Reviied Editio n, 1§96. > > , > HIGHER Lessons m English A WORK ON ENGLISH GEAMMAE AHD COMPOSITION", In which the Science of the Language is made tributary tc THE Art of Expression. A COURSE OF PRACTICAL LESSONS CAREFULLY GRADED, AND ADAPTED TO EVER YD AY USE IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. ALONZO EEED, A.M., FOKITBBLT IirSTRUCTOR IK EkGLISH GrBAMllAB IN THB POLTTJtOHNIO InSTJTUTB, Bbookltn, BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D., PjBOrESSOB OP THE ENGLISH LaNOUAOE AND LiTEBATUEB IN TH POLTTEOHNIO INSTITUTE, BbOOKLTN. NEW YORK: Maynard, Merrill, & Co., Publishers, 29, 31 & 33 East 19th Street. 1899. EDUCATION DEFT, Copyright, 1877, 1885, 1896. By Alonzo Ried and Bkainebd Kellogg. Press of J. J. Little & Co. Astor Place, New York PREFACE. The plan of "Higher Lessons" will perhaps be better understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this work is brought into competition. Method of One Class of Text-books. — In one class are those that aim chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing, — work of which a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, old-time method. Method of Another Class of Text-hooks. — In another class are those that present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling, Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some scraps of knowledge ; but his information will be vague and disconnected, and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being. The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words. — It is the plan of this book to trace with easy steps the natural develop- ment of the sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to iv Preface. descend to the details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only by its function in the sentence, and inflec- tions simply mark the oflices and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls into such errors as " How many sounds have each of the vowels ? " *' Five years' interest are due." "She is older than me." He probably would not say "each have," "interest are," "me am." One thoroughly familiar with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using correctly the few inflectional forms in English. The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse. — Through the study of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or unit of dis- course, it is all-important that the pupil should know the sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts in their proper relation ; he should know the exact function of every element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that, when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the difliculty and the remedy for it. The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation, — The laws of thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation Preface. of a foreign language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue ! A study of the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are beginning to appreciate these facts. The Study of the Sentence for Discipline. — As a means of discipline nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as "complex adverbial element of the second class" and " com- pound prepositional adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is grossly unjust ; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for ideas. Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence. — Teachers familiar with text-books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their vi Preface. natural order of sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent. Sentences in Groups — Paragraphs. — In tracing the growth of the sentence from the simplest to the most complex form, each ele- ment, as it is introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand. Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with questions and suggestions to enforce prin- ciples already presented, and to prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other ; they also lead him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the sev- eral models presented. The Use of the Diagram. — In written analysis, the simple map^ or diagram, found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil tc present directly and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence, of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase — to picture the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing all these things by piecemeal or in succession. Preface. But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams. The Objections to the Diagram. — The fact that the pictorial diagram groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is, on the contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the literary order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefi- nitely, so long as the logical relations are kept clear. The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a decision on every point. The Abuse of the Diagram. — Analysis by diagram often becomes so interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. "When the diagram has served its purpose, it should be dropped. AUTHORS' NOTE TO REVISED EDITION. During the years in which "Higher Lessons " has been in existence, we have ourselves had an instructive experience with it in the class- room. We have considered hundreds of suggestive letters written us by intelligent teachers using the book. We have examined the best works on grammar that have been published recently here and in England. And we have done more. We have gone to the original source of all valid authority in our language — the best writers and speakers of it. That we might ascertain what present linguistic usage is, we chose fifty authors, now alive or living till recently, and have carefully read three hundred pages of each. We have minutely noted and recorded what these men by habitual use declare to be good English. Among the fifty are such men as Ruskin, Froude, Hamerton, Matthew Arnold, Macaulay, De Quincey, Thackeray, Bagehot, John Morley, James Martineau, Cardinal Newman, J. R. Green, and Lecky in England ; and Hawthorne, Curtis, Prof. W. D. Whitney, George P. Marsh, Prescott, Emerson, Motley, Prof. Austin Phelps, Holmes, Edward Everett, Irving, and Lowell in America. When in the pages following we anywhere quote usage, it is to the authority of such men that we appeal. Upon these four sources of help we have drawn in the Revision of *' Higher Lessons " that we now offer to the public. In this revised work we have given additional reasons for the opin- ions we hold, and have advanced to some new positions; have explained more fully what some teachers have thought obscure ; have qualified what we think was put too positively in former editions ; have given the history of constructions where this would deepen interest or aid in composition ; have quoted the verdicts of usage on many locutions condemned by purists ; have tried to work into the pupil's style the felicities of expression found in the lesson sentences ; have taught the pupil earlier in the work, and more thoroughly, the structure and the function of paragraphs ; and have led him on from the composition Authors' Note to Revised Edition. of single sentences of all kinds to the composition of these great groups of sentences. But the distinctive features of " Higher Lessons " that have made the work so useful and so popular stand as they have stood — the Study of Words from their Offices in the Sentence, Analy- sis for the sake of subsequent Synthesis, Easy Gradation, the Sub- divisions and Modifications of the Parts of Speech after the treatment of these in the Sentence, etc., etc. We confess to some surprise that so little of what was thought good in matter and method years ago has been seriously affected by criticism since. The additions made to " Higher Lessons" — additions that bring the work up to the latest requirements — are generally in foot-notes to pages, and sometimes are incorporated into the body of the Lessons, which in number and numbering remain as they were. The books of former editions and those of this revised edition can, therefore, be used in the same class without any inconvenience. Of the teachers who have given us invaluable assistance in this Revision, we wish specially to name Prof. Henry M. Worrell, of the Poly- technic Institute ; and in this edition of the work, as in the preceding, we take pleasure in acknowledging our great indebtedness to our critic, the distinguished Prof. Francis A. March, of Lafayette College. LESSON 1. A TALK ON LANGUAGE. Let us talk to-day about a language that we never learn from a grammar or from a book of any kind — a language that we come by naturally, and use without thinking of it. It is a universal language, and consequently needs no interpreter, People of all lands and of all degrees of culture use it ; even the brute animals in some measure understand it. This Natural language is the language of cries, laughter, and tones i the language of the eyes, the nose, the mouth, the whole face ; the language of gestures and postures. The child's cry tells of its wants ; its sob, of grief ; its scream, of pain ; its laugh, of delight. The boy raises his eyebrows in surprise and his nose in disgust, leans forward in expectation, draws back in fear, makes a fist in anger, and calls or drives away his dog simply by the tone in which he speaks. But feelings and desires are not the only things we wish to com- municate. Early in life we begin to acquire knowledge and learn to think, and then we feel the need of a better language. Suppose, for instance, you have formed an idea of a day; could you express this by a tone, a look, or a gesture ? If you wish to tell me the fact that yesterday was cloudy, or that the days are shorter in winter than in summer, you find it wholly impossible to do this by means of Natural language. To communicate, then, your thoughts, or even the mental pictures we have called ideas, you need a language more nearly perfect. This language is made up of words. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. ^ Thesvj words you iea*ra ' f rdm- your mothers, and so Word language is your mother-tongue. You learn them, also, from your friends and teachers, your playmates and companions, and you learn them by reading ; for words, as you know, may be written as well as spoken. This Word language we may, from its superiority, call Language Proper. Natural language, as was said, precedes this Word language, but gives way as Word language comes in and takes its place ; yet Nat- ural language may be used, and always should be used, to assist and strengthen Word language. In earnest conversation we enforce what we say in words, by the tone in which we utter them, by the varying expression of the face, and by the movements of the different parts of the body. The look or the gesture may even dart ahead of the word, or it may contradict it, and thus convict the speaker of ignorance or deception. The happy union of the two kinds of language is the charm of all good reading and speaking. The teacher of elocution is ever trying to recall the pupil to the tones, the facial expression, and the action, so natural to him in childhood. and in animated conversation. DEFINITION. — Language Proper consists of the spoken and the written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts. DEFINITION. — English Grannmar is the science which teaches the forms, uses, and relations of the words of the English language. LESSON 2. A TALK ON THOUGHTS AND SENTENCES. To express a thought we use more than a single word, and the words arranged- to express a thought we call a sentence. But there was a time when, through lack of words, we compressed A Talk on Thoughts and Sentences. 8 our thought into a single word. The child says to his father, up, meaning, Take me up into your lap; or, hook, meaning, This thing in my hand is a hook. These first words always deal with the things that can be learned by the senses ; they express the child's ideas of these things. We have spoken of thoughts and sentences ; let us see now whether we can find out what a thought is, and what a sentence is. A sentence is a group of words expressing a thought ; it is a body of which a thought is the soul. It is something that can be seen or heard, while a thought cannot be. Let us see whether, in studying a sentence, we may not learn what a thought is. In any such sentence as this, Spiders spin, something is said, or asserted, about something. Here it is said, or asserted, of the ani- mals, spiders, that they spin. The sentence, then, consists of two parts, — the name of that of which something is said, and that which is said of it. The first of these parts we call the Subject of the sentence ; the second, the Predicate. Now, if the sentence, composed of two parts, expresses the thought, there must be in the thought two parts to be expressed. And there are two ; viz., something of which we think, and that which we think of it. In the thought expressed by Spiders spin, the anunals, spiders, are the something of which we think, and their spinning is what we think of them. In the sentence expressing this thought, the word spiders namps that of which we think, and the word spin tells what we think of spiders. Not every group of words is necessarily a sentence, because it may not be the expression of a thought. Spiders spinning is not a sen° tence. There is nothing in this expression to show that we have formed a judgment, i. e., that we have really made up our minds that spiders do spin. The spinning is not asserted of the spiders. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Soft feathers, The shining sun are not sentences, and for similar reasons. Feathers are soft, The sun shines are sentences. Here the asserting word is supplied, and something is said of something else. The shines sun is not a sentence; for, though it contains the assert- ing word shines, the arrangement is such that no assertion is made, and no thought is expressed. LESSON 3. A TALK ON SOUNDS AND LETTERS. We have already told you that in expressing our ideas and thoughts we use two kinds of words, spoken words and written words. We learned the spoken words first. Mankind spoke long before they wrote. Not until people wished to communicate with those at a distance, or had thought out something worth handing down to aftertimes, did they need to write. But speaking was easy. The air, the lungs, and the organs of the throat and mouth were at hand. The first cry was a suggestion. Sounds and noises were heard on every side, provoking imitation, and the need of speech for the purposes of communication was im- perative. Spoken words are made up of sounds. There are over forty sounds in the English language. The different combinations of these give us all the words of our spoken tongue. That you may clearly under- stand these sounds, we will tell you something about the human voice. In talking, the air driven out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles, stretched, like bands, across the top of the windpipe, and causes them to vibrate up and down. This vibration makes sound. Take a thread, put one end between your teeth, hold the other with thumb and finger, draw it tight and strike it, and you will anderstand how voice is made. The shorter the string, or the tighter A Talk on Sounds and Letters. it is drawn, the faster will it vibrate, and the higher will be the pitch of the sound. The more violent the blow, the farther will the string vibrate, and the louder will be the sound. Just so with these vocal bands, or cords. The varying force with which the breath strikes them, and their different tensions and lengths at different times, explain the different degrees of loudness and the varying pitch of the voice. If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a class of sounds is formed which we call vowel sounds. But if the voice is held back or obstructed by the palate, tongue, teeth, or lips, one kind of the sounds called consonant sounds is made. If the breath is driven out without voice, and is held back by these same parts of the mouth, the other kind of consonant sounds is formed. The written word is made up of characters, or letters, which repre- sent to the eye these sounds that address the ear. You are now prepared to understand us when we say that vowels are the letters that stand for the open sounds of the voice, and that consonants are the letters that stand for the sounds made by the obstructed, voice and the obstructed breath. The alphabet of a language is a complete list of its letters. A per- fect alphabet would have one letter for each sound, and only one. Our alphabet is imperfect in at least these three ways : — 1. Some of the letters are superfluous ; c stands for the sound of 5 or of h, as in city and can ; q has the sound of h, as in quit ; and x that of Jcs, gz, or z, as in expel, exist, and Xenophon. 2. Combinations of letters sometimes represent single sounds ; as, th in thine, th in thin, ng in sing, and sh in shut. 8. Some letters stand each for many sounds. Twenty-three letters represent over forty sounds. Every vowel does more than single duty ; e stands for two sounds, as in mete and met ; i for two, as in The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. pine and pin ; o for three, as in note, ?iot, and move ; u for four, as in tube, tub, full, and fur ; a for six, as in fate, fat, far, fall, fast, and fare. W is a vowel when it unites with a preceding vowel to represent a vowel sound, and y is a vowel when it has the sound of i, as in now, hy, hoy, newly. W and y are consonants at the beginning of a word or syllable. The various sounds of the several vowels and even of the same vowel are caused by the different shapes which the mouth assumes. These changes in its cavity produce, also, the two sounds that unite in each of the compounds, ou, oi, ew, and in the alphabetic i and a. 1. 2. Vocal Consonants. Aspirates. b P d t g k h j ch 1 1. 2. Vocal Consonants. Aspirates. th th (in thine) (in thin) V f w — y z (in zone) . s z (in azure) sh The consonants in column 1 represent the sounds made by the obstructed voice ; those in column 2, except h (which represents a mere forcible breathing), represent those made by the obstructed breath. The letters are mostly in pairs. Now note that the tongue, teeth, lips, and palate are placed in the same relative position to make the sounds of both letters in any pair. The difference in the sounds of the letters of any pair is simply this : there is voice in the sounds of the letters in column 1, and only whisper in those of column 3. Analysis and the Diagram. 7' Give the sound of any letter in column 1, as b, g, v, and the last or- vanishing part of it is the sound of the other letter of the pair. To THE Teacher.— Write these letters on the board, as above, and drill the pupils - on the sounds till they can see and make these distinctions. Drill them on the vowels also. In closing this talk vrith you, we wish to emphasize one point brought before you. Here is a pencil, a real thing ; we carry in memory a picture of the pencil, which we call an idea ; and there are the two words naming this idea, the spoken and the written.. Learn to distinguish clearly these four things. To THE Teacher.— In reviewing these three Lessons, put particular emphasis ons Lesson 2. LESSON 4. ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. To THE Teacher.— If the pupils have been through " Graded Lessons " or itfii equivalent, some of the following Lessons may be passed over rapidly. DEFINITION.— A Sentence is the expression of a thought in words. Direction. — Analyze the following sentences : — Model. — Spiders spin. Why is this a sentence ? Ans. — Because; it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought ? Ans, — ♦Spiders. Which word tells what is thought ? Ans. — *Spin. 1. Tides ebb. 4. Carbon burns. 7. Leaves tremble. 2. Liquids flow. 5. Iron melts. 8. Worms crawl. 3. Steam expands. 6. Powder explodes. 9. Hares leap. ♦ The word spiders, standing in Roman, names our idea of the real thing ; spin, used merely as a word, is in Italics. This use of Italics the teacher and the pupil. will- please note here and elsewhere. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. In each of these sentences there are, as you have learned, two parts — the Subject and the Predicate. DEFINITION.— The Subject of a sentence names that of which something is thought. DEFINITION.— The Predicate of a sentence tells what is thought. DEFINITION.— The Analysis of a sentence is the sepa- ration of it into its parts. Direction. — Analyze these sentences: — Model. — Beavers build. This is a sentence because it expresses a thought. Beavers is the subject because it names that of which something is thought ; build is the predicate because it tells what is thought.* 1. Squirrels climb. 4. Heralds proclaim. 7. Corn ripens. 2. Blood circulates. 5. Apes chatter. 8. Birds twitter. 3. Muscles tire. 6. Branches wave. 9. Hearts throb. Explanation. — Draw a heavy line and divide it into two parts. Let the first part represent the subject of a sentence ; the second, the predi- cate. If you write a word over the first part, you will understand that this word is the subject of a sentence. If you write a word over the second part, you will understand tiiat this word is the predicate of a sentence. Love , co nquers 4- Tou see, by looking at this figure, that Love conquers is a sentence ; that love is the subject, and conquers the predicate. * When pupils are familiar with the definitions, let the form of analysis be varied. The reasons may be made more specific. Here and elsewhere avoid mechanical repetition. Composition— Subject and Predicate. 9 Such figures, made up of straight lines, we call Dia^ grams. DEFINITION.— A Diagram is a picture of tlie offices and the relations of the different parts of a sentence. Direction. — Analyze these sentences: — 1. Frogs croak. 2. Hens sit. 3. Sheep bleat. 4. Cows low. 5. Flies buzz. 6. Sap ascends. 7. Study pays. 8. Buds swell. 9. Books aid. 10. Noise disturbs. 11. Hope strengthens, 13. Cocks crow. LESSON 5. COMPOSITION-SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— The first word of every sen- tence must begin with a capital letter, PERIOD— RULE.— A period must be placed after every sen- tence that simply affirms, denies, or commands. Direction. — Construct sentences by supplying a subject to each of the following predicates : — Ask yourselves the questions, What tarnishes ? Who sailed, con- quered, etc. ? 1. tarnishes. 6. sailed. 2. capsize. 7. descends. 3. radiates. 8. glisten. 4. sentence. 9. absorb. 5. careen. 10. corrode. 11. conquered. 13. surrendered. 13. refines. 14. gurgle. 15. murmur. Direction. — Construct sentences by supplying a predicate to each of the following subjects : — 10 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Ask yourselves the question, Glycerine does what ? 1. Glycerine . 9. Tempests . 17. Merchants — .2. Yankees . 10. Seeds . 3. Tyrants . 11. Heat . 19. Conscience - •4. Pendulums . 12. Philosophers . , 20. Congress 5. Caesar . 13. Bubbles . 21. Life . ■6. Labor . 14. Darkness . 22. Vapors . 7. Chalk . 15. Wax . 23. Music . S. Nature . 16. Reptiles . 24. Pitch . To THE Teacheb. — This exercise may profitably be extended by supplying £ieveial .anbjectB to each predicate, and several predicates to each subject. LESSON 6. ANALYSIS. The predicate sometimes contains more than one word. Direction. — Analyze as in Lesson 4. 1. Moisture is exhaled. S. Conclusions are drawn. S. Industry will enrich. 4. Stars have disappeared. 5. Twilight is falling. 6. Leaves are turning. 7. Sirius has appeared. 11. Nuisances should be abated. 12. Jerusalem was destroyed. 13. Light can be reflected. 14. Rain must have fallen. 15. Planets have been discovered. 16. Palaces shall crumble. 17. Storms may be gathering. 8. Constantinople had been cap- 18. Essex might have been saved. tured. 19. Caesar could have been crowned. 9. Electricity has been harnessed. 20. Inventors may be encouraged. 10. Tempests have been raging. Direction. — Point out the subject and the predicate of each sentence m Lessons 12 and 17. Composition— Subject and Predicate. II Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting who or what before this predicate, the subject may easily be found. To THB Teacher.— Let this exercise be continued till the pupils can readily point: out the subject and the predicate in ordinary simple sentences. When this can be done promptly, the first and most important step in analysis will have been taken. LESSON 7. COMPOSITION-SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. Direction. — Make at least ten good sentences out of the words irir the three columns following : — The helping words in column 2 must be prefixed to words in column 8 in order to make complete predicates. Analyze your sentences. 1 2 3 Arts is progressing. Allen was tested. Life are command. Theories will prolonged. Science would released. Truth were falling. Shadows maybe burned. Moscow has been measured. Raleigh have been prevail. Quantity should have been lost. Review Questions. What is language proper ? "What is English grammar ? What is a sentence ? What are its two parts ? What is the subject of a sen- tence ? The predicate of a sentence ? The analysis of a sentence ? What is a diagram ? What rule has been given for the use of capital 12 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. letters ? For the period ? May the predicate contain more than one word ? Illustrate. To THE Teacher.— Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this recitation. See "Introductory Hints " below. LESSON 8. CLASSES OF WORDS. NOUNS. Introductory Hints. — We have now reached the point where we must classify the words of our language. But we are appalled by their number. If we must learn all about the forms and the uses of a hundred thousand words by studying these words one by one, we shall die ignorant of English grammar. But may we not deal with words as we do with plants ? If we had to study and name each leaf and stem and flower, taken singly, we should never master the botany even of our garden-plats. But God has made things to resemble one another and to differ from one another ; and, as he has given us the power to detect resem- blances and differences, we are able to group things that have like qualities. From certain likenesses in form and in structure, we put certain flowers together and call them roses ; from other likenesses, we get another class called lilies ; from others still, violets. Just so we classify trees and get the oak, the elm, the maple, etc. The myriad objects of nature fall into comparatively few classes. Studying each class, we learn all we need to know of every object in it. From their likenesses, though not in form, we classify words. We group them according to their similarities in use, or office, in the sentence. Sorting them thus, we find that they all fall into eight classes, which we call Parts of Speech. Classes of Words. 13 We find that many words name things — are the names of things of which we can think and speak. These we place in one class and call them Nouns (Latin nomen, a name, a noun). PRONOUNS. Without the little words which we shall italicize, it would be diffi- cult for one stranger to ask another, "Can you tell me wJio is the postmaster at B ? " The one would not know what name to use instead of you, the other would not recognize the name in the place of me, and both would be puzzled to find a substitute for wJio. I, you, my, me, what, we, it, he, who, him, she, them, and other words are used in place of nouns, and are, therefore, called Pro- nouns (Lat. pro, for, and nomen, a noun). By means of these handy little words we can represent any or every object in existence. We could hardly speak or write without them now, they so frequently shorten the expression and prevent confusion and repetition. DEFINITION.— A Koun is the name of anything. DEFINITION.— A Pronoun is a word used for a noun. The principal office of nouns is to name the things of which we say, or assert, something in the sentence. Direction. — Write, according to the model, the names of things that can hum, grow, melt, love, roar, or revolve. I.— Nouns. Wood ^ Paper Oil Remark. — Notice that, when the sub- ject adds 5 or es to Houses Coal Leaves - burn or burns. denote more than one, the predicate does not take s. Note how it would Matches sound if both should Clothes , add s. :14 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Every subject of a sentence is a noun, or some word •or words used as a noun. But not every noun in a sen- tence is a subject. Direction. — Select and write all the nouns and pronouns, whether subjects or not, in the sentences given in Lesson 18, In writing them observe the following rules : — CAPITAL LETTER — RULE. — 2*ro2>er, or individual^ mames and tvords derived from thein begin with capital letters. PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER— RULE.— ^66rcviafion« generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period. LESSON 9. CAPITAL LETTERS. Direction. — From the following words select and write in one col" umn those names that distinguish individual things from others of the same class, and in another column those words that are derived from, individual names : — Observe Rule 1, Lesson 8. ohio, state, Chicago, france, bostonian, country, england, boston, milton, river, girl, mary, hudson, william, britain, miltonic, city, englishman, messiah, platonic, american, deity, bible, book, plato, christian, broadway, america, jehovah, british, easter, europe, man, scriptures, god. Direction. — Write the names of the days of the week and the months of the year, beginning each with a capital letter ; and write the names of the seasons without capital letters. Capital Letters. 15 Remember that, when a *class name and a distinguish- ing word combine to make one individual name, each word begins with a capital letter ; as, Jersey City. But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be re- garded as a complete name, the class name begins with a small letter ; as, river Rhine. Examples. — Long Island, Good Friday, Mount Vernon, Suspen- sion Bridge, New York city. Harper's Ferry, Cape May, Bunker Hill, Red River, Lake Erie, General Jackson, White Mountains, river Thames, Astor House, steamer Drew, North Pole. Direction. — Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — Ohio river, professor huxley, president adams, doctor brown, din- ton county, Westchester county, colonel burr, secretary stanton, lake george, green mountains, white sea, cape cod, delaware bay, atlantic ocean, united states, rhode island. Remember that, when an individual name is made up of a class name, the word of, and a distinguishing word, the class name and the distinguishing word should each begin with a capital letter ; as, Gulf of Mexico. But, when the distinguishing word can by itself be regarded as a complete name, the class name should begin with a small letter; as, city of Lo7ido7i.\ * Dead Sea is composed of the class name sea, which applies to all seas, and the word Head, which distinguishes one sea from all others. + The need of some definite instruction to save the young writer from hesitation and confusion in the use of capitals is evident from the following variety of forms now in use : City of New York, city of New York, New York City, New York city. New York State, New York state. Fourth Avenue, Fourth avenue. Grand Street^ 16 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Direction. — Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — city of atlanta, isle of man, straits of dover, state of Vermont, isth- mus of darien, sea of galilee, queen of england, bay of naples, empire of china. Remember that, when a compound name is made up of two or more distinguishing words, as, Henry Clay, John Stuart Mill, each word begins with a capital letter. Direction. — Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — great britain, lower California, south Carolina, daniel webster, new england, Oliver wendell holmes, north america, new Orleans, jaraes russell lowell, british america. Remember that, in writing the titles of booKs-, essays. Grand street, Grand-«^., Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic ocean, Mediterranean Sea, Mediter- ranean sea. Kings County, Kings county, etc. The usage of newspapers and of text-books on geography would probably favor the writing of the class names in the examples above with initial capitals ; but we find in. the most carefully printed books and periodicals a tendency to favor small letters in such cases. In the superscription of letters, such words as street, city, and county begin with capitals. Usage certainly favors small initials for the following italicized words : river Rhine, Catskill village, the Ohio and Mississippi river's. If river and village, in the preced- ing examples, are not essential parts of the individual names, why should river, ocean, and county, in Hudson river. Pacific ocean, Queens ccninty, be treated differently ? We often say the Hudson, the Paciflc, Queens, without adding the explanatory class name. The principle we suggest may be in advance of common usage ; but it is in the line of progress, and it tends to uniformity of practice and to an improved appearance of the page. About a century ago every noun began with a capital letter. The American Cyclopaedia takes a position still further in advance, as illustrated in the following : Red river. Black sea, gxdf of Mexico, Rocky mmintains. In the En- cyclopaedia Britannica (Little, Brown, & Co., 9th ed.) we find Connecticut river, Madison county, etc., quite uniformly ; but we find Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean, etc. Abbreviations. 17 poems, plays, etc., and the names of the Deity, only the chief words begin with capital letters ; as. Decline and Fall of the Eoman Empire, Supreme Being, Paradise Lost, the Holy One of Israel. Direction. — Write these words, using capital letters when needed : — declaration of independence, clarendon's history of the great rebell- ion, Webster's reply to hayne, pilgrim's progress, Johnson's lives of the poets, son of man, the most high, dombey and son, tent on the beach, bancroft's history of the united states. Direction. — Write these miscellaneous names, using capital letters tvhen needed : — erie canal, governor tilden, napoleon bonaparte, cape of good hope, pope's essay on criticism, massachusetts bay, city of boston, continent of america, new testament, goldsmith's she stoops to conquer, milton's hymn on the nativity, Indian ocean, cape cod bay, ply mouth rock, anderson's history of the united states, mount Washington, english channel, the holy spirit, new york central railroad, old world, long island sound, flatbush village. LESSON 10. ABBREVIATIONS. Direction. — Some words occur frequently, and for convenience may he abbreviated in writing. Observing Rule 3, Lesson 8, abbreviate these words by writing the first five letters : — Thursday and lieutenant. These by writing the first four letters : — Connecticut, captain, Colorado, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, 18 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, professor, president, Ten- nessee, and Tuesday. These by writing the first three letters : — Alabama, answer, Arkansas, California, colonel, Delaware, Eng- land, esquire, Friday, general, George, governor, honorable, Illinois, Indiana, major, Monday, Nevada, reverend, Saturday, secretary, Sun- day, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and the names of the months ex- cept May, June, and July. These hy writing the first two letters : — Company, county, credit, example, and idem (the same). These hy writing the first letter : — East, north, south, and west.* These by writing the first and the last letter : — Doctor, debtor, Georgia, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mary- land, Master, Mister, numero (number), Pennsylvania, saint, street, Vermont, and Virginia. " ^rf^ These by writing the first letter of each word of the compound with a period after each letter : — Artium baccalaureus (bachelor of arts), anno Domini (in the year of our Lord), artium magister (master of arts), ante meridiem (before noon), before Christ, collect on delivery. District (of) Columbia, divini- tatis doctor (doctor of divinity), member (of) Congress, medicinaB doctor (doctor of medicine), member (of) Parliament, North America, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, postmaster, post meridiem (afternoon), post-office, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and United States. * When theee words refer to sections of the country, they should begin with capitals. Abbreviations. 19 Direction. — The following abbreviations and those you have made should be committed to memory : — Acct. or acct., Bbl. or bbl., Chas., Fla., *LL. D., Messrs., Mme., Mo., Mrs., Mts., Ph. D., Reed., Robt., Supt., Thos.. account, barrel. Charles. Florida, legum doctor (doctor of laws), messieurs (gentlemen), madarae. Missouri, (pronounced missis) mistress, mountains, philosophise doctor (doctor of philosophy), pp. received. Robert. superintendent. Thomas. Remark. — In this Lesson we have given the abbreviations of the states as now regulated by the *'U. S. Official Postal Guide." In the ** Guide " Iowa and Ohio are not abbreviated. They are, how- ever, frequently abbreviated thus : Iowa, la. or lo.; Ohio, O. The similarity, when hurriedly written, of the abbreviations Cal., Col.; la., lo.; Neb., Nev.; Penn., Tenrh., etc., has led to much con- fusion. bu., bushel. do.. ditto (the same). doz., dozen. [pie). e. g., exempli gratia (for exam- etc., et caetera (and others). ft., foot, feet. hhd.. hogshead. hdkf. , handkerchief. i.e.. id est (that is). 1., line. 11., lines. lb., libra (pound). oz.. ounce. Pv page. PP-> pages. qt., quart. vs.. versus (against). viz.. videlicet (namely). yd., yard. * The doubling of the I in II. and in LL. Z>., and of p in pp., with no period between the letters, comes from pluralizing the nouns line, lex, and page. 20 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESSON 11. VERBS. Introductory Hints. — We told you in Lesson 8 how, by noticing- the essential likenesses in things and grouping the things thus alike, we could throw the countless objects around us into comparatively few classes. We began to classify words according to their use, or office, in the sentence ; we found one class of words that name things, and we called them nouns. But in all the sentences given you, we have had to use another class of words. These words, you notice, tell what the things do, or assert that they are, or exist. When we say Clocks tick, tick is not the name of anything ; it tells what clocks do ; it asserts action. When we say Clocks are, or There are clocks, are is not the name of anything, nor does it tell what clocks do ; it simply asserts existence, or being. When we say Clocks Jiang, stand, last, lie, or remain, these words hang, stand, last, etc., do not name anything, nor do they tell that clocks act or simply exist ; they tell the condition, or state, in which, clocks are, or exist ; that is, they assert state of being. All words that assert action, being, or state of being, we call Verbs (Lat. verbum, a word). The name was given to this class because it was thought that they were the most important words in the sentence. Give several verbs that assert action. Give some that assert being, and some that assert state of being. DEFINITION.— A Verb is a word that asserts action, being", or state of being. There are, however, two forms of the verb, the parti- Verbs. 21 ciple and the infinitive (see Lessons 37 and 40), that express action, being, or state of being, without asserting it. Direction. — Write after each of the following nouns as many appropriate verbs as you can thinJc of: — Let some express being and some express state of being. Model. — Noun. Remark. — Notice that the simple form of the verb, as, burn, melt, scorch, adds s or es when its subject noun names but one thing. Lawyers, mills, horses, books, education, birds, mind. A verb may consist of two, three, or even four words ; as, is learning, may he learned, could have been learned."^ Direction. — Unite the words in columns 2 and 3 below, and append the verbs thus formed to the nouns and pronouns in column 1 so as to make good sentences: — Remark. — Notice that is, was, and has are used with nouns naming one thing, and with the pronouns he, she, and it ; and that are, were, and have are used with nouns naming more than one thing, and with the pronouns we, you, and they. I may be used with am, was, and have. ' burns. melt. scorches. Fire keep. (or) - spreads. Fires glow. rages. heat. .exists. * Such groups of words are sometimes called verb-phrases. For definition of irase, see Lesson 17. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 1 2 3 Words am confused. Cotton is exported. Sugar are refined. Air Teas was coined, delivered. Speeches I, we, you were has been weighed, imported. He, she, it, they have been transferred As verbs are the only words that assert, every predicate must be a verb, or must contain a verb. Naming the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing. Direction. — Parse five of the sentences you have written. Model. — Poland was dismembered. Parsing. — Poland is a noun because ; was dismembered is a verb because it asserts action. LESSON 12. MODIFIED SUBJECT. ADJECTIVES. Introductory Hints. — The subject noun and the predicate verb are not always or often the whole of the structure that we call the sen- tence, though they are the underlying timbers that support the rest of the verbal bridge. Other words may be built upon them. We learned in Lesson 8 that things resemble one another and differ from one another. They resemble and they differ in what we call their qualities. Things are alike whose qualities are the same, as, two- Modified Subjecxo 2d oranges having the same color, taste, and odor. Things are unlika, as, an orange and an apple, whose qualities are diiferent. It is by their qualities, then, that we know things and group them. Ripe apples are healthful. Unripe apples are hurtful. In these two sentences we have the same word apples to name the same general class of things ; but the prefixed words ripe and unripe, marking oppo- site qualities in the apples, separate the apples into two kinds — the ripe ones and the unripe ones. These prefixed words ripe and unripe, then, limit the word apples in its scope ; ripe apples or unripe apples applies to fewer things than apples alone applies to. If we say the, this, that apple, or an, no apple, or some, many, eight apples, we do not mark any quality of the fruit ; but the, this, or that points out a particular apple, and limits the word apple to the one pointed out ; and an, 7io, some, many, or eight limits the word in respect to the number of apples that it denotes. These and all such words as by marking quality, by pointing out, or by specifying number or quantity limit the scope or add to th** meaning of the noun, modify it, and are called Modifiers. In the sentence above, apples is the Simple Subject and ripe apples is the Modified Subject. Words that modify nouns and pronouns are called Adjectives (Lat. ad, to, and Jacere, to throw). DEFINITION.— A Modifier is a word or a group of words joined to some part of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning. The Subject with its Modifiers is called the Modified Subject, or Logical Subject. DEFINITION.— An Adjective is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun. 24 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Analysis and Parsing. 1. The cold November rain is falling. is falling Explanation. — The two lines shadea alike and placed uppermost stand for the sub- ject and the predicate, and show that these are of the same rank, and are the principal parts of the sentence. The lighter lines, placed under and joined to the subject line, stand for the less important parts, the modifiers, and show what is modified.* To THE Teacher.— While we, from experience, are clear in the belief that dia grams are very helpful in the analyeis of sentences, we wish to say that the work required in this book can all be done without resorting to these figures. If some other form, or no form, of written analysis is preferred, our diagrams can be omitted without break or confusion. When diagrams are used, only the teacher can determine how many shall be required in any one Lesson, and how soon the pupil may dispense with their aid altogether. Oral Analysis. — (Here and hereafter we shall omit from the oral analysis and parsing whatever has been provided for in previous Lessons.) The, cold, and November are modifiers of the subject. The cold November rain is the modified subject. To THE Teacher.— While in these "models" we wish to avoid repetition, we should require of the pupils full forms of oral analysis for at least some of the sen- tences in every Lesson. Parsing. — The, cold, and November are adjectives modifying rain — cold and November expressing quality, and the pointing out. * To the Teacher.— When several adjectives are joined to one noun, each adjective does not always modify the unlimited noun. That old wooden house was burned. Here wooden modifies hxmse, old modifies house limited by wooden, and that modifies Jumse limited by old and wooden. This may be illustrated in the diagram by numbering the modifiers in the order of their rank, \j \ \ " thus:— * ^' Adverbs, and both phrase and clause modifiers often differ in rank in the same way. If the pupils are able to see these distinctions, it will be well to have them made in the analysis, as they often determine the punctuation and the arrangement. See Lessons 13 and 21 Composition— Adjectives. 26 2. The great Spanish Armada was destroyed. 3. A free people should be educated. 4. The old Liberty Bell was rung. 5. The famous Alexandrian library was burned. 6. The odious Stamp Act was repealed. 7. Every intelligent American citizen should vote. 8. The long Hoosac Tunnel is completed. 9. I alone should suffer. 10. All nature rejoices. 11. Five large, ripe, luscious, mellow apples were picked. 12. The melancholy autumn days have come. 13. A poor old wounded soldier returned. 14. The oppressed Russian serfs have been freed. 15. Immense suspension bridges have been built. LESSON 13. COMPOSITION-ADJECTIVES. Caution. — When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If they differ in rank, place nearest the noun the one most closely modifying it. If of the same rank, place them where they will sound best — generally in the order of length, the shortest first. Explanation. — Two honest young men were chosen. A tally straight, dignified person entered. Young tells the kind of men, hon- est tells the kind of young men, and two tells the number of honest young men ; hence these adjectives are not of the same rank. Tall, straight, and dignified modify person independently — the person is The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. tall and straight and dignified ; hence these adjectives are of the same rank. Notice the comma after tall and straight ; and may be supplied ; in the first sentence a7id cannot be supplied. See Lesson 21. Direction. — Arrange the adjectives below, and give your reasotis ;— 1. A Newfoundland pet handsome large dog. 2, Level lovr five the fields. 3. A wooden rickety large building. 4. Blind white beautiful three mice. 5. An energetic restless brave people. 6. An enlight- ened civilized nation. Direction. — Form sentences by prefixing modified su to these predicates : — 1. have been invented. 6. 2. were destroyed. 7. 8. are cultivated. 8. 4. may be abused. 9. 5, was mutilated. 10. were carved. have been discovered. have fallen. will be respected. have been built. Direction. — Construct ten sentences, each of which shall contain a subject modified by three adjectives — one from each of these columns : — = Let the adjectives be appropriate. For punctuation, see Lesson ?j The dark sunny That bright wearisome This dingy commercial Those short blue These soft adventurous Five brave fleecy Some tiny parallel Several important cheerless Many long golden A warm turbid Modified Predicate. 27 Direction. — Prefix to each of these nouns several appropriate adjectives : — River, frost, grain, ships, air, men. Direction. — Couple those adjectives and nouns below that most appropriately go together : — Modest, lovely, flaunting, meek, patient, faithful, saucy, spirited, violet, dahlia, sheep, pansy, ox, dog, horse, rose, gentle, duck, sly, waddling, cooing, chattering, homely, chirping, puss, robin, dove, sparrow, blackbird, cow, hen, cackling. LESSON 14. MODIFIED PREDICATE. ADVERBS. Introductory Hints. — You have learned that the subject may be modified ; let us see whether the predicate may be. If we say, TJie leaves fall, we express a fact in a general way. But, if we wish to speak of the time of their falling, we can add a word and say. The leaves fall early ; of the place of their falling. The leaves fall here ; of the manner, The leaves fall quietly ; of the cause, Wliy do the leaves fall ? We may join a word to one of these modifiers and say, The leaves fall very quietly. Here very modifies quietly by telling the degree. Very quietly is a group of words modifying the predicate. The predicate with its modifiers is called the Modified Predicate. Such words as very, here, and quietly form another part of speech, and are called Adverbs (Lat. ad, to, and verbum, a word, or verb). Adverbs may modify adjectives ; as, Very ripe apples are healthful. Adverbs modify verbs just as adjectives modify nouns — by limiting them. The horse has a proud step = The horse steps proudly. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. The Predicate with its Modifiers is called the Modi- fied Predicate, or Logical Predicate. DEFINITION.— An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.* Analysis and Parsing. 1. The leaves fall very quietly. Oral Analysis. — Very quietly is a modifier of leaves fall the predicate ; quietly is the principal word of the group ; very modifies quietly ; the leaves is the modified subject ; fall very quietly is the modi- fied predicate. Parsing. — Quietly is an adverb modifying /aZ/, telling the manner ; very is an adverb modifying quietly, telling the degree. 2. The old, historic Charter Oak was blown down. 3. The stern, rigid Puritans often worshiped there. 4. Bright-eyed daisies peep up everywhere. 5. The precious morning hours should not be wasted. 6. The timely suggestion was very kindly receiA'ed. 7. We turned rather abruptly. 8. A highly enjoyable entertainment was provided. 9. The entertainment was highly enjoyed. 10. Why will people exaggerate so ! 11. A somewhat dangerous pass had been reached quite unex- pectedly. 12. We now travel still more rapidly. 13. Therefore he spoke excitedly. 14. You will undoubtedly be very cordially welcomed. 15. A furious equinoctial gale has just swept by. 16. The Hell Gate reef was slowly drilled away. * See Lesson 92 and foot-note. Composition— Adverbs. 29 LESSON 15. COMPOSITION-ADVERBS. Caution. — So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. Direction. — Place the italicized words below in different positions^ and note the effect on the sound and the sense : — 1. I immediately ran out. 2. Only one was left there. 3. She looked down proudly. 4. Unfortunately, this assistance came too late. Direction. — Construct on each of these subjects three sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates ;— For punctuation, see Lesson 21. Model. clouds . 1. Dark, heavy, threatening clouds are slowly gathering above. 2. Those brilliant, crimson clouds will very soon dissolve. 3. Thi?i, fleecy clouds are scudding over. 1. ocean . 2. breeze . 3. shadows . 4. rock . 5. leaves . Direction. — Compose sentences in which these adverbs shall modify verbs : — Heretofore, hereafter, annually, tenderly, inaudibly, le^bly, eva- sively, everywhere, aloof, forth. Direction. — Compose sentences in which five of these adverbs shall modify adjectives, and five shall modify adverbs : — Far, unusually, quite, altogether, slightly, somewhat, much, almost, too, rather. 5J0 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESSON 16. REVIEW. To THE Teacher.— In all school work, but especially here, where the philosophy of the sentence and the principles of construction are developed in progressive steps, success depends largely on the character of the reviews. Let reviews be, so far as possible, topical. Require frequent outlines of the work passed over, especially of what is taught in the " Introductory Hints." The language, except that of Rules and Definitions, should be the pupil's own, and the illustrative sentences should be original. Direction. — Revieiv from Lesson 8 to Lesson 15, inclusive. Give the substance of the " Introductory Hints" (tell, for example, what three things such words as tick, are, and remain do in the sen- tence, what office they have in common, what such words are called, and why ; what common office such words as ripe, the, and eight have, in what three ways they perform it, what such words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules ; illustrate what is taught of the capitalization and the abbreviation of names, and of the position of adjectives and adverbs. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (See pages 150-153.) To THE Teacher. — After the pupil has learned a few principles of analysis and construction through the aid of short detached sentences that exclude everything un- familiar, he may be led to recognize these same principles in longer related sentences grouped into paragraphs. The study of paragraphs selected for this purpose may well be extended as an informal preparation for what is afterwards formally presented in the regular lessons of the text-book. These " Exercises" are offered only as suggestions. The teacher must, of course, determine where and how often this composition should be introduced. We invite special attention to the study of the paragraph. Prepositional Phrases and Prepositions. 31 LESSON 17. PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES AND PREPOSITIONS. Introductory Hints. — To express our thoughts with greater exact- ness we may need to expand a word modifier into several words ; as, A long ride brought us there = A ride of one hundred miles brought us to Chicago. These groups of words, of one hundred miles and to Chicago — the one substituted for the adjective lonQy the other for the adverb there — we call Phrases. A phrase that does the work of an adjective is called an Adjective Phrase. A phrase that does the work of an adverb is called an Adverb Phrase. As adverbs modify adjectives and adverbs, they may modify their equivalent phrases ; as. The train stops only at the station. They sometimes modify only the introductory word of the phrase — this introductory word being adverbial in its nature ; as. He sailed nearly around the globe. That we may leara the office of such words as of, to, and at, used to introduce these phrases, let us see how the relation of one idea to another may be expressed. Wealthy men. These two words express two ideas as related. We have learned to know, this relation by the form and position of the words. Change these, and the relation is lost — men wealth. But by using of before wealth the relation is re- stored—we^ of wealth. The word of, then, shows the relation between the ido^s expressed by the words men and wealth. All such relation words are called Prepositions (Lat. prcB, before, and positus, placed — their usual position being before the noun with which they form a phrase). A phrase introduced by a preposition is called a Prepositional Phrase. This, however, is not the only kind of phrase. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. DEFINITION.— A Fhrase is a group of words denoting* re- lated ideas, and haying a distinct office, but not expressing a thought. DEFINITION.— A Preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its princi- pal word to the word modified. Analysis and Parsing. 1. The pitch of the musical note depends upon the rapidity of Tibration. To THE Teachek.— See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning the use of diagrams. pitch depends explanation. — The dia- gram of the phrase is made up of a slanting line standing for the introductory word, and a horizontal line representing the principal word. Under the latter are drawn the lines which represent the modifiers of the principal word. Oral Analysis. — The and the adjective phrase of the musical note are modifiers of the subject ; the adverb phrase upon the rapidity of vibration is a modifier of the predicate. Of introduces the first phrase, and note is the principal word ; the and musical are modi- fiers of note ; upon introduces the second phrase, and rapidity is the principal word ; the and the adjective phrase of vibration are modi- fiers of rapidity ; of introduces this phrase, and vibration is the prin- cipal word. To THE Teacher. — See suggestions in Lesson 12, concerning oral analysis. Parsing. — Of is a preposition showing the relation, in sense, of note to pitch ; etc., etc. To THE Teacher.— Insist that, in parsing, the pupils shall give specific reasons instead of general definitions. Prepositional Phrases and Prepositions. 33 2. The Gulf Stream can be traced along the shores of the United States by the blueness of the water. 3. The North Pole has been approached in three principal direc- tions. 4. In 1607,* Hudson penetrated within six hundred miles of the North Pole. 5. The breezy morning died into silent noon. 6. The Delta of the Mississippi was once at St. Louis. 7. Coal of all kinds has originated from the decay of plants. 8. Genius can breathe freely only in the atmosphere of freedom. S^N^ Explanation.— On??/ modifies J!s^ the whole phrase, smdjust modifies Y the preposition. 9. The Suspension Bridge is stretched across the Niagara river just below the Falls. 10. In Mother Goose the cow jumps clear over the moon. 11. The first standing army was formed in the middle of the fif-. teenth century. 12. The first astronomical observatory in Europe was erected at Seville by the Saracens. 13. The tails of some comets stretch to the distance of 100,000,000 miles. 14. The body of the great Napoleon was carried back from St. Helena to France. ♦ "1607" may be treated as a noun, and "six hundred" as one adjective. 8 84 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESSON 18. COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. COMMA— RULE.— Phrases that are placed out of their usual order * and made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, should he set off by the comma.! Remark. — This rule must be applied with caution. Unless it is desired to make the phrase emphatic, or to break the continuity of the thought, the growing usage among writers is not to set it off. Direction. — Tell why the comma is, or is not, used in these sen- tences : — 1. Between the two mountains lies a fertile valley. 2. Of the scenery along the Rhine, many travelers speak with enthusiasm. 3. He went, at the urgent request of the stranger, for the doctor. 4. He went from New York to Philadelphia on Monday. 5. In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached. Direction. — Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctua- tion : — 1. England in the eleventh century was conquered by the Normans. 2. Amid the angry yells of the spectators he died. 3. For the sake of emphasis a word or a phrase may be placed out of its natural order. 4. In the Pickwick Papers the conversation of Sam Weller is spiced with wit. * For the usual order of words and phrases, see Lesson 51. t An expression in the body of a sentence is set off hy two commas ; at the begin- ning or at the end, by one comma. Composition— Prepositional Phrases. 35 5. New York on the contrary abounds in men of wealth. 6. It has come down by uninterrupted tradition from the earliest times to the present day. Direction. — See in how many places the phrases in the sentences above may stand without obscuring the thought. Caution. — So place phrase modifiers that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. Direction. — Correct these errors in position, and use the comma when needed: — 1. The honorable member was reproved for being intoxicated by the president. 2. That small man is speaking with red whiskers. 3. A message was read from the President in the Senate. 4. With his gun toward the woods he started in the morning. 5. On Monday evening on temperance by Mr. Gough a lectui-e at the old brick church was delivered. Direction. — Form a setifence out of each of these groups of words : — (Look sharply to the arrangement and the punctuation.) 1. Of mind of splendor under the garb often is concealed poverty. 2. Of affectation of the young fop in the face impertinent an was seen smile. 3. Ha^ been scattered Bible English the of millions by hundreds of the earth over the face. 4. To the end with no small difficulty of the journey at last through deep roads we after much fatigue came. 5. At the distance a flood of flame from the line from thirty iron mouths of twelve hundred yards of the enemy poured forth. 30 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Direction. — See into how many good, clear sentences you can con- vert these by transposing the phrases : — 1. He went over the mountains on a certain day in early boyhood. 2. Ticonderoga was taken from the British by Ethan Allen on the tenth of May in 1775. LESSON 19. COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. Direction. — Rewrite these sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases : — Model. — The sentence was carefully written. The sentence was written with care. 1. A brazen image was then set up. 2. Those homeless children were kindly treated. 3. Much has been said about the Sunss scenery. 4. An aerial trip to Europe was rashly planned. 5. The American Continent was probably discovered by Cabot. Direction. — Change these adjectives and adverbs info equivalent phrases ; and then, attending carefully to the punctuation, use these phrases in sentences of your own : — 1. Bostonian 6. hence 11. Arabian 2. why 7. northerly 12. lengthy 8. incautiously 8. national 13. historical 4 nowhere 9. whence 14. lucidly 5. there 10. here 15. earthward Direction. — Compose sentences, using these phrases as modifiers: — Of copper ; in Pennsylvania ; from the West Indies ; around the world ; between the tropics ; toward the Pacific ; on the 22d of Febru- ary ; during the reign of Elizabeth ; before the application of steam to machinery ; at the Centennial Exposition of 1876. Compound Subject and Compound Predicate. 