tarahumare Women Crossing a Stream in Their Race.
victorious runner; in case he wins a goat he gives half
a real.
The race over, the wagers are immediately paid and
the Indians quickly disperse, soon to arrange for an-
other contest.
Sometimes there is an old man's race preceding that
of the young men, the latter being always the principal
event of the day. Races are also run by women, and
294
UNKNOWN MEXICO
the betting and excitement that prevail on
sions run as high as at the men's races,
though on a smaller scale.
Instead of tossing the ball
with their toes, they use a
large wooden fork, with two
or three })rongs, to pitch it
forward. Sometimes they
have a ring of twisted strips
of vucca leaves instead of
the ball, but more often two
interlocked rings which they
throw ahead with a stick
curved at the end. This
game, which is called rowe-
mala (rowe signifies a ring),
must be very ancient, for
rings of this kind have some-
times been found in ancient
cliff-dwellings. It is certain-
ly a strange sight to see these
sturdy amazons race heavily
along with astonishing perseverance, when
creeks and water-holes come in their way,
simply lifting their skirts a la Diane and m
work of the crossing.
these occa-
Fork and Wood-
en Ball Used in
Women's Game.
Length of Fork,
69 ctm.; diameter
of Ball, 6.5 ctm.
Stick and
Ring Used
in Women's
Game. Length
of Stick, 85
ctm. ; diameter
of Ring, 1 1
ctm.
aking short
CHAPTER XVI
RELIGION — MOTHER MOON BECOMES THE VIRGIN MARY — MYTHS
THE CREATION — THE DELUGE — FOLK-LORE — THE CROw's STORY
TO THE PARROT — BROTHER COYOTE BELIEFS ABOUT ANIMALS.
THE pagans or gentiles in the barrancas say that
they have two gods, but no devil. These gods
are Father Sun (Nonoriigami) and Mother Moon
(Verugami). The Sun guards the men in the day-
time ; therefore the Tarahumares do not transact busi-
ness after sunset. He also makes the animals sleep.
The Moon watches at night, and is the special deity of
the women. In her nightly vigils she is assisted by her
son, the Morning Star, who commands all the other
stars, because they are his sons and they are Tarahu-
mares. The Stars advise their brothers on earth when
thieves are entering their houses. When the Tarahu-
mares affirm anything solemnly, they say, " By those
above ! " meaning the Sun, Moon, and the Stars.
But the greater part of the Tarahumares are nomi-
nally Christians, though all that they know of Christian-
ity are the words Seiior Saji Jose and Maria Santis-
sima. Moreover, they have adopted the words Tata
(Father) Dios (God) for their Father Sun ; and the
Virgin Mary becomes with them a substitute for
Mother Moon, and in natural sequence the wife of
Tata Dios. They celebrate in their own peculiar way
all the Christian feasts they know, with as much pleas-
ure and as elaborately as their own native ceremonies.
295
296 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Next in importance is the Devil, whom they fear
even more than their own sorcerers. He is always rep-
resented with a big heard, such as the Mexicans wear.
He is old and has only one eye, and the shamans have
seen him often. He plays the guitar, but never the
violin, because the bow and the strings form a cross.
He would like very much to go to heaxen, and the
shamans have to work hard to keeji him from doing so.
There is also a female devil, his wife, who bears many
children, always twins, who are the original Mexi-
cans.
Their paradise consists in big ranches, where they
will oret all the animals which in this life thev sacrificed
to Tata Dios. The occupation of Tata Dios in heaven
is to run foot-races with the angels, while the Devil vies
with the sorcerers in making the lives of the Tarahumares
uncomfortable, he being the chief sorcerer of all.
The Tarahumares are the sons of God, and the
Mexicans the sons of the Devil. For this reason the
Tarahumares say that it is no crime to eat the cows of
the Mexicans; they think the cows do not really belong
to the Shabotshi anyway. Neither do they tell when a
Tarahumare steals anything from a Mexican, while they
are very quick to find out if one Tarahumare steals from
another.
I give here some of the myths and traditions of the
tribe. Those which Christian ideas have entered into
will easily be recognised, and it is not necessary to draw
special attention to them.
CRKATION IMVTIIS
In the begmning there were many worlds before
this, but one after the other came to an end. Just be-
fore the world was destroyed for the last time, all the
rivers flowed toward the place where the sun rises. But
SUN AND MOON MYTHS 297
now the waters also flow toward the other side, where
the sun sets.*
The bears put the world into shape. Before their
time it was nothing but a waste of sand.
In ancient times there were plenty of lagoons V
around Guachochic ; but the land was put in order,
when the people came and began to dance yumari.
The rocks were at first soft and small ; l)ut they
grew until they became large and hard. They have life
inside.
The people grew up from the soil, while the earth
was as level as a field ready for sowing. Hut in those
days they lived to be only one year old, and then they
died like the flowers.
According to another tradition they descended from
heaven with corn and potatoes in their ears, and were
led by Tata Dios into these mountains, the middle of
the world, having originally come from the north-east or
east.
THE SUN AND THE MOON IN THE BEGINNING OF THE
WORLD
In the beginning the Sun and the Moon were alone,
and they were children. They wore dresses made of
palm-leaves, and they lived in a house thatched with
palm-leaves. They had neither cattle nor sheep. Both
the Sun and the Moon were dark, and the Morning Star
was the only one that shed any light on the earth. The
Moon was eating lice from the hair of the Sun, and the
Morning Star was watching at night. There were 600
Tarahumares at that time, and they were much ham-
pered by the darkness. They could not do their work,
and they had to hold each other's hands, and they were
* The Rio Fuerte, the only large water-course in the Tarahumare country,
empties into the Pacific Ocean.
298 UNKNOWN MEXICO
stumbling all the time. Then they cured the Sun and
the Moon by dipping small crosses into t»esvino, and
touching the Sun and the Moon on the chest, on the
head, and on the back. Then the Sun and the Moon
began to shine and to shed light.
STAR LECIEXD
A man lived with three women. He was making
arrows while they went to look for squirrels and wood-
chucks, and when they could hnd none they killed their
father. Then they said :" It is of no use to stop here
any longer. Let us go away." When the man saw
them running away he shot arrows after them. The
women were ascending to heaven, holding each other's
hands, and he transfixed them to the sky, where they can
still be seen just as they rose, as three bright stars in the
belt of Orion. The three women remained in heaven,
but the man remained in the world and was changed into
a coyote.
DELUGE LEGENDS
When the world became full of water, a little girl
and a little boy climbed uj) on a mountain, called La-
vachi (gourd), which is south of Panalachic, and when
the waters subsided they came down again. They
brought three grains of corn and three beans with them.
The rocks were soft after the Hood, and the footprints of
the little boy and the little girl may still be seen. They
planted the corn and went to sleep and had a dream
that night ; then they harvested, and all the Tarahuma-
res are descended from them.
The Tarahumares were fighting among themselves,
and Tata Dios sent much rain, and all the people per-
ished. After the flood he sent three men and three
women to j)e()ple the earth. They planted corn at once.
lATA DIOS AND THE DE\ IL 299
bringing three kinds, the same varieties still found here
■ — soft corn, hard corn, and yellow corn.
GIANTS
On the heights once lived giants. They were as big
as pine-trees and had heads as big as bowlders. They
taught the Tarahumares how to plant corn, by cutting
down trees and burning them, but they ate children.
A woman bore a giant in a cave, which was situated
very high up on the side of a valley. She died, be-
cause the child was so large, and he was taken care
of by his grandmother. Once when she was asleep, she
turned over and crushed him.
From Wasivori (near Cusarare) came giants to Na-
rarachic to ask alms. Tesvino they liked very much.
They worked very fast, and the Tarahumares put them
to hoe and weed the corn, and gave them food and
tesvino. But the giants were fierce, and ravished the
women while the latter were under the influence of the
Moon ; therefore the Tarahumares got very angry and
they mixed a decoction made from the chilicote-tree
with the corn that they gave the giants to eat, and the
giants died.
TATA DIGS AND THE DEVIL THE SHEEP AND THE
DEER — WnV THE COCKS CROW IN THE MORNING *
Tata Dios came down into the world, and he had in
his house many large jars filled with strong tesvino. On
the other side of the river Huerachic, in the big arroyos,
lived the Devil. He was very poor, and he had only
one small jar with tesvino, and that was bad. The Devil
and his brother invited Tata Dios to come and drink
tesvino with them. Tata Dios went to the Devil's house,
* As related by an old "Christian " Tarahumare woman in Huerachic, on the
npper Rio Fuerte.
300
UNKNOWN iMEXICO
and they gave him the jar and the drinking-gourd, and
he sat down to drink ; hut he did not get intoxieated
because there was not enougli tesvino. When he had
emptied the jar, Tata Dios said : " Now we will go to
my house and drink tesvino; I have some, too." They
accepted the invitation, and all went away together,
and Tata Dios gave them a large jar full of tesvino and
the drinking-gourd. They drank much, and the Devil
and his brother sang like the Mexicans, until lhe\' la\-
down on the ground com|)letely overcome. Later in
the night the Devil rose, and he went to the wife of Tata
Dios. And when she awoke, she was very angry, and
roused her husband, and he fought with the Devil, until
Tata Dios got killed. But after a while he rose and
said to the Devil, " Now go away, go below." " I am
going home to get my weapons," said the Devil. But
first he went into the house of Tata Dios and robbed
him of his money, and [noticing the reporter's book |
of his books and everything. He hid all the things in
his house and Tata Dios came to look for them. Tata
Dios again was very angry, and they fought until he
was killed. But this time, too, he rose and said to the
Devil, "Go below," and the Devil went below and re-
mained there, and Tata Dios went home.
One day at dawn the people saw the lands full with
sheep everywhere. On a Hat stone Tata Dios drew
figures like the tracks of the deer, and from them all the
deer originated.
When Tata Dios returned to heaven, he carried in
his right hand a rooster, which he ))laced on top of a
palm-tree. The cock crowed three times while Tata
Dios ascended to heaven. After this, whenever the
sun rises in the morning, the cocks on earth respond
when thev hear the cocks in heaven crow.
MYTHICAL GIANTS 301
After Tata Dios had gone to heaven he never came
back. He is angry with the Tarahumares, and he wants
to destroy the world, hut the Virgin says : " Let the
peo})le alone; I pity the family we left behind." This
is the reason whv the world stands.
When Tata Dios went away, he said, " I will leave
two crosses here." He then put up a cross where the
sun sets at the end of the world, and another where the
sun rises. The cross in the east he uses when he rises
to heaven and when he comes to visit the Tara-
humares, and the cross in the west is for the Tarahu-
mares when they die and go to heaven. Between
these two crosses the Tarahumares live. They would
like to go to the crosses and worship before them, but
they are prevented from doing so by large bodies of
water. They therefore set up small crosses in front of y
their houses, and before them they hold their dances,
and God comes to eat near these crosses. He only
eats the soul or substance of the food, and leaves the
rest for the people.
THE GIANTS, THE CROW, AND THE BLACKBIRD
The Crow, who is very knowing, told the following
story to the Parrot, who told it to the pagans:
The Blackbird and the Crow, long, long ago, saw a
contest between two giants, who made a bet as to
which of them could throw a stone farthest. The
stakes were four deer. One giant, called Goli, carried
a bird in his hand and threw it instead of the stone ; so
he won ; then he returned to where the Blackbird and
the Crow were standing. Tiie Blackbird said to the
Crow, "They will not do us any harm until they stoop
to pick up a stone." But the Crow replied, " Maybe
they bring the stone in their hands." So they flew
302 UNKNOWN xMEXlCO
away, and while they were ll\in<j; the Crow said, " I am
SToinii to the mountain to look for mv wife and mv son.
Thev went awav and have been lost for six days."
tup: deer, the toad, and the crow
The Crow set out for the mountain, where the Deer
and tiie Toad were making a bet. " Let us trv," they
said, "who can see the sun hrst in the morning." The
stakes were twenty-five Gadllies, and they asked the
Crow to be a witness to the contest. In the morning
thev were ready to watch for the sun. The Toad was
looking: westward from the highest mountain, but the
Deer looked to the east. The Toad said, " Look here,
Brother Crow, I have already seen the sun starting," and
the Crow said to the Deer : " Brother Deer, you have
lost. Give him the twenty-five Gadflies." The Deer
asked one day's time to catch the Gadflies, but the Toad
thought he was not going to pay him, and said to the
Deer, " Let us have a race, that you may settle your
bet." The Deer readily consented to this, and a stone
was put up as the goal. The Toad went away to call
many other toads, and placed them at intervals toward
the goal, and when the Deer arrived at the stone the
Toad was already sitting on it, and said, " Brother Deer,
you have lost." And the Deer went away.
Then the Toad said to the Gadflies : " Go and sting
the Deer much, that he may have to run quickly. If you
will sting him much, I will never eat you." The Gadflies
were vexed with the Deer, because he had \n\t them up
on a bet, therefore they were very wUling to sting the
Deer, and thev have been stinging him ever since.
STOKV OE THE CO VOTE
The Coyote asked permission from Tata Dios to
come into the world, and Tata Dios asked him what he
ANIMAL MYTHS
303
would do there. The Coyote replied that he would steal
the animals and the corn from the Tarahu mares. Then
The Covote, CV
latr
Tata Dios gave him permission to go and make a living
in this way, because the Coyote did not know how to
work.
THE MOUNTAIN LION, THE COYOTE, AND THE GREY FOX
The Coyote challenged the Mountain Lion to a eon-
test, that they might see which of them had the better
eyesight and was the smarter. The Lion said, " Let us
see who can first shoot an animal." Then he proposed
that they should go to a water-hole, and to this the Coyote
agreed ; so they started out on the hunt. The Lion
climbed up on a tree, but the Coyote remained below on
the ground, and paid no attention to what the Lion was
doing. A deer came, and the Lion struck it dead.
The Coyote saw this from where he was hunting, and
by and by he found a dead mare. When thev met again
304 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the Lion said to the Coyote, " Well, how did you get
on?" The Coyote replied: " \"'ery well; I killed a
mare." Hut tlie mare had been dead so long that she
was smelling. Therefore tlie Lion said to the Coyote,
" Don't be a liar," and he chased him off, and the Coyote
was ashamed of liimself.
The Coyote next met the Grey Fox. and told him to
QO and challeno^e the Lion. The Grev Fox went to the
Lion and said : " How do you do. Brother Lion? I hear
you got the best of Brother Coyote." The Lion replied :
" No, Brother Grey Fox ; the Coyote made a fool of
himself." Then the Grey Fox said : " Let us see wheth-
er you can get the best of me, and which of us can catch
a rabbit first." So they went to the mountain to look
for rabbits. At sunrise the Lion took a position facing
the north, and the Grey Fox faced south, and both of
them watched for rabbits. After spying for a while, the
Lion saw one, but by that time the Grey Fox was asleep
alongside of him. So the Lion said to the rabbit: " Pass
right between us, and then go to the hole in the oak-tree
on the rock, and act as if you wanted to go into the hole,
but go away to one side," Then the Lion woke up
the Grey Fox and said : " Over there is a rabbit. He
went into a small hole into which I cannot follow him ;
but you are small, and \ou can catch him." The Grey
Fox just saw the ral)bit's tail disapj)earing behind the
rock, but the rabbit hid himself, and did not enter the
hole, as the Lion had told him. " All right," said the
Grey I'^ox, " 1 will go; but, as vou saw the rabbit first,
you have won the bet." But the Lion said : "No ; you
go into the hole, and fetch the rabbit out and eat him."
Then the Grey Fox entered the hole, and the Lion made
a fire in front of it, and when the Grev Fox came out
again he was bunud, and his feet were sore from the fire.
That is why the Grev bOx alwavs walks so lightly.
THE GREY FOX 305
And he reproached tlic Lion, savins: ihat he was very-
bad, and bci^.i^ed hini to lei liim gt) and not to kill him.
He cried and went to hide himself in a cave, because he
was afraid of the Lion. Then the liumming-bird who
lived in the cave stung him in the face with his bill and
in the eyes, and he went away and never came back
again.
THE IIKNS, THE OKEV FOX, AND THE COYOTE
The Woodpecker made a guitar and gave it to the
Butterfly to play on, and the Cock danced a pascual,
and the Cricket danced with the Locust, and the lien
was singing. While the dance was going on, the Coy-
ote came to see what he could get from the feast,
and the Grey Fox also came, and he brought some
tunas (fruit of the nopal cactus). They were very nice
and sweet, and he gave one to the Coyote and said,
" Here, Brother Coyote, take this nice mouthful." He
had well rubbed off the spines, and the fruit tasted well
to the Coyote. It made his heart glad, and he wanted
more. The Grey Fox said to the Covote, " 1 will give
you more tunas, but you must eat them with your eyes
shut." He gave him some tunas from which he had
not cleaned off the spines, and as the spines hurt the
Coyote he became very angry and wanted to eat the
Grey Fox. But the Fox said to him : " Don't be an-
gry. Brother Coyote : 1 will give you a drink ; and don't
howl, because there are dogs around." He went to the
Cock and to the Hen, and asked them for tesvmo, and
he brought it to the Coyote and said, " Here, Brother
Coyote, drink this." The Coyote drank two gourdsful,
and then a third one, and when he had finished this he /
began to howl, because he was very drunk, and he
asked the Grey Fox, "Why are they all dancing?"
The Grey Fox replied: "They dance, because Miss
Vol. I. — 20
3o6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Cricket married Mister Locust ; therefore the Butterfly
is playino; on the guitar, and tlie Cock dances with de-
light, and tlie Hen is singing." iUit the Coyote said :
"I don't want the lien to sing; I want to eat her."
Then the Grey Fox took the Coyote into the arroyo and
told him to remain tiiere, while he went to fetch the
Hen. But instead of the Hen lie got two very fierce
dogs and i)Ut them in a bag, and carried them into the
arroyo, where the Coyote was waiting. He was very
drunk and very angry, and he said to the Grey Fox,
" Why did you keep me waiting so long, vou cursed
old Grey Fox!" The Grey Fox replied: "Don't be
angry, Brother Coyote ; here I bring you some very nice
Hens. I was looking for many of them, that is why I
remained away so long. Now, shall 1 let them out one
by one, or do you want them all at once?" The Coy-
ote replied, " Let them out all at once, that 1 may haye a
good old time with them." Then the Grey Fox opened
the bag, and out came the two fierce dogs ; and they
caught the Coyote and bit him and tore him to pieces.
The Grey Fox ran away and hid himself, but afterward
he came and got the paws of the Coyote and threw them
into a water-pool.
TME MOUXTAIX LION AXD IIIK I'.KAK
The Mountain Lion killed a deer, and the Bear
wanted to take it away from him. The\' fought, and the
Lion won, and the Bear asked his pardon, because the
Lion is more powerful than the Bear.
TM1-: FROG AXD TIIK COVOTE
The Frog and the Coyote made a wager as to which
of them would gain in a foot-race. They were to run
along a ridge, and return to a point close by the start-
ing-point. The Coyote lost, because the Frog jumped
BEAKS AS SOKCEKEKS 307
directly over to the finishinfr-point. This happened
twice, and the Coyote wanted to kill the Frog, but the
Frog dived into a water-hole, where the Coyote could
not catch him.
The Bears, whose skin is of the same color as the
Tarahumares, are called " grandfathers," umuli, and are
so to speak their forebears. In ancient times they
danced on top of the mountains, where they have roads
yet.
Often the bears are sorcerers, who, after death, as-
sumed the shape of these animals. In fact, there are
two kinds of bears, one that is real, and another one
that is a dead Tarahumare. The people do not know
which is which. Only the shamans can make the dis-
tinction, and it is useless to try and kill the man-bear,
because he has a very hard skin, and arrows cannot pierce
it. He is the very devil.
The following curious incident happened near Nara-
rachic a few years ago : A bear had done much damage
to a Tarahumare's corn-field. Some forty Indians with
over fifty dogs gathered together to kill the bear. In
order to make the dogs ferocious, the Indians set them
to fight among each other, by way of preparing them
for the hunt. The Indians now divided themselves into
several parties, and presently one lot encountered the
bear. They asked the shaman who was with them
whether the creature was a bear or something else, and
he replied, "Let the dogs on and see." As the dogs
had never seen a bear, they were timid, and did not
bark or attack the beast ; therefore the shaman said :
"This is not a bear. All is lost. The dogs do not
know him, and the bear does not see the dogs with his
eyes. He is from hell, and he is a devil, who came
here in the shape of a bear, because he wants to eat us.
3o8 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Let him alone and let us all go away." And they all
retreated.
The mountain lion is a good animal and watches
over the people. When he sees an animal such as the
hear or the covote approach a man, he roars to warn
the man ; and if the man i:>ays no attention, the lion
attacks the animal to save the man ; therefore strips of
his skin are worn around the ankles and the neck as a
protection.
The grey fox is considered an astute animal and is
feared. If he passes by a house in which there is a sick
person, and calls three times, the patient will die. One
of my Indian men related the following story : One
night he and another man were sleeping in a house
when he heard the grey fox whistle. At first he did
not know what it was, and he said to his companion,
"Listen, what is that?" The other one said, "This
is a very bad thing, very ugly." He was a man who
knew something, and he said, "If this grey fox returns
for two nights more and whistles outside of the house
of our sick neighbour, tliat man will die." My inform-
ant did not believe this at the time ; but the next night
the grey fox returned and whistled very uncannily, and
on the third night he did it again. And on the follow-
ing morning a man came and asked the Indian to iielp
him to i)urv the neighbour who had died during the
night. They went to the house of tlie dead man, and
"then," the narrator concluded, "1 knew that the grey
fox had said tiie truth, for tiie grev fox never tells a
lie."
-^ The grey fox and the rabbit in ancient times danced
rutuburi.
The horned toad holds the world. It says: " Don't
tread on me I 1 am the colour of the earth and 1 hold
SWIFTS AS WITCHES 309
the world ; therefore walk earefully, that you do not
tread on me."
The master of the deer lives inside of the moun-
tains, in the earth ; therefore the Tarahumares place
small quantities of corn and beans, or three arrows in a
jar, on top of the highest mountain to buy the deer from
the one below.
The brown ground squirrel (chipawiki), which lives
among rocks and seldom ascends trees, is thought to be-
come a serpent. This belief is also current among cer-
tain classes of Mexicans. A Mexican told me that a
man once smashed the head of a chipawiki in the hollow
of a tree, and when he wanted to take his game out, he
found that the rest of the animal had the body of a ser-
pent. It cannot be used for sacrifices.
Rats become bats.
The owl is very bad. Whenever it comes to a house
and screeches, somebody falls ill. If it calls three times,
in three consecutive nights, the sick person will die.
The owl is also very smart. It knows when the Tara-
humare's blanket (in which he is wrapped when sleeping
along the fire) is going to be burned. When the owl
hoots near a home it says, " Chu-i, chu-i, chu-i," —
" dead, dead, dead." Owls are killed but not eaten.
The goat sucker makes darts through the air and
calls down rain. It has two nice fat young, which the
Tarahumares consider a great delicacy.
The crow is much in disfavour because it eats the
corn. Only the young crows are eaten.
The large swifts (olamaka) are thought to be
witches, who pierce the souls of people and eat them.
They are used by the sorcerers, whom they obey like
dogs. Odte a woman was sitting in a corn-field watch-
ing it by the side of a fire, and making yarn, when a
swift settled on her skirt. She told a girl to bring a
310 UNKNOWN MEXICO
large basket, with whicli she covered tlie bird up, caug-ht
it and had it for many years. Every night the bird
flew away, and then returned in the morning. Once,
when the woman was absent at a tesvino feast, the girl
killed the bird and roasted it. She could not eat it,
however, because it had such abaci smell, and the woman
found it on her retuin in the basket, dead and roasted.
The girl ran away and the raccoons ate the corn the
woman was watching.
The giant woodpecker during the wet season rises
high up toward the sun ; that is why he gets his tail
burned.
When tiie Tarahumares handle any kind of fish they
take care not to touch their hair, for fear that it may
turn grey and they become old.
The rattlesnakes are the companions of the sorcerers
and watch to meet them and then talk with them. A
Mexican once killed a rattlesnake, and the Indian grew
very angry and said that the snake had protected his
house ; now he had no one to guard it.
Large serpents, which only the shamans can see, are
thought to live in the rivers. They have horns and
very big eyes.
The dragon-fly has no song ; it flies about without
making a noise.
Tata Dios put sheep into the world ; they are good
animals because they give wool from which i)e()ple can
weave blankets, and their meat is good, and they do not
weep when they are killed. But goats were put into the
world by the Devil ; their hair is of no use, their meat is
bad, and they howl much when they are killed.
CHAPTER XVII
THE SHAMANS OR WISE MEN OF THE TRIBE — HEALERS AND
PRIESTS IN ONE DISEASE CAUSED BV LOOKS AND THOUGHTS
EVERYBODY AND EVERYTHING HAS TO BE CURED NOBODY
FEELS WELL WITHOUT HIS " DOCTOR " SORCERY THE POW-
ERS OF EVIL ARE AS GREAT AS THOSE OF GOOD REMARKABLE
CURE FOR SNAKE BITE TREPANNING AMONG THE ANCIENT
TARAHUMARES.
WITHOUT his shaman the Tarahumare would
feel lost, both in this life and after death. The
shaman is his priest and physician. He performs all
the ceremonies and conducts all the dances and feasts
by which the gods are propitiated and evil is averted,
doing all the singing, praying, and sacrificing. Bv this
means, and by instructing the people what to do to
make it rain and secure other benefits, he maintains srood
terms for them with their deities, who are jealous of man
and bear him ill-will. He is also on the alert to keep
those under his care from sorcery, illness, and other evil
that may befall them. Even when asleep he watches
and works just as if his body were awake. Though real
illness is the exception with him, the Tarahumare
believes that an ounce of prevention is better than a
pound of cure, and for this reason he keeps his doctor
busy curing him, not only to make his body strong to
resist illness, but chiefly to ward off sorcery, the main
source of trouble in the Indian's life. The demand for
shamans is therefore great, but the supply is quite equal
to it. For instance, in the little village of Nararachic
and the neighbouring ranches, where there are about i8o
311
312 UNKNOWN MEXICO
households, twenty-hve shamans are living, each of
whom takes care of about twenty souls, though only
about ten of them enjoy great reputation in tiie com-
munity.
Before a man is allowed to consider himself a
shaman, he is examined by a " board " of recognised
members of the profession, who pass upon his fitness to
enter their ranks.
These priest-doctors have their specialties. Some
sing only at rutuburi or yumari dances, others only at
hikuli-feasts. A few of them do not sing at all, but are
merely healers, although far the greater number also sing
at the feasts. Those who make a specialty of the hikuli
cult are considered the greatest healers. They all con-
scientiously fast and pray, complying with the demands
of the gods, which impose restrictions and abstinence, and
they are therefore called "righteous men" (owiriiami).
They are the wise men of the tribe ; and as rainmakers,
healers, and keepers of the heritage of tribal wisdom
and traditions, their influence is powerful.
Their services are never rendered gratuitously ; in
fact, what with the payments they receive from singing
at feasts and curing the sick, they generally manage to
live better than the rest of the people. Whenever a
shaman is hungry, he goes to the house of some of his
well-to-do clients and cures the family, receiving all the
food he wants in payment for his efforts, for what would
become of the people if the shaman should die ? The
Devil would surely take them away at once. Therefore
the best parts of the meat from the animal killed for the
feast is given to the shamans, and tiiey generally get all
the tesvino they can hold. In winter time, when numer-
ous feasts are being held, the shamans are nearly all the
time under the influence of their native stimulants. Yet
this does not Sfcm to harm them, nor does it in the esti-
HEALERS AND PRIESTS
3'3
mation of the people detract from the efficacy of their
singing ; the curing is no less potent, even though the
doctor can hardly keep from falling all over his patient.
It is always incumbent on the shamans to be peaceful,
and they never fight at the feasts.
The singing shamans invariably have a primitive
musical instrument, the rattle, with which they beat
time to their singing and dancing. Ordinarily it is made
Tarahumare Shaman's Rattles. Length of longest, 31.5 ctm.
from a gourd filled with pebbles and mounted on a
short stick which serves as a handle. Another kind
is made from coarse shavings glued together. The lat-
ter variety is not infrequently decorated with daubs of
red or some similar painting. Sometimes at the feast
the shaman, even nowadays, may be seen wearing a
head-dress made of the plumes of birds. Through the
plumes the birds are thought to impart all that they
know. Besides, the plumes are supposed to keep the
wind from entering the shaman's body, and thus prevent
him from falling ill.
314 UNKNOWN MEXICO
When curing, tlic shamans may sometimes use
rational means. There is in existence around Noro-
gachic for instance, a kind of sweating-bath, made In-
placing in a hole in the ground, just large enough for a
man to sit in, several hot stones, pouring water on them,
and covering them uj) with branches of the fragrant
mountain cedar. The steam passing through the latter
is credited with curative power.
The Indians know several excellent medicinal herbs.
Palo amarillo is a kind of household remedy used exten-
sively in every family. There are many other highly
valued herbs and trees, some of which have a wonder-
fully refreshing and invigorating aromatic scent. Head-
ache is cured by a green herb called pachoco, of which
they smell until thev begin to sneeze. To cure consti-
pation they boil ari with a grain of salt, or thev heat
stones and pour water over them and sit over the steam.
Both the sacred little cactus called hikuli and the
maguey have undoubtedly medicinal properties, but the
administration of these remedies, especially of the former,
is connected with so many rites and ceremonies that their
therapeutic value becomes obscured. The curative power
of tcsvino is absolutely magical, and this is the remedy to
which recourse is most commonly had. In administer-
ing it the shaman makes his customary })asses, and ex-
hales over the patient to blow away the disease. lie
also dips a small cross into the liquor, and with the
wetted end tai)s the sick man on the head, neck, shoul-
ders, and back, and draws crosses over his arms. Fi-
nall\ tlic j)atient is given three spoonfuls of the liquor,
while all the members of the family stand around and
murmur apjorovinglv, "Thank you, thank you." Occa-
sionalh' tesvino is exclusively used for curing, with the
aid of two small crosses, one of red Brazil wood, the
other of white pine. If he chooses, a shaman may pro-
CAUSES OF DISEASE 315
vokc illness as well as cure it, hut he cannot cure the
person he made ill.
When a shanian is asked to cure a person of anv
complaint, real or imaginary, his lirst move is to find
the cause of the trouble. According- to his opinion ill-
ness is brought on either by the wind or by sorcery.
From the former kind of disease nobody dies, althou2:h
the heart, the liver, or the head may be attacked ; but
the other kind is serious. Sorcerers may put snakes into
the legs, and such animals as centipedes, toads, larvce,
scorpions, or even small bears into the body of some
unfortunate person, and these disturbers have to be
drawn out at once or else they will eat the sick man's
heart. The shaman therefore first feels the patient all
over, to find if something — in other words, the disease-
bringing animal — is moving underneath the skin. Ill-
ness may also result from small stones, or the spine of
the nopal placed in the body by the same agency.
A person suspected of having been bewitched is told
to hold his mouth open to the sun, that the shaman may
see whether the evil entered the body through this aper-
ture. People become bewitched at night through the
openings of the body, and the shaman also examines
the nostrils, ears, etc. It is also the shaman's business
to find out who caused the trouble, and since he can
see more than ordinary people he is able to track the
offender.
Some people by their mere looks or thoughts are lia-
ble to make a person ill. Such illness may be brought
on in retaliation for some slight or offence, and may
even result in death. The first thoughts of a person fall-
ing ill are : Whom have I offended ? What have I
taken that I should have left alone, and what have I
kept that I should have given ? Then the shaman may
tell him to find the person to whom he had refused to
316
UNKNOWN MEXICO
give food, and the sick one and his wife go from house
to house asking the people : " Was it you whom I re-
fused food ? Someone has made mc ill, and I want him
to make me well again." If he can tind the person
Rubio, the Shaman.
whom he had offended, and airange matters with him, he
will recover.
The doctor mav find that the person's heart is on
the wrong side, and prescribe a liberal allowance of
tesvino to get it back to its proper place. But gen-
erally the skill of the shaman is taxed more severely
and he resorts to the more direct and powerful meth-
ods of mairie. A ccjinmoii occurrence is that of illness
THE SIC KING-TUBE 317
caused by majj^o^ots, which the shaman has to extract
from the patient l)v means of a suckino;-tube, a short
piece of reed al)()Ul three inclies long', cut from a kind
of reed different from that of the arrow-shaft. Fie
pkices it on the afflicted spot, and after sucking vigor-
ously for a minute or so empties from his mouth into
his hand or into a corn-leaf, what purports to be the
maggots. I never had an opportunity of examining
closely the small white bits of something or other that
he spit out, but they seemed to me to be tiny pieces of
buckskin which the man had secreted in his mouth and
which swelled up when saturated with saliva. To the
shaman they represent maggots ; that is, the embodi-
ment of the disease, and all the people hrmly believe
that they are maggots. The corn-leaf and its contents
are buried ; a cross is made on the ground over the spot
and a ceremonial circuit run around it. When resting
between operations, the shaman places his sucking-tube
into a bowl of water in which some herbs are soaking.
The mode of curing-, however, varies. A common
way in use near Guachochic is to make the patient
stand on all fours and bathe him well with water; then
to place him on a blanket and carry him over a fire tow-
ard the cross and the four corners of the world. When
put down on the ground again he lies or kneels on the
blanket, and the shaman places his tube against the
afflicted part and begins to suck forcibly, while the rest
of the people stand around with sticks, ready to kill the
disease so as to prevent it from returning and doing
harm to others. Presently the shaman produces from
his mouth a small stone, which he asserts was the cause
of the disease. While the people are furiously beating
the air, he proceeds at once to bury it in the earth, or in
the bottom of the river, into which he dives. He may
suck out as many as eight stones, but generally contents
3i8 UNKNOWN MEXICO
himself with four ; and for treating a man in this way
he receives four ahiiuds of maize.
On one occasion, when I had taken a little cold, I
asked a shaman friend whether he could cure me.
"Certainly I can," was the confident reply. He took
from a little basket, in which he kept his hikuli or
sacred cacti and probably simikir valuables, three black
stones and said that he would sell one of these to me ;
if I put it into warm water it would cure me. This was
not quite to my liking, as I wanted him to perform the
magical feat of sucking maggots out of the skin. He
complied with my request, and told me to go ahead to
my camp, whither he would follow me soon. On his
arrival I offered him some food, as my case was not
urgent, but he declined, and proceeded to cure me. A
saddle l)lanket was spread out for me to kneel on, and
my Mexican and Indian attendants were told to retire,
while he made his examination. Having ascertained
that I had a headache, he took my head between his
dirty hands, pressed it, applied his lips to my right ear,
and commenced to suck very energetically. This was
rather trying to my nerves, though not unen durably so.
Presently he let go his hold, and spit out quite a lot of
blood into a cup an Indian boy was holding out to him.
He repeated the operation on mv left ear with the same
result. "More pain?" he asked. "Yes," I said, "in
my right hand." He immediatelv grabbed that member
in his mouth, biting almost through the skin over the
pulse, and after having sucked for a little while, de-
posited contents, of a similar nature, into the cup from
his mouth. It was afterward found that the blood was
mixed with a considerable numl)cr of grass seeds, which
had been the cause of my illness. I had not known that
I was so " seedy."
The curing is often performed at dances, during the
CURED OF GRASS SEEDS
3'9
nio:ht, as the family who give the feast expect to receive,
in return for all their trouble and expense, the benefit of
the shaman's magic powers, whether an\' of them are ill
or not. Once a man, his wife, and his child had been
cured with tesvino, but nevertheless they still anxiously
looked to the shaman for more treatment, apparently
feelinir that they needed more streno"th asfainst cotninor
Rubio, the Shaman, and his WW'e at Home in their Cave.
evil. The woman said : " Yesterday I fell into the water
and got wet and felt ill, and in the night I dreamed that
I was dead and that you cured me." To this the doctor
replied, "Yes, that is whv I came to cure you." Then,
yielding to their beseeching glances, he daubed them
again, this time holding their hands and with a little
cross in his left hand. Then he said : " Now you need
not be afraid ; I have cured you well. Do not walk
320
UNKNOWN MEXICO
about any more like fools
and do not get wet again."
And they were eontent.
There is a shaman near
Baqueachic (baka = liam-
boo reed) who has a
great reputation for cur-
ing cattle, or rather for
keeping them in health.
Every year he makes a
tour of the different ranch-
es, and the Indians hung;
their animals to him to be
treated. A large hole is
duo- in the ground and a
lire kindled in it. Then
some green branches of
the mountain cedar and
some copal are thrown in
and burned, and the ani-
mals driven one by one
through the smoke. Since
the veterinary gets one
animal for each ceremony,
he becomes quite rich.
The shamans also un-
dertake to cure the sun
and the moon, because
these, too, are often ill
and have to be righted.
Not a feast is held in
Shaman Rubio's Cave, Seen troin the wllicll SOlllC Spooufuls
Outside. from the jars containing
the remedies are not thrown up for the benefit of the
sun and the moon. Occasionally, however, special
EVERYTHING TO BE CURED 321
ceremonies have to be performed lo eure the celestial
bodies, particularly the moon, because from her all the
stars receive their liiiht. At the period of the dark
moon she is considered to be sick and tied up by the
Devil, and the world is sad. Then the shamans assem-
ble to consult about her ailment and the means of
curing her. An ox may be killed and tesvino made.
In killiuLj: the animal, care is taken not to injure
the heart, which is treated with great ceremony. The
people always avoid touching it, and at sacrifices they
hang it with the lungs to a stick raised near the cross.
The shamans stand near, with small earthenware dishes
containing copal incense ; while the oldest cuts with his
knife four crosses on four diametrically opposite points
of the heart, and from the upper part all but slices off a
piece, which is left hanging down beside the main part.
All the blood the heart contained is sacrificed to the four
cardinal points with much singing. Then the shaman
asks for an earthen bowl which has never been used be-
fore, and in this he places the heart and burns it without
adding fat or anything else. The ashes he rubs be-
tween his fingers until reduced to a fine dust, which he
mixes with water and some medicinal herbs. The sha-
mans stand in the middle, and the people around them,
and all are unanimous in their prayer that they may see
the moon. Each shaman takes three spoonfuls of medi-
cine, the rest of which is thrown on the cross, and the
shamans watch all night.
The Christian Tarahumares even feel called upon to
cure the church when those buried in and around it have
been noisily dancing and damaging the building to make
the people give them tesvino. The principal shaman
heads the procession, carrying a jar of the liquor. His as-
sistant holds in one hand a bowl containing water mixed
with the crushed leaves of the maguey, and in the other
Vol. I. — 21
>^
322 UNKNOWN MEXICO
some fresh maguey leaves. The tesvino, as well as the
green water, is liberally thrown ui)on the walls and the
floor of the church to lay the perturbed spirits.
Mow to cure smallpox is beyond the ken of the
shamans, but they try to keep off the dread enemy by
making fences of thorny branches of different trees across
the paths leading to the houses ; and snake-skins, the
tail of the grey fox, and other powerful protectors or
charms, are hung around the doors of their dwellings to
frighten the disease away. The same purpose is accom-
plished through the pungent smell produced by burning
in the house the horns of cows, sheep, and goats.
The shamans also profess to produce springs by
sowing water. They make a hole one yard deep in the
rocky ground. Water is brought in a gourd and poured
into it, together with half an almud of salt. The hole is
then covered up with earth, and after three years a spring
forms.
Hiirh as the shamans stand in the estimation of the
people, they are by no means exempt from the instabil-
ity of mundane conditions, and the higher a man rises
the less secure is his position. The power to see every-
thing, to guard against evil, and to cure illness issues
from the light of his heart, which was given him by
Tata Dios. It enables him to see Tata Dios himself, to
talk to him, to travel through space at will, for the sha-
mans are as bright as the sun. But all this supjM:)sed
great power to do good may at any moment be turned to
evil purposes. There are indeed some shamans whose
kindly, sweet-tempered manners and gentle wa\s enable
them to retain their good reputation to the end ; but few
go through life who can keep themselves always above
suspicion, especially when they grow older ; and inno-
cent persons have on this account been cruelly perse-
cuted. Such a fate is all the more liable to befall them
POWERS OF GOOD AND EVIL 323
on account of the recognised ability of a shaman to i)oth
cure and produce disease.
No doubt the great quantity of stimulants taken by
shamans in the course of their career causes them to
go periodically through a state of excitement, which,
combined with the enthusiasm which they work them-
selves up to, gradually giv^es to these men, who fre-
quently are richly endowed with animal magnetism, a
supernatural appearance. Adv^ancing years have their
share in making such a man look odd and uncanny, not
only on account of his grey hair, wrinkled face, and
shaggy eyebrows, but still more by his reserved bearing
and distinctive personality. Women shamans, too, may
turn bad and become witches.
Much as in cases of heresy among Christian minis-
ters, the other shamans hold a consultation regarding a
suspected colleague, and may decide that the light of
his heart has failed him and that he is no longer one of
them. From that time on, good people avoid him ; they
no longer give him food, and do not tolerate him
about their homes ; they are afraid of him ; and the bet-
ter a shaman he was before, the more terrible a sorcerer
he is now supposed to have become. Soon every acci-
dent that happens in the locality is laid at the accused
man's door.
There are, on the other hand, many evil-minded
persons who pretend to possess supernatural powers to
do harm, and accept payment for services of that kind ;
in short, who make it a business to be sorcerers. The
power of the sorcerer to do evil is as great as the ability
of the good shaman to cure it. The sorcerer may rasp
on his notched stick, and sing death and destruction to a
person or to attain his ends he may use hikuli, smooth
stones, the corpse or the foreleg of some highly vener-
ated animal and powerful rainmaker, as the toad, which
324
UNKNOWN xMEXICO
is never killed except by bad persons. A terrible thing
in the hands of a sorcerer is a humming-bird stripped of
its feathers, dried, and wrapped in puchote wool. To
the Tarahumares the brilliant little bird, often ineniioned
in their songs, is a good and mighty hero-god, but the
Ruhio, the Shaman, Examining a man accused of Sorcerv.
sorcerer perverts his great power to his own evil pur-
poses. The sorcerer is feared by all ; pregnant women,
especially, go out of his wav, as he may hinder them
from giving birth to their children. When Tarahumares
see a shooting star thev think it is a dead sorcerer com-
ing to kill a man who did iiim harm in life, and thev
SOKCEKY
vs
huddle together and scream with terror. When the star
has passed, they know that somewhere a man has been
killed, and that now the sorcerer is taking out his heart.
If a man does any harm to a j)owcrful sorcerer, the
latter, after death, enters into a mountain lion or jaguar
or bear, and watches by the wayside until the offender
comes, when he kills him.
Sorcerers are also believed to prevent rain from fall-
ing, and therefore the people were once mueli pleased
when they saw me photographing a sorcerer. The
camera was considered a pow^erful rain-maker, and was
thought to make the bad man clean. The people mav
chastise a man suspected of sorcery, to frighten him
from doing further mischief. A sick person also is
supposed to improve when the sorcerer who made him
ill is punished ; but if accidents and misfortune continue
to happen, the accused man may be killed. Such ex-
treme measures have been resorted to even in recent
years, though rarely.
The magical powers of a sorcerer are appalling.
When a Tarahumare walks with a sorcerer in the forest
and thev meet a bear, the sorcerer may say : " Don't
kill him ; it is I ; don't do him anv harm ! " or if an owl
screeches at night, the sorcerer may say : " Don't you
hear me ? It is I who am calling."
The sorcerer dies a terrible death. Many dogs bark
and run awav and come back ; they look like fire, but
thev are not ; thev are the evil thoughts of the sorcerer.
The river, too, makes a greater noise as it flows, as if
somebody were dipping up water and pouring it out
again. Uncannv, weird noises come from every part of
the house, and all the people in it are much frightened.
Hardly anyone goes to talk to the dying man, and no
one bids him good-bye. The Christian Tarahumares do
not bury him in the churchyard with other people, but
326 UxNKNOWN MEXICO
alone in a remote cave, and they bury all his things with
him — his machete his axe, and heavy things that other
people never take along, hut which the sorcerer, because
he is very powerful, can carry with him when he goes to
heaven.
As we have seen, the medical education of the sha-
mans is extremely limited. Their rational materia
vicdica is confined to the hikuli cactus and a few roots
and plants. Aside from this they have a cure for snake-
bites which is really remarkable. The injured man kills
the reptile, cuts out its liver and gall, and smears the lat-
ter over the wound ; he may also eat a piece of the liver,
but it must be taken from the animal that inflicted the
injury ; then he will be well again in three days. If
people die of snake-bites, it is because the reptile es-
caped. The gall of a rattlesnake has a sickening smell ;
even my dogs were repulsed by it when I once killed a
four-foot rattler. The method may be considered as in
accord with the modern theory that the bile of many
animals contains strong antitoxins.
However, there is nothing new under the sun. In
the Talmud we find recommended as a cure for hydro-
phobia to eat the liver of the dog that bites one ; and in
the Apocrypha we read that Tobias was cured of blind-
ness by the gall of a fish.
Most surprising of all is the fact that this tribe, which
to-day shows but verv slight knowledge of surgery,
should in former times iiave {practised trejxmning. That
the Tarahumares understood this art is evident from two
skulls which I brought back from their country. The
skulls were found under the following circumstances :
In 1894 1 stayed for a fortnight in a remote part of
the Sierra Madre, called Pino Gordo on account of its
magnificent pine-trees. The district is separated on the
north from the central part of the Taraiiumare country
AN INTERESTING FIND 327
by the deep Barranca de San Carlos, and there are no
Mexicans livino: within its confines. The place in which
I found one of the skulls is twenty miles north of the
mining town of Guadalupe y Calvo. A lonely trail
leads through it on which, only occasionally, perhaps
once in the course of a month, a Mexican from the
ranches at Guachochic may journey to Guadalupe y
Calvo.
One day the principal man of the locality, who had
been very friendly to me, showed me a burial-cave. I
had persuaded him that it was better for me to take
away the bones contained in it, in order to keep them
in a good house, liian to let them remain where they
were, "killing sheep and making people sick." "But
why do you want them ? " he asked. Having been
satisfied on this point, he one day led the way to
a wild, steep arroyo, pointed at its head, and having
thus indicated where the cave was, at once left me. I
made my way as best I could up the steep little gorge,
accompanied by one of my men. On arriving at the
top I found the entrance to the cave completely cov-
ered with stones plastered together with mud. A heap
of stones was also piled outside against the wall.
The cave I found very small, and, contrary to the
exaggerated reports of the Indians, it contained only
three skeletons. According to the custom prevailing
throughout part of the country of the Tarahumares,
these remains had not been buried. The skeletons were
simply lying on their backs, from east to west, as if look-
ing toward the setting sun. A few crudely made clay
vessels of the ordinary Tarahumare type were found
alongside of them. On gathering the three skulls I was
at once struck by a circular hole in the right parietal
bone of one of them. As they undoubtedly belonged to
the Tarahumares, the question at once occurred to me:
3^-8
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Can it be possible that this barl)aric tribe, not paiticu-
larlv advanced in the arts, was ca})able of trepanning?
The remoteness of the place entirelv negatives the sug-
gestion that a civilised surgeon could have had anything
to do with it.
The skull, the lower jaw of which is missing, is that
of a Tarahumare woman over fiftv vears of age. The age
of the specimen itself is impossible to arrive at, on ac-
count of the peculiar circumstances in which it was pre-
served. However, the cranial walls still contained some
animal matter, were still somewhat fatty to the touch,
and retained some odour. A spindle provided with a
whorl made from a j)iece of j^ine-bark, which was lying
Seen from above. Seen from one side.
Trepanned Tarahumare Skull, Female.
among the bones in the cave, indicates that the body of
this female had not been put there in recent times. This
variety of whorl, so far as I can ascertain, has not been
observed among the Tarahumares of the present day. It
is, indeed, j)Ossil)le that the skeleton may be j)re-Colum-
bian.
The skull does not present aiiv deformities or fract-
ures, and the singular aperture is almost exactly round,
measuring two centimetres in diameter. A careful ex-
amination shows that the cut was made a long time, sev-
TREPANNING 329
eral years in fact, before death. The reo;Lilaritv of the
hole indicates beyond doubt that it is artihcial.
Another skull taken from a burial-cave near Narara-
chic is also that of a female, and the opening' here, too,
is in the parietal bone, and in almost the same place as
the openino;" in the first skull described. In this second
specimen the cavity is almost filled in with new bone,
and as in this instance the edges are very regular and
uniform, and distinctlv beveled, thev show that the op-
eration was performed by scraping. This cannot be said
of the first specimen found ; the almost circular form
of the opening, and its perpendicular walls, prove con-
clusively that in this instance the surgeon did not em-
ploy the simple method of scraping the bone. I have
never found among the Tarahumares any implement
with which such an operation could have been performed.
Possibly it was done with a kind of flint wimble with
three teeth, much like the instrument used to-dav in
trepanning by the Berbers in L'Aures, who cure even
headaches by this method. It is, of course, impossible
to say now whether the ancients performed the operation
simply to relieve the patient of bone splinters, pus, blood,
etc., pressing on the brain, or whether it was done to let
out an evil spirit. It is the first time that cases of tre-
panning have been found in Mexico.
CHAPTER XVIII
RELATION OF MAN TO NATURE — DANCING AS A FORM OF WOR-
SHIP LEARNED FROM THE ANIMALS — TARAHUMAKE SACRI-
FICES — THE RUTUBURI DANCE TAUGHT UV THE TURKEY
THE YUMARI LEARNED FROM THE DEER TARAHUMARE RAIN
SONGS GREETING THE SUN — TARAHUMARE ORATORY THE
FLOWING BOWL THE NATIONAL IMPORTANCE OF TESVINO
HOMEWARD BOUND.
SINCE the people obtain their subsistence from the
products of the soil, they naturally are deeply con-
cerned in the weather upon which their crops depend.
Rain, therefore, is the focal point from which all their
thoughts radiate. Even the plough is dipped into water
before it is put to use, in order that it may draw rain.
The people may try to force the moon and the sun to
give them rain. In times of drought they reproach es-
pecially the moon for making the people live on the
leaves of the ash-tree and what other poor stuff they can
find; on her account they are getting so thin that they
can no longer recognise themselves. They scold her,
and threaten to denounce her to the sun. The sun
himself may be rebuked for lack of rain. At other
times they may throw up water to heaven with many
ceremonies, that Tata Dios may replenish his supply.
Cenerally, however, their relations with the gods, as with
men, are based on the business i)rinci|>lc of give and take.
Sacrifices of food, the meat of domestic animals or
of game, and of tesvino, are needed to induce Father
Sun and Mother Moon to let il rain. Tlie favour of the
gods may be won by what for want of a belter term may
330
DANCING A FORM OF WORSHIP 331
"be called dancing, but what in reality is a series of mo-
notonous movements, a kind of rhythmical exercise, kept
up sometimes for two nights. By dint of such hard
work they think to prevail ui)on the gods to grant their
prayers. The dancing is accompanied by the song of
the sliaman, in which he communicates his wishes to the
unseen world, describing the beautiful effect of the rain,
the fog, and the mist on the vegetable world. He
invokes the aid of all the animals, mentioning each by
name and also calls on them, especially the deer and the
rabbit, to multiply that the people may have plenty to eat.
As a matter of fact, the Tarahumares assert that the
dances have been taught them by the animals. Like
all primitive people, they are close observers of nature.
To them the animals are by no means inferior creat-
ures; they understand magic and are possessed of much
knowledge, and may assist the Tarahumares in making
rain. In spring, the singing of the birds, the cooing of
the dove, the croaking of the frog, the chirping of the
cricket, all the sounds uttered by the denizens of the
greensward, are to the Indian appeals to the deities for
rain. For what other reason should they sing or call ? V
For the strange behaviour of many animals in the early
spring the Tarahumares can find no other explanation
but that these creatures, too, are interested in rain.
And as the gods grant the prayers of the deer ex-
pressed in its antics and dances, and of the turkey in its
curious playing, by sending the rain, they easily infer
that to please the gods they, too, must dance as the
deer and play as the turkey.
From this it will be understood that dance with
these people is a very serious and ceremonious matter, a
kind of worship and incantation rather than amusement.
Never do man and woman dance together, as in the
Avaltz and polka of civilised people. The very word
332 UNKNOWN MEXICO
for dancino;'. " nolavoa," means literally " to work."'
The wise oUl man may reproach lag<:;ard, inexperienced
younger ones, saying, " Whv^ do \-oii not go to work?"
meaning that they should go to the dance and not stand
idly about while the feast is going on. If the Tara-
humares did not comply with the commands of Father
Sun and dance, the latter would come down and burn
up the whole world.
The Indian never asks his e^od to forijive whatever
sin he may have committed ; all he asks for is rain,
which to him means something to eat, and to be free of
evil. The onlv wrong toward the gods of which he may
consider himself guilty is that he does not dance enough.
For this offence he asks pardon. Whatever bad thoughts
or actions toward man he mav have on his conscience
are settled between himself and the person offended. I
once asked a prominent heathen shaman why the people
were not baptised, and he said : " Because Tata Dios
made us as we are. We have always been as you see
us. People do not need to be baptised, because there
is no devil here. Tata Dios is not angrv with us ; whv
should he be ? Onlv when people do bad things does
he get angry. We make much beer and dance much,
in order that he mav remain content ; but when people
talk much, and go around fighting, then he gets angry
and does not give us rain."
Dancing not only expresses prayers for rain and life,
but also petitions the gods to ward off evil in any shape,
as diseases of man, beast, or cro))s. The |)eople may
dance also in case too much rain is falling, or for luck in
held work, hunting, despatching the dead, etc.; and in
tills way they also give thanks for the harvest. By
dancing and with tesvino thev express all their wants to
the gods, or, as a Tarahumare told me, " We pray by
dancin<r and the irourd."
SACRIFICES 333
With the dances is always connected the sacrifice of -
an animal ; the greater portion of the meat is eaten hv
the people themselves, who. beside, hrino; forth all kinds
of nice food, the best they have. Such dancing festi-
vals, as a matter of course, are given either by indi-
viduals or by the community. It is thought that Tata
Dios himself comes down each time to make his de-
mands on the Tarahumares for dancing and sacrihcing.
He communicates his wishes in a dream to someone,
not necessarily a shaman ; and in the dry season, when
the Indians begin to prepare their fields, most of these
notices come and are generally made known to all at
a race, where manv people always come together. Dur-
ing all these months hardly a day passes without a mes-
senger being sent out from some place in the country
to advise one or the other of the principal shamans that
God has come down and demanded a feast. Some-
times Tata Dios asks for an ox to be killed ; at other
times he wants only a sheep. Frequently he indicates
that the animal must be white ; on other occasions he is
not particular about the colour. The threat is added
that if the sacrifice is not forthcoming, and the peoj:>le
do not dance soon, all the corn will be burned up, and thev
will have to die of hunger. Or, if there has been too
much rain, the notice may say that, unless they sacrifice
and dance at once, all will be drowned, because it is
going to rain tremendouslv. Occasionallv it is directed
that they dance only a little while, then rest, then dance
again ; or else they have to keep on dancing for a
night and a day, or two nights in succession. When a
great many sacrifices have been made and animals begin
to be scarce, Tata Dios mav have to content himself
with iskiate and tortillas. The people mav continue to
make feasts and to dance, and vet get no other results
but fresh messages, ordering still more sacrifices. Then
334 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the Indians begin to argue with Tata Uius that he must
not be so greedy ; he has filled himself uj:) with oxen and
sheep and tesvino, and they cannot give him any more.
When such revolt seems imminent the shaman may
throw out an ominous hint that the sacrifices have to be
made ; for what would the Tarahumares say if Tata Dios
w^anted one of them to be killed ?
Among the reasons given by the Christian Tarahu-
mares for continued dry weather are the following : The
Devil has made Tata Dios sick and has tied him up ; or
the Moon (Virgin Mary) is sick ; or the people have not
given Tata Dios enough food and he is very hungry ; or
the railroad engines of the Americans are making so
much smoke that Tata Dios is angry ; or, finally, some-
one at a feast has infringed upon the law of decorum,
and thereby annulled its value.
At present domestic animals are considered more
valuable at sacrifices than the beasts of the field and the
forest ; yet squirrels (chipawiki), turkeys, deer, rabbits,
and fish are still used to some extent, especially l)y those
who do not possess domestic animals. Twenty men may
go out to hunt a deer, or from six to ten men try to bring
in four or five squirrels for a communal feast, to w^hich
all contribute the corn necessary for the tesvino, say,
half an almud, more or less, according to the means of
each householder. Never does any one man give all
the corn required for a tribal feast, though he mav do-
nate all the meat, in the shape of an ox, a cow, or a
sheep. Goats are sacrificed only at burial functions. If
the people do not give the best they have for the sacri-
fice, they W'ill ol)tain only poor results.
The dances are always held in the open air, that
Father Sun and Mother Moon may look ui)on the
efforts of their children to please them. They dance on
the level space in front of the d welling, j)referal)ly
THE RUTUBUKI DANCE
335
each danced on its own patio. Some people have as
many as three such dancing-places, but most of them
have to content themselves with one. If a Tarahumare
could afford it, he would have ten patios to accommo-
date more people and dances near his house.
To my knowledge there are six different dances, hut
of these I will describe only two, the rutuburi and the
The Beginning of the Rutuburi and the Yumari Dance.
yumari, as these are the most important and the two
almost exclusively used in the central part of the coun-
try. The other four I saw only among the southern
Tarahumares.
The rutuburi was taught to the people by the turkey.
Generally three crosses are put up, and there are three
shamans, the principal one being in the middle ; his
assistants need not be shamans, but the master of the
336 UNKNOWN MEXICO
house and his son, or sonic i rusted friend, may ofhciate.
When tlie dancing- is ahout to begin, these men lai<:e a
position in a Hue before the crosses, facing east, and
shake their rattles continuously for two or three minutes
from side to side, holding the instruments high uj) in the
air, as tlie rattling is meant to attract the attention of the
gods. Tiien, with the singing and shaking of the rat-
\ ties — now down and up — they move forward in a man-
ner similar to tluit of a schoolgirl skipping over a rope,
passing the crosses to a point as far east as the starting-
]K)int was to the west, altogether about eighteen yards.
They then turn around and move back to the starting-
point. In this wav they keep on dancing forward and
- back three times, alwavs in an easterly and westerly direc-
tion, swinging their rattles down and up. while passing
from one point to the other, and from side to side when-
ever they reach it. The down-and-u|) movement of the
rattle is not a simple down and up, but the down stroke
is always followed by a short after-clap before the arm
rises for the new swing, producing thus a three-part
rhythm. They sing the following stanza, repeating it
over and over again :
Introduction to Rutuburi
Ru - tu - l)u - ri vX- - \e - iia Rii - tu- In'i - ri va: - ye - na
Rutuburi, from one side lo the otlicr moving! RLituburi, from one side to, etc.
< > - ma wie - ka xa - ru - si. ( ) - ma \v:v - ka .\a - ru - si.
All ! many ! Arms erossed ! All 1 many I Arms crossed !
This is the intKxkiction and j)relude to the whole
dance. Aftc-r this formal opening the men take their
places in line to the right of the shamans, and the
women to the left. Tl)e\' stand foi" a few minutes while
the shamans sing and swing tlicii' rattles, tlu' men
silenth' holding their arms folded o\'cr their l)rea.sts, as
THE SHAMAN 337
described in the sono;. This crossing of the arms I take
to mean a salutation to the gods. While the Taraim-
mares of to-day never salute each other by shaking
iiands, neither is there any trace at present of their ever
having saluted each other by crossing arms over the
breast, which form was probably never used except with
the gods, at ceremonies.
All the people are closely wrapped in their blankets,
which they wear throughout the dance. In its general
traits, the dance is performed in the same way as the
oi)ening ceremony. The shamans, or sometimes only
the leader, jumps along as described, but the men just
walk to and fro, and have to take long steps in order to
keep abreast with the leaders. The women follow the
men after the latter have gone several yards ahead,
skipping in the same way as the shamans, though less
pronounced. They stamp the hard ground with the
right foot and run without regard to time, so that the
pattering of their naked feet reminds one of a drove of
mules stampeding. They overtake the men, so as to
turn around simultaneously with them and wait again
for a few seconds for the men to get ahead of them.
Thus the dance is continued without interruption for
hours and hours. This may sound as if the spectacle
was monotonous ; but such is not the case. On the
contrary, there is a certain fascination in the regular,
rhythmical movement from side to side — like the double
pendulum of some gigantic, unseen clock. The shaman
specially captivates the attention of the observer, being
the very incarnation of enthusiasm. He swings his
rattle with energy and conviction, as if bent on rous-
ing the gods out of their indifference, while he stamps
his right foot on the ground to add weight to the
words, which he pours forth in a loud, resonant voice
from his wide-open mouth. Although the Tarahu-
Vol. I. — 22
T^T^H UNKNOWN MEXICO
humare, as a rule, has a harsh and not very powerful
singing voice, still there are some noteworthy excep-
tions, and the airs of the rutuburi songs are quite pleas-
ing to the ear. These, as all their dancing-songs, are of
great antiquity and strangely enchanting.
Rutuburi Dance
^::t
_S-^--5_
V4-sa-ma du - lu(- hu - ru) - si
In flowers (is) jaltomate,*
Sae- va-gd wi - 15
in flow-ers stands up.
i
t^^?
$;t
•- •
-#- -9-
-•- nr
•- -#-
Sae - va
• ga
wi - li
wu - ka
wii - ka.
In flowers
stands up
getting ripe,
getting ripe
Rutuburi Danxe
-A--
.0. -#-
Ra - ya - bo va - mi va - mi - (ru) ra - ya - bo
(On the) ridge yon - der, yon - der (On the) ridge
m
:1:
be - mo - ko
fog
ra - ya - bo
(on the) ridge
be - mo - ko.
fog.
The water is near ;
Fog is resting on the mountain and on the mesa.
The Bluebird sings and whirs in the trees, and
The Male Woodpecker is calling on the llano,
Where the fog is rising.
The large Swift is making his dashes tlirough the evening air ;
The rains are close at hand.
When the Swift is darting through the air he makes his whizzing,
humming noise.
The lilue Squirrel ascends the tree and whistles.
The plants will be growing and the fruit will be ripening,
And when it is ripe it falls to the ground.
It falls because it is so ripe.
* A kind <>f tomato.
THE YUMARI DANCE 339
The flowers are standing up, waving in the wind.
The Turkey is playing, and the Eagle is calling ;
Therefore, the time of rains will soon set in.
In the wet season, when the rabbits are about, the
shamans sing of the rabbit. In winter time they sing
of the giant woodpecker, and in harvest time, when the
people begin to make merry, they sing of the blackbird.
The yumari was learned from the deer. Accord-
ing to tradition it is the oldest dance. At the hour
appointed, the shaman, facing the cross and the east,
here, too, opens the proceedings by shaking his rattle
to both sides to notify the gods. Then he begins to walk
around the cross, humming a song and marching in time
to the rattle, which he now swings down and up. He
makes the ceremonial circuit, stopping at each cardinal
point for a few seconds. After this he begins his dance,
and the rest of the assemblage gradually join in. The
dance consists in short walks, forward and backward,
with lock-step, the men being arrayed in line on both
sides of the shaman, their eyes fixed on the ground,
their elbows touching. In this way they swing to and
fro, generally describing a curve around the cross, or,
sometimes, forming a circle against the apparent move-
ment of the sun. The women dance in a similar way,
in a course of their own behind the men ; but they fre-
quently break ranks, jumping forward and backward
with movements wholly devoid of grace. When the
dance goes in a circle, the women move with the sun.
The tones marked with the accent > in each of the following yumari songs are grunts.
Yumari dance
-ft ' M -i^-FF — ^ — ^- Fi — ^— ^-Fi — p — #-HT ^=d3
Yumari variant
^=fi.
zSifct
azrt— 1
^-^=F^^Ht-E *n^_ E^=:^=b^=££3JJ
340
UNKNOWN MEXICO
i^2=^I^E
=se=
Yumari variant
> >
Nr-
finzzcz^
:a
'Ihe yumari songs tell that the Cricket wants to
dance ; the I^og- wants to dance and jumj) ; and the
Blue Heron wants to fish ; the Goatsucker is dancing, so
is the Turtle, and the Grey Fox is whistling. But it is
characteristic of the yumari songs that they generally
consist only of an unintelligible jargon, or, rather, of a
mere succession of vocables, which the dancers murmur.
X Unlike the rutubiiri, the vumari soon becomes tire-
some, in spite of its greater animation, ^'et the spec-
tacle has something weird in it, especiall)' when seen by
the fitful flicker of the lire, which throws a fantastic
light upon the grotesque figures, like goblins moving
about on the same space. Many mothers carry their
slee])ing infants on their backs. Sometimes, the blanket
which supports the babv loosens, and the little thing
hano-s half out of it, followingr every movement of the
])arent.
At most feasts both these dances are performed, and
the Indians themselves consider them to have the same
general purpose. It is, therefore, not easy to see the
relation of the two dances to each other. Rutuburi is
the more serious dance, and is more efficacious than
yumari, though the latter, of course, has its own special
value ; for instance, it expresses a praver that the shaman
may have strength to cure. In \-umaii, all sing And ilance,
and very frequenth' all the ])eifornu is are drunk, while
during the former dance absolute decorum is observed.
Both dances are for the sun and the moon — rutuburi, in
order to call them down ; \umari, to desj^atch them.
Therefore, the usual dancing-feasts commence with rutu-
buri. W'hen the function is about to l)e concluded, an
CEREMONY OF THE SACRIFICE 343
hour or two before sunrise, yumari is commenced, and
leads over to the second part of the festival, the eating
and drinking. After this, yumari may be continued
throughout the day, while the Indians get drunk. Rutu-
buri is also danced at thanksgiving for the harvest, while
on such occasions yumari asks for a good year to come.
Then, again, rutuburi may be danced throughout the day,
and yumari at night ; but generally the former dance com-
mences soon after sunset. On one occasion, while I was
waiting for the performance to begin, the son of the
house, in answer to my query, pointed to the sky, and
told me that the dance would not commence until the
Pleiades reached a certain spot in the heavens, which
I calculated to mean about eleven o'clock. This in-
dicated that the stars have some connection with the
dancing.
At the break of dawn busy hands begin to get every-
thing ready for the great ceremony of the sacrifice.
For several days the women of the household and their
friends have been making tortillas and boiling beans
and tamales (small quantities of unsalted ground
corn, wrapped and boiled in corn-husks). An animal
was killed on the preceding day, and the meat has
been boihng (without salt) in large jars all day and all
night. Tata Dios does not like bones, therefore no
bones are cooked with this meat. Several of the wom-
en have been dividing their time between dancing and
watching the food-supply, to guard it against mishap
from any source. A blanket is spread underneath, just
to the west of the cross, or the three crosses, as the case
may be, and on it in a line they place the jars of tes-
vino ; behind these are set three small earthenware
bowls filled with the stringy mass of the meat ; then
come three baskets of tortillas; and finally three little
jars with wooden spoons in each are brought on and
"V
344 UNKNOWN MEXICO
put in their proper places, hchiiul the rest of the food.
The hitter vessels contain niedicines to be taken, for the
welfare of the people is looked after from every point
of view.
In the meantime the dancing goes on with undimin-
ished force. Nearly every night during the dry season,
for nobod}' knows how many centuries, the Morning
Star has been looking down upon his sons, the Tarahu-
mares, as they dance in the heart of the sierra, casting
his last rays u})on the weird scene around their dying
fires before he llees from the approaching keeper of the
dav. Just before the first beam of the rosy light an-
nounces the coming of Father Sun, the dancing ceases,
and the rattles are added to the sacrificial offerings on
the blanket. Everybody now is ready to do homage to
the deity about to appear above the horizon. The sha-
man greets him with the words, " Behold, Nonoru-
gami is coming ! " and then solemnly proceeds toward
the cross, while the people form a line behind him and
preserve a respectful silence throughout the ensuing
ceremony. He fills a large drinking-gourd with tes-
vino, and, holding it in his left hand, throws a small dip-
perful of the liquor with his right hand into the air,
three times to each cardinal point, making the ceremo>
nial circuit. Then the meat and the tortillas are sac-
rificed in the following way : The shaman takes up
from the ground the vessel in front of him, and lifts it
three times toward heaven. Then with his fingers he
takes up a little meat, offers it to the cross with the
word "Koa!" (Eat), and throws it up into the air.
Next he breaks off a small piece of tortilla, and repeats
the same ceremony. Thus he sacrifices to all the car-
dinal points. The two assistants of the shaman follow^
their [)rincijial in every act he performs.
The solemnity of the scene is l)y no means impaired
Sacrificing Tesvino aUcr a Vuniari Dance. The L ru.-s \n a.-, on tl
with a Coloured Handkerchief.
NONORUGAMI 347
by the numerous dogs, whieh are gathering to see what
they can snatch up. Of course, the people drive them
away, but in the end ihey always get Nonorugami's share
of the food, while the god is supposed to eat only the
nourishing substance.
Wliat is left in the jars or bowls after the sacrifice
is placed back on the blanket under the cross. The
broth of the meat, too, is sacrificed, and so is the blood
of the animal that has been killed for the feast.
Whenever the shaman returns to the people after
performing the sacrifice, he says, "This was done on
behalf of Nonorugami," and all the people respond :
"Matetrava! Matetrava ! Kalahupo ! " (Thank you!
Thank you ! It is all right !)
When the gods have had their share of the tesvino
and the food, the curing begins. The medicines are
cold infusions of different medicinal plants. The shaman
standing directly in front of the middle cross, takes up
the jar containing the chief medicine, palo hediondo ;
his assistant to the north takes up the bowl containing
a root called ohnoa ; and the one on the south maguey
water. After having duly sacrificed to the gods, the
great shaman himself takes three spoonfuls of the
medicine, and gives the same quantity to his assistant
to the north, who in turn first takes his remedy and
then gives some to the shaman. In the same way
the latter exchanges with his assistant to the south,
and then the two assistants exchange remedies. The
bowls are then handed by the shaman to the owner
of the house, who in turn passes them on to the first
man in the row, and from him they go from hand
to hand to the last man in the line, each man taking
three spoonfuls out of each bowl, while each of the
women gets four. The man who drinks last gives the
bowls back to the owner of the house, who in turn
348 UNKNOWN MEXICO
hands thcni to the shaman, wht) puts them l)ack on the
blanket underneath the eross. Meanwhile the incense-
burners have been filled with hot coals, on which tiie
shaman now throws some copal, the smoke of which he
waves over all the people. Ele, as well as the other
men, open their blankets a little to j^et the smoke on
their bodies. This finishes the curino; act, and now a
speech is made. At private festivals the shaman is the
orator of the occasion, but at communal or tribal fes-
tivals the orobernador is expected to, and ijenerally does,
perform this part of the proceedino;s. Rhetoric is one
of the accomplishments of the Tarahumares, though it
is not to be judged in accordance with the white man's
standard. Here is a speech made by the gobernatior at
the end of one of the feasts I witnessed :
Listen to me ! Stand up in a row and listen to
what 1 have to tell you. All of you stand up in line,
men, women, and children, because I am going to give
you my words, to present to you the words which the
One Above bids me to tell you. Now all is over !
We have done something good to Tata Dios, and he
has given you life to dance ; and now he is giving you
life for another year. All of you will hav^e to make
feasts like this. You have no experience ; therefore
listen to me and hear what I have to tell you. If you
do not believe what I am telling you, the Devil will
carry you off. Vou all are inexperienced, all of \()U
who are standing here in a row around. Be quiet, and
do all your business quietly. Drink quietly, talk (piiet-
ly, sing '^quietly. And do not fight, because if in the
fight you kill somebody, what will xou have afterward?
Nothing but sorrow and sadness ! The One who is
above us bids me to tell you, to say to all of you, men,
women, and children, that this water, this tesvino that
we are drinking is what makes us lose our heads. \'ou
know it all, and the One Above knows that this is the
truth that I am telling you. Don't fight, don't pull
TAKAHLMAKE OKATOKY
349
each other's hair, don't beat anyone in the face until he
bleeds. For the blood and the hair belong to Tata
Dios, and you pull his hair and shed his blood. Drink
tesyino to your hearts' content, get much drunk, but
then lie down and sleep, and in the morning you return
to your homes without coming to blows \yith anyone.
All the time the speech is punctuated with expres-
sions of approval, and at the end they all say : " Mate-
Ready to Begin Eating and Drinking after a Night's Dancing ot Rutuburi.
traya ! Matetraya ! Kalahupo ! " (Thank you! Thank
you ! It is all right !)
A speech is also often made in the beginning of the
feast, when much the same sentiments are expressed.
The orator tells the people to follow the good example
of the host, that sacrificing and dancing may go on
here, there, and eyerywhere, so that the gods will get
plenty to eat and grant the prayers of the Tarahumares.
3^o UNKNOWN MEXICO
He strongly admonishes thcni to keep away from
women, as otherwise the value of the feast would be
lost. This day belongs to Tata Dios, and nothing else
is to be thought of. If anyone transgresses this com-
mand, he will have to give an ox or a sheep and tes-
vino, to make the feast all over again.
While the dancing and singing, sacrificing and
speechmaking, are going on, the people behave with de-
corous solemnity and formality. The ceremonies are
never interrupted by unseemly conduct ; everybody de-
ports himself with grave sobriety, and refrains from loud
talking and laughing and from making any disrespectful
noise. But after the gods have been given their share,
the people go in, no less energetically, for enjoying
themselves.
Food and tesvino are never distributed by the same
man, nor are men and women waited on by the same
functionary ; in other words, one man is appointed for
each sex, to dispense the tesvino, and two others to
serve the food.
They eat but little of the solids, as it is customary for
the guests to take home their portions, the women bring-
ing jars and baskets along for the purpose. Little or
nothing of the tesvino is spared, and it is the avowed
intention and aim of everybody to get " a beautiful in-
toxication." They all like to get drunk. An India i
explained to me that the drunken people weep with
delight, because they are so j)erfectly happy. Every
Tarahumare has in his heart a cross which Tata Dios
placed there long, long ago, and this cross they respect.
When drunk they remember Tata Dios better. At their
feasts they sit alongside of him and drink with him.
The women sit alongside of the Moon and remember
ancient 1 imcs.
P>ut unfortunately this blissfid stage of their intoxi-
THE FLOWING BOWL 351
cation docs not last long, and thcMi the animal nature in
them manifests itself. Under the iniluence of the liq-
uor, men and women rapidly lose that bashfulness and
modesty which in ordinary life arc such characteristic
traits of their deportment. Furthermore, whatever
grudge one man may have against another now crops
out, and very likely a fight will ensue, in which the
two opponents recklessly pull each other's hair and
punch each other's faces. Sometimes in such an out-
break of unreasoning animalism one of the combatants
will seize a stone and batter the other one's head to
crush it. Afterward, when sober again, the murderer
may deeply deplore his deed — if he remembers it at all.
Mothers, when overcome by the spirit of the feast,
may unawares allow their babies to fall out of the blan-
kets and into the fire. Children may frequently be
seen with bruises and scars which they carry as memen-
toes of some tesvino feast. I know one man who had
no hair on one side of his head, having when a child
been a victim of such an accident. But seldom, if ever,
is a child allowed to become fatally injured.
Taking it all in all, it is a good-natured, jolly, silly
crowd, out for a good time and enjoying themselves.
All are good friends, and familiarity becomes unlimited.
Late in the afternoon those still able to walk start on
their way home. Rarely, however, can they reach their
domiciles, if these are any distance off, before nature en-
forces her rights ; and the track is strewn with men
and women, who, overcome with the effects of their
spree, have lain down wherever they happened to be, to
sleep themselves sober. Tarahumare society has not yet
advanced far enough to see anything disgraceful in de-
bauches of this kind, which, if viewed from their stand-
point, are pro bono publico ; and we ourselves need go
back only to our grandfathers' and great-grandfathers'
352 UNKNOWN MEXICO
time to fintl that inebriety was nut at all inconsistent
with good morals and high standing. Moreover, no
matter how often the Taiahumares indulge in such sat-
urnalia, as soon as they recover their senses they are as
decorous and solemn as ever. Their native stimulant
does not seem to affect eitlier their physical or their
mental faculties, and, all scientific theories to the con-
trary, their children are strong, health v, and bright.
Aside from social and religious considerations, the
drinking of tesvino is a vital factor in the national life of
the tribe. Incredible as it may sound, yet, after pro-
longed and careful research into this interesting psycho-
logical i)roblem, I do not hesitate to slate that in the
ordinary course of his existence the uncivilised Tara-
humare is too bashful and modest to enforce his matri-
monial rights and privileges ; and that by means of tes-
vino chietiy the race is kept alive and increasing. It is
especially at the feasts connected with the agricultural
work that sexual promiscuity takes place.
A large gathering is not necessary in order to pray
to the gods by dancing. Sometimes the family dances
alone, the father teaching the boys. While doing agri-
cultural work, the Indians often depute one man to
dance yumari near the house, while the others attend to
the work in the fields. It is a curious sight to see a lone
man taking his devotional exercise to the tune of his
rattle in front of an api)arently deserted dwelling. The
lonely worshipper is doing his share of the general work
by l)ringing down the fructifying rain and by warding
off disaster, wiiile the rest of the family and their friends
plant, hoe, weed, or harvest. In the evening, when they
return from the field, they may join him for a little while;
but often he goes on alone, dancing all night, and singing
himself hoarse, and the Indians told me that this is the
very hardest kind of work, and exhausting even to them.
VARIOUS DANCES 353
Solitary worshij) is also obsci\Ld by men who go
out hunting deer or squirrels for a communal feast.
Every one of them dances yumari alone in front of liis
house for two hours to insure success on the hunt ; and
when putting corn to sprout for the making of tesvino
the owner of the house dances for a while, that the
corn may sprout well.
In certain parts of the country, near Aboreachic, for
instance, a dance called valixiwami is in vogue. Here
the line of the women faces that of the men, and the two
rows dance backward and forward, following each other
all the time.
In a dance called cuvali, which is found still further
south, the movements are the same as in the dance just
mentioned, but the steps are different. It is danced for
the same reason as rutuburi is, and it makes the grass
and the fungi grow and the deer and the rabbits multi-
plv. This is the only dance known to the Tepehuanes.
In the winter they dance for snow, a dance called
yohe ; and finally there is a dance called ayena, which
calls the clouds from the north and south that they
may clash and produce rain.