37 LESSON 20. COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. Introductory Hints. — Edward ^ Mary, and Elizabeth reigned in England. The three words Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth have the same predicate — the same act being asserted of the king and the two queens. Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth are connected by and, and being understood between Edward and Mary. Connected sub- jects having the same predicate form a Compound Subject. Charles I. was seized, luas tried, and was beheaded. The three predicates was seized, was tried, and was beheaded have the same subject — the three acts being asserted of the same king. Connected predicates having the same subject form a Compound Predicate. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate ; as, Mary and Elizabeth lived and reigned in England. The words connecting the parts of a compound subject or of a com- pound predicate are called Conjunctions (Lat. con, or cum, together, and jungere, to join). A conjunction may connect other parts of the sentence, as two word modifiers— A dark and rainy night follows ; Some men sin deliber- ately and presumptuously. It may connect two phrases ; as, The equinox occurs in March and in September. It may connect two clauses, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences ; as, The leaves of the pine fall in spring, but the leaves of the maple drop in autumn. Interjections (Lat. inter, between, and jacere, to throw) are the eighth and last part of speech. Oh ! ah I pooh ! pshaw ! etc., express bursts of feeling too sudden and violent for deliberate sentences. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Hail ! fudge ! indeed I amen ! etc., express condensed thought as well as feeling. Any part of speech may be wrenched from its construction .with other words, and may lapse into an interjection ; as, behold I shame ! what ! Professor Sweet calls interjections sentence-words. Two or more connected subjects having the same predi- cate form a Compound Subject. Two or more connected predicates having the same subject form a Compound Predicate. DEFINITION.— A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses. DEFINITION.— An Interjection is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling. Analysis and Parsing. 1. Ah ! anxious wives, sisters, and mothers wait for the news. Ah _ Explanation. — The three short w^^g^ . horizontal lines represent each a part i\ , of the compound subject. They are ^'^^•^ — i " \ , I ^^^^ connected by dotted lines, which stand iV ^ \^ for the connecting word. The x shows . irnoil^^ — V \i \^nem_ that a conjunction is understood. The \ ^ \^ line standing for the Avord modifier is joined to that part of the subject line which represents the entire subject. Turn this diagram about, and the con- nected horizontal lines will stand for the parts of a compound predicate. Oral Analysis. — Wives, sisters, and mothers form the compound subject ; anxious is a modifier of the compound subject ; and connects sisters and mothers. 'PsLTBins.—And is a conjunction connecting sisters and mothers; ah is an interjection, expressing a sudden burst of feeling. Compound Subject and Compound Predicate. 39 2. In a letter we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss. (For diagram see the last sentence bf the " Explanation " above.) 3. The mental, moral, and muscular powers are improved by use. powerx came \ parentage. land 4. The hero of the Book of Job came from a strange land and of a strange parentage. 5. The optic nerve passes from the brain to the back of the eyeball, and there spreads out. 6. Between the mind of man and the outer world are interposed the nerves of the human body. 7. All forms of the lever and all the principal kinds of hinges are found in the body. 8. By perfection is meant the full and harmonious development of alL the faculties. 9. Ugh ! I look forward with dread to to-morrow. 10. From the Mount of Olives, the Dead Sea, dark and misty and solemn, is seen. 11. Tush ! tush ! 't will not again appear. 12. A sort of gunpowder was used at an early period in China and in other parts of Asia. 13. Some men sin deliberately and presumptuously. 14. Feudalism did not and could not exist before the tenth century. 15. The opinions of the Xew York press are quoted in every port and in every capital. 16. Both friend and foe applauded. friend Explanation. — The conjunction both is applauded used to strengthen the real connective and. foe t"%/ I Either and neither do the same for or and nor in either — or^ neither — nor. 40 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Remark.— A phrase that contains another phrase as a modifier is called a Complex Phrase. Two or more phrases connected by a conjunction form a Compound Phrase. Direction. — Pick out the simple, the complex, and the compound phrases in the sentences above. LESSON 2 1. COMPOSITION-CONNECTED TERMS AND INTERJECTIONS. COMMA— RULE.— Words or phrases connected by conjunc- tions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed. Remark. — When words and phrases stand in pairs, the pairs are separated according to the Rule, but the words of each pair are not. When one of two terras has a modifier that without the comma might be referred to both, or, when the parts of compound predicates and of other phrases are long or differently modified, these terms or parts are separated by the comma though no conjunction is omitted. When two terms connected by or have the same meaning, the second is logically explanatory of the first, and is set off by the comma, i. e., when it occurs in the bod»y of a sentence, a comma is placed after the explanatory word, as well as before the or. Direction. — Justify the pu7ictuation of these sentences : — 1. Long, pious pilgrimages are made to Mecca. 2. Empires rise, flourish, and decay. 3. Cotton is raised in Egypt, in India, and in the United States. 4. The brain is protected by the skull, or cranium. 5. Nature and art and science were laid under tribute. 6. The room was furnished with a table, and a chair without legs. Composition— Connected Terms and Interjections. 41 7. The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. Explanation. — No comma here, for no conjunction is omitted. Oaken limits bucket, old limits bucket modified by oaken, and the limits bucket modified by old and oaken. See Lesson 13. 0. A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, friend or foe. 9. We climbed up a mountain for a view. Explanation. — No comma. Up a mountain tells where we climbed, and for a view tells why we climbed up a mountain. 10. The boy hurries away from home, and entei-s upon a career of business or of pleasure. 11. The long procession was closed by the great dignitaries of the realm, and the brothers and sons of the king. Direction. — Punctuate such of these sentences as need punctuation, and give your reasons : — 1. Men and women and children stare cry out and run. 2. Bright healthful and vigorous poetry was written by Milton. 3. Few honest industrious men fail of success in life. (Where is the conjunction omitted?) 4. Ireland or the Emerald Isle lies to the west of England. 5. That relates to the names of animals or of things without sex. 6. The Hebrew is closely allied to the Arabic the Phoenician the Syriac and the Chaldee. 7. We sailed down the river and along the coast and into a little inlet. 8. The horses and the cattle were fastened in the same stables and were fed with abundance of hay and grain. 9. Spring and summer autumn and winter rush by in quick suc- cession. 10. A few dilapidated old buildings still stand in the deserted village. 42 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. EXCLAMATION POINT— RULE.— All Exclamatory Ex- pressions must be followed by the exclamation point. Remark. — Sometimes an interjection alone and sometimes an interjection and the words following it form the exclamatory expres- sion ; as, Oh ! it hurts. Oh, the beautiful snow ! is used in direct address ; as, father, listen to me. Oh is used as a cry of pain, surprise, delight, fear, or appeal. This distinction, however desirable, is not strictly observed, being frequently used in place of Oh. CAPITAL LETTERS-RULE.— The words I and O should be written in capital letters. Direction. — Correct these violations of the two rules given above : — 1. o noble judge o excellent young man. 2. Out of the depths have i cried unto thee. 3. Hurrah the field is won. 4. Pshaw how foolish. 5. Oh oh oh i shall be killed. 6. o life how uncertain o death how inevitable. LESSON 22. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. Direction. — Beginning with the Sth sentence of the first group of exercises in Lesson 21, analyze thirteen sentences, omitting the 4th of the second group. Model. — A Christian spirit should be shown to Jew or Greek, male or female, friend or foe. \ \ \ / Jew ^1 GreeTc <: male ~X: female friend \ -<$! A. Composition— Connected Terms. 43 LESSON 23. COMPOSITION-CONNECTED TERMS. Direction. — Using the nouns below, compose sentences with com- pound subjects ; compose others in which the verbs shall form compound predicates; and others in which the adjectives, the adverbs, and the phrases shall form compound modifiers : — - ■ In some let there be three or more connected terras. Observe Rule, Lesson 21, for punctuation. Let your sentences mean something. NOUNS. Washington, beauty, grace, Jefferson, symmetry, lightning, Lin- coln, electricity, copper, silver, flowers, gold, rose, lily. Examine, sing, pull, push, report, shout, love, hate, like, scream,, loathe, approve, fear, obey, refine, hop, elevate, skip, disapprove. ADJECTIVES. Direction. — See Caution, Lesson 13. Bright, acute, patient, careful, apt, forcible, simple, homely, happy,, short, pithy, deep, jolly, mercurial, precipitous. ADVERBS. Direction. — See Caution, Lesson 15. Neatly, slowly, carefully, sadly, now, here, never, hereafter. On sea ; in the city ; by day ; on land ; by night ; in the country r by hook ; across the ocean ; by crook ; over the lands ; along the level road ; up the mountains. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESSON 24. REVIEW. CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. Direction. — Give the reason for every capital letter and for every mark of punctuation used below : — 1. The sensitive parts of the body are covered by the cuticle, or skin. 2. The degrees of A.B., A.M., D.D., and LL.D. are conferred by the colleges and the universities of the country. 3. Oh, I am so happy ! 4. Fathers and mothers, sons and daughters rejoice at the news. 5. Plants are nourished by the earth, and the carbon of the air. 6. A tide of American travelers is constantly flooding Europe. 7. The tireless, sleepless sun rises above the horizon, and climbs slowly and steadily to the zenith. 8. He retired to private life on half pay, and on the income of a large estate in the South. Direction. — Write these expressions, using capital letters and marks of punctuation where they belong : — 1. a fresh ruddy and beardless french youth replied 2. maj, cal, bu, p m, rev, no, hon, ft, w, e, oz, mr, n y, a b, mon, bbl, st 3. o father o father i cannot breathe here 4. ha ha that sounds well 5!. the edict of nantes was established by henry the great of france 6^ mrs, vs, CO, esq, yd, pres, u s, prof, o, do, dr 7. hurrah good news good news 8. the largest fortunes grow by the saving of cents and dimes and dollars 9. the baltic sea lies between Sweden and russia 10. the mississippi river pours into the gulf of mexico 11. supt, capt, qt, ph d, p, cr, i e, doz 12. benjamin franklin was born in boston in 1706 and died in 1790 Direction. — Correct all these errors in capitalization and punctvr ation, and give your reasons: — Miscellaneous Exercises In Review. 45 1. Oliver cromwell ruled, over the english People, 2. halloo, i must speak to You ! 3. John Milton, went abroad in Early Life, and, stayed, for some time, with the Scholars of Italy, 4. Most Fuel con- sists of Coal and Wood from the Forests 5. books are read for Pleas- ure, and the Instruction and improvement of the Intellect, 6. In rainy weather the feet should be protected by overshoes or galoches 7. hark they are coming ! 8. A, neat, simple and manly style is pleasing to Us. 9. alas poor thing alas, 10. i fished on a, dark- and cool, and mossy, trout stream. LESSON 25. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. ANALYSIS. 1. By the streets of By-and-by,* one arrives at the house of Never. — Spanish Proverb. 2. The winds and waves are always on the side of the ablest navi- gators. — Gibbon. 3. The axis of the earth sticks out visibly through the center of each and every town or city. — Holmes. 4. The arrogant Spartan, with a French-like glorification, boasted forever of little Thermopylas. — De Quincey. 5. The purest act of knowledge is always colored by some feeling of pleasure or pain. — Hamilton. * By-and-by has no real streets, the London journals do not actually thunder, nor were the cheeks of William the Testy literally scorched by his fiery gray eyes. Streets, fixmse, colored, thunder, and scorched are not, then, used here in their first and ordinary meaning, but in a secondary and figurative sense. These words we call Metaphors. By what they denote and by what they only suggest they lend clearness, vividness, and force to the thought they help to convey, and add beauty to the expression. For further treatment of metaphors and other figures of speech, see pages 87, 136, 155, 156, 165, and Lesson 150. 46 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 6. The thunder of the great London journals reverberates through every clime. — 3Iarsh. 7. The cheeks of William the Testy were scorched into a dusky red by two fiery little gray eyes. — Irving. 8. The study of natural science goes hand in hand * with the cul- ture of the imagination. — Tyndall. 9. The whole substance of the winds is drenched and bathed and washed and winnowed and sifted through and through by this baptism in the sea. — Swain. 10. The Arabian Empire stretched from the Atlantic to the Chinese Wall, and from the shores of the Caspian Sea to those of the Indian Ocean. — Draper. 11. Otle half of all known materials consists of oxygen. — Cooke. 12. The range of thirty pyramids, even in the time of Abraham, looked down on the plain of Mem^ihis.— Stanley. LESSON 26. WRITTEN PARSING. Direction. — Parse the sentences of Lesson 25 according to this Model for Written Parsing. Nouns. Prrni. Verbs. Adj. Adv. Prep. CorO. Int. let sentence. streets, By-and- house, Never. one. arrives. the, the. By, of, at, of. 2d sentence. To THE Teacher.— Until the Subdivisions and Modifications of the parts of speech are reached. Oral and Written Parsing can be only a classification of the words in the sentence. You must judge how frequently a lesson like this is needed, * Hand in hand may be treated as one adverb, or with may be supplied. Review. 47 and how much parsing should be done orally day by day. In their Oral Analysis let the pupils give at first the reasons for every statement, but guard against their doing this mechanically and in set terms ; and, when you think it can safely be done, let them drop it. But ask now and then, whenever you think they have grown careless or are guessing, for the reason of this, that, or the other step taken. Here it may be well to emphasize the fact that the part of speech to which any word l)elong8 is determined by the use of the word, and not by its form. Such exercises as the following are suggested :— Use Hght words. Act right. Bight the wrong. You are in the right. Pupils will be interested in finding sentences that illustrate the different uses of the same word. It is hardly necessary for us to make lists of words that have different uses. Any dictionary will furnish abundant examples. It is an excellent practice to point out such words in the regular exercises for analysis. LESSON 27. REVIEW. To THE Teacher.— See suggestions. Lesson IG. Direction. — Revieiv from Lesson 17 to Lesson 21, inclusive. Give the substance of the "Introductory Plints" (tell, for example, what such words as long and there may be expanded into, how these expanded forms may be modified, how introduced, what the introduc- tory words are called, and why, etc.). Repeat and illustrate defi- nitions and rules ; illustrate fully what is taught of the position of phrases, and of the punctuation of phrases, connected terms, and exclamatory expressions. How many parts of speech are there ? Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (See pages 153-156.) To THE Teacher.— See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. 48 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESSON 28. NOUNS AS OBJECT COMPLEMENTS. Introductory Hints. — In saying Washington ca2)tured, we do not fully express the act performed by Washington. If we add a noun and say, Washington captured Coriiwallis, we complete the predicate by naming that which receives the act. Whatever fills out, or completes, is a Complement. As Cornwallis completes the expression of the act by naming the thing acted upon — the object — we call it the Object Complement. Connected ob- jects completing the same verb form a Compound Object Comple- ment ; as, Washington captured Cornwallis and his army. DEFINITION.— The Object Complement of a Sentence completes the predicate, and names that which receiyes the act. The complement with all its modifiers is called the Modified Complement. thinking , makea , toriting Analysis. 1. Clear thinking makes clear writing. Oral Analysis. — Writing is the object complement ; clear writing is ^ ^ the modified complement, and makes ^ clear writing is the entire predicate. 2. Austerlitz killed Pitt. 3. The invention of gunpowder destroyed feudalism. 4. Liars should have good memories. 5. We find the first surnames in the tenth century. 6. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 7. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. Nouns and Adjectives as Attribute Complements. 49 8. At the opening of the thirteenth century, Oxford took and held rank with the greatest schools of Europe. revolves Jceeps . side 9. The moon revolves, and keeps the same side toward us. 10. Hunger rings the bell, and orders up coals in the shape of bread and butter, beef and bacon, pies and puddings. 11. The history of the Trojan war rests on the authority of Homer, and forms the subject of the noblest poem of antiquity. 12. Every stalk, bud, flower, and seed displays a figure, a propor- tion, a harmony, beyond the reach of art. 13. The natives of Ceylon build houses of the trunk, and thatch roofs with the leaves, of the cocoa-nut palm. 14. Richelieu exiled the mother, oppressed the wife, degraded the brother, and banished the confessor, of the king. 15. James and John study and recite grammar and arithmetic. JcDiiesi ntudy John recite grammar aritTimetie LESSON 29. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES AS ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS. Introductory Hints. — The subject presents one idea ; the predi- cate presents another, and asserts it of the first. Corn is growing pre- sents the idea of the thing, corn, and the idea of the act, growing, and asserts the act of the thing. Corn growing lacks the asserting word, and Corn is lacks the word denoting the idea to be asserted. 50 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. In logic, the asserting word is called the copula — it shows that the two ideas are coupled into a thought — and the word expressing the idea asserted is called the predicate. But, as one word often performs both offices, e. g., Corn grows, and, as it is disputed whether any word can assert without expressing something of the idea asserted, we pass this distinction by as not essential in grammar, and call both that which asserts and that which expresses the idea asserted, by one name — the predicate.* The maple leaves become. The verb become does not make a com- plete predicate ; it does not fully express the idea to be asserted. The idea may be completely expressed by adding the adjective red, denot- ing the quality we wish to assert of leaves, or attribute to them — The maple leaves become red. Lizards are reptiles. The noun reptiles, naming the class of the animals called lizards, performs a like office for the asserting word are. Rolfe's wife was Pocahontas. Pocahontas completes the predi- cate by presenting a second idea, which was asserts to be identical with that of the subject. When the completing word expressing the idea to be attributed does not unite with the asserting word to make a single verb, we distinguish it as the Attribute Complement. f Connected attribute complements of the same verb form a Compound Attribute Complement. Most grammarians call the adjective and the noun, when so used, the Predicate Adjective and the Predicate Noun. DEFINITION.— The Attribute Complement of a Sen- fence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. * We may call the verb the predicate; but, when it is followed by a complement, it is an incomplete predicate. + Subjective Complement may, if preferred, be used instead of Attribute Com- jHem^nt, Nouns and Adjectives as Attribute Complements. 51 Analysis. 1. Slang is vulgar. Slang . is ^ vidyar Explanation. — The line standing for ' the attribute complement is, like the object line, a continuation of the predicate line ; but notice that the line which Beparates the incomplete predicate from the complement slants toward the subject to show that the complement is an attribute of it. Oral Analysis. — Vulgar is the attribute complement, completing the predicate and expressing a quality of slang ; is vulgar is the entire predicate. 2. The sea is fascinating and treacherous. 3. The mountains are grand, tranquil, and lovable. 4. The Saxon words in English are simple, homely, and substantial. 5. The French and the Latin words in English are elegant, dig- nified, and artificial.* 6. The ear is the ever-open gateway of tlie soul. 7. The verb is the life of the sentence. 8. Good-breeding is surface-Christianity. 9. A dainty plant is the ivy green. ♦ Explanation. — The subject names that of which the speaker says something. The terms in which he says it, — the predicate, — he, of course, assumes that the hearer already understands. Settle, then, which — plant or ivy — Dickens supposed the reader to know least about, and which, therefore, Dickens was telling him about ; and you settle which word — plant or ivy — is the subject. (Is it not the writer's poetical conception of "the green ivy" that the reader is supposed not to possess ?) 10. The highest outcome of culture is simplicity. 11. Stillness of person and steadiness of features are signal marks of good-breeding. * The assertion in this sentence is true only in the main. 63 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 12. The north wind is full of courage, and puts the stamina of endurance into a man. 13. The west wind is hopeful, and has promise and adventure in it. 14. The east wind is peevishness and mental rheumatism and grum- bling, and curls one up in the chimney-corner. 15. The south wind is full of longing and unrest and effeminate suggestions of luxurious ease. LESSON 30. ATTRIBUTE COMPLEMENTS-CONTINUED. Analysis. 1. He went out as mate and came back captain. went m^ explanation. — Mate, like captain, is — an attribute complement. Some would. _^ ^ftte say that the conjunction as connects mate V to Tie; but we think this connection is came y captain i^ade through the verb went, and that as ^ is simply introductory. This is indicated in the diagram. 2. The sun shines bright and hot at midday. 3. Velvet feels smooth, and looks rich and glossy. 4. She grew tall, queenly, and beautiful. 5. Plato and Aristotle are called thp two head-springs of all philosophy. 6. Under the Roman law, every son was regarded as a slave. 7.* He came a foe and returned a friend. 8. I am here. I am present. Explanation. — The office of an adverb sometimes seems to fade into that of an adjective attribute and is not easily distinguished from it. Here, like an adjective, seems to complete am, and, like an Objective Complements. 53 adverb, to modify it. From their form and usual function, here, in this example, should be called an adverb, and preserit an adjective. 9. This book is presented to you as a token of esteem and gratitude. 10. The warrior fell back upon the bed a lifeless Corpse. 11. The apple tastes and smells delicious. 12. Lord Darnley turned out a dissolute and insolent husband. 13. In the fable of the Discontented Pendulum, the weights hung speechless. 14. The brightness and freedom of the New Learning seemed incar- nate in the young and scholarly Sip Thomas More. 15. Sir Philip Sidney lived and died the darling of the Court, and the gentleman and idol of the time. LESSON 3L OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS. Introductory Hints. — He made the wall white. Here made does not fully express the act performed upon the wall. We do not mean to say, He made the white wall, but, He made-white {whitened) the wall. White helps made to express the act, and at the same time it denotes the quality attributed to the wall as the result of the act. They made Victoria queen. Here made does not fully express the act performed upon Victoria. They did not make Victoria, but made- queen {crowned) Victoria. Queen helps made to express the act, and at the same time denotes the office to which the act raised Victoria. A word that, like the adjective white or the noun queen, helps to complete the predicate and at the same time belongs to the object com- plement, differs from an attribute complement by belonging not to the subject but to the object complement, and so is called an Objective Complement. 54 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. As the objective complement generally denotes what the receiver of the act is made to be, in fact or in thought, it is sometimes called the factitive complement or the factitive object (Lat. facer e, to make).* Some of the other verbs which are thus completed are call, think, choose, and name. DEFINITION. — The Objective Complement completes the predicate and belongs to the object complement. Analysis. 1. They made Victoria queen, Tfiey made ^ queen , Victor Ul Explanation.— The line that ^^~~^~"^^"~~~^^"^~'^"'^~~~~"^" separates made from qiceen slants to- ward the object complement to show that queen belongs to the object. Oral Analysis. — Queen is an objective complement completing made and belonging to Victoria; made Victoria queen is the complete predicate. 2. Some one has called the eye the window of the soul. 3. Destiny had made Mr, Churchill a schoolmaster. 4. President Hayes chose the flon. Wm. M. Evarts Secretary of State. 5. After a break of sixty years in the ducal line of the English nobility, James I. created the worthless Villiers Duke of Bucking- ham. 6. We should consider time as a sacred trust. Explanation.— J-S may be used simply to introduce an objective complement. 7. Ophelia and Polonius thought Hamlet really insane. 8. The President and the Senate appoint certain men ministers to foreign courts. * See Lesson 37, last foot-note. Composition— Complements. 55 9. Shylock would have struck Jessica dead beside him, 10. Castora renders the feelings blunt and callous. 11. Socrates styled beauty a short-lived tyranny. 12. Madame de Stael calls beautiful architecture frozen music. 13. They named the state New York from the Duke of York. 14. Henry the Great consecrated the Edict of Nantes as the very ark of the constitution. LESSON 32. COMPOSITION-COMPLEMENTS. Caution. — Be careful to distinguish an adjective com- plement from an adverb modifier. Explanation. — Mary arrived safe. We here wish to tell the con- dition of Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving. My head feels had (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). The sun shines bright (is bright, as perceived by its shining). When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. Direction. — Justify the use of these adjectives and adverbs: — - 1. The boy is running wild. 2. The boy is running wildly about. 3. They all arrived safe and sound. 4. The day opened bright. 5. He felt awkward in the presence of ladies. 6. He felt around awkwardly for his chair. 7. The sun shines bright. -'■■ ■i^ .V 8. The sun shines brightly on the tree-tops. v :>, 56 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 9. He appeared prompt and willing. 10. He appeared promptly and willingly. Direction. — Correct these errors and give your reasons: — 1. My head pains me very bad. 2. My friend has acted very strange in the matter. 8. Don't speak harsh. 4. It can be bought very cheaply. 5. I feel tolerable well. 6. She looks beautifully. Direction. — Join to each of the nouns below three appropriate adjectives expressing the qualities as assumed, and then make com- plete sentences by asserting these qualities: — Hard ^ Model. — brittle ^ glass. Glass is hard, brittle, and trans- transparent j parent. Coal, iron, Niagara Falls, flowers, war, ships. Direction. — Compose sentences containing these nouns as attribute complements : — Emperor, mathematician, Longfellow, Richmond. Direction. — Compose sentences, using these verbs as predicates, and these pronouns as attribute complements : — Is, was, might have been ; I, we, he, she, they. Remark. — Notice that these forms of the pronouns — I, we, thou, he, she, ye, they, and who — are never used as object complements or as principal words in prepositional phrases ; and that me, us, thee, him, her, them, and whom are never used as subjects or as attribute com- plements of sentences. Direction. — Compose sentences in which each of the follotoing verba shall have two complements — th6 one an object complement^ the other an objective complement : — Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 57 Let some object complements be pronouns, and let some objective complements be introduced by as. Model. — They call me chief. We regard composition as very ?m- portant, , Make, appoint, consider, choose, call. LESSON 33. NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. Introductory Hints. — Solomon's temple was destroyed. Solomon's limits temple by telling what or whose temple is spoken of, and is therefore a modifier of temple. The relation of Solomon to the temple is expressed by the apos- trophe and s {'s) added to the noun Solomon. When s has been added to the noun to denote more than one, this relation of possession is expressed by the apostrophe alone (') ; as, boys' hats. This same relation of possession may be expressed by the preposition of; Sol- omon's temple = the temple of Solomon. Dom Pedro, the emperor, was welcomed by the Americatis. The noun emperor modifies Dom Pedro by telling what Dom Pedro is meant. Both words name the same person. Solomon's and emperor, like adjectives, modify nouns ; but they are names of things, and are modified by adjectives and not by adverbs ; as, the wise Solomon's temple ; Dom Pedro, the Brazilian emperor. These are conclusive reasons for calling such words nouns. They represent two kinds of Noun Modifiers — the Possessive and the Explanatory. The Explanatory Modifier is often called an Appositive. It iden- tifies or explains by adding another name of the same thing. 58 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Analysis. 1. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded by James I. favonte {RaUigh ) , was leheaded ^^al Analysis. — ElizahetJi's \~ and Raleigh are modifiers of the \ jamet I subject ; the first word telling ^* whose favorite is meant, the sec- ond what favorite. EUzahetli's favorite, Raleigh is the modified subject. 2. The best features of King James's translation of the Bible are derived from Tyndale's version. 3. St. Paul, the apostle, was beheaded in the reign of Nero. 4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. 5. The tadpole, or polliwog, becomes a frog, 6. An idle brain is the devil's workshop. 7. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was born in the year 569 and died in 632. 8. They scaled Mount Blanc — a daring feat. Theu I scaUd , 3fount Bla?ic / feat \ Explanation. — Feat is explanatory of the sentence, They scaled Mount Mane, and in the diagram it stands, enclosed in curves, on a short line placed after the sentence line, 9. Bees communicate to each other * the death of the queen, by a rapid interlacing of the antennae. Explanation. — Each other may be treated as one term, or each may be made explanatory of hees. 10. The lamp of a man's life has three wicks — brain, blood, and breath. * For uses of each other and one another, see Lesson 124. Composition— Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 59 ^Explanation. — Several words may together be explanatory of one. 11. The turtle's back-bone and breast-bone — its shell and coat of armor — are on the outside of its body. 12. Cromwell's rule as Protector began in the year 1653 and ended In 1658. Explanation. — As, namely, to wit, viz., i. e., e. g., and that »smay introduce explanatory modifiers, but they do not seem to connect them to the words modified. In the diagram they stand like as in Lesson 30. Protector is explanatory of CromwelVs. 13. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, three powerful nations, namely, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, united for the dismem- berment of Poland. 14. John, the beloved disciple, lay on his Master's breast 15. The petals of the daisy, day's-eye, close at night and in rainj- weather. LESSON 34. COMPOSITION-NOUNS AS ADJECTIVE MODIFIERS. COMMA -- RULE. — An Explanatory Modifier, when it does not restrict the modified term or comhine closely with it, is set off* by the comma. Explanation. — The words I and should he written in capital * See foot-note, Lesson 18. 60 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. letters. The phrase / and restricts words, that is, limits its appli- cation, and no comma is needed; JacoVs favorite sons, Joseph and Benjamin, were RacheVs children. The phrase Joseph and Benjamin explains sons without restricting, and therefore should be set off by the comma. In each of these expressions, I myself, we hoys, William the Con- queror, the explanatory term combines closely with the word explained, and no comma is needed. Direction. — Give the reasons for the insertion or the omission of commas in these sentences: — 1. My brother Henry and my brother George belong to a boat- club. 2. The author of Pilgrim's Progress, John Bunyan, was the son of a tinker. 3. Shakespeare, the great dramatist, was careless of his literary reputation. 4. The conqueror of Mexico, Cortez, was cruel in his treatment of Montezuma. '' 5. Pizarro, the conqueror of Peru, was a Spaniard. 6. The Emperors Napoleon and Alexander met and became fast friends on a raft at Tilsit. Direction. — Insert commas heloiv, ivhere they are needed, and give your reasons : — 1. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their name to France. 2. My son Joseph .has entered college. 3. You blocks ! You stones I you hard hearts ! 4. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred in the eyes of Mohammedans. 5. He himself could not go. 6. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth. 7. Elizabeth, Queen of England ruled from 1558 to 1603. Composition— Nouns as Adjective Modifiers. 61 Direction. — Compose sentences containing these expressions as explanatory modifiers : — The most useful metal ; the capital of Turkey ; the Imperial City ; the great English poets ; the hermit ; a distinguished American statesman. Direction. — Punctuate these expressions, and employ each of them in a sentence : — See Remark, Lesson 21. Omit or, and note the effect. 1. Palestine or the Holy Land, . 2. New York or the Empire State,— — . 3. New Orleans ^or the Crescent City . 4. The five Books of Moses or the Pentateuch. . Remember that (*s) and {*) are the possessive signs — (') being used when s has been added to denote more than one, and ('«) in other cases. Direction. — Copy the following, and note the use of the possessive sign : — The lady's fan ; the girl's bonnet ; a dollar's worth ; Burns's poems ; Brown & Co.'s business ; a day's work ; men's clothing ; children's toys ; those girls' dresses ; ladies' calls ; three years' interest ; five dollars' worth. Direction. — Make possessive modifiers of the following ivords, and join them to appropriate nouris : — Woman, women ; mouse, mice ; buffalo, buffaloes ; fairy, fairies ; hero, heroes ; baby, babies ; calf, calves. Caution. — Do not use (^s) or {') with the pronouns its, his, ours, yours, hers, theirs. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESSON 35. NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. Introductory Hints. — He gave me a hook. Here we have what many grammarians call a double object. Book, naming the thing acted upon, they call the direct object ; and me, naming the person toward whom the act is directed, they call the indirect, or dative^ object. You see that me and book do not, like CornwalUs and army, in Washington captured CornwalUs and his army, form a compound object complement ; they cannot be connected by a conjunction, for they do not stand in the same relation to the verb gave. The meaning is not, He gave me a^w^ the book. We treat these indirect objects, which generally denote the person to or for whom something is done, as equivalent to phrase modifiers. If we change the order of the words, a preposition must be supplied ; as, He gave a book to me. He bought me a book ; He bought a book for me. He asked me a question ; He asked a question of me. When the indirect object precedes the direct, no preposition is expressed or understood. Teach, tell, send, promise, permit, and lend are other examples of verbs that take indirect objects. Besides these indirect objects, nouns denoting measure, quan- tity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction are often used adverbi- ally, being equivalent to phrase modifiers. We walked four miles an hour ; It weighs one pound ; It is worth a dollar a yard ; I went home that way ; The wall is ten feet six inches high. The idiom of the language does not often admit a preposition before nouns denoting measure, direction, etc. In your analysis you need uot supply one. Review. ■ 63 Analysis. 1. They offered Csesar the crown three times. They ^offered , crown oral Analysis. — CcEsar and times are nouns used adverbially, being equiv- alent to adverb phrases modifying the % predicate offered. 2. We pay the President of the United States $50,000 a year. 3. He sent his daughter home that way. 4. I gave him a dollar a bushel for his wheat, and ten cents a pound for his sugar. 5. Shakespeare was fifty-two years old the very day of his death. 6. Serpents cast their skin once a year. 7. The famous Charter Oak of Hartford, Conn., fell Aug. 31, 1856. 8. Good land should yield its owner seventy-five bushels of corn an acre. 9. On the fatal field of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586, his attendants brought the wounded Sir Philip Sidney a cup of cold water. 10. He magnanimously gave a dying soldier the water. 11. The frog lives several weeks as a fish, and breathes by means of gills. 12. Queen Esther asked King Ahasuerus a favor, 13. Aristotle taught Alexander the Great philosophy. 14. The pure attar of roses is worth twenty or thirty dollars an ounce. 15. Puff-balls have grown six inches in diameter in a single night. LESSON 36. REVIEW. To THE Teacher.— See suggestions, Lesson 16. Direction. — Review from Lesson 28 to Lesson 35, inclusive. Give the substance of the "Introductory Hints" (for example, show 64 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. clearly what two things are essential to a complete predicate ; explain what is meant by a complement ; distinguish clearly the three kinds of complements ; show what parts of speech may be employed for each, and tell what general idea — action, quality, class, or identity — is expressed by each attribute complement or objective complement in your illustrations, etc.). Repeat and illustrate definitions and rules ; explain and illustrate fully the distinction between an adjec- tive complement and an adverb modifier ; illustrate what is taught of the forms I, we, etc., me, tis, etc.; explain and illustrate the use of the possessive sign. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (See pages 156-159.) To THE Teacher.— See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. '' LESSON 37. VERB FORMS WITH ADJECTIVAL USE AND THOSE WITH NOUNAL. Introductory Hints. — Corn grows; Corn growing. Here grow- ing differs from grows in lacking the power to assert. Growing is a form of the verb that cannot, like grows, make a complete predicate because it only assumes or implies that the corn does the act. Corn may be called the assumed subject of growing. Birds, singing, delight us. Here singing does duty (1) as an adjec- tive, describing birds by assuming or implying an act, and (2) as a verb by expressing the act of singing as going on at the time birds delight us. By singing their songs birds delight us. Here singing has the Verbs as Adjectives and as Nouns— Participles. 65 nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an object complement, songs; and as a noun it names the act, and stands as the principal word in a prepositional phrase. Their singing so sweetly delights us. Here, also, singing has the nature of a verb and that of a noun. As a verb it has an adverb modifier, sweetly, and as a noun it names an act and takes a possess- ive modifier. This form of the verb is called the Participle (Lat. pars, a part, and capere, to take) because it partakes of two natures and performs two oiftces — those of a verb and an adjective, or those of a verb and a noun. (For definition see Lesson 131.) Singing birds delight us. Here singing has lost its verbal nature, and expresses a permanent quality of birds — telling what kind of birds, — and consequently is a mere adjective. The singing of the birds delights us. Here singing is simply a noun, naming the act and taking adjective modifiers. There are two kinds of participles ; * one sharing the nature of the * Grammarians are not agreed as to what these words that have the nature of the verb and that of the noun should be called. Some would call the simple forms doing, zvriting, and injuring, in sentences (1), (6), and (7), Lesson 38, Injinitives. They would also call by the same name such compound forms as being accepted, having been shown, and having said in these expressions : "for the purpose of being accepted ; " " is the having been shown over a place ; ■" '-I recollect his having said that." But does it not tax even credulity to believe that a simple Anglo-Saxon infinitive in -an, only one form of which followed a preposition, and that always to, could have developed into many compound forms, used in both voices, following almost any prep- osition, and modified by the and by nouns and pronouns in the possessive ? No wonder the grammarian Mason says, " An infinitive in -i7ig, set down by some as a modifi- cation of the simple infinitive in -an or -en. is a perfectly unwarranted invention." Others call these words modernized forms of the Anglo-Saxon Verbal Nouns in -ung, -ing. But this derivation of them encounters the stubborn fact that those verbal nouns never were compound, and never were or could be followed by objects. These words, on the contrary, are compound, as we have seen, and have objects. That they 5 66 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. verb and that of the adjective ; the other, the nature of the verb and that of the noun. Participles commonly end in ing, ed, or en. The participle, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by an object complement or an attribute complement. are from nouns in -ung is otherwise, and almost for the same reasons, as incredible as that they are from infinitives in -an. Others call these words Gerunds. A gerund in Latin is a simple form of the verb in the active voice, never found in the nominative, and never in the accusative (objec- tive) after a verb. A gerund in Anglo-Saxon is a simple form of the verb in the active voice— the dative case of the infinitive merely— used mainly to indicate purpose, and always preceded by the preposition to. To call these words in question gerunds is to stretch the term gerund immensely beyond its meaning in Anglo-Saxon, and make it cover words which sometimes (1) are highly compounded ; sometimes (2) are used in the passive voice ; sometimes (3) follow other prepositions than to ; sometimes (4) do not follow any preposition ; sometimes (5) are objects of verbs ; sometimes (6) are sub- jects of verbs ; sometimes (7) are modified by the ; sometimes (8) are modified by a noun or pronoun in the possessive ; and generally (9) do not indicate purpose. We submit that the extension of a class term so as to include words having these relations that the Anglo-Saxon gerund never had, is not warranted by any precedent except that furnished above in the extension of the term infinitive or of the term verbal noun! Still others call some of these words Infinitives ; some of them Verbal Nouns ; and some of them Gerunds. Though some of these forms in -ing may be traced back to the Saxon verbal noun or to the infinitive, and though the Saxon participle is adjectival, we have, for con- venience, used the term participle, as many others have, to denote all verbal forms (ex- cept infinitives) that partake of two natures. But, if different names for words with an adjectival use and words with a nounal be preferred, the term Participle may be restricted to those of the first class, and a name as fitly expressing their dual nature may be found for these of the second. Nounal Terb is such a name. To call these forms in question Verbal Nouns is to classify them as nouns ; to call them Nounal Verbs is to class them, as grammarians almost universally do, with verbs. Besides, the term Nounal Verb may help to distinguish between the true represen- tatives of the old verbal nouns in -ung and the so-called "gerunds " or " infinitives in •ing.'" Verbs with Adjectival Use and tlnose with Nounal. 67 Analysis and Parsing. The participle may be used as an adjective modifier. 1. Hearing a step, I turned. I turned Explanation. — The line standing for the participle ^ is broken ; one part slants to represent the adjective y-ew.y I utep nature of the participle, and the other is horizontal to V represent its verbal nature. Oral Analysis. — The phrase hearing a step is a modifier of the subject ; * the principal word is hearing, which is completed by the noun step; step is modified by a. Parsing. — Hearing is a form of the verb called participle because the act expressed by it is merely assumed, and it shares the nature of an adjective and that of a verb. 2. The fat of the body is fuel laid away for use. Explanation. — The complement is here modified by a participle phrase. 3. The spinal marrow, proceeding from the brain, extends down- ward through the back-bone. 4. Van 'J'willer §at in a huge chair of solid oak, hewn in the cele- brated forest^ of the Hague. Explanation. — The principal word of a prepositional phrase is here modified by a participle phrase. 5. Lentulus, returning with victorious legions, had Mmnsed the populace with the sports of the amphitheater. The participle may be used as an attribute comple- ment . 6. The natives came crowding around. Explanation. — Crowding here completes the predicate camey and * Logically, or in sense, hearing a step modifies the predicate also. I turned when or because I heard a step. See Lesson 79. 68 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. belongs to the subject natives. The natives are represented as per- forming the act of coming and the accompanying act of crowding. The assertive force of the predicate came seems to extend over both verbs. * 7. The city lies sleeping. 8. They stood terrified. 9. The philosopher sat buried in 10. The old miser kept grubbing and saving and starving. The participle may be used as an objective comple- meut. 11. He kept rae waiting. Explanation. — Waiting completes kept and relates to the object complement me. Kept-waiting expresses the complete act performed upon me. He kept-waiting me = He detained me. The relation of waiting to me may be seen by changing the form of the verb ; as, I was kept waiting. See Lesson 31. 12. I found my book growing dull.f * Some grammarians prefer to treat the participle in such constructions as adver- bial. But is crowding any more adverbial here than are pale and tremblivg in "The natives came paZe and trembling " ? t It will be seen by this and following examples that we extend the application of the term objective camjdement beyond its primary, or factitive, sense. In " I struck the man dead,'' the condition expressed by dead is the result of the act expressed by struck. In "I found the man dead,"" the condition is not the result of the act, and so gram- marians say that in this second example dead should be treated simply as an " appoei- tive " adjective modifying man. While dead does not belong to man as expressing the result of the act, it is made to belong to man through the asserting force of the verb, and therefore is not a mere modifier of man. Dead helps /ownc? to express the act. TSot found, hnt found-dead tells what was done to the man. If we put the sentence in the passive form, " The man was found dead,"" it will be Participles— Contlnuecf. 69 \ Explanation.— The diagram represent- \ f^fna ^ . dull , jjjg ^Yie phrase complement is drawu above T f ^ 1 ft^T. the complement line, on which it is made 1 "^ ^ /\ I — ^^ ^^^^ j^y means of a support. All that \ stands on the complement line is regarded as the complement. Notice that the little mark before the phrase points toward the object complement. The adjective dull completes growing and belongs to book, the assumed subject of growing. 13. He owned himself defeated. 14. No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in turbulent mobs. 15. I felt my heart beating faster. 16. You may imagine me sitting there. 17. Saul, seeking his father's asses, found himself suddenly turned into a king. LESSON 38. PARTICIPLES (NOUNAL VERBS)-CONTINUED. Analysis and Parsing. The participle may be used as principal word in a prepositional phrase. seen that dead is more than a mere modifier ; it belongs to man through the assertive force of jvas found. If dead is here merely an " appositive " adjective, " I found the man dead " must equal " I found the man, who was dead " (or, " and he was dead ""). The two sentences obviously are not equal. " I caught him asleep " does not mean, " I caught him, and he was asleep." If, in the construction discussed above, dead is an objective complement, quiet, stirring, and (to) stir in the following sentences are objective complements : — I saw the leaves quiet. I saw the leaves stirring. I saw the leaves stir. The adjective, the participle, and the infinitive do not here seem to differ essen- tially in office. See Lesson 31 and page 78. 70 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 1. We receive good by doing good. We . receive , (jood Explanation.— The line representing the ^ participle here is broken ; the first part repre- ^^,. , seuts the participle as a noun, and the other ^tn ff , good u as a verb. Oral Analysis. — The phrase by doing good is a modifier of the predicate ; by introduces the phrase ; the principal word is doing^ which is completed by the noun good. Parsing. — Doing is a participle ; like a noun, it follows the prepo- sition by, and, like a verb, it takes an object complement. 2. Poitions of the brain may be cut off without producing any pain. 3. The Coliseum was once capable of seating ninety thousand per- sons. 4. Success generally depends on acting prudently, steadily, and vigorously. 5. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering without having suf- fered. {Suffering is here a noun.) The participle may be the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an object complement. 6. Your writing that letter so neatly secured the position. utter Explanation.— The diagram of the subject phrase is drawn above the sub- ^, ject line. All that rests on the subject ■ ^^^^ I — ^^^ ^ \^ line is regarded as the subject. Oral Analysis.— The phrase your writing that letter so neatly is the subject ; the principal word of it is writing, which is completed by letter ; writing, as a noun, is modified by your, and, as a verb, by the adverb phrase so neatly. 7.' We should avoid injuring the feelings of others. Participles— Continued. 71 8. My going there will depend upon my father's giving his consents 9. Good reading aloud is a rare accomplishment. The participial form may be used as a mere noun or a mere adjective. 10. The ca ckling of geese sa^JB^Rome. 11. Such was the exciting campaign, celebrated in many* a long- forgotten song. Explanation. — Many modifies \png after song has been limited by a and long-forgotten. 12. All silencing of discussion is in assumption of infallibility. 13. He was a squeezing, grasping, Aardened old sinner. The participle may be used in independent or abso- lute phrases. 14. The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river. Explanation. — The diagram of the absolute phrase, which consists of a noun used independently with a participle, stands by itself. See Tjesson 44. 15. Talking of exercise, you have heard, of course, of Dickens's •* constitutionals." * " Manig mem in Anglo-Saxon was used like German mancher mann^ Latin rnuh Mui vlr, and the like, until tke thirteenth century ; when the article was inserted to empha«ae the distribution before hidicated by the singular nnmhei."— Prof, F. A. March. 72 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESSON 39. COMPOSITION-PARTICIPLES. COMMA— RULE.— The Participle used as an adjective mod- ifier, with the words belonging to it, is set off* hy the comma unless restrictive. Explanation. — A bird, lighting near my window, greeted me with a song. The bird sitting on the wall is a wren. Lighting describes without restricting ; sitting restricts — limits the application of bird to a particular bird. Direction. — Justify the punctuation of the participle phrases in Lesson 37. Caution. — In using a participle, be careful to leave no doubt as to what you intend it to modify. Direction. — Correct these errors in arrangement, and punctuate, giving your reasons : — 1. A gentleman will let his house going abroad for the summer to a small family containing all the improvements. 2. The town contains fifty houses and one hundred inhabitants built of brick. 3. Suits ready made of material cut by an experienced tailor hand- somely trimmed and bought at a bargain are oifered cheap. 4. Seated on the topmost branch of a tall tree busily engaged in gnawing an acorn we espied a squirrel. 5. A poor child was found in the streets by a wealthy and benevo- lent gentleman suffering from cold and hunger. * An expression in the body of a sentence is set off by two commas ; at the beg^- mng or at the end, by one comma. Verbs as Nouns— Infinitives. 73 Direction. — Recast these sentences, making the reference of the participle clear, and punctuating correctly : — Model. — Climhing to the top of the hill the Atlantic ocean was seen. Incorrect because it appears that the ocean did the climbing. Climhing to the top of the hill, we saw the Atlantic ocean, 1. Entering the next room was seen a marble statue of Apollo. 2. By giving him a few hints he was prepared to do the work well. 3. Desiring an early start the horse was saddled by five o'clock. Direction. — Compose sentences in which each of these three parti- ciples shall he used as an adjective modifier, as the principal word in a prepositional phrase, as the principal word in a phrase used as a subject or as an ohject complement, as a mere adjective, as a mere noun, and in an absolute phrase : — Buzzing, leaping, waving. LESSON 40. VERBS AS NOUNS-INFINITIVES. Introductory Hints. — / came to see you. Here the verb see, like the participle, lacks asserting power — I to see asserts nothing. See, following the preposition to,* names the act and is completed by you, and so does duty as a noun and as a verb. In ofBce it is like the second kind of participles, described in Lesson 37, and from many grammarians has received the same name — some calling both gerunds, and others calling both infinitives. It differs from this participle in form, and in following only the preposition to. Came to see = came for seeing. This form of the verb is frequently the principal word of a phrase * For the dlscuBsion of to with the infinitive, see Lesson 134. 74 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. used as a subject or as an object complement ; as, To read good books is profitable ; I like to read good boohs. Here also the form with to is equivalent to the participle form reading. Reading good hooks is profitable. As this form of the verb names the action in an indefinite way, without limiting it to a subject, we call it the Infinitive (Lat. infi- nitus, without limit). For definition, see Lesson 131. The infinitive, like the participle, may have what is called an assumed subject. The assumed subject denotes that to which the action or being expressed by the participle or the infinitive belongs. Frequently the infinitive phrase expresses purpose, as in the first example given above, and in such cases to expresses relation, and per- forms its full function as a preposition ; but, when the infinitive phrase is used as subject or as object complement, the to expresses no rela- tion. It serves only to introduce the phrase, and in no way affects the meaning of the verb. The infinitive, like other forms of the verb, may be followed by the different complements. Analysis and Parsing. The infinitive phrase may be used as an adjective modifier or an adverb modifier. 1. The hot-house is a trap to catch sunbeams. Oral Analysis. — To in- Tiot-Tfouse , is ^ trap y, I \^ \ troduces the phrase ; catch \ V is the principal word, and \ catch I mnheatm sunbeams completes it. Parsing. — To is a preposition, introducing the phrase and showing the relation, in sense, of the principal word to trap ; catch is a form of the verb called injinitive ; like a noun, it follows the preposition to Verbs as Nouns— Infinitives. 75 and names the action, and, like a verb, it is completed by sun- beams. 2. Richelieu's title to command rested on sublime force of will and decision of character. 3. Many of the attempts to assassinate William the Silent were defeated. 4. We will strive to please you. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the predicate. 5. Ingenious Art steps forth to fashion and refine the race. 6. These harmless delusions tend to make us happy. Explanation. — Happy completes make and relates to us. 7 Wounds made by words are hard to heal. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adjective hard. To heal = to be healed. 8. The representative Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands, to clear new cornfields, to build another shingle pal- ace, and again to sell off and wander. 9. These apples are not ripe enough to eat. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used adverbially to modify the adverb enough. To eat = to be eaten. The infinitive phrase may be used as subject or complement. 10. To be good is to be great. \ Explanation.— To, in each of these food \ be -^ great phrases, shows no relation — it serves merely to introduce. The complements good and is >v y^ great are adjectives used abstractly, having no noun to relate to. \ 11. To bear our fate is to conquer it. 76 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 12. To be entirely just in our estimate of others is impossible. 13. The noblest vengeance is to forgive. 14. He seemed to be innocent. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase here performs the office of an adjective. To he innocent = innocent, 15. The blind men's dogs appeared to know him. 16. We should learn to govern ourselves. Explanation. — The infinitive phrase is here used as an object complement. 17. Each hill attempts to ape her voice. LESSON 41. INFINITIVES-CONTINUED. Analysis. The infinitive phrase may be used after a prepo- sition as the principal term of another phrase. 1. My friend is about to leave me. \ V Va. \ leave \ me ^ \ j Explanation. — The preposition about T y\ introduces the phrase used as attribute I complement ; the principal part is the in= fHend is ^ y\ finitive phrase to leave me. 2. Paul was now about to open his mouth. 3. No way remains but to go on. Explanation. — But is here a preposition. The infinitive and its assumed subject may form the principal term in a phrase introduced by the prep- osition for. Infinitives— Continued. 77 4. For us to know our faults is profitable. Explanation. — For introckices the f Tmow I faults subject phrase ; the principal part of '^ the entire phrase is us to know our faults; ItC/<) , is the principal word is us, which is modi- y\ I is V profitable fied by the phrase to know our faults. 5. God never made his work for man to mend. Explanation. — The principal term of the phrase for man to mend is not man, but man to mend. 6. For a man to be proud of his learning is the greatest ignorance. The infinitive phrase may be used as an explaua- tory modifier. 7. It is easy to find fault. \ Explanation.— The infinitive phrase to jirvd I fault find fault explains the subject it. Read the ' sentence without it, and you will see tlie real ■ .., ^ mstf nature of the phrase. This use of it as a substitute for the real subject is a very common idiom of our language. It allows the real subject to follow the verb, and thus gives the sentence balance of parts. 8. It is not the way to argue down a vice to tell lies about it. 9. It is natural to man to indulge in the illusions of hope. 10. It is not all of life to live. 11. This task, to teach the young, may become delightful. The infinitive phrase may be used as objective complement. 12. He made me wait. Explanation. — The infinitive wait (here used without to) com- pletes made and relates to me. He made-wait me = He detained me. See ** Introductory Hints," Lesson 31, and participles used as ob- jective complements. Lesson 37. Compare I saw him do it with I saw "78 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Mm doing it. Compare also 'He made the stick bend — equaling He ^made-bend (= bent) the stick — with He made the stick straight — equal- ing He made-straight {= straightened) the stick. The relation of these objective complements to me, him, and stick -may be more clearly seen by changing the form of the verb, thus : I was made to wait ; He was seen to do it, He was seen doing it ; The •stick was made to bend; The stick was made straight. 13. We found the report to be true.