I was present at feasts in which four of these dances
were performed, and the order in which they followed
each other was : Rutuburi, yumari, valixiwami, cuvali.
According to one version of the tradition, both
vumari and rutuburi were once men who taught the
Tarahumares to dance and sing. They live with Father
Sun. Valixiwami and cuvali w^ere also men and com-
panions of the former, but much younger.
At certain feasts for the benefit of the moon, three
cigarettes are offered under the cross. The shaman
takes one of them, gives a puff, raising the cigarette at
the same time upward toward the moon and saying :
"Sua" (rise) " vami" (yonder) " repa " (upward). This
Vol. I. — 2-;
3^-4 UNKNOWN MEXICO
is repeated three times. 1 he master of the house and
his wife do the same. The ceremony is performed
in order to helj) tiie moon to mai-ce clouds. Now all
present may smoke. Vhv Tarahumare never smokes in
the middle of the dav ; he would offend the sun by
so doino-. He indulire'S in the " weed" mostlv at feasts
when drunk. When an Indian offers another man to-
bacco and a drv corndeaf to loll his cigarette it is a sign
that everything is well between them.
Every year between March and Ma\ a large perform-
''^ ance takes place on a special patio in the woods. Its
]:)urj)ose is to cure or jirevent disease, and much tesvino
is consumed. A straw-man, about two feet high, dressed
in cotton drawers, and with a handkerchief tied around
its head is set up next to the cross. It represents Fa-
ther Sun, and the cross is his wife, the Moon. Some-
times a stuffed recamiichi (cacomistle, bassari'scKs) is
used either in the place of a straw-man or in addition to
it. After the feast is over, the manikin is taken to the
place from which the straw was obtained, in order to
make the grass grow. The (christian 'rarahinnares keep
it in the sacristy of their church.
The latter also celebrate Christmas, and on this oc-
casion some of them, the so-called Diaiacliincs^ paint
their faces and carry on tiieir backs stuffed animals, such
as the grey fox, squirrel, oi- opossum, while dancing to
the music of the violin. Thev jokmglv call the skins
then- DiHchachitos, and hold them as women carrv th(Mr
babies. At present the onlv object is to make tlu' be-
holder laugh ; but of course the |)lav is a renmant of
some ancient custom, the meaning of which is now for-
gotten through the new associations with which the mis-
sionaries of old imbued the ceremonies and rites found
among t he pagans.
A similar suggestion of antiiiuitv is unmistakably
ANTIQUITY Ob DANCES ^^$
embodied in the deer masks, as well as in the heads with
antlers attaehed, whieh the same men also may wear.
During Easter week live rattlesnakes are carried
about, but the heads of the reptiles are tied together so
that they can do no harm. One man may have as
many as four serpents with him.
CHAPTER XIX
PLAXT-WORSHIP — IIIKLI.I INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL EFFECTS
llIKLLl BOTH NL\N AND GOD HOW THE TARAHUMARES OB-
TAIN THE PLANT, AND WHERE THEV KEEP IT THE TARAHU-
MARE HIKULI FEAST MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS — HIK.ULI LIKES
NOISE THE DANCE HIKULl's DEPARTURE IN THE MORNING
OTHER KINDS OF CACTI WORSHIPPED " DOCTOR " RUBIO,
THE GREAT HIKULI EXPERT THE AGE OF HIKULI WORSHIP.
TO the Indian, c\ciything in nature is alive. Plants,
like human beinijs, have souls, otherwise they could
not live and orow. Manv are supposed to talk and sing
and to feel jov and pain. For instance, when in winter
the pine-trees are stiff with cold, thev weep and pray to
the sun to shine and make them warm. When anoered
or insulted, the plants take their revenge. Those that
are supposed to possess curative ])owers arc venerated.
This fact, however, does not save them from being cut
into pieces and steej^ed in water, which the people af-
terward drink or use in washing themselves. The mere
fragrance of liic lil\- is supposed to cure sickness and to
drive off sorcery. In invoking the lilv's helj) the sha-
man utters a pra\ir like this :
" Suinati okilivca saiva rako cheeneserovd
" IJcautitul lliis morning in l)l()()in lily thou guard me!
waminamela ke usugiti'ianii clieeolsh^loaya
drive them away (those who) make sorcery ! thou make me
grow old !
cheeHveva tesola chapimehiva otsheloa
thou give me walking-stick (to) take up (in) old age
rimivelava Matetrava Sevaxoa
(that 1 may) Ihul ! thanks exiiale fragrance
wiln^ova !
standintr ! "
356
HIKULI CULTS
397
Echinocactus.
("Beautiful lily, in blooui this inornini;, guard me! Drive
away sorcery ! Make me grow old ! Let me reach the age at
which I have to take up a walking-stick! I thank thee for exhaling
thy fragrance there, where thou art standing ! ")
High mental qualities are aserihcd especially to all
species of Maniuiilaria and Echinocactus, small cacti,
for which a regular cult is in-
stituted. The Tarahumares des-
ignate several varieties as hikuli,
though the name belongs prop-
erly only to the kind most com-
monly used by them. These
plants live for months after
they have been rooted up, and
the eatino- of them causes a
state of ecstas}^ They are there-
fore considered dcmi-gods, who
have to be treated with great
reverence, and to w^hom sacrifices have to be offered.
The principal kinds thus distinguished are known to
science as Lophophoi-a William siidiVi^ LophopJwra IVil-
liamsii, var. Lcwinii. In the United States they are called
mescal buttons, and in Mexico /n'<?/^. The Tarahumares
speak of them as the superior hikuli (hikuli waname), or
simply hikuli. they being the hikuli par excellence.
The Huichol Indians, who live many hundred miles
south of the Tarahumares, also have a hikuli cult, and
it is a curious and interesting fact that with them
the plant has even the same name, although the two
tribes are neither related to nor connected with each
other. The cults, too, show many points of resem-
blance, though with the southern tribe the plant plays
a far more important part in the tribal life, and its
worship is much more elaborate. On the other hand,
the Huichols use only the species and variety shown
3^8
UNKNOWN MEXICO
in llu' illiistralion, while tin- Taraluiinarcs have several.
Major I. H. l^>n(i, of New N'oik. informs nic that
in Texas, during tlie Civil War, the so-called Texas
Rangers, when taken {prisoners and de{)rived of all other
/:>^^f^R #?^'|; :i^^
Lophophora Williamsii, var. Lewinii. LophopJiora Williamsii.
Hikuli or Peyote, the principal sacred cacti. Nearly natural size.
Stimulating drinks, used mescal buttons, or " white
mule," as they called them. They soaked the plants in
water and became intoxicated with the liquid.
The plant, when taken, exhilarates the human svs-
tem, and allays all feeling- of hunger and thirst. It also
produces colour-visions. When fresh, it has a nauseating,
slightly sour taste, but it is wonderfidlv refreshing when
one has been exposed to great fatigue. Not onlv does
it do awa\ with all exhaustion, but one feels aetuallv
])ushed on, as 1 can testif\' from j)ersonal exj^erience.
In this respect it resembles the Peruvian coca; but un-
like the latter, it leaves a certain dei)ression, as well as a
headache. Although an Indian feels as if drunk after
eating a quantitv of hikuli. and the trees dance before
EFFECTS OF HIKULI
359
his eyes, he maintains the balance of liis hod}' even het-
ter than under normal conditions, and he will walk
alon<^ the edi^e of {)i"ieij)iees without becoming- dizzy.
i\t their nocturnal feasts, when drinking; heavily of both
tesvino and hikuli, many persons may be seen to weep
and laugh alternately. Another marked effect of the
plant is to take away temporarily all sexual desire.
This fact, no doubt, is the reason why the Indians, by a
curious aboriginal mode of reasoning, impose abstinence
from sexual intercourse as a necessary part of the hikuli
cult.
The effect of the plant is so much enjoyed by the
Tarahumares that they attribute to it power to give
Dry Hikuli.
health and long life and to purify body and soul. The
little cacti, either fresh or dried, are ground on the nic-
tate, while being mixed with water ; and this liquor is the
usual form in wdiich hikuli is consumed.
Hikuli is also applied externally for snake-bites,
burns, wounds, and rheumatism ; for these purposes it is
chewed, or merely moistened in the mouth, and applied
to the afflicted part. Not only does it cure disease,
causing it to run off, but it also so strengthens the body
360 UNKNOWN MEXICO
thcU it can resist illness, and is thcrcfoR' much used in
wardinii" off sickness. Thouiiii not ^iven to the dead,
since the dead are no Ioniser in need of remedies, hikuli
is always partaken of at the feasts of the dead.
Moreover, hikuli is a powerful protector of its peo-
l)le under all circumstances, and it gives luck. If a man
carries soim- hikuli in his belt, the hear cannot hite him
and the deer cannot run away, but become quite tame
and can easily be killed. Should he meet Apaches,
hikuli would prevent them from iiring off their guns
at him. It gives luck in foot-races and all kinds of
games, in climbing trees, etc. Hikuli is the great safe-
guard against witchcraft. It sees even better than the
shamans, and it watches that nothing bad is put into
the food. The Christian Taraluunares, when they partake
of hikuli, think that the devil runs out of their stomachs.
Hikuli })urifies any man who is willing to sacrifice a
sheep and to make native beer. There is, however, no
remedy for a murderer ; not even hikuli can cure him.
The Christian Tarahumares make the sign of the
cross when coming into the presence of the plant, and I
was told to lift my hat to it. It is always saluted in the
same way as a man, and is suj^posed to make the cus-
tomary responses to the saliuations. Ilikuli is not as
great as Father Sun, but sits next to him. It is the
brother of Tata Dios ; and the greatest hikidi is his twin
brother, and is therefore called uncle.
Sometimes these plants are dressed up in j)icces of
blankets, and cigarettes are ])laced before them. Hoys
must not touch hikidi, and women onlv wlu'n thev act
as the shaman's assistants and have to grind it. As a
matter of fact, onlv shamans can handle it jiroperlv. and
even thev wash \\\v\y hands carefidlw and sometimes
elect not to touch it at all, making use of little sticks
mstead of their lingers. Certain shamans washed their
CARE OF THE PLANT sfn
hands and rinsed tiicir moulhs ininicdialcly after eating
from my vessels, because hikuli would be angry with
them for eating strange food cooked by strange people.
Hikuli is not kept in the house, because it is
extremelv virtuous, and mic'ht become offended at the
sight of anything immodest. It is placed in a special jar
or basket, in a separate store-house, and is never taken
out until tesvino and meat have been offered to it. If
this were neglected, it would eat the Indian's soul. If
anything happens to hikuli — for instance, if irreverent
mice eat it — the owner fears that he may be made crazy
as a punishment for his failure to guard it. If anyone
should steal hikuli, he would be sure to go crazy, unless
he returned the plant to its original owner. He must
also kill an ox and make a big feast, in order to set him-
self right again with the mighty god and with the people.
After four years, hikuli grows old and mouldy,
and loses its virtues. It is then buried in a corner of
the cave or the house, or taken to the place where it
came from, and fresh plants are obtained instead. Ac-
cording to tradition, when Tata Dios went to heaven
in the beginning of the world, he left hikuli behind as
the great remedy of the people. Hikuli has four faces
and sees everything. Its power is well shown in the
following myth :
The Bear in a cave said to Hikuli, " Let us fight and
let us first smoke over there." They smoked and they
fought, and Hikuli was stronger than the Bear. When
Hikuli threw the Bear down, all the wind went out
of the Bear ; but the Bear said again, " Let us smoke and
let us fight a few times more." And they did so, and
Hikuli again threw down the Bear, and the Bear seated
himself on a stone and wept, and went away, and never
returned.
Hikuli is not inditrenous to the Tarahumare country
362 UNKNOWN MEXICO
of to-dav. T(j ul)lain il Ioiil:, and uiuil rccrnily j)cril()us
journeys have to he undertaken every year to the phiteaus
of eastern Cliihuahua, in the Sierra del Aimolow near the
raihoad station of Ximenez, and to the Sierra de Margoso,
beyond Santa Rosaha de Camarga, crossincr the tracks
of the Mexican Central Railroad. From two or three
to a do7X'n men start out to get the plants, tirst i)urif\-
ing themselves with copal incense. It takes a week
or ten days to get to the Sierra de Margoso, where the
plants are chieflv found, and about a month is con-
sumed on the entire journew lentil ihev reach the
hikuli countr\-, the Tarahumares may eat anything ;
but once there, they must abstain from ever\ thing ex-
cept pinole. Upon arriving at the spot, the pilgrims
erect a cross, and near it thev })laee the first plants
taken uj), that these mav tell where others may be
found in plenty. The second batch of plants gathered
is eaten raw, and makes the men drunk. As speech is
forbidden, thev lie down in silence and sleep. The fol-
lowing dav, when perfectly sober again, thev begin early
in the morning to collect the plants, taking them uj) with
the utmost care, by means of sticks, so as not to touch or
injure them, because hikuli would get angry and punish
' the offender. "Two days are spent in gathering the plants,
each kind being ])laced in a separate bag, because, if thev
were mixed together, they would fight. The bags are
carefully carried on the backs of the men, as the Tarahu-
mares generally have no horses.
In the field in which it grows, it sings beaut ifullv,
that the Taraliumare ma\' lind it. It savs, " I want to
go to your countr\', that you mav sing your songs to
me." It also sings in the bag while it is being carried
home. One man, who wanted to use his bag as a ])il-
low, could not sleej), he said, because the j)lants made
so much noise.
PREPARATIONS FOR FEASTS 363
When the liikuli-seckcrs arrive at tlieir homes, the
people turn out to weleome the plants with music, and
a festival at wliich a shecj) or a g'oat is sacrificed is held
in their honour. On this occasion the shaman wears
necklaces made of the seeds of Coix Lacliryuia-yobi. In
due time he takes them off, and places them in a bowl
containing water in which the heart of the mag'uey has
been soaked, and after a while everyone j)resent gets a
spoonful of this water. The shaman, too, takes some,
and afterward wears the necklaces again. Both plants,
the Coix Lacliryina-yobi as well as the maguey, are
highly esteemed for their curative properties ; and in
his songs the shaman describes hikuli as standing on
top of a gigantic seed of the Coix LacJirynia-Jobi, as
big as a mountain.
The night is passed in dancing hikuli and vumari.
The pile of fresh plants, perhaps two bushels or more,
is placed under the cross, and sprinkled with tesvino,
for hikuli wants to drink beer, and if the people should
not give it, it would go back to its own country. Food
is also offered to the plants, and even money is placed
before them, perhaps three silver dollars, which the owner,
after the feast, takes back again.
During the vear, feasts may be held espcciallv in
honour of hikuli, but generally the hikuli dance is per-
formed simultaneously with, though apart from, the ru-
tuburi or other dances. On such occasions some sha-
mans devote themselves exclusively to the hikuli cult,
in order that the health of the dancers may be pre-
served, and that they mav have vigour for their work.
The hikuli feast consists mainly in dancing, which,
of course, is followed by eating and drinking, after the
customary offerings of food and tesvino have been made
to the gods. It is not held on the general dancing-
place, in front of the Tarahumare dwelling, but on a
364 UNKNOWN MEXICO
special palio. For the occasion a level i)iece of ground
may be cleared of all stones and rubbish, and carefully
swept with the Indian broom, which is made of a sheaf
of straw tied in the middle.
Meanwhile some people <j:^o into the woods to ijather
fuel for the larp^e fire which will be needed. The hre is
an important feature of the hikuli-feast, a fact indicated
bv the name, which is na{)itsi)i nawliruga, literally, "mov-
ino- (i.e. tlancing) around (nawliruga) the fire (na})itshi )."
There seems to be a preference for fallen trees, i)ines
or oaks, but this may be because thev are found in
plenty everywhere, are drier and l)urn better, and finally
save the men the labour and time of cutting them down.
Quite a number of such trunks are brought together,
and placed parallel to each other in an easterly and west-
erly direction ; but not imlil after sunset is the tire
lighted.
The master of the house in wliich the feast is to be
held gives some plants to two or three women ap-
pointed to the office of shaman's assistants. At an
ordinary gathering, a dozen or two of the ])lants suffice.
The women are called rokon'), which means the stamen
of the rtower, while the shaman is the pistil. The women
grind the plants with water on the metate, and then
take part in the dance. They must wash their hantls
most carefully before touching them ; and while they
are grinding a man stands by with a gourd, to catch anv
stray drop of li(|uor that may drip from the metate, and
to watch that nothing of the precious lluid is lost. Not
one dro|) must Ix,' spilled, anil e\'en the water with which
the metate is afterward washed, is added to the li(]uid.
The drink thus j^roduced is slightly thick and of a dirty
brown colour.
The shaman (sometimes there are two) takt'S his
seat on llic ground to the west of tlie lire, about two
HIKULI LIKES NOISE 365
yards off, i)n the opposite side of tlie dancii\<i^-plaee,
toward the east, the cross is placed. The shaman's male
assistants, at least two in number, seat themselves on
either side of their principal, while the women helpers
take a position to the north of the tire. On one occa-
sion 1 observed that the men grouj)ed themselves on
one side of the shaman, tiie women on the other. Close
i)y the shaman's seat a hole is du^", into which he or his
assistants may spit, after havin^j; drunk or eaten hikuli,
so that nothing may be lost. After this improvised cus-
pidor has been used, it is always carefully cov^ered with
a leaf.
As soon as the shaman has seated himself, he takes
a round drinking-gourd, and by pressing its rim firmlv
into the soil and turning the vessel round, makes a cir-
cular mark. Lifting up the bowl again, he draws two
diametrical lines at right angles in the circle, and thus
produces a symbol of the world.
In the centre he puts a hikuli, right side up ; or he
mav dig a hole in the centre, to the depth of five or
six inches, and place the hikuli in this. He then covers
it up with the gourd, bottom up, so that the plant
stands within a hollow sphere. The gourd may be re-
placed by a wooden vessel of similar shape; but in any
case it is firmlv planted in the ground to serve as a res-
onator for the musical instrument, — the notched stick,
which the shaman leans against the vessel, and on which
with another stick he rasps an accompaniment to his
songs. If he does not plant the gourd carefully in the
ground, it will make a discordant sound, which will vex
the demi-god, and he will cause someone m the house to
die. The noise produced bv the rasping is enjoyed by
Hikuli ; that is why he is placed beneath the bowl.
He is powerful, and manifests his strength by the noise
produced.
366
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Shaman's
Notched
Stick.
Length,
75 ctm.
VT:
-4
The nuLclicd slick, as well as the rasping-stick,
is made from the heav\ . hard Brazil-wood, brought
from the viciiiil\- of San Ignaeio. the hikuli coun-
try. The shaman holds, the notched stick in his
left hand, a little awav from himself, so that it
touches the vessel at a j)oint below the middle of
its length, the part between the shaman's hand and
the point of contact being a little longer than the
portion from that point to the end of the stick.
The notched sticks which are shown in the illus-
tration, from a Tarahumare burial-cave, are appar-
ently of considerable age. The Ind-
ians to whom I showed them did not [
know them, but they all affumcd that
they were rasping-sticks. On two
sides of one of them are slanting lines,
wdiich symbolize the road of Tata
Dios ; on the intervening sides are
transverse lines which represent fall-
ing rain. As the implements were
found near Baborigame, they may
])ossibly have belonged to the Tepe-
huanes, the northern members of
whom also have the hikuli cult.
When the shaman begins to rasp,
he starts from the farther end of the
notched stick, though not ([uite at [
the point, and runs his rasping-stick
quickly and evenly, about lwentv-si.\
times, toward himself, and awav again;
then he makes three long strokes down
and outward, each time throwing out
his arm at full length, and holding
the stick for a second high up toward
the east. This is rei)eated three times,
X
I.eriKth,
46 Ctlll.
LenRth,
40 ctm.
Ancient
Notched
Sticks.
THE HIKULI DANCE 367
and is the prelude to the ceremony. Now he Ijegins to
sing, accompanying himself with even strokes on the
notched stick, playing regularly, one stroke as long and
as fast as the other, always lirst toward himself, then
down again. His songs are short, lasting onlv al)Out five
minutes.
Presently the shaman's assistants, men and women,
rise. They carry censers filled with burning charcoals
and copal, and emitting a heav^y smoke, and proceed
toward the cross, to which they ofTer the smoking in-
cense, kneeling down, facing east, and crossing them-
selves. This feature, if not wholly due to Catholic influ-
ence, is at least strongly affected by it.
Having offered incense to the cross, they return to
the shaman. The women now sit down again in their pre-
vious places. The men receive from the shaman rattles
(soiiajas) consisting of deer-hoofs tied with bits of reed
to a strap of leather. They are either held in the right
hand or slung over the shoulder. When there are not
enough rattles for all assistants, a bell may be substituted.
Finally everything is ready for the dance to com-
mence. The men wear white blankets, in which they
keep themselves wrapped up to the chin throughout the
night ; but they have no sandals. The dance is per-
formed by the shaman's assistants, and consists of a pe-
culiar, (juick, jumping march, with short steps, the dan-
cers moving forward one after another, on their toes,
and making sharp, jerky movements, without, however,
turning around. They dance in the space between the
fire and the cross, and move in a direction opposite
to the sun's apparent movement. Nobody present is
allowed to walk in contra-direction to the dancers. Af-
ter six or eight rounds, thev enlarge the circuit so as to
include the fire; and whenever a dancer finds himself
just between the shaman and the fire, he quickly turns
368 UNKNOWN MEXICO
around once, tlicn, danciniLi,' as hctoic, moves on to the
dancin_o;-j>lacc j^ropcr. Now and then ihc dancers ii'ivc
vent to wliat is supi)Osed to l)e an iniitation of tlie
hikiili's talk, which reminded me of the crowino; of a
cock. Heating- tlieir mouths quickly three times with
the hollow of their hands, thev shout in a shrill, falsetto
voice, "Ilikuli vava ! " which means, "llikuli over
yonder ! "
The women take their turns sej)arate from the men,
though sometimes thev dance simultaneously with them.
Thev move around in silence, and their dance is slightly
different from that of the other sex. Sometimes two and
two may be seen dancing; toward each other. They all
w^ear freshly washed, clean white skirts and tunics, and
the entire scene around the big fire is marvellously
picturesque.
The dancing may sometimes lag, but the singing
and the rhythmical rasping of the shaman are kept up
through the night, interru})ted only once or twice, when
he sees fit. He })olitelv excuses himself to Hikuli. and
formal salutations are exchanged with the plant under
the bowl both when he goes and when he returns. On
such occasions he stops his singing and rasping, and
notihes Ilikuli by striking the notched stick several
times (juickh' with the rasping-stick, and linishing off
with three slow beats.
His songs describe how Ilikuli walks with his rat-
tles and with his staff of authoritv ; he comes to cure
and to guard the |)eoi)le and to grant a "beautiful" in-
toxication. '!() bring about the latter lesult, the brown-
ish li(|uo)" is dispensed from a jar standing under the
cross. A man serves it in small {|uantities from a gourd,
which he first carries around the lii'e on a rapid iim,
making three circuits for the shaman, and one for the
rest of the assemblage. The spirits of the feastcrs rise
CJ
HIKILIS DKPAIMIKE 371
in proportion to their potations. Sometimes only the
shaman and his assistants inchilije in the drinlvinij ; on
other oecasions all the people partake of the liquor.
SoNc. TO rill. IIiKriJ
\wf% — ^~~^'^~i^~"r;^~i:rF>~"^ — ^^^^f '^"1'^~" ^ ^ "^T ^ '"^"^~^^~^1
tj " • • '^-0~~^- ^ • Ht- -0- ~0- ~ ■J~~^~'^-
Hi -ku - li o - kii - li - va- va Ta - mi - s;e- li - va re - ga
Hikuli, uncle! Our authority thus!
±4E±ES ^^"
A - go - na wi-li si - rife Na-na-ja re-gd we -14
Yonder standing upright, see! The ancients thus placed him.
The secondary effect of the plant, depression and
drowsiness, shows itself more plainly on the company
when they sit down between the dancing, than on the
well-trained shaman, who, besides, is kept awake by his
occupation. As one or the other of his assistants suc-
cumbs to sleepiness, he has to ask permission of Hikuli,
through the shaman, to go off and rest for a while, and
must properly notify Hikuli of his leaving and return-
ing to duty. Toward morning all the assistants are
struggling hard to overcome somnolence, while the sha-
man sings and rasps as conscientiously and enthusiasti-
cally as ever.
But all rouse themselves for the important acts of
curing the people by rasping and of despatching Hikuli.
Just at daybreak, as the fire is dying out, the shaman
gives the welcome signal that the dance is over, by the
three final raps on his notched stick. Then the people
gather at the eastern end of the dancing-place, near the
cross. The shaman rises from his seat, carrying in his
hands his rasping implements, and, followed by a boy
who carries a gourd with water, he proceeds to confer
upon everybody present the benediction. Stopping in
372 UNKNOWN MEXICO
front of each one, he solemnlv dips the point of the
rasping-stick into the water, and after touching the
notched stick lightl\- with the wetted end. hrst in tiie
middle, then on the lower c-nd. and tinalK' on the toj).
he daubs tiie head of the person three times with it.
Then he rests the end of the notched stick against the
man's head and rasi)s three long strokes from end to
end, throwing out his hand far into the air after each
stroke. The dust produced by the rasping, infinitesi-
mal though it be, is powerful in giving health and life.
Now he turns toward the rising Sun, holding out his im-
plements to him ; and, quickly rubbing up and down a
few times at the lower end of the notched stick, he makes
a long stroke from end to end, passing the hand far out
from the stick toward the Sun. Bv- this act, three times
performed, he waves Hikuli home. In the early morn-
ing, Ilikuli had come from San Ignacio and from Sata-
polio, riding on beautiful green doves, to feast with the
Tarahumares at the end of the dance, when the people
sacrifice food, and eat and drink. The greatest Hikuli
eats with the shaman, who alone is able to see him and
his companions. If Ilikuli should not come to the
feasts, there would always be on the Tarahumares the
breath or stain of sorcery.
Having bestowed his blessings, Fiikuli forms himself
into a ball, and flies home to his countrv, accom|)anied
by the owl, who also liies to its shelter at that hour.
The dust ])roduce(l by the rasping of the shaman in
the course of the night is carefuUv gathered up and
kept in a buckskin bag as a powerful remed\' for future
use.
After the feast evervbody has to wash his face and
hands, a duty esteemed most important.
Besides hikuli waname ordinarily used, the Tarahu-
mares know and worship the following varieties :
OTHER CACTI WORSHIPPED
373
1. Mulato (^Manimilaria niicromeris). — This is be-
lieved to make the eves lar<j:e and clear to see sorcerers,
to prolong life and to give speed to the runners.
2. Rosapara. — This is only a more advanced vegeta-
tive stage of the preceding species — though it looks (]uite
different, being white and spiny. This, too, must only
be touched with very clean hands, in the moral sense, it
would seem, as much as in the physical, for only people
who are well baptised are allowed to handle it. It is a
good Christian and keeps a sharp eye on the people
around it; and when it sees anyone doing some wrong, it
gets very angry, and either
drives the offender mad
or throws him down preci-
pices. It is therefore very
effective in frightening off
bad people, especially rob-
bers and Apaches.
3. Sun ami {Manirni-
lai'ia Jissiirata). — It is
rare, but it is believed to
be even more powerful
than waname and is used
in the same way as the
latter ; the drink produced
from it is also strongly intoxicating. Robbers are
powerless to steal anything where Sunami calls soldiers
to its aid.
4. Hikuli waliila sailiami. — This is the greatest of
all, and the name means " hikuli great authority." It
is extremely rare among the Tarahumares, and I have
not seen any specimen of it, but it was described to me
as orrowinsf in clusters of from eio-ht to twelve inches
in diameter, resembling waname with many young ones
around it. All the other hikuli are his servants. The
Manunilaria fissuruta.
374 UNKNOWN MEXICO
reason why so few of these plants are brought to tlie
Tarahumare eountrv is that lie is very greedy, re-
(liiiiiiig oxen for food, not being satisfied with sheep,
goats, or anything else. Therefore hut few Tarahu-
mares can afford to entertain him in their eountr\'. If
an ox is not killed for him, he will eat the Indian. He
always holds his head down, because he is listening to
all the ceremonies that are being held in the Tarahu-
mare land, and he is alway full of thoughts of how he
may cure his sons, the Tarahumares. He never dies.
When a person is verv ill, and there is no such hikuh
in the country, the shaman in his thoughts tiies to
the hikuli country, where " the great authority" stands
looking at his children, the people, and offers him the
soul of an ox that has been sacrificed. Hikuli accepts
the offering, and sends back his blessings by his servants,
who are always well dressed and wear straw hats, "like
regular Americans," as my shaman friend Rubio ex-
pressed it. Only the shamans, however, can see them
come, to cure the hearts of the people and to clean their
souls.
All these various species are considered good, as
coming from Tata Dios, and well-disposed toward the
jjeople. l)Ut there are some kinds of hikuli believed to
come from the Devil. One of these, with long white
spines, is called ocoyome. It is very rarely used, and
only for evil purposes. If anyone should happen to
touch it with the foot, it would cause the offending leg
to break. Once when I pushed one of these globular
spiny cacti out of m\' wa\' with a cane, my Indian
attendant inmiediateiN- warned me, " Leave it alone,
or it will make you fall down precipices."
At one of the feasts whieii 1 witnessed I wished to
taste hikuli. as it was new to mc. A li\el\' discussion
arose between the shamans, and I was fmallv told that I
TASTE OF HIKl LI 375
mio;ht sit with liiciii, as it was known that I liad some
of the sacred plants in m\' possession. The condition
was made, however, that 1 should take off my sombrero.
It iiaj)pened to i)e a cold and windy December night,
but 1 obeyed and put my handkerchief over my head, to
which no objection was raised. The man who carried
the oc)urd, fnst danced in front of the shaman, then
around the fire, and finally brought it to me. The liquid
tasted somewhat bitter, but not exactlv disagreeable; and
while I drank, the man looked at me with astonishment,
as if he had expected that hikuli would refuse to be
taken by me.
I drank only a small cupful, but felt the effect in
a few minutes. First it made me wide awake, and
acted as an excitant to the nerves, similar to coffee, but
much more powerful. This sensation lasted for about
ten minutes, when it was followed by a depression and
a chill such as I have never experienced before. To
get warm I almost threw myself into the fire, but
not until morning was the feeling of cold conquered.
Some Tarahumares told me that they are similarly
affected, and for this reason thev do not take it.
When I told the shaman about the effect hikuli had
on me, he asked whether I had rasped on the notched
stick, because, he said, hikuli does not give chills to
people who rasp. In other words, according to him,
the effect might be warded off bv physical exercise.
A shaman who agreed to sell me some hikuli took
me with him to his house. Then he walked over to a
store-house of pine boards, and with a long stick undid
the lock from within, taking off a few boards from the
roof to get at it. After some searching, he produced
a small closed basket. Holding this in his hand, he
raj)idly ran around me in one ceremonious circuit, and
said in a scarcelv audible voice: "Thank vou for the
37^>
UNKNOWN MEXICO
time voLi have been with me ; ncnv go with him ; I
will give V(;ii food before vou go." The smoke of copal
w^as blown over the })lants in the basket, that thev might
eat; and 1 had to smell of the incense, so that hikuli
might find pleasure in being with me. The shaman
then opened the basket and asked me to select what I
wanted. I picked out twelve plants, but, as he asked
$io for them, 1 contented myself with three.
On my way back to civilisation, 1 spent some time
at Guajochic, near which j)lace the great hikuli expert.
Shaman Ruhio and His L'umpanv at a Hikuli Feast. Photographed after a
Night's Singing and Dancing. Rubio is Seen to the Right.
Shaman Rubio, lives. He is a truly pious man, well-
meaning and kind-hearted, living up to his principles,
in which Christianity and I^aganism are hainioniously
blended. He is highly esteemed by all his countrvmen,
who consider him the greatest hikuli shaman in that
part of the Tarahumare country. His profession brings
him a verv comfortable living, as his services are con-
stantly in demand, and are j)ai(l for l)^' line pieces of
the animals sacrificed, l^'or curing the people he even
gets monev ; <ind what with ])raying and singing, drink-
ing" tesvino and hikuli, fasting and curing the sick, he
passes his (la\s in the happy conx'iction that he keeps
the world going. From him 1 ol)tained si)ecimens of
DR. RUBIO 377
tlie various kinds of cacti which ihc Tarahumares wor-
sliip, — a hctraval of tlic secrets of the tribe, for which
the other shamans punislied him by forbidciin_(^ him
ever to go again on a hikuli journey. Though in the
first year he obeyed the sentence, he did not take it
much to heart, feehng himself far superior to his judges,
who, he knew, could not get along without him, and in
the end would have to come to him ; for he is the most
virtuous of them all, and therefore knows the commands
of Tata Dios better than anyone else.
It is to him that I owe a good deal of what 1 know
about this plant-worshij), as well as several songs used
in the cult. He came often to see me, and one day told
me in confidence that the hikuli in my possession would
have to be fed before they started on their long journey
to the United States ; for it was a long time since they
had had food, and they were getting angry. The next
time he came he l)rought some copal tied up in a cotton
cloth, and after heating the incense on a piece of crock-
ery he waved the smoke over the plants, which he had
placed in front of him. This, he said, would satisfy
them ; they would now go content with me, and no
harm would come to me from sorcerers, robbers, or
Apaches. This was a comfort, for to reach Chihua-
hua I had to pass through some disturbed country, and
there were rumours of a revolution.
It seems that at present only the districts around
Nararachic and Baqueachic get hikuli from its native
country, and that all the others procure it from these
two. Until recentlv the people of Guachochic also went
to fetch plants, and a few may yet undertake the jour-
ney. One old man showed me some hikuli which he
had gathered thirty-five vears ago. At Nararachic they
use hikuli all the year round, that is, as long as they
have corn, because " hikuli wants tesvino." The |)eo]ile
378
UNKNOWN MEXICO
in the l)arrancas are too timid to <iO on the exj)eclitions,
and thev buy the plants at tlie j)riee of a sheep a})iece.
The purchaser holds a feast, not onlv when he brings
the demi-god to his home, but also a \ ear after the event.
In the eastern section of the country, and in the foot-
hills around Rio Fuerte, hikuli is not used at all. It is
very rarely planted by the Tarahumares ; the onh' in-
stance I saw of it was in Tierras A^erdes.
A significant light is thrown on the antiquitv of the
cult, as well as on the age of the tribe itself, bv a cer-
tain variation in the ceremonial which I observed in the
southwestern part of the Tarahumare country. There
it is the custom of the shaman to draw underneath his
resonator-gourd a mystical human figure in the sand,
and to place the hikuli in its centre. Regarding this
mystical figure, my lamented friend, Frank Hamilton
Gushing, informed me that similar or almost identical
drawings are found depicted on the lava rocks of
Arizona. In a letter dated October 30, 1893, he said :
The figure you sketch for me is closelv allied, for ex-
ample, to very ancient ritualistic petrographs in the lava
regions of Arizona. You will see this at a glance by the
figure of one of those petrographs, which I reproduce
in juxtaposition with yours :
Tarahumare Medicine Figure
Mexico.
Ancient Ritualistic I^etrograjih,
Arizona.
Others which 1 have recorded are even more strikingly
similar, I have ahvays supposed that these figures were
desiirncd for "medicine" ecivmonials. but thou<rht of
ANTIOUITY OF THE CUl/l 379
them ml her iis i)crLainini;" to the medicines of the ele-
ments, wind, min, water, etc., used in connection with
sacrifices (with which ceremonial rites were terminated)
than as connected with actual medicinal ceremonials.
I was led to this belief 1)\- hndinu; in connection with
some of them little cup-shaped concavities pecked into
the anu;les of the fiorures (as a, a, a). Vou will observe
that a line is drawn from the middle and straight por-
tion of mv lii^ure and coiled around the concavity at
the right side, and that the terminations of the upper
cross lines are bifurcated around similar though smaller
concavities. This entire figure represents a water-ani-
mal god, one only of a number of semi-human mvstic
monsters. For convenience his heart is drawn out to
one side, and within it is placed the cup of the " chief "
medicine ; while in his left hand is the cu}) of the
"good" medicine, and in his right hand the cu}) of
" bad " [i.e., strong) medicine. If in the light of this
you re-examine vcmr figure, vou will see with me that it
represents a man-god sitting, his legs doubled under
him and his medicines distributed around and upon him
according to his parts, and in accordance also, probably,
to their importance and the case in hand. He must al-
ways have the chief of all medicines placed on his heart,
as the renewer of life. Then, strictly with reference
to the ailment to be treated, and its location in the body
or limbs of the patient (I should sav), the other med-
icines. I throw this out as a suggestion, yet with much
confidence in its at least approximate correctness as indi-
cated by my comparative studies. Probablv a consul-
tation of your notes and the remembrance of variations
of the ceremonv vou have seen, will signifv to you
whether I am right or not. Remember that if these
people have this ceremonial in connection with the
treatment of disease, thev will also have it in the treat-
ment of the weather, etc., when " diseased," so to sav.
You have opened uj) a new significance of many out-
lines among the older lava-remains, and if mv record of
these in turn has hel|:)ed to explain VH)ur diagram, etc.,
you can judge of my pleasure and appreciation."
CHAPTER XX
THE TARAHUMARF.'S FIRM BELIEF IN A FUTURE LIFE CAUSES OF
DEATH THE DEAL:) ARE MISCHIEVOUS AND WANT THEIR FAM-
ILIES TO JOIN THEM THEREFORE THE DEAD HAVE TO BE
KEPT AWAY BY FAIR MEANS OR FOUL THREE FEASTS AND A
CHASE BURIAL CUSTOMS — A FUNERAL SERMON.
THE idea of immortality is so strong with the
Tarahumares that death means to them onlv a
change of form. They certainly believe in a future life,
but they are afraid of the dead, and think that they
.--^v^
CH1«. R-KplOMT-
Mourning.
want to harm the survivors. This fear is caused by
the supposition that the dead are lonelv, and long for
the com pan V of their relatives. The dead also make
people ill. that they too ]na\- die and join the (l('i)arted.
When a man dies in spite of ail efforts of the shamans
to save his life, the people say that th(jse who ha^'e gone
380
JEALOUSY OF THE DEAD 381
before have called him or carried him off. The de-
ceased are also supposed to retain their love for the
good things they left behind in this world, and to he
trving" everv wav lo get at ihcm. So strong is the feel-
ing that the departed still owns whatever proj)erty he
once possessed, that he is thought to be jealous of his
heirs who now enjoy its possession. He may not let
them sleep at night, l)ut makes them sit u}) i)\' the fire
and talk. To soothe his discontent, tesvino and all
kinds of food are given him, because he needs the same
things he needed here. In the course of the year sev-
eral ceremonies are performed, by which he is actually
chased off, and the survivors constantly take precautions
against his return to bother them.
Sometimes the dead are sent by sorcerers to harm
people and make them ill, but generally they come of
their own accord. They enter the house at night and
drink the tesvino and eat the food prepared for a feast,
and what they cannot eat they spoil. To protect the
beer against such mischief the people place bows and
arrows next the jars, and cover the vessels with sprigs
of the odorous artemisia. The dead will also kill cattle
and sheep, and spit and blow in the faces of the peo-
ple, to make them ill, and })ossibly cause their death.