* We , found ^ /\ , report 14. He commanded the bridge to be lowered. f 15. I saw the leaves stir.:}: Explanation. — Stir is an infinitive without the to, 16. Being persuaded by Poppasa, Nero caused his mother, Agrip- •pina, to be assassinated. * Some prefer to treat the report to he true as an object clause because it is equiva- lent to the clause that the report is true. But many expressions logically equivalent are entirely different in grammatical construction ; as, I desire his promotion ; I desire him to be promoted ; I desire that he shotcld be promoted. Besides, to teach that him 'is the subject, and to be promoted the predicate, of a clause would certainly be confusing. t Notice the difference in construction between this sentence and the sentence He commanded him to lower the bridge. Him represents the one to whom the command is given, and to lower the bridge is the object complement. This last sentence = He commanded him that he should lower the bridge. Compare He told me to go with He iold (to) me a story ; also He taught me to read with He taiight (to) me reading. In such sentences as (13) and (14) it may not always be expedient to demand that the pupil shall trace the exact relations of the infinitive phrase to the preceding noun and to the predicate verb. If preferred, in such cases, the infinitive and its assumed Bubject may be treated as a kind of phrase object, equivalent to a clause. This con- struction is similar to the Latin " accusative with the infinitive." X See pages 68 and 69, foot-note. Infinitives— Continued. 79 LESSON 42. INFINITIVES-CONTINUED. Analysis. The infinitive phrase may be used independently.* E]xplanation. — In the diagram the independent element must stand by itself. 1. England's debt, to put it in round numbers, is $4,000,000,000. 2. Every object has several faces, so to speak. 3. To make a long story short, Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette were executed. Infinitives and Participles. MISCELLANEOUS. 4. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. 5. We require clothing in the summer to protect the body from the heat of the sun. 6. Rip Van Winkle could not account for everything's having changed so. 7. This sentence is not too difficult for me to analyze. 8. The fog came pouring in at every chink and keyhole, 9. Conscience, her first law broken, wounded lies. 10. To be, or not to be, — that is the question. 11. I supposed him to be a gentleman. 12. Food, keeping the body in health by making it warm and re- pairing its waste, is a necessity. 13. I will teach you the trick to prevent your being cheated another time. * These infinitive phrases can be expanded into dependent clauses. See Lesson 79. For the infinitive after as, than, etc., see Lesson 63. Participles and infinitiveg unite with other verbs to make compound forms ; as, have walked, shall walk. 80 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 14. She threatened to go beyond the sea, to throw herself out of tlie window, to drown herself. 15. Busied with public affairs, the council would sit for hours smok- ing and watching the smoke curl from their pipes to the ceiling. LESSON 43. COMPOSITION-THE INFINITIVE. Direction. — Change the infinitives in these sentences into parti- ciples, and the participles into infinitives : — Notice that to, the only preposition used with the infinitive, is 'changed to toward, for, of, at, in, or on, when the infinitive is changed to a participle. 1. I am inclined to believe it. 6. There is a time to laugh. 2. I am ashamed to be seen there. 7. I rejoice to hear it. 3. She will be grieved to hear it. 8. You are prompt to obey. 4. They trembled to hear such 9. They delight to do it. words. 10. I am surprised at seeing you. 5. It will serve for amusing the 11. Stones are used in ballasting children. vessels. Direction. — Improve these sentences hy changing the participles into infinitives, and the infinitives into participles : — 1. We began ascending the 3. I commenced to write a letter. mountain. 4. It is inconvenient being poor. 2. He did not recollect to have 5. It is not wise complaining. paid it. Direction. — Vary these sentences as in the model: — Model. — Rising early is healthful ; To rise early is healthful ; It is healthful to rise early; For one to rise early is healthful. (Notice that the explanatory phrase after it is not set off by the comma.) Words and Phrases Used Independently. 81 1. Reading good books is profit- 4. Indorsing another's paper is able. dangerous. 2. Equivocating is disgraceful. 5. Swearing is sinful. 3. Slandering is base. Direction. — Write nine sentences, in three of which the infinitive phrase shall be used as an adjective, in three as an adverb, and in three as a noun. Direction. — Write eight sentences in which these verbs shall be followed by an infinitive without the t o : — Model. — We saw the sun sink behind the mountain. Bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, and see. LESSON 44. WORDS AND PHRASES USED INDEPENDENTLY. Introductory Hints. — In this Lesson we wish to notice words and phrases that in certain u^s have no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. The-fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars. Dear Brutus serves only to arrest attention, and is independent by address. Poor man ! he never came bach again. Poor man is independent by exclamation. Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort me. Rod and staff simply call attention to the objects before anything is said of them, and are inde- pendent by pleonasm — a construction used sometimes for rhetorical efltect, but out of place in ordinary speech. His master being absent, the business was neglected. His master being absent logically modifies the verb was neglected by assigning the cause, but the phrase has no connective expressed or understood, and is therefore grammatically independent. This is called the absolute 6 tJ2 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. phrase. An absolute phrase consists of a noun or a pronoun used independently with a modifying participle. His conduct, generally speaking, was honorable. Speaking is a participle without connection, and with the adverb generally forms an independent phrase. To confess the truth, I was wrong. The infinitive phrase is inde- pendent. The adverbs well, now, ivhy, there are sometimes independent ; as. Well, life is an enigma ; JVow, that is strange ; Why, it is already noon ; There are pitch-pine Yankees and white-pine Yankees. Interjections are without grammatical connection, as you have learned, and hence are independent. Whatever is enclosed within marks of parenthesis is also independ- ent of the rest of the sentence ; as, I stake my fame {and I had fame), my heart, my hope, my soul, upon this cast. Analysis. 1. The loveliest things in life, Tom, are but shadows. Explanation. — Tom is independent by address. But is an adjective modifying shadows. 2. There are one-story intellects, two-story intellects, and three- story intellects with skylights. Explanation. — Often, as in this sentence, there is used idiomatically, merely to throw the subject after the verb, the idea of place having faded out of the word. To express place, another there may follow the predicate ; as. There is gold there. 3. Ah ! then and there was hurrying to and fro. 4. Hope lost, all is lost. 5. The smith, a mighty man is he. 6. Why, this is not revenge. 7. Well, this is the forest of Arden. Composition— Independent Words and Phrases. Se, 8. Now, there is at Jerusalem, by the sheep-market, a pool. 9. To speak plainly, your habits are your worst ejiemies. 10. No accident occurring, we shall arrive t»-morrow. 11. The teacher being sick, there was no school Friday. 12. Mr. President, I shall enter en no encomium upon Massa- chusetts. 13. Properly speaking, there can be no chance in our affairs. U. But the enemies of tyranny — their path leads to the scaffold. 15. She (oh, the artfulness of the woman !) managed the matter ^ , . T, extremely well. rtfrent began •' ■< — ^\7" 16. A day later (Oct. 19, 1812) began the fatal retreat of the Grand Army, from Mos- day cow. \^ See Lesson 35. LESSON 45. COMPOSITION— INDEPENDENT WORDS AND PHRASES. COMMA— RULE.— Words and phrases independent or nearly «o are set off by the comma. Remark. — Interjections, as you have seen, are usually followed by the exclamation point ; and there, used merely to introduce, is never set off by the comma. When the break after pleonastic expressions is slight, as in (5), Lesson 44, the comma is used ; but, if it is more abrupt, as in (14), the dash is required. If the independent expres- sion can be omitted without affecting the sense, it may be enclosed within marks of parenthesis, as in (15) and (16). (For the uses of the dash and the marks of parenthesis, see Lesson 148.) Words and phrases nearly independent are those which, like however^ of course, indeed, in short, hy the iye, for instance, and accordingly, da 84 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. not modify a word or a phrase alone, but rather the sentence as a whole ; as, Lee did not, however, follow Washington's orders. Direction. — Write sentences illustrating the several kinds of inde- pendent expressions, and punctuate according to the Rule as explained. Direction. — Write short sentences in which these words and phrases, used in a mariner nearly independent, shall occur, and punctuate them properly : — In short, indeed, now and then, for instance, accordingly, moreover, iiowever, at least, in general, no doubt, by the bye, by the way, then, too, of course, in fine, namely, above all, therefore. Direction. — Write short sentences in which these words shall modify some particvZar word or phrase so closely as not to he set off by the comma : — Indeed, surely, too, then, now, further, why, again, still. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (See pages 160-162.) To THE Teacher. —See suggestions to the teacher, pages 30, 150. LESSON 46. SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. Introductory Hints. — In the previous Lessons we have considered the sentence with respect to the words and phrases composing it. Let 'IS now look at it as a whole. The mountains lift up their heads. This sentence is used simply to affirm, or to declare a fact, and is called a Declarative Sentence. Do the mountains lift up their heads ? This sentence expresses a question, and is called an Interrogative Sentence. Sentences Classified with Respect to Meaning'. 85 Lift up your heads. This sentence expresses a command, and is called an Imperative Sentence. Such expressions as You must go^ You shall go are equivalent to imperative sentences, though they have not the imperative form. How the mountains lift up their heads ! In this sentence the thought is expressed with strong emotion. It is called an Exclama- tory Sentence. How and what usually introduce §uch sentences ; but a declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sentence may be- come exclamatory when the speaker uses it mainly to give vent to his feelings ; as, It is impossible I How can I endure it f Talk of hypoc- risy after this ! DEFINITION.— A Declarative Sentence is one that is used to aflftrm or to deny. DEFINITION.— An Interrogative Sentence is one that expresses a question. DEFINITION. — An Imperative Sentence is one that ex- presses a command or an entreaty. DEFINITION.— An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses sudden thought or strong feeling.* INTERROGATION POINT— RULE.— Every direct interroga- tive sentence should be followed by an interrogation point. Remark. — When an interrogative sentence is made a part of an- other sentence, it may be direct ; as, He asked, ''What is the trouble f " or indirect ; as, He asked what the trouble was. (See Lesson 74.) Analysis. Direction. — Before analyzing these sentences, classify them, and justify the terminal marks of punctuation : — 1. There are no accidents in the providence of God. * For puuctuatioQ, see page 42. The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 2. Why does the very murderer, his victim sleeping before him, and his glaring eye taking the measure of the blow, strike wide (d the mortal part ? 3. Suffer not yourselves to be betrayed with a kiss. (The subject is you understood.) 4. How wonderful is the advent of spring 1 6. Oh 1 a dainty plant is the ivy green ! 6. Six days shalt thou labor and do all thy work. 7. Alexander the Great died at Babylon in the thirty-third year of his age. 8c How sickness enlarges the dimensions of a man's self to him- self 1 9. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. 10. Lend me your ears. 11. What brilliant rings the planet Saturn has ! 12. What power shall blanch the sullied snow of character ? iSc The laws of nature are the thoughts of God. 14, How beautiful was the snow, falling all day long, all night long, on the roofs of the living, on the graves of the dead ! 15. Who, in the darkest days of our Revolution, carried your flag into the very chops of the British Channel, bearded the lion in his den, and woke the echoes of old Albion's hills by the thunders of his cannon and the shouts of his triumph ? LESSON 47. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.. Analysis. i. Poetry is only the eloquence and enthusiasm of religioa. — Words' 2. Refusing to bare his head to any earthly potentate, Richelieu Miscellaneous Exercises in Review. S^ ivould permit no eminent author to stand bareheaded in his presence. —Stephen. 3. The Queen of England is simply a piece of historic heraldry ; a flag, floating grandly over a Liberal ministry yesterday, over a Tory min'stry to-day. — Comvay. 4. The vulgar intellectual palate hankers after the titillation of foaming phrase. — Lowell. 5. Two mighty vortices, Pericles and Alexander the Great, drew into strong eddies about themselves all the glory and the pomp of Greek literature, Greek eloquence, Greek wisdom, Greek art. — De Quincey, 6. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, lie in three words — health, peace, and competence. — Pope. 7.* Extreme admiration puts out the critic's eye. — Tyler. 8. The setting of a great hope is like the setting of the sun. — LongfeUow. 9. Things mean, the Thistle, the Leek, the Broom of the Plan- itrEgenets, become noble by association. — F. W. Robertson. 10. Prayer is the key of the morning and the bolt of the night.. — Beecher, 11. f In that calm Syrian afternoon, memory, a pensive Ruth, went gleaning the silent fields of childhood, and found the scattered grain still golden, and the morning sunlight fresh and fair. — Curtis. * Weighty thoughts tersely expressed, like (7), (8), and (10) in this Lesson, are called £pig:rains. What quality do you think they impart to one's style ? t In Buth of this sentence, we have a type of the metaphor called Personification —a figure in which things are raised above their proper plane, taken up toward or to that of persons. Things take on dignity and importance as they rise in the scale of being. Note, moreover, that in this instance of the figure we have an Allusion. All the Interest that the Ruth of the Bible awakens in us this allusion gathers about so coaunon a thing as memory. %8 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. LESSON 48. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. Analysis. I. By means of steam man realizes the fable of JEolus's bag, ani carries the two-and-thirty winds in the boiler of his boat. — EmersoUo *ii. The Angel of Life winds our brains up once for all, then closes the case, and gives the key into the hands of the Angel of Resurrec- tion. — Holmes. 3. I called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the Old. — Canning. 4. The prominent nose of the New Englander is evidence of the constant linguistic exercise of that organ. — Warner. 5. Every Latin word has its function as noun or verb or adverb ticketed upon it. — Earle. 6. The Alps, piled in cold and still sublimity, are an image of despotism. — Phillips. .7. I want my husband to be submissive without looking so. — Oail Hamilton. 8. I love to lose myself in other men's minds. — Lamb. 9. Cheerfulness banishes all anxious care and discontent, soothes and composes the passions, and keeps the soul in a perpetual calm.— Addison. 10. To discover the true nature of comets has hitherto proved beyond the power of science. Explanation.— ^eyowi? the power of science = imposarible^ and is therefore an attribute complement. The preposition beyond showTS the relation, in sense, of power to the subject phrase. II. Authors must not, like Chinese soldiers, expect to win victories by turning somersets in the air. — Longfellow, Arrangement— Usual Order, 89 LESSON 49, REVIEW OF PUNCTUATION, Direotion. — Oive the reasons, so far as you have been taught, for the mcurhs of punctuation used in Lessons 44, 46, 47, and 48. LESSON 50. REVIEW. To THE Teacher.— See suggestions, Lesson 16. Direction. — Review from Lesson 37 to Lesson 46, inclusive. Give, in some such way as we have outlined in preceding Review Lessons, the substance of the ** Introductory Hints ; " repeat and illustrate definitions and rules ; illustrate the different uses of the participle and the infinitive, and illustrate the Caution regarding th© use of the participle ; illustrate the different ways in which words and phrases may be grammatically independent, and the punctuatioD of these independent elements. LESSON 51. ARRANGEMENT-USUAL ORDER. To THE Teacher.— If, from lack of time or from the necessity of conforming to a prescribed course of stndy, it is found desirable to abridge these Lessons on Arrange- ment and Contraction, the exercises to be written may be omitted, and the pupil may be required to illustrate the positions of the different parts, in both the Usual and the Transposed order, and then to read the examples given, making the required changes orally. The eight following Lessons may thus be reduced to two or three. Let ns recall the Usual Order of words and phrases in a simple declarative sentence. 90 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. The verb follows the subject, and the object complement follows the verb. example. — Drake circumnavigated the globe. Direction. — Observing this order, write three sentences each with an object complement. An adjective or a possessive modifier precedes its noun, and an explanatory modifier fallows it. Examples. — Man's life is a brief span. Moses, the lawgiver, came down from the Mount. Direction. — Observing this order, write four sentences, two with possessive modifiers and two with explanatory, each sentence containing an adjective. The attribute complement, whether noun or adjective, follows the verb, the objective complement follows the object complement, and the indirect object precedes the direct. Examples. — Egypt is the valley of the Nile. Eastern life Js dreamy. They made Bonaparte consul. They offered Ccesar a crown. Direction. — Observing this order, write four sentences H'lustrating (he positions of the noun and of the adjective when they perform these offices. If adjectives are of unequal rank, the one most closely modifying the noun stands nearest to it ; if of the same rank, they stand in the order of their length — the shortest first. Examples. — Two honest young men enlisted. Cassiiti; has a lean and hungry look. A rock, huge and precipitous, stood in our path. Direction. — Observing this order, write three sentences illustrating the relative position of adjectives before and after the noun. An adverb precedes the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which it modifies ; precedes or follows (more fre- Arrangement— Transposed Order. 91 quently follows) the simple veib or the verb with its com- plement ; and follows one or more words of the verb if the verb is compound. Examples. — The light far in the distance is so very bright. I soorb found him. I hurt Mm badly. He had often been there. Direction. — Observing this order, write sentences illustrating these several positions of the adverb. Phrases follow the words they modify ; if a word has two or more phrases, those most closely modifying it stand nearest to it. Examples. — Facts once established are facts forever. He sailed for Liverpool on Ifonday. Direction. — Observing this order, write sentences illustrating the positions of participle and prepositional phrases. LESSON 52. ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED ORDER. Introductory Hints. — The usual order of words, spoken of in the preceding Lesson, is not the only order admissible in an Eng- lish sentence ; on the contrary, great freedom in the placing of words and phrases is sometimes allowable. Let the relation of the words be kept obvious and, consequently, the thought clear, and in poetry, iii impassioned oratory, in excited speech of any kind, one may devia e widely from this order. A writer's meaning is never distributed evenly among his word: • more of it lies in some words than in others. Under the influence of strong feeling, one may move words out of their accustomed place, and, by thus attracting attention to tiicm, give them additional importance to the reader or hearer. When any word or phrase in the predicate stands out of its usual place, appearing either at the front of the sentence or at the end, we have what we may call the Transposed Order. I dare not venture to go down into the cabin — Venture to go down into the cabin I dare 92 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. not. You shall die — Die you shall. Their names will forever live on the lips of the people — Their names will, on the lips of the people, forever live. When the word or phrase moved to the front carries the verb, or the principal word of it, before the subject, we have the extreme example of the transposed order ; as, A yeoman had he. Strange is the magic of a turban. The whole of a verb is not placed at the beginning of a declarative sentence except in poetry ; as, Mashed all their sabers bare. To TWB Teacher. — Where, in our directions in these Lessons on Arrangement and Contraction, we say change, transpose, or restore, the pupils need not write the sen- tences. Tiiey should study them and be able to read them. Require them to show what the sentence has lost or gained in the change. Direction. —Change these sentences from the usual to the trans- posed order by moving words or phrases to the front, and explain the effect: — 1. He could not avoid it. 2. They were pretty lads. 3. The great Queen died in the year 1603. 4. He would not escape. 5. I must go. 6. She seemed young and sad. 7. He cried, ** My son, my son I " 8. He ended his tale here. 9. The moon shone bright. 10. A frozen continent lies beyond the sea. 11. He was a contentious man. 12. It was quoted so. 13. Monmouth had never been accused of cowardice. Direction. — Change these sentences from the transposed order to the usual, and explain the effect : — 1. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 2. Volatile he was. S. Victories, indeed, they were. 4. Of noble race the lady came. 5. Slowly and sadly we laid him down, 6. Once again we'll sleep secure. 7. This double office the parti- ciple performs. 8. That gale I well remember. 9. Churlish he often seemed. 10. One strong thing I find here below. ^ 11. Overhead I heard a mur= raur. 12. To their will we m«st suc- cumb. 13. Him they hanged. 14. Freely ye have received. Arrangement— Transposed Order. 93 Direction. — Write five sentences, each with one of the following nouns or adjectives as a complement ; and five, each with one of the adverbs or phrases as predicate modifier ; then transpose the ten with these same ivords moved to the front, and explain the effect : — Giant, character, happy, him, serene, often, in the market, long and deeply, then, under foot. DirecticHi. — Transpose these sentences hy placing the italicized words last, and note the effect: — 1. The clouds lowering upon our house are buried in the deep bosom of the ocean. 2. JEneas did bear from the flames of Troy upon his shoulder the old Anchises. 3. Such a heart beats in the breast of my people. 4. The great fire roared up the deep and wide chimney. Direction. — Change these to the usual order : — 1. No woman was ever in this wild humor wooed and won. 2. Let a shroud, stripped from some privileged corpse, be, for its proper price, displayed. 3. An old clock, early one summer's morning, before the stirring of the family, suddenly stopped. 4. Treasures of gold and of silver are, in the deep bosom of the earth, concealed. 5. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable. Direction. — Write three sentences, each with the following noun or adjective or phrase in its usual place in the predicate, and then transpose, placing these words wherever they can properly go : — Mountains, glad, by and by. LESSON 53. ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED ORDER. Direction. — Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving^ the object complement and the verb to their customary places, and tell what is lost by the change : — 94 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 1. Thorns and thistles shall the earth bring forth. 2. "Exactly so," replied the pendulum. 3. Me restored he to mine office. 4. A changed France have vfe. 5. These evils hath sin wrought. Direction. — Transpose- these sentences hy moving the object com^ plement and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change :— 1. The dial-plate exclaimed, "Lazy wire!" 2. The maiden has such charms. 3. The English character has faults and plenty of them. 4. I will make one effort more to save you. 5. The king does possess great power. 6. You have learned much in this short journey. Direction. — Write six transposed sentences with these nouns as object complements, and then restore them to their usual order : — Pause, cry, peace, horse, words, gift. Direction. — Restore these seritences to their usual order by moving the attribute complement and the verb to their usual places, and tell what is lost by the change : — 1. A dainty plant is the ivy green. 2. Feet was I to the lame. ^ 3. A mighty man is he. 4. As a mark of respect was the present given. 5. A giant towered he among men. Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the attribute com' element and the verb, and tell what is gained by the change : — 1. We are merry brides. 2. "Washington is styled the "Father of his Country." 3. He was a stark mosstrooping Scot. 4. The man seemed an incarnate demon. 5. Henry VIII. had become a despot. Direction. — Using these nouns as attribute complements, write three sentences in the usual order, and then transpose them : — Rock, desert, fortress. Direction. — Restore these sentences to their usual order by moving the adjective complement and the verb to their customary places : — Arrangement— Transposed Order. 1. Happy are we to-night, boys. 7. Blood-red became the sun. 2. Good and upright is the Lord. 8. Doubtful seemed the battle, 3. Hotter grew the air. 9. Wise are all his ways. 4. Pale looks your Grace. 10. Wide open stood the doors, 5. Dark rolled the waves. 11. Weary had he grown. 6. Louder waxed the applause. 12. Faithful proved he to the last., Direction. — Transpose these sentences hy moving the adjective com" plement and the verb : — 1. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 2. The anger of the righteous is weighty. 3. The air seemed deep and dark. 4. She had grown tall and queenly. 5. The peacemakers are blessed. 6. I came into the world helpless. 7. The untrodden snow lay bloodless. 8. The fall of that house was great. 9. The uproar became intolerable. 10. The secretary stood alone. Direction. — Write five transposed sentences^ each loith one of these adjectives as attribute complement, and then restore the sentences to ths usual order : — Tempestuous, huge, glorious, lively, fierce. LESSON 54. ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED ORDER. Direction. — Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the adverb and the verb to their customary places, and note the loss f— 1. Then burst his mighty heart. 8. Off went his bonnet. 2. Here stands the man. 9. Well have ye judged. 3. Crack I went the ropes. 10. On swept the lines. 4. Down came the masts. 11. There dozed the donkeys, 5. So died the great Columbus of 12. Boom I boom ! went the guns. the skies. 13, Thus waned the afternoon, 6. Tir-tac I tictac ! go the wheels 14. There thunders the cataract of thought. age after age. 7. Away went Gilpin. 96 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Direction. — Transpose these sentences by moving the adverb and the verb : — Ic I "will never desert Mr. Micaw- 6. A sincere word was never ber. utterly lost. 2. The great event occurred soon 7. It stands written so. after. 8. Venus was yet the morning 3. The boy stood there with dizzy star. brain. 9. You must speak thus. 4 The Spaniard's shot went 10. Lady Impudence goes up to whing ! whing ! the maid. 5. Catiline shall no longer plot 11. Thy proud waves shall be her ruin. stayed here. Direction, — Write ten sentences in the transposed order, using these adverbs : — Still, here, now, so, seldom, there, out, yet, thus, never. Direction, — Restore these sentences to the usual order by moving the phrase a/nd the verb to their customary places, and note the loss : — 1. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 7. In purple was she robed. 2o Seven years after the Restora- 8, Near the surface are found tion appeared Paradise Lost. the implements of bronze. 3o Into the valley of death rode 9. Through the narrow bazaar the six hundred. pressed the demure donkeys. 4c To such straits is a kaiser 10. In those days came John the driven. Baptist. 5. Upon such a grating hinge 11, On the 17th of June, 1775, was opened the door of his daily fought the battle of Bunker . life. Hill. 6. Between tiiem lay a mountain 12. Three times were the Romans ridge. driven back. Direction, — Transpose these sentences by moving the phrase and the verb: — lo The disciples came at the same 3. An ancient and stately hall time. stood near the village. 2. The dreamy murmur of insects 4. His trusty sword lay by his was heard over our heads. side. Arrangement— Interrogative Sentences. 97 5. Pepin eventually succeeded to 8. The bridle is red with the Ciiarles Martel. sign of despair. 6. The house stands somewhat 9. I have served in twenty cam- back from the street. paigns. 7. Our sphere tarns on its axis, 10. Touch proper lies in the fin- ger-tips and in the lips. Direction. — fVrite ten sentences in the usual order, using these prepositions to introduce phrases, and then transpose the sentences^ and compare the two orders : — Beyond, upon, toward, of, by, into, between, in, at, to. Direction. — Write six sentences in the transposed order^ beginning them with these words: — There (independent), nor, neither. LESSON 55. ARRANGEMENT-INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. If the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it> the order is usual. Examples. — Who came last evening ? What star shines brightest ? Direction. — Write five interrogative sentences, using the first word below as a subject ; the second as a subject and then as a modifier of the subject ; the third as a subject and then as a modifier of the sub- ject :— Who, which, what. If the interrogative word is object complement or attri- bute complement or a modifier of either, the order is transposed. Examples. — Whom did you see ? What are personal conse- quences ? Which course will you choose ? Direction. — Write an interrogative sentence with the first word below as object complement, and another with the second word as at- tribute complement. Write four with the third and the fov/rth as 7 98 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. complements, and four with the third and the fourth as modifiers of the complemeiit : — Whom, who, which, what. If the interrogative word is an adverb, the order is transposed. Examples. — Why is the forum crowded ? Where are the flowers, the fair young flowers ? Direction. — Write five interrogative sentences, using these ad- verbs : — How, when, where, whither, why. If there is no interrogative word, the subject stands after the verb when this is simple ; after the first word of it when it is compound. Examples. — Bave you your lesson ? Has the gentleman finished ? Direction. — Write six interrogative sentences, using these words : — Is, has, can learn, might have gone, could have been found, must see. Direction. — Change the sentences you have written in this Lesson into declarative sentences. LESSON 56. ARRANGEMENT-IMPERATIVE AND EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. The subject is usually omitted in the imperative sen- tence ; but, when it is expressed, the sentence is in the transposed order. Examples. — Praise ye the Lord. Give {thou) me three grains of corn. Direction. — Using these verbs, write ten sentences, in five of which the subject shall be omitted ; and in five, expressed : — Remember, listen, lend, love, live, choose, use, obey, strive, devote. Contraction of Sentences. 99 Although any sentence may without change of order become exclamatory (Lesson 46), yet exclamatory sen- tences ordinarily begin with how or what, and are usu- ally in the transposed order. Examples.— ^ow; quietly the child sleeps ! How exceUent is thy loving-kindness ! WTiat visions have I seen ! What a life his was I Direction. — W7'ite six exclamatory sentences with the word how modifying (1) an adjective, (2) a verb, and (3) a?i adverb — in three sen- tences let the verb follow, and in three precede, the subject. Write four sentences ivith the word what modifying (1) an object comple- ment and (3) an attribute complement — in two sentences let the verb follow, and in two .precede^ the subject. LESSON 57. CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. Direction. — Contract these sentences by omitting the repeated mod- ifiers and prepositions, and all the conjunctions except the last: — 1. Webster was a great lawyer, a great statesman, a great debater, and a great writer. 2. By their valor, by their policy, and by their matrimonial alli- ances, they became powerful. 3. Samuel Adams's habits were simple and frugal and unostenta- tious. 4. Flowers are so fragile, so delicate, and so ornamental ! 5. They are truly prosperous and truly happy. 6. The means used were persuasions and petitions and remon- strances and resolutions and defiance. 7. Carthage was the mistress of oceans, of kingdoms, and of nations. Direction. — Expand these by repeating the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, and the conjunction : — 1. He was a good son, father, brother, friend. 2. The tourist traveled in Spain, Greece, Egypt, and Palestine. 160 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 3. Bayard was very brave, truthful, and chivalrous. 4, Honor, revenge, shame, and contempt inflamed his heart. Direction. — Write six sentences, each with one of these words used four times; and then contract them as above, and note the effect of the repetition and of the omission : — Poor, how, with, through, or, and. Direction. — Expand these sentences by supplying subjects : — 1. Give us this day our daily 5. Where hast been these six bread. months ? 2. Why dost stare so ? 6. Bless me ! Thank you, sir. 7. Save us. Hear me for my cause. Direction. — Expand these by supplying the verb or some part of 3. 4. it:— 1. Nobody there. 2. Death to the tyrant. 3. All aboard ! 4. All hands to the pumps I 5. What to me fame ? 6. Short, indeed, his career. 7. When Adam thus to Eve, 8. I must after him, 9. Thou shalt back to France. 10. Whose footsteps these ? Direction. — Expand these by supplying both subject and verb, and note the loss in vivacity : — 1. Upon them with the lance. 2. At your service, sir. 3. Why so unkind ? 4. Forward, the light brigade ! 5. Half-past nine. 6. Off with you. 7. My kingdom for a horse ! 8. Hence, you idle creatures ! 9. Coffee for two. Direction. — Contract these by omitting the subject or the verb : — 10. Shine, sir ? 11. Back to thy punishment, fal^*^ fugitive. 12. On with the dance. 13. Strange, strange ! 14. Once more unto the breach. 15. Away, away ! 16. Impossible ! 1. Art thou gone ? 2. Will you take your chance ? 3. His career was ably run. 4. Are you a captain ? 5. May long lif-e be to the republic. 6. How great is the mystery ! 7. Canst thou wonder ? 8. May a prosperous voyage be to you. 9. Are you here ? Review. ^v Direction. — Contract these hy omitting both subject and verb, and note the gai?i in force and animation : — 1. I offer a world for sale. 6. Bring ye lights there. 2. Now, then, go you- to break- 7. It is true, sir. fast. 8. We will drink a tealth to 3. Sit you down, soothless in- Preciosa. suiter. 9. I offer a pennf for your 4. I want a word with you, wife. thoughts. 5. Those are my sentiments, mad- 10. Whither are you going so am. early ? Direction. — Construct ten full sentences, using *» Mch, one of these adverbs or phrases or nouns, and then contract the sentences by omitting both subject and verb : — Why, heLce, to arms, silence, out, to your tents, peachein, room, for the guns, water. LESSON 58. REVIEW. To THE Traoher.— See suggestions, Lesson 16. Direction- — Review from Lesson 51 to Lesson 57, mdusive. Illustrate the different positions— Usual and Transposed — that the words and phrases of a declarative sentence may take ; illustrate the different positions of the parts of an interrogative, of an imperative, and of an exclamatory sentence ; illustrate the different ways of oono tracting sentences. Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph. (See pages 162-165.) To THE Teacher.— See notes to the teacher, pages 30, 150. ,^ The, Sentence ar^d the Parts of Speech. LESSON 59. COMPLEX SENTENCE-ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. Introductory Hints. — The sentences given for analysis in the pre- ceding Lessons contain each but one subject and one predicate. They are called Simple Sentences. A discreet youth makes friends. In Lesson 17 you learned that you could expand the adjective discreet into a phrase, and say, A youth of discretion makes friends. You are now to learn that you can expand it into an expression that asserts, and say, A youth that is discreet makes friends. This part of tlie sentence and the other part, A youth makes friends, containing each a subject and a predicate, we call Clauses. The adjective clause that is discreet, performing the office of a single word, we call a Dependent Clause ; A youth makes friends, not performing such office, we call an Independent Clause. The whole sentence, composed of an independent and a dependent clause, we call a Complex Sentence. A dependent clause that does the work of an adjective is called an Adjective Clause. Analysis. 1. They that touch pitch will be defiled. TTiet/ , will be defiled Explanation.— The relative importanct ' of the two clauses is shown by their position, by their connection, and by the difference in the shadini? of the lines. The pronoun that — H — ' ^ ■ ' — is written on the subject line of the depend- ent clause. That performs the office of a conjunction also. This office is shown by the dotted line. As modifiers are joined by slanting lines to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that thai touch pitch is a modifier of ih^. Complex Sentence— Adjective Clause. 103 Oral Analysis. — This is a complex sentence because it consists of an independent clause and a dependent clause. They will he defiled is the independent clause, and that touch pitch is the dependent. That touch pitch is a modifier of they because it limits the meaning of they ; the dependent clause is connected by its subject that to they. To THE Teacher.— Illustrate the connecting force of wfio, which, and that by substituting for them the words for which they stand, and noting the loss of connection. 2. The lever which moves the world of mind is the printing-press. 3. Wine makes the face of him who drinks it to excess blush for his habits. Explanation. — The adjective clause does not always modify the subject. 4. Photography is the art which enables commonplace mediocrity to look like genius. 5. In 1685 Louis XIV, signed the ordinance that revoked the Edict of Nantes. 6. The thirteen colonies were welded together by the measures which Samuel Adams framed. E]xplanation. — The pronoun connecting an adjective clause is not always a subject. 7. The guilt of the slave-trade,* which sprang out of the traffic with Guinea, rests with John Hawkins. 8. I found the place to which you referred. 9. The spirit in which we act is the highest matter 10. It was the same book that I re- ferred to. • See Lesson 61, foot-note. 104 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Explanation. — The phrase to that modifies referred. That con= nects the adjective clause. When the pronoun that connects an adjective clause, the preposition never precedes. The diagram is similar to that of (8). 11. She that I spoke to was blind. 12. Grouchy did not arrive at the time that Napoleon most needed him. Explanation. — A preposition is wanting. That = in which. (Cau you find a word that would here sound better than that ?) 13. Attention is the stuff that memory is made of. 14. It is to you that I speak. Explanation. — Here the preposition, which usually would stand last in the sentence, is found before the complement of the independ- ent clause. In analysis restore the preposition to its usual place— It is you that I speak to. That I speak to modifies the subject. 15. It was from me that he received the information. {Me must be changed to I when from is restored to its usual position.) rrmmtains 16. Islands are the tops of mountains whose base \ , .„ is in the bed of the ocean. N^ base . IS \.^-^ Explanation. — The connecting pronoun is here a possessive modifier of base. 17. Unhappy is the man whose mother does not make all mothers interesting. LESSON 60- ADJECTIVE CLAUSES-CONTINUEDc Analysis. 1. Trillions of waves of ether enter the eye and hit the retina in y^e time you take to breathe. Adjective Clauses— Continued. 105 Explanation. — The connecting pronoun that* is omitted. 2. The smith takes his name from his smoothing the metals he works on. 3. Socrates was one of the greatest sages the world ever saw. 4. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. Explanation. — The adjective clause modifies the omitted ante- cedent of whom. Supply him. 6. He did what was right. — ^^ j ^'^^ I ■ ^ Explanation.— The adjective \ clause modifies the omitted word thing^ or some word whose meaning is wTiat \ ■ was <^ right general or indefinite. t 6. What is false in this world below betrays itself in a love of show. 7. The swan achieved what the goose conceived, 8. What men he had were true. The relative pronoun what here precedes its noun like an adjective. Analyze as if arranged thus : The men what (= that or whom) he had were true. 9. Whoever does a good deed is instantly ennobled. ♦ When wfurm, which., and that would, if used, be object complements, they are often omitted. Macaulay is the only writer we have found who seldom or never omits t Many grammarians prefer to treat what was right as a noun clause (see Lesson 71), the object of did. They would treat in the same way clauses introduced by whoever, whenever, whichever. " What was originally an interrogative and introduced substantive clauses. Its use as a compound relative is an extension of its use as an indirect interrogative ; it is con- fined to clauses which may be parsed as substantives, and before which no antecedent is needed, or permitted to be expressed. Its possessive whose has, however, attained the full construction of a relative."— Pro/'. F. A. March. 106 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Explanation. — The adjective clause modifies the omitted subject (man or he) of the independent clause. 10. I told him to bring whichever was the lightest. 11. Whatever crushes individuality is despotism. 12. A depot is a place where stores are deposited. depot . is s, place Explanation. — The line repre- ~~"w \t \ senting where is made up of two ''% parts. The upper part represents V wfiere as a conjunction connecting stores yre deposited ^^^ adjective clause to place, and the lower part represents it as an adverb modifying are deposited. As where performs these two offices, it may be called a conjunctive adverb. By chang- ing wTiere to the equivalent phrase in which, and using a diagram similar to (8), Lesson 59, the double nature of the conjunctive adverb will be seen. 13. He raised the maid from where she knelt. (Supply the place before where.) 14. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 15. Shylock would give the duke no reason why he followed a losing suit against Antonio. 16. Mark the majestic simplicity of those laws whereby the opera- tions of the universe are conducted. LESSON 61. COMPOSITION-ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. COMMA— RULE.— The Adjective Clause, when not re^ strictire, is set off by the comma. Explanation. — I picked the apple that was ripe. I picked the apple, which was ripe. In the first sentence the adjective clause restricts or limits apple, telling which one was picked ; in the second the adjective clause is added merely to describe the apple picked, Composition— Adjective Clause. 107 the sentence being nearly equivalent to, I picked the apple, and it was ripe. This difference in meaning is shown by the punctuation.* Caution. — The adjective clause should be placed as near as possible to the word it modifies. Direction. — Correct the following errors of position, and insert the comma when needed : — 1. The Knights of the Round Table flourished in the reign of King Arthur who vied with their chief in chivalrous exploits. 2. Solomon was the son of David who built the Temple. 3. My brother caught the fish on a small hook baited with a worm which we had for breakfast. 4. I have no right to decide who am interested. Direction. — Construct Jive complex sentences, each containing an adjective clause equivalent to one of the following adjectives : — Ambitious, respectful, quick-witted, talkative, lovable. * There are other constructions in which the relative is more nearly equivalent to and Tie or and it ; as, I gave the letter to my friend, who will return it to you. Those who prefer to let their classification be governed by the logical relation rather than by the grammatical construction call such a sentence compound, making the rela- tive clause independent, or co-ordinate with its antecedent clause. Such claasiflcation will often require very careful discrimination ; as, for instance, between the preceding sentence and the following : I gave the letter to my friend, who can be trusted. But we know of no author who, in every case, governs his classification of phrases and clauses strictly by their logical relations. Let us examine the following sentences :— John, who did not know the law., is innocent. John is innocent ; he did not know the law. John is innocent because he did not know the law. No grammarian, we think, would class each of these three italicized clauses as an adverb clause of cause. Do they differ in logical force ? The student should carefully note all those constructions in which the grammatical form and the logical force differ. (See pages 119, 121, 138, 139, 142, 143.) 108 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Direction. — Change the following simple sentences to complex sen- tences by expanding the participle phrases into adjective clauses : — 1. Those fighting custom witli grammar are foolish. 2. The Constitution framed by our fathers is the sheet-anchor of our liberties. 3. I am thy father's spirit, doomed for a certain term to walk the night. 4. Some people, having lived abroad, undervalue the advantages of their native land. 5. A wife and children, threatened with widowhood and orphan- age, have knelt at your feet on the very threshold of the Senate Chamber. Direction. — Change these simple sentences to complex sentences by expanding the infinitive phrases into adjective clauses : — 1. I have many things to tell you. 2. There were none to deliver. 3. He had an ax to grind. 4. It was a sight to gladden the heart. 5. It was a din to fright a monster's ear. Direction.— jPorm complex sentences in which these pronouns and conjunctive adverbs shall be used to cormect adjective clauses : — Who, which, that, what, whoever, and whatever. When, where, and why. Direction. — Change that which in the following sentences to what, and what to that which ; whoever to he who, and whatever to anything or everything which; where and when to at, on, or in which; wherein to in which; and whereby to by which: — 1. That which is seen is temporal. 2. What God hath Joined together let not man put asunder. Complex Sentence— Adverb Clause. 109 3. Whoever lives a pious life blesses his race. 4. Whatever we do has an influence. 5. Scholars have grown old and blind, striving to put their hands on the very spot where brave men died. 6. The year when, Chaucer was born is uncertain. 7. The play's the thing wherein I'll catch the conscience of the king. 8. You take my life in taking the means whereby I live. Direction. — Expand these possessive and explanajtory modifiers into adjective clauses : — . 1. A man's heart deviseth his way. 2. Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, Lie in three words — health, peace, and competence. LESSON 62. Direction. — Analyze the first nine sentences in the preceding Les- son, and write illustrative sentences as here directed: — Give an example of an adjective clause modifying a subject ; one modifying a complement ; one modifying the principal word of a phrase ; one modifying some word omitted ; one whose connective is a subject ; one whose connective is a complement ; one whose con- nective is the principal word of a phrase ; one whose connective is a possessive modifier ; one whose connective is omitted ; one whose connective is an adverb. LESSON 63. COMPLEX SENTENCE-ADVERB CLAUSE. Introductory Hints. — He arrived late. You have learned that you can expand the adverb late into a phrase, and say. He arrived at 110 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. midnight. You are now to learn that you can expand it into a clause of Time, and say, He arrived when the clock struck twelve. He stood where I am. The clause introduced by where expresses Place, and is equivalent to the adverb here or to the phrase in this place. This exercise is as profitable as it is pleasant. The clause intro- duced by as . . . as modifies profitable, telling the Degree of the quality expressed by it. A clause that does the work of an adverb is an Adverb ClausCo Analysis. The adverb clause may express time. 1. When pleasure calls, we listen. jisfgn Explanation.— WAew modifies both listen and ' V calls, denoting that the two acts take place at the ■^ same time. It also connects pleasure calls, SiS an a.d.- ■^ verb modifier, to listen. The oflaces of the conjunc- pleasure |\ calU ^j^^ adverb when may be better understood by expanding it into two phrases thus : We listen at the time at which pleasure calls. At the time modifies listen, at which modifies calls, and which connectSo The line representing tohen is made up of three parts to picture these three offices. The part representing wJien as a modifier of calls is, for convenience, placed above its principal line instead of below it. 2. While Louis XIV. reigned, Europe was at war. 3. When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord will take me up. Lord I will take i me % into at the tim£, and when into at which, \^ ' nT ^ Explanation.— By changing then \ \ \"""^ into at the tim£, and when into at which, > ^ \ ' ' ^ .. w the offices of these two words will be — — clearly seen. For explanation of the ^ — ^ I me jjj^g representing when, see J.ft,<'son 14 mother T and (1) above. Complex Sentence— Adverb Clause. Ill 4. Cato, before* he durst give himself the fatal stroke, spent the night in reading Plato's "Immortality." 5~ Many f ^ J^ar is in its grave since I crossed this restless wavCo Sxplanation. — Many here modifies year, or, rather, year as modi- fied by a. 6. Blucher arrived on the field of Waterloo just as Wellington was meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. Mucker . arrived Explanation.— Jws< may ' ^—X ^ be treated as a modifier of \%N.^ the dependent clause. A \ closer analysis, however. WeWington |\tga.s meding , omlarujU ^^^j^ ^^^^ .^ ^ modifier of as. Just as=jtist at the time at which. Just here modifies at the time. At the time is represented in tne diagram by the first element of the as line. The adverb clause may express place. 7. Where the snow falls, there is freedom. 8. Pope skimmed the cream of good sense. and expression wherever he could find it. 9. The wind bloweth where it listeth. The adverb clause may express degree or result. 10. Washington was as good as he was great. Explanation. — The adverb clause as he was great modifies the first as, which is an adverb modifying good. The first as, modified by the adverb clause, answers the question, Good to what extent or degree ? The second as modifies great and performs the office of a conjunction, and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. Transposing, and expanding ♦ Some prefer, in constructions like this, to treat before, ere, after, till, until, and fince as prepositions followed by noun clauses, t See (11), Lesson 38, and foot-note. 112 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. as . ^ . as into two phrases, we ha\ne, Washington was good in ths degree in which he was great. See diagram of (3) and of (20). 11. The* wiser he grew, the* humbler he became, Explanation. — The words the . , . the are similar in office to as . . . as — He became humbler in that degree in which he became wiser. 12. Gold is heavier than iron. Gold I is \ heamer Explanation. — Heavier = heavy beyond the degree, and than = in which. The sentence '%^ = Oold is heavy beyond tlie degree in which iron . \ is heavy. Is and heavy are omitted. Fre- ' I quently words are omitted after ihaii and as. Than modifies heavy (understood) and connects the clause expressing de- gree to heavier J and is therefore a conjunctive adverb. 13. To be right is better than to be president. Explanation. — To be right is better (good in a greater degree) than to be president (would be good). 14. It was so cold that the mercury froze, f Explanation. — The degree of the cold is here shown by the effect it produced. The adverb so, modified by the adverb clause that the mer- cury froze, answers the question. Cold to what degree ? The sentence = It was cold to that degree in which the mercury froze. That, as you see, modifies froze and connects the clauses ; it is therefore a conjunctive adverb. 15. It was so cold as to freeze the mercury. * The^ here, is not the ordinary adjective the. It is the Anglo-Saxon demonstrative pronoun used in an instrumental sense. It is here an adverb. The first the = by how much, and modifles wiser ; the second the = by so much, and modifies humbler. t In this sentence, also in (15) and (17), the dependent clause is sometimes termed a clause of Result or Consequence. Clauses of Result express different logical rela- tions, and cannot always be classed under Degrct'. Adverb Clause— Continued. 113 explanation. — It was so cold as to freeze the mercury (would indicate or require). 16. Dying for a principle is a higher degree of virtue than scolding for it. 17. He called so loud that all the hollow deep .. J ^ like, it ^f j^gjj resounded. V^^ 18. To preach is easier than to practice. J | \ see I it 19. One's breeding shows itself nowhere more ""^-^ than in his* religion. 20. The oftener I see it, the better I like it^ LESSON 64. ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. Introductory Hints. — He lived as the fool lives. The adverb clause, introduced by as, is a clause of Manner, and is equivalent to the adverb foolishly or to the phrase in a foolish manner. The ground is wet because it has rained. The adverb clause, intro- duced by because, assigns the Real Cause of the ground's being wet. It has rained, for the ground is wet. The adverb clause, introduced by for, does not assign the cause of the raining, but the cause of our believing that it has rained ; it gives the Evidence of what is asserted.! Analysis. The adverb clause may express manner. 1. He died as he lived. ♦ For the use of he instead of the indefinite pronoun one repeated, see Lesson 124. t Evidence should be carefully distinguished from Cause. Cause produces an effect? Evidence produces knowledge of an effect. Clauses of Evidence are sometimes treated aa independent. 114 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. Explanation. — He died in the manner in which he lived. For diagram, see (1), Lesson 63. 2. The upright man speaks as he thinks. 3. As the upright man thinks so he speaks. (For diagram oi as . . . so, see when . . . then (3), Lesson 63.) 4. As is the boy so will be the man. 5. The waves of conversation roll and shape our thoughts as the surf rolls and shapes the pebbles on the shore. The adverb clause may express real cause. 6. The ground is wet because it has rained. ff round .is \ wet \^ \^ Explanation. — Because, being a mere con- % junction, stands on a line wholly dotted. if \has.rained 7. Slang is always vulgar, as it is an affected way of talking. 8. We keep the pores of the skin open, for through them the blood throws off its im) irities. 9. Since the b eath contains poisonous carbonic acid, wise people ventilate their sleeping rooms. 10. Sea-bathing is the most healthful kind of washing, as it com- bines fresh air and vigorous exercise with its other benefits, 11. Wheat is the most valuable of gr ns be- ause bread is made from ts flour. The adverb clause may express evidence. 12. God was angry with the children of Israel, for he overthrew them in the wilderness. 13. Tobacco and the potato are American products, since Raleigh found them here. 14. It rained last night, because the ground is wet this morning. Adverb Clause— Continued. 115 16- We Americans must all be cuckoos, for we build our homes m the nests of other birds. LESSON 65. ADVERB CLAUSE-CONTINUED. Introductory Hints. — If it rains, the ground will he wet. The adverb clause, introduced by if, assigns what, if it occurs, will be the cause of the ground's being wet, but, as here expressed, is only a Condition ready to become a cause. He takes exercise that he may get well. The adverb clause, intro- duced by that, assigns the cause or the motive or the Purposes of his exercising. The ground is dry, although it has rained. The adverb clause^ introduced by although, expresses a Concession. It is conceded that a cause for the ground's not being dry exists ; but, in spite of this opposing cause, it is asserted that the ground is dry. All these dependent clauses of real cause, evidence, condition, pur- pose, and concession come, as you see, under the general head of Cause, although only the first kind assigns the cause proper. Analysis. The adverb clause may express condition. 1. If the air is quickly compressed, enough heat is evolved to pro- duce combustion. 2. Unless your thought packs easily and neatly in verse, always use prose. {Unless = if not.) 3. If ever you saw a crow with a king-bird after him, you have an, image of a dull speaker and a lively listener. 4. Were it not for the warm waters of the Gulf Stream, the harbors 116 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. and the rivers of Britain would be blocked up with ice for a great part ®f the year. Explanation. — The relative position of the subject and the verb renders the if unnecessary. This omission of */ is a common idiom. 5. Should the calls of hunger be neglected, the fat of the body is thrown into the grate to keep the furnace in play. The adverb clause may express purpose. 6. Language was given us that we might say pleasant things to Bach other. Explanation. — That^ introducing a clause of purpose, is a mere conjunction. 7. Spiders have many eyes in order that they may see in many directions at one time. Explanation. — The phrases in order that, so that = that. 8. The ship-canal across the Isthmus of Suez was dug so that European vessels need not sail around the Cape of Good Hope -to reach the Orient. 9. The air draws up vapors from the sea and the land, and retains them dissolved in itself or suspended in cisterns of clouds, that it may drop them as rain or dew upon the thirsty earth. The adverb clause may express concession. 10. Although the brain is only one-fortietli of the body, about one- sixth of the blood is sent to it. 11. Though the atmosphere presses on us with a load of fifteen pounds on every square inch of surface, still we do not feel its weight. 12. Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar, yet will not his foolishness depart from him. Composition— Adverb ClauseSn H'^ 13. If the War of the Roses did not utterly destroy English freedom it arrested its progress for a hundred years. explanation. — If here = even if= ■ \ough. 14. Though many rivers flow into the Mediterranean, they are nc sufficient to make up the loss caused by evaporation. LESSON 66. COMPOSITION-ADVERB CLAUSES. COMMA— RULE.— An Adverb Clause is set off by the comma unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies. Explanation. — I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad. I will not call him villain, because it would he unparliamentary. Paper was invented in China, if the Chinese tell the truth. In these sentences the adverb clauses are not restrictive, but are supplementary, and are added almost as afterthoughts. Glass bends easily when it is red-hot. Leaves do not turn red because the frost colors them. It will break if you touch it. Here the adverb clauses are restrictive ; each is very closely related in thought to the independent clause, and may almost be said to be the essential part of the sentence. When the adverb clause precedes, it is set off. Direction. — Tell why the adverb clauses are or are not set off in Lessons 63 and 64. Direction. — Write, after these independent clauses, adverb clauses of time, place, degree, etc. {for connectives, see Lesson 100), and pu/nct ate according to the Rule : — I. The leaves of the water-maple turn red — time. 118 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. 2. Our eyes cannot bear the light — time, 3. Millions of soldiers sleep— ^p/ace. 4. The Bunker Hill Monument stands— /)/ace, 5. Every spire of grass was so edgec and tipped with dew--=4«e/wsec? by telling when ? What, by telling why ? In 1, paragraph 2, who is described as gazing about ? What does gazing about modify ? Read the group of words that tells how far or how long Franklin walked up the street. Notice that this whole group is used like an adverb. Find in it a subject, a predicate, and an object complement. Drop till and see whether the parts of 1 make separate sentences. What word, then, binds these two sentences into one ? Read 2 and make of it three distinct sentences by omitting the first and and the word hut. The second of these three sentences just made contains several sentences which are not so easily separated, as some are used like single words to make up the main, or principal, sentence. In this second part of 2 find the leading subject and its two predicates. • Find 158 The Sentence and the Parts of Speech. a phrase belonging to /and representing Franklin as doing something. Put what after inquiring and find the object complement. What phrase belongs to went, telling where ? He directed me to {whom) be- longs to what ? Who is represented as intending ? Intendirig ^uch egree are those that generally answer the question. To what extent 9 Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question. In what way 9 Adverbs of Cause are those that generally answer the question, Why 9 Direction. — Point out the transitive and the intransitive, the regu- lar and the irregular verbs in Lesson 14, and classify the adverbs. LESSON 93. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. Caution. — Choose apt adverbs, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other forms of expression ; avoid such as repeat the idea or exaggerate it. Examples. — I could ill (not illy) afford the time. Do as (not like) I do. A diphthong is the union of two vowels (not where or when two vowels unite) in the same syllable. This (not this here or this ''ere) sentence is correct. He wrote that (not how that) he had been sick. The belief in immortality is universally held (not universally held everywhere). His nose was very (not terribly or frightfully) red. Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. I returned back here yesterday. 2. He had not hardly a minute Construction of Adverbs. 191 to spare. 3. The affair was settled amicably, peaceably, and peace- fully. 4. It was awfully amusing. 5. This 'ere knife is dull. 6. That 'ere horse has the heaves. 7. A direct quotation is when the exact words of another are copied. 8. I do not like too much sugar in my tea. 9. He seldom or ever went home sober. 10. The belief in immortality is universally held by all. 11. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 12. This is a fearfully long lesson. 13. He said how that he would go. Caution. — So place adverbs that there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to modify. Have regard to the sound also. They seldom stand between to and the infinitive.* Examples. — I only rowed across the river = I only {= alone, an adjective), and no one else, rowed etc., or = I only rowed etc., but did not sivim or wade. I rowed only across the river = across, not up or down etc. I rowed across the river only = the river only, not the bay etc. Merely to see (not to merely see) her was sufficient. Not every collegian is a scholar (not Every collegian is not a scholar). Direction. — Study ttie Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. I have thought of marrying often. 2. We only eat three meals a day. 3. He hopes to rapidly recruit. 4. All is not gold that glitters. * Instances of the " cleft, or split, infinitive "—the infinitive separated from its to by an intervening adverb— are found in Early English and in English- all the way down. Fitzedward Hall and others have shown this. But there can be no question that usage is overwhelmingly against an adverb's standing between to and the infinitive. Few writers ever place an adverb ''there at ail ; and these few, only an occasional adverb, and that adverb only occasionally. Whether the adverb should be placed before the to or after the infinitive is often a nice question, sometimes to be determined by the ear alone. It should never stand, however, where it woul^d leave the meaning ambiguous or in any way obscure. J92 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 5, He tries to distinctly speak. 6. He tries distinctly to speak, 7. All that glitters is not gold. 8. His sagacity almost appears mirac- ulous. Caution. — Unless you- wish to affirm, do not use two negative words so that they shall contradict each other.* E^xamples. — No one has (not hasn't) yet reached the North Pole. No -jmpleasant circumstance happened (proper, because it is intended to afBrm). Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. No other reason can never be given. 2. He doesn't do nothing. 3. He isn't improving much, I don't think. 4. There must be some- thing wrong when children do not love neither father nor mother. 5. He isn't no sneak. 6. Charlie Ross can't nowhere be found. Caution. — Do not use adverhs for adjectives or adjec- tives for adverhs. Examples. — The moon looks calm and peaceful (not calmly and peacefully, as the words are intended to describe the moon). The moon looks down calmly and peacefully on the battlefield (not calm and peaceful, as the words are intended to tell how she performs the act). I slept soundly (not good or sound). Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1, It was a softly blue sky. 2. The rivei* runs rapid. 3. You must read more distinct. 4. It was an uncommon good harvest. 5. She is most sixteen. 6. The discussion waxed warmly. 7. The prima donna * Not infrequently we use two negatives to make an affirmation ; aa, He is rwt ^mjust; No man can do nothing. Construction of Adverbs— Continued. 193 sings sweet. 8. She is miserable poor. 9. My head feels badly. 10. He spoke up prompt. 11. He w-ent most there. 12. He behaved very bad. 13. This is a mighty cold day. Direction. — Write correct sentences illustrating every point in these four Cautions. LESSON 94. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS-CONTINUED. Miscellaneous Errors. Direction. — Oive the Cautioiis which these sentences violate, and correct the errors: — 1. Begin it over again. 3. This can be done easier. 3. The house is extra warm. 4. Most every one goes there. 5. I have a pencil that long. 6. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 7. A circle can't in no way be squared. 8. This is a remarkable cold winter. 9. The one is as equally deserving as the other. 10. Feathers feel softly. 11. It is pretty near finished. 12. Verbosity is when too many words are used. 13. It is a wonderful fine day. 14. He is some better just now. 15. Generally every morning we went to the spring. 16. I wish to simply state this point. 17. He tried to not only injure but to also ruin the man. 18. The lesson was prodigiously long. 19. The cars will not stop at this station only when the bell rings. 20. He can do it as good as any one can. 21. Most everybody talks so. 22. He hasn't yet gone, I don't believe. 23. He behaved thoughtlessly, recklessly, and carelessly. 24. That 'ere book is readable. 25. I will not go but once. 26. I can't find out neither where the lesson begins nor where it ends. 27. They were nearly dressed alike. 28. The tortured man begged that they would kill him again and again. 29. The fortune was lavishly, profusely, and prodigally spent. 30. I am real glad to see you. 31. We publish all the information, official and otherwise. 194 Parts of Speech Subdivided. LESSON 95. PREPOSITIONS. DEFINITION.— A Preposition is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified. Composition. Direction. — We give below a list of the prepositions in common use. Make short sentences in which each of these shall be aptly used. Use two or three of them in a single sentence if you wish : — ere, till, for, to, from, toward, in, towards, into, under, of, underneath, on, until, over, unto, past, up, round, upon, since, with, through, within, throughout, without. Remarks. — Bating, concerning, during, excepting, notwithstand- ing, pending, regarding, respecting, saving, and touching are still participles in form and sometimes are such in use. But in most cases the participial meaning has faded out of them, and they express mere relations. But, except, and save, in such a sentence as, All but or except or save him were lost, are usually classed with prepositions. Aboard, athwart, about. before. above. behind. across. below, after. beneath. against. beside. along. besides. amid, between, amidst. betwixt. among, beyond. amongst. but, around. by, at, down. Construction of Prepositions. 195 The phrases aboard of, according to, along with, as to, because of (by cause of), from among, from between, from under, instead of (in stead of), out of, over against, and round about may be called componnd prepositions. But from in these compounds ; as, He crawled from under the ruins, really introduces a phrase, the prin- cipal term of which is the phrase that follows from. Many prepositions become adverbs when the noun which ordinarily follows them is omitted ; as, He rode past ; He stands above. LESSON 96. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. To THE Teacher.— Most prepositions express relations so diverse, and so delicate in their shades of distinction that a definition of them based upon etymology would mislead. A happy and discriminating use of prepositions can be acquired only by an extended study of good authors. We do below all that we think it prudent or profit- able to do with them. He should be a man of wide and careful reading who assumes to teach pupils that such prepositions, and such only, should be used with certain words. Nowhere in grammar is dogmatism more dangerous than here. That gram- marian exceeds his commission who marks out for the pupils' feet a path narrower than the highway which the usage of the best writers and speakers has cast up.* * Take a single illustration. Grammarians, in general, teach that between and betwixt "refer to two," are used "only when two things or sets of things are referred to." Ordinarily, and while clinging to their derivation, they are so used, but are they always, and must they be ? "There was a hunting match agreed upon betwixt a lion, an ass, and a fox.'"— L' Estrange. " A Triple Alliance between England, Holland, and Sweden."— j: H. Green. "In the vacant space between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Ethiopia."— G^^ftdon. "His flight between the several woTlds.'^—Addisoti. "The identity of form between the nominative, accusative, and vocative cases in the neuter." — G. P. Marsh. " The distinction between these three orders has been well expressed by Prof. Max Mflller."— W^. D. Whitney. "Between such dictionaries as Worcester's, The Imperial, and Webster's."- i?. G. White. "Betwixt the slender boughs came glimpses of her ivory neck.''''— Bryant. With what clumsy circumlocutions would our be filled if prepositions could never slip the leash of their etymology ! What 196 Parts of Speech Subdivided. Direction. — We give below a few words with the prepositions which usually accompany them. Form short sentences containing these words comMned with each of the prepositions which follow them, and note carefully the different relations expressed by the different preposi- tions : — (Oonsult the dictionary for both the preposition and the accompany- ing word.) Abide at, by, with; accommodate to, with; advantage of, over; agree to, with ; angry at, with ; anxious about, for ; argue against, with; arrive at, in; attend on or upon, to; careless about, in, of; communicate to, with; compare to, with; consists in, of; defend against, from ; die by, for, of; different from; disappointed in, of; distinguish by, from; familiar to, with ; impatient for, of ; indulge in, with ; influence on, over, with ; insensible of, to ; sat beside; many besides. LESSON 97. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED. Direction. — Do with the following words as with those above : — Inquire after, for, into, of; intrude into, upon; joined to, with; liberal of, to; live at, in, on; look after, for, on; need of; obliged simple and graceful substitute could be found for the last phrase in this sentence, for instance : There were forty desks in the room with ample space between them ? "We observe that between is not restricted to two^— Imperial Dictionary. " In all senses between has been, from its earliest appearance, extended to more than two. It is still the only word available to express the relation of a thing to many surround- ing things severally and individually— among' expressing a relation to them collectively and vaguely : we should not say, 'The choice lies among the three candidates,' or ' to insert a needle among the closed petals of a flower. ' "— 7%e New English Dictionary. We have collected hundreds of instances of between used by good writers with three or more. Guard against such expressions as between each page ; a choice between one of several. Construction of Prepositions— Continued. 197 for, to ; part from, with ; placed in, on ; reconcile to, with ; regard for, to ; remonstrate against, with ; sank beneath, in, into ; share m, of, with; sit in, on or upon; smile at, on; solicitous about, for; strive for, with, against; taste for, of; touch at, on or upon; useful for, in, to ; weary of, in, with ; yearn for, towards. LESSON 98. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED. Caution. — Great care must be used in the choice of prepositions. Direction. — Correct these errors: — 1. This book is different to that. 2. He stays to home. 3. They two quarreled among each other. 4. He is in want for money. 5. I was followed with a crowd. 6. He fell from the bridge in * the water. 7. He fought into * the Revolution. 8. He bears a close resemblance of his father. 9. He entered in the plot. 10. He lives at London. 11. He lives in the turn of the road. 12. I have need for a vacation. 13. The child died with the croup. 14. He took a walk, but was disap- pointed of it. 15. He did not take a walk ; he was disappointed in it. 16. He was accused with felony. 17. School keeps upon Monday. 18. Place a mark between each leaf. 19. He is angry at his father. 20. He placed a letter into my hands. 21. She is angry with your conduct. 22. What is the matter of him ? 23. I saw him over to the house. 24. These plants differ with each other. 25. He boards to the hotel. 26. I board in the hotel. 27. She stays at the North. 28. I have other reasons beside f these. 29. You make no use with your * In denotes motion or rest in a condition or place ; into, change from one condition or place into another. " When one is outside of a place, he may be able to get into it ; but he cannot do anjrthing in it until he has got into it." It Beside = by the side of; besides = in addition tQ. 198 Parts of Speech Subdivided. talents. 30. He threw himself onto the bed. 31. The boys are hard to work. 32. He distributed the apples between his four brothers. 33. He went in the park. 34. You can confide on him. 35. He arrived to Toronto. 36. I agree with that plan. 37. The evening was spent by reading. 38. Can you accommodate me in one of those ? 39. What a change a century has produced upon our country ! 40. He stays to school late. 41. The year of the Restoration plunged Milton in bitter poverty. 42. The Colonies declared themselves independent from England. 43. I spent my Saturdays by going in the country, and enjoying myself by fishing. LESSON 99. CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED.* Caution. — Do not use prepositions needlessly. Direction. — Correct these errors: — 1. I went there at about noon. 2. In what latitude is Boston in ? * " A preposition is a feeble word to end a sentence with,'''' we are told. Sentences (10) and (13), Lesson 59, (2), Lesson 60, and many in succeeding Lessons violate the rule so carelessly expressed. Of this rule, laid down without regard to usage and thoughtlessly repeated, Prof. Austin Phelps says, " A preposition as such is by no naeans a feeble word ; " and he quotes a burst of feeling from Rufus Choate which ends thus : " Never, so long as there is left of Plymouth Kock a piece large enough to make a gunflint of! "' "This," Professor Phelps says, "is purest idiomatic English." He adds, "The old Scotch interrogative, ' What for f ' is as pure English in written as in colloquial speech." Sentences containing two prepositions before a noun are exceedingly conmion in English—" The language itself is inseparable from, or essentially a part o/", the thoughts.'''' Such sentences have been condemned, but the worst that can be urged against them is, that they lack smoothness. But smoothness is not always desirable. Sentences containing a transitive verb and a preposition before a noun are very common— " Powerless to affect, or to be affected by, the times.'''' Construction of Prepositions— Continued. 199 3. He came in for to have a talk. 4. I started a week ago from last Saturday. 5. He was born August 15, in 1834. 6. A good place to see a play is at Wallack's. 7. He went to home. 8. I was leading of a horse about. 9. By what states is Kentucky bounded by ? 10. His servants ye are to whom ye obey. 11. Where are you going to ? 13. They admitted of the fact. 13. Raise your book off of the table. 14. He took the poker from out of the fire. 15. Of what is the air com- posed of ? 16. You can tell by trying of it. 17. Where have you been to ? 18. The boy is like to his father. 19. They offered to him a chair. 20. This is the subject of which I intend to write about. 21. Butter brings twenty cents for a pound. 22. Give to me a knife. 23. I have a brother of five years old. 24. To what may Italy be likened to ? 25. In about April the farmer puts in his seed. 26. Jack's favorite sport was in robbing orchards. 27. Before answering of you, I must think. 28. He lives near to the river. 29. Keep off of the grass. Caution. — Do not omit prepositions when they are needed. ' Direction. — Correct these errors : — 1. There is no use going there. 2. He is worthy our help. 3. I was prevented going. 4. He was banished the country. 5. He is unworthy our charity. 6. What use is this to him ? 7. He was born on the 15th August, 1834. 8. Adam and Eve were expelled the garden. 9. It was the size of a pea. 10. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 11. His efforts were not for the great, but the lowly. 12. He received dispatches from England and Russia. Direction. — Point out the prepositions in Lessons 80 and 81, and name the words between which, in sense, they show the relation. dOO Parts of Speech Subdivided. LESSON lOO. CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVES. Introductory Hints. — The stars look down upon the roofs of the living and upon the graves of the dead, hut neither the living nor the dead are conscious of their gaze. Here and, but, neither, and nor connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal rank, or order, and so are called Co-ordinate Conjunctions. Both clauses may be independ- ent, or both dependent but of equal rank. At the burning of Moscow, it seemed as [it would seem] if the heavens were lighted up that the nations might behold the scene. Here as, if, and that connect each a lower, or subordinate, clause to a clause of higher rank, and hence are called Subordinate Conjunc- tions. One clause may be independent and the other dependent, or both dependent but of unequal rank. DEFINITIONS. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses.* Co-ordinate Conjunctions are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses of the same rank. Subordinate Conjunctions are such as connect clauses of different rank. Remark. — Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper ; some are relative pronouns ; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, * Some of the co-ordinate conjunctions, as and and but, connect, in thought, sen- tences separated by the period, and even connect paragraphs. In analysis and pars- ing, we regard only the individual sentence and treat such connectives as intro- ductory. Classes of Conjunctions and Other Connectives. 201 which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves and connect the clauses. To THE Teacher.— We do not advise the memorizing of these lists. The pupils should be able to name the different groups, and some of the most common con- nectives of each group. Co-ordinate Connectives.* Copulative. — And, both . . . and, as well as f are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs. Adversative. — But and whereas are conjunctions proper. How- ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs. Alternative. — Neither, nor, or, either . . . or, and neither . . . nor are conjunctions proper. Ulse and otherwise are conjunctive adverbs. Subordinate Connectives. CONNECTIVES OF ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. TTiat, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are rela- tive pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunc- tive adverbs. *^ CONNECTIVES OF ADVERB CLAUSES. Time. — After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while,. and whilst are conjunctive adverbs. Place. — Whence, where, and wherever &re conjunctive adverbs. * Copulative conjunctions join parts in the same line of thought ; Adversative conjunctions join parts contrasted or opposed in meaning ; Alternative conjunc- tions join parts so as to offer a choice or a denial. See Lesson 76. t The as well as in, He, as well as I, went ; and not that in, He is as well as I am. 802 Parts of Speech Subdivided. Degree. — As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correla- tive with adjectives or adverbs. Manner, — As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative, often, with an adjective or an adverb. v«!v cMeal Cause. — As, because, for, since, and whereas are conjunctions proper. Evidence. — Because, for, and si7ice are conjunctions proper. Purpose. — In order that, lest (= that not), that, and so that are con- junctions proper. Coridition. — Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper. Concession. — Although, if (= even if), notwithstanding, though, and whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive ad- verb. Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely. CONNECTIVES OF NOUN CLAUSES. If, lest, that, and whether * are conjunctions proper. What, which, and who are pronouns introducing questions ; and how, when, whence, where, and why are conjunctive adverbs introducing questions. Direction. — Study the lists above, and point out all the connectives in Lessons 80 and 81, telling which are relative pronouns, which are conjunctions proper, and which are conjunctive adverbs. To THE Teacher.— If the pupils lack maturity, or if it is found necessary to abridge this work in order to conform to a prescribed course of study, the six follow- ing Lessons may be omitted. The authors consider these exercises very profitable, but their omission will occasion no break in the course. * Etymologically, whether is restricted to two ; but it has burst the bonds of its etymology and is very freely used with three or more. The repetition of whether, like the use of it with three or more things, has been condemned, but usage allows us to repeat it. Whether orno is also allowed. Connectives. 203 LESSON lOl. COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES. Direction. — Write twenty compound sentences whose clauses shall he joined hy connectives named in the three subdivisions of co-ord i- nate connectives. LESSON 10 2. COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. Direction. — Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall he joined hy connectives of adjective clauses, and hy connectives of adverb clauses of time, place, degree, and manner. LESSON 103. COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. Direction. — Write twenty complex sentences whose clauses shall be joined hy connectives of adverb clauses of real cause, evidence, purpose, condition, and concession, and hy connectives of noun clauses. LESSON 10 4, CONNECTIVES. Analysis. Direction. — Tell what lands of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and then analyze the sentences: — As may connect a clause expressing manner, time, degree, cause, or evidence. i 204 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 1. Mount Marcy is not so high as Mount Washington. 2. As I passed by, I found an altar with this inscription. 3. It must be raining, as men are carrying umbrellas. 4. Ice floats, as water expands in freezing. 5. Half-learned lessons slip from the memory, as an icicle from the hand. If may connect a clause expressing condition, time, or concession, or it may introduce a noun clause. 6. If a slave's lungs breathe our air, that moment he is free. 7. If wishes were horses, all beggars might ride. 8. Who knows if * one of the Pleiads is really missing ? 9. If the flights of Dryden are higher, Pope continues longer on the wing. Liest may connect a clause expressing purpose, or it may introduce a noun clause. 10. England fears lest Russia may endanger British rule in India. 11. Watch and pray lest ye enter into temptation. Since may connect a clause expressing time, cause, or -evidence. 12. It must be raining, since men are carrying umbrellas. 13. Many thousand years have gone by since the Pyramids were built. 14. Since the Puritans could not be convinced, they were per- secuted. * Many grammarians say that if here is improperly used for whether. But this use ol if \& common with good authors in early and in modem English. Connectives— Continued. 205 LESSON 105. CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. Analysis. Direction. — Tell what hinds of clauses follow the connectives below, and what are the usual connectives of such clauses, and theti analyze the sentences : — That may connect a noun clause, an adjective clause, or a clause expressing degree, cause, or purpose. 1. The Pharisee thanked God that he was not like other men. 2. Vesuvius threw its lava so far that Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. 3. The smith plunges his red-hot iron into water that he ma^ harden the metal. 4. Socrates said that he who might be better employed was idle. 5. We never tell our secrets to people that pump for them. When may connect a clause expressing time, cause, or condition, an adjective clause or a noun clause^ or it may connect co-ordinate clauses. 6. The Aztecs were astonished when they saw the Spanish horses. 7. November is the month when the deer sheds its horns. 8. When the future is uncertain, make the most of the present. 9. When the five great European races left Asia is a question. 10. When judges accept bribes, what may we expect from common people ? 11. The dial instituted a formal inquiry, when hands, wheels, and weights protested their innocence. Where may connect a clause expressing place, an adjective clause, or a noun clause. 206 Parts of Speech Subdivided. 12. No one knows the place where Moses was buried. 13. Where Moses was buried is still a question. 14. No one has been where Moses was buried. While may connect a clause expressing time or eon- cession, or it may connect co-ordinate clauses. 15. Napoleon was a genius, while Wellington was a man of talents. 16. While we sleep, the body is rebuilt. 17. While Charles I. had many excellent traits, he was a bad king. LESSON 106. CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. Analysis. Direction. — Use the appropriate connectives, and change these com- pound sentences to complex without changing the meaning, and then analyze them : — (Let one dependent clause be an adjective clause ; let three express cause ; five, condition ; and two, concession.) 1. Caesar put the proffered crown aside, but he would fain have had it. 2. Take away honor and imagination and poetry from war, and it becomes carnage. 3. His crime has been discovered, and he must flee. 4. You must eat, or you will die. 5. Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get wisdom. 6. Let but the commons hear this testament, and they would go and kiss dead Caesar's wounds. 7. Men are carrying umbrellas ; it is raining. 8. Have ye brave sons ? look in the next fierce brawl to see them die. Construction of Connectives. 207 9. The Senate knows this, the Consul sees it, and yet the traitor lives. 10. Take away the grandeur of his cause, and Washington is a rebel instead of the purest of patriots. 11. The diamond is a sparkling gem, and it is pure carbon. Direction. — Two of the dependent clauses helow express condition^ and three express concession. Place an appropriate conjunction before each, and then analyze the sentences : — 12. Should we fail, it can be no worse for us. 13. Had the Plantagenets succeeded in France, there would never have been an England. 14. Were he my brother, I could do no more for him. 15. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify the reader. 16. Were I [Admiral Nelson] to die this moment, more frigates would be found written on my heart. LESSON 10 7. CONSTRUCTION OF CONNECTIVES. Caution. — Some conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs may stand in correlation with other words. And may be accompanied by loth; as, by as, by so, or by such; hut {hut also and hut likewise), by not only ; if, by then ; nor, by neither ; or, by either or by tohether ; that, by so ; the, by the ; though, by yet ; when, by then ; and where, by there. Be careful that the right words stand in correlation, and stand where they belong. 908 Parts of Speech Subdivided. Examples. — Give me neither riches nor (not or) poverty. I cannot find either my book or (not nor) my hat. Dogs not only bark (not 7iot only dogs bark) but also bite. lilot only dogs (not dogs not only) bark but wolves also. He ivas neither (not neither was) rich nor poor. DirectioD. — Study the Caution, and correct these errors: — 1. He not only gave me advice but also money. 2. A theatrical part may either imply some peculiarity of gesture or a dissimulation of my real sentiments. 3. She not only dressed richly but tastefully. 4. Neither Massachusetts or Pennsylvania has the population of New York. 5. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge of nature but also for his moral wisdom. 6. Not only he is successful but he deserves to succeed. 7. There was nothing either strange nor inter- esting. Caution. — Choose apt connectives, but do not use them needlessly or instead of other parts of speech. Examples. — Seldom, if (not or) ever, should an adverb stand between to and the infinitive. I will try to (not and) do better next time. No one can deny that (not hut) he has money. * A harrow is drawn over the ground, which (not and which) covers the seed. Who doubts that (not hut that or hut what) Napoleon lived * ? The doctor had scarcely left whsn (not huf) a patient called. He has no love for his father or (not nor) for his mother (the negative no is felt through- out the sentence, and need not be repeated by nor). He was not well, nor (not or) was he sick (not is expended in the first clause ; nor is needed to make the second clause negative). Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. The excellence of Virgil, and which he possesses beyond other poets, is tenderness. 2. Try and recite the lesson perfectly to-morrow. * See foot-note, page 176. Construction of Connectives. 209 3. Who can doubt but that there is a God ? 4. No one can eat nor drink while he is talking. 5. He seldom or ever went to church. 6. No one can deny but that the summer is the hottest season. 7. I do not know as I shall like it. 8. He said that, after he had asked the advice of all his friends, that he was more puzzled than before. Caution. — Else, other, otherwise, rather, and adjectives and adverbs expressing a comparison are usually followed by than. But else, other, and more, implying something additional, but not different in kind, may be followed by but ov besides. Examples. — A diamond is nothing else than carbon. Junius was no other than Sir Philip Francis. The cripple cannot walk otherwise than on crutches. Americans would rather travel than stay at home. I rose earlier than I intended. He can converse on other topics besides politics. Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. Battles are fought with other weapons besides pop-guns. 2. The moon is something else but green cheese. 3. Comwallis could not do otherwise but surrender. 4. It was no other but the President. 5. He no sooner saw the enemy but he turned and ran. Caution. — Two or more connected words or phrases referring to another word or phrase should each make good sense with it. Examples. — I have always (add said) and still do say that labor is honorable. Shakespeare was greater than any other poet that has (add lived) or is now alive. The boy is stronger than his sister, but not so tall (not The boy is stronger, but not so tall, as his sister). 14 210 Parts of Speech Subdivided. Direction. — Study the Caution and the Examples, and correct these errors : — 1. Gold is heavier, but not so useful, as iron. 2. Gold is not so useful, but heavier, than iron. 3. This is as valuable, if not more so, than that. 4. Faithful boys have always and always will learn their lessons. 5. Bread is more nutritious, but not so cheap, as potatoes. 6. This dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or may be published. LESSON 108. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. Direction. — Correct these errors, telling what Caution each vio- lates : — 1. Carthage and Rome were rival powers : this city in Africa, and that in Europe ; the one on the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the other on the southern. 3. The right and left lung were diseased. 3. The right and the left lungs were diseased. 4. My friend has sailed for Europe, who was here yesterday. 5. There are some men which are always young. 6. I cannot think but what God is good. 7. Thim- bles, that are worn on the finger, are used in pushing the needle. 8. A told B that he was his best friend. 9. Them scissors are very dull. 10. Ethan Allen, being a rash man, he tried to capture Canada. 11. The lady that was thrown from the carriage, and who was picked up insensible, died. 12. The eye and ear have different offices. 13. I only laugh when I feel like it. 14. This is the same man who called yesterday. 15. He was an humble man. 16. He was thrown forward onto his face. 17. A knows more, but does not talk so well, as B. 18. The book cost a dollar, and which is a great price. 19. At what wharf does the boat stop at ? 20. The music sounded harshly. 21. He would neither go himself or send anybody. 22. It isn't but a short Various Uses of What, That, and But. 211 distance. 23. The butter is splendid. 24. The boy was graceful and tall. 25. He hasn't, I don't suppose, laid by much. 26. One would rather have few friends than a few friends. 27. He is outrageously proud. 28. Not only the boy skated but he enjoyed it. 29. He has gone way out West. 30. Who doubts but what two and two are four ? 31. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt water. 32. The problem was difficult to exactly understand. 33. It was the length of your finger. 34. He bought a condensed can of milk. 35. The fish breathes with other organs besides lungs. 36. The death is inevitable. 37. She wore a peculiar kind of a dress. 38. When shall we meet together ? 39. He talks like you do.* 40. This word has a different source than that. 41. No sooner did I arrive when he called. LESSON 10 9. VARIOUS USES OF WHAT, THAT, AND BUT. What may be used as a relative pronoun, an inter- rogative pronoun, a definitive acljective, an adverb, and an interjection. Examples.— He did what was right. What did he say? What man is happy with the toothache ? What with confinement and what with bad diet, the prisoner found himself reduced to a skeleton (here what = partly, and modifies the phrase following it). What ! you a lion ? That may be used as a relative pronoun, an adjective * The use of the verb do as a substitute for a preceding verb is one of the most remarkable idioms in the language. In its several forms it stands for the finite forms and for the infinitive and the participle of verbs, transitive and intransitive, regular and irregular. It prevents repetition, and hence is euphonic ; it abbreviates expression, and therefore is energetic. 213 Parts of Speech Subdivided. pronoun, a definitive adjective, a coiy unction, and a conjunctive adverb. lExamples. — He that does a good deed is instantly ennobled. That is heroism. That man is a hero. We eat that we may live. It was so cold that the mercury froze. But may be used as a conjunction, an adverb, an adjective, and a preposition. Examples. — The ostrich is a bird, hut (adversative conjunction) it cannot fly. Not a sparrow falls hut (= unless — subordinate conjunc- tion) God wills it. He was all hut (conjunction or preposition) dead = He was all dead, hut he was not dead, or He was all (anything in that line) except (the climax) dead. No man is so wicked hut (conjunctive adverb) he loves virtue = No man is wicked to that degree in which he loves not virtue {so = to that degree, hut = in which not). We meet but (adverb = only) to part. Life is hut (adjective = only) a dream. All hut (preposition = except) him had fled. The tears of love were hopeless hut (preposition = except) for thee. I cannot hut remember = I cannot do anything hut (preposition = except) remember. There is no fireside hut (preposition) has one vacant chair (except the one which has) ; or, regarding hut as a negative relative = that not, the sen- tence = There is no fireside that has not one vacant chair. Direction. — Study the examples given ahove, point out the exact use of what, that, and hut in these sentences, and then analyze the sentences : — 1. He did nothing but laugh. 2. It was once supposed that crystal Is ice frozen so hard that it cannot be thawed. 3. What love equals a mother's ? 4. There is nobody here but me. 5. The fine arts were all but proscribed. 6. There's not a breeze but whispers of thy name. 7. The longest life is but a day. 8. What if the bee love not these Review Questions. 21S barren boughs ? 9. That life is long which answers life's great end. 10. What ! I the weaker vessel ? 11. Whom should I obey but thee ? 12. What by industry and what by economy, he had amassed a for- tune. 13. I long ago found that out. 14. One should not always eat what he likes. 15. There's not a white hair on your face but should have its effect of gravity. 16. It was a look that, but for its quiet, would have seemed disdain. 17. He came but to return. LESSON 1 lO. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Lesson 85. — Define a noun. What is the distinction between a common and a proper noun ? Why is music a common noun ? What is a collective noun ? An abstract noun ? Define a pronoun. What are the classes of pronouns ? Define them. What is an antecedent ? Lesson 86. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting he, it, and tJiey ; the needless use of pronouns ; the two styles of the pronoun ; the use of them for those, and of what for that ; and the use of who, which, that, and what. Lesson 87. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting connected relative clauses ; the relative in clauses not restrictive ; the use of that instead of who or which ; the position of the relative clause ; and the use of this and that, the one and the other. Lesson 89. — Define an adjective. What two classes are there ? Define them. What adjectives do not limit ? Illustrate. Lesson 90. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the use of the adjectives an, a, and the ; and the use of a few and few, a little and little. Lesson 91. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and the position of adjectives. 214 Parts of Speech Subdivided. Lesson 92. — Define a verb. What are transitive verbs ? Intransi- tive ? Illustrate. What distinction is made between the object and the object complement ? What are regular verbs ? Irregular ? Illustrate. What are the several classes of adverbs ? Define them. What is a conjunctive adverb ? Lesson 93. — Give and illustrate the Cautions respecting the choice and the position of adverbs, the use of double negatives, and the use of adverbs for adjectives and of adjectives for adverbs. LESSON 111. REVIEW QUESTIONS-CONTINUED. Lesson 95. — Define a preposition. Name some of the common prepositions. What is said of some prepositions ending in ing 9 Of hut, except, and save 9 Of certain compound prepositions ? When do prepositions become adverbs ? Lesson 98. — Give and illustrate the Caution as to the choice of prep- ositions. What, in general, is the difference between in and into 9 Lesson 99. — Give and illustrate the two Cautions relating to the use of prepositions. Lesson 100. — Define a conjunction. What are the two great classes of conjunctions, and what is their difference ? What other parts of speech besides conjunctions connect ? What are adverbs that con- nect called ? Into what three classes are co-ordinate connectives subdivided ? Give some of the conjunctions and the conjunctive adverbs of each class. What three kinds of clauses are connected by- subordinate connectives ? The connectives of adverb clauses are sub- divided into what classes ? Give a leading connective of each class. Lessons 104, 105. — Illustrate two or more offices of each of the connectives as, if, lest, since, that, when, where, and while. General Review. 215 Lesson 107. — Give and illustrate the four Cautions relating to the construction of connectives. Lesson 109. — Illustrate the offices of what, that, and but. GENERAL REVIEW. Schemes for the Conjunction, Preposition, and Interjection. {The numbers refer to Lessons.) THE CONJUNCTION. Classes. ] ^^0^''. [ ''"-'''• THE PREPOSITION. No Classes (95, 98, 99). THE INTERJECTION. No Classes (20, 21). MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. LESSON 112. Introductory Hints. — You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the meaning or use of a word may be changed by simply changing its form. The English language has lost most of its inflections, or forms, so that many of the changes in the meaning and the use of words are not now marked by changes in form. These changes in the form, the meaning, and the use of the parts of speech we call their Modifications.* * Those grammarians that attempt to restrict number, case, mode, etc.— ^hat we here call Modifications— io form, find themselves within bounds which they continu- ally overleap. They define number, for instance, as a form, or inflection, and yet Bi)eak of nouns "plural in form but singular in sense," or "singular in form but plnral in sense ; " that is, if you construe them rigorously, plural or singular in form but singular or plural form in sense. They tell you that case is a form, and yet insist that nouns have three cases, though only two forms ; and speak of the nominative and the objective case of the noun, " although in fact the two cases are always the same in form "—the two forms always the same in form ! On the other hand, those that make what we call Modifications denote only relations or conditions of words cannot cling to these abstract terms. For instance, they ask the pupil to "pronounce and write the possessive of nouns," hardly expecting, we suppose, that the " condition " of a noun veill be sounded or written ; and they eiieak 218 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Modifications of Nouns and Pronouns. NUMBER. The hoy shouts. The boys shout. The form of the subject hoy is changed by adding an s to it. The meaning has changed. Boy de- notes one lad ; hoys, two or more lads. This change in the form and the meaning of nouns is called Number ; the word hoy, denoting one thing, is in the Singular Number ; and hoys, denoting more than one thing, is in the Plural Number. Number expresses only the distinction of one from more than one ; to express more precisely how many, we use adjectives, and say two hoys, four hoys, many or several hoys. • DEFINITIONS. Modifications of the Parts of Speech are changes in their form, meaning, and nse. Number is tliat modification of a noun or pronoun wliicli denotes one thing or more than one. The Singular Number denotes one thing. The Plural Number denotes more than one thing. NUMBER FORMS. RULE. — The plural of nouns is regularly formed by adding s to the singular. To this rule there are some exceptions. of "a noun in the singular witli a plural application," in which expression singviar must be taken to mean singular form to save it from sheer nonsense. We know no way to steer clear of Scylla and keep out of Charybdis but to do what by the common use of the word we are allowed ; viz., to take Modifications with such breadth of signification that it will apply to meaning and to use, as well as to form. Primarily, of course, it meant inflections, used to mark changes in the meaning and use of words. But we shall use Modifications to indicate changes in meaning and use when the form in the particular instance is wanting, nowhere, however, recognizing that as a modification which is not somewhere marked by form. Number Forms. X 319 When the singular ends in a sound that cannot unite with that of s, es is added and forms another syllable. * Remark. — Such words as horse, niche, and cage drop the final e when es is added. See Rule 1, Lesson 127. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns, and note what letters represent sounds that cannot unite with the sound of 8 :— Ax or axe, arch, adz or adze, box, brush, cage, chaise, cross, ditch, face, gas, glass, hedge, horse, lash, lens, niche, prize, race, topaz. The following nouns ending in o preceded by a conso- nant add es without increase of syllables. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Buffalo, calico, cargo, echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, mosquito, mulatto, negro, portico {oes or os), potato, tornado, torpedo, veto, volcano. The following nouns in o preceded by a consonant add s only. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns: — Canto, domino {os or oes), duodecimo, halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, salvo, solo, two, tyro, zero {os or oes). Nouns in o preceded by a vowel add s. Bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, portfolio, seraglio, trio. * In Anglo-Saxon, as was the plural termination for a certain class of nouns. In later English, as was changed to es, which became the regular plural ending ; as, bird-es, daud-es. In modem English, e is dropped, and s is joined to the singular without increase of syllables. But, when the singular ends in an «-80und, the original syllable es is retained, as two hissing sounds will not unite. 230 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Common nouns* in y after a consonant change y into i and add es without increase of syllables. Nouns in y after a vowel add s. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Alley, ally, attorney, chimney, oity, colloquy, f daisy, essay, fairy, fancy, kidney, lady, lily, money, monkey, mystery, soliloquy, turkey, valley, vanity. • The following nouns change / or fe into ves. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Beef, calf, elf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, staff, J thief, wharf, § wife, wolf. The following nouns in / and fe are regular. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Belief, brief, chief, dwarf, fife, grief, gulf, hoof, kerchief, proof, reef, roof, safe, scarf, strife, waif, (Nouns in ff, except staff, are regular ;~ as, cuff, cuffs.) The following plurals are still more irregular. Direction. — Learn to form the following plurals : — Child, children ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; louse, lice ; man, men ; mouse, mice ; Mr., Messrs.; ox, oxen ; tooth, teeth ; woman, women. (For the plurals of pronouns, see Lesson 124.) * See Rule 2, Lesson 127. In old English, such words as lady and fancy were spelled ladie,fancie. The modem plural simply retains the old spelling and adds 8. t TT after §• is a consonant. X Staff (a stick or support), staves or staffs ; staff (a body of officers), staffs. The compounds of staff are regular ; as, flagstaffs. § In England, generally wharfs. Number Forms— Continued. 321 LESSON 113. NUMBER FORMS-CONTINUED. Some nouns adopted from foreign languages still retain their original plural forms. Some of these take the English plural also. Direction. — Learn to form the following plurals : — ■ Analysis, analyses ; antithesis, antitheses ; appendix, appendices or appendixes ; automaton, automata or automatons ; axis, axes ; bandit, banditti or bandits ; basis, bases ; beau, beaux or beaus ; cherub, cherubim or cherubs ; crisis, crises ; datum, data ; ellipsis, ellipses ; erratum, errata ; focus, foci ; fungus, fungi or funguses ; genus, genera ; hypothesis, hypotheses ; ignis fatuus, ignes fatui ; madame, mesdames ; magus, magi ; memorandum, memoranda or memoran- dums ; monsieur, messieurs ; nebula, nebulae ; oasis, oases ; parenthe- sis, parentheses ; phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii or radiuses ; seraph, seraphim or seraphs ; stratum, strata ; synopsis, synopses ; terminus, termini ; vertebra, -vertebrae ; vortex, vortices or vortexes. The following compound nouns, in which the principal word stands first, vary the first word ; as, so^s-in-law. Direction. — Form the plural of the following words : — Aid-de-camp, attorney-at-law, billet-doux,* commander-in-chief, court-martial, cousin-german, father-in-law, hanger-on, man-of-war. The following, and most compounds, vary the last word ; as, pailful5,t gentlemen. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — ♦ Plural, bUletg-doux, pronounced hii'-lh-dC^. t PaUs fvU is not a compound. This expression denotes a number of pails, each. fnU. Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Courtyard, dormouse, Englishman, fellow - servant, fisherman, Frenchman, forget-me-not, goose-quill, handful, maid-servant, man- trap, mouthful, pianoforte, portemonnaie, spoonful, stepson, tete-a- tete, tooth-brush. The following nouns (except Norman) are not compounds of man — add s to all. Brahman, German, Mussulman, Norman, Ottoman, talisman. The following compounds vary both parts ; as, man- sitiger, men-singers. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following nouns : — Man-child, man-servant, woman-servant, woman-singer. Compounds consisting of a proper name preceded by a title form the plural by varying either the title or the name ; as, the Miss Clarhs or the Misses Clark ; but, when the title Mrs. is used, the name is usually varied ; as, the Mrs. Claries.'^ Direction. — Form the 'plural of the following compounds : — Miss Jones, Mr. Jones, General Lee, Dr. Brown, Master Green. A title used with two or more different names is made plural ; as, Drs. Grimes and Steele, Messrs. Clark and Maynard. Direction. — Put each of the following expressions in its proper form : — * Of the two forms, the Miss Clarks and the Misses Clark, we believe that the former is most used by the best authors. The latter, except in formal notes or when the title is to be emphasized, is rather stiff if not pedantic. Some authorities say that, when a numeral precedes the title, the name should always be varied ; as, the ttoo Miss Clarks. The forms, the Misses Clarks and the two Mrs. Clark, have little authority. Number Forms— Continued. 223 General Lee and Jackson ; Miss Mary, Julia, and Anna Scott ; Mr. Green, Stacy, & Co. Letters, figures, and other characters add the apostrophe and s to form the plural * ; as, a's, 2's, — '5. Direction. — Form the plural of each of the following characters : — S, i, t, +, X, t, 9, 1, i, !, 3. LESSON 114. NUMBER FORMS-CONTINUED. Some nouns have two plurals differing in meaning. Direction. — Learn these plurals and their meanings : — I brothers (by blood), Brother, •< brethren (of the same ( society). ( cannons (individuals), Cannon, -j cannon (in a collective ( sense). {dies (stamps for coin- ing), dice (cubes for gam- ing), fishes (individuals), fish (collection), j feet (parts of the body), { foot (foot-soldiers). { geniuses (men of gen- Genius, < ius), ' genii (spirits). Head, Horse, Die, Fish,f Foot, i heads (parts of the body), head (of cattle). j horses (animals), ( horse (horse-soldiers), r indexes (tables of refer- , , J ence), ' I indices (signs in al- ^ gebra). ( pennies (distinct coins). Penny, < pence (quantity in ( value). < sails (pieces of canvas), ( sail (vessels). {shots (number of times fired), shot (number of balls). Sail, * Some good writers form the plural of words named merely as words, in the way ; as, the i/V and and's ; but the (') is here unnecessary. + The names of several sorts of fish, as, herring, shad, trout, etc. are used in the same way. The compoandB offish, as codfish, have the same form in both numbers. 224 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. The following nouns and pronouns have the same form in both numbers. Direction. — Study the following list ;— Bellows, corps,* deer, gross, grouse, hose, means, odds, pains (care), series, sheep, species, swine, vermin, who, which, that (relative), what, any, none. (The following have two forms in the plural). Apparatus, apparatus or apparatuses ; heathen, heathen or heathens. (The following nouns have the same form in both numbers when used with numerals ; they add s in other cases ; as, four score, by scores.) Dozen, score, yoke, hundred, thousand. The following nouns have no plural. (These are generally names of materials, qualities, or sciences.) Names of materials when taken in their full or strict sense can have no plural, but they may be plural when kinds of the material or things made of it are referred to ; as, cottons, coffees, tins, coppers. Direction. — Study the following list of words : — Bread, coffee, copper, flour, gold, goodness, grammar (science, not a book), grass, hay, honesty, iron, lead, marble, meekness, milk, molasses, music, peace, physiology, pride, tin, water. The following plural forms are commonly used in the singular. Acoustics, ethics, mathematics, politics (and other names of sciences in ics), amends, measles, news. The following words are always plural. (Such words are generally names of things double or multiform in their character.) * The singular is pronounced A5r, the plural k^z. Review in Number. 225 Direction. — Study the following list : — Aborigines, annals, ashes, assets, clothes, fireworks, hysterics, literati, mumps, nippers, oats, pincers, rickets, scissors, shears, snuffers, suds, thanks, tongs, tidings, trousers, victuals, vitals. The following were originally singular forms, but they are now treated as plural. Alms (Anglo-Saxon CBlmcesse), eaves (A. S. efese), riches (Norman- French richesse). The following have no singular corresponding in mean- ing. Colors (flag), compa,sses (dividers), goods (property), grounds (dregs), letters (literature), manners (behavior), matins (morning service), morals (character), remains (dead body), spectacles (glasses), stays (corsets), vespers (evening service). (The singular form is sometimes an adjective.) Bitters, greens, narrows, sweets, valuables, etc. Collective nouns are treated as plural when the individ- uals, in the collection are thought of, and as singular when the collection as a whole is thought of. Examples. — The committee were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. A committee was appointed, and its report will soon be made. (Collective nouns have plural forms ; as, committees, armies.) LESSON 115. REVIEW IN NUMBER. Direction. — Write the plural of the singular nouns and pronouns in the following list, and the singular of those that are plural; give 15 Modifications of tFie Parts of Speech. the Rule or the Remark that applies to each ; and note those that have no plural, and those that have no singular : — Hope, age, bench, bush, house, loss, tax, waltz, potato, shoe, col- ony, piano, kangaroo, pulley, wharf, staff, fife, loaf, flagstaff, hand- kerchief, Mr., child, ox, beaux, cherubim, mesdames, termini, genus, genius, bagnio, theory, galley, muff, mystery, colloquy, son-in-law, man-of-war, spoonful, maid-servant. Frenchman, German, man-ser- vant, Dr. Smith, Messrs. Brown and Smith, x , i, deer, series, bellows, molasses, pride, politics, news, sunfish, clothes, alms, goods, grounds, greens, who, that. Direction. — Give five words that have no plural, five that have no singular, and five that have the same form in both numbers. Dipection. — Correct the following plurals, and give the Remark that applies to each: — Stagees, foxs, mosquitos, calicos, heros, soloes, babys, trioes, chim- nies, storys, elfs, beefs, scarves, oxes, phenomenons, axises, terminuses, genuses, mother - in - laws, aldermans, Mussulmen, teeth - brushes, mouthsful, attorney-at-laws, man-childs, geese-quills, 2s, ms, s wines. LESSON 116. NUMBER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. The number of a noun may be determined not only by its form but also by the verb, the adjective, and the pronoun used in connection with it. Remark. — These scissors are so dull that I cannot use them. The plurality of scissors is here made known in four ways. In the follow- ing sentence this, is, and it are incorrectly used : This scissors is so dull that I cannot use it. Nouns and Pronouns— Gender. 227 Direction. — Construct sentences in which the number of each of the following nouns shall be indicated by the form of the verb, by the adjective, and by the pronoun used in connection with it : — (With the singular nouns use the verbs is, was, and has been ; the adjectives an, one, this, and that ; the pronouns he, his, him, she, her, it, and its.) (With the plural nouns use the verbs are, were, and have been; the adjectives these, those, and two ; the pronouns they, their, and them.) Bellows, deer, fish, gross, means, series, species, heathen, trout, iron, irons, news, eaves, riches, oats, vermin, molasses, Misses, breth- ren, dice, head (of cattle), pennies, child, parent, family, crowd, meeting. Direction. — Compose sentences in which the first three of the fol- lowing adjective pronouns shall be used as singular subjects, the fourth as a plural subject, and the remainder both as singular and as plural subjects : — Each, either, neither, both, former, none, all, any. LESSON 1 1 7. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS-GENDER. Introductory Hints. — The lion was caged. The lioness was caged. In the first sentence something is said about a male lion, and in the second something is said about a female lion. The modification of the noun to denote the sex of the thing which it names is called Gender. Lion, denoting a male animal, is in the Masculine Gen- der; and lioness, denoting a female animal, is in the Feminine Gender. Names of things that are without sex are said to be in the Neuter Gender. Such nouns as cousin, child, friend, neighbor are 228 Modifications of tlie Parts of Speech. either masculine or feminine. Such words are sometimes said to be in the Common Gender. Sex belongs to the thing; and gender, to the noun that names the thing. Knowing the sex of the thing or its lack of sex, you know the gender of the noun in English that names it ; for in our language gender follows the sex. But in such modern languages as the French and the German, and in Latin and Greek, the gender of nouns naming things without reference to sex is determined by the likeness of their endings in sound to the endings of words denoting things with sex. The German for table is a masculine noun, the French is feminine, and the English,* of course, is neuter. DEFINITIONS. Gender is that modification of a nonn or pronoun wliich denotes sex. Tlie Masculine Gender denotes tlie male sex. Tlie Feminine Gender denotes tlie female sex. The Neuter Gender denotes want of sex. Gender Forms. Xo English nouns have distinctive neuter forms, but a few have different forms to distinguish the masculine from the feminine. The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways : — 1st. By a difference in the ending of the words. 2d. By different words in the compound names. 3d. By using words wholly or radically different. * In Anglo-Saxon, the mother-tongue of our language, gender was grammatical, as in the French and the German ; but, since the union of the Norman-French with the Anglo-Saxon to form the English, gender has followed sex. Nouns and Pronouns— Gender. 229 Ess"* is the most common ending for feminine nouns. Direction. — Form the feminine of each of the following masculine nouns by adding ess : — Author, baron, count, deacon, giant, god (see Rule 3, Lesson 127), heir, host, Jew, lion, patron, poet, prince (see Rule 1, Lesson 127), prior, prophet, shepherd, tailor, tutor. (Drop the vowel e or o in the ending of the masculine, and add ess.) Actor, ambassador, arbiter, benefactor, conductor, director, editor, enchanter, hunter, idolater, instructor, preceptor, tiger, waiter. (Drop the masculine er or or, and add the feminine ess.) Adventurer, caterer, governor, murderer, sorcerer. (The following are somewhat irregular.) Direction. — Learn these forms : — Abbot, abbess ; duke, duchess ; emperor, empress ; lad, lass ; mar- quis, marchioness ; master, mistress ; negro, negress. Ess was formerly more common than now. Such words as editor and author are now frequently used to denote persons of either sex. Direction. — Oive five nouns ending in er or or that may he applied to either sex. Some words, mostly foreign, have various endings in the feminine. Direction. — Learn the following forms: — Administrator, administratrix ; Augustus, Augusta ; beau, belle ; Charles, Charlotte ; Cornelius, Cornelia ; czar, czarina ; don, donna ; * The suffix €88 came into the English language from the Norman- French. It dis- placed the feminine termination of the mother-tongue (A. S. estre, old English ster). The original meaning of ster is preserved in spinster. Er (A. S. ere) was originally a masculine suffix ; but it now generally denotes an agent without reference to sex ; as, read-er, speak-er. Modifications of the Parts of Speech. equestrian, equestrienne ; executor, executrix ; Francis, Prances ; George, Georgiana ; Henry, Henrietta ; hero, heroine ; infante, infanta ; Jesse, Jessie ; Joseph, Josephine ; Julius, Julia or Juliet ; landgrave, landgravine ; Louis, Louisa or Louise ; Paul, Pauline ; signore or signor, signora ; sultan, sultana ; testator, testatrix ; widower, widow. In some compounds distinguishing words are prefixed or affixed. Direction. — Learn the following forms: — Billy-goat, nanny-goat ; buck-rabbit, doe-rabbit ; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow ; Englishman, Englishwoman ; gentleman, gentle- woman ; grandfather, grandmother ; he-bear, she-bear ; landlord, landlady ; man-servant, maid-servant ; merman, mermaid ; Mr. Jones, Mrs. or Miss Jones ; peacock, peahen. Words wholly or radically different are used to dis- tinguish the masculine from the feminine. (This is a matter pertaining to the dictionary rather than to grammar.) Direction. — Learn the following forms :— Bachelor, maid ; buck, doe ; drake, duck ; earl, countess ; friar or monk, nun ; gander, goose ; hart, roe ; lord, lady ; nephew, niece ; sir, madam ; stag, hind ; steer, heifer ; wizard, witch ; youth, damsel or maiden. The pronoun has three gender forms : — Masculine he, feminine she, and neuter it.* Direction, — Give five examples of each of the three ways of distinguishing the masculine from the feminine. * It, although a neuter form, is used idiomatically to refer to a male or a female ; as, It was John; It was Mary. Gender Forms in Construction. 