Sometimes the dead are viewed as spirits, and the sha-
man sees them Hying through the air, like birds. If the
spirit of a dead person takes up his abode in a house,
the owner of the dwelling will feel a choking sensation,
dry up, and die, unless the shaman gives to the dead
plenty of tesvino, and drives him away with incantations.
The dead are sup)~)osed to be about at night; there-
fore the Tarahumares do not like to travel after dark,
for fear of meeting the dead, who whistle when thev
pass the living. Only shamans can travel at night, al-
though sometimes even they have to fight with the
382 INKNOWN MEXICO
dead, who come runnini:; oul of the caves on all fours.
In the daytime the Tarahumares are not afraid of the
dead, tlu)UP:h even then \hc\ do not dare to visit burial-
places, modern or ancient, i found it diflicult to get
Indians to carrv bones of skeletons excavated from
ancient burial-caves, and even the Mexicans would not
allow their animals to carr\' burdens of that kind, for
fear that the mules would get tired, that is to sav, plav
out and die.
When a person dies, his eyes are closed, his hands
crossed over his breast, and the relatives talk to hi.m
one bv one, and bid him good-bve. The weeping
widow tells her husband that, now that he has gone and
does not want to stav with her any longer, he must not
come back to fri":hten her or his sons or daughters or
anyone else. She implores him not to carry any af
them off, or do anv mischief, but to leave them nil
alone.
A mother says to her dead infant : " Now go away !
Don't come back any more, now that you are dead.
Don't come at night to nurse at my breast. Go away,
and do not come back ! " And the father says to the
child : " Don't come back to ask me to hold your hand,
or to do things for you. 1 shall not know you any
more. Don't come walking around here, but stay
away."
The body is wrapped in a blanket almost before it
is cold, to be buried later, but food is at once placed
around it, and ashes are liberallv strewn over and around
the corpse, to enable the relatives to discover, by the
tracks, into what kind of animal the dead has changed.
At night some (ox or coyt)te, ])oleeat or rat, is sure to
be attracted bv the smell of the food; but the j)eople
believe that it was the departc-d who returned in the form
of the animal to iret his food. A shaman, without even
DISPOSING OF THE DEAD 383
looking- at the tracks, may be able to tell what animal
shape the dead assumes.
Within twenty-four hours the corpse is taken away
to be buried. It is tied in three or four places to one
or two })oles and carried by two men. Women never
go with them to the funeral. As soon as the under-
takers hav^e accomplished their task, they immediately
wash their j)ersons well. Uj)on their return, branches
of the mountain cedar are burned inside of the house, to
" cure " it.
The body is laid at rest in a shallow grave inside of
a cave or just outside of it, with the head to the east and
the feet to the west. In some caves, however, this rule
is not adhered to, for I found corpses placed in accord-
ance with the formation of the tioor of the cave. The
body is covered with an inch of earth, then with a row
of pine or palm sticks put on lengthwise, and over this
a layer of earth is spread five or six inches deep. On
top of all, stones are thrown. The l)odies of grown per-
sons are stretched out to their full length, but with chil-
dren the knees are generally drawn up.
This is one wav in which the pagan Tarahumares
bury their dead. Another mode, equally common, is to
place the body lying on its back, on the surface, without
any earth to cover it ; in this case the mouth of the cave
is walled up with stones, or stones and mud, and several
bodies may be found inside.
When exhuming skeletons I have frequently found
l)its of charcoal, which was explained by the fact that
during the first night the mourners keep a fire near the
grave, which to-dav serves the same purpose as candles.
This also accounts for the smokiness of the interior of
the burial-caves, even of the ancient ones.
The dead keeps his buckskin pouch and three small
gourds with beans. Three ears of corn are placed to
384 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the Icfl of his hciul, as well as a small jar of tesvino.
Another small jar of tesvino is i)laeed near his feet, as
well as his how and arrows, the stone with whieh the
arrows are stretched, reeds and sinews, his steel for strik-
ins; fire, the small stick with which paint is put on the
arrows, his suckinc^-tuhes when the deceased has been a
shaman, in fact all his lii2,ht-wei^iu i)elongings, besides
balls of gum from the pine-tree, necklaces of Coix Lach-
ryma-Jobi, and a hikuli i)lant. Mxerything heavy, such
as his axe, machete, beads, and mone\', he leaves, as it is
thought that the weight would hinder him from rising
to heaven. This is the practical view the Indians have
taken since their contact with the whites, as valuables
frequently attract marauders. The dead man's sandals,
his violin, and the vessels from which he used to take
his food, are kept in a separate })lace for a year, that is,
until after the last function for the dead is over ; then
at night the shaman and other men take them away and
burv them somewhere, but not with the dead. The
skins on which he died are treated in the same way, and
are never used again, lest a ver\- ugl\' dog might l)e born
of them. The house is always destroyed, and the nic-
tate and many jars and baskets are broken.
On the third day after the death, the relatives begin
to prepare the first feast for the dead, which is held
within a fortnight. (Jne or two slice}) or goats are killed,
and the lungs, the heart, and the windpipe are hung from
a stick outside the burial-cave.
As soon as the tesvino is readv the feast conies off,
although comi)aiativelv little of the liquor is used at
this first function. The relatives, men and women, visit
the grave and leave a jar with pinole, a small jar with
tesvino, three tortillas, and three cigarettes with the
dead, if he was a man ; with a woman, four tortillas,
•etc., are required. The size of the tortillas varies with
THREE FEASTS AND A CHASE 385
the age of tlie i)crson. For adults the ordinary tortiUa
is used ; to youiiir people over six years old, medium-
sized ones are given ; and children get small ones, about
an inch and a half in diameter. I have seen medium-
sized ones made into the shape of a cross.
All the mourners talk to the departed, the shaman
first. He tells him that he had better take away every-
thing they have given him, and not come and disturb
the people he has left behind. He should leave them
alone, and some day they, too, will have to go where he
is. He should not kill any of the animals belonging
to the family, as they have killed a sheep for him and
given him the best part, the lungs, that he may eat and
be satisfied and not take what now is theirs.
At the first feast I have seen worn in the hair by
both men and women a peculiar kind of artificial fiower.
It is made from a short bit of reed in one end of which
four incisions are made, with the parts turned outward
to stand out like the corolla of a fiower. It is stuck
under the hair-ribbon at one side of the head. The
mourners also make crosses on their foreheads with
charcoal.
The second feast is given half a year later, and again
animals are killed and a large quantity of tesvino is
made. Three men and three women carry food and
tesvino to the grave, the relatives remaining at home.
On their return they stop at a distance from the house
and throw ashes over each other's heads before entering.
For the third function, which is the largest, an ani-
mal is selected from among those last acquired by the
deceased, and quantities of food and beer are prepared. .
This feast is the final effort to despatch the dead. A
large earthen bowl is made especially for the purpose.
It is about two feet in diameter and six inches deep. It
is filled with water, and a drinking-gourd placed inside
Vol. I. — 2^
386 UNKNOWN MEXICO
of it, iij)siilc clown. The shaman heals this Qourd with
a corn-cob fastened to the end of a little stick. His as-
sistants help him, one by swinging the rattle, the other
bv singing. After a while the shaman lifts the bowl
up and after carrving it about in three ceremonial
circuits throws it into the air. It falls to the ground
and breaks into many pieces, and the j)e()ple dance and
trample on the shreds and on the drinking-gourd.
The voung people conclude the function by running
a race of some hundred yards. The men ha\e their ball,
and as thev run they scatter ashes to the four cardinal
points to cover the tracks of the dead. They return re-
joicing, manifesting their delight by throwing up their
blankets, tunics, and hats, because now the dead is at
last chased off. If the deceased be a woman, the
women run a race with rings and sticks.
A very elaborate third function, given by a widow,
was described to me as follows : There were five patios.
On one, for the dead, was erected one large cross and
two small ones, and three gourds with tesvino and a
basket with uncooked meat were placed near bv. A
fire was lighted, and one man had to watch here. On
another j)atio one cross was raised, and a branch from a
pine-tree placed next to it. Here, too, a jar with tes-
vino and a basket with uncooked meat were deposited,
and one man and two women kept watch, but no cere-
monies were performed. A third patio was for the hi-
kuli cult, where the shaman rasped and sang. On the
fourth i)atio, vumari was danced, and one large cross
and two smaller ones had been erected. T^inally, on the
fifth patio four torches of resinous pinewood, each a yard
high, were j)laced at the four cartlinal points. A peculiar
feature was that one man alone danced here between
these four torches, ciUting with his knife three times
through each tlame as he danced. This he did in reprises.
BURIAL CUSTOMS 387
According to the nanus which the Tarahumarcs
apply to the three functions for the dead, the main idea
of the tirst is to give food ; of the second, to replenish
the first supi)ly ; and of the third to give drink. The
three feasts are on an increasing scale of elaborateness,
the first being comparatively insignificant. Mach gen-
erallv lasts one (la\' and one night, and begins at the
hour at which I he dead bieathed his last. There is
always a special i)atio prepared for the dead, and an-
other one for the hikuli cult, besides the ordinary dan-
cing-place, and much howling and singing goes on, es-
pecially at the last.
At the feasts, the shaman steeps herbs in water and
sprinkles this medicine over the people. Hikuli dan-
cing and singing always play a prominent part at all the
festivities, for the plant is thought to be very powerful
in running off the dead, chasing them to the end of the
world, where they join the other dead. Yumari is
danced at intervals and much tesvino is used, and at all
feasts the survivors drink with the dead.
There are three feasts for a man, and four for a
woman. She cannot run so fast, and it is therefore
harder to chase her off. Not until the last function
has been made will a widower or a widow marry again,
being more afraid of the dead than are other relatives.
After the death of a person, an^•one who rendered
him any service, as, for instance, watching his cattle for
a week, claims something of what the dead left. He is
satisfied, however, with a girdle or the like.
Once I was present at the burial-feast for a man
who had hanged himself a fortnight before, while under
the influence of liquor and angry over some projierty
out of which he considered himself cheated. He hr.d
chano^ed into a lion. Two men and two women carried
food and tesvino ; the wife did not go with them, as
388 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the deceased had died alone, and she was afraid of being
carried off hv him. I lis father-in-law led the proces-
sion, carrying a goat-skin with its four feet remaining.
The animal had belonged to the deceased and had been
sacrificed for him, and the skin was to be given to him
that in his new life he might rest on it. The suicide
had been buried in a little cave with his feet toward the
entrance. Having deposited the food near the dead
man's head, the women sat down on a stone inside,
while the men stood up near the mouth of the cave, all
faces turned toward the grave. The father-in-law seated
himself on a stone near the feet of the dead. It was a
dreary winter evening in the Sierra and the scene was
singularly impressive. The old man was a strong per-
sonality, powerfull)- built, and a shaman of great repu-
tation, who in his entire bearing showed his determi-
nation to keep the dead at bay. He seemed to exercise
a reassuring intfuence over the whole assembly.
I shall not easily forget the solemn and convincing
way in which he upbraided the dead for his rash act.
Taking the reed flower from his hair and holding it in
his right hand, he waved it down and up, as if swayed
by the force of his own thoughts, in accentuating his
points, and he talked and argued with the dead for a
quarter of an hour. The man was a great orator, and
spoke so earnestly that my interpreter Nabor was af-
fected almost to tears. The speech was a kind of dia-
logue with the dead, the speaker supplying the re-
sponses himself, and this is the gist of it :
Why are you there ? — Because I am dead. — Why
are you dead P^Because I died. — Whv did you die ? —
Because I chose to. — That is not right. Vou have no
shame. Did vour mother, who gave vou birth, tell vou
to do this ? Vou are bad. Tell me, whv did you kill
yourself ? — Because I chose to do it. — Now what did
KEEPING AWAY THE DEAD 389
you get for it, lying there, as you are, with stones on
top of you ? Were you not just playing the violin in
the house with us ? Why did you hang yourself in
the tree ?
Here I leave this tesvino and food for you, the meat
and tortillas, that you may eat and not come back. We
do not want you any more. You are a fool. Now I
am going to leave you here. You are not going to
drink tesvino in the house with us any more. Remain
here ! Do not come to the house, for it would do you
no good ; we would burn you. Good-bye, go now ; we
do not want you any more !
All present then said good-bye to him, and all the
women added, " Fool!" and then they all ran quickly into
a deep water-hole, splashing into it clothes and all, that
nothing from the dead might attach itself to them.
They changed their wet attire after their arrival at the
house. Later in the evening a magnificent hikuli feast
was held. The Indians sat around the big fire, which
cast a magical light over the tall old pine-trees around
the patio, while the dancers moved about in their fan-
tastic way through the red glow. Such a scene makes a
deeper impression than any that could be produced on
the stage.
The Christian Tarahumares believe that the shaman
has to watch the dead throughout the year, or the de-
ceased would be carried away by the Devil. If the feasts
were not given, the departed would continue to wander
about in animal shape. This is the direful fate meted
out to people who are too poor to pay the shaman.
Sometimes, if the dead person has not complied in
life with the customary requirements in regard to
feasts and sacrifices, the shamans have a hard time in
lifting him to heaven. It may take hours of incanta-
tions and much tesvino to get his head up, and as much
more to redeem his body. Sometimes the head falls
390 UNKNOWN MEXICO
back, and the shamans have to call for more tesvino to
gain strength to lift him up again.
The Tarahumares had no great scruples about my
removing the bodies of their dead, if the latter had died
some years before and were supposed to have been prop-
erly despatched from this world. Where a body had
been buried, the bones that were not taken away had to
be covered up again. One Taiahumare sold me the
skeleton of his mother-in-law for one dollar.
CHAPTER XXI
THREE WEEKS ON FOOT THROUGH THE BARRAN'CA — RIO FUERTE
— I GET. MY CAMERA WET ANCIENT CAVE-DWELLINGS AS-
CRIBED TO THE TUBAR INDIANS THE EFFECT OF A COMPLI-
MENT — VARIOUS DEVICES FOR CATCHING FISH POISONING THE
WATER A BLANKET SEINE.
ON a cold day in the end of October I started from
Guachochic bound for the upper part of the great
Barranca de San Carlos and the country southward as
far as there were Tarahumares. Eveiithing seemed
bleak and dreary. The corn was harvested, the grass
looked grey, and there was a wintry feeling in the air.
The sere and withered leaves rustled like paper, and as I
made camp near an Indian ranch I saw loose stubble
and dead leaves carried up in a whirlwind, two or three
hundred feet up toward a sky as grey and sober as that
of northern latitudes at that time of the year. We
travelled to the southeast from Guachochic over pine-
clad hills, coming now and then to a lonely ranch.
About seven miles before reaching the barranca I
arrived at a point 8,600 feet high, from which 1 could
look over this vast expanse of woodland, extending all
the way up to the deep gorge and diminishing in breadth
toward the northwest. At San Carlos, a ranch but re-
cently established in this wilderness, I left my animals,
and immediately prepared for an extended excursion on
foot into the barranca and its neighbourhood.
Nearly the whole country of the Tarahumares is
drained bv the river Fuerte, which, with its many trib-
utaries, waters as many barrancas. The main one,
391
392
UNKNOWN MEXICO
namely Barranca de San Carlos, is from 4,000 to 4,500
feet deep, and sinuous in its course. If there were a
passable road along its bottom, the distance from the
source of the river to a point a little below the village
of Santa Ana,
where Rio Fuerte
emerges from the
Sierra, could be
easily covered in
two days ; but as
it is, a man requires
at least a week to
travel this distance,
so much is he
impeded by the
roughness of the
country,
Having descend-
ed into the barran-
ca, which now felt
almost uncomfort-
ably warm, after
the piercing winds
of the highlands, I
iirst visited the pla-
teaus on the south-
rvn side, where the
Indians have still
kept themselves
tolerably free from
the white man's
evil inrtuence and
are very jealous of their land. One night, while
camping in a deep arroyo with very steep sides frown-
ing down on us, one of the Indian carriers woke us
View from the North across Barranca de San
Carlos, near Guachochic.
Kio fuektp: 393
with the startlino; news: " Get up ! A stone is falling
and will strike us ! " I heard a noise, and instantly a
stone, half the size of a child's head, hit the informant
himself, as he sleepily rose. lie lost his breath, Init
soon recovered, and no further damage was done.
I secured the necessary carriers and went down
again to the river, which I now followed westward from
Nogal for about twenty-five miles. The elevation at
Nogal is 4,450 feet, about 800 feet higher than the
place at which we left the river again. At the outset
we came upon two very hot springs, the water of which
had a yellow sediment. The gorge was narrow through-
out. Sometimes its two sides rise almost perpendicu-
larly, leaving but a narrow passage for the river. We
then had either to wade in the water or to ascend some
thousand feet, in order to continue our wav. But gen-
erally there was a bank on one side or the other, and
now and then the valley widened, yielding sufficient
space for some bushes, or even a tree to grow, though
it soon narrowed again. In some such spots we found
a shrub called baynoro, with long, flexible branches and
light-green leaves. Its small, yellow berries were as
sweet as honey, but they did not agree with the Mexi-
cans, who had stomach-aches and lost their appetites
after eating them. The Indians made the same com-
plaints, but I felt no ill effects from them.
Along the river we saw the tracks of many raccoons
and otters, and there were also ducks and blue herons.
The colour of the water in the deep places was grey-
ish green, and as the river rises in the high sierra, it felt
icy cold to wade through. One day we had to cross it
eight times. On one such occasion, while wading waist-
deep, the Indian who carried the photographic outfit in
a bag on his back, forgot for a moment, on account of
the stinging cold, how far his burden hung down, and
394 UNKNOWN MEXICO
let it dip into the water. The prospect of being pre-
vented, perhaps for a long time to come, from photo-
graphing, was very annoying. Six plate-holders were
so wet that I could not even draw the shutters out, but
luckily 1 had more elsewhere.
We came upon several ancient cave-dwellings, all of
which were rather small, and attributed by the Tara-
humares to the Tubar Indians. One of them was sit-
uated about 250 feet above the bottom of the barranca.
A two-storied, rather irregularly shaped building occupied
the entire width of the cave, without reaching to the
roof. The floor of the house was scarcely two yards
broad, l)ut the building widened out very much, follow-
ing the shape of the cave. The materials used in the
construction were stone and mud or, rather, reddish
grit ; and smaller stones had been put between larger
ones in an irregular way. The walls were only five or
six inches thick and were plastered with mud. An
upright pole supported the ceiling, which was rather
pretty, consisting of reeds resting on the rafters, and
covered on top with mud. The ceiling of the second
story had been made in the same way, but had fallen
in. A piece of thick board half covered the entrance.
In the first story I found an additional chamber, and in
it a skeleton, of which 1 secured the skull and some
typical bones.
Not far from this, and situated in verv rough coun-
try, was another cave, that contained ten one-storied
chambers of the same material and construction. The
cave was fifty feet long and at the mouth seven feet
high. The apertures of the chambers were fairlv
squared, and not of the shape of the conventional ear
of corn. One door was a foot and a half broad, and
two feet and a half high. I crawled through the cham-
bers, which were miserabb' small. The floor was plas-
dc San Lar'.o,-,, in u.-> Upper Part.
CAVE CHAMBERS
397
tered, and in some
rooms 1 noticed circu-
lar holes sunk into the
ground in the way that
I had aheady observed
in Zapuri. There were
also small square holes,
the sides being six
inches long in the
front wall.
Twenty miles from
here, and just north of
the pueblo of Cav^o-
rachic, was a third cave
which contained thir-
teen houses in ruins.
The material here, too,
was the same as before,
but the houses were
built to the roof of the
cave, and were round-
ed at the corners. Pe-
culiar round loop-holes
were seen here, too.
Eight of them formed
a horizontal line, and
one extra hole was a
little higher up,
A track could be
made out at certain
places along the river,
but the country was
very lonely. In the
course of several days
only six Indian fami-
One of my Companions in Barranca de
San Carlos.
398 UNKNOWN MEXICO
lies were encountered, airl two of those lived here onlv
temi)orariiv. We also met five stray Indians that had
come down from the highlands to fetch bamboo reeds for
arrows, etc. It was quite pleasant to meet somebodv now
and then, although, unfortunatelv, no one had anything
to sell, exxept a few small fish, the people being them-
selves as hard u}) for food as we were. We carried our
little metate on which we ground corn for our meals,
but we found it very difficult on this trip of four weeks'
duration to secure from day to day corn enough to sat-
isf\' our wants. One item in our menu, new to me, but
common throughout northern Mexico, was really excel-
lent when we could procure the very simple material
from which it was made, namely squash-seeds. These
were ground verv fine and boiled in a saucepan. This
dish, which is of Tarahumare origin, is called ])ipian, and
looks like curds. Mixed with a little chile it is very
palatable, and in this period of considerable privation it
was the only food I really enjoyed.
But such luxuries were not served every day. Far
from it. For several days in succession we had nothing
but corncakes and water. Therefore our joy was great
when at last we one day espied some sheep on the other
side of the river. They belonged to a woman who
watched them herself, while wintering among the rocks
with her herd of about a dozen sheep and goats. I sent
my interpreter over to make a bargain for one of the ani-
mals, and as he did not return after a reasonable lapse
of time, and as we were all hungr\-, 1 went across the
river myself to see the dashing widow. I found my
man still bargaining, lying on the ground stretched out
on his stomach and resting his head on his hands. She
was grinding corn on the metate and seemed to pay lit-
tle attention to either of us, but her personal attractive-
ness at once imj)ressed me. She was still in her best
EFFFXT OF A COMPLIMENT
399
years and luul hue l)iioht eyes. A ril)l)on d\'ed with
the native vellow d\e from liehens ran throuirh the
l)raids of her hair, and was marvellously beeomin^i; to
her almost olive complexion. I could not help saying,
•'How pretty she is!" to which the interpreter, in a
dejected mood, replied : " Yes, but she will not sell
an\lhinii-, and I have been struggling hard." " Of course,
she will sell," said I, " handsom^^ as she is I " at which
The Widow Grinding Corn in her Camp.
remark of mine I noticed she smiled. Though I judged
from the way in which she wore her hair, in tw^o braids,
hanging in a loop in the neck, that she had been in
association with the Mexicans, I did not expect that
she could understand Spanish so well. I immediately
returned to my camp to fetch some beads and a red
handkerchief to make an impression on my obdurate
belle. But on my way back to her I met my interpre-
ter, who brought the glad tidings that she had made
up her mind to sell, and that I might send for the ani-
mal whenever I wanted it. The price was one Mex-
ican silver dollar. So I sent my " extras " along with
the money, and in return received a fine sheep with
long white wool, when all we had hoped for was only a
goat. There is not the slightest doubt in my mind
400 UNKNOWN MEXICO
that mv felicitous compliment brought about this happy
result.
Durins: our travels alono: the river, everv dav we
came upon traps for catching fish. The Tarahumares
have various modes of fishing. Sometimes they man-
aofe to catcii iish with their hands in crevices between
stones, even diving for them. In the shallow parts of
the rivers and in the brooks, following the course of the
stream, two stone walls a foot or two high are built.
These walls converge at the lower end and form a
channel, in which is placed horizontally a mat of stalks
of the eagle fern (yPtcris aqiiilina). When the fish at-
tempt to cross this mat, through which the water passes
freely, they are intercepted. Often the fish caught in
this way are only an inch long, but none is too small
for a Tarahumare to reject.
Other similar walls form square or oblong corrals,
where the fish can easily enter, but not so readily find
a way out. After dark the owners come with lighted
torches and carefully examine the corrals, turning up
every stone. The fish are blinded by the glare of the
light and can be caught and thrown into baskets.
Frogs, tadpoles, larvae, and water-beetles are also wel-
come.
In the central part of the country they use a spear
made of a thin reed and tipped with thorns of the no-
pal. Sometimes it is shot from a diminutive how, like
an arrow. But a more interesting wav is to hurl it bv
means of a primitive throwing-stick, which is nothing
but a freshly cut twig from a willow i^jaria) about
six inches long, left in its natural state except for the
flattening of one end on one side. The spear is held
in ihc left hand, the stick in the right. Tiie flat*part
of tlie latter is j^laced against tlie end of the spear,
wliicli is slio-htlv flattened on two sides, while the end
CATCHING FISH
401
is squarely cut off. By i)rcssing one against the other,
the throwing-stick is hcnt, and sufficient force is pro-
duced by its rebound to make the spear pierce small
fish. Many a Tarahumare may be
seen standing immovable on the
bank of a streamlet, waiting pa-
tiently for a fish to come, and as
soon as he has hit it throwing him-
self into the water to grab it.
But a more profitable way of
catching fish is by poisoning tlie
water. In the highlands a kind of
polygonum is used for this purpose.
It is pounded with stones and
thrown into the small corrals. When
the fishing is to be done on a some-
what extensive scale, two species of
agave — the amole (the soap-plant)
and the soke — are used, and many
households join in the sport. First
of all maguey plants have to be
collected, and wine made, as this is
indispensable to the success of the
undertaking. At the place selected
for the fishing the people assemble,
and two managers are appointed, Bow and Throwing-stick
one for each side of the river. It for the Fish-spear. A
, . , , , . modern Fish -spear with
is then- duty to see that everythmg -^^^ ^^-^^^^ ,„d thrown
is done in the right and proper way
and all the requisite ceremonies are
observed. The women are a couple of hundred yards
back cooking herbs and making pinole for the men to
eat. No pregnant women are allowed to be present, as
then the fish would not die.
Half-circular corrals of stone are built to intercept
Vol. I.— 26
bv hand is seen to the
left.
402
UNKNOWN MEXICO
the fish that drift along, irrespective of anv private traps
that mav be found on the phice. Fish caught in the
latter belong to those who put up
the traps. While constructing these
corrals, tiic men catch a few fish
with their hands, between the rocks,
open them in the back and give
them to the women to broil. When
they are done, the men })ound the
fish to a pulp, mix it with pinole,
and roll the mass into a ball two
or three inches in diameter. One
of the managers then goes down
stream, below the corrals, and places
the ball in a water pool. It is a
sacrifice to the master of the river,
a large serpent (Walula), which
makes an ugly noise. Every river,
water-hole, and spring has its ser-
pent that causes the water to come
up out of the earth.
They are all easily of-
fended ; and therefore
the Tarahumares place
their houses some little
distance from the water,
and when thev travel
avoid sleeping near it.
Whenever the Tarahumares make pinole while away
from home, thev sacrifice the first ]:>art to the water-
serpents, drop])ing it with the little stick with which the
pinole is stirred. Thev sjirinkle it first forward, then to
the left, then to the right, and then upward, three times
in each direction. If they did not do this, the water-
serpents would try to catch them and chase them back
The Amolc, a Species of Agave.
POISONING THE WATER 403
to their own UukI. Besides the sacrifice of the fish ball,
they offer axes, hats, blankets, girdles, pouches, etc., and
especially knives and strings of beads, to the master of
the fish, who is considered to be the oldest fish. This is
in payment for what they are going to catch, and the
donations are either hung to a cross or a horizontal bar
specially erected in the middle of the river, and remain
hanging there until daybreak, when their respective
owners take them back.
In the meantime eight or ten men have gathered
the amole and soke. They wrap the plants in their
blankets and bring them direct to the river, where they
are to be used. The leaves are pounded with stones
and spread out for a while before sunset. As soon as it
is dark the men throw them into the water, and trample
on them to make the juice come out. Three or four
men take turns, standing waist-deep in the water, tread-
ing with all their might and howling. The effect of the
poison in the course of the night is said to reach down
some 300 yards. It stupefies the fish, and although
many of them revive, a few are killed and may be eaten,
as the poison does not affect the meat.
The managers see to it that everybody does his duty
and that no one falls asleep during the night, while the
women help by watching the mats, that the otters may
not eat the fish caught in them.
A curious detail is that one man on each side of the
river is deputed to heat stones and throw them into the
river three or four at a time, every half-hour, possibly
to frighten off the serpent. During the night not one
fish is taken up, but at daybreak the managers go
down the river to investigate the effect of the poison,
and upon their return the fish are gathered in, the
men often diving into deep water for them. The
work is done with great earnestness and almost in
404 UNKNOWN MEXICO
silence, the women helping the men in catching the fish.
While the fishing is going on they do not eat any
of the fish, for fear of not getting more, but during
the clay (luantities are broiled and eaten, without salt
or chile, however, and the bones are invariably thrown
into the fire. Most of the fish are cut open in the back
and placed on rocks or on trees to dry for future use.
Such fishing may last for two days and nights, and is
finished bv dancing vumari and drinking maguey wine.
On one occasion as much was caught as ten men could
carry. Expeditions of this kind mav be repeated two
or three times a year ; but when food is plentiful a
whole year mav pass without one being undertaken.
Palo de la llecha, 1(K), is used as poisoning material,
and seems to be even more powerful than the two plants
mentioned. There is a milky juice under the bark of
this tree which, when it comes in contact with the hu-
man skin, makes it smart like a burn. The water is poi-
soned by cutting the bark from the trunk and boughs
directly into the water, the people taking care to stand
to the windward. One man who neglected this precau-
tion got some juice in his eves and was blinded for three
days, though an aj)])lication of salt water finally cured
him.
Although a single man may poison fish in a small
way even in winter, he is hardlv likeh' to do so except
in summer-time, when provisions are low. The Indians
dislike going into cold water; besides, they say that the
cold impairs the efifect of the poison.
In summer-time tiu- Indians mav also improvise a
net with the help of their blankets, and drag the river
at suitable |)laces. Parther down on the Rio r\ierte, I
once saw them make a large and serviceable net by fas-
tening sixteen blankets together lengthwise with a dou-
ble row of wooden pins. Along the upper edge of this
A BLANKET SEINE 407
net they made a liem three inelies deep, and through this
they passed vines securely joined to,<retiier hv means of
the fibres of the inaLiuc'\' to do dul\- as rojjcs. The op-
posite edge of the net had a hem four ineiies deej) and
this was filled with sand to sink it as it was drairired
in. The hoys and girls were told to go aiiead and
splash all they could in the water to prevent the fish in
the net from swimming out, and it was funny to see
them dive heels over head into the water over and over
like porpoises, the girls as well as the boys, with their
skirts on. The fishermen advanced slowly, as the net
was hea\'y. When it was brought in toward the shore,
the women, even those with babies on their backs,
helped to drag it. As the two ends of the net reached
the bank, the big fish were picked out and thrown
landward, while the remainder were brought up with a
dip-net made of three blankets. Eighty good-sized
suckers were secured, besides a large quantity of "small-
fry."
CHAPTER XXII
PESUMPTION OF THE JOURNEV SOUTHWARD — PINUS LUMHOLTZII
COOKING WITH SNOW TERROR-STRICKEN INDIANS — A GEN-
TLEMANLY HIGHWAYMAN AND HIS " SHOOTING-BOX " THE
PERNICIOUS EFFECT OF CIYILISATION UPON THE TARAHU-
MARES A FINE SPECIMEN OF THE TRIBE THE LAST OF THE
TARAHUMARES.
FROM this trij) I returned to San Carlos, mainly
over the highlands south of the barranca, and
shortlv afterward was able to continue m\' journey
toward the southwest. The cordons here, generally
speakinij, have a southerly direction, runnings parallel to
each other.
Reaching at one i)lace an elevation of 8,800 feet, I
had a fine view of the entire central part of the Tarahu-
mare country, seeing as far as Cerro Grande, at the
northern end of the llano of Guachochic, in which direc-
tion the country, as a matter of course, looked ([uite flat.
Nearest to us were wild-looking arrovos and cordons,
covered in the lower })ortions with oak-trees, and higher
up with pines. We were in the midst of vast i)ine for-
ests, and even the country north of us looked like one
uninterrupted forest of pines.
The Tarahumares have names foi- six kinds of j)ines.
One species, first met with near Tutuhuaca. was new to
science. Though not a large tree, it is verv ornate, ow-
ing to its slcndci-, whip-like brandies, and its hanging
needles, from eight to ten inches long. It grows here
and tlieie in grcnip;- at iiiiih altitudes, on decomposed
40b
PINUS LUMHOLTZII
409-
volcanic tuff. The needles arc IkmIccI by ihc Indians
and the Mexicans, and the decoction used as a remedy
for stomach troubles. It is not disagreeable to take, the
Piiius LumhoItz.il.
taste resemblincr that of anise-seed. The Tarahumares
prefer the wood of this variety of pines for the makmg
of their violins. I found this species as far south as the
sierra above Pueblo Nuevo, in the State of Durango.
410
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Tlic vc2:ctation of ihc Siena Madic is incomparably
stronger and more luxurious than that of the cold North.
The pine-trees in higher altitudes, for instance in Nor-
way, appear miserably puny and almost stunted when
comixired with the giants of the South. Trees of loo to
150 feet high and 10 to 15 feet in girth are fre(]uent.
We noticed some species of })ines the needles of which
were over a foot long.
The region through which we were ])assing seemed
uninhabited, and there were really but few Indians living
here. The cordon nearest to the one on which we were
standing was covered with snow, and we climbed willi-
out difficulty to a point 9,300 feet high. There was
no water, but snow three inches deep in some places,
yielding all the water we required, though it had a slight
flavour of the pines. The Mexicans did not like it, and
said they would not eat food cooked with snow ; but
after I had shown them that the water obtained in this
wav was very good, they also took to it.
On our arrival at some Indian ranches, the people
screamed with terror, ran away and hid themselves.
There was something so unusual about their fright, that
the interpreter and I went out of our way to investigate
the matter. I saw two children making their escape
among the bushes as best they could, a boy leading a
three-year-old girl all the time, never deserting her. We
found the children and a young woman on top of a
rock. After we had succeeded in allaving their fears,
they answered our (juestions readily. It appeared that
two men from this j)lace had recently been hanged by
some people from Cicncga Prieta, the ranch for wiiich
we were making. C)ne of the victims had been re-
vived, but the other had died. My Indian boy Patricio
knew about the outrage, too,
I had at the outset been warned airainst robbers
A GENTLEMANLY HIGHWAYMAN 411
south of (iiiacliochic, and advised never to sleep in
houses — a thing- I rarely did, anyway, for other reasons.
One man especially, Teodoro Palnia, had an unsavoury
reputation as a "gentlemanly highwayman." In the des-
olate region where his residence lies, his father had main-
tained a band of valiant men, who made regular plun-
dering- expeditions, driving cattle away, etc. It was a
common tale that travellers wIkj had to pass his place
were invited to come in, but never came out again. The
bodies of the victims, it was said, were buried at night in
the cemetery of the Indian village of Chinatu, a few
miles distant. Times had changed since then, and the
son was more guarded in his operations, but still sufih-
ciently active.
In order to avoid a long detour to the east, I had
chosen to follow the track which passes this place,
though travellers generally give it a wide berth ; be-
sides, I thought best to take the bull by the horns.
When I reached the robber's stronghold, I did not find
Don Teodoro at home, though he was expected to re-
turn the next day. In the mean time the superintend-
ent showed me around the house and sold me some
necessary provisions.
The house looked forbidding enough. A wall of
adobe, eighteen feet high, ran all around the establish-
ment, shutting it in securely. It was provided with two
small towers, which had loop-holes for rifles.
In the house was a small chapel, in which Don
Teodoro and his father before him had frequently knelt
to pray. The altar was decorated with the pictures of
many saints, and in the centre was a painting of the
Christ-child, a crucifix, and an artificial apple.
When the lord of the manor arrived the following
day, I immediately went to see him. As I passed
through the enclosure he was scoldinc^ the superintend
412 UNKNOWN MEXICO
ent, but on perceiving me he stepped forward to receive
me. This modern Fra Diavolo was about thirty years
old, rather short of statuie, but unusually well built. He
wore an embroidered brown jacket and a blue waist-
coat, and around his neck was thrown a man}'-coloured
scarf. On one side of his sombrero was a scarlet rosette.
Under it gleamed brown, i)iercing eyes. His hair was
cut short. Altogether he was quite good-looking, ex-
cept for a cruel, sensual expression of the features. His
entire manner, erect carriage, and quick, decisive move-
ments told me he was a man of violent temper and
extreme determination.
He led the way into a room, and I handed him my
letter of recommendation from the Mexican Govern-
ment, and explained what I was doing in the sierra. Af-
ter he had read the letter, he said that he was my friend.
I told him that I had heard there were robbers in the
vicinity, and in case 1 was molested I should apply to
him for assistance, since he w^as a very influential man.
Of course I knew as long as he did not rob us we were
quite safe. I then photographed him and his house,
and he evidently felt quite flattered. He accompanied
me for a mile down the road, and then, taking me aside,
handed me back the paltry sum I had paid for the pro-
visions, saving he did not accept pavmcnt from his
guests. This was rather embarrassing, but there was no
way out of it, and I had to accept it. 1 afterward sent
him a copy of his photograph to even up matters.
The guide with whom Don Teodoro had provided
me j)ointed out to us a place wheie his master last year
killed and robbed a man. " He is a i)oor shot," he
added, "except at close range, and he generally travels
at night." In 1895 Don Teodoro Palma himself was
killed by the Indians. If half the rumours aboiu him
are true, he certainly deserved his fate. He ne\er dared
PERNICIOUS CIVILISATION 413
to go down to the lowiimds, because " he owed so many
dead," as the savins; goes. A few years before my
visit, an American iiad been killed and robbed in the
vicinity, and his countrymen in Ciiihualuia offered a re-
ward for the apprehension of the murderer, dead or
alive. Don Teodoro knew that a certain friend of his
had perpetrated the crime, and in order to secure the re-
ward he invited him to his house and shot him down in
cold blood.
I arrived safely in Guadalupe y Calvo, a once flour-
ishing place, but now quite dead, since the mines have
ceased to be worked. There are large Mexican ranches
southeast of the town, and whatever Tarahumares live
hereabout are servants of the Mexicans and frequently
intermarry with the Tepehuanes.
I thus traversed from north to south the country
over which the Tarahumares once held sway. To-day
we find this tribe, approximately, between Guadalupe y
Calvo and Temosachic ; roughly speaking, between the
twenty-sixth and twenty-ninth degrees northern latitude.
Civilisation, as brought to the Tarahumare, is not
fraught with benefits for him. It rudely shakes the col-
umns of the temple of his religion. The Mexican Cen-
tral Railroad crushes his sacred plants without thought of
its anger, which is vented on the poor Tarahumare by
sending him bad years and ill-luck. While the Ind-
ians deny themselves the pleasure of smoking tobacco
in the daytime for fear of offending the sun with the
smoke, the white men's furnaces and engines belch forth
black clouds of smoke day after day, keeping the people
out of the sight of Tata Dios, and thus preventing him
from guarding them. In the engine itself they see the
Devil with a long tongue and a big beard.
414 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Worse than that, the foot of civihsation destroys his
liomc ; for the whites draw the houndary Hne of his
country closer and cIosit. The l)ctter chiss of Mex-
icans keep to theniseh'es, and seldom, if ever, bother
about the IncUans at their doors, whose mode of liviu":
and way of thinking are so different from their own.
The class of whites on the borderland of such civilisa-
tion as the Tarahumare comes in contact with is not the
kind that will or can improve him, being ignorant and
unscrupulous. The Indian civilised l)y them is a very
unpleasant person to deal with. lie has learned to
cheat and to steal, and he no longer carries out his con-
tracts and agreements. Having learned the value of
money, his greed is awakened, and he begins to look
out only for his own proht.