231 LESSON 118. GENDER FORMS IN CONSTRUCTION. Gender as a matter of orthography is of some impor- tance, but in grammar it is chiefly important as involving the correct use of the pronouns he, she, and it. When a singular noun is used so as to imply persons of both sexes, it is commonly represented by a masculine pronoun.* Example. — Every person has his faults. The names of animals are often considered as mascu- line or feminine without regard to the real sex. Elxamples. — The grizzly hear is the most savage of his race. The cat steals upon her prey. Remark. — The writer employs he or she according as he fancies the animal to possess masculine or feminine characteristics. He is more frequently employed than she. The neuter pronoun it- is often used with reference to animals and very young children, the sex being disre- garded. Examples. — When the deer is alarmed, it gives two or three grace- ful springs. The little child reached out its hand to catch the sun- beam. Remark. — It is quite generally used instead of he or she, in refer- * When it is necessary to distinguish the sexes, both the masculine and the femi- nine pronoun should be used ; as, Each person was required to name his or fier favorite flower. 232 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. ring to an animal, unless some masculine or feminine quality seems to predominate. Inanimate things are often represented as living beings, that is, they are personified, and are referred to by the pronoun he or she. Example. — The oak shall send his roots abroad and pierce thy mold. Remark. — The names of objects distinguished for size, power, or sublimity are regarded as masculine ; and the names of those distin- guished for grace, beauty, gentleness, or productiveness are considered as feminine. Personification adds beauty and animation to style. Direction. — Study what is said above, and then fill each of the blanks in the following sentences with a masculine, a feminine, or a neuter pronoun, and in each case give the reason for your selection : — 1. No one else is so much alone in the universe as who denies God. 2. A person's manners not unfrequently indicate morals. 3. Everybody should think for . 4. The forest's leaping panther shall yield spotted hide. 5. The catamount lies in the boughs to watch prey. 6, The mocking-bird poured from little throat floods of delirious music. 7. The wild beast from cavern sprang, the wild bird from grove. 8. The night-sparrow trills song. 9. The elephant is distinguished for strength and sagacity. 10. The bat is nocturnal in habits. 11. The dog is faithful to master. 12. The child was unconscious of danger. 13. The fox is noted for cunning. 14. Belgium's capital had gathered then beauty and chivalry. 15. Despair extends raven wing. 16. Life mocks the idle hate of arch-enemy. Death. 17. Spring comes forth work of gladness to contrive. 18. Truth is fearless, yet is meek and modest. Nouns and Pronouns— Person and Case. 233 Direction. — Write sentences in which the things named below shall be personified by means of masculine pronouns : — Death, time, winter, war, sun, river, wind. Direction. — Write sentences in which the things named below shall be personified by means of feminine pronouns : — Ship, moon, earth, spring, virtue, nature, night, England. Caution. — Avoid changing the gender of the pronoun when referring to the same antecedent. Direction. — Correct these errors : — 1. The polar bear is comparatively rare in menageries, as it suffers so much from the heat that he is not easily preserved in confinement. 2. The cat, when it comes to the light, contracts and elongates the pupil of her eye. 3. Summer clothes herself in green, and decks itself with flowers. 4. War leaves his victim on the field, and homes deso- lated by it mourn over her cruelty. LESSON 119. NOUNS AND PRONOUNS-PERSON AND CASE. Introductory Hints. — Number and gender, as you have learned, are modifications affecting the meaning of nouns and pronouns — number being almost always indicated by form, or inflection ; gender, sometimes. There are two modifications which do not refer to changes in the meaning of nouns and pronouns but to their different uses and relations. These uses and relations are not generally indicated by form, or inflection. I, Paul, have written. Paul, thou art beside thyself. He brought Paul before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word Paul has three different uses, though, as you see, its form is not changed. In the first it is used to name the speaker ; in the second, to name the one 234 Modifications of tlie Parts of Speech. spoken to ; in the third, to name the one spoken of. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modification called Person. J, thoUf and he are per- sonal pronouns, and, as you see, distinguish person by their form, i, denoting the speaker, is in the First Person ; thou, denoting the one spoken to, is in the Second Person ; and he, denoting the one spoken of, is in the Third Person. Instead of 7 a writer or speaker may use the plural we ; and through courtesy it came to be customary, except among the Friends, or in the language of prayer and poetry, to use the plural you instead of thou. The hear killed the man. The man hilled the hear. The hear's grease was made into hair oil. In the first sentence the bear is repre- sented as performing an act ; in the second, as receiving an act ; in the third, as possessing something. These different uses of nouns and pronouns and the forms used to mark these uses constitute the modi- fication called Case. A noun used as subject is in the Nominative Case ; used as object complement it is in the Objective Case ; and used to denote possession it is in the Possessive Case. Some of the pronouns have a special form for each case ; but of nouns the possessive case is the only one that is now marked by a peculiar form. We inflect below * a noun from the Anglo-Saxon, * The Anglo-Saxon cases are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, the Latin are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, and English are nominative, possessive (genitive), and objective. Anglo-Saxon. Hlaford, lord. Singular. Pltiral. Nom. hlaford, hlaford-a«. Gen. hlaford-c», hlaford-a. Dat. hlaford-e, hlaford-wwt. Ace. hlaford, hlaford-a». Voc. hlaford, hiaford-aa. Latin. Dominus, lord. Singular. Plural. Nom. domin-i**, domin-i. Gren. domin-i, domin-oruw. Dat. domin-o, domin-i«. Ace. domm-um, domin-os. Voc. domin-e, domin-i. Ab. domin-o, domin-i«. and vocative ; ablative; the English. Lord. Singular. Nom. lord, Pos. lord-'*, Obj. lord ; Plural. Nom. lord-*, Pos. lord-*', Obj. lord-a. Nouns and Pronouns— Person and Case. 285 and one from the Latin, the parent of the Norman-French, in order that you may see how cases and the inflections to mark them have been dropped in English. In English, prepositions have largely taken the place of case forms, and it is thought that by them our language can express the many relations of nouns to other words in the sentence better than other languages can by their cumbrous machinery of inflection. DEFINITIONS. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. The First Person denotes the one speaking. The Second Person denotes the one spoken to. The Third Person denotes the one spoken of. A noun is said to be of the first person when joined as an explanatory modifier to a pronoun of the first person ; as, /, John, saw these things ; We Americans are always in a hurry.* A noun is of the second person when used as explana- tory of a pronoun of the second person, or when used independently as a term of address ; as. Ye crags and peaks ; Idle time, John, is ruinous. Direction. — Compose sentences in which there shall he two examples of nouns and two of pronouns used in each of the three persons. Person Forms. Personal pronouns and verbs are the only classes of words that have distinctive person forms. * It is doubtful whether a noun is ever of the first person. It may be said that, in the sentence /, John^ saw these things^ John speaks of his own name, the expression meaning, 7, and my name is John, etc. 236 Modifications of tine Parts of Speech. Direction. — From the forms of the pronouns given in Lesson 124, select and ivrite in one list all the first person forms ; in another list, all the second person forms; and in another, all the third person forms. Person is regarded in grammar because the verb some- times varies its form to agree with the person of its subject ; as, / see ; Thou seest ; He sees. DEFINITIONS. Case is that modiflcatiou of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office in the sentence. The Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as subject or as attribute complement. The Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as possessive modifier. The Objective Case of a noun or pronoun denotes its office as object complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase. A noun or pronoun used independently is said to be in the nominative case. Examples. — I am, dear madam, your friend. Alas, poor YoricTc ! He being dead, we shall live. Liberty, it has fled ! (See Lesson 44.) A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained — '* is put by appo- sition in the same case.'' £]xainples. — The first colonial Congress, that of 1774, addressed the King, Oeorge IIL He buys his goods at Stewards, the dry- goods merchant. Nouns and Pronouns— Person and Case. A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is iu the objective case. Examples. — They made him speaker. He made it all it is. A noun or pronoun used as attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the same case {Nom. or Oij.) as the word to which it relates as attribute. Examples. — Being an artist, he appreciated it. I proved it to be him. Remark. — When the assumed subject of the participle or the infinitive is a possessive, the attribute complement is said to be in the nominative case ; as, Its being he * should make no difference. When the participle or the infinitive is used abstractly, without an assumed subject, its attribute complement is also said to be in the nominative case ; as, To be he * is to be a scholar ; Being a scholar is not being an idler. Direction. — Study carefully the Definitions and the RemarTc above, and then compose sentences in which a noun or a pronoun shall be put in the nominative case in four ways ; in the objective in five ways ; in the possessive in two ways. * The case of he in these examples is rather doubtful. The nominative and the objective forms of the pronoun occur so rarely in such constructions that it seems impossible to determine the usage. It is therefore a matter of no great practical importance. Some, reasoning from the analogy of the Latin, would put the attribute comple- ment of the abstract infinitive in the objective, supposing for and some other word to be understood ; as, I^or one to be Jdm, etc. Others, reasoning from the Gterman, to which our language is closely allied, would put this complement in the nominative. The assumed subject of the infinitive being omitted when it is the same in sense as the principal subject, him, in the sentence / wish {me or myself) to be him, is the proper form, being in the same case as m^. 238 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. LESSON 120, ANALYSIS AND PARSING. Direction. — Analyze the following sentences, and give the case of each noun and pronoun : — 1. Not to know what happened before we were born is to be always a child. 2. His being a Roman saved him from being made a prisoner. 3. I am this day weak, though anointed king. Explanation. — Nouns used adverbially are in the objective case because equivalent to the principal word of a prepositional phrase. (See Lesson 35.) 4. What made Cromwell a great man was his unshaken reliance on God. 5. Amos, the herdsman of Tekoa, was not a prophet's son. 6. Arnold's success as teacher was remarkable. Explanation. — Teacher, introduced by as and used without a possessive sign, is explanatory of Arnold's. 7. "Worship thy Creator, God ; and obey his Son, the Master, King, and Saviour of men. 8. Bear ye one another's * burdens. Explanation. — The singular one is explanatory of the plural ye, or one another's may be treated as a compound. 9. What art thou, execrable shape, that darest advance ? 10. you hard hearts ! you cruel men of Rome ! 11. Everybody acknowledges Shakespeare to be the greatest of dramatists. * For the use of one another, see Lesson 124. Parsing. 239 12. Think'st tbou this heart oould feel a moment's joy, thou being absent ? 13. Our great forefathers had left him naught to conquer but his country. (For the case of Mm see explanation of (3) above.) 14. I will attend to it myself. explanation. — Myself may be treated as explanatory of /. 15. This news of papa's* puts me all in a flutter. 16. What means that hand upon that breast of thine * ? LESSON 121. PARSING. To THE Teacher.— We do not believe that the chief end of the study of grammar is to be able to parse well, or even to analyze well, though without question analysis reveals more clearly than parsing the structure of the sentence, and is immeasurably superior to it as intellectual gymnastics. We would not do away with parsing alto- gether, but would give it a subordinate place. But we must be allowed an emphatic protest against the needless and mechanical quoting, in parsing, of " Rules of Syntax." When a pupil has said that such a noun is in the nominative case, subject of such a verb, what is gained by a repetition of the definition in the Rule : " A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case " ? Let the reasons for the disposition of words, when given at all, be specific. Parsing a word is giving its classification, its modifica- tions, and its syntax, i. e., its relation to other words. Direction. — Select and parse in full all the nouns and pronouns found in the first ten sentences of Lesson 120. For the agreement of pronouns, see Lesson 142. ♦ See second foot-note, page 247. fm Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Model for Written Parsing. ■ was beheaded by James I. Elizabeth's favorite, Raleighp CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. Nouns. Elizabeth's favorite Raleigh James I. Kind. Prop. Com. Prop. Person. 3d 1.1. Number. Sing. Gender. Fern. Mas. 11 Case. Pos. Nom. Obj. Pos. Mod. of /avon^e. Sub. of was beheaded. Expl. Mod. of favorite. Prin. word in Prep, phrase. To THE Teacher. — For exercises in parsing nouns and pronouns, see Lessons 28» 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 44, 46, 59, 60, 71, 73, 78, 80, and 81. Other exercises may be selected from examples previously given for analysis, and parsing continued as long as you think it profitable. LESSON 12 2. CASE FORMS-NOUNS. Nouns have two case forms, the simple form, common to the nominative and the objective case, and the possess- ive form. RULE.— The Possessive Case of nouns is formed in the singular by adding to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter s {'s) ; in the plural by adding O only. If the plural does not end in s, {'s) are both added.* * In Anglo Saxon, es was a genitive (possessive) ending of the singular ; as, stdn., genitive stdn-es. In old English, es and is were both used. In modem English, the vowel is generally dropped, and (') stands in its place. The use of the apostrophe has been extended to distinguish the possessive from other forms of the plural. Some have said that our possessive ending is a remnant of the pronoun his. Phrases like, "Mars his sword," " The Prince his Players," " King Lewis his satisfaction " are abundant in Early, and in Middle, English. But it has been proved that the his in Case Forms— Nouns. 241 Examples. — Boy^s, boys', men's. Remark. — To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing sounds, the s in the possessive singular is sometimes omitted ; as, conscience^ sake, goodness' sake, Achilles' sword, Archimedes' screw (the s in the words following the possessive here having its influence). In prose this omission of the s should seldom occur. The weight of usage inclines to the use of s in such names as Ifiss Rounds's, Mrs. Hemans's, King James's, witness's, prince's. Without the s there would be no dis- tinction, in spoken language, between Miss Round's and Miss Rounds', Mrs. Heman's and Mrs. Ilemans' . Reraiark. — Pronounce the ('s) as a separate syllable (= es) when the sound of s will not unite with the last sound of the nominative. Remark. — When the singular and the plural are alike in the nomi- native, some place the apostrophe after the s in the plural to distin- guish it from the possessive singular ; as, singular, sheep's; plural, sheeps'. Direction. — Study the Rule and the Remarks given above, and then write the possessive singular and the possessive plural of each of the following nouns : — Actor, elephant, farmer, king, lion, genius, horse, princess, buffalo, hero, mosquito, negro, volcano, junto, tyro, cuckoo, ally, attorney, fairy, lady, monkey, calf, elf, thief, wife, wolf, chief, dwarf, waif, child, goose, mouse, ox, woman, beau, seraph, fish, deer, sheep, swine. Coinpound names and groups of words that may be such expressions is an error that gained its wide currency largely through the confu- sion of early English orthography. Professor Hadley has clearly shown that the Saxon termination has never dropped out of the language, but exists in the English possessive ending to-day. 16 242 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. treated as compound names add the possessive sign to the last word ; as, a man-of-war's rigging, the queen of Eyig^ land's palace,* Frederick the Great's verses. Remark. — The possessive plural of such terms is not used. The preposition of with the objective is often used instead of the' possessive case form — David's Psalms = Psalms of David. Remarks. — To denote the source from which a thing proceeds, or the idea of belonging to, of is used more frequently than ('s). The possessive sign ('«) is confined chiefly to the names of persons, and of animals and things personified. We do not say the tree's leaves, but the leaves of the tree. The possessive sign however is often added to names of things which we frequently hear personified, or which we wish to dignify, and to names of periods of time, and to words denoting value ; as, the earWs surface, fortune^s smile, eternity's stillness, a year's interest, a day's work, a dollar's worth, two cents' worth. By the use of of, such expressions as witness's statement, mothers- in-law's faults may be avoided. Direction. — Study ca/refully the principles and Remarks given aibove, and then make each of the following terms indicate possession, using either the possessive sign or the preposition of, as may seem most appropriate, and join an appropriate name denoting the thing Father-in-law, William the Conqueror, king of Great Britain, aid- * In parsing the words queen and England separately, the Cs) must be regarded as belonging to queen ; but the whole phrase queen of England'' s may be treated as one noun in the possessive case. Construction of Possessive Forms. 243 de-camp, Henry the Eighth, attorney-at-law, somebody else,* Jeffer- son, enemy, eagle, gunpowder, book, house, chair, torrent, sun, ocean, mountain, summer, year, day, hour, princess, Socrates. LESSON 12 3. CONSTRUCTION OF POSSESSIVE FORMS. As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a distinctive inflection, it is only with this case that mis- takes can occur in construction. Caution. — When several possessive nouns modify the same word and imply common possession, the possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, expressed or understood, the sign is added to each. Explanation. — William and Henry'' s boat ; William's and Henry's boat. In the first example, William and Henry are represented as jointly owning a boat ; in the second, each is represented as owning a separate boat — boat is understood after William's. Remark. — When the different possessors are thought of as separate or opposed, the sign may be repeated although joint possession is implied ; as. He was his father's, mother's, and sister's favorite ; He was the King's, as well as the people's, favorite. Direction. — Correct these errors, and give your reasons: — 1. The Bank of England was established in William's and Mary's reign, 2. Messrs, Leggett's, Stacy's, Green's, & Co.'s business pros- * In such expressions as everybody dse''s business, the possessive sign is removed from the noun and attached to the adjective. (See Lesson 124.) The possessive sign should generally be placed immediately before the name of the thing possessed. 344 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. pers. 3. This was James's, Charles's, and Robert's estate. 4. Amer- ica was discovered during Ferdinand's and Isabella's reign. 5. We were comparing Caesar and Napoleon's victories. 6. This was the sage and the poet's theme. E^xplanation. — If an article precedes the possessive, the sign is repeated. 7. It was the king, not the people's, choice. 8. They are Thomas, as well as James's, books. Caution. — When a possessive noun is followed by an explanatory word, the possessive sign is added to the explanatory word only. But, if the explanatory word has several modifiers, or if there are more explanatory words than one, only the principal word takes the sign. Remarks. — When a common noun is explanatory of a proper noun, and the name of the thing possessed is omitted, the possessive sign may be added either to the modifying or to the principal word ; as, We stopped at Tiffany, the jeweler's, or We stopped at Tiffany's, the jeweler. If the name of the thing possessed is given, the noun immediately before it takes tlie sign. Direction. — Correct these errors: — 1. This is Tennyson's, the poet's, home. 2. I took tea at Brown's, my old friend and schoolmate's. 3. This belongs to Victoria's, queen of England's, dominion. 4. This province is Victoria's, queen of Eng- land's. 5. That language is Homer's, the greatest poet of antiquity's. 6. This was Franklin's motto, the distinguished philosopher's and statesman's. 7. Wolsey's, the cardinal's, career ended in disgrace. Direction. — Tell which of the sentences above may he improved by using other forms to denote possession. (See the following Caution.) Construction of Possessive Forms. 245 Caution. — The relation of possession may be expressed not only by ('s) and by of but by the use of such phrases as belonging to, property of, etc. In constructing sentences •be careful to secure smoothness and clearness and variety by taking advantage of these different forms. Direction. — Improve the following sentences : — 1. This is my wife's father's opinion. Correction. — This is the opinion of my wife's father, or held hy my wife's father. 2. This is my wife's father's farm. 3. France's and England's interest differs widely. 4. Frederick the Great was the son of the •daughter of George I. of England. 5. My brother's wife's sister's •drawings have been much admired. 6. The drawings of the sister of the wife of my brother have been much admired. Of is not always equivalent to the {'s). Explanation. — The president's reception means the reception given Tt)y the president, but the reception of the president means the recep- tion given to the president. Direction. — Construct sentences illustrating the meaning of the following expressions : — A mother's love, the love of a mother ; a father's care, the care of A father ; my friend's picture, a picture of my friend. Caution. — Often ambiguity may be prevented by changing the assumed subject of a participle from a nominative or an objective to a possessive. Direction. — Correct these errors: — 1. The writer being a scholar is not doubted. •Correction. — This is ambiguous, as it may mean either that the 246 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. ■writer is not doubted because he is a scholar, or that the writer's scholarship is not doubted. It should be, The writer's being * a scholar is not doubted, or That the writer is a scholar is not doubted. 2. I have no doubt of the writer being a scholar. 3. No one ever heard of that man running for office. 4. Brown being a politician prevented his election. 5. I do not doubt him being sincere. 6. Grouchy being behind time decided the fate of Waterloo. LESSON 124. NUMBER AND CASE FORMS. Declension. DEFINITION".— Dcc/cnstow. is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and pronouns in the two numbers. Direction. — Learn the following declensions : — Declension of Nouns. LADY. Singular. Plural. Nom. lady, ladies, Pos. lady's, ladies', Ohj, lady ; ladies. BOY. Singular. Plural. boy, boys, boy's, boys', boy ; boys. MAN. Singular. Plural. man, men, man's, men's, man ; men. ♦ The participle may be modified not only, as here, by a noun in the possessive but by the articles a and ihe—SLB said in Lesson 37. Whether it be the imposing a tax or the issuing a paper curren^.—Bagefiot. Not a making war on them, not a leaving them out of mind, but the putting a new construction upon them, the taking them from under the old conventional point of view.— Matthew Arnold. Poltroonery is the ackfuywledging an infirmity to be incurable. — Emerson. The giving away a man's money.— Burke. It is not the finding of a thing but the making something out of it, after it is found, that is of consequence.— Zowe?^ As seen in this last quotation, the participle may be followed by a preposition and 60 become a pure noun (Ijesson 38). Number and Case Forms. 247 Declension of Pronouns. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. FIRST PERSON. Singular. Plural. Nom. I, we,* ^ ( my or our or Pos. \ . . ( mine,f ours, Obj. rae ; us. SECOND PERSON— SECOND PERSON — common form. old form. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. you, you. thou, ye X or you. your or your or thy or your or yours, yours. thine, yours. you; you. thee ; you. * Strictly speaking, toe can hardly be the plural of j; says Professor Sweet, for / does not admit of plurality. We means / and ymi, I and he, I and sJie, or / and they, etc. t The forms mine, ours, yours, thine, hers, and theirs are used only when the name of the thing possessed is omitted ; as, Yours is old, mine is new = Y&ur book is old, etc. Mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; as, thine enemy, mine Jimior. The expression a friend of mine presents a peculiar construction. The explanation generally given is, that of is partitive, and that the expression is equivalent to one friend of my friends. It is said that this construction can be used only when more than one thing is possessed ; but such expressions as This heai^t of mine. That temper of yours are good, idiomatic English. This naughty world of ours^ — Byron. This moral life of mine.— Sheridan Knowles. Dim are those heads of theirs.— Carlyle. Some suggest that the word possessing or owning is understood after these posscss- ives ; as, This temper of yours (your possessing) ; others say that of simply marks identity, as does of in city of (= viz.) New York (see Lesson 34). They would make the expression = This temper, your temper. The s in ours, yours, hers, and theirs is the s of his and its extended by analogy to our, your, her, and their, fortns already possessive. Ours, yours, hers, and theirs are consequently double possessives. X Ye is used in Chaucer and in the King James version of the Bible exclusively in the nominative, as was its original gl in the Saxon. Shakespeare uses you in the nom- inative. You (the Saxon dative low) has now taken the place of ye, and is both nominative and objective. 248 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. THIRD PERSON — MaS. Singular, Plural. JVom. he, I*os. his, ObJ. him they, their or theirs, them. THIRD PERSON — Feni. Singular. Plural. she, they, her or their or hers, theirs, her ; them. THIRD PERSON — Neut. Singular. Plural. it, its, it; they, their or theirs, them. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. Singular. Plural. Nom. and Nom. and Obj. Obj. tnyself f or ourself ; Singular. Nom. and Plural. Nom. and Olo- ourselves. •thyself or ) , himself ; \ •' ♦ . f. yourselves. . _ / yourself ; ) herself ; V itself : ) Singular. Nom. and Obj. himself herself itself Plural. Nom. and Oto. them- selves. Remark. — The possessive of these pronouns is wanting. Ourself and we are used by rulers, editors, and others to hide their individuality, and give authority to what they say. * The possessive its is our only personal pronoun form not found in Saxon. His, the possessive of the masculine hi, was there the possessive (genitive) of the neuter hit also — our it. But it came to be thought improper to employ his to denote inanimate things as well as animate. The literature of the 16th and 17th centuries shows a grow- ing sense of this impropriety, and abounds with of it, thereof, her, it, the, and it own in place of his as the possessive of it. The first appearance of the new coinage its is placed in 1598. Long after its introduction many looked askance at its, because of the ■grammatical blunder it contains—the t in its being a nominative neuter ending, and the s a possessive ending. But no one thinks now of shunning what was then regarded as a grammatical monstrosity. t The compound personal pronouns are used (1) for emphasis ; as, I myself saw it ; and (2;» as reflexives, to turn the action of the verb back upon the actor ; as, He found himself deserted by his friends. They are not the only words used in this last rela- tion ; where no obscurity would arise, we may use the simple personal pronouns instead. And millions in those solitudes . . . have laid them down in their last fileep.— .Sryaw^ My uncle stopped a minute to look about him.— Dickens. The compound personal pronouns should not be used as subjects. Number and Case Forms. 249 Relative Pronouns. Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Flu. Sing, and Flu. Sing, and Flu. Nom. who, which, that, what, Fo8. whose, whose, , , Ohj. • whom. which. that. what. Remark.— From the composition of which — hwa-\\Q, or hwrnt-lic — who-like, or what-like, it is evident that whose is not formed from which. It is, in fact, the possessive of what transferred to which. Much has been said against this whose, but it is in general use. Those who regard usage as the final arbiter in speech need not avoid this form of the pronoun. Interrogative Pronouns. The interrogative pronouns who, which, and what are declined like the relatives who, which, and what. Compound Relative Pronouns. Singular and Fiural. Singular and Flural. Nam. whoever, whosoever, Fos. whosever, whosesoever, Ohj. whomever. whomsoever. Whichever, luhichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever do not change their form. Adjective Pronouns. This and that with their plurals, these and those, have no possessive form, and are alike in the nominative and the objective. One and other are declined like nouns ; and another, declined like other in the singular, has no plural. Either, neither, former, and latter sometimes take the apostrophe and s {'s) in the singular. Each, 250 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. eitlier, and neither are always singular; both is always plural ; and all, any, former, latter, none, same, some, and siich are either singular or plural.* * On the pages immediately preceding Lesson 1, we eaid that usage, as deter- mined by the majority of the best writers and epealieis of tlie generation, is the only authority in language ; and we there explained how we are able to appeal to usage as we all along have done. In treating of the adjective pronouns we now appeal to it again. In the first twelve paragraphs below we give alternative expressions. Only the second of these alternative locutions in each paragraph is allowed by many grammari- ans ; they utterly condemn the first. On the warrant of usage we say that both expres- sions are correct. 1. We may use each other with more than two ; we may use one another in such a case. We may say, " Several able men were in correspondence with each other,'" or "with one another.'''' 2. We may use one another with only two ; we may use each other in such a case. We may say, " The two countries agreed to stand by one another,'''' or " by each other.'''' 3. We may use all, both, and whole with a preposition and a noun following ; we may use these words as adjectives qualifying the noun. We may say, " All of the people,'''' " Both of the trees ^'' " The whole of the farm,'''' or " All the people,'" " Both trees, ''^ " The lohole farm.''^ 4. We may use the pronouns either and neither, as we do the conjunctions either and neither, with more than two ; we may use any one and none in such cases. We may say, " Here are three candidates ; you may vote for either or for neither of them," or " for any one or for none of them." 5. We may use he or some other personal pronoun after the indefinite one ; we may repeat the one in such a case. We may say, "The home one must quit, yet taking much of its life along with him,'''' or " along with one." 6. We may use such before an adjective and its noun ; we may use so with the adjective in such a case. We may say, " Sitch a strong argument,^'' " Such admirable taient,'" or " So strong an argument,'''' " Talent so admirable.'''' 7. We may use the plural ones ; we may use the noun for which ones stands. We may say, '* You have red roses, I have white ones,'''' or " white roses.''"' 8. We may apply the other two to those that remain when one of three things has been taken from the rest ; we may use the two others in such a case. We may say, *' One of them kept his ground, the other two ran away," or " the two others ran away." 9. We may use a before a noun in the singular and or two after it ; we may use one Case Forms— Pronouns. 251 Descriptive adjectives used as nouns are plural, and are not declined. Such expressions as '^ the lor etched' s only plea'' and '^the wicked's den'' are exceptional. LESSON 12 5. CASE FORMS-PRONOUNS. The pronouns /, thou, he, she, and who are the only words in the language that have each three different case forms. Direction. — Study the Declensions, and correct these errors : — Our's, your's, hi's, lier's, it's, their's, yourn, hisn, hern, theirn. or two before the noun in the plural. We may say, " I will go in a day or tivo,'"' or " ia one or two days.'" 10. We may use either in the sense of each ; wc may use each instead. We may say, " He wrested the land on either side of the Seine," or " on each side of the Seine." 11. We may insert a noun, or a noun and other words, between other and than ; we may place the than immediately after other. We may say, " We must look for 6ome other reasons for it than those suggested," or "for some reasons for it other than those suggested." 12. We may use none in the plural ; we may use none in the singular. We may say, " None hear thy voice," or " None hears thy voice." The paragraphs below contain noteworthy uses of adjective pronouns but no really alternative expressions. 13. Usage is overwhelmingly in favor of any one else's, iio one else's, some- body else's, nobody else's, instead of any one's else, etc. There is scarcely any authority for placing the ('«) upon one or body. " Written by Dickens for his own or any one else's children." This form is common and convenient. We are advised to shun it, but we need not. 14. Usage is also decidedly in favor of first two, last three, etc., instead of two first., three last, etc. 252 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Construction of Case Forms— Pronouns, Caution. — I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they, and who are nominative forms, and must not be used in the ob- jective case. Me, us, thee, him, her,* them, and whom are objective forms, and must not be used in the nominative case. Remark. — The eight nominative forms and the seven objective forms here given are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms in the language. All the rules of syntax given in the grammars to guide in the use of the nominative and the objective case apply, practically, only to these fifteen words. Direction. — Study carefully the Definitions and principles given tinder the head of case, Lesson 119, and then correct these errors, giving your reasons in every instance: — 1. It is not me f you are in love with. 2. She was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me.f 3. Who f servest thou under ? 4. It * Her is also a possessive. t Dr. Latham defends It is me, but condemns It is him and It is her. Dean Alford regards as correct the forms condemned by Latham, and asserts that thee and me are correct in, " The nations not so blest as thee,'''' " Such weak minister as me may the oppressor bruise." Professor Bain justifies 1/ I were him. It was her. He is better than me, and even defends the use of wfio as an objective form by quoting from Shakespeare, " Whx) servest thou under ? " and from Steele, " Who should I meet ?" They justify such expressions as It is me from the analogy of the French c'est moi, and on the ground that they are " more frequently heard than the prescribed form." But such analogy would justify It are them (ce sont eux) ; and, if the argument from the speech of the uneducated is to have weight, we have good authority for " Her ain't a, calling we ; us dori't belong to she.'" A course of reading will satisfy one that the best writers and speakers in England are not in the habit of using such expressions as It is me, and that these are almost, if not quite, unknown in American literature. 1^0 one has so freed himself from the influence of early associations that in a careless Case Forms— Pronouns. 253 was not them, it was her. 5. Its being me should make no difference. 6. Him and rae are of the same age. 7. Them that study grammar talk no better than me. 8. I am not so old as her ; she is older than me by ten years. 9. He was angry, and me too. 10. Who will go ? Me. 11. It isn't for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. 12, Not one in a thousand could have done it as well as him. 13. Him being a stranger, they easily misled him. 14. Oh, happy us ! sur- rounded thus with blessings. 15. It was Joseph, him whom Pharaoh promoted. 16. I referred to my old friend, he of whom I so often speak. 17. You have seen Cassio and she together. 18. Between you and I, I believe that he is losing his mind. 19. Who should I meet the other day but ray old friend ? 20. Whd did he refer to, he or I ? 21. Who did he choose ? Did he choose you and I ? 22. He that is idle and mischievous reprove. 23. We will refer it to whoever you may choose. 24. Whosoever the court favors is safe. 25. They that are diligent I will reward. 26. Scotland and thee did in each other live. 27. My hour is come, but not to render up my soul to such as- thee. 28. I knew that it was him. 29. I knew it to be he. 30. Who did you suppose it to be ? 31. Whom did you suppose it was ? 32. I took that tall man to be he. 33. I thought that tall man was him. moment some vicious colloquialism may not creep into his discourse. A violation of every principle of grammar may be defended, if such inadvertencies are to be erected into authority. To whatever is the prevailing, the habitual, usage of a majority of the best writers and speakers the grammarian should bow without question ; but not to the accidental slips of even the greatest writers, or to the common usage of the unre- flecting and the uncultivated. Although than is not a proposition, it is sometimes followed by wJwm, as in the familiar passage from Milton : " Beelzebub . . . than wJwm, Satan except, none higher sat" Than whxym is an irregularity justified only on the basis of good usage. Whom, here may be parsed ae an objective case form used idiomatically in place of whjo. 264 Modifications of the Parts of Speech, LESSON 12 6. CONSTRUCTION OF CASE FORIVIS. MISCELLANEOUS — REVIEW. Direction. — Correct these errors, and give your reasons : — 1. Who was Joseph's and Benjamin's mother ? 2. It did not occur during Washington, Jefferson, or Adams's administration. 3. I con- sulted Webster, Worcester, and Walker's dictionary. 4. This state was south of Mason's and Dixon's line. 5. These are neither George nor Fanny's books. C. Howard's, the philanthropist's, life was a noble one. 7. It is Othello's pleasure, our noble and valiant general's. 8. He visited his sons-in-law's homes. Explanation. — If the possessive plural of such nouns were used, this would be correct ; but it is better to avoid these awkward forms. 9. A valuable horse of my friend William's father's was killed. 10. For Herodias's sake, his brother Philip's wife. 11. For the queen's sake, his sister's. 12. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 13. He spoke of you studying Latin. 14. It being difficult did not deter him. 15. What need is there of the man swear- ing ? 16. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again. 17. He thought it was us. 18. We shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn, you or me. 19. I shall not learn my duty from such as thee. 20. A lady entered, whom I afterwards found was Miss B. 21. A lady entered, who I afterwards found to be Miss B. 22. Ask some- body's else opinion. 23. Let him be whom he may. 24. I am sure it could not have been them. 25. I understood it to be they. 26. It is not him whom you thought it was. 27. Let you and I try it. 28. All enjoyed themselves, us excepted. 29. Us boys enjoy the holidays. 30. It was Virgil, him who wrote the "-^neid." 31. He asked help of men whom he knew could not help him. General Review. 255 GENERAL REVIEW. To THE Teacher.— These schemes and questions under the head of General Review are especially designed to aid in securing an outline of technical grammar. The questions given below may be made to call for minute details or only for out- lines. In some cases a single question may suffice for a whole lesson. Scheme for the Noun. (2%e numbers refer to Lessons.) Subject (4, 8). NOUN. Uses.' Classes. Modifications. Object Complement (28). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Comjjlement (31). Adjective Modifier (33). Adverb Modifier (35). Principal word in Prep. Phrase (17). Independen-t (44). Common (85). (Abstract and Collective.) Proper (85). w«,v,w j Singular (112-116). Number, j p^^^.^^ (112-116). Gender. Person. Case. (M (N (112- Masculine (117, 118). "eminine (117, 118). Neuter (117, 118). ( First (119). \ Second (119). ( Third (119). ! Nominative (119). Possessive (119, 122, 123). Objective (119). Questions on the Noun. 1. Define the noun and its classes. — Lesson 85. 2. Name and define the modifications of the nouri.^ — Lessons 112, 117, 119. 3. Name and define the several numbers, genders^ persons, and cases.— Lessons 112, 117, 119. • .. 256 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. 4. Give and illustrate the several ways of forming the plural. — Lessons 112, 113, 114. 5. Give and illustrate the several ways of distinguishing the gen- ders. — Lesson 117. 6. How is the possessive case formed ? — Lesson 122. 7. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the possessive forms. — Lesson 128. Scheme for the Pronoun. Uses. — Same as those of the Noun. r Personal (85,- 86, 87). ^, J Relative (85, 86, 87). PRONOUN. ^ Classes. < interrogative (85). t Adjective (85, 87). Modifications. — Same as those of the Noun (112, t 117, 118, 119, 124, 125, 142). Questions on the Pronoun. 1. Define the pronoun and its classes, and give the lists. — Lesson 85. 2. Decline the several pronouns. — Lesson 124, 3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the different pronouns. — Lessons 86, 87. 4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the number forms, the gender forms, and the case forms, — Lessons 118, 125, 142. LESSON 12 7. COMPARISON. Introductory Hints. — That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, but this one is the sweetest. The adjective sweet, expressing a quality of the three apples, is, as you see, inflected by adding er and est. Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked by form, or inflection. This modification is called Comparison, because Comparison. 257 it is used when things are compared with one another in respect to some quality common to them all, but possessed by them in different degrees. The form of the adjective which expresses the simple qual- ity, as sweet, is of the Positive Degree ; that which expresses the quality in a greater or a less degree, as sweeter, less sweet, is of the Comparative Degree ; and that which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree, as sweetest, least sweet, is of the Superla- tive Degree. But even the positive implies a comparison ; we should not say, This apple is sweet, unless this particular fruit had more of the qual- ity than ordinary apples possess. Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degrees always expresses the quality relatively. When we say, This apple is sweeter than that, or. This apple is the sweetest of the three, ■we do not mean that any one of the apples is very sweet, but only that one apple is sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those compared. The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be increased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective. We can say very, exceedingly, rather, or somewhat sweet ; far, still, or much sweeter ; hy far or much the sweetest. Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared. Adjectives have one modification ; viz., ComparisoD.* DEFINITIONS. Comparison is a modification of the adjective (or the adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality f in the things compared. The Positive Degree expresses the simple quality. * Two adjectives, this and that, have number forms— ^Ai*, these ; that, those. In Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicate gender, number, and case, t Different degrees of quantity, also, may sometimes be expressed by comparison. 17 258 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. The Comparative Degree expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality. The Superlative Degree expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality. RULE.— Adjectives are regularly compared by adding er to the positive to form the comparative, and est to the positive to form the superlative. RULES FOR SPELLING. RULE I.— Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; sl^^ fine, finer ; love, loving. Exceptions. — The e is retained. (1) after c and g when the suffix begins with a ov o ; as, peaceable, changeable ; (2) after o ; as, hoeing ; and (3) when it is needed to preserve the identity of the word ; as, singeing, dyeing. RULE 1\.—Y after a consonant becomes i before a suffix not beginning with i; as, witty, wittier; dry, dried. Exceptions. — Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the plural of proper nouns ; as, lady's, the Marys, the Henrys. RULE III.— In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, hot, hotter; begin. Exceptions. — X, h and v are never doubled, and gas has gases in the plural. Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most. This method is often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with those of one. Comparison. 259 Remark. — More beautiful, most beautiful, etc. can hardly be called degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs more and most have the degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as sepa- rate words. The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the inflections er and est are added. Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing less and least* ; as, valuable, less valuable, least valuable. Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different degrees. Direction. — From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared, and compare those that remain : — Observe the Rules for Spelling given above. Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, hand- some, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior. Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily pronounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred. * This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed from the Norman- Prench. But note how the adverb is compared. The Saxon superlative ending st is in most and least ; and the Saxon comparative ending s, unchanged to r, is the last letter in less— ch&nged to r, as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the r in more. When it was forgotten that less is a comparative, er was added, and we have the double comparative lesser— in use to-day. After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, both methods were often used with the same adjective ; and, for a time, double comparatives and double superlatives were common ; as, worser, most boldest. In "King Lear" Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen times. 260 Modifications of thie Parts of Speech. Direction. — Correct the following : — Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest. Some adverbs are compared by adding er and est, and some by prefixing more and most. Direction. — Compare the following : — Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely. Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their com- parison. Direction. — Learn to compare the following adjectives and ad- verbs : — Adjectives Irregularly Compared. Pos. (Aft),* Bad, \ Evil, [ 111, ) Comp. after, Far, farther. Fore, former. (Forth), further, Good, better. Hind, hinder, (In), inner, Late, j later or Superlative. S aftmost or \ aftermost. worst. farthest or farthermost. ( foremost or 1 first. j furthest or \ furthermost. best. ^ hindmost or \ hindermost. inmost or innermost. latest or last. Pos. Comp. ^ .^,. . \ less or ^'"'^•t (lesser, Many or Much, Near, Old, (Out), Under, (Up), Top, more, nearer, Superlative. least. most. ( older or I elder, ( nearest or i next. j oldest or ( eldest, f outmost or j outer or J outermost ; i utter, j utmost or I uttermost. , undermost. upmost or uppermost. topmost. upper. * The words inclosed in curves are adverbs— the adjectives following having no positive form. t For the comparative and the superlative of little, in the sense of small in size, emaUer and smallest are substituted ; aa, Utile boy, smaller boy, smallest boy. Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives. 261 Adverbs Irregularly Compared. P08. Comp. Superlative. Pos. Comp. Superlative Badly, I 111, S worse, worst. Little, Much, less, more. least, most. Far, farther. farthest. Well, better. * best. Forth, further. furthest. To THE Teacher.— We give below a model for writing the parsing of adjectives. A similar form may be used for adverbs. Exercises for the parsing of adjectives and adverbs may be selected from Lessons 12, 14, 29, 30, 31, 44, 46, 47, 48, 60, 63, 64, 65. Model for Written Parsing. — All the dewy glades are still. CLASSiriCATION. Adjectives. All the dewy 8tiU Kind. Def. Des. MODIFICATION. Deg. of Comp. Pos. Modifer of glades. (t t( (i Completes are and modifies glades. LESSON 128. CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. Caution. — In stating a comparison avoid comparing a thing with itself.* Remark. — The comparative degree refers to two things (or sets of things) as distinct from each other, and implies that one has more of the quality than the other. The comparative degree is generally- followed by than.\ * A thing may, of course, be compared with itself as existing under different conditions ; as. The star is brighter' to-night ; The grass is greener to-day. + The comparative is generally used with reference to two things only, but it may be used to compare one thing with a number of things taken separately or together ; as, He is no better than other men ; It contains more than cUl the others combined. Modifications of tlie Parts of Speech. Direction. — Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors : — 1. London is larger than any city in Europe. ■Correction. — The second term of comparison, any city in Europe, includes London, and so London is represented as being larger than itself. It should be, London is larger than any other city in Europe, or, London is the largest city in Europe. 2. China has a greater population than any nation on the globe. 3. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 4, There is no metal so useful as iron. (A comparison is here stated, although no degree form is employed.) 5. All the metals are less useful than iron. 6. Time ought, above all kinds of property, to be free from invasion. Caution. — In using the superlative degree be careful to make the latter term of the comparison, or the term introduced by of, include the former. Remarks. — The superlative degree refers to one thing (or set of things) as belonging to a group or class, and as having more of the quality than any of the rest. The superlative is generally followed by 0/. Good writers sometimes use the superlative in comparing two things ; as. This is the hest of the two. But in such cases usage largely favors the comparative ; as. This is the letter of the two. Direction. — Study the Caution and the RemarTcs, and correct these errors : — 1. Solomon was the wisest of all the other Hebrew kings. Correction.— 0/ (= belonging to) represents Solomon as belonging Construction of Comparatives and Superlatives. 263 to a group of kings, and other excludes him from this group — a con- tradiction in terms. It should be, Solomon was the wisest of Hebrew kings, or Solomon was iviser than any other Hebrew king. 2. Of all the other books I have examined, this is the most satis- factory. 3. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the most inex- cusable. 4. He was the most active of all his companions. (He was not one of his own companions.) 5. This was the most satisfactory of any preceding effort. 6, John is the oldest of any boy. in his class. Caution. — Avoid double comparatives and double superlatives, and the comparison of adjectives whose meaning will not admit of different degrees.* Direction. — Correct these errors: — 1. A more beautifuler location cannot be found. 2. He took the longest, but the most pleasantest, route. 3. Draw that line more perpendicular. Correctioi^. — Draw that Ime. perpendicular, or more nearly perpen- dicular, y 4. The opinion is becoming more universal. 5. A worser evil awaits us. 6. The most principal point was entirely overlooked. 7. That form of expression is more preferable. Caution. — When an adjective denoting one, or an adjec- * Many words which grammarians have considered incapable of comparison are used in a sense short of their literal meaning, and are compared by good writers ; as, My chiefest entertainment.— ASAcntZaw. The chiefest -prize.— Byron. Divinest Me\&n- cho\y.— Milton. Extremest hell.— Whittier. Most perfect harmony.— Longfellow. Less perfect Imitations.— MacatUay. The extension of these exceptional forms should not be encouraged. 264 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. tive denoting more than one, is joined to a noun, the adjective and the noun must agree in number. Remark. — A numeral denoting more than one may be prefixed to a singular noun to form a compound adjective ; as, a ten-foot pole (not a ten-feet pole), a three-cent stamp. Direction. — Study the Caution and the Remark, and correct these errors : — 1. These kind of people will never be satisfied. 2. The room is fif- teen foot square ; I measured it with a two-feet rule. 3. The farmer ■exchanged five barrel of potatoes for fifty pound of sugar. 4. These sort of expressions should be avoided. 5. We were traveling at the rate of forty mile an hour. 6. Remove this ashes and put away that tongs. IVIiscellaneous. 1. He was more active than any other of his companions. Correction. — As he is not one of his companions, other is unneces- sary. • 2. He did more to accomplish this result than any other man that preceded or followed him. 3. The younger of the three sisters is the prettier. (This is the construction which requires the superlative. See the second Remark in this Lesson.) 4. This result, of all others, is most to be dreaded. 5. She was will- ing to take a more humbler part. 6. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 7. I don't like those sort of people. 8. I have the most entire confidence in him,, 9. This is the more preferable form. 10. Which are the two more important ranges of mountains in North America ? 11. He writes better than any boy in his class. General Review. 265 GENERAL REVIEW. To THE Teacher. — See suggestions to the teacher, page 255. Scheme for the Adjective. {The numbers refer to Lessons.) ADJECTIVE. Uses. Classes. ! Modifier (12). Attribute Complement (29, 30). Objective Complement (31). j Descriptive (89-91). ( Definitive (89-91). Modification. — Comparison. ( Pos. Deg. ) < Comp. " y 127, (Sup. - ) 128. Questions on the Adjective. 1. Define the adjective and its classes. — Lesson 89. 2. Define comparison and the degrees of comparison. — Lesson 127. 3. Give and illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of comparison. — Lesson 127- 4. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of ad- jectives. — Lessons 90, 91. 5. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of com- parative and superlative forms. — Lesson 128. ADVERB. Scheme for the Adverb. Classes. Time. Place. Degree. Manner. Cause. 92-94. (Pos. Deg Modification. — Comparison. ■< Comp. (Sup Deg.) . ;; J 127, 128. ^66 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Questions on the Adverb. 1. Define the adverb and its classes. — Lesson 92. 2. Illustrate the regular method and the irregular methods of com- parison. — Lesson 127. 3. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of ad- verbs. — Lesson 93. LESSON 12 9. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB. VOICE. Introductory Hints. — He picked a rose. A rose was picked hy Aim. The same thing is here told in two ways. The first xevh, picked, •shows that the subject names the actor ; the second verb, was picked, ■shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. These different iorms and uses of the verb constitute the modification called Voice. The first form is in the Active Voice ; the second is in the Passive Voice. The active voice is used when the agent, or actor, is to be made prominent ; the passive, when the thing acted upon is to be made prominent. The passive voice may be used when the agent is un- •known, or when, for any reason, we do not care to name the agent ; ;as. The ship was wrecked ,> 3Ioney is coined. DEFINITIONS. Voice is that modification of tlie transitive verb which shows whether the subject names the actor or the thing acted tipon. The Active Voice shows that the subject names the actor. The Passive Voice shows that the subject names the thing ^cted upon. Composition— Voice. 267" The passive form is compound, and may be resolved into an asserting word (some form of the verb be) and an attri- bute complement (a past participle of a transitive verb). An expression consisting of an asserting word followed by an adjective complement or by a participle used adjec- tively may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice. Gxamples. — The coat was sometimes ivorn by Joseph {ivas ivorn — passive voice). The coat was badly worn {was — incomplete predicate^ worn — adjective complement). Remark. — To test the passive voice note whether the one named by the subject is acted upon, and whether the verb may be followed by by before the name of the agent without changing the sense. Direction. — Tell which of the folloivmg completed predicates may he treated as single verbs, and ivhich should not be so treated : — 1. The lady is accomplished. 2. This task was not accomplished in. a day. 3. Are you prepared to recite ? 4. Dinner was soon prepared, 5. A shadow was mistaken for a foot-bridge. 6. You are mistaken. 7. The man was drunk before the wine was drunk. 8. The house is situated on the bank of the river. 9. I am obliged to you. 10. I am obliged to do this. 11. The horse is tired. 12. A fool and his money are soon parted. 13. The tower is inclined. 14. My body is inclined by years. Direction. — Name all the transitive verbs in Lesson 78, a?id give their voice. LESSON 130. COMPOSITION-VOICE. The object complement of a verb in the active voice becomes the subject when the verb is changed to the passive voice. 268 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Example. — The Danes invaded England = England was invaded by the Danes. Remark. — You will notice that in the first sentence the agent is made prominent ; in the second sentence the receiver. Direction. — In each of these sentences change the voice of the transitive verb without altering the meaning of the sentence, and note the other changes that occur : — 1. Mercury, the messenger of the gods, wore a winged cap and winged shoes. 2. When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they intro- duced into England their own language, which was a dialect of the Teutonic, or Gothic. 3. My wife was chosen as her wedding dress was chosen, not for a fine, glossy surface, but for such qualities as would wear well, 4. Bacchus, the god of wine, was worshiped in many parts of Greece and Rome. 5. The minds of children are dressed by their parents as their bodies are dressed— in the prevailing fashion. 6. Harvey, an English physician, discovered that blood circulates. 7. The luxury of Capua, more powerful than the Roman legions, vanquished the victorious Carthaginians. 8. His eloquence had struck them dumb. Remark. — Notice that the objective complement becomes the attribute complement when the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice. 9. That tribunal pronounced Charles a tyrant. 10. The town had nicknamed him Beau Seymour. 11. Even silent night proclaims my soul immortal. 12. We saw the storm approaching. (Notice that the objective complement is here a participle.) 13. He kept his mother waiting. 14. We found him lying dead on the field. 15. We all believe him to be an honest man. (Notice that the objective complement is here an infinitive phrase.) Composition— Voice. 269 16. Some, sunk to beasts, find pleasure end in pain. 17. Every- body acknowledged him to be a genius. The indirect, or dative, object is sometimes made the subject of a verb in the passive voice, while the object complement is retained after the verb.* Example. — The porter refused him admittance = He was refused admittance by the porter. Dipection. — Change the voice of the transitive verbs in these sentences, and note the other changes that occur: — 18. They were refused the protection of the law. 19. He was offered a pension by the government. 20. I was asked that question yesterday. 21. He told me to leave the room. Explanation. — Here the infinitive phrase is the object comple- ment, and {to) me is used adverbially. To leave the room = that I should leave the room. 22. I taught the child to read. 23. I taught the child reading. 