The first white men with whom the Indian gets ac-
quainted are the traders who speak his language, and
whose sole aim is to enrich themselves at his expense
and compel him to deal wdth them. If the Indian does
not want to sell, the lenguaraz loses his patience, throws
a few dollars toward him, takes the ox, and goes off.
Many will go still further. They force the native to
borrow from them, whether he wants the nionew the
cloth, the mescal, or the use of the horse, or not. Many
Indians would refuse mescal, satisfied with their native
stimulants, but see no other wa\' of getting lid of the
unwelcome and obtrusive white than bv vielding to his
demand. The agreement is made that he must return
the so-called loan on a certain date, two or three monllis
hence; the Indian, of course, hax'ing no almanac, easih'
makes a mistake in his calculation, and the date passes.
The dealer has gained his point. Me saddles his horse,
looks uj) the Indian, and makes a great to-do about all
the trouble he is put to in collecting the del)t, charging
not only enormous interest for overtime, but adding
CREDULITY OF NATIVES 415
exorbitant travcUino; expenses and fees. He succeeds
bv threats and intiniidaticjn in o;ettin<2i; his dama<res ad-
justed in such a way that, in return for tiie paltry sum
he lent the Indian, he now drives off two or three oxen.
The Indians, being honourable in their dealings, do
not at fust contact with the whites suspect rascality, and
many stories are told illustrating the ease with which
they have been cheated.
Once a Mexican bought a sheep from a native on
credit, and, after killing it, paid for it with the head, the
skin, and the entrails. Another man did still better. He
paid for his sheep with the same valuables, and "spoke
so well " that the Indian was content to remain in his
debt as the final result of the transaction. On another
occasion a native was induced to sell eleven oxen, almost
his entire stock, to a Mexican. It was agreed that the
latter should pav two cows for each ox, but not having
any cows with him he left his horse and saddle as se-
curity. The Indian is still waiting for the cows. When
I expressed my surprise at the ease with which he al-
lowed hmiself to be swindled, he replied that the Mexi-
can "spoke so well." They are so delighted at hearing
their language spoken by a white man, that they lose all
precaution and are completely at the mercy of the wily
whites, who profit by their weakness.
Some tough lenguaraz is not ashamed to cheat at
games until the Indian has lost everything he has. One
poor wretch lost several oxen in one game of quinze.
Other sharpers borrow money from the natives and never
pay back the loan, or else impose fines on the Indians
under the pretext of being authorities. Some foist
themselves upon the Tarahumares at their feasts, which
they disturb by getting drunk and violating women.
Where the Indians are still masters of the situation they
catch such an offender and take him before the Mexican
4i6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
authorities, insisting upon his paying for all the require-
ments for another feast, as he has spoiled tlie value of
the one on whieh he intiuded. In the eential })art of
the country, near Norogachic, they may even kill such a
transgressor.
It is generallv through mescal that the Indians be-
come peons. When the Indian has once developed a
taste for mescal, he will pav an\thing to get it, lirst his
animals, then his land. When he has nothing more to
sell, the whites still give him this brandy and make him
work. And there he is. To work himself free is next
to impossible, because his wages are not paid in money,
but in provisions, which barely suffice to keep him and
his family alive. Indians are sometimes locked up over
night to force them to work.
The children of such parents grow up as peons of
the Mexicans, w^ho deal out miserable wages to the
descendants of the owners of the land on which the
usurpers groW' rich. Before the occupancy of the coun-
try by the new masters, the Tarahumares never knew
wdiat poverty was. No wonder that the Christian
Tarahumares believe that hell is peopled so thicklv with
Mexicans that there is not room for all. Some
have been crowded out, and have come to the Tara-
humares to trouble them. The Indians in some dis-
tricts have been cheated so much that thev no longer
believe anything the white men tell them, and they do
not offer food any more to a white stranger if he is
what they call " deaf," in other words, unable to speak
and understand (heir language and explain what he is
about.
They make very good servants when treated right,
although they often want a change ; but they will return
to a good master. I once had a Tarahumare woman in
my employ as cook. She was very industrious and in
TARAHLMAKE SOLDIERS
417
every way superior to any Mexican servant I ever liad.
When not busv with her kitchen work, she was mend-
ing lier own or her two children's clothes. While very
distrustful, she was o;ood-teni|)cred and honourable, and
si)oke Sj)anish fairly well, and
her eyes indicated unusual in-
telliirence. A white man had
deserted her to marry a Mex-
ican woman, and she grieved
much, but in time she be-
came reconciled to her fate,
though she declared she would
never marry again, as all men
were bad.
The Tarahumares have
made excellent soldiers in
fio^hting- for the Government,
In one of the civil wars, their
leader, Jesus Larrea, from
Nonoava, a pure-bred Tara-
humare, distinguished himself,
not only by braverv and deter-
mination, but also as a commander. In private life he
was civil and popular.
The majority speak their own language, and in the
central and most mountainous part, the heart of the Tara-
humare country, they are of pure breed. Here the
women object to unions with outsiders, and until very
recently light-coloured children were not liked. Moth-
ers may even yet anoint their little ones and leave them
in the sun, that they may get dark. The consensus of
opinion among the tribe is that half-castes turn out to
be bad people and " some day will be fighting at the
drinking-feasts." A few instances are known in which
women have left their half-caste babies in the woods to
Vol.. I.— 27
Civilised Tarahumare Boy.
4)8 UNKNOWN MEXICO
perish, and such chiUh-cn arc often ^iveii awav to he
adopted hy the Mexicans. Jn the hordcT districts, how-
ever, the Inchans have heconie nuich Mexicanised and
interniarr\' freelv with the whites.
Be it said to the credit of those high in autiioritv in
Mexico, they do all in their power to j")rotect the Ind-
ians. But the Government is practicallv j)owerless to
control the scattered population in the remote districts.
Besides, the Indians most preyed upon hv the siiari)ers
cannot make themselves understood in the ofhcial lan-
guage, and therefore consider it hopeless to approach
the authorities. ^ In accordance with the liberal consti-
tution of Mexico, all natives are citizens, l)ut the Ind-
ians do not know how to take advantage of their
rights, although sometimes large bodies have banded to-
gether and travelled down to Chihuahua to make their
comjdaints, and have always been helj)ed out — for the
time being. The efforts of the Government to en-
lighten the Indians by establishing schools are baffled
by the difficultv in finding honest and intelligent teach-
ers with a knowledge of the Indian language.
Where the Indians have had little or nothing to do
with the whites, they are obliging, law-abiding, and trust-
worthy. Profit is no inducement to them, as they be-
lieve that their gods would be angi\' with them for
charging an undue j)rice. As a matter of fact, they sell
corn all the vear round, whether it be scarce or plentiful,
at the same p^rice, though the Mexicans charge them
very different prices. The almighty dollar has no
devotees among these Indians. They ha\e no need of
aught that moncN' can buv, and are swayed bv j persua-
sion and kind and just treatment more than by gold.
If they have a few coins, they place them in a jar and
bury them in some remote cave, taking from the horde
only a little when thev have to buy some necessity of life.
A 1 INK SPECIMEN
419
Among the pagans in Pino Ciordo I met the finest
specimen of the Tarahumare tribe, a shaman, called
Juan Ignacio. Altiiough he had never been as far as
Guadalupe y Calvo, and only twice in his life to Babori-
|uan fgnacio and his Son, Pagan Tarahumares.
game, and had thus spent all his life in the mountains
among his own peo})le, he showed a courtesy and tact
that would have graced a gentleman. He took splen-
did care, not only of myself, but of mv men and animals
as well, giving us plenty to eat, sending his man to chop
wood for us, etc. He was possessed of the nicest tem-
per, and was truthful, a rare quality among Tarahu-
mares, as well as square in his dealings. His upright-
ness and urbanity commanded respect even from the
420 I'NKXOWX MEXICO
Icnguarazes, antl thcv did not rob him as much as the
other In(hans of the district ; consc(|Uciulv he was quite
well-to-do.
While liviiiu' amons^- the heathen, of whom there are
yet some thi'ee thousand left, I had no fear of bein^'
robbed of anv part of my outfit. The Indians them-
selves would not touch anything;, and there were no
stiange Mexicans about. If they had come, the Tara-
humares would have immediately warned me. Every-
thing- was perfectly safe as long as I had an honest
interpreter. The Tarahumare in his native condition is
many times better off, morally, menlallv, and econom-
ically, than his civilised brother ; but the white man will
not let him alone as long; as he has anvthing worth
taking away. Only those who bv dear experience have
learned to be cautious are able to maintain themselves
independently ; but such cases are becoming more and
more rare.
It is the same old storv over again, in America, as
in Africa, and Asia, and everywhere. The simple-
minded native is made the victim of the progressive
white, who, bv fair means or foul, deprives him of his
countrv. Luckilv, withal, the Tarahumare has not yet
been wiped out of existence. His blood is fused into
the working classes of Mexico, and he grows a Mexican.
But it may take a century yet before they will all be
made the servants of the whites and disappear like the
Opatas. Their assimilation may benefit Mexico, but one
may well ask : Is it just ? Must the weaker always be
lirst crushed, before he can be assimilated by the new
condition of things?
Future generations will not find any other record
of the Tarahumare;. than what scientists of the present
age can elicit from the lips of the jieople and from
the study of their imi)lements and customs. They
MAKERS OF HISTORY 421
stiind out to-day as an interest i no- relic of a time lon<?
gone by ; as a reinesentative of one of the most im-
portant staii^es in the development of the human race ;
as one of those wonderful primitive tribes that were
the founders and makers of the history of mankind.
CHAPTER XXIII
CKRKO DE MUINORA, THE HIGHEST MOUNTAIN' IN CHIHUAHUA
THE NORTHERN TEPEHUANES TROUIiLES CROPPING OUT OF
THE CAMERA SINISTER DESIGNS ON MEXICO ATTRIBUTED TO
THE AUTHOR MAIZILLO FOOT-RACES AMONG THE TEPE-
HUANES INFLUENCE OF THE MEXICANS UPON THE TEPE-
HUANES, AND VICE VERSA PROFITABLE LIQUOR TRAFFIC
MEDICINE LODGES — CUCUDURI, THE MASTER OF THE WOODS
MYTH OF THE PLEIADES.
ON my return from an excursion southward from
Guadalupe y Calvo as far as Mesa de San Rafael,
I ascended on January 12, 1895, Cerro de Muinora,
probably the highest elevation in northern Mexico.
I say probably, because I had no opportunity of meas-
uring Cerro de Candelaria. Approached from the north
it looked like a lonsf-stretched mountain, covered with
pines, and falling off abruptly toward the west. It is
conspicuous in the songs and beliefs of the Tepehuane
Indians.
We made a camp about 1,000 feet below the top,
among the pines, with snow lying all around us, and in
the night a Hock of parrots flew screeching past the
tents. I was surprised to find the temperature so mild ;
there was no ice on the water, not even at night.
The aneroid showed the height of the top to be 10,266
feet (20.60 in. at a temperature of 40° F., at 5.15 p.m.).
I noticed more birds between our camping-place and
the top than 1 had ever seen before in ])ine forests.
Blackbirds, the brown creepers {ccrthici), and red cross-
bills were seen on the very top.
422
THE NORTHERN TEPEHl ANES 423
From Cjuadalujic v Calvo I continuctl m\- journey to
the norllnvesl in ordci- to visit the Tej)ehuanes, about
fifteen hundred of wiioni still exist here in the northern-
most outpost of the tribe's former domain. Only seven-
A Tepehuane Family.
teen miles north of Guadalupe y Calvo is the Tepe-
huane village Nabogame (in Tepehuane, Navdgeri,
" where nopals [navo] grow").
The Tepehuane region includes some fine agricultural
land. There are fields there which have been planted
for forty and fifty years in succession, as for instance in
Mesa de Milpillas ; but here, too, the whites have ap-
propriated a considerable portion of the country, though
the Tepehuanes are largely in possession of their land,
4^4
rXKNOWX MEXiCO
because thev arc more valiant than the Tarahumarcs,
antl can only he dcjirived of their |)i()|)('rt\- throuLih the
aij;ency of mescal, for wiiich tlK'\' have an unfortunate
weakness.
The Tepchuanes are less phlcLiniatic and more im-
pressionable and impulsive than the Taraiumiares. One
woman lauo;hed so much tliat she could not be jihoto-
Old Log-Houses near Nahogame.
graphed. They are noisy and active, and in the fields
they work merrily, chatting and laughing. Even when
peons of the Mexicans they are not so abject-looking
as the Tarahumarcs, but retain their ])roud and inde-
pendent manners. 'I4ie\' behave almost like men of the
world in comj)arison with the unsoj)histicatcd 'I arahu-
mares. In the eyes of some of the Tepehuane women
1 noticed a fire as bright as in those of Italians,
These Indians li\e in commodious log-cabins, with
interlocked corners. The loofs are gablc-d antl often
RESEMBLANCES AND DIFFERENCES 425
supported by piles of wood. I'licy arc covered with
shingles, over which arc jilaccd rows of stones to keep
them in j)lace. The doors are furnished with jambs.
Tile Tepeiiuanes call themselves Odami, the mean-
in_<j of which 1 could not lind out. I3y the Tarahu-
niares they are called Socio ("walking-stick" insects
{phasniid(c), in Mexican-Spanish canipaiuochc). The
Tepehuane language is not melodious, being full of
consonants, and hard like the people themselves. They
still speak it among themselves, though there are but
few who do not understand Spanish. The Mexicans
frequently enter into marriage with them.
S(1XGS OF THF, 'rE?KHUAXE TklBE
Last Soxg Sung at the Feast when the Morning Star
Appears
^v=::jv=::zi::
i • *— ^
i
So - (so-) da - gi u - ki - (j'l-) ru tu - va - ni - mi.
(There is) water (i.e., tesvino) in the house ; He is coming down (to us).
As to their religion they are far more reticent than
the Tarahumares, and it is difficult to get information
on this subject. One reason for this is that they are
afraid of being laughed at by the Mexicans. They still
keep up their dances and secret rites and their cere-
monies, customs, and beliefs. Although in many points
they resemble the Tarahumares, in others fundamental
differences exist, such as the complex observances of
rules in regard to pubertv, none of which have been
found amon<r the Tarahumares.
426 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Ignorant Mexicans, who liavc hut a faint idea as
to who is })resident of their country, more than once
have attributed land-2:ral)bino; intentions to my expedi-
tion. With mv three or four Mexicans and Indians and a
dozen ])aek mules, I have been credited with designs of
concjueiing Mexico for the .Americans. Even here in Na-
bogame a Mexican settler felt uneasy about his holdings
and stirred the Indians up, saying that if they allowed
"that man to photograph them, the Devil would earrv
off all of them, and it would be better to kill him." I
was to meet the people on a Sunday, and in the morn-
ing I received this discouraging letter written by a Mex-
ican for the Indian gobernador or "general," who, to
affirm or authenticate the letter, had put a cross, as his
mark or signature, underneath his name :
Pueblo ue Nabogame, January 29, 1S93.
Dear Mr. Picturemaker :
Do me the favour not to come to the pueblo to photograph,
which I know is your intention. I believe the best for you to do
is to go first to Baborigame, because, as far as this pueblo is con-
cerned, I do not give permission. Therefore, you will please decide
not to pass this day in this pueblo photographing.
Your obedient servant,
JosK H. Arroyos,
General.
To Mr. I'uturemakkr.
Taking my Mexican attendant with me, I walked
over to the ]:)lace where some twenty Indians and sev-
eral Mexicans had assembled. The scheming instigator
of the trouble had brought his rille with him, to give
weight to his words ; but the Mexican judge was on my
side, and after he had read mv letters from the Govern-
ment, he made a speech in which he convinced the peo-
ple that thev must obev the authorities. The Tepe-
huanes soon saw the force of his argument, and the
defeated agitator slunk away. The outcome of the dis-
h
A SPECIES OF WILD CORN 429
pute was that the Indians expressed their rcg^ret that
there were nut more of them })resent for me to photo-
graph ; if I desired, tiiey would send for more of their
tribe to eome and pose before the eamcra.
Around Xaboirame grows a ])lant called viaizillo, or
maizmillo. It is more slender than the ordinary corn-
plant and the ears are very small. It grows among
the corn and has to be weeded out, as it injures the
good plants. However, several Mexicans assured me
that, when cultivated, the ears develop. After three
years they grow considerably larger and may be used as
food. A man in Cerro Prieto raises this kind onlv ;
others mix it with the ordinary corn. I was told that
people from the Hot Country come to gather it, each
taking awav about one almud to mix with their seed
corn. The combination is said to give splendid results
in fertile soil.
Can this possibly be the original wild plant from
which the ordinary Indian corn has been cultivated ? If
the information I received about it in Mexquitic, State of
Jalisco, is correct, then this question must be answered
negatively, because mv informant there stated that the
plant is triennial. In that locality it is called uiaiz dc
pajaro, and it is cultivated as a substitute for the ordi-
nary corn, or for use in making atole. The Huichol
Indians also know it and raise it ; they call it tats.
For about a month I stopped at Mesa de Milpillas,
which is a fertile high plateau. The countrv is now
almost open, yet magnificent })ines still remain, and
Cerro de Muinora stands guard to the south. This is
the stronghold of the northern Tepehuanes.
I then descended toward the west to the village of
Cinco Llagas, and found the Tepehuanes there pure-
bred, although speaking Spanish. Ascending again to
the sierra over the mining cam}) of San Jose, I arrived
430 UNKNOWN MEXICO
in Baborigaiiic (Fcpchuanc, \'a\vulilc =" where there
is a laro:e tio-tree"). The pueblo is finely situated on a
llano one mile and a half in diameter, and surrounded
1)V prettv hills. I took up m\- abode in a Tej)ehuane
shant\- in the neiiihi)ourhood of the village. The owner
asked for the rent in advanee, and for the amount of
fifty eentavos Air. llartmanand I seeured the riuht of
oeeui)ane\.', without time limit. I sta\'ed there from
March 31st to iVpril 30th. There are a couple of Mexi-
can stores at Baborigame, and the village is more Mexi-
can than Indian. The Tepehuanes live on their ranches,
and come in only on festive occasions, to mingle with
their " neighbours," as the Mexicans are designated by
the Indians in all parts of Mexico.
1 was told that native travelling merchants from
southern Mexico, called Aztecs and Otornies, pass
thiough Baborigame every five years, to sell their goods.
They bring articles of silk and wool, wooden spoons,
needles and thread, and do nice embroidery work, and
make or mend garments.
The Tepehuanes of the north have much the same
games and sports as the Tepehuanes, and at Easter-time,
foot-races a la Tarahumare were arranged as part of the
general festivities of the season. Two hundred and
ninety people assembled, among them a few Tarahu-
mares. There were several races, the runners being:
divided into different groups, men and women (married
and unmarried), and childien. As among the Tarahu-
mares, two parties opj)osed each other in each race, and
the men ran with balls, the women with rings. The
married women, although fat and hea\'\', made better
time than the young girls.
The runners who dist inguislu'd themseh'cs most were
the married men, ranging in age from eighteen to thirty
years, the best of whom made thirteen ciicuits in three
Sl^ORTS AND OTHER CUSTOMS 431
hours and one minute and a half. I measured the cir-
cuit, and found it to he 9,223 feet lon^' ; therefore the
total distance run was nearly twenty-three miles. The
two men who came in lirst, one a Tcpehuane, the othei'
a Tarahumare, showed no sij^ns of fatiij^ue. Bv way of
comparison, I will add that the best one among some
young Mexicans, who raced at the same time, took
twelve minutes for the circuit, and all arrived breathless,
and would apparently not have been able to continue
much longer. I was credibly informed that eight years
ago a man who had died but a short time before could
make twenty-seven circuits, or more than forty-seven
miles, on this race-course. This runner was well known
in that part of the sierra. His antagonist made twenty-
six circuits, then fell down exhausted, while the victor
indulged in a prolonged dance the next day. The race
lasted from noon until eight o'clock in the evening.
Some of the Tepehuane customs have been adopted
by the Mexicans. For instance, after the harvesting is
over, the owner or his son is tied on to a horse, and has
to carrv a cross made from three ears of corn. The
horse is led to the house, and is received with rifle shots ;
and the men tell the women in the house that the man
on the horse has stolen the corn, and they will not let
him go unless they are given tesvino and a ball. The
demand, of course, is acceded to, and drum and violin
furnish the music for the dance.
The Tepehuanes around Baborigame now frequently
rent their lands to the Mexicans for a term of vears, but
rarely get it back, for the "neighbours" have a powerful
agent in mescal. The enormous proht accruing from
trading in this brandy with the natives may be judged
from the fact that a demijohn of the liquid costing $5
contains 24 bottles, for each of which the trader gets
from the Indians one sack of corn, worth $1. On this
432
rXKXOWX MEXICO
quaiuiu- he realises elsewhere at least $5. In other
words, on an outlay of, sa}', $50, he earns a c^ross $1,200 ;
deduetino" expenses for transportation of the corn, etc.,
leaves still a net profit of at least $1,100.
The Tepehuanes have medicine lodo;cs in remote
places, where they secretly gather once a month, or
\
Tepehuane Medicine Lodge near Mesa de Milpillas.
every other month. The name of the lodue is \\lkir
Nuidadu (vakir = the inside of the house; nuidadu =
where there is singin<^ ; /.^■.,"the house where there is
sinixinji; inside "). Here they sino- to call down their i^od
Tiini, wiiom tiiev also call their brother-in-law ((lunosi).
He instructs the siiaman how t(j })roceed to pret rain,
and to a\'ert evil, 1)\- makinLT tes\'ino and 1)V dancing.
RELKHOUS CEREMONIES 433
The (ratlicrino; at the inedieine \()d<xc begins at dusk,
three shamans being present. A eross is raised and
many kinds of flowers from tlie barrancas are attached to
it. Eagle feathers, too, are hung to it, as well as strings
of beads. From each arm of the cross is suspended
an "eye of the god" (\^ol. II, Chap. XI), called in
Tepehuane, yagete. There are three jars with tesvino,
and three bowls with meat are placed before the cross.
The fire is put out, and the shamans begin to sing
different songs with different melodies, continuing un-
til nearly midnight, when a noise is heard on the
roof, as if somebody were walking there. The Indians
sins: on, and the walk ins; on the roof is heard three
times. At last the roof opens, and behold sorriebody
jumps on the floor three times. The singing stops, and
Tuni (Tata Dios) is among the people. He looks like
a Tepehuane, with a breech-cloth and tunic, but without
blanket, and with a bandana around his head. The bor-
ders of the breech-cloth and of the tunic are of gold, and
so are the ends of his hair. Only the shamans see him.
He greets them with the usual salutation, " Vaigase ! "
and the assemblage responds in the same w^ay. He
plays with the Indians, and calls them his brothers-in-
law. Three cigarettes are made and placed near the
tesvino. " Smoke, brother-in-law ! " they say, and all
laugh and make merry with Tuni. He then makes a
speech, telling them to make plenty of tesvino in their
houses, in order that the world may not come to an end.
He is invited to drink, and to sing three different songs,
in which all the men join. He then drinks tesvino, with
such a gurgle that all can hear it. " How strong it is."
he says; " I may not even be able to get home !" He
also sprinkles tesvino over them. Anyone who wants
to drink simplv stretches out his arm, saying nothing,
and a full drinking-gourd is placed in his hand. When
Vol. I.— 28
434
UNKNOWN MEXICO
empty, the gourd vanishes. Such a person will remain
drunk until morning, for Tuni's hand is strong.
He remains for about half an hour, and when he
leaves he says that he will come back if the pe()j)le
make tesvino for
him. He vanishes
like a breath, noise-
lessly.
Immediately after
he has gone, a fe-
male deity comes,
whom they call San-
ta Maria Djada
(mother ; that is, the
moon). The same
salutations are ex-
changed, and the
women ask her to
sing. She, too, re-
ceives tesvino, and makes a speech, the trend of which
is that thev must go on making the liquor through the
year, lest their father should get angry and the world
come to an end. Afterward the Snow and the Cold also
come to play with the people in a similar wav.
(^ucuduri is the name of the master of the deer and
the fish. He also makes rain and he is heard in the
thunder. He is a small but thick-set man, and in foggy
weather he rides on a deer over the mountain-tops.
When there is much fog and rain, a Tepehuane may
eo to a wrestlincr-contest with Cucuduri in the forest.
He throws an arrow on the ground, and the little man
appears and agrees to ])ut up a deer against the arrow.
They wrestle, and often Cucuduri is thrown, although he
is strong. Then the man will find a deer close by, and
shoot it.
A Well-known Tepehuane Shaman.
BELIEFS OF THE TEPEHUANES 435
The fisherman hears in the ripple of the tlowing wa-
ter the weeping of Cueuduri, and throws three small fish
to him. If he should not do this, he would catch noth-
ing. Cueuduri would throw stones into the water and
drive the fish off, or he would even throw stones at the
man himself.
The Tepehuanes never drink direct from a brook,
but scoop up the water with their hands, else in the night
the master of the spring might carry them inside of the
mountain.
They never cut their finger and toe nails, for fear of
getting blind.
They say that the seat of the soul is between the
stomach and the chest, and they never wake up a man
who is asleep, as his soul may be wandering about.
Sometimes a man is ill because his soul is away. The
doctors may be unable to make it come back, and
still the man lives. Soul is breath; and when a man
dies, his soul passes through the fontanels of the head,
or through the eyes or the nostrils or the mouth.
If anyone steps over a man, the latter will not be
able to kill another deer in his life. A woman can be
passed in this way without such danger.
When the wind blows hard, it is because a woman
delaved curing herself.
The reason the Tepehuanes make four feasts to
despatch a dead woman from this world, and only three
for a man, is their belief that a woman has more ribs
than a man.
Unmarried women are not allowed to eat meat from
the spinal column of the deer, as those bones look like
arrows. If they ate this meat, their backs would grow
curved and they would have back-aches.
The Tepehuanes do not eat pinole with meat, be-
436 UNKNOWN MEXICO
cause their teeth would fall out. After eating- pinole
they rinse their mouths.
One kind of squirrel is thought to change into a
bat, another into a parrot. The ground-squirrel changes
into a serpent. Catfish become otters, and larv?e on the
madrona-tree are transformed into doves.
When a hen crows, an accident is going to happen,
unless the hen is immediately killed.
The moon sometimes has to tight with the sun.
If weather depended only on the moon, it would rain
always, for the benefit of the Tepehuanes.
The Pleiades are women, and the women of this world
are their sisters. They were Jiving with a man who
used to bring them their food. One day he could not
find anything, and drew blood from the calf of his leg,
and brought it in a leaf from the big-leav^ed oak-tree.
He told the women it was deer-blood, and thus he sus-
tained them. On discovering that it was his blood,
they became very angry and ascended to heaven, where
they are yet to be seen.
When he came home in the afternoon he missed
them, and followed their tracks, but could not find
them. He slept alone, and in the night he said to the
mice, which he took for the women, " Come, come to
boil the deer-blood !" He continued his search until he
reached the place where they had disappeared. The
women, seeing from above how he went around looking
for them, laughed, and he caught sight of them and
called out, " Tie your girdles together that I may get up
also." He climbed up ; but when he had almost reached
them, the oldest of the women told the others to let
him drop, because he had deceived them. He became a
coyote and has remained in that shape ever since. If he
had succeeded in getting up, he would have become a
star, the same as the women.
The three stars in the Belt of Orion are deer.
CHAPTER XXIV
ON TO MORELOS WILD AND BKOKKN COUNTRY — THE ENORMOUS
FLOWER-SPIKE OF THE AMOLE SUBTROPICAL VEGETATION OF
NORTHWESTERN MEXICO DESTRUCTIVE ANTS THE LAST OF
THE TUBARS A SPECTRAL RIDE P.ACK 'i'O THE UNITED STATES
AN AWFUL THUNDER-STORM CLOSE QUARTERS ZAPE
ANTIQUITIES WHEN AN " ANGEL " DIES MEMENTOS OF A
REIGN OF TERROR THE GREAT TEPEHUANE REVOLUTION OF
1616 THE FERTILE PLAINS OF DURANGO.
AFTER having at last succeeded in getting men, I
continued my journey to the northwest, over the
very broken country toward the town of Morelos, in-
habited ahnost entirely by pagan Tarahumares. There
were, of course, no roads, only Indian trails, and these
in many places were dangerous to travel with beasts of
burden. The barrancas during the month of May are
all but mtolcrably hot, and it was a relief to get up now
and then on the strips of highland that intersperse the
countrv and look as fine as i)arks. At the hiorher al-
titudes I noticed a great number of eagle ferns, and
the Indians here plant corn in the small patches be-
tween the ferns, merely putting the grains into the
gravelly red ground without tilling the soil at all.
Lower down were g-roves of big-leaved oak-trees.
Their leaves are sometimes over ten inches long and of
nearly the same breadth, and are frequently utilised by
the Indians as improvised drinking-vessels.
On the summits of the bnrrancas, and on the slopes
over which we descended into the valleys, an astonishing
number of parasites and epiphytes was observed, espe-
437
438
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Salvia elcgans, var.
soriorensis.
ciall\- on tlu' j)incs and oaks. The round vcilow clusters
growing on the branches of the oaks sometimes oi\e
tlie entire forest a vel low-
hue. In the foot-hills I
saw a kind of })arasite,
whose straight, limher
branches of a fresh, dark
green colour hang down
in bunches over twenty
feet in lengtii. Some
epiphytes, which most of
the year look to the casual
observer like so many
tufts of hav on the
branches, jjroduce at cer-
tain seasons extremelv
pretty flowers.
In the vallevs of the
western inclines of the sierra there is nothing
suggestive of tropical luxuriance or romance
in the landscape, which impresses one chieflv with its
towering mountains and vast slopes. Grass is plenti-
ful enough among the stones and rocks, and grouj)s
of fresh green trees indicate where ground is moist and
water to be found. The country is dr\', and fiom Jan-
uary to June there is no rain. Vet an aloe, which
smells like ham, is so full of juice that it dri})s when a
leaf is broken. This, too, is the home of the agaves, or
centur\'-j)lants, and I know of nothing so astonishing as
the gigantic tlowxM--spike that shoots upward from the
comparatively small plant called amole. One line dav
in May 1 came uj:)()n one, which 1 measured. It was bv
no means the largest one to be found, but the spike
itself, witliout the stalk, was 15 feet 8 inches in height,
and 31 inches in circumference at its thickest j)art. It
A GIGANTIC FLOWER-SPIKE
439
seemed a pity to cut down such a nia<;nilicent si)ecimen,
1)LU, as I wanted to count the llowers, I had one of niv
men fell it with a couple of blows of an axe. After
counting- the flowers on one section, I estimated that
the entire spike bore at least 20,000 beautiful yellow
blossoms, each as laro;e as a tulij). It re(]uired two men
to carry the spike, and as they walked they were followed
by a multitude of humming-birds, which remained fear-
The Flowcr-Spike of the Amole.
lessly at work among the flowers of what they evidently
considered their own private garden. They might have
to fly miles before finding another like this. The flower-
stalk of the maguey is eaten before it flowers. It looks
like a big bamboo stick, and when roasted in the hot
ashes is verv palatable, sweet, and tender.
Below the Indian village of Coloradas stands an iso-
lated peak 400 to 500 feet high, in regard to which the
Tarahumares have the following legend : A Tepehu-
ane once cut bamboo reeds and tobacco, down on the
river, and being followed uj) bv the Tubars changed
himself into this stone. The man's girdle can still be
made out.
440
UNKNOWN MEXICO
^
At the villai^c mv intcrpictcr asked mc for the cover
of a eoj)V of London 7V/////, and ft)r the \vrapi)er on
my photograj)hic fihns, that with these pictures lie
might adorn the altar of the old adobe church.
The country is but thinly populated east and north of
Moielos. and the steepness of tlie valle\s through winch
the Indians are scattered, makes it difhcult to reach
them. At the time of mv visit these Indians had abso-
lutely nothing to sell us but the sweet mescal stalks.
In the end of May I reached
Alorelos, an old mining place,
about 1, 800 feet above sea-level.
The surrounding hills and
mountains were covered with the
tvpical Mexican vegetation of the
warm regions. The many odd-
shaped cacti form a strong con-
trast to the light and j)innate
leaves of the numerous legumi-
nous shrubs, acacia, sophronia,
etc. The chilicote, or coral-tree
(^/'l'///;'<z^^?), with scarlet flowers, is
seen everywhere; also palo bianco,
wilh a white stem, looking like
an apple-tree. The year 1893 ^^''^^ ^^^ exceedingly dry
one throughout northern Mexico. My mules, oliliged
t(j travel under a scorching sun, sometimes had to be
without water for twenty-four hours. Still, in those hot
barrancas, I saw no difference in thi- vegetation. The
trees and plants did not seem affected by rain or no rain.
The onlv exception I noticed was that tlie flat, leaf-like
joints of the nopal cactus shrivelled up a little on the
surface, i)Ut the fleshy inside seemed as juicv as ever.
Even during the dryest season the trees and shrubs here
blossom and bear fruit, and monimgs and evenings the
Cere us ccespitosus.
INSFXT PESTS 441
air is filled with the j)crfunic of acacia?, cacti, and other
plants. One is at a loss to understand how the cattle
can sLihsist on these shrubs, but they have adapted them-
selves to circumstances, and are able to chew up the
thick stems of the cacti, in fact the whole plant, with
the result, however, that their stomachs are so filled
with spines that the Mexicans cannot utilise the tripe.
The frui>;al Indian is the only one who does not reject
it, but manaoes to burn off the biggest spikes while
toasting the tripe on cinders.
Near Alorelos are ancient house ruins, some round
and some square, and also traces of circular fortifica-
tions built of loose stones. Several of the latter were
from sixteen to twenty yards in diameter and located on
the top of mountain ridges. The remains are attributed
to the Cocoyomes.
The commonly accepted idea that in southern lati-
tudes anvthing may be easily cultivated is often proved
bv actual observation to be fallacious. Sometimes
there may be too much rain, sometimes not enough.
The worst enemies of plant-life in the warm countries
are the many pests. One evening my host, Don
Manuel Perez, showed me some of the foes he had to
combat in order to maintain his garden. Certain kinds
of ants bite off the flowers and leaves and carry away
the pieces. The insects come out at night and may
strip a tree of its leaves and fruits before morning. It
was an astonishing sight to see the dark stem of an
elder looking as if it were green, on account of the mul-
titude of ants, each of which carried a bit of green leaf
half an inch long. Every evening a man went around
to burn them off with a torch of resinous pine-wood.
Some Tubar Indians were induced to come to Mo-
relos to be measured and photographed. The few repre-
sentatives of the tribe I saw had ofood ficfurcs and small
4+2
UNKNOWN MEXICO
hands and feet. They seemed to be shy, but rather
kind-hearted, jolly peoj)le, resemblinii: the Tarahumares
in appearance. They are found from the villaire of San
^Vndres, three miles from Morelos, as far as the village of
Frunt \'iew.
Tubar Man.
Tubares. According; to tradition their domain extentled
in former times much higher up on both sides of the river,
to where Baborigame is now. But thev were graduallv
restricted to the locality on which the remnant of the
tribe at present resides. They are said to have been
fierce and constantly fighting the Tarahumares. There
A VANISHING TRIBE
443
arc now not more than a coujjIc of dozen puie-hrcd Tu-
bars left, and onh^ li\e or six of these know their own
lano:ua_<^e, which is related to the Nahuatl. The name
of the tribe as pronounced by themselves is Tuvalim.
'i'ubar Women.
Most of the Tubars are found in the pueblo of San
Miguel, seventeen miles from Morelos, down the riven
An old woman told me that she did not know what the
Tubars had done that they were disappearing from the
world. The few remaining members of the tribe were
related to one another, and the young people had to marrv
Mexicans. The customs of the Tubars evidently re-
sembled much those of their neighbours, the Tarahu-
444 UNKNOWN .MEXICO
mares, who until recent years invited them to their
dances. The Tubars danced yohe, and the dancers ac-
companied their sintjino^ bv beating" two Hat sticks, like
two machetes. Thev did not use hikuii. In the sacristy
of the church in the old Tubar villag-e of San Andres, I
found a complete tesvino oiittit, jars, sj)o()ns, etc., the
vessels turned bottom uj:), ready for use. The saints,
too, must have tesvino, because thev are ijreedv and ex-
acting, and have to be propitiated. The Tubars are
said to have worn white girdles.
Mr. Martman, whom 1 left in San Mio^uel to con-
clude some investigations, returned a few weeks later to
the United States. On the small ])lateaus near San
Miguel, two lumdred feet or more above the river, he
found interesting old tomb^. which were well known to
the inhabitants under the name of dorcc^as. The pres-
ence of a tomb was indicated on the surface by a circuit
of stones from three to five feet in diameter set in the
ground. There were groups of ten or twelve circuits,
and the tombs underneath were found at a depth of five
or si.K feet. They consisted of small chambers excavated
in the clayey soil, and were well jireserved, though thev
contained no masonry work; still at one place a voke of
oxen while dragging the plough had sunk down into the
subterranean cavity. The entrance to such a tomb is
from one side, where a large slab, placed in a slanting
position, protects the inside.
Nothing was discovered
in the four tombs that were
opened but some curious slate-
coloured beads of burnt clav.
Beads of Burnt Clay, from Vv,,u\c of the distriel reported,
Tubar Tombs. Natural Size. ■ i •
however, thai small )ars of
earthenware had been found in the l>ori'(/iiis. No doubt
the absence of skeletons was due sold}- to the length
TRAVELLING BY NIGHT 44^
of time that liad elapsed, for even in tiie cemetery of the
church Mr. liartman found similar tombs that contained
several skeletons. These tombs were indicated by the
same kind of stone circuits as the rest, but were only
a!)Out tiiree feet down in the hard clay, and had no
slabs in front of the entrance. In one of them Mr.
Hartman found six corpses more or less decomposed, the
sepulchre having evidently been used for a long time.
In the same cemetery the Mexicans buried their dead.
I continued my journey down the river through the
country once inhabited by the Tubars. As the heat was
intense, I availed myself of the light of the full moon and
travelled at night. Now and then the read touched the
big river where the croaking of the frogs was intensely
doleful and monotonous, but withal so loud that on a
quiet night like this they could easily be heard two
miles off.
Warm winds fanned me to sleep, and only when my
mule ran me against some spiny branch, did I wake to
find myself in a fantastic forest of leafless, towering
cacti, that stood motionless, black, and silent in the moon-
light, like spectres with numberless arms uplifted. The
overwhelming noise of the frogs seemed to voice their
thoughts and forbid me to advance farther. But the
mule accelerated its pace, the shadows glided quicker and
quicker, up and down the stony, slippery path that wound
its way through this ghostly forest.
In the daytime there was a disagreeably strong, warm
wind blowintr, makino- it difficult even to get the saddles
on our mules, but the nights were calm. At the pueblo
of San Ignacio nobody speaks the Tubar tongue. Blue
herons have a permanent breeding-place here on an al-
most perpendicular rock, four to six hundred feet high,
where I counted twenty nests.
In travelling down to Tierra Caliente there is one
44^ UNKNOWN Mr:xico
place at whicli oik' must leave the river and ascend to
the pine region. This is below the village of Tuhares.
The river narrows here and forms rapids, and it has been
calculated that the water in Hood-time rises sixty-five feet.
Alligators do not go above these rapids. In two days'
journey from Alorelos one may reach the undulating
country of Sinaloa, hx casta, which is warmer even than
the barrancas.
At San Ignacio I left the river, and turned in a
nortlicasterly direction to Batopilas. After five days'
pleasant sojourn at Mr. Shepherd's hospitable home
there, 1 again ascended the sierra, and, after visiting the
Indians of Santa Ana and its neighbourhood, arrived
at Guachochic. Leaving m\- mules here in charge of
my friend Don Carlos Garcia, I soon started again
toward the northeast on my way back to the United
States, passing through tne Indian ranches, and finally
arriving at Carichic (in l\irahumare Garichi, " where
there are houses," probably ancient) on July 31st. At
less than an hour's distance from the place I was over-
taken by a thunder-storm, the heaviest my Mexicans or
I had ever experienced. In a few minutes the almost
level fields were flooded as far as the eye could see, and
the road we followed began to run with brown water.
As we advanced through the mud, the small arroyos
were rapidly filling. The rain did not abate, and the
force of the currents steadily increased. When only
three hundred yards from the town we found ourselves
at the edge of a muddy stream, running so raj^idly that
it tore pieces from the bank, and carried small pines and
branches of trees with it. As it was impossible to cross
it, we had to wait, however impatiently, for the rain to
subside sufficiently to allow us to wade through the
water. And all the next day was spent in drying my
things.
ON A MOUNTAIN ROAD 447
One year later I was ai^ain in (Jarichic, and from
there I made my way to Guaehoehic. One night 1 had
to spend in the house of a civihsed Indian, as it rained
too heavily for us to remain outdoors. The house was
made of stone and mud, without windows, and the door
had to be closed on account of the dogs. There was no
wav^ for air to get in except through the chimney, over
the fireplace. There were nine people and one baby in
the small room. Strange to say, I slept well.
My mules and outfit had been well taken care of at
Guaehoehic, and I now arranged with Don Carlos Garcia
to take most of my belongings to Guanazevi, a mining
town in the neighbouring State of Durango, while with
a few of the best mules I crossed Barranca de San Carlos
near Guaehoehic, and pursued my way through regions
inhabited by Tarahumares and Tepehuanes. A stammer-
ing Tarahumare was observed, the only Indian with this
defect that has come to my notice.
The road I followed to Guanazevi from Guadalupe
y Calvo leads through a part of the Sierra Madre which
is from nine to ten thousand feet high and uninhabited,
and for two days we met nobody. In w^inter the region
is dreaded on account of the heavy snowfalls that are
liable to occur here. Several people are said to have
perished, and one freighter on one occasion lost twenty-
seven mules. In the wet season bears are numerous,
and, according to trustworthy information, have at-
tacked and eaten several Tarahumares.
We camped one night at a place where a man had
been killed by robbers some time before, and one of the
Mexicans shudderingly expressed his fear that we should
probably hear the dead man cry at night. This led to a
discussion among the men as to whether the dead could
cry or not. The consensus of opinion was that the dead
could cry, but they could not appear. This, by the way,
448 UNKNOWN MEXICO
is the common Indian belief. My Tepchiiane servant
took an intense interest in the arguments. His face be-
came suddenlv animated with fear, and the thouo:ht of
the dead changed him from an indolent fellow into a
valuable aid to my chief packer in watching; the animals
at night. His senses became so keen as to be quite re-
assuring- in regard to robbers at night, and from that
time on he was really a valuable man, active and alert.
There is a small colon\' of Tarahumares living a few
miles north of Guanazevi, near San Pedro. Here I ex-
cavated some corpses that had been buried several years
before on a little plain, llie graves were about four feet
deep. In Guanazevi a silver "bonanza" was in lull
blast and much activity prevailed.
We were now outside of the sierra proper; but on
the route south, which I followed for several days, I
was never farther away from the mountain range than
thirty miles. At Zape, about twenty miles to the south,
there are some ancient remains. As the principal ones
have been described by E. Guillemin Tarayre, who ex-
plored Mexico under Maximilian, it is not necessary for
me to dwell on the subject. Suffice it to say that walls
constructed of loose stones are commonly seen on the
crests of the low hills and are attributed to the Coco-
yomes. Circles and squares made of stones set upright
in the ground may also be seen, and nicely polished
stone implements are frequently to be found near by.
Outside of Zape are a number of ancient burial-caves,
which have been disturbed bv treasure-seekers. As a
curiosity, I mav mention that a Mexican once brought
to light a big lump of salt that had been buried there.
It was given to the cattle.
One afternoon a gav little procession of men and
women passed my camp, some on horseback, others
walking. One of the riders played the violin, another
FUNERAL CEREMONIES 449
one heat a drum. An old wunian who just then stepped
up to sell something; ex{)lained to me that " an angel "
was heing huried. This is the designation a])plied to
small ehildren in Mexico, and I could see an elahorate
white hundle on a hoard carried aloft hy a woman. My
informant told me that when a child dies the parents
always give it joyfully to heaven, set off iireworks and
dance and are jolly. They do not weep when an infant
dies, as the little one would not enter Paradise, hut
would have to come hack and gather all the tears.
The way southward led through undulating coun-
try devoid of interest. To judge from the clusters of
ranches, so numerous as to form villages, the land must
be fertile. There were no more Indians to be seen,
only Mexicans. All along the road we observed crosses
erected, where people had been killed by robbers, or
where the robbers themselves had been shot. A man's
body is generally taken to the cemetery for burial,
whether he was killed or executed, but a cross is raised
on the spot where he fell. The crosses are thus me-
mentos of the reign of terror that prevailed in Mexico
not long ago. Most of the victims were so-called
Arabs, or travelling peddlers, sometimes Syrians or Ital-
ians, but generally Mexicans.
The most important place I passed was the town of
Santiago de Papasquiaro, which is of some size, and
situated in a rich agricultural country. The name of the
place means possibly ''paz qiiicro"' ("I want peace"), al-
luding to the terrible defeat of the Indians by the Span-
iards in the seventeenth century. There is reason to be-
lieve that before 1593 this central and western part of
Durango had been traversed and peopled by whites, and
that many Spaniards had established haciendas in vari-
ous parts of the valley. They held their own success-
fully against the Tepehuanes until 1616. when these, to-
Voi.. I. — ?9
4)0 UNKNOWN MEXICO
gethcr with the Taraluiinaivs and other tribes, rebelled
ag^ainst them. All the natives rose sinuiltaneouslv,
killed the missionaries, burned the ehiirehes, and drove
the Spaniards away. A force of Indians estimated at
25,000 marched ao;ainst the city of Durango, carrying-
fear everywhere, and threatening to exterminate the
Spanish ; i)ut the governor of the province gathered to-
gether the whites to the number of 600, " determined
to maintain in peace the province which his Catho-
lic Majesty had placed under his guardianship." He
routed the enemy, leaving on the field more than 15,000
dead insurgents, without great loss to his own troops.
The Indians then sued for peace, and after their leaders
had been duly punished, they were dispersed to form
pueblos. The insurrection lasted over a year, and many
bloody encounters between the natives and their new
masters occurred in the course of the following cen-
turies, the result being that the Indians in the State
of Durango have not been able to maintain themselves,
except in the extreme northern and southern sections.
There was an epidemic of typhoid fever in some of
these ranch-villages, and in one place I saw two dogs
hung up in a tree near the road, having been killed on
account of hydrophobia. A strong wind was blowing
day and night on the llanos along the river-course,
which annoyed us not a little. It was a real relief to
get up again on the sierra, about fourteen miles south of
Papasquiaro, and find ourselves once more among the
quiet pines and madronas.
CHAPTER XXV
WINTER IN THE HIGH SIERRA — MINES — PUEBLO NUEVO AND ITS
AMIABLE PADRE A BALL IN MY HONOUR SANCTA SIMPLI-
CITAS A FATIGUING JOURNEY TO THE PUEBLO OF LAJAS
AND THE SOUTHERN TEPEHUANES DON't TRAVEL AFTER
nightfall! FIVE DAYS SPENT IN PERSUADING PEOPLE TO
POSE BEFORE THE CAMERA THE REGIME OF OLD MIS-
SIONARY TIMES STRANGERS CAREFULLY EXCLUDED EVERY-
BODY CONTEMPLATING MARRIAGE IS ARRESTED SHOCKING
PUNISHMENTS FOR MAKING LOVE BAD EFFECTS OF THE
SEVERITY OF THE LAWS.
THE sierra for several days' journey southward is
about 9,000 feet high, and is not inhabited, except
in certain seasons by people who bring their cattle here
to graze. I doubt whether anyone ever lived here per-
manently. The now extinct tribes, to whose territory
this region belonged, dwelt, no doubt, in the valleys be-
low. The high plateau consists of small hills, and
travelling at first is easy, but it becomes more and
more rough as one approaches the big, broad Barranca
de Ventanas.
Having passed for several days through lonclv, cold,
and silent woods, now and then interspersed with a
slumbering snow-field, it was a real pleasure to come sud-
denly, though only in the beginning of February, upon
plants in full bloom on the high crest that faced the
undulating lowlands of Sinaloa, which spread themselves
out below, veiled in mist. The warm air wafted up from
the Hot Country brings about this remarkable change
in the flora of the precipitous inclines toward the west»
451
4)2 UNKNOWN iMEXICO
The air was filled with perfume, and it was lovely to be
on these hic^h, sunny tops. Foliaii^e trees, espeeially
aiders, began to ai)pear anionic the })ines, basking- in
the dazzling" sunshine. I also notieed soint' tine ferns
spreading out their graeeful fronds.
A few miles farther and mueh lower I made eamj)
above the Indian pueblo of San Pedro, as far as I eould
make out tiie most eastern extension of the northern
Aztecs (Mexicanos or Mexicaneros, as they are ealled
here). From here southward I found them in many
of the warm valleys of the Sierra intermingled with
Tepehuanes and Coras.
There is an excellent road zigzagging down to the
mining place of Ventanas (" Windows," from the forma-
tion of a rock) for the greater part of the distance ; but
at tlie outset the way, at two places, is so narrow that
jiarties coming from opposite directions could neither
pass nor turn back, which is not pleasant with a yawn-
ing chasm of a couple of thousand feet so close at hand.
I was anxious to secure men to go up again into the
sierra and farther south ; but the people were afraid of
the cold, and nobody seemed to know anvthing about
the country except the postmaster, and he onl\- in a
vague way. Mazatlan is not much more than loo mi Us
off and Durango 125 miles. There are here a great manv
dvkes of j)ori)hvrv of different ages, but neither slale nor
irranite in the immediate vicinit\', though there is some
granite farther up the river.
Among the mine-owners who lived in \'c-ntanas I
was surprised to lind a Swt'dish gentleman. Tlie\- all
received me hospitably, proxiding me also with two men,
whom I badlv needed. We had to ascend on tiic other
side of th(; bairanca as high as we had been north of this
place, and for a da\' we travelled thiough snow and
rain. Corn does not glow here. I^om one point the
PUEBLO NUEVO 453
Pacific Ocean can be seen. We then descended again
a couple of thousand feet to the vilhige of Chavaria,
which is the onh' Mexican viUage I liave seen where the
houses had gable roofs covered with shingles. The
walls of the houses were adobe, but 1 was told that the
earth at this place is not suitable for making the usual
Hat roofs.
While camping here I saw, on the 15th of February,
a flock of six giant woodpeckers pass by in the morning.
Except in the pairing season these birds are not seen in
such numl)ers. The journey over a high part of the
Sierra Madre to the Mexican village of Pueblo Nuevo
requires two days. On the second day I obtained a
magnificent view toward the east and southeast. The
high peak towering in the distance is Cerro Gordo, very
broad at the base and conical in shape. Patches of snow
were visible on it, and snow lay in the crevices wher-
ever we travelled.
I descended through magnificent groves of cedar-trees
to Pueblo Nuevo, making my camp on top of a hill, from
which I overlooked the little settlement and the valley
in which it nestles. As every house is surrounded by
its little garden of orange-trees, aguacates, and guavabas,
the landscape presented a mass of verdure of different
shades, the ugly, often dilapidated houses being almost
lost in the green. Lemons grow wild, and therefore
there is no sale for them. Lemon juice mixed with milk
is in many parts of Mexico considered a remedy for
dysentery.
A young priest, who exercised a supreme but judi-
cious authority in this secluded spot, treated me with
much consideration. He took an honest pride in the
development of his little village, and showed me its
sights, first the church, which he was embellishing in
many ways, and then the spring which supplied the j:)lace
454 UNKNOWN MEXICO
with water, and where the women i^^athered to wash their
clothes and gossip. We met many graceful tiourcs carry-
ing jars on their shoulders, as in ancient times.
In order to give me an ()})|)ortunity to see the peo-
])le, el Seiior Cura allowed them to come and dance on
his veranda. His organist was a musical genius, and
a composer of no mean ability, and on the cabinet
organ the priest had brought from Durango on nuile-
back he played not only hymns, but also excellent dance
music.
The climate here was delightful, the valley fragrant
with the perfume of oranges, and one felt reluctant to
leave this restful camj). But I was soon reminded that
nothing in this world is jjcrfect, as one night a storm
lifted my tent up and carried it several yards off, leav-
ing me to sleep as best I could till morning. The wiiul
was so powerful as to fell trees.
The Pueblo Nuevo was once inhabited by Aztecs.
The present inhabitants, though amiable, are indolent
and lazy, and there is a saying that in Durango not
even the donkeys work. I therefore had consider-
able trouble in finding a guide, the dilTicullv being aggra-
vated by the fact that nobody seemed to know anything
about the countrv toward Lajas, the Tepehuane villngv:
I was making for.
The sierra to the south where the Tej)ehuanes live is
not frequented by the people here, who mainlain com-
munication only toward the east, j)rincipall\' with the
cit\' of Durango, where they market their garden crops
of chile and tomatoes. Nevertheless, some of the Tepe-
huane pueblos belong to the Cura's j)arish, and he
seemed to be the only one who could give definite in-
formation about the country southward.
The track leading down to the San Diego River runs
through an idyllic valley where pictures(|uc brooks
ANOTHER ASCENT 455
trickle down the slopes between groves of semi-tropi-
cal vegetation. In one of the limpid streams a couple
of pretty girls were bathing and washing their clothes,
as is the custom among the poorer classes of Mexico,
who rarely possess more than the clothing they wear.
As we appeared on the scene, they gracefully slipped
into a deep jk:)o1, leaving nothing but their pretty faces,
like water-lilies, floating above the crystal-clear water,
and thus nodded a friendly greeting toward us.
Not more than ten miles' travel brought us to the
San Diego River. Its source is said to be in the sierra,
apparently toward the north, and it flows in a southerly
direction. It was not very difficult to cross, but in
flood-time it must be large. Its elevation at this point
was about 3,300 feet.
Here began the ascent into the sierra again. Al-
though the road on the first day was very good, it re-
quired rather hard climbing to get to the top. I was
anxious to reach my destination that day, which was
Saturdav, in order to be in time for the p^atherino- of the
Indians in the pueblo on Sunday. I therefore travelled
on after nightfall, though the road was much longer
than I expected, leading through extensive pine forests,
the monotony of wdiich was interrupted only once by
the appearance of a couple of beautiful macaos.
Just as the moon rose, we entered on the "spine of
the coyote," as the Tepehuanes call a narrow ridge, six
to eight yards broad, with yawning abysses on both
sides. Then we came on grassy slopes covered with
trees. What a magnificent view there must be here,
by daylight, of this wild countrv ! To the southeast
could clearly be seen a sloping table-land among hills ;
I even could distinguish some small houses on it. That
was Lajas. It appeared to be but a league off, but in
reality it was still three times as far awav.
4)6 UNKNOWN iMEXICO
W'c descended aiiionii" oak-trees, when suddenlv tlie
track ran down a i)recij)itous volcanic rock, utterly im-
practicable for the mides to follow. Evidenth' we had
strayed on a side trail ; and while we ijuarded the mules,
a man was sent back to look for the main track, which
luckily was found after a short time. The worst of it
was that the animals had to be led back one by one,
along the side of a dangerous precipice, and it was a
wonder that none of them rolled down the steep sides.
I was glad when we could safely proceed on our
way.
It is disagreeable to travel with a pack-train after
nightfall, even on a moonlight night like this, but ])ar-
ticularly when without a guide and on an unfamiliar
track. The journey seems interminable. The fear of
losing one's road, or haxing something hajipen to the
animals, or dropping some part of the pack ; the uncer-
tainty regarding what camping-place one may find ; and
the anxiety lest the backs of the animals may become
sore, while the men are getting hungr\- and in as bad a
temper as one's self, — all tend to demonstrate the advis-
ability of going into camj) when the sun is still well
above the horizon.
Another harassing consideration, which, however,
does not aj)pl\- to this part of the country, is the i)os-
sibility of arousing a susj)icion that ])ack-trains which
travel at night carry treasures.
After a continuous journev of ten houis and a half
we arrived without further mishaps at F.ajas at 9.30
P.M., the middle of the night in that i)art of the world.
One of my men, who had a habit of singing whenever
we entered a village, had been ordered to keep silent,
that the people in this lonelv place, susceptible as they
are, might not become alaiiiie(l at the sudden aiiix'al of
such a j)artv.
SAN FRANCISCO DE LA J AS 457
A few houses lay scattered about in the dim nioon-
li<rht, and 1 with mv chief man rode ahead. " Ave
Maria ! " called out Catalino, knocking' at the doov of a
hut. " God give you a good night," he continued, hut
there was no response. After having in this way tried
several huts, we at last succeeded in getting an answer,
and learned where Crescendo Ruiz lived, to whom the
priest in Pueblo Nuevo had given me a letter of intro-
duction, and who was a kind of secretary to the Indians.
We now directed our steps toward his house, aroused
him from his slumbers, and after some parleying brought
him to the door. He was a small-statured, kindly-look-
ing man, a half-caste, who displayed a friendly manner
and showed me where I could camp near his house.
As he was very talkative, it was late in the night before
I could retire.
The name of the village is San Francisco de Lajas,
the word /aja (Hat stone) referring to stones wdiich
abound in the neighbourhood. The Indian name,
"Eityam," has the same meaning. The next day many
Indians came fearlessly and curiously up to see me.
They wore the ordinary dress of the working-class of
Mexico, except that their flat straw hats were trimmed
with black and red woollen ribbons and some flowers.
The women had flowers and leaves in their hair, which
they wore in Mexican fashion, in two braids. Some of
the men had their hair put up in one braid and fastened
at the end with a narrow hair-ribbon, but most of them
had it cut short. I was surprised to see many bald-
headed men, some not over thirty years old. Surely it
must be more healthy for the hair to be worn long.
Fortunately for me the Indians had just come into
the j)uel)lo for a week to repair the old adobe church,
in which work Don Crescendo greatly assisted them.
This man, nine years ago, was sent to the place as a
4,-8
UNKNOWN MEXICO
Tepehuane Sling
made from Maguey
Fibre. Width, lo
ctm.
teaclicr by ilic Mexican auLhorities in
Durango. On his arrival he was met at
the old curato by 140 cliildren, none of
whom had ever seen a Mexican before,
and, of course, they did not understand
a word of Spanish. They soon went
back to their homes, and five days after-
ward the i)rccc})tor was left without a
pu])il. He induced the parents to make
the children return, and 48 came back.
Out of these, five remained witii him
for six months. At the close of that
period they were able to read and to write their names.
Of late years, however, teaching has been given up
altogether. The fact is that the Indians do not want
schools, " because," as an intelligent lluichol afterward
told me, "our sons lose their native tongue and iheir
ancient beliefs. When they go to school, they do not
want to worship the Sun and the Water any more."
The white teacher's aim should be to incite the desire
for instruction rather than to force his {)upils to listen
to his teachings ; not to destroy the Indian's mental
world, but to clear it and raise it into the sphere of civil-
isation.
But Don Crescendo remained with tlie Indians as
their "secretary" (escribano), attending to whatevei- cor-
respondence they had with the authorities, and gratlually
becoming their factotum and adviser. .As he was an
honourable and straightforward man, his inlhience was
all for their ofood. To swell his meagre income, he car-
vies on a small trade, going twice a year to Durango
to replenish his stores ; and so invaluable h;is he be-
come to the Indians that they send some men along
with him to watch that he does not remain with the
' neigid)ours." lie has leained the lanouage toleiably
INDIAN ARTICLES OF TRADE
459
well, and has risen to such imi)oi-tance that the (^ohcr-
nador, as I saw myself, visited him every morning, ask-
insT his advice in everv movement.
These Indians visited me all day long, accompanied
by their wives and children, undauntedly seating them-
selves in front or out-
side of my tent. In re-
sponse to my expressed
desire to see and buy
articles made by them,
they brought me, during
my short stay here, gir-
dles and ribbons of wool
or cotton, as well as a
great variety of bags of
all sizes, knotted from
twine of maguey fibre.
The people here do
business on a basis en-
tirely different from that
of the " neighbours,"
inasmuch as they have
a fixed price for every-
thing". There is no
bargaining with them ;
when they have once
told the price of a thing
(and it is always a high
one), they adhere to it
firmly, and as money is
no object to them, they make trading rather difficult.
On my tours among the people, I found them hospitable.
They always asked me to come in and sit down, and they
have good manners.
The one thing they strenuously objected to, and
Tepehuane Pouch made from Maguey
Fibre. Width about i6 ctm.
460 UNKNOWN MEXICO
which they were dcadl}' afiaitl of, was the camera, and
it took Don Crescencio's and mv own combined efforts
for five days to induce them to ])()se. \Vhen at length
they consented, they looked like criminals about to be
executed. They believed that by j)hotoo-raphing a per-
son I should be enabled to carr\' his soul off to eat it
later, at my ease, if I chose. Thcv would die as soon as
tlu'ir ])ietures arrived in my country, or some other evil
would result, anyhow. The women disappeared like
frightened quails, when I was about to perform the
dreadful operation on the men. However, most of
them returned to see how their spouses stood the pain-
ful ordeal. When I then asked for some women to
pose, they ran away, in spite of the demonstrations of
the men; only three sturdy ones with "great souls"
remained and were "taken" after having been duly
" shaken " with fears.
The Tepehuanes feel at home onlv in their ranches.
They clear land in the numerous little vallevs of which
their rugged country consists, and plant corn in places
where no plough could ever be used.
They always have sufficient corn for their wants.
Their store-houses are square upright cribs of bamboo
sticks held in place with withes on a framework of pine
poles. Sometimes they stand at considerable distances
from the dwellings. The fl(Jor is raised about a foot
above the ground, and the entrance is made from the
top. The ears of corn can i)lainl\' be seen behiutl the
bamboo sticks. In March they are taken out and
shelled, and the corn is j)ut in home-made sacks and
replaced in the store-houses.
The Tepehuanes make pulque, but not tesvino, and
cotton is cultivated on a verv small scale. The\' gather
the fibre of the maguey and other ])lants, and make sacks
and roj)es of excellent (pialitv, for their own use as well
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
461
as foi' sale in Duranii'o, to which market they also lake
any liiiit not required lor lioiiK' eonsuiiij)tion.
Their onlv ainusenieiit is to drink mescal and pukjiie.
No games aie in use, and to stake money or valuables
in anv of the " neigiibours' " games is forbidden.
The commonest disease here, strange to sav, is ma-
laria, which sometimes proves fatal. The first thing a
I'cpchuane Store-house, near I>ajas.
Tepehuane does in the morning is to wash his head, face,
and hands with cold water, letting it dry without wiping
it off. He starts to do his work with the water dripping
from him.
The Southern Tepehuanes perform a religious dance
called by the Mexicans luitotc : it is also found among
the Aztecs, the Coras, and the Huichols. In the vicin-
ity of Lajas is a circular plain set pleasantly among
the oak-trees. This is the dancing-place. At its east-
ern side is a jacal, a gable-shaped straw-roof resting on
462 UNKNOWN MEXICO
four poles, the narrow sides standino; cast and west. In-
side of it is found an altar, eonsistinaj siniplv of a mal-
ting of large, split hamhoo sticks {iapcxtc) resting on a
framework of four horizontal poles, which in turn arc
sup])orted by two pairs of uj)right forked sticks. On this
altar the people put the food used at the dances, and
many ceremonial objects are placed here or hung under
the roof of the jacal.
In regard to their native religion, they are as reticent
as their northern brethren, if not more so. " I would
rather be hanged than tell anything," said one shaman
to me. Still, all things come to him who waits. This
verv man, who was so tragic, became my friend, and
when we parted he asked me to write my name on a
piece of paper, that he might salute me every morning.
A name is a sacred thing, and they never tell their real
native names.
Nowhere else in Mexico have the institutions
founded by the missionaries of early times remained in-
tact as in Lajas. Not only so, but the regulations ai"e
cairied even further than was originally intended, and
this in spite of the fact that the Indians have not given
up their own ancient religion. No priest is now living
among them ; and only at rare intervals does the Cura
come from Pueblo Nuevo to l)a{)tise ami mairy.
The native chosen civil authorities are composed
of fourteen, the ecclesiastical of seven members. The
gobernador has supreme authority with both bodies, and
when im|)()rtant matters are at issue tlu' i)e()])le are
brought together and considted. The decisions or orders
are given to the so-called captain, who sees that thev are
carried into effect. The officers are elected evei\' year,
and meet in sessions almost ever\' day, to settle the
affairs of the ])e()ple, and to iiilliet punishment even on
the shamans when necessaiy. Tliey have recently reno-
SEVERE PUNISHMENTS 463
vatcd the prison, and j)Ut in a new set of stoeks; and the
\vhipj)ing-j)ost is still in eonstant use, to supplement the
laws of the Mexiean Government, whieh are eonsidered
altogether too mild.
The punishments which these people inflict are se-
vere and barharous. I have heard that Mexican crimi-
nals, who have been caught and punished by them, on
complaining of their harsh treatment to the government
authorities, did not receiv^e any sympathy, the latter no
doubt considering it meritorious rather than otherwise,
on the part of the Indians, to maintain order so effect-
ually without the aid of soldiers. The captain in Lajas
is on duty day and night, watching that nothing unto-
ward may happen to man, beast, or property. But few
strangers come to this remote pueblo, and no one can
pass it unnoticed. The only trail that runs through the
place is swept every afternoon with branches of trees,
and the next morning it is examined by the captain to
ascertain if anyone has gone by. White men are wisely
prohibited from settling here ; and when a " neighbour "
comes, his business is at once inquired into, and sufficient
time, perhaps a night and a day, is given him to attend
to it, after which he is escorted out of the village.
Safety to life and property is thus insured among
these Indians. " I guarantee you that none of vour ani-
mals will be stolen here," Crescendo said to me the first
night, and a very short experience convinced me that
he was right. Theft is practically unknow^n here, unless
some "neighbour" tempts an Indian with a promise of
a ])art of the l)Ooty.
Murder is committed only by intoxicated individuals,
and then the culprit is chained in the stocks for three or
four weeks, and gets a whipping at regular intervals.
Afterward he is sent to the Mexican authorities in the
city of Durango to be dealt with according to the law.
4^4 UNKNOWN MEXICO
There is no eapilal i)unishnieiU for inurder in Me.xico,
and wiien criminals liave served tlieir terms and leturn
to their native village the Indians may even send them
back to Durango, saying that they arc better off with-
out them. Suicide is unknown. When murder or
theft has been perpetrated, they do not at once trv to
apprehend the suspected person, but first call the shaman
to ascertain by divination who the culprit may be, bv
placing ceremonial arrows, smoking tobacco, and wav-
ing plumes.
I was told that three years ago two travelling Mexi-
can peddlers arrived here, and after having done a little
trading went away without informing the authorities of
their departure. This aroused the suspicion of the Ind-
ians, who began to look around to see what was miss-
ing. Two cows, it seemed, had disappeared, and in two
days the peddlers were overtaken, brought back, put in
the stocks, and held in prison for eight days, and three
times a day they received a thrashing. They had very
little food. They were fmallv taken to Durango.
Once two cows and an ox were stolen from Cres-
cendo, and the Indians followed the tracks of the
thieves, their leader frequently touching the earth with
his hands to assure himself by the smell thai tiie\- were
going in the right direction. After a while two Tepe-
huanes and their accomplice, the " neighbour" who had
put them up to the crime, were caught. The "neigh-
bour," as soon as he arrived in the village, was given
twentv-five lashes, and for two hours was subjected to
the agonizing torture of hax'ing his head and his feet in
the stocks at the same time. Next day he was given ten
lashes, and the following dav five, and eight days later
thev took him to Durango. llis two Indian associates,
father and son, were also put in the stocks, and for two
weeks each of them Jiot dailv four lashes and verv little
FAITHS— OLD AND NEW 465
food ; besides which their l)hinkets were taken away from
them.
Although the Tepeluianes keej) up their ancient rites
and lieliefs alon<i^ with the new reli!L2:i()n, they strictly
comply with the external form of Christianity, paying
due attention to all the Christian feasts and observ'ances.
Every dav the bells of the old church are rung, and the
saints " are put to bed," as the Indians express it.
When Crescencio first came here he found the people
on Sundays in the church, the men sitting on benches
and the women on the tioor. Thev had ""athered there
from habit, though nobody knew how to pray, and they
sat around talking and laughing all the time. It was
their Christian worship. Crescencio has now taught
them to say pra3^ers.
The teachings of Christianity, however, are for the
most part forgotten. No trace of the religion of charitv
remains among them, but the severity of the early mis-
sionaries survives, and their mediaev^al system of punish-
ment. Evidently the tribe always entertained extreme
views regarding the relation of the two sexes toward
each other, or else the spirit of the new law would never
hav^e been imbibed so eagerly. " The slightest want of
modesty or exhibition of frivolity is sufficient reason for
a husband to leav^e his wife, and for young women never
to marry," says Padre Juan Fonte, of the Tepehuane
Indians. There is no sign of relaxation in their strict-
ness, or of any inclination to adopt more modern views
on marital misdemeanour.
In the greater number of cases husband and wife
live happily together "till death doth them part." If
either should prove unfaithful, they immediately sepa-
rate, the wife leaving the children with the husband and
going to her parents. Then the guilty one and the co-
respondent are jHuiished by being {)ut in the stocks and
Vol. I. — 30
466 UNKNOWN MEXICO
given a public whipping daily for one or two weeks.
Neither of the parties thus separated is permitted to
marrv again.
If a girl or widow has loved "not wiselv. but too
well," she is not interfered with until her child is born,
A day or two after that she and the baby are put into
prison for eight or ten days, and she is compelled to
divulge the name of her })artner. The man is tiien ar-
rested and not only ])ut into prison, but in the stocks
besides. There are no stocks for women, onlv two hori-
zontal bars to which their hands are tied, if they refuse to
betray their lovers. The two culprits are kept sepa-
rate, and their families bring them food. Twice a day
messenofers are sent throuQ-h the villa2:e to announce
that the punishment is about to be executed, and many
people come to witness it. The judges and the parents
of the dclin(iuents reprimand the unfortunate couple,
then from two to four lashes are on each occasion in-
flicted, first upon the man and then upon the woman.
These are applied to an unmentionable part of the back,
which is bared, the poor wretches standing with their
hands tied to the pole. The executioner is given mes-
cal that he may be in proper spirit to strike hard. The
woman has to look on while the man is being punished,
just as he afterward has to witness his sweetheart's
chastisement. She opens her eyes "like a cow," as my in-
formant expressed it, while the man generalh- looks
down.
Many times the judges are ashamed to go through
this performance, the character of which is below the
standard of j)roprietv of most i)iiinilive tribes ; but,
strange to say, the parents themselves compel them to
let the law have its course. Afterward the girl is
handed over to her lover in order that thev may become
officially married b\- the (Munch tiie next time the priest
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE 467
arrives. This may not ha})pcn for two or three years,
but the two are meanwhile allowed to live together, the
girl going to her lover's home. To avert all the misery
in store for her, an unfortunate woman may try to doc-
tor herself by secretly taking a decoction of the leaves
of the chalate. a kind of fig-tree.
Sometimes punishment is dealt out to young people
for being found talking together. Outside of her home
a woman is absolutely forbidden to speak to any man
who does not belong to her own immediate family.
When fetching water, or out on any other errand, she
must under no circumstances dally for a chat v/ith a
"gentleman friend." Even at the dancing-place it is
against the law for her to step aside to exchange a few
words with anv vouno- man. If discovered in such a
compromising position, both offenders are immediately
arrested, and their least punishment is two days'
imprisonment. If their examination by the judges
proves that their conversation was on the forbidden
topic of love, they get a whipping and may be com-
pelled to marry.
Some of the boys and girls who have been punished
for talking together in this manner, are so frightened
that they never want to marry in Lajas, but the more
defiant ones deliberately allow themselves to be caught,
m order to hasten their union and steal a march on
their parents. For these Indians are by no means
beyond the darts of Cupid, and both men and women
are known to have arranged with a shaman to influence
the objects of their tender thoughts, and have paid him
for such service. A woman may give a shaman a wad
of cotton, which he manages to put into the hand of
the young man for whom it is intended. Afterward
the shaman keeps the cotton in his house, the affectiop
having been transmitted by it.
468 UNKNOWN MEXICO
On the other hand, men and women, to subdue their
natural instincts, go into the fields and grasp the
branches of certain sensitive plants. iVs the plant closes
its leaves, the girls i^ay that they may be able to shut
lliemselves up in themselves. There are two kinds of
sensitive plants growing in the neighbourhood of Lajas
{^Mimosa fioribiuida, van albida, and Jllwiosa z'/ii'/sa),
and recourse may be had to either of them. Many men
emigrate to other pueblos, though they may in time re-
turn. Others remain bachelors all their lives, and the
judges in vain offer them wives. " Whv should we
take them ?" they say. " Vou have thrashed us once,
and it is not possible to endure it again." The legiti-
mate way of contracting marriage is to let the parents
make the match. When the old folks have settled the
matter between themselves, they ask the judges to
arrest the boy and girl in question, whereupon the
young people are put into prison for three days. The
final arrangements are made before the authorities, and
then the girl goes to the home of the boy to await the
arrival of the priest.
When the Senor Cura is expected in Lajas. all the
couj)les thus united, as well as all persons sus])ected of
harbouringr unsafe tendencies, are arrested. On the
priest's arrival, he finds most of the young people of
the place in prison, w^aiting for him to marry them.
For each ceremony the Indians have to jiav $5, and
from now on every married couple has to ])a\' $1.50 i)er
year as subsidy for the priest. No marriage in Lajas is
contracted outside of the prison. Crescencio himself,
when about to marry a Tepehuane woman, barely es-
caped arrest. Only by threatening to leave them did
he avoid punishment ; but his bride had to submit to
the custom of her tribe.
Contrary to what one might expect, unhappy unions
A GENERAL SURVEY 469
arc rare. Pr()t)al)l\' the voung" pcoj)lc are glad to rest in
the safe harl)()iir of matrimony, after experiencing how
much the \va\' in and out of it is beset with indignities
and leads through the prison gates. However, im])rison-
ment for love-making does not aj:»pear so al)surd to the
al)original mind as it does to us, and the tribe has
accommodated itself to it. I learned that some of the
boys and girls after a whi})ping go to their homes laugh-
ing.
The obligation to denounce young people whom
one has found talking together, under penalty of being
punished one's self for the omission, does not create the
animosity that might be expected. Besides, the law on
this point is none too strictly obeyed or enforced.
According to Crescendo, the census taken in 1894
enumerated 900 souls belonging to Lajas, and there may
probably be altogether 3,000 Tepehuanes here in the
South. As far as 1 was able to ascertain, the follow-
ing Tepehuane pueblos are still in existence :
1. San Francisco de Lajas.
2. Tasquaringa, about fifteen leagues from the city of
Durango. The people here are little afifected by
civilisation, though a few Mexicans live among
them.
3. Santiago Teneraca, situated in a deep gorge. The
inhabitants are as non-communicative as at Lajas,
and no Mexicans are allowed to settle within their
precinct. This, as well as the preceding village,
belongs to Mezquital, and the padre from there
visits them.
4. Milpillas Chico, where the Indians are much mixed
with Mexicans.
5. Milpillas Grande. Here the population is composed
of Tepehuanes, Aztecs, and Mexicans.
6. Santa Maria Ocotan, and
7. San Francisco, both little affected bv civilisation.
4/0 UNKNOWN MEXICO
8. Ouiviquinta, about fifteen leagues southwest of Lajas.
The latter three villages belong to the State of
Jalisco.
On the road from Durango to Mazatlan, passing
Ventanas, there are no Tepehuane pueblos.
CHAPTER XXVI
PUEBLO VIEJO — THREE LANGUAGES SPOKEN HERE — THE AZTECS
THE MUSICAL BOW — THEORIES OF ITS ORIGIN — DANCING MI-
TOTE FASTING AND ABSTINENCE HELPING PRESIDENT DIAZ
THE IMPORTANCE OF TRIBAL RESTRICTIONS PRINCIPLES OF
MONOGAMY DISPOSITION OF THE DEAD,
THERE are two days journey over rough country
to Pueblo Viejo, my next objective point. Again
I had great difficulty in finding a guide, as the two vil-
lages were at loggerheads about some lands. The guide
furnished me by the authorities hid himself when we were
about to start. All the other Indians had gone back
to their ranches, except one, whom I finally persuaded
to show me the way at least as far as the ranch of the
shaman with whom I had made friends, where 1 hoped
that through him I might get another guide. On our
way, we passed Los Retablos ("Pictures drawn on a
Board"), the rather fantastic name of a magnificent
declivity of reddish rock, across which the track led.
At this place, tradition says, the Tepehuanes of Lajas,
in the war of independence, vanquished 300 Spanish
soldiers, who were trying to reach the city of Durango
from Acaponeta. The Indians had hidden themselves
all around and above the steep slope, and from their
ambuscades rolled stones down on the Spaniards, every
one of whom was killed.
Having gotten my mules safely over this dangerous
track, where they could never have been rescued if they
had lost their footing, I arrived after a while at the
471
472 UNKNOWN MEXICO
home of the shaman, near which 1 camped. When I
went up to the house, I found it em{)ty, and was
bareh' in time to see a woman making' her escape witli a
child as best she could. I realised that if the shaman
did not return that evening or early next day, I should
have to return to Lajas. The plaintive trum})et sound
of a giant woodpecker about sunset — as far as we could
make out, the only living being in the vicinity — did
not detract from the gloominess of the prospect.
Luckily, however, my shaman friend came to my
tent at daybreak next morning, and thus relieved my
anxiety. Though exceedingly busy cutting down trees
and shrubs to clear his field, he spared one of his helpers
to show me the way to Hormigas (ants), charging only
three reales for the accommodation, and one real extra
(twelve cents in Mexican money) to be paid to the man
in case I should want him to go farther and show me
the way to Aguacates. I also improved the opportunity
to get from him some ethnological information and a
short Tepehuane vocabulary.
Thus with lightened heart I started off through a
country that, while it did not present any remarkably
steep ascents and descents, was very rough and hard to
travel. The main sierra is here very narrow, and the
large mountainous mass broken up into irregular ridges
and steep valleys. The next dav, much of the time
we followed a high, rocky ridge, the highest point of
which is called Mojoneras. Here, ten miles north
of Pueblo \"iej{), the boundary line of the territory of
Tepic is said to run. For sex'cral miles on the road,
and j)ai ticularh- from the last-mentioned ridge, magnifi-
cent views of the wild country northward jiresent them-
selves, over the steep descent into the canons and gorges
of the western part of the Sierra Madre. Only three
Tepehuane ranches were observed.