24. They told me that your name was Fontibell. Direction. — Change the following transitive verbs to the passive form, using first the regular and theii the idiomatic consti'uc- tion : — * Some grammarians condemn this construction. It is true that it is a violation of the general analogies, or laws, of language ; but that it is an idiom of our language, established by good usage, is beyond controversy. Concerning the parsing of the noun following this passive, there is difference of opinion. Some call it an adverbial modifier, some call it a "retained object," and some say that it is a noun without grammatical construction. In " I offered him money," him represents the one to whom the act was directed, and money names the thing directly acted upon. In " He was offered money," the relation of the act to the person and to the thing is not changed ; money still names the thing directly acted upon. 270 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Model. — He promised me a present = A present was promised me (regular) = / was promised a present (idiomatic). 25. They must allow us the privilege of thinking for ourselves. 26. He offered them their lives if they would abjure their religion. An intransitive verb is sometimes made transitive by the aid of a preposition. Example. — All his friends laughed at him = He was laughed at (ridiculed) by all his friends. Remark. — Was laughed at may be treated as one verb. Some grammarians, however, would call at an adverb. The intransitive verb and preposition are together equivalent to a transitive verb in the passive voice. Direction. — Change the voice of the following verbs : — 27. This artful fellow has imposed upon us all. 28. The speaker did not even touch upon this topic. 29. He dropped the matter there, and did not refer to it afterward. Remark. — The following sentences present a peculiar idiomatic construction. A transitive verb which, in the active voice, is fol- lowed by an object complement and a prepositional phrase, takes, in the passive, the principal word of the phrase for its subject, retaining the complement and the preposition to complete its meaning ; as, They took care of it, It ivas taken flare of. Direction. — Put the following sentences into several different forms, and determine which is the best : — 30. His original purpose was lost sight of* (forgotten). 31. Such * Some would parse of as an adverb relating to was lost, and sight as a noun used adverbially to modify was lost ; others would treat sight as an object [complement] of was lost ; others would call was lost sight of a compound verb ; and others, believing that the logical relation of these words is not lost by a change of position, analyze the csprcesion as if arranged thus : Sight of his original purpose was lost. Modifications of the Verb— Continued. 271 talents should be made much of. 32. He was taken care of by his friends. 33. Some of his characters have been found fault with as insipid. LESSON 131. MODIFICATIONS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON. Introductory Hints. — James walks. Here the walking is asserted as an actual fact. James may walk. Here the walking is asserted not as an actual, but as a possible, fact. If Jamss walk out, he will im- prove. Here the walking is asserted only as thought of, without regard to its being or becoming either an actual or a possible fact. James, walk out. Here the walking is not asserted as a fact, but as a command — James is ordered to make it a fact. These different uses and forms of the verb constitute the modification which we call Mode. The first verb is in the Indicative Mode ; the second in the Potential Mode ; the third in the Subjunctive Mode ; the fourth in the Imperative Mode. For the two forms of the verb called the Participle and the In- finitive, see Lessons 37 and 40. I walk. I walked. I shall walk. In these three sentences the man- ner of asserting the action is the same, but the time in which the action takes place is different. Walk asserts the action as going on in present time, and, as Tense means time, is in the Present Tense. Walked asserts the action as past, and is in the Past Tense. Shall walk asserts the action as future, and is in the Future Tense. I have walked out to-day. I Jiad walked out when he called. I shall have walked out by to-morrow. Have walked asserts the action as completed at the present, and is in the Present Perfect Tense. Mad walked asserts the action as completed in the past, and is in the 272 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Past Perfect Tense. Shall have walked asserts action to be com- pleted in the future, and is in the Future Perfect Tense. I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk. In the second sentence walk is changed by adding est ; in the third sentence, by adding s. Verbs are said to agree in Person and Number with their subjects. But this agreement is not generally marked by a change in the form of the verb. DEFINITIONS. Mode is that modiflcatioii of the verb which denotes the manner of asserting* the action or being. The Indicative Mode asserts the action or being as a fact.^ The Potential Mode asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of acting or being. The Subjunctive Mode asserts the action or being as a mere condition, supposition, or wish. The Imperative Mode asserts the action or being as a com- mand or an entreaty. The Infinitive is a form of the verb which names the action or being in a general way, without asserting it of anything. The Participle is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed. The Present Participle denotes action or being as continu- ing at the time indicated by the predicate. * In " Are you going ? " or " You are going ? " a fact is referred to the hearer for his admission or denial. In " Who did it ? " the fact that some person did it is assertedv and the hearer is requested to name the person. It will be seen that the Indicative Mode may be used in asking a question. Forms of the Verb. 273 The Past Participle denotes action or being as past or sompleted at the time indicated by the predicate. The Past Perfect Participle denotes action or being as completed at a time previous to that indicated by the predicate. Tense is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the action or being. The Present Tense expresses action or being as present. The Past Tense expresses action or being as past. The Future Tense expresses action or being as yet to come. The Present Perfect Tense expresses action or being as completed at the present time. The Past Perfect Tense expresses action or being as com- pleted at some past time. The Future Perfect Tense expresses action or being to be completed at some future time. Number and Person of a verb are those modifications that show its agreement with the number and person of its subject. LESSON 132. FORMS OF THE VERB. CONJUGATION. DEFINITIONS. Conjugation is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb. Synopsis is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and person in all the modes and tenses. Auxiliary Verbs are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs. 18 274 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. The auxiliaries are do, did, have, liad^ shall, should, will, would, may, might, can, could, must, and he (with all its variations, see Lesson 135). The Principal Parts of a verb, or those from which the other parts are derived, are the present indicative or the pres- ent infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle. List of Irregular Verbs.* To THE Teacher.— It would be well to require the pupils, in studying and in re- citing these lists of irregular verbs, to frame short sentences illustrating the proper use of the past tense and the past participle, e. g., I began yesterday ; He has begun to do better. In this way the pupils will be saved the mechanical labor of memorizing forms which they already know how to use, and they will be led to correct what has been faulty in their use of other forms. Remarks. — Verbs that have both a regular and an irregular form are called Redundant. * Grammarians have classed verbs on the basis of their form or history as Strong (or Old) and Weak (or New). Strong verbs form their past tense by changing the vowel of the present without adding anything ; weak verbs form their past tense by adding ed, d, or t. Some weak verbs change the vowel of the present ; as, tell, told ; teach, taught. These are weak because they add d or t. Some weak verbs shorten the vowel of the present without adding anything ; as, feed, fed ; lead, led ; and some have the present and the past alike ; as, set, set ; rid, rid. They have dropped the past tfense ending. The past participle of all strong verbs once ended in en or n, but in many verbs this ending is now lost. Since most verbs form their past tense and past participle by adding ed, we call such Regular, and all others Irregular. Our irregular verbs include all strong verbs and those that may be called " irregular weak " verbs. Of the ed added to form the past tense of regular verbs, d is what remains of did ; we-did-lave, for instance, being written lave-did-we. This derivation of d in ed is questioned. The d of the participle is not from did but is from an old participle suffix. The e in the ed of both these forms is the old connecting vowel. Forms of the Verb. 275 Verbs that are wanting in any of their parts, as can and may, are called Defective. The present participle is not here given as a principal part. It may always be formed from the present tense by adding ing. In adding iiig and other terminations, the Rules for Spelling (see Lesson 127) should be observed. The forms below in Italics are regular ; and those in smaller type are obsolete, and need not be committed to memory. Present. Past. Past Par. Abide, abode, ^' awaked. Be or am, was. Bear, bore, {bring forth) bare, Bear, bore, {carry) bare, beat, began, bent, bended, bereft, bereaved, besought, bet. betted, bade, bid, bound, bit, bled, blent. Mended, blest, blessed. Bereave, Beseech, Bet, Bid, Bind, Bite, Bleed, Blend, Bless, abode. awaked. been, born, borne, borne. beaten, beat. begun. bent, bended. bereft, bereaved. besought. bet, betted. bidden, bid. bound. bitten, bit. bled. blent, blended. blest, blessed. Present. Past. Blow, . Break, Breed, Bring, Build, Chide, Choose, Cleave, (adhere) Cleave, {split) Cling, Clothe, (Be) Come, Cost, blew, broke, brake, bre^ brought, built, burnt, burned, burst, bought, could, ca«t, caught, chid, chose, cleaved, clave, cleft, clove, clave, clung, clad, clothed, came, cost. Past Par. blown. broken. bred. brought. built. burnt, burned. burst. bought. cast. caught. chidden, chid. chosen. cleaved. cleft, cloven, cleaved. clung. clad, clothed. come. cost. * Can, may, shall, will, must, and ought were originally past •forms. This accountB for their having no change in the third person. 276 Present. Creep, Crow, Cut, Dare, (.venture) Deal, Dig, Do, Draw, Dream, Dress, Drink, Drive, Dwell, Eat, (Be) Fall, Feed, Feel, Fight, ^^Find, Flee, Fling, Fly, Forsake, Forbear, Freeze, Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Past. Past Par. crept, crew, crowed, cut, durst, dared, dealt, dug, digged, did, drew, dreamt, dreamed, drest, dressed, drank, drove, dwelt, dwelled, ate, fell, fed, felt, fought, found, fled, flung, flew, forsook, forbore, froze, crept. crowed. cut. dared. dealt. dug, digged. done. drawn. dreamt, dreamed. drest, (For) Get, got, drunk, driven. dwelt, dwelled. eaten. fallen. fed. felt. fought.' found. fled. flung. flown. ' forsaken. forborne. frozen. got, gotten.* Present. Past. Q'Ki' flied, (For) Give, gave. Go, went,f (Ei^trrave, graved, Grind, Grow, Hang, Have, Hear, Heave, Hew, Hide, Hit, ground,, grew, hung, hanged, had, heard, hove, heaved, hewed. hid, hit, (Be) Hold, held. Hurt, Keep, Kneel, Knit, Know, Lade, {load) Lay, Lead, hurt, kept, knelt, kneeled, knit, knitted, knew, laded, laid, led. Past Par. gilt, gilded. girt, girded. given, gone. graved, graven. ground, grown. hung, hanged.X had. heard. hove,§ heaved. hewed, hewn. hidden, hid. hit. held, \ ho]den._^ ^'^Gurt. kept. knelt, kneeled. knit, knitted. known. laded, laden. laid, led. * (rotten is obsolescent except m jorgoli t Went is the past of wend, to go. X Hang, to execute by hanging, is regular. § H&oe is used in sea language. List of Irregular Verbs— Continued. 277 LESSON 133. LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS -CONTINUED. Present. Past. Past Par. Present. Past. Past Par. Lean, Leap, leant, leaned, leapt, leOfpedf.^ leant, leaned. leapt, leaped. Put, Quit, Rap, Read, put, quit, quitted, quoth, f rapt, rapped, read. put. quit, quitted. _lLearn,) V Leave, learnt, learned, left, Hea^Slg^ learned. left. . rapt, rapped. read. Lend, lent. lent. Rend, rent. rent. /Let, let. let. Rid, rid. rid. / Lie, ] lay, lain. Ride, rode, ridden. (recline)! \ Light,'^ Lose,/ Make,, lighted, lit, lost, made. lighted, lit.* lost, made. Ring, ^ (A) Rise, Rive, rang. rung. rose, rived. riven, rived. Mav,/ Mow, might, meant, met, mowed, meant, met. mowed, mown. Run, Saw, Say, See, ran, sawed, said, saw. run. sawed, sawn. said. seen. Must, Ought, Pay, Pen, (inclose) paid, pent, penned. paid, pent, penned. Seek, ■ Seethe, Sell, sought, seethed, 80d, sold, sent, . sought. seethed, sodden, sold, sent. , ,,^ ♦ Lighted is preferred to lit. t Quoth, now nearly obsolete, is used only in the first and the third person of the past tense. Quoth I = said I. Other forms nearly obsolete are sometimes met in literature ; as, '■'■Methinks I scent the morning air " ; " Woe worth the day." Methinks (A. 8. thincan, to seem, not thencan, to think) = seems to me. In the sentence above, I scent the morning air is the subject, thinks is the predicate, and ms is a "dative," or a pronoun used adverbially. Woe worth (A. S. weorthan, to be or become) the day = Woe be to the day, or Let woe be to the day, or May woe be to the day. 278 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Present. Past. Past Par. Present. Past. Past Par. (Be) Set, set, set. Speed, sped. sped. Shake, shook. shaken. Spell, spelt, spelt. Shall, should. spelled. spelled. Shape, shaped^ shaped. Spend, spent. spent. shapen. Spill, spilt. spilt, . Shave, shaved, shaved. spilled, spilled. shaven. Spin, spun, spun. Shear, sheared, sheared. span. shore, shorn. Spit, spit. spit, Shed, shed. shed. spat, spitten. Shine, shone. shone. Split, split, split. Shoe, shod. shod. Spoil, spoilt, spoiled. spoilt, spoiled. Shoot, shot, shot, shown, . showed. Spread, spread, spread. Show, showed. Spring, sprang, sprung. sprung, Shred, shred. shred. > Stand, stood. stood. Shrink, shrank, shrunk, shrunk, shrunken. Stave, stove, staved. stove, staved. Shut, shut. shut. Stay, staid, staid, Sing, sang, sung. stayed, stayed. sung, Steal, stole. stolen. Sink, sank, sunk, sunk, sunken. Stick, stuck. stuck. Sit, sat. •sat. Sting, stung. stung. Slay, slew, slain. Stink, stunk. stunk. Sleep, slept, slept. stank, strewn, strewed. Slide, slid. slidden, slid. Strew, strewed. Sling, Slink, slung, slang, slunk. slung, slunk. Stride, Strike, strode, struck. stridden. struck, stricken. Slit, slit, slit,^ String, strung, strung. slitted, slitted. Strive, strove, striven. Smell, smelt, smelted, smelt, smelted. Strow, strowed. strown, strowed. Smite, smote, smitten, smit. Swear, swore, sware, sworn. Sow, sowed, sown, sowed. Sweat, sweat, sweated, sweat, siveated. Speak, spoke, spake, spoken. Sweep, swept, swept. . r. Forn Past. ns of the Verb— Cont inued. Past. 2' Present. Past Par. Present. Past Par. Swell, swelled, swelled, Wake, waked, waked, swollen. woke. woke. Swim, swam, swum, swum. Wax, waxed, waxed, waxen. Swing, swung, swung. Wear, wore. worn. Take, took, taken. Weave, wove, woven. Teach, taught, taught. Weep, wept. wept. Tear, tore, torn. Wet, wet, wet. tare, Will, would. Tell, told. told. Win, won. won. Think, thought, thought. Wind, wound. wound. Thrive, throve, thrived. thriven, thrived. Work, wrought, worked. wrought, worked. Throw, threw. thrown. (to)wit. Thrust, thrust, thrust. wot, wist, Tread, trod. trodden. Wring, wrung. wrung. trod. Write, wrote. written. Note.— Professor Lounsbury says, " Modern English has lost not a single one [irregular, or strong, verb] since the reign of Queen Elizabeth " ; and adds, " The present disposition of the language is not only to hold firmly to the strong verbs it already possesses but . . . even to extend their number whenever possible." And he instances a few which since 1600 have deserted from the regular conjugation to the irregular. But it should be said that new English verbs, from whatever source derived, form their past tense and participle in ed. So that while the regular verbs are not increas- ing by desertions from the irregular, the regular verbs are slowly gaining in number. LESSON 134. FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. CONJUGATION * — SIMPLEST FORM. Remark. — English verbs have few inflections compared with those * We give the conjugation of the verb in the simplest form consistent with what is now demanded of a text-book. Much of this scheme might well be omitted. Those who wish to reject the Potential Mode, and who prefer a more elaborate and technical claesiflcation of the mode and tense forms, are referred to pages 373, 374. 280 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. of other languages. Some irregular verbs have seven forms—see, saw, seeing, seen, sees, seest, sawest ; regular verbs have six- walk, walked, walking, walks, walkest, walkedst. As a sub- stitute for other inflections we prefix auxiliary verbs, and make what are called compound, or periphrastic, forms. Direction. — Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb walTc — present walk; past walked; past participle walked: — INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. 1. S (I) - ((You) _ 'i (Thou) (He) _ (I) _ j(You) _ \ (Thou) _ (He) _ (I) shall (You) wi ' (Thou) u (He) will (I) have ( (You) ha } (Thou) h (He) ha-f ingul Pres. ar. ~'est,* Pres. . PAST FUTURI SNT PE Plural. 1. (We) Pres. ^ 2. Pres. Pres. Pres. 2. (You) Pres. . 3. 3. (Thev) P-^' . 1. Past TENSE. 1. (We) Past . 2. Past Past Past 2. (You) Past . 3. 3. (Thev) Past . 1. 11 I il-t _ 1 ve i a-st i : TENSE. 1. (We) shall Pres. . 2. Pres. , Pres. , 2. (You) will Pres. , 3. 1. 2. 3. Pres. ; PRES] °ast Par., °ast Par., °ast Par., °ast Par. ; 3. (They) will Pres. . RFECT TENSE. 1. (We) have Past Par., 2. (You) have Past Par., 3. (Thev) have Past Par.. * In the indicative present, second, singular, old style, ot is sometimes added in stead of est ; and in the third person, common style, es is added when s will not unite. In the third person, old style, eth is added. Forms of the Verb— Continued. 281 PAST PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. {I) had P<^i ^«^-. 1. (We) had Po^t Par. , * .(You);.a^ P^^i^. ^ (You)Aad Past Par.. ^' \ (Thou) had-St Past Par., 3. (He) had , Past Par. ; 3. (They) had Past Par. , FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) shall have Past Par. , 1. (We) shall have Past Par. , UYou) will have ^st^, 2. (You) will have PasiPar.^ { (Thou) wil-t have Past Par. , 3. (Re) will have Past Par. ; 3. (They;> will have Past Par. , POTENTIAL MODE.* PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) may Pf^' . 1. (We) may Pres. j (You) may _Pres^. 2 ^You) may Pres. i (Thou) may-st Pr^- 3. (He) may Pres. ; 3. (They) may . Pres. . PAST TENSE. 1. (I) might Pres. . 1. (We) might Pres. , i (You) m*^;.^ _^, 2 Pm. . l(Thou) m«^M-»« __P?::!!i_, ^ ' ^ 3. (He) might Pres. ; 3. (They) might Pres. . PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 1. (L) may have Past Par. , \. (We) may have Past Par. , ^ C (You) may have Past Par. , « ,v , ■. j,„,* p^^ 2. -1 \„, ^ , „ , „ — 2. (You) may have Past Par. , \ (Thou) may-st have Past Par. , ^ ^ ^ 3. (Re) may have Past Par. -, d. (They) may have Past_Par., * Those who do not wish to recognize a Potential Mode, but prefer the more difficult task of determining when may, might, could, would, and should are independ- ent verbs in the indicative, and when auxiliaries in the subjunctive, are referred to pages 370-374. 282 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. PAST PERFECT TENSE. Singular, Plural. 1. (I) might have Past Par. , 1. (We) might have Past Par. , ^ ( (You) might have Past Par. , ^ ,,, , . , . ., „ . „ 2- i (Thou) Might-st have ^Z^, ^- ^^"""^ ™'^« '"''' ^2^^' 3. (He) might have Past Par. ; 3. (They) might have Past Par. , SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.* PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 2. (If thou) Pres. , 3. (If he) Pres. , IMPERATIVE MODE.f PRESENT TENSE, Singular. Plural. 2. Pres. (you or thou) ; 2. Pres. (you or ye). * The subjunctive as a form of the verb is fading out of the language. The only dis- tinctive forms remaining (except for the verb be) are the second and the third person singular of the present, and even these are giving way to the indicative. Such forms as If he have loved, etc. are exceptional. It is true that other forms, as. If he had known. Had he been, ShmUd he fall, may be used in a true subjunctive sense, to assert what is a mere conception of the mind, i. e., what is merely thought of, without regard to its being or becoming a fact ; but in these cases it is not the form of the verb but the connective or something in the construction of the sentence that determines the manner of assertion. In parsing, the verbs in such constructions may be treated as indicative or potential, with a subjunctive meaning. The offices of the different mode and tense forms are constantly interchanging ; a classification based strictly on meaning would be very difficult, and would confuse the learner. t From such forms as Let us sing. Let them talk, some grammarians make a first and a third person imperative. But us is not the subject of the verb-phrase let-sing, and let is not of the first person. Us is the object complement of let, and the infinitive sing is the objective complement, having lis for its assumed subject. , Some would find a first and a third person imperative In such sentences as " Now Forms of the Verb— Continued. 283 INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. (To) * Ftes. . (To) have Past Par. , PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Pres. ing, Pasi Par. , Having Past Par. , tread we a measure " ; " Perish the thought.'''' But these verbs express strong wish or desire and by some grammarians are called "optative subjunctives." "Perish the thought" = "May the thought perish," or " I desire that the thought may perish," or "Let the thought perish." * 7b, as indicated by the ( ), is not treated as a part of the verb. Writers on lan- guage are generally agreed that when to introduces an infinitive phrase used as an adjective or an adverb, it performs its proper function as a preposition, meaning to- ward, for, etc. ; as, I am inclined to believe ; I came to hear. When the infinitive phrase is used as a noun, the to expresses no relation ; it seems merely to introduce the phrase. When a word loses its proper function without taking on the function of some other part of speech, we do not see why it should change its name. In the expressions. For me to do this would be wrong ; Over the fence is out of danger, few grammarians would hesitate to call for and over prepositions, though they have no antecedent terra of relation. We cannot see that to is a part of the verb, for it in no way affects the meaning, as does an auxiliary, or as does the to in He was spoken to. Those who call it a part of the verb confuse the learner by speaking of it as the "preposition to" (which, as they have said, is not a preposition) " placed before the infinitive," i. e., placed before that of which it forms a part— placed before itself. In the Anglo-Saxon, to was used with the infinitive only in the dative case, where it had its proper function as a preposition ; as, nominative etan (to eat) ; dative to etanne ; accusative etan. When the dative ending ne was dropped, making the three forms alike, the to came to be used before the nominative and the accusative, but without expressing relation. This dative of the infinitive, with to, was used mainly to indicate purpose. When, after the dropping of the ne ending, the idea of purpose had to be conveyed by the infinitive, it became usual in Elizabethan literature to place for before the to. " And for to deck heaven's battlements."— (?reewe. " What went ye out for to see ? ""—Bible. " Shut the gates for to preserve the town."— if. Hen. VI., Part III. 284 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. May, can, and must are potential auxiliaries in the present and the present perfect tense; might, could, in^ould, and should, in the past and the past perfect. The emphatic form of the present and the past tense indicative is made by prefixing do and did to the present. Do is prefixed, to the imperative also. To THE Teacher.— Require the pupils to fill out these forms with other verbs, reg- ular and irregular, using the auxiliaries named above. LESSON 135 ;\ / y FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE.* Direction. — Learn the following forms, paying no attention to the line at the right of each verh : — INDICATIVE MODE. V PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) am , 1. (We) are , ^ j (You) are , or o /v n '^- i rrru \ > 2. (You) are — t (Thou) art , ^ S. (He) is ; 3. (They) are - / PAST TENSE. 1. (I) was — ^ , 1. (We) were — - j (You) were , or « /t- ^ ^' ] /mi, X i. 2. (Y ou) were - ( (Thou) wast , ^ ^ S. (He) was ; • 3. (They) were * The conjugation of be contains three distinct roots— a«, be, was. Am, art, is, are are from as. Am = as-m (m is the m in me). Art = as-t (t is the th in thou). Be was formerly conjugated,^! be, Thou beest, He beth or bes ; We be, Ye be, They be. \ Forms of the Verb— Continued. FUTURE TENSE. Singular. (I) shall be \ (You) will be — (Thou) wilt be (He) will be — Plural. 1. (We) shall be - 3. (You) will be - 3. (They) will be PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. , 1. (We) have been (You) have been , er (Thou) hast been y (He) has been • (I) have been (I) had been (You) had been — (Thou) hadst been (He) had been '4^ pAs-n^^ 2. (You) have been - 3. (They) have been ERFECT TENSE. 1. (We) had been — 2. (You) had been - 3. (They) had been FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. (I) shall have been (You) will have been (Thou) wilt have been -r- (He) will have been 1. (We) shall have been - 2. (You) will have been- 3. (They) will have been- X POTENTIAL MODE. BICT i«:NSE. PRESES 3. 1. 3. Singular. (I) may be (You) may be — (Thou) mayst be ■ (He) may be Plural. 1. (We) may be 2. (You) may be - 3. (They) may be PAST TENSE. (I) might be (You) might be — (Thou) mightst be (He) might be A7 1. (We) might be - 2. (You) might be - 3. (They) might be 285 286 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. (I) may have been , 1. (We) may have been - ( (You) may have been , or ^ /^t \ \ u 2. \ \„' ^ , , 2. (You) may have been - \ (Thou) mayst have been , 3. (He) may have been ; 3. (They) may have been - PAST PERFECT TENSE. 1. (I) might have been , 1. (We) might have been - ^ U You) might have been > or -1.^-1, u ^„ 2. i ,^, . , , , 2. (You) might have been - ( (Thou) mightst have been , ^ ' ^ 3. (He) might have been ; 3. (They) might have been- SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. (If I) be , 1. (If we) be , 3. (If he) be ; 3. (If they) be . PAST TENSE. Singular. 1. (If I) were *—, " 2. (If you) were (If thou) wert 3. (If he) were — IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. lar. Plural. Be (you or thou) ; 2. Be (you or ye) INFINITIVES. PRESENT TENSE. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. (To) be . (To) have been . PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. Beini' . Been. Having been Forms of the Verb— Continued. 287 LESSON 136 FORMS OF THE VERB-CONTINUED. CONJUGATION — PROGRESSIVE AND PASSIVE FORMS. A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by joining its present participle to the different forms of the verb he. A transitive verb is conjugated in the passive voice by joining its past participle to the different forms of the verb be. Remark. — The progressive form denotes a continuance of the action or being; as, The birds are singing. Verbs that in their simple form denote continuance — such as lovej respect, know — should not be conjugated in the progressive form. We say, I love the child — not I am loving the child. Remarks. — The progressive form is sometimes used with a passive meaning ; as, The house is building. In such cases the word in ing was once a verbal noun preceded by the preposition a, a contraction from on or in ; as, While the ark was a preparing ; While the flesh was in seething. In modern language the preposition is dropped, and the word in ing is treated adjectively. Another passive progressive form, consisting of the verb he com- pleted by the present passive participle, has recently appeared in our language — The house is heing built, or was being built. Although condemned by many linguists as awkward and otherwise objection- able, it has grown rapidly into good use, especially in England. Such a form seems to be needed when the simpler form would be am- biguous, i. e., when its subject might be taken to name either the actor or the receiver ; as. The child is whipping ; The prisoner is try- ing. Introduced only to prevent ambiguity, the so-called neologism has pushed its way, and is found where the old form would not be 288 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. ambiguous. As now used, the new form stands to the old in about the ratio of three to one. • Direction. — Conjugate the verb choose in the progressive form by filling all the blanks left after the different forms of the verb b e, in the preceding Lesson, ivith the presetit participle choos- ing; and then in the passive form by filling these blanks with the past participle cho sen. Notice that after the past participle of the verb be no blank is left. The past participle of the passive is not formed by the aid of be ; it is never compound. The past participle of a transitive verb is always passive except in such forms as have chosen, had chosen. (See have written, Lesson 138.) In the progressive, the past participle is want- ing. All the participles of the verb choose are arranged in order below. Present. Past. Past Perfect. Simplest form. Choosing, chosen, having chosen. Progressive form. Being choosing,* , having been choosing. Passive form. Being chosen, chosen, having been chosen. Direction. — Write and arrange as above all the participles of the verbs break, drive, read, lift. To THE Teacher.— Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them in the progressive and in the passive form. Eequire them to give synopses of all the forms. Eequire them in some of their synopses to use it or some noun for the sub- ject in the third person. LESSON 13 7. CONJUGATION-CONTINUED. INTERROGATIVE AND NEGATIVE FORMS. A verb may be conjugated interrogatively in the indic- ative and potential modes by placing the subject after the first auxiliary ; as, Does he sing 9 ♦ This form Is not commonly used. Mode and Tense Forms. 289 A verb may be conjugated negatively by placing not :after the first auxiliary ; as. He does not sing. Not is placed before the infinitive and the participles ; as, not to sing, not singing. A question with negation is expressed in the indicative and potential modes by placing the subject and not after the first auxiliary ; as. Does he not sing 9 Remark. — Formerly, it was common to use the simple form of the present and past tenses interrogatively and negatively thus : Loves he 9 I know not. Such forms are still common in poetry, but in prose they are now scarcely used. "We say, Does he love f I do not know. The verbs he and have are exceptions, as they do not take the Auxiliary do. We say. Is it right ? Have you another 9 Direction. — Write a synopsis in the third person, singular, of iheverb walk conjugated (1) interrogatively, (2) negatively, •and (3) so as to express a question with negation. Remember that the indicative and the potential are the only modes that can be nised interrogatively. To THE Tbacher.— Select other verbs, and require the pupils to conjugate them negatively and interrogatively in the progressive and in the passive form. Require the pupils to give synopBea of all the forms. LESSON 138. MODE AND TENSE FORMS. COMPOUND FORMS — ANALYSIS. The compound, or periphrastic, forms of the verb consisting of two words may each be resolved into an asserting word and a par- ticiple or an infinitive. 19 290 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. If we look at the original meaning of the forms I do write, I shall write, I will write, we shall find that the so-called auxiliary is the real verb, and that write is an infinitive used as object complement. I do write = I do or perforin the action {to) write. I shall w^rite = I owe {to) write. I will write = I determine {to) w^rite. May write, can write, must write, might write, could write, w^ould write, and should write may each be resolved into an assert- ing word and an infinitive. The forms is Meriting, was w^ritten, etc, consist each of an assert- ing word (the verb he), and a participle used as attribute com- plement. The forms have written and had written are so far removed from their original meaning that their analysis cannot be made to correspond with their history. They originated from such expressions as / have a letter written, in which have { — possess) is a transitive verb taking letter for its object complement, and written is a passive parti- ciple modifying letter. The idea of possession has faded out of have, and the participle has lost its passive meaning. The use of this form has been extended to intransitive verbs— Spring ^as come, Birds have flown, etc. being now regularly used instead of the more logical per- fect tense forms, Spring is come. Birds are flown. {Is come, are flown, etc. must not be mistaken for transitive verbs in the passive voice.) * * A peculiar use of had is found in the expressions had rather go and had better go, condemned by many grammarians who suppose had to be here used incorrectly for would or gfimdd. Of these expressions the " Standard Dictionary," an authority worthy of our attention, says :— " Forms disputed by certain grammatical critics from the days of Samuel John- son, the critics insisting upon the substitution of would or should, as the case may demand, for had ; but had rather and had better are thoroughly established English idioms having the almost universal popular and literary sanction of centuries. 'I would rather not go ' is undoubtedly correct when the purpose is to emphasize the ele- Mode and Tense Forms. 291 Compounds of more than two words may be analyzed thus : May- have been written is composed of the compound auxiliary may- have been and the participle written ; may have been is composed of the compound auxiliary may have and the participle been ; and may have is composed of the auxiliary may and the infinitive have. May is the asserting word — the first auxiliary is always the asserting word. Direction. — Study what has been said above and analyze the fol- lowing verbal formSy distinguishing carefully between participles that may be considered as part of the verb and words that must be treated as attribute complements: — 1. I may be mistaken. 3. The farm was sold. 3. I shall be con- tented. 4. Has it been decided ? 5. You should have been working. 6. The danger might have been avoided. 7. He may have been tired and sleepy. 8. She is singing. 9. I shall be satisfied. 10. The rule has not been observed. 11. Stars have' disappeared. 12. Times will surely change. ment of choice, or will, in the matter ; but in all ordinary cases ' I had rather not go ' has the merit of being idiomatic and easily and universally understood. " If for ' You had better stay at home ' we substitute ' You should better stay at home,' an entirely dijfferent meaning is expressed, the idea of expediency giving place to that of obligation." In the analysis of " J had rather go,"" had is the predicate verb, the infinitive go is the object complement, and the adjective rather completes had and belongs to go, i. e., is objective complement. Had (= should hold or regard) is treated as a past subjunc- tive. Rather is the comparative of the old adjective rathe — early, from which comes the idea of preference. The expression means, "I should hold going prefer- able." The expressions "You had better stay," "I had as lief not be," are similar in construction to " I had rather go." "I had sooner go " is condemned by grammarians because sooner is never an adjective. If sooner is here allowed as an idiom, it is a modifier of had. The expression equals, " I should more willingly have going." 292 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. TENSE FORMS — MEANING. The Present Tense is used to express (1) what is act- ually present, (2) what is true at all times, (3) what fre- quently or habitually takes place, (4) what is to take place in the future, and it is used (5) in describing past or future events as if occurring at the time of the speaking. Examples. — I hear a voice (action as present). The sun gives light (true at all times). He writes for the newspapers (habitual). Phillips speaks in Boston to-morrow night (future). He mounts the scaffold ; the executioners approach to bind him ; he struggles, resists, etc. (past events pictured to the imagination as present). The clans of CuUoden are scattered in fight ; they rally, they Need, etc. (future events now seen in vision). The Past Tense may express (1) simply past action or being, (2) a past habit or custom, (3) a future event, and (4) it may refer to present time. Kxamples. — The birds sang (simply past action). He wroh for the- newspapers (past habit). If I should go, you would miss me (future events). If he were here, he would enjoy this (refers to present time). The Future Tense may express (1) simply future action or being, (2) a habit or custom as future or as indefinite in time. Examples. — I shall write soon (simply future action). He will sit there by the hour (indefinite in time). The Present Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being as completed in present time {i. e., a period of time — an hour, a year, an age — of which the present forms a» Mode and Tense Forms. 293 part), and (2) action or being to be completed in a future period. Examples. — B.omer has written poems (the period of time affected by this completed action embraces the present). When I have finished this, you shall have it (action to be completed in a future period). The Past Perfect Tense expresses (1) action or being as completed at some specified past time, and (2) in a con- ditional or hypothetical clause it may express past time. Examples. — I had seen him when I met you (action completed at a specified past time). If I had had time, I should have written (I had not time — I did not write.) The Future Perfect Tense expresses action to be com- pleted at some specified future time. Example. — I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon. Direction. — Study what has been said above about the meaning of the tense forms, and describe carefully the time expressed by each of the following verbs: — 1. I go to the city to-morrow. 2. The village master taught his little school. 3. Plato reasons well. 4. A triangle has three sides. 5. To-morrow is the day appointed. 6. Moses has told many impor- tant facts. 7. The ship sails next week. 8. She sings well. 9. Cicero has written orations. 10. He would sit for hours and watch the smoke curl from his pipe. 11. You may hear when the next mail arrives. 12. Had I known this before, I could have saved you much trouble. 13. He will occasionally lose his temper. 14. At the end of this week I shall have been in school four years. 15. If I were you, I would try that. 16. He will become discouraged before he has thoroughly tried it. 17. She starts, she moves, she seems to feel the thrill of life along her keel. 294 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. «> < § 5s 1 I OJ fli S II ■S-ti i ^ fl •rA - IS e ;; § C5 O ^ o IZi Ai o «• ^ ^ s ^ a 0) a K ^ ^ 50 1 H ^ s :: - 5 - = - 2 -. -^ h s ti § a :; :; ^ i :; ;; ;J - i ^ 5C P-, i f, t ^ PU ^ 1 1 i t 1 H^ <3 ^ • £ 2 S £ ? Ph (1^ 0^ Oh O i3 -o o 13 Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 295 LESSON 139. PARSING. Direction. — Select and parse, according to the Model below, the verbs in the sentences of Lesson 42. For the agreement of verbs, see Lesson 142. Model for Written Parsing — Verbs, — The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders away to seek new lands. CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. STNTAX. Verbs. * selling wanders ♦seek Kind. Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Reg., Int Inf, Ir, Tr. MODIFICATIONS. Voice. Mode. Tense. Num. Per. Act. Act. Ind. Pres. Sing. 3d. Mod. of Yankee. Pred. of Yankee. Prin. word in phraae Mod. of wanders. (See Model for Written Parsing on ooposite page.) LESSON 14 0. CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS. Caution. — Be careful to give every verb its proper form and meaning. Direction. — Correct the following errors, and give your reasons : — 1. I done it myself. 2. He throwed it into the river, for I seen him when he done it. 3. She sets by the open window enjoying the scene that lays before her. Explanation. — Lay (to place) is transitive, lie (to rest) is intransi- tive ; set (to place) is transitive, sit (to rest) is intransitive. Set in some of its meanings is intransitive. 4. The tide sits in. 5. Go and lay down. 6. The sun sits in the * Participles and infinitives have neither person nor niunber. 296 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. west. 7. I remember when the corner stone was lain, 8. Sit the plates on the table. 9. He sat out for London yesterday. 10. Your dress sets well. 11. The bird is setting on its eggs. 12. I laid there an hour. 13. Set down and talk a little while. 14. fie has laid, there an hour. 15. I am setting by the river. 16. He has went and done it without my permission. 17. He flew from justice. 18. Some valu- able land was overflown. 19. She come just after you left. 20. They sung a new tune which they had not sang before. 21. The water I drunk there was better than any that I had drank before. 22. The leaves had fell. 23. I had rode a short distance when the storm begun to gather. 24. I found the water froze. 25. He raised up. 26. He run till he became so weary that he was forced to lay down. 27. 1 knowed that it was so, for I seen him when he done it. 28. I had began to think that you had forsook us. 29. I am afraid that I cannot learn him to do it. 30. I guess that I will stop. 31. I expect that he has gone to Boston. 32. There ain't any use of trying. 33. I have got no mother. 34. Can I speak to you ? 35. He had ought to see him. Explanation. — As ought is never a participle, it cannot be used after had to form a compound tense. Caution. — A conditional or a concessive clause takes a verb in the indicative mode when the action or being is assumed as a fact, or when the uncertainty lies merely in the speaker^s knowledge of the fact. But when the action or being in such a clause is merely thought of as a con- tingency, or in such a clause the speaker prefers to put hypothetically something of whose truth or untruth he has no doubt, the subjunctive is used. The subjunctive is frequently used in indirect questions, in expressing a wish Construction of Mode and Tense Forms. 297 for that which it is impossible to attain at once or at all, and instead of the potential mode in independent clauses. Examples. — 1. If (= since) it rains, why do you go ? 2. If it rains (now), I cannot go out. 3. If it rain, the work will be delayed. 4. Though it rain to-morrow, we must march. 5. If there be mountains, there must be valleys be- tween. 6. Though honey be sweet, one can't make a meal of it. 7. If my friend were here, he would enjoy this. 8. Though immortality were improbable, we should still believe in it. 9. One may doubt whether the best men be known, 10. I wish the lad were taller. 11. Oh ! that I were a Samson in strength. 12. It were better for him that a millstone were hanged about his neck. Explanation. — In (1) the raining is assumed as a fact. In (2) the speaker is uncertain of the fact. In the conditional clause of (3) and in the concessive clause of (4) the raining is thought of as a mere con- tingency. The speaker is certain of the truth of what is hypothet- ically expressed in the conditional clause of (5) and in the concessive clause of (6), and is certain of the untruth of what is hypothetically expressed in the conditional clause of (7) and in the concessive clause of (8). There is an indirect question in (9), a wish in (10) for some- thing not at once attainable and in (11) for something forever unattainable, and in (12) the subjunctive mode is used in place of the potential. Remarks. — When there is doubt as to whether the indicative or the subjunctive mode is required, use the indicative. 298 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. The present subjunctive forms may be treated as infinitives used to complete omitted auxiliaries ; as, If it {should) rain, the work will be delayed ; Till one greater man {shall) restore us, etc. This will often serve as a guide in distinguishing the indicative from the subjunctive mode. If, though, lest, unless, etc. are usually spoken of as signs of the subjunctive mode, but these words are now more frequently followed by the indicative than by the subjunctive. Direction. — Justify the mode of the italicized verbs in the follow- ing sentences : — I. If this were so, the difficulty would vanish. 2. If he was there, I did not see him. 3. If to-morrow he fine, I will walk with youx 4. Though this seems improbable, it is true. 5. If my friend is in ^ town, he will call this evening. 6. If he ever comes, we shall know it,«_^ Explanation. — In (6) and (7) the coming is referred to as a fact to be decided in future time. 7. If he comes by noon, let me know. 8. The ship leaps, as it were, from billow to billow. 9. Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob. 10. If a pendulum is drawn to one side, it will swing to the other. Explanation. — Be is often employed in making scientific state- ments like the preceding, and may therefore be allowed. Jf a pendu- lum is drawn = Whenever a pendulum is drawn. II. I wish that I were a musician. 12. Were I so disposed, I could not gratify you. 13. This sword shall end thee unless thou yield. 14. Govern well thy appetite, lest sin surprise thee. 15. I know not whether it is so or not. 16. Would he were fatter ! 17. If there were no light, there would be no colors. 18. Oh, that he were a son of mine ! 19. Though it he cloudy to-night, it will be cold. 20. Though the whole exceed a part, we sometimes prefer a part to the whole. 21. Whether he go or not, I must be there. 22. Though an Construction of Mode and Tense Forms— Continued. angel from heaven command it, we should not steal. 23. If there be an eye, it was made to see. 24. It were well it were done quickly. Direction. — Supply in each of the following sentences a verb in the indicative or the subjunctive mode, and give a reason for yeur choice: — 1. I wish it in my power to help you. 2. I tremble lest he . 3. If he guilty, the evidence does not show it. 4. He de- serves our pity, unless his tale a false one. 5. Though he there, I did not see him. 6. If he but discreet, he will succeed. 7. If I he, I would do differently. 8. If ye men, fight. LESSON 141. CONSTRUCTION OF MODE AND TENSE FORMS- CONTINUED. Caution. — Be careful to employ the tense forms of the different modes in accordance with their meaning, and in such a way as to preserve the proper order of time. Direction. — Correct the following errors, and give your reasons ;— 1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 2. Neither will they be persuaded, though one rose from the dead. 3. He that was dead sat up and began to speak, 4. A man bought a horse for one hundred dollars ; and, after keeping it three months, at an expense of ten dollars a month, he sells it for two hundred dollars. What per cent does he gain ? 5, I should say that it was an hour's ride. 6. If I had have seen him, I should have known him. 7. I wish I was in Dixie. 8. We should be obliged if you will favor us with a song. 9. I intended to have called. Explanation.— This is incorrect ; it should be, / intended to call. yOO Modifications of tine Parts of Speech. The act of calling was not completed at the time indicated by intended. Remark. — Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, in- tending, permitting, etc. are followed by verbs denoting present or future time.* The present infinitive expresses an action as present or future, and the present perfect expresses it as completed, at the time indicated by the principal verb. I am glad to have met you is correct, because the meeting took place before the time of being glad. I ought to have gone is exceptional. Ought has no past tense form, and so the present perfect infinitive is used to make the expression refer to past time. 10. We hoped to have seen you often. 11. I should not have let you eaten it. 12. I should have liked to have seen it. 13. He would not have dared done that. 14. You ought to have helped me to have done it. 15. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 16. The experiment proved that air had weight. Remark. — What is true or false at all times is generally expressed in the present tense, whatever tense precedes. There seems to be danger of applying this rule too rigidly. When a speaker does not wish to vouch for the truth of the general propo- sition, he may use the past tense, giving it the form of an indi- ♦The " standard Dictionary " makes this restriction: "The doubling of the past tenses in connection with the use of have with a past participle is proper and necessary when the completion of the future act was intended before the occurrence of some- thing else mentioned or thought of. Attention to this qualification, which has been overlooked in the criticism of tense-formation and connection, is especially important and imperative. If one says, ' I meant to have visited Paris and to have returned to London before my father arrived from America,' the past [present perfect] infinitive ... is necessary for the expression of the completion of the acts purposed. ' I meant to visit Paris and to return to London before my father arrived from America,' may convey suggestively the thought intended, but does not express it." Construction of Mode and Tense Forms— Continued. 301 rect quotation ; as, He said that iron was the most valuable of metals. The tense of the dependent verb is sometimes attracted into that of the principal verb ; as, 1 knew where the place was. 17. I had never known before how short life really was. 18. We then fell into a discussion whether there is any beauty independent of utility. The General maintained that there was not ; Dr. Johnson maintained that there was. 19. I have already told you that I was a gentleman. 20. Our fathers held that all men were created equal. Caution. — Use tvill and ivould to imply that the subject names the one whose will controls the action ; use sliall and should to imply that the one named by the subject is under the control of external influence. Remark. — The original meaning of shall (to owe, to he obliged) and will (to determine) gives us the real key to their pi'oper use. The only case in which some trace of the original meaning of these auxiliaries cannot be found is the one in which the subject of will names something incapable of volition ; as. The wind will blow. Even this may be a kind of personification. Sxamples. — I shall go ; You will go ; He will go. These are the proper forms to express mere futurity, but even here we can trace the original meaning of shall and will. In the first person the speaker avoids egotism by referring to the act as an obligation or duty rather than as something under the control of his own will. In the second and third persons it is more courteous to refer to the will of others than to their duty. 1 will go. Here the action is under the control of the speaker's will. He either promises or determines to go. You shall go ; He shall go. Here the speaker either promises the going or determines to compel these persons to go ; in either case the one who goes is under some external influence. 302 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Shall I go 9 Here the speaker puts himself under the control of some external influence — the will of another. Will I go ? — i. e.. Is it my will to go ? — is not used except to repeat another's question. It would be absurd for one to ask what his own will is. Shall you go ? Ans. I shall. Will you go ? Ans. I will. Shall he go ? Ans. He shall. Will he go ? Ans. He ivill. The same auxiliary is used in the question that is used in the answer. No difficulty shall hinder me. The difficulty that might do the hindering is not to be left to itself, but is to be kept under the con- trol of the speaker. He says that he shall go; He says that he will go. Change the indirect quotations introduced by that to direct quotations, and the application of the Caution will be apparent. You ivill see that my horse is at the door by nine o'clock. This is only an apparent exception to the rule. A superior may courteously avoid the appearance of compulsion, and refer to his subordinate's willingness to obey. They knew that I should be there, and that he would he there. The same principles apply to should and would that apply to shall and will. In this example the events are future as to past time ; making them future as to present time, we have, They know that I shall be there, and that he will be there. My friend said that he should not set out to-morrow. Change the indirect to a direct quotation, and the force of should will be seen. Direction. — Assign a reason for the use of shall or will in each of the following sentences : — 1. Hear me, for I will speak. 3. If you will call, I shall be happy to accompany you. 3. Shall you be at liberty to-day ? 4. I shall never see him again. 5. I will never see him Vgain. 6. I said that he should be rewarded. 7. Thou shalt surely die. 8. Truth, crushed to Construction of Number and Person Forms. LESSON 142. CONSTRUCTION OF NUMBER AND PERSON FORMS. AGREEMENT. — VERBS — PRONOUNS. Caution. — A verb must agree with its subject in num- ber and person. Remarks. — Practically, this rule applies to but few forms. Are and were are the only plural forms retained by the English verb. In the common style, most verbs have one person form, made by adding 8 or es (has, in the present perfect tense, is a contraction of the indica- ? earth, shall rise again. 9. Though I should die, yet will I not deny thee. 10. Though I should receive a thousand shekels of silver in mine hand, yet would 1 not put forth my hand against the king's son. Direction. — Fill each of the following blanks with shall, will, should, or would, and give the reasons for your choice : — 1. He knew who betray him. 2. I be fatigued if I had walked so far. 3. You did better than I have done. 4. If he come by noon, you be ready ? 5. They do me wrong, and I not endure it. 6. I be greatly obliged if you do me the J^ favor. 7. If I say so, I be guilty of falsehood. 8. You be disappointed if you see it. 9. he be allowed to go on ? 10. you be unhappy, if I do not come ? Direction. — Correct the following errors, and give your reasons : — 1. Where will I leave you ? 2. Will I be in time ? 3. It was re- quested that no person would leave his seat. 4. They requested that the appointment would be given to a man who should be known to his party. 5. When will we get through this tedious controversy ? 6. I think we will have rain. 304 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. tive present — ha{ve)s). The verb be has am (first person) and is (third, person). In the solemn style, the second person singular takes the ending est, St, or t, and, in the indicative present, the third person singular adds eth. (See Lessons 134 and 135.) Need and dare, when followed by an infinitive without to, are gener- ally used instead of needs and dares ; as. He need not do it ; He dare not do it. Caution. — A collective noun requires a verb in the plural when the individuals in the collection are thought of ; but, when the collection as a whole is thought of, the verb should be singular. ^Examples. — 1. The multitude were of one mind. 2. The multitude was too large to number. 3. A number were inclined to turn back. 4. The number present was not ascertained. Caution. — When a verb has two or more subjects con- nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural. Exceptions. — 1, When the connected subjects are different names of the same thing, or when they name several things taken as one whole, the verb must be singular ; as, My old friend and schoolmate is in town. Bread and milk is excellent food. 2. When the connected subjects are preceded by each, every, many a, or no, they are taken separately, and the verb agrees with the near- est ; as, Every man, woman, and child was lost. 3. When the subjects are emphatically distinguished, the verb agrees with the first and is understood with the second ; as, Time, and patience also, is needed. (The same is true of subjects connected by cbs well as ; as. Time, as well as patience, is needed.) 4. When one of the subjects is affirmative and the other negative, Construction of Number and Person Forms. 305 the verb agrees with the affirmative ; as, Books, and not pleasure, occupy his time. 5. When several subjects follow the verb, each subject may be emphasized by making the verb agree with that which stands nearest ; as, Thine is the kingdom and the power and the glory. Remark. — When one of two or more subjects connected by and is of the first person, the verb is in the first person ; when one of the sub- jects is of the second person, and none of the first, the verb is in the second person. /, you, and he = we ; you and he = you. We say, Mary and I shall (not vrill) be busy to-morrow. Caution. — When two or more subjects are connected by or or nor, the verb agrees in person and number with the nearest ; as, Neither poverty nor wealth was desired ; Neither he nor they ivere satisfied. When the subjects require different forms of the verb, it is generally better to express the verb with each subject or to recast the sentence. Remarks. — When a singular and a plural subject are used, the plural subject is generally placed next to the verb. In using pronouns of different persons, it is generally more polite for the speaker to mention the one addressed first, and himself last, except when he confesses a fault. Caution. — A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number, gender, and person ; as, Thon v^io loritest ; He who writes ; They ivho write, etc. The three special Cautions given above for the agree- ment of the verb will also aid in determining the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent. 20 306 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Hemarks. — The pronoun and the verb of an adjective clause relat- ing to the indefinite subject it take, by attraction, the person and number of the complement when this complement immediately pre- cedes the adjective clause ; as, It is I that am in the wrong ; It is thou that liftest me up ; It is the dews and showers that make the grass grow. The pronoun you, even when singular, requires a plural verb. pirection. — Justify the use of the following italicized verbs and pronouns : — 1. Books is a noun. 2. The good are great. 3. The committee were unable to agree, and they asked to be discharged. 4. The House has decided not to allow its members the privilege. 5. Three times four ts twelve.* 6. Five dollars »s not too much. 7. Twice as much is too much. 8. Two hours is a long time to wait. 9. To relieve the wretched was his pride. 10. To profess and to possess are two dif- ferent things. 11. Talking and eloquence are not the same. 12. The tongs are not in their place. 13. Every one is accountable for his own acts. 14. Every book and every paper was found in its place. 15. Not a loud voice, but strong proofs bring conviction. 16. This orator and statesman has gone to his rest. 17. Young's " Night Thoughts" is his most celebrated poetical work. 18. Flesh and blood hath not revealed it. 19. The hue and cry of the country pursues him. 20. The second and the third Epistle of John contain each a single chap- ter, 21. Man is masculine because it denotes a male. 22. Therein consists the force and use and nature of language. 23. Neither wealth nor wisdom is the chief thing. 24. Either you or I am right. 25. Neither you nor he is to blame. 26. John, and his sister also, is * " Three times four is twelve " and " Three times four are twelve " are both used, and both are defended. The question is (see Caution for collective nouns), Is the num- ber four thought of as a whole, or are the individual units composing it thought of ? The expression = Four taken three times is twelve. Times is a noun used adverbially. Construction of Number and Person Fornns. 307 going. 27. The lowest mechanic, as well as the richest citizen, is here protected in Ms right. 28. There are one or two reasons.* 29. Nine o'clock and forty-five minutes is fifteen minutes of ten. 30. Mexican figures, or picture-writing, represent things, not words, f 31. Many a kind word and many a kind act has been put to his credit. Direction. — Connect the following errors, and give your reasons : — 1. Victuals are always plural. 2. Plutarch's "Parallel Lives "are his great work. 3. What sounds have each of the vowels ? 4. *' No, no," says I. 5. "We agree," says they. 6. Where was you ? 7. Every one of these are good in their place. 8. Neither of them have recited their lesson. 9. There comes the boys. 10. Each of these expressions denote action. 11. One of you are mistaken. 12. There is several reasons for this. 13. The assembly was divided in its opinion. 14. The public is invited to attend. 15. The committee were full when this point was decided. 16. The nation are prosperous. 17. Money, as well as men, were needed. 18. Now, boys, I want every one of you to decide for themselves. 19. Neither the intellect nor the heart are capable of being driven. 20. She fell to laughing like one out of their right mind. 21. Five years' interest are due. 22. Three quarters of the men was discharged. 23. Nine-tenths of every man's happiness depend upon this. 24. No time, no money, no labor, were spared. 25. One or the other have erred in their statement. 26. Why are dust and ashes proud ? 