AT 1^1 EBLO VIEJO 473
I arrived without any mishap at I^uchlo A'icjo, whicli
is inhahiU'd mainly by .Vztccs. Of late years they
have become much mixed with the Tepehuanes, wiio
have here taken refuge from drought and the advancing
" neighbours." Indian settlers who thus come from
other }nieblos are called })oblanos. They receive land
from the community in return for the services they
render, and the two tribes freely intermarry, although
"neighbours" are never allowed to settle within the
confmes of the village. Still the people, who have con-
siderable intercourse with Acaponeta, and who also go
some distance to work in the mines of Sinaloa, speak
Spanish quite well. Indeed, of the three languages
spoken here, Spanish is the one most generally heard.
Several Nahuatlan words have been forgotten, and in
making out my Hst of collections I had great difficulty
in getting designations for some of the objects, for in-
stance the word for "quiver," and for the curious rat-
tling anklets used by dancers. Only elderly people
speak Nahuatl correctly, and the Tepehuane influence is
strong here, even in the ancient religion of the people.
It was curious to note that many people here, as in
Lajas, eat neither hens nor sheep, while they freely par-
take of beef.
People here are more intelligent and much less
reticent than in Lajas. Women when addressed will
answer you, while in Lajas the inhabitants are guarded,
and suspicious even of other Indians, not to speak of
"neighbours." Another difference is that very few
drink mescal.
At a meeting I had with the Indians, I remarked,
m my desire to please them, that the Mexican Govern-
ment was interested to know whether they were get-
ting on well or whether thev were coming to an end.
To this the principal speaker at once laughingly re-
474 UNKNOWN MEXICO
joined : "Of course, they want to know how soon they
can ' fmish ' us ! "
The Indians here have the usual trouble from
"neighbours" trying to encroach upon their territory.
Once a delefration from this and the nei^-hbourinti;
pueblos undertook a journey to the City of Mexico in
order to settle the troubles about their land. They
stopped eleven days in the capital and were well re-
ceived by the Ministerio del Fomento ; but their
money gave out before they finished their business, and
they had to walk all the way back without having ac-
complished anything,
I found these Indians law-abiding and obliging, and
I had no great difficulty in securing permission to be
present at a mitote, which was to be given at a ranch
in the neighbourhood. On March 24th, a little before
sunset, we started out on a ride of an hour and a half,
ascending some 3,000 feet on a winding Indian trail up
to a high mesa. It was a starlit, beautiful night, but the
magnificent view which this mesa commanded could onlv
be surmised. There are a few ranches here owned by
people from the pueblo below, a man sometimes living
in his ranch here during the wet season, while for the
remainder of the year he occupies one in the pueblo.
As we entered on the plain we could distinctly hear the
beating of the tawitol, the musical instrument of the
Tepehuanes. At this distance it sounded like a big
drum.
We passed the ranch which was giving the mitote,
and a hundred yards farther on we came upon a j)ict-
uresque scene. Here on a meadow the Indians were
grouped around the many fires whose lights fiiekered
among the trees. There was just a pause in the dan-
cing, which liad begun soon after sunset. I could at
once discern a little plain set apart for the dancing.
THE MUSICAL BOW OF AMERICA 475
On ils eastern side was an altar of the usual deseri})-
tion, feneed on two sides with felled trees, on which
were hun^- the paiaphernalia of the dancers, their bows,
quivers, etc. In the centre of the dancincr-place was a
laro-e fire, and to the west of it the shaman was seated
on a stool. Behind him, similar though smaller stools
were set for the owner of the ranch and the principal
men.
Strange to say, the shaman was a Tepehuane. I
learned later that the Aztecs consider the shamans of
that tribe better than their own. In front of the sha-
man was the musical instrument on which he had been
The Musical Bow of the Tepehuanes of the South, and of the Aztecs.
Length of Bow, i m. 36.5 ctm.
playing. This was a large, round gourd, on top of which
a bow of unusual size was placed with its back down.
The shaman's right foot rested on a board which holds
the bow in place on the gourd. The bow being made
taut, the shaman beats the string with two sticks, in a
short, rhythmical measure of one long and two short
beats. When heard near by, the sonorousness of the
sound reminds one of the 'cello.
This is the musical bow of America, which is here
met with for the first time. It is intimately connected
with the religious rites of this tribe, as well as with
those of the Coras and the Huichols, the latter playing
it with two arrows. The assertion has been made that
476 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the musical l)o\v is not indi^rnous to tlic Western
Hemisj)here, l)ut was introduced hv .African slaves.
Without placing undue importance on the fact that
negroes are very rarely, if at all, found in the north-
western part of Mexico, it seems entirelv bevond the
range of possibility that a foreign implement could have
become of such paramount importance in the religious
system of several tribes. Moreover, this opinion is con-
firmed by Mr. R. B. Dixon's discovery, in 1900, of a
musical bow among the Maidu Indians on the western
slope of the Sierra Nevada, northeast of San Francisco,
California. In the religion of that tribe also this bow
plays an important part, and much secrecy is connected
with it.
The shaman's song sounded very different from the
sono;-s I had heard amono; the Tarahumares. As his seat
was high, he had to maintain a stooping position all the
time he played.
The dancers, men and women, made much noise by
stamping their flat soles vigorously on the ground, as
they moved in dcjuble column around the fire and the
shaman, in a kind of two-step-walk forw^ard. They
danced in a direction against the ap})arent movement of
the sun, the men leading, the women following. I no-
ticed that the step of the women was slightly different
from that of the men, inasmuch as they lifted themseh^es
on their toes at each step. At times the columns would
suddenly stop and tnake the same kind of movements
backward for a little while, with the same small jumps
or skii)s as when walking forward. .Vfter a few seconds
they would again go forward. These movements are
directed bv the leader, the man who dances first.
l)Olh men and wouilmi wore flowers, the former fas-
tening them to tiieir straw hats, the latter in their hair
with the stem behind the ear. The flowers were ap-
AN INDIAN DANCE
477
parently selected accurdin<^ to individual taste, but tlie
kind I saw most frequently was a white blossom called
corpus, the delicious fragrance of which I noticed every
time the women danced by. Two
boys had a peculiar kind of white
flower fastened with a handkerchief
tied around their heads. It is called
claviliiftos, and looks like thick, white
hair. The shaman wore a narrow
hair-ribbon, but no flower. Around
their ankles the men had wound
strings of dried empty pods of a
certain palm, which made a rattling
noise during the dancing. Five times
during the night, ears of corn and
plumes were brought from the altar,
and then the men always removed
their hats. The women wore veils
{rcbosos), but it is considered improper
for them to use sandals on such oc-
casions ; these are worn only by the
men.
There were five pauses made in
the course of the night, and, to pre-
pare the people for them, the shaman
each time began to strike more slow-
ly. The dancers continued until they
arrived in front of the altar, where from Empty Pods of a
they commenced to jump up and ^™"
down on the same spot, but with increasing rapidity,
until the music stopped, when they separated and lay
down.
Those who did not take any part in the dancing
were lying around the various fires, the number of the
dancers changing with the different songs, according to
Rattle for Ankle, made
478 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the degree of enthusiasm among the people. Many
went to sleep for a while, but this is not deemed very
polite to the owner of the ranch, as the effect of the
dancing is much greater upon the gods when everybody
takes part. I was told that to keep the ])eople awake a
man sometimes goes around spurting cokl water over the
drowsy and nodding heads.
The function had been opened by the owner of the
ranch making alone five circuits around the fire, carry-'
ing the musical instrument and the two playing-sticks
and doing reverence to the sun every time he passed the
altar. Just before sunrise the mitote concluded with
the dramatisation of the killing of the deer. Deer-skins
were brought from the bower of the altar, and the men
put on their bows and quivers, each of which contained
twenty-five arrows and had two slings attached to it.
The men held the deer-skins in their hands and danced
five circuits. Two light-footed boys next appeared on
the scene to play the part of the deer. They had deer-
skins on their backs, and in their hands held deer-heads
with antlers. These they showed five times, alternatelv
to the shaman who furnished the music, and to the altar.
Then they began to run, followed by the dancers, who
shouted and shot arrows, also trying to catch the deer
by throwing lassos that had been kept in the bower.
Often they had to flee from the deer, who chased them
off the dancing-place. But they returned, and at sunrise
the deer were captured on a matting spread before the
altar, where the dancers now took positions. Starting
from here they next made five circuits around the
dancing-place in the direction of the apparent move-
ment of the sun, then five circuits in the opposite way.
The shaman's beating slowed down, once more all the
dancers jum})ed up quickly, the music stopped, and the
dancing was finished.
THE IKAST AND AFTKll 479
Now the feast iny- l)eoan. The food, that had been
placed on tlie altar, pinole and toasted corn, was
brought forward, and the host and his wife ate first.
After they had thus broken fast, all sat down, and to
each one the following dishes were served on little
earthenware platters or bowls : A small slice of deer-
meat that had been cooked between hot stones in an
earth mound, and a handful of toasted corn ; a ball made
of pinole mixed with unbroken beans; four tamales, and
one ball of deer-meat and ground corn boiled together.
The last-named course is simply called chueena (deer).
The boys who served it had on their backs three bun-
dles, each containing three tamales, which the boys after-
ward ate.
The host always asks his guests to submit for four
days longer to the restrictions that are necessary to insure
the efficiency of the dancing. These refer mainly to
abstinence from mescal and women, and are conscien-
tiously observed for five days before and five days after
the occasion, by the family who arranges the dance. The
shaman, on whom the obligation to observe these for-
malities is greater than on anyone else, may have to offi-
ciate at another mitote before the time limit for the
first has expired, therefore much of his time is spent in
privations.
After the feast, the tapexte, that is to say, the mat-
ting, which constituted the top of the altar, is hung up
in a tree to be used again the next year. The trees that
have formed the bower near the altar are left undis-
turbed. The ceremonial objects are placed in the trees
for four or five days, and then put into a basket which
is hung in some cave. At Pueblo Viejo no more tribal
mitotes are given, and it seems that no family anywhere
makes more than one a year.
When a newly married couple wish to give their
480 UNKNOWN MEXICO
first mitote, they go away from the house for a month.
Both of them bathe and wash their clothes, and impose
restrictions upon themselves, sleeping most of the time.
When awake they talk little to each other, and think
constantly of the gods. Only the most necessary work
is done ; he brings wood and she prepares the food,
consisting of tortillas, which must not be toasted so
long that they lose their white colour. A thin white
gruel, called atole, made from ground corn, is also eaten,
but no deer-meat, nor fish with the exception of a small
kind called mitshe. Neither salt nor beans are allowed.
The blankets they wear must also be white. During all
this time they must not cut flowers or bathe or smoke ;
they must not get angry at each other, and at night
they must sleep on different sides of the fire.
Fasting and abstinence form an integral part of the
religion of these people. A man who desires to be-
come a shaman must keep strictly to a diet of white
tortillas and atole for five years. His drink is water,
and that only once a day, in the afternoon. The people
here once fasted for two months, in order to aid Gen-
eral Porfirio Diaz to become President of Mexico ; and
they told me that they were soon going to subject them-
selves to similar privations in order to help another offi-
cial whom they wanted to remain in his j)()sition.
Fasting also plays an important part in the curing
of diseases. The patient, with his doctor, may go out
and live in the woods and fast for many days, the sha-
man smoking tobacco all the time. i\n omen as to
whether tiie jxiticnt will live or die is taken from the
colour of the tobacco smoke. If it is yellow the omen
is bad. Or if the smoke remains dense the i)atient will
live ; but if it disperses he will die.
A very interesting ceremony is performed over a
child when it is one vear old. The j)arents go with
AN INTERESTING CEREMONY 481
the shaman into the field and fast for five days before
the anniversary and for five days afterward. An hour or
two after sunset a bio; fire is made and four arrows and
the ceremonial object called o;od's eye are placed east of
it. The parents and those present look east all the time.
The shaman first makes four ceremonial circuits, then
puffs tobacco-smoke on the god's eye and on the child.
He sings incantations and again makes four ceremo-
nial circuits, and smokes as before. Next he places his
mouth to the child's forehead, and draws out something
that is called the cochiste, the sleep or dreams, spitting
it out in his hand. He makes a motion with his plumes
as if he lifted something up with them from his hand,
and holds the plumes over the god's eye for a while.
The people now see that two small, white balls are at-
tached to the plumes, and he shows them to all present,
to prove that he does not deceive them. Then he
crushes the balls in his left hand v/ith a sound as if an
egg was cracked, and throws them away. In the morn-
ing salt is offered to the fasters.
The cochiste is taken away from boys twice and
four times from girls. A boy cannot get married until
the cochiste is taken away. A girl at the age of pu-
berty is pledged to a year of chastity, and the same cere-
mony is performed on her as in babyhood, to be re-
peated in the following year. Should she transgress dur-
ing that time the belief is that she or her parents or her
lover will die. The principle of monogamy is strictly
enforced, and if a woman deviates from it she has to be
cured by the shaman, or an accident will befall her — a
jaguar or a snake will bite her, or lightning strike her, or a
scorpion sting her, etc.
She gives the shaman a wad of white cotton, which
he places on the god's eve. When he smokes tobacco
and talks to the god's eye, information is given to him
Vol.. I.— 31.
482 UNKNOWN MEXICO
thioLifrh the cotton, which reveals to him whether she
has more than one husband, and even the name of the
unlawful one. He admonishes her to confess, ex-
plaining; to her how much better the result will be, as
he then can cure her with much greater strength.
Even if she confesses, she is only half through with her
trouble, because the shaman exacts heavy payment for
the cure, from $10 to $20. If she cannot pay now, she
has to come back in a month, and continue coming
until she can settle her account. By rights, the man
should pay for her, but often he runs away and leaves
her in the lurch. Since the Indians have come in con-
tact with the Mexicans this happens quite often.
When at length the money is paid and she has con-
fessed everything, there is nothing more for the shaman
to do but to give an account of it to the god's eye, and
she goes to her home absolved. One year afterward
she has to come back and report, and, should she in the
meantime have made another slip, she has to pay more.
From all the cotton wads the shaman gets he may have
girdles and hair-ribbons made, which he eventually sells.
The custom related above is of interest as showing
the forces employed by ancient society to maintain the
family intact. Fear of accidents, illness or death, more
even than the fine or anything else, keeps the people
from yielding too freely to the impulses of their senses.
The treatment accorded to the dead by these peo-
ple, and their notions regarding them, are, in the main,
the same as those obtaining with the tribes which I
visited before them, but there are some new features
that are of interest. 1 k re, for instance, near the head
of the dead, who lies stretched out on the ground
in the house, the shaman places a god's eye and three
arrows; and at his feet another arrow. He sings an in-
cantation and smokes tobacco, though not on the dead,
THE DESPATCH OF THE DEAD 483
while the widow makes yarn from some cotton, which
she has first handed to the shaman. When she has
finished the yarn, she gives it to the shaman, who
tears it into two pieces of equal length, which he ties
to the arrow standing at the right-hand side of the man.
One piece he rubs over with charcoal ; this is for the
dead, and is tied lower down on the arrow. He winds
it in a ball, except the length which reaches from
the arrow to the middle of the body, where the ball is
placed under the dead man's clothes. The other thread
the shaman holds in his left hand, together with his
pipe and plumes. After due incantations he divides the
white thread into pieces of equal length, as many as
there are members of the family, and gives one piece to
each. They tie them around their necks and wear them
for one year. Afterward they are mixed with some
other material and from them a ribbon or girdle is
made.
On the fifth day the dead is despatched from this
world. In the small hours of the morning the shaman,
with his plumes and pipe, and a jar of water into which
some medicinal herbs have been thrown, leads the pro-
cession toward the west, while the people, including
women and children, carry branches of the zapote-tree.
They stop, while it is still dark, and the shaman steps
forward and despatches the deceased. He returns very
soon, and sprinkles water on the people and toward the
west, where the dead has gone.
CHAPTER XXVII
INEXPERIENCED HELP HOW TO ACQUIRE RICHES FROM THE MOUN-
TAINS — SIERRA DEE NAYARIT THE CORAS-^THEIR AVERSION
TO " PAPERS " THEIR PART IN MEXICAN POLITICS A
DEJEUNER A LA FOURCHETTE — LA DANZA.
IT is practically impossible to travel from tribe to
tribe in Mexico without changino- muleteers, not
only because the men generally object to going so far
from their homes, but also because it is not advan-
tageous to employ men who do not know the countrv
through which thev are passing. Whenever the Indians
understood something about packing mules, I })referred
them to the Mexicans, because I could learn much from
them on the way. The latter part of my travels I
employed none but Indians.
The unwillingness of desirable men to leave their
homes makes a frequent change very embarrassing. My
next destination from Pueblo Viejo was Santa Teresa,
the most northern of the Cora pueblos, and everybody
thought it was too far away. I had linallv to take
whatever I could get in the way of carriers. Vor
instance, I had only one man on whom I could de-
pend, a civilised Tepehuane, who was bright and knew
his business well, but he was hampered bv an in-
jured aim. Then I obtained another man, somewhat
elderlv. lie, too, became suddenly aware that his right
arm was crooked and not strong enough to lift heavv
burdens, while the two remaining carriers had never
loaded a mule in their lives. The first two directed
484
RICHES OF THE CORAS 485
the otluT pair how to j)roccc(l, and thus 1 was treated to
the UidieroLis speetaele of four men en^aoed in paekinjLj^
one mule. Naturally it took all day to load my ten
animals, and when this was aeeomplished, it was too late
to start, so that the day's work turned out to be nothing
but a dress-rehearsal in the noble art of paekino; mules.
The result was that I had to take a hand mvself in
putting the aparejos on the animals, shoeing them and
euring the sore baeks, whieh, as a matter of eourse,
developed from the inexperience of some of the men.
On the second day, by a stUj:)endous effort, we
started, but could go only eight miles to a beautiful
llano surrounded by oaks and pines. A few ranches
are all that remains of the village that once existed
here. On one of them lived a rich Cora who had
married a Tepchuane woman. All Coras get rich, the
Indians here assert, because they know better how to
appease the gods. They submit to fasting and restric-
tions for a month, or even a year, and then go "to
the richest mountain the ancient people knew." The
master of the mountain comes out and the two make
a bai"gain, the Cora agreeing to pay for the cattle,
deer, corn, and other possessions, with men that he kills.
The belief that the mountains are the masters of all
riches — of money, cattle, mules, sheep, and shepherds — is
common among the tribes of the Sierra Madre.
When it devolves upon a Cora to make good his
agreement and kill a man, he makes from burnt clav,
strips of cloth, etc., a small figure of the victim and
then with incantations puts thorns through the head or
stomach, to make the original suffer. He may even
represent the victim on horseback, and place the figure
upside down to give him ])ain. Sometimes a Cora
makes a figure of the animal he wants, forming it of
wax or burned clay, or carving it from tuff, and deposits
486 UNKNOWN MEXICO
it in a cave in the mountain. For every cow, deer,
dog', or hen wanted, he has to sacrifice a corresponding
figure.
The next day we followed for some time the ca-
mino real, which leads from Acaponcta to the towns of
Mczquital and Durango. We then descended without
difficulty some 3,000 feet into the caiion of Civacora,
through which flows a river of the same name, said to
originate in the State of Zacatecas. It passes near the
cities of Durango and Sombrerete, this side of Cerro
Gordo. In this valley, which runs in a northerly and
southerly direction, wc found some Tepehuanes from the
pueblo of San Francisco.
The Indians here were defiant and disagreeable, and
would not even give us any information about the track
we were to follow. They had the reputation of stealing
mules and killing travellers for the sake of the corn the
latter are likely to carry. I therefore put two men on
guard and allowed them to fire off a rifle shot as a warn-
ing, something they always like to do. The sound re-
verberated through the still night with cnougii force to
frighten a whole army of robbers. The next morning
I sent for the most important Tepehuane, told him the
object of my visit, and asked him about the track. He
gave me what information he could, but he was unable
to procure a guide for a longer time than that chiy.
We were then left to ourselves, with the odds against
us. Twice we lost our way, the first time i)assing a mi-
tote dancing-place, and coming to a iialt before a steep
mountain wall, passable only for agile Indians. The
second time we landed at the edge of a deep barranca,
and there was nothing to do but to turn back to a
ranch we had passed some time before. Luckily we
met there a Tepehuane and iiis wife, who assured us
that we were at last on the right track. However, we
ON THE HIGHLANDS AGAIN 487
did not advance farther than the conlluence of two
arroyos, which the man had pointed out to us deep
down in tiie shrubbery. Before leaving us he promised
to be at our camp in the morninor ^q show us the road
to Las Botijas, a small aggregation of ranches at the
summit. In a straight line we had not gone that day
more than three miles.
When passing one of our guide's ranches — and he
had three within sight — I noticed near the track a
small jacal about 100 yards off. The man told me
that he was a shaman and that here he kept his musical
outfit, ceremonial arrows, etc. ; though he appeared to
be an open-hearted young man, I could not induce him
to show me this private chapel of his, and we had
to go on. He parted from us on the summit, but de-
scribed the road so well that we encountered no diffi-
culty during the remaining two days of our journey.
1 was glad to be once more up on the highlands, the
more so that we succeeded in finding there arroyos
with water and grass. On reaching the top of the cor-
don we had been following, we came upon a camino
real running between the villages of San Francisco and
Santa Teresa, and now we were in the Sierra del Naya-
rit. I was rather surprised to find another barranca
close by, parallel with the one we had just left. As far
as I could make out, this new gorge begins near the
pueblo of Santa Maria Ocotan, high up in the Sierra ;
at least my old Mexican informed me that the river
which waters it rises at that place and passes the Cora
pueblos of Guasamota and Jesus Maria. We travelled
along the western edge of this barranca, within which
there are some Aztec, but mainly Cora villages. There
is still another barranca to the east of and parallel to
this, and in this the Huichols live.
What is called Sierra del Nayarit is in the beginning
488 UNKNOWN MEXICO
a rallicr level and oflen narrow cordon, and the track
south Uads near the edge of the Barranca de Jesus Maria
for ten or twelve miles. Along this ridge hardly any
other kintl of tree is to he seen than Pinus L2imJioltzii.
A variety of })ine which resembles this very much, but
is mucii larger, and wliich 1 tiiink may also be a new
species, was observed after leaving Pueblo Nuevo.
The cordon gradually widens, and open, grass-cov-
ered places appear among the pines, which now arc of
the usual kinds, and throughout the Sierra del Nayarit
are high, but never large. A few Coras passed us lead-
ing mules loaded with panoche, to be exchanged in
Santa Maria Ocotan for mescal.
The most conspicuous things in the Cora's travelling
outfit are his ritle and one or two home-made pouches
which he slings over his shoulder. There is an air of
manliness and independence about these Indians, and
this first impression is confirmed by the entire history of
the tribe.
We passed a few ranches on the road, and at last
reached the little llano on which Santa Teresa is situated.
It is always disagreeable to approach a strange Indian
pueblo, where you have to make your camp, knowing
how little the j)eople like to see you, and here I was
among a tribe who had never heard of me, and who
looked upon me with much suspicion as I made my
entry.
There were many peoj^le in town jirei)aring for the
Easter festival, practising their i)arts in certain entertain-
ments in vogue at that season. At last I met a man
willing to show me where I could find water. He led
me outside of the village to some deep and narrow clefts
in the led earth, fnjm which a rivulet was issuing: I
selected my camj)ing-i)lace near by, at the foot of some
low pine-covered hills, and then returned to the pueblo.
A SUSPICIOUS ALCALDE
489
" Aiiii^o ! " shouted a man as he came runniiiLi- toward
me from his house. It was the alcalde, a tall, slender
liuliau with a slight heard and a very sympathetic voice.
1 told him that we were entirely out of corn, to which
he replied that we could not get any in the pueblo, onl\'
on tlu' ranches in the neighbourhood. I asked him if
he wanted us to die from starvation, and then another
Cora Men and Women from Santa Teresa.
man offered me half a fanega. I inquired of the judge
whether he did not want to see my papers. " We do not
understand papers," he replied. Still it was agreed that
the Indians should meet me next morning, and that my
chief man, the Tepehuane, should read my letters from
the Government, because the preceptor of the village
was away in the city of Tepic, and no one else was able
to read.
Santa Teresa is called in Cora Ouemalusi, after the
490 UiNKNOWN MEXICO
j)rinciixil one of ihe five m)-thical men who in aneient
times lived in the Sierra del Nayarit. Reports sav an
idol now hidden was once found here. A few miles east
of Santa Teresa is a deep volcanic lake, the only rem-
nant of the large flood, the Coras say. It is called
" Mother," or " Brother," the last name containing: a
reference to their great god, the Morning Star, Chula-
v^te. There are no fish in it, but turtles and ducks.
The water is believed to cure the sick and strengthen
the well, and there is no ceremony in the Cora religion
for which this water is not required. It is not necessary
to use it pure ; it is generally mixed with ordinary
spring water, and in this way sprinkled over the
people with a red orchid, or a deer-tail stretched over
a stick.
Early next morning a good-looking young Indian
on horseback rode up to the tent to pay me a visit.
He spoke Spanish very well. I treated him with con-
sideration and proffered him some biscuits I happened
to have. In the course of the conversation he offered
to sell me a fowl, if I would send a man to his ranch
for it, which of course I was orlad to do.
As he was taking leave, I expressed mv admiration
for the handsome native-made halter on his horse. " Do
you like it?" he asked, and he immediately removed it
from the horse and presented it to me, I wanted to
pay for it, but he said, " We are friends now," and rode
off. The fowl he sent was the biggest he had in his
yard, an old rooster, very strong and tough. Could
there be food less palatable than a lean old rooster of
Indian breeding? The broth is worse than that made
from a billv-goat.
I went to the meeting, and all listened silently while
mv letters from the Government were read. Anything
coming from Mexico impresses these ])eople deeply.
CORA CHARACTERISTICS 491
Yet with the suspicion innate in their nature, the Indians
could not hear the documents read over often enough.
We had nieetinij after meetin"', as the arrival in the
pueblo of every man of any importance was a signal
that my papers would have to be read over again.
The alcalde introduced me to the teacher's wife, a
Mexican, who apparently took her lot very contentedly
among "these people whom no one ever knows," as she
expressed it. She liked the climate, and the security
of life and property. Her husband had been working
here for four years. The children, of course, have first
to learn Spanish, and there is no school from June till
September. The youngsters seemed bright and well-
behaved, but the Coras told me that they had not yet
learned to read.
Most of the Cora Indians are slightly bearded, espe-
cially on the chin. In this respect, however, there was
no uniformity, some being absolutely beardless, while
others looked rather Mexican. They all insisted, never-
theless, that there is among them no intermixture with
Mexicans, or, for that matter, with the Tepehuanes, and
the Cora women have very strong objections to unions
with "neighbours." On the other hand, it should be
remembered that during the latter half of the last
century the tribe was subjected to a great deal of dis-
turbance, incidental to the revolution of Manuel Lozada,
a civilised Aztec from the neighbourhood of Tepic,
who, about the time of the French intervention, estab-
lished an independent State comprising the present ter-
ritory of Tepic and the Cora country. He had great
military talent, and it was said that whenever he liked he
could gather thousands of soldiers without cost. He
was able to maintain his government for a number of
years, thanks chiefly to the Coras, who were his prin-
cipal supporters. At one time they had to leave their
+9^
rXKNOWN MEXICO
countrv, and to live for five years in an inaccessible i)art
of the Sierra Madre above San Huena.
Among- themselves, the Coras use their own lan-
guage, but all the men and most of the women speak
and understand Spanish to some extent. Though the
people now dress like the "neighbours," they are still
thoroughly Indian, and jiroud of it.
There are about 2,500 ])ure-bred
among them. They call them-
selves Nayariti or Nayari, and in
speech, religion, and customs they
are akin to the Huichol Indians,
who, however, do not care very
much for their relatives, whom they
call Hashi (crocodiles). Vet some
intercourse is maintained between
the two tribes, the Coras bringing
to the Huichols red face-paint,
wax, and the tail-feathers of the
Cora Pouch, of Unusual blucjay, whilc the scrviccs of the
Shape, made ot Wool. Huichol Curing shamans are high-
Patterns represent Flving • i i i /--i \
Birds and a row of Deer, h' appreciated by the Coras. An
Length about 25 ctm. interesting home industry is the
weaving of bags or pouches of cotton and wool, in many
beautiful designs.
The Coras are not good runners ; they have neither
speed nor endurance, and they run heavily. It is as-
tonishing how small the bones of their limbs are, espe-
cially among the females, though this, by the wav, is the
case with all the Indians I have visited. A Cora woman
made for me a shirt as an ethnological specimen, which
I thought she must have made too small at the wrist-
bands, as they measured about 4^ inches (barely twelve
centimetres) ; but she showed me how well thev lilted
her. Still they alwa\s have well-developed hips and
EASIER FESTI\'ALS 493
better fissures than the Mexiean women. The teeth of
the Coras are not always perfect ; I have seen several
indivitluals whose front teeth were missin_o;.
Strange to say, in spite of the iiigh elevation, there
is fe\'er and ague here ; the alcalde told nie that he had
an attack every second day.
As Easter was at hand, there was (|uite a concourse
of people, nearly 300 Indians assembling. Oxen were
killed, and general eating and feasting went on. I
attended the communal feast, and dishes of food were
brought to me. In accordance with the Indian cus-
tom not to eat much on the spot, I had my men carry
some of the food to the camp, as a welcome addition
to our monotonous diet and scanty stores ; and we
found that, aside from the usual Indian dishes, they
comprised bananas, salted fish, honev, and squashes.
The authorities newlv elected for the ensuing year
gave a similar entertainment to their predecessors in
office. At the home of the " Centurion," the principal
official of the Easter festival, a rustic table and benches
had been erected outside of the house. I was invited to
sit down among the men of quality, and it was phenom-
enal to be present at an Indian banquet served on a table,
the only occasion of the kind in my experience. As
the table was small, the diners were served in turns, one
set after another. Each guest had a man to wait on him,
but there was neither table-cloth nor knife, fork nor
spoon. It was, if you like, a dcjeiuier a la foitrcJictte,
except that you were supposed to handle the solid food
with pieces of tortilla, that were broken off, folded over,
and used as a fork, or rather, spoon, and were eaten with
the meat. After the meat had all been fished out, you
drank the soup from your bowl or plate. If you eouUl
not manage with the tortilla, you were excused for using
your fingers. When a bowl or plate was set before an
494 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Intlian ouest, the latter took it up and immediately
handed it to his wife, standing behind him, who em})tied
it into the jars she had brought for that purpose. There
was meat with its broth ; meat ground on the metate,
boiled, and mixed with ehile ; and atole to drink with it,
all fresh and excellent. As I was hungry, I pitched
in, although at first I was the only one who ate, which
was rather embarrassing. But by and by the others,
too, began to eat, perhaps out of politeness. They were
pleased, however, that I enjoyed their food, and I did
enjoy it, after the poorly assorted diet we had been
obliged to maintain. Although the variety of dishes
of primitive man is exceedingly limited, such of them
as they have are well prepared. The dinner was the
best I ever had among Indians. The party was pleasant
and animated, and the banquet-hall extended to the
pines and mountains around and the azure sky above.
During the night there was dancing on the tarima, a
broad plank resting on stumps. Dancing on the plank
is said to be customary throughout the Tierra Caliente
of the northwest. One man and one woman dance
simultaneously, facinor thouG^h not touching each other.
The dancing consists in a rhythmical jumping up and
down on the same spot, and is known to all the so-
called Christian Indians wherever the violin is j)layed,
although nowhere but among the Coras have I seen
it executed on the ])lank. It is called la danza, and
is distinct from the aboriginal sacred dances, although
it may have been a native dance somewhere in Mexico.
La daiiza is merely a ventilation of mcniment, indulged
in when the In(Uaiis are in higli spiiits aflei- church
feasts, and may sometimes be executed even in church.
Cradually the j)eoi)lc submitted to being j)hoto-
graj)hed, even the women. One evening when I
changed plates under two wagon-covers in an old
INDIAN CURIOSITY 495
empty house, a curious crowd gathered outside and
knocked at the door, wanting to know what was going
on and to see the secret rites I was performing.
After a few days of dehberation the Indians con-
sented to show me their dancing-place, or, as they
expressed it, their tunamoti (the musical bow).
CHAPTER XX\TII
A GLIMPSE OF THE PACIFIC FROM THE HIGH SIERRA — A VISIONARY
lUYL THE CORAS DO NOT KNOW FEAR AN UN-INDIAN INDIAN
PUEBLO OF JESUS MARIA A NICE OLD CORA SHAMAN A
PADRE DENOUNCES ME AS A PROTESTANT MISSIONARY — TROU-
BLE ENSUING FROM HIS MISTAKE SCORPIONS.
AFTER a fortnight's stay I said good-bye to Santa
Teresa. The alcalde, who had become quite
friendly, accompanied me over the llano on which his
pueblo lies, extending, interspersed with pine forests,
for a!)out three miles west. He begged me not to for-
get the Coras when I came to the Governor of the Ter-
ritory of Tepic, and to ask the Mexican Government to
let them keep their old customs, which he had heard
they were going to prohibit. This fear, I think, was
unfounded. He also wanted me to use my influence
toward preventing the whites from settling in the vicin-
ity, since they were eager to get at the big forests.
I had found a friend in a Cora called Nuberto. a
kind-hearted and frank fellow, sixty years old, who be-
came our guide. The trail leads along the western side
of the Sierra Madre, sometimes only a few yards from
where the mountains suddenly give way to the deep and
low-lying valleys and foot-hills. As we approached the
end of the day's journey, a perfectly open view pre-
sented itself of the Ticrra Caliente below, as far as the
Pacific Ocean, which l)y mules is a week's journey dis-
tanl. The wide expanse before us unfolded a ])anorama
of hills that sank lower and lower toward the west, where
496
IMAGININGS 497
the salt lagoons of the coast could be clearly discerned
as sih^er streaks in the reddish-grey mist of the evening.
Acaponeta was right in line with the setting sun.
Here, 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, everything
was calm and mild; not a breath of air was stirring. A
priiniis was in flower, and oak-trees were growing on
the brink of the ridge toward the sea. In every other
direction were to be seen the immense silent pine for-
ests that shelter the Coras, but no trace of human
life. Evervthing seemed undisturbed, peaceful, quiet-
ing, nerve-resting.
Would it not be delightful to settle down here !
Life would be so easy ! The Indians would help me to
make a hut. I would marry one of those beautiful Cora
girls, who would be sure to have a cow or two to sup-
ply me the civilised drink of milk. None of the strife
and turmoil of the outer world could penetrate into my
retreat. One day would pass as peacefully as its prede-
cessor ; never would she disturb the tranquillity of my
life, for she is like the lagoon, without ever a ripple on
its surface. Once in a while the spirit of the feasts
might inspire her to utter an angry word, but she
would not mean much by it, and would soon resume
her usual placid role, moving along in the even tenor of
her daily life. What a splendid chance for studying
the people, for knowing them thoroughly, and for
familiarising myself with all their ancient beliefs and
thoughts! Perhaps I might solve some of the mysteries
that shroud the workings of the human mind. But —
1 should have to buy my fame at the price of living on
tortillas and pinole and beans !
"We may live without pf)etry, music, and art ;
We may live without conscience and live without heart ;
We may live without friends, we may live without books,
But civilised man cannot live without cooks."
Vol. I. — 32
498 UNKNOWN MEXICO
Concludino; that the eminent authority cited was
right, 1 came back to realities and continued my
journey.
By and hv I arrived at a fertile little slope partly
covered with corn stubble. At the farther end of it
was a large Cora ranch called La Cienega, and in front
of it g"rew two or three mai^nificent oak-trees with linht-
green stems and equally light-coloured leaves. The
people here were well disposed and sold me some neces-
sary supplies, so I stopped with them for a day.
While descending to the famous pueblo Mesa del
Nayarit, one gets a magnificent view of the high moun-
tains which form the western border of the Fluichol
country and stretch themselves out on the opposite side
of the canon of Jesus Maria like a towering wall of a
hazy blue colour. The pueblo lies on a plain less than
a mile in extent in either direction, on the slope of the
sierra, with an open view only toward the east. There
is an idol of the setting sun standing on the mesa
above the village, "looking toward Mexico," as the
Indians express it. This mesa is the one called Tonati
by the chroniclers, while by the Coras it is called Naya-
riti, and the whole sierra derived its name from it. The
same name is given to a cave in that locality, where the
Coras, as well as the Huichols, deposit ceremonial objects
and other offerings. The setting-sun god is worshipped
equally by the two tribes. The Indians jealously guard
this cave, which is never shown to outsiders. This is
practically the terminus of the Sierra del Nayarit. The
sierra from now on is lower and gradually falls down to
Rio de Alica, or Rio Grande de Santiago, where Sierra
Madre del Norte ends.
The people here, though friendly, were less sympa-
thetic and much more reserved than those of Santa
Teresa, and I could find no one who would divulge
TRAITS AND CUSTOMS 499
tribal secrets. They had received a message from their
sister pueblo telling them they had nothing to fear from
me, but the Coras are not easily scared, anyhow. A
stranger may enter a house without any further cere-
mony than the customary salutation, " Axii!" One day
when I approached a dwelling, a nice-looking little girl,
scarcely tliree years of age, came running out with a big
knife in her little fist, her mother following after her
to catch her. The small children curiously approach
you, rather than run away. My two dogs intruded into
a house and met in the doorway a little girl, about four
years old, who was just coming out. The family dog
was inside and began at once to bark at the new-comers,
ready to fight, but the little one continued her walk
without in the least changing the quiet expression of
her face.
Althouirh the Coras here maintain their traditions
and customs more completely than in other places, I
did not see any of the adults wearing the national dress,
buckskin trousers and a very short tunic reaching only
below the breast and made of home-woven woollen ma-
terial dyed with native indigo-blue. Only one of the
boys was seen with this costume, and his father was
said to have it also. Yet the Coras do not want to be
confounded with the " neighbours." When the princi-
pal men submitted to be photographed, I wanted a
picture to show their physique, and therefore asked
them to take off their shirts, which they refused to
do. But when I remarked, " You will then look like
neighbours," the shirts came off like a flash.
The gobernador here was an original and peculiar
character. First he wanted me to camp in La Comuni-
dad, to which I objected ; but he was bent upon having
me as closely under his supervision as possible, and I
had to agree to establish my camp only half the distance
500 UNKNOWN MEXICO
that I had intended from the viUaj^e. As soon as my
tent had been put up, he came, accompanied bv one of
his friends. He had a passion for talking-, which he
indulged in for two hours, interrujJtinLi liimsclf about
everv twenty seconds to sj)it. His c()nipani;)n wrai)ped
himself in his blanket and began to nod, and whenever
the gobernador stopped for expectoration, the other one
would utter an assenting " ha}^ " ("yes"). The Cora lan-
guage is guttural, but quite musical, and when I heard
it at a distance it reminded me in its cadence of one
of the dialects of central Norwav. Flowever, the go-
bernador's monologue soon became very tiresome, and
finally I made my bed and lav down. After a while
they retired, but every evening as long as I stayed in
the place, his Honour came to bore me with his talk. I
generally took him out to my men, who entertained him
as long as they were able to keep awake. He wanted to
hear about other countries, about the bears we had met,
and the great war, because he thought there must always
be war somewhere. When evervbody was asleep after
midnight, he would retire. He was a widower, and he
was the most un-Indian Indian I ever met.
About five miles east of Mesa del Nayarit the de-
scent toward the pueblo of Jesus Maria begins. The
valley appears broad and hillv, and the vegetation
assumes the aspect of the Hot Country. Siiecially
noticeable were the usual lliickets of thornv. di"v, and
scraggy trees, seen even on the edge of the mesa. They
are caWcd o?n'sac//z, and in the vernacular of the common
man the word has been utilised to designate a shari)er.
A man who " hooks on," as, for instance, a tiickv law\'er,
is called a i^iiisacJicro. It is the counterj)art of the
"lawyer palm" among the shrubs of troi)ical Aus-
tralia.
Jesus Maria looks at a distance quite a town, on a
CORA HABITATIONS 503
little j)lain above the river-bank. A fine, grand-looking
old chureh, in Moorish style, a large churehyard sur-
rounding it, and tiie usual big buildings eonneeted with
the churehes of Spanish times, make an extraordinary
impression among the pithaya-covered hills. The rest
of the houses look humble enough. 1 went a little
beyond the pueblo to the junetion of arroyo Fraile with
the river of Jesus Maria. As a violent wind, eaused by
the eooling off of the hot air of the barranca, blows
every afternoon, I did not put up my tent, but had my
men build an open shed. The wind lasts until mid-
night, and the mornings are delightfully calm and cool.
The Coras consider this wind beneficial to the growth of
the corn, and sacrifice a tamal of ashes, two feet long,
to keep it in the vallev.
The Cora of the canon, and probably of the entire
Tierra Caliente, is of a milder disposition than his
brother of the sierra, but he looks after his own advan-
tage as closely as the rest of them.
The houses of the village are built of stone with
thatched roofs, and, having no means of ventilation,
become dreadfully overheated. I frequently noticed
people lying on the floor in these hovels, suffering from
colds. In the summer there is also prev^alent in the
valley a disease of the eyes which makes them red and
swollen. Although the country is malarial, the Indians
attain to remarkable longevity, and their women are
wonderfully well preserved. All Indian women age
very late in life, a trait many of their white sisters might
be pardonably envious of.
There are twenty Mexicans living here, counting the
children ; they are poor, and have no house or lands
of their own, but live in the Convento and rent lands
from the Indians. The Coras, of course, are all nomi-
nally Christians, and the padre from San Juan Peyotan
5^4
UNKNOWN MEXICO
attends to their religious needs. I was told that as
recently as forty years ago they had to be driven to
church with scourges. Some families still put their dead
away in caves difficult of access, closing up the entrance,
without interring the bodies, and they still dance mitote,
although more or less secretly.
The Indians catch crayfish, and other small fish, with
a kind of hand-net of cotton thread, whicli they hold
wide open with their elbows while crawling in the water
between the stones. Where the river is deep they will
even dive with the net held in this way.
The dav after mv arrival I was requested to come to
La Comunidad, that the people might hear my letters
read. This over, I explained that I wanted them to sell
me some corn and beans, a blue tunic of native make,
and otiier objects of interest to me, that I also wanted
them to furnish me two reliable men to go to the city
of Tepic for mail and money ; that I wished to photo-
graph them and to be shown their burial-caves, and to
have a real, good old shaman visit me, and some men to
interpret. The messengers were duly appointed, l)ut it
took them two days to prepare the tortillas they had to
take along as provisions. Mv desire to see the burial-
caves was looked upon with ill-favour. The old shaman,
however, was prompllv sent for. lie soon arrived at
the council-house, and without having seen me he told
the Indian authorities that "it was all right to tell
this man about their ancient beliefs, that the Govern-
ment migiit know everything." When he came to see
me betook m\Mian(l to kiss, as if I were a padrt-, and I
had a most interesting interview with the truthful, dear
old man, who told me much about the (^ora m\ths, tia-
ditions, and history. I gathered from what he said that
he could not l)e far from a hundred vears old, and he
had not a grey hair in his head. Tlis faculties were in-
RELIGIOUS HOSTILITY 505
tact, except his hearing, and while 1 was interviewing
him he was making a fish-net.
I had him with me one day and a part of the next,
hut hv tluit time he was a good deal fatigued mentally,
and 1 had to let him go.
There was an Indian here, Canuto, who could read
and write, and, as he took a great interest in church affairs,
he acted as a kind of })adre. I was told that he ascended
the pulpit and delivered sermons in Cora, and that he as-
pired even to bless water, but this the padre had forbid-
den him. He was very suspicious and intolerant and
quite an ardent Catholic, the first Indian I had met who
had entirely relinquished his native belief. He actually
did not like mitote dancing, and the other Indians did
not take kindly to him. All the time I was here he
worked against me, because the priest of San Juan
Peyotan, as I learned, had denounced me before the
people.
Two traders from that town, who had been visiting
Santa Teresa while I was there, had reported to the pa-
dre the presence of a mysterious gringo (American),
who had a fine outfit of boxes and pack-mules, and who
gave the Coras " precious jewellery " to buy their souls,
and visited their dances. The padre, without having
ever seen me, concluded that I was a travelling Protes-
tant missionary, and one day after mass he warned the
people against the bad Protestant who was on his way to
corrupt their hearts and to disturb this valley in which
there had always been peace. " Do not accept anvthing
from him, not even his money ; do not allow him to
enter the church, and do not give him anything, not
even a glass of water," he said. This padre, so I was
told by reliable authority, made the judges at San Juan
and at San Lucas punish men and women for offences
that did not come under their jurisdiction. The men
5o6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
were put into prison, while the women had fastened
to their ankles a heavy round l)oard, which they had
to drag wherever they went fur a week or two. It caused
them great difficulty in walking, and they could not
kneel down at the metate with it.
His speeches about me made a decj) im})ressi()n upon
the illiterate Mexicans in that remote pari of the world,
who in consequence of it looked upon me with sus-
picion and shunned me. Not knowing anything better,
they invented all kinds of wild charges against me : I
was surveying the lands for Porfirio Diaz, who wanted
to sell the Cora country to the Americans ; I appealed
only to the Indians because they were more confiding
and could be more easily led astray, my alleged aim
being to make Freemasons out of them. A Freemason
is the one thing of which these people have a supersti-
tious dread and horror. Even my letters of recommen-
dation were doubted and considered spurious. How-
ever, one old man, whose \y\ic I had cured, told me that
Protestants are also Christians, and in his opinion I was
even better than a Protestant. Fortunately, the Indians
U'Cre less impressionable, and as their brethren in the
sierra had not reported to them anything bad about me,
they could see no harm in a man who did not cheat anv-
one and took an interest in their ancient customs and
beliefs, while the padres had always made short work of
their sacred ceremonial things, breaking and burning
them.
When at last my messengers returned, after an ab-
sence of twelve days, I was surprised to note that they
were accompanied by two gendarmes. The Comman-
dant-General of the Territory of Tepic had not only
been kind enough to cash my check for about $200, but
had deemed it wise to send me the money under the
protection of an escort, a precaution which I duly ap-
SCORPIONS 907
preciated. As the return of the men was the only thin^
I had been waitini^ for, I now prepared to move up the
river to the near-by pueblo of San Franciseo, where
tiie population is freer from Mexican influence.
When my hut was broken up, I found among my
effects ten scorpions. The canon is noted for its multi-
tude of scorpions, and I was told that a piece of land
above San Juan Peyotan had to be abandoned on ac-
count of these creatures. The scorpion's sting is the
most common complaint hereabout, and children fre-
quently die from it, though not all kinds of scorpions are
dangerous. The consensus of opinion is that the small
whitish-yellow variety is the one most to be dreaded.
The Cura of Santa Magdalena, State of Jalisco, assured
me that he had known the sting of such scorpions to
cause the death of full-grown people within two hours.
The scorpions of Mexico seem to have an unac-
countable preference for certain localities, where they
maybe found in great numbers. In the city of Durango
the hotels advertise, as an attraction, that there are no
scorpions in them. For a number of years, according to
the municipal records, something like 60,000 scorpions
have been annually killed, the city paying one centavo
for each. Some persons earn a dollar a night by this
means. Yet some forty victims, mostly children, die
every year there from scorpion-stings.
The cura quoted above thinks that there is a zone
of scorpions extending from the mining-place of Brama-
dor, near Talpa, Territory of Tepic, as far north as the
city of Durango, though he could not outline its lateral
extent. At Santa Magdalena the scorpions are not
very dangerous.
CHAPTER XXIX
A CORDIAL RECEPTION AT SAN FRANCISCO — MEXICANS IN THE EM-
PLOY OF INDIANS — THE MORNING STAR, THE GREAT GOD OF
THE CORAS — THE BEGINNING OF THE WORLD — HOW THE RAIN-
CLOUDS WERE FIRST SECURED THE RABBIT AND THE DEER
APHORISMS OF A CORA SHAMAN AN EVENTFUL NIGHT HUNT-
ING FOR SKULLS MY PROGRESS IMPEDED BY THE PADRE's BAN
— FINAL START FOR THE HUICHOL COUNTRY — A THREATENED
DESERTION.
AT the pueblo of San Francisco, prettily situated at
the bend of a river, I was made very welcome.
The Casa Real, another name for the building generally
designated as La Comunidad, had been swept and looked
clean and cool, and I acce{)ted the invdtation to lodge
there. It was furnislicd with the unheard-of luxury of
a bedstead, or rather the framework of one, made of a
network of strong strips of hide. As the room was
dark, I moved this contrivance out on the veranda,
where I also stored my baggage, while my aparejos and
saddles were put into the prison next door. Two Indians
were appointed to sleep near by to guard me. ^Vhcn
I objected to this I was informed that two fellows from
Jesus Maria had been talking of killing me as the easiest
way of cari\ing out the pndrc's orders. I felt <}uite at
iiome among these friendU'. well-incaiiing jieojile, and
paid off in\' men, who returned to their homes. I
thought that whenever I decided to start out again, I
could get men here to help me to reach the country
of the lluichols. A shaman who knew more than all
others was deputed to give me the information I wanted
about the ancient beliefs and tiadilions of the Coras.
508
SKULLS IN BURIAL-CAVES 509
The people also agreed to let me see their mitote,
whieh at this time of the year is given every Wednesday
for five consecutive weeks in order to bring about the
rainy season. The fourth of this year's series was to be
on May 2 2d. As to Ijurial-caves, they at first denied
that there were any skidls in the neighbourhood, but
finally consented to show me some. Later on, how-
ever, an important shaman objected to this, strongly
advising the people not to do so, because the dead helped
to make the rain they were praying for, at least they
could be induced not to interfere with the clouds.
A few Coras here were married to " neighbours,"
and some Cora women had taken " neighbours " for
husbands. For the first time, and also the last, in all my
travels, I had here the gratification of seeing impe-
cunious Mexicans from other parts of the country at
work in the fields for the Coras, who paid them the cus-
tomary Mexican wages of twenty-five centavos a day.
The real owners of the land for once maintained their
proper position.
I saw hikuli cultivated near some of the houses in
San Francisco. They were in blossom, producing beau-
tiful large, white flowers. The plant is used at the mi-
totes, but not generally.
On both sides of the steep arroyo near San Francisco
were a great number of ancient walls of loose stones, one
above the other, a kind of fortification. In other locali-
ties, sometimes in places where one would least expect
them, I found a number of circular figures formed by
upright stones firmly embedded in the ground, in the
same way as those described earlier in this narrative.
The pueblo, mirabile dictu, had a Huichol teacher,
whom the authorities considered, and justly so, to be
better than the ordinary Mexican teacher. He was one
of nine boys whom the Bishop of Zacatecas, in 1879,
510 UNKNOWN MEXICO
while on a missionary tour in the Huichol country, had
picked out to educate for the priesthood. After an ad-
venturous career, whicii drove him out u( his own coun-
tr\', he manasred now to maintain himself here. Al-
thoui^h his word could not be implicitly trusted, he
helped me to get on with the Coras, and I am under
some obligation to him.
A prominent feature in the elaborate ceremonies of
the tribe, connected with the coming of age of boys and
girls, is the drinking of home-made mescal. The lifting
of the cochiste, as described among the Aztecs, is also
practised, at least among the Coras of the sierra, and is
always performed at full moon.
The people begin to marry when they are fifteen
years old, and they may live to be a hundred. The
arrangement of marriages by the parents of the boy
without consulting him is a custom still largely followed.
On fiv^e occasions, every eighth day, they go to ask for
the bride tiiey have selected. If she consents to marry
the man, then all is right. One man of my acquaint-
ance did not know his " affinity " when his parents in-
formed him that they had a bride for him. Three weeks
later they were married, and, as in the fairy-tale, lived
happily ever afterward. His parents and grandparents
fasted before the wedding. In San Francisco I saw men
and women who were married, or engaged to be married,
bathing together in the river.
Fasting is also a notable feature in the religion of
the Coras, and is considered essential for producing
rain and good crojis. Abstinence from drinking water
for two days during droughts is sometimes observed.
The principal men on such occasions may undertake to
do the fasting for the rest of the j^eople. They then
shut themselves up in La Comunidad, sit down, smoke,
and keep their eyes on the ground.
SIOKY OF THE iMORNING STAR 511
The Coras of the canon are not always in summer in
accord with Father Sun, because he is lierce, j)roducing
sickness and killing men and animals. Chulavete, the
Morning Star, who is the protecting genius of the
Coras, has constantly to watch the Sun lest he should
harm the people. In ancient times, when the Sun first
appeared, the Morning Star, who is cool and disliked
heat, shot him in the middle of the breast, just as he
had journeyed nearly half across the sky. The Sun
fell down on earth, but an old man brought him to
life again, so that he could tramp back and make a fresh
start.
The Morning Star is the principal great god of the
Coras. In the small hours of the morning they fre-
quently go to some spring and wash themselves by his
light. He is their brother, a young Indian with bow
and arrow, who intercedes with the other gods to help
the people in their troubles. At their dances they first
call him to be present, and tell their wants to him, that
he may report them to the Sun and the Moon and the
rest of the gods.
A pathetic story of the modern adventures of this
their great hero-god graphically sets forth the Indian's
conception of the condition in which he finds himself
after the arrival of the white man. Chulavete was poor,
and the rich people did not like him. But afterward they
took to him, because they found that he was a nice man,
and they asked him to come and eat with them. He
went to their houses dressed like the "neighbours."
But once when they invited him he came like an Indian
boy, almost naked. He stopped outside of the house,
and the host came out with a torch of pinewood to see
who it was. He did not recognise Chulavete, and called
out to him : *' Get away, you Indian pig ! What are you
doing here?" And with his torch he burned stripes
512 UNKNOWN MEXICO
down the arms and legs of the shrinkino; Chulavete.
Next day Chulavete received another invitation to eat
with the " neighbours." This time he made himself
int(^ a big bearded fellow, with the c()mj)le.\ion of a
man half white, and he put on the clothes in which they
knew him. He came on a good horse, had a nice
blanket over his shoulder, wore a sombrero and a good
sabre. They met him at the door and led him into the
house.
" Here I am at your service, to see what I can do for
you," he said to them.
" Oh, no ! " they said. " We invited you because we
like you, not because we want anything of 30U. Sit
down and eat."
He sat down to the table, which was loaded with all
the good things rich people eat. He put a roll of bread
on his plate, and then began to make slrij)es with it on
his arms and legs.
" Why do you do that ?" they asked him. " We in-
vited you to eat what we eat."
Chulavete replied : " Vou do not wish that my heart
may eat, but my dress. Look here ! Last night it was
I who was outside of your door. The man who came
to see me burned me with his pine torch, and said to
me, ' You Indian pig, what do you want here?' "
" Was that you ? " they asked.
" Yes, gentlemen, it was I who came then. As you
did not give me anything yesterday, I see that you do
not want to give the food to me, but to mv clothes.
Therefore, I had better give it to them." lie took the
chocolate and the coffee and poured it over himself as if
it were water, and he broke tlie bread into pieces and
rubbed it all over his dress. The sweetened rice, and
boiled hen with rice, sweet atolc, minced meat witli
chile, rice pudding, and beef soup, all this he poured
COKA TRADITIONS 513
over himself. The rich people were frightened and said
that thev had not recognised him.
"You burned me vestcrdav because I was an Indian,"
he said. " God put me in the world as an Indian. But
you do not care for the Indians, because they are naked
and ugly." He took the rest of the food, and smeared
it over his saddle and his horse, and went away.
The Coras say they originated in the east, and were
big people with broad and handsome faces and long hair.
They then spoke another language, and there were no
" neiQ:hbours." According- to another tradition, the men
came from the east and the women from the west.
In the beirinninof the earth was flat and full of water,
and therefore the corn rotted. The ancient people had
to think and work and fast much to get the world in
shape. The birds came together to see what they could
do to bring about order in the world, so that it would be
possible to plant corn. First they asked the red-headed
vulture, the principal of all the birds, to set things right,
but he said he could not. They sent for all the birds in
the world, one after another, to induce them to per-
form the deed, but none would undertake it. At last
came the bat, very old and much wrinkled. His hair
and his beard were white with age, and there was plenty
of dirt on his face, as he never bathes. He was support-
ing himself with a stick, because he was so old he could
hardly walk. He also said that he was not equal to the
task, but at last he agreed to try what he could do.
That same night he darted violently through the air, cut-
ting outlets for the waters ; but he made the valleys so
deep that it was impossible to walk about, and the princi-
pal men reproached him for this. "Then I will put
everything back as it was before," he said.
" No, no!" thev all said. "What we want is to make
514 UNKNOWN MEXICO
the slopes of a lower incline, and lo leave some level
land, and do not make all the country mountains."
This the bat did, and the princij)al men thanked him
for it. Thus the world has remained up to tliis day.
No rain was falling, and the five principal men de-
spatched the humming-bird lo the place in the east where
the rain-clouds are living, to ask them to come over
here. The clouds came very fast and killed the hum-
ming-bird, and then returned to their home. After a
while the humming-bird came to life, and told the
principal men that the clouds had gone back. The
people then sent out the frog with his five sons. As
he proceeded toward the east he left one of his sons
on each mountain. He called the clouds to come, and
they followed and overtook him on the road. But he
hid himself under a stone, and they passed over him.
Then the fifth son called them on, and when thev ov^er-
took him he, too, hid himself under a stone. Then the
fourth son called the clouds and hid, then the third son
called, and then the second, and finallv the first, who had
been placed on a mountain from which the sea can be
seen to the w^est of the sierra. When the storm-clouds
went away again, the frogs began to sing merrily, which
they do to this day after rain, and they still hide
under stones when rain is coming to the Cora country.
The rabbit in olden times had hoofs like the deer,
and the deer had claws. They met on the road and sa-
luted each other as friends. Said tlic deer : " Listen,
friend, lend \uc vour sandals, to see how thev feel. Onlv
for a mcjment." The rabbit, who was afraid the deer
would steal them, refused at lirst, but at last he afri'eed,
and the deer, putting them on, rose and began to dance.
"Oh, how bcautifudv it sounds!" lie said, lie danced
five circuits, and began to dance mitote and smg. The
AN INTELLIGENT SHAMAN 515
rabbit sat looking on, and was in a dejected mood, fear-
ing that the deer migiit not give him back his sandals.
The deer then asked permission to run five big circuits
over tiie mountains. The rabbit said no, but the deer
went away, promising to come back directly. He re-
turned four times, but on the fifth round he ran away.
The rabbit climbed up on a mountain and saw the deer
already far off. He wanted to follow him, but he could
not, because his feet were bare. The deer never re-
turned the hoofs to the rabbit, and hoofless the rabbit
has remained to this day.
I had many interesting interviews with the old sha-
man whom the authorities had appointed to serve me.
He confided to me that for many years he had faithfully
fulfilled his office as the principal singing shaman of the
community, but that the people had once suddenly ac-
cused him of practising sorcery and wanted to punish
him. Being very intelligent and upright, he was of
great assistance to me, and the more eager to do all
he could for the grudge he bore his compatriots for
accusing him of sorcery. No doubt he was glad of my
coming, as it gave him a chance to rehabilitate himself,
since, for the first time in three years, he had been
engaged to sing at the dance. Be this as it may, I
obtained much valuable information from him. He
could elucidate the trend of Indian thought better than
any shaman I had hitherto met, and his talk was full
of aphorisms and opinions with reference to Indian
views of life.
Referring to the manv regulations and observances
the Indians have to comply with in order to insure food,
health, and life, he said : " A man has to do a good deal
to live. Every tortilla we eat is the result of our work.
If we do not work, it does not rain." That the "work"
5i6 UNKNOWN MEXICO
consists in fasting, praying, and dancing does not de-
tract from its hardshij).
Other sayings i picked up are as follows :
We do not know liow manv gods there are.
The Moon is man and woman combined ; men see
in her a woman, women see a man.
It is better to give a wife to vour son before he
opens his eyes very much ; if not, he will not know
whom he wants.
Illness is like a person ; it hears.
Ev^erything is alive ; there is nothing dead in the
world. The people say the dead are dead ; but they are
very much alive.
My friend went with me in the afternoon to the
place where the mitote was to be given. As the prepa-
rations of the principal men consume two days, and I
was bent on seeing everything, I went to the place the
day before the dance was to come off. It was a few
miles away in a remote locality, on top of a hill the
upper part of which was composed mainly of huge
stones, some of them as regular in shape as if they had
been chiselled. Here and there in the few 0})en spaces
some shrubbery grew. An opening in the midst of the
great mass of stones had been prepared to serve as a
dancing-place. The big stones looked dead enough, but
to the Indians they are alive. They arc what the Coras
call Tdquats or ancient people. Once upon a time they
went to a mitote, just as we were doing now, when the
morning star arose before they arrived at their destina-
tion, and all were changed into stone, and ever since
have appeared like stones. My companion j)ointed out
the various figures of men, women, and children, with
their bundles and baskets, girdles, etc., and in the wan-
ing light of day it was not difficult to understand how
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INDIAN IDOLATRY 519
the Indians had come to this conception of the fantastic
forms standing all around the place. Even a mountain
may be a Taquat, and all the Taquats are gods to whom
the Coras pray and sacriiice food ; but it is bad to talk
about them.
It had often been a puzzle to me why primitive
people should make for themselves stone idols to whom
they might sacrifice and pray ; but what is to us a rock
or stone may be to the Indian a man or a god of ancient
times, now turned into stone. By carving out features,
head, body, or limbs, they only bring before their physi-
cal eyes what is in their mind's eye. This peculiar kind
of pantheism can never be eradicated from the Indian's
heart unless he is from infancy estranged from his tribal
life.
In the centre of the dancing-place stood a magnifi-
cent tree not yet in leaf, called cJiocotc, and there was
some shrubbery growing about and around the place,
which is very old. Only a few yards higher up among
the rocks is a similar spot, with traces of still greater
antiquity. The Indians had promised me that on this
occasion one of their shamans would make a god's
eye for me, and I was shown the stone on which he
would sit while making it. It was near the tree ; and
back of it, arranged in a circle around the fire, were six
similar stones, in place of the stools I had seen in Pue-
blo Viejo. The principal men had swept the place in
the morning, and since then had been smoking pipes
and talking to the gods.
There were also present a female principal, an old
woman, with her little granddaughter who represented
the moon. These too, it seemed, had to attend to cer-
tain religious duties which they perform for five years,
the child beg-inninof at the innocent aije of three. Dur-
ing her term she lives with the old woman, whether she
520 UNKNOWN MEXICO
is related to her or not. The old lady has charge of
the large sacred bowl of the community, an office vested
only in a woman of undoubted chastity. This bowl is
called " Mother, " and is prayed to. It consists of half
of a large round gourd, adorned inside and outside with
strings of beads of various colours. It is filled with
wads of cotton, under which lie carved stone figures of
great antiquity. None but the chief religious authority
is allowed to lift up the cotton, the svmbol of health
and life. The bowl rests also on cotton wads. On
festive occasions the woman in charge brings the bowl
to the dancing-place and deposits it at the middle of the
altar. Parrot feathers are stood up along the inner
edge, and each person as he arrives places a flower on
top of the cotton inside of the bowl. This vessel is
really the patron saint of the community. It is like a
mother of the tribe, and understands, so the Indians sav,
no language but Cora. The Christian saints understand
Cora, Spanish, and French ; but the Virgin Mary at
Guadalupe, the native saint of the Mexican Indians,
understands all Indian languages.
Leaving the principales to prepare themselves further
for the dance, my friend and I early next morning went
to see a sacred cave where the Huichols go to worship.
It was situated in the same hill, outside of the country
of that tribe. There were a great many caves and cavi-
ties between the stones over which we made our way,
jumping from one to another. Near the lower edge of
this accumulation of stones I noticed, down in the dark,
deep recesses, ceremonial arrows which the pious piL
grims from beyond the eastern border of the Cora land
had left. Soon after passing this point v/e came to a
cave, the approach of which led downward and was
rather narrow. With the aid of a pole or a rope it can
easily be entered. I found myself at one of the ancient
CEREMONIAL OBJECTS
:2i
places of worship of the Huichol Indians, the cave of
their Goddess of the Western Clouds. It was not large,
but the many singular ceremonial objects, of all shapes
and colours, accumulated within it,
made a strange impression upon me.
There were great numbers of cere-
monial arrows, many with diminutive
deer-snares attached, to pray for luck
in hunting ; as well as votive bowls,
gods' eyes, and many other articles by
which prayers are expressed. In one
corner was a heap of deer-heads,
brought for the same purpose. As
my companion entered, a rat -disap-
peared in the twilight of the cave.
I wanted to take some samples of
the articles, but he begged me not to
do it, as the poor fellows who had
sacrificed the thino-s might be cheated
out of the benefits they had expected
from them. He had, however, no
objection to my taking a small rect-
angular piece of textile fabric, with
beautifully colored figures on it.
"This is a back shield," he said, "and
the Huichols do not do right by those
things. They place them in the trails
leading out of their country, to pre-
vent the rain from coming to us.
Lions and other ferocious animals are
often represented on them, and they
frighten the rain back."
On our return to the dancing-place I found the man
who had been deputed to make the god's eye lying in a
small cave in quite an exhausted condition, having fasted
God's Eve, made hy
the Cora Tribe as a
Prayer for my Health
and Life. Length,
80 ctm.
522 UNKNOWN MEXICO
for many days. The ceremonial object had already been
made, under incantations. It was very pretty, white
and blue, and had a wad of cotton attached to each
corner. Its efficacy was, however, lost as far as I was
concerned, as I iiad not been sitting beside the man
while he made it, praying for what I wanted. This is a
necessary condition if the Morning Star is to be made
to understand clearly what the supplicant needs.
On the altar, beside the sacred bowl of the commu-
nity, had been placed food and many ceremonial objects,
not omitting the five ears of seed-corn to be used in
raising the corn required for the feasts. In the ground
immediatclv in front of the altar were four bunches of
the beautiful tail-feathers of the bluejay.
Opposite to this, on the west side of the place, was
another altar, a smaller one, on which had been put
some boiled pinole in potsherds, with tortillas and a
basket of cherries. This was for the dead, who if dis-
satisfied might disturb the feast. Afterward the pinole
is thrown on the ground, while the people eat the rest
of the food.
The fasting shaman came forth on our arrival and
took his position opposite the main altar, talkiiig to the
gods for half an hour. The newly made god's eye had
been stuck into the ground in front of him. On liis left
side stood the little girl, and behind her the old woman,
her guardian, and a man, who was smoking tobacco.
Two young men, one at the right, the other at the left,
held in their hands sticks with which the\' woke up peo-
ple who fell asleep during the night while the dance
was going on.
The shaman prayed to the Morning Star, presented
to iiim the ears of corn that were to be used as seed, and
asked him to make them useful for planting. The gods
know best how to fructify I lie grains, since all the corn
SINGING AND DANCING 523
belongs to them. " And as for this man," he added,
speaking of me, "you all knew him before he started
from his own eountrv. To us he seems to be good, but
you alone know his heart. Vou give him the god's eye
he asked for."
A little after dark the singer for the oeeasion began
to plav a i)relude on the musical bow, which tiie Coras
alwavs glue to the gourd, uniting the two parts to form
one instrument. The gourd was placed over a small ex-
CoRA MiToTE Song, from Santa Teresa.
ten. fen.
K.-r,—
cavation in the ground to increase its resonance. The
singer invoked the Morning Star to come with his
brothers, the other stars, to bring with them their pipes
and i)lumes, and arrive dancing with the rain-clouds
that emanate from their pipes as they smoke. The
Morning Star was also asked to invite the seven prin-
cipal Taquats to come with their plumes and pipes.
The Coras dance like the Tepehuanes and the
Aztecs, but with quicker steps, and every time they
pass the altar the dancers turn twice sharply toward it.
At regular intervals the old woman and the little girl
danced, the former smoking a pipe. The little girl
had parrot feathers tied to her forehead and a bunch of
plumes from the bluejay stood up from the back of her
524 UNKNOWN MEXICO
head. In the middle of the ni^ht slie danced live cir-
cuits, caiTving- a good-sized drinking-g-ourd containing
water from a near-by brook, which originates in tlie
sacred lagoon.
The shaman sang well, but the dancing lacked ani-
mation, and but few took part in it. When the little
girl began to dance with her grandmoliier, I serrted
myself on a small ledge not far from the musician.
Immediatelv the shaman stopped }ilaving and the dan-
cing ceased. In an almost harsh voice, and greatly
excited, he called to me, " Come and sit here, sir ! "
He was evidently very anxious to get me awav from
the ledge, and offered me a much better seat on one of
the stones placed for the principal men. I had inad-
vertently sat on a Taquat ! This sacred rock of the
dancing-place had a natural hollow, which the Intlians
think is his votive bowl, and into which they put
pinole and other food. " Never," my friend told me
next day, " had anvone sat there before."
Later in the evening, when there was a pause in the
performance, I noticed that all the men, with the sing-
ing shaman, gathered in a corner of the dancing-place,
seating themselves on the ground. They were discuss-
ing what they should do in regard to the skulls I had
asked for. One of the principal men told them that
a dream lasc night had advised him not to den\' the
" Seiior " anything he asked for, as he had to have a
"head" and would not iio without one. " N'ou are
daft, and he comes here knowing" a good ileal," the
(licam had said.
They all became alarmed, especially the man who
had steadily opposed their cotnplying with my request,
and the)' agreed that it was better to give the white man
what he wanted. The gobernador even raised the ques-
tion whether it would not be best to let me have the
END OF THE FEAST 52^
skulls early next morn i 1112;, together with the other
things 1 was to get; or, if not then, at what other
time? My shaman friend diplomatieally proposed that
. should set the time for this.
Next morning I got the god's eye as well as a splen-
did speeimen of a musical bow with the gourd attached,
the plaving-sticks, etc., all of which were taken out of a
cav^e near the dancing-place. There was another cave
near by, into which the principal men are accustomed to
go to ask permission from the sun and moon and all
the other Taquats to make their feasts.
The morning saw the feast concluded in about the
usual w^ay. Tobacco was smoked over the seed-corn on
the altar, and sacred water was sprinkled from a red
orchid over everything on the altar, including the sacred
bowl and the flowers on top of it, as well as over the
heads of all the people present, to insure health and
luck. This is done on behalf of the Morning Star,
because he throws blessed water over the whole earth,
and on the corn and the fruit the Coras eat. The
flowers are afterward taken home, even by the children,
and put in cracks in the house walls, where they remain
until removed by the hand of time.
The people of Santa Teresa and San Francisco, at
certain rain-making feasts, fashion a large locust {cJii-
cJiarra) out of a paste made of ground corn and
beans, and place it on the altar. In the morning,
after the dancing of the mitote, it is divided among
the participants of the feast, each eating his share.
This is considered more efficient even than the dancinor
itself.
It is evident that the religious customs of the canon
of Jesus Maria are on the wane, mainlv because the
singing shamans are dying out, though curing shamans
will remain for centuries vet. As the Indians now
526 UNKNOWN MEXICO
have to perform iheir dances secietl\-, the growincr gen-
eration has less inclination and little opj)ortunity to
learn them, and the tribe's ritual and comprehensive
sonijs will o^raduallv become lost.
My shaman friend in San Francisco complained to
me that the other shamans did not know the words of
the songs well enough. Tayop (Father Sun) and the
other gods do not understand them, he said, and tliere-
fore these shamans cannot accomplish anything with
" los senores." It was like sending a badly written let-
ter : " the gentlemen " pass it from one to another, none
of them being able to make out its meaning.
In the mean time my efforts to obtain anthropologi-
cal specimens were more laborious than successful, be-
cause it was very difficult to get anyone to show me
where they could be found. To make things worse,
suddenly another man dreamed that I had enough
" heads," and so I was not permitted to search for them
any more. But I did not intend to content myself
with the few I had secured. I had made arrano;^ements
with a Cora some time before to show me some skulls
he knew of, and after much procrastination on his part
I at last got him to accompany me.
We rode for fifteen miles in the direction of Santa
Teresa. The country was rough and but sparsely inhab-
ited. In fact, I passed three deserted ranches, and near
one of them I killed a Gila monster that was just mak-
ing its burrow. There lay an air of antiquity over the
whole landscape. About half a league before reaching
the caves we sought, I came upon (juite an extensive
fortification ; T also noticed a nuinl)er of trincheras in
one arroyo; and above it on a mesa, running along the
edge, we found a wall built of loose stones. The mesa,
300 bv 200 feet in extent, was a natural fortress difficult
of access, exce})t at one ])oint where a little cordon.
UNABLE TO TRAVEL 527
like an isthmus, led to it. Here, however, 1 foutul no
vestiii^e of ancient inhabitants.
There were two shallow caves close to each other in
the remote valley into which the guide had led me. In
the larger one, which was eight feet deep and twelve
feet broad, nine skulls were found. In the other were
only a few bones, and I noticed indications of parti-
tions, in the shape of upright stones, between the skele-
tons. The bodies must have been partly buried, with
the heads protruding, in spaces a foot square.
It was nearing dusk and I had to get back to my
camp that evening. On the road my mule gave out,
and for the last part of the way I had to walk. I re-
freshed myself with some zapotes, which were just in
season. This native fruit of Mexico has the flavour of
the pear and the strawberry, and is delicious when picked
fresh from the tree; but as soon as it falls to the ground
it is infested wnth insects.
Contrary to expectation, when I was ready to leave
the village, I found it exceedingly difficult to get men.
As the Coras here do not understand the mule business,
I had to resort to the Mexicans in the valley, who, how-
ever, acting under instructions from the padre, would
have nothing to do with me. They even shunned those
who were seen in my company. One man who used to
carry on some trading with the Huichols was more
daring than the rest. He declared that he would serve
the devil himself if he got paid for it, and tried to make
up a party for me, but failed. He was ruining his repu-
tation for my sake, he told me ; even his compadre (his
child's godfather), on account of his association with me,
ran away when he saw him coming. The situation
finally became so exasperating that I was compelled to
write to the Bishop in Tcpic, and lay the case before
528 UNKNOWN MEXICO
him. I stated that the padre, witliout having seen me,
had placed me in a had hght hefore tiic people, and
had then left the country, making it impossible for me
to convince him of his error of judgment ; that if it
were not for the strong recommendations I had from
the Government and the Commanding General of the
Territory, it would be impossible for me to stav here,
except at great personal risk.
To await an answer, however, would have involved
too great a loss of time. Luckily I found three dare-
devil fellows, but recently come into the valley for a
living, who were willing to go with me. These, to-
gether with the man already mentioned and one Cora
Indian, enabled me to make a start. Thus I parted
from pretty San Francisco, and the nice Indians there,
who had believed in me in spite of the wickedness the
Mexicans had attributed to me. The Coras are the
only primitive race I have met who seem to have ac-
quired the good qualities of the white man and none of
his bad ones.
On an oppressively hot June morning, when I finally
got away, the alcalde rode along with me for a couple
of miles. We soon began to ascend the slope of the
mountains that form the western barrier of the Huichol
country, which, among the Mexicans, is reputed to be
accessible only at four points. Next morning, while
packing the mules, the father of one of my Mexicans
ran up to us with a message that seemed quite alarm^
ing. Immediately after I left San Francisco yesterday,
the Mexican authority at Jesus Maria had come over
to tell me that the Iluichols were on the warpath
and determined not to allow me to enter their pueblos.
The messenger impressed uj)on mv men the necessity
of turning back and implored them not to run any risk
by accompanying me. Tlie chief packer came hastilv
A CRISIS 529
to mc with this news, wliich I at once declared to
be false. But the men, nevertheless, stopped packing,
and proposed to go back. They declared that the
Huichols were bad, that they were assassins, that there
were many of them, and that they would kill us all.
Now, what was I to do ? To turn back from the
tribe the studv of wiiich had been from the outset my
principal aim was not to be thought of ; even to delay
the trip would be impossible, as the wet season was fast
approaching, in which one cannot travel for months.
I tried to reason with them and to ease their minds
by pointing out the great experience I had had with
Indians in general. I also appealed to their manly pride
and courage. " Have we not five rifles?" I said. "Can-
not each one of you fight fifty Indians?" Still they
wavered, and it looked as if they were going to desert
me, when the cook courageously exclaimed: ''VdmoSy
vdmos!" (" Let us go on ! ") They again began to
pack, and I managed to keep my troupe together.
The real danger for me lay in the evil rumours the
Mexicans had spread, and in the fact that the whites
were afraid of me. The Indians do not follow the
" neighbours " in their reasoning ; they only think that
a white man of whom even the Mexicans are afraid
must certainly be terrible. The reason why I had
chosen this route was that a friend of mine in far-away
Guadalajara had given me a letter of recommendation
to an acquaintance of his, a half-caste, who acted as es-
cribano (secretary) to the pueblo of San Andres, or, to
give its name in full, San Andres Coamiata. I had
been told that this man was temporarily absent, in which
case I should be at the mercy of the strange Indians.
The immediate prospect looked dark enough to
make me consider the advisability of the long detour to
the town of Mezquitic, to get assistance from the gov-
Vul.. I.— 34
530 UNKNOWN MEXICO
cninuMil aiit h.oiiiies iIrtc and to enter the Iluichul
countrv from the east by way of Santa Catarina.
Asrainst this i)lan, howex'er, niv men uro-ed that tliev^
cotUd not be baek in their country before the wet season
set in, to attend to their fields. Finally, I decided to
risk i]^oino to San Andres. If Don Zeferino was not
there, I woidd come baek and then try Mezqu tic.
"Fwo days later, after a laborious ascent, I sent my chief
packer ahead to San Andres, which was still about eic^ht
miles off. What a mountainous countrv all around
us ! The Jesuit father Ortega was right when he said of
the Sierra del Nayarit : " It is so wild and frightful to
behold that its ruggedness, ev^en more than the arrows
of its warlike inhabitants, took away the courage of thi;
conquerors, because not only did the ridges and valleys
appear inaccessible, but the extended range of towering
mountain peaks confused even the eye."
Mv messenger returned after two days, saying that
Don Zeferino was at home and would be at my disposal.
In the meantime it had begun to rain ; my men were
anxious to return home to the valley, and I started for
San Andres.
END OF VOL. I.
PLATE I
PLATE n
PLATE III
PLATE IV.
PLATE V.
Los Angeles
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