27. Either the master or his servants is to blame. 28. Neither the servants nor their master are to blame. 29. Our wel- fare and security consists in unity. 30. The mind, and not the body, sin. 31. He don't like it. 32. Many a heart and home have been desolated by drink. * When two adjectives differing in number are connected without a repetition of the noun, the tendency is to make the verb agree with the noun expressed. t The verb here agrees with figures., as picture-writing is logically explanatory of Jigures. 308 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. GENERAL REVIEW. To THE Teachbb.— See suggestions to the teacher, page 255. Scheme for the Verb. {The numbers refer to Lessons.) Uses. Classes. To assert action, being, or state. — Predicate (4, 11). To assume action, being, or state. \ l^^^il^^l^S: Form. Meaning. i Regular (92). ■< Irregular (92, 132, 133). ( (Redundant and Defective.) j Transitive (92). \ Intransitive (92). Modifications. Participles.- Infinitives. — Voice. Mode. Tense. Number. Person. Classes. S Active (129, 1.30). '{ Passive (129, 130). rindicative (131, 134-137). J Potential (131, 134-137). 1 Subjunctive (131, 134-1.37, 140). [imperative (131, 134-137). ' Present. Past. Future. Present Perfect. Past Perfect. Future Perfect. 131, 134-138, 140, 141. \ Singular. ) \ Plural. f 131, 134, 135. ( First. \ Second. Third. [• 131, 134, 135. {Present. Past. } 131, 134-136. Past Perfect. j Present. ) ,_, ,_. ,__ i Present Perfect, f ^^^' ^^^' ^^^ Review Questions. 809 Questions on the Verb. 1. Define the verb and its classes. — Lessons 92, 132. 2. Define the modifications of the verb. — Lessons 129, 131. S. Define the several voices, modes, and tenses. — Lessons 129, 131. 4. Define the participle and its classes. — Lesson 131. 5. Define the infinitive. — Lesson 131. 6. Give a synopsis of a regular and of an irregular verb in all the different forms.— Lessons 134, 135, 136, 137. 7. Analyze the different mode and tense forms, and give the func- tions of the different tenses.— Lesson 138. 8. Give and illustrate the principles which guide in the use of the mode and tense forms, and of the person and number forms.— Lessons 140, 141, 142. LESSON 143. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Lesson 112. — What are Modifications ? Have English words many inflections ? Have they lost any ? What is Number ? Define the singular and the plural number. How is the plural of nouns regu- larly formed ? In what ways may the plural be formed irregularly ? Illustrate. Lesson 113. — Give the plural of some nouns adopted from other lan- guages. How do compounds form the plural ? Illustrate the several ways. How do letters, figures, etc. form the plural ? Illustrate. Lesson 114. — Give examples of nouns having each two plurals differ- ing in meaning. Some which have the same form in both numbers. Some which have no plural. Some which are always plural. What is said of the number of collective nouns ? Lesson 116.— In what four ways may the number of nouns be determined ? Illustrate. 310 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Lesson 117. — What is Gender ? Define the different genders. What is the difference between sex and gender ? The gender of Eng- lish nouns follows what ? Have English nouns a neuter form ? Have all English nouns a masculine and a feminine form ? In what. three ways may the masculine of nouns be distinguished from the femi- nine ? Illustrate. Give the three gender forms of the pronoun. Lesson 118. — How is gender in grammar important ? When is the pronoun of the masculine gender used ? When is the neuter pronoun it used ? By the aid of what pronouns are inanimate things person- ified ? In personification, when is the masculine pronoun used, and when is the feminine ? Illustrate. What is the Caution relating to gender ? Lesson 119. — What is Person ? Is the person of nouns marked by form ? Define the three persons. When is a noun in the first per- son ? In the second person ? What classes of words have distinctive person forms ? Why is person regarded in grammar ? What is Case ? Define the three cases. What is the case of a noun used inde- pendently ? Of an explanatory modifier ? Of an objective comple- ment ? Of a noun or pronoun used as attribute complement ? Illus- trate all these. Lesson 121.— What is Parsing ? Illustrate the parsing of nouns. LESSON 144. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Lesson 122.— How many case forms have nouns, and what are they ? How is the possessive of nouns in the singular formed ? Of nouns in the plural ? Illustrate. What is the possessive sign ? To which word of compound names or of groups of words treated as such is the Review Questions. 311 sign added ? Illustrate. Instead of the possessive form, what may- be used ? Illustrate. Lesson 123. — In what case alone can mistakes in the construction of nouns occur ? Illustrate the Cautions relating to possessive forms. Lesson 124. — What is Declension ? Decline girl and tooth. Decline the several personal pronouns, the relative and the interrogative. What adjective pronouns are declined wholly or in part ? Illustrate. Lesson 125. — What words in the language have each three different case forms ? What are the nominative, and what the objective, forms of the pronouns ? Lesson 127. — What one modification have adjectives ? What is Comparison ? Define the three degrees. How are adj^tives regularly compared ? What are the Rules for Spelling ? Illustrate them. How are adjectives of more than one syllable generally compared ? How are degrees of diminution expressed ? Can all adjectives be com- pared ? Illustrate. How are some adverbs compared ? Illustrate the irregular comparison of adjectives and adverbs. Lesson 128. — To how many things does the comparative degree re- fer ? What does it imply ? Explain the office of the superlative. What word usually follows the comparative, and what the superlative ? Give the Cautions relating to the use of comparatives and superlatives, and illustrate them fully. Lesson 129.— What is Voice ? Of what class of verbs is it a modifi- cation ? Name and define the two voices. When is the one voice used, and when the other ? Into what may the passive form be re- solved ? Illustrate. What may be mistaken for a verb in the passive voice ? Illustrate. Lesson 130. — In changing a verb from the active to the passive, what does the object complement become ? How may an intransitive verb sometimes be made transitive ? Illustrate. 312 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. LESSON 145. REVIEW QUESTIONS. Lesson 131. — "What is Mode ? Define the four modes. "What is Tense ? Define the six tenses. Define the infinitive. Define the par- ticiple. Define the classes of participles. "What are the number and person of a verb ? Lesson 132. — "What is Conjugation ? Synopsis ? "What are auxil- iary verbs ? Name them. What are the principal parts of a verb ? "What are redundant and what are defective verbs ? Lesson 134.-«-IIow many inflectional forms may irregular verbs have ? How many have regular verbs ? What is said of the sub- junctive mode ? Of to with the infinitive ? How is a verb conju- gated in the emphatic form ? Lesson 136. — How is a verb conjugated in the progressive form ? How is a transitive verb conjugated in the passive voice ? Give an example of a verb in the progressive form with a passive meaning. "What does the progressive form denote ? Can all verbs be conjugated in this form ? "Why ? Give all the participles of the verbs choose^ hredk, drive, read, lift. Lesson 137. — How may a verb be conjugated interrogatively? Neg- atively ? Illustrate. How may a question with negation be expressed in the indicative and potential modes ? Lesson 138. — Into what may the compound, or periphrastic, forms of the verb be resolved ? Illustrate fully. What is said of the parti- ciple in have written, had written, etc. ? Give and illustrate the several uses of the six tenses. Lesson 140. — Show how the general Caution for the use of the verb is frequently violated. When does a conditional or a concessive clause Additional Examples for Analysis. 313 require the verb to be in the indicative ? Illustrate. When is the subjunctive used ? Illustrate the many uses of the subjunctive. Lesson 141. — Give and illustrate the general Caution relating to mode and tense forms. Give and illustrate the Caution in regard to will and would, shall and should. Lesson 142. — Give and illustrate the Cautions relating to the agree- ment of verbs and pronouns. Illustrate the exceptions and the Re- marks. ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. Suggestions for the Study of the following Selections. To THE Teacher.— The pupil has now reached a point where he can afford to drop the diagram— its raiseion for him is fulfilled. For him to continue its use with these "Additional Examples," unless it be to outline the relations of clauses or illustrate peculiar constructions, is needless ; he will merely be repeating that with which he is already familiar. These extracts are not given for full analysis or parsing. This, also, the pupil would find profitless, and for the same reason. One gains nothing in doing what he already does well enough— progress is not made in climbing the wheel of a treadmill. But the pupil may here review what has been taught him of the uses of adjective pro- nouns, of the relatives in restrictive and in unrestrictive clauses, of certain idioms, of double negatives, of the split infinitive, of the subjunctive mode, of the distinctions in meaning between allied verbs, as lie and lay, of certain prepositions, of punctuation, etc. He should study the general character of each sentence, its divisions and sub- divisions, the relations of the independent and the dependent parts, and their connec- tion, order, etc. He should note the periodic structure of some of these sen- tences—of (4) or (19), for instance— the meaning of which remains in suspense till near or at the close. He should note in contrast the loose structure of others — for example, the last sentence in (20) — a sentence that has several points at any one of which a complete thought has been expressed, but the part of the sentence following does not, by itself, make complete sense. Let him try to see which structure is the more natural, and which is the more forcible, and why ; and what style gains by a judicious blending of the two. Especially should the pupil look at the thought in these prose extracts and at the manner in which it is expressed. This will lead him to take a step or two over into 314 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. the field of literature. If the attempt is made, one condition seems imperative— the pupil should thoroughly understand what the author says. We know no better way to secure this than to exact of him a careful reproduction in his own words of the author's thought. This will reveal to him the differences between his work and the original ; and bring into relief the peculiarity of each author's style— the stateliness of De Quincey's, for instance, the vividness of Webster's, the oratorical character of Macaulay's, the ruggedness of Carlyle's, the poetical beauty of Emerson's, the humor of Irving's, and the brilliancy of Holmes's— the last lines from whom are purposely stilted, as we learn from the context. The pupil may see how ellipses and transpositions and imagery abound in poetry, and how, in the use of these particulars, poets differ from each other. He may note that poems are not pitched in the same key— that the extracts from Wordsworth and Goldsmith and Cowper, for example, deal with common facts and in a homely way, that the one from Lowell is in a higher key, while that from Shelley is all imagination, and is crowded with audacious imagery, all exquisite except in the first line, where the moon, converted by metaphor into a maiden, has that said of her that is inconsistent with her in her new character. 1. It is thought by some people that all those stars which you see glittering so restlessly on a ke'en, frosty night in a high latitude, and which seem to have been sown broadcast with as much carelessness as grain lies on a threshing-floor^ here showing vast zaarahs of desert blue sky, there again lying close, and to some eyes presenting "The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest," are, in fact, gathered into zones or strata ; that o»r own wicked little earthy, with the whole of our peculiar solar system, is a part of such a zone ; and that all this perfect geometry of the heavens, these radii in the mighty wheel, would become apparent, if we, the spectators, could but survey it from the true center ; which center may be far too dis- tant for any vision of man, naked or armed, to reach. f-De Quincey. 2. On this question of principle, while actual suffering was yet afar off, they [our fathers] raised their flag against a power to which, for purposes of foreign conquest and subjugation, Rome, in the height of her glory, is not to be compared — a power which has dotted over the Additional Examples for Analysis. 315 surface of the whole globe with her possessions and military posts ; whose morning drum-beat, following the sun and keeping company with the hours, circles the earth with one continuous and unbroken strain of the martial airs of England. — Webster. 3. In some far-away and yet undreamt-of hour, I can even imagine that England may cast all thoughts of possessive wealth back to the barbaric nations among whom they first arose ; and that, while the sands of the Indus and adamant of Golconda may yet stiffen the hous- ings of the charger and flash from the turban of the slave, she, as a Christian mother, may at last attain to the virtues and the treasures of a Heathen one, and be able to lead forth her Sons, saying, ' ' These are my Jewels." — Buskin. 4. And, when those who have rivaled her [Athens's] greatness shall have shared her fate ; when civilization and knowledge shall have lixed their abode in distant continents ; when the scepter shall have passed away from England ; when, perhaps, travelers from distant regions shall in vain labor to decipher on some moldering pedestal the name of our proudest chief, shall hear savage hymns chanted to some misshapen idol over the ruined dome of our proudest temple, and shall see a single naked fisherman wash his nets in the river of the ten thousand masts, — her influence and her glory will still survive, fresh in eternal youth, exempt from mutability and decay, immortal as the intellectual principle from which they derived their origin, and over which they exercise their control. — Macaulay. 6. To him who in the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language ; for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness and a smile And eloquence of beauty, and she glides Into his darker musings with a mild 316 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. And healing sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last, bitter hour come like a blight Over thy spirit, and sad images Of the stern agony and shroud and pall And breathless darkness and the narrow house Make thee to shudder and grow sick at heart, — Go forth under the open sky, and list ^ To Nature's teachings, while from all around— Earth and her waters and the depths of air — Comes a still voice. — Bryant. 6. Pleasant it was, when woods were green, And winds were soft and low. To lie amid some sylvan scene, Where, the long drooping boughs between, Shadows dark and sunlight sheen Alternate come and go ; Or where the denser grove receives No sunlight from above, But the dark foliage interweaves In one unbroken roof of leaves. Underneath whose sloping eaves The shadows hardly move. — Longfellow. 7. I like the lad who, when his father thought To clip his morning nap by hackneyed praise Of vagrant worm by early songster caught, Cried, "Served him right ! 'tis not at all surprising ; The worm was punished, sir, for early rising."— >SflKC«. 8. There were communities, scarce known by name In these degenerate days, but once far-famed, Additional Examples for Analysis. 317 Where liberty and justice, hand in hand, Ordered the common weal ; where great men grew Up to their natural eminence, and none Saving the wise, just, eloquent, were great ; Where power was of God's gift to whom he gave Supremacy of merit — the sole means And broad highway to power, that ever then Was meritoriously administered. Whilst all its instruments, from first to last. The tools of state for service high or low. Were chosen for their aptness to those ends Which virtue meditates. — Henry Taylor. % . 9, Stranger, these gloomy boughs Had charms for him ; and here he loved to sit. His only visitant a straggling sheep, The stone-chat, or the glancing sand-piper ; And on these barren rocks, with fern and heath And juniper and thistle sprinkled o'er. Fixing his downcast eye, he many an hour A morbid pleasure nourished, tracing here An emblem of his own unfruitful life ; And, lifting up his head, he then would gaze On the more distant scene, — how lovely 'tis Thou seest, — and he would gaze till it became Far lovelier, and his heart could not sustain The beauty, still more beauteous. — Wordsworth. 10. But, when the next sun brake from underground, Then, those two brethren slowly with bent brows Accompanying, the sad chariot-bier Past like a shadow thro' the field, that shone 318 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. Full-summer, to that stream whereon the barge, ' Pall'd all its length in blackest samite, lay. There sat the life-long creature of the house. Loyal, the dumb old servitor, on deck. Winking his eyes, and twisted all his face. So those two brethren from the chariot took And on the black decks laid her in her bed. Set in her hand a lily, o'er her hung The silken case with braided blazonings, And kiss'd her quiet brows, and, saying to her, "Sister, farewell forever," and again, "Farewell, sweet sister," parted all in tears. — Tennyson. 11. Good name in man and woman, dear my lord, Is the immediate jewel of their souls. Who steals my purse steals trash ; 't is something, nothing 'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thousands : But he that filches from me my good name Robs me of that which not enriches him. And makes me poor indeed. — Shakespeare. 12. When I consider how ray light is spent Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, And that one talent, which is death to hide, \ Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent To serve therewith my Maker, and present My true account, lest he, returning, chide, — * ' Doth God exact day-labor, light denied ? " I fondly ask : but Patience, to prevent That murmur, soon replies, "God doth not need Either man's work or his own gifts ; who best Bear his mild yoke, viey serve him best : his state Additional Examples for Analysis. 319 Is kingly ; thousands at his bidding speed, And post o'er land and ocean without rest ; They also serve who only stand and wait." — Milton. — Sonnet on his Blindness. 13. Ah ! on Thanksgiving Day, when from East and from West, From North and from South come the pilgrim and guest ; When the gray-haired New-Englander sees round his board The old broken links of affection restored ; When the care- wearied man seeks his mother once more, And the worn matron smiles where the girl smiled before,— What moistens the lip, and what brightens the eye ? What calls back the past like the rich pumpkin-pie ? — Whittier. 14. That orbed maiden with white fire laden, - Whom mortals call the moon, Glides glimmering o'er my fleece-like floor. By the midnight breezes strewn ; And wherever the beat of her unseen feet. Which only the angels hear, May have broken the woof of my tent's thin roof. The stars peep behind her and peer ; And I laugh to see them whirl and flee Like a swarm of golden bees, When I widen the rent in my wind-built tent. Till the calm rivers, lakes, and seas, Like strips of the sky fallen through me on high, Are each paved with the moon and these. —Shelley. ^The Cloud. 15. Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close, Up yonder hill the village murmur rose. 320 Modifications of the Parts of Speech. There, as I passed with careless steps and slow, The mingling notes came softened from below ; The swain responsive as the milk-maid sung, The sober herd that lowed to meet their young, The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool, The playful children just let loose from school. The watch-dog's voice that bayed the whispering wind, And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind, — These all in sweet confusion sought the shade. And filled each pause the nightingale had made. — Ooldsmith. 16 To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, To slowly trace the forest's shady scene. Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, And mortal foot hath ne'er or rarely been ; To climb the trackless mountain all unseen. With the wild flock that never needs a fold ; Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean ; — This is not solitude ; 't is but to hold Converse with nature's charms, and view her stores unrolled. ^Byron, 17. The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang. And through the dark arch a charger sprang. Bearing Sir Launfal, the maiden knight, In his gilded mail, that flamed so bright It seemed the dark castle had gathered all Those shafts the fierce sun had shot over its wall In his siege of three hundred summers long, And, binding them all in one blazing sheaf, Had cast them forth ; so, young and strong Additional Examples for Analysis. 331 And lightsome as a locust leaf, Sir Launfal flashed forth in his maiden mail To seek in all climes for the Holy Grail. — Lowell, 18. Be it a weakness, it deserves some praise, — We love the play-place of our early days ; The scene is touching, and the heart is stone That feels not at the sight, and feels at none. The wall on which we tried our graving skill, The very name we carved subsisting still ; The bench on which we sat while deep employed, Tho' mangled, hacked, and hewed, not yet destroyed ; The little ones, unbuttoned, glowing hot. Playing our games, and on the very spot. As happy as we once, to kneel and draw The chalky ring and knuckle down at taw, To pitch the ball into the grounded hat, Or drive it devious with a dexterous pat ; — The pleasing spectacle at once excites Such recollection of our own delights That, viewing it, we seem almost t' obtain Our innocent, sweet, simple years again. — Cowper. 19. Considering our present advanced state of culture, and how the torch of science has now been brandished and borne about, with more or less effect, for five thousand years and upwards ; how, in these times especially, not only the torch still burns, and perhaps more fiercely than ever, but innumerable rush-lights and sulphur-matches, kindled thereat, are also glancing in every direction, so that not the smallest cranny or doghole in nature or art can remain unillumi- nated,— it might strike the reflective mind with some surprise that 21 322 Modifications of the Parts of Speech, hitherto little or nothing of a fundamental character, whether in the way of philosophy or history, has been written on the subject of Clothes. — Carlyle. 20. When we see one word of a frail man on the throne of France tearing a hundred thousand sons from their homes, breaking asunder the sacred ties of domestic life, sentencing myriads of the young to make murder their calling and rapacity their means of support, and extorting from nations their treasures to extend this ruinous sway, we are ready to ask ourselves. Is not this a dream ? and, when the sad reality comes home to us, we blush for a race which can stoop to such an abject lot. At length, indeed, we see the tyrant humbled, stripped of power, but stripped by those who, in the main, are not unwilling to play the despot on a narrower scale, and to break down the spirit of nations under the same iron sway. — Channing. 21. There are days which occur in this climate, at almost any season of the year, wherein the world reaches its perfection ; when the air, the heavenly bodies, and the earth make a harmony, as if Nature would indulge her offspring ; when, in these bleak upper sides of the planet, nothing is to desire that we have heard of the happiest latitudes, and we bask in the shining hours of Florida and Cuba ; when everything that has life gives sign of satisfaction, and the cattle that lie on the ground seem to have great and tranquil thoughts. — Emerson. 22. Did you never, in walking in the fields, come across a large fli^t stone, which had lain, nobody knows how long, just where you found it, with the grass forming a little hedge, as it were, all round it, close to its edges ; and have you not, in obedience to a kind of feeling that told you it had been lying there long enough, insinuated your stick or your foot or your fingers under its edge, and turned it over as a house- Additional Examples for Analysis. 323 wife turns a cake, when she says to herself, " It's done brown enough by this time " ? But no sooner is the stone turned and the wholesome light of day let upon this compressed and blinded community of creep- ing things than all of them which enjoy the luxury of legs— and some of them have a good many — rush round wildly, butting each other and everything in their way, and end in a general stampede for under- ground retreats from the region poisoned by sunshine. Next year you will find the grass growing tall and green where the stone lay ; the ground-bird builds her nest where the beetle had his hole ; the dandelion and the buttercup are growing there, and the broad fans of insect-angels open and shut over their golden disks, as the rhythmic waves of blissful consciousness pulsate through their glorified being. — Holmes. 23. There is a different and sterner path ; — I know not whether there be any now qualified to tread it ; I am not sure that even one has ever followed it implicitly, in view of the certain raeagerness of its tem- poral rewards, and the haste wherewith any fame acquired in a sphere so thoroughly ephemeral as the Editor's must be shrouded by the dark waters of oblivion. This path demands an ear ever open to the plaints of the wronged and the suffering, though they can never repay advo- cacy, and those who mainly support newspapers will be annoyed and often exposed by it ; a heart as sensitive to oppression and degradation in the next street as if they were practiced in Brazil or Japan ; a pen as ready to expose and reprove the crimes whereby wealth is amassed and luxury enjoyed in our own country at this hour as if they had been committed only by Turks or pagans in Asia some centuries ago. — Greeley. 24. To sweeten the beverage, a lump of sugar was laid beside each cup, and the company alternately nibbled and sipped with great deco- rum, until an improvement was introduced by a shrewd and econom' 324 Modifications of tlie Parts of Speech. ical old lady, which was to suspend a large lump directly over the tea-table, by a string from the ceiling, so that it could be swung from mouth to mouth — an ingenious expedient, which is still kept up by some families in Albany, but which prevails without exception in Communipaw, Bergen, Flatbush, and all our uncontaminated Dutch villages. — Irving, COMPOSITION. LESSON 146. SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. CAPITAL LETTERS, TERMINAL MARKS, AND THE COMMA. Capital Letters. — The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, (3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital letter (5) proper names (including all names of the Deity), and words derived from them, (6) names of things vividly personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the words I and 0, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation.* Period. — Place a period after (1) a declarative or an im- perative sentence, (2) an abbreviation, (3) a number written in the Roman notation, and (4) Arabic figures used to enumerate. Interrogation Point. — Every direct interrogative sen- * Small letters are often used in referring to sections, chapters, etc. 326 Composition. tence or clause should be followed by an interrogation point. Exclamation Point. — All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the exclamation point. Comma. — Set off by the comma (1) an explanatory modi- fier which does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it ; (2) a participle used as an adjective modi- fier, with the words belonging to it, unless restrictive ; (3) the adjective clause when not restrictive ; (4) the adverb clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies ; (5) a phrase out of its usual order or not closely connected with the word it modifies ; (6) a word or phrase independent or nearly so ; (7) a direct quotation introduced into a sentence, unless formally introduced ; (8) a noun clause used as an attribute complement ; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, unless all the conjunctions are expressed ; (11) co-ordinate clauses when short and closely connected ; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate, and other phrases, when long or differently modified. Use the comma (13) to denote an omission of words; (14) after as, namely, etc., introdu- cing illustrations; and (15) when it is needed to prevent ambiguity. Direction. — Give the Rule for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences, except the colon, the semicolon, and the quotation marks : — Summary of Rules for Capital Letters, etc. 327 1. Francis II., Charles IX., and Henry III., three sons of Catherine Ae Medici and Henry II., sat upon the French throne. 2. The pupil asked, "When shall I use 0, and when shall I use oh?'' 3. Purity of style forbids us to use : 1. Foreign words ; 2. Obsolete words ; 3. Low words, or slang. 4. It is easy. Mistress Dial, for you, who have always, as everybody knows, set yourself up above me, to accuse one of laziness. 5. He rushed into the field, and, foremost fighting, fell. 6. The Holy Land was, indeed, among the early conquests of the Saracens, Caliph Omar having, in 637 a. d., taken Jerusalem. 7. He who teaches, often learns himself. 8. San Salvador, Oct. 12, 1492. 9. Some letters are superfluous ; as, c and q. 10. No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing hours with flying feet I Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctua- tion in these sentences, and give your reasons : — 1. and lo from the assembled crowd there rose a shout prolonged and loud that to the ocean seemed to say take her o bridegroom old and gray 2. a large rough mantle of sheepskin fastened around the loins by a girdle or belt of hide was the only covering of that strange solitary man elijah the tishbite 3. The result however of the three years' reign or tyranny of jas ii was that wm of orange came over from hol- land and without shedding a drop of blood became a d 1688 wm iii of england 4. o has three sounds : 1. that in 7iot ; 2. that in note; 3. that in move 5. lowell asks and what is so rare as a day in June 6. spring is a fickle mistress but summer is more staid 7. if i may judge by his gorgeous colors and the exquisite sweetness and variety of his music autumn is i should say the poet of the family 8. new york apr 30 1789 9. some letters stand each for many sounds ; as a and a 328 Composition. LESSON 147. SUMMARY OF RULES-CONTINUED. SEMICOLON AND COLON. Semicolon. — Co-ordinate clauses, (1) when slightly con- nected, or (2) when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common dependence on something which precedes or follows ; and (4) before as, to tvit, namely, i. e., and that is, when they introduce examples or illustrations. Direction. — Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctua- tion (except the colon) in these sentences: — 1. It may cost treasure, and it may cost blood ; but it will stand, and it will richlj^ compensate for both. 2. Some words are delightful to the ear ; as, Ontario, golden, oriole. 3. The shouts of revelry had died away ; the roar of the lion had ceased ; the last loiterer had retired from the banquet ; and the lights in the palace of the victor were extinguished. 4. Send it to the public halls ; proclaim it there ; let them hear it who heard the first roar of the enemy's cannon ; let them see it who saw their brothers and their sons fall on the field of Bunker Hill : and the very walls will cry out in its support. Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctua- tion in these sentences, and give your reasons: — 1. all parts of a plant reduce to three namely root stem and leaf 2. when the world is dark with tempests when thunder rolls and light- ning flies thou lookest in thy beauty from the clouds and laughest at Summary of Rules— Continued. 329» the storm 3. the oaks of the mountains fall the mountains them- selves decay with years the ocean shrinks and grows again the mooii herself is lost in heaven 4. kennedy taking from her a handkerchief edged with gold pinned it over her eyes the executioners holding her by the arms led her to the block and the queen kneeling down said repeatedly with a firm voice into thy hands o lord i commend my spirit Colon. — Use tlie colon (1) between the parts of a sen- tence when these parts are themselves divided by the semicolon, and (2) before a quotation or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced. Direction. — Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctua" lion in these sentences : — 1. You may swell every expense, and strain every effort, still more extravagantly ; accumulate every assistance you can beg and borrow ; traffic and barter with every little, pitiful German prince that cells and sends his subjects to the shambles of a foreign country : your efforts are forever vain and impotent. 2. This is a precept of Socra- tes : "Know thyself." , Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctua- tion in these sentences, and give your reasons : — 1. the advice given ran thus take care of the minutes and the hours will take care of themselves 2. we may abound in meetings and move- ments enthusiastic gatherings in the field and forest may kindle all minds with a common sentiment but it is all in vain if men do not retire from the tumult to the silent culture of every right disposi- tion Direction. — Write sentences illustrating the several uses of the semicolon, the colon, a/nd the comma. 33f> Composition. LESSON 148. SUMMARY OF RULES-CONTINUED. •FHE DASH, MARKS OF PARENTHESIS, APOSTROPHE, HYPHEN, QUOTATION MARKS, AND BRACKETS. Dash. — Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or figures, and (2) of such words as as, namely, or that is, introducing illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a slight suspension, or another takes its place ; and (4) before a word or phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their force. Direction. — Justify each capital letter and each mark of punctua- tion in these sentences : — 1. The most noted kings of Israel were the first three — Saul, David, and Solomon. 2. Wlien Mrs. B heard of her son's disgrace, she fainted away. 3. And — " This to me ?" he said. 4. Assyria, Greece, Rome, Carthage — what are they ? 5. I do not rise to supplicate you to be merciful toward the nation to which I belong, — toward a nation which, though subject to England, yet is distinct from it. 6. We know the uses — and sweet they are — of adversity. 7. His place of business is 225 — 229 High street. Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctual tion in these sentences, and give your reasons: — 1. the human species is composed of two distinct races those who borrow and those who lend 2. this bill this infamous bill the way it Summary of Rules— Continued. 331 has been received by the house the manner in which its opponents have been treated the personalities to which they have been subjected all these things dissipate my doubts 3. the account of a 's shame fills pp 1 19 4. lord marmion turned well was his need and dashed the rowels in his steed Marks of Parenthesis. — Marks of parenthesis may be used to inclose what has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence. Apostrophe. — Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omis- sion of letters, (2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to distinguish the possessive from other cases. Hyphen. — Use the hyphen (-) (1) to join the parts of compound words, and (2) between syllables when a word is divided. Quotation Marks. — Use quotation marks to inclose a copied word or passage. If the quotation contains a quo- tation, the latter is inclosed within single marks. (See Lesson 74.) Brackets. — Use brackets [ ] to inclose what, in quoting another^s words, you insert by way of explanation or cor- rection. Direction. — Justify the marks of punctuation used in these sen- tences : — 1. Luke says, Acts xxi. 15, *' We took up our carriages [luggage], and went up to Jerusalem." 2. The last sentence of the composition was, " I close in the words of Patrick Henry, * Give me liberty, or give .332 Composition. me death,' " 3. Red-hot is a compound adjective. 4. Telegraph is -divided thus : tel-e-graph. 5. The profound learning of Sir William •Jones (he was master of twenty-eight languages) was the wonder of his •contemporaries. 6. By means of the apostrophe you know that love in mother's love is a noun, and that i's isn't a verb. Direction. — Use capital letters and the proper marks of punctuation in these sentences, and give your reasons : — 1. next to a conscience void of offense without which by the bye life isnt worth the living is the enjoyment of tjie social feelings 2. man the life boat 3. dont neglect in writing to dot your is cross your ts .and make your 7s unlike your 9s and dont in speaking omit the hs from such words as which when and why or insert rs in law saw and raw 4. the scriptures tell us take no thought anxiety for the morrow 5. The speaker said american oratory rose to its high water mark in that great speech ending liberty and union now and forever one and inseparable LESSON 149. CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION-REVIEW. Direction. — Give the reason for each capital letter and each mark of punctuation in these sentences : — 1. A bigot's mind is like the pupil of the eye ; the more light you pour upon it, the more it contracts. 2. This is the motto of the Uni- versity of Oxford : " The Lord is my light." 3. The only fault ever found with him is, that he sometimes fights ahead of his orders, 4. The land flowing with *'milk and honey " (see Numbers xiv. 8) was a long, narrow strip, lying along the eastern edge, or coast, of the Mediterranean, • and consisted of three divisions ; namely, 1. On the north, Galilee ; 2. On the south, Judea ; 3. In the middle, Samaria. Capital Letters and Punctuation— Review. 333: 5. "What a lesson," Trench well says, "the word 'diligence' con- tains ! " 6. An honest man, my neighbor, — there he stands — Was struck — struck like a dog, by one who wore The badge of Ursini. 7. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ; Sail on, Union, strong and great. 8. O'Connell asks, " The clause which does away with trial by jury — what, in the name of 11 n, is it, if it is not the establishment of a revolutionary tribunal ? " 9. There are only three departments of the mind — the intellect, the feelings, and the will. 10. This — trial I 11. American nationality has made the desert to bud and blossom as the rose ; it has quickened to life the giant brood of useful arts ; it has whitened lake and ocean with the sails of a daring, new, and lawful trade ; it has extended to exiles, flying as clouds, the asylum of our better liberty. 12. As I saw him [Webster, the day before his great, reply to Col. Hayne of South Carolina] in the evening, (if I may borrow an illustration from his favorite amusement) he was as unconcerned and as free of spirit as some here present have seen him while floating in his fishing-boat along a hazy shore, gently rocking on the tranquil tide, dropping his line here and there, with the varying fortune of the sport. The next morning he was like some mighty admiral, dark and terrible, casting the long shadow of his frowning tiers far over the sea, that seemed to sink beneath him ; his broad pendant [pennant] streaming at the main, the stars and the stripes at the fore, the mizzen, and the peak ; and bearing down like a tempest upon his antagonist, with all his canvas strained to the wind, and all his thun- ders roaring from his broadsides. 13. The "beatitudes" are found in Matt. V. 3—11. To THE Teacher.— If further work in punctuation is needed, require thepupila to justify the punctuation of the sentences beginning page 314. 334 Composition. LESSON 15 0. QUALITIES OF STYLE. Style is the manner in which one expresses himself. Styles differ as men differ. But there are some cardinal qualities that all good style must possess. I. Perspicuity. — Perspicuity is opposed to obscurity of all kinds ; it means clearness of expression. It demands that the thought in the sentence shall be plainly seen through the words of the sentence. Perspicuity is an indispensable quality of style ; if the thought is not understood, or it is misunderstood, its expression might better have been left unattempted. Perspicuity depends mainly upon these few things : — 1. One's Clear Understanding of What One Attempts to Say. — You cannot express to others more than you thoroughly know, or make your thought clearer to them than it is to yourself. 2. The Unity of the Sentence. — Many thoughts, or thoughts having no natural and close connection with each other, should not be crowded into one sentence. 3. The Use of the Right Words. — Use such words as convey your thought — each word expressing exactly your idea, no more, no less, no other. Use words in the senses recognized by the best author- ity. Do not omit words when they are needed, and do not use a superfluity of them. Be cautious in the use of he, she, it, and they. Use simple words — words which those who are addressed can readily understand. Avoid what are called bookish, inkhorn, terms ; shun words that have passed out of use, and those that have no footing in the language — foreign words, words newly coined, and slang. 4. A Happy Arrangement. — The relations of single words to each other, of phrases to the words they modify, and of clauses to Qualities of Style. 335 one another should be obvious at a glance. The sentence should not need rearrangement in order to disclose the meaning. Sentences should stand in the paragraph so that the beginning of each shall tally exactly in thought with the sentence that precedes ; and the ending of each, with the sentence that follows. Every paragraph should be a unit in thought, distinct from other paragraphs, holding to them the relation that its own sentences hold to one another, the relation that the several parts of each sentence hold to one another. II. Energy. — By energy we mean force, vigor, of expression. In ordinary discourse, it is not often sought, and in no discourse is it constantly sought. We use energy when we wish to convince the intellect, arouse the feelings, and capture the will — lead one to do something. When energetic, we select words and images for strength and not for beauty ; choose specific, and not general, terms ; prefer the concrete to the abstract ; use few words and crowd these with meaning ; place subordinate clauses before the independent ; and put the strongest word in the clause, the strongest clause in the sentence, the strongest sentence in the paragraph, and the strongest paragraph in the discourse, last. Energetic thought seeks variety of expression, is usually charged with intense feeling, and requires impassioned delivery. III. Imagery — Figures of Speech. — Things stand in many relations to each other. Some things are (1) like each other in some particular ; other things are (2) unlike each other in some particular ; and still other things stand to each other (3) in some other noteworthy relation than that of likeness or unlikeness. Things long seen and associated by us in any of these relations come at last readily to suggest each other. Figures of Speech are those expressions in which, departing from our ordinary manner in speak- ing of things, we assert or assume any of these notable relations. The first and great service of imagery is to the thought— it makes the Composition. thought clearer and stronger. Imagery adds beauty to style— a dia- mond brooch may adorn as well as do duty to the dress. A Simile, or Comparison, is a figure of speech in which we point out or assert a likeness between things otherwise unlike ; as, The gloom of despondency hung like a cloud over the land. A Metaphor is a figure of speech in which, assuming . the likeness between two things, we bring over and apply to one of them the term that denotes the other ; as, A stately squadron of snozvy geese were riding in an adjoining pond. A Personification is a figure of speech in which things are raised to a plane of being above their own — to or toward that of persons. It raises (1) mere thing^s to the plane of animals ; as, The sea licks your feet, its huge flanks purr pleasantly for you. It raises (2) mere animals to the plane of persons; as, So talked the spirited, sly Snake. It raises (3) mere thing^s to the plane of persons; as. Earth fills her lap with pleasures of her own. An Antithesis is a figure of speech in which things mutually opposed in some particular are set over against each other ; as. The mountains give their lost children berries and water ; the sea mocks their thirst and lets them die. A Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one thing connected to another by a relation other than likeness or unlikeness is brought over and applied to that other. The most important of these relations are (1) that of the sign to the thing signified ; (2) that of cause to eflfect ; (3) that of instrument to the user of it ; (4) that of container to the thing contained ; (5) that of material to the thing made out of it; (6) that of contiguity; (7) that of the abstract to the concrete ; and (8) that of part to the whole or of whole to the part. This last relation has been thought so important that the metonymy based upon it has received a distinct name — Synecdoche. Perspicuity— Criticism. 337 IV. Variety. — Variety is a quality of style opposed to monotonous uniformity. Nothing in discourse pleases us more than light and shade. In discourse properly varied, the same word does not appear with offensive frequency ; long words alternate with short ; the usual order now and then yields to the transposed ; the verb in the assertive form frequently gives way to the participle and the infinitive, which assume ; figures of speech sparkle here and there in a setting of plain language ; the full method of statement is followed by the contracted ; impassioned language is succeeded by the unemotional ; long sen- tences stand side by side with short, and loose sentences with periods; declarative sentences are relieved by interrogative and exclamatory, and simple sentences by compound and complex ; clauses have no rigidly fixed position ; and sentences heavy with meaning and moving slowly are elbow to elbow with the light and tripping. In a word, no one form or method or matter is continued so long as to weary, and the reader is kept fresh and interested throughout. Variety is restful to the reader or hearer and therefore adds greatly to the clearness and to the force of what is addressed to him. To THE Tbacher.— Question the pupils upon every point taken up in this Lesson, and require them to give illustrations where it is possible for them to do so. LESSON 151. PERSPICUITY-CRITICISM. General Direction. — In all your work in Composition attend care-' fully to the pu7ictuation. Direction. — Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making them clear : — * 1. He was locked in and so he sat still till the guard came and let * These four sentences and others in these Lessons, given just as we found them, liave been culled from school compositions. 22 338 Composition. him out, as soon as he stepped out on the ground, he saw the dead and dying laying about everywhere. 2. They used to ring a large bell at six o'clock in the morning for us to get up, then we had half an hour to dress in, after which we would go to Chapel exercises, then break- fast, school would commence at nine o'clock and closed at four in the afternoon allowing an hour for dinner from one until two then we would resume our studies until four in the afternoon. 3. Jewelry was worn in the time of King Pharaoh which is many thousand years before Christ in the time when the Israelites left they borrowed all the jewels of the Egyptians which were made of gold and silver. 4. When it is made of gold they can not of pure gold but has to be mixed with some other metal which is generally copper which turns it a reddish hue in some countries they use silver which gives it a whitish hue but in the United States and England they use both silver and copper but the English coins are the finest. Direction. — Point out the faults, and recast these sentences, making them clear : — (If any one of the sentences has several meanings, give these.) 1. James's son, Charles I., before the breath was out of his body was proclaimed king in his stead. 2. He told the coachman that he would be the death of him, if he did not take care what he was about, and mind what he said. 3. Richelieu said to the king that Mazarin would carry out his policy. 4. He was overjoyed to see him, and he sent for one of his workmen, and told him to consider himself at his service. 5. Blake answered the Spanish priest that if he had sent in a complaint, he would have punished the sailors severely ; but he took it ill that he set the Spaniards on to punish them. Direction. — So place these subordinate clauses that they will remove the obscurity, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged : — 1. The moon cast a pale light on the graves that were scattered Perspicuity— Criticism. 339 around, as it peered above the horizon. 2. A large number of seats were occupied by pupils that had no backs. 3. Crusoe was surprised at seeing five canoes on the shore in which there were savages. 4. This tendency will be headed off by approximations which will be made from time to time of the written word to the spoken. 5. People had to travel on horseback and in wagons, which was a very slow way, if they traveled at all. 6. How can brethren partake of their Father's blessing that curse each other ? 7. Two men will be tried for crimes in this town which are punishable with death, if a full court should attend. Direction. — Each of these sentences may have two meanings ; supply the two ellipses in each sentence, and remove the ambiguity : — 1. Let us trust no strength less than thine. 2. Study had more attraction for him than his friend. 3. He did not like the new teacher so well as his playmates. 4. He aimed at nothing less than the crown. 6. Lovest thou me more than these ? LESSON 15 2. PERSPICUITY-CRITICISM. Direction. — So place these italicized phrases that th&^ vrill remove the obscurity, and then see in how many ways each sentence can be arranged : — 1. These designs any man who is a Briton in any situation ought to disavow. 2. The chief priests, mocking, said among themselves with the scribes, **He saved," etc. 3. Hay is given to horses as well as corn to distend the stomach. 4. Boston has forty first class grammar-schools, exclusive of Dorchester. 5. He rode to town, and drove twelve cows on horseback. 6. He could not face an enraged father in spite of his effrontery. 7. Two owls sat upon a tree which 340 Composition. grew near an old wall out of a heap of rubbish. 8. I spent most on the river and in the river of the time I stayed there. 9. He wanted to go to sea, although it was contrary to the wishes of his parents, at the age of eighteen. 10. I have a wife and six children, and I have never seen one of them. Direction. — So place the italicized words and phrases in each sen- tence that they will help to convey what you think is the author''s thought, and then see in how many ways each sentence ca7i be arranged : — 1. In Paris, every lady in full dress rides. • 2. I saw my friend when I was in Boston walking down Tremont street. 3. The Prince of Wales was forbidden to become king or any other man. 4. What is his coming or going to you ? 5. We do those things frequently which we repent of afterwards. 6. I rushed out leaving the wretch with his tale half told, horror-stricken at his crime. 7. Exclamation points are scattered up and down the page by compositors without any mercy. 8. I want to make a present to one who is fond of chickens for a Christmas gift. Direction. — Make these sentences clear by using simpler words and phrases : — 1. A devastating conflagration raged. 2. He conducted her to the altar of Hymen. 3. A donkey has an abnormal elongation of auricu- lar appendages. 4. Are you excavating a subterranean canal ? 5. He had no capillary substance on the summit of his head. 6. He made a sad faux pas. 7. A network is anything reticulated or decussated, with interstices at equal distances between the intersection^. 8. Dili- gence is the sine qua non of success. 9. She has donned the habili- ments of woe. 10. The deceased was to-day deposited in his last resting- place. 11. The inmaies proceeded to the sanctuary. 12. I have partaken of my morning repast. 13. He took the initiative in inaugu- rating the ceremony. Energy— Criticism. 341 LESSON 153. ENERGY-CRITICISM. Direction. — Expand these brief expressions into sentences full of long words, and note the loss of energy : — 1. To your tents, Israel I 2. Up, boys, and at them ! 3. Indeed I 4. Bah 1 5. Don't give up the ship ! 6. Murder will out. 7. Oh ! 8. Silence there ! 9. Hurrah I 10. Death or free speech ! 11. Ras- cal ! 12. No matter. 13. Least said, soonest mended. 14. Death to the tyrant ! 15. I'll none of it. 16. Help, ho ! 17. Shame on you 1 18. Fii*st come, first served. Direction. — Condense each of these italicized expressions into one or two words, and note the gain : — 1. He shuffled off this mortal coil yesterday. 2. The author sur- passed all those who were living at the same time with him. 3. To say that revelation is a thing which there is no need of is to talk wildly. 4. He departed this life. 5. Some say that ever 'gainst that season comes wherein our Saviour's birth is celebrated this bird of dawning singeth all night long. Direction. — Change these specific words to general terms, and note the loss in energy : — 1. Don't fire till you see the whites of their eyes. 2. Break down the dikes, give Holland back to ocean. 3. Three hundred men held the hosts of Xerxes at bay. 4. I sat at her cradle, I followed her hearse. 5. Their daggers have stabbed Caesar. 6. When I'm mad, I weigh a ton. 7. Burn Moscow, starve back the invaders. 8. There's no use in crying over spilt milk. 9. In proportion as men delight in battles and bull-fights will they punish by hanging, burning, and the rack. Direction. — Change these general terms to specific worda^ and nota the gain in energy : — 842 Composition. 1. Anne Boleyn was executed. 2. It were better for him that a heavy weight were fastened to him and that he were submerged in the waste of waters. 3. The capital of the chosen people was destroyed by a Roman general. 4. Consider the flowers how they increase in size. 5. Caesar was slain by the conspirators. 6. The cities of the plain were annihilated. Direction. — Arrange these words, phrases, and clauses in the order of their strength, placing the strongest last, and note the gain in energy : — 1, The nations of the earth repelled, surrounded, pursued, and re- sisted him. 2. He was no longer consul nor citizen nor general nor even an emperor, but a prisoner and an exile. 3. I shall die an Amer- ican ; I live an American ; I was born an American. 4. All that I am, all that I hope to be, and all that I have in this life, I am now ready here to stake upon it. 5. I shall defend it without this House, in all places, and within this House ; at all times, in time of peace and in time of war. 6. We must fight if we wish to be free, if we mean to preserve inviolate our rights, if we do not mean to abandon the struggle. LESSON 154. FIGURES OF SPEECH-CRITICISM. Direction. — Name the figures of speech, and then recast a few sen- tences, using plain language, and note the loss of beauty and force : — 1. Lend me your ears. 2. Please address the chair. 3. The robin knows when your grapes have cooked long enough in the sun. 4. A day will come when bullets and bombs shall be replaced by ballots. 5. Genius creates ; taste appreciates what is created. 6. Caesar were no lion were not Romans hinds. 7. The soul of Jonathan was knit to that of David. 8. Traffic has lain down to rest. 9. Borrowing dulls Figures of Speech— Criticism. 343 the edge of husbandry. 10. He will bring down mj gray hairs y^ith. sorrow to. the grave. 11. Have you read Froude ot Freeman? 13. The pen is mightier than the sword. 13. If I can catch him once upon the hip, I will feed fat the ancient grudge I bear him. 14. The des- tinies of mankind were trembling in the balance, while death fell in showers. 15. The threaded steel ^\qs swiftly. 16. O Cassius, you are yoked tvith a lamb that carries anger as the flint bears fire. 17. 1 called the Heio World into existence to redress the balance of the Old. 18. Nations shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into prtming-hooks. 19. The Morn in russet mantle clad walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 20. Homer, like the Nile, pours out his riches with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river in its banks, with a constant stream. 21. The air bites shrewdly. 22. He doth bestride the narrow world like a Colossus. 23. My heart is in the coffin there with Cassar. 24. All hands to the pumps ! 25. The gray-eyed Morn smiles on the frowning Night. 26. The good is often buried with men's bones. 27. Beware of the bottle. 28. All nations respect our fla^. 29. The marble speaks. 30. I have no spiir to prick the sides of my intent. 31. I am as constant as the northern star. 32. Then burst his mighty heart. 33. The ice is covered with health and beauty on skates. 34. Lentulus returned with victorious eagles. 35. Death hath sucked the honey of thy breath. 36. Our chains are forged. 37. I have bought golden opinions. 38. The hearth blazed high. 39. His words fell softer than snows on the brine. 40. Nighfs candles are burnt out, &ndL jocund Day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain top. Direction. — In the first four sentences, use similes ; in the second four, metaphor s ; in the third four, personifications; in the last eight, metonymies : — 1. 'B.Q flew with the swiftness of an arrow. 2. In battle some men are brave, others are cowardly. 3. His head is as full of plans as it can hold. 4. I heard a loud noise. 5. Boston is the pla^e where 344 Composition. American liberty began. 6. Our dispositions should grow mild as we groio old. 7. The stars can no longer be seen. 8. In battle some men are brave, others are cowardly. 9. The cock tears up the ground for his family of hens and chickens. 10. The waves were still. 11. The oak stretches out its strong branches. 13. The flowers are the sweet and pretty growths of the earth and sun. 13. English vessels plow the seas of the two hemispheres. 14. Have you read Lamb's Essays f 15. The water is boiling. 16. We have prostrated ourselves before the king. 17. Wretched people shiver in their lair of straw. 18. The soldier is giving way to the husbandman. 19. Swords flashed, and bullets fell. 20. His banner led the spearmen no more. Remark. — If what is begun as a metaphor is not completed as begun, but is completed by a part of another metaphor or by plain language, we have what is called a mixed metaphor. It requires great care to avoid this very common error. Direction. — Correct these errors : — 1. The devouring fire uprooted the stubble. 2. The brittle thread of life may be cut asunder. 3. All the ripe fruit of three-score years was blighted in a day. 4. Unravel the obscurities of this knotty question. 5. We must apply the axe to the fountain of this evil. 6. The man stalks into court like a motionless statue, with the cloak of hypocrisy in his mouth. 7. The thin mantle of snow dissolved. 8. I smell a rat, I see him brewing in the air, but I shall yet nip him in the bud. LESSON 15 5. VARIETY IN EXPRESSION. Remark. — You learned in Lessons 52, 53, 54 that the usual order may give way to the transposed ; in 55, 56, that one kind of simple sentence may be changed to another ; in 57, that simple sentences may Variety In Expression. 345 be contracted ; in 61, that adjectives may be expanded into clauses ; in 67, that an adverb clause may stand before, between the parts of, and after, the independent clause ; in 68, that an adverb clause may be contracted to a participle, a participle phrase, an absolute phrase, a prepositional phrase, that it may be contracted by the omission of words, and may be changed to an adjective clause or phrase ; in 73, that a noun clause as subject may stand last, and as object comple- ment may stand first, that it may be made prominent, and may be contracted ; in 74, that direct quotations and questions may be changed to indirect, and indirect to direct ; in 77, that compound sen- tences may be formed out of simple sentences, may be contracted to simple sentences, and may be changed to complex sentences ; in 79, that participles, absolute phrases, and infinitives may be expanded into different kinds of clauses ; and, in 130, that a verb may change its voice. Direction. — Illustrate all these changes. Direction. — Recast these sentences, avoiding offensive repetitions of the same word or the same sounds : — 1. We have to have money to have a horse. 2. We sailed across a bay and sailed up a creek and sailed back and sailed in all about four- teen miles. 3. It is then put into stacks, or it is put into barns either to use it to feed it to the stock or to sell it. 4. This day we undertake to render an account to the widows and orphans whom our decision will make ; to the wretches that will be roasted at the stake. 5. The news of the battle of Bunker Hill, fought on the 17th of June in the year of our Lord 1775, roused the patriotism of the people to a high pitch of enthusiasm. Direction. — Using other words wholly or in part, see in how many ways you can express the thoughts contained in these sentences : — 1. In the profusion and recklessness of her lies, Elizabeth had no 846 Composition. peer in England. 2. Henry IV. said that James I. was the wisest fool in Christendom. 3. Cowper's letters are charming because they are simple and natural. 4. George IV., though he was pronounced the first gentleman in Europe, was, nevertheless, a snob. LESSON 156. THE PARAGRAPH. The Paragraph. — The clauses of complex sentences are so closely united in meaning that frequently they are not to be separated from each other even by the comma. The clauses of compound sentences are less closely united — a comma, a semicolon, or a colon is needed to divide them. Between sentences there exists a wider separation in meaning, marked by a period or other terminal point. But even sentences may be connected, the bond which unites them being their common rela- tion to the thought which jointly they develop. Sentences thus related are grouped together and form, as you have already learned, what we call a Paragraph, marked by beginning the first word a little to the right of the marginal line. Direction. — Notice the facts which this paragraph contains, and the relation to ecich other of the clauses and the sentences expressing these facts : — After a breeze of some sixty hours from the north and northwest, the wind died away about four o'clock yesterday afternoon. The calm continued till about nine in the evening. The mercury in the barometer fell, in the meantime, at an extraordinary rate ; and the captain predicted that we should encounter a gale from the south- east. The gale came om about eleven o'clock ; not violent at first, but increasing every moment. The Paragraph. 347 1. A breeze from the north and northwest. 2. The wind died away. 3. A calm. 4. Barometer fell. 5. The captain predicted a gale. 6. It came on. 7. It increased in violence. Direction. — Give and number the facts contained in the paragraph below : — I awoke with a confused recollection of a good deal of rolling and thumping in the night, occasioned by the dashing of the waves against the ship. Hurrying on my clothes, I found such of the passengers as could stand, at the doors of the hurricane-house, holding on, and look- ing out in the utmost consternation. It was still quite dark. Four of the sails were already in ribbons : the winds whistling through the cordage ; the rain dashing furiously and in torrents ; the noise and spray scarcely less than I found them under the great sheet at Niagara. Direction. — Weave the facts below into a paragraph, supplying all you need to make the narrative smooth : — Rip's beard was grizzled. Fowling-piece rusty. Dress uncouth. Women and children at his heels. Attracted attention. Was eyed from head to foot. Was asked on which side he voted. Whether he was Federal or Democrat. Rip was dazed by the question. Stared in stupidity. Direction.— Weai'e the facts below into two paragraphs, supplying what you need, and tell what each paragraph is about : — In place of the old tree there was a pole. This was tall and naked. A flag was fluttering from it. The flag had on it the stars and stripes. This was strange to Rip. But Rip saw something he remembered. The tavern sign. He recognized on it the face of King George. Still the picture was changed. The red coat gone. One of blue and buff in its place. A sword, and not a scepter, in the hand. Wore a cocked hat. Underneath was painted — ''General Washington." 848 Composition. LESSON 15 7. THE PARAGRAPH. Direction. — Weave the facts below into three paragraphs, and write en the margin what each is about : — The Nile rises in great lakes. Runs north. Sources two thousand miles from Alexandria. Receives two branches only. Runs through an alluvial valley. Course through the valley is 1,500 miles. Flows into the Mediterranean. Two principal channels. Minor outlets. Nile overflows its banks. Overflow caused by rains at the sources. The melting of the mountain snows. Begins at the end of June. Rises four inches daily. Rises till the close of September. Subsides. Whole valley an inland sea. Only villages above the surface. The valley very fertile. The deposit. The fertile strip is from five to one hundred and fifty miles wide. Renowned for fruitfulness. Egypt long the granary of the world. Three crops from December to June. Productions — grain, cotton, and indigo. Direction. — Weave these facts into four paragraphs, writing on the margin of each the main thought : — The robin is thought by some to be migratory. But he stays with us all winter. Cheerful. Noisy. Poor soloist. A spice of vulgarity in him. Dash of prose in his song. Appetite extraordinary. Eats his own weight in a short time. Taste for fruit. Eats with a relish- ing gulp, like Dr. Johnson's. Fond of cherries. Earliest mess of peas. Mulberries. Lion's share of the raspberries. Angleworms his delight, A few years ago I had a grapevine. A foreigner. Shy of bearing. This summer bore a score of bunches. They secreted sugar from the sunbeams. One morning, went to pick them. The robins beforehand with me. Bustled out from the leaves. Made shrill, unhandsome remarks about me. Had sacked the vine. Remnant Paragraphs and the Theme. 349 of a single bunch. How it looked at the bottom of ray basket ! A humming-bird's egg in an eagle's nest. Laughed. Robins joined in the merriment. LESSON 158. PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. Direction. — Weave these facts into four paragraphs : — Note that the several paragraphs form a composition, or Theme, the general subject of which is WouTER Van Twiller (according to Diedrich Knickerbocker). I. Who he was. — Van Twiller was a Dutchman. Born at Rotter- dam. Descended from burgomasters. In 1629 appointed governor of Nieuw Nederlandts. Arrived in June at New Amsterdam — New York city. II. Person. — Was five feet six inches high, six feet five in circum- ference. Head spherical, and too large for any neck. Nature set it on the back-bone. Body capacious. Legs short and sturdy. A beer- barrel on skids. Face a vast, unfurrowed expanse. No lines of thought. Two small, gray eyes. Cheeks had taken toll of all that had entered his mouth. Mottled and streaked with dusky red. III. Hahits. — Regular. Four meals daily, each an hour long. Smoked and doubted eight hours. Slept twelve. As self-contained as an oyster. Rarely spoke save in monosyllables. But never said a foolish thing. Never laughed. Perplexed by a joke. Conceived everything on a grand scale. When a question was asked, would put on a mysterious look. Shake his head. Smoke in silence. Observe, at length, he had doubts. Presided at the council, in state. Swayed a Turkish pipe instead of a scepter. Known to sit with eyes closed two hours. Internal commotion shown by guttural sounds. Noises of contending doubts, admirers said. 850 Composition. IV. Exploits. — Settled a dispute about accounts thus : sent for the parties ; each produced his account-book ; Van T. weighed the books; counted the leaves; equally heavy ; equally thick; made each give the other a receipt ; and the constable pay the costs. Demanded why Van Rensselaer seized Bear's Island. Battled with doubts regard- ing the Yankees. Smoked and breathed his last together. Direction. — Weave these facts into four paragraphs^ write on the tnargin the special topic of each, and over the whole what you think is the general stihject of the theme : — The prophets of Baal accept Elijah's challenge. They dress a bul- lock. Call on Baal. Are mocked by Elijah. Leap upon the altar. Cut themselves. Blood. Cry till the time of the evening sacrifice. No answer by fire. Elijah commands the people to come near. Repairs an old altar with twelve stones, one for each tribe. Digs a trench. Sacrifices. Pours water three times upon it. Prays. Fire falls, consumes flesh, wood, stones, dust, licks up water. People see it. Fall on their faces. Cry out twice, "The Lord, he is the God." Take the prophets to the brook Kishon, where they are slain. Elijah ascends Mount Carmel. Bows in prayer. "Go up now, look toward the sea." Servant reports, "There is nothing." "Go again seven times." " Behold there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a man's hand." Orders Ahab to prepare his chariot. Girding up his loins, he runs before Ahab to Jezreel. LESSON 159. PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. Direction. — Weave these facts into as many paragraphs as you think there should be, using the variety of expression insisted on in Lesson 150, and write on the margin of each paragraph the special topic, and over the whole the general subject of the theme : — Paragraphs and the Theme. 351 Fort Ticonderoga on a peninsula. Formed by the outlet of Lake George and by Lake Champlain. . Fronts south; water on three sides. Separated by Lake Champlain from Mount Independence, and by the outlet, from Mount Defiance. Fort one hundred feet above the water. May 7, 1775, two hundred and seventy men meet at Castleton, Ver- mont. All but forty-six, Green Mountain boys. Meet to plan and execute an attack upon Fort T. Allen and Arnold there. Each claims the command. Question left to the officers. Allen chosen. On even- ing of the 9th, they reach the lake. Difficulty in crossing. Send for a scow. Seize a boat at anchor. Search, and find small row boats. Only eighty-three able to cross. Day is dawning when these reach the shore. Not prudent to wait. Allen orders all who will follow him to poise their firelocks. Every man responds. Nathan Beman, a lad, guides them to the fort. Sentinel snaps his gun at A. Misses fire. Sentinel retreats. They follow. Rush upon the parade ground. Form. Loud cheer. A. climbs the stairs. Orders La Place, it is said, in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress, to surrender. Capture forty-eight men. One hundred and twenty cannon. Used next winter at the siege of Boston. Several swords and howitzers, small arms, and ammunition. Direction. — These facts are thrown together promiscuously. Clas- sify them as they seem to you to he related. Determine the number of paragraphs and their order, and then do as directed above: — Joseph was Jacob's favorite. Wore fine garments. One day was sent to inquire after the other sons. They were at a distance, tending the flocks. Joseph used to dream. They saw him coming. Plotted to kill him. In one dream his brothers' sheaves bowed to his. In another the sun, moon, and stars bowed to him. Plotted to throw his body into a pit. Agreed to report to their father that some beast had devoured Joseph. Joseph foolishly told these to his brothers. Hated him because of the dreams and their father's partiality. While 352 Composition. the brothers were eating, Ishmaelites approached. They sat down to eat. Were going down into Egypt. Camels loaded with spices. At the intercession of Reuben they did not kill Joseph. Threw him alive into a pit. Ishmaelites took him down into Egypt. Sold him to Potiphar. Judah advised that he be raised from the pit. Jacob recognized the coat. Refused comfort. Rent his clothes and put on sackcloth. They took his coat. Killed a kid and dipped the coat in its blood. Brought it to Jacob. "This have we found ; know now whether it be thy son's coat or no." LESSON 160- PARAGRAPHS AND THE THEME. Direction.— CZassi/y these promiscuous facts, determine carefully the number and the order of the paragraphs, and then do as directed above : — Trafalgar a Spanish promontory. Near the Straits of Gibraltar. Off Trafalgar, fleets of Spain and France, October 21, 1805. Nelson in command of the English fleet. The combined fleets in close line of battle. CoUingwood second in command. Had more and larger can- non than the English. English fleet twenty-seven sail of the line and four frigates. Thirty-three sail of the line and seven frigates. He signaled those memorable words : ' * England expects every man to do his duty." Enemy had four thousand troops. Signal received with a shout. They bore down. The best riflemen in the enemy's boats. C. steered for the center. C. in the Royal Sovereign led the lee line of thirteen ships. A raking fire opened upon the Victory. N. in the Victory led the weather line. C. engaged the Sanki Anfia. Delighted at being the first in the fire. At 1.15 N. shot through the shoulder and back. At 12 the Victory opened fire. N.'s secretary the first to fall. Fifty fell before a shot was returned. " They have done for me Analysis of the Subject of the Theme. 353 at last, Hardy," said N. They bore him below. At 2.25 ten of the enemy had struck. The wound was mortal. At 4 fifteen had struck. The victory that cost the British 1,587 men won. These were his last words. At 4.30 he expired. " How goes the day with us ? " he asked Hardy. *'I hope none of our ships have struck." N.'s death was more than a public calamity. "I am a dead man, Hardy," he said. Englishmen turned pale at the news. Most triumphant death that of a martyr. He shook hands with Hardy. "Kiss me, Hardy." They mourned as for a dear friend. Kissed him on the cheek. Most awful death that of the martyr patriot. The loss seemed a personal one. Knelt down again and kissed his forehead. His articulation difiicult. Heard to say, "Thank God, I have done my duty." Seemed as if they had not known how deeply they loved him. Most splendid death that of the hero in the hour of victory. Has left a name which is our pride. An example which is our shield and strength. Buried him in St. Paul's. Thus the spirits of the great and the wise live after them. To THE Teacher.— Continue this work as long as it is needed. Take any book, and read to the class items of facts. Require them to use the imagination and whatever graces of style are at their command, in weaving these facts together. LESSON 161. ANALYSIS OF THE SUBJECT OF THE THEME. Analysis of the Subject. — A Theme is made up of groups of sentences called Paragraphs. The sentences of each paragraph are related to each other, because they jointly develop a single point, or thought. And the paragraphs are related to each other, because these points which they develop are divisions of the one general sub- ject of the Theme. After the subject has been chosen, and before writing upon it, it must be resolved into the main thoughts which compose it. Upon 23 354 Composition. the thoroughness of this analysis and the natural arrangement of the thoughts thus derived, depends largely the worth of the theme. These points form, when arranged, the Framework of the theme. Suppose you had taken The Armada as your subject. Perhaps you could say under these heads all you wish : 1, What the Armada was. 2. When and ly whom equipped. 3. Its purpose. 4. Its sail- over the Bay of Biscay and entrance into the English Channel. 5. The attack upon it hy Admiral Howard and his great Captains — Drake and Hawkins. 6. Its dispersion and partial destruction hy the storm. 7. The return to Spain of the surviving ships and men. 8. The consequences to England and to Spain. Perhaps the 1st point could include the 2d and the 3d. Be careful not to split your general subject up into very many parts. See, too, that no point is repeated, that no point foreign to the subject is intro- duced, and that all the points together exhaust the subject as nearly as may be. Look to the arrangement of the points. There is a nat- ural order ; (6) could not precede (5) ; nor (5), (4) ; nor (4), (1). To THE Tbachkr.— Question the pupils carefully upon every point taken up in this Lesson. Direction. — Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects : — 1. The Arrest of Major Andre. 2. A Winter in the Arctic Region. LESSON 162. ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. Direction. — Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects :— 1. Battle of Plattsburg. 2. A Day's Nutting. 3. What Does a Proper Care for One's Health Demand ? How to Write a Theme. 355 LESSON 163. ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. Direction. — Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects : — 1. A Visit to the Moon. 2. Reasons why one Should Not Smoke. 2. What Does a Proper Observance of Sunday Require of One ? LESSON 164. ANALYSIS OF SUBJECTS. Direction. — Prepare the framework of a theme on each of these subjects : — 1. The Gulf Stream. 2. A Descent into a Whirlpool. 3. What are Books Good for? LESSON 16 5. HOW TO WRITE A THEME. I. Choose a Subject. — Choose your subject long before you are to write. Avoid a full, round terra like Patriotism or Duty ; take a fragment of it ; as, How can a Boy be Patriotic f or Duties which we Schoolmates owe Each Other. The subject should be on your level, should be interesting and suggestive to you, and should instantly start in your mind many trains of thought. II. Accumulate the Material.— Begin to think about your sub- ject. Turn it over in your mind in leisure moments, and, as thoughts flash upon you, jot them down in your blank-book. If any of these seem broad enough for the main points, or heads, indicate this. Talk with no one on the subject, and read nothing on it, till you have 356 Composition. thought yourself empty ; and even then you should note down what the conversation or reading suggests, rather than what you have heard or read. III. Construct a Framework. — Before writing hunt through your material for the main points, or heads. See to what general truths or thoughts these jottings and those jottings point. Perhaps this or that thought, as it stands, includes enough to serve as a head. Be sure, at any rate, that by brooding over your material, and by fur- ther thinking upon the subject, you get at all the general thouglits into which, as it seems to you, the subject should be analyzed. Study these points carefully. See that no two overlap each other, that no one appears twice, that no one has been raised to the dignity of a head which should stand under some head, and that no one is irrelevant. Study iiow to find the natural order in which these points should stand. Let no point, to the clear understanding of which some other point is necessary, precede that other. If developing all the points would make your theme too long, study to see what points you can omit without abrupt break or essential loss. IV. "Write. — Give your whole attention to your work as you write, and other thoughts will occur to you, and better ways of putting the thoughts already noted down. In expanding the main points into paragraphs, be sure that everything falls under its appropriate head. Cast out irrelevant matter. Do not strain after effect or strive to seem wiser than you are. Use familiar words, and place these, your phrases, and your clauses, where they will make your thought the clearest. As occasion calls, change from the usual order to the transposed, and let sentences, simple, complex, and compound, long and short, stand shoulder to shoulder in the paragraph. Express yourself easily — only now and then putting your thought forcibly and with feeling. Let a fresh image here and there relieve the uniformity of plain language. One sentence should follow another without How to Write a Theme. 857 abrupt break ; and, if continuative of it, adversative to it, or an infer- ence from it, and the hearer needs to be advised of this, let it swing into position on the hinge of a Tittirig connective. Of course, your sentences must pass rigid muster in syntax ; and you must look sharply to the spelling, to the use of capital letters, and to punctua- tion. V. Attend to the Mechanical Execution. — Keep your pages clean, and let your handwriting be clear. On the left of the page leave a margin of an inch for corrections. Do not write on the fourth page ; if you exceed three pages, use another sheet. When the writ- ing is done, double the lower half of the sheet over the upper, and fold through the middle ; then bring the top down to the middle and fold again. Bring the right-hand end toward you, and across the top write your name and the date. This superscription will be at the top of the fourth page, at the right-hand corner, and at right angles to the ruled lines. To THE Tbachbr.— Question the pupils closely upon every point in this Lesson. Additional Subjects for Themes. 1. Apples and Nuts. 16. Monday Morning. 2. A Pleasant Evening. 17. My Native Town. 8. My Walk to School. 18. Over the Sea. 4. Pluck. 19. Up in a Balloon. 5. School Friendships. 20. Queer People. 6. When my Ship Comes In. 21. Our Minister. 7. Ancient and Modern Warfare. 22. A Plea for Puss. 8. The View from my Window. 23. Castles in Spain. 9. Homes without Hands. 24. Young America. 10. I Can. 25. Black Diamonds. 11. My Friend Jack. 26. Mosquitoes. 12. John Chinaman. 27. A D^y in the Woods. 13. Irish Characters. 28. A Boy's Trials. 14. Robin Hood. 29. The Yankee. 15. A Visit to Olympus. 30. Robinson Crusoe. 358 Composition. 31. Street Arabs. ;v ;vt . . 59. The World Owes me A Living. 32. Legerdemain. ,, f, 60. Politeness. 33. Our Neighborhood. CU. Cleanliness Akin to Godliness. 34. Examinations. 62. Fighting Windmills. 35. Theater-going. 63. Along the Docks. 36. Donkeys. 64. Maple Sugar. 37. The Southern Negro. 65. Umbrellas. 38. A Rainy Saturday. 66. A Girl's Trials. 39. The Early Bird Catches the 67. A Spider's Web. Worm. 68. The Story of Ruth. 40. Spring Sports. • 69. Clouds. 41. How Horati us Kept the Bridge. 70. A Country Store. 42. Jack Frost. 71. Timepieces. 43. My First Sea Voyage. 72. Bulls and Bears. 44. Monkeys. 73. Bores. 45. Grandmothers. 74. Our Sunday School. 46. The Boy of the Story Book. 75. The Making of Beer. 47. Famous Streets. 76. Autumn's Colors. 48. Pigeons. 77. The Watched Pot Never Boils. 49. Jack and Gill. 78. The Mission of Birds. 50. Make Haste Slowly. 79. Parasites. 51. Commerce. 80. Well-begun is Half-done. 52. The Ship of the Desert. 81. The Tides. 53. Winter Sports. 82. The Schoolmaster in " The De- 54. A Visit to Neptune. serted Village." 55. Whiskers. 83. A Day on a Trout Stream. 56. Gypsies. 84. A Stitch in Time Saves Nine. 57. Cities of the Dead. 85. Of What Use are Flowers ? 58. Street Cries. 86. A Descent in a Diving Bell. LESSON 166, LETTER- WRITING. Letters need special treatment. In writing a letter there are five things to consider — The Heading, The Introduction, The Body of the Letter, The Conclusion, and The Superscription. Letter-Writing. 359 THE HEADING, Parts. — The Heading consists of the name of the Place at which the letter is written, and the Date. If you write from a city, give the door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of the state. If you are at a Hotel or a School or any other well-known Institution, its name may take the place of the door- number and the name of the street ; as may also the number of your post-office box. If you write from a village or other country place, give your post-oflBce address, the name of the county, and that of the state. The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year. How Written. — Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top of the page — on the first ruled line of commercial note. If the letter occupies but a few lines of a single page, you may begin the Heading lower down. Begin the first line of the Heading a little to the left of the middle of the page. If it occupies more than one line, the second line should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to the right than the second. The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures ; the rest, in words. Each important word begins with a capi- tal letter, each item is set' off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period. Direction. — Study what has been said, and write the follovdng headings according to these models : — 1. Ripton, Addison Co., Vt., 3. Saco, Me., Feb. 35, 1887. July 10, 1895. 4. Polytechnic Institute, 2. 250 Broadway, N. Y., Brooklyn, N. Y., June 6, 1890. May 3, 1888. 1. ann arbor 5 July 1820 michigan 2. champlain co clinton n y jan 14 1800 3. p o box 2678 1860 oct 19 Chicago 4. Philadelphia 670 1858 chestnut st 16 apr 5. saint nicholas new york 1 hotel nov 18S5 Composition. THE INTRODUCTION. Parts. — The Introduction consists of the Address — the Name, the Title, and the Place of Business or Residence of the one addressed — and the Salutation. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the Address. Prefix Mr. to a man's name, Messrs. to the names of several gentlemen ; Master to the name of a young lad ; Miss to that of an unmarried lady ; Mrs. to that of a married lady ; Misses to the names of several young ladies ; and Mesdames to those of several married or elderly ladies. Prefix Dr. to the name of a physician (but never Mr. Dr.), or write M.D. after it. Prefix Rev. to the name of a clergyman, or Bev. Mr. if you do not know his Christian name ; Eev. Dr. if he is a Doctor of Divinity, or write Bev. before the name and D.D. after it. Prefix His Excellency to the name of the President,* and to that of a Governor or of an Ambassador ; Hon. to the name of a Cabinet Officer, a Member of Congress, a State Senator, a Law Judge, or a Mayor, If two literary or professional titles are added to a name, let them stand in the order in which they were conferred — this is the order of a few common ones : A.M., Ph.D., D.D., LL.D. Guard against an excessive use of titles — the higher implies the lower. Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as Sir, Dear Sir, Rev. Sir, General, Madam, etc. ; acquaintances as Dear Sir, Dear Madam, etc. ; friends as My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Jones, etc. ; and near relatives and other dear friends as My dear Wife, My dear Boy, Dearest Ellen, etc. How Written. — The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next line, and standing on the left side of the page ; or it may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the * The preferred form of addressing the President is, To the President, Executive Mansion, Washington, B. C. ; the Salutation is simply, Mr. President. Letter-Writingr. 361 Conclusion. If the letter is of an official character or is written to an intimate friend, the Address may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter ; but in ordinary business letters, it should be placed at the top and as directed above. Never omit it from the letter except ■when the letter is written in the third person. There should be a narrow margin on the left side of the page, and the Address should begin on the marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial words of these lines should slope to the right. Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it when the Address occupies three lines ; on the marginal line or farther to the right or to the left than the second line of the Address when this occupies two lines ; a little to the right of the marginal line when the Address occupies one line ; on the marginal line when the Address stands below. Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All the items of it should be set off by the comma; and, as it is an abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every impor- tant word in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should be followed by a comma, or by a comma and a dash. Direction. — Write these introductions according to the models : — 1. Prof. March, Easton, Pa. 3. My dear Mother, My dear Sir, When, etc. 2. Messrs. Smith & Jones, 4. Messrs. Vallette & Co., 771 Broadway, Middlebury, Vt. New York City. Dear Sirs, Gentlemen, 1. mr george platt burlington iowa sir 2. mass Cambridge prof James r lowell my dear friend 3. messrs ivison blakeman taylor & co gentlemen new york 4. rev brown dr the arlington Washington dear friend do 5. col John smith dear colonel n y auburn Composition. LESSON 16 7. LETTER-WRITING-CONTINUED. THE BODY OF THE LETTER. The Beginning. — Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the Salutation, and on the same line if the Introduction is long^n which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a dash,^-on the line below if the Introduction is short. Style. — Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of writing. Avoid blots, erasures, interlineations, cross lines, and all other offenses against epistolary propriety. The letter " bespeaks the man." Letters of friendship should be colloquial, chatty, and familiar. Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends, however trivial it may seem to a stranger. Business letters should be brief, and the sentences short, concise, and to the point. Repeat nothing, and omit nothing needful. Official letters and formal notes should be more stately and cere- monious. In formal notes the third person is generally used instead of the first and the second ; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the page, thus : — Mr. & Mrs. A. request the pleasure of Mr. B.^s company at a social gathering, on Tuesday evening, Nov. 15th, at eight o'clock. 32 Fifth Ave., Nov. 5. Mr. B. accepts* with pleasure Mr. & Mrs. A.'s hind invitation for Tuesday evening, Nov. \5th. Wednesday morning, Nov.- 9th. * Or regrets that a previous engagement (or illness, or an unfortunate event) pre- vents the acceptance of ; or regrets that on account of he is unable to accept . Letter-Writing-ContinuGd. 363 THE CONCLUSION. Parts. — The Conclusion consists of the Complimentary Close and the Signature. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters of friendship you may use, Your sincere friend; Yours affectionately ; Your loving son or daughter, etc. In business letters you may use, Yours ; Yours truly ; Truly yours ; Yours respect- fully ; Very respectfully yours, etc. In oflQcial letters you should be more deferential. Use, / have the honor to he, Sir, your obedient ser- vant ; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant ; etc., etc. The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full, A lady addressing a stranger should prefix to her signature her title, Mrs. or Miss (placing it within marks of parenthesis), unless in the letter she has indicated which of these titles her correspondent is to use in reply. How "Written. — The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first line below the Body of the Letter, and, if occupying two or more lines, should slope to the right like the Heading and the Ad- dress. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. The Signature should be very plain. Direction. — Write two formal notes — one inviting a friend to a social party, and one declining the invitation. Direction. — Write the Co?iclusion of a letter of friendship, of a letter of business, and of an official letter, carefully observing all that has been said above. Direction. — Write a letter of two or three lines to your father or your mother, and another to your minister, taking care to give prep- Composition. erly the Heading in its two parts, the Introduction in its two parts, a/nd the Conclusion in its two parts. Let the Address in the letter to your father or your mother stand at the bottom. LESSON 16 8. LETTER-WRITING-CONTINUED. THE SUPERSCRIPTION. Parts. — The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title, and the full Directions of the one addressed. How Written. — The Superscription should begin just below the middle of the envelope and near the left edge — the envelope lying with its closed side toward you — and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand. If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the post-oiiice should be on the second line, the name of the county on the third, the name of the state on the fourth. The number of the post- office box may take the place of the door-number and the name of the street, or, to avoid crowding, the number of the box or the name of the county may stand at the lower left-hand corner. The titles fol- lowing the name should be separated from it and from each other by the comma, and every line should end with a comma except the last, which should be followed by a period.* The lines should be straight, * Some omit punctuation after the parts of the Superscription. Letter-Wrltingr— Continued. 365 and every part of the Superscription should be legible. Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner. 5 Direction. — Write six Superscriptions to real or imaginary friends or acquaintances in different cities, carefully observing all that has been said above. Direction. — Write two short letters — one to a friend at the Astor House, New York, and one to a stranger in the country. {iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii = STAMP. S I = nTiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiir yiizu^^^^^-'^^i^ ^d^^-' .^'^^^^^-u^^'^'^^ 0^i4i^g^!^^^. y^^Z^^. ^^^^^zy- ^^T'Z^^ (/^:^u4^..'^Ui^ 368 A Summary of the Rules of Syntax. A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. We here append a Summary of the so-called Rules of Syntax, with references to the Lessons which treat of Construction. I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case. II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infin- itive is in the same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates. III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive case. ly. A noun or pronoun used as object complement, as objective complement, as the principal word in a prepo- sitional phrase, or used adverbially* is in the objective case. V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as the word explained. For Cautions, Principles, and Examples respecting the cases of nouns and pronouns, see Lessons 119, 122, 123, 125. For Cautions and Examples to guide in the use of the different pronouns, see Lessons 86, 87. VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. For Cautions, Principles, and Examples, see Lessons 118, 142, YII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. For Cautions, Examples, and Exceptions, see Lesson 142. * See Lesson 35. A Summary of the Rules of Syntax. VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an adjective or a noun. For Uses of the Participle, see Lessons 37, 38, 39. IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by to, and with it forms a phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. For Uses of the Infinitive, see Lessons 40, 41, 42. X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. For Cautions and Examples respecting the use of adjectives and of coxn- parative and superlative forms, see Lessons 90, 91, 128. XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. For Cautions and Examples, see Lesson 93. XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified. For Cautions, see Lessons 98, 99. XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. For Cautions and Examples, see Lessons 100, 107. XIV. Interjections are used independently. 24 370 Conjugation of the Verb. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. Remarks. — The scheme of conjugation presented below is from English text-books. In some of these books the forms introduced by should are classed, not as Future, but as Secondary Past Tense forms of the Subjunctive. If we substitute this scheme of conjugation for the simpler one given in the preceding pages, we still fail to get a classification in which every form corresponds in use to its name. The following examples will illustrate : — He returns to-morrow. (Present = Future.) When I have performed this, I will come to you. (Present Perfect = Future Perfect.) If any member absents himself, he shall pay a fine. (Indicative = Subjunctive.) You shall go. (Indicative = Imperative.) After memorizing all the terms and forms belonging to the conju- gation here outlined, the student will find that he has gained little to aid him in the use of language. For instance, in this synopsis of the Subjunctive are found nineteen forms. As there are three persons in the singular and three in the plural, we have one hundred and four- teen subjunctive forms ! How confusing all this must be to the stu- dent, who, in his use of the subjunctive, needs to distinguish only such as these : If he he, If he were, If he teach! Beyond these, the sub- junctive manner of assertion is discovered from the structure of the sentence or the relation of clauses, not from the conjugation of the verb. Those English authors and their American copyists who eliminate the Potential Mode from their scheme of conjugation tell us that the so-called potential auxiliaries are either independent verbs in the indicative or are subjunctive auxiliaries. With the meager instruc- tion given by any one or by all of these authors, the student will find it exceedingly difficult to determine when these auxiliaries are true subjunctives. To illustrate : — 1. May you be happy. 2. I learn that I may be able to teach. Conjugation of the Verb, 371 3. He might have done it if he had liked. 4. If he should try, he would succeed. 5. I would not tell you if I could. 6. I could not do this if I were to try. The forms italicized above are said to be subjunctive auxiliaries ; those below are said to be independent verbs in the indicative. 7. He may be there. 8. He might ask you to go. • 9. You should not have done that. 10. He would not come when called. 11. I could do this at one time. We are told that can and must are always independent verbs in the indicative, and that may, might, could, would, and should are either subjunctive auxiliaries or independent verbs parsed in the indicative, separately from the infinitives with which they seem to combine. But in parsing these words as separate verbs the student is left in doubt as to whether they are transitive or intransitive, and as to the office of the infinitives that follow. Shall (to owe) and will (to determine) are, in their original meaning, transitive. May, can, and must denote power (hence potential) ; and, as the infinitive with which they combine names the act on which this power is exercised, some philologists regard them as originally transi- tive. Among these iS our distinguished critic, Prof. Francis A. March. May denotes power from without coming from a removal of all hin- drance, — hence permission or possibility. Can denotes power from within, — hence ability. Must denotes power from without coming from circumstances or the nature of things, — hence necessity or obli- gation. Should, would, might, and could are past forms of shall, will, may, and can. The auxiliaries take different shades of meaning. In some con- structions the meaning is fainter or less emphatic than in others. To say just how little of its common or original meaning may, can, must, shall, or will must have to be an auxiliary, and how much to be a "notional," or independent, verb would be extremely venturesome. For instance, could in (6) above expresses power or ability to do, as does could in (11), yet we are told that the former could is a mere aux- iliary^ while the latter is an independent verb. May in (1) denotes a 372 Conjugation of the Verb. desired removal of all hindrance ; may in (7) denotes a possible re- moval of hindrance. It is hard to see why the former may is neces- sarily a mere auxiliary, and the latter a "notional," or independent, verb. These are some of the difficulties — not to say inconsistencies — met by the student who is taught that there is no Potential Mode. In a scholarly work revised by Skeat, Wrightson, speaking of I may, can, shall, or will love, says, " These auxiliary verbs had at some time such a clear and definite meaning that it would have been toler- ably easy to determine the case function discharged by the infinitive ; but these verbs, after passing through various shades of meaning, have at last become little more than conventional symbols, so that it would be worse than useless to attempt to analyze these periphrastic tenses of our moods." A Conjugration of Teach. 373 A CONJUGATION OF TEACH. Active Voice. INDICATIVE MODS. Present Indefinite He teaches. Present Imperfect He is teaching. Present Perfect He has taught. Present Perfect Continuous He has been teaching. Past Indefinite He taught. Past Imperfect He was teaching. Past Perfect He had taught. Past Perfect Continuous He had been teaching. Indefinite He will teach. Future Imperfect He will be teaching. Future Perfect He will have taught. Future Perfect Continuous He will have been teaching. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. Present Indefinite (If) he teach. Present Imperfect (If) he be teaching. Present Perfect (If) he have taught. Present Perfect Continuous (If) he have been teaching. Past Indefinite (If) he taught. Past Imperfect (If) he were teaching. Past Perfect (If) he had taught. Past Perfect Continuous (If) he had been teaching. Future Indefinite (If) he should teach. Future Imperfect (If) he should be teaching. Future Perfect (If) he should have taught. Future Perfect Continuous (If) he should have been teaching. IMPERATIVE MODE. Present Teach [thou]. INFINITIVE MODE. Present Indefinite (To) teach. Present Imperfect (To) be teaching. Present Perfect (To) have taught. Present Perfect Continuous (To) have been teaching. 374 A Conjugration of Teach. PARTICIPLES. Imperfeet ;.... Teaching. Perfect Having taught. Perfect Continnoiu .Having been teaching. Passive Voice. INDICATIVB MODE. Present Indefinite .He-is taught. Present Imperfect He is being taught. Present Perfect He has been taught. Past Indefinite He was taught. Past Imperfect He was being taught. Past Perfect .He had been taught. Pnture Indefinite ; He will be taught. Future Imperfect Future Perfect He will have been taught. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE, Present Indefinite (If ) he be taught. Present Imperfect Present Perfect (If) he have been taught. Past Indefinite (If) he were taught. Past Imperfect (If) he were being taught. Past Perfect , (If) he had been taught. Future Indefinite (If) he should be taught. Future Imperfect ■ Future Perfect (If) he should have been taught IMPERATIVE MODE. Present Be [thou] taught. INFINITIVE MODE. Present Indefinite (To) be taught. Present Perfect (To) have been taught. PARTICIPLES. Imperfect Being taught. Perfect Taught. Compooad Perfect Having been taught INDEX. A, or an, i A and the, A (day) or Abbrevia- tions, Absolute Phrases, Adjectives, PAGE 1868 of 182-185 uses of distinguished 183 two, or one or two (days) 250 (note) {common ones 19 how made and written. 17, 18 of names of states 19 / definition of 81,82 ^ diagram of 71 ' expansion of 142, 143 Adjective an, definition of 22, 23, 181 apt ones to be used 185 / definitive (nu- < meral), 181 & note ' descriptive 181 -adjectives not compared 259 I' adjectives ir- regularly com- pared 260 form preferred. 259 in er and est.. 258 with adverb, 258, 259 descriptive, used as nouns, 251 errors in use of., .56, 185, 192 having number forms, 257 (note) needless ones avoided.. 185 not always limiting, 181 & note not used for adverbs. .55, 192 , 1 cardinal. 181 (note) numeral-^ ,. , ^^^ ; ^ (^ I ordmal.. 181 (note) proper order of 25, 26 scheme for general re- view 265 used as abstract nouns, 173 (note) classes, compari- son, PAGE connectives of 201 definition of 102 = adjectives 102, 107 = explanatory modifiers. 109 = independent clauses, 107 (note) = infinitive phrases 108 Adjective j = participle phrases 108 Clanses, j = possessives 109 modifying omitted words, 105, 106 position of 107 restrictive and unrestric- tive 106, 107 (note) unrestrictive, punctua- l tion 106 Adjective Complement distinguished from adverb modifier 55 Adjective ) analysis of 24 Modifiers, ' nouns as 57-61 Adverb an, definition of 27, 28, 189 r apt ones to be used 190 classes of 188-190 comparison of 260, 261 errors in use of. . .56, 190-193 expressing negation, 188 (note) irregular comparison of. 261 f clauses. . ^.189 (note) Adverbs, J phrases, modi-j 31, 33, 189 (note) fying } prepositions, j 33, 189 (note) [sentences.. 189 (note) not used for adjectives, 55,192 not used needlessly 190 position of 29, 191 scheme for general re- view 265, 266 376 Index. Adverbs (cont.\ used- Adverb Clauses, PAGE sometimes like adjective • attributes 52 f independently, I 82, 189 (note) interrogatively, 189 (note) with connective i [ force 189 (note) Adverb Clause, definition of 110 cause, real, 113, 114 concession, 115, 116 condition, 115, 116 classes, -i degree (result), 110-112 evidence.. 113, 114 manner. ,.113, 114 place 110, 111 purpose... 115, 116 L time 110, 111 by omitting words 121 to absolute phrases 119 to participles and partici- ple phrases, 119 to prepo- sitional phrases 120 = adjective clauses and phrases 107 (note), 121 = adverbs 109, 110 = independent clauses, 107 (note), 138, 139 position of 118 punctuation of 117 I analysis of 28 ^ nouns as 62 ' parsing of 28 Adversative Connectives, list 201 Adversative, meaning of, 132, 134, 201 (note) A few, a little, vs. few and little 184 contracted - Adverbial Modifiers, Alpha- bet, PAGE r of parts of a metaphor 344 Agree- J of pronoun with its ante- ment, | cedent , 305^307 l^ of verb with the subject. 303-307 Allusion. 87 (note) definition of 5 perfect one what 5 the English imperfect how.. 5 Alternative, meaning of, 132, 134, 201 (note) Alternative Connectives, list 201 Ambiguity of pronouns.howavoided. 174,175 I examples for, additional.313-324 Analysis, < of a sentence 8 ' of subjects of themes . . .353-355 Antecedent, a clause, phrase, or word, 172 (note), 173 Antithesis 136 (note), 336 Any body (or one) else^s 251 (note) Apostrophe the 61, 240-242, 331 Appositives 57 Argumentative Style 164, 167 Arrangement. 89-99, 178, 185, 186,191,338-340 ( definite 181 ( indefinite 181 errors in use of 183-186 repeated when 183, 184 uses of a, or an, and the. . . 183 introductory con junction. 52, 54, 135 relative pronoun 172 (note) with clauses of degree, manner, and time Ill, 113, 114, 201 with variety of clauses 203 . as, construction of Ill As it were, construction of 135 Aspirates 5, 6 Assumed Subject, what 74 Attribute j definition of 50 Complement, 1 diagram of 51 Auxiliary Verbs, 273, 274, 284, 290, 291, 301, 302, 370-372 ^ ( conjugation of 284-286 ' 1 derivation of 284 (note) Beside and besides distinguished .197 (note) Best of the two 262 Between with three or more 195 (note) Brackets, use of 331 r classes, Articles, As, As Index. 377 BiU, ■{ Capital Letters, PAGE adversative conjunction 201 a preposition 76, 218 various uses of 212 with or without that . . . 176 (note) with what incorrect for but ^ that or but 176 (note) Can 275 (note), 2S4, 370-372 in abbreviations 14 in beginning sentences .... 9 in class names 15 in compound names 15-17 in names of the Deity 16 in proper names 14-17 in titles 16 rule for /and <9 42 summary of rules for 325 defined 234, 236 of attribute complement, 237 & note of explanatory modifier 236 of nounorpronoun independent 236 of noun or pronoun used ad- verbially 238 . of objective complement 237 ( definitions of 236 in Anglo-Saxon and in Latin 234 (note) f errors in use of 251-254 five pronouns have three . . 251 nouns have two 240 only eight nominative 252 I only seven objective 252 Cause, adverbs of 189 Cause Clauses, divisible 115 necessity of 12 not governed by logical relation 107 (note) classes j <5^P^'^ of the ed of verbs in past tense, 274 (note) D of the ed of past participles. .274 (note) Uire, without s form 304 Dash the aso Declarative Sentence, defined 85 f defined 246 I of interrogative pronouns. 249 i of nouns 246 I of personal pronouns. .247, 248 I of relative pronouns 249 Degree, adverbs of 188 Descriptive Style .151, 152, 155 Diminution, degrees of 259 Dia- i a, what 9 gram, ' may be omitted preface, 24 Do, idiomatic use of 211 (note) Each S construction of 58 other, ' with two or more. . .2.50 (note) JEd of past tense and participle. 274 (note) Declen- sion, PAGE Eithe?' and neither, pronouns and con- junctions, with two or more . .250 (note) Either may be used for each 251 (note) Elocution, object of :. 2 , defined 335 Energy, •< exercises in 341-344 f secured how 167, 335 English Grammar, definition of 2 Epigrams are what 87 (note) Evidence distinguished from Cause, 113 (note) Ezdam- \ ( definition of 85 _ . I order of words in 99 Sentences, ' { of absolute phrases 142 Expan- J of infinitive phrases 143 sion, I of participles 142 t of sentences 99, 100 ^itT !.'^«fl°itionof 57 „ . . - ( punctuation of 59 Modifier, ' ^ r basis of 335 Figures definition 335, 336 of ] illustrations of 342-344 Speech, names of 336 I uses of 155, 335, 336 First two, etc 251 (note) Force (see Energy). Far to 2&3 (note) ^ defined 227,228 I distinguished from sex... 228 J of names of animals 231 Gender, j of what importance 231 I of pronouns, errors in 233 ^- used in personification 232 Gender Forms 228-233 Genders, the three defined 228 Had better, rather, sooner 290 (note) Hand in hand, construction of, 46 (note) Have written, history of , 290 He or 07ie after the indefinite one, 250 (note) Humor, in style 162 Hyphen, use of 331 Idea distinguished from object 7 Index. 379 v. PAGE for eoen if, although 117 for whether 204 (note) omission of 116 [ variety of uses 204 Imagery, discussion of 335, 336, 342-344 Imperative j definition of 85 Sentence, i order of words in 98 In and into distinguished 197 (note) Jn case that, construction of 126 (note) f definition of... 102, 133-135 Independent J joined without con- Clauses, 1 junction 135 [ punctuated 135, 136 Independent Expressions, punctuated ... 83 Indirect, or Dative, Object 62 Inference, expressed by an independ- entclause 132, laS, 135 and assumed subject after/or 76 definition of 272 double nature of 74, 75 old dative of 283 (note) use of present perfect after past indicative, 300 & note why called infinitive. . . 74 after a preposition 76 as adjective 76 as adjective modifier. 74, 75 as adverb modifier. . .74, 75 as attribute comple- ment 75, 76 as explanatory modifier, 77 as object complement, 76, 269 as objective comple- ment 77,268 aa subject 75 cleft or split 191 (note) does not with the noun form a clause. . .78 (note) expansion into clauses, 143 independent 79 Tn order that, construction of 126 Interjections 37, 38, 82 Interrogation Point, use of 85, 131, 325 Infinitive (the), Infinitive Phrase, Interrogative j Pronoans, | It, Language, PAGE declension 249 definition 170, 172 list 173 Interrogative J definition of 85 Sentences, ( order of words in 97,98 Intransitive Verbs, definition 187, 189 Introductory Words 59 Invitations, form of 362 f definition of 187, 189 Irregular J infiections of 280 Verbs, 1 list of 275-279 [ persistence of 279 for a clause 172 (note) idiomatic use of, 77, 125, 127, 230 (note) use for animals and children ... 231 vague 127 (note) It is me, him, etc 252 (note) Just as, construction of Ill r definition of 2 made up of words 1,2 natural 1, 2 [ word 1,2 Last two, etc 251 (note) Lay and lie 294 Less, the final s of, and lesser. . .259 (note) (equaling that not 202 various uses of 204 with noun clause. 202 Letters, the alphabet 5-7 body of 362 conclusion of. 36:i heading of .359 illustration of 365-367 introduction of .360, 361 parts of ,358 superscription of 364 Letter-Writing 358.367 Loose Sentence 313 Many a, explanation of 71 & note Manner, adverbs of 188 Masculine Gender distinguished 228 Masculine Pronoun, use of 231 May 275 (note), 284, 370-372 definition of, 45 (note), 156, 336 exercises in use of 342-344 Letters, Metaphor, 380 Index. Metonymy, Modes, Modifiers, PAGE Methinks 277 (Sd note) definition of 165, 336 exercises in use of.. 342-344 Mine, thine, of mine, etc 247 (2d note) Mode is what 271, 272 -imperative. 271,272 indicative.. 271, 272 potential... 271, 272 subjunctive, I 271, 272 definitions of 272 imperative, no 2d and 3d persons. . .282 (2d note) indicative, uses of. . .296-299 potential omitted 370-374 subjunctive, 282 (note), 296-299 Modifieations," definition 217 & note, 218 Modified Complement 48 definition 23 different rank 24 (note) explanatory, punctua- { tion 59 Must 275 (note), 284, 370-372 Myself y explanatory 60, 239 N, Saxon ne, the negative particle. 188 (note) Narrattve Style 159, 162 Natural Language 1, 2 Need^ without s form 304 Negation by adverbs 188 (note) Negatives, double 192 & note No and yes, sentence-words 188 (note) No bodty (or one) else''s 251 (note) Nominative Forms, eight 252 Nonn a, definition of 13, 170 abstract 171 as adjective modifiers . . 57 as adverb modifiers .... 62 cases of 234, 236 classes of 171 collective 171 common and proper, 169, 171 & note declension 234, 246 gender of 227-233 number, kinds of 218 I Noons, Nouns icontO, Noon Clauses, Noun Modifier, Number, PAGE person of 233, 286 roots of 170 (note) scheme for general review. 255 ■ as attribute complement, 123, 125 as explanatory modifer, 123, 125 as object complement.. 123, 124 as principal term of prepo- sitional phrase, 123, 126 as subject 123, 124 connectives of 202 contraction of 128, 129 definition of 123 position of 127, 128 L punctuation of 127 explanatory ( a p p o s i - tive) 57 explanatory of a sen- tence 58 possessive 57 definition of 218 kinds of 218 of noun agreeing with adjective 263, 264 of nouns determined . . 226 of verbs shows what. . . 273 O and oh distinguished 48 Object and Object Complement distin- guished 187, 189 (note) Object, indirect 62 Object, indirect, made subject 269 becoming subject... 267, 268 compound 48 definition of 48 retained after verb in passive 269 Objective Forms, seven 252 an infinitive phrase. .77, 268 a participle 68, 69, 268 becoming an attribute complement 268 definition of 53, 54 extended beyond i t s factitive sense. 68 (2d note) ^ j in place of possessive sign 242 1 not always indicating possession. 245 Of mine, etc 247 (2d note) Object Com- plement, Objective Complement, Index. 381 another^ Only, •{ Order (words and phrases), Parsing, PAGE On condition that 196 (note) One j syntax of 238 I with two or more. 250 (note) ( position of 191 1 syntax of 33 transposed 91-99 usual 89-91 Other, misuse of 264 Ought 275 (note), 296, 300 f composition of 158-168 Paragrapli J definition of 158, 159 (the), 1 topics and subtopics of . 158 i unity of 162, 167 Paragraphing, exercises in, 156-1 68, 346-353 Parallel Construction 142 (note), 168 Parenthesis, marks of 83, 331 Parenthetical Claases, punctuation 136 [■ definition of 239 first step in 22 models for written, i 46, 240, 261, 294, 295 adjectival 64 as adjective modifiers 67 as attribute complements.. .67, 68 as mere adjectives 71 as mere nouns 71 as objective complements, 68, 268 as prepositions 194 as principal word in a phrase, 69,70 definition of 65, 272, 273 expansion of 142 forms of 288 in independent phrases 71 misuse of 72, 73 modified by a and the. ,246 (note) modified by a possessive, 246 & note nounal, called gerunds, in- jtnitives, verbal nouns, 65 & 66 (note) place of 72,73 punctuation of 72 used in slurring 158 PassiTe Voice, idiomatic constructions, 269,270 Parti- ciplea, PAGE Period, use of 9, 14, 325 Periodic Sentence 313 (forms. .233-235, 272, 280 (note), 303,304 of a noun or pronoun. .234, 235 of a verb 273 ^ why regarded in grammar. 236 Personification, the figure, 87 (note), 232, 336 Persons, the three defined 234, 235 Per- j definition of 334 spicnity, ( exercises in 337-340 ^ absolute 81, 82 adjective and adverb 31 as prepositions 195 complex and compound ... 40 definition of 31, 32 infinitive 74-62, 143 interchange with clauses, Phrases, -| 142, 143 interchange with words ... 36 participial 67, 82, 91 position of 35 prepositional 31-36 punctuation of 34 used independently 81, 82 verb 21 & note Place, adverbs of 188 Plural Number 218 f ending, origin 219 (note) foreign forms of 221 formed irregularly 219, 220 formed regularly 218 form same as singular 224 forms of verbs 303 forms treated as singular. . 224 no form for 224 Plural, "I of compound words. . . 221, 222 of letters, figures, etc 223 of proper names 222 some originally singular. , , 225 some words always 224, 225 two forms with different meaning without singular of meaning like Index. Pos- sessWe Ending, Predi- cate, PAGE added to explanatory word, 244 ambiguity avoided by 245 attached to the adjective, 243 (note) confined to what 242 error respecting 240 (note) errors in use of 243, 245 of for 242 of compound names 242 origin of 240 (note) when omitted ,238, 241 when pronounced es 241 f adjective defined 50 I a verb or contains one 22 compound 37, 38 ■{ definition of 3, 8, 49, 50 modified 27,28 noun defined 50 of two or more words 10 PrepoBition a, defined 31, 32, 194 becoming adverbs 195 ending a sentence 198 (note) ending in ing 194 errors in use of 197-199 list of 194 two before a noun . . .198 (note) where sometimes found . . . 104 with verb before a noun, 198 (note) Pronoun a, defined 13, 171 agreement 305-307 Nom, and Obj. forms. . . 252 r adjective.. 170, 172 j interrogative, 170, 172 personal, I 169, 170, 172 I relative... 170, 172 declension of 247-249 denote relations. . .171 (note) errors in use of, 174-180, 251-254 need of 13 number 218 scheme for review 256 . vagueness of 171 (note) Preposi tions, ' Prcnonns, Prononns (Adjec- tive), Pronouns (Interroga- tive), Pronouns (Personal), PAGE a (day) or two 250 (note) aJi^ bot/iy and whole be- fore o/" 250 (note) any body (or one) else's, etc 251 (note) declension of 247-250 definition of 170, 172 demonstrative 173 (note) distributive 173 (note) each other, with two or more 250 (note) either, neither, with two or more 250 (note) either for each 251 (note) Jirst two, last three, etc., , 251 (note) he, etc. after indefinite one 250 (note) indefinite 173 (note) no}ie in both numbers, 251 (note) ones, plural 250 (note) other and tha?i, words between 251 (note) other tivo, when one of three is taken. . .250 (note) partial list of 173 such or so with adjec- tives ..250 (note) declension 249 definition 170, 172 list 173 avoided when 174, 175 compound 170, 248 consistent use of 175 declension 247, 248 definition 169, 170, 172 its, history of 248 (note) misuse of them for tliose, 175, 176 my and mine, etc., 247 (2d note) order of 305 ours, yours, etc., double 247 (2d note) [ndex. Pronoims (Personal) PronoTins (Relative), PAGE (- use of compound, 248 (2d note) used needlessly 175 we hardly plural of 7, 1 247 (note) { tve instead of /. 234 I ye has given way to you, [ 247 (.3d note) " agreement of 305, 306 compound 170, 249 declension 249 definition 170, 172 discriminated in use 176 omitted when 105 (note) same with same anteced- ent 177 that'm restrictive clauses, 177 (2d note) that instead of who and lohich 177, 178 what misused for that, 176 & note who and which restric- tive and unrestrictive, 177 «fc 2d note with omitted anteced- ents 105,106, 176 141 (note) Pnnotaa- t exercises in 327-331 tion \ summary of rules for, Marks, l 325-331 Qualities of Style 334-337 Question, direct and indirect 131 Quotation Marks, use of 130, 131, 331 capitalization of 130 definition of 130 direct 130, 131 indirect 130, 131 punctuation of 130, 131 Q:uoth 277 (note) definition 187, 189 increasing 279 inflections of 280 Relative Clauses, position 178 Result, clauses of 112 (note) Pona Quotations, Regular Verbs, PAGE Review Questions, 11, 30, 47, 63, 64, 89, 101, 122, 146, 147, 213-215, 255, 256, 265, 266,309-313 Review of Sentence, scheme for 148 Satire i62 Semicolon, rules for 136, 328 r balanced 136 (note) I contracted 99-101, 137, 138 Sentence J defined 3, 7 (the), 1 expanded 99, 100 loose 313 Sentences (classed), period fonn, mean- ing, 313 complex 102, laS compound . .132, 133 simple 102, 133 declarative 84,85 exclamatory.... 85 imperative 85 interrogative . .84, 85 Set and sit 295 Shall and wUL275 (note), 301-303, 371, 372 ShotUd and wwcld 301-303, 371, 372 Simile, definition and exercises in, 156, 336, 343, 344 Simple j definition of 102, las Sentences, I treatment of 7-101 Since, various uses of 201, 202, 204 Singular Number 218 So . . . as, construction of 112 Some body (or one) else's 251 (note) Sounds and Letters 4-6 ( figures of 155, 335, 336 1 mechanism of 4, 5 Spelling, rules for 258 argumentative 164, 167 definition of 334 descriptive 152, 155 illustrations 314-323 narrative 159, 162 l qualities of 334-337 J- alssumed, what 74 I assumed, changed to pre- vent ambiguity 245 compound 37, 38 defined 8 I. determined how 11 Style, Subject, 384 Index. PAGE Bobject {cord.), modified, or logical 23 Subjunc- I definition of 271, 272 tive < disappearing 282 (note) Mode, ' uses of 296-299 Subordinate Conjonctions 200, 202 Sabordinate Connectives 201, 202 Synecdoche 336 Synopsis is what 273 Syntax, rules for 368, 369 r defined 271,273 future, how used 292 future perfect, how used.. 293 past, how used 292 past perfect, how used 293 present, how used 292, 300 present perfect, how used, Tense, Tenses, Than, f defined 271-273 J emphatic form of 284 I errors in use of 299-301 [ conjunctive adverb 112 f errors in use of 209, 210 followed by adjective, 252 & note, 253 replaced by buU etc. 209 use after comparatives 209 with me after it, 252 (2d note) Than whom 253 (note) That and this, adjectives, plurals, 257 (note) That and this j declension 249 (Adj. Pro.), < reference 179 with cause clause 205 with noun clause, 123-126,202,205 with purpose clause, 116, 202, 205 That, Conj. Adv., degree clause, 112, 202, 205 distinguished from who and which .176, 178 for who and which . .177, 178 generally restrictive, 177 (note) t preposition follows 104 That (Conj.) That (Rel. Pr.), PAGE The, uses of 183, IW The S construction of.. 112, 113 To with infini- tive, ^ explanation of.. 112 (note) / framework of 354, 356 Themes, -< how to write them 355^357 I subjects for. . .354, 355, 357, 358 The one, the other 179 This 179, 249, 257 (note) Thought, how expressed 2, 3 Three times four is twelve 306 construction of 74 expressing relation 74 extension of 283 (note) no part of 283 (note) not expressed 81 position of 191 & note without relation 74, 75 Transitive j definition of 187, 189 Verbs, ' conjugated passively 287 Unity of paragraphs 162, 167 Unless (= if not) 115 Usage preface, 250 (note) Variety. \ ^^"^ secured 344, 345 < illustrations of want of . . . 345 Verb a, defined 20, 189 ian auxiliary 274 conjugation of 284-286 derivation of 284 (note) Verb-Phrases 21 (note) Verbs (classes). form, meaning, a modern Verbs, irregular... 187-189 regular.... 187, 189 intransitive, 187, 189 transitive, 187, 189 r a juuuerii passive progres- sive form 287, 288 analysis of compound tense forms 290,291 as nouns 73 auxiliary 273, 274, 370-372 changing their voice 267-271 conjugated in progressive form 287 conjugated interrogatively. . 288 conjugated negatively 289 conjugation of 279-289 Index. 385 PAGE defective 275 forme not asserting 20 improper forms used 295, 296 indicative and potential with subjunctive meaning, 282 (note) inflections of 280 intran- ( definition of . . .187, 189 sitive, '( made transitive ... 270 f definition... 188, 189 j list of 275-279 irregular, \ persistence of ...279 principal parts of 275-279 mode, defined 271, 272 model for written parsing. . . 294 number forms 280, 303, 304 number of defined 273 passive form compound 267 periphrastic forms resolved, 289-291 person forms 280, 303, 304 person of 273, 305 potential auxiliaries.. 284, 370-372 principal parts 274 redundant 274 j definition of. . 187, 189 « increasing 279 scheme for gen. review 308 Strong (or Old), Weak (or New) 274 (note) subjunctive form fading 282 tense 271-273 the e and the d of past tense, 274 (note) the € and the d of past parti- ciple 274 (note) /definition of. .. .187, 189 transi-^ conjugated passive- ti^«' ( ly 287 voice 266 f attracted 306 Verbs (agree- J errors in 307 ment of), ] with and in what 303 L with collective noun , 304 Verbs (agree- ment of) (cont.), .304, 305 305 regular, PAGE with subjects con